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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME THE TWENTY-FOURTH.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL
GARDEN

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1888.

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRAC-
TICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND
OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS,
AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT
OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE
THE EXECUTION OF THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS,

Von THAER, Principles of Agriculture.

Spoltiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London,

lJid

i

I

AMPS

(Gan) BOTA

CONTENTS OF PART IL, VOLUME XXIV.

SECOND SERIES.

PAGE

STATISTICS AFFECTING British AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS . - = I

ARTICLE

I, The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments in Stackyard
Field, Woburn. By Sir John Lawes, Bart., Rothamsted,
St. Albans ». : . . : ° , : :

II. On the Conditions of WhiaeGiowne in India. By George
Watt, M.D., F.L.S., C.LE. , Reporter on Economic Products

to the Government ‘of India. : : é - - 7-9
Til. The Indian Wheat Trade. By William E. red el Road,
Streatham . ‘ ;

IV. Modern Piece in 1 Corn-Milling nines By W.
Proctor Baker, Broomwell House, Brislington, near Bristol. 81

V. The Practical Value of Dung as Compared with Artificial
Manures, By R. Vallentine, Burcott, Leighton Buzzard . 108

VI, Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. By James

A. Caird, Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants . : é . 124
VII. Wool and its Uses. BY John W. Turner, 126 Swan Arcade,-
Bradford , : : 3 ‘ : : ‘ . 156

VIII, Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. By D. R.

Chapman, The Atheneum, Liverpool . : : : one

IX. Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. By Dan,
Pidgeon, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Holmwood, Putney Hill, London,
Reporting Judge . . : . : : . . 195

X. Report on the Trials of rou ete Machines at Newcastle.
By the late John Coleman, The Mount, York . . . 216

XI. Report on the Farm Prize Competition in Northumberland and
Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. By Thomas Rigby,
Sutton Weaver, Cheshire . F : ; c . 224

XII. Report on the Spring Show of Peotouchteod Stallions at
poennahent By G. 8. Lowe, The ea ea Potter’s
He ; ; ’ : , . . 242

XIII. Report on the Experiments conducted in 1887 by meat hae

cultural Societies in conjunction with the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England. By Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
B.A, BSc. Consulting Chemist to the Society : ; . 261

.

1V CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE
XIV. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn,
conducted on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England during the year 1887.. By Dr. if Augustus Voelcker,

B.A., B.Sc., Consulting Chemist to the Society . A « 275

XY. aa mS for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. By
Eleanor A. Ormerod, F,.R.Met.Soc., Torrington House, St.
Albans ° ° e . . e e e e e 289

XVI, Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Botanist. By W.
Carruthers, F.R.S., P.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Norwood, 8.E.. 296

XVII. Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist. By Dr. J.
Augustus Voelcker, B.A., B.Sc., 12 Hanover Square, W. . 299

XVIII. Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee,1887 . . 806

APPENDIX.
List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1888 . i
Standing Committees for 1888 . 5 ili
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, ‘December ‘sth, 1887. v
Distribution of Members and Council . Fe proc

Half-yearly Cash Account, from 1st July to 3st December, 1887 o) MEY
Yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to 31st a ca 1887 os xv

Country Meeting Account : Newcastle, 1887 . .| Sxviil
Agricultural Education: Examination Papers for Junior Examina-
tions, November 1887 c >6.¢

Agricultural Education: New Regulations for Junior Examinations xxv
Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscriptions, &e. .

Governors’ and Members’ Chemical Privileges . ' . Xxx
Guide to the Purchase of Artificial Manures and Feeding Stufis ¢ 9 Kd
Instructions for Selecting and Sending Samples for Analysis . 5 y.0.8.0i
Members’ Veterinary Privileges ‘ 5 : = é i . XXxili
Members’ Botanical Privileges . ‘ . . ‘ : ‘ + XXXV
Members’ Entomological Privileges . ‘ : : . . ; XEXvl
Members’ General Privileges . ‘ . : F : : . XXXVI

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios ,
and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Sta-
tistics &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume; the lettering at
the back to include a statement of the yea7' as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to
1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, ‘and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body
of the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete), were omitted ; the Roman numeral
folios, however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the
Appendix matter retained,

ERRATUM,

In the Report on the “ Experiments on Ensilage” in the last issue of the
‘Journal’ (Vol. XXIII, Part II., 1887), in the table given at the bottom of
page 409, for 46:95” read “ 41°95,”

Sr ATISTICS

AFFECTING BRITISH AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS.

aoe
CoNTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
Meteorological Reports and Quantity and Value of Dead
TENS“ anarcnceoncapscenel cen II-VII Meat imported, 1884-87... XIX
Hay Harvest Forecasts ...... vill | Beasts exhibited and Prices
Diagramshowing the Weekly realised at Christmas Mar-
Average Price of Wheat Kets, 1848-87 coesiecavessoee XX
for each week in the year Live Stock brought into Lon-
EST iicxiajoce sccressoncetes seeesens Ix don Markets, 1864-86...... ek
Total Produce and Yield Average Value per Head of
per Acre of each of Prin- Live Stock imported,
cipal Crops, and Number USS Oi iccwaceetessccscedeneanes XXI
of Live Stock, in United Horses imported and ex-
Kingdom, 1885-87 ......... X-XI | ported, 1882-87 .......660- XXI
Average Prices of British Average Prices of Wool,
Corn per Quarter in each POS2Z2 S70 dens ames ca'vaeeaceascecce XXI
week of 1887....... nddotCSOAGC XII | Quantities of Wool imported,
Quantities of British Corn NSSOLBGio cabccscssssaccsaqgne XXII
sold, 1878-87 ..... CenooNoTIeD XIII | Miscellaneous Articles im-
Average Prices per Bushel, ported; 1884287, svwccc.+ass XXIII
TSSEBT wrccceicese sce snoring: XIII | Imports of Unmanufactured
Value of Corn imported into Tobacco, 1882-86.........00 XXIII
United Kingdom, 1881-87 XI | Imports of Butter, Cheese,
Quantities of Corn, &c., im- and Eggs, 1883-87...... XXIV-XXV
ported, 1883-87 ........... XIV | Principal Corn Crops of the
Value per head of Population World, 1884-86......... XXVI-XXVIII
of Food-Imports, 1877-86 XV | Principal Live Stock Re-
Quantities and Values of turns of the World, 1884—
Imports of Food Products, USS Ole Seems .sictisceeat sy cceeceave XXIX
USS2— BGs sacs seldciddscciecinncat XVI-XVII | Prices of Butter and Cheese,
Number and Value of Live USTO—88) vcessacedesnoneeentes a XXX
Stock imported, 1885-87 XVIII | Dairy Produce, 1887...... XR KR

VOL. XXIV.—S. S.

A

(iD

METEOROLOGY IN 1887.!

First Quarter.—The weather in January till the 18th was very cold,
snow fell frequently, and the ground in many parts of the country was
covered with snow till after the 18th; from the 19th the weather was
milder, with some days of fine weather. The temperature was very low on
the Ist and 2nd; at Barnet on the 2nd it was as low as 8°, The mean
temperature of these two days was nearly 14° below their average; low
temperatures with severe frosts were experienced on every night till the
18th. At Rugby on the 17th the temperature of the air was as low as 65,
and the frost was severe at all stations. A change took place between the
18th and 19th, and to the end of the month the temperature was mostly
above the average. The atmospheric pressure was below its average till the
10th, particularly from the 4th to the 9th; on both the 5th and 6th it was
more than one inch below the average, and from the 11th to the end of the
month it was constantly above the average. The fall of rain was small;
fogs were frequent, particularly in the Midland Counties.

The weather in February wascold and dry, with frequent sharp frosts
at night between the 6th and the 18th; at times the weather was pleasant.
The temperature of the air was generally above the average till the 5th,
and from the 19th to the 25th, and below on all other days, ‘The pressure
of the atmosphere was very remarkable. It was steadily high throughout
the month; at the height of 160 feet above the mean level of the sea it was
30°145 inches, being higher than in any February back to 1841. The fall of
rain was generally very small, and generally much below the average. Snow
fell on a few days, and fog was rather prevalent.

The weather in March till the 21st day was very cold, with severe frosts
every night ; very severe winter weather was experienced from the 11th to
the 21st. Snow fell generally over the country on nearly every one of these
days. The temperature was continuously low to the 21st, particularly from
the 13th; the mean temperature of the nine days ending the 21st was 103°
below their average; from the 21st the weather was milder, The mean
temperature of the month was 4° below the average of 46 years. The
atmospheric pressure was above the average till the 8th day, haying been
above the average since January 11; from March 9 to 16 it was low, and
after this it was for a few days together above, and then for a few days
below the average to the end of the month,

The rainfall recorded at 34 stations of observation ranged from 2°91
inches at Blackheath, 3:03 inches at Greenwich, and 3:11 inches at Holkham,
to 6:48 inches at Salisbury, 7°60 inches at Bath, and 8:12 inches at Stony-
hurst. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 14 days in January, 4 in
February, and 10 in March, or on 28 of the 90 days in the quarter.

1 Abstracted from the particulars supplied to the Registrar-General by
James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., &e,

C- Tt 5)

Second Quarter.—The weather in April was very cold and dry. The
temperature of the air was below its average on every day excepting from
the 19th to the 23rd, and particularly so from the 14th to the 17th. The
atmospheric pressure was below its average till the 7th, and from the 21st.
The fall of rain was small. The N.E. wind was prevalent. It was an
ungenial month, and vegetation was very backward.

The weather in May was generally cold, sunless, and unseasonable,
with an unusual prevalence of winds from the N., N.E., and N.W. The
temperature, with the exception of the five days between the 8th and
12th, was constantly below the average, and particularly so on the 21st
and 22nd, on which day snow fell at some places and rain and hail at
others, with a cold high wind. It was the sixth month in succession with
the mean temperature below the average. We have to go back for forty-
two years for so low a temperature for the three months ending May—a
period so important for vegetation—and practically there was only one
instance of a decided lower temperature in this century, viz., in the year
1837, Theatmospheric pressure in May was above its average from the 7th
to the 17th, and from the 23rd to the 27th, and was mostly below on the
other days. The fall of rain was less than the average at most stations.
Snow fell on several days in the Midland and Northern counties.

The weather in June was very fine and dry. The temperature till the
5th day was rather low, on the 6th there was a sudden change to warmth,
and from this day to the 20th the weather was very fine and hot; from the
21st to the end of the month it was fine, but rather cool. The atmospheric
pressure was below the average till the 4th, and constantly above from the
5th. There was a preponderance of N.E. wind, and almost an absolute
freedom from thunderstorms, The fall of rain was deficient at all stations,
and a severe drought was experienced at many places. There were heavy
falls of rain generally on the 3rd and 4th, and scarcely any afterwards till
the end of the month. The drought was not felt till the middle of this
month, but the weather had been dry since January. Up to the end of
June the average fall of rain from the seventy-two years’ previous observa-
tions is 10-8 inches, and the fall this year is 3°] inches short of the average.

The raimfall recorded at 33 stations of observation ranged from 3:01
inches at Torquay, 3°14 inches at Osborne, and 3°15 inches at Wolverhampton
and Halifax, to 4:70 inches at Greenwich, 5:16 inches at Stonyhurst, and
5:78 inches at Bath. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 1] days in April,
18 in May, and 3 in June, or on 82 of the 91 days in the quarter,

Third Quarter.—The weather in July was very fine and warm. The
temperature of the air was above its average on every day excepting the
17th, 18th, and 19th, and particularly so on the 2nd, 8rd, 4th, and 8th days.
The atmospheric pressure was above its average excepting only a few days.
The fall of rain was much below its average at all stations, The drought
mentioned last month, which generally began on June 5, was broken on
July 4, thus showing an absolute drought of 30 days’ duration. The fall of
tain both preceding and following those days was generally very small, so
that the drought was of much longer duration, consequently water supplies

A2

C ae)

‘were very low, and pastures were burnt up. The hay crop was gathered
without rain, and harvest work began early.

The weather in August was very fine and dry, with a more than average
amount of sunshine. The temperature of the air was a little below the
average at the beginning of the month, and from the 10th to the 20th, and
above on other days. The atmospheric pressure was above its average till
the 15th, and below from the 16th. The fall of rain was less than its
average at most places. On the 16th and 17th there were thunderstorms
over the country, and that on the 17th was most severe over London. The
fall of rain varied from one inch to two inches in London and places a little
south of London. At Blackheath 0°84 inch fell on the evening of the 17th
within 20 minutes, and 1°75 fell in the day. This heavy fall was not
experienced at Barnet, where 0°54 inch fell. The fall at Wolverhampton
was 0°85, and at Carlisle was 1:14 inch, the largest fall at any other
' station was 0-47 inch at Southbourne. These refreshing showers were far
trom being general, and pastures at many places were dried up and streams
very low.

The weather in September was cold and unsettled; the temperature of
the air was below its average on nearly every day, particularly so at the
end of the month. The atmospheric pressure was below its average during
the first half of the month, and again from the 26th. The fall of rain was
above its average at some places and below it at others. The first part of
the month the S.W. wind was prevalent, and again from the 25th to the
28th ; at other times the N.E. was the most prevalent.

The rainfall recorded at 34 stations of observation ranged from 3°22
inches at Rugby, 3°66 inches at Cardington, and 3°71 inches at Cambridge,
to 8-19 inches at Bath, 10°33 inches at Stonyhurst, and 10-62 inches at
Carlisle. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 18 days in July, 10 in
August, and 10 in September, or on 33 of the 92 days in the quarter.

Fourth Quarter.—The weather in October was generally fine, but very
cold. The temperature of the air was below its average on nearly every
day, particularly so from the 11th to the 18th, and from the 22nd to the
26th. The month was colder than any October back to the year 1817, when
it was of the same temperature. The minimum temperature of the month
at Greenwich, 25°°3, was lower than any previous reading at Greenwich; at
many of the stations the temperature was still lower. These low readings in
October are of very rare occurrence. The atmospheric pressure was above
its average till the 8th, and from the 15th to the 27th, and was below
on the remaining 10 days. The fall of rain was less than the average at
all the stations, the soil was in consequence very dry, and streams were
generally low, the wind was chiefly from the N.W., and a gale was blowing
at the end of the month, ;

The month of November was dry and cold. The temperature of the air
did not differ much from the average till the 15th day; very cold weather
then set in and continued tothe 22nd. The atmospheric pressure was below
the average till the 10th, and from the 18th. The fall of rain was above
the average at some stations and below at others. The wind was chiefly

Coe)

from the N.E., and was strong at both the beginning and towards the end
of the month. Dense fogs prevailed on the 20th and 21st.

The month of December was fine and rather cold. The temperature of
the air was a little above the average till the 4th, and was below from the
5th. The atmospheric pressure was above the average till the 5th, and from
the 29th. The rain was generally less than the average. The wind was
mostly from the N.W. It was a fine winter month.

About London the mean daily temperature of the air was below its
average on nearly every day throughout October and till the 25th day of
November. The mean daily deficiency for these 56 days was 5°4; from
November 26 to December 4 it was above the average, the mean daily
excess was 1°-4; from December 5 to the 3lst was generally below the
average, mean daily deficiency was 3°°8.

The rainfall recorded at 33 stations of observation ranged from 4:09
inches at Nottingham, 4:21 inches at Cambridge, and 4°60 inches at Card-
ington, to 12-84 inches at Plymouth, 12°89 inches at Truro, and 14:12 inches
at Guernsey. Rain was measured at Greenwich on 11 days in October,
20 in November, and 16 in December, or on 47 of the 92 days in the
quarter.

‘Wind Observations.—The average duration of the different directions
of the wind at eight points of the compass in each month of 1887, at the
Royal Observatory, Greenwich, was as follows :—

Direction of Wind

Months

Nw. | N. am ae eg lessee. |b We

days | days | days days days days days days
January .| 2:00 3°50 3°25 1:00 3°25 4:50 9°75 3°75
February .| 2°50 3:00 4-00 2-00 1°50 3-00 9-00 3°00

Marche 7 §.|)..3:00 4:00 4:00 3°00 2-50 3-00 8-00 3°50
PELL ve yn, |) 2°29 4:25 6°25 3°50 2°25 2°50 6°25 2°75
Nays s «|| 150 4-75 750 2°25 1-75 2°75 8-25 2°25
June . .| 2°50 350 | 3°75 2:25 1-75 2°25 | 10:00 4:00
July ~ «| 3:00 400 | 3:50 2-00 150 | 3:00 | 10-00 4-00
August .| 3-00 3°00 3:00 1:50 1:50 3:00 | 12-00 4-00
September | 4-00 6°00 2:00 2:00 3-00 | 8-00 3:00 2:00
October .| 2°50 3°50 | 3°00 150 |; 2:00 | 4:00 | 10-00 4-50
November 2°50 4:25 4:00 2:25 | 2°25 4:00 | 850 | 2°25
December 2:50 3:00 | 2°50 2:00 | 200 | 3°50 ; 11:00 | 4:25

| ee) | 2.

eee) 31-25 | 46-75 | 4675 | 2525 2525 4350 (105-75 | 40-25

The following Table (I.) gives the Meteorological Observations recorded
at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, for each month of the year 1887 :—

TABLE I.—M®8TEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS RECORDED AT

TEMPERATURE OF WEIGHT
ELASTIC or VAPOUR
Forcr or IN A

EVAPORA- Am—Damy| VAPOUR Cusic Foor

1887. AIR nos DEw Point aaa or AIR
Montus Diff. | Diff. Diff. Diff. Diff. Dift Diff.
from | from from from from or from
aver- | aver- aver- aver- aver- |, i aver-
Mean age of | age of Mean age of Mean age of Mean age of Mean aNerede Mean age of

116 46 46 46 46 ears 46

years | years years years years Jen years

° 0 3 5) 5 5 O D 0 in. in. ers, | grs.
Jan. . |35°6 |—1:0 | —2°8 [34:8 | — 2-1 |32°9 | 2:0} 9:6 |+0:1}:187 |—-014 | 2-2 |—0-2

Feb. . [38:8] 0:0 |—0°8 |36-7 | — 13 |33°8 | —1°6 |12-9 | +1°8 |-194 |—-015 | 2°3 |—0-1
March , |37°6 |—3°5 | — 4:1 |35:3 | — 4:0 |32°1 | — 3-9 |14:1 | —0°6 |-182 | —-033 | 2:1 |—0-4

Means |37°3 |—1°5 | — 26 |35°6 | — 25 |32°9 | — 2:5 |12-2 | + 0-4 |188 | —-021 | 2:2 |-0:2

April . |44:1|}—2-0)—3:0 |40°5 | —3°4 |36°3 | — 4-2 |19-8 |+1-4 |-214|—-039 | 2:5 |—0-4
May . |49°8 |—2°7 | —2°7 |46°6 | —2-2 |43°5 |—1°5 |16-7 | —3°8 |-283 |— 015 | 3-2 |—0:2
June . |60°9|+2°6|+ 2:1 |55°8 |+ 1:3 |51°3 |+-0°7 |23-7 | + 2°7 |:380|+-010|/42 | 0-0

Means |51°6 |—0°7 |—1-2 |47-6 | —1°4 |43°7 | —1°7 |20:'1 | +071 |-292 | —-015 | 3:3 |—0°2

July . |66°5|+4°8 |} +43 59-4 |+1°7 [53-7 | 0-2 |26-4 | + 5:4 |-413 |—-005 | 4:6 |—0-2
August. /62°5 |+1°6 | +11 [56-2 | —1:2 |50°8 | —3'1 |23°8 | + 4:0 371 |—-048 | 4:1 |—0:7
Sept. . [54:0 |—2°6 |—3°1 |50°9 | —3:1 |47-9 | —3°3 |16:0 | —2'2 |"334 | —-046 | 3°S |—0°6

Means \61:0 | +13 | +0°8 |55°5 | —0°9 |50°8 | — 2°2 |22-1 | + 2-4 |°373 | —-033 | 4:2 |—0°5

October |45:0 |—4°6 | —5:0 |42°6 | —2°9 |39°7 | — 6-2 |14°3 | 0-2 |'244 |—-066 | 2°8 |—1-2
Nov. . |40°8|—1-6|—2°7 [39-5 | —0°6 |37°8 |—1°6 | 9-4 |—2-1 |:227 |—-018 | 2°7 |—0:2
Dec. . |38:1|}—1:0|—1°8 [36:3 | —0°3 |33-9 |—2°6 | 8-7 | —0°7 |-185 | —:023 | 2:3 |—0-4

Means \41°3 | —2°4 | —3°2 |39°5 | —1:3 |37-1 | —3°5 |10°8 | — 1:0 |-222 | —-036 | 2°6 |—0°6

Norr.—In reading this table it will be borne in mind that the plus sign (+)

¢ We.)

THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH, FOR THE YEAR 1887.

READING OF THERMOMETER

WEIGHT = 45
DEGREE READING OF A ON CRESS
OF OF CuBic RAIN
Humipity| BAROMETER oor Daily NGEHEROE
hori- | nights it was 1887.
ZOU el Ea
S move- Lowest |Highest
= | Diff. . Diff. F ment | = 2 o |reading| reading MonTHS
i | from _ from| #2 Diff. of the| 3 Bo = at at
88 | aver ae aver-| & | from | air | Bo | 8S night | night
33 ot Mean {average |Mean agail S average w@| oa 2 g
2 | of 46 ek of 46} & | of 72 ee
5 |years sears years eats 413 =
ij
w
| 5
in. in, gts. | STs.) in. in, Miles I 6 °
92 | + 2/29°831 |+ -084| 558] +4/1:15|—0-76| 238 | 22 9 0 | 14:9 | 38:0 | Jan.
g4 |— 1/30°145 |+°356 | 561| +8 0°53 |—1-05] 315 | 18 9 1 | 13:7 | 42:0 | Feb.

ie)
(ex)
S

29891 | +°188 | 557| +7 /1:35|—0-16| 288 | 19 | 12 | 0 | 14:6 | 35:0 | Mar.

if
Sum} Sum | Mean | Sum} Sum} Sum! Lowest} Highest

86 0)29-956 | +°193 | 559 | +6 |3:03 |—1:97| 280 | 59 | 30; 1 | 13:7 | 42:0 | Means

5)29°818 | +072 | 548 | +5 /1°75 |—0-01| 343 | 15 | 15 19:1 | 385 | April
80 |+ 1/29°834|+:047 | 542 | +2|1:72|—0:36| 289 | 4 | 18 23:3 | 47:0 | May
3/30:013 | + -207 | 533 | +1/|1:23|/—0-74] 244 | 0] 7 | 23 | 332 | 51-7 | June

Sum| Sum | Mean |Sum| Sum] Sum _ Lowest Highest

76 |— 4/29-888 | + 108 | 541 | +3/470|—1-11| 292 | 19 | 40 | 32/| 19:1 | 51-7 | Means

64 |—11|29°866 | + -069 | 525) —3|1-29|—1:22| 248 | O| 3 | 28 "37-3 585 | July
66 |—10)29°807 | +:023 | 528) —1|2°34|—0-01| 210 | 0} 8 | 23 | 33-4 | 55:9 | Aug.
80 |— 1/29°759 |—-039 | 536 | +3 |2:22|—0:21| 283 | 3 | 15 | 12 | 27:0 | 51-7 | Sept.

Mean | Sum} Sum| Sum | Lowest Highest

70 |— 7\29°811}+-018|530| 0/|5°85|/—1-44| 247 | 3 | 26 | 63 | 27:0 | 58°5 | Means

(oe)

nS)
|

~

29°916 | +°208 | 549 | +9/1:03|—1:76| 255 | 19 | & | 7 | 180 | 47-9 | Oct.
89 |— 1/29°530|— +212 |547| —1|3°78|+1:44] 281 | 11] 16 | 3 | 15:5 | 42:2 | Nov.
29676 |—-113 | 543 | —9 |1-47 |—0-52| 308 | 20 | 10] 1 | 167 | 40°8 | Dec.

ie2}

or
|

Oo

Sum| Sum | Mean | Sum} Sum| Sum} Lowest /Highest

85 |— 4/29°707|}—-039| 546) 0/628 |—0:84| 281 | 50 | 31 | 11 | 15:5 | 47:9 | Means

signifies above the average, and that the minus sign (—) signifies below the average,

( vit 3

TABLE IJ.—HAY HARVEST FORECASTS, 1887.

RETURN SHOWING THE NUMBER OF FORECASTS SENT TO EACH OF THE
UNDERMENTIONED DISTRICTS, WITH THE RESULTS OF THE FORECASTS.

Forecasts Percentages
| Total
é | per-
Districts Names of Stations 3 SoS See ae ~ 2 | centage
Sele lasl|S3)/s2/8
ES|8s eS eg on aes ea ee
Z \22| ea Aa laa |e
Scotland, N. .| Golspie and Munlochy | 60 | 60 | 54 | 38 8 | — 92
North Berwick, gel
Scotland, E. . feldy, Braco Grange, ;|120 |102 | 49 | 26 | 2 | 23} 75
and Glamis
sl ( Ulceby and Chatton, ) = ey, (et
England, N.E. . t Northumberland ot} 60 | 60 | 45 | 39 | 15 3 84
England, E. . | Rothamsted and Thorpe| 60 | 48 | 71 | 22 3 93
Midland Counties| { Cirencester and Hast) | 69 | 69 | 50 | 30/12.) 8| 80
England, § (Horsham, Maidstone,) “99 | gg | 66 | 31| 3 .——|| oF
2) ? kas ( and Downton j
(Dumbarton, Stran-
Scotland, W. . |; Site ah \ 96 | 90 | 61 | 33 | 6 | —)} toe
England, Nw, |{¢yPurs daverpool, |! 73] 71 | 86 | 35|.6) 31 ot
Bridgend (Glamor-
oon gan), Clifton, and Sales pes “
England, S.W. Spring Bank (Glou- 66 | 65 | 55 | 37 | § 92
cestershire) |
Ireland, N, | {Hollymountand Moy-y| go | 4g | 52 | 34 | 14|—| 86
|(A ee M ll
rdfert, oneyga att
Treland,S. =. | {ong rink ani "1/90 | 90 | 58 | 33 | 9 91
Mean for all Districts és » | 5622325) 18 Te tees

Nore,—Mr. Frederick Gaster, in forwarding the detailed results of the
checking of the “Hay Harvest Forecasts for 1887” to the Secretary of the
Meteorological Council, remarks inter alia :—

“ The general percentage of successful forecasts (88) is much larger than
that of last year, and larger than that for any of the preceding years since
the system was commenced—a result which may be due partly to the quiet
character of the weather prevailing at the time, but partly also to the ex-
tended area of observation which was inaugurated at the beginning of the
year, and which has been of so much value to us in the work of forecasting
and warning for storms.”

Some of the recipients have voluntarily borne testimony to the success
of the forecasts. Sir J. Shelley, Shobrooke Park, Crediton, says:.... “I
can only say that as far as this season is concerned the telegrams were almost
entirely correct.” Mr. H. V. Boothby, Butterby Farm, Alfreton, says: “ They
have been very useful.” Mr. J. Fergusson, Brettenham Manor, Thetford,
says: “I must say the forecasts were most accurate.” Major Smith, of
Munlochy, Inverness, remarked each week that the forecasts were “ very
satisfactory.” Mr. J. Turner, of The Grange, Ulceby, says: ‘I think the
prognostications have been very true,”

€ oT °° + syuq | 8 08 iT8 «| E 08 ‘6s A, Sy ai eae 08" ; .., | 8 S& ‘08 ; Be s2 foe Sax
¥ 9% * + Aoyrug | OF 08 [Fs | 6 OE (9% | 6 6S [65/6 Bs [Fs | OT Of Us| e FE fee) T se ‘ss) 9 Fe ‘Bs |9 GE ‘es| sc ze ‘O| 4 Be ‘Os! 98 ‘zz
9 ze * * quoqm | % Té ZT) S Of BT) € 6s ST) 8 Bo 41/0 GE (OS) 0 ve OT) T ge BI} IT ve ‘I6|8 ce ‘OT | IL ce ‘ol | TE se ‘er |¢ 98 ‘ST
ps S 1 O1/9 Of ZI) 4 8 8 | I 6s Or} e ge 1) G Fe ‘6 | H Se ‘IT|9 ee-FI| 8 ce 6 |2 GE cl) 9 Ee ‘st|F Ge 8
189T Ge) 18) ie) 08 Soh lo: eo “Tl Cr coe cen lmeemeo) || Omegurc 0) Ga“Fe ll co centy Ciees Gime Gillin ona AS Or 3
uoa saovusay |?" IgG ‘P's ‘p's 12k 8 ps pe ps p's ide De. 2 8S
© En “oad “AON | “LOO “Lddg “~DAy ATOL qNope AVN Tua V HOUV IL | tC 0 § SROrie

‘aoued ANOF SaqvoLpUT AUT] [B}UOZII0Y Yova usaMqoq oovds aq q,

nee Saas :

‘SNUNLAY LNIANYGAOD KOU LVAAM JO domd ADVUTIAV ATINGUM— LEBT

“S881 ur
‘PES “SST 268 Sea Apsnotaord qutod ysamoyt

‘PTL “89 1 10 “PER “8S “TPR SBA IL LGBT OJ 4nq { “POT “88 “718 ye pooys WOU? 4 ‘98ST UL ULYY LOMOT [[1]S SUA OSINYD JUOY OY], [wrauoydag oyy,
‘Ioqzenb v “pe “sgt ‘syeQ pur {pp ‘soz ‘Aayreg {‘yg ‘sce “Veoy\\—sem UIOD JO osvIOAL [eIIedmMy] [enUUY oy], “YG ‘sOg Ie poyeuturie, pur “see ye
psuemu00 Ivak oy], “pg ‘sgz ‘T 10q0400 UO yseMo] OY} puL “pH sgg ‘1gR7 ‘zg AIenUE f U0 svM oovI0Ae ATYOOM YsoyoIy YT, “19j1vnb w ‘pg ‘sge
peyowor FI LEST UL + ‘sTE SBA TOMA ‘OggT Jo yey} oAoqe sayrenb wv ‘pg ‘sT ARQT UL poouApe yeoyA, Jo ddIUd oSvIOAv [eeduy penuuny og,

‘2881 YOXd LYTHM JO HOIWd AHI—III WIAVL

OO

GRASS, AND NUMBER OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND PIGS, IN ~

Cota

TABLE IV.—ESTIMATED TOTAL PRODUCE AND YIELD PER ACRE OF EACH

[From Returns of Agricultural

Great Britain

Acreage,
‘thousands’ (000)

Produce of crops,
‘thousands’ (000)

Yield per acre

DESCRIPTION OF CROPS omitted omitted
|
1885 | 1886 1887 | 1885 | 1886 | 1887 | 1885|1886/1887
Corn Crors :— Acres | Acres | Acres | Bush. } Bush,-| Bush. | Bush.) Bush.| Bush.
Wheat . . . . . «| 2,478 2,286 2,317 | 77,588 | 61,468 | 74,323 | 31°3 | 26°9 | 32°0
Barleyor Bere. . « «- 2,257 | 2,241 | 2,085 | 79,251 | 72,090 | 65,301 | 35°1 | 32°2 | 31°3
Oats . . 5 : ° . + | 2,941 3,082 3,088 | 108,365 | 116,596 | 107,283 | 36°8 | 37°38 | 34:7
Rye . . 51 56 55 = = = = — =
Beans . . . . . ° 435 381 371 8,907 | 10,307 8,339 | 20°5. | 27°0 | 22°5
Peas . . . ° . 230 214 230 4,321 5,855 5,608 | 18°8 | 27°3 | 244
TotaL Corn Crops . 8,392 8,260 8,146 — = — = 4 —
GREEN Crops :— be Tons Tons Tons | Tons |} Tons | Tons
Potatoes . . . . . 549 554 560 3,198 3,168 3,565 58 57 64
Turnips and Swedes . . . - | 2,015 2,003 1,972 | 20,511 | 29,983 | 19,748 | 10:2 | 15:0 | 10°0
Mangold . . . ae 355 349 361 5,470 7,280 5,423 | 154 | 20°8 | 15°0
Carrots and Parsnips . * 16 16 16 _ — _ _ — _
Cabbage, Kohl-rabi, and Rape . 153 152 154 _ — _ — _ _
Vetches, Lucerne, and any other ) ~.
erop (except clover or grass) J 434 406 401
TOTAL GREEN CROPS , 3,522 | 3,480 | 3,464 ~- — — — — _
OTHER CROPs, GRASS, &¢, :-—
Clover and artificial and other
grasses under rotation, including
permanent pasture, or grass not 13,814 | 13,558 | 13,565 -- _ — — — _
broken up in rotation (exclusive
of heath or mountain land) )
Ditto under meadow for hay . 6,182 6,666 6,887 8,731 9,075 7,894 | — —_ —
Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts.| Cwts. | Cwts.
MIX ete, Jee sialon ver) Yorke 2 3 4 — -- -- _ _ —
Hops . aoe. ete Pe . 71 70 64 509 776 458 | 71 | 111 72
TOTAL OTHER Crops . . | 20,069 | 20,297 | 20,520 _ — — — _ _
Year 1885 Year 1886 Year 1887
DESCRIPTION OF LivE STocK :— Actual No, Actual No. Actual No.
Horses <* % . BP iee 1 te 1,408,789 1,425,359 1,428,383
Cattle . “eet awe 52 6,597,964 6,646,683 6,441,268
Sheep. ae * . . ° 26,534,635 25,520,718 25,958,768
Pipa ot~'s . . es 2,403,380 2,221,475 2,299,323

NoTe.—The produce of the Corn Crops for Ireland, which was originally given in weight, has been converted
and 60 bs, to the bushel of Beans and Peas,

Ireland

( XI )

United Kingdom

OF THE PRINCIPAL CROPS, AND ALSO THE ACREAGE UNDER OTHER CROPS AND
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, IN EACH OF THE YEARS 1885-87.

Department of Privy Council.)

Acreage, Produce of crops, Acreage, Produce of crops,
‘thousands’ (000) | ‘thousands’ (000) Yield peracre || ‘thousands’(000) | ‘thousands’ (000) | Yield per acre
omitted omitted | omitted omitted
| }
885 |1886 |1887 |1885 |1886 1887 1885 1886 |1887 1885 1886 |1887 | 1885 | 1886 | 1887 1885/1886|1887
4
eres |Acres |Acres | Bush.| Bush.) Bush.} Bush.| Bush.} Bush. Acres |Acres Acres | Bush. | Bush, | Bush. | Bus.| Bus.| Bus. |
71 70 67| 2,048| 1,880} 1,902] 28'S | 27°0 | 28°3 || 2,549] 2,355] 2,385] 79,636) 63,348] 76,225] 31:2] 26-9} 32:0 |
180} 182] 162] 6,470] 6,219] 4,647| 361 | 34:2 28-6 || 2,436] 2,423] 2,248] 85,722| 78,310] 69,948) 35°2| 32:3) 31-1
1,328] 1,322] 1,315 |52,076 |52,780 |43,506| 39°2 | 40:0 | 33-1 || 4,270] 4,404] 4,403 |160,441 |169,376 |150,789 | 37°6| 38°5| 343
| }
Bie att) Ty. = } — s3)\"eaiG7, |) = 166) == 8) || == =|)
6 6 6 215 183 134] 33°5 | 30° | 211 441 387 377| 9,122] 10,490} 8,473) 20°7| 27:1) 225
1 1] _1] 18] 18) 16] 25-0] 262] 231 || 231] 215) 230] 4,339) 5,873] 5,623) 188] 97-3] 24-4
aoe) du92|i662) — | — | — | — | — | — || 9,986] 9,851] 9,709) — = = | — |
Tons | Tons | Tons ‘Tons Tons | Tons | Tons | Tons | Tons [Tons Tons| Tous
797| 800) 797) 3,176) 2,668) 3,569] 4:0 3°3 4°5 || 1,346] 1,354] 1,357] 6,374] 5,835] 7,134] 4:7] 4:3] 5:3
| |
+297) * 299] * 300 |‘ 3,552 |' 3,975 |* 2,719 | 12-0 | 13°3 | * 91 {| 2,312 | 2,302] 2,272) 24,063) 33,957 | 22,467) 10°4| 14-7] 9-9
| |
2 37| 2 37) 7 42)? 500/* 506|? 455/7 13-4 |? 13°5 |710°9 || 392 387 402} 5,969) 7,786) 5,878) 15:2] 20°1| 14°6
re een ag “gol i1o] “=! | =e Sap | 2 ee
|
as) 46) bo} — | = 7) = |. — | — | — |] 201] 198] ~ 204), — = Sh.) Se
37 36 37; — _ — — — ~- 470} 442 438 — — == os =
1,219] 1,221| 1,229 — || 4,741] 4,703] 4,699} — = Seip —s |e
ee EE ee ee | | ——
| |
\
10,244 |10,160|10,052} — | — | — | — | — | — |l24,058|23,718 |23,617 =

|| 8,217| 8,760

|
12,887 |

2 Including Beetroot,

into bushels, at the rate of 60 lbs, to the bushel of Wheat ; 50 7s, to the bushel of Barley ; 39 7bs. to the bushel of Oats ;
+ Turnips only,

2,035} 2,094} 2,144] 4,156] 4,499] 3599] — | — | — 9,031 13,503| 11,493] — | —
Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwt.| Cwt.
108} 128 130} 313] 412] 303] 35 38 23 |} +110) 131 134); — a _— a ==
|
ees Nee Pee | fp | 71| 70 64 509} 776] 458) 7-1) 11-1
a | | Se ee eee eee ee ee ae a
12,387 |12,382 |12,326 | 32,456 |32,679 52,05 | = | —
Year 1885 | Year 1886 Year 1887 Year 1885 Year 1886 Year 1887
Actual No. Actual No. Actual No. Actual No. Actual No, Actual No.
491,147 492,831 499,330 1,899,936 1,918,190 1,927,713
4,228,751 4,184,027 4,157,409 10,826,715 10,830,710 10,598,677
3,477,840 3,367,722 3,378,417 30,012,475 28,888,440 29,337,185
1,269,122 1,263,133 1,408,485 3,672,502 3,484,608 3,707,808

( <i

TABLE V.—AVERAGE PRICES OF BRITISH CORN PER QUARTER (Imperial
measure) as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise according
to the Act of 27 & 28 Vict. ch. 87, in each week of the year 1887; and
also in each of the twenty years 1868-87.

[From the “ London Gazette.” ]

Week ending Wheat | Barley | Oats || Week ending Wheat | Barley | Oats
1887 Si eds) Serge cael exe eal 1887 S, th} Ss. Tdepleeeae
January 1 -|35 0/25 11)17 O|| July2 . -|35 0/20 10;17 6
January 8 ./35 4/26 4/1611] July9 . 2 | 34. (22) ZO AS IG
January 15 .|36 3/26 8/17 4/| July 16. -|34 0/20 8)16 9
January 22 .|36 4/27 1|17 2] July 23 . -(|384 3/21 4/17 9
January 29 .|35 5/|26 7/17 1/{/ July 30. .|34 3/21 8/17 1
February 5 .|34 3/26 7/17 1/'|| August 6 .| 33 11}20 10/17 1
February 12 .|33 6/25 7/16 10/| August13 .|/33 3/20 7/| 16 10
February 19 .| 32 11/26 2/17 0} August20 ./32 0/23 11/16 4
February 26 .|32 7/25 0/1611) August27 ./3010/24 5/16 3
March 5 .|32 9/25 1/16 2] September 3 .| 29 11/27 3/15 6
March 12 .|382 7/24 3/16 4 || September 10/29 1] 26 10] 14 10
March 19 .|32 11) 24 4/16 41) September 17/28 8/27 4/14 7
March 26 .|33 2/23 2/16 4|| September 24/28 9/28 0) 14 11
Average of ) | Average of F
Winter - |34 0/25 7/16 9} Summer 32 1;23 4/16 4
Quarter | Quarter
April2 . .|33 3/24 4/16 11) October 1 .|28 5/28 10] 14 10
April9 . -|32 8/23 11/15 8] October8 .|28 7/28 6/15 1
April 16. .| 32 8/24 2/15 10} October 15 .|29 3/29 0/15 3
April 23. .| 32 6/23 2/16 3|| October22 .}29 9/28 10/15 4
April 30. .-|32 8|24 2/16 2| October29 .)/30 1/29 7/15 5
May7 . -|33 2/23 2/16 0O|| November5 .|/30 3/29 7/16 Il
May 14 . -| 33 6/22 0/16 7 || November 12.|30 6/29 6/15 5
May 21 . .|34 1/21 9/16 3]! November 19.|30 5/29 6/15 6
May 28 . .|34 6/23 1/16 9] November 26.|30 9|29 6|15 11
June4 . .;35 0/23 9/16 7|| December3 .|81 3/29 3/16 1
June ll . .|35 4/22 1/17 O|| December 10./31 2/29 0} 15 11
June 18 , .| 35 1/21 19/17 4]| December 17./31 2/29 1/16 2
June 25 . .|35 1/20 7/16 9/| December 24 .| 30 10} 28 11/]15 10
| December 31 .|30 9/29 3/16 1
Average of ) | || Average of) |
Spring |33 9/22 11;)16 4) Autumn; |30 2/29 2/15 7
Quarter | Quarter )

ANNUAL AVERAGES FOR YEARS 1868 TO 1887.

Year Wheat Barley | Oats Year Wheat Barley Oats

Wid | (ante ek omc: Tlie ee mates Sa a) ie
1868 63 9 43 0 28 1 1878 46 5 40 2 24 4
1869 48 2 39 5 26 40 | 1879 43 10 34 0 21°'+9
1870 46 11 34 7 | 2210 | 1880 44 4 33 1 23 1
1871 56 8 36 2 25 2 1881 45 4 31 11 2I =9
i872 ny pa 37 4 | 23 2 1882 45 1 81 2 21 10
1873 58 8 40 5 | 25 6 1883 47 al 31 10 21 6
1874 55 9 44 11 | 28 10 || 1884 35 9 30 68 20 3
1875 45 2 38 6 28 8 1885 82 10 30 2 20 7
1876 46 2 35 2 26 3 1886 Sle 20) 27 19: 0
1877 566 9 39° «8 25 11 1887 32 6 25 4 16 3

( Si

)

TABLE VI.—QUANTITIES OF BRITISH CoRN sold in the Towns from which
Returns are received under Acts 27 & 28 Vict. ch. 87, and 45 & 46 Vict.
ch. 37, in each of the years 1878 to 1887,

[from the “ London Gazette.)

Years Wheat
7 Qrs.

1878 2,141,759
1879 2,022,125
1880 1,607,908
1881 1,738,255
1882 1,903,858
1883 2,901,146
1884 2,833,132
1885 2,739,515
1886 2,739,822
1887 2,495,124

Barley Oats
Qrs. Qrs.
1,732,075 184,041
1,421,244 161,693
1,591,925 164,791
1,631,504 | 211,444
1,873,820 211,799
2,575,528 408,471
3,149,341 492,918
2,765,500 393,042
2,474,466 367,083
2,589,667 309,478

TABLE VII.—Returns published pursuant to the Corn Returns Act, 1882, and
to Act of 6 & 7 Wm. IV. for Commutation of Tithes in England and Wales,
showing what has been, during the Seven Years ending Christmas Day in
each Year, the AVERAGE PRICE of an IMPERIAL BUSHEL of British
Wheat, Barley, and Oats, computed from the Weekly Averages of Corn
Returns in each of the years 1881-87.

[From the “ London Gazette.’ |

Years

1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887

Average (Septennial) prices per bushel

Barley Oats
ier A Sind. & id.
5 10} 4 6 3 03
5 102 4 43 2 113
5 2 | 311 2 8
5 43 4 13 Ze
5 13 3 113 2 8h
411 3 10 le
4 83 3 8 2 64

TABLE VIII.—CoMPUTED REAL VALUE OF CORN

IMPORTED INTO THE

UNITED KINGDOM IN EACH OF THE SEVEN YEARS 1881-87.
[From Trade and Navigation Returns. ]

Wheat .
Barley .
Oats

Maize .

Wheat Flour

Flour

Other kinds of }

Total of Corn | 60,557,313

£
. | 31,466,804

| | 10;392460
Beans and Peas .

1881 1882

ie

34,237,099
5,541,498
4,603,983
6,522,070
1,637,282

10,631,933

21,966

4,069,402
3,781,013

1,617,820
9,205,807

24,007

1883

£
31,434,888
5,784,504
5,043,011
10,314,307
2,114,289
12,318,144

31,038

1884

£
19,825,021
4,228,722
4,195,514
7,303,099
1,820,366
10,166,010

23,970

63,195,831

67,040,181

47,562,702

1885

£
24,066,013
4,528,823
4,252,135
8,473,863
1,758,105
9,651,508

18,811

52,749,258

1886 1887
£ &
17,888,155 | 21,335,902
3,968,437] 3,769,272
3,974,434| 3,489,818
7,614,113 | 7,535,946
1,512,985| 1,662,992
8,254,407 | 10,020,433

12,899 4,934
43,225,430 | 47,819,297

—_— Nm

XIV )

TABLE IX.—QUANTITIES OF WHEAT, BARLEY, OATS, PEAS, BEANS, INDIAN
CoRN, OR MAIZE, WHEATMEAL, AND FLOUR, IMPORTED IN THE FLvE
YEARS 1883-87; ALSO THE COUNTRIES FROM WHICH THE WHEAT,
WHEATMEAL, AND FLOUR WERE OBTAINED.

[Lrom Trade and Navigation Returns.)
(Thousands (“000”) omitted.)

| 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887

|
Wheat from— | Gwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts.
IRUSSisiawes os bel ava tee toate elo Oo: 5,402 | 11,986 3,710 5,523
Gemmany-,. 2° = 4. 1 a 2,871 1,090 1,983 1,318 1,552
“1M CHC Gee GG On5 dl 9 8) 3 3 71
Turkey and Roumania. . | 1,582 505 1,063 539 587
Egypt oj) gil Mya i font je la 41 | 198
United States. . . . . | 26,066 | 22,606 | 24,279 | 24,621 | 30,505
Chili . Ass | 2,310 1,056 1,623 1,702 2,206
British India. .. . .| 11,244 8,010 | 12,102 | 11,029 | 8,509
Australasia.” <7 oe 2,692 4,898 5,279 739 1,347
British North America . 1,798 MEY 1,746 3,081 3,965
Other countries... . 1,091 771 1,280 622 1,322
Total Wheat . . . | 64,080 | 47,114 | 61,454 | 47,4065 | 55,785

Wheatmeal and Flour from—|
Germanys, “sure Ya lero 1,929 1,747 1,415 817 589
Hrancean .% bk. eyaee 164 154 187 115 98
United States. . . . . | 11,271 | 10,341 | 11,728 | 11,473 | 14,873
British North America . 469 689 281 770 959
Other countries. ... 2,461 2,173 2,224 1,564 1,538
Pie 16,294 | 15,104 | 15,835 | 14,739 | 18,057
Barley . am. fe | 16,594 | 12,987 | 15,392, | 13,723 | 14277
Oats. Sw ee oe, || LB, 248 12936" (13,0624) 13496 aia
IPGARY 4 Ye ihe | CAWuet ees Woe ig 1,880 1,935 2,004 2,047 2,990
Beans | 3,578 3,520 3,515 2,804 2,477

Indian Corn or Maize. . . | 31,539 | 24,795 | 31,468 | 30,998 | 31,123

Indian Corn Meal, .. . 86 | 16 14 10 | 6

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( XVIII )

TABLE XII.—NUMBER AND VALUE OF LIVE CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE IMPORTED
INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS.
[From Trade and Navigation Returns. |

Number Value
1885 1886 1887 1885 1886 1887
£ £ £
From Denmark. = 30,211] 31,945) 25,079|| 593,101) 410,947] 295,295
» Germany. .| 14,273} 6,235] 7,873|| 272,863] 97,416] 123,672
0 » Spans. .| 12,757| 8,461) 6,653\| 233,254 146,798] 108,428
ad » Canada . .| 64,443] 63,407) 62,537||1,292,530 1,140,800)1,089,352
Bull » United States .! 137,324} 113,756; 94,642/|3,101,502/2,270,831/1,849,307
mS | || Othercountries| 22,852| 17,556) 22,488] 465,935) 292,295) 336,601
Total . .| 281,860} 241,360) 219,222//5,959,185 4,358,887/3,802,655
From Denmark. .| 31,460| 32,311) 28,711|| 614,464 399,807| 329,253
D- 78weden i.-_ =. 2,786] 2,637] 1,872|| 54, 809 32,056, 22,983
» Germany. .| 4,190) 2,097; 2,263!) 72,110) 31,035| 32,908
© » Canada . 4,019/ 3,796 2,588] 80,898, 67,878| 45,470
ows ” United States . 507 175 215] 10,395] 3,352} 3,567
» Othercountries 2,432| 1,937| 3,117|| 46,028] 36,924! 54,882
|
Total , .| 45,394] 42,953] 38,766) 878,704, 571,052) 489,063
|
From Denmark. ; 6,059 4,629 4,944 22.093. 15,633, 16,163
» Holland. .| 38,499] 30,181) 32,734] 180,803 121,072! 129,424
» Canada . 94 45 29 248 70, 58
Calves » United States . 2 2 1 7 3 5
;, Other countries 1,207 451) 265 5,993, 2,155 1,437
Total . .| 45,861| 35,308} 37,973] 209,144! 138,933] 147,087
From Denmark. .| 79,475] 120,584/ 97,845, 129,322 192,724) 134,843
Germany. .| 325,553} 339,719] 321,085] 674,279) 632,365) 554,596
eh, Holland . | 252,144] 468,373] 501,701| 626,667| 971,776| 867,673
Ae Canada . .| 39,725| 94,343] 35,473) 80,130) 184,050} 65,738
aoa » United States.] 11,829} 5,553} 1,027] 29,801) 10,706 2,040
eS Other countries} 42,201 10,395 14,272, ile, 19,577| 20,947
= = | ——— —
|
Total . «| 750,927/1,038,967 971,408 1,625,111 2,011,198 1,645,837
2 = SS
From Denmark . , 251 1,802 885, 707, 5,027] 2,485
» Holland. «| 15,777| 18,862 20,944] 60,735, 56,221) 61,549
» Canada . | o— 70) 3 — 210} 6
Swine » United States . 57) — — 144, — —
» Other countries 437 618 29 1,662) 1,902 BS4
Total". .| | 16,622) 21,852 21,965, 63,248 63,360) 64,424
| if
+ ean Snes |. ie Se orn =< ceo? te
Total allkinds . palo, 6 1,379,940 1,289,329) 8,735,392)7,143,430 6,149,066

( XIX )

TABLE XIII.—QUANTITY AND VALUE OF DEAD MEAT IMPORTED IN THD
Four YEARS 1884-87.

[From Trade and Navigation Returns. |
Thousands (“000”) omitted.

ee —————— ——————————— —

1884 1885 1886 1887
DEAD MEAT
Quan-',,, Quan- Quan- Quan- 5
tity Value tity Value tity Value tity Value
' Cwts.| £& |Cwts.| £ |Cwts.) & /|Cwts.
BAcon :— heal
From United States . . . .. .|1917 |4,854 |2,459 |4,472 | 2,578 | 4,321 | 2,203 | 4,999
, Other countries . ’ é 4 r 839 | 2,430 716 | 1,956 678 | 1,822 798 | 2,101
Total . .|2,756 |6,784 |3,168 | 6,428 |3,256 | 6,143 | 3,001 | 6,330
BEEF :— 2
: From United States .| 204] 404) 233 | 443) 183] 304) 203 | 310
Sa te ‘ { », Other countries . i elo Be eae 225 ELON 24

Total « ~| 211} 419] 241] 458] 195 | 326/] 218) 334

From United States .| 809 |2,202 | 852 [2,217 | 762 |1,768 | 645 | 1,456

a 7 -{ »» Other countries . 67 | 170 50 | 126 45 94 13 25

Total = . | 876 | 2,372 | 902 | 2,343 | 807 |1,862 | 658 | 1,481

HAMS :—
From United States . . « . . | 574 | 1,695 783 |1,984 | 841 |1,971 | 814 | 2,097
» Othercountries. . . « «| 79| 286| 94] 252) 102) 266| 107| 293

Total 653 |1,931 | 877 |2,236 | 943

MerAT, Unenumerated :—

From United States. 2 ce 3 5 2 3 6 3
Salted or Fresh { : : i

» Other countries .| 18| 59] 27] 81] 40] 110] 41] 103
Matai eet | 20 eae sO B65, nae | ita Sar’ |Site
& . 9 3

Preserved, other. (From Australasia. .| 127| 309). 199) 473| 57) 136 | 167 | 3e7

wise than by{ ,, UnitedStates .| 260] 714| 261] 691) 293 | 663 | 228) 531

Salting 5, Other countries .| 62] 369) 67) 370) 80] 368] 124 |- 432
Total . .| 449 |1,392| 527 1,534] 430 |1,167| 519 | 1,350

MUTTON, FRESH :—
From Holland . , oc : .}| 116] 372 81} 240 52 | 131 63 | 152

», Australasia’! LY eens . s 303 | 821 337 | 834] 383 | 842 | 441 925
3) Othercountries . <<. . «© « 83 | 216 | 154] 409] 217] 432] 281 | 500
Total 5 . | 502 |1,409 | 572 |1,483 | 652 | 1,405 785 | 1,577

PoRK :— =
Salted or Fresh acer United States .| 180 | 308 | 223 | 334) 213>) 295 | 192] 275
(not Hams) Other countries .| 157 | 311 | 159} 352) 159) 335 236) 498

Total 7 . | 337] 619 | 382] 686 372| 630) 428 iL 773

ToTaL OF DEAD MEAT . + | 5,804 |14,990 | 6,699 |15,255 | 6,697 |13,882 6,577 |14,351

( xa

TABLE XIV.—NUMBER OF BEASTS EXHIBITED, AND THE PRICES REALISED
FOR THEM PER STONE, AT THE CHRISTMAS MARKETS IN EACH OF THE
LAST ForTy YEARS.

[From the “ Mark Lane Express.”]

Years Beasts Prices i Years Beasts | Prices

3. 1d, HE ad & a
1848 5,942 3 44 8 1868 5,320 3 4-5 8
1849 5,765 3 44 0 1869 6,728 3 6—6 2
1850 6,341 3 0—3 10 1870 6,425 3 6-6 2
1851 6,103 2 8-4 2 | 1871 6,320 | 310-6 2
1852 6,271 2 8-4 0 1872 7,560 3 8-6 0
1853 7,037 3 2—4 10 1873 6170 4 4 4-6 6
1854 6,181 3 6—5 4 1874 6,570 44-6 8
1855 7,000 3 8—4 2 1875 7,660 4 6-6 6
1856 6,748 3 4-5 0 1876 7,020 4 4-6 4
1857 6,856 38 4-4 8 1877 7,510 4 6-6 0
1858 6,424 3 4-5 0 1878 6,830 4 6 0
1859 7,560 3 6—5 4 1879 5,620 4 0-6 4
1860 7,860 3 4-5 6 1880 7,660 4 0-6 0
1861 8,840 3 4-5 0 1881 8,150 4 0-6 2
1862 8,430 3 4-5 0 1882 7,370 4 6-6 4
1863 10,372 3 6—5 2 1883 5,940 4 0-6 4
1864 7,130 3 8-5 8 1884 5,300 4 0-6 2
1865 7,530 3 4-5 4 1885 7,550 3 6—5 4
1866 7,340 3 8—5 6 1886 6,010 3 6-5 0
1867 8,110 3 4-5 0 1887 6,420 | 2 6—5 4

TABLE XV.—AVERAGE ANNUAL NUMBER OF CATTLE, SHEEP, AND PIGs
BROUGHT INTO THE LONDON METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, AND INTO
THE FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET, IN THE UNDERMENTIONED PERIODS, AND
IN THE YEAR 1886.

[From Agricultural Returns of Great Britain.)

NUMBER OF ANIMALS |

Home | Foreign Per-
Svpars ps Ree ta Sed) ee kee ee ee \centage of
Metropolitan | Metropolitan | Foreign - Total ie
Cattle | Cattle Cattle | Total Ee
Market Market Market
CATTLE."
Number | Number Number Number Number Per cent.
1864-71 169,955 136,366 _— 136,366 306,321 44°5
3 1872-75 180,558 ? 107,375 ? 20,486 127,861 308,419 415
1876-80 179,253 68,179 70,399 138,578 317,831 43°6
1881-85 148,983 34.279 118,878 153,157 302,140 50°7
1886 186,580 37,930 86,969 | 124,899 311,479 401
SHEEP.*
1864-71 | 1,113,401 459,475 | — | 459,475 | 1,572,876 29:2
7 1872-75 870,887 ? 653,173 752,887 | 706,060 | 1,576,947 448
1876-80 | 789,200 210,464 551,487 761,951 {| 1,551,151 49°1
1881-85 | 588,298 44,828 684,595 729,423 | 1,317,721 / 55-4
1886 | 674,090 | 68,960 707,531 776,491 1,450,581 | 535
Pics.
1864-71 | 16,122 | 5,164 -- 5,164 21,286 ~~ 24°3
? 1872-75 6,391 | 2 206 La @8,748 al 9,954 || 16,345 60°9
1876-80 1,618 255 18,203 18,458 20,076 $19
1881-85 602 10 16,687 16,697 17,299 96°5
1886 280 | = | 17,984 | 17,284 17,564 98-4

* Including Calves, but exclusive of Milch Cows.
? 1872 was the first complete year since the opening of the Foreign Cattle Market.
* Including Lambs.

€ ==)

TABLE XVIL—AVERAGE VALUE PER HEAD OF LIVE CATTLE, SHEEP, AND
PIGS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM FROM FOREIGN COUNTRIES
AND BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN THE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS.

[From Returns furnished by the Board of Customs.)

aia Sheep and
Years pen Pigs
Oxen and Bulls Cows | Calves —
cs de See ds £ £24 a Oe £ & &
1878 2212 1 1616 0 417 6 28 8 yaad! aS)
1879 2 Ve 6 1G V7, 9 414 8 2° 7 .§ Di OU LE
1880 22 011 jsyos Pere 4 14 11 vo) Mot 1 3 9110
1881 A ips ae’ OF Sie AUS Ce 2 G10 oo sO
1882 ZL 4A TSSLOF 4 13 10 2 6 6 Slee
1883 2111 4 19 14 3 AAS 3S 2 5 1 nye ones
1884 21 19 10 19 12. 0 414 6 Zeb) b SH te
1885 21 2 10 19 6-11 411l 2 Bt as, cs 316 6
1886 Teo 32 PS as 1D 318 8 Ls 38 219 4
Tose oi Le 610) | 12 12) 4 Spl Om |e ko Zeke So

TABLE XVII.—NUMBER OF HORSES, AND THEIR DECLARED VALUE, IM-
PORTED INTO, AND EXPORTED FROM, THE UNITED KINGDOM, IN EACH
OF THE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS.

[From Annual Statements of Trade of the United Kingdom.]

IMPORTED | | EXPORTED
Year || Year |
Number Value \| | Number Value
£ \} £

1882 8,827 212,074 H 1882 6,444 407,599
1883 10,409 212,083 || 1883 | 7,346 410,269
1884 12,929 256,789 | 1884 6,973 406,915
1885 13,023 195,624 | 1885 6,196 371,406
1886 11,026 189,901 1886 7,326 409,045
1887 11,640 198,009 1887 9,455 546,403

Nore.—The countries from which horses were imported in 1886 were as
follows :—Germany, 6,085; Denmark, 2,365; Holland, 915; France, 794;
Belgium, 365; United States of America, 231; Canada, 118; Channel Islands,
52; Argentine Republic, 51 ; and 50 from other countries. The corresponding
figures for 1887 have not yet been published.

TABLE XVIII.—AVERAGE PRICES OF WOOL IN EACH OF THE UNDER-
MENTIONED YEARS.!

ENGLISH |

AusTRA- | SOUTH
Years - ; LASIAN | AFRICAN

Leicester Half-breds | Kent Southdown
Per lb. Per Ib. Per lb. Per lb. Per lb. Per lb.
i d. d. d, d. ad \s a, a a. Sond & 4,
1882 — — — 1s. 2d. 1 Of] 1 2
1883 | 9 to 94 | 9Lto102 | 91to10 |0102tol 2 | 1 OL] 1 28
1884 | 83, 95/9 , 95/9 4 93/010 1 13] 1 OF) 1 15
1885 | 8), 9 | 8t, 95/9 4, 95/0 9 4,1 OF] 0 10$| O 94
1686} 9 ,, 92 | 94 ,, 103 | 92',, 10/0 92 ,,1 02] O 92] O- 94
1887 | 92 ,,10: 10 ,, 114 /102 ,, 102 | 0 102 ,,1 Of | 0 10$] 0 104

' The prices of English wool have been calculated from the prices given
weekly in the Hconomist newspaper. The figures relating to Australasian
mao African wool have been taken from Returns furnished by the Board
of Customs,

(* Xe 4)

TABLE XIX.—QUANTITIES OF WOOL (SHEEP, LAMB, AND ALPACA) IMPORTED INTO THE
UNITED KINGDOM FROM EACH COUNTRY IN EACH YEAR, FROM 1880 to 1886 INCLUSIVE;
AND THE TOTAL QUANTITIES OF FOREIGN AND COLONIAL WOOL IMPORTED AND

EXPORTED IN EACH YEAR, WITH THE EXCESS OF IMPORTS.

[from Board of Trade Returns. |
(000 ” omitted.)

ae 1880 | 1881 1882 | 1883 | 1884 | 1885 | 1886
Australasia :— lbs. Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
New South Wales . | 76,966 | 87,740 | 93,636 |100,629 |120,221 |110,106 |134,930
Queensland. . . .| 13,550 | 15,170 | 20,914 | 25,324 | 29,924 | 31,400 | 25,952
South Australia . .| 44,799 | 47,912 | 53,027 | 45,609 | 45,859 | 41,349 | 48,207
Victoria. . . . .| 94,513 |108,807 |104,389 | 98,828 | 99,355 | 83,201 | 93,890
Western Australia . 2,832 3,671 3,555 3,701 4,476 5,526 5,786
TASMANIA sass aie 7,003 6,997 6,609 6,758 6,159 5,868 5,452
New Zealand . . .| 60,964 59,369 | 63,654 | 70,837 | 75,410 | 78,606 | 87,208
Australasia.—Total . . |300,627 | 329,666 |345,784 |351,686 |381,404 |356,056 |401,425
Argentine Confederation) 2,612 | 655 2,693 1,221 538 2,784 6,697
Below’ .; qshe er es 5,034 3,613 5,338 5,265 3,854 4,585 3,441
Cape of Good Hope. .| 42,226 | 42,707 | 47,538 | 41,095 | 41,076 | 83,986 | 48,194
Clon ge Ge ecm ce eomen ome 2,532 1,723 1,258 649 1,593 1,531 732
Denmark faucet 2,029 2,499 1,191 2,158 1,471 1,920 1,997
Mey! |. Gaile | 2,817 | 1,987 1,487 2,699 2,087 2,376 3,838
Falkland Islands! . . —_ — —_ —- _— — 2,499
ANCE. Vee ae iS 3p 9,057 3,018 4,948 5,338 5,586 7,621 | 11,465
ermManyaeia acl, © ue 7,174 2,264 2,728 4,339 1,680 1,887 3,288
Mollantiee. oc ote. 2,805 1,520 581 451 810 683 2,756
India, British . . . .| 29,190 | 22,215 | 26,924 | 24,822 | 24,799 | 25,697 | 34,597
RVIGTOCCO. 6 is. se 2,954 806 2,769 2,633 896 572 1,390
Niacin Wie ch Ve 0.) = 9,160 6,824 6,338 7,776 | 10,259 | 13,028 | 138,¢63
Renian: Spee? Gis 2,557 3,134 6,052 2,427 | 11,427 6,270 5,789
OnuuCAllieems en ie) « 2,965 1,539 1,961 1,970 1,428 1,491 2,495
Riasia eae PeaetenG. 6,019 2,786 2,889 3,476 2,508 5,161 4,092
South . . .| 14,063 | 13,009 | 14,649 | 24,672 | 20,492 | 24,488 | 25,630
ire s) 3 ea! ag oencn | ee Sy. 6,719 9,400 8,690 | 10,378 | 11,113 | 17,965
Other Countries . . . 7,256 3,458 4,457 4,580 4,231 4,439 5,118
Total imported . . | 463,509 |450,142 |488,985 | 495,947 526,527 |505,688 |596,471
Total exported? . | 237,409 | 265,584 | 263,966 | 277,234 |276,919 |267,502 |312,006
Excess of Imports , |226,100 |184,558 | 225,019 | 218,713 | 249,608 | 238,186 | 284,465

1 The Falkland Islands were included with “ Other Countries” prior to 1886,

* Foreign and Colonial only.

ee) ers ee +

¢ xm »

TABLE XX.—QUANTITIES OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOREIGN AND COLONIAL
PRODUCTION IMPORTED IN THE YEARS 1884-87.

[From Trade and Navigation Returns. ]

Bones (burnt or not, or as)

animal charcoal) . tons j
Cotton, Raw . cewts.
Flax . 2 5 bn age
Guano tons
Hemp ewts.
Hops e . ”
Hides untanned : Dry %

” Wet ”
Petroleum : . . gallons
Oilseed Cakes . tons
Potatoes . cwts.
Lard . : r

Clover and Grass Seeds 5
Flax-seed and Linseed ars.
Rape . :

Slicer and Lambs’ Wool Ibs.

1884 1885 1886
72,640 64,140 57,175
15,505,851 | 12,586,009 | 15,187,299
1,606,966 1,664,836 | 1,287,034
48,284 24,757 68,744
1,334,924 | 1,446,398 1,213,857
257,374 266,473 153,788
646,842 672,878 721,964
572,189 555,114 499,271
52,808,436 | 73,869,787 | 71,026,962
269,235 283,052 296,530
2,444,073 | 2,300,824 | 2,709,444
698,397 869,842 896,324
290,022 315,803 289,214
1,805,535 | 2,056,263 | 2,081,283
769,813 544,275 372,613

519, 555,493 ease 182,161

591,872,167

1887

51,882

15,903,117
1,560,696
21,251
1,472,857
145,298
627,132
523,393
77,458,062
265,694
2,762,958
906,190
335,858
2,341,175
413,856
574,196,058

TABLE XXI.—QUANTITIES OF UNMANTUFACTURED TOBACCO IMPORTED INTO
THE UNITED KINGDOM FROM EACH COUNTRY IN EACH OF THE YEARS

1882-86.
1882 1883
Ibs. lbs.
Germany . 777,583 | 1,378,579
Holland . 8,243,589 | 6,655,548
Turkey ¢ 1,422,386 | 1,539,654
China and Hong Kong 614,492 854,547
Japan : 1,093,291} 902,981
Columbia, United}

States of . io ea
United States 21,878,817 | 42,370,653
Other Countries . 2,045,212 | 2,542,647

Total . | 36,075,370 | 56,475,199

[From Annual Statements of Trade of United Kingdom. |

1884

Ibs.

1,464,350
5,728,744
1,114,143
1,813,221
1,876,787

122,570

37,186,980
4,223,612

53,530,407

1885

Ibs.

1,384,106
6,478,410
1,902,542
1,507,213
5,400,127

160,029

60,247,715
2,043,197

79,123,339

1886,

Ibs.

924,560
5,077,642
2,732,438
1,539,913
1,391,810

100,807

70,458,667
992,145

83,217,982

Notre.—tThe total quantity of Unmanufactured Tobacco imported from all

countries in 1887 was 70,552,317 lbs,

( XXIV )

TABLE XXII.—QUANTITIBS AND VALUE OF BUTTER, MARGARINE,
FOLLOWING COUNTRIES IN

[From Trade and

(« 000”
| ger Guo, | || oe
DESCRIPTION YEAR
Quantity,| Value, | Quantity,| Value, | Quantity,| Value,
Cwts. £ Cwts. £ Cwts. £
thousands | thousands | thousands | thousands | thousands | thousands
1883 1,039 4,466 bs od 354 2,152
1884 1,172 5,260 54 250 335 2,008
BUTTER avs 1885 308 1,661 36 146 377 2,118
1886 359 1,775 31 120 401 2,195
\| 1887 165 851 33 139 | 488 2,669
| 1883 t t — —_ t t
1864), tt t oo — if t
MARGARINE . . 1885 813 2,938 -- — ilvg 70
Shi Butteri ‘
Sait peice or || 1886 854 | 2,837 | — _ 21 83
Act of 1887.]
| 1887 1,195 3,617 | — — 17 62
1883 293 825 * = — —
1884 319 892 590 1,497 -= —
CHEESE 1885 336 833 606 1,230 -= —
1886 318 765 508 1,116 — —
|
Ml L887 362 884 632 1,553 = =
pepe thomeands ey, thee ee ga
hundreds hundreds hundreds
1883 — _ — _— _ _—
|
1884 2,093 710 — -— a —-
|
Eacs 1885 | 2,083 706 i == _
1886 1,956 654 -—— -— —_ _
1887 1,678 553 —_ —- | — _—

* Included under head of “ Other Countries.”

( XXV )

CHEESE, AND EGGS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM FROM THE
THE YEARS INDICATED.

Nawigation Returns.]
omitted.)

FRANCE | GERMANY | UNITED STATES OTHER COUNTRIES ToTaL Imports
ee See) Es free | Tam [Sec | gs ope, | Tae
ie eaetae ediensands| thoosands| thousands thousands! titoheonde| Chocmanda| thousands | thousands’ thousands

503 2,832 . * 120 562 317 1,762 2,333 11,774
510 2,895 147 864 | 10) | 448 155 801 2,473 12,526
451 2,579 143 789 | 78 314 160 899 1,553 8,506

403 2,264 119 612 | 42 160 188 1,014 1,543 8,140

416 2,265 | 156 |. 794 52 214 205 1,085 1,515 8,017

= | — | ee ee oe bat bat fe (4

ett |) | tt } ee ee

ey — ns = x 17 47 | 847 | 3,055

2 ee =e) yo Ee 12 39 | 887 | 2,959

- & | mn = a + i| 2¢en-| 19K fore | saad

|

* * | = Es 991 | 2,696 | 513 | 1,369 | 1,797 | 4,890

27 one — —_ | 975 2,478 | 15 41 1,926 4,998

30 96 — == | eee 1,864 17 42 1,833 4,065
32 103 -- — 855 1,834 20 50 1,733 ~ 3,868

30 meee zi | eer | ct 125 | 1,834 | 4,509

| ; |
eee thousands Hosen thousands | “Cf lireat, | thousands | *housands thousands | HO8S2095) eh oneands
hundreds} * | tundreds| © | nundreds| * | hundreds} © | hundreds) *

x ¥ = a ae ae = 9,404 | 2,732

3,265 1,304 2,267 ca — 651 212 8,276 2,909

3,339 1,342 | 2,280 672 | = os | 650 209 8,352 2,929

3,208 1,215 2,581 744 a= -- 868 266 8,613 2,879

3,071 1,252 3,210 944 oa —_ ELE 332 9,070 3,081

t Included with “ Butter” returns previous to 1885,

‘sjeysng [ertedmy ut soytmaenb
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‘oka Surpnypouy , ‘qjods Surpnypouy .
“A[UO VQOPUL]Y puL OLIEIUC ; ‘oTQu[rwav Suyoq you uojoo yeyy soz sornSy ‘erpexysny ynog jo AAISNOXG |

See ee SS

( XXVI-)

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= TZPSS1 - = 86°F = =z P88°SZL = : eae “s)he eer

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( XXVII- )

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(- XXVHI/)

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"188 UT ¢

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XXIX )

¢

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‘ATHOM GHG TO SNUNLUY MOOLG-TALVT IVdIONIUG—AIXX WIAVL

Sa

( EXE)

TABLE XXV.—PRICES OF BUTTER AND CHEESE IN LONDON DURING THE
First WEEK OF JANUARY OF EACH OF THE TEN YEARS 1879-88.

[Prom “ The Grocer.’””|

BUTTER.

1888 1887 1886 ‘1885 1884
BUTTER (per cwt.) :— | 5. Be So (ess eBelp GX Se) ass Ss.
Cork Ists 5 a —|}— —|— —|— — | 134 to 143
200s — 5. . |112 to116| 124 to — | 117 to — | 119 to 136 | 130 ,, 136
Brds «| 91 ,, —|102 , — | 75 ,, — | 89, Sof —
4ths . - | 76, —| 84, —] 50,, —]} 58, —] 70, —
Normandy . - |100 ,, 112] 90 ,, 1384) 80 ,, 144/100 ,, 142) 97 ,, 144
Dutch, or Friesland |100 ,, 122} 80 ,, 116) — —|— — |124 ,, 136
American : , 50 ,, 116) 76 ,, 116) (60 5, 112)| (805) baa ibn
Bosch, kc... .|— —| 44,, 90] 40,, 90) 45,, 90} 40,, 80

1883 1882 1881 1880 1879
Cork 1sts A ~|— — | 136 to 140} 141 to 143 | 145 to — | 126 to 133
2Qnds_ . -_|— — | 129 ,, 181/138 ,, 141) 143 ,, — | 116 ,, 121
3rda. «Ss | 115 to. — | 111 ,, 113) 104 5, 107/110. =e eee
4ths 3 . | 89, —]| 82, —]| 77, 78) 97, — | — —
Normandy . « |110 ,, 150) 110 ,, 150)/108) ,, 150)) 10) (5 L30) foros
Dutch . . « |134 ,, 144]125 ,, 144/120 ,, 180/124 ,, 130/116 ,, 120
American. ~f— —| 60,, 122} 95 ,, 130] 90 ,, 130) 560 ,, 110
Bosch, &c. . : 60 ,, 90) 50, 85)-65 ,, 84)) 65){, “QONMbGe 170

CHEESE.

1888 1887 1886 1885 1884
CHEESE (per cwt.):— | s. oe @ S| 3: 6. || cae BS. | 48. S
English . : . | 46 to 78 | 38 to 78 | 54 to 78 | 64 to 85 | 64 to 86
American ; - | 40 ,, 62 | 386 ,, 64 | 34 ,, 54) 46 ,, 68) 40 5, 68
Gouda . , . | 46 ,, 52 | 40 ,, 46 | 50 ,, 54] 40 , 52] 54 ,, 64
Edam . . « | 56 ,, 60.) 60-:,, 54.) 46 |, 52 64 7.) (62 eolemoG

1883 1882 1881 1880 1879
English . 2 . | 62 to 82 | 60 to 82 | 70 to 90 | 66 to 86 | 40 to 84
American ‘: ,- | 46.5, 70] 42 ,, 68.|.66 ,, 721066 5, FON Moe
Gouda . Ri .» |, 64 |, 62.1.56 ,, 62 | 60 ,, 68.) 5605) sG2n eee
Edam . : | 56 ,, 64 | 57 ,, 64/62 ,, 68 |60 %) ‘Glu eth eos

XXXI )

DAIRY PRODUCE, 1887.

The following remarks have appeared in the “‘ Grocer ” :—

Trish Butrer.—A good demand has mostly been experienced for this
description of butter, as there are still some classes of consumers who will
have this in preference to any other, and, in spite of severe foreign competi-
tion, large quantities have been landed and delivered in London at relatively
full rates. In the early months first ‘Corks,’ as usual, were not to be had,
but seconds were quoted 127s. to 130s., thirds 104s. to 105s., and fourths
89s. per ewt. New season’s males in April were offering at a considerable
reduction, when firsts were sold at 107s., seconds at 102s., thirds at 80s.,
and fourths at 76s.; but this was followed by a much heavier decline, when
88s., 74s., 64s., and 56s. respectively became the current rates; and in June
the lowest point of the year was touched, when first quality was realised at
79s,, second at 68s., third at 6ls., and fourth at 52s. In accordance with
the moves -in previous seasons, prices for Cork butter rose 12s. to 15s. per
ewt. in July, and again rapidly advancing in August, were then ruling at
118s. to 120s. for firsts, 114s. to 116s. for seconds, 106s. to 110s. for thirds,
and 90s. to 97s. for fourths, being the best terms that were obtained since
the commencement of 1887, Latterly the tendency has been in favour of
the buyer, and in November sales were practicable only at 113s. for first
Corks, at 100s. for seconds, at 95s. for thirds, and at 82s. for fourths. For
a short time in December, 128s. was the top price for finest quality, and 117s.
for seconds, but no firsts are now (January 1888) offering, and the third and
fourth grades can be had at 94s. and 76s. per cwt.

ForrieN Burrer.—The importations have nearly equalled those in
1886, and heavier quantities are received from Denmark, France, and Ger-
many, those from Holland haying materially diminished, whilst from other
countries the consignments have been small and irregular, The opening
rates for Normandy butter last year were:—For baskets 106s. to 120s.,
firkins 108s. to 116s., and seconds 90s. to 96s.; but in March the finest
quality fetched 116s. to 138s. per ewt., though other kinds were procurable
at some concessions. However, in April, more weakness began to show
itself, and shortly afterwards the following rates were accepted :—For
baskets 100s. to 112s., firkins 96s. to 102s., and seconds 78s. to 84s.; but the
lowest figures were established in June, when butter in baskets was pur-
chased at 92s. to 102s., in firkins at 88s. to 92s., and seconds at 74s. to 78s.
After that there was a smart reaction of 10s. per cwt., which was thrice
repeated in July, August, and September, and the total advance having since
been fairly well maintained, the final rates in November and December were
as under :—For baskets 112s. to 184s., firkins 112s, to 128s., and seconds
110s, down to 96s, Danish butter has moved much in proportion, at first

( xxx)

selling at 116s. to 124s. for the choicest quality, subsequently dropping to
98s. and 90s., then rallying to 108s., 122s., and to 130s. and 134s., but the
closing quotations were 116s. to 120s. American has ranged from 50s. to
66s. at the worst period, to 80s. and 116s, at the best, with other sorts and
substitutes (chiefly under the exploded terms of ‘‘ Bosch” and “ Butterine,”
now Margarine) in proportion.

CHEESE.—So far as can be proved by the quantity actually imported
into the United Kingdom, the supplies of cheese during the past year have
been quite as abundant as those in 1886, and whatever ‘shortage’ there
may have been, it must have existed more in the home production than in
foreign descriptions. Be this as it may, the prices for American—one of
the leading kinds of cheese—have been above those of the former year, and
during the first half of 1887, while the value of the finer grades stood at
56s. to 67s., that of the medium and lower qualities was not less than 36s.
to 50s. During a temporary depression in July, howeyer, the quotations
were only 36s. to 51s., but they afterwards soon mounted upwards, and have
towards the close been advanced to 46s. to 64s., the very latest rates being
40s. to 62s. per cwt. Edam cheese in the earlier months realised 50s. to
60s., but later on was not worth more than 46s. to 52s., though, in common
with other goods, it has since been taken at much firmer prices—d6s. to
60s. Goudas have varied in price from 40s. to 49s. early in the year, to
between 36s. and 42s. ai the dullest period, and to 44s. and 52s. per ewt.
within the last few months. Singularly enough, English cheese in London
has not undergone many changes in quotations, having been only partially
affected by the more favourable reports from the country fairs and else-
where, and is now on offer at prices differing but slightly from those of a
twelvemonth since.

MarGarinp.—The Margarine Act is now in force, and if a customer
asks his grocer for butterine his grocer will be unable to supply it, but will
have to inform him that he can Jet him have practically the same article
under the name of margarine, duly labelled in the style prescribed by law.
We do not anticipate that there will be many prosecutions under the new
Act, as the trade are, for the most part, thoroughly familiar with its provi-
sions, and know what the law expects of them. It will, no doubt, be the
small shopkeepers who will be chiefly proceeded against, as unfortunately
these do not take the trouble to make themselves acquainted even with legal
measures directly affecting their own interests.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

I.—The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments in Stackyard
Field, Woburn. By Sir Joun Lawes, Bart., Rothamsted,
St. Albans.

THE permanent wheat and barley experiments in Stackyard
Field, Woburn, were commenced in the year 1877, and as the
results up to 1886 have already been published in the ‘ Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society,’ it appears desirable that some
general review of these results should be drawn up.

The influence of climate upon our crops is so vast, and
the fluctuation in the seasons so great, that any conclusion
drawn from the produce of one or two years is very apt to be
misleading. Although the average climate of any ten years is
not necessarily the exact counterpart of the preceding or suc-
ceeding ten years, still we may safely make use of the figures
obtained from a ten years’ average, to bring out several very
important agricultural facts, provided that the original arrange-.
ment of the experiments has not been subject to any serious
alterations.

With regard to: the experiments in Stackyard Field, the
original plan for carrying them out was well adapted to elicit
information respecting the action of manures upon both wheat
and barley ; also to throw some light upon the store of fertility
existing in the soil. This plan has been carried out either
without change, or, where any change has been made, the result
has been to bring out some very interesting facts. In the
following table will be found a summary of the results of the
continuous growth of wheat and barley for ten years, 1877-1886.
It also gives the highest and lowest yield in any one year; the
mean of the highest and lowest years ; the general mean of ten
years ; the weight per bushel of dressed corn; and the weight
of straw :—-

VOL, XXIV.—S. 3, B

2 The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments

EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND,
STACKYARD FIELD, WoBuRN.

Mean Results for 10 Years, 1877-1886: Quantities per Acre.

DRESSED GRAIN

BUSHELS -
PLoT Manvrzs = Sq | STRAW
4a | B o% ga | 24
2g | 23 | ge S$ | BE
aoe ||, | noe Bg || po
ss H™ | ai o =
(a) (2) (3) (4) () (6) @ (8)
WHEAT.
; lbs. ewts
1 Wnmannred) sage) vanes aeieeee ew eon 9:6 | 17-7 | 168 564 E17.
7 Unmranured #404. Borie. (266 1:6 Lone gee a Gese PLT.
4 Mixed Mineral Manure. . . .| 282 |. 104 | 19:3 | 17:7 | 56°8 | 184
2 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts . . .| 40°3 | 11'5 | 25-9 | 25:4 | 56:5 | 24%
3 275 lbs. Nitrate of Soda. . . .| 41:0 | 105 | 25°8 | 24:1 |.548 | 253
Mixed Mineral Manure and 200 : : ua , ent ks
5 { lbs. Amm.-salts (in spring) . i 461] 130,() 228 cB Bone teh S2
Mixed Mineral Manure and 275 ! : : > f
6 {| “ths. Nitrate of Soda Gnspringy}| 452 | 1£0 | 29°6 | 324 | 578 | 34g

Mixed Mineral Manure and ; ? = : 5
Bbc aap Wigcdenesales padi || 48:8 | 27-0 | 37-9 | 388 | 58-2 |, 423

)

8a | Mixed Mineral Manure .,. .
9b { Mixed Mineral Manure and

{ 550 Ibs. Nitrate of Soda . }

9a | Mixed Mineral Manure . . . . |21°9 | 12:2 |-17-1 | 817-1. | 958-2 | 9173

32°5 | 13:3 | 22:9 |820-4 1358°6. | 817%
51:0 | 26:1 | 38:6 | 37:2 | 57°8 co |

BARLEY.

Unmanured . ops gt eo | OAL | VOT 26" Gee Zotac aD

il 5

7 Unmanured*) «8 4 8 OP 8389) ABIOA 23:2ENrSe OA NaaOee 13
4 Mixed Mineral Manure . . . .|°33°6 | 11°8 | 22:7 |} 23:3 | 51:8 | 13
2 200 lbs. Ammonium-salts . . .| 51:2 | 27:1 | 39°2 | 39:4 | 52°0 234
3}
5

275 Ibs, Nitrate of Soda. . . . | 51°6 | 21°65 | 36°6 | 40°4 | B17 | 26
{ Mixed Mineral Manure and
200 Ibs, Amm.-salts (in hese
Mixed Mineral Manure and 275 : 5 F ; 0
= { lbs. Nitrate of Soda (in epring)s BFS) 273s) ib ak O Meena SOR
Mixed Mineral Manure and : 5 , ie Gh
(er {| “400 Ibs, Ammsalts yy . {| 625 | 308 | 467 | 1-2 | 529 | 333

8a... Mixed Mineral Manure . . . .| 46-4 | 265 | 36°5 |837:0.|%53°6 } 9213

Mixed Mineral Manure and : ‘ , ; y L
fin 500 lbs, Nitrate of Soda . } 668 | 870.) 619, | "OSS Ae SSF

A9a@ |-Mixed Mineral Manure . . ... {| 372 | 37:7 | 32:5 |834°5 | 53:8 | $182

51:9 | 287 | 40°3 | 43:0 | 534 | 26%

» Only one plot from 1877 to 1881 inclusive. In 1882 and since, it has been divided into “a” and “ob” —
ortions, and the manures alternated each year. One half (8a) in that year (1882) received Mineral
anure alone, and the other half (8b) received 400 lbs. Ammonium-salts in addition (as applied to the full
plot in previous years). In 1883, 8a received the minerals aud ammonium-salts, and 80 the minerals alon'
and so on, alternating each year, “
* The same plan adopted as for plot 8, with the exception that $60 lys, Nitrate of Soda were applied
instead of the 400 lbs. Ammonium-salts, }

* Average of five yearg only, 1882-1886,

» ta Stackyard- Field, Woburn. 3

Taking first the result of the wheat experiment, it will be
‘seen how extraordinary is the influence of climate upon a crop
which is treated in every respect in the same way year after
year. On the unmanured plots we have three times as much
produce in one year as we have in another. On the plot
manured with nitrate of soda alone the produce in one year was
104 bushels, and in another 41 bushels per acre; thus, one
season in this case gives four times as large a crop as another.
Differences so great prove conclusively the necessity of carrying
on experiments without change for a number of years, as also
the impossibility of drawing conclusions of any value from experi-
ments which, however carefully they may have been conducted,
have only been carried on for one or two years.

In the fifth column of the table is given the mean produce
of the highest and lowest crops of the ten years, while the
sixth column gives the mean of the whole ten crops. It is the
lattercolumn to which my remarks will apply. It may, however,
be worth while to observe that the mean of the best and worst
years frequently gives aproduce which closely resembles the
mean of the whole period.

Omitting 8a and 9a, which were only under experiment for
five years, the mean of the other nine experiments gives pro-
ducts absolutely identical; that is, 26:8 bushels both for the
‘mean of the highest and lowest product and the general mean.
The two unmanured plots, in which the difference is very small,
give a produce of rather more than 17 bushels per acre, while a
manure which supplied all the mineral ingredients for a large
crop has produced no appreciable difference. On the other
hand, manures such as salts of ammonia and nitrate of soda,
which supply nitrogen, but neither phosphoric acid nor potash, —
increase the yield by 6 or 7 bushels per acre. When the
minerals used on plot four are added to the ammonia, or to the
nitrate of soda in plots two and three, we find the produce
raised to 314 and 324 bushels per acre. With the same
mineral manures, but with twice the quantity of salts of am-
monia and nitrate of soda, the plot which received the salts of
ammonia yielded nearly 39 bushels per acre, and that which
received nitrate of soda a little over 37 bushels per acre.

Speaking in general terms, the mineral manures have added
nothing to the unmanured crop, while nitrogen as ammonia or
as nitric acid, applied without minerals, has increased the crop
-by seven bushels. When minerals have been used with the
same nitrogen, another seven bushels have been added to the
crop, and when twice the amount of nitrogen has been used
with the minerals, nearly seven bushels more have been added
tothe crop. In all the experiments the weight per bushel of

B2

A The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments

dressed graifi is low, and this will generally be found to be the
case wherever wheat is grown continuously on the same soil.
In all of the experiments where nitrate of soda was used, the
amount of straw is greater than where salts of ammonia were
used.

Turning now to the barley, although the influence of season
is still considerable, it will be seen that the fluctuations due to
this cause are very much less than in the case of the wheat.
This is the result of the barley being sown inthe spring, and
thus escaping the vicissitudes of the winter months. Further,
the climate of Great Britain is far more suitable for the growth
of barley than that of wheat, and to this may be added that the
soil of Stackyard Field is in its texture far more suitable for the
growth of barley. For all these reasons it might be expected
that the crops of barley, both the manured and the unmanured,
would be superior to those of the wheat. From some cause,
possibly some slight difference in the texture of the soil, the two
unmanured plots differ considerably, one yielding close upon 27
bushels per acre and the other 23 bushels. As the plot which
received the mixed mineral manures only gave 23 bushels per
acre, it is probable that this produce more nearly represents the
yield of the unmanured plot than the other. As in the case of
the wheat, the mineral manure alone produces no increase in the
yield of the crop. While, however, the addition of salts of
ammonia and nitrate of soda added only 7 bushels to the
produce of the wheat, these salts have added 16 and 17 bushels
respectively to the barley crop. ‘This large increase in barley
over wheat by means of ammonia and nitrate alone is doubtless
due to the difference in the character of the roots of the two
plants. Wheat requires a solid bed, and its roots descend deep
into the subsoil, while the barley requires a fine tilth, and its
roots take much of the food near the surface.

It is the surface soil in Stackyard Field which contains a
large amount of fertility. While, therefore, the application of
ammonia or nitrate to the unmanured plots increases the crop
by 16 to 17 bushels, the addition of minerals has only added
to it, in one case 34 bushels, and in the other case 6 bushels.
Doubling the salts of ammonia adds 7 bushels to the crop, pro-
ducing 51 bushels, while doubling the nitrate of soda also adds
7 bushels to the crop, producing 53°3 bushels per acre. In all
these instances nitrate of soda has given a greater increase in
the grain and straw of the barley crop than the salts of
ammonia, whereas in the wheat the nitrate always gave the
largest increase in the straw, but not so in the grain. A
general examination of the wheat and barley experiments shows
aremarkable agreement in the results, and, when they appear to

in Stackyard Field, Woburn. 5

differ, this difference may be explained by the different character
of the two cereals.

It may appear at first sight strange that while the unmanured
wheat only yielded 17 bushels per acre, the barley should yield
23 bushels; but if, instead of taking the bushel of grain as our
measure, we take the total weight of the crops grown—straw
and corn—we shall find very little difference in the weights.
Wheat has a tendency to grow a larger proportion of straw to a
given weight of grain than is the case with barley. If we take
the highest yield of the two crops, in which the barley grew
16 bushels per acre more than the wheat, the total produce—
corn and straw—ini the wheat amounted to 7,106 lbs. per acre,
while in the barley it was 7,077. The manure has, therefore,
done an equal amount of work in both cases, the same amount
of dry matter has been produced, and the same amount of
carbonic acid has been decomposed and carbon fixed in the
plant. The only difference between them is, that, owing to the
characteristic habits of each plant, one produces more straw in
proportion to its grain than the other.

One of the important facts brought out with great clearness
in these experiments is the absolute impossibility of increasing
the growth of the cereal crops by mineral manures in the
absence of ayailable nitrogen in the soil; and it is tolerably well
established that the nitrogen must be in the form of nitric acid.
When, therefore, we use a salt of ammonia as a manure it
requires to go through the process of nitrification in the soil
before it is taken up by plants. Nitrogen as nitric acid being
so valuable a substance as a manure for our corn crops, its
economic application depends very much upon the price we pay
for it and the amount of produce which can be obtained by its -
use. As the weights of the salts of ammonia and nitrate of
soda used in these experiments are not those generally used in
purchasing them in the market, it will make the matter more
clear if the quantities used and the increase of crop obtained are
calculated upon a basis of 112 lbs.

The increase of wheat by means of the mineral and ammonia
salts over the mineral manures alone was 13:8 bushels, which
was obtained by means of 200 lbs. of salts of ammonia, yielding
50 lbs. of ammonia. One cwt. of sulphate of ammonia yielding
27 lbs. of ammonia would have increased the crop by 73 bushels.
Using the same mode of calculation for nitrate of soda, we find
that 1 cwt. would give an increase of 6 bushels. With barley we
find that 1 cwt. of sulphate of ammonia gives an increase of 104
bushels, while the same quantity of nitrate of soda gives an
increase of 9 bushels. If these results could be obtained in
ordinary practice a very considerable profit would be made, In

6 The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments

regard to the application of nitrate of soda to barley, the increase
would at the present time be obtained at a cost of not much more
than one shilling per bushel.

That such an amount of increase is not obtained in ordinary
farming is quite evident. This may be traced chiefly to two
causes; first, to faulty application, the salts not being evenly
distributed over the land; secondly (and this is, perhaps, the
most important), to the amount of weeds in the land. Weeds
feed greedily on nitric acid, robbing the corn .of the food it
would otherwise take up. It is true the nitric acid is not
absolutely lost, as the ploughing down the weeds, and their
eventual destruction under the soil, again furnishes nitric acid
at some future time; but the immediate effect is to render it
necessary to use a larger amount of nitric acid to do the same
amount of work.

Although the results obtained in Stackyard Field are much
higher than can be obtained in ordinary practice, owing to the
absolute freedom from weeds and the careful distribution of
the manures, still there is a considerable difference between the
amount of nitrogen applied in the manure and that which is
taken up in the crop. If we take the mineral and nitrate manured
barley, which shows an increase of more than’3,000 Ibs. in corn
and straw per acre over the mineral manured plot, it is probable
that not more than two-thirds of the nitrogen applied in the
manure are to be found in the crop; and it is almost certain
that in the ordinary practice of agriculture much less than one-
half the nitrogen in the ammonia salts or nitrate of soda would
be found in the crop to which it is applied.

The experiments in Stackyard Field throw some light upon
the destination of some portion of this residue. For the last five
years a portion of the wheat and barley which has received
minerals and ammonia, or minerals and nitrate, one year, received
the minerals alone the next year. On the wheat land, the minerals
which followed the minerals and nitrate of the previous year
show no increase of crop over the land which is always under
mineral manures. Where salts of ammonia are used there is a
gain of 2? bushels of grain per acre, but no gain in the straw.
On the barley, the gain by the minerals where the nitrate was
applied the previous year is 11 bushels and 2% ewt. of straw,
while the gain from the previous application of salts of ammonia
is nearly 14 bushels per acre and nearly 8 cwt. of straw.

All this is very interesting, and tells us that we must not be
in too great a hurry to say that ammonia and nitrates are all
exhausted by the first crop of corn to which they are applied.
Here we have a very light soil, without vegetation from August
in one year to the spring of the following year, holding a suffi-

in Stackyard Field, Woburn. y/

cient amount of a soluble salt to produce 11 and 14 bushels of
barley per acre. How much more may exist in the soil to be
ayailable for other crops having longer lives and a more powerful
arrangement of roots it is impossible to say. It is, however,
evident that the subject is one of great interest, bearing as
it does upon the value of unexhausted manures, &c., and must
be one of many others which science has to take in hand.

In a lecture on root crops recently delivered by Dr. Gilbert
at Cirencester, he pointed out that the use of nitrogenous
manures was to increase the non-nitrogenous substances in our
crops.. He showed that in the field at Rothamsted which has
long been under root crops, we obtained about 20 Ibs. increase
of sugar in our mangolds, foreach pound of nitrogen which we
applied in manure. In cereal grain, starch is found in the
seed, and not sugar, but it is quite possible that a similar cal-
culation would show that the increase of starch obtained by the
application of one pound of nitrogen would not differ very much
from that of the sugar in the mangolds.

The very large increase in the wheat, and the still larger
increase in the barley, by means of salts of ammonia and nitrate
of soda alone, show how large must be the amount of mineral
substances existing in the soil. We must not, however, infer
from this that these crops remove the same amount of potash
or phosphoric acid which is carried off by plants under ordinary
circumstances. In some respects plants resemble man and
animals: where food is abundant they take of the best, and
sometimes more than they can make use of; where it is scarce
or of inferior quality they do the best they can with it. In
some of our barley experiments, where nitrogen, phosphoric acid
and potash, and the same amount of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid without potash, haye been applied for a number of years, ”
the crop has been nearly the same in both instances; but while
the straw in one case contained 48 lbs. of potash, in the other
it contained less than 7 lbs. Were it not for the economy of
the plant, our soils, when constantly cropped without a suffi-
cient supply of important manure ingredients, would be much
sooner exhausted.

_ Although the large increase in wheat and barley obtained in
the Woburn experiments by the application of salts of ammonia
and nitrate of soda cannot be obtained in the ordinary practice
of farming, still it is quite certain that, by more careful attention
to the various circumstances necessary to insure success, a much
larger yield of crop from a given quantity of manure is quite
possible. Now that we have in several counties important ex-
periments carried out under the superintendence of practical
farmers, we may expect a much more rapid diffusion of know-

8 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

ledge in regard to the action of manures and cattle foods; and
the connection between elaborate experiments carried out with
everything necessary to insure accuracy and the careful but
more practical experiments in the different counties will be
found very close.

This short summary of the ten years’ careful experiments in
Stackyard Field cannot fail to add greatly to the knowledge of
the value of manures, and to be a useful guide to those who are
studying science in connection with practical agriculture.

IIl—On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. By
GreorGE Wart, M.D., F.L.S., C.L.E., Reporter on Economic
Products to the Government of India.

TuE history of the foreign trade in Indian wheat is obscured
by numerous conflicting theories and opinions which greatly
disfigure the literature of the subject. In the writer’s opinion
the public mind has been diverted from the salient features of
theindustry. It is of little consequence whether the depreciation
in the value of silver acts favourably or unfavourably, unless it
can be shown that the existence of the wheat trade is vitally
dependent on the fluctuations of the silver market. Many causes
have doubtless combined to assist in the establishment of the
present remarkable trade. The question at issue may be stated
briefly thus: Js the trade a good and natural one? Has it reached
its maximum development 2? Theformer will have to be answered,
among other considerations, by an enquiry in India as to
whether it is profitable to the cultivator, and in Europe as to
whether it is meeting a demand which} another country in the
future may more successfully contest. The latter can alone be
solved by a somewhat detailed analysis of the sources of food-
supply of the people of India taken in the light of the increasing
population, the possible extension of agricultural operations, and
the profitable establishment of new branches of industry or the
enhancement of indigenous handicrafts. These are problems
of political economy which have to be studied in every country,
whether Eastern or Western. They represent the adjustment
between the productiveness of soil and man’s inventive resources.

With India, as with the United States of America, vast tracts
at rich land have given a preponderance to agriculture and
agricultural questions which in the past (at least of India) may
be said to have eclipsed all other considerations. But that a
radical change is destined to be effected in the not very distant
future of India, we have a foretaste in the successful manner in

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 9

which the Bengal jute-mills have competed with Dundee, and
in the keen spirit of rivalry with which the Bombay cotton-mills
are disputing with Manchester in the Asiatic markets. Far
more will depend in the future on the growth of our cotton,
jute, woollen, paper, and other mills, than on the demands of
Europe for Indian wheat. Thoughtful men in India are be-
ginning to speak in an undertone of India’s agricultural pro-
sperity as her greatest source of weakness. But it is an open
question whether Europe would suffer most under the importa-
tion of a large surplus of cheap agricultural produce, or in
having the Indian market closed to European goods through
the growth of local industries.

Were it necessary, a number of illustrations could be given
to demonstrate the existence of a considerable wheat-cultivation
in India one hundred years ago; and were it desired to carry
the evidences of an Indian wheat-cultivation into even earlier
periods, it might be remarked that by following the line of
reasoning adopted by M. de Candolle in his “ Origin of Cultivated
Plants,” the existence of Sanskrit names both for the grain
and the plant might be cited in proof of an Indian cultivation
perhaps reaching to the remotest antiquity. While not desiring
to throw doubt on the importance often attached to a classical
name, we in India are frequently brought face to face with
striking modern adaptations of ancient names. There can be
no doubt, however, but that wheat has been cultivated for many
centuries in certain provinces of India, if not as a staple crop,
at least as one of some importance, though there is not much
evidence to show that a very extensive system of selection of
seed has been practised.

The study both of wheat and of rice will be found to lead |
to the startling conclusion, that almost from time immemorial
the owners of a certain holding—father to son—have gone on
cultivating from the same stock. This explains the presence,
within a comparatively limited area and on almost identical
soils, of a large number of forms of both cereals. Indeed, the
differentiation is sometimes carried to a fanciful extent—the
farmer having continued to preserve peculiar races of wheat,
rice, or pulse, as mysteriously suitable to certain fields in his
holding. Rotation of crops even in the present day is not much
understood, although the exhausting nature of certain crops is
fully appreciated. What rotation does exist consists mainly in
sowing the crop that requires the richest soil, after heavy
manuring, and then following for several years, without the ad-
dition of any more manure, a rotation of crops in a descending
scale of requirements. In the list of crops so cultivated, it is a
frequent occurrence to find two or three forms of wheat or of

10 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

rice, as the case may be, raised to the important position as-
signed by the European farmer as elements in the rotation.
That there exists a wide range in the races of Indian wheat is
well known; and this may be relied on as a substantial evidence
of an ancient cultivation.

Influences of a perfectly natural character have, during the
past twenty-one years, been operating favourably to the wheat
trade—haye, in fact, been developing every branch of India’s
foreign commerce. Some of the more important of these may
be here exhibited.

The Area of the Indian Empire extends to 1,382,624 square
miles. This embraces hills and plains which possess the cli-
mates and soils of the world. The portion known as British
India has an area of 868,314 square miles. The area of Russia
in Hurope exceeds that of India by about 700,000 square miles,

The Population of India is rapidly increasing. The last
census gave the total for all India as 253 millions. Russia in
Europe stands at 88 millions, or considerably less than half the
population of British India.

The Density of Population to the square mile for India col-
lectively is 184 persons, for Russia 40. The mass of the people
is, however, crowded into the Gangetic basin.

Taking one province of British India by way of illustration—the
North-West—this has a population of forty-four millions. It possesses a
density of 403, or, approximately, twice as many human beings to every
square mile as occur in the German empire, three times as many as in
France, four times as many as in Scotland, five times as many as in Spain,
and twelve times as many as in Russia.

The Agricultural Area of India.—About 600 million acres
of British India haye been more or less surveyed—that is, con-
siderably less than half the area of geographical India. The
returns published do not embrace the whole surveyed region,
but there are certain facts shown that are of vital importance.
From 150 to 199 million acres are cultivated, including a mean
of twenty million acres of normal fallow land. The actual area
of cultivation fluctuates from year to year according to necessity.
Close upon 100 million acres are returned as land available for
cultivation, and about the same amount as land not available
for cultivation, including 38 million acres under forest.

The table opposite shows in a summary form all the more
important agricultural statistics of British India. P

In spite of its ‘‘ teeming millions” and its rapidly increasing
population, little more than two-thirds of the surveyed cultiy-
able portion of India have as yet been ploughed. If to this we
add the fallow lands which a more scientific agriculture would
perhaps bring under crops, and if we take into consideration

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12 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

errors in the estimation of cultivable and non-cultivable lands
which necessity alone will definitely determine, it may safely be
concluded that little more than half the agricultural resources,
even of British India, have as yet been tapped.

Modern Improvements and Facilities brought about through
European enterprise have greatly assisted the inherent capabilities
of India. Among these the opening of direct telegraphic com-
munication between India and England in 1865 must take a
prominent place. The commerce of Her Majesty’s Eastern
Empire was thereby brought into touch with the “mother
country.” It was rendered possible to interchange a knowledge
of the state of markets at the same moment. As a consequence,
a large business like that of cotton, and even a business like
that of wheat, which must ever be more or less speculative,
became possible. Of no less importance was the opening of the
Suez Canal in 1869. The time necessary to deliver Indian pro-
duce in the European markets was materially lessened, viz.
from three or four months to four or five weeks; and in the
case of wheat the risk from weevil was greatly mitigated.

Within India itself greatly enhanced facilities of transport
were instituted. Roads were pushed over the country in every
direction, river communication simplified, and harbour accom-
modation greatly improved. The opening of Prince’s Dock,
Bombay, enabled the shippers from that port to carry on their
business throughout the year, whereas formerly the monsoons
practically stopped the export trade for three months of the
year. As a forecast it may be added that the docks at present
under construction in Calcutta will have a similar effect.

Railways were introduced and pushed on at the following
rate of construction :—

In 1853 there were in all : 203 miles
mlsooe a, 3 5 ‘ : a ° BD
» 1873, ” : 4! oe 4 ee
», 1883 ” ” : . : . (10317 ,
» 1887 yy ” » 18,886

and at the present moment 14,510 miles are open to traffic.
The railway between Calcutta and Bombay was opened in 1870.
Very shortly a second route will connect the eastern with the
western capital of India, and open up at the same time one of
the richest wheat-producing tracts of the country. Dr. Forbes
Watson, in his memorable report (1879) on the wheat trade of
India, pointed out that the opening of the Indus Valley Rail-
way would lessen the distance between the Panjaéb wheat-fields
and a port of shipment by a mean of 400 miles. The prophecy
contained in the following sentence has been literally fulfilled,
although at the time, both in official and private circles, it

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in Indiv. 13

was viewed as the sanguine expectation of an enthusiast. Dr.
Watson wrote :—

“The completion of the Indus Valley Railway is thus calculated to
bring about a complete revolution in the wheat trade of India, which is
likely to assume in the Panjab a magnitude considerably greater than that it
is likely to attain in the districts from which the wheat is at present exported.”

Greater facilities of transport within the Panjab are even
now being projected, so that the possible magnitude to which
the Panjéb wheat trade may attain need by no means be viewed
as established. The beneficial effects of a greatly extended
railway system than India even now possesses cannot be over-
estimated.

But it is impossible to conclude this brief account of the
improvements which have already been effected and are still
further being carried out in India without reminding the
reader of the Irrigation Works. By the aid of canals, and to a
still greater degree by means of wells, immense tracts of country
have been brought under crops which were formerly almost non-
productive. By a system of Government aid the soil of India,
wherever water can be reached, is being penetrated by wells.
But of the total cultivated land only some thirty million acres
up to date are artificially irrigated. Of course immense tracts of
India require little or no aid in this direction. The periodicity
of the rains and the accompanying inundations fully provide for
the wants of the cultivator in such regions ; and there are soils
in India so retentive of moisture that they remain permanently
fruitful without requiring either to be inundated or artificially
irrigated. Of the thirty million acres artificially irrigated,
perhaps not more than. five million derive their supplies of
water from canals. The great Ganges Canal, which irrigates
the Doab (that is, an interfluvial tract) between the Ganges and
the Jumna, was opened in 1854. The main stream from which
the arteries of supply spread over the Doab is 525 miles in
length.

But there are other considerations which, while of minor
importance compared to the latent resources of the country, are
still deserving of notice. There are soils and climates in India,
if not in one district, at least in another, that are suitable for
the cultivation of any known crop. Within her own territory
India can thus produce all the requirements of modern trade.
Interprovincial exchange, through the conveniences now afforded
by road, rail, and river, can meet the wants of the people, and
afford over and above a large surplus of any desired commodity
for export. The agricultural holdings are small: the capital
invested in plant absolutely insignificant. It is thus possible
for the cultivator to turn the fields which he has devoted to

14 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in Fndia.

foreign trade into cotton, wheat, or any other article that may
be called for. As to wheat, he has this advantage; that his
crop comes into the European markets when prices are ruling
high. : inode print

All the facts go to prove that the whéat trade up to its
present stage is a perfectly natural one. The people are
exporting only what they specially cultivate for that purpose.
So long as wheat is a remunerative crop they will continue to
cultivate it. The moment better profits can .be realised on
another crop they will turn from wheat, without being in. the
smallest degree incommoded, just as they assumed and again
resigned a greatly extended cotton-cultivation. It must be
admitted, however, that there is a fixed limit to the cultivation
of Indian wheat. ‘That limit has yet to be clearly defined ; but
it rests in the degree to which minor crops can be advantageously
replaced by wheat. When that point has been finally reached,
extension can alone take place in either of two directions—the
displacement of such important crops as oil-seeds and cotton,
if wheat should prove more remunerative, or the extension of
the agricultural areas.

That new land would for some time be unsuited to wheat
goes without saying; but there is abundant evidence that the
agricultural area is being extended. The millets and -other
inferior crops will doubtless be at first cultivated on new. land,
but the history of the Panjab wheat-cultivation proves that it
does not take long before new lands can be advantageously thrown
under wheat. A difficulty exists in the opposition which ‘the
native usually shows to migrating far from the neighbourhood
of the hut which he calls “home.” That this difficulty is being
largely overcome we have notable examples in the way in which
Burma is being peopled, and in the colonies of coolies who are
year by year settling in Assam after the expiration of their tea-
garden contracts. Indeed, the whole history of tea-cultivation
points to a new direction in which agricultural progress
might be effected. If left to themselves, the natives of India
would never have thought for a moment of tea as a profitable
enterprise, or of Assam as a favourable region, to. migrate to;
the valley of Assam would not haye been in its present pro-
sperous condition but for European enterprise in tea-cultivation.
Were it possible to offer to European capitalists large tracts
of land to be held for considerable periods, the’ homesteads -of
the European farmer or zemindar would soon form the “centres
around which new populations would accumulate... More in a
few years might in this way be effected in the agricultural reform
of India than seems likely to be accomplished by a century of
Government experimental farms,

-

- On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 15

Having briefly touched upon some of the larger general
‘questions of the Indian wheat trade, we may turn to matters of
amore specific character, by endeavouring to deal with some
of the leading features of wheat-cultivation as practised in the
various provinces of India. In doing so we shall follow a more
or less geographical sequence. Commencing in the extreme
north we shall discuss the Panjéb wheat, then that of Sind, of
Central India, of Bombay, of the Central Provinces, of the North-
‘West Provinces, of Berar, of Hyderabad, of Mysore, of Madras,
and conclude our account with Bengal, Assam, and Burma. The
systems of cultivation pursued, the nature of the soils, and the
facilities of transport, are so dissimilar that it becomes impossible
to speak of India collectively. ‘So far as the space at disposal
will admit of, we shall present a brief abstract of the main features
‘of the wheat of each province.

Climatic Peculiarities —A line drawn from about Bombay to
Patna would approximately divide India into its two primary
agricultural areas. The North-Western half, isolated by the
line indicated, has during the autumn, winter, and part of the
spring months a climate like that of Northern Europe; and
during summer, a dry tropical climate. The extremes of dry
heat and sharp cold which it experiences give to this division a
rich, temperate, annual vegetation during two-thirds of the year,
but preclude the growth of luxuriant arborescent jungles, since
few trees or bushes can endure the extremes of climate. During
the summer large expanses of this region appear, therefore, like

‘deserts. Indeed, so deficient is the rainfall in immense portions
of the Panjab, for example, that while they possess rich fertile
soils, they are uncultivated from want of water.

The South-Eastern division, on the other hand, has a more .
or less tropical climate all the year round, and, particularly in
the more eastern section, is remarkably humid. The Northern
division has, in fact, a stunted vegetation, more like that of

Europe, and possesses graceful herbs, with small flowers; while
“the Southern has an overgrown appearance, with large flowers.
These types are preserved in both regions, even when, by ascend-
ing into higher altitudes, temperate or even Arctic climates are
reached. .
- But there are two other considerations which have to be
placed before the reader, in order to complete this picture of the
climatic peculiarities of India. The sea influence gives a modi-
‘fication, which may be said to carry the South-Eastern type
from Madras round Cape Comorin, and up the Western Ghats,
to Bombay. A belt of land from the sea-shore along this line
possesses the warm moist features of the Eastern division of
India; but, passing inland, the great tableland of India is

16 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

reached, which may be said to be demarcated by the Nerbudda,
the Jumna, and the Ganges Rivers. This has a mean altitude
of between 1,000 and 2,500 feet, with isolated peaks rising to
6,000 feet above the sea. The influences of this immense table-
land are very considerable. We shall, while speaking of the
wheat of the Central Provinces, have occasion to allude to some
of these ; but, meantime, it may be here stated that through al-
titude the winter temperate region of India is carried by isolated
patches of country considerably to the south of the line indi-
cated, Hyderabad, Bangalore, and Mysore possessing a more or
less temperate winter.

Inundation.— Speaking of the two most valuable cereal
crops of India, we have in the above geographical sketch
established the regions of their cultivation. The tracts of India
which have a temperate winter are, or may be thrown, under
wheat, while the remainder corresponds to the rice area. The
region of rice-cultivation is also that of greatest rainfall and of
annual inundation. It would be beside our present purpose to
branch off at this point into a dissertation on the subject of
annual inundations, and of the degree of fertilisation thereby
caused. Suffice it to say that in Lower India the degree to which
the waters from the rivers are poured over the plains is infinitely
small as compared with the inundation due solely and simply to
rainfall.

The rivers of Lower India are carried within elevated beds
across the plains, and, practically speaking, may be said to
neither irrigate nor drain them. These elevated beds have
sloping banks, perhaps of miles in extent, which the rivers on
rising unquestionably inundate and fertilise; but were the main
stream of any of the rivers to finda passage through its self-con-
structed channel, it would at once plough for itself a new course,
and leave its old bed as a serpentine lake. It is needless to
mention cases in which this has actually occurred. Bridges span
the dry channels of former rivers, and even mighty streams like
the Brahmaputra have changed their courses. These are, how-
ever, comparatively rare occurrences, and, passing across the
elevated bed annually inundated (which, as stated, may be many
miles in breath), the level of the plains is ultimately reached—
a level below that of the rivers. Expanses of the latter nature
derive their fertility from the rains alone. They become swamps,
on which no other crop save rice can be cultivated. This is the
character of the inundation of Bengal as a whole, in which no
motion in the water of the fields can be traced, either from or
towards the rivers. Gradually as the rain falls the fields get
flooded, and the level of the water rises to a depth of two to
five feet. The crops keep growing apace with this rise of the

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 17

water; if they fail to do so they are ruined. After the rain
subsides, the autumn heat begins to suck up the water, and in
time bakes the field, immense cracks severing it into great
blocks of clay as hard as stone. Hence it follows that agricul-
tural operations cannot be resumed until the ground is softened
again by rain.

In Upper India a much greater degree of river inundation
exists; the doabs, or tracts of land between two rivers, being
referable to three distinct areas: (a) that portion which is regu-
larly inundated by the rise of the rivers on either side; (6) the
further portion where the waters of the rivers penetrate under-

* ground, and may be reached by wells from twenty to sixty feet

deep; and (c) the central elevated ridge, that is entirely
dependent on rain or artificial irrigation.

Area of Artificial Irrigation —While indicating the nature
of inundation, we have also briefly exemplified the regions
where canal irrigation is possible and beneficial. Canals in
Bengal, as a whole, would be entirely out of the question. The
nature of the primary agriculture is distinctly aquatic, and the
annual rainfall is sufficient to produce the required degree of
inundation. In times of drought, canals could never reach
more than an infinitesimal portion of the country, they would
only be required once in perhaps every ten or twenty years, and
might during the interval prove dangerous to the natural
drainage of the country. In Upper India it is quite otherwise.
There are immense tracts of country uncultivated simply because
the rainfall is too small to admit of cultivation, but which could
be at once thrown under wheat and other crops if artificially
irrigated. Sir John and General Strachey, in their work on
the ‘“ Finances and Public Works of India,” prove that the
value of land is immensely increased by the construction of
canals, and show that the two great canals in the Panjdb “in a
single year added to the wealth of the Panjab a sum not less
than two-thirds of their entire original cost.”

Wheat and Rice Areas——We have above briefly indicated
the great wheat and rice areas; but where these meet and
overlap, the millets become important. Where rice-cultiva-
tion diminishes, the millets appear, with more and more wheat,
and less and less millets, until the great centres of wheat-
production are attained. The pulses and oil-seeds are common
elements of all Indian agriculture. Professor Wallace, in his
recent lecture at Edinburgh, very properly pointed out that the
balance of the soil in European agriculture is largely preserved
through the rotation of leguminous crops with cereals. He
seems to have formed, however, a too gloomy opinion as to the
degree to which this fact was being lost sight of in the agri-

VOL. XXIV.—S, §. C

18 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

culture of the present day in India, mainly through the tempta-
tions offered by the modern wheat trade. The pulses and
oil-seeds all require a moderate amount of rain and heat, and
therefore can be grown in every province of India. They
cannot endure being swamped, and therefore are cultivated
during the dryer seasons in the inundated areas; they cannot
stand too much cold, and are therefore grown during the
“atermediately warm periods in Upper India. In other words,
they cannot be grown, or only to a limited extent, during the
periods when rice and wheat occupy the fields. This has given
origin to the two crops rabi and kharif, to be subsequently re-
ferred to.

Thus, climatic necessities force a rotation of crops on the
Indian cultivator, and hence it is by no means clear that the
present wheat-cultivation is destroying the beneficial results
from the cultivation of leguminous crops. Gram, besides, is
very largely grown along with wheat, as a mixed crop, because
shaded underneath the taller crop. The millets and pulses
are much more the food-crops of the people of India, as a
whole, than either wheat or rice, although in Bengal rice is
the staple food, and in Upper India a large amount of wheat
is daily consumed. Still, the people of India must have pulses
and lentils, and these they will, and must, continue to grow. If
one cultivator discontinues doing so, he will have to purchase
his supplies. Prices of pulses would rise, and the balance be
finally obtained, when it would become more profitable for him
to resume pulse-cultivation than to continue to buy. Supply
and demand must of necessity check a too extensive abandon-
ment of pea-cultivation, and as oil-seeds are more profitable
even than wheat, there would appear to be no danger of injury
to the soil from the cause suggested.

Crops and Seasons.—The European farmer has but one season
a year during which he can cultivate his field. The Indian eulti-
vator, at least in most districts, has two, known as rali or spring
harvest, and the kharif or autumn. The various staples grown
during the former begin to be sown about the end of September,
the sowings continuing till the end of December. They are reaped
in two, three, four, or five months’ time, viz, from December to
May. The kharif staples, on the other hand, are sown as soon
as the land can be cleared of the rabi crops. Some of the sow-
ings may take place as early as February or March, and the last
sowings are made about the middle of August. The khavif har-
vest occurs chiefly between the beginning of October and the end
of December. The labour of the agriculturist is mainly spent

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 19

on the rabi crops; for these the land is elaborately ploughed,
weeded, and fairly well manured. For the khari/ crops the land
is little more than scratched, and the seed sown with the first
shower of rain. It is a common practice to allow rabi lands to
remain fallow during the kharif season, or at most to sow on the
patches nearest the homestead some of the pulses required by
the cultivator. When this course is departed from, cotton or
sugar-cane is grown on these lands, the latter as a rule preced-
ing wheat. The study of the crops grown in India will reveal
the fact that, unless desired to lie fallow, no portion of a fairly
well watered farm of good average soil need remain long without
. crops. The cultivator has at his disposal hot season, rainy
season, and cold season crops that take varying periods, from
two to twelve months, to mature. Hence it follows that in the
intervals between rabi and kharif a third crop is frequently
obtainable.

In large portions of India, however, the want of water
compels the farmer to be dependent on the minor crop—
-khavif—sinee that is sown with the advent of the rains.
During that season the chief food-stuffs of the bulk of the
people are grown—millets and pulses. From a commercial
point of view these are less important than wheat, rice, and oil-
seeds; but collectively they are more extensively grown than all
the other crops. Cotton is a kharif crop, but it requires rich
land, while the millets luxuriate on the lighter loams. A soil
that yields. two crops a year is known as dofasli, while ekfasli
bears but one crop.

The twice cropping of the soil is the element that has intro-
duced the apparent confusion in the returns of Indian agri-
culture. It has been triumphantly shown, in derision of Indian
returns, that the land under crops was greater than the area of ©
the district or province. This same fact of twice cropping the
soil introduces a complexity which renders it difficult to deter-
mine with absolute certainty the exact area under certain crops.

Two different forms of rice are, for example, mixed and sown at once over
the same field, or the one is sown or transplanted into the field after the
other has germinated. The two grow together; but the one reaching
maturity long before the other, the field is cut—a process which seems only
to make the second crop sprout more thickly. Without any further labour
a second crop is shortly after harvested from the same field.

In the same way two or more different crops are mixed,
because of the one assisting the other to combat climatic dis-
advantages; and for this further reason, that should failure
overtake the one, the other may yield a return. Experience
has established the necessity for this with certain soils, and
under peculiar climatic conditions. Loud complaints have been

22

20 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

heard against this practice; but in the majority of cases the
native cultivator is perfectly sound in the course he pursues.

As a peculiarity of the people of India, it may be added
that—whether it be the cause or the consequence of this
practice of mixing grains—gram and wheat, and barley and
wheat are eaten mixed, and indeed often preferred to pure
grain. Where the cultivator does not grow the mixture, the
retail merchant effects it; but in few cases has it been shown
that the cultivator mixes for the purpose of defrauding. He
is not responsible for the market to which the dealer consigns
his produce. He grows a mixture because it is in requisition
for a market which, after all, is infinitely more extensive than
the modern foreign demand. Adulteration is undoubtedly
practised—but little more can be laid to the blame of the actual
producer than that sufficient attraction has not as yet been
offered to induce him to adopt more expensive processes for
obtaining a wheat that would be free from the dirt incident to
a primitive system of thrashing, winnowing, and storing.

To convey some idea of the character of Indian agriculture,
it seems desirable to furnish in this place a table showing the
chief rabi and kharif crops grown in four of the wheat-pro-
ducing provinces. A critical inspection of the dates of sowing
and reaping will demonstrate what we have tried to establish—
viz. that there are influences (over which the cultivator has
little control) which preclude a greatly extended displacement
of the food-stuffs of the mass of the people, either by wheat or
by any other remunerative article of export trade. These same
influences prescribe a certain rotation of crops every twelve
months. But we shall have occasion later on to show that a
more extensive rotation than this is very frequently pursued.
The table opposite will establish that, with few exceptions (e.g.
the pulse of the rab: season), the greatly extended cultivation
of wheat would not effect the preservation of the balance of the
soil, through the growth of peas and other leguminous crops in
alternation with cereals. It will be seen that cotton cuts more
seriously into the millet and pulse season than wheat, since that
staple occupies the soil, on an average, from June to January,
or even February.

Running the eye down the two columns for each province,
it will at once be apparent what crops might interfere with
wheat extension, and might therefore be liable to displacement.
But by recalling what has been said about the nature of the
soils, a safeguard will be obtained against a too literal inter-
pretation of the effects of the dates of sowing and reaping. It
does not follow that a crop which is shown by the table to
oceupy fields during tho period of wheat-cultivation, is being

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

21

\PATEMENT SHOWING THE SEASONS OF SowING AND REAPING THE CHIEF Crops
IN THE FouR PRINCIPAL WHEAT-PRODUCING Provinces or InpIA,

Norru-WEst
CENTRAL
PanJ& BoMBay oe PROVINCES AND
Crop ANJAB 9 PROVINCES OUDE
Sown Sanh Sown | Harvested ] Sown Ca Sown Ba a3
ee eh. «(10-12 4-5, | 9-11 24r |10-11| 3-4r | 9-10] 3-5k
a 10-12} 3-4r [10-11] 23r {10-11| 23 | 9-10| 3-4
a Indian corn. ... 6-9 | 9-11xK 6 8-9 kK 6-7 10k 6-7 8-9 K
5 J Jowar 78 |orec [f S| 2M E YY gz | rex] 67 |11-12K
5] : 8-10 2-3 R
») millets . . i
Bajra {| 7-8 | 941K] 6-7 | 9-10x 8 | 10K | 7-8 |10-11K
9 -|§2-3 9
[West wk ee .| 78 | 11x | 6 10-11x | 6G | 10-11K { ml es
| a Gram or Chicken Pea .| 8-10) 3-4k 9-10 2-3R 10-11 3R 9-10 3-5 R
| DalorThur ....| 6 | 3R | 6-7 92n 6 | 23R | 67 |x10-4r
| Mung orGreen Gram .| 8 | 11-12K] 5-6 8-9 K 6-7 10x 627 10K
8 | Urador BlackGram .| 8 /11-I12K}] 6 9K 6-7 | 10x 7-8 |11-12K
2 ro? =e 7-8 | ll« | 6-7 10-11 kK 7-8 | Uk | 7-8 |11-12k
Shim or Poput. . . 7-8 11k 6-7 10-11 kK 7-8 11k 7-8 |11-12k
| Kulthi or Horse Gram .| 7-8 Tie 6-9 10-11 k 6-8 lik 7-8) | M12:
A wees ae ef hf | 9-10) Sr §10-11 2-3 R 9 3R 10 2-3
Mustard... 8-9 2-3 R nil nil 8 3R 9-10 | 12-1R
® MEMOS een es ie 8-11| 3-4+R 10 1-2Rr 8-9 3-4r ]10-11| 4-5r
& |Linsed. .... .| 9-10] 34n |] 11 2K 9 | S4r |] 10 | 45r
£4 Til (Sesamum) . . .| 7-8 | 11x | 6-7 | 9-11K | 7-8 | 10-11K] 6-7 |10-11K
Plcastor. .... . .| G-l|«ll-2r]6-10| xil-2n | 7 | 122R] 67 | 2-3e
Ground-nut. ... nil nil 6 12 nil nil nil nil
meth eet epi 47 2R
2 OEM, eos 5 se 4-5 |x 9-Lr} 6-7 | K11-12-3r] 6 10K U6 10K
; Jute... . . . .|-Not much cultivated ; has been tried in the Central Provinces.
Sunn-hemp. . . 7 |10-llx}] 7 10 7 10K 6 9
3 Indigo .. 4-5 8-9 Being opened up } nil nil 4-6 | 8-9xK
J (Safflower. . Little grown ]10-11 2-3R Little grown 9 24r
2 10K 1-3 12-2 kK 2 llxK
Sugar-cane. . .. . { 3 | 1-9RI 6 fies i 1-2 | 12x { 3-41/19-3R

Note,--The letters R and & denote 7abi and kharif orops ; the figures are the months of the year.

22 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

grown on a soil upon which wheat might be cultivated. The
opposite argument may, however, be employed in its full force
—viz. that crops that ate grown in the interval of wheat-culti-
vation may be reared'on wheat-fields.. Wheat is sown imithe
various districts of the Panjab from the middle of October to
the end of December. We have given only the two principal
millets, but the periods of sowing and reaping all the others
correspond to those shown. ‘They are off the fields just in time
to admit of the wheat crop, should the cultivator have chosen
to employ the vali fields with a millet crop.

As a matter of fact, however, he rarely adopts this course,
since the millets grow well on soils not suited for wheat. They
of course can be grown, and are, by way of a rotation; fre-
quently sown on wheat land; but in such cases the land is
generally left fallow till the following rabi season. ‘Then, again,
of the pulses: practically only two occupy the ground during
the wheat season—gram and peas. The former is, however,
extensively grown as a mixed crop with wheat, and the latter
is not of much importance. One other pulse only need be
especially mentioned, ddl or thi (Cajanus indicus). This is
often allowed to occupy the fields for many months. It is a
large woody shrub, sown around the margins of the fields, or
in rows through the wheat or cotton. It does not, therefore,
interfere with wheat-cultivation. All the other pulses’ or
leguminous crops are procumbent herbs, cultivated during the
khavif season, and are not likely, therefore, to be seriously dis-
placed by the extension of wheat-cultivation.

There are generally two crops of sugar-cane, the stems
being planted out in January, February, or March.. These
occupy the ground for eleven months. Sugar-cane is, however,
a very profitable crop. It is grown in all the richest soils, and
receives heavy manuring. After the crop is cut the land is
allowed to lie fallow for a time, until the ploughing period
arrives for the rabi crop. Without any further manuring,
wheat may be sown, and a good harvest realised. To take the
full advantage of the manure, this is often followed up. by a
kharif crop, or perhaps still further by a minor rabi crop. But
after that the field is finally left fallow for the rest of the year.
It may again be put under wheat, receiving light manuring,
or under sugar-cane with a heavy manure, and the rotation
repeated.

It will be observed that the majority of the oil-seeds occupy
the soil during a period overlapped by wheat. They are rabi
crops, which will continue to be cultivated and to compete with
wheat, according to the profits realised, or as they may be con-
sidered necessary in the rotation of crops. They are, however,

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 23

like gram and ddl, often grown with wheat as mixed crops,
being generally sown in lines or around the borders of the fields.
It will be observed, however, that they ripen before the wheat,
and are accordingly separately reaped. Adulteration of oil-seeds
with wheat must result from gross carelessness or malpractices.
Cotton is, perhaps (in the districts in which it is cultivated to
any extent), the centre round which the cultivator’s ideas of
profit and successful husbandry gravitate. It must follow
wheat or other rabi crops—the soil getting only a brief rest,
during which time it has to be rapidly ploughed. The cotton
continues on the field through the sharif season until it is
generally too late to follow with a rabi crop.

The illustrations we have used apply more or less to all the
four provinces shown in the table of crops and seasons. The
climatic and other peculiarities of each of these provinces are
indicated by the varying periods of sowing and reaping. The
skill of the cultivator is in each province displayed by the
manner in which he can fit together his seasonal crops; but he
has many to choose from, and need have no difficulty, if desired,
in throwing on the field a grain that will give a return in sixty
days. A well-known rice in Bengal receives the name of the
“ Sixty-days Rice” from that fact. We are not dealing with
Bengal at the present moment, but it may be said in passing
that the remarkable manner in which the crops grown in India
are adapted to climate and soil is nowhere better shown than in
the immense numbers of forms of rice, each directly adapted to
the peculiar climate and the soil in which it is grown. There
are rices that can be cultivated on comparatively dry soils, rices
that occupy the ground for more than half the year, rices that
grow in the cold temperate climates, and rices that can thrive
only in tropical swamps. Again, of this last-mentioned class, -
there are some varieties that cannot survive an inundation of
more than two to five feet of water, while there are others that
will continue to grow even when submerged under a depth of
from ten to fifteen feet of water.

This adaptability to special necessities is the great fact
by which would-be reformers of Indian agriculture find their
theories discomfited. No imported wheat-seed has yet been
found that was of the least use to India. The season is too
short for its maturing; and, moreover, there is another pecu-
liarity of Indian wheat-cultivation that has not been fully appre-
ciated. Although our wheats are winter wheats, in the sense
that they are sown in autumn and reaped in spring (except in
the case of the wheats grown on the hills), they do not lie for
months under snow, nor are, in fact, even subjected to severe
frost. No sooner have the first twenty to thirty days of spring

24 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

passed, than a temperature is attained quite as great as the
summer heat of other wheat-growing countries. It is this
circumstance that gives to the Indian wheat its great dryness ;
but if not fully formed by February, the plant is killed and the
grain prematurely ripened.

Having now exhibited some general principles regarding
Indian agriculture as a whole, we may proceed in detail to
discuss the wheat-cultivation of the several provinces.

1. THe PangAs.

Tn accordance with a resolution of the Government of India
in 1877, a collection of the wheats of India was prepared which
embraced over 1,000 samples. ‘These were forwarded to London
for the purpose of examination. Dr. Forbes Watson’s report, to
which allusion has been made, was the result. The Panjab
section was, however, viewed as unsatisfactory from being
weevil-eaten, and it was therefore suggested that a fresh col-
lection of Panjéb wheats should be made. Further, it was re-
commended that to test the adaptability of Indian wheats to
the three systems of milling now in use, 350 maunds of each of
the four principal varieties should be forwarded to England.
These two proposals were accepted, and a fresh set of 192
samples of Panjab wheats were forwarded to London. They
were examined and valued by the same expert who furnished
the information regarding the first collection, and the second
report appeared in 1880. The required commercial samples
were also forwarded, the result being the appearance of perhaps
the most powerful report on Indian wheats which has as yet
been placed in the hands of the public, viz. a commercial state-
ment of their value and adaptability to the miller, written
by Messrs. McDougall Brothers, of London. 'This appeared in
December 1882.

The Panjéb wheats of the second consignment were, as in
the first report, grouped into

(1) Soft white wheats. (3) Soft red wheats.
(2) Hard white wheats. (4) Hard red wheats.

Subsequent to the special report on the Panjab wheats, the
Secretary of State, in 1881, called for information to be furnished
(for all India) as to the nature of the soils on which the better
wheats are cultivated, as well as details of the methods of culti-
vation—as, for example, whether the best wheats are grown on
irrigated or on manured land, also ‘‘ whether the land has been
long cultivated with wheat crops, and what is the average weight
of crop per acre.” Naturally this stimulated fresh and more

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growtng in India. 25

detailed investigation, the result being the appearance of first
one volume and then another on “The Wheat Production and
Tradein India.” These volumes set forth the results ofthe inquiries
instituted in every district of India, and placed before the public
a body of facts which, while couched in the guarded phraseology
incidental to Indian official correspondence, may be accepted as
probably quite as accurate as the wheat reports of other countries
which appear with a greater degree of assurance of accuracy.
Even in the most advanced countries it is difficult, if not
impossible, to give absolute statements of areas under crops,
or to procure details of internal trade. Doubt has in various

. quarters been expressed as to the accuracy of Indian quotations,

mainly, if not entirely, from the peculiar language adopted by
Indian writers. The Indian Survey Department is perhaps
second to no other survey in the world. Its returns are, year
by year, filling up the details of India; and it may safely be said
that while certain writers have lent themselves to speculate on
the character and nature of the Indian wheat trade, no report
of actual facts of areas under wheat, or of the extension of
agricultural operations generally, or even of estimated out-turn
of crops, has been subsequently shown to have been materially
incorrect.

It should not be forgotten that Government lands have to
be periodically re-assessed, and for this purpose a number of
officers are sent specially to the district under re-settlement, who
travel from village to village and from field to field, the result
being the publication of the Settlement Report, which forms the
basis of the Government re-assessment. Tor certain tracts of
the country this periodical settlement affords most valuable data
for judging of agricultural progress. The productive nature
of every village, and even of the several fields of each village, is
carefully determined, and the decision of the Settlement Office
approved by the people. It would be absurd to throw such
reports aside as mere approximations. They afford the ground-
work on which as accurate statements may be founded as can
= he for any other country of even haif the magnitude of

ndia.

In addition to furnishing a chapter for the general report
issued by the Government of India on “The Wheat Production
and Trade in India,” the Panjab Government issued in 1884 a
separate publication called “‘ Panjéb Wheat.” From these works,
and from the Settlement, Administrative, and Agricultural
Reports, together with the subsequent special reports which, it
is believed, will shortly appear as the third volume of “The
Wheat Production and Trade in India,” we have largely culled
the information brought together in this paper.

26 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

In specially hunting up the information on the Panjab, we
have selected a few of the more important districts (in wheat
supply), as set forth in the report drawn up in London on the
set of specimens to which reference has been made, as well as
in other reports. We have been guided in our selection by the
merit of the wheats alone, and from no desire to single out the
districts that might most fully bear out one of the lines of
argument pursued—namely, that there are immense tracts of
country which await a supply of water and means of communi-
cation to become great wheat-producing districts.

It will be necessary to go into some detail under the head
of Panjab, for so much exists in common to all the wheat-pro-
ducing districts of India, that the more characteristic features may
be disposed of in one place, leaving only special modifications
to be commented on afterwards.

Soils—In the Panjab, soils may be classified, first, accord-
ing to the mode in which they are irrigated ; secondly, according
to their composition. With slight local modifications the re-
marks which we here offer are applicable to the whole of the
alluvial parts of India. One of these tracts of country or regions
with a peculiar soil may predominate more in one province than
in another; and in some instances the specific character of the
soil may be. modified or intensified. The main features are,
on the whole, preserved. We shall establish, therefore, in this
place a standard from which, in our subsequent remarks under
other provinces, we shall record departures and modifications.

From the numerous mouths of the Ganges, and sweeping
round the whole length of the Himalayas, at the same time
isolating the great southern tableland, there extends a vast
alluvial plain, which is only lost in the North-West Provinces
and the Panjab by blending into the drainage area of the Indus.
From this point a similar alluvial region is continued to the
mouths of the Indus, and may be said to widen until it embraces
the northern division of Bombay. In the Bengal section of this
vast expanse, the clay soil of the rice swamps can only be viewed
as land, figuratively speaking, recently recovered from the sea;
and immense portions of it are even now within tidal influence.

The bulk of Bengal is rain-inundated. Passing higher up
the alluvial basin, evidences of a more ancient soil, indeed of a
more ancient agriculture, are to be seen in the rich loam of
Behar. This soil continues with varying degrees of fertility
through the North-West Provinces to the Panjéb, and down
the tributaries of the Indus to the basin of the combined stream,
until it reaches the swamps of the western coast. Throughout
this loam expanse there are two modifications. First, on the
inundated tracts of the rivers and on depressed portions of the

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 27

country (in most cases these are but the old beds of former
streams, or the silted-up lakes which were thrown off as con-
tortions of the river, isolated by the main stream taking the
more direct course through a narrow isthmus), rich clayey loam
occurs which merges in its character into the heavy mud soil of
Bengal. Secondly, within the regions of climatic extremes,
natural growth and cultivation alike haye been checked, and
loam is there found to be more and more intermixed with sand,
until absolute sandy deserts are attained. ‘

Thus there exist four types of soil in the alluvial plains of
India: a heavy loam, in which clay predominates (the muddy
swamps of Bengal) ; a heavy loam, with a certain amount of sand,
in which the clods remain firm (the low-lying and inundated
tracts of Upper India); a light loam, in which the clods are
pulverised on being let fall from the hand (the principal soil of
Behar, the North-West Provinces, the Panjab, and a certain
portion of Bombay and Sind); and lastly, a poor loam with a
large admixture of sand, passing into pure sand in which clods
do not form at all (the soil of some parts of the North-West
Provinces, of a large proportion of Central India and of Sind,
with also certain parts of the Panjéb). The intimate relation of
the two features of soil alluded to in the opening sentence
of this paragraph has been thus exemplified. The absence of
water, together with the extremes of heat and cold, have had
much to say to the production cf desert tracts, and annual
inundations have greatly tended to preserve the heavy loams.

There are certain agricultural terms used in the Panjab,
but fairly well understood throughout India :—

Thus, land that is dependent on rain is known as bdrani; if watered by
canals it is nahrt; chaht is watered by wells, and abi from tanks, We have
already defined the word doab (7.e. the region between two rivers), and have °
shown the natural classification of doab lands, according to water-supply.
The five great streams of the Indus break the Panjab into vast interfluvial
expanses or doabs, so that, to understand Panjib agriculture, this feature
must be fully appreciated. The tracts annually inundated by the rise of
the rivers, or kept moist from being adjacent to flooded land, are known in
the Panjab as bhet, banjar, or saildba, and in other parts of India as khadar,
but by the Hindustani-speaking population this name is even used in the
Panjab. The chief danger such regions are subjected to is the growth of
the saline efflorescence known as reh (a crude sulphate or carbonate of soda).

Land beyond the bhet influence is generally known as desya in the
Panjab, and to Hindustani-speaking people as béngar. This may be chaht,
abi, nahri, or bardnt, according to the source from which it derives its water.
The interior or higher portions of the doab are often spoken of as des-utar,
(in contradistinction to hetdr) or mdhjah.

The Hames given to denominate the physical character of
the soil are :—

1, Nydit, rich land around the homestead, on which vegetables, tobacco,
poppies, &c., are grown.

28 On the: Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

2. Dékar or chamb, heavy clayey loam, too low for being drained. This
is good for rice and grain. The term rdkar in the Panjab denominates bad
dakar, on which rice only can be grown.

3. Rausli or dosahi (dushdhi) is the light easily pulverised loam which
we have spoken of as the most prevalent in Upper India. This yields all
crops except rice. It is soft and easily worked, mixes readily with manure,
and consists of clay and sand. It is probable that the term dosahi denotes
a slightly inferior quality of rausli with more sand; just as 70ht would
appear to be a rich soil approaching to ddékar, only well drained, Rohit is
admittedly the finest form of soil in the Panjab.

4, Bhir or maira is light sandy loam, suitable for the cultivation of
millets. In this soil the sand predominates over the clay, and ¢iba is almost
pure sand, 7e¢t being a soil with wind-blown hillocks of sand.

Other terms are used in the hill tracts of the Panjab, and
nearly every province has special terms for local modifications
of the soils we have indicated. As such names can be of little
interest to persons not residing in India, we shall accept the
above as conveying a general description of the characteristic
soils of the alluvial basin of India. A separate account will be
found under the Central Provinces of the soil, terrestrial cha-
racter, and peculiarities of the southern tableland. From what
has been said, a general idea, it is hoped, has been conveyed of
the character and fruitfulness of the soils of the plains of India.
The absence of a water-supply will, of course, make the best
vausli land entirely dependent on the rains, and the inequality
and insufficiency of the rains of the Panjab leave neighbouring
tracts either uncultivated or at most only occasionally thrown
under crops. ‘This is the field for the future operations of the
canal engineer. A judicious control over the supply of canal
water has made these arteries carry life and fertility where
formerly rich undulations of fertile soil bore only a scanty
herbage. Where artificial aid, in the form of canals, is not
brought to the cultivator, it will be seen, from the account of
soils, that there are narrow limits within which displacement of
crops can be practised.

The climate prescribes a limit to the rabi as to the kharif
crop. The varied nature of the soils is such that a second check
is given to the dangerous disturbance of established and natural
conditions of agriculture through any greed the cultivator might
manifest in desiring to reach a hand forward to the hard cash
offered by an export trade like that of wheat. The extent to
which the owner of a desya or bdngar farm can supplant millets
with wheat must depend on a chapter of accidents: the abun-
dance of water in his wells (even should he possess such), the
rainfall, the proximity of his fields to the irrigation canals, the
character of the soil on which his labours from year to year have
been expended. Should his fields fall under the class we have
defined a bhir, then, without manuring to an extent which

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 29

would never pay, he must rest content with his millet and pulse
crops, for in such soils, in the majority of cases, wheat-cultiva-
tion is a physical impossibility.

While wheat-cultivation cannot, therefore, expand into the
béngar-bhir lands, there are immense tracts of rausli which wait
only for means of export or for a supply of water to be at once
thrown under the finest varieties of wheat.

Methods of Wheat-Cultivation in the Panjéb—The wheat
crop of the Panjab is sown on rausli and rohi lands, and some-
times also on dékar. It occupies the soil for about six months
—the first sowings commencing about the middle of October,
and the harvest operations throughout the province being com-
pleted by the middle of March. The systems pursued vary to
some extent in the various districts! of the province, but mainly
in consequence of the nature of soil and source of water-supply.
We shall, therefore, comment specially on the systems adopted
in Delhi, Ambala, Jullundur, Lahore, Jhang, Montgomery,
Dera-Ismail-Khan, and Dera-Ghazi-Khan.

The system followed in Montgomery for well-irrigated lands
has been described thus :—

“During the rains in June or July the land is ploughed two or three
times and smoothed. If rain has been plentiful and the ground remains
moist, seed is sown broadcast in October, November, and December. The
ground is then again ploughed and smoothed, and the beds formed. If there
is subsequent rain, the fields are irrigated from wells or jhdlars six or seven
times ; if there is no rain, nine or ten times. If there is little or no rain
during the rainy season, or if the land does not remain moist up to October,
it is irrigated before the’seed is sown. If the seed is sown in October,
a good crop is the result ; if in November, about twenty-five per cent. less than
if sown in October; and if sown in December, about thirty per cent. less.”

“On dhet or sailéba lands—At the last inundation during the rains
(generally in August) the land is ploughed two or three times and smoothed.
In October seed is sown through a drill; no beds are formed, and no subse-
quent irrigation takes place, as the crop depends on rainfall.”

In the majority of the districts, sowing through a tube
attached to the handle of the plough is followed in prefer-
ence to broadcast-sowings—the crop appearing in consequence
in drills. In the Panjab generally drill-sowing is always

‘ As the specific Indian meaning of the word “district” may not be under-
stood, it is perhaps well to explain that it is practically synonymous with county
or shire. Britih India is primarily divided into provinces; those under a
governor (called presidency), e.g. Madras and Bombay—a lieutenant-governor
(called province), ¢.g. Bengal, North-West Provinces, and the Panjéb—ora chief
commissioner, ¢.g. Central Provinces, Burma,and Assam. Under each of these
chief administrators, the country is next divided into “ divisions,” each under a
commissioner, and these are again subdivided into “districts,” the lowest
administrative unit—each under a magistrate-collector. The ordinary district
in point of area is as large, if not larger, than the average county or shire, and
its climate, soil, and physical configuration quite as diversified,

30 On the. Conditions of Wheat-Growing in: India.

practised where the character of the soil will permit of this
system. In the sandy soils of Marwat the seed is drilled
three or four inches into the ground without any preliminary
ploughing. ;

Manuring is practised if the cultivator can afford to do so,
but chiefly only on well-watered lands. Canal-irrigated fields
are nearly always cultivated without manure. Dédkar or dar
lands are considered rich enough to produce wheat without
any manure. The degree of watering is indicated in the following
paragraph regarding the Lahore district :—

“In October the field is irrigated and ploughed twice, the grain being
dropped in at the last ploughing through a tube attached to the handle of
the plough, The land is then smoothed by a rough roller called sohaga.
_ After this the crop is irrigated once a month for three months, and periodi-
cally weeded, if the cultivator can afford this; manure is rarely used, never
at any distance from the villages. The people say there is something special
in the soil, that when good seed is obtained it yields a good crop the first,
and perhaps the second year, but afterwards deteriorates.”

This same opinion, that without manure or a rotation ot
crops the soil deteriorates if wheat be continuously reared on
it, prevails over the greater part of India. In Jullundur the
ploughing is begun much earlier than we have indicated—the
first ploughing taking place in January or February.

With reference to enquiry as to the period land has been
under wheat-cultivation in the Panjab, instructive replies have
been received.

“ Wheat is considered the strongest crop, and to maintain the productive
power of the land it is necessary to change this crop for some other, such as
jowar (the larger millet), wheat being sown the second year.”

“Carefully manured land can remain for five or six years under
wheat.”

The report on Rohtak states that “the lands now growing wheat have
been so used for a long time.”

Of Jullundur the District Officer writes, ‘‘ There is no reason to suppose
that the land has deteriorated from over-cropping. Except in highly
manured lands, wheat is grown year after year.”

As to deterioration of soil the opinions recorded are decidedly
opposed to this. But one officer writes, ‘‘it is unquestionable
that the finest crops are raised on lands newly brought under
canal irrigation.”

About one third of the whole cultivated area of the Panjab
is cropped with wheat. ‘The acreage represented by this
fraction is liable to considerable variation, due mainly to the
character of the seasons, and the gradual increase of cultivation
in general.” When this official statement is considered in the
light of the available crops, it becomes apparent that fallow is
necessary and understood, and that the people are well aware of
the advantages of a change of crops. When these facts are

ee

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 3l

duly considered, can any doubt exist that the expansion of the
wheat-cultivation of the Panjab is not endangering in any way
the fruitfulness of the soil? Two thirds of the annual cultiva-
tion consists of other than wheat crops, manuring is regularly
resorted to when found necessary, and at least a seasonal if not
an annual rotation is regularly observed.'

Reaping, Thrashing, Winnowing—Reaping begins about the
end of April, and the whole crop is in-gathered by the end of
May or the beginning of June. The practice described in con-
nection with the Montgomery district is fairly representative,
though it must be recollected that the Panjab is larger than

- Great Britain, and that it would be as correct to say that the

wheat of Essex was characteristic of the British Isles as to say
that Montgomery absolutely represented the Panjab.

The reapers are called déwa, and belong chiefly to the class of village
servants. But they do not contine themselves to their own village, they go
wherever they can find work. The usual pay is one pdt (seven seers) of
grain, or four annas in cash per diem, with five sheaves. [This might be
expressed as sixpence a day and the sheayes.] An ordinary reaper will cut
down one kandi and a half in the day; and a strong and practised hand
will do as much as two kandls. (The kandl is halfa rood.) On an average
five men will cut down an acre a day. Reaping is carried on during the
moonlight nights in the last few hours before day if the straw is very dry,
as the moisture of the night air is supposed to strengthen the stalk and pre-
yent the ears falling off. If clouds gather, great efforts are made to get in the
crops, as hail is much feared at this season; but hail is very uncommon in
this district. As soon as the grain is cut it is stacked. The reaper gets his
share when the crop has been thrashed and divided.

There are several ways of thrashing. The most common is
to yoke a number of bullocks together, fasten the one at the left

hand of the line to a post, round which the straw to be thrashed
is piled, and drive them round and round from right to left.

“Wheat and barley are, however, first thrashed with the phalha,

or thrashing-frame.

A pair of bullocks are yoked to the phalha and driven round the stake
about which the straw is heaped; there may be several phalhas at work
one after the other, but there are never more than four. One man is re-
quired with each, and a couple more to throw back the straw into the heap.
One pair of bullocks with the phalha will thrash the produce of a quarter of
an acre a day. They will work eight hours at a stretch, from 8 a.m. to
4p.M.inthesun. Buffaloesare never used for thrashing. When wheat or
barley has been thrashed with the phalha, the straw is shaken up with the
pitchfork and thrown on one side, while the grain falls to the bottom.

In the Bannu district cows and even donkeys are used on the
thrashing-floor. In Midnwali thrashing is frequently done by

1A very different state of affairs exists in Burma (indeed, almost in
Bengal), where three fourths of the cultivation consists year after year of rice,
with practically no rotation ; but, still, this state of affairs is not attended with
indications of deterioration of soil.

32 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

bullocks drawing a weighted branch of some thorny tree over
the outspread stalks. The floors are generally prepared by
being well beaten, and on the hills are carefully payed, the cir-
cular thrashing-floor near each Himalayan homestead forming a
striking feature of the scenery. In spite of every care, the dirt
from the floor is pressed into the grain, and, moreover, the
grains are often seriously injured.

Winnowing, as also the thrashing, is favoured by the hot
winds which prevail. The grain is separated from the chaff b
being thrown up by pitchforks, and by being allowed to fall
.from a sieve held overhead. The chaff is blown to a distance,
and the grain falls into the thrashing-floor. This.labour is fre-
quently repeated, until the desired degree of cleansing has been
obtained.

Storing of Wheat and other Cereals.—The grain is stored in
a large jar-like vessel made of mud, and known as the kalotis, or
it is deposited on prepared platforms in the open, each heap
carefully covered over and surrounded by a trench and hedge.
If it is desired to store the grain for any length of time, it is
mixed with the ashes of cow-dung, which are supposed to possess
a special virtue in protecting the grain from weevil.

With the limited space at our disposal, it is impossible to
deal in detail with every feature of the wheat-cultivation of each
province of India. The questions of expense of cultivation,
yield, and profit are points regarding which it has not been
found possible to collect very trustworthy data. The people
are too ignorant to appreciate the good intentions of a Govern-
ment that looks too closely into matters of that kind. Fears of
the old system of taxation which prevailed during Native rule
have not as yet given place to the conception of the enlightened
interest in their welfare taken by the present administration.
The average return is probably not more than 54 maunds an
acre from unmanured rain lands, 7} maunds from manured, and
10 (134 bushels) to 14 maunds from land manured and irrigated
(see Central Provinces). The principal wheat cultivated is the
soft red variety, but there is at the same time a considerable
area under the finer qualities of soft white wheat.

2. SIND.

We have very little of a special character to say regarding
the Sind wheats and wheat-cultivation. In every feature Sind
may be said to be intermediate between Bombay and the
Pinjab. In certain parts of the country the methods of cul-
tivation, the nature of the soil, and the character of the wheats
aye similar, but in other parts of the proyince an approximation

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 33

is seen to the wheats of Northern Bombay. The Sind wheats
are generally pronounced superior to those of Bombay, and
possess a larger proportion of soft white forms. The delta
wheats are, however, specially liable to rust. Most of the Sind
wheats are, as in the Panjab, repeatedly watered or flooded
during their growth. A dry crop (see the remarks under
Bombay and Central Provinces) is, however, raised on lands
that were inundated during the rains. On the water subsiding,
these band-bardni soils are repeatedly ploughed, and the crop
sown, no further watering being necessary.

8. CENTRAL INDIA AND RAJPUTANA.

There is little occasion to dwell upon this province. In
climate and soil it closely approaches to the Panjab, and its
wheats are accordingly similar. The Commissioner of Ajmir-
Merwara writes that the natives invariably select the best lands
for their wheat, and generally that in the neighbourhood of a
tank or well, from which it may be irrigated. The soil is ofa
light, sandy loam, unlike the stiff loams of England on which
wheat is grown.

To obtain a full crop, the land is fallowed during the rainy
season (June to September) ; during this period it is ploughed
two or three times a month to a depth of four inches. At the
close of the rains a heavy plank is drawn over the field, which
serves the purpose of a roller in pulverising the surface, and
prevents also the moisture escaping. The sowing season begins
about October 25, and lasts till the end of November, the crop
being reaped in April. The quantity sown is about 2 bushels
to the acre, and, if manured and irrigated, the yield is about
34 bushels. On unmanured and unirrigated, the yield is per-
haps not more than 7 bushels. If no winter rain falls the crop
is irrigated three or four times.

It is perhaps needless to extract the opinions that have been
given for the wheat-cultivation in the numerous States that go
to make up the province of Central India,

4, BoMBAY.

The total area of this Presidency, including Sind and the
Feudatory and Tributary States, as given by the Survey Depart-
ment, is 196,313 square miles. Of this region the area for
which certain agricultural statistics have been prepared is shown
by the table on page 11 to be 71,369,639 acres, but more de-
tailed and accurate returns have been prepared for 52,183,254
acres. The area, even of the surveyed portion of Bombay, available

YOL. XXIV,—S. Ss, ely

34 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

for cultivation, namely, 6,389,034 acres, is by no means incon-
siderable, but we have no space to deal with this subject in
detail, and must rest satisfied that the examples we have given
under the Panjab fully establish the fact that the land declared
as available for cultivation means actually soil that awaits but
human labour to throw it under crops.

The figures on page 11 corroborate a great deal of what we
have endeavoured to show as to the relative importance of the
crops. The millets and pulses are infinitely more important
than wheat or rice. Taking the two principal millets, jowar
and bajra, these occupy 13,011,636 acres, while wheat and rice
cover a little less than a third of that area. Indeed, the pulses
alone occupy more ground than either wheat or rice, but of
course this would not be apparent to a visitor passing through
the country during the wheat season, because of the fact that
they are grown throughout the year, each peculiar species
having its own definite season.

Soils.—The soils of Bombay are much more diversified than
in the Panjéb. Sind and certain parts of Bombay bordering
on Sind and Central India possess almost identical soils to those
we have described, light loams with a tendency to run into a
superabundance of sand. But in many parts of Bombay a heavy
red soil prevails, containing iron, and in other districts a heavy
black soil which gradually approximates to the black cotton soil
more immediately characteristic of the Central Provinces (see
page 43). Selecting a representative district for each of the
divisions Gujarat, Deccan, Karnaétak, and the Konkan, the
following abstracts from the Gazetteers and other reports will
give a general conception of the soils of Bombay :—

In the Broach district the soil is said to consist of two kinds, a light soil
and a black soil; but each of these types of soils is capable of subdivision.
The light soil, gordt, gorddu, or mdrwa, varies from sand drifts in the south
to the richest alluvial loam, bAd/ka, found in the neighbourhood of the
Narbuda. So in a like manner the Adil, or black soils, range from the rich
alluvial deposits of the Narbuda, to the regular deep cotton mould, Adnam, to
the shallower and harsher soils, dda, near the sea-coast, on which little else
but wheat can be grown, ‘These black soils occupy more than three fourths
of the cultivable area.

In Nasik, as representing the Deccan, land is primarily classed as hill
land, ddéngi, and plains, deshi. The former are poor and wholly dependent
on the rains for moisture, and, except the portions devoted to rice, the
remainder cannot be cultivated for two years consecutively. Of the plains
land there are said to be four kinds: black Adu, red mdl, ved and black
kordl, and light brown éarad. Except in the uplands black soil is deep and
very rich, and yields excellent cold-weather crops of wheat and gram, ©
Red soil is found chiefly on hilly undulations, and yields good rainy season
crops. The mixed red and black and the light brown soils are much inferior
to the others, and often yield no crops at all when the rain is scanty.

In the Belgaum district of the Karmatak there are said to be two soils,
red and black, The red soils are primary soils—that is, they are the direct

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 35

result of the decomposition of the iron-bearing rocks, This soil is generally
found all along the western border; but it occasionally occurs in the plains
country, The black soils are secondary soils—that is, they are rock ruins
changed by the addition of organic matter. The black soil covers most of
the plains country, and is best suited for the growth of cotton, Indian millet,
wheat, and gram,

Seasons and Crops.—With very slight local modifications the
two seasons we have already discussed in such detail are also
observed in Bombay, but, if anything, there is a more pronounced
third crop. The kharif is often known as the mungdri, and the
rabi as lingdéri. Most writers on this subject dwell at some
length on the division into dry crops, jirdyat, and wet crops,
bagaydt, dividing the former into kharif and rabi, As em-

‘ phasising what we have drawn attention to—namely, the wide
range of crops the Indian farmer has to choose from-—it may be
here mentioned that in some parts of Bombay, as, for example, in
Kolhapur, the year is divided into twenty-seven seasons, each of
thirteen and a half days. These correspond with the lunar
asterisms (or nakshatras), and regulate every field operation.

Methods of Wheat-Cultivation.—The system pursued with the
finer wheats is briefly conveyed in the following :—

Bakshi is the best kind of wheat raised in the Deccan and Southern
Maratha country. It is either black-bearded or straw-colour bearded. The
grain is large and hard and contains a large proportion of gluten. This
wheat, not being hardy, is not largely cultivated.

System of cultivation.—The land is ploughed twice, once length- and once
cross-ways, with a six- or eight-bullock plough, according to the nature of the
soil. ‘he land isthen harrowed six times, thrice with a four-bullock harrow
and thrice with a two-bullock harrow, and then sown with wheat. This
is all that is considered necessary. It is not customary to raise wheat on
the same lands annually. The rotation generally adopted on dry-crop land

is as follows: Ist year jowart, 2nd year bajrt, 3rd year wheat. On garden
lands two crops are annually raised as follows :—

Ist year. 2nd year. : 3rd year.
Ist crop bajr. Ist crop bajrz, Ist crop bajri,
2nd crop wheat. 2nd crop gram. 2nd crop wheat.

Instead of wheat or gram for a second crop, onions, potatoes, &¢., are
sometimes raised.

From the above, also, we obtain a general conception of the
system of rotation. As contrasting this system, which approxi-
mates to the more careful cultivation of the Panjab, we have

an example of the extreme opposite type. Of Khandesh it is
reported :—

“ Before sowing with wheat, the ground is never ploughed, only three or
four times laid open with the hoe to the sun, rain, and wind. If the ground
is so damp that the clay sticks in balls, sowing begins in October or November,
and in some of the Tapti Valley districts as early as September. The allow-
ance of seed is from forty-five to seventy-five pounds an acre, A shower or
two when the crop is shooting is useful, though by no means necessary.
With cool seasonable weather and heavy dews, wheat flourishes without
rain.”

D2

36 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

It is impossible to forget the care with which wheat is reared
in the Panjab and the North-West Provinces, the numerous
ploughings and frequent waterings that are deemed indispensable,
and hence the contrast with the cultivation and character of the
wheat conveyed by the last quotation forces the conviction that
these facts can alone be explained by the supposition that local
adaptations have produced widely different products. In nearly
every account of Bombay wheat there occurs the remark of
certain varieties being “dry crop”—that is, wheats grown on
dry lands, and which do not require to be watered.

At the same time a fact of the greatest interest has, along
with this supposed commonplace idea, passed current without
calling forth any special comment. In nearly every report a
form of wheat known as khaplé is described as a wheat that
requires much watering. There seems little doubt from the brief
descriptions that have appeared of this wheat that it is a form
of spelt-wheat. We have seen spelt-wheat sent from the
mountains of South India, but have always suspected that it
may have probably been a modern introduction. Here, how-
ever, there would appear to be no grounds for such an opinion.
It is grown all over the Western Presidency, and it is quite
possible its area of cultivation may extend to Southern India.
Apart from the possibility of hybridisation with the ordinary
wheat having exercised some influence towards the production of
some of the most striking forms of Bombay hard wheat, the
existence in India of an anciently cultivated wheat belonging
to the series of which Triticum spelta is the type must upset
materially a great deal of what has been written regarding the
history of wheat.

M. de Candolle, in his valuable work on the “ Origin of
Cultivated Plants,” says: ‘‘ Spelt has no name in Sanskrit, nor
in any modern Indian languages, nor in Persian, and therefore, of
course, none in Chinese.” He arrives at the conclusion that it
most probably was derived in Europe in, comparatively speaking,
modern times from the common wheat. By way of showing that
there is at least a strong probability that the khaplé wheat of
Bombay is a form of spelt, we may reproduce one or two pas-
sages regarding it. In the “ Poona Gazetteer” there occurs the
remark :—

“ Kaphlé is the wheat usually grown in gardens. It is very hardy. It
owes its name to the fact that the grain cannot be separated from the husk
without pounding. It is sown as a second or dusota crop in January or
February on irrigated lands after bajrt, maize, tobacco, chillies, or wheat,
with good results.”

We have here in itself a fact of very considerable interest-—
namely, that, as with rice, we do actually possess in India a wheat

ee

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 37

that may be grown as an early kharvif crop. Were there no other
points of attraction this alone is well worthy of being followed up
and put to a final test. It is much to be deprecated that, while
volumes have been written upon every side issue of the wheat
trade, no scientific investigation has been instituted into the
subject of the varieties of wheat grown in India. Suchan inquiry
would doubtless lead to decided advances towards establishing
the reasons for their peculiar adaptabilities. With such a
knowledge, it would not be necessary to grope so much in the
dark in the matter of efforts to introduce better varieties from

_ one part of India to another. We have not, however, at present

the means at our disposal to. verify the suggestion contained in
the above explanation of the khaplé form of Bombay wheat, and
as our readers may not have access to the numerous records in
which brief passages occur regarding it, we may extract one or
two more passages.

In the “ Ahmednagar Gazetteer ” it is stated : “ Khaplé, also called jod, is
very hardy ; but requires pounding to separate the husk.” In Kolhapur it is
said, ‘ Khaplé is largely grown in watered lands as a crop alternately with
sugar-cane. ~The grain is coated with an adhering husk, which cannot be
separated without pounding.”

We venture to think that the announcement that spelt-
wheat is one of the forms of that cereal regularly and exten-
sively grown in India, while perhaps not of commercial im-
portance, will be, nevertheless, received with no small degree of
interest. :

There is something altogether peculiar and exceptional in the
wheatsof Bombay. Their hardness and redness may to some extent
be due to soil, and the presence, for example, of iron may have a
good deal to say to this; but there are special forms readily
cultivated by methods and under conditions that would be utterly
fruitless with any known form of Panjab wheat. Indeed, it is
difficult to understand why Panjéb and Sind wheats have not
been introduced into large tracts of the northern section of
Bombay, and the wheats of the Central Provinces into the
southern. These wheats would be vast improvements on the
wheats generally produced in Bombay.

Experiments with English pedigree wheats have been made,
but apparently attended with much less success than we find
recorded in 1866 in connection with the district of Saugor in
the Central Provinces. At the same time we read of efforts
having been made to furnish the cultivator with carefully hand-
picked soft white and soft red wheats, and of the effort to, in
this way, improve the stock having been abandoned as fruitless.
It is hardly possible to escape from the conclusion that the more
rational course would be to carefully investigate the botanical

38 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

characters of the species or races of wheat grown, and the
relation these bear to the peculiar climates and chemical nature
of the soils under which they are grown. To attempt to
introduce a wheat of characteristics widely different from the
data thus obtained would only be to court failure.

There are no special modifications of the methods of
ploughing, sowing, reaping, thrashing, or winnowing that call
for very special mention: except the fact that in many districts,
instead of reaping by means of a sickle, the plants are pulled
out by the root. A much more complete and scientific rotation
is followed, however, as we have shown above, and manure is
more fully appreciated and more extensively used in Bombay
than in Panjab agriculture. The whole system, however, of
wheat-production is even less scientific, and certainly less
careful, than that pursued in the Panjab. The drill plough
seems to be universally employed.

5. NortH-WEST PROVINCES AND OUDH.

It is scarcely necessary to dwell at any great length on the
wheat of these provinces, since the account given by Messrs.
Duthie and Fuller in their well-known work published by
Government on the “ Field and Garden Crops of the North-
West Provinces” contains practically all that is known. It is
much to be regretted that a similar brief abstract has not been
prepared for each province. We shall extract from the “ Field
and Garden Crops” some of the more noteworthy facts, and
bring these up to date, when necessary, from more recent
publications.

“ The countless varieties and sub-varieties of wheat which are grown in
these provinces speak volumes for the importance of the part which it plays
in the agriculture of the country. It is only with rice that we find anything
like the differentiation which years of natural and artificial selection have pro-
duced in wheat. The most convenient primary subdivisions of wheat is into
starchy and glutinous, or soft and hard, the former containing a larger propor-
tion than the average of starch, and being thus especially fit for the production
of fine flour (maida), while in the wheats of the latter class gluten predominates,
rendering the grain especially productive of semolina (saji). Grains of the
first class break easily, with an opaque pure-white fracture, whilst those of the
second class are difficult to break or bite, and appear more or less translucent.”

This distinction we have assumed to be fully understood, and
hence have continued to speak of hard and of soft wheats
without defining them. The above passage fully specifies the
practical and chemical peculiarities implied.

The growth of flour-mills in Bombay, and the immense
importance of saji as an article of food throughout India, makes
it necessary to explain that saji is the granular meal obtained

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 39°

by moistening the grain overnight, then grinding it. The fine
flour passes through a coarse sieve, and the saji and bran are
left above. The bran is separated by winnowing, and there
remains the round granular meal (or central pieces of the grain)
which is used throughout India in place of oatmeal. The flour
that passed through the sieve is once more ground, and passed
through a finer sieve, the fine flour, maida, passing through,
and the coarser grained, atta, remaining above. Of course,
maida and atta are prepared without moistening and separating
saji, the grain being ground at once into maida and atta. This
. point is of some interest, since from a native point of view the
quality of wheat is judged of from the amount of saji_ it will
yield, and the process of damping the grain has a distinct
bearing on the modern European process of damping before
milling, or by obtaining the required moisture by mixing the
dry Indian wheats with damper grains before milling. The
degree of “ drinking ” is a source of distinct gain to the dealer
in Indian wheats, and accounts for the much higher yield of
bread as compared with other wheats.

Soils—Wheat is grown in almost every soil, except the
very lightest sand; a rather heavy loam is considered best
suited for it. In fact, what we said about the Panjab wheats
applies in its full force to those of these provinces. Manure is
applied to the better class of wheatfields generally every second
or third year, though in quantities which would sound ridi-
culously small to the English farmer, 4 tons (=100 maunds
nearly) being about the average to the acre. Land is occa-
sionally prepared by herding sheep in the fields. This same
practice prevails in the Panjab, and a case is recorded of a
prosecution because a periodical flock of sheep, which for years
had herded on a particular farm, were by the owner taken to a
neighbouring farm instead. A curious habit also prevails in
Northern India of herding sheep, and even cattle, on the field
of wheat so as to top-manure the soil and cut down the too
rapid growth of the crop. Sometimes it is even cut to effect
this purpose, the reason being that the crop is supposed to
sprout more freely. We have not seen returns of the number
of shoots to each stock of Indian wheat, but we have carefully
examined the hill wheats, and the average is from four to ten.
Doubtless the grazing or cutting down of the young crop would
have the effect of increasing the number of shoots.

Seasons and Crops.—There is nothing of any special cha-
racter to record under this head. A second wheat crop such as
we have commented on in connection with Bombay apparently
does not exist. The wheat is entirely rabi, sown at the end of
October and beginning of November, the harvest taking place

40 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

from March to April. Asa rule, it is only sown in land that
was left fallow during the preceding kharif (known as chaumdéds
or piral); but in highly manured lands near village sites it
occasionally follows maize, that crop being cut only six or eight
weeks before the wheat is sown.

Rotation.—No particular rotation is known to be followed,
but in tracts where cotton is widely grown, wheat is generally
said to follow it—probably, however, merely because cotton in
the kharif, like wheat in the rabi, is the crop which is princi-
pally grown on the best land of the village (‘‘ Field and
Garden Crops”). In the Meerut district, at least, a very
elaborate rotation is observed, in which wheat is grown only
twice in five years.

The following statement shows the areas of cultivation in
Oudh at three different periods :—

AREA OF THE CHIEF Crops OF OupH IN ACRES.

Crop 1879_80 1881_82 1885-86
Rice . Cy Echaen Pe eee 1,550,514 1,743,015 2,159,425
Wihentiiceta yo. iuined eke a 1,747,017 1,868,750 1,556,198
Other grains . an 5,297,417 5,490,417 6,013,995
OW=SECUSi ap utew eee eo oe 295,191 241,213 314,934
SIREN! Cee oe UM Geo ec 96,992 142,580 142,484
Cottonti aes Gene weeks | 30,200 61,113 72,030

The wheat area actually declined in 1883-84 by 458,645
acres, but increased again in 1884-85 by 70,000 acres. In the
last year of the table the cultivated area increased over that of
the preceding year by 112,000 acres, of which twenty per cent.
was rice, and sixty per cent. oil-seeds. Since 1879-80, the year
when the wheat trade assumed some importance, the area under
food grains (that is, millets and pulses) has increased by nearly
one million acres, while the area under wheat has declined. In
the last column the figures given were made to carefully
separate the returns from twice-cropping, so that in some
respects the increase is shown a little too high. Of the total
area under crops, namely, 11,025,802 acres, 2,206,739 yielded
two crops, which would lower the actual area cultivated to
8,819,063 acres, since the second crop would increase the supply
of millets and pulses.

Methods of Cultivation.—We have little of special import-
ance to record under this head. The systems we have described
under the Panjab apply in their full force to the North-West
Provinces. The soil is carefully and frequently ploughed, the
number varying within wide limits.

Twenty ploughings are reported as not uncommon in Gorakhpur, while
two or three are held suflicient in the black soil of Bundelkhand, Fight

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. Al

ploughings may be taken as the average. It is deemed essential that the
land should be ploughed at the commencement of the rains, so as to lie in
open furrows and drink in the whole of the rain which falls. If the ground
is very damp the seed is sometimes sown broadcast and ploughed in, when
it is not buried more than one inch below the surface, and is less likely to
rot than if burieddeeply. But the two commonest methods of sowing are—

(1) By simply following the plough and dropping the seed into the
furrow made by it, the seed being covered by the earth thrown
up by the next furrow, and

(2) ee dropping the seed down a bamboo fastened to the plough
stilt,

The amount of seed to the acre greatly varies, but may be
said to be abnormally high. This fact is, indeed, sometimes
urged against wheat-cultivation. The poorer cultivators have
to buy from the merchant (or rather get the grain on loan at
high interest collected at harvest), and are at the same time
compelled to accept whatever seed the trader of the district
chances to have in stock. A very extensive correspondence has
passed between the various Governments of India on the
subject of the amount of seed required per acre. Several
experiments have also been made at the Government farms,
which have all tended to confirm the native practice. In the
North-West Provinces the quantity of seed varies from 100 to
140 Ibs. an acre; but in Bombay it is often much lower than
this.

Harvesting and Winnowing is similar to that described; the
grain being cut with a sickle, and not pulled out by the root—
a habit which prevails to a large extent in Bombay.

Messrs. Duthie and Fuller have gone into the subject of the
cost of production of an acre of wheat. This may be stated
briefly :— ;

Expenditure for labour and seed iF ‘ | esha

Irrigation and labour , ‘ . ‘ ; ; :

6:20570
ea (0)
Manure ; : ; ; ‘ fs ; < as) OO
Rent of land ’ ’ . ‘ ° ‘ Uf 0 0

Grand total ‘ . Rs. 31 0

After very careful investigation they arrived at the conclu-
sion that the lowest average yield for irrigated land was 15
maunds an acre of wheat grown alone, as also for wheat-barley,
and 13 maunds for wheat-gram. For unirrigated lands they
estimated 8-9 maunds a fair average. After a long series of
experiments extending over many years, the Settlement Officer
of Bareilly district gave the average for irrigated and unirri-
gated lands collectively as 12 maunds (975 Ibs.=812 lbs. per
maund). In Cawnpore irrigated fields were found to give 17
maunds, or 1,402 lbs, = 824 lbs. per maund; and unirrigated,

42 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

8 maunds, or 635 lbs. = 793 lbs. per maund.' The smallest
recorded out-turn from unirrigated land was 500 lbs.

The price of wheat fluctuates so rapidly that it would be
unsafe to represent the profits of the producer; but the above
figures will afford the means of an approximate opinion being
formed.

6. CENTRAL PROVINCES.

We have indicated that the great alluvial basin of the
Ganges sweeps round the foot of the Himéalayas, and isolates
the tableland of Central and South India. Space will not
admit of our dealing with the minor subdivisions of this table-
land separately. We must be content with conveying a general
impression of the features of the Central Provinces as repre-
senting Berar and Hyderabad, especially when taken in the
light of what has been said regarding the more southern section
of Bombay.

There are in these provinces 7,705,263 acres available for cul-
tivation. In perhaps no other province can the literal meaning
of this be more clearly demonstrated. The provinces are poorly
inhabited, and within periods recorded in our Settlement re-
ports large tracts of land have been taken up and brought into
cultivation. The returns first obtained are well-known, and
important records have been kept of the deterioration of produc-
tiveness. The results have been identical with those obtained
in America. The newly reclaimed land gave twenty and thirty-
fold for a few years, but rapidly deteriorated until it reached a
fixed, or relatively fixed, position. The district officers repeat
in their annual reports that there are still vast tracts of land on
which this process might be repeated. In perhaps no other
part of India is the principle of paucity of population, large
holdings, and correspondingly low systems of agriculture more
forcibly demonstrated. In the North-West Provinces small
holdings and careful cultivation have produced results that,
even with the present agricultural appliances, compare fayour-
ably with Europe. In the Central Provinces, on the other hand,
the proprietor of a large estate is satisfied with the compara-
tively small results obtained by cheap and primitive means.

Soil.—To understand the Central Provinces it is necessary
to recall their geological peculiarities. The great basaltic for-
mation, known as the Deccan trap, occupies nearly a third of
the peninsula. This extends south-west from Rajputana to the
sea-coast, considerably to the south of Poona. It thus crosses

1 There are different local maunds; but a commercial maund of wheat is
82 Ibs, (exactly 827, lbs.)

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 43

the north-western division of the Central Provinces, and slopes
north-west in the drainage areas of the Narbuda and Tapti
rivers, and south-east in the drainage area of the Godavari. To
the south and south-east of the Deccan trap there extends the
vast region of the archzan rocks of India. These two geo-
logical regions are broken by isolated patches of the Gondwana
rocks, which follow chiefly the present beds of the great rivers,
and by the vastly older formation known as the Vindhyan.
The disintegration of these rocks has contributed to the local
peculiarities of the soils common through the tableland,
although the rivers have to a certain extent distributed and
amalgamated the results. The wheatfields of the northern
section bordering on the Narbuda owe to a large extent their
fertility to the Deccan trap, just as the ricefields to the east
doubtless are indebted to the Gondwana and Vindhyan rocks
in the region of the Mahanadi.

Various opinions have been given as to the source of the so-
called “black cotton soil.” Without entering into this discus-
sion, we may quote here Mr. Fuller’s description of the local
modifications of the ‘‘ black or cotton soil” :—

“ This black or ‘ cotton’ soil is known by various names, indicating the
proportion in which it is mixed with lighter soil. It is of very variable
depth, lying in much thicker deposits in flat valleys than on sloping ground.
It is most suitable for wheat when at its greatest thickness, since, from the
great capacity which it then enjoys of absorbing rain-water, it can, in a
monsoon of average intensity, lay up a store of moisture sufficient to carry a
wheat crop through a cold season in which the winter rains hold off entirely.
When it is merely a shallow veneer of earth, covering rocks, it dries, of
course, with far greater rapidity, and isin this case devoted to the production
of rain (or khartf) crops. This difference is brought out into strong relief
by a comparison of the agricultural returns for the contiguous districts of
Hoshangabad and Nimar. In Hoshangabad deep black soil predominates,
and, in consequence, 63 per cent. of its cultivated area is returned as under
wheat. The greater portion of the Nimar district is hilly or undulating
ground, consisting of trap rock, overlaid with a shallow bed of black soil.
Wheat only occupies 4 per cent. of its cultivated area.”

Seasons and Crops.—Again quoting Mr. Fuller, from whom
ees that we have written of these provinces has been de-
rived :—

“The alternation of rabi and kharif crops is not so common in these
provinces as in Upper India, since the soils are of a more marked diversity,

and are, therefore, more strictly approximated, some to autumn and others
to cold-weather crops.”

In the use of manure there is considerable diversity. It is
hardly ever applied to land in the Narbuda valley; while in
Nimar, and in the districts of the Nagpur division, its utility
is fully recognised, each wheatfield receiving a manuring, if
possible, once in three years. The explanation may lie in the

44, On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

greater effectiveness of manure on shallow than on deep lands.
On the former it makes all the difference between a fair crop
and no crop at all, while on the latter it would merely add in
some degree to a fertility which is as yet very far from being
exhausted.

Methods of Cultivation—The system to which we have al-
luded as practised in the heavy black soils of Bombay is prac-
tically that pursued in these provinces. It differs materially
from the system followed in the North-West Provinces and the
Panjab ; but it is probable that, while improvement is possible,
the two countries, even in the hands of European tare: would
be tilled by widely different methods.

“Tor ordinary wheat-cultivation, operations commence in April or May,
when the surface of the ground is scarified with a hoe-plough. After the
setting in of the monsoons the surface is again scarified, once in July and
once in August, if, as is hoped, there is a jong enough "break in the rains
to allow the ground to become sufficiently dry to bear the plough-cattle. A
fourth hoeing—the most necessary of all—is given in September, towards
the end of the rains, the importance of which arises from the fact that loss
of moisture by evaporation is much checked if the surface of the ground be
in a loose condition. A final hoeing is given at the beginning of October,
after which the field is ready for sowing. This represents the preparation
which a careful cultivator will give his Jand under favourable circumstances,
and, as a rule, land seldom receives more than two or three hoeings before it
is sown.”

“The seed is occasionally sown broadcast and ploughed in, but is more
generally drilled in, the implement used for the purpose being an ordinary
plough, or, more properly, ‘grubber,’ fitted with a bamboo-tube alongside of
the stilt, down which the seed is dropped,”

Irrigation is almost confined to the sugar-cane and garden
crops. It is impossible, however, to say whether, with a greater
press of population, irrigation may not be gradually extended to
wheat.

Quantity of Seed and Yield.—From about 80 to 120 Ibs. of
seed to the acre prevails in these provinces. In connection with
the seed required in the North-West Provinces we have already
alluded to the confirmation that by experiment has been arrived
at regarding the quantity necessary. The idea that 120 Ibs. an
acre is high arises from a comparison with other Indian crops.
It is, in fact, very nearly that employed by the English farmer
—two bushels to the acre. We have, however, seen that in
Nasik only 24 to 80 lbs. are used to the acre.

The question of yield has now in many provinces of India
been put to a final test. From the supposed deterioration of
the soil in the Central Provinces it was observed that, if this
had actually occurred, the richest districts would long before this
time have endured the utmost deprivation. The Deputy Com-
missioner of Raipur, for example, showed that if the rice crop of

On the Conditions of Whet-Growing in India. AS

his district had been in reality what it was officially reported to
haye been, a large proportion of the population must have died
of starvation—and this, too, in a district notorious for plenty,
and from which there has been for many years past a regular
export of food grain of an exceptionally large amount. This ob-
servation aroused the attention of the authorities, and instructions
were accordingly issued that trial harvests were to be super-
vised by high responsible European officers. Certain fields that
had been cultivated by the owners were harvested in the pre-
sence of the officer appointed to supervise the experiment in each
district. A large number of these trial harvests have been

_ made, the result being that the normal yield per acre has been

determined with the utmost degree of accuracy, This has
shown a considerable increase in the yield of every crop experi-
mented with.

In the Raipur district the results of five harvests gave a
mean of 1,048 lbs.; of seventeen harvests in Nimar, 902 lbs. ;
and of thirteen in Narsinghpur, 647 lbs. The lowest yield
was that of Hoshangabad, where the mean of four harvests was
382 lbs. Without going into this matter in great detail, it may
be added that the opinions held, both by Government and the
public, as to the low yield in the Central Provinces have been
shown to have been founded on prejudiced returns. We have
in connection with the Panjab referred to the difficulty experi-
enced in getting the natives to furnish accurate information as
to their profits. It may fully be anticipated that like results
to the above will follow in Upper India when the Government
feels called upon to direct test harvests to be made in the Panjab
as have now taken place in the Central Provinces. We have
given the yield in the Panjab as it is at present stated to be,
but feel sure a higher average must prevail. Reverting to the
yield in the Central Provinces, it may, in conclusion, be said
that in Raipur the yield in the older reports is put down at 368
lbs. (instead of what it has now been found to be, 1,048 Ibs.),
and in Narsinghpur at 200 lbs. (instead of 647 lbs.). These are
test examples, and it may be inferred that in the poor districts
the early records were found to be relatively more nearly correct
than in the rich. Thus, for example, in Hoshangabad, instead
of 382 lbs., the return was fixed at 328 lbs.

The rents paid for wheat lands in these provinces vary
considerably, according to the nature of the soil and the facilities
of export. The average in Hoshangabad is Ir. 9a. 3p., in Saugor
Ir. 14a., in Bilaspur 14@., in Jubbulpur 27s. 4a. The effect of
railways is nowhere more marked than in the Central Provinces.
The peculiar wheats that are now grown are different from thesa
of former days. It is well known that

46 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

“Natives prefer for ordinary consumption the hard glutinous varieties to
the soft white varieties, which are principally in demand for the English
market. Before the commencement of the annual drain of wheat to Bombay,
soft wheat of the kind known as piss? was held in very low estimation, and
commanded a price which ruled from 8 to 10 per cent. lower than that of
the hard kathia variety. Now its price is at least 12 per cent. higher than
that of kathia. In old days it was no uncommon stipulation of a plough-
man contracting for service that he should not have to eat piss? wheat more
than twice a week. Now a ploughman who demanded it twice would
certainly not receive it. Piss? wheat is grown on lighter land than kathia,
and it is reported from both Saugor and Narsinghpur that the value of light
land has risen in considerably larger proportion than that of heavy land, in
consequence of the request in which press: wheat now stands for the Bombay
market,”

7. Mapras, Mysore, AND HYDERABAD.

It is impossible to deal with these provinces in detail. The
wheat of Madras is of little importance. According to the last
returns there were only 30,275 acres under that crop. There
are no returns of wheat in Coorg, but in Berar there were
808,515 acres under wheat in 1886, and in the Nizam’s
dominions wheat is also cultivated to a considerable extent.
Berar wheat resembles in many respects that of Bombay and
the Central Provinces, and it would, therefore, not seem desirable
to practically repeat what has already been written,

8. BENGAL, ASSAM, AND BuRMA,

There is no wheat grown in Lower Burma. We have seen
wheat being cultivated, to a small extent, in the Native State of
Manipur—a small territory between Burma and Assam. It is,
therefore, possible that wheat may even now be grown in Upper
Burma to some extent, but we have no definite information.
There is not the slightest reason, however, if cultivators could
be induced to settle in Upper Burma, but that a rival to Russia
and America might appear of which the world is ignorant at
present. A small amount of wheat is grown in Assam, but
only for home use—none has as yet been exported from that
province. The same remark might almost apply to the greater
part of Lower Bengal. A limited amount is annually grown
in the basins of the rivers, upon flat, periodically enriched lands,
but the amount is inconsiderable. In the upper portions of
Bengal, however, or the districts bordering on Behar, and in
Behar itself, the area under wheat is very considerable.

A long and instructive report has recently been issued by
the Bengal Agricultural Department, from which we gather the
area under wheat to be :—

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. 47

Behar . . ’ ‘ ’ ' ’ ‘ 678,500
Bhagulpur . : . ‘ ‘ ‘ . . 303,600
Burdwan . : . : . ‘ ‘ 4,709
Chutia Nagpur . ‘ . 1,500
Orissa : : F . . ? 1,100

Total * : : . 989,409

At the experimental farms in Bengal a most useful series
of experiments have recently been performed with the view to
determining the manures best suited for wheat. It is somewhat
surprising that in all similar experiments throughout India, on
the most diversified of soils, the result should have been the

same, namely, that the best returns of wheat are obtained by a
" manure containing nitrogen.

One of the finest wheats in India is that grown at Buxar,
in Bengal. Efforts, more or less successful, have been made
to encourage the cultivation of this wheat in every part of the
province where it is found possible.

The bulk of the wheats shipped, however, from Calcutta,
and which appear in the foreign markets as Bengal wheats, are
not grown in that province. It is impossible to look at the re-
turns of the wheat imported to and exported from Calcutta
during the past eight or ten years without feeling that there
must surely be some undercurrent affecting the trade far more
powerfully than the extension of railway communication.

Maunds. Maunds.

1e77-78 4%. --. (71,380,477 | 1881-82 .. 4 ~ “3 11,07,86,269
1878-79. . . 26,46,683 | 1882-88... . 73,08,081
1870-805. 1,» 37,03,514 | 188F-84 on... 5 3,1919,086
meer. =. . 71,18,198 | 1884-85... --.. ...; +. 46,97,189

These were the imports into Calcutta during the years indi-
cated. But taking the two chief provinces from which the
wheat is obtained, we have the following result :—

Behar North-West Provinces
Maunds Maunds
1877-78 . ; : : 20,03,787 31,38,034
1878*79:.. ; ; a 983,645 11,03,382
1879-80 . 0 : E : 16,09,729 14,92,312
1880-81 . - : ; 39,75,726 18,90,523
1881-82 . - 4 : 47,25,218 45,89,877
1882-83 . ; : . * 22,42,249 43,33,111
- 1883-84 . ; - ; A 33,54,234 70,47,837
1884-85 . A ‘ : ‘ 9,91,048 30,81,031

Are these fluctuations natural, and do the figures indicate a
decline in the trade ; or, in its erratic course, shall we see it
exceeding the maximum hitherto attained? Of course, the

48 On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India.

railways recently opened out have diverted to Bombay and
Karachi a large proportion of the wheat that used to find its
way to Calcutta.

There is, however, a strong feeling that the severity with
which the Calcutta merchants seem to wish to preserve the
minimum refraction, at five per cent., is distinctly operating in
the direction of lowering rather than enhancing the trade.
This is too large a question to deal with in this place. Its
issues extend to Europe. We were once walking through
the Exchange where samples are exhibited ‘on which the
Mark Lane trade is transacted. One of the most influential
corn-merchants in town thrust his hand into a sack of Indian
wheat and exhibited the dirt it contained. Pointing to the
gram in one sample, the barley in another, he remarked,
‘*Could you send us your wheats free of mud, and not adulte-
rated with these other grains? It would command a much
higher market.” The reply might fairly well have been given,
“When you use your influence with your Indian agents to
abolish a fixed rate of refraction, Indian wheat within a twelve-
month will reach the market in a perfectly clean condition.”

It would be absurd to expect a cultivator to sell clean wheat
when he would be paid exactly at the same rate as if it con-
tained five per cent. of dirt. That is precisely the position;
and the Bombay Chamber of Commerce appears to be giving
indications of a desire to lower the rate of refraction to two per
cent. Why not abolish it entirely, and pay lower rates for all
adulterated wheats ? One Bombay firm has announced that it
will pay at a higher rate for clean wheat than for wheat contain-
ing dirt and impurities.

A most elaborate investigation has been instituted in every
province of India into the question of this adulteration. With
few exceptions, indeed, it has been found that the cultivator
takes no part in the trade of adulteration. His methods of
winnowing and storing are imperfect, but there is no induce-
ment to modify this. He can clean now his grain, by the
means at his disposal, considerably below the rate of refraction.
He makes no gain by producing clean ; on the contrary, he is
perfectly well aware that the middle-men employed by the
exporting firms adulterate the grain before making it over to
the firms that pay them at a minimum rate of five per cent.
refraction.

An extensive correspondence has passed on this subject.
The Indian Chambers of Commerce keep recommending to
Government that the only action that can be taken is to urge
upon the cultivators to grow only the better-class wheats, to
avoid growing mixed crops, and to endeayour to produce as

|

;

On the Conditions of Wheat-Growing in India. Ag

élean a grain as possible. For what purpose? That specially
prepared particles of mud, to the extent of the five per cent.,
may be added by the middle-man at the cost of the cultivator,
who is paid as if it had been there originally. After all, the
export trade is by no means the largest market for Indian
wheat. The returns from every corner of the empire are full of
notices to the effect that ‘‘ no wheat is exported from this dis-
trict, although it is largely grown.”

A careful perusal of very nearly everything that has been
written on Indian wheat leaves the impression that but for the
effect of the Indian exports on the English farmer we should
have known as little to-day of the wheat trade as we do of the
rice—a trade that continues to bear a heavy export duty of over
fourteen per cent. Rice is practically the only article of Indian
produce (opium being excepted) that bears an export duty ; and,
in spite of all this, more rice is exported than wheat.

We have endeavoured to convey an impartial impression of
the position and character of the cultivation of wheat in India.
We have shown that India possesses immense natural capabilities,
that her commercial facilities are improving, her population on
the increase, and her agriculture (if anything) too prosperous in
relation to her manufactures. But we have also sliown that,
while this is so, there is little to warrant the alarm that the
selfish and primitive modes of agriculture pursued by her
farming classes will soon lead to a disastrous reduction in the
fertility of her soil. These primitive modes will no doubt be
replaced, with the advance of national wealth and education, by
more scientific systems of cultivation; but even when this point
has been reached, we shall still be justified in inferring from our
premisses that the agricultural area of her territory will not have
been exhausted, nor its fruitfulness reduced below the point of
affording employment to her numerous peasantry. Without

_ entering, however, too elaborately into the debatable theme of

the deterioration of the Indian soil—a deterioration which, if
it exists at all, has presumably taken place during the lapse of

| centuries—it may safely be asserted that no new light has as

yet been thrown on the subject, no valid argument adduced to

justify the anticipation that a second hundred years will find the

wheatfields of India less fruitful than they were a century ago.
The English farmer, then, would err as much by giving too
anxious a credence to the alarmist outcries of an immediate
reversion of India’s agricultural prosperity as by indulging in
a too sanguine anticipation of a rapid development disastrous to
European agriculture. We have hinted that breakers are seen
ahead even now in the preponderance of agricultural over indus-
VOL. XXIV.—S. S. E

50 . The Indian Wheat Trade.

trial enterprise. But when the throb of the steam-mill shall
resound in every corner of India, a decline in European imports
will occur, together with a marked falling-off in the annual pay-
ments for interest on foreign capital. This state of affairs, when
it does come about, will leave a smaller surplus of produce for
export; but as long as agriculture gives employment to the vast
majority of the people, so long must the demand for European
goods be paid for by agricultural exports. Wheat is remune-
rative now; but when it ceases to be so, other crops will be sub-
stituted, and agricultural enterprise thus continued. The people
of India have few wants. When it will not pay them to sell
wheat, they can live contentedly for a time on the produce of
their fields, and wait for more favourable openings.

Til.—The Indian Wheat Trade. By Witii4M E. Bear,
Rydal Road, Streatham,

THE extent to which the price of wheat in this country has been
affected by imports from India is a question upon which a great
difference of opinion exists. On the one hand, it is contended
that, as the quantity of wheat received from India is small in
comparison with the total foreign supply, the great fall in values
which has taken place during the last ten years cannot be attri-
buted to the Indian contributions, especially as they have fallen
off for the last two years from the maximum attained in 1885;
while, on the other hand, it is urged that a comparatively small
addition to supplies previously, as a rule, in excess of the demand,
is quite sufficient to account for a great depreciation. Now,
in considering these contrary opinions, it is first to be pointed
out that the Indian exports to Europe, and not to the United
Kingdom alone, should be considered in estimating their effect
upon prices here, because supplies from a new source to any
importing country in continental Europe set free an equal
quantity in one or more of the exporting countries for our use,
if we require it. For instance, if India sends a million quarters
of wheat to Italy, which Russia would have supplied if it had
not been for India, Russia can send us a million quarters more.
than she otherwise could have spared for our use. This is an
important point, for, although the supplies of Indian wheat to
this country fell off slightly in 1886, and greatly in 1887, the’
total exports from India in the financial year 1886-87 were
greater than they had ever been before.

The following table is given in the latest issue of the “ State=
ment of the Trade of British India ” :—

.

The Indian Wheat Trade. 51

TWELVE YEARS’ Exports OF WHEAT FROM INDIA.

a sh | J
Year Gwial Ea hee i Year Cwts. | Eas
1875-76 2,498,185 901,026 1881-82 19,863,520 | 8,604,081

1876-77 | 5,583,336 1,956,333 1882-83 | 14,144,407 6,068,934
1877-78 | 6,340,150 2,856,990 | 1883-84 | 20,956,495 8,877,561
1878-79 | 1,044,709 513,779 1884-85 15,830,754 6,309,140
1879-80 | 2,195,550 1,121,015 1885-86 | 21,060,519 8,002,350
1880-81 | 7,444,375 3,277,942 1886-87 | 22,263,348 8,625,876

It was not until 1881-82 that the exports from India became
sufficient to attract much attention. Previous to that date they

~had only thrice amounted to as much as a million quarters in a

year—in 1876-77, when they were a little over 14 million quar-
ters; in 1877-78, when the quantity was about 14 million; and
in 1878-79, when it was not quite 13 million. In 1881-82,
however, there was a sudden advance to over 44 million quarters,
or, to give the exact quantity, to 4,584,000 qrs. In subsequent
years the quantity has been three times in excess of that for
1881-82, and twice below it, and the largest totals have been
4,860,120: qrs. in 1885-86, and 5,137,693 qrs. in 1886-87.!
Now, although India sent wheat to seventeen countries and
colonies outside Europe in the latter year, no less than 4,757,172
qrs. out of the total exports came to Europe, while only 380,521
qrs. (of which Egypt received 304,074 qrs.) were shipped to
extra~European ports. The proportions of the European supply
of wheat from India in the latest year for which the details
are published are given in the following table, in which the
hundredweights of the official returns have been converted into
quarters, according to the calculation adopted by the Board of
Trade :—

Exports oF WHEAT FROM INDIA, 1886-87.

Qrs.
United Kingdom e r ° 2 s ‘ 2,231,060
Italy - = ® ® a e ‘ « 1,202,840
France ¢ = ~ = - - - « 647,000
Belgium , - “ : = - = « 6542720
Holland 2 e ry e e a r . 47,756
Spain ° . e r ° ‘ + . 30,034
Malta , S ‘ - = ‘ e ® 19,403
Gibraltar - = “ > n ° 5 12,540
Portugal ‘ a ‘ ‘ P 7 4 10,800
Austria , ~ a - _ a A = 558
Greece . . . e . ‘ . . 461

All Europe . . ° > ‘ ° « 4,757,172
Other countries , ; 4 - r « 880,521

Total . . ‘ . ‘ . . » 5,137,693

? Another financial year has just closed, and, although the official figures are
not yet available, it is known that the exports, in consequence of the deficiency

£2

52 - The Indian Wheat Trade.

The other countries and colonies are Egypt, Arabia, Aus-
tralia, Mauritius, Aden, Turkey in Asia, Straits Settlements,
Réunion, Ceylon, Abyssinia, Zanzibar, Cape Colony, Persia,
Mekran and Sonmiani, China, South America, and Mozambique.
Of course, the quantities exported to some of these countries,
which are named in the order of the quantities sent to them,
received quite insignificant contributions. Indeed, bearing in
mind the close connection of Egypt with the European wheat
supply, Indian exports of that grain might, without causing
much misapprehension, be reckoned as all for Europe.

In addition to wheat, India exports a small quantity of flour,
but none of it comes to Europe. In 1886-87 the amount was
319,143 ewts., from which imports of 22,687 cwts. must be
deducted, leaving the net exports 296,456 cwts. The quantity
exported has increased five-fold since 1882-83. The “ Miller,”
a journal which has published many valuable articles on the
Indian wheat trade, regards the extension of flour-making in
India not only without apprehension on behalf of British millers,
but as actually advantageous to them. In an article on the
“Oriental ” Flour Mill, Bombay, in its issue of December 5 last,
the ‘ Miller” said :—

“‘ The large supply of wheat in India convinced some of our most enter-
prising milling engineers that it was advisable to erect mills to manufacture
flour in India for native consumption and to compete with American flour
in the far East, and thus, without building up a dangerous rival to the mill-
ing interest at home, help the English milling trade in their competition
with American flour by reducing the profits that the American millers are
obtaining in China and Japan. Flour manufactured entirely from Indian

wheats would not be acceptable to the home market on account of the
peculiar feature in the gluten and the aromatic flavour in the flour.”

It has been pointed out that the exports of wheat from India
were not considerable until 1881-82, and, whether it be merely
a coincidence, or more than that, it is a fact that the average
annual price of wheat,in England has been permanently below
45s. a quarter only since 1882; It has further-been remarked
that we must consider the total supplies of Indian wheat to
Europe, and not those received in ‘England’ only, in endeayour-
ing to form a fair. estimate. of their effect upon prices here. Let
us now see the proportions of our foreign wheat supplies received
from India and the other principal sources in the calendar years
most nearly corresponding to the Indian financial years referred
to specially above. .As the Indian financial, year-ends on
March 31, and the new crop does not begin to moye to any
considerable extent before.the middle of that month, it is clear

of the wheat crop of 1887, have been much smaller than those of either of the
two previous years.

The Indian Wheat Trade. 53

that we should compare our imports in 1881 with Indian
exports for 1881-82, and so on with later years. In 1881, then,
we imported from India 1,693,560 qrs. of wheat; in 1885, the
year of maximum as far as English imports only are concerned,
the quantity was 2,809,676 qrs.; in 1886 it was 2,548,725 qrs. ;
and in 1887 there was a fall to 1,963,637 qrs. In the following
table these quantities appear with those from the other principal
sources (flour in wheat equivalents included), each source of as
much as a million quarters being named in the short list :—

WHEAT AND FLOUR IMPORTED TO THE UNITED KINGDOM.

From 1881 1885 1886 1887

Qrs. Qrs. Qrs. Qrs.
India . or ee ke 1,693,560 | 2,809,676 | 2,544,725 1,963,637
United States. . . « .| 10,547,144 | 8,985,730 | 8,983,880 | 11,615,950
Pag ee | 947,147 | 2,788,244 | 872,829 1,282,312
Qthersources. , .. ; 3,276,301 4,175,562 | 2,782,664 3,220,108
16,464,152 | 18,759,212 15,184,098 | 18,082,007

These figures show that our receipts of wheat from India,
which in only one previous year had been as much as 5 per
cent. of our total foreign supplies, rose to 10°3 per cent. in 1881,
to 15 per cent. in 1885, and to 16-7 per cent. in 1886. Surely
such proportions are large enough to account for a great fall in
prices, considering that they represented receipts from a new
source of supply. It is true that the proportion fell to 10-9 per
cent. in 1887, when American supplies were unusually large
and Russian contributions considerable; but that was after
prices had been brought down to an extremely low level, and is
to be explained by the unusual deficiency of the crop of Indian
wheat in 1887, following a crop below average in 1886.

Moreover, we received more wheat from Russia on account
of extensive Indian exports to Italy than would otherwise have
come tous. During the three years between 1881 and 1885,
for which the quantities of our imports of Indian wheat have
not been given, they averaged 2,130,284 qrs. per annum, and
since 1881, including the diminished receipts in 1887, the
average has been 2 ,284,814 qrs. per annum. As we had not
felt the want of these new supplies, there was no natural demand
for them, except at the expense of other exporting countries ;
and, as the other countries had prepared to meet our wants to
the full, the large surplusage from India produced the effect
always to be expected from a glut in the markets.

The full effect of the Indian supply upon prices, however,
as already intimated, is only to be estimated by considering

’

54 ~ The Indian Wheat Trade.

the quantities sent to Europe. Now, during the six years
ending with 1886-87, the average of those quantities exceeded
4,000,000 qrs. per annum. In proportion to the total wheat
supply of Europe, the quantity is a small one; but itisa very
large one to come on top of supplies already ample. It is im-
portant to notice that the period of the commencement of large
exports of wheat from India to Europe was also the time at
which wheat-production in the United States reached its maxi-
mum. In the three years following 1881 the quantity of wheat
produced in the country last named was greater than it had

been in any three previous years, or has been in the three ©

succeeding years. Therefore there could not have been a time
when the opening of a new source of wheat supply for Europe
would have had a greater effect upon prices.

As the whole of continental Europe imports considerably
less wheat and flour from outside countries than the United
Kingdom alone, the proportion of the Indian contribution to
the total European supply is larger than it has been shown to
be in the case of this country, and has, consequently, a greater
effect upon prices. Therefore, even if our receipts of Indian
wheat should continue to decline, it will not be right to assume
that the effect of exports from India is diminished, unless
the quantities received in continental Europe also fall off. In
1882-83 India sent only 40,630 qrs. of wheat to Italy; whereas
in 1886-87 the quantity was 1,202,840 qrs. There has been an
annual increase during the period; but more than three-fourths
of the augmentation occurred in the last year, when our receipts
from India fell off. The explanation, as is pretty generally
known, is that Indian wheat has been found peculiarly well
fitted for the manufacture of macaroni and other pdtes alimen-
taires. For the same reason France has increased her consump-
tion of Indian wheat, though not to the same extent as Italy.

It is scarcely necessary to say that I do not attribute the
whole of the great fall in the price of wheat to the supplies
from India. The fall has been general, nearly all commodities
having been subjected to it, and no one could expect wheat to
be an exception. But the fall in the price of that grain has
been much in excess of the general fall in values, and the ex-
cessive depreciation, I believe, has been principally caused by
the great increase in the exports of wheat from India to Europe.
How that increase itself is to be accounted for, in the face of
falling prices, is a question to be discussed hereafter. It is
contended by some persons that the fall in prices has been
occasioned by the diminished expense of producing and export-
ing wheat; but the explanation is obviously insufficient, because
the combined savings referred to are certainly not equal to the

The Indian Wheat Trade. 55

fall in price. That this statement is true may easily be proved
in relation to the wheat-supply of America, the country which
has gained most of all countries from the saving in expenses
referred to.

The average “farm value” of wheat in that country, as
stated by the Department of Agriculture, is outside the fluc-
tuations of cost of transport, and the average farm value of a
bushel of wheat in America fell from 119°3 cents in 1881, or
from an average of 102 cents for the five years ending with 1881,
to 68-7 cents in 1886. Besides, decrease in the cost of production
and transport only affects prices, in the case of a commodity like
“wheat at any rate, by increasing supplies, and supplies in the
United States during the last eight years have been growing
smaller, while the population has increased by more than eleven
and a half millions. In fact, the American acreage, produce,
and exports of wheat have all decreased. As this statement has
an important bearing upon the effect of Indian wheat supplies
upon prices, it is desirable to show its bases in figures. Below
I give the acreage, produce, and exports for the last eight years
in two periods of four years each, with the explanation that the
exports are for the financial years ending June 30, while the
other figures are for the calendar years named :—

AREA, Propuce, AND Exports OF WHEAT, UNITED STATEs,

Year Area Produce Exports
Acres Bushels Bushels 3
Lets i a ee 37,986,717 498,549,868 180,934,478
eget Se TET. 37,709,020 380,280,090 186,475,251
USS2ee tere) ooo « 37,067,194 504,185,470 122,597,997
HOGS. sha & afar) 36,457,593 421,086,160 148,785,696
Total first 4 years. . -- 1,804,101,588 638,793,422
Average 4. ts . 37,305,131 451,025,397 159,698,355
DC 39,475,885 512,765,000 111,636,302
moo © bit 6! a 34,189,246 357,112,000 132,851,835
TGGH “Wily aw 3. 36,806,184 457,218,000 94,913,395
Teen) © titer << 37,400,000 450,000,000 153,804,929
Total last 4 years. . — 1,777,095,000 493,206,461
Average «. . - % 36,967,804 444,273,750 123,301,615

The exports, it is scarcely necessary to state, are not those
from the crops given side by side with them, but in each case
from the crop of the preceding year. That of course does not
affect my object, which is simply to show the totals and averages
for the last eight years, and there are no statistics showing

56 | The Indian Wheat Trade.

exports for the calendar years. The figures prove beyond all
question that the fall in the price of wheat which has taken
place since 1883 is not due to increased production in, or exports
from, the United States, Similarly it might be shown that the
European supplies have not been materially increased during the
last four years, as compared with the previous four, from any
other extra-European country besides India. More than this,
it might be shown that the total European supplies from extra-
Kuropean countries besides India during the last four years
have been smaller than they were for the preceding four years.
A glance at the figures relating to the principal exporting
countries suffices to prove this statement; but it would be
tedious to go into all the details. It is well known, however,
that all but a small proportion of the exports referred to come
to the United Kingdom, and it may in a small space be shown
that our supplies, without those from India, have been smaller
during the past four years than during the previous four.
According to the Statistical Abstract we received wheat and
flour, all reckoned as wheat in hundredweights, in the following
quantities from extra-EHuropean countries besides India :—In
the first four years the United States sent 175,588,072 ewts.,
and in the second four, 162,525,858; Canada sent 13,288,027
ewts. in the first, and 13,921,025 in the second period ; Austra-
lasia, 13,804,333 and 12,989,661; Egypt, 4,028,887 and
1,349,916; and Chili, 6,639,276 and 6,591,595. The totals
are 213,348,595 ewts. for the first four years, and 197,378,055
for the second. From ‘other countries,” not specified, the
totals were only 725,164 cwts. in the first four years, and about
2,031,796 in the second—the latter quantity not being. quite
certain, as it is necessary to refer to the Board of Trade Réturns
for the figures relating to 1887, and the “ other countries” in
that publication do not correspond with those in the Statistical
Abstract, which enumerates more countries. If we add these
amounts to avoid all question, although they include small
quantities from Europe, the totals stand at 214 073,759 and
199,409,851, showing a reduction of 14,663, 908 ewts. far the
four years ending with 1887, as compared with the-total for the
four years ending with 1883. If we include imports from the
Continent of Europe the drop is greater still. Our receipts
from all sources except India during the last four years have
been 22,709,805 ewts. (or 5,240,724 qrs.) less than they were
during the previous four years. Including India, our imports
have been a little over three million quarters less, as we required
less foreign wheat, our last four harvests having been greatly
superior to the four ending with 1883, every one of which was
under average as far as the wheat crop was concerned. Indeed,

The Indian Wheat Trade. 57

they were four “lean years” for Europe as a whole, and, as long
as they lasted, the heayy imports, even including those from
India, failed to bring down the average price below 41s. 7d. a
quarter; but, in the last four years of generally good or fair
wheat crops, the supplies, although diminished, have been re-
latively too great. If the Indian supply to Europe of about
17,000,000 quarters during the period had not been forthcoming,
I believe that the price would have kept above 40s. a quarter.

How is it that India has been able to increase her exports
of wheat in the face of declining prices, which have reduced
the acreage and production of wheat in so great a wheat-grow-
ing country as the United States? The answer is very simple.
It is that the price of wheat in India has not been reduced at
all. Upon that point there is no room for doubt, however
much difference of opinion may be called forth in accounting
for the fact. Official prices taken from local markets, which
best indicate the prices received by growers, will hereafter be
referred to; but first it is desirable to show the fluctuations
of the prices of a particular standard variety of wheat at a
particular place. In the official returns issued by the Indian
Government, there are lists of prices at Calcutta and Bombay
for certain years, but not for the last two; and as I have been
favoured by a large shipping firm with a, fortnightly list of the
prices of No. 2 Club wheat at Calcutta for the ten years ending
with 1885, and for the first half of 1886, and have elsewhere
obtained more recent prices, it appears preferable to use these
records, which, as they were obtained for commercial purposes,
are more likely to be accurate than the official returns. I give
below the range of prices per maund of 82 Ibs. (8254 lbs.
exactly, but commercially reckoned at 82 lbs.—and conveniently
so, as there are exactly 6 maunds of 82 lbs. in a quarter of
492 lbs., the weight at which Indian cargoes are sold in
London) :—

RANGE oF Prices For No. 2 Crus Wueat at Catcurta.

Year Rs DP Rs. Q. ps
1876 —, . : . aoe Om tom 2 4s O
S77. (s 4 5 : SE Us apy AG) eee
METS. *. : : : vor ae ee 9S) 120
1879 3 om Gs OM Ae Sas
1880 : FE OR es Ye,
1881 : ee lee Fi i aul en O
1882 - emi OL vay eee tO
1883 : elo ON an) Se eee
1884 : QT. eek en ee G
1886. . ‘ ; 22) Sy00! See Zelo) 0
1886 (half year) : hte Omagie Boho: AG
1S8ie * ¥. . . . ice Omen 5 ole 0
1888 (Feb.) , : ; pee On O 212 0

58 ~ The Indian Wheat Trade.

The prices for 1887 and February 1888 are not in the
fortnightly list, but have been supplied by the courtesy of Mr.
Klopp, of the firm of Messrs. Kelly & Co., who are extensive
shippers of Indian wheat. Mr. Klopp was resident in Calcutta
during 1887, and he was the Chairman of the Calcutta Corn
and Seed Association, so that his memory as to the general
run of prices in that year is not likely to be at fault. The
figures show that, although prices were higher in certain years
of scarcity than they have been recently, there has been a rise
rather than a fall for the end as compared with the beginning
of the period, and that the tendency of prices has been generally
upwards during the recent years of the greatest expansion of
‘exports. Seeing that the expenses of inland transport have
been greatly reduced, as will be presently shown, it may be
inferred that the growers of wheat have lately received consider-
ably better prices than they obtained at the beginning of the
period.

On the day of my visit to Messrs. Kelly’s office, Mr. Klopp
had received a telegram stating that No. 2 Club wheat was sell-
ing at 27s. 12a. per maund, equal to 16rs. 8a. per quarter, in
Calcutta. At the current rate of exchange this was equivalent
to about 23s. per quarter, and the price in London was only
32s. 6d., or not enough to allcw the wheat to be bought at the
Calcutta quotation, low as the rate of exchange was. Indeed,
our prices have for some time been too low for Indian wheat,
and very little has been sent during the last few months. Mr.
Klopp is of opinion that the ryots can profitably grow wheat to
sell in Calcutta at 2 rupees per maund, which is equal to 12
rupees per quarter. The price of the same class of wheat at
Cawnpore was lr. 13a. per maund at the same date as that
above referred to, when 27s. 12a. per maund was the price at
Calcutta. The distance from Cawnpore to Calcutta is 684 miles,
and the rail charge is at the rate of 8} annas per maund; but
there are apparently other expenses, including dealers’ profits, to
make the difference in the quotations of the two markets up to
15 annas. Mr. Klopp, like all other authorities on India but one
whom I have consulted, says that the purchasing power of the
rupee is greater than it was some years ago, even in relation to
manufactured goods, such as the cotton pieces which the ryot
buys for clothing.

Some important evidence upon the points now under con-
sideration was obtained last autumn by the Calcutta branch of
the firm of Messrs. Ralli Brothers, the largest buyers of Indian
wheat in the world, and I am favoured with permission to
publish it. The report, sent to the headquarters of the firm in
London, was headed ‘‘ Comparative Prices of Food Grains in India,

The Indian Wheat Trade. 59

&c.,” and is a summary of voluminous statements from all their
Indian agencies. The writers state that a long time ago the Cal-
cutta Chamber of Commerce attempted to investigate the subject,

cand that lately they had been asked by the President of the

Chamber, Mr. R. Steel, if they could obtain from the interior such
information as was specially wanted by him, owing to a con-
troversy which he had for some time been carrying on with
Mr. O’Conor, Assistant-Secretary in the Indian Department of
Finance and Commerce; Mr. Steel’s contention being that of late
years the ryots have obtained better returns from their land than
formerly, while Mr. O’Conor held the contrary opinion. Messrs.
Ralli add: ‘‘The information. we have gathered is considered
particularly valuable, because it has been gathered from reliable
sources, whilst the Government sources of information are in many
ways unreliable, and particularly so since the natives who are
applied to are very reticent in speaking the truth, because they
think it will go against them in being assessed by the Govern-
ment.”

The first question asked was this: “Are prices of food
grains of late years higher or lower than they were years ago?”
Unfortunately the answer all down the column is merely, ‘See
Lists,” and the lists were not sent over from Calcutta. It is
obvious, however, from the context that the prices were generally
returned as higher in 1887 than formerly. Another question
was as to the source of information in each case, and the replies
may be summarised as being to the effect that the information
was obtained in some cases from the agents’ books, in others from
their bazaar dealers, and in two or three from official sources,
as well as one or other of the two sources already named. The
other questions and replies may be given as they stand :—

Is the present cost| Does the ryot obtain Over what
oftransport higher} a better or worse | period does your

District or lower than it | price for his produce} information

was years.ago? j|than he did yearsago ? extend ?

J LILT el re Lower Better 1878-87
Sahebgunge..... . Ditto Ditto 1872-87
REE SS Se eee Ditto About same 1879-86
eagapere. SS Higher Perhaps worse 1876-87
aupbdipore s.r. es, Ditto Probably worse 1866-87
Hurda.... . . . .| Aboutsame | Probably better 1882-87
een Po, FS CL Lower Better 1877-87
ecautin, Terk wih ws: 2 Ditto Ditto :

AIDE OW Sa sit Cannot say Ditto s

BOIPOIG . oe Ditto Ditto 1876-87
ene ees a Ditto Q) 1877-87
RPMI Ires NS re Gow. fe Same Better 1873-S7
BeeEOr. =... %.. .» «|, Aboutsame » Ditto 1877-87

MerOzepore . . . sk Ditto Ditto 1868-87

60 . The Indian Wheat Trade,

The following general remarks are appended :—

“ Our agents cannot supply accurate information as to the increase in the
area under cultivation, and we have not been questioned as to this, We
know, however, that the cultivation, chiefly of wheat, has greatly increased,
and the conclusion, therefore, to be derived is that of late years ryots must
haye obtained a better return from their land than previously, which is also
mentioned in a general way in some replies. The prices quoted (unfortu-
nately not forthcoming) are naturally those ruling in the central markets,
and those obtained by the ryots must be inferred from the information sup-
plied about the cost of transport from the districts. The comparative cost
also of production, which, we think,must be in favour of recent over previous
years, has not been here touched upon.”

The districts from which these reports were received repre-
sent all the most important wheat-growing provinces of India,
including the Punjab, the North-Western Provinces and Oudh,
the Central Provinces, and Bombay. It will be noticed that
five of the reports state that the cost of transport has been
diminished, while four represent it as the same or about the
same, three are doubtful, and two declare it to be higher. With
respect to one of the last, I have directly contradictory evidence,
which can scarcely be challenged, as far as cost of transport is
dependent upon rail rates. The Secretary of the East Indian
Railway Company has favoured me with the following com-
parative statement of rates on his line from three of the most
important centres of the wheat trade :—

Rates FoR WHEAT FROM THE UNDER-MENTIONED STATIONS TO
Howrau (CAucurra) puRING JANuARY 1871, 1880, anp 1888.

Stations —— 1871 1880 1888

Rs. a) Rs. a. p Re. @. "ps

(xe eee 116 0 0; 80 0 0} 53 O O

Delhi (miles, 954) . jperton . . .| S31 9 3 |:202 aaron
(per quarter .| 61510] 413 2] 3 3 1

(perluOQmaunds; 95 0 0| 63 0 0) 53 0 0

Cawnpore (miles, 684). aes ton... »| 2613 94°17 02) Spiele
per quarter. 511 4%. 312. Sylceesiee

perl00maunds} 52 0 0} 38 0 0| 27 0 O

Patna (miles, 332) . {per ton. . .| 14 2 6/10) Garou eee
per quarter . 3.2 2.) 2 ee Otet ae S

In 1871, the rates were enormous; but they have been
reduced until, for 1888, they stand in two cases at less than
half the amounts charged in 1871, and in the third case to
little more than half. It is clear that there is no rule as to
equality of mileage rates on the railway, the charge from
Cawnpore being the same at the present time as from Delhi,
which is 270 miles further from Howrah, the goods station of Cal-
cutta., The reductions are much beyond the average, having been

The Indiai Wheat Trade. 61

brought about by competition with lines serving Bombay ; but
reductions great or small have been general, and those affecting
important centres of the wheat districts have been greatest.

With respect to the replies to the question as to the prices
obtained by the ryots, it will be noticed that nine are to the
effect that they are better, one that they are probably better,
one that they are about the same, one doubtful, and two “ per-
haps” or “ probably ” worse. The last two are from the same
districts in which the cost of transport is declared to be higher,
and one of these has been shown to be mistaken as far as rail
rates are concerned, Ifthe price of wheat at Calcutta has gone
- up rather than down during the last ten years, and the rail rate
from Cawnpore has been reduced by more than 3? rupees per
quarter, it is difficult to imagine how the price in that market
can be worse than it has been generally since 1871. Possibly
the advantage of reduced cost of transport may have been re-
tained by dealers, and not allowed to benefit the ryots, in
the districts referred to, and in that case the apparent conflict
of evidence may be explained. At any rate, the evidence from
ten out of thirteen districts from which a definite reply came is
in favour of the ryot having obtained of late a better price for
his wheat than he formerly received.

Fortunately we are not left to conjecture as to this question
of the course of prices, as they are published annually by the
Indian Government, and from some tables showing prices in
several districts of the most important provinces for many years
past I have worked out the mean prices for each province for
1881, when the export trade first became important, and 1886,
the latest year for which the prices are available. The prices
are in seers (2 lbs.) per rupee, and it will of course be under-
stood that the fewer seers are given for a rupee the higher the
price is. is bila Sa I dS

Prick oF WHEAT IN Srers PER Rupes.

Province *| NoJof districts * 1881 1885

REE wal ite een tye» 13 17718 WAS
North-Western Provinces . . 12 17°34 16:59
Oudh . Usal e 3 19°83 19°84
Punjab SMeMEre avila) 6 15°86 19°37
Central Provinces. . .. . 3 26°55 20°65
Madras er 7 12:50 12-90
Bombay . 8 13:14 13°81
Mean for these Provinces. — 17:49 17°18

The prices given are averages for each year, and the figures
aboye represent the mean of these averages for each province.

62 ' The Indian Wheat Trade.

It will be noticed that the price was higher in 1886 than in
1881 in the three most important wheat provinces—the Punjab,
the North-Western Provinces, and the Central Provinces ; that
it was practically the same in Oudh; and that it was higher for
all the provinces together. Yet the price had fallen in England
from 45s. 4d. per quarter in 1881 to 31s. in 1886.

Mr. W. J. Harris, who is a high authority upon the question
before us, commenting in a letter to the present writer on Messrs.
Ralli’s returns, says that the cost of transport “‘ evidently means
cost of transport from the local place of largest growth to the
particular market named, and not transport from that market
to Great Britain.” I have taken it as meaning transport to
Calcutta or some other port from which Messrs. Ralli ship
wheat ; but it is quite possible that merely local transport may
have been in the mind of some of the witnesses. As to the
price obtained by the ryot, Mr. Harris remarks: “ It evidently
refers to the price on the farm, and not to the price at the
market town named.” He adds: ‘‘ The whole information goes
to prove that, as a general rule, the Indian grower is more
satisfied with the prices of to-day in rupees than he was with
the prices in rupees eight to fifteen years ago.”

Upon this question of prices a gentleman holding a high
position in India, whose name I am not at liberty to mention,
says that, in consequence of the growth of wheat for export, the
staple food of the people in some parts of Northern India
has gone up in price from 20 to 25 per cent. since last year,
and he gives the following prices, as current in the North-
Western Provinces in January 1887 and 1888, in support of his
statement :—

Prices, Seers (2 lbs.) PER Rupes.

January 1887 January 1888
Wheat e ¢ ry ° . e ’ 16 12
Gram (peas) ° ° e e a e 26 17
Barley . or hg ig? Sig ‘ » 26 16
Bajra (millet) . e e e s » 20 15
Jouar ,, © on me a. gure: 17
Rice (cheapest sor i os - “>= ao 10

The authority referred to deems the general rise in the price
of food here shown—33 per cent. in the cases of wheat and rice
—of graye importance, as showing how entirely the people are
dependent upon the character of the year’s crops for the pre-
vention of famine. To quote his actual words: ‘The wheat
export trade has withdrawn the stores the people usually kept,
and now a bad season brings them at once face to face with
famine.” Some independent testimony, that of Mr. Klopp,
confirms the statement just made as to the exhaustion of the
stores of wheat usually kept,

The Indian Wheat Trade. 63

Mr. Klopp, in February last, said that in the districts supply-
ing Calcutta, of which the North-Western Provinces rank as
the most important, the supply of last year’s wheat was nearly
exhausted. Never before had he known the pits in which the
ryots store their wheat to be nearly all empty, as they were
at that time. Now, although the people do not subsist on wheat
to a great extent in ordinary circumstances, they are accustomed
to keep a good reserve stock of it as a security against famine,
in the event of a failure in the crops of rice and other common
kinds of grain. The price of wheat has obviously been high
enough ‘to tempt them to throw aside their usual caution, and
the dangerous position in which they thus placed themselves
raises the question—by no means a new one—whether the export
trade in wheat is altogether advantageous to the cultivators.

Messrs. Ralli, in their “‘ general remarks,” confidently express
the opinion that the growth of wheat in India has increased, at
least in the districts embraced by their inquiry. Now we have
not long had the advantage of agricultural statistics for India
deserving of anything like confidence, and therefore the com-
parison of the existing wheat area with that of previous years
cannot be carried far back. As far as we can be guided by
official figures, there is no reason to suppose that any great
increase in the wheat area of India as a whole has taken place
during the last four or five years. Nevertheless, Messrs. Ralli
may be perfectly right in concluding that there has been a
great increase in the districts immediately contiguous to the
railways, and, indeed, I am assured by other authorities that
this is the case. According to the Indian Revenue and Agri-
cultural Department, the “normal area” of wheat in British
India is about 26,000,000 acres. In the following table the
official estimates of the normal area and the acreage for the last
two years are given :—

Province Normal area | Areain 1886 | Area in 1887
acres acres acres

EBnpjab ... a..'- , 7,000,000 | 6,970,600 | 5,943,400
North-Western Pieces and Ondh 4 5,037,000 | 5,240,381 4,962,942
Central Provinces . .,. . . .| 4,000,000} 3,902,707 | 4,297,949
CentralIndia . . . - « « « -| 2,500,000 | 3,500,000 | 3,500,000
Rajputana . : » « -| 2,500,000 | 1,500,000 1,562,309
Bombay with Baroda ra eS te 1,883,000 | 2,969,539 2,860,454
Bengal (Behar) . ... upc cal aed Be ETL 850,000 | 1,009,335
Hyderbiad.) os) es et ahs 750,000 | 1,144,000 | 1,156,229
a 854,000 808,515 933,938
Kashmir. ., , ak Gane 500,000 500,000 500,000
Mysore . . soe PS sear 20,000 20,000 8.928

« « «| 26,178,900 | 27,405,742 | 26,735,484

0 ee eee ee) eee eee

64 - The Indian Wheat Tradé.

There are some wonderful fluctuations in these acreages,
and in such a country as India, where sowing is often prevented,
or crops are destroyed, by adverse climatic conditions, great
changes in area from one season to another must be expected.
The uniformity in respect of two of the provinces is far more
suspicious, and must have resulted from very rough estimates
being adopted in the absence of precise statistics. It may well
be imagined that in an immense country like India, inhabited as
it is, the difficulties of the agricultural statistician are very great.
No doubt the officials do their best, and, as they have made great
improvements of late, we may hope to see Indian statistics made
satisfactory in course of time.

The normal yield is supposed by the Department to be about
83,297,000 qrs. In 1885 the crop was estimated at 37,784,000
qrs.; in 1886, at 31,800,000 qrs.; and in 1887, at 29,500,000
qrs. only. From these figures it appears that, during the past
two years, the increased exports of wheat from India have been
taken from short crops, one of the two being over 53 million
quarters below average. According to the estimate of normal
area and produce, it may also be pointed out, the average yield
of the Indian wheat crop is not quite 10-1 bushels an acre. In
1886, it appears, the exports amounted to 15°3 per cent. of the
crop, and in 1887 to nearly 19°5 per cent.

Attempts to estimate the average cost of producing wheat in
India seem to have been generally regarded as hopeless, and
this is not surprising, considering the variety of conditions under
which the crop is produced in so vast a country. In 1884, the
Indian Government gave the estimate of an expert ‘“ for what it
was worth,” and the calculation made by that gentleman was to
the effect that, on irrigated and manured land in Northern India,
in a district traversed by railways, the cost of production was
12s. an acre, the rate of exchange being then ls. 8d. for the
rupee. ‘The rupee cost would thus be 7+ rupees per quarter.
On fair land in the North-Western Provinces so treated the yield
would probably be about two quarters per acre, which makes the
cost 142 rupees peracre. The expert referred to further stated
that a market rate (obviously meaning a local market rate) of
18s. 6d. a quarter would probably afford to the producer not
more than 15s. or 16s.—that is, 9 or 9°6 rupees. .Thus, accord-
ing to this authority, a Northern cultivator who manures and
irrigates his land gets a moderate profit when wheat sells in a
local market at 11 rupees a quarter. . If he grows two quarters to
the acre, he gets a profit of 33 to nearly 5 rupees per acre, with the
local market price as above stated. Whether the cultivator of
“ dry” and unmanured land can produce more cheaply or not it
is difficult to say. His expenses aremuch smaller, and his yield

The Indian Wheat Trade. 65

is about half what the grower just taken as an example produces.
It is estimated by one of the best agricultural authorities in India
that the average produce of the “dry lands” does not exceed
8 bushels per acre. According to the unnamed authority who
refers to the extreme prices current for wheat last January, wheat
was selling in the North-Western Provinces in January 1886—
not to mention the scarcity prices of last January—at 16 seers
to the rupee, which is equal to over 15 rupees per quarter.

The Cawnpore price for February 22, given by Mr. Klopp, was
equivalent to 11 rupees per quarter; while the Calcutta price of the
same date was equal to 16} rupees. Now, although we cannot tell
what is the average cost of producing wheat, we may take it for
granted that current prices are remunerative. It is to be borne in
mind, however, that 164 rupees per quarter in Calcutta (27s. 12a.
per maund) current on February 22, was, according to Mr. Klopp,
equivalent to 34s. in England, and that the value in England on
that date was only 32s. 6d. Thus the price in Calcutta was about
a rupee per quarter too high for shippers to buy without loss.
Why there should be a difference of over 5} rupees per quarter
between the price at Cawnpore and that at Calcutta, seeing that
the rail rate is less than 3} rupees, I am not able to state. There
may be some expense for loading and unloading, as well as the
dealer’s profit ; or, possibly, the difference was exceptional on the
particular day. There seems little reason to doubt, however, that
11 rupees per quarter at a local market is satisfactory to the
grower, and when that is the price at Cawnpore or Delhi, the
rail rate being under 31 rupees, it would probably be possible
to sell at 15 rupees at Calcutta, and that, with exchange at
1s. 5d. or less, I believe, would allow of the same wheat being
sold in London at 32s. or 32s. 6d. with profit.

Writing on the cost of producing wheat in India in his
“Statement of the Trade of British India for 1878-79 to
1882-83,” Mr. J. E. O’Conor said :—

“Tn the North-Western Provinces the best estimate that can be made
places the cost of cultivation at not less than 15 to 16 rupees an acre (the
cultivator’s own labour being charged for) on land which is neither manured
nor artificially irrigated. If canal irrigation and manure are applied (and
manure must be applied where such irrigation is given), the cost is increased
by at least 6 to 8 rupees per acre. This estimate of 15 to 16 rupees an acre
for unmanured and unirrigated land, and about 22 to 24 rupees an acre for
manured and irrigated land, may be taken to apply generally to the North-
Western Provinces and Oudh, the Punjab, and some parts of the Central
Provinces—in fact, to the largest and most important sections of the wheat-
producing tracts of India. In the Central Provinces, where irrigation is
unknown, the black-cotton soil not requiring it, the cost of production may
apparently be taken at not exceeding 16 rupees an acre.”

From this statement it appears that, if the ryot charges his
own labour, he grows wheat at a loss, as he certainly does not

VOL. XXIV.—S. Ss. F

66 ; The Indian Wheat Trade.

obtain a return of 15 to 24 rupees per acre, taking dry and irri-
gated land together.

Representatives of the great Indian wheat-buying firms
whom I have consulted, including Messrs. Ralli Brothers, Messrs.
Tod, Durant & Co. and Messrs. Kelly & Co., are unanimous in
expressing the opinion that the ryots would continue to grow wheat
at prices somewhat lower than they are now receiving. Judging
from the small increase in the area of the crop, however, since the
“normal area ” was estimated, they are not very much in love with
the wheat-growing industry, and the inference is that any con-
siderable decline in the rupee price would lead to a diminution of
production. Itis more than a little remarkable to see the area of
the crop greatly reduced in provinces so well served by railways
as the North-Western Provinces and the Punjab, the two .
greatest wheat-producing districts of India.

The increased exportation of wheat from India has now, I trust,
been sufficiently explained. But how is it that. shippers have
been able to give enhanced prices for Indian wheat in order to sell
it in England at depreciated prices? The mean price for India
worked out on a previous page from the official figures for 1881
is equivalent to 14 rupees per quarter, while that for 1886 is
equivalent to 144 rupees per quarter. These prices, representing
many parts of the interior, are lower than shippers have had to
pay at the ports; but if they are proportionate to port prices,
the question remains the same. An official return gives the
average price in Calcutta in 1881 at 27s. 10a. 9p. per maund, or
16rs. 2a. 6p. per quarter of 492 lbs. The corresponding price for
1886 is not given in the latest issue of the same return; but it
was certainly at least as high. How isit that shippers could give
more in 1886, when the average price in England was 45s. 4d.,
than they gave in 1881, when the average price in England was
dls.? Orevenif, through the reduction of inland rail rates, they
paid no more in 1886 at the ports than in 1881, how could they
giveasmuch ? ‘'Thereis here a reduction of 14s. 4d. a quarter to
make good, independently of any extra cost in rupee price in
India.

Freights have been greatly reduced, and in order to ascer-
tain the reduction I applied to Messrs. Angier Brothers, of
London, publishers of a freight list, to give me the ayerage
steamer freights for certain years, a request with which they
courteously complied. They are, I believe, the only persons
who could have supplied the information, which is given in the
table opposite.

The figures showing the freight per quarter are conversions ;
the others are those of Messrs. Angier. The reductions since
1880 are 5s, a quarter from Bombay and Kurrachee, and 7s.

The Indian Wheat Trade. 67

SrraMER FREIGHTS TO THE UNITED Kincpom For WHEAT.

From | Quantity 1871 1880 | 1881 | 1886 1888
Tig eco De | ea Sa es s. d at ts le: a tee
Calcutta . . | 20 ewts. 95 0 |62 6| 60 | 30 0 |30 O
a ee] Per quarter 20H PIB Gi) Als 6 6 6 6
Bombay» «|{1g wie tee arast| 57 6 {35 0| 40 | 20 0 [18 9
Bs Sere) Per quarter 16 10 Pe9e Gi AL B65) 4016
Kurrachee. . | 18 cwts. — 390 0 |--45: ||. 202-0 p18--.9
ear ax Per quarter — Shea) | aa 4103/4 6

from Calcutta. Then the highest reduction between 1881 and
1886 does not make up for half the 14s. 4d. above alluded to.
How the rest of the difference is made up I am unable to show
in detail. As the fall in exchange does not account for the whole
of it, it is probable that economy has been effected in loading,
insurance, and other expenses, besides which there is every
reason to believe that shippers’ profits have been reduced, while
heavy losses have sometimes been incurred, and, I understand,
were unusually common in 1886. But, next to the reduction in
freights, the greatest saving in the cost of the wheat to shippers
was that effected by means of the fall in the gold value of the
rupee.

ata entering upon this branch of my subject—and no
intelligible account of the Indian wheat trade can be given
without discussing it—I must disclaim all intention of advo-
cating Bimetallism, not being by any means convinced of its
advantage to this country. My only desire is to state the facts
of the case as they are—and, I may add, the conclusions I have .-
arrived at are shared not only by every shipper of Indian wheat
whom I have consulted, without exception, but also by some of
the staunchest of Monometallists. It will be understood, then.
that in showing the effect of the fall in exchange upon the
shipment of wheat from India, I in no way commit myself to
either side of the currency controversy which has of late been
carried on with great intensity.

Unfortunately the details for showing, with any pretence to
exactness, the saving in the cost of Indian wheat to shippers
caused by the fall in exchange which took place between 1881
and 1886 are not available. The average price of No. 2 Club
wheat at Calcutta for many years down to 1885 has been given
in the Annual Statements of the Trade of India; but, for some
reason, the prices for 1886 and 1887 have not been given in the
two latest issues. Prices for 1884 and 1885 in Calcutta and
Bombay were lower than they had been in some previous years,
and that fact is dwelt upon in the reports in order to show that

F2

68 ‘The Indian Wheat Trade.

the fall in exchange had not been beneficial to India. But in
1886, for certain dates of which prices are available, there was
a considerable rise in prices. For instance, in January 1886,
the price of No. 1 Soft White in Bombay was 27rs. 8a. per
kandy of 756 lbs., as compared with 227s. 8a. in January
1881; and in 1887 the average value of all the wheat exported
from India was nearly half a rupee per cwt. higher than in
1886. As nearly as I can make out from the details available,
the saving in the cost of wheat to shippers through fall in
exchange between 1881 and 1886 was from 3s. to 5s. a quarter,
according to quality and to the period of the year at which the
purchase took place.

But in order to show the full effect of the fallin the gold value
of the rupee, we must go back much farther than 1881. In
1871-72 the average exchange value of the rupee, as given
in the official account of the drawings of the Secretary of State
for India, was 1s. 11°12d., whereas recently it has been under
ls. 5d. We shall be on the safe side, then, in taking its
fall at 6d., or over 25 per cent. Now, according to a despatch
from the Government of India, the price of No. 2 Club wheat
in Calcutta in 1872 averaged only 27s. 3a. lp. per maund,.
whereas it has for some time past been over 27s. 10a.; but as
the price was exceptionally low in 1872, and to simplify the
argument, we will take 16 7s. per quarter (6 maunds) as the
price for both periods, and reckon the exchange value of the
rupee at ls. 11d. for 1872, and Is. 5d. for 1888. At the price
named, with the rupee at 1s. 1ld., the cost of a quarter of
wheat was 30s. 8d., whereas now, with exchange at ls. 5d.,
the cost is 22s. 8d. Here there is a fall of 8s. through differ-
ence in exchange, while the Indian dealer, and presumably the
erower, gets as much as in the earlier year for his wheat.
At the time of writing it is only just possible to give 16
rupees (costing 22s. 8d.) for a quarter of No. 2 Club wheat
in Calcutta to sell at market price in England, and it follows
that if the rate of exchange were now ls. 1ld., as it-was in
1872, the shipper could not give more than 12 rupees per
quarter in Calcutta at the outside, as the cost would then be
23s. Thus the bonus or margin (or whatever least offensive
term may be preferred) caused by the fall in exchange since
1872 is fully 4 rupees per quarter on wheat at the price lately
current. If wheat of a higher price, such as No. 1 Soft White,
in Bombay, had been taken as the example, the saving through
fall in exchange would have come out at fully 10s. a quarter;
but it is desirable to avoid all extreme examples, and a saying
of 8s. is sufliciently striking. In reality the effect of the fall in
exchange has been under-stated, because it affects all expen-

The Indian Wheat Trade. 69

diture on the wheat up to the time of the sailing of the vessel
in which it is shipped, including the cost of bags. Mr. Klopp
has given the present cost of bags and other expenses incurred
in India, making the cost of wheat free on board at Calcutta
more than 14 rupee per quarter above the bazaar price. There
is, therefore, fully 9d. to add to the 8s. above reckoned as the
saving effected through the fall in the value of the rupee.

Of course, no one will contend that the shipper could give the
rupee price he now pays to sell at the current price in England
without the saving due to exchange, and the only question is
whether he would be able to buy wheat at a price sufficiently low
to enable him to keep up the trade. If he could not give more
than 12 rupees per quarter in Calcutta, the price in the local
markets, as a rule, would not exceed 7 rupees, and it has been
shown that 11 rupees per quarter, in a local market, is the lowest
price at which it is supposed that the ryot gets a fair profit on
the wheat he produces. That 7 rupees per quarter would be a
ruinous price to the ryot under existing conditions, there is
little room to doubt. It has been shown that, with prices as
they have been lately, the wheat area in India has not greatly
increased. Surely, then, it is a fair inference to conclude that
it would speedily be reduced if the price fell to the extent above
supposed.

Upon this question of the effect of the fall in the gold value
of the rupee upon the export of Indian wheat, I have consulted
representatives of several of the largest firms of shippers, in-
cluding Messrs. Ralli, Messrs. Kelly & Co., Messrs. Tod, Durant
& Co., and others who did not give me permission to use their
names. Without exception, they declare it to be stimulating
beyond all question. Indeed, they all declare that the effect is -
equivalent to a bonus upon export, and that they could not
possibly buy at current Indian prices and sell at English prices
without the margin obtained through exchange. Mr. W. J.
Harris, who is opposed to any interference with the currency as
far as India is concerned, lest Russia should profit at the expense
of our great dependency, has publicly, as well as privately to
me, pronounced the same opinion. Even Mr. W. Fowler, one
of the strongest of Monometallists, declared at a recent meeting
of the Central Chamber of Agriculture that the fall in exchange
was in effect a bonus on the shipment of Indian wheat. Indeed,
he used the term “bounty,” though the word is open to mis-
conception, and I prefer not to use it. At this meeting of the
Central Chamber, I may add, not a single person ventured to
deny the conclusion upon which evidence is now being given.
Mr. J. A. Parker, formerly editor of the “Indian Daily News,”
writing upon this point, says: “I am clearly of opinion that

70 . The Indian Wheat Trade.

such fall does operate as a bonus to the local (Indian) wheat
exporter, and this is borne out by the impetus given to the
Indian wheat trade during the period coincident with the de-
cline of the rupee.” As to the evidence given before the Royal
Commission on Gold and Silver, it would be easy to double the
length of this article by giving in full the statements of wit-
nesses—many of them strong Monometallists—to the same
effect as the views just stated. Indeed, nearly all the authori-
ties on Indian affairs examined before the Commission supported
these three positions: (1) That the rupee price of wheat has
not fallen in India in recent years; (2) that the purchasing
power of the rupee for all that the ryot needs has not fallen ;
and (3) that the fall in the gold value of the rupee has stimu-
lated the export of wheat from India.

Those who take an opposite view of this question appear to
ignore the fact that the rupee has not declined in value in India
for anything that the wheat-grower pays for. If it had declined
in value as a standard coin in India, as it has in exchange for
the standard coinage of England, there would have been no
bonus on the export of Indian wheat. As to that, an objector
has said, silver buys as much as formerly in England as well as
in India. Perhaps so; but I fail to see how that affects the
question at issue. The Indian ryot gets as much for a quarter
of wheat as he obtained in 1872. He gets as many rupees, and
his rupees are worth as much to him. Can the same be said of
the English farmer, who obtained 57s. a quarter for his wheat in
1872, as compared with a few pence over 30s. now? The pre-
sent price in India represents as much, if not more, of the
world’s goods to the ryot as the price in 1872. Does the price
in England enable the farmer to pay the rent he paid in 1872,
and live as he lived then ?

Again, it is contended that if India gets more, rupees in
exchange for wheat than she would obtain if no fall in exchange
had taken place, she receives proportionately less of our manu-
factured goods in return than would otherwise be supplied. That
is true, no doubt; but again I fail to see how it affects the ques-
tion at issue, which is not whether India is benefited by the fall
in exchange, but whether that fall stimulates the export of wheat
from India. The English shipper of Indian wheat does not
send out manufactured goods with which to buy his grain. He
buys rupees with gold, or its representative in paper, and-hands
over the rupees to the native dealer in exchange for wheat. The
transaction is complete in itself, and the amount of goods
shipped to India has not the slightest effect upon it. As for
the ryot, he does not spend ten rupees a year on English manu-
factures; and as the goods are cheaper than eyer before, it does

The Indian Wheat Trade. vl

not concern him that they would be a little cheaper still if his
rupees had not depreciated in English value.

Mr. O’Conor, in one of his reports, contends that, as the
export of Indian wheat has not uniformly increased during the
whole period of the fall in exchange, the fall cannot have stimu-
lated export. This argument, however, is fully met by a passage
in the latest official report on “The Moral and Material Progress
of India,” in which the origin and progress of the wheat trade
is sketched, as follows :—

“This trade first rose to importance after the repeal of the export duty
(8 annas per maund) in 1873. Famines affected the growth of the trade
between that date and 1880, but in 1880-81 the exports rose from less than
21 to 74 million ewts. A yet greater rise took place in 1881-82, when a
conjunction of circumstances, such as a good harvest in India, bad crops,
and a ‘cornered’ market in America, gave Indian wheat a good opportu-
nity, which it accepted. Extended railways and irrigation, reduced rates by
rail as well as freights, economy at the ports, and good seasons since 1880,
haye also naturally contributed much to the development of the trade, and
have more than made up for the fall in prices in the European markets,
which has only been partially covered by the fall in exchange.”

Here the failure of exports for the portion of the period
under review, during which they did not increase, is fully
accounted for, and it is admitted that the fall in prices has been
partially covered by the fall in exchange, which is all that any
one claimed in this respect. The average price of wheat in
England in 1872 was 57s. a quarter, and it is now only a little
over 30s.,so that the fall in exchange does not account for more
than a third! of the difference; but it has contributed very
appreciably to the total saving which. enabled shippers to
increase their exports during the last ten years, when the
Indian wheat crop, as already shown, was much below average,
especially that of 1887, which was not harvested when the
passage just quoted was written. Again, Mr. O’Conor, writing
in 1886, after two years of low prices, from which there has
since been a recovery, says :—

“ Prices in Calcutta and Bombay have not increased ; if anything, they
have fallen. The cultivator, therefore, has not received from the exporter

? About a third, if the effect of the fall in exchange on wheat “free on
board” be taken, instead of the effect on the bazaar price, as given above.
Moreover, the proportion of that fall is much greater in relation to the fall in
price if we compare the figures for later years than 1872 with those of 1888
For instance, the fall in the English price of wheat since 1875 (and the yearly
average has only three times since been higher than it was in that year) is
about 15s., and it was not till after 1875 that the rupee fell as low as ls. 10d.
It was worth quite 54d. more in 1875 than it exchanges for now. Therefore,
the difference through exchange on wheat bought at 16 rupees a quarter would
be 7s. 4d., and on wheat free on board it would be fully 8s., or more than half
the fallin price. It will be seen presently that Mr. O’Conor has estimated the
fall in exchange at two-thirds of the fall in price down to a certain period,

72 The Indian Wheat Trade.

the increased return which is a stimulus to larger production. Exchange
has fallen 20 per cent., which means a gain of 20 per cent. to the exporter ;
but prices in England have fallen at least 80 per cent. all round, and this
means a loss of more than 20 per cent. to the exporter, allowing for the slight
fall in prices in Calcutta and Bombay. The exporter, therefore, has not
gained directly by the fall in exchange; he has simply been saved from a
certain proportion of loss.”

Precisely so ; the fallin exchange, with economies above referred
to, has sufficed to keep the price of wheat from falling in India,
comparing the average for the last three years with that for a
corresponding earlier period. Mr. O’Conor himself says, in
summarising the report just referred to, that “the low rate of
exchange has counterbalanced to the extent of about two-thirds
(roughly) the disadvantage of low prices in the consuming
markets.” ‘That is far more than I claim for it. How, then,
can it be said that a saving which has kept trade from declining
has not stimulated it? ‘The fall in freights by itself has not
been sufficient to keep prices from falling in India; yet no one
for a moment thinks of denying that the fall in freights has
stimulated export.

Then is the Indian wheat-grower benefited by the fall in the
gold value of the rupee? That is by no means certain. He is
able to put rival growers in other countries at a disadvantage ;
but he gets only about the same price for his wheat as he
obtained when the rupee was at about what is convention-
ally considered its par value of 2s., and any changes which
would send it up to par again would almost certainly send the
price of wheat up in Europe proportionately, so that he would
still get the number of rupees he now receives for a quarter of
wheat. By the unequal competition which existing circum-
stances enable him to carry on he ruins wheat-growers elsewhere,
without, apparently, doing himself any good. Indeed, there are
authorities in India who contend that it is not to the advantage
of the ryot to grow wheat for export at all. Mr. A. K. Connell,
who read a suggestive paper on “ Indian Railways and Indian
Wheat” before the Statistical Society a short time ago, appears
to be of this opinion. He contends that the peasantry grow
their grain-crops primarily for subsistence, and only to a small
extent for sale; that it is only the small surplus over, after supply-
ing the wants of themselves, their labourers, and their cattle,
which is affected by market prices; and that the largest part, if
not the whole, of that surplus goes to the money-lender. He even
appears to suppose that wheat-growing does not pay the ryot,
but that the poor man is forced by the money-lender to grow
the crop as the best means of obtaining ready money to satisfy
his creditor’s demands. The cultivator’s assessment is raised on
account of the alleged increase in the value of his holding, owing

The Indian Wheat Trade. 73

to increased railway communication and the development of the
wheat trade, and Mr. Connell gives reasons for doubting whether
the stimulus to wheat-production in India is not altogether an
unhealthy one as far as the peasantry are concerned. I am
not in a position either to endorse or to dispute Mr. Connell’s
opinion.

Whether, apart from the margin afforded by the fall in
the exchange value of the rupee concurrently with the mainte-
nance of its purchasing value in India, the ryot would find it
worth his while to compete with the American wheat-grower

-in the export trade to Europe, is a question which cannot be
answered offhand. Under existing circumstances—apart from
that of exchange—lI am disposed to believe that he would not; but
it is by no means certain, or even probable, that the economy of
the Indian wheat trade has yet reached its maximum development.
It is said that freights cannot be further reduced, because shipping
companies have not paid dividends lately ; but this is true only
with a qualification. It is held by good authorities that while
old ships do not pay their owners, with freights as they are, the
new and larger vessels pay fairly well. This is especially the
case with new steamers, which are now built not only so as to
carry a greatly increased quantity of wheat in proportion to the

_ number of the crew in each, but also with improved engines

which give a much greater power for a given consumption of
coal than the old engines. Again, India, as compared with
America, is as yet very poorly served by railways, considerable
as the increase in the. mileage has been. In 1853 there were

_ only 205 miles open for traffic ; by 1872 the length had increased

| to 5,555 miles, and by the end of 1886 to 12,2074 miles.
| There has since been a further extension, and the Indian

_ Government is now about to borrow a large sum of money for

| the construction of new lines. As to the rates, instances of
great reduction have been given, and in all probability, rather

_ than lose their wheat traffic, the companies, including the State,

_ which owns some of the lines and guarantees or assists the rest,

would grant further reductions.
Mr. J. E. O’Conor summed up the possibilities and uncertain-

ties of the Indian wheat trade when he wrote, in the beginning
of 1885, as follows :—

_ _ _“Tt has been more than once pointed out in these reviews that the trade
in Indian wheat must be one of a very uncertain and fluctuating character.
, Its continuance on a very large scale depends on the concurrence of a number
of cireumstances: (1) abundant crops in India ; (2) crops below the average
in the United States and in Europe; (3) low rates of freight; (4) low rates
of exchange. When all these exist together the supplies of Indian wheat
which will be put on the consuming markets will astonish—as they haye
astonished—those who are but imperfectly acquainted with the capacity of

74 The Indian Wheat Trade.

India for the production of this grain. When one or other of these fails,
the margin of profit, which isso slender at the best that exporters must work
on a very extensive scale to obtain appreciable returns, shrinks in such a degree
that the export will be carried on either to fulfil engagements already entered
into, or as an unavoidable alternative to paying for imports in money.”
Elsewhere he discredits some extreme estimates as to the
low cost of producing wheat in India, and particularly one to
the effect that it was not more than half as much as the cost in
America, which he shows to be absurd.

No one can tell what the average cost of producing wheat in
either India or America is. The only real tests as to the minimum
are those afforded by acreage and exports when prices in Europe
are low; and it has already been shown that, judged by those
tests, America has admitted that she cannot grow wheat
profitably at an average farm price of 65 to 77 cents a bushel,
or 21s. to 24s. 8d. a quarter. Onthe other hand, India has
increased her acreage and exports, with the help of low exchange,
while the ryots have been receiving something less than 11
rupees a quarter, costing at the present rate of exchange about
15s. 6d. The expenses of getting the Indian wheat to the coast
and across the ocean are much greater than is the case with the
American wheat; but we are now considering farm values in
English money. How much less than 11 rupees per quarter the
ryot has obtained on an average during the last three years no
one knows; and it is to be hoped that no one ever will know by
means ot experience the utmost reduction below that pittance
which he will accept and yet continue to grow wheat for
export. But in the last “Statement of the Trade of British
India” we are told, in reference to the increasing exports of
Indian wheat :—

“This advance is not an indication that Indian is displacing American
wheat in the English market. The quantity exported to Hngland was
nearly 20 per cent. less (in 1886-87) than in 1885-86, and there weuld haye
been an actual retrogression in the total exports had not an increased de-
mand from Italy turned the scale. The development of trade was not at
the expense of the United States, but of Russia, from which Italy has
hitherto drawn regular supplies, &c.”

This statement is indisputable as a matter of fact; but yet
the inference that India is not a serious rival of the United
States would scarcely be admitted by the unfortunate American
farmers, who have been driven out of wheat-growing by the low
prices, for which Indian competition is mainly accountable,
But let us turn to Russia, as the most direct competitor of India.
Most opportunely, as this portion of the subject comes to be
dealt with, I have received, through the courtesy of the Agri-
cultural Department, a paper on the state of Russian agriculture
which begins thus :—

The Indian Wheat Trade. 75

“Fyom recently published Consular Reports it appears that the agricul-
ture of Russia is in a most depressed condition, caused by a continuous fall
in the prices of almost all kinds of agricultural produce, and the competition
of America and India. Corn-growing has not paid, although the crops gener-
ally were good in the years 1886 and 1887. Itseems that it costs about 1/. 1s.
per acre to produce a crop of wheat, which is only about 8} bushels per
acre, taking the good and bad land together. The price of wheat was only
about 2s. 7d. per bushel in 1887... . £ As corn-production does not pay, and
seems unlikely to pay, the Russian Agricultural Department has been con-
sidering carefully the extension of cattle-breeding and rearing, witha view of
exporting animals and meat to Western European countries.”

One of the reports referred to, previously marked for quota-
tion, is that of Mr. Harford, of the British Embassy, St. Peters-
burg, who has summarised the final report of the Russian Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1886 :—

“Next to the United States,” he says, the Department “considers India
as Russia’s most dangerous rival, not only as regards wheat, but for flax and

linseed, the imports cf which two articles into England from India amounted
in 1885 to nearly 3,500,0002.”

After referring to the advantages of India, the Russian

‘Department quotes from a recently published work by Dr. J.

Wolffe, representing the cost of putting a bushel of wheat on
the London market as follows :—
Indian wheat ‘urea wheat
3. &.

d,

Cost of production , : : af ele Ge 2 6

Carriage by railway . . : - 0 9 0 64

Sea freight . <A - - . O 7 0 44
Moms ¢ 2 ew Ce Cl 2 IE 3 42

These figures are too low, unless they are intended to
represent the lowest potential cost, and not the actual cost.
Indian wheat has not yet been put on the London market at:
24s., and if American has been sold at 27s. it has been at a loss
to the growers. It may be possible to put Indian wheat on the
London market at 24s., if exchange, freights, and railway
expenses should continue to fall; but at the present time, as
pointed out on a preceding page, a price 8s. higher was not
remunerative in February of the present year. As to America,
sea freights have been lower than Dr. Wolffe states; but it has
already been shown that the production of wheat has declined,
although as little as 2s. 6d. a bushel has never had to be accepted
as the average farm price.

As bearing upon the point just referred to, it is worth while
to reproduce a table prepared for the Gold and Silver Commis-
sion by Mr. Comber, member of a firm of Liverpool and Bombay
merchants, and a Monometallist, which shows, moreover, if
the figures are even approximately correct, how far the reduc-
tion in the cost of transport is from accounting for the fall in

the price of wheat :—

0 6
- 8:
: 6
IL 8
iva
9 9
Si 268
: OL L
a 9 4
s gg
E b 9
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§
23 OL F
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3 q
ae

1 VOLLOUTY WLOAT
gtods we.cy,

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& &1 6 ¥% Slee 8 al 6 & anc Oar: IT ¥ IL €& | * JIeq 9ST ‘288T
6 &T 8 Lz ag 6 & IL @ 11 8 OVSE [ory 0-1 ‘ * 9881
9 GI OL SZ Wai? 6G TDd & OL OL F Vag OL GE ‘ . ~ ‘S583
OL GL 0 & Oar 6G CG OL 6 $F Sah | 8 9¢ : : “881
OL OL ELT is) 4) 8 @ OLG Ot IT 6 9 che i L If eal * $§88L
(6) 8 &I II 9 ee A Sag y &I 0 2 r 9 0 ¢h | savad ¢ Jo asvreay
9 6 My tell § 9 L & 8 6G & 6&1 OL 9 ey eer be ' * 6881
62 y &I LQ OL G 6 & i) Feit 3 6 ie) b oP ; = “TREE
€ 8 ¥ FI ye W, OL § 1 az toatl! iL 48 ia A) b FP i ; “ O88T
T OL OL FI 0 8 (an 2 Or & L GLI & 9 y 9 OL &F ; : * "6287
Me 1B G °GL Ih, fei Ong Duak 1S et) OL v 69 Gg OF A : ~ “SZst
L + 8 L 9 6 8 ¢g OL § LAS 6 OL y oL 0 Ig — savok F JO asvIDAy
9) HEE y! L 8 OL P 6S (Hy 6 6 Hy 13) 6 9Y if x * L181
8g rca | 8 8 9 g Gas. O° LT Or 909. G OF * 9181
Lhe shiz tall OL 6 Q 9 OL & 6 8 ree Or 9 Go GP ; + S28E
(Gg It lL @ Gam 9 49 8 F 9 ie VOL Yet L 6 6 gg ‘ E * F181
aa = q si OL g 9 8 G6 OSE 8 6 8 8g : ; ~ . €281
ps Ds D> > 's > 8 > 8 > 's p> Ds
WOpSUTy WOpsUyL team
: YOK MON "| QUO 2
Mace aes I 10y4030y, ok a op osvotyg | OIVOBO, Re 0} aaodynqqne Mooactae :
—"nag —puryuy —'B0g —pusuy UT qwat[A JO Bax
aortd esvsloay

Ul ‘EJST TEM paredunoo ‘uotonperyt

76

quo WUOTLOULY—"aSvLtawo JO 4SOD

‘UdLavaAyy uid

quay UBIPUT—"dSVILLGO JO 4SOD

WOGDNIY, GALINA) OL VOIUUNW GNV VIGN[T NI SlOdaq] UOIUALNT NOU LVYAH AA AO LUOdSNVUT, LO LSO

The Indian Wheat Trade. 77

In a foot-note to this table it is explained that the cost
of transport from the producing districts to Jubbulpore and
Chicago is not included in the amounts put down. ‘There is
no reason to suppose that the cost of local carriage has decreased
in India, as it is chiefly by road ; but it has decreased in America
on the railways west of Chicago, and allowance for this would
bring the reduction on transport from America closer to that on
transport from India than it is in the table.

A great deal has been said about the fall in the exchange
value of the Russian paper rouble, as calculated to reduce the
cost of Russian wheat. Mr. W. J. Harris, writing on Feb-
ruary 24, points out that the value of the rouble had gone down
to 193d. (there has been a further reduction since), whereas only
four years ago it was nearly 25d., and forty years ago it was
37d. That the peasantry of Russia have not felt the full effect
of the depreciation may be regarded as certain ; but the evidence
as to the purchasing power of the paper rouble, compared with
what it was four years ago, is not sufficient to warrant any
certain conclusion. If the rouble will buy as much as ever of
most things that the Russian peasant requires, it goes only half
as far as it once went in the payment of taxes, and the Russian
peasant is much more heavily taxed than the ryot. At any rate,
as the exchange price of the rouble has been falling for years
past, that fact was known to the Russian Agricultural Depart-
ment when (in 1887) the conclusion that wheat-growing in
Russia did not pay was declared.

Some remarks upon the advantages and disadvantages of
Russia as a wheat-producing country which appeared in the
“Miller ” last November are well worth quoting :—

“There is no doubt that the capacities of Russia for cereal production
are yery great, and our farmers would doubtless have long ago keenly felt
the pressure of her competition had it not been for one saving clause. The
one thing which has hindered Russia from making the full weight of her
great cereal wealth felt in the world has been her own backward economic
condition. Russia has an abundance of fertile land, but she lacks railways,
elevators, adequate means of maritime transport—in fact, all those ‘resources
of civilisation’ which are so freely commanded by the United States: and
these appliances are not created by the ukase of a Ozar, they can solely be
called into being by civilised brains, and it is in brain-power—in other
words, in civilisation—that Russia is hopelessly deficient. No doubt she has
all the potentialities for becoming a most formidable competitor in our agri-
cultural markets, but we doubt whether she will be able to make the weight

of her arm fully felt until her moujiks have risen a little nearer to the level
of the American farmer.”

After alluding to the disadvantages incurred by Russia through
her exclusive fiscal policy, the writer adds :—

“ Another point is this, that the stronger varieties of Russian wheat are
of great value to English millers when they can be obtained at a fair price.

78 The Indian Wheat Trade.

Our own wheats have colour and sweetness, but the weak point of English
flour is strength, and that is precisely the quality which Russian grain can
supply. So there is indeed a saying in the trade, which was repeated in our
hearing by a well-known Metropolitan miller, ‘ When Russian wheat is cheap
the English miller can do well; but when it is scarce, as it has been during
the past few years, then come hard times.’ A flood of Russian wheat would
doubtless be anything but a blessing for this country, but, on the other
hand, a free supply at easy prices will be most welcome to our millers.”

With respect to other wheat-exporting countries, if India can
successfully compete with Russia and the United States, she
has no cause to fear any other rival. There are portions of
British colonies and other countries in which wheat can be pro-
duced as cheaply as in the most favoured districts of the United _
States ; but it has never yet been shown that any of them could
send wheat to Europe at a lower price with profit.

The last question to be considered in connection with the
Indian wheat trade is whether there is not a natural limit to
the quantities of wheat, such as is now produced in India,
which Europe will receive. Indian wheat certainly does not
improve our bread, much as the bakers like flour made from it,
because of the extra quantity of water which it will absorb, and
if too much of it were used bread-eaters would rebel. This
fact has been more patent than ever since the finer qualities of
Indian wheat have come in only very small quantities. Scarcely
any No. 1 wheat of any kind has been imported of late, No. 2
Calcutta Club being about the standard quality of the great —
bulk of our supply. Moreover, the large buyers whom I have
consulted, with only one exception, declare that the quality of
the wheat sent here from India has, as a whole, deteriorated.
But, with respect to the inherent peculiarities of Indian and
other wheat, from the miller’s point of view, I find the subject
so pithily summarised in a passage contained in the “ Miller”
Prize Essay on “‘ The Mixing of Home and Foreign Wheats for
the Use of British and Irish Millers in the Manufacture of
Flour,” by Mr. W. T. Bates, mill manager to Messrs. Baxendell
& Sons, of Liverpool, that I make no apology for quoting the
paragraphs in full :—

“The three chief qualities in wheat are, from a general point of view,
strength, colour, and flavour. Some few wheats possess all these, but gener-
ally one in excess. We shall, however, find it to our advantage to buy
these various qualities in separate wheats, and combine them for a standard
flour, These different properties are the product of different countries and
latitudes, as well as of climate. To the latter, even more than soil, cultiva-
tion, and latitude, are due the strongest and best wheats of the earth. We
can even classify our wheats, and divide them broadly into qualities, almost
according to climate. Thus the strong wheats of America are produced on
the elevated prairies, which have a cold, dry winter and a hot, dry summer.
Russia, with a similar climate, produces similar wheat; while the seaboard
of both countries, being damper, produces a milder, weaker wheat, Witha

The Indian Wheat Trade. 79

milder climate we get the autumn-sown winter wheat; and still further
south, with a still milder winter, we get the white wheats of California,
Australia, Chili, Cape Colony, and others; while Oregon, being damper, yields
a similar wheat, but milder and perhaps of better flavour.

“ As a rule, the stronger the wheat the less flavour it has, while the
milder the wheat the better the flavour. But excessive moisture is, of course,
destructive of both qualities, as is also excessive heat and dryness—as witness
the desiccated climate of Egypt, which has no moisture but that supplied
by the Nile ; this seems to be destitute of any good quality. The wheats of
India, which are produced under hot conditions, are vastly different from
the latter ; they have strength and give fairly good results, but their strength
is as much a matter of dryness as gluten. The difference between these
wheats and the Russian is very marked; while the gluten of the latter is
wiry and tenacious, that of the former is harsh and bitter, the result of
climate alone. ae

“The antipodes of this, almost, is the mild, mellow-glutened wheat of
England, the produce of our damp, humid climate. This wheat has one, or
perhaps two qualities, in which it is unexcelled by any in the world—viz.
flavour and colour. If this wheat entered into every mixture, and its flour
into every loaf of bread, we should eat our bread and butter with more plea-
sure than we do now. We haye of late years milled strong, dry, water-
drinking wheat, not because it made more agreeable bread, or pleased the
public taste, but because the bakers, our customers, demanded it. And
why? Simply because it enabled them to make a greater number of loaves
and larger profits.”

For an ideal mixture Mr. Bates gives one part of Duluth,
one of No. | Spring, one of Australian, and one of fine white
English; or, as an alternative, one of Kubanka, one of fine
Arymia or Saxonska, one of fine Californian, and two of fine
white English. Thus, in his ideal mixtures, Mr. Bates does
not include any Indian wheat, from which the inference is that
he prefers other sorts for even the qualities in which Indian
wheats excel. But when he goes on to give mixtures for
various descriptions of trade demands, he does not leave out a
fair proportion of Indian wheat.

A great deal has been written about the “ dirty ” condition
of Indian samples, and efforts have been made to remedy this
evil, but hitherto without success. It has just been announced
that, according to an agreement entered into among the export-
ing firms of Calcutta, the up-country seller will have a right, as
heretofore, to deliver wheat containing five per cent. of foreign
substances at contract price, or two per cent. more, subject to
equivalent reduction in price; but that if the wheat contains
more than seyen per cent. of impurity, the dealer will be so
mulcted as to make it to his interest to purchase only fairly clean
samples. But the great difficulty has been—and there is nothing
to show that it has been remoyed—that buyers of Indian wheat
in this country prefer cheap “dirty” wheat to comparatively
dear “clean” wheat. The fact is that the “dirt” consists
chiefly of various kinds of grain and seeds, which are of some

80 J The Indian Wheat Trade.

value when taken out of the wheat, and the cleaning can be
done at once more cheaply and more effectually in this country
than in India, cheap as labour is in that country, our machinery
and workmanship being greatly superior to those of India.

To sum up briefly the evidence which has been reviewed in
this article, it appears probable that the Indian wheat trade will
continue to expand slowly, with a liability to fluctuations from
various causes, such as poor crops in India, low prices in
Europe resulting from good crops or heavy importations from
America and other countries, alterations in exchange, and
temporary advances in freights. The tendency, as we have
seen, is towards a still further reduction of the expense of con-
veying wheat from the interior of India to the coast and across
the ocean, and I, for one, believe that prices in Europe have
touched the lowest point. But the best authorities appear to
be of opinion that, even under the most favourable conditions,
the increase of the wheat area in India will not go on rapidly,
while, in course of time, the increase in the enormous population
will encroach upon the margin of cultivable land at present
available for growing grain for export. That a sudden restora-
tion of the rupee to what is termed its par value, through a
great discovery of gold, failure in the supplies of silver, or the
remonetization of that metal by the principal countries now
maintaining a single gold standard, would put a temporary check
upon the export of Indian wheat is as certain as anything can
be; but then the result of the withdrawal of Indian competition
would as surely raise prices in Europe, and thus restore the
balance temporarily disturbed. As to the effect of a further fall _
in the price of wheat in Europe, if that should happen, it may
be inferred, from the slow increase in the Indian wheat area
under such favourable conditions as have existed during the last
two years, that there would be a contraction of the export
trade—that is, supposing the fall in price to be greater than
could be made up for by a reduction in the expenses of transport.
But then, again, the effect here imagined would speedily react
upon the producing cause, sending prices in Europe up again.

Thus it appears that, regarding the question from all
points of view, the wheat-growers of other countries must be
prepared for the continuance of Indian competition on a
moderate scale at least, and that their best hope of future profit
lies in the conviction that farmers cannot anywhere long keep
on growing wheat at a loss, while those who so perfect their
economy as to secure the greatest proportionate results from a
given outlay will not be among the growers compelled to retire
from the too fierce struggle to supply the staple food of the
civilised world.

-
( 81 )

TV.—Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. By
W. Procror Baker, Broomwell House, Brislington, near
Bristol. ,

Tr is a matter of common knowledge that within the last ten or
twelve years a complete revolution has taken place in the
machinery used in this and in other countries for the purpose
of grinding wheat when it is intended to produce flour for
bread-making purposes; but it is not so well known that with
the machinery the system of manufacture has been completely
changed. There has been in fact not a mere substitution of one
machine for another, or of one series of machines for another
series, but there has been a change of the principle and mode
of procedure. It has been thought desirable to put a descrip-
tion of the existing general practice on record in the pages of
this ‘ Journal,’ more especially as the alteration of the milling
process has had a very marked influence in dethroning our home-
grown wheats from their former place of preference, and placing
them in one of inferiority of value in average seasons as com-
pared with those imported from most foreign countries.

The fact of the comparative depreciation is well known ; it
is needless to waste space in adducing statistical proofs. It is
notorious to all concerned that the new machinery and the new
system are not so well adapted for the reduction of native
wheats to flour as they are for treating the dryer and harder
foreign varieties. If attention be in this place directed to the
facts, and to the causes which stand in the way of the more
ready use of native wheat in mills possessing equipments of the
most recent machinery, it is to be hoped, on the one hand, that
mill-owners may be stimulated to adapt their machinery more
especially to the manufacture of native wheat, and that the inven-
tive powers of milling engineers may be called upon to second
their efforts ; while, on the other hand, agriculturists may be led
to see the necessity both of producing wheats of a quality and cha-
racter better adapted than they have hitherto been to the require-
ments of millers working, as nearly all of them are, under the new
systems, and of delivering all wheats in hard dry condition.

It is a great and an additional misfortune for growers of
wheat in this country, in times when wheat has to be sold at
prices less than the cost of its production, that their corn should
be discredited in the markets by the largest buyers, and that
its money value in comparison with foreign varieties should be
reduced on account of the difficulties of its manufacture into
flour. Setting all other interests aside, the importance to the
milling trade itself of encouraging the home growth of wheat
cannot be exaggerated, for by its use the employment of their

VOL, XXIV.—S. 8. G

82 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

mills and workpeople is assured—home-grown wheat cannot be
ground abroad—while they know to their cost that the tendency
is more and more marked towards the import of bread-stuffs in
the shape of flour ground in foreign mills, in place of wheat
requiring to be ground in our home mills.

It is worth while to insert the figures which display this
tendency. Taking the cereal years for the period of five years
ended in 1880, the imports of flour were 15-9 per cent. of the
total imports of wheat and flour ; for the five years ended 1885,
25-2 per cent.; for the two years ended 1887, 25-4 per cent.;
while for the last four months of the calendar year 1887 they
were 31‘5 per cent. And these figures may be emphasised by
the statement that the average yearly imports of wheat, speak-
ing broadly, have increased but slightly in the last ten or twelve
years. It follows, therefore, that, as there is no increase of foreign
supplies of wheat, the mills of the country have lost employment
annually to the extent involved in grinding the quantity by
which the home crop of wheat has diminished, viz., in round
numbers, about four millions of quarters. This explains why
hundreds of mills in this country are closed.

In order to appreciate the importance of the changes which
have occurred, it is necessary briefly to refer to the old process
of converting wheat into flour. The first step was to attempt
to clean the wheat from impurities, either adhering to the
berries in the shape of dust or smut, or such as were mixed
with the grain in the shape of chaff, or dust, or lumps of earth,
and to separate from it seeds or grains other than those of
wheat that were mixed with it. These operations were effected
by somewhat primitive machines, designed for use in the period
when wheats of home growth formed the staple of the con- —
sumption of the mills; and these wheats, thanks to agricultural
machinery, the cleanliness of the soil, and the purity of the
seed, our farmers were able to deliver in a comparatively clean
state. In those times the public were far less critical than they
are now as to the quality of the bread they ate, and the exist- —
ence of a certain dinginess of colour due to the presence of —
dust and dirt was not remarked, or if remarked was excused, —
especially in country districts. It was because home-grown
wheats were very much cleaner than foreign that they especially
monopolised the demand of small country mills, which were
not, as a rule, furnished with any cleaning machinery, and thus
were not able to deal with the great variety of foul foreign —
wheats which appeared in the markets. These small mills haye~
now, as a rule, been closed by the competition of the large mills, —
or, if kept in operation, have had their equipment improved, or |
are employed in grinding maize, barley, or other feeding-stuffs.

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 83

The wheat thus imperfectly cleaned was “ fed” into the
ordinary millstone, which had in the better mills been improved
from a very rough and primitive machine by the elaboration of
every part of the apparatus into a very perfect machine, capable
in every part of the most accurate adjustment, and lacking in no
mechanical refinement. It is unnecessary to describe millstones,
as they are, or were, familiar to every one. Suffice it to say
that, up to about thirty-five or forty years ago, the object of the
miller was to reduce the wheat at one grinding to flour and
“ offal,” and he succeeded best who separated the two elements
of the wheat—namely, the flour of the interior of the berry,
and the rind or skin—most completely at one grinding.

The “ meal ” produced by the grinding was then ‘“ dressed ”—
that is, divided by sifting—and ideally perfect work meant that
the flour-should contain no particle of skin, and the offal or skin
should have no particle of flour left upon it. In the language
of the mill there must be clean flour and clean offal. No ap-
proach, however, to theoretical perfection was ever attained.
The flours always contained specks of the skin broken up in the
triturating process of millstone-grinding, and the brans or other
descriptions of offal were never perfectly free from flour. It was
always the aim of the miller to increase the quantity ground per
pair of stones per hour, limited by the greater necessity of
making “ good work ” in the way of separation ; but in this object
he was constantly thwarted by the impossibility of “cleaning

_ the offal” properly, and by the production of too much heat, to
_ the injury of the flour, by the additional friction.

The introduction of ‘‘ the exhaust ”—17.e. the withdrawal of the

| heated air and moisture by a fan from the cases which enclosed
| the millstones—and of the “ blast and exhaust’””—a combination of

the “exhaust” by one fan, and the “blast” or forcing of air
between the surfaces of the millstones by another fan—had for
its chief object the increase of the working capacity of the mill-
stone, by keeping down the temperature of the “meal.” But
whether ventilation was used or not, it was found that increase
of the rate of grinding had for one result the production of an
intermediate article, neither offal nor flour, composed chiefly of
small particles of the hardest portion of the farinaceous part of
the wheat-corn, either alone or attached to a minute particle
of the skin. These particles, mixed with particles of the skin of
the same size, were the product termed “ middlings.”
““Middlings” were simply particles of the wheat imperfectly
ground, and were reduced to flour by regrinding on a separate
pair of millstones. The resultant flour, if the middlings were
tolerably free from particles of bran, was found to be better than
the flour of the original wheat-grinding, as was natural, because
G2

3

84 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

the “ middlings” consisted of the hardest and best part of the
wheat. The difficulty was, however, the admixture with the
“middlings” of the chips of bran, and it was not until about
fourteen years ago that machines were brought into general
use for “ purifying” the “ middlings.” Up to that time it was
sought to make as small a percentage of ‘“ middlings” as pos-
sible. Since the invention of the ‘‘ middlings purifier,” which
enabled the miller to obtain pure middlings, from which he
could make flour better than that coming from the original
grinding of the wheat, the aim has been to make as large a per-
centage of middlings as possible. And this principle of making
middlings instead of flour is the basis of the new “ gradual- —
reduction” system, the system now in yogue.

One point or note of good grinding was the detachment of
the bran in large unbroken flakes, because the flour was more
likely to be pure than it would be if the bran were “cut up.”
The skin or bran of wheat is more or less brittle, according to
the variety of the wheat, if the grain be in equal condition. It
may be laid down as a rule that the dryer and harder the wheat
the more brittle the bran ; and it follows that the more brittle
the bran the more apt it is to break upinto small particles, which,
passing through the same fine meshes of the sifting medium
as the flour, are inextricably incorporated with it. It ought to
be noted here that it is by no means only in the appearance of the
flour that the mischief resulting from the presence of minute
particles of bran exists. That, commercially, is perhaps the
least evil; for if the particles be very minute they are not so
readily perceptible as might be expected. It is especially when
the flour has been made into bread that the discolouration caused
by these particles manifests itself. It has been shown that they
cause a secondary and destructive fermentation, and that the
discolouration of the bread is due not only to the dark colour
of the particles themselves, but to their discolouring effect upon
the flour with which they are mixed. Thus bread made from
flour mixed with bran is, in appearance, a bread not like bread
made from the same flour with flakes of bran in it, but the whole
body of the loaf is stained, and browner than that made from flour
without bran. Hence, as the colour of the loaf is the principal
test of the good quality of the flour, the importance of keeping
the bran unbroken, and therefore it follows that millers would
give the preference to wheats which, all other things being
equal, had the toughest skins, because the skins would be less
likely to cut up.

English wheats, in fairly dry condition, gave, because of the
comparative toughness of the skin and the softness of the berry,
which permitted the reduction of the farinaceous portion to

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 85

flour with a minimum of friction under the millstone, the
best results in unbroken bran and purity of flour, and thus, for
this and for other reasons, were sought for at a price relatively
high compared with their foreign rivals. These latter were,
indeed, regarded as only supplementary or as substitutes for
native wheats, which supplied the staple consumption of the mill ;
they were used chiefly in order to give “strength ” to the flour."
In those days the mills were generally situated in the rural
districts, and drew their supplies from their immediate neigh-
bourhood. Now, however, the great mills that supply the
country are placed either at the seaports, or in the midst of the
great centres of population, or, unfortunately for the interests of
this country, in America.

The “meal” delivered by the millstones was, after having
been cooled, conveyed to the ‘‘ dressing-machines,” the term ap-
plied to’ the machines by which the flour was separated from
the “offal.” In very old mills these machines were “ bolters,”
in which the sifting was accomplished by means of a woollen
cloth ; later, ‘‘ wire machines” were adopted. These consisted
of a fixed or slowly rotating cylinder of wooden hoops or ribs,
covered with woven wire cloth and inclined at an angle, having
running through its centre a spindle furnished with arms or
spokes, to which were affixed brushes arranged so as to be in
contact with the wire cloth. The spindle was made to rotate at
a high velocity, and the meal having been introduced at the
higher end, or head of the cylinder, the flour was forced by the
brushes through the meshes of the wire cloth, and the offal passed
out at the lower end, or tail of the cylinder.

About forty years ago ‘“ silk machines” were first introduced
in England. The operative part of the machine was a “ reel,” a
long hexagon frame made of laths and covered with silk cloth.
The “reel” was carried by arms on a central spindle, and
caused to revolve just so fast as to lift the meal, which was fed
into the head end (the “reel” being arranged with a slight fall
from “head” to “ tail’), to the upper side of the “ reel,” whence
it fell on the silk surface on the lower sides; and thus the flour
was sifted out, the ‘ offals” passing out at the tail. This machine
gave a purer or cleaner flour than the wire machine, because the
brushes of the latter forced the small particles of bran through
the wire cloth; while under the more gentle action of the silk-
covered “reel” the particles of skin being lighter than the

’ The quality of “strength” in flour depends on the presence of a large
proportion of elastic gluten in the wheat from which it is made, and it is
so named because the flour possessing it yields a tough dough which rises
in the oven into a large loaf. English wheats lack this quality, and are
classed as “ weak” wheats.

86 = Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

particles of flour, and not being forced through the meshes,
passed on to and out of the tail of the machine. The silk reel
was especially efficient in separating the “ middlings” (already
described) for regrinding. The flour having been obtained, the
“ offals,” whether from wire or silk machine, were generally
rebrushed in another wire machine and separated into “ bran,”
‘“‘ sharps,” or other subdivisions, according to the custom or
demands of the district. And thus ended this comparatively
simple process, which, with various slight modifications, more
especially connected with the production of middlings, their
purification, and reduction to flour, was that in general use in
this country up to about twelve years ago. It was well adapted
for the manufacture of native wheats, and if these had con-
tinued to form the larger part of the supply of the country, it is
possible that the revolution in the art of milling which has
taken place might have been slower in realisation or might
have taken another direction.

But, however that may be, the system now generally adopted
is based on different principles. It is called ‘“ gradual reduc-
tion,” a name which well describes the process. While the old
“‘low-grinding” system was seen at its best in working upon
soft tender wheats, the ‘ gradual-reduction” process requires
dry and rather hard wheats to make good work. Its adoption
in this country was contemporaneous with the introduction of
“roller mills” as substitutes for millstones. The system was
practised on the Continent long before rollers were brought into
use; but the drawbacks of the system, when millstones and
tender wheat were used, were so great that it was practically
confined to districts where the produce of the country was hard
wheat. Hungary undoubtedly took the lead and developed the
system most completely, and succeeded in producing from her
harsh, brittle, brown wheats flours of unrivalled quality, while the
same wheats when treated by ‘“ low-grinding” gave wretched
results. The North-West States of America produced wheats of
very similar character to the Hungarian wheats, and the Ameri-
cans, by treating these wheats in a similar manner, achieved
a great commercial success, as evidenced by the creation of
the enormous mills of Minneapolis, worthy rivals of those of
Budapest. The advance in the value of the wheat grown in
the North-West by the millers’ adaptation of the Hungarian
process is enormous. <A few years ago the hard spring wheats
of this region were worth from 3s. to 13s. per quarter less than
fine winter wheat of the more eastern States, while for several
years past this very same good hard spring wheat has ranked
higher in value than fine winter wheat. As wheat is the
pioneer and main crop of the North-West, the adoption of the

|

:

4

|
) brittle, and less liable to break up and discolour the flour. Yet
|
i

{

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 87

new system of milling has therefore as much as anything
rendered the development of these regions possible and profit-
able by largely increasing the prices paid for their wheat crops.

Here, then, are two conspicuous instances of the fact that if
the colouring cells of the bran and the germ be excluded from
flour, the flours made from dark red wheats may, and do, pro-
duce bread better in colour than that obtained from the finest
white wheats, if the constituents of the wheat are in other
respects better—and the constituents of the wheats just men-
tioned are better because they contain a higher proportion of
elastic gluten than any known white wheats. As already noted,
colour of bread, other things being equal, is the commercial
test by which the value of flour is assessed. It is because
by the “‘ gradual-reduction ” process the bran is absolutely ex-
cluded from certain portions of the flour that these flours of
red wheats, containing a very high proportion of gluten, exceed
considerably in value flours made from the finest white wheats.
The colour of wheat, therefore, no longer affords any guide or
index of the colour of bread made from its flour.

English white wheats no longer command the large pre-
miums which were formerly paid for them over and above the
prices of red wheats. The difference was paid, when they were
ground under the old system, chiefly because the bran of white
wheat discoloured bread very much less than the bran of red
wheat. When the bran of neither is mingled with the flour,
the difference in value to the miller of the two sorts on the
ground of colour nearly vanishes. So with regard to English
and other mellow red wheats. They formerly fetched much
higher prices than harsh wheats, because the brans were less

now that the difference in value on’ that account no longer
exists, for other reasons which will hereafter appear, mellow or
tender wheats, except they be in the finest condition (which,
unfortunately, native wheats not often are in the winter-time,
when the bulk of them come to market), are at a discount com-
pared with wheats of firmer texture. Reference is here more par-

| ticularly had to the physical structure, as influencing value, rather
_ than to the chemical elements. And it must also be noted that

|

even with the most improved machinery and systems it is not
possible absolutely to separate all the bran from the flour.
Some of the finest flours may be, and are, perfectly free from

_ bran contamination, but the lower grades of flour still contain

_ particles of the wheat skin. The art of milling has not attained
_ anything approaching to perfect theoretical separation, even

when applied to wheats the physical construction of which lends
itself best to the means employed. So that, other things being

88 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

equal, those wheats that have the least friable skins are better
suited for the modern miller’s use, even when he is equipped
with machinery of the most recent type.

-

The broad distinction between the “ gradual-reduction ”

system and the old “‘low-grinding” system is that, whatever the
machinery employed, it is sought in “gradual reduction” to
break the internal farinaceous part of the wheat-corn into gritty
fragments, like coarse sand, keeping the bran as much intact and
scraping it as clean as possible, and to produce:as little flour as
possible in the initial processes; while in the old system, as has
been described, it was desired to make all the interior of the
wheat into flour at the first grinding. The object of avoiding the
production of flour is this: whichever process be used the bran
will break up to some extent—this breakage cannot be avoided
—and it will break or be cut into some fragments among others
so minute, that in the process of sifting, these minute particles
of bran can, and do, pass through the same fine meshes of the
sifting medium as the flour particles. If once they be mixed
with the flour there is no possibility of again separating them,
and the flour is thus spoiled.

In any form of gradual reduction, and from any wheats, a
certain small percentage of flour must be made in breaking
down the wheat, and that portion of the flour is injured by the
particles of bran that pass through the meshes of the sifting
apparatus and are mingled with it. The bulk of the interior
of the corn is, however, obtained in gritty fragments, with
which are found small bits of bran of the same size. These
fragments, named ‘‘semolina” or “ middlings,” are submitted
to a “ purifying” process, by which it is possible, more or less
completely, by the application of wind currents, either alone or
in combination with sieves, to separate from the “ semolina” or
“middlings” the bits of bran, they being of lighter specific
gravity. It is obvious that (theoretically) if the bran particles
be sucked, or sifted, or blown away, there will remain pure farina-
ceous fragments free from bran, and that these may by any
appropriate grinding or crushing process be reduced to a pure
flour. This is, in effect, what is done in the “ gradual-reduc-
tion ” process.

Difficulties, however, arise at every stage, and the process,
while simple in principle, is very complicated when brought to
the test of practical application. For instance, to avoid waste
of flour, it is needful that every particle of it should be scraped
off the bran; but the bran is not readily detachable from the

internal parts of the kernel of the wheat, and, in breaking down ~

the corn, fragments of the interior are always obtained with
pieces of bran attached to them. These fragments of farina-

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 89

ceous matter united with bran are commingled with the purer
“ semolina,” and if all were ground together the impurity caused
by the presence of bran would still enter the flour. It is there-
fore necessary, still by air currents, to separate this branny
“ semolina” from the pure “ semolina,” and by breaking down
the former separately to detach the bran from the pure flour-
bearing cells. These latter may then be dealt with in the same
way as the pure “ semolina.”

There is also the germ of the wheat to be excluded from the
flour. This is, from the miller’s point of view, yellow, moist,
oily matter, to be rigidly separated from the flour. It is sought
to detach the germs in breaking down the wheat as far as
possible unbroken, and then by sifting and the use of wind
currents to concentrate them in one or more divisions of the
“semolina”; these are passed through rollers with smooth sur-
faces, by which the germ is flattened into flakes, while the
“semolina” is reduced to powder, and the germ is then easily
separated by sifting. These are but examples of the difficulties
met with. The final product obtained is in the shape of flours
of various grades of purity, according to the material and place
in the process from which they come, and the offals.

The principles on which the old and new systems of milling
are based having been thus sketched, it is proposed to describe
somewhat generally the modern mill and the machinery to be
found in it. Among other changes that have occurred, perhaps
one of the most marked is in the size of mills. Under the old
system it was quite possible that a mill of very small capacity
could be as efficient in proportion to its size as the larger mills.
The larger mills contained only a repetition of the apparatus to
be found in the smaller mills. But in “ gradual-reduction”
mills the work branches off into so many divisions and sub-
divisions of the products, that a large number of machines has
to be provided each for a distinct employment, and for the full
employment of each machine a certain minimum quantity of
material is required. In large mills the provision both of
material and feed is easy; but in small mills both the room
is lacking for the machinery, and the quantity of material to be
manufactured would not provide sufficient work for the sub-
ordinate machines even if they were present. It may perhaps
be laid down that approximately 50 bushels per hour is the least
quantity that can be dealt with properly when working con-
tinuously in a thoroughly well equipped mill; while, in the mill-
stone process, mills grinding as little as 6 or 8 bushels per hour
did good work. The largest of the gigantic American mills is
designed for grinding about 1,300 bushels per hour; but very
few separate mill plants in this country exceed a capacity of 200

90 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

bushels per hour. The tendency is very marked in the direction
of the construction of large mills, and very small mills are
going out of use. The number of mills in the country now
running is far less than it was ten years ago. ‘The decrease
has been chiefly in small mills in country districts.

Steam has very generally superseded water as a motor, on
account of its constancy in work and the freedom it allows in
choice of a site; also from the consideration that the cost of
conveyance to and from a water-mill generally exceeds, except
in a few rare situations, the economy of water over steam. In
most water-mills steam-engines are now provided for use in
short-water or flood times. The modern mill is substantially
built, and generally of a considerable height, as the best ar-
rangements of machinery demand floors of from 14 to 18 feet
from floor to ceiling. Instead of all the work being carried on
in one building, a wheat store, a department for cleaning wheat,
a mill in which the grinding operations are conducted, and a
warehouse to receive and store the finished products, form the
block. These should all be divided by complete walls from
ground to roof, so as to limit the spread of fire. The cost of
insuring mills and their contents is very heavy, and that of
insuring stores comparatively light, so that it is good practice
to allow no material except what is in actual process of manu-
facture to remain in the machinery departments. It may be
premised that from the moment the wheat is brought within
the wheat store or mill building, throughout the cleaning and
grinding processes, and until the products are packed in the
sacks for delivery to consumers, all the material, in whatever
form, is moved from place to place by mechanical means, and
nothing should be moved by hand-labour.

The means of transport in a horizontal direction or for
moderate inclinations are ‘band conveyors” and ‘endless
screws or worms.” Band conveyors are belts, generally of india-
rubber, running over terminal pulleys at a considerable velocity
supported on intermediate rollers. The grain or material to be
conveyed is fed in a continuous stream from a pipe, which de-
posits it on the upper surface of the belt, where it les with
very little disturbance, notwithstanding the high speed at which
the belt travels, and is carried to the desired point of delivery.
At that point the band is deflected sharply downwards over a
pulley, and the grain or other matter continuing in the same
path is shot forward by its own impetus, and may be caught in
any receptacle, or may be “shunted” to a band running in a
direction other than that of the first. For long distances this is
by far the most economical mode of conveyance. ‘‘ Worms” or
“screws,” of various diameters from two inches upwards, by their

a

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 91

revolution in a box or case force the material forward in the
desired direction, and are convenient for short lengths, and are
specially useful in any position where, as often happens, matters
of different sorts require to be thoroughly mixed during convey-
ance. ‘Creepers,’ consisting of strips of wood fastened to an
endless band, are sometimes ‘used, and operate by dragging the
stuff to be moved along the bottom of the box or casing in
which the creeper runs.

For lifting purposes “elevators” are employed. They consist
of endless belts, furnished at short intervals with cups of hide,
or tinplate, or iron, or steel, ranning in vertical, or nearly vertical,
cases or pipes, either rectangular or round, of wood, or iron, or
steel, over pulleys at the top and bottom extremities. ‘The
material to be elevated is fed into the box or ‘“‘ boot” enclosing
the lower pulley, where the cups or buckets fill themselves by
scooping into the mass or stream, and ascend to the top and
pass over the pulley, driven at a velocity which is regulated so
that they may throw out their contents in a nearly horizontal
direction into some receptacle, and clear of the case by which
the belt and cups descend. Endless worms rapidly revolving in
stationary iron cases, which fit them nearly closely, are also used
as vertical elevators. It is requisite that the feed should be
forced into these worm elevators at the lower end. They are
more expensive than the band and cup arrangement, but oc-
cupy little space, and would not act as so many flues, as would
the cases of the ordinary elevators,.in the event of fire. Com-
binations of these conveyors and elevators with connecting pipes
through which the “ stutf” descends by gravity are employed to
carry the material to and from the various machines. These
connecting pipes may be of wood or metal, and in the case of
grain, when the stream runs at any-considerable velocity, the
pipe must be of wrought or cast iron or steel in order to resist
the wear. A stream of wheat constantly running will cut through
a wooden pipe in a very short time. When wooden pipes are
used they should be lined with iron. Sheet india-rubber is also
said to resist the wear.

In granaries and mills it is necessary to weigh the material
at various stages, for many reasons. These weighings are per-
formed by “automatic scales,” which weigh with the utmost
accuracy a fixed load, cut off the supply with great delicacy and
certainty, discharge the load when weighed, and record the
number of weighings. By the employment of these machines,
a check and control of the work of the mill at all points can
be well and cheaply sustained. As mill-buildings are very
high, and rapid communication from one part to another is a
necessity, the best modern mills have fast-running lifts, by which

92 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

foremen and workmen can ascend or descend to any desired
floor with great rapidity. A modern mill should be well venti-
lated by exhaust-fans, and the dust of the old-fashioned mill
should not be visible. In fact, dust is never allowed to escape
in a well-cared-for mill, and the utmost cleanliness is observed,
as a prevention of waste and as one of the most important pre-
cautions against fire, accumulations of dust being not only
wasteful but highly dangerous.

Fire is, in fact, a source of anxiety and terror to a mill-owner,
and there is no doubt that for a few years after the introduction
of the new system the want of knowledge of sources of danger,
arising chiefly from the multiplication of machinery and the lack
of sufficient care in watching the many points where friction may
produce heat, exposed corn-mills to the suspicion of being very
risky buildings, as a large proportion of fires did take place.
Yet if a corn-mill be carefully designed, and well looked after,
there is no reason why its machinery should be dangerous.
Mills should, however, be well provided with fire-extinguishing
appliances; hand apparatus, buckets, fire mains, and hose reach-
ing every part of the building should be available on every floor,
and recently automatic sprinkling arrangements have been con-
trived, by which a shower of water may be discharged on any
spot when sufficient heat is developed to melt a metal alloy plug
fusible at a comparatively low temperature. The electric light
is of great advantage to corn-mills, as they almost invariably are
kept in operation by night as well as by day.

An idea having thus been gained of the general condition
and appliances of recently constructed mills, the machinery in
them may be more particularly described. 'To commence with
the wheat-cleaning machinery. In the present day this has to be
arranged and adapted so as to deal efficiently with wheats of all de-
scriptions produced in all wheat-exporting countries of the world,
For English wheat alone very simple appliances are sufficient.
If seeds be found among the wheat, they are usually small and
easily removed by sifting-machines, and slight friction detaches
from the corn any chaff, which may then be removed by win-
nowing. Smut is more difficult to deal with, as however care-
fully the sifting or winnowing process may be conducted, either
then or previously in thrashing a certain number of smut balls,
if they are present, will haye been broken, and will discolour
the wheat, especially at the hairy or “‘ fuzzy” end.- There are
“ smutters ”—a generic name applied to all machines that clean
wheat by friction, a name used when native wheats were chiefly
employed, and when smut was more prevalent than it is now—
which will scrub off all this smut, if not by one passage through
the machine, at any rate by a second ; and there are “ smutters ”

Modern Improvements mm Corn-Milling Machinery. 93

that will not remove the black contamination: and although it
is used for getting rid of all sorts of dust and dirt, its efficiency
in the treatment of smut is one of the tests of a good “ smutter.”

Probably the most trying difficulty in native wheat is the
presence of garlic. Grains of garlic are so nearly of the same
size and weight as a large proportion of the grains of wheat that
it is not possible to separate them. Thus the garlic passes on
to the grinding machinery, and produces terribly bad effects, for
the sticky tough contents of the grain smear and plaster over the
cutting or grinding surfaces, whether of millstones or rollers,
and thus effectually blunt them, and at the same time impregnate
the whole mill with the vile familiar stink. The loss arising
from this blunting is very serious, and it is surprising how mis-
chievous is the result of the admixture of only so few of the
garlic grains as will escape detection among the wheat. No
machine has yet been invented which can be relied upon to
make a complete separation. Garlic is avoided by the owners of
large mills like the plague, and no trouble should be spared by
the cecupier of garlic-bearing land in eradicating the pest. In
the old small mills wheat mixed with garlic was ground on
separate millstones, to which the mischief was confined.

With regard to wheats of foreign origin, it would be difficult
to construct an exhaustive list of the impurities, or of the seeds,
grains, or pulse mixed with them. It may be said generally
that dust, lumps of mud, stones, sand, mouse and rat droppings,
worms, weevils, beetles, larvee of insects, grains seeds and pulse
of all sorts, pieces of wood and iron, twigs, rope, twine, wire,
pieces of sacking bagging or matting, straw and chaff, are the
most frequent articles to be met with. There is, moreover, a
certain proportion of shrivelled or diseased wheat, and the shells of
wheat-corns of which the interiors have been eaten by weevil,
and in Californian wheats many broken corns.

These foreign wheats are purchased and delivered in large
parcels, and the better practice is first to free them from such
impurities as can be removed when the wheat is handled in
large masses—in short, to subject them to a preliminary clean-
ing before they are deposited in the mill granary. In order to
do the work rapidly, this rough process, by which it is sought
to remove all matters that are distinctly larger than the largest
of the wheat-corns and smaller than the smallest, must be
carried on by machines of very large capacity (some doing as
much as 1,000 bushels per hour each), and the streams or
layers of wheat in passing these machines must necessarily be
somewhat thick. In the more delicate and accurate cleaning
which will follow, it is necessary that the wheat should be spread
in thin streams, so that each corn may be acted upon, and thus

94 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

the working capacity of these latter machines is much smaller.
This roughly cleaned wheat is then conveyed to the granary,
which for the economical handling of the wheat should be con-
structed so as to contain a series of vertical bins or cells, hopper-
bottomed ; from these it may be drawn as and when required
for use in the mill.

Before being ground, the wheat must undergo a more thorough
purification from extraneous matters and be subjected to a scouring
process. It is easy to imagine that if the wheat be passed in a
thin stream over sieves with the meshes or holes so arranged
that the wheat may just pass through, all matters larger than
the wheat will be rejected ; and then if this wheat be passed over
another such sieve with holes arranged so as not to allow any
wheat to pass them, all dust, sand, and small things would be
removed. If then the wheat be exposed to a current of air,
all defective corns, or things which are of the same size as
but lighter than wheat, can be sucked or blown away. But it
will be apparent that the holes in the coarse sieve must be
larger, while those in the fine sieve must be smaller respectively
than the smaller diameter of the wheat-corns, and consequently
many things which are nearly of the same size and weight as
the wheat-corns may pass with the wheat. Among such things
are stones, bits of mud, barley, oats, rye, pease, vetches, and
cockles, and the problem is how to get rid of them.

For this purpose, machines are used in the operation of which
the length of the wheat and other corns as distinguished from
those that are round is brought into play. The machines
adopted for this purpose have for their principal member a
metal cylinder, the smooth surface of which, whether on the
interior or exterior, is pitted with hemispherical recesses of a
diameter about corresponding with the small diameter of a
wheat-corn. It is arranged that the stream of wheat shail be
repeatedly brought into contact with the surface of the cylinder,
which is made to revolve slowly; in the holes all the round seeds
or other matters lodge, and are carried up by the revolution of
the cylinder to a point where they roll or fall out, and as they
fall are intercepted by an arrangement which carries them out
of the machine at a point separate from that at which the wheat
is discharged. But as the wheat-corns would also enter these
holes endwise and project, a light scraper is applied to the
“ pitted” surface, which knocks these corns out and they fall
back to the stream of wheat. By changing the size of the
holes the wheat may be picked up, and oats, barley, straws, or
such-like things left behind. A variation of detail enables the
operator to separate almost everything from the wheat. In
this department of cleaning machinery, very little remains to

+

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 95

be desired, as wheat can be thoroughly cleaned, with scarcely
any waste of good wheat. eter

The wheat thus freed from other matters will still have dirt
attached to the skin, some dust among it, and pieces of mud
that haye escaped separation on account of being nearly the
same size as the wheat, and occasionally stones. These stones
are present in wheats that have been thrashed either by flail or
by treading out on a thrashing-floor on the ground, and are
picked up with the corn. To detach and remove the dirt and
dust, to remove rough particles of the epidermis, and to break
up the particles of mud, the wheat is subjected to strong friction.
It is desirable, so far as possible, to remove the hairy beard and
the loose skin which covers the germ, and any other wrinkled
parts of the skin where dust may lodge—in fact, to polish each
corn. ‘The variety of machines constructed for these purposes
is great, as well as the materials and form of the operative parts.

The great distinction of the machines is in the difference be-
tween thé*application of rough and rasping surfaces and smooth
surfaces ;.and in the latter class of machines, between those
which accomplish the purpose by a beating action, and those
which attain the object by causing a friction of the grains among
themselves. Forthe purpose of polishing the grain and keeping
the skin as far as possible unbroken, the latter class is to be
preferred, and those having a rasping or grating action are to
be avoided. ‘The casings of nearly all these machines are con-
structed of perforated metal or woven wire, and no machine
is perfect in which the dust produced and the pieces of skin
detached are not at once separated from the wheat and carried
away by air currents to the dust-room. When wheats are
very dirty or the skins very rough, it is sometimes needful to
pass them through two or even three such machines in succes-
sion. It must be confessed, however, that there is room for
improvement in this class of machines, especially for those in-
tended for use in this country, where wheats of great dissimilarity
have to be used, requiring means (which do not exist) of regu-
lating the intensity of the frictional process. Finally the wheat
is to be passed through a brushing-machine, in which, while the
wheat is turned over in all directions, it is scrubbed by a brush
so as to remove any dust or particle of skin that may still be
lodged in the crevices of the corns. The wheat emerges from
this series of machines with a smooth polished coat, so that when
handled it is slippery to the touch and bright and glistening to
the eye, instead of being in the normal state of roughness and
dulness.

But there are varieties of wheat in which the dust and dirt
are so intermingled with the grain, and the mud is so stubborn,

96 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

that they cannot be removed by the process just described.
Such, for instance, are the Indian and Egyptian wheats.
These wheats require thorough washing in order to dissolve the
mud-clots and to free the grain from the attached dirt. Mingled
with these wheats stones are frequently found. There are
several types of washing-machines ; the best of them, in addition
to active agitation of the wheat in water, are so contrived as to
provide an upward current of water (into which the stream of
wheat is directed) of sufficient force to carry the wheat with it
to another part of the machine, and not so strong as to lift the
heavier stones, which drop to a receptacle provided for them at
the bottom, and thus a complete separation is effected. The
wheat having been washed is allowed to drain, and is then
passed into a centrifugal drying machine. This throws off much
of the water, but does not dry the wheat sufficiently for imme-
diate grinding. Some apply jets of steam to the wheat in the
centrifugal drying-machine, with the object of driving out of the
crevices any dirt that may have escaped the washing process.
But in any case, if it be desired to grind the wheat within a
short time, a dryer employing artificial heat must be used. It
remains to be mentioned that no mode has been indicated of
removing stones from wheat if the wheat be not washed. There
are machines contrived, and extensively used, for the purpose,
but none of them are perfectly effectual.

From what has been said it may be conceived how great are
the difficulties which millers have in cleaning and purifying
foreign wheats, and how great ingenuity has been put in action
and how much outlay incurred in overcoming these difficulties.
In this respect our native wheats stand at a great advantage, as
they are delivered almost clean to the mills, and do not call for
the use of this elaborate machinery. It is to be feared that
millers do not estimate at a sufficiently high rate the losses they
sustain by the stuff separated or lost in the cleaning process.
Some foreign wheats are so foul that to clean them, and even
then imperfectly, a removal of ten per cent. or more of the
original weight is necessary. In order that the miller may
know what his loss is, wheat should be weighed after clean-
ing, and the weight compared with the original ; its use at this
point affords a good instance of the usefulness of the automatic
weighing-machine.

The wheat thus cleaned and purified may pass from the
cleaning department into the mill. It will have been seen that
native wheats, so far as their mechanical treatment in the clean-
ing process is concerned, should be preferred to foreign sorts.
It is not proposed in this paper to deal with the question of the
extent to which the comparative value of English wheat is

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 97

affected by its chemical composition or by the baking properties
of flour made from it. It is desired to show its advantages and
disadvantages from the mechanical point of view, and this seems
to be the most convenient place to state in detail the difficulties
of manufacturing it into flour, for it is in the modern milling
process which is now to be described that the difficulties occur.
The great drawbacks are the softness and looseness of texture of
the endosperm, the farinaceous part of the corn, the large pro-
portion of moisture which the grain holds, and the property
which native wheat possesses, even if it be delivered in “ good
condition” and be stored in a well-protected warehouse, of
absorbing moisture from the atmosphere.

The largest proportion of the wheat-crop is now marketed
in the damp winter months, and in those months consequently
when wheat is in its worst condition. Immediately after a dry,
hot harvest-time wheat is in as good condition as at any time,
and also in the spring and early summer after it has been
exposed in rick to the influence of the drying March winds.
But in winter the condition varies very much and very rapidly
with changes of weather, and a decline in price of English
wheat is often recorded “‘ owing to poor condition,” when there
is no change in the actual position of the market. Nor can
English wheat be stored in bulk for any long period without
risk of deterioration. Absolute dryness and firmness of texture
as opposed to toughness in any or however slight a degree is
far more important in the “ gradual-reduction” process than it
was in the days of millstone-grinding, and for the reason that
the millstone accomplished its work by a combination of crush-
ing, tearing, and rubbing of a prolonged and violent kind, and
thus was able to detach from the bran the floury particles of the
grain in the shape of flour mixed with particles of bran, while
in roller-milling it must be remembered that the object is to
a the interior of the wheat into gritty particles and not into

our.

The grooved roller-mills work with comparatively little
pressure, and the grain is subjected to a cutting action of very
short duration. The smooth rollers subsequently reduce the
gritty particles to flour by a crushing and rubbing action of a far
gentler and less prolonged kind than that exercised by the mill-
stone. In wheats that are dry the interior farinaceous portion
of the corn is easily cut away from the bran; in damp or tough
wheats the flour particles adhere more closely to the bran, and
appear, instead of being easily cut or scraped off by the rollers,
to be smeared into closer attachment with it. Further, such
particles of the interior which have not fallen into flour in the
original breaking process, when they come to be reduced by
‘VOL. XXIV.—S, S, a | H

98 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.
smooth rollers, possess a kind of adherence and plasticity which
causes them to be compressed into cakes or flakes instead of
cracking freely into flour. These flakes will not pass the meshes
of the “dressing” or sifting apparatus, and, instead of being
removed from the system at the proper points as flour, pass from
machine to machine as flattened particles, and thus, by appear-
ing in unlooked-for quantities in unexpected places, overload
the machines and interfere with their correct operation.
Moreover, as the reduction or grinding is gradual, and ac-
complished by a series of rollers, at each passage through the
rollers more pressure than usual is applied in a vain attempt
to disintegrate the material. ‘The result of this is greater fric-
tion, and consequently a higher temperature both of the rollers
and of the stuff passing through them. This higher temperature
causes the excessive moisture present in the meal to evaporate,
and this moisture is condensed upon coming in contact with
the cool framing of the machines and with the surfaces of the
conduits, pipes, elevators, and conveyors through which the
ground material passes. The condensed moisture combines
with the flour-dust, with which all the internal spaces of the
machines and conveying apparatus is charged, and together
they form an adherent paste. If the hot moist air be not
drawn away from the roller-mills and dressing-machines, the
gauze with which the latter are covered is liable to be clogged,
and the machines become inoperative. The paste which forms
on the internal surfaces either ferments and becomes putrid
and stinking, or falls off and gathers into balls or lumps, which
stop up passages, and thus by closing an outlet, it may be, from
a machine or conveyor, cause a ‘“ choke-up,” one of the terrors
of the miller, and possibly a break-down and stoppage of the
whole mill. Again, it is easy to conceive that a material that
is merely flattened and will not break up into flour and pass
the meshes of the sifting apparatus, must be carried onward
through the system until eventually it finds its way to the offals,
and thus the yield of flour from such wheat is pro tanto reduced.
These are but instances out of the many troubles which the
use of damp soft wheats occasion in roller-milling. And it is
because of these troubles that owners of mills on a large scale”
will not employ native wheats in damp seasons. No concession
in price is sufficient inducement to them to risk the disorgani-
sation of the mill, and probable loss of reputation, by turning
out inferior or irregular flour, and neither good quality nor.
regularity can be attained if it be attempted to use damp wheats
in roller-milling.
There are, however, two modes in which these wheats may be
used. Tirst, by submitting them to an artificial drying process’

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 99

of some kind ; or secondly, by mixing them with some descrip-

tion of very brittle wheat, and allowing the mixture to le for

a considerable time. With regard to the first expedient, few

mills are provided with such an apparatus, though formerly in

Treland a kiln was the necessary accompaniment of almost every

mill. The objection to the provision of a drying apparatus is
that it occupies much space, is required only in some seasons or
parts of seasons, and that wheat can seldom (especially if the
provision exist) be bought cheaply enough to pay for the loss of
weight of the water evaporated and the expenses of the opera-
tion. Moreover, unless skilfully performed, there is a danger of
damaging the wheat by overdrying or irregularity of drying,
and, after all, the dried wheats yield flour of poor quality and
flavour. Any neglect in the direction of allowing the moisture
which has been evaporated to condense on the surface of the
grain, causes a sour or bitter taste. Artificial drying is in no
sense a satisfactory substitute for sun-drying, and it is the
misfortune of our farmers that our climate is not well adapted
for producing dry wheats, whatever its influence may be in
producing large yields. As there is now an abundant supply
of suitable wheat of foreign growth, millers will not take the
trouble of drying home-grown wheat unless they can make money
by doing so. The other way of alleviating the evil of damp-
ness is by mixing the damp wheat with some description of very
dry foreign wheat. Californian, Indian, and Russian wheats are
thus employed. The mixture must lie together for some weeks,
and the dry corn, which is selected because it is too brittle to
manufacture alone, absorbs some of the moisture of the native
wheat, to the mutual advantage of each sort.

In some mills each variety of wheat is treated separately,
and the resultant flours are sold either separately or mixed, so as
to produce the required standard of quality. Nearly all wheats
differ in physical characteristics: some are hard, others soft.
There are gradations of difference : some wheats, while tender or
mellow, are yet of a firm texture; others are soft, and moist or
pasty. Some hard wheats are brittle, others are tough; and
experience shows that wheats possessing these different charac-
ters require different treatment in the mill. For instance, it is
obvious that the farinaceous part of a mellow or tender wheat
will fall into flour more readily than that of a hard firm wheat.
he latter would demand closer grinding and a more frequent
epetition of the process to reduce the interior to flour of the
me degree of fineness as would be obtained by less severe and
less frequent treatment of soft wheat. Thus the mode of grind-
g which is well adapted for the one would not be suitable for
he other. For this reason the better practice is to grind the

H 2

100 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. ~ 7
wheats separately. The American or Hungarian millers, whose
flour so largely takes the place of that formerly made in the
United Kingdom, have no such matters to consider, as they grind
only the wheat of their own district from one season to another,
and their processes require only such slight regulations as the
alterations of weather demand. The English mill has to be
designed so that its work may be varied to grind to the best
advantage alternatively either hard or soft wheats or any medium
variety. !

A miller, to carry on his business with financial success, must
be independent of any one source of supply, and must be able to
make flour of his standard quality from whatever may happen to
be the cheapest combination of wheats of the day. Each miller
(except those in a few districts) makes his own standard quali-
ties, which are known in the market, and he has to produce
these standards of uniform quality all the year round, notwith-
standing any difference in the variety of available wheats.
Although there is no doubt that better work may be made when
wheats are milled separately, yet the difficulty of mixing flours
completely after they are made, and the greater ease, convenience,
and cheapness of mixing wheats, cause generally a ‘preference to
be given to that course; but in all cases there can be no doubt
that each sort of wheat, on account of the different matters it may
contain, should be cleaned separately, and that the mixture of
wheats should be made after the wheats have been cleaned. If
this course be followed, the resultant mixture is composed of
erains not only of different characteristics, but also of berries of
various sizes, comprising for instance the large berries of the
native wheats, and the small berries of such as Russian wheats,
and the berries of all intermediate sizes.

The first process of the mill proper is, in theory, to split the
wheat-corn at and in the direction of the crease so as to divide
the two lobes, and thus to liberate any dust that may be deposited
in the crease, and at the same time dislodge the germ from its
seat. This operation is accomplished with more or less approach:
(generally less) to the theoretical idea by passing the wheat
between fluted rollers or corrugated discs, and it is clear that 1
the rollers or discs be set at such a distance apart as would
correctly split the larger corns, the smaller corns would escape
untouched ; and, vice versd, if the machines were set to split the
smaller corns in the way desired, then the larger corns would be
too much broken. Before then the wheat is fed to the firs
breaking machine, it is “sized” or graded into two, three, o
perhaps four sizes, and each size is delivered to a separa
breaking machine, which can thus be regulated accurately to crac
the corns to the desired degree.

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 101

It has already been said that the purpose of the first stage
of the system is to break the farinaceous portion of the wheat
into small fragments and to avoid making flour. This end is
accomplished by a series of “ breaks,” varying in practice from
four to eight, the number most generally used being six. The
invention and development of the “roller mill,” and especially
the adoption of chilled iron as the material for rollers, has in-
contestably left the field in possession of that machine as the
best instrument that has hitherto been employed for the purpose.
The rollers employed for the breaks are grooved, generally so as
to leave teeth with a sharp edge, the grooves varying in number
from eight up to thirty tothe inch. The operation of the breaks
is thus conducted :—

The wheat is passed through the first machine, and the
broken pieces, then called “‘ chop,” are carried to a sifting reel
covered with coarse wire cloth, which allows all flour and small
fragments to pass through. What will not pass through is fed
to the second ‘“‘ break,” which reduces the material to smaller
fragments and opens and spreads out the bran. This “ chop”
is taken to another reel for the removal of all its finer parts,
and what remains goes to the third break, and so on through
the series, each succeeding roller-mill having rolls with finer
grooves than its predecessor, and the rollers being set so as to
leave less and less space between them. From the last roller-
mill the bran should emerge freed from all flour-bearing cells.
The reels by which the fine stuff is sifted out between each
break are termed “ scalpers.” Recently, horizontal sieves have
been “introduced to take the place of reels in the scalping
operations.

Ideal perfection of the breaking process would leave the bran
| in large unbroken flakes, freed from all the flour-bearing cells of
_ the interior, and the farinaceous portion of the wheat should be
found in small pieces, and no flour should have been made in this
stage of the process. But in the practice of the mill the results
obtained are very far short of this ideal perfection. In actual
practice the products yielded by the breaking process are bran,
a considerable percentage of flour when tender wheats are used, a
less percentage from hard wheats, and “ semolina,” “ middlings,”
and very fine middlings called “‘dunst.” These three last are
the gritty particles of the interior of the wheat, which, after
“purification,” under further treatment to reduce them to flour
by smooth rollers, yield the finest flours.

The bran and the flour from the breaks are finished com-
mercial commodities. The first operation after the breaks is
a sifting process, to separate the gritty products from the flour,
by means of appropriate dressing-machines. But, as hag been

102 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

already explained, these “ grits” are mixed with bits of bran
of the same sizes, and many of them have bran attached to them.
They require to be purified, and the class of machines to which
the name “purifier” has been applied is certainly the most
important in the history of modern milling.

There are two types of these machines in general use: one
is known as the wind machine or gravity purifier, while the
other is the sieve purifier. In the former machine the semolina
to be purified falls through a succession of graduated and con-
trollable currents of air, by means of which the heavy pure
semolinas are freed from all the lighter particles, whether of bran
or of branny semolina, and these latter are again divided and
subdivided into various qualities. ‘These wind machines can be
used only for the larger sizes of semolina. For the smaller
sizes and for middlings sieve purifiers must be used. The
essential part of these machines common to the very many con-
structions in existence is a chamber, air-tight on all sides except
the bottom, which is formed by a sieve covered with silk cloth
and having a rapid reciprocating or joggling motion ; the air in
the chamber above the sieve is drawn away by an exhaust-fan,
so that a current of air is created passing upwards through the
meshes of the silk cloth of the sieve. The material to be puri-
fied is delivered in an even stream to the head end of the sieve,
which is of a long and narrow rectangular shape, and passes
along it in a thin layer towards the tail; by the mere shaking
of the sieve the middlings arrange themselves in horizontal
strata, the lighter and more branny particles rising to the sur-
face, and the heavier and purer next the silk cloth. The slight
current of air passing upwards through the sieve assists this
operation, and the meshes of the silk cloth being proportioned
to the sizes of the middlings, the heavier and pure particles
fall through and are collected in a receptacle below the sieve,
while the lighter and inferior particles are kept in suspension
and pass onwards to and over the tail of the sieve, and any
very light particles are lifted up and carried away by the cur-
rent of air to a dust-room provided to catch them. ‘ Dust-
catchers,” which are in their various forms air-filters, are here
employed to catch all these very light particles. Recently, puri-
fiying machines have been constructed containing a filter in
themselves, as well as a device by which particles that have been
lifted from the mass, but are too heayy to be carried away b
the air-current, and would therefore fall back again, are inter-
cepted in their fall and divided from the middlings.

All these processes of purification are very delicate opera-
tions, and all the gritty particles require to be accurately “ sized,
so that each size may be treated by a machine haying a curre

Modern Iinprovements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 103

of air exactly proportioned to the specific gravity of the semo-
lina or middlings to be treated. ‘The separation into sizes is
accomplished by sizing reels or sieves. And that there may be
no waste, by reason of flour-dust being carried off by the air
currents, it is of the greatest moment that all the semolinas and
middlings should be perfectly freed from all floury particles
before they enter the purifiers.

The importance of the purifying operations in “ gradual
reduction” cannot be exaggerated. It is the foundation of the
success of the whole process. By purification a certain portion
of the flour-bearing cells of the wheat-corn can be completely
freed from the contamination of bran, and other portions can in
various degrees be made more or less free. From these pure
middlings the highest quality flours are produced, and the aim
and object of the miller is, by skilful manipulation of his machi-
nery, to obtain from wheat the greatest possible percentage of
pure flour, to be sold either as fine flour (and called, after an
American fashion, “‘ Patent”), or to be mixed with the various
lower qualities, which the mill must produce from the less pure
middlings and in the breaking process, and form what is called
“straight grade” or “straight run.” While the “ purifier” by
enabling the miller to get rid of the admixture of bran specks
from the middlings laid the foundation of the process, the use
of the smooth roller-mill has been of immense advantage in the
same direction by its operation in breaking down or reducing
middlings containing bran specks to flour without cutting up
the branny particles to the same extent as millstones.

The stage has now been reached in our account of the
process when the semolinas and middlings obtained in the
“breaks” may be supposed to have been purified and to be
ready for reduction to flour. The reduction of these is accom-
plished in much the same manner as the “ breaking” of the
wheats. Each size of purified semolina or middlings should be
cracked down on separate roller-mills; the flour produced in the
passage between the rollers is to be sifted or dressed out. If the
particles remaining be still of sufficiently large size, they should
be re-purified, and passed on to other rollers, and then the
produce of those rollers is re-dressed, flour removed, and the
‘gradual reduction” is repeated until no flour of value above
the worth of offal can be obtained. But throughout this mid-
dlings reduction, there is a possibility of separating and remov-
ing branny matter at each purifying and at each grinding
operation, and the most is made of these opportunities. Each
different quality of middlings and each grinding yields a flour
of different quality, and these flours can be kept separate for sale,
or combined in any proportions that may suit the trade or

104 Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

demand of the mill. In Hungary as many as ten different quali-
ties of flour are made. It is in this part of the process that
there are the greatest differences of system and practice in mills.

It is now necessary to refer more particularly to the “ roller-
mill” as a machine, and to attempt a general description of the
points which are common to the many types of this machine
now in use. One function of the roller-mill in the “ breaking”
process has been described; the other duty of roller-mills is to
crush or grind into flour the particles produced by the breaks
after they have been “purified.” For the first duty the rollers
are grooved or fluted; for the second they are smooth. For
the “breaks” chilled iron rollers exclusively are used; for the
‘grinding of the particles, chilled iron and porcelain rollers are
employed. Cast iron, cast steel, forged steel have been tried,
but the hardness of the coats of the wheat, and the various odd
articles of metal or stone that in spite of all precautions find
their way to the rollers, wear away these materials very rapidly.

Space cannot be given to a description of the vast variety of
roller-mills that are in the market, nor to a discussion of the
principles of their construction, or of the differences between
the many modes of accomplishing the same object. Such in-
vestigations are more appropriate to the journals of the milling
trade. A general sketch of roller-mills may, however, be at-
tempted. The rollers vary in length from 9 inches up to 40
inches, and the constructions most generally in use adopt dia-
meters of from 8 inches to 12 inches. Some engineers prefer
rollers of very much larger diameters. The grooving of a roller
when viewed in cross section has a saw-like appearance, varying
in fineness from 8 or 10 up to 30 or 35 grooves to the inch. The
saw-teeth also vary somewhat in form, and especially in the
depth to which the grooves are cut. One maker prefers a tooth
rounded instead of sharp at the point, but it is a form not much
used in this country. On the contrary, the general view is that
it is needful to keep the teeth of the rollers moderately sharp in
order that they may cut and not crush the grain, and yet with
not too keen an edge or they will cut up the bran. The grooy-
ing even of chilled iron wears gradually, and the life of a roller
in an efficient condition may be reckoned at about two years.
The roller then requires to be regrooved. The grooves pre-
ferably are cut in a spiral direction, there being an idea that
better work is obtained by the scissors-like action of the teeth ;
but, however this may be, there is a real advantage in avoiding
the danger of the teeth of the two rollers interlocking and de-
stroying each other, as they would do if the grooves on each
were parallel with the axis and the peripheries came into con-
tact with each other.

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 105

Appliances are fitted to all roller-mills by which an elastic
pressure may be applied to the material passing between the
rollers. The smooth rollers accomplish their work more by a
crushing than a cutting action, and consequently greater pres-
sure is applied through them to the goods than is the case with
grooved rollers. And as the pressure is in proportion to the
length of the working surfaces, the greater the length the
greater is the pressure on the axles, and the greater the diffi-
culty in keeping them cool and the bearings free from wear,
so that of necessity smooth rollers are shorter than grooved
rollers. The surface of these rollers, though smooth, is not
polished; the condition desired is that the surface of the metal
should be quite smooth to the touch, while it has a dull appear-
‘ ance which has been likened to finely frosted glass. It is this
very slight roughness of surface which gives the rollers a slight
bite upon the material that passes between them, and thus, by
means of pressure and the difference of speed at which the sur-
faces of the two rollers are made to travel, enables them to
resolve it into flour. It is because porcelain has a very slight
granular surface that some prefer to use smooth rollers of this
material.

A “roller-mill” consists of an iron frame of very solid con-
struction, containing generally one or two pairs of rollers, and is
fitted with all necessary appliances. Roller-mills have been built
containing as many as six pairs of rollers, but this construction
has been abandoned. In the ordinary type a pair of rollers is
placed horizontally in the frame, with their spindles in the same
plane; the carriages or bearings of the spindle of one roller are
fixed to the frame ; the bearings of the second roller are movable
and adjustable, so that the second roller can be made to approach
or recede from the first roller, but always in perfect parallelism
with it. To apply pressure to the material to be reduced by
passing between the rollers various devices are adopted, em-
ploying either alone or in combination screws, wedges, levers
and weights and springs. But while it is important that the
pressure should be constant in amount, it is also necessary that
it should not be rigid, in order that provision may be made for
the recession of the movable roller if a piece of metal or other
ungrindable object should pass between the rollers. There
must be power to exercise the most delicate adjustment from
time to time to suit the work, and the pressure must be con-
stant and alike at each end of the rollers, and there must be an
arrangement for throwing the rollers instantly apart in case of
need, and of bringing them to the original relative situation
without entailing the trouble of readjustment.

Placed above the rollers is a hopper, containing the material

106 = Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery.

to be ground, and fitted with a roller or other feeding device by
which the material is to be delivered to the meeting point of
the rollers in a thin, regular, continuous stream, quite equal in
volume at all points of the length of the rollers. The feed
must also be capable of adjustment to the greatest nicety, and
is to be arranged so that the stoppage of the rollers or their
being thrown apart instantly stops the delivery of the feed.
There are devices innumerable for these and other’ subsidiary
points about the roller-mill. To the lower side of the rollers
are applied scrapers, for the purpose of removing any of the
ground material which may stick to the rollers. Very fre-
quently two pairs of rollers are arranged in one frame, all the
rollers being parallel and in the same plane. A duplication of
all the arrangements is then necessary. The material which
has passed between the rollers is collected in a hopper below
them, connected with a pipe which directs the stuff to any
desired point. There is a very common arrangement by which
three rollers are made to do duty as two pairs, the rollers stand-
ing one above the other, the middle roller being common to
each pair. All roller-mills are cased in so as to prevent the
escape of dust, and, as the rollers become warm by friction in
working, it is usual to draw away the warm air from the case by
the application of an exhaust-fan.

The motion is always conveyed to roller-mills by belts;
sometimes each roller is driven by a separate belt; in other
examples each one of a pair is so driven, the other roller being
driven off the spindle of the first by cog-wheels. But either in
one way or the other each roller is separately driven. And it
is necessary to do so, because there is always a difference in the
speed of the two rollers of a pair, the difference being varied.
The proportions of the speed are some such as 4 to 5, or 3 to 4,
or 2 to 3, or 2, 3, 4, or 5 tol. The mode of action is in fact
that the goods are held and passed on by the slow roller, while
the swifter movement of the fast roller in the case of the grooved
rollers cuts the stuff up, and in the case of smooth rollers drags
apart and disintegrates the particles to be reduced by a tearing
action proportionate in violence to the difference of the speed of
the rollers and the amount of pressure applied. If a pair of
smooth rollers be run at equal speeds, their action is simply to
squeeze the particles that pass between them and flatten them
so that they emerge in the form of small cakes or flakes, while
those which are reduced by rollers driven at a differential speed
come from them in a powdery condition fit for sifting.

The adoption of the roller-mill has also demanded a modifi-
cation of the dressing-machine or silk reel. For, especially with
soft wheats, there was discovered a tendency in the particles of

Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. 107

the meal to appear in a “ flakey ” condition rather than in the
round and detached condition in which the millstone delivers it.
If it were attempted to dress out the flour from this flakey meal
by means of the ordinary reel, some of the “ flakes ” would pass
out at the tail of the reel, although only a very slight friction
was required to make them fall into flour. The invention of
the “centrifugal” flour-dressing machine overcame the diffi-
culty. It consists of either a cylinder or hexagon, of from two to
four feet diameter, covered with silk cloth, revolving at a moderate
speed, and haying a central shaft furnished with arms to which
blades or beaters are attached set within a short distance of the
interior of the silk surface. These beaters revolve somewhat
rapidly, and throw the meal to be dressed or sifted against the
silk. ‘The flour passes through the meshes, and the residue goes
on to the tail of the cylinder and so out of the machine. ‘The
slight friction is sufficient to disintegrate the little flakes. As
these cylinders are very much shorter than the old reels, much
space is saved in the mill by their employment.

An important point remaining to be noticed is the question
as to the comparative amount of flour which can be extracted
from a given quantity of wheat by one process or the other.
Under the millstone system it may be said that about 75 per
cent. of the original cleaned wheat was an average yield ; under
the roller system practice varies very much ; in the best mills
and from the dryest and: best wheats 75 per cent. is to be
obtained, but it may be said that from 68 to 72 per cent. has
been the more general result. It must, however, be remembered
that the 75 per cent. of millstone flour contained a proportion
of what is now ranked as offal, and that the smaller percentage
of roller-made flour is of much better quality than the mill-
stone flour.

Under the low-grinding millstone process, nearly the whole
of the flour yielded by the wheat ground was of one quality,
alterations of quality of flour being attained by varying the sorts
of wheat employed. Under the gradual-reduction process very
many qualities of flour are obtained from the same wheat. The
best flours made from wheat even of cheap and inferior quality
may be better than millstone flour made from the most expen-
sive and finest wheats; while from appropriate wheats a large
percentage of fine flour selling at a high comparative price may
be extracted, leaving the remainder equal in quality to the whole
quantity of flour produced by the millstones. It is the better
quality and higher value of the flour made by the gradual reduc-
tion process that has induced mill-owners to expend in building
and refitting mills sums that have been estimated at several
millions sterling. The earlier adventurers, even with the draw-

108 The Practical Value of Dung

backs arising from the defects of an undeveloped system, did
well, and their more hesitating neighbours have been compelled -
to follow the example of the leaders. In fact, the standard
qualities of flour have been very much raised of late years, and
millstone flour is now no longer saleable in competition with
roller-made flour from the same wheats.

In this sketch of modern milling in this country no more
has been attempted than to show the general effect of the revo-
lution that has taken place in machinery and in practice,
and the difficulties that now present themselves in the way of
adapting the new system to the reduction of our comparatively
soft native wheats. Until some fresh development takes place,
the demand from millers will be for dry firm wheat with a clear
sharp fracture, and damp soft wheats will be a drug in the
markets. It is, however, certain that finality in the art or
practice of milling has not yet been attained, and that me-
chanical science will sooner or later provide a simplification of
the somewhat complicated processes now in use, as well as means
whereby wheats in the condition of average English crops may
be reduced to flour without the drawbacks that now stand in
their way and reduce their prices as compared with their foreign
competitors.

V.—The Practical Value of Dung as Compared with Artificial
Manures. By R. VALLENTINE, Burcott, Leighton Buzzard.

THE chief object of this paper is to show by a variety of evidence,
in short compass, what is the practical value and cost of manure
obtained by the consumption of some well-known kinds of cattle-
food. In order to obtain some standard—some starting-point
—to elucidate the subject, I have calculated the rate of increase
of carcase weight of nearly all the classes of cattle exhibited at
the Islington Shows for three years past. For the purpose of
giving as clear a statement as possible, the average age in
weeks is given, and the rate of increase of carcase or butcher
meat is ascertained, by a rule applied to the known living
weights. The actual carcase weight of several of the prize
beasts has been obtained from the butchers who killed them,
not only for the cattle at one Show, but at several.

The dead weight in proportion to the living for fat beasts
runs from 62 to 72 per cent. The best animal at the Show of
1885 had a proportion of 70 per cent. of carcase weight. Some
others had only 62 and 65 per cent. It is a general rule, how-
ever, in all the classes to allow 66% per cent. for the dead

109

as Oompared with Artificial Manures.

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110 The Practical Value of Dung

weight—viz. to take off one third of the living weight. The
greatest amount of increase of any animal in the 1885 Show
was No. 80, which made a return of about 13 lbs. per week,
according to the rule of calculation. The smallest rate of
increase is only 5 lbs. per week—a wide difference. The relative
cost of feeding must, however, in all cases decide where the
greatest profit or smallest loss may be.

In the tabular statement on page 109 it will be observed as
a coincidence that the average weights over three years are so
much alike.

Most cattle-feeders know that early maturity should be
aimed at, with a view to profit. These tables show most
distinctly how much greater the increase is per week under two
years than at any greater age.

The different classes under two years showed in 1885 an average gain of 101
” ” three ” ” ” 83
” ” four ” ” ” 7%

Year after year the result is pretty much the same. If
there are any doubts whether fattening cattle on dear food is a
paying concern at any age, there need be no doubt whatever
that it is a costly piece of business to keep a beast of only
100 stones for two years afterwards. Not only does the animal
make less return per week, but even consumes more food.

Some years ago Sir J. B. Lawes carried out an experiment
at Woburn Park Farm on fattening oxen. The number under
trial was 44, and the experiment was continued for 53 days.
Everything connected with it was carried out with the greatest
care and skill. Detailed accounts are given, with very minute
particulars. All I now aim at is to give an abstract of the kind
and quantities of food consumed, litter used, &c., and then work
out the cost according to my own plan. Sir John Lawes says
nothing whatever about the profit or loss. To get at anything
like a standard for cost, the market prices of everything in
connection with the experiment must be given, besides a charge
made for attendance and interest on capital invested.

Foop, &¢., USED IN THE EXPERIMENT.

lbs. eee d,
14,804. linseed-cake, and linseed-meal compound, at ld. per lb, 61 13 8
36,097 clover cut into chaff, ateds. per cewt. . i ‘ , 64-8 30

124,115 swedish turnips, at 6d. per cwt. . , . . + 27 a0

44, 566 litter, at 2s. per ewt. ; . 8916 O
190, 853 dung—44 oxen = 383 weeks of 1 beast, attendance,

interest, &e., at 1s, ; 5 ’ 16 0

8

Total Cost ‘ . ‘ 210 4

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 111

Ibs. Ibs. ih ale
The increase of live weight 4,558 =2,734 meat at 8d. perlb.= 91 9 4
There were 85: tons dung, which costs nearly 28s. perton=118 15 4
210 4 8
Carcase increase per week, 8 lbs. at 8d.=5s. 4d.—Total cost per week
12s. 74d.

The following figures are taken from the reports of Dr.
Voelcker’s Woburn experiments for the Royal Agricultural
Society of England :—

BULLOcKS MAKING MANURE FOR PERMANENT WHEAT EXPERIMENTS.
[‘ Journal’ for 1880, Part I., page 131.]

ewts. qrs. Ibs.

oa - - Sie ae :
2 : ‘ 9 124 Total weight of four bullocks on
wee.) 10 0. 8 October 3, 1878: 1 ton 18 ewts. 15 Ibs.
4 - : er Ss

Each bullock received daily as food: 4 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake,
about 64 Ibs. Indian corn-meal, 48 lbs. of white turnips, and 8 Ibs. of wheat-
straw chaff; and by November 5, that is in 5 weeks, they had consumed :—

& s d.
Decorticated cotton-cake : 5 cwts. at 8s. percwt. 2 0 O
Indian corn-meal . - = 8 ewts. at 7s. ,, 216 O
White turnips . - : 3 tons, at 10s. perton 110 0
Wheat-straw chaff, . . lOcwts. at 2s. percwt. 2 3 0
8 9 0

and trodden into dung 114 cwts. of wheat-straw cut into chaff of about
2 inches in length. The dung made 2} tons, when rotten.
On November 5, the bullocks weighed as follows :—

Gain from October 3 to
November 5=5 weeks.

ewis. qrs. Ibs. qrs. Ibs
No.l. ; 9°25 : ; i ey M4
38 & : 9-29 17 : : 0 21 | Total gain in 5 weeks:
EE SO Sa we ae 1 ewt. 1 qr. 4 lbs,
fy : 9 2 26 ‘ 1 22

This is equal to 1 bullock for 20 weeks. Calculating that the carcase
weight would be equal to — of the live weight, the total carcase increased
weight would be 86 lbs., or about 44 lbs. per week per bullock.

£ s. d.
The cost of food and litter brought down. . 8 9 0
Attendance, interest, &¢,, at 1s. per week z ; F4.05.0

9 9
Cr. 86 Ibs. meat, at 9d.=3 4
45 ewt. of dung produced, cost 2/. 15s. perton=6 4 6

The cost of the food and litter are put at market prices, including rail
and road carriage. Roots at 10s. per ton under market prices. Cotton-
cake and maize-meal have been dearer than charged above, though cheaper
now. On the other hand, the return for meat at 9d. per Ib. is more than the
value at present. Food, meat, &c., fluctuate so frequently in value and
cost that no exact prices can be fixed upon; the object is to get as near an

112 The Practical Value of Dung

approximation as possible without running into fractions. In the Woburn
experiments the prices of oil- and cotton-cakes and maize are sometimes
given, but for the clear understanding of the object of this paper uniform
prices will be used as standards.

BULLOCKS MAKING MANURE FOR BARLEY.
[‘ Journal’ for 1880, Part I., page 137.]
Four bullocks for 5 weeks each, equal to 20 weeks of 1 beast. Total

increase 2 ewts. 2 qrs. 3 lbs. live weight = 169 lbs. carcase at 9d. per lb, =
61. 6s. 9d. Meat 83 lbs. nearly per week per bullock.

Cost of food, litter, attendance, &c., as for wheat manure :—
& s. d.
9 9 0
6 6 9 Credit meat
3 2 3 Cost of dung
45 ewt. dung, at 27s. 6d. per ton = 31. 2s. 3d.

[‘ Journal,’ 1881, Part I., page 112.]

Four bullocks for 5 weeks each, equal to 20 weeks of 1 bullock.
Total live weight increase 1 cwt. 3 qrs, 1 lb., equal to 118 Ibs. carcase—

Ss: od,
at 9d. perlb.=4 8 6 Meat, 6 lbs. nearly per week per beast,
45 cwt.dung=5 0 6 Dung cost at 45s. per ton,

9 9 0

Altogether twenty-four experiments have been calculated in
the same manner as the examples given. The food, litter, and
attendance go to the debit of the beasts, the meat and manure
to their credit. A summary of the whole is given on the op-
posite page.

I have now, I think, adduced sufficient evidence to show
that, whatever kind of food cattle may be fed upon, the average
rate of increase in carcase weight per week amounts to only
about 8 Ibs. The pick of beasts at the leading shows; the
feeding experiments carried out with forty-four head at Woburn
Park Farm some time ago by Sir John Lawes; and the experi-
ments lately going on, and being continued at Woburn under
the accomplished management of Dr. Voelcker for the Royal
Agricultural Society of England—all agree at least in one
point, that only about 8 lbs. of meat per week can be calculated
upon from animals of ordinary age. ‘The best boxes, the best
attention, the best, dearest, and most palatable food, in any
quantity, has only hitherto produced about 8 lbs. of increase per
week—on an average of all the best fed cattle in England.

Dung is merely what is added to the straw. If one waters
one ton of straw and does nothing else but let it lie about for a
time, something like four tons of mere wet straw-dung may be
obtained. The manurial value of a ton of straw is estimated at

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 118

SUMMARY OF THE CATTLE-FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.

: Weeks=to| “in per st st of dun
Kind of food Gace tr ne Total cost Coane ae for 8
weeks Tbs. Sa ds-|\ See as Se se de
Cotton-cake and maize . 20 4} 99m Or OW OF (5s) 2elbae 6
DVGhOre Yee ea) ears) 20 84 9 9 Ohi Of 9° <b: Plan Tan
lite S64) ie cS 20 6 oF 9F 0 Ow Sb by) 2b 0
GHG nA Glos sss 20 45 OF OF OLlsOb 98 cbr ie2tby 10
TOU 23) eS ean on eS 15 10% SF Te On Ob 2s DA 1) Gae.8
COM rt cbs: wel tse 15 8% SF G04 O32) (62). Lb 0
Ditto. 5. 4) See 12 114 418) 0F 0) 8 2 —
LOTR oe Onis SONS eee 12 14+ ASST One Gee —
Cotton-cake ..... 13 5 Cake Gs Or Lor f| aes
Maize-meal,&c.. . . 13 Gre eO Se 6810) 29) 102) eo
Cotton-cake and maize- 14 6+ SELOS Oy |FOr= 7) LOR Ie eG
meal
ITHLOMESSESe: skp ler os 14 8 SALON. OF ORS 7610), 0; 1855.0
Tahoe! 2) 14 12 BLO OL Oy 7-10 —
Ditto. =. « we 14 (es De lOm OriOn ee lLOulete GG
Cotton-cake, maize. . . 40 9: |25 10 0} 012 6/110 0
PABSeCEdN Ren! fs * gnc. 40 Goin 2S On HOn FOPTSe: ON ksaro
Cotton-cake, maize. . . 27 NOS ae |tSs 0) OMe Teele a0
Linseed. . 7 27 9 18 9 O10 14 O52 5 0
Cotton-cake and 1 maize . 27 ue ZOnUS Te | OStbt eS) | eler O
Linseed-cake. ... . 27 is Zou oe COLL SOR omeoeas)
Cotton-cake .... = =. < « 17 3 Sie be 'G_ tO, 29 Conia ae
Maize-meal . 3. '. ¢ 17 6 Hel On 9s Oke STOW let oa 9
Cofton-cake ..... 18 7 Sr 2 Grr oe On| i sas
Marzeameals 5 <7. 5 18 7% Te Te 9) | Ol Sere ORG 7
AV OTOGA ek as 8 OOS OM melee

about ten shillings, therefore four tons of merely wetted straw
is only worth half-a-crown a ton as dung. On the other hand,
if a ton of straw be used as litter for twenty weeks for a fatten-
ing bullock, receiving about 17 lbs. per day of cake—say of
cotton and linseed cake—besides clover, hay, and roots, the
original ton of straw has most costly additions made to it. Is
the manure worth the extra cost and additions? Most people
would answer no. As few farmers have either boxes or covered
yards to preserve any kind of manure, what part of the original
value of the manure in the food would remain after repeated
washings? Just in proportion to the number and thoroughness
of the washings, we may suppose; and these are frequent
enough in all ordinary seasons. Again, when dung does con-
tain a good percentage of nitrogen, it seldom shows such fayour-
able results in the crops as artificial manures, containing much
less in quantity, but in a more readily available form.

The cost of oil-cake dung is apparently very great. The
notion that the land will get richer is true; but will the ordinary
farmer who makes it get richer or poorer? Artificial manures

VOL. XXIV.—S. 8. I

114 The Practical Value of Dung

have hitherto produced crops of both corn and roots fully better
than dung. If dunging is partially or wholly left off, the crops
fall off. Then where is the permanency of dung? [If artificial
manures containing both phosphates and nitrogen are used, it is
known on the best possible authority—that of Sir John Lawes
—that after more than forty years’ trial, neither does the soil
get poorer nor the crops get worse. Further, dung may be
applied in very large quantities to all kinds of crops, and
although the soil becomes richer and richer, the crops never
increase in proportion, nor yet at all in fact: as the yield of corn
on dunged land—dunged heavily for forty years—does not in-
crease.

People who know least about artificial manures condemn
them. Many say nitrate of soda is the great criminal charged
with scourging, wearing out the land, and doing all the evil
possible in every respect to the land. Can an authentic account
be really obtained of any farm that has been really injured by
the judicious use of artificials? If land becomes poor and full
of couch, and is dressed with nitrate of soda or such like to
make a struggling corn-crop grow, what then if the couch
grows faster than the corn, and such a system is continued? Is
the manure to be blamed for making the pest grow? If the
farmer fails because the couch succeeds too freely, is it right
that the manure should have all the blame ? What farmer who
knows anything much about artificials would use nitrate of soda,
or ammonia salts, year after year, alone, without phosphates ?
No one could continue to do so without loss. This ought to be
the greatest reason for having little fear of the land, as by an
exhausting process the farmer would injure himself. Neither
could any one, if he wished to take a farm for a short period to
exhaust it of latent condition, be able to do so, without loss,
through moving stock, implements, and all his belongings to a
new farm, and from it again in two or three years; therefore, if
the right system of manuring were not carried out, the crops
would fall off, so that it really would not pay any man to try to
continue to wear out the land. Experiments merely continued
year after year to determine certain points are only guides to
establish principles, but are not, of course, intended for general
practice. ;

On the opposite page is a summary of the experiments
carried on at Woburn for ten years, from 1877 to 1886, on the
continuous growth of wheat by artificials and by dung.

These estimates are, of course, only approximations, but are as
nearly right as they could be at the time they were made; the
same principle, however, of calculation applies to all. It is very
evident that there is much less loss in growing wheat without

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 115

AVERAGE YIELD OF WHEAT FOR TEN YEARS AT WOBURN, WITH
THE APPROXIMATE Cost or MaAnures, Seep, Rent, CuLriva-
TION, AND HARVESTING ; ALSO THE VALUE OF THE CROPS.

$ ag lue of ae G
a -| @ | Value | Value o rey ain
om a3] 2 Cost of | 3S
Ser Manur = | of the | corn and Soi. per Loss
° ee aihar az ae seca straw afloat” a acre
S a = ad
A 2s EE
n
£s.d.|£5d.) £8. d.| & |£s. dL. de
1&7|Nomanure. . 17.|174)114 8) 5 28; — 4/1 28] —
“Sager ammonia } 25 |243/2 90| 7100] 1100] 4/2 00] —
3 ekg nitrate ee 24 125112 1101 7 70] 1100| 4 |1170| —
: Minerals only . f 173|174|1 14 8} 5 46] 2100] 4 — |1 56
Minerals & 4001 s. x
Beate ahs 3 38 |413/4 30/1115 0] 5 00| 4 |2150| —
6 | Minerals & 550 Ibs. Sly
nitrate of soda} (203/44 [4 80/11 148] 5 00/ 4/2148) —
11 B | About 8 tons dung.
: sets as per table,
9s. 8d. per ton. c
Money value of 27 |27 |2140] 8 20)11174| 4 — |7154
food= 21s, 3d. per
Sig ao sae

any manure, than with too costly dung. Thirty-eight bushels
of wheat for ten years by artificials, many of the seasons being
bad yielding, is at least ten to twelve bushels per acre above
the average of the country farmed in the usual way. On the
dunged plot there is a loss of 7/. 15s. 4d. per acre annually: so
that in ten years there is a total loss of 771. 15s. 4d., which is
more than the value of farming land. The money value of
the food consumed would be 81. 5s. 1d., so that whatever way
the subject is treated, the result is unsatisfactory. The land has
become debtor to a very large amount for a supposed latent im-
provement.

Cattle-foods of various kinds no doubt contain the amounts
of manurial ingredients which chemists assign to them, and the
loss by consumption may also be fairly enough estimated. For
all this, in real practice, by making dung from dear food and
applying it to the land, there is usually a considerable loss
when the crops are produced. Dung does not act so quickly
as artificials, a small percentage only coming into immediate
use. The residue of the dung left after assisting one crop is
subjected to continual loss by the usual rainfall in winter, and
this for the four or five years that elapse before dung is again
applied.

In very wet seasons even dung produces no very visible effect
oncrops. The soluble ingredients of value may be washed away as
soon as produced. Whatever theory there may be on the matter

12

116 The Practical Value of Dung

of loss, almost every farmer found that in the unusually wet
season of 1879 the dunged crops appeared to suffer as much as
where artificials were used. Nor were the crops much better
after any kind of manuring than where nothing was applied.
Practically, however, there is an enormous loss of manurial
matter from dung before it reaches the field. There is not one
farm out of fifty provided with boxes or covered yards to protect
the dung from being wasted by washing. In too many instances
I have not the slightest doubt that much more than half of the
most valuable ingredients of the dung are washed away and
-utterly lost, so far at least as the producer is concerned.

Compensation clauses for estimating the unexhausted value
of cattle-food in manure must be liable to many considera-
tions before any proper estimate could be made of what might
be supposed to be left in the land years after the supposed
rich dung was applied. It might be possible enough for
20 tons of oil-cake to be consumed annually on a farm, by
dairy, young stock, or even fattening cattle, and that, by the
manner of wasting the manure in open yards, not 10/. worth
of the original manurial constituents of 20 tons of cake might
be left for the field. In a general way, with large open
yards, it is a mere waste of money to purchase dear food with
the double object of producing meat and rich dung at the same
time. As a rule, therefore, the ordinary farmer looks mainly to
the cost of producing meat at the smallest cost for purchased
food, without any particular calculation about the maybe hidden
value of the dung. Although rather poor, clean land is much
to be preferred for entering upon than very foul land which has
a charge against it for unexhausted manures. The unexhausted
value of manures is altogether a most intricate subject.

The field at Woburn where the experiments have been carried
out had no doubt a good deal of unexhausted manurial matter
left in it when the experiments commenced. I remember nearly
fifty years ago that the land was heavily dunged with rich fat-
tening cattle manure for swedes and mangolds. The crops
were heavier about that time than they have been of late. It
was the system then to consume one half the root-crop on the
land by sheep. ‘The sheep were liberally fed with oil-cake,
corn, and hay or clover chaff. The first crop of the course had
a heavy dunging. ‘The second crop, barley, was too rank, and
fell down long before harvest. To consume a quantity of the
produce on the land, and to supplement this by cake, corn, &c.,
tended, as a matter of course, to produce heavy crops. This
was the system pursued for a long time on the Woburn Park
Farm. ‘There need scarcely be any doubt that the dung pro-
duced by fattening cattle at Woburn fifty years ago cost about

as Compared with Artificial Manwres. 117

as much per ton as now. I remember the heavy crops of barley
perfectly well, as I was a working pupil at the time, and the
laid twisted corn was a difficult task for me to cut with the point
of the scythe.

Very high farming was carried on at Woburn during a
long course of years, and no doubt there still remains some of
the unexhausted value of the manures in the land. Whether
any one can ever recover and make a profit of the residue
remains an open question. The Ducal family at Woburn have,
for a century at least, at all times shown a great interest and
taken a distinguished lead in agricultural affairs, and the experi-
ments now being carried on at Woburn will annually become
more and more valuable as guides to both landlords and tenants.

It is well known that a very great prejudice long existed
with many owners, and also occupiers of land, against artificial
manures. At present opinions are.on the whole very much
changing. At one time a farmer was supposed to take—should
take—at least as much weight of dung into the field as he ex-
pected to take tons of roots out; and nothing could ever be
expected to make anything grow so well as dung. At present
one ton of artificial manure of the best kind may, with a favour-
able season, produce 100 tons of roots.

There are many points to be considered regarding the en-
richment of the land with dung, &c., as a supposed permanent
improvement. Land can, it is well known, be much enriched
by large and repeated doses of good dung. All agree in this.
Where people disagree is whether the improver of the land is
able to improve himself—able to make the dunging pay ?

Some of the Woburn experiments tend to show that the
soil must have retained some proportion of the unexhausted
manures previously applied. In the rotation experiments it is
obvious that the land must have been in more than average
condition when it produced 19 tons per acre of roots without
any additional manure. Phosphoric acid is chemically proved
to be retained by almost all kinds of soil for very long after
dung or superphosphates have been applied. Bone-dust was
used as a manure at Woburn before the discovery of dissolving
bones by acid was made known to the world. The largest
fragments of the bone-dust applied long ago may still have some
influence over the crops.

Sir John Bennet Lawes has shown that even superphos-
phates, more than thirty years after their application, have had
a decided effect upon the increase of the crops where nitro-
genous manures were applied on the mineral manured part;
and on other parts where no minerals had been previously
applied, the crop was inferior. Mineral manures for corn-crops

118 The Practical Value of Dung

—nminerals alone—are, however, of scarcely any use. This has
been thoroughly well proved by such a number of diversified
experiments that it appears scarcely worth while to try to prove
over and over again what has been already set at rest.

Sir John Lawes’ experiments, carried on for such a long
period, show that minerals alone for the first sixteen years pro-
duced 173 bushels of wheat per acre. The Woburn experi-
ments for ten years also produced 17} bushels of wheat per
acre. Many other experiments have been recorded of trials
with mineral manures for corn. They have all, as a rule, had
the same unpaying result.

Average number
of bushels
per acre.

The Woburn experiments with mixed minerals and ammonia salts . 38
The Rothamsted experiments, 32 years, with mixed minerals and
ammonia salts . : : : : : : : &
The Rothamsted experiments, 16 years, with minerals and nitrate
Oreos ~ ga ; : ; , ; : : : . 38052
The second period of 16 years the nitrate of soda increased yield to . 363
The Rothamsted plot, 32 years, with 14 tons of dung annually . . 3a}

. 36

Practically, ammonia salts with minerals produced the same
results as nitrate of soda with minerals. The crops with nitrate
increased, however, rather than diminished during the last
period of sixteen years. Here, then, is the best evidence that
no danger to the land need be feared from the proper applica-
tion of artificial manures. Sir John Lawes’ own words are:
‘When large crops of wheat have been grown by the applica-
tion of nitrates, or salts of ammonia, with mineral manures, the
soil does not appear to have gained or lost fertility.”

The working out of the various feeding trials at Woburn
which I have given might of course be treated in a very
different manner. What is called the spending value of roots,
hay, straw, &c., might be charged at any low price, if it were
the object to make it appear that the fattening of cattle was a
fairly paying business. It must, on the other hand, be obvious
that if swedes were charged 5s. per ton, hay or clover 2/. per
ton, and straw and labour allowed for nothing, much of the
farm produce would return a very small amount of money.

All calculations connected with the fattening of stock on
purchased and valuable home-grown produce should take every
local and accidental circumstance into account. Jor instance,
the straw at Woburn is charged at the market value of 2/. per
ton. In my own village, only ten miles off, straw has, for ten
years past, averaged nearly 3/. per ton. In some other dis-
tricts, straw has made at times 5/. per ton and hay 7/., whilst
roots have fetched from 12s. to 20s. per ton. It is therefore
quite clear that, if the calculations which I have given have

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 119

any truth at all in them, a great loss must be sustained by
an unvarying system of turning all kinds of produce into meat,
and fondly nursing the idea that if the value is not returned by
the meat produced, the dung produced will make up all losses
in the long run. Of course, meat might get very dear, and
farm produce of so little value to sell, that it might be turned
into meat. Artificial manures might also become dearer. In
fact, the price of almost everything varies from time to time, so
that no rigid system can be always right, unless it is to buy in
the cheapest and sell in the dearest market, whenever it is at
all possible to do so.

I shall now give a short account of my own personal ex-
perience in fattening cattle, and also on the use of artificial
manures. For a good many years I managed farms for gentle-
men in yarious districts. On every farm a good many cattle
were fattened, chiefly with the object of making manure. In
some cases cattle were house-fed throughout the whole year,
summer as well as winter. The land was on the whole fairly
good, and the crops produced were generally good also. The
results, however, of the whole system of farming were that very
small profits were made. The capital employed was large, the
percentage obtained for it on the average was very small. In a
few cases of weighing the cattle alive and proving the rate of
increase by the carcase weights, rather under 8 lbs. of carcase
weight per week was obtained. My experience therefore, as
far as it went, showed that an increase of about 8 lbs. per week,
as stated in the Woburn experiments, was a fair average in-
crease.
Since I commenced farming, thirty-three years ago, on my
own account, a different system has been followed from that
which gentlemen of large means thought proper to adopt. My
farm of 300 acres contains about 240 acres of arable land. For
a time one fourth of the arable, 60 acres, was devoted to growing
swedes and mangolds. The average crops have not exceeded
10 tons per acre: sometimes 20 to 30 tons, another time 10 tons,
down to nothing with swedes, and in wet seasons only a few
tons of mangolds per acre.

For seyeral winters about 60 head of cattle were fed in open
yards, and consumed about 14 ewt. of roots each per day. The
whole of the straw was consumed as food and litter. The rate
of increase of meat, carcase weight, was only about 6 lbs. per
week. During 20 weeks’ feeding, the money return per week
ranged from 4s. to 6s., according to the progress of the beasts
and the price of meat. In open yards the cattle made about
half a ton of dung each per week. In a tabular form it may be
observed that by charging a low value for the swedes and

120 The Practical Value of Dung

fodder consumed, the dung, such as it was, was also obtained at
a low price.

CATTLE-FEEDING ON Roots AND STRAW: Cost PER WEEK.

Dr. 6 Wis, ids Or. 5 3 ae
103 cwt. roots per week, 6 Ibs. meat at 84... . O 4 0
at 8s.4d.perton . . O 4 43 | l0cwt. of dung, cost . 0 2 103
3 cwt. fodder and litter,
BEIGA fre grate ve) oe te, 0 eal SAG
Interest, attendance, &c. O 1 O
£0 6 103 £0 6 103

The dung at this rate would cost 5s. 9d. per ton.

Cattle-feeding on purchased food and home produce of hay,
clover, and roots, based upon previous calculations, shows such
results as might be expected now. When the: allowance of
roots is confined to 4 cwt. a day instead of 13 cwt., of course
three times as many cattle are required to consume a given
quantity of food.

The approximate cost of fattening cattle on partly pur-
chased food, at the present low prices, the cost of cotton-cake,
linseed-cake, and maize at the very lowest average price
delivered on farms, would amount to about 7/. per ton.

PRESENT ASSUMED Cost oF FATTENING CATTLE PER HEAD

PER WEEK.
Dr. £ s. d. | Cr. 5 x od.
8 Ibs. cake and meal per | 8 lbs. meat, at 8d. . 05 4
day, 4 ewt. per week, 5 ewt. dung, if in boxes,
at 77. per ton. 2 OLS. 6 | cost os oe eS
1 cwt. clover or hay, at
3s. 6d. per ewt OS 6 |
lewt. litter, at6d.perewt. 0 O 6 |
33 cewt. roots, at 5d. per
Cia meeeh Ses ate ‘scat gale
Interest, attendance, &c.. 0 1 O
£010 0 | £010 0

The dung at this rate would cost 18s, 8d. per ton.

A hundred and eighty head of cattle, fattened at this rate
for twenty weeks, would cost for dung during a winter the large
sum of 840/. If all this dung were applied to the root-crop, the
cost would amount to 14/. per acre. If 840]. stood for all the
arable land, the cost per acre would come to 31. 10s.

The cattle fed on roots and straw alone would produce 600
tons of dung or so, neither hay nor clover being used. This
poor dung, at 5s. 9d. per ton, only amounts to 1721. 10s., or
6671. 10s. less than the cost of the purchased and dear food
manure, If, therefore, 200/. were spent on purchased artificial

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 121

manures to supplement the poor dung, equally good crops
might be obtained as by depending wholly on rich, but too
dear, dung. It may easily be remarked: But who would go
such ridiculous lengths as to attempt to fatten 180 head ‘of
cattle on a small farm; one half as many would be quite
enough, and the rest of the roots might be consumed by sheep ?
The reply to this is, that the land is not suited for treading by
sheep. Further, if it is supposed that half a dozen old cows,
placed here and there in corners, and fed frequently at a cost of
15s. per week, are useful as manure makers, why should not
the system pay equally well, or better, on a larger scale? An
ordinary farmer may be able to afford to keep a few oil-cake
feeders, but he would be an extraordinary farmer who would
increase his cattle from 60 to 180, without finding out that
his system was too costly, and an extra capital of 3,000. or so
required.

My present system of farming is to aim at keeping up the
manurial condition of the land, so that it may produce good
crops at the smallest cost for manure. For years past, my main
reliance has been placed on artificial manures. Some dung is
made and some bought, but it is found to answer best, as a rule,
to sell hay and straw and purchase manures. The land is
barely second-class, but for ail this, in suitable seasons, the
crops have certainly been better than the crops of those average
farmers who mainly depend upon dung. Profits on an average
over thirty-three years would be considered fairly good by most
people. In parts of half a dozen fields, no dung has been
applied for about forty years. On the parts entirely manured
by artificials, the crops, save on ore part of light sandy soil, are
quite as good as on the parts dressed with dung. The yield of
wheat averaged fully 4 qrs. over twenty years. Every kind
of crop, excepting the seeds, is annually manured with either
nitrate of soda, dissolved bone superphosphate, mineral super-
phosphate, or a mixture of all. The land was never rich, nor is
it rich now, as when any portions are left (as some are every
year) without any manure, the yield of corn is a good deal
under what is manured. Parts left without any manure for
either mangolds or swedes showed a miserable crop of only
about two tons per acre. The cost per acre for manure of all
kinds for the 240 acres of arable does not now amount to more
than 860/., or 38s. per acre. All kinds of artificial manures
are now much cheaper than they were some time ago. The
manures used on this farm are bought at one third less money
than they once were.

Many experiments have been tried from time to time, and
some of them are reported in the ‘Journal’ by the late Dr.

122 The Practical Value of Dung

Voelcker. For several years potass was applied to all kinds of
crops, but without any sign of doing good. Nor have silicates
been found of any advantage. The main principle now is to
obtain nitrogen in the most useful state at the lowest cost,
together with superphosphates of known standards.

Excessive quantities of manure have not paid their way by
the increase of crops over such parts as have only received
moderate manurings. One year I applied a ton an acre, on
four acres, of special dissolved bones, and on two acres 2 owt.
of guano in addition. Other acres were manured with quanti-
ties of 10 ewt., down to 5 cwt., per acre. The cropof mangolds
was by no means in proportion to the amount of dressing, and
although the succeeding corn-crop was rather better after the
heaviest manuring, it was not so much in excess as to cover the
extra expense of the manure. Very large quantities of dung,
such as 30 to 40 tons per acre, very seldom pay. The medium
way with manures, as with many other things, appears to be the
safest course.

The weather and seasons influence very greatly, as a matter
of course, almost every farming operation, not only with manures,
but almost equally so with the due preparation of the land.
Heavy and continuous rains frequently play sad mischief with
the crops. For instance, in the wet season of 1879, almost all
kinds of crops suffered very much, whether on light or heavy
soils—particularly on clays. Nor did it appear that either dung
or any kind of artificial manures exercised any particular
influence over the crops. The average yield of wheat on this
farm was only 17 bushels; at Woburn, after dung, under 19
bushels; and at Rothamsted but 16 bushels, after a long-
continued annual dunging of 14 tons per acre. Some of the
artificially manured plots at Rothamsted only produced 16
bushels, whereas the same plot had, in a favourable season, sit
duced 53 bushels.

For nearly forty years the best artificially manured plots at
Rothamsted, as have been already alluded to, produced about
3 bushels more wheat per acre than the land that received 14
tons of dung annually. The dunged land has of course a great
deal of unexhausted manure in it; but, so far at least as the
growth of wheat is concerned, the latent power of the soil has
exercised no extra influence upon an increase of crops, and
therefore offers no encouragement to ordinary farmers, who are
so much more interested in obtaining a profit out of the land
as they go on, without making the land poorer, than in feeding
the ground with dung and obtaining no interest for the outlay,

Silicates of various kinds, and the sulphates of soda, mag-
nesia, &c., do not appear to have done much good as manures.

as Compared with Artificial Manures. 123

There is still, however, a very large field of inquiry open to such
as take an interest in these matters. I have merely glanced at
a few points which may interest some who do not care to go
into minute chemical questions of an elaborate kind.

It can scarcely be expected that any one could be very
successful with artificial manures, unless he knew a good deal
about them. He must know what kinds of manures are required
for different crops, how to get the manures genuine at the
smallest cost, and then learn how to apply them, in proper
quantities, in a proper manner, and at the proper time.

Surely manure dealers of a certain class who offer phosphates
at 1l. a ton have not much belief in the wisdom of the farmer.
There are great quantities of what are called artificial manures
offered to farmers, which are almost worthless. No one, there-
fore, should blindly buy what he knows nothing about.

A hundred years ago there were none of the manures com-
monly used now. At that time, if the land was to be enriched,
there was scarcely any alternative but to make dung—rich dung
—by consuming the chief produce of the farm, with the addition
of oil-cake, corn, &c. At the present day we have artificial
manures of every kind, and the great object of this paper is to
show without prejudice, by evidence, under certain circumstances,
whether it is more profitable to make dung or buy manure.

From the annals of the Board of Agriculture I have found
some records of fattening cattle and sheep at Woburn nearly a
century ago. These experiments, however, were not carried out
so completely as the Woburn experiments now are. One trial
at Woburn in 1797 was for the object of comparing the rate of
increase of seven different breeds of oxen. The trial was con-
tinued for about 55 weeks. The beasts were weighed at the
commencement and finish of the trial. Very little artificial
food was given, only about 450 lbs. of oil-cake to each beast ;
about the same weight of hay, and nearly 30 cwt. of turnips.
The rate of increase was very small, only 4 lbs. per week on
an average. The greatest increase of the lot was a Devon that
made an increase of 6 lbs. a week. Some Herefords did not
increase half as much. To say the least of it, such an account
as this proved nothing but that all the beasts throve very badly
indeed, and must have had short rations during some periods of
the trial.

Another account gives the amount and kinds of food consumed
by an ox during two months :-—

£
3,120 lbs. turnips, at 4s. perton . . « . O
232 cakes'at 127.a thousand . . -. » » 2
775 lbs, of hay at 54. perton. . ony hae Ut

4

124 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

There is no record of the rate of progress in fattening; but
it is clear enough that, without. charging anything for litter,
attendance, and interest, the cost per week would be about 12s.
Assuming that this beast made 8 lbs. of meat, what would the
cost of the dung be? Thirty shillings per ton, at the least, or
fully more than the dung has cost in connection with the present
Woburn experiments. 1

It is a good thing for the community that so many people of
large means are ever ready to take a lead in making experi-
ments, at their own cost, as to what plans may be followed and
what may be avoided. ‘There is a vast difference, however,
between a practical and a merely experimental farm. The
chief aim of most farmers is to make a profit. This is the
kind of example and experience we all wish for. Farming of
various kinds includes a large number of problems, all of which
have to be worked out separately. Yet, all must work together
to a great extent, otherwise the business cannot be successfully
carried on. If this paper should be the means of encouraging
enquiry amongst young farmers, it will not have been written in
vain. It appears likely enough that subjects for discussion will
not be scarce for another century or two, so that those who
follow us may still have plenty to do before all are agreed on
any one point.

VI.—Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. By
JAMES A. CarrD, Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.

GREAT BRITAIN is naturally adapted by climate to the position
of a grass-growing or pastoral country, and in former times,
before the high prices for wheat caused by the long wars at the
beginning of the century, it is probable that a very much larger
proportion of the cleared land was in permanent pasture than is
now the case. Transport was very difficult, even so recently as
a hundred years ago; therefore we may assume that most of
the corn grown was used in the immediate neighbourhood, and
that all the land not required for arable cultivation was in grass.
Until the population began to increase there was no inducement
to break up fresh land, experience having taught that’a good
old meadow could not easily be replaced. However, when the
natural scarcity, caused by long wars and neglected cultivation,
sent up prices, the temptation was too great, and grass lands
were ploughed up to grow wheat.

Unfortunately there are no statistics to prove to what extent
this was done, but there is no doubt that vast areas of poor down
and heath land, in the south of England, were converted to

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 125

arable at the beginning of this century—land that cannot be
tilled profitably now, and that cannot be restored to its former
condition within any reasonable limit of time, if ever.

Hence it would appear that if the cultivated ground is being
at the present time gradually converted to pasture, it is only
being brought back to its earlier state, and nothing wrong is
being done. But it must not be forgotten to what extent the
condition and numbers of the population are altered. Before
this century we were able to feed ourselves, we were even at
times exporters of agricultural produce, whereas now we are
importers of every sort of food. Of wheat alone, we only grow
about one-third of our annual requirements.

Some tables at the end of this paper (pp. 154 and 155) show
the changes that have occurred in the last decade, the figures
being taken from the Agricultural Returns. Close upon two
million acres have been added to the permanent grass lands of
Great Britain in the ten years, an increase of fourteen per cent.
It may be reckoned that 1/. an acre represents the diminished
cost of labour on the land converted to grass; so 2,000,0001.
per annum, a sum that would support 50,000 families of five
persons each, or 250,000 people, has been lost, or, more correctly,
has not been produced by the land. The tables also demonstrate
that there is an actual falling-off in the quantity of produce in
the period, in England alone, of the value of 4,935,542/. This
is found by taking the value of all sorts of corn, including straw,
and of cattle, sheep, and pigs, at present prices, for both 1877
and 1887: the cattle, sheep, and pigs together giving an increase
of 3,362,481/., and the corn a decrease of 8,298,023/. Had the
calculations been based on the prices current at the two dates,
the apparent loss would have been ten times greater.

In the Agricultural Returns there is a very interesting
table, comparing the acreage of crops and grasses in the grazing
counties and the corn-growing counties of England. Here the
relative increase of permanent pasture is, as might have been
- expected, greatest in the grain-producing division, being four-
teen per cent. in the grazing and eighteen and a half per cent.
in the corn-growing districts during the ten years. Evidence
is thus given of the experimental nature of much of the new
grass land. It has been allowed to fall down to grass, or it has
been sown down to grass, because it has been found impossible
to cultivate it remuneratively in the face of the great recent fall
in price of cereals. A return to a higher level of values would,
in all probability, cause a reconversion of this so-called perma-
nent pasture to arable land; but in the meantime, while the
newly laid down land is struggling to assert its permanency,
there is a loss of producing power, as shown by Table No. IV.

126 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

at the end of this paper (page 155). The grazing counties disclose
a slightly higher percentage of increase of rotation grasses and
clovers than the corn-growing counties, the moister climate
enabling the farmers to leave the land under these crops a year
or two longer than it can be left with the smaller rainfall of the
eastern coast.

With the object of obtaining independent evidence from
practical men engaged in agriculture, the following list of ques-
tions was sent out by me, and was well and ably responded to.
The answers from the eastern, or corn-growing counties, are

‘placed first, followed by the replies from those counties in the
mild and moist west, naturally suited to the growth of grass.

Schedule of Questions.

1. What is the nature of your soil and subsoil ?
2. Is drainage necessary ; if so, was the land drained before sowing the
Tass ?
; 3, What is the annual rainfall and character of the climate?

4, What seeds were sown; was it a seedsman’s mixture for permanent
pasture, or a selection of your own?

5. Did the seeds include ryegrass ; if so, in what proportion ?

6. Was the grass sown with or without a corn crop?

7. Are you in favour of spring or autumn sowing of seeds?

8. As a general rule, what has been your treatment of the new grass
land with regard to pasturing it with cattle or sheep, cutting it for hay, and
manuring ?

9. Where ryegrass was included in the seed mixtures, have you noticed
whether or not it disappeared in the course of a few years?

10. Where permanent pastures in the early years of their establishment
have been used for feeding sheep, has there been, as a result, any diminution
in the clover plant?

11. How many years do you consider it takes to form a good permanent
pasture ?

12. Have you had any experience of the result of land being allowed to
form itself into pasture without seeds being sown ?

13. Where a large area of land, previously cultivated, has been laid
down to permanent grass, is there a noticeable reduction in the population
of the district ?

14. Might it not be better to let the land remain three, four, or more
years in grass, rather than lay it to permanent pasture ?

15. Please add any general observations on other than the foregoing
heads which may occur to you.

Amongst the more important answers received to my Schedule
of Questions were the following :—

Mr. ALBERT PELL, Hazelbeach, Northampton.

1. Heavy, sticky. Boulder clay with some oolite in Northamptonshire.
Gault in Cambridgeshire.

2. The land was drained; some of it more than once before laying
down. Drains 2} feet to 3 feet, but 10 feet to 16 feet for springs,

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 127

Mr. Abert PeLt—continued.

3. On Northamptonshire farm 29 inches, average twenty years. On
Cambridgeshire farm 22 inches, average twenty years. Northamptonshire
farm 584 feet above sea; rather moist, warm nights. Cambridgeshire
farm 20 to 40 feet above sea. Climate continental ; hot bright summer, cold
winter.

4, My own mixture, seeds bought and delivered in separate parcels,
frequently tested in pots. I never buy of an advertiser.

Ibs. per acre lbs. per acre
1884| 2 |1886/1879, 1884 x 1886|1879
| !

Cowgrass .. 2|11] 2 |, 24 || Crested dogstail .|)—|1] 2] 1
White clover . 6 |4]| 5 |4 || Sweetvernal . —/1) 1 1
AISTEC% eis. 2|2)| 2 )1 || Poanemoralis . —j|1| 1 1
reroll. ©.» 1 | 4] 3 | 14 || Bib grass). . «| 2) 21.2) 2
Timothy. . . 4 |2)| 3 |2 || Pacey’s perennial! 10 |16 | 14 | 16
Cocksfoot 414) 41]4 || _Tyegrass
Sheep’s fescue . 2 |1};—¥J|1 | Italian ryegrass 4\|4|)/—]| 4
Poa pratensis . 2{|1/{ 1 {1 || Meadow fescue —|2) 2) 2
Poa trivialis 2 et |e | L! ||) Red’ clover’ 4 x ==" [ea | eae

5, I shall not abandon a “ pinch” of Italian ryegrass.

6. With a spring-sown crop.

7. Spring sowing has been my invariable practice.

8. Graze after corn harvest (z.e.'the year of sowing) lightly with young
stock among the stubble, Next year, mow once, graze aftermath with
sheep, no manure. Second year, graze with young cattle and some ewes
and lambs, lightly these. Third year, graze withcattle in spring, and heavy
with sheep during summer. Fourth year, frequently mow, and graze after-
math immediately with sheep heavily. ;

9. The Pacey seems permanent. Italian, of course, dies out, but some-
times specimens last four years, perhaps seedlings,

10. I never have stocked heavily in the early years with sheep, but I do
not think this would do much harm to white clover, provided it is not trampled
during frost.

11. Depends entirely on the way the seeds hit, and on the subsequent
rainfall, The plant ought to be good and have the main characteristics of
permanent pasture on my land in less than ten years.

13. Undoubtedly, unless a manufacturing population is introduced, fre-
quently the case inthe Midlands, or unless fruit is grown, as in Cambridgeshire.

14, In many cases it might, on loams not over rich (3-horse land).
I do this myself now, and shall increase the area so treated unless prices of
grain, especially oats, rise materially. When seeds are over their second
Met I endeayour by careful grazing not to let them “run away,” get

earty.

15. I consider it of much importance to buy the seeds in separate
parcels and to test them, also to keep to the same seedsman if the tests turn out
well, On my land it is of importance to have the surface fine, and to brush
harrow seeds well inif you do not drill. In drilling seeds, I drill cloyers one
way and then cross them with the grass seeds. Lime helps seeds. I con-
sider it desirable to sow early, not now fearing the frosts of spring so much
as the droughts of summer. In order to secure early sowing of seed, I
broadcast my corn directly the dirt does not cling to the shoe, and follow at

128 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

[For Schedule of Questions, see paye 126.]
Mr. Aubert PeLL—continued.

once with the seeds and brush harrow. ThusI have a good plant this dry year.
Red clover is not to be relied on on my Northamptonshire farm. In Cam-~
bridgeshire (greensand and gault) it never misses, but 4 lbs. is enough for
permanent pasture; and a remarkable thing is, that in Northamptonshire
farm sowing 4 lbs. red clover with the other seed all seems to hit and
stand, but sowing 12 lbs. to mow all seems to go off.

Mr. James Howarp, Clapham Park, Bedfordshire.

1. Boulder clay.

2. Yes; drained 36 inches to 42 inches deep. Drains 21 feet apart.

3. Rainfall, 25 inches. Climate, tolerably mild.

4, Seedsman’s mixture; but I bought half of one eminent seedsman and
half of another, and mixed the two; I have found this a safe and good plan
with grass as well as with other seeds. I have always been successful in
getting a plant since I adopted it.

5. A little ryegrass came up.

6. I have sown down to grass some 300 acres; I commenced by sowing
down with a corn crop, but when corn fell to a low price I was led to
abandon the practice, and I sowed upon bare fallow. Some of my best
pastures were summer-fallowed for two years in succession, and with clay
land out of condition I should again adopt this method. Latterly, with my
land in good condition, I have sown it down with sainfoin, and after the
first or second year have sown a small quantity of grass seeds. A pasture
may in this way be established without the farmer feeling the cost of laying
down as he does in the ordinary way. I have tried lucerne as well as sain-
foin, but the results were not quite as good.

7. Autumn. If sown in spring, when vegetation is quick, the weeds
run a race with the grasses, smother a large proportion, and get possession
of the ground.

8. As far as the exigencies of the farm permitted, I have avoided putting
sheep upon it or heavy horned stock. If sheep were put on they were folded—
the folds of ample sizeand moved daily. HH grazed, young horned stock are
best. I never mow newly sown fields, except the exigencies of the farm
demand it. As to manuring, my rule is “little and often”; heavy dressings
promote the growth of the coarser grasses, Farmyard manure should be
evenly and uniformly spread over the surface. To eflect this object, after
the men have finished, I send the hay-making machine, in the forward action,
over the field ; this scatters the manure very evenly.

9, Disappears.

10. Yes. Except the pasture is manured annually the clover will dis-
appear—at all events on my soil.

11. It all depends upon management. I have a small pightel on which
rams and sheep for shows have been kept, and, of course, fed highly. After
four years the enclosure had the appearance of an old pasture; but unless
specially treated it takes fourteen years on this soil to make a decent
pasture—and even then it lacks the springiness of old turf. This elasticity
is of course due to the roots of former generations of grasses, which time
alone will produce.

12, Not upon my own land; but an immediate neighbour allowed two
fields to “ tumble down” to grass. I pass them constantly, they have been
down about four years, and have yielded very little keep. The grasses do
not appear to be of a desirable kind, and the example is not likely to be
followed by his neighbours,

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grase. 129

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]

Mr. James Howarp—continued.

13. Clapham being contiguous to the populous borough of Bedford is
no criterion as to the effect, but I estimate that half the labour will suffice
for pasture where dairying is carried on, and much less than half where only
neat stock is kept.

14. Not in this district; the rainfall is not sufficient, especially in spring
and summer, and the district is not naturally good for artificial grasses.

15. The third or fourth year after sowing is, as all men of experience
know, the critical period for newly sown pastures, and the treatment should
at this time be liberal, or the grasses will die out, If, however, the soil is
well treated from the commencement, and was in good heart when sown
down, the vigour of the grasses will be maintained. No horses, old or young,
should be turned out, and if sheep are put upon new pastures they ought
not to be depastured, but folded. My practice, with both old and new
pastures, is to harrow them with a flexible spiked harrow twice a year—
spring and autumn. The effect is to distribute the cattle-droppings, to let
in any seeds which may be upon the surface, to disturb any moss which may
have formed, or rough grass which may have become matted. A little
money expended on weeding during the first year will pay ten-fold.

Sir Jonn H. THoro.p, Bart., Syston Park, Grantham.

1. Strong clay of the lias and Oxford formations.

2. The land has all been drained within the last thirty years, but not
especially for laying to grass.

3. The climate of South Lincolnshire is usually dry.

4, When I began to lay down land to grass 1 bought the best mixture
I could get from eminent seed-merchants at two guineas an acre ; but since
the publication of Mr. De Laune’s article in the ‘Journal’ I have bought the
grasses separately, and with a guarantee of germination, and can show
better results from the expenditure of 25s. per acre than from the 42s.

5. The seeds sown latterly did not include ryegrass. The bought mix-
tures contained an excessive quantity.

6. I have sown down both with and without a corn crop, and with rape.
I think in practice a light corn crop does little harm and helps to pay
expenses.

7. Spring sowing. I have sown four times in the autumn, and have
only once secured a good plant.

8. I have depastured the young grass with sheep and young cattle in the
next autumn and the following year, but have not mown it excepting that
were necessary. I have run the machine over it to check the annual weeds,
and have left the cut grass upon the ground. I have eaten cake upon it,
and manured with sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate of lime and
with malt-kiln dust.

9. The ryegrass inas either dried away or become very weak. The seed
stalks seem to be avoided by all stock when hard.

10. The red clover seems to die out after the second year, whatever the
treatment may be. We have a red clover in our lanes and in some of our
old pastures which I believe to be permanent.

11. This depends very much upon the soil, the climate, the amount of
manure, and the amount of seeds sown. In this climate, with plenty of
manure, or with cake eaten upon the land, eight to ten years are required
to make a good pasture.

12. I know of several fields which were allowed to fall down to pasture

VOL. XXIV.—S. S. K

180 = Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.}

Sir Joun H. Tooro~p—continued.

about forty years ago and are now good pasture, and of others of about the
same age which are very bad and seem never to improve.

13. So far, that has not happened in this district. A great deal of grass
was ploughed out when corn-growing was profitable, and what has heen laid
down will not do more than restore the previously existing proportion
between arable and grass. The population has not been reduced, but work
is scarce, from unprofitable seasons and failure of the turnip crop,

14, Not upon the strong clays, as the expense of properly cleaning the
land again would be great.

Mr. W. H. Hatt, J.P., Siz Mile Bottom, Newmarket.

1, The soil on which I have Jaid down pasture has varied from a light
to medium sandy loam, with a subsoil of upper chalk, to a stiff boulder clay
with similar subsoil. i

2. Only in the latter case the land was drained before sowing.

3. The rainfall is very low, ranging from 15 to 20 inches. Very dry-
ing winds prevail, rendering the climate generally most unsuitable for
pasturage. We are largely dependent on stored water, which we catch off
roofs in tanks, or from the watercourses in flood-time.

4. My seeds were generally a seedsman’s mixture obtained from Sutton.

5. They did include ryegrass, except on one piece, which was mainly
sown with cocksfoot, meadow fescue, and Dutch clover,

6. Generally with a crop.

7. I have always sown in spring, because of sowing with spring crop,
except ona very small garden plot, which was sown with excellent result
early in September. I think early autumn sowing would answer best,
because of our dry cold springs.

8. I graze first crop and cut for hay, alternately, and graze with store
cattle and sheep alternately. Our second crop is hardly worth mentioning,
as our summers scorch the pastures three years out of four.

9, The ryegrass, I believe, generally disappears,

10. I think not.

11. I have not got one yet, after trials varying from fourteen to four

ears.
A 12. Yes, if there is a difference, I should give it in favour of the pasture
without seeds, where it has been freely grazed.

14, I think it might, relying mainly on ryegrass and red cloyer.

Mr. James Stratron, Chilconbe, Hants.

1. Chalk subsoil; the soil being in some cases very light, in others red
and very strong. :

2. No drainage was necessary,

8. About 33 inches.

4, One bushel Italian, } bushel perennial ryegrass, 6 Ibs. timothy,
4 lbs. Dutch ; but if the land was fresh to broad clover, I used lesa ryegrass
and 8 lbs. of clover, which gave a greater crop for the first year, which
being fed off with cattle eating cake well manured the land, and so was the
means of establishing the permanent grasses, which were little seen at first.
This seeding would, if required, also cut a good hay crop the first year,
which would be worth a good bit of money and so pay for the cost of seeding
down ; but, of course, mowing would delay the formation of good pasture,

Recent Hxperiences tn laying down Land to Grass. 131

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. James Srrarron—continued.

5. Italian ryegrass helps to keep the land firm, which is essential to the
srowth of grass seeds, and it continues through seedings, &c., to remain in
the pasture, adding much to the crop of wholesome grass.

6 and 7. I think it economical to sow in a corn crop in spring-time.

8. I recommend that only cattle should be pastured on new grass during
the first autumn and winter: their treading does much good if the land is
fairly dry. They should be eating cotton-cake, A dressing during the
winter of fresh-made muck, made by cattle eating cake, will have established
your pasture, after which you can do what you like, gradually spoil it by
mowing or folding off sheep from it, or continue to improve it as I have
directed. I have experienced both systems. It does not matter whether
you feed sheep or cattle, but both should be eating cake. ;

-10. I think that winter-feeding by sheep tends to reduce the clover
lant.
* 11. One, managed as I have said.

12. I have good pasture formed from worn-out sainfoin, and also where
it has been laid down full of couch. This land was naturally good, it was
well fenced, and a good drinking place made, and stocked with cattle eating
cake, &e.

13. Yes.

14, Yes, unless the land in question is well fenced, has a good water
supply, and is conveniently situated as accommodation pasture,

15. I haye laid down about 2,000 acres of arable to grass; the foregoing
remarks are founded upon my experience.

Mr. Witu1am C. Lirtie, Stags Holt, March.

Tam sorry I cannot give any information on this subject, as I have had
no experience in thé matter. I have this year attempted to lay down one
small field, but it is too early to say anything as to the result. Very little
land has in this neighbourhood been converted into pasture. Until quite
recently there was a rage for ploughing up old grass lands for the purpose
of growing such crops as brown mustard and potatoes, and with our dry
climate there is very little disposition or inducement to lay land down for’
more than two or three years,

Mr, Cuartes Howard, Biddenham, near Bedford.

1, Heavy clay and stonebrash.

2, All drained some years since, but a large portion tile-drained ahout
five or six years ago.

3. About 22 inches,

4 and 5, 2 pecks perennial ryegrass, $ peck Italian ryegrass, 2 lbs.
timothy, 2 Ibs. cocksfoot, 8 Ibs. white clover, 2 Ibs. red clover. This
mixture has been frequently used in this neighbourhood, and has answered
very well.

6, With a corn crop.

7. Prefer spring sowing, but have seen some good pieces sown in the
autumn.

8. I believe it is better to mow the new grassland the first year. I
mowed a portion of a large field the first year and grazed the remainder;
there is no doubt that which was mown is better pasture than the other,
I haye grazed it with cattle and sheep.

K 2

132 =©Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. Cuartes Howsarp—continued.

9. I do not think it has disappeared, for the simple reason it each year
sows itself.

10, I think the clover plant would diminish if fed constantly with
sheep; it is a desirable practice, which I have adopted, to re-sow a portion
each year with some mixed clover seeds, If fed with young cattle and not
overstocked with sheep, the various grasses and seeds will sow themselves,

11. Very much depends on the soil and treatment, but as a rule from
eight to ten years.

12. No; but I have heard some old farming friends say that some of the
best grazing land they knew was what is called in this neighbourhood
“tumble-down.”

13. There is not enough laid down in this neighbourhood to cause any
noticeable reduction in the population.

14, I think it would be better on very poor clay land to let it remain
down to grass for three or more years, if wheat realised’ more money ; but
the working expenses of such land would beat any one, with wheat at 28s. to
30s, per quarter.

Mr. A. Curtets Neve, Holt Paik, Rolvenden, Kent.

1. More or less heavy Wealden clay; an outcrop of Hastings sand in
parts.

2. Most necessary. The land was thoroughly drained 3 feet deep some
few years before being laid down. A few furrow surface drains were made
on the stiffest portions.

3. Average rainfall for twenty years, 25°75 inches,

lbs. per acre lbs. per acre
4, Cocksfoot ’ ao Ryegrass , . 6 to 6
Catstail . A Ak} Cowgrass . : 3
Meadow fescue. ne Wild white clover 3
Hard fescue . Fags | Alsike clover * 2
Crested dogstail . 1 English red clover 2

The above mixture is not a seedsman’s mixture for permanent pasture, but
was a selection of my own.

5. The grass seeds sown included ryegrass in the proportion of 6 Ibs. to
23 lbs. grasses, or in the proportion of 6 lbs. to 33 Ibs. cloyers and grasses.

6, The soil not being suitable for barley, I prefer the practice of sowing
with wheat or oats, and Ihave also succeeded with beans, I find the corn crop
“nays,” and it materially protects the young seeds from frosts and drought.
Great care is taken to get sufficiently fine tilth, even if the corn crop is par-
tially harrowed up.

7. Early spring I consider the best time, so as to escape the spring frosts,
and early enough to get the plant well established before the hot dry summer
commences.

8, The young seeds are well rolled in-the spring of the next year, no
stock having as yet been put on; it then had a small dressing of fish guano
and was laid in for hay. The pastures are generally stocked with sheep after
haying been mown, till October, removing them when wet. In the second
spring the pasture is again well rolled, and a dressing of 1 ewt. of nitrate
of soda and 2 ewt. of superphosphate has been found very beneficial. Ewes
and lambs having grains and corn are allowed on during April, after which
it is laid in for a second year’s hay. When the plant is well established in

Recent Huperiences in laying down Land to Grass, 133

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126. |

Me. A. Curreis NevE—continued.

its third year a dressing of eighteen loads of good dung has been profitably
applied.

hg: The ryegrass which was included in the above seed mixture has not
disappeared as yet; and I neither expect it to, as I find a large prone
of ryegrass in many of our best permanent pastures which have been down
for upwards of forty years.

10. I haye not noticed any diminution in the clover plant.

11. Varies according to the character of the first two seasons after sow-
ing. Usually it takes from four to six years.

12. I have not any personal experience of this, but I have observed in
neighbouring self-sown pastures an excessive quantity of worthless grasses:
agrostis vulgaris (bent-grass), bromus mollis (soft brome), holcus lanatus
(meadow solt-grass), catabrosa aquatica (creeping water-grass), and carna-
tion-grass, which are intermixed with poa trivialis (rough stalked meadow-
grass), poa annua (annual meadow-grass), with a few others.

13. It certainly causes a reduction in population, but sufficient has not
been laid down to make an appreciable difference in this particular district.

14. Having taken great care, and having gone to considerable expense in
laying down pastures, I prefer to leave them for a permanency.

15. We occupy oyer a thousand acres of pasture, including some of the
best fattening land in Romney Marsh; having one field which will fatten
ten or twelve sheep to the acre for the summer months. During the last five
years I have kept up sixty distinct plots of grasses, clovers, &c., for the pur-
pose of watching closely the habits of these plants. J may add that a few
fields which were sown down witk seedsmen’s advertised mixtures some
fourteen years ago are now practically worthless as pastures, and we are
about to plough them up and re-sow them.

Mr. Joun Cxiutron, Whitehall Place.

2. If the land is heavy clay, or it has suffered from the wet, it has been

pee but I do not think it necessary that the lines of pipes should
e laid so close together as in the case of arable land.

4, I make a practice of selecting my mixture of seeds to suit the parti-
cular district, and have the seeds supplied by a reliable seedsman accord-
ingly.

5. I exclude ryegrass, as 1 am unable to obtain with certainty perennial
ryegrass, except in some few rare cases.

6. I prefer sowing without a corn crop. I have found it a good plan to
sow the grass seeds with about 3 lbs. of rape-seed per acre.

7. I do not give a preference to either. The season for sowing depends
much upon the circumstances of each case. I have had favourable results
from autumn sowings, particularly upon clay lands.

8. I usually mow the seeds in the first year, and dress with farmyard
manure afterwards, I feed with horned stock, with from 2 to 3 lbs, of liv-
seed or cotton-cake a day each during the summer. I do not stock the land
with sheep during the first three years,and I do not stock at allin the winter
or in a wet season.

9. In cases which haye come under my notice where ryegrass has been
used, it has usually disappeared after the first two or three years.

10. Yes; and also a diminution in the finer grasses,

11. From five to ten years, if properly managed in the early years after
gowing down, , ; : a

134 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]

Mr. Joun Ciurron—continued.

12. I know of cases of land haying formed itself into pasture, but not
frequently.

14. It depends upon the character of the land. I think when grass
seeds are supplied to a tenant, it might be better to supply a cheaper quantity
of seed, and allow the land to be broken up at the end of a short period,
as the subsequent management is seldom properly attended to, Neither is
cake fed on the land usually.

15, I have, in various parts of the south and west of England, supplied
grass seeds, and upon various soils, but tenant-farmers do not realise the
necessity of after-management to ensure a successful permanent result. In
my own case I have laid down many acres of poor clay land with good
results, I have usually applied a light dressing of farmyard manure within
two years of seeding down, and year by year have fed stock upon it with
daily small quantities of cake, ranging from 2 to 3 lbs., never more, with
favourable results both to the cattle and the land. On Wealden clay, sown
down without a corn crop, with a light dressing of manure, I am enabled
with 2 lbs. of oil-cake to make cattle fit for the butcher, and the grass year
by year improves in abundance and quality. The time of year which is most
favourable for sowing grass seeds depends greatly on the season and weather,
assuming the land to be clean. Whenever a fine tilth can be obtained with
a firm bottom and sufficient moisture, the seeds may be sown between April 1
and October 1, but not jatez. ;

Sir Joun B. Lawes, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans.

1. Heavy loam, raw yellow clay, with chalk 9 or 10 feet below surface.

2. No.

3. 28 inches. Over 400 feet above level of sea, Rather cold and back-
ward,

4, I have adopted both, with very little difference in the result.

5, Always in considerable proportion.

G6. With barley, using less seed than usual for an ordinary crop.

7. Spring; unless the harvest is got in sufficiently early to enable the
grass seeds to be sown by the end of September.

8, Dairy cows or cattle, no sheep. Pasture with occasional mowing, some

pasture never mown.

9. Several grasses have become much less abundant ; amongst them, rye-
grass and timothy.

12. I have no doubt that any land without being sown will form a pasture
in time; the character of the pasture will depend upon the quality of the
land and the amount of manure applied. Some of my land was very full
of couch grass when laid down after a third corn crop, this has been driven
out under high manuring. Seeding shortens the time of forming a pasture,

(The late) Mr. Jonny CoLteman, The Mount, York.

1, A strong drift clay, with occasional veins of gravel; naturally of a
somewhat poor nature.

2, Yes; it is quite useless either to grow grass or crops unless the surface
water is remoyed. The country is very flat, and the surface somewhat uneyen ;
and unless the land is thoroughly drained at from 7 to 9 yards wide, and from
30 to 36 inches deep, water will stand on the surface in low spots, and the
manure will lose half its value.

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass, 135

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126,]

Mr. JoHn CoLeMAN—continued.
3. About 26 inches per annum, with cold backward springs; otherwise
tolerably equable, as the farm is situated in the great valley of York.
4, A selection of my own comprising :

lbs. lbs.
Cocksfoot : A set | Hard fescue . : ial
Catstail . : . . 4 | Perennial red clover page
Italian ryegrass. » 2] Alsike . . ' . 2
Perennial ryegrass . . 4] White clover . - ae:
Meadow fescue ae say oe le erro A F el
Meadow foxtail . . 1 | Cowgyrass ; ; aes

5. Yes; 2 Ibs. Italian, 4 lbs. perennial: such was ordered, but the ex-
traordinary predominance of the ryegrasses in the first crop of hay led me to
imagine that I had been imposed upon by the seedsman, and I accordingly for-
warded a collection of the grasses in flower to Mr. Carruthers. Of course this
was a very rough method of ascertaining the proportion of the various grasses
in thecrop. Mr. Carruthers’ report was so interesting that I append it :—

“The seeds ordered should The sample of the crop
give the following pro- examined gives the
portion of germinating following proportion
seeds. of plants,

Per cent. Per cent.
“Perennial ryegrass. eG : ‘ , : . 50
Italian ryegrass : 3 ‘ : ' . Apa lf
Red clover and cowgrass.. 8 . ‘ : ° 5a)
Alsike . ° . . 9 . . e . . 5
Tr efoil 4 . . ® 2: e ® . ° ° 5
White clover . . 5 ts! 5 ‘ . : jer
Timothy . . . . 30 ‘ : : : to
Black grass, c 7 0 . : : . nities
Yorkshire fog . : ol . F : : Se dt
Cocksfoot . 23 . : . : ae i
Meadow fescue ree. 5 : : ; - 210
Hard fescue . 4 : . 9 : ff20
Foxtail . : 4 A 5 ‘ ; a]
100 seeds. 100 plants.”

6. The grass was sown in a crop of wheat which was not very thick on
the ground. The spring was very favourable for growth, and after the
corn was removed, the surface was found to be very thickly covered with
clover and grasses. The seeds were drilled acrozs the corn by a small seed-
drill which places the rows about 4 or 5 inches apart.

7. On soils and in a climate such as I am describing, I am quite sure
that spring sowing in a moderately thin corn crop is decidedly the best
plan; as the young seeds are sheltered from drought, and risk of frost is
avoided.

8. In this particular case, the seeds were so luxuriant that a crop of
hay, over 2 tons per acre, was made, and a second crop was cut in August
for silage and green food for the horses. As far as I can judge, this treat-
ment, severe as it appears, was not injurious on this strong land, probably
resulting in a larger root-growth than would have been the case if the seeds
had been grazed by sheep. If the soil had been of a light nature, I should
most certainly have preferred grazing the seeds with lambs and young
cattle, and in the autumn of the second year applying a dressing of well-
made farmyard manure, carefully spread. In the spring of the second
year the field was divided into two equal portions, one half was grazed by

136 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]

Mr. Jonn CoLteman—continued.

shearling sheep, horses occasionally, and later on by cattle. The sheep
and cattle were liberally fed with cake, &c. The other half was dressed
with 5 ewt. per acre of soot, and mown for hay, and afterwards grazed.
The yield was, owing to the dry season, about half the previous crop; princi-
pally grasses, but very little clover, the latter not destroyed apparently, but
small in growth. At the present time that part which was grazed appears
to have made the best progress, as it is knitting together very nicely. The
whole should now receive a suitable dressing, either of fold-yard or arti-
ficial manure, the latter to be given in early spring.

; 9. There was a great diminution of the ryegrasses after the two mow-
ings described above, and cocksfoot, meadow foxtail, and some catstail took
their place to a large extent. At the same time I think it hardly possible
that the extraordinary luxuriance of the first year could have existed, if the
Italian and perennial ryegrasses had only been in the proportions ordered.
{am decidedly of cpinion that where the first crop is intended to be mown,
a small proportion of ryegrass is advantageous.

10. This entirely depends upon the manner in which the sheep are fed.
If stored sheep are thickly stocked upon young seeds, without any artificial
food, and only the pasture to support them, there is yery great risk of their
gnawing into the heart of the clover plants, and so causing their destruc-
tion; but if lambs only are grazed, and they are supplied with artificial
food, we believe that in many cases their influence is beneficial in producing
a sward,

11. On land that is in high condition, clean, and suitable for grass, on
the western coast, good grass is often formed in five years; whereas in the
dryer climate of the east, double this time is usually required to make a
close thick sward, and that only by a judicious and liberal treatment.

12. Yes. If allowed to fall down with weeds, it has been an utter
failure ; but in certain soils in Leicestershire, which are naturally adapted
for grass, if the land is clean, natural grasses will soon cover the surface
and rapidly make pasture.

13. Most certainly. We know of large farms in Wiltshire which for-
merly employed five or six hands, which now, being all grass, only require a
shepherd and a cattle-man. The wholesale carrying out of this system must
largely depopulate any district in which it occurs.

14. This entirely depends upon the soil. On the light soils of the New
Red Sandstone, there is no doubt more stock food, in addition to the corn,
can be obtained by this alternate system of husbandry; and this more or
less applies to all the lighter soils that are not suited to permanent grass,
We know of farms in Cheshire where there is no permanent grass at all, the
seeds remaining down five or six years; and yet, by dint of liberal treatment,
as much cheese is produced as on the best dairy farms in the country. In
our opinion the process of laying land down to grass has gone quite as far
as is practicable.’

15. I should like to express my opinion as to the utter uselessness of
sowing renovating seeds on neglected pastures. Such outlay is, as a rule,
entirely wasted, inasmuch as the seeds seldom, if ever, grow, and, however
bad the pasture may appear, there are always good grasses and clover to be
developed by the use of suitable manures.

Mr. G. Manner ALLENDER, Stanvmerham, Horsham, Sussew.

1, Wealden formation, generally, but contains large percentage of silica
under some portion laid down. Stone is found two to three feet below surface,

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 187

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.

Mr. G. Manner ALLENDER—continued.

2. Drainage is desirable, and has been carried out to a considerable ex-
tent by means of steam mole drainage.

3. Climate dry.

4, In all cases my own selection: varying according to position of field
and requirements. Cost from 25s. to 45s. per acre.

._ 5, Always some ryegrass, varying as above in quantity.

6. Some with, some without.

7. Provided suitable weather and necessary condition of land, I have no
preference.

8. Generally cut for hay. Sometimes pasture with cattle, never with
sheep. Assist, with guano, fish-manure, or dissolved bones, unless I can
dress with peat-manure, applied direct from the cattle-houses.

9. I have not any recently laid down land older than three seasons. I
believe that the ryegrass will not disappear.

10. Do not put sheep on newly laid down grass—indeed, seldom have
sheep “ out of the hurdles.”

1l. Entirely depends upon condition of land when seeds are sown, sub-
sequent treatment, and quantity of seed used. I have some pieces only
down three seasons which are rapidly becoming “ good permanent pasture.”

12. There is one field on the farm which I am informed “ fell down”
about six or seven years ago. It is now a fair pasture, but for the last two
years it has been heavily manured with ‘“ farmyard,” and has been dressed
with dissolved Lones; last year it had a few seeds sown upon it. I have
another piece which was foul when entered upon four years ago. Some
clover was sown, and it was folded..over twice, the sheep getting plenty of
cake, and as many cabbages as they required. It is now a very useful piece
of grass.

14. Not for my purpose; I have put down about 250 acres in the course
of arranging a number of small farms so as to make one occupation.

15. I believe that the great difficulty in laying down land to permanent
pasture is the attempt to do so at too small a cost. I always add a few
seeds each year to newly laid down land, at a cost of from 5s. to 7s. per acre,
and adopt the same plan on inferior natural grass,

Mr. Recrvatp A. WarREN, Preston Place, near Worthing.

1. Deep loam on a subsoil of chalk, met with from 5 ft. to 15 ft. from the
surface. My farm is on the flat, between the South Downs and the sea,

2. No. The land is sufficiently drained by earthworms.

3. Being close to the sea, the winters are mild. The summers are
generally dry and rather trying for grass land.

4. Seedsmen’s mixtures.

5. The first experiments included ryegrass, but I prefer it without, and
of late years have not sown any.

6. Always in thin sown corn crops.

7. I prefer sowing early in spring. If sown in autumn, the winter is
apt to destroy the finer grasses,

8. Mow the first year, and feed with cattle afterwards. If horses or
sheep are turned on before the third year, they seem to pull up much of the
finer grasses. Most arable land when sown down is at a lower standard of
fertility than old pasture, and seems to reauire bone manure and other
liberal treatment.

9. Yes; leaving small patches where it grew, which became mossy if not
manured, ‘

138 Retent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. Recrnatp A, WARREN—continued.

_ 10. Clovers disappear on the permanent pastures here, but I do not at-
tribute that to feeding with sheep.

11. Not less than seven or eight years even with liberal treatment, If
not well cared for and manured, perhaps fourteen or fifteen years.

12, Not in this district ; but I have watched the process on poor brashy
land and sour clay in the Cotswold district, and have seen better pasture
come than one would expect.

13, Yes; when the area is extensive, but it is not noticeable here.

14, No doubt it is better where good pasture cannot be obtained ; but
when broken up again it must be very foul, and perhaps full of wireworm,
until it is time to seed it down again.

15, The old pastures here consist of strong, deep-rooted grasses chiefly.
No cloyer, cocksfoot, or ryegrass is found. This is attributable, I think, to
the ground becoming hard and dry in summer. The land is first-class wheat
land, but the grass Jand does not yield correspondingly heayy crops. The
herbage, however, whether fed off or made in hay, is very sound and nutri-
tious. Many years ago an 8-acre field sown with permanent grass seeds (in
which ryegrass was mixed) came up very strong, and I folded it over
closely with sheep in May the first year with very good effect.

Mr. CLARE SEWELL ReaD, Honingham Thorpe, Norwich.

1. A stiff loam, resting on a clay or brick-earth subsoil.

2. Some of the land when in arable cultivation was drained many
years ago.

3. About twenty-five inches; climate dry, and this farm seldom catches
any thunder rain or showers in a drought.

4, Mixtures from Messrs. Sutton & Sons, Reading.

5. Yes, but the proportion I do not know.

6 and 7. A portion of the root crop was folded early in the autumn and

drilled with wheat nine inches wide. In the spring the wheat was horse-hoed,
and the seeds sown and harrowed in and rolled down. I am sure this is the
best method of sowing grass seeds in the Eastern counties. If without a
corn crop, the annual weeds smother the seeds. If sown with spring corn,
the soil is either too cobbly or too loose, and some seed is buried too deeply,
and some never grows. With autumn wheat the land becomes consolidated,
the horse-hoe raises enough fine mould to cover the seeds, and there is a fine
friable well-consolidated seed-bed, which is what the young grasses delight
in. Wheat stands up better than barley or oats; they often lodge and kill
or smother some of the seeds. I have never known success attend autumn-
sowing of seeds. Often the winter kills the most delicate plants, and I have
seen all the seeds ‘lifted clean ‘out of the land by frost and destroyed. I
have seen permanent grass seeds sown with rape ; but then the rape-should
not be fed, but mown green, and used for fodder upon another field or in
the yards. The stalks are, however, often a nuisance in the following
year,
"8, Imow the seeds the first two years, andas soon as the hay is off apply a
good dressing of farmyard manure and mould (a sort of compost of any refuse
and scrapings), and when the second crop is well up, stock with cattle. Every
other year, until the seeds are ten or twelve years old, they have been dressed
with a compost, but this could not be done where any great extent has been
sown,

9, Ryegrasses add greatly to the bulk of hay in the first two years, and

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 139

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. Ciare SEWELL READ—continued.

then gradually disappear. A moderate quantity of ryegrass does not seem
to injure the more permanent grasses, and it certainly is of great advantage
to the hay-crop, and pays the farmer.

10. I never feed young grasses with sheep, save running the ewes over
them in the winter to crop off any rough grass. I like to stock young grasses
with cows or young cattle eating decorticated cotton-cake.

11. At least twenty in Norfolk.

12. I have seen a good deal of land that has “tumbled down” to grass—
t.e. land gone out of cultivation; without any grass seeds being sown upon it.
After the first year the annual weeds disappear, and ina few seasons the dock
and thistle seem worn out. Then the foul grasses take possession of the
land, and afterwards they appear to give way to better grasses, which in time
produce a little decent feed. But such fields cannot make a pasture in a
generation, if they ever do.

13. Where the new grasses are devoted to grazing and rearing stock the

- population is almost banished ; it is even sensibly diminished when arable
land is turned into pasture and stocked with cows.

14, I have long contended that upon our heavy and light lands it would
be well that mixed seeds should lay two years instead of one, certainly in
these depressed times, if not always. The third year the best seeds generally
die off, and if the land is given to natural grass it becomes fearfully foul.

15. It seems a hopeless and almost impossible task to convert much of
the arable land of East Anglia into permanent grass. It is a thousand pities
that so much of our sheep walks, heaths, and warrens were broken up years

.ago. The soil is so sandy and poor, that no sort of grass will grow upon it
for more than a year or two. It dies off, and the land is left as bare as the
sand on the seashore. A better class of land, with a calcareous subsoil,
produces good sainfoin, and. this invaluable plant should be kept down for
years, instead of being, as it generally is, ploughed up at the end of twelve
months. Lucerne is grown in patches as a fodder crop, but there is no reason
why avery much larger extent should not be sown forhayand feed. It will
flourish upon all moderately light and loamy soils, will resist drought, and

-will stand for years ; and when the plant is running out, the harrows, or even
a scarifier, may be used, and permanent grass seeds sown ; this.is decidedly
a cheap way of forming a pasture.

Mr. Rosert A. Exuior, Clifton Park, Kelso.

After having tried every known system of laying down, I have come to
the following conclusions :—

That for climates like those of Roxburghshire the safest plan, both for
avoiding risk from drought and frost, and certainly as economical a plan as
any other, is to lay down with a thin seeding of oats or barley, and leave a
very long stubble to protect the plants from the autumn and winter frosts.
No stock should be put on after harvest, and none the following spring. In

. this first spring all blank places to be seeded. Men, with handrakes, to scratch
and seed vacant spaces will cost about a shilling an acre. ‘This reseeding is
most important, not only to fill land with grass, but to exclude weeds and
worthless grasses, which would otherwise get in and spread through the
pasture. Then take acrop of hay, and graze aftermath with young cattle or

_lambs. In the year following graze in early part of season with young cattle
only, as grazing in spring with sheep is adverse to the closing up of the pasture.
Some sheep may be put on later in the season,

‘140 = Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.)
Mr. Rosert A. ELtiot—continued.

Reasons for haying first year.

I. It prevents injury from cropping.

II. It gives an opportunity for seeding up vacant spaces, which, when
resown, will be sheltered by the grasses as they grow up for the
hay crop.

III. It enables the grasses most fully to extend themselves above and
below ground.

The injury caused by cropping grasses before they have perfected their
growth and got a firm hold of the land is far greater than is generally
supposed. If plants are not torn up, which they often are, the roots are
disturbed, and much ruptured, and the plant is very liable to be thrown out
by frost, and will also suffer more from drought.

Though I have decided that laying down with a crop in the manner
aforesaid is the safest plan, I am of opinion that good and clean pastures may
be made on any system of laying down if—

I. First-class seeds of kinds suitable to the soil and climate are put
down.

II. If the land be not stocked either till after a crop of hay has been
taken, or till about the time that the plants have begun to
throw up their flowering stems in the summer following laying
down.

III. If in the spring following laying down blank spaces are reseeded.

To laying down without a crop the objection is, that you must either injure
your grasses with grazing or lose your rent. Before laying down it is
important to break up (not turn up) the subsoil as deeply as possible.

It is a common idea that you must enrich your land before laying down.
I have found this to be anerror. The richer the land is, of course, the better ;
buat I have found that land being in poor condition is no obstacle to laying
down, as long as you subsequently enrich the land in any way most
convenient.

Mr. Marx J. Srewart, M.P., Ardwell, Wigtonshire.

1. Ardwell, in Wigtonshire.—Light sandy land, black top with clay sub-
soil. Much of the land is only from 4 to 8 inches deep till you get to till
and stones. Southwick, in Kircudbrightshire——The land is heavy, or light,
and much mixed with granite grit.

2. Yes, generally ; but much of the land is only stone-drained, and has
been done forty years. It has not been specially drained for grass.

3. Average of last eight years, 343 inches. Climate damp, mild, very
little frost, and showery.

4 and 5. The best seeds that could be procured, all subject to the analysis
of Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., Consulting Botanist to the Royal Agricul-
tural Society. One year (1883) I tried Mr. Faunce De Laune’s mixture as
per article in Royal Agricultural Society's ‘ Journal,’ Part I., No. 35, 1882,
p- 261—but no cowgrass, and 2 lbs. of Yarrow instead of 1 Ib. Many
varieties of mixtures have been used. My young grass at Ardwell and
Southwick annually exceeds 100 imp. acres, and is all carefully sown with
different mixtures.

Some of the best I find are the fallowing :—

Recent Experiences in laying down Lund to Grass. 141

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126. ]

Mr. Marx J. Stewart, M.P.—continued.
Gh Gy. Gy i)

lbs. Ibs, lbs. lbs,
Cocksfoot . ’ . ‘ 5s a He 8
Timothy ' : : » 44° 38 3 3
Meadow fescue , ' . cage. SO 3 2
Tall fescue , ° ’ , o 2 1 1 2,
Cowgrass . : ' ’ . 2 3 3 3
Alsike . : ° “ es 2 2 2
White clover : 5 : we 2 2 3
Red clover , : C ; ee 0 0 0
Ryegrass ‘ : . = HE 2 18 0)
Italian ryegrass, ‘ . si 4 0 0)
Meadow foxtail . ’ ° 0 1 1 I]
Hard fescue ‘ e ' 30 i i 1
Dogstail . . . . . 0 1 1 1

Others I tried with 6 lbs. ryegrass and 4 Ibs. Italian, also 18 lbs. rye-
grass and 4 lbs. Italian. In early spring the ryegrass and Italian show
best; in later summer the natural grasses.

After potatoes the best result I have had, sown on August 25, was
sown with the first of the following mixtures. This year I have tried to

improve as shown in the second mixture :—
(No. 1.) (No. 2.)
lbs, lbs.

Meadow foxtail ° ° : 6 8
Cocksfoot . ‘ ° . - 5 ger. hO
Meadow fescue . ’ ’ - v7 8
Tall fescue f C : ° Fee! 5
Rough-stalked meadowgrass, Ay bua | 0
White clover , - ‘ e 4 3
Timothy . . e ° . . 4 3
Dogstail . ‘ ’ : : _— i
Poa nemoralis , ‘ A ‘ = 1
Yarrow. . : ‘ : = 4

6. Only the autumn-sown was without a crop.

7. Autumn is best, but less convenient, unless subject to severe frost.

8. I have tried it every way. I consider it best to keep off all animals
and cut it the first year for hay, unless with autumn-sowing, whereby the
plants have more vigour and are deeper rooted. If timothy is trampled
when young, the plant, which has a club root, is killed. Top-dressing with
chemicals, not with farmyard, the first year is highly beneficial.

9. Yes, in the second year—z.e. at the end of the second year,

10. I have not observed this. The clover roots sown in the stewartry of
Kirkeudbright (Southwick) disappear the second year, except the natural
white clover, which does stand.

11. One year here. Four Southwick.

12. Yes, on moorlands, with very poor results ; but the ordinary mixture
in this part is—

Ryegrass_ . . 14 to 2 bushels | English red clover . 13 to 2 Ibs,
Italian. . . 4 bushel WhitesDutch <3 1. 2h
Cocksfoot . . 2 to 4 lbs. Alsike . , Tal oo
Timothy . Foy ase ss
Most of these grasses disappear the second year, and wild grasses come up
—often hard fescue and, I think, agrostis stolonifera and other poor grasses ;
but some fields do throw good feeding grasses,

2 9) ”

142 Recent Bapertences in laying down Land to Grass.-

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]

Mr. Marx J. Srewart, M.P.—continued.

13. This has not occurred in either of my districts, but farmers are keep-
ing their land down in grass four and.five years instead of two and three,
and reducing cultivation. Thus.there is a reduction of population.

14. If good natural grasses, such as we are now trying to cultivate,
grow, we could then keep our land down longer; but ina dairy country the
farmer believes—rightly, I think—that t young —— produce milk in greater
abundance,

Mr, WILLIAM STRATTON, King ‘ae a ill, Warminster,
Wilts.

1. Various kinds of soil, on chalk subsoil. ‘Some tenacious calcareous
clay, and other light black soil, with modifications of these extremes.

2. Drainage was in no case necessary, though the heavy soils are retentive
of moisture.

8. Rainfall is heavy, ranging between 30 and 40 inches. Elevation
pets 600 feet above sea level.

4 and 5. I have tried all sorts of seeds, but prefer a mixture of my own,
and do not care to sow expensive seeds. Cocksfoot, 4 lbs. ; timothy, 4 lbs. ;
perennial ryegrass, 12 Ibs.; Dutch clover, 4 lbs. ; cowgrass, 6 lbs.

6. Sown in a corn crop.

7. Spring-sowing.

8. Mow first year, then feed with cattle, or sheep; should dress with
farmyard dung when available.

9. Ryegrass does not disappear; but unless manured with nitrogen it
becomes weak and small.

10. No; the Dutch clover asserts itself about the month of August.

ail’: This depends on circumstances ; sometimes when conditions are
favourable the pasture is good from the first. On heavy calcareous clay
land the process is very tedious,

12. I haye pastures which were left after, sainfoin, nothing else having
been sown. Sainfoin has disappeared many years, but a fair pasture now
exists. I know some fine grass land which started as a foul wheat-stubble
some thirty years ago.

13, Undoubtedly. Labourers have migrated into districts where better
wages are paid. It has had the effect of forcing them to better their position.

“14. Yes, I approve such a practice in the case of moderately good land.

15. Do not go to any great expense in the matter of your seeds, and
make your own mixture. Manure by feeding stock with decorticated cotton-
cake,

Mr. WituiAmM Daxpy, Coughton, Redditch.

uF A heavy loam, with marl subsoil.

‘The land was all Gov ernment-drained, 4 feet deep, before the seeds.
were See

3. The climate is humid.

4, In two or three instances a seedsman’s mixture of permanent seeds
was sown; but generally we have used Webb & Sons’ four years’ mixtures,
which costs about 20s. per acre, and, in my opinion, will foe as good a
patie and quite as quickly as permanent seeds,

. The seeds contained perennial grasses, but yery little, if any, Italian.

c. Sown with a thin crop of corn,

7. Spring, decidedly,

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 148

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. Witriam DaLpy—continued.

8. I prefer pasturing the new grasses with young cattle, and if 2 lbs. or
3 lbs. of decorticated cotton-cake each is given to them daily, it will be
found very beneficial to the young grasses, but as a manure on our soil
there is nothing to equal bones.

9. I have not noticed the loss of perennial ryegrasses. Italian will disap-
pear in two or three years.

10. I have not noticed the diminution of the clover plant in particular
where we have fed off with sheep. Where bones are used as a manure,
there will always be sufficient clover.

11. That depends very much upon circumstances; if the land is quite
clean, and the seeds are put in early in the spring in a good seed bed, and
are treated properly, it should go down to a good pasture in six or seven

ears.
- 12. We have one large field, which I understand was allowed to form
itself into pasture ; it grows very little but coarse indigenous grasses. our
years ago | sowed a few bones on about twenty poles by way of experiment,
and the result was marvellous: the next year there was nothing to be seen
but Dutch clover.

13, There is not an appreciable reduction in the population in this
district.

14. No doubt allowing land to remain in grass for three or four years
improves its condition for arable purposes, and I have no doubt, if corn ever
is worth growing again, that a great deal of the land that has recently been
put down to grass will be broken up.

Mr. C. RanDELL, Chadbury, near Evesham.

1. Various, part gravelly loam, part heavy clay upon a retentive subsoil.

2. Yes, all has been drained.

3. Rainfall 27:9 inches. Climate very good. ;

4 and 5. Twenty years since. 1. bushel cocksfoot, $ bushel perennial
ryegrass, 6 lbs. cowgrass, 2 Ibs. Dutch. During the last eight years I have
varied the quantities and mixture, finally adopting the following: 10 lbs.
cocksfoot, 4 Ibs. timothy, 8 lbs. perennial ryegrass, 3 lbs. alsike, 3 lbs. cow-
grass, 2 lbs. Dutch. Not using any seedsmen’s mixtures.

6. With a crop.

7. Spring.

8. In 1869 I laid down a field of 19 acres for an orchard. It had been
fallowed after vetches eaten off by sheep with oil-cake, then sown with
wheat, and in the following spring with grass seeds. From that time until
this year it has been regularly folded twice or thrice a year by sheep with
oil-cake, chaff, and occasionally mangolds also. Only mown twice during
the whole period to give the pasture time to sweeten. The effect of this
heayy expenditure of purchased food upon the pasture was apparent; it was
luxuriant during the first three years, during the second three years the
sown grasses gradually disappeared. Nevertheless, for the sake of the fruit
trees the same folding was continued, the difference in amount of pasture
food being compensated by additional quantities of roots, oil-cake, and chaff.
The effect was an increased growth of natural grasses and cocksfoot, and
the result now is, a good orchard, with a satisfactory pasture, but not such as
would alone repay the cost of the treatment it has received; putting the
fruit trees out of the question the field would have paid better in the ordi-
nary course of cropping. During the last seven years I have had several
fields of clay-land fallowed and laid down upon untenanted farms, The

144 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126. |
Mr. C. RanpEtt—continued. —

fields were clean, and for the sort of land in good condition. They have
been grazed mainly by sheep, on some of the best fields with cake, roots, and
corn, on others without trough food ; but on all alike, after the first three years
the sown grasses have mostly died out, and the land is of very little value.

9. It has disappeared to a great extent with the other sown grasses, but
I find that the closer it is grazed the longer it continues. It should never
be allowed to go to seed. This, however, is at the expense of the other
grasses and clover.

10. Yes.

11. Fifteen years with very liberal treatment ; without such treatment,
never. I refer only to laying down clay-land in a dry climate; further
north, beginning with Staffordshire, I know from experience how much
easier it is to convert heavy land to permanent pasture, and how important
it is to do so, seeing that dairy-farming pays so much better than corn-

owing.

12. When I entered upon this farm in 1839, two fields of about 28 acres
had been uncultivated for several years, growing only couch and water-
grass, which nothing would eat. Without loss of time I drained, fallowed,
burned, and planted with vetches eaten by sheep with oil-cake; the land
again fallowed and planted with wheat, then seeds, grazed one year, then
wheat again. For 40 years these fields have grown wheat every other year
alternately with seeds or vetches, fed off by sheep with oil-cake ; artificial
manure was applied when thought necessary, but no farmyard manure, the
fields being on a steep hill and inaccessible to dung-carts. Now they have
been down in seeds two and four years respectively, but water-grass had
begun to spread over one, and in the other the grass seeds had disappeared,
so I have taken advantage of the dry weather and fallowed both effectively.
I know of several fields in this neighbourhood that have gone down to grass
during the last ten years. Foul and poor, they are absolutely worthless,
and only serve to check the growth of any young stock placed upon them.

13. The additional quantity of land applied to market-gardens and
labourers’ allotments exceeds the area converted to pasture, so the popula-
tion is not affected.

14. Yes. I have come to the conclusion, and am acting upon it, that
instead of endeavouring to obtain permanent pasture upon clay-land in this
climate, there would, at the present prices of wheat and wheat-straw, be a
better return for the outlay upon it, if that crop were grown once in five or
six years—that is, by leaving it in seeds three, or rather two and a half years.
The low price of wheat is in some measure compensated by the high price
of straw, which must be sold ; the cost of fallowing by steam-power is now
very low, artificial manures are cheap, and the seeds are worth more to graze
the first two and a half years than they would be for the next ten.

The course would be this:

Ist year, Fallow. In a dry year, cultivating twice would suffice,
cost 20s. per acre; in less favourable seasons it might cost 40s.

2nd year, Wheat, with nitrogenous manure ; cost not to exceed 35s.
per acre. Straw to be sold, defraying cost of fallow and
manure.

8rd year, Seeds, mown; aftermath grazed by lambs with oil-cake.

4th year, Seeds, grazed.

5th year, Seeds, grazed till midsummer, then fallowed.

Tn unfavourable seasons for fallowing it might be necessary to take a
crop of yetches fed off by sheep with oil-cake between the fallow and the
wheat, I must confess to a prejudice against mowing the seeds the first

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 149

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.)

Mr. C. RanpdELL—continued.

year, but I have seen that where this has been done cocksfoot and timothy
are stronger afterwards than where the seeds have been grazed. The ex-
planation seems to be this: that the ryegrass is much earlier than cocks-
foot the first year, and becomes old sooner. Sheep then prefer the latter, and
if the land is stocked with sheep sufficiently to keep down the ryegrass they
eat out the heart of the cocksfoot, whereas by mowing the ryegrass, cocks-
foot and timothy have time to become stronger, and the pasture after the
first year is better than when not mown.

The farms to which I am referring consist in part of useful pasture-land,
part good arable land, adapted to the growth of roots and all other crops,
which must be kept in tillage to provide winter food for the sheep required
in summer upon the clay-land about which I have been writing. In no
case would I convert good arable land in this climate to permanent pasture ;
nor would it be well to leave the seeds down more than one year where the
clay-land portion of the farm was to remain in seeds as I propose.

Mr. Waituiam J. Harris, Halwill Manor, Highampton, Devon.

1. Soil varied, part a light hazel loam on porous subsoil, other parts a
stiffer loam on clay (mostly yellow clay). Topsoil from 6 to 12 inches
deep.

5. In places draining has been necessary, and wherever permanent seeds
haye been laid down the wet spots have been cured.

3. The climate is very wet, average rainfall more than forty-five inches.

4. I always select my own seeds. I largely use crested dogstail,
cocksfoot, timothy, ribgrass (a little), perennial ryegrass (a good deal), and
various cloyers, including trefoil.

5. The perennial ryegrass forms at least half of the mixture.

6. I greatly prefer to sow grass seeds with a corn crop.

7. I prefer to sow in the month of April and May. :

8. I prefer, if possible, to dress the seeds with very short dung during the
first winter, and not to stock at all, or only occasionally with sheep during
very dry weather. I cut them the first summer, and then I stock with
yearlings or sheep. I sometimes throw a few more permanent seeds, such as
crested dogstail and white Dutch cloyer and trefoil, in the spring of the
second year.

9. The ryegrass has always diminished, and that is my reason for sowing
a few more permanent seeds in the second year. I, however, consider
perennial ryegrass as a valuable grass, and the old meadows have a good
deal of it.

10. If stocked too much there would be a diminution, I am sure; but they
may be stocked judiciously in dry weather.

11. From four to eight years, and even longeronsome land. The land can
hardly be called meadow land even in the longer period, but it is useful
pasture, that about pays for its cost in manure, &c., as well as a moderate
rent. I think artificial manures would make useful grass land if frequently
applied, but they do not produce what we in Devonshire call meadows.

12, Yes, I have seen a great deal of this. It seems to be now too
generally taking place in some parts of Devonshire.

13. Certainly. In my article in the National Review, November 1887,
I said :— -

“J have mentioned the decrease in population in the parisbes around. How

is that caused ? It is caused entirely by so many farms being without
a tenant, and consequently no labour employed. An auctioneer is
VOL. XXIV.—S. S. L

146 =Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126.]
Mr. Wittiam J. Harris—continued.

called in every spring, and he sells the feed of every field for the
summer months. The amount realised has been in every case for some
years past more than the rent that any farmer could possibly pay.”
14, This depends on the profit of tilling at present prices. I believe there
is a loss on tilling iand, and it is better to let it lie in grass, however poor ;
but I am still breaking land myself, because I wish to keep my men
employed,

Mr. R. Srrattron, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1, Sandy loam, in some cases resting on the Old Red Sandstone, in others
on gravel.

2, Drainage unnecessary.

3. Rainfall about forty inches ; climate generally mild and humid.

4and5. My own mixture. I have laid about 120 acres with the following :
1 bushel of common ryegrass, 6 lbs. Dutch, 6 lbs. alsike. I now sow—

Ryegrass . ’ : 1 peck Dutch i. lte - 5 lbs,
Cocksfoot ‘ « 10 Ibs. Alsike , : : by
Timothy . ‘ F G Ree

6. With corn crop in all cases.

7. I have always sown in spring.

8. I have always mown the first year, subsequently generally grazed, some
with sheep entirely, others with sheep and cattle. Inone case I have mown
every year for twelve years, and generally manured with sheep in winter
eating roots and cake. This has done well, always producing a satisfactory
crop, and always my first cutting.

9. It has disappeared in great measure, but not entirely ; on the field above
alluded to there is still a good proportion.

10. There is certainly less than in the first year, but generally there is a
fair sprinkling after twelve years.

1]. Everything depends on the treatment. Where well manured with
farmyard dung, and cake-fed, I have a good pasture the second year ; but if
starved it will take a long time, and probably be never of much account.

12. I have seen such, and where well treated with manure, and cake-fed,
the result has been perfectly satisfactory.

13. That must necessarily be the case. In my own case I have of course
reduced my labour bill, but I cannot say that the population has decreased
in the neighbourhood in consequence.

14. This depends on circumstances. No doubt the system alluded to will
ke largely adopted, and is being adopted.

15. I think the great mistake people make is in not treating their newly
laid grass liberally. I look upon manure and cake-feeding as the secret of
successful laying land down to grass. It depends more on this than on the
selection of seed, as the indigenous grasses will assert themselves. But I
think the mixture I am now using, above named, is decidedly preferable to
the one I used formerly. I have bad no experience of the finer grasses here,
but from what I have seen I am disposed to stick to my own mixture.

Major I’. L. Dasnwoon, Kirtlington, Oxford.
My experience in laying land down to grass is not great, but I am in

favour of using the best seeds most adapted to the class of soil, to be sown in
a thinly drilled crop of corn in the spring—not a barley crop, if possible. To

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 147

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 126. }

Masor F. L. Dasnwoop—continued.

be mown the first year, and grazed with cattle the second year, no sheep. To
be manured with dung whenever possible. The land not to be allowed to
lay itself down, but to be well cleaned, and to be carefully ploughed, so as
to leave no hollow places. Should the soil be at all strong, it is most im-
portant that it should be carefully ridged up according to the manner most
approved of in the district, so as to have the advantage of the surface furrows
to shift (so to say) the surface water, This, in my opinion, is most important,
even on land well drained.

The general tendency of the replies is to show what a
tedious and expensive task it is to make a really good meadow
in the corn-growing counties; in fact, in some stiff soils, or
in harsh, dry climates, the labour and expenditure may be said
to be almost futile in its result. On the other hand, in favour-
ably situated portions of the western country, the pastures
form themselves rapidly, especially if assisted by manure and
artificial feeding of stock. In almost all cases, it becomes
evident that whatever seeds are sown, only those survive that
are native to the district, and the blanks where the alien grasses
have succumbed are in course of time filled up by indigenous
herbage.

The question as to the perennial nature of ryegrass cannot
be said to be solved by these inquiries. The opinions are nearly
equally divided. Some of my correspondents maintain that it
dies out and utterly disappears in two or three years, while
others believe either that it is perennial, or that it seeds itself
and so continues. There is, however, a nearly unanimous
testimony in favour of sowing it in various quantities in per-
manent grass mixtures, the object being apparently to secure a
crop of some kind while the grasses of more tardy growth are
developing.

Mr. Martin J. Sutton, from whom I have received most
valuable information, writes to me :—

““T would emphasise the following facts:

“(a,) That ryegrass is not permanent on all soils.

“(6.) That itis, notwithstanding, most valuable for the first few years on
the very soils on which it does not become permanent, those soils being just
of a character which are most subject to annual weeds, and to burn in
drought.

“(c,) That ryegrass is the best nurse yet discovered for the finer grasses
on these light burning soils, and produces a crop on them the first two or
three years, which cannot be obtained in any other way, after which it sur-
renders its place to fescues, cocksfoot, foxtail, and poas, which have mean-
while become established under its shelter.

“(d.) That the true perennial variety is strictly permanent on most soils,
and forms the chief constituent of the herbage of the best pastures in the
kingdom, many of which haye not been mown within the memory of man.

* You will not forget my calling your attention at Neweastle to the fact

u2

148 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

that the herbage of the town moor is composed almost entirely of ryegrass,
though it is never allowed to grow long enough to mow. It was only
because cattle had been shut out of it for some weeks before the Show, that
enabled the flower-stems to shoot up, and brought the fact to light.”

I was much struck at the time by the evident perennial
nature of the ryegrass on the Newcastle Town Moor.

On the other hand, Mr. C. de lL. Faunce De Laune, who is
a recognised authority on the subject of grasses, is a staunch
opponent to ryegrass as a constituent in mixtures for permanent
pasture. His experience teaches him that the plants die out,
and if they maintain their position in the meadow at all, it is by
seeding themselves, after which the stalks become wiry and un-
palatable to stock.

Though under certain circumstances it may be expedient
to sow the grass seeds in late summer or autumn, the usual
practice set forth is spring sowing with a corn crop. Sir John
Thorold says that out of four autumnal sowings only one was
successful. Mr. Clare Sewell Read recommends sowing in
spring in an autumn-sown wheat crop. Mr. James Howard
advocates sowing in autumn to avoid competition with annual
weeds. Summer droughts are feared for spring-sown seeds, and
winter frosts are dangerous for those of the autumnal sowing.
In Roxburghshire, Mr. Elliot would leave a long stubble to
protect even the spring-sown seeds during their first winter.
Nature sows in summer and in autumn, when the herbage is
allowed to mature, but then the parent plants afford efficient
protection for their offspring.

The treatment of the pasture in its early stage of develop-
ment is of great importance. The following is a summary of
the replies: Take a crop of hay the first year, and feed the after-
math lightly with young cattle getting cake. The second year
graze with young cattle, or fold with sheep, both with artificial
food. The third year graze again as above, and apply artificials
or a light dressing of dung. Manure frequently, and always
give supplementary food to the grazing stock.

On the whole, it appears that if the field is to be finally
made a good meadow, there is no possible profit in the proceed-
ing until from six to ten years have elapsed. Mr. Charles
Randell gives an account of nineteen acres planted for an orchard
in 1869, and sown with permanent grass seeds. ver since it
has been folded over twice or thrice a year by sheep, with
additional food of cake, chaff, and roots. The pasture is made,
but had it not been for the advantage derived by the fruit trees,
“the field would have paid better in the ordinary course of
cropping.”

It apparently takes various periods up to fourteen years to

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 149

form a good permanent pasture, much probably depending upon
the estimate formed of what a good permanent pasture is. Mr.
James Stratton, who has laid 2,000 acres down in Hampshire,
says that by following his management the pasture is established
in one year; but as he advises subsequent liberal treatment, he
can hardly mean that his pasture has been completely made in
one year. Mr. W. H. Hall, in the dry climate near Newmarket,
has not got a pasture yet, after trials varying from four to four-
teen years. Under favourable circumstances, with good land
and with lberal treatment, about eight years may be taken
as the time that the land requires to eliminate the weeds and
unsuitable grasses, and to cover itself with that thick mass of
closely growing plants resembling what is seen on sound old
natural grazing lands. But, Sir John B. Lawes tells me, there
still remains work to be done underground. Thirty years will
not produce the dense accumulation of roots found in old grass
land, which constitutes a reservoir containing the elements of
stored-up fertility in the shape of nitrogen and potash.

Much has been said and written about land being allowed
to go to grass without seeds being sown. ‘This appears to have
been an ordinary method between two and three hundred years
ago. Barnaby Googe, in his “Whole Art and Trade of
Husbandry,” dated 1614, writes :—

‘When you meane to let your ground lie againe for Meddow or Pasture,
your best is to sowe it with Oates, and to harrow the ground even and leyell,
and to hurle out all the stones, and such things as may hurt the sythe: for
Oates is a great breeder of grasse. Some doe cast Hay-seede, gathered from
the Hay-lott or the Rackes, over the ground before they harrow it.”

Many of our finest old grazing grounds were in all pro-
bability started in this simple manner. Sir J. B. Lawes says
that no doubt any land, without being sown, will form a pasture
in time, but that seeding accelerates the process. Mr. Charles
Howard reports that he has heard old farming friends say that
some of the best grazing land they knew was what is called
“tumble-down.” Mr. Curteis Neve gives an account of worth-
less grasses that he has seen in neighbouring self- sown pastures.
Mr. Reginald A. Warren has watched the process in poor brashy
land and sour clay in the Cotswold district, and the result has
been better than he would have expected. Mr. Clare Sewell
Read says such fields cannot make a pasture in a generation, if
they ever do. Mr. William Stratton has fair pastures that
formed themselves after sainfoin disappeared, and he mentions
some fine grass land that started as a foul wheat-stubble thirty
years ago.

The speed of the development of a pasture, begun by the
easy plan of leaving it alone, depends in a great degree on

150 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass,

climate and soil; the development itself is pretty uniform in its
mode of procedure. First the annual weeds have their day, and
die out; then the couch-grass spreads, and other inferior grasses
luxuriate ; finally the good grasses, native to the district, with
their delicate and far-reaching roots, appropriate the soil and
oust all competitors. Suitable manuring shortens the interval;
but, however curtailed, the period of incubation is too long, and
land should only be allowed to ‘‘ tumble down” to grass when
_it is tenantless, when no money is forthcoming to farm it or to
lay it down properly, or, in fact, when nothing else can be done
with it.

The agricultural population is slow to move. When the
fields that have been ploughed, hoed, and subjected to the other
familiar operations of husbandry are transformed to grass land,
the labourer silently accepts the diminished demand for his
services. If he is a middle-aged man, there is nothing else that
he can do. He is too old to learn another trade ; he remains
in his own village, and gets on as best he can. Farmers usually
employ men they know, in preference to strangers wandering
about in search of work, so he has a better chance at home. The
young men go out into the world, as they always have done
more or less, but probably now in increased numbers. The
danger is, that the best of them are most likely to go to aug-
ment the population of the great towns, and it is not there that
the bone and muscle we require are bred.

Individual cases do not make clear whether there are fewer
labourers consequent on the conversion of arable to pasture.
There must be less money paid for labour, so there must be
fewer recipients, or a smaller sum per head earned. The next
census returns will throw light on the subject.

Mr. Martin J. Sutton, in his book ‘‘ Permanent and
Temporary Pastures,” strongly advocates a two, three, or four
years’ ley, to meet the depression in corn-growing, especially
where permanent pastures are not likely to be successful. He
says :—

“The admirable system, pursued in Lancashire and in Scotland, of annu-
ally laying away in artificial grasses a proportion of each farm for a period

of three or four years, is so successful that it is surprising the practice has not
been adopted all over the country.”

It does seem surprising, but there are reasons against the
adoption of the system in some parts of the country. Mr. James
Howard says the rainfall is not sufficient in his part of Bedford-
shire, especially in spring and summer. Sir John Thorold
considers the expense of cleaning the land on strong clay
would be great. Mr, R. A. Warren fears that when broken up
again it must be very foul, and perhaps full of wireworm.

~

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 151

Mr. Clare Sewell Read is strongly in favour of leaving the land
down two years; but he would break it up before the third
year, to avoid the danger of foul grasses. Mr. Mark J. Stewart,
M.P., speaking of a part of Scotland where it is the custom to
leave the seeds down for three years, says that the term might
be extended if the good natural grasses would grow; but he finds
that the dairy-farmers consider that young grasses produce milk
in greater abundance. Mr. John Coleman quotes instances of
farms in Cheshire where there is no permanent grass, the seeds
remaining down five or six years, and, with liberal treatment,
producing as much cheese as on the best dairy farms in the
county.

Mr. C. Randell boldly attacks the difficult question of the
cultivation of clay-land, and gives his course of fallow, wheat,
and three years’ seeds. He emphasises the necessity of selling
the straw, to pay for the cost of the fallowing and the artificial
manure for the wheat. The necessity of the fallow on such land
shows that couch-grass has to be guarded against. On the
chalk, where sainfoin is largely grown, and where the English
variety is frequently left down from four to seven years, there
remains a legacy, when it is broken up, of couch-grass, water-
grass, docks, and other noxious grasses and weeds, that take
years to get rid of; wireworm is also commonly found in enor-
mous profusion. This is an example of what occurs when the
grasses begin to die out, if left down too long. It will almost
certainly occur after two years, when the seed simply consists of
clovers and ryegrass.

A judicious selection of seeds that are permanent in thair
nature should be added to the clover and ryegrass, so that, when
they fail, there is something left to take their place; and it is
likely that this might be done with sainfoin as well. Mr, James
Howard has made some of his pastures by drilling sainfoin and
adding permanent grass seeds. The experience of Mr. John
Clutton leads him to think that when seeds are supplied to
tenants, it might be better to supply a cheaper quantity of seed,
and allow the land to be broken up after a short period, as the
liberal management subsequently necessary is seldom properly
bestowed. There must be a great deal of the permanent grass
added annually to the Agricultural Returns that is broken up
after three or four years, on its being discovered that there is no
likelihood of a good pasture resulting.

The summer of 1887 was so dry that the pastures were
scorched quite brown, and it was useless to attempt to discover
their condition by personal inspection after the month of June.
Earlier in the year I was fortunate enough to be able to see
some good examples of recent laying down to grass. Mr. C. de

152 Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

L. Faunce De Laune, at Sharsted Court, near Sittingbourne in
Kent, has lately converted a great portion of his estate into
permanent pasture. The appearance of his grass-fields is
simply magnificent; they appear to be full of manure, and full
of growth. Everything has been done to ensure success. Belts
of timber have been planted for shelter, and tall fences of hop-
poles packed with hop-bine have been erected for the same pur-
pose—protection from the cold winds off the North Sea being
very necessary. Watering-places are found in every enclosure,
the water being caught on roads and brought in underground
pipes to reservoirs connected with the drinking-ponds. The
timber used for gates, hurdles, and hop-poles is all creosoted,
and is almost imperishable. ‘The land is very heavily stocked
with a breeding flock of Kentish sheep; they haye additional
food of mangolds, thousand-headed kale, and plenty of cake and
corn; the green food is usually consumed on the grass, and,
with the cake and corn, manures it very effectively.

The grass is an accomplished fact: it is the most uniform
rich green sward that can be imagined, but the cost of obtaining
it would have been unjustifiable had grass been the only object
in view. Mr. De Laune, however, is happily situated; his soil
is good brick-earth above chalk, and he is in the country where
cherry orchards abound. A great deal of the artificial feeding
of the sheep is for the benefit of the cherry-trees with which
nearly every grass-field is planted. There are patriarchal old
cherry trees, with far-reaching branches, and there are young
cherry trees with only a few twigs on the stem they are grafted
on; but all alike are flourishing, and all but the old ones are
carefully protected from the sheep by ingenious little cages of
creosoted gate-hurdles. With the return that Mr. De Laune is
entitled to expect from his cherry trees when in full bearing,
almost any expenditure on fertilisers is warranted, and the grass
shows the benefit in the meantime.

At Syston Park, near Grantham, in Lincolnshire, I had
afforded to me by Sir John Thorold an opportunity of witness-
ing the progress of a very interesting experiment of pasture and
arable farming combined. Certain farms being in hand, Sir John
Thorold has been farming them himself, and within the last five
or six years he has laid a very considerable extent to grass.
There is no inducement here, as at Sharsted Court, to manure
heavily for fruit trees ; but the farming is of the best, the pastures
receiving a treatment very much above the average of land laid
down. ‘The soil is very various, ranging from stiff clay to sand.
The experiment is still in progress, few of the fields have got
beyond the critical age; but even if it is ultimately found
necessary to break them up, they will have stored up some
fertility in the period of rest, and at present, keeping in view

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass, 153

the number of stock they can carry in the combined pasture and
arable system of farming, the result should be profitable.

Mr. James Howard, at Clapham Park, near Bedford, gave
me an opportunity of seeing his pastures. The soil is rather
stiff clay, difficult to work, and of the class of soil that does
not very readily accommodate itself to the operation of grass-
sowing. The style of farming is decidedly liberal, manures
and feeding-stuffs being by no means spared, and there is a
very healthy good-looking covering of herbage all over in con-
sequence. I particularly noticed some fields laid down with
sainfoin. The sainfoin is drilled in a corn crop in the ordinary
way in springtime, and afterwards the grass seeds are sown; in
course of time the sainfoin dies out and the grasses are left to
form the pasture, the important thing being that the sainfoin
produces valuable hay or forage during the years that the grasses
are establishing themselves.

At the Royal Agricultural Society’s experimental farm at
Woburn, and at Dyson’s Wood in Oxfordshire, where Mr.
Martin J. Sutton carries on experiments in grass-growing
and manuring, I saw much of interest. I also had the advan-
tage of walking over the grass-fields and the experimental
grass-plots with Sir John B. Lawes at Rothamsted. The grass-
plots, where different artificial manures have been applied for
many years—always the same manure to the same plot—are
an education in manuring in themselves. Stepping from one
plot to another it sometimes seemed like going into another
country, the herbage was so totally different, one plot hardly
containing a plant of the grass that is the chief constituent
of the next; and yet it was all the same old pasture—a
portion of the park—when the trials commenced, thirty years
ago.

I saw some very successful examples of laying land to grass
in the Wealden country south of Reigate. There Mr. John
Clutton was kind enough to go over his fields with me, and to
show me pastures laid down at almost any time in living
memory, with or without a crop, or sown in spring, summer, or
autumn. Also one specimen of a pasture made by inoculation,
where the turf had been carted on to the land, then chopped up
and rolled down, the field differing now not at all in appearance
from one sown in the usual way.

This article being of a composite nature, it is open to readers
to form their own opinions from what has been put before them.
On the whole, I gather from the answers to my questions, and
from independent inquiries and observation, that recent experi-
ences in laying land down to grass have not been very encourag-
ing. Were we dealing with low prices that admitted of no
change or improvement, it might be wise to convert all the land

154 = Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass.

to grass that would grow it in any shape; but it may be ques-
tioned if we are threatened in sucha way. ‘There are signs of
improvement even now. Rents have been generally reduced,
and farmers have lowered their scale of expenditure on every’
item to an extent that should render profitable farming possible.
One thing seems evident: that farmers do not lay land down
to permanent grass, or, if they do, they do it in the cheapest
manner. Land-owners do lay down land when they cannot let
it, or as an inducement to farmers to become theirtenants. But
they are unable to ensure treatment that will make a good pasture,
so when any change comes that is likely to make arable farming
more remunerative, they are sure to yield to the desire of the
tenant to break it up.

My statistics, so far as fic can be relied on, tend to show
that the conversion of arable to pasture has recently been un-
profitable. I come to the conclusion that the great bulk of the
land laid down or abandoned during the last ten years may be
regarded, though it is termed permanent, as merely temporary
pasture. A rise, though it be not a great one, of prices of corn
must have the immediate effect of causing all the worst of the
new pastures on good land to be broken up, and converted again
to tillage, much to the benefit of the country at large.

Tables Nos. I., II., and III. are simply statistical facts that
require no explanation. Table No. IV. may be misleading unless
it is understood that it is introduced only for purposes of com-
parison. A unit of value was necessary, so the prices of 1887
were selected, the object being to find out the difference caused
by conversion of arable land to pasture, not taking into account
the fall in prices. It may be objected that the hay cut from the
increased acreage of pasture, and the milk from the greater
number of cows, should be put to the credit of the new perma-
nent grass. This has not been done, owing to the difficulty of
obtaining accuracy.

I. In Grazine Counties.

Percentage Increase of Pe ent
—— Acres eae Pasture 1887 over 1877
acres per cent.
Total acreage of Permanent | 7,241,841 561° 1,015,429 14
Pasture in 1877
Total acreage of Permanent | 8,257,270 617 _ _
Pasture in 1887

In Corn-Growina CountiEs,
Total acreage of Permanent | 8,616,175 317 673,058 18°6
Pasture in 1877
Total acreage of Permanent | 4,289,233 37°2 — _
Pasture in 1887 | }

Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass. 155
II. In Grazing Countizs.
: Rotation
— Per cent, grasses « Crops
acres acres
Percentage of Rotation Grasses to 35°6 1,484,612 4,170,218
Corn and Green Crops and Bare
‘Fallow in 1877
Percentage of Rotation Grasses to 40°8 1,484,083 3,634,981

Corn and Green Crops and Bare

Fallow in 1887

In Corn-GR

Percentage of Rotation Grasses to
“Corn and Green Crops and Bare

Fallow in 1877

Percentage of Rotation Grasses to
Corn and Green Crops and Bare

Fallow in 1887

OWING COUNTIES.

19°3 | 1,252,775

22:9 1,341,051 |

6,467,963

5,848,982

Til. In Great Britain.

Total acreage of Permanent

Pasture in 1872

Total acreage of Permanent

Pasture in 1877

Total acreage of Permanent

Pasture in 1887

1877
3,979,650 cattle at £10
18,330,377 sheep at 30/.
2,114,751 pigs at 30/..

1887
4,623,715 cattle at £10 .
16,452,508 sheep at 30/.
1,940,507 pigs at 30/..

1877
acres

7,302,772 corn crops, in-
cluding straw
1887

6,347,008 corn crops, in-
cluding straw

Decrease 1887 from 1877 .

Percentage of
land under all
Acres erops, bare Increase
fallow, and
grass
per cent.
acres 1877 over 1872
12,575,606 40°5 1,152,749 91
1887 over 1877
13,728,355 43°2 1,943,040 14-1
1887 over 1872
15,671,395 48 3,095,789 24:6
ITV. ENGLAND:
£
39,796,500
27,495,565
3,172,126 £
70,464,191. Total value 1887 . . ; 73,826,672
ese a » as) AIS de toh tet iendiO; 4045001
46,237,150 Yo
24-678,762 Increase 1887 over 1877. 3,362,481
2,910,760
73,826,672
£ £
56,427,146 | Decrease, corn , . . » 8,298,023
Increase, cattle, sheep, 3,362,481 ~
48,129,123 and pigs

4,935,542

8,298,023

156 Wool and its Uses.

An inctease of 1,688,487 acres of permanent pasture in
England between 1877 and 1887 thus appears to result in a loss
of 4,935,5420.

VII—Wool and its Uses. By Joun W. TurNeER, 126 Swan
Arcade, Bradford.

In the eleventh volume of this ‘ Journal’ (1875) there appeared
an article by Earl Cathcart entitled ‘“‘ Wool in relation to
Science with Practice.” It would have been very easy to ex-
pand every one of the sections into which that article is divided
so as to produce a separate essay; but as yet I have seen no
serious attempt to take up and carry on the work:so ably and
suggestively commenced.

I will take leave to say that after the lapse of thirteen years,
during which the “staple” has gone through many changes and
vicissitudes, the article is still good reading and contains much
valuable food for reflection. As an introduction to my own effort
to continue the work let me quote the following paragraph :—

“T would endeavour for the first time in history to bring the English
wool-consumer and the English wool-grower into friendly relations, uniting

them on the only sound basis of a mutual understanding of intercommunity
of interests promoted by free association and co-operation” (p. 309).

This, I take it, ought to be the keynote of all discussion on
this subject. The struggle to retain our supremacy as a manu-
facturing country grows more keen with every succeeding year,
and it is only by earnestly recognising that the interests of the
farmer and manufacturer are bound up with each other, that
we can hope to maintain our position. The manufacturers of
England are doing good work in the way of educating the
people connected with various industries, the wool industry in
particular. Since Lord Cathcart’s paper was written, the
manufacturers of Bradford have spent more than 50,0002. in
founding a Technical College where “science with practice ”
can be acquired by any townsman, from the manufacturer’s son
to the son of the labourer. They are moreover committed to a
large annual expense, and this without aid from Government—
either imperial or municipal. Many other towns are doing the
same, so that if we do fall short of our competitors it will not be
the fault of the manufacturers of wool.

To quote again from Lord Catheart’s paper :—

“Mr. Stephens, one of the most practical writers in the whole range of
English literature, tells us it would be well for wool-growers to receive
lessons from wool-staplers. | Wool-growers at present grow their wool in

ignorance of the requirements of the home manufacture, and consequently
prices and interests are seriously affected,”

Wool and its Uses. 157

This paragraph is just as applicable to-day as it was at the
time it was written, and if farmers do not get the lessons which
their incomplete knowledge requires, it is not in any way the
fault of the wool-staplers, who would be only too glad to give
instruction and advice to any agriculturists who did not think
themselves superior to it, although I am much afraid that with
this condition attached the teaching work of the wool-staplers
would be light.

Having as a dealer in wool been brought into contact
during the greater part of my life with the agricultural com-
munity, I may be allowed to say from my own observation that
the British farmer knows very little about wool. ‘To him it is a
commodity which comes round once a year, and which provides
him with a useful sum of money, and there the matter ends. As
to what it is made into, and whether there is anything special
to be_aimed at in its cultivation, he has never been at much
pains to ascertain. He has a notion that by some easy process,
which is a mine of wealth to the manufacturer, his wool is made
into cloth: but of what kinds, and how certain of his proceed-
ings affect the trade, he does not care to know. This was all
very well as long as he had the market to himself. But now,
with the supplies of wool from all quarters of the globe com-
peting with him as they do, more enlightenment on the matter
is necessary if he is to hold his own.

As a contribution towards a better knowledge of the sub-
ject, I propose briefly to describe English wool and its uses,
before proceeding to discuss its commercial aspects.

DESCRIPTIONS OF ENGLISH WOOL.

English wool may be divided into four principal classes, as
follows :—

T. The Leicester or long wool.

II. The Down or short wool.

ILI. The Half-bred, which is a cross between I. and IT.

IV. The Mixed and Broken breeds, 7.e. containing a cross of
Scotch Blackfaced or Mountain breeds.

I. The Leicester or Long Wool.—This wool may be sub-
divided for commercial purposes into Lustre and Demi-lustre.
The pure lustre wools' are produced only in the counties of

1 T may be permitted to say here that lustre must not be confounded with
colour. Lustre is an intrinsic and inherent silvery brightness of the fibre
not lost in process of manufacture, and which cannot be given to goods not
made of pure lustre wool.

158 Wool and its Uses.

Lincoln, York, and Nottingham. Lustre wools were formerly
made chiefly into ladies’ dress goods, known as lustre Orleans,
glaces, brilliantines, &c., and were also mixed with mohair and
alpaca. ‘Twenty years ago they commanded a much higher
price in proportion to other goods than they do now. At that
time the fashion had run for a long period on the: bright dress
goods just mentioned. During the last fifteen years the fashion
for these fabrics for ladies’ dresses has almost died out, and the
principal demand for them has consequently failed. They are
now used for coat-linings, dust-cloaks, braids, and purposes
where a smooth slippery surface is desired. Lustre or brightness
alone, which entered so largely into the enhancement of the
value of these wools for dress purposes, is now of secondary
importance. It is, however, still necessary that they should be
smooth and straight, and any crossing with rougher breeds for
the purpose of obtaining weight, or with broken breeds for
the sake of the mutton, reduces their value. The crossing of
this wool with the Down does not enter into the discussion at
this point, as it produces a new breed, of which more in due
course.

It must be remembered that in Lustre, as in other wools,
the finer the fibre the more valuable is the wool. I have had
so much experience of the unconquerable difficulty of making
the wool-grower understand this point, that I venture to draw
special attention to it. The long-wool grower of Lincolnshire
or Gloucestershire, hearing that fine wools are the best to sell,
will tell the buyer that he has improved his wool by crossing
it with Down and has thus produced finer wool; whereas all he
has succeeded in doing has been in many cases to spoil his
original breed. He has lost the lustre and smooth straight
hair, without obtaining enough of the fineness of the Down to
be of any commercial value. A colonist under such circum-
stances would have preserved the character of his breed, but
would have continued it by a careful selection of the finest
woolled among his sheep.

My readers will please note that I am not arguing against
the crossing of breeds, of which I will say more presently, but
merely against the erroneous notion that the fineness of one
breed can be grafted into another without altering its original
characteristics.

In the demi-lustre wools, the Cotswold may be taken by
way of illustration. This wool is made into camlets for men’s
clothing in China, Japan, and Northern Asia; into lastings for
boots and furniture; and into bunting for flags, and some kinds
of curtain-stuffs. Its value consists in its length, strength, and
solidity of fibre. Whatever fineness of hair can be obtained is

Wool and its Uses. 159

a gain, but this must be done by selection within the family
itself, and not by crossing from the outside.

In attempts to improve the breed by crosses of Down and
half-bred, the long, straight hair of the Cotswold is broken, and
the fine soft hair of the Down is rendered harsh and coarse. It
is not too much to say that users of Cotswold wool would prefer
it in all its original coarseness, rather than have its character
altered by any crossing whatever.

The same remarks “apply to the wools of Leicestershire and
the Midland Counties generally. Fineness of hair is valuable
so long as it is obtained in the right way. These wools are used
for classes of dress goods where a 1 certain “ handle” is required,
and any interference with the breed removes the wool into other
channels of trade.

It will perhaps be convenient here to explain the term
“handle” as understood by manufacturers. Almost any
“handle” can be given to cotton and similar goods by the pro-

cess of finishing after the goods are woven. But for the kind
of wear for which woollen and worsted goods are required this is
not possible, as the finish would disappear after being worn a
while. Every one knows the difference between the “ feel ” or
‘handle ” of a piece of flannel and that of a piece of flag-bunting
or boot-top lasting, or junior counsel's gown cloth. The one is
soft, comparatively uneven and spongy, and the weaving appears
indefinite. The other is hard, firm, flat in the surface, with the
weave clearly marked. ‘This difference arises from the inherent
characteristics of the wool from which the goods are made, which
characteristics are ‘‘nursed ” and made the most of in the pro-
cess of manufacture. In a word, you cannot make flannel out of
Gloucester wool, and you cannot make flags out of Southdown.
The “handle” required in the goods must therefore always be
present in the wool in the first instance.

Il. The Down or Short Wool.—In discussing Down wools,
quite the opposite set of constituents of value prevail to those
which I have referred to above. In this wool, absence of lustre,
the finest possible fibre, and not too much length, are the desirable
qualities. The principal uses to which Down wools are put are
hosiery, under-garments, flannels, and similar goods; also for
some woollen goods where a springy light handle is desired.
The wool being very curly and elastic, it is specially fitted for
all purposes where a somewhat rough and at the same time soft
surface is desired. In goods such as worsted coatings and cloth
requiring a smooth finish, colonial wool is now always used ; but
when the fashion runs on cloths with a rough flannel-like sur-
face, being at the same time even and soft to the touch, a good
demand for Down wools may be expected. In fact, the value

160 Wool and its Uses.

of Down wools is practically only affected by the changes in
fashion in the woollen trade, as the demand for it for hosiery
purposes is regular and constant.

Most of the yarns spun from this wool are spun thick, so that
length of staple is not desirable, and is, indeed, for some pur-
poses, a positive detriment, as the hairs of short stapled wools
in spinning stand out from the yarn, and thus produce a rough
flannel-like surface. It will be seen on consideration that the
longer the staple is, the flatter the surface of the goods must be,
so that if we require flatness of surface, we use colonial wool,
which surpasses the finest English as much in this attribute as
it does in fineness of hair.

In my opinion there will always be by comparison a good
demand for pure-bred Down wools, because they possess qualities
which render them suitable for the uses just mentioned in greater
perfection than any other wool. But, as already stated, crossing
deprives the breed of its best qualities from the wool-buyer’s
point of view. I have seen Down sheep crossed with all kinds
of heavy breeds, and producing wools of all grades of badness.
Most of these crosses are made with a view to increase the weight
of the fleece or the carcase. Experience shows that the effect
of a cross depends greatly upon the district in which the sheep
are reared. If a Lincolnshire flock be crossed with Down, the
produce is half-bred wool, of good value so far as it goes. But if
a Hampshire flock be crossed with Lincolnshire, the effect is bad.

I saw a good illustration of the latter cross some time ago.
A clip of wool was sent up from Hampshire to be sold, which many
experienced men failed to recognise or name. It was a Down
flock, which had been “improved” by crossing with the very
heaviest Lincoln. All the good qualities in the two breeds were
effectually destroyed. No lustre manufacturer would use the
wool, as the lustre had disappeared. No maker of buntings or
similar goods could use it, as the staple was too short, whilst
for the hosiery trade it was both too long and too coarse. ‘The
lot was ultimately sold at about 50 per cent. less than the value
of Down, and 25 per cent. less than the value of Lincoln at
the time.

The value of purity of breed in Down wools may be seen by
comparing the prices of these wools grown in different counties.
The value of the best flocks of Sussex Downs this season has
been in some cases as high as 143d.; Wilts and Dorsets, also pure
bred, a shade less, not being quite so fine; Hampshire, about
13d. astern Counties, which are bred no one knows how,
fetched 113d. to 124d.; while some so-called Downs of that
district would probably be dear at 10d.

IIL. Half-bred Wool.—This wool occupies, as far as supply

Wool and its Uses. 161

goes, the most important position in the wool-market. It is the
largest item in the English clip. It is an ever-increasing
quantity in the colonial clip, and probably of the forty million of
sheep in America the major portion are half-breds.

Let me here clear away an element of misconception. The
term ‘‘cross-bred” is used in the London catalogues, when
describing colonial wool, to signify the produce of the cross
between the Merino and the Leicester. This sometimes puzzles
the North-country farmer. In the English wool-trade the word
cross-bred means the cross between a good breed and a bad one;
as, for instance, between the Leicester and the Scotch Black-
faced, in its various degrees. I use the name “‘half-bred” through-
out in the same sense as it is generally used in Yorkshire, to
signify a cross between a coarse and a fine-woolled sheep—in
English wool the cross between the Leicester (using the name
broadly) and the Down, in colonial wool the cross between the
Leicester and Merino.

In England, then, the original half-bred is a cross between
the Leicester and the Down. But in some districts the half-bred
has developed into a distinct breed, which only requires an
occasional importation of the original blood to suit the exigencies
of different localities. This is notably the case in Norfolk, and
the Eastern Counties generally, and also in Shropshire and
Staffordshire.

What is required in this classis a moderate length of staple,
softness of handle, and the largest amount of the fineness of its
Down progenitor that can be obtained. As there is the keenest
competition in this class, it follows that the greatest amount of
knowledge on the part of the British farmer is necessary to
enable him to hold his own in the contest.

A generation ago, some of our half-bred wools were celebrated,
and justly so, for their fineness and softness, and they were very
much sought after for certain classes of goods. It is a singular
coincidence that these wools began to deteriorate in quality and
style just at the time that colonial cross-breds were introduced,
and for years it appeared as if the growers of half-bred wool in
England were playing into the hands of the colonists, whose
production steadily increased in quantity and improved in quality,
until the home wools were gradually pushed out of certain trades.

There are several districts to which these remarks would
apply, but perhaps the case of the Norfolk half-bred wool will
illustrate my meaning best. Twenty-five years ago these wools
were noted for their fineness and softness, and were bought in
large quantities by makers of lastingsand similar goods. About
this time the growers seem to have become dissatisfied with the
weight of their fleeces, and carried away, no doubt, by the high

yOL, XXIV.—S. S, M

162 Wool and its Uses.

prices which the neighbouring farmers of Lincolnshire could make
of their much heavier wool, they began to take means for increas-
ing the weight of the fleece. ‘The best of these wools probably
averaged 6 or 7 lbs. per fleece. After crossing them with
Lincoln or Cotswold, they succeeded in getting up the weight
to 9 lbs., and sometimes to 11 or 12 lbs.

I have heard many a Norfolk farmer in those days of change
boast of the goodness of his wool because it weighed “threes to
the tod,” or even “twos and threes.” The only thing aimed at
appeared to be weight, and there was very little thought given
to the effect upon the character of the wool. The result has
been that the Norfolk half-bred of to-day is a mongrel breed,
which is beaten by almost every sort it competes with. There
is good wool in the district, but it does not run regularly to the
fine sorts as it used to do,

These remarks do not apply alone to the wools of Norfolk
and the Eastern Counties. ‘The same mistake has been com-
mitted in many other districts, and has been one of the causes
of the downward tendency of prices. In 1861 the total import
of wool of all kinds into this country was in round figures 150
millions of pounds, or about an equal quantity to our own pro-
duction. In 1886 our own production had fallen to 136 millions,
while the imports had increased to 615 millions.

More than 300 millions of this enormous increase is the
produce of Australasia. During the whole of the period the
colonial wool has been steadily improving. Everything that
attention and business ability can accomplish is done by the
colonials to meet the wants of the trade. Thousands of pounds
have been spent in England for sheep for breeding purposes,
and the greatest skill has been shown in selecting those most
suitable. The result is that, with the exception of pure lustre
wool, every kind of English wool can be matched and beaten in
the London sales. And while all this has been taking place,
our own wool in the classes which compete with colonial has
been deteriorating.

IV. Mixed Breeds:—Under this head I include all wools
which have in them a cross of the Scotch Blackfaced, more or
less recent, and in various degrees. These wools are to be
found in the West and North Ridings of Yorkshire, in Lanea-
shire, Cumberland, Durham, and Northumberland, and through-
out Scotland. A great variety of wool is grown in these dis-
tricts. Some of the very finest half-bred wool is grown in
Scotland and Northumberland, known in the trade as North
Wool, and possessing soft and silky qualities, which are perhaps
unequalled, and almost unique. The Cheviot wool, too, is a
special article, which does not seem to be capable of production

Wool and its Uses. 163

away from its native hills. The quantity produced is compara-
tively small, and Scotch manufacturers generally take care that
it does not travel far away from home. Farmers who are able
to grow this article will, perhaps, be glad of the hint that it is
worth their while to keep it up. There is danger of its disap-
pearance and deterioration from the same causes as have been
mentioned in regard to Eastern Counties wool, i.e. the attempt
to increase the weight at the expense of the quality.

Throughout the North there are various wools which show
all kinds of mixtures of Cheviot, North, Blackfaced, and some-
times Down. Some of the branches of this heterogeneous family
have become distinct breeds— such, for instance, as Lonks and
Mashams—and a large proportion go by the appropriate names
of mules and cross-breds.

The value of these broken-bred wools is now somewhat
higher in proportion to other wools than it formerly was, owing
to various causes. A good many of these wools are utilised in
the manufacture of so-called Home-spuns, Cheviots, and Tweeds
of the rougher class.

WOOLLEN AND WORSTED.

A good deal of confusion exists in the minds of people out-
side the trade as to the meaning of the terms Woollen and
Worsted, which it may be as well to clear away. Technically,
the difference consists in the structure of the yarn. The aim
of the worsted-spinner is to get the fibres to lie parallel to each
other, and produce a yarn as fine, smooth, and straight as
possible. The object of the woollen-spinner is precisely the
reverse, 7.c. to get the fibres to lie in a certain sense across
each other so as to produce a yarn soft, fluffy, or, to coin
a word, as flannelly as possible. Different machinery is used
in each trade to produce these different effects, but, speaking
generally, the difference in the first place is in the wool. All
long wools are spun into worsted yarns, and short wools into
woollen. Dress goods for ladies’ wear are worsted. Cloth for
men’s wear is generally woollen, with some exceptions, as, for
instance, what are known as worsted coatings, which are made
of comparatively long wool treated in the worsted fashion.
There is, of course, a point of length at which it is difficult to
say which trade wool will be used for. French merinos, Henri-
ettas, and the so-called cashmeres, of which a lady’s dress is
made, are worsted. The soft cloth without pattern, or twill, of
which her jacket is made, is generally woollen. Both are made
of short wool, the woollen being, of course, the shorter, but
both wools a generation ago would have gone into woollen
goods.

M 2

164 Wool and its Uses.

IMPROVEMENTS IN MACHINERY.

Wools which were formerly considered too short to be
combed can now be combed with ease, owing to the improve-
ments in combing-machinery, and are consequeritly rendered
fit for worsted purposes. This has introduced a vast quantity of
wool into the dress trade which did not go there formerly, and
which has thus become a serious competitor with longer wools.
As far as regards improvements in machinery, this utilisation
of short wools has been the only factor worth mentioning in the
altered condition of the wool market. "Wool-working machinery
has been brought to great perfection, but it cannot be said that
there have been any revolutionary improvements in it, except
the one just mentioned, during the last twenty years.

INFLUENCE OF IMPORTED WOOLS.

The influence of colonial and foreign wools on the price of
English wool is enormous. ‘T'wenty-five years ago the total
import of wool was only about equal to our own clip. This
year we shall probably import five times as much as we grow.
Twenty-five years ago the value of the English clip was, roughly,
13,000,000/. This year its value is probably 6,000,000/. A
comparatively small proportion of this serious loss to the farming
interest is due to falling off in quantity. The table on the
opposite page will show the comparative position of the supply
of English and foreign wool. ;

It is interesting to note, in connection with these figures,
that while in 1866 the value of a bale of colonial wool was
about 24/., the total value of colonial wool imported was
11,735,000/. Whereas, in 1887, with a value per bale of about
141., the total value was 20,216,000/. After allowing for the fact
that a larger proportion of the wool is now imported in the grease
than was the case twenty years ago, the figures are sufficiently
startling. The colonial wool imported in 1887, if taken at the
prices of 1866, would show a value of 34,656,000]. The price
of alpaca in 1866 was 3s. 4d. per lb.; in 1886 it was about
1s. per lb. The value of mohair in 1866 was 3s. 8d. per lb. ;
in 1886 it was about 1s. 2d.

It will be seen from this that the fall in values is not confined
to English wool, so that the immense increase of imported wool
and the great fall in the value of English do not stand precisely
in the relation of cause and effect. There can be no doubt,
however, that foreign and colonial wool is a great and increasing
factor in determining the value of our own growth. Its influence
is felt in every direction.

Wool and its Uses.

165

CoMPARISON OF THE QuANTITY OF ForEIGN AND CoLoNIAL Woon
OF ALL KINDS IMPORTED INTO THIS CouNTRY, AND Exports OF
THE SAME, WITH THE PropuCTION OF ENGLISH WOOL, DURING
TWENTY-TWO YEARS, IN ROUND FIGURES, !

: oe Zearing of paren =
g C ¥ n| 2 nial W
eM eite(aed | ait colonial wool | forhome oon | production ; | 2°
sumption
Ibs. Ibs. Tbs. Ibs.
1867 236,000,000 91,000,000 145,000,000 157,000,000 1867
1868 260,000,000 105,000,000 155,000,000 166,000,000 1868
1869 263,000,000 117,000,000 146,000,000 156,000,000 1869
1870 266,000,000 93,000,000 173,000,000 150,000,000 1870
1871 332,000,000 135,000,000 197,000,000 145,000,000 1871
1872 313,000,000 138,000,000 175,000,000 156,000,000 1872
1873 325,000,000 123,000,000 202,000,000 165,000,000 1873
1874 352,000,000 144,000,000 208,000,000 167,000,000 1874
1875 .}_ 372,000,000 172,000,000 200,000,000 162,000,000 1875
1876 396,000,000 173,000,000 223,000,000 156,000,000 1876
1877 418,000,000 187,000,000 231,000,000 152,000,000 1877
1878 407,000,000 199,000,000 208,000,000 152,000,000 1878
1879 427,000,000 243,000,000 184,000,000 153,000,000 1879
1880 475,000,000 237,000,000 238,000,000 149,000,000 1880
1881 460,000,000 265,000,000 195,000,000 139,000,000 1881
1882 505,000,000 263,000,000 242,000,000 129,000,000 1882
1883 509,000,000 277,000,000 | 232,009,000 128,000,000 1883
1884 544,000,000 277,000,000 267,000,000 132,000,000 1884
1885 520,000,000 268,000,000 252,000,000 136,000,000 1885
1886 615,000,000 310,000,000 305,000,000 136,000,000 1886
1887 597,000,000 319,000,000 278,000,000 134,000,000 1887
21888 650,000,000 330,000,000 320,000,000 135,000,000 1888

It has undoubtedly been considerably helped in consumption

by the fashion for soft goods which has now prevailed for some
ten or fifteen years. Ladies’ dresses nowadays are nearly all
made of soft dull material, but it is not generally known that
these goods are made entirely of colonial wool. The wearers of
these fabrics, which are known by a variety of names, such as
Beige, Foulé, Cashmere, Nun’s Veiling, Paramatta, Barrathea,
Henrietta, Merino, &c., say they are “nicer” than the old-
fashioned glices and cords, which were made from English
wool; and so long as this is the feminine idea, English wool
must occupy a second or third rate position. As has been said
above, pure lustre wool is the only sort with which it does not
compete ; and as pure lustre is out of fashion, this does not count
for much. It will be easily seen that the difference is very great
between the quantity of wool required for the dress trade and
the quantity required for coat-linings and other subsidiary

purposes.

1 This period is taken because 1867 was the first year when reliable statistics
of the growth of English wool were available.
? The figures for 1888 are merely estimates of the probable quantities,

166 Wool and its Uses.

Mopr or BusrNEss.

There are many points about the manner in which colonial
woolis sent to market and dealt with, which give it an enormous
advantage over our own. ‘The flocks are often very large, and
after being shorn, the wool is generally carefully and thoroughly
skirted, 7.e. the short wool growing round the neck and legs
and down the belly of the animal is taken off, and packed into
separate bales. The wool is also classed into different descrip-
tions—Merino and cross-bred not being mixed in the same bales,
except in some of the smaller flocks. The consequence is, that
on its arrival in London, large quantities of it can be taken
direct to the comber without any sorting whatever. A spinner
can go round the warehouses and select the exact sort he
wants; and sometimes, during the same evening, he can buy his
lots, and have done with this branch of his business for some
time.

As the sales generally last from three to six weeks, and as
there are seldom less than 10,000 bales offered every night, there
is plenty of choice. When this style of business is compared
with the dilatory and unbusinesslike manner of buying English
wool from the farmer, it will be seen what an immense saving
of time and trouble there is to the user of colonial wool as com-
pared with the user of English. A manufacturer can, and often
does, purchase as much wool in London in a single night as
would take him a month to buy in Lincolnshire or Shropshire.
Very few people, except those having actual experience, have
any idea of the vast variety of wool which is to be bought in
the London sales. Almost every English sort can be matched
there, and where the object to be aimed at is fineness of texture
and softness of handle, the London Colonial Sale is the market
to go to.

It will of course be asked, “‘ What do you suggest as a remedy
for the present unbusinesslike manner of dealing in English
wool?” An answer to this question brings one on to very
delicate ground. It is much easier to point out the defects of
the existing system than to suggest a remedy. Probably the
first thing to be done would be to stir up the public opinion
among wool-growers to some improvement of the system as it
exists. It would not be difficult to write an entertaining article
on the present manner in which the buyer is treated by the
grower. The affection of ignorance as regards prices, the in-
genuity with which time is wasted, the endless bargainings, the
objection to approach the subject in a businesslike spirit, would
be amusing if they were not so expensive and irritating.

In these days of competition, the manufacturer has too many

Wool and its Uses. 167

points to watch to be able to spend the time which his forefathers
did in collecting his supply of wool in the days when English
manufacturers had a practical monopoly of the world’s commerce,
and when English wool formed the backbone of the trade.
What is wanted is that growers should regard their dealings in
wool as a purely commercial transaction, and that the greater
the promptitude with which it is got through the better for all
parties. The tendency of modern commerce is to bring the
producer and consumer nearer together. I suppose that this
tendency will reach the English wool-grower some day.

But up to the present the position of things will be best
illustrated by the remark that the arrival of one or two con-
sumers in any country district is sufficient to stop any business
for aweek. They have gone to buy, and presumably the grower
wants to sell; but at sight of a wool-buyer from the consuming
districts prices are at once put up to a prohibitive level, and it
takes about a week of pig-dealing amenities to bring the two
parties together and the wool to a market price. The common
affection of ignorance of prices on the grower’s part will not
justify these proceedings. He is not so ignorant as he gives
himself out to be when it suits his purpose, and he knows the
value of his article just as well as the buyer.

Let the farmer remember the figures of imports of wool
which I have given, and dismiss from his mind old-time notions
of great rises in price, and of the importance of the position of
English wool. Let him meet the buyer in a businesslike spirit.
“Time is money” may be truly said of the business now, and
the loser is the man who wilfully wastes the time.

Beyond this there is the question of fairs and auctions.
Being an auctioneer of wool myself, those who have a profound
belief in interested motives as the mainspring of things may,
if they choose, take my remarks cum grano salis. I certainly
incline to the auction as the most businesslike manner of
moving the wool from the grower’s hands. To be properly
successful, however, it requires suiting to the exigencies of the
British farmer.

An auction sale of wool should be established on a suffi-
ciently large basis to make it important tothe buyer. It should
have a public character, and be held under the control of some
body which would command the confidence of agriculturists.
I throw out the suggestion that the County Agricultural Societies,
or, better still, the County Chambers of Agriculture, should take
the matter in hand. One of these two bodies should have entire
control of the goods, see to the weighing and other details, and
appoint the auctioneer. The wool allowed to be sold at these
sales should be the bond fide property of the growers, no dealer or

168 Wool and its Uses.

speculator being allowed to “ pitch” wool inthem. They should
be held at a central point, and where there is a covered market.
They should not be held only on one day of the season, but
should extend over a series of, say, one day a week for four or
five weeks, according to the area of the district. The wool
should be sold without reserve, my experience as an auctioneer
teaching me that nothing promotes competition so much as the
knowledge that the wool is really meant for sale.

Then there is the question of fairs, to which I give the
second place. In this case I would apply the same rules, but
the dealings would of course be between the user and the grower
by private contract, the bargains, however, to be registered by
the authority holding the fair. Probably the best illustration
of the kind of fair I mean is the one held annually under the
auspices of the Leicestershire Agricultural Society. I will,
however, point out that the whole of the wool usually shown in
this fair might be sold by auction in less than an hour, whereas
by the present system of bargaining the actual business gene-
rally begins about 4 P.M., the interval between 9 A.M., at which
time the fair is supposed to commence, and that hour being
spent in vain talk.

Another style of fair is the one which is held weekly at
Doncaster during June, July, and August. This is a very large
and important fair. There are from 400 to 1,000 sheets a week
pitched, chiefly Lincolnshire wool. The railway companies and
the corporation of Doncaster provide every facility. But how
is the fair regarded by the Lincolnshire farmer? ‘There is pro-
bably not 10 per cent. of the total wool shown belonging to the
grower. The bulk of the wool sold there is the property of
jobbers and dealers who have gone round the county during the
preceding week and bought it up.

The wool-stapler, whether in Bradford or in many country
districts, fulfils a useful function for which the trade can afford
to pay. He understands wool, and classes it to suit the
requirements of the manufacturer. Consequently I may re-
mark that, in accordance with sound economic principles, the
wool-stapler must always exist. But the man whom I call a
jobber knows no more about wool than the farmer. He sells
the article in the same condition as he got it. He takes
his profit out of it for doing something which the farmers
might do for themselves. Doncaster market is under the
noses of the Lincolnshire farmers. Many men go there to
buy wool who are never seen among the farmers, and who
would prefer to deal with the grower for many reasons. ‘They
can afford to spend a day at Doncaster, but could not afford to
spend a week at the farms over the same or a less quantity of

Wool and its Uses. 169

wool. I will leave this subject to the readers of this Journal
with the question: Who pays the Doncaster jobbers’ profit ?

To the inquiry as to what can be done to enable our farmers
to get more for their wool, or even something like old-time
prices, I can only reply that, so far as I can see, there is at
present very little hope of any substantial rise in prices.
Fashion is fickle, and might probably decree some day that we
had worn soft stuffs long enough, and that our womankind must
- clothe themselves in the hard, solid, and good wearing materials
made from wools of native growth. But so long as we are con-
tent to take our fashions from Paris, this is not likely to take
place. Soft goods have always been the peculiar pride of the
French manufacturer, and France is consequently deeply inte-
rested in keeping up this fashion.

If we were, however, to have a change of fashion in the
direction of harder materials, it must not be forgotten that
there is a large quantity of wool from the colonies of the cross-
bred type, which nearly approaches many English wools in
solidity, and that we should not therefore have the trade in
our own hands as we formerly had.

An import of more than six hundred millions of pounds
of wool is a factor which effectively removes any of the exclu-
sive conditions which formerly helped to keep up the price of
English wool. For though it must be admitted that we do not
retain quite half of it for the use of our mills, yet we have to
compete with the other half in the shape of the manufactured
goods of France and Germany in all the markets of the world.

Thus the question is not how English wool can be restored
to its old position, for that is impossible, but how it is to hold
its own in the competition. I can only say in answer, let the
wool which is known to suit a district be grown there in all its
ancient purity.

Let the Lincolnshire farmer still grow lustre wool as pure
and as fine as he can, as there is a place for his commodity,
even if it is only a subsidiary one; and with the continual
- increase of population this subsidiary purpose will assume
greater relative importance.

Let the Southdown grower keepin his mind what his wool
is best fitted for, and not make vain attempts to fit it for he
knows not what.

Let farmers generally take care that their wool is got up for
market better than it often is. It may be thought by some a
clever thing to sell a quantity of grease and dirt at the price of
wool, but the result must be bad for the community in the com-
petition with the best got-up wool in the world. And in this con-
nection I should like to be allowed to make a quotation from a

170 Wool and its Uses.

paper read by me in 1881 to the Cirencester Chamber of Agri-
culture, which will also serve to correct a small point in Karl
Cathcart’s paper on the washing of wool :—

“The wool looks sometimes as if it had been well washed and afterwards
riddled over with yellow dust. This, I suppose, arises from the sheep having
to be driven a long way to the washing place. There are, I know, great
difficulties to get over to remove this fault, but if you would do so you would
give to your wool an increased value. It should be borne in mind that
wool is never washed with so little injury to the fibre as when it is washed
on the sheep’s back. The increased severity required to get dirty wool
-clean in the process of manufacture is injurious, and consequently reduces its
value. I saw an article in ‘ Wool’ the other day in which the use of hot
water and soap was advocated. With this idea I entirely disagree. I ven-
ture to say that the use of hot water or soap is positively injurious to
English wool. What I would reeommend (of course with all reservations as
to convenience) is tub-washing in cold water, :

“ The following manner has, I believe, proved successful :—Haying two
tanks, each capable of holding, say, five sheep, let the sheep be placed in tank
number one and washed in the usual manner ; then let them be plunged in
the second tank, which must be kept constantly supplied with clear water—
or, better still, let them have a swim in running water. It should be re-
membered that the first tank should be kept as greasy as possible from the
yollx which exudes from the sheep, only as much water being added as the
sheep take out with them. This yolk is a kind of natural soap, and is quite
sufficient to wash the sheep properly if proper advantage is taken of it.”

I would only add to this that all recent science shows alkali
to be injurious to wool, and where it is necessary to be used in
order to get rid of “ dirt” it can only be used safely by experts
who know how to minimise its effects. Manufacturers prefer
buying wool which has not been washed at all to wool which has
been scoured with soap, especially where it has to be dyed into
delicate colours.

There are many faults in English clips arising from careless-
ness, such as the presence of straw and chaff in the wool, which
may appear trifles to the farmers. But these faults all cost
money to rectify; and when home wools have to compete with
the wool of the colonies, which requires no such expense, these
trifles grow into importance.

Let English wool-growers keep in their minds the fact that
there is a growing export trade in their wools which amounts
now to about 23,000,000 lbs. annually, and which may be
increased if these apparently trifling points are properly attended
to. More than half of this export trade is to America, where it
has 5d. per lb. duty to pay, and where labour is expensive. Ten
cents a pound is a heavy duty to pay on dirt and grease, and
American buyers are not likely to come away from home for wool
which requires labour to fit it for use. It may be as well to note
here that one of the favourite wools with export buyers is Irish,
which is the best washed and the best got-up of any in the
United Kingdom, and is preferred for these reasons.

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 171

A healthy public opinion among agriculturists, and a feel-
ing that both the grower and the manufacturer have the same
interests to serve, will set many matters right. We in the
manufacturing districts are as strongly of opinion as the agri-
culturists are that things are too cheap; but both can, at all
events, resolve that what they produce shall be good.

VIII. — Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.
By D. R. Cuapman, The Athenzeum, Liverpool.

In these days of keen competition and agricultural depression
it becomes a duty to look more closely into comparatively small
matters, and either endeavour to find new fields of energy, or
point out old sources of income which have been neglected, but
which may be revived with some prospect of success. Among
the latter is one which until a century since was a source of great
profit to many, but now has fallen into great neglect—viz. the
production of those pleasant and wholesome drinks, when pure,
Cider and Perry.

Both liquors have a pleasant sub-acid taste, and are very
clean on the palate, perry as a general rule being much the
sweeter of the two. Among our forefathers they were sup-
posed to conduce to longevity and possess many medicinal
qualities, and this opinion still remains in the cider-growing
districts. Many eulogiums have been written in their praise,
notably “‘ Phillip’s Cyder,” and two quaint old tracts, one of which
was written by the Vicar of Dilwyn in 1677, and is quoted in
Dingley’s “‘ History from Marble,” who says :—

“Our flourishing orchards . . . yield us plenty of rich and winy liquors,
w* long experience hath taught do conduce very much to the constant
health and long lives of our inhabitants, the Cottagers as well as y® wealthier
using for the most part little other liquors in their families, than restorative
syder ;”
and in a poem of some length again says :—

“ With all the Gallick wines are not so boone

As Hearty Sider, y® strong son of wood

In fullest tydes refines and purges blood.”
At the end he gives a list of six or eight persons who died
in his own parish during his vicarage, whose drink was nothing
but cider, and whose ages ranged from ninety to one hundred
and fourteen. The other tract relates a morrice dance which
occurred at Morehampton, where ten persons danced whose
united ages reached the total of more than a thousand years.
Perry made from the Barland pear is supposed to be good for

172 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making,

diseases of the bladder and kidneys, and is taken and recom-
mended for them in the districts where that fruit is cultivated.
The cider-producing districts in England at the present time
may be divided into two: one, which may be called the West
Midland district, embracing Herefordshire, Worcestershire, and
parts of Gloucestershire and Monmouthshire; the other, the
Western district, containing the three counties of Somerset,
Devon, and Cornwall. Cider was formerly made in some
quantities in Kent and Sussex, but, for reasons which will be
stated when treating of those counties, the manufacture has
ceased, at any rate for the market. At what time the apple was
introduced into the West Midland district is not very clear, but
that there were good and bad kinds in the fourteenth century we
can gather from the old poem ‘ Piers Plowman’s Visions,” where
the following lines occur :—
*T preide Piers tho to pulle a down
An appul and he wolde,
And suffer me to assaien
What savour it hadde”—
while in the sixteenth century we have the testimony of old
Gerarde—who says in his “ Herbal,” a.p. 1597 :—
“ But I haue seene in the pastures and hedgerows about the grounds of
a worshipful Gentleman dwelling two miles frow Hereford, called Master
Roger Bodnome, so many trees of all sorts, that the seruants drinke for the
most part no other drinke but that which is made of apples; the quantity is
such, that by the report of the worthy Gentleman himself the Parson hath
for tithes many hogsheads of Syder ”—
that both the apple and the cider made from it were common and
well known. Some sixty or seventy years after, the cultivation
of this tree received a great impetus from the care and attention
bestowed upon it by Lord Scudamore of Holm Lacy, who, while
serving his country as Ambassador to the Court of France,
obtained grafts and cuttings of the best fruits grown in that
country and distributed them through the orchards of his native
county. But, although the impetus received in the cultivation
of the tree was great, the manufacture of cider did not reach its
zenith until quite a century later.
Worcestershire has always been more celebrated for its perry.
In Gloucestershire and Monmouthshire, until a very late period,
the orchards were chiefly confined to the Herefordshire sides of
both counties, but the cultivation of both the apple and pear has
spread considerably of late years, although perhaps more in the
case of Gloucestershire with reference to the cultivation of what
are known as “ soft fruits,” than those more especially devoted
to the manufacture of cider and perry. This county, like
Worcester, is better known as a perry-producing district. With
few exceptions, the orchards throughout the whole of this district

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 173

had been allowed to fall into a state of great neglect ; but chiefly
owing to the exertions of the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club,
who meet at Hereford, and under whose auspices that magnificent
work “ The Herefordshire Pomona” was published some two or
three years since, a great deal of attention has been paid to them
which it is hoped in a few years’ time will amply repay the
owners.

The following table will show ata glance the number of acres
under orchard cultivation since about 1810; but it is not to be
supposed that these plantations are all devoted to the cultivation
of cider and perry fruits, as great quantities of soft fruits are now
grown :—

Date Hereford Worcester Gloucester Monmouth

1810 = = 6,000 —-

1871 20,811 11,057 10,841 2,672
1881 27,000 16,000 14,170 3,800
1886 27,112 18,527 15,500 4,027

In the Western district the writer has been unable to trace
the first mention of cider or perry; but from time immemorial
both Devon and Somerset have been famed for their orchards, and
in recent years an extensive trade has been carried on in both
these beverages. Comparatively little cider is made in Corn-
wall, but the Devon and Somerset sides of Dorset produce excel-
lent cider, and a good deal of attention has been paid of late years
to the orchards of that section of the West country. Although
some perry is made in this district, no corrections or additions have
been made to the list of pears appended to this paper, from which
it would appear that either the kinds mentioned are the ones
grown in the West Midland District, or the writer has not been
fortunate enough to come upon any one who can give him any
information upon this point. Singularly enough, although large
collections of cider fruit were sent to the different Pomona shows
held at Hereford under the auspices of the Woolhope Club, no
perry fruit was ever sent.

The following table will show the acreage under orchards in
this district :—

Date Deyon Somerset Cornwall
ioe a a re ae 30,013 16,267 7,408
cial | area inc 2 Shien ee 26,000 22,800 4,800
ESGOue es. eh ee ee 26,414 23,640 5,120

As in Kent and Sussex comparatively little cider is now made,
it has not been thought necessary to give the acreage of orchards
under cultivation. In the former county the Kentish Goff used

174 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

to be planted and grown for the purpose, but latterly it has been
found more profitable to make it into jam. What little cider or
perry is now made in either of these two counties is manufactured
for home consumption from the fallings of the trees, cultivated as
soft fruits.

In Norfolk some cider of a good quality is still made, but
from what fruits the writer has been unable to determine.

The causes which led to the deterioration of the orchards,

and through this to the bad quality of the liquors produced
therefrom, were many, and varied to some extent with the position
of the different districts. The first and primary cause was
doubtless our continual wars from about 1740 to 1820. During
the whole of that period we may be said to have been constantly
embroiled either with one of our Continental neighbours or with
America. At that time our population was comparatively very
small, and the constant warfare at sea made it a primary necessity
that greater care should be taken by the agricultural community
in the production of food, both cereal and cattle, for their country-
men. From the very fact of the demand being great and the
supply limited, high prices arose. Farmers grew rich, they took
larger farms in order to cultivate that which paid them best, and
this led to the neglect of the orchard: so that, instead of cider
or perry being made of a good quality for the market, the fruits
were in most cases mixed indiscriminately, and only a small
portion really good made for the use of the homestead.

Unfortunately this was not the only result of the neglect.
The trees themselves were left unpruned and uncared for, unless
faggots were wanted for burning, until they died ; when, instead
of replacing the old sorts by young trees of the same kind or
better, a good-looking seedling or wilding was put in. Worse
still, this kind of proceeding was contagious, and, if one may say
so, in some degree hereditary. The son thought what was good
enough for his father was good enough for him; or perhaps a new
local variety bearing a great reputation had meanwhile sprung
up, Which was duly planted, and so made confusion worse con-
founded. This has gone on down to the present day, with such
deplorable results that it has been stated upon good authority
that fully one half of the trees in our orchards should either be
cut down and regrafted with well-known kinds, or uprooted
altogether.

Again, the liquors were taxed, and the constant presence of
the Inland Revenue officer, during the different stages of manu-
facture, was a source of annoyance and disgust to the farmer,
who, rather than be bothered with his presence, gave up making
altogether. ‘True, the tax was ultimately repealed, but too late ;
the mischief it had wrought had been completed. Although a

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 175

considerable quantity of cider was still made, it was of an inferior
quality, and all that remained over from the quantity required
for home consumption passed into the hands of the middleman,
when the culminating point of the mischief already wrought
was completed. In his hands all kinds were indiscriminately
mixed together, and, in too many cases, such filthy and nauseous
ingredients were used in fermenting and fining it, that when the
liquor was sent out it was at times very difficult to say what it
was. This compound was bottled, and placed upon the markets
at London and Bristol—then the principal places to which this
kind of produce was sent—and from them distributed over the
country. Some of itis said to have travelled as far as Hamburg,
and then made its re-appearance here as fine old port and sherry.
Even now, at the present day, a good deal finds its way into the
hands of wine-merchants; but what they do with it is best
known to themselves, as it never reappears under the name by
which it was sold to them.

In England the cultivation of pears for the manufacture of
perry is carried on in the counties of Worcester and Gloucester
and that portion of Herefordshire adjoining them, and in the
counties of Devon and Somerset. In France and the Channel
Islands, the cultivation of the pear for the purpose of perry-
making may be said to be entirely neglected. It is somewhat
difficult to account for this, unless it be from the greater autumn
temperature, which would render the higher fermentation of
the liquor much more difficult to carry through than in England.
For what little they make in those countries the worst of the
dessert fruit is used, which is not always a success, as it is as
true of pears as of apples, ‘‘ the smaller the fruit, the better the
liquor”; and again, ripe and unripe fruits are ground up to-
gether. In Germany, the pear, on the contrary, is extensively
cultivated, not so much for its value as a drink, but for distilling
into brandy, which is said to be of excellent quality. In America
they are only just commencing to cultivate the pear for perry-
making; what they have hitherto manufactured has been from
- dessert pears which could not be readily disposed of.

Before proceeding to the consideration of the subject, it
may perhaps be as well to consider a little the qualities which
good cider and perry fruit should possess. The subject will be
fully considered when the manufacture of the liquor is treated
of, but it will do no harm to lay before the grower the various
qualities he should keep in view. These are three:

1. It should be a free bearer.

2. The fruit should possess all those qualities which are
necessary for the production of a good cider or
perry.

176 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

3. The tree should be hardy, of vigorous and rather
upright growth, as those with a drooping habit are
very liable to have the lower branches broken off by
the cattle which would graze the orchard after it
was firmly established.

Unfortunately, as a general rule, the best fruits are apt to

be rather shy bearers, or produce a crop every other year, while
many of the second-class varieties are very free bearers and
growers. ‘This being the case, it would always be judicious to
plant some of the latter, as they would furnish a certain quantity
of liquor, which could be strengthened and improved by the
admixture of that derived from the former—the best fruits, in
short, supplying what the second-rate ones lack, When the
best fruits, however, do bear well, they make ample amends for
their capriciousness by the enhanced value of their cider or
perry.
In order to lay before the reader at a glance the best fruits
for his purpose, a table has been prepared showing the name of
the fruit; growth and habit of the trees; time of blossoming
and ripening its fruit; the density of the juice after twenty-four
hours’ exposure to the air; the percentage of sugar contained
in each 100 parts; the percentage of tannin, mucilage, and
salts in the same quantity ; the principal locality in which the
particular fruit is commonly grown; and other remarks which
may add to the value of the description (see next and following
pages).

For assistance in compiling this table the writer has to tender
his warmest thanks to a number of gentlemen, most of them
strangers to him, who have so kindly supplied him with lists of
the best fruits grown in their respective districts, and notably to
Messrs. J. H. Arkwright, of Hampton Court, Leominster; John
Watkins, Pomona Farm, Withington; Lt.-Col. Halifax Wyatt,
Croxteth Park, Liverpool; Messrs. R. Welch, Stocklinch, Il-
minster; Le Cornu, Jersey; and H. C. Mewburn, of Stamford,
Co. Welland, Ontario.

Of the above, those marked with an asterisk are considered
the best grown in England for cider and perry making; but an
eminent cider and perry manufacturer in the West Midland
District, Mr. John Watkins of Withington, writes as follows :—

“If I were going to plant an orchard for cider and profit only, I should
plant broad-leaved Norman to get the crop, Kingston Black and Cherry
Pearmain the flavour, and Cherry Norman, White Bache, and Handsome
Norman the saccharine matter ; the three first I consider the most profitable.”

Many other kinds would be as profitable in the writer's
estimation, but probably the crops would not be so sure, notably
the Foxwhelp, Skyrme’s Kernel, and the Royal Wilding, as

‘ : é
Recent Impi'ovements in Cider and Perry Making. 177
APPLES.
; Tan-
Time of ;
County blossoming | = he
Name of variety where | Growth and habit and jae P Sugar | uey Remarks
grown ripening |. | aie
| fruit panne en
a
Alford.‘ . «| Devon Large, _spread- | - —-i-|— —
ing ; free bearer
Ancell . e - | Gloucester | Large, _ erect ; -- — _ _ —
free bearer
Belle Orchard | Hereford | Medium,upright, — — _ — —
Seedling vigorous ; free |
Ledbury Belle bearer |
Black Norman’. | Hereford | Hardy ; free} End — of | 1:037| 11°9 |1-125|Makes a good
bearer May cider
» Hereford _ Moderate grower|End of} — | — | — —
October |
*Broad-leaved Nor- | Hereford | Hardy ; free|End of} — | — | — oa
man grower and) May
—— Hereford bearer End of |
October
*Cherry Norman . | Hereford | Hardy; free — 1-045 | 12°8 | 2-07 _
grower
Hereford — Moderate bearer |
*—— Pearmain —_ Hardy ; medium | = 1:05 |12°7 2-0 | One of the most
grower, good | useful apples
bearer a farmer can
grow
Chibbles Wilding . | Somerset — = Sf =
Cider Brandy | Worcester | — = Sat SS =
Apple
— Lady’s Fin- | Hereford | Hardy; free | Second 1:045 | 13°25 1-4 _
gers bearer week in
May
End of Sep-
tember | |
Coceagee . . | Hereford | Hardy; mode-| Middle of | 1-056} 9-08 7-8 Going out of use
Somerset rate grower,| May in Somerset-
Devon free bearer shire
*Cowarne, Red . | Hereford | Medium grewer — 1-047 | 11-9 | 1-42 —
and bearer
*Cummy Norman . | Hereford | Hardy ; free _ 1-04 | 14:0 |0:06 |A very small
Cummy grower and fruit
bearer
Deane’s Bittersweet) Devon Large, hand- — ss = = =
Somerset some ; good
bearer 4
Dymock Red . | Gloucester | Hardy ; free — 1-037} 12-1 | 3:5 ee
Hereford grower and
: bearer
*Eggleton Styre . | Hereford | Hardy ; good | Middle of} 1:05 | 10:6 | 6:57 _
grower; free| May
bearer Middle of
October
*Foxwhelp (Old) . | Hereford | Rather large;| Middle of|1-07 | 14-4 |85 | What few trees
slow grower,| May there were in
shy bearer End of the Western
October District are
now going out
: L of cultivation
Foxwhelp (New or | Hereford | Fair grower, — 1044; 8:0 |43 | A good sauce-
Rejuvenated) medium bearer apple,sells well
as pot frui
Green Wilding . | Hereford | Hardy, upright ; | — 1:045 | 10°53 | 3-17 . = oe
free grower and
good bearer
Golden Moyle . Hereford | Large; free grow- — _ _ — {Sells well for
| | ex and bearer

VOL, XXIV.—S, S.

jam-making

N

178

APpPpLes—continued.

Name of variety

County
where
grown

*Hangdown Horner

* Handsome Norman

Hereford
Belle Norman

La Belle Norman-

die
*Hollow Core

Jersey Chisel
Chisel Jersey
Bitter Jersey
Joeby Crabb

*Kingston Black
Blach Kingston
Taynton Black
Taunton Black
Dormington Red

Morgan’s Sweet
Ponsford .

*Red Norman.
Hereford

*Royal Wilding
The Cadbury

*Skyrme’s Kernel .

*Slack-my-Girdle

Strawberry Nor-

man
Hereford

Red Cluster .
Red Cap ;

Cap of Liberty
Red Splash .
Rollings Kernel

*Stone Apple .
*Styre Wilding

Canon Bittersweet .

Somerset

Hereford

Somerset

Somerset

Hereford

Somerset
Hereford

Somerset

Devon
Somerset

Hereford

Hereford
Hereford

Devon
Somerset

Hereford

Devon
Somerset
Devon
Somerset
Hereford
Worcester

Devon
Somerset
Ilereford

Time of

blossoming | ~-°2"

Growth and habit _ and oe
“pening | le

Small, spread- — —

ing; very free
bearer
Moderate grower;
rather small,
good bearer

Free grower and
bearer

Free grower,
good bearer

Free grower, fair
cropper

Medium size,
spreading; first-
rate cropper

Hardy, vigorous
grower; good
bearer

Hardy ; free
grower and
bearer

Small ; fair
bearer

Hardy, spread-
ing ; shy bearer

Fairly hardy;
free grower,
shy bearer

Hardy ; free
grower and
bearer

Hardy ; free

grower, spread-
ing, good bearer

Large, free
grower

Fair grower,
good bearer

Hardy; good
grower, free
bearer

Tree grower,
good bearer

Hardy — small;
bears profusely
every second
year

Middle of | 1-052
May

End of
October

1-053

Early

Middle of
May

End of
October

End of
May

Middle of
May

End of
October

Middle of} 1044
May
Beginning

of No-
vember

11°9

10:03

9°6

14°12

Recent Impi'ovements in Cider and Perry Making.

4-04

6:8

1:07

48

0:68

Sells well as pot
fruit ,

Makes a very
strong rough
cider

This first-rate
fruit has,
strange to say,
goneverymuch
out of cultiva-
tion in its na-
tive district,
the Western

_~

Sells well as pot
fruit

Cider turns dark
in the cup

—

Sells well as pot
fruit

Cider turns dark
in the cup

The trees are apt
to split

Good fruit for
mixing

Poor cider, but
the fruit com-
mands a ready
sale for jam-
making

Fruit large and
handsome

_

eee

es

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

Name of variety

Taunton Fair Maid
*White Bache F
» Vorman

» Hereford
# > woersey |)”.

Yellow Styre .

*Barland 2 .
Bosbury Pear
Bareland Pear
Bearland Pear

*Black Huffeap .

Butt Pear . °
*Holmer Pear :

*Longland . .
Longdon Pear
Moorcroft . Fs
Malvern Pear
Malvern Hill Pear
Newbridge Pear .
New Meadow “

*Oldfield = °
Pine Pear , :

Red Pear. 2
Red Horse Pear

*Rock Pear .« F

*Taynton Squash .

Thorn Pear « °

*Yellow Huffeap .

County
where
grown

|
Somerset

Hereford

Somerset

Hereford
Worcester

Hereford
Gloucester
Worcester
Hereford
Gloucester
Hereford

Worcester
Hereford

Hereford
Hereford
Worcester
Worcester
Worcester

Hereford
Hereford

Worcester

Gloucester

Worcester
Hereford

Hereford

APPLES—continued.

| Time of
| blossoming
Growth and habit | and
| ripening
fruit
|
Free grower, | _
good bearer |
Hardy, - rather | Beginning
small, vigo-| of May |
rous}; very | End of

heavy cropper | October

Free grower, Late
good bearer
Hardy ; free =
grower, good
bearer
Pears,
Very large, vi- —
gorous ;__ free
bearer
Hardy ; free | Beginning
bearer of May
Hardy, free _
grower; good
bearer
Hardy, large, vi- | Beginning
gorous; good| of May
bearer
Very hardy, good _
grower, and
heavy cropper
Large spreading, | Beginning
hardy ; good} of May
bearer
Large, hardy; _
good bearer
Upright, hardy ; _—
free bearer
Large, hardy ;)| Middle of
free bearer May
Hardy ; free _
grower and
bearer
Hardy ;_ heavy | Beginning
cropper of May
Beginning
of October
Hardy, upright —
growth ; bears
well every se-
cond year
Hardy, large;|End of
free bearer April
Middle of
Septem-
ber
Small, hardy ; =
very heavy
cropper
Hardy ; faircrop- | Beginning
per of May

| 1:039
1:084 | 17-6

1-057

1:049 | 11-24

4:19

2°39

2°67

4:15

3°03

14

23

179

Sells well as pot
fruit

—

nN 2

180 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

the enhanced price obtained for the produce in a good yeat
would about counterbalance the losses from a bad season. If,
however, to Mr. Watkins's list be added the Eggleton Styre and
Strawberry Norman, the planter in the West Midland District
cannot possibly go wrong.

In the Western the favourite fruits and the ones best for
cider-making are the Coccagee; the Kingston Black, which
ought to be kept up, as it is certainly one of the best cider apples
grown ; the Horner, or Hangdown, the Hollow Core, the Jersey
Chisel, and the Red Cap. Besides these many of the culinary
and dessert apples make good cider. That famous old apple, so
well known all over England, ‘Tom Putt,” makes really good
cider for home consumption and drinking off from draught, as
do the Norfolk and Hereford Beefings, with the russets and many
others. In America it is the rule to make all the cider and
perry from the culinary and dessert fruit, using such as the
following among apples: Duchess of Oldenburgh, Northern Spy,
Baldwin, Golden Russet, &c.; while the pears are all the best
kinds which cannot be got rid of before they spoil—cider and
-perry fruit, as we know it, appearing comparatively unknown.
In Jersey it is much the same with the little which is now made
there.

The time of year at which the fruit ripens is an important
consideration. Many of the early varieties are, as before stated,
free bearers, and make excellent cider, but there is great difficulty
in carrying the liquor through the various processes of fermenta-
tion because of the warm weather of the autumn. This subject
will, however, be more fully treated when the manufacture of cider
and perry is considered.

Gathering the Fruit—This should, as far as possible, be
done under the grower’s personal supervision. The proper time
will soon be seen by the change of colour and strong odour
given out by the fruit when ripe, as also by its dropping from
the tree. On no pretext whatever should a beating pole, for the
purpose of knocking the fruits off the branches, be allowed, as
the next year’s crop would be greatly damaged by the fruit
buds being beaten off at the same time. The fruits should be
hand-picked as far as possible, the labourer mounting the tree
and shaking off the fruit he cannot reach by means of a pole
having a crook at the end. The fruit should be protected from
damage by falling, where the grass in the orchard is not long
enough, by some straw strewn under the trees. During this
operation the advantage of having one variety of fruit together,
instead of being planted indiscriminately over the orchard, will
be very ¢ apparent.

As the fruit is picked, it should be taken and placed in a

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 181

heap, each variety by itself, and protected by some means from
the rain until it is fit for the mill. If not so protected, the
fruit will both lose a quantity of saccharine matter, and its
period of maturity be considerably retarded by the alternations
of heat and damp to which it is subjected. The heaps should
not be too deep—say about a foot or fifteen inches—or the
. fruit will heat and ferment. If the grower should have barns
or other places at his disposal in which he can store his fruits,
so much the better; but, failing these, a cheap and easily made
shelter sufficient for the purpose would be mats made out of
long straw fastened between two poles or lathes either with
tarred twine or iron wire. In France, as a general rule,
granaries and barns are much used, with great advantage to the
cider made, it appearing from experiments made upon two
samples of liquor—the one made from apples exposed in the
orchard, and the other from apples matured in a granary—that
the latter contained, six months after being made, one and a
half per cent. more alcohol than the former. In America the
freezing-houses which are on every fruit farm are used for the
same purpose. For a description and details of these buildings
the reader is referred to ‘“‘ Downing’s American Orchardist.”
Those fruits which have been blown off the trees or dropped off
should not be mixed with those gathered, but be put through
the mill by themselves, when they will make a liquor for imme-
diate consumption.

All cider fruits may be divided into three classes, viz. the
sweet, the bitter-sweet, and the acid; all of which communicate
a distinct taste and property to the cider made from them.
The sweet fruit produces a pleasant, agreeable drink, which
must be consumed at once, or it will soon become bitter and
ropy; the bitter-sweet, on the contrary, makes an excellent
cider, of good, long-keeping qualities, which may be accounted
for by the presence of the bitter principle; while the acid
fruits give a liquor fit for no other purpose than making
vinegar.

Good cider owes its flavour and long-keeping qualities
mainly to the presence of two substances, viz. sugar and tannin:
the sugar forming alcohol under the action of fermentation, and
the tannin assisting to keep the liquor clear and bright after-
wards; but their parts will be more fully treated when that
action is discussed.

In order to determine the value of the juice, it is necessary
to employ a saccharometer, which is used in the following
manner :—

Five or six apples are taken of the kind it is desired to test, and the
juice crushed out and filtered, The instrument heing placed in the juice

182 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making,

will float and ultimately settle down at a mark on a scale graduated on the
instrument, which scale starts from 1000, that being taken to be the density
of distilled water at 39° Fahrenheit.

Appended is a table, showing the amount of sugar contained
in a quart of fresh apple-juice, and the percentage of absolute
alcohol it will produce on fermentation. The table commences
at density 1:035, which is the very lowest that should be used;
indeed, no good cider can be made under 1:040, as there is not
sufficient sugar under this density to impart good keeping
qualities. For this reason, fairly good cider should contain
about six per cent. of alcohol, and about one-fifth of its density
should be left of unreduced sugar to give it sweetness and body.
The so-called champagne cider has its characteristic effervescence
entirely due to this. It should be natural, but is helped by the
insertion of a little powdered lump-sugar in each bottle before
the cider is racked into them. It will thus be seen that the
saccharometer will indicate those fruits which it may either be
desirable to keep or eradicate from the orchard.

Density of juice Sugar in 40 ozs. Percentage of alcohol
1:035 - 2479 412
1:040 2°688 4:85
1:045 3°559 5°65
1:050 3°808 6:43
1:055 4-688 7°26
1:060 4923 8-11
1:065 5°802 8°76
1:070 6:027 9°50
1:075 6915 10°51
1:080 7155 11:33

The fruit, having been fully ripened, should be used at once,
as then the normal quantity of sugar present in each kind is
fully developed. Should the fruit be allowed to become over-
ripe, and rottenness have set in, a portion of the sugar is lost by
the fermentation which then takes place. The proper time is
generally determined by the agreeable odour which is given out
by the heaps, but it may also be seen in the change of colour of
the skin, the dark tint of the pips, and small veining or spots
which begin to run over the skin. It is most essential that the
fruit should be used as soon as it has ripened, and on no account
should any rotten fruit be allowed to get into the mill.

In all the operations now about to be described, too much
stress cannot be laid upon the necessity of cleanliness. Unless
everything about the cider-house is perfectly sweet and clean,
all the harvest of the year will either be considerably deterio-
rated or utterly ruined. Especially should great attention be
paid to all implements haying iron or lead about them. It is

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 183

for this reason that many cider-makers still adhere to the old
stone mill, and with good reason. The acid in the fruit must
act upon the iron in some degree. It may be slight, and doubt-
less is in most cases, but there is always the danger of the pre-
sence of rust, which, held in solution by the cider, will turn it
black upon exposure to the air. By far the greater danger,
however, arises from the contact of the cider with lead, as the
liquor easily dissolves that metal and holds it in solution, with
very dangerous consequences to the consumer. ‘Too much care,
therefore, can never be taken to prevent their contact. It is
impossible altogether to prevent it, because the trough stones
are held together by iron clamps leaded in; but they can easily
be cleaned before use and kept clean afterwards. The pulp
should not be allowed to remain in the trough for any length of
time, and under no circumstances whatever should a leaky cask
be stopped with white or red lead.

For the purpose of grinding the fruit and reducing it to a
pulp—which is known indifferently as the ‘‘ math,” “cheese,”
or “ cake ”»—many machines have been invented, the principal
of which are here described. The old machine was a circular
trough of wood, having a heavy wooden roller studded with
large nails revolving in it, which crushed the fruit; but the
necessity for a greater weight to crush it more led to the employ-
ment of stone troughs and rollers. It consists of the following
parts: the trough, the bruising-stone or roller, cog-wheel, and
upright axle.

The trough, which of course is circular, is of stone, and hollowed out to
the depth of about nine or ten inches, the edge next the axle being cut with
a perpendicular face, while the outside one is cut slanting from the top to
the bottom, leaving the top edge, from two to three inches wide, the thinnest.
It is generally made about thirty feet in circumference, and in four parts, of
millstone grit, clamped together when laid down with iron clamps. On the
top of the outside edge is placed some woodwork technically called “ curbing,”
of the same thickness as the edge of the trough at bottom, but finishing off
with nearly a sharp edge. Its object is twofold: first, to prevent the fruit
and pulp from being carried over, and, secondly, to correspond with the
planking which covers the nut in the centre.

The bruising-stone or roller, made of the same material as the trough, is
generally made from four to five feet in diameter, and nearly the same
width as the trough, flat on the side next the centre, but a little convex on
the other. In the centre of the runner is placed a strong wooden axle, con-
nected by means of a strong iron rod with an upright axle in the centre of
the stone trough. This rod projects far enough from the outside of the
runner to connect by means of another iron rod with a wooden bar, which is
also linked with the upright axle, and to which is fastened the horse. The
height is easily regulated by a bed of concrete or stonework under the
trough,

The cog-wheel, about two feet in diameter, is fitted to the horizontal axle,
and runs on the woodwork which covers the whole space between the
interior edge of the trough and the perpendicular axle, and is called the

184 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

nut. The teeth of this wheel link into upright teeth fixed in the nut, and
thereby force the roller to take a rotatory motion. The diameter of the
wheel will of course be regulated by the centre of the roller above the nut.

The perpendicular azle has an iron pin at each end for pivots which run
in a sunk iron centre; the wood of the axle, being bound with an iron ring,
forms the shoulder.

In addition to the mill, there will be required a stirrer, a
reever, and a shovel.

- The stirrer is a strong stick by which the boy who attends to the horse
and walks before the stone removes the pulp and fruit from the sides to the
bottom during grinding. The reever is a piece of board, made of the same
shape as the section of the trough, fastened to a wooden handle, and is used

to draw the pulp together in the trough previous to its removal by the shovel,
which should also be of wood.

The reason for using wooden implements has been stated
above. This mill is now greatly used in all the cider-making
districts in England and the Channel Islands, and is by many
eminent makers and connoisseurs considered the best, as no
metal comes in contact with the juice expressed, and the fruit
and kernels are thoroughly pulped. Its chief disadvantages are
that the fruit is apt to roll before the stone roller, and so not
get properly crushed, unless well looked after, and that there is
considerable trouble entailed in removing the cheese from the
trough.

Latterly there have come into use many smaller machines,
worked either by steam or horse power, or manual labour.
They are all modifications of one form, and the best of them
appears to be the following :—

On the top of a stout iron framework is fitted a large hopper or feeder.
Under this, driven by a drum from the source of whatever power may be
used, are two wooden rollers closely studded with iron teeth or knives, which
cut, or rather scrape, the fruit into a fine pulp. This pulp passes underneath
to two fluted stone rollers, generally granite, which are made to revolve at
different rates of speed, and which crush the kernels that may have escaped

the cutting action of the cylinders above. From these the pulp passes into
a tub placed under the machine to receive it.

By whatever means used, this machine gives a great saving
of time and power over the old mill; but in the eyes of many
connoisseurs it is looked upon with disfavour, on account of the
iron knives used in the two upper cylinders; and upon the
whole it is doubtful whether the economy of time and labour
saved by its use is not a false one, by reason of the temptation
to rush everything through the mill at one time which is to be
ground.

In America this machine, or one of a similar character, has
now come into almost universal use.

In France, owing to the small size of .the orchards, the mill
is generally worked by manual lahour. Like the old English

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 185

mill, the former favourite among the Norman cider-makers was
of stone, and consisted of two grooved cylinders of stone having
teeth in them, which crossed each other, and were made to revolve
by means of two arms crossing each other, and having attached
to each end a heavy leaden weight. At the top was a hopper,
in which the fruit was placed to be ground. The whole piece
of apparatus was very similar in appearance to a modern turnip-
cutter, and, like that implement, was mounted on a plat-
form with wheels, by which it could be moved from place to
place.

‘Latterly this mill has had to give way to two others, the
invention of two engineers at Caen—the Hcraseur Salmon, and
the Concasseur Berjot.

The Ecraseur Salmon consists of two spur-wheels or cylinders, in which
are placed iron or steel spikes of a conical form, and which revolve with an
unequal velocity. The fruit, having been broken up by these two wheels, is
passed between two channelled granite rollers placed below, which can have
the distance between them regulated by means of screws. These two
cylinders are set in motion by means of a spur-wheel, placed on the principal
axis, running into two fly-wheels, to which whatever power used is applied,
and which, working in a train of wheels, causes all four to rotate. When

used with horse-power it is said to be equal to pulping one hundred bushels
per hour.

The Concasseur Berjot is a very simple and ingenious piece of apparatus:
two granite cylinders mounted on horizontal axes fixed into a strong wooden
framework, a fly-wheel, handle, a spur-wheel, a pinion, and a hopper compose
the instrument, which it is stated is equal to pulping one hundred and fifty
bushels of fruit per hour when worked by one horse. It also can be used by
manual Jabour, and serves for all farm purposes where pulping is required ;
such as grinding roots, oil-cake, &c. The cylinders can be set any width
apart by means of set screws, and with a strap it is equally available as a
thrashing-machine.

In Jersey the cider and perry orchards are going out of
cultivation ; but where these liquors are still made, the old
stone mill as used in England was, and still remains, the
favourite instrument for grinding.

In grinding the first lot of fruit, it is necessary, especially in
a dry season, to sprinkle a little water over the fruit, and from
the first lot ground to express the juice by means of the press,
and use that for the successive grindings.

Upon the necessity of bruising the apple-kernels, or the
advisability of so doing, great diversity of opinion exists. By
all the older cider-makers, and by many of the modern, it was
held to be a sine qué non that they should be bruised, if it were
wished to make a long-keeping cider of good quality. Science,
however, says this is not the case. The whole subject was
thoroughly investigated some twenty-five years since by M. F.
Berjot, jun., of Caen, the inventor of the Concasseur, who read
his report at the fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the

186 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making

Caen Society of Agriculture, and was awarded a prize for the
same. In it he says:—

“ For all cider of the best quality it is not necessary that the pips should be
bruised, as by their odour they mas& the agreeable flavour so much admired
by connoisseurs in those vintages; on the ‘contrary, for second-quality cider
it is an advantage to bruise them, as by so doing those vintages obtain a
bouquet and flavour they otherwise would not have. For the manufacture
of cider destined to be converted into brandy it is indispensable. The essence
of the pip imparts to the young brandy a flavour of noyau, which after a
time becomes decomposed into benzoic acid, and gives to old cider brandy
that balsamic perfume so much admired and ‘sought after by bons vivants.”

After the pulp is made it should be allowed to stand for ten
or twelve hours, or, better still, twenty-four, if possible, before
it is put into the press. For this purpose large wooden tubs or
vats are used, which are filled to within a foot or eighteen
inches of the top, and which at the end of the time mentioned
will be found covered with a white froth. The reason for this
operation is as follows: the juice of the fruit and the pulp
contain, in common with all other vegetable juices, a great
quantity of sweet mucilage, which cannot be taken up by the
act of fermentation itself, but by this initial process an albumi-
nous substance susceptible of becoming so is formed, after having
been subject to the action of the air. The operation also assists
the colouring of the cider, as a reddish-brown colouring matter
is developed in the cheese, which colour is imparted to the
liquor, and adds considerably to its aroma. Provided the
temperature of the house in which the pulp is put is not high—
say about 40° to 45° Fahrenheit—it may be allowed to stand
several days with great advantage, the scum which forms on the
surface keeping off the action of the air and thus ee
acetous fermentation.

The pulp having been allowed to stand for some twelve to
twenty-four hours, as above stated, will now be ready for the
press. ‘The press used is a modification of the ordinary cheese-
press in use on all dairy farms, and consists simply of a frame-
work, with a stout board at the bottom, on which the pulp is
placed, and a stout screw at the top to apply the pressure. All
being in readiness, a stout cider-cloth, made of horsehair, about
four feet square, is placed on the board, and on this is placed
sufficient pulp to allow the corners of the cloth to be folded over
and nearly meet in the centre on the top; over this is placed
another lot of pulp, and so on until the press is full. In Devon
and Somerset they put clean straw also between each layer,
technically called the cheese. Pressure is then applied very
gradually until the cheese is dry. As the liquor runs it is
caught in a pail and carried to a large wooden cask, in the West
Midland district generally holding from about 100 to 120 gallons,

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 187

but in the Western seldom more than 60. This cask is nearly
filled, a little ullage space being left for fermenting purposes.
If the cheese is not further required it is thrown on the muck-
heap ; but if it is wished to make small cider— ciderkin,”
“ purre,” or “ washings” as it is called—the must is laid by and
reground with a small quantity of water, and makes drink for
immediate consumption, |

Before entering upon the details and precautions to be
observed during the process of fermentation, it would perhaps
be as well to describe shortly what that process is.

_ All saccharine juices are capable of four different kinds of
fermentation, viz. vinous, acetic, viscous, and putrid; the first
and third of which are certainly due to the action of microscopic
fungi; the second may be so, but as the arguments pro and con
are numerous and strong, and this paper not long enough to
contain a dissertation upon the subject, it will be treated as a
chemical one; while the fourth is due to the presence of
“bacteria,” which are small microscopic organisms haying
motion, but whether animal or vegetable is unknown.

Vinous fermentation is that particular change which all
native saccharine juices are liable to undergo when exposed to
the air and left to its normal temperature. If a small quantity
of these juices be carefully filtered through filtering paper and
rendered bright, they may be left to themselves for an indefinite
period and no change takes place, but upon the addition of ever
so small a quantity of the unfiltered juices a change sooner or
later takes place. This change manifests itself in the first
place by a thickness and turbidity in the liquid which is owing
to two causes: first, the evolution of carbonic acid; and,
secondly, the formation within the liquid of a finely divided
solid, which through the evolution of the gas is partly kept in
suspension in the liquid and partly thrown up to the surface,
which is known as yeast.

During this process an effervescence of a more or less dis-
turbing character takes place, sometimes taking the form of a
violent ebullition, the temperature of the liquid itself rising
above that of the surrounding air, and the yeast becoming more
abundant. Sooner or later a climax is reached, effervescence
ceases, when the yeast settles at the bottom as a slimy deposit.
Above this the liquid is clear and bright, and upon the top of
the liquid there floats a mass of cellular tissue, supported mainly
by the bubbles of carbonic acid gas given off. On tasting the
liquor now the flavour will be “found to have changed, and
instead of the sweet taste it formerly had there will be a decided
vinous one.

This change is due to the action of the yeast-plant, a micro-

188 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

scopic fungus, named Saccharomyces pastorianus, after the dis-
tinguished French savant M. Pasteur. Like most organised
beings it lives by absorbing oxygen from the air, but being
unable to obtain more than a very small quantity of that gas
in the liquid in which it is immersed, it obtains the oxygen
from the sugar, and in decomposing the sugar sets free more
oxygen than it requires. This free oxygen unites with the
- carbon and hydrogen present, and forms the various products
of the fermentation. ‘The yeast-plant is not a product of the
fermentation, but the cause of it, the plant, as above stated,
being always present upon the skin of the various fruits used.

Having thus considered the only fermentation which the
cider-maker wishes to see, we will describe the process which he
will have to carry through to a successful issue. In this, great
care will have to be taken with the temperature of the barn or
cellar in which the fermentation is carried on. If possible, the
temperature should be sustained at from 55° to 60° Fahr., not
letting it fall below 50° or rise above 75°, as in both cases the
operation will cease. Should there be any tendency to fall, the
temperature can easily be raised by means of a small portable
stove, with a fire in it, which is the method adopted in France.
Supposing every condition favourable, in about a week fermen-
tation will have ceased and the liquor will be fine, having on
the top a thick floating mass of skin and pulp, and the bottom
a thick ropy mass, being in the condition which is known as
“lying between the two lees.” This is the favourable moment
for “racking” it, and the operation is best performed with a
siphon, the thick portion at the bottom being filtered clear
through proper filtering bags and added to that already drawn
off. The cask into which it is racked must be perfectly clean
and free from any smell whatever, and afterwards the tempera-
ture be kept low. A considerable ullage should be left in the
cask in case secondary fermentation should set in, when the
whole operation must be repeated.

The entire operation is a crucial one, and will test the cider-
maker’s watchful care and management to the utmost, for the most
skilful operators cannot always command success at once, many
causes operating against it. The season may have been bad,
and the fruit not ripened properly; the fruit may have fer-
mented in the heaps, become frost-bitten, or rotten; it may be
poor and watery ; the temperature may be too low at the time
of making and retard fermentation, or even stop it altogether,
or it may be too high and carry it through too quickly, although
with proper buildings this is to a very great extent under the
maker’s control; lastly, there may have been a want of cleanli-
ness in the vessels or implements used, This latter may be

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 189

considered fatal, and is certainly under control. Let the ciderist
take heed and pay as much or even more attention to his cider
implements during the process of making as the dairy farmer
does to his dairy utensils.

From the above remarks it will be gathered that vinous
fermentation may be of three different degrees—viz. too active
fermentation, which takes place when the juice is rich in sac-
charine matter, and the temperature high; dilatory fermenta-
tion, which may be caused by poor juice or a sudden spell of
cold weather ; and persistent fermentation, or, as it is technically
called, ‘‘ fretting,” which, however, arises mainly from the in-
ferior quality of the fruit, and therefore of the juices yielded by
them. The first need not cause much trouble, its worst evil
being the waste of the liquid: the only remedy is to cool the
temperature as much as possible, by allowing a current of air
through the house or cellar, sprinkling the floor with water,
throwing wet cloths over the barrels, or any other method which
may suggest itself. The second is much more difficult. If it
arises from too low a temperature, that can, as already stated,
be very easily overcome by closing the house or cellar and light-
ing a stove or two in it. Should this not be found sufficient,
the French method may be adopted of taking two or three
gallons of juice out of the cask, heating it to about 70°, and
then returning it, stirring it up quickly with a bundle of osier
twigs.

“Fretting,” or persistent fermentation, is much more diffi-
cult to overcome, as the root of the evil is in the juice itself.
Should it continue for any length of time, the saccharine matter
becomes exhausted, and the liquor becomes acid. As soon as this
occurs, the fermentation must be stopped at any cost, and in
order to do this one of the yeast-destroying agents must be
used. These are: sulphur, salicylic acid, sulphurous acid water,
bisulphate of soda, or lime, and many others. The ones princi-
pally used both in England and abroad are the two first, and of
these two the second is the easiest to manipulate, and has come
much into favour. When used in proper proportions it is per-
fectly harmless, and free from all objectionable smell or taste.
When used in a concentrated form, from one ounce to one ounce
and a half to every hundred gallons of liquor is the proportion,
and it is poured into the liquor immediately after racking.
Should any iron be present, however, it will turn the liquor
black. Sulphuring was formerly universally used, and its method
of application is very simple.

A little sulphur is melted, and into this is dipped a strip of clean canvas
or linen about a foot long and two or three inches wide. This is taken out
and allowed to harden, It is then tied to a stick or piece of wire, lighted,

190 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

and inserted in the cask into which the liquor is to be racked, and allowed
to burn until it goes out. The cask is then full of sulp hurous fumes, and
while in this state the liquor is run in. This atari the sulphurous acid
gas, which kills the yeast-plant without retaining any taste or smell.

If fermentation should again set in, the operation must, of
course, be repeated. ‘The use of chemicals, however, and the
endeavour to make good liquor from bad juice is the rock upon
which cider has split and got its bad name. The best cider-
makers never use them, and it may be laid down as an axiom
that cider or perry is pure and good in the inverse ratio to the
amount of chemicals used in its manufacture.

Acetous Fermentation.—It is well known that all weak fer-
mented liquors, when exposed to the action of the air for any
length of time, become sour and turn to vinegar. As has been
above stated, this will be spoken of as a chemical reaction,
although M. Pasteur asserts that it cannot take place without
the presence of a small microscopic fungus, called Mycodermes
aceti. 'The chemical action, whether due to the presence of the
fungus or not, is as follows: the alcohol in the liquor absorbs
oxygen from the air and forms aldehyde and water; but the
aldehyde in ordinary acetous fermentation never appears, the
aldehyde taking up oxygen from the air at once and forming
acetic acid. The fungus is visible to the naked eye, when in
large quantities, as a blue mould on the top of the liquid,
which at length sinks, and is then well known as the vinegar

lant.

; Viscous Fermentation, or Ropiness.—This peculiar change
which sometimes accompanies vinous fermentation manifests
itself by the liquor becoming thick and viscous to such a
degree that when poured from one vessel to another the liquor
draws into long threads. According to Pasteur, this is due to
the presence of a very minute fungus with spherical cells, which
has not as yet been named, but which has the property of
changing the glucose into a kind of gum, which is always
accompanied by mannite and the evolution of carbonic acid gas.
In some seasons this fermentation is very troublesome, and un-
fortunately the remedies recommended to cure it are as bad as
the disease.

Putrid Fermentation.—This is not a fermentation at all, but
is due to the presence of bacteria and vibriones, whose position
in the world of life has not yet been determined. Suffice it to

say that their germs are always present in the air, ready to
seize any opportunity which may present itself favourable to their
growth, and that, although there is no cure for this kind of fer-
mentation, it may be prevented almost entirely by scrupulous
cleanliness in all the operations of making.

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 191

The method of treating the liquor in France during and
after fermentation is much the same as that above given, with
two slight modifications. One of these is the addition of a small
quantity of catechu, about 8 ozs. to 100 gallons of the liquor,
when racked off; and the other the fumigation of the casks,
which is always done, preferably by burning a little alcohol in
them, or, should their condition be deemed at all doubtful, by
burning sulphur. In the Channel Islands fermentation is
allowed to take place in open vessels, the vessels being simply
covered with a cloth, and the scum removed as it is formed.
The clear liquor is then racked into sulphured casks, and if
fermentation should again set in the operation is repeated. In
America the same method as that adopted in England is usually
carried out, with the addition of a little finely powdered charcoal
to each barrel when the liquor is racked off.

After fermentation, the liquor will not always be found suffi-
ciently clear, owing to the mucilage present, as the richer the
juice the greater difficulty to obtain a bright liquor. In order
to clear it, it is only necessary to dissolve from 1 oz. to 14 oz.
of isinglass in a little of the cold liquor and add it to the cask.
This quantity is sufficient for 100 gallons. The same amount
of fish glue, or the whites of a dozen eggs, will answer the same
purpose.

It will be noticed in the list of apples given that against
some of them is placed the remark “Cider turns black in the
cup”; this is due to the presence of a salt of iron in the liquor.
The iron may not have necessarily come from any contact of the
juice with that metal during the process of manufacture, as,
according to experiments made in France, it appears that some
particular kinds of fruit grown on a red soil take up the iron
from it.

The liquor having been safely carried through its process of
fermentation, nothing now remains for the cider-maker but to let it
stand in the casks, at as an even temperature as possible, until the
following spring, when it should be either racked off into smaller
casks to be sent out to the consumer, or bottled. In racking off
into smaller casks, great care should be taken that they are per-
fectly clean and free from any smell. They should be absolutely
without odour, or the liquor will take it up, when all the labour
and care previously taken will be lost, for no fermentation or
re-racking will bring back to the cider its agreeable perfume,
when once lost.

In bottling, the best bottles to use are champagne ones, as
they are much stronger and not so liable to burst as those of
other shapes. Good cider will keep in cask four or five years,
and formerly it was the practice to bottle the liquor when it was

192 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

a twelvemonth old—that is to say, the cider made in the autumn
of one year was bottled in the winter months of the following
year. ‘This practice, however, has now become obsolete, and it
is the general custom to bottle the liquor in the April and May
after it is made. A few more bottles are burst probably by this
arrangement, but the liquor gains in richness and comes more
quickly into the market. The best method of bottling is to
remove the bung out of the cask the evening before, and, the
bottles all being ready, in the morning to draw off and fill them
all before commencing to cork. The corks must be of the very
best quality, and after corking and wiring, the bottles should, if
possible, be put in sand for a short time before laying them
down in the bins. Many small makers, when laying down for
their own consumption, rinse the bottles out with a little
brandy, draining each bottle as dry as possible, a bottle of
brandy being sufficient for a cask of cider. In France this is a
general custom.

Perrvy.—The process of making perry differs somewhat from
that of making cider. In the first place, as a general rule, pears
are fit for grinding as soon as they fall from the tree, and,
therefore, with the exception of a few late sorts, they must not
be placed in heaps where they would rot and ferment, but be
carried straight from the trees to the mill. After grinding and
pressing, the liquor is fermented in open vats, and as soon as the
active fermentation has subsided and the liquor is lying ‘“‘ between
the two lees” it is run off into casks and treated in exactly the
same way as cider. Theoretically this is perfect ; but in practice
it will be found that perry, in nineteen cases out of twenty,
never fines so well as cider between the lees because of the
greater quantity of mucilage perry contains, so that, in order
to fine it, it is necessary to filter the liquor through “ forfar ”
bags.

Having thus far brought the whole question from the
sorts of fruit used to the bottling of the liquor before the
reader, it only remains to consider that very essential side of
the question, namely, the paying one. Here statistics are of no
ayail, so the writer will endeavour to give the opinions of a few
practical men who have made the subject the consideration of
their lifetime.

Much, of course, will depend upon the grower himself,
whether he really puts his whole energies into his fruit-trees,
fully resolved to make them pay, or whether he simply looks
upon his orchard as quite a secondary consideration, and cul-
tivates it in a dilettante sort of way. As a rule, the best cider
has hitherto been generally made by small growers who are

Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making. 198

dependent to a very great extent upon their trees for their
livelihood, the large farmers, with few exceptions, not giving the
subject sufficient attention.

The price of cider and perry, like that of everything else,
depends upon its quality, condition, and the kind of season it
has been, good, bad, or indifferent. At the present time the
price of best-quality cider in cask is about ls. 6d. per gallon,
and the same quality bottled will realise say 10s. per dozen.
Second-quality cider, for household use, on draught, will realise
8d. per gallon, while ciderkin, or “ purre,” for farm use, will sell
at about 24d. per gallon, and perry about the same prices. These
prices vary but little from year to year at the time of production
and sending out, that is, from November to the following April
or May; but after bottling, prime cider of a good vintage year
will fetch a high price. The writer has seen both cider and
perry realise 380s. per dozen at public auction, and some cider
and perry which had been forty years in bottle could not be
purchased at any price. One pound a dozen is not at all an
uncommon price for first-rate cider or perry the first season’s
making. .

Taking the orcharding on a farm at fifteen acres, this area,
if planted in the manner described in this paper with good sorts
of fruit, will contain about 750 trees. Of these a few, as the
Cherry Pearmain, &c., will be of use as soft fruits, so one sixth ma:
be taken from them. This would give 625 trees the fruit of
which would be available for cider- or perry-making. ‘Taking
an average of years, these trees would yield 100 hogsheads or
10,000 gallons of liquor, which at the moderate price of sixpence
per gallon would be worth 250/. In addition to this there would
be the soft fruit for sale, and the profit which may be obtained
from the ground upon which the trees grow.

It has always appeared to the writer a very great pity that,
besides the neglect shown to the orchards, such very little
attention is paid to provide suitable buildings throughout the
orchard districts of England in which both the fruit and liquor
could be stored. In both France and America they are far
before us in this respect, every orchard farm being well supplied
with proper buildings. In the latter country, by means of
simple contrivances, they manage to keep their fruits at a tem-
perature just a little above the freezing point, in such a con-
dition that they can be placed upon the market at any time;
and upon farms where cider and perry are made these houses are
used for manufacturing and storage purposes.

The writer has been favoured by Mr. H. C. Mewburn with
the following description of the orchard and cider houses in
Canada, which will probably be found of general interest :—

VOL. XXIV.—S. S, fo)

194 Recent Improvements in Cider and Perry Making.

“T will describe the premises which I occupied some years ago when I
used to make cider, ‘There was a large barn, in which the apples were
stored round the sides; on the floor was a cider-mill, which was worked
either by hand or hors2-power. Under the floor of the barn was a large
cellar, round which were placed the cask and vessels to be used in the mak-
ing. As the fruit was ground, it fell through the floor and was passed into
casks or tubs placed to receive it until it had commenced to ferment. In
the centre of the cellar was the press.”

The process afterwards adopted was exactly the same as has
been described previously in this paper.

That similar buildings should be provided upon all fruit
farms in England there can be no two opinions; but how they
are to be obtained is quite another matter, although one which
should be seriously entertained by both landlord and tenant.
The buildings themselves need not be expensive; plain thick
walls of stone, or double walls of brick, with a good thick thatch,
would answer every purpose; and where possible the building
should be so arranged that the liquor should not have to be
carried at all from the press to the casks, but should be allowed
to flow by gravitation to those vessels in which it is to be fer-
mented, and then be racked off into the other casks, in which
it is either to remain for bottling purposes or to be sent to the
consumer.

Cider and perry factories have for a long time—considerably
more than a century—been talked of, and the subject is one
well worthy the consideration of a cider- or perry-producing dis-
trict. The capital required would not be large, and in a year
when a good hit of fruit took place it would all be used, instead
of the greater part wasted as at present. It is precisely at such
a time that the want of such factories is felt, because a good
hit means not only a good crop, but the crop well ripened and
in good condition, and therefore first-rate liquor. At the pre-
sent time many farmers and cider-makers will buy up all the
first-class fruit they can lay their hands upon, or, at any rate, as
large a quantity as will fill the casks with liquor which they can
store; but they will not look at fruit of an indifferent quality,
which proves the necessity so strongly insisted upon in this
paper of growing none but known and approved sorts.

In all the above operations cleanliness is above all the one
thing needful. Without it, no matter what care has been
bestowed upon the other operations, all the labour will be in
vain, ‘The greatest attention should therefore be paid to every
machine and utensil used for the purpose of making or receiving
the liquor. Attention should be given to the temperature of the
house in which fermentation is carried on, keeping it as near
60° Fahr. as possible. Water should never be added to the
liquor in order to make more of it, and, aboye all, chemicals

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 195

should in no circumstances be used in any of the processes,
unless as a last resort.

This is a question which strongly affects all agriculturists,
whether owners or occupiers. Corn and cattle nowadays hardly
pay for rearing or growing, but orcharding and the production
of cider and perry is one of the many smaller farming opera-
tions which will well repay attention. Rents possibly are
higher and our seasons more uncertain than those of France
and America, but these disadvantages are counterbalanced. by
the smaller expenses of packing and carriage and loss from
deterioration or injury. In the neighbourhood of large towns
there is always a sale for hardy fruits, and those who have not
that advantage can turn their energies to cultivating these fruits
for cider and perry purposes. There are many advantages
attending it, especially at the present time. There are now no
restrictions whatever on the production of these liquors by
taxation, or on their sale direct from the orchard, and the small
amount of alcohol which they contain will always militate
against their conveyance from a distance.

Every encouragement should be given to the practice of
fruit-growing on an estate, and, if possible, the subject should
be taught in elementary schools. The late Professor Henslow
introduced the subject in his village school in Cambridgeshire,
and the writer owes his taste for it to the fact that, as a choir-
boy in Oxford, he was given a small patch of land at the back
of the school to cultivate in common with the other boys, who
had similar patches, and which was a source of endless amuse-
ment and also a little profit. The keen competition of the
present day must be met by the farmer with greater economy,
higher cultivation, and indomitable perseverance, and by atten-
tion to these there is little fear but that the British farmer will
hold his own.

IX.—Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. By
Dan. Pipcron, Assoc. Inst. C.H., Holmwood, Putney Hill,
London, Reporting Judge,

Judges,

J. W. Kunze, Fyfield Wick, Abingdon.
Joun CotEman, 7 Park Street, The Mount, York.
James A, Oarrp, Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.

THE condition of English agriculture, coupled with the vast
increase of foreign implement-making, are, doubtless, together
responsible for the considerable diminution of exhibits which
characterised the implement department of the Newcastle Show.

02

196 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

That diminution was, indeed, heralded, first, by a request, ad-
dressed to the Royal Agricultural Society of England by the
Agricultural Engineers’ Association in the autumn of 1886, for
a reduction in the price of shedding, and, afterwards, by an
agreement entered into between the makers to curtail their
exhibits at Newcastle, because the Society had not felt able to
comply with their wishes.

It is, however, certain that the desire to save a few pounds
expenditure upon an Exhibition, which is universally regarded
by implement-makers as the best and cheapest possible form of
advertisement, has had little or nothing to do with the contrac-
tion in question. The times are so “hard” that many a British
farmer makes shift with old tools instead of buying new, and,
meanwhile, the great implement factories which during late
years have sprung into existence on the Continent are supply-
ing many wants that used to be filled by English makers.

The Showyard is not now, indeed, what it once was—a
mart, which the farmer visited annually for the purpose of
selecting and purchasing his own machinery; for, with the in-
creased and increasing use of implements, he finds it convenient
to buy what he wants of the local agent, who, besides keeping
a large and varied stock of the best tools, has his stores always
full of spare parts, easily and instantly accessible in case of
need.

But, while no longer a great retail shop, the Showyard has
become almost indispensable, both to the manufacturer and
the useful ‘‘ middle-man ”—a place where experiences, gathered
from every county, crop, and soil in the kingdom, are placed at
the service of the mechanic, insuring important and rapid im-
provement, and where personal intercourse tightens commercial
bonds.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England, on the other
hand, is more alive than ever to the need of encouraging by
every means in its power, not only failing agriculture itself,
but the development of every aid to agriculture, so that if, at
the moment, implement-makers are over-economically inclined,
this mood is the child of the “hard times,” and not of any
churlishness on the part of a Society which is acknowledged to
be their most useful friend and ally.

It may, indeed, be taken for granted that although the
implement shedding at Newcastle was of only two-thirds its
usual area, while machinery in motion occupied little more than
half its usual space, the serious “ agricultural depression ” cha-
racterising the present time is the true reason why the imple-
ment-maker on this occasion “cut his garment according to
his cloth” more closely than was his wont in the prosperous

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 197

days, for whose return the implement-maker and implement-
user alike wait.

PrizE IMPLEMENTS.

Prizes were offered at Newcastle to eight different classes of
machinery, viz. :—

Crass 1.—Compound Portable Agricultural Steam Engines, self-movin
or otherwise.

Crass 2.—Simple ditto ditto ditto.

Crass 3.—Weighing Machines for Sheep and Pigs,

Crass 4.—Ditto ditto for Cattle.

Crass 5,—Potato Planters.

Crass 6.—Potato Raisers, price exceeding 5/.

Crass 7.—Ditto price not exceeding 5/.

Crass 8.—Manual Power Cream Separators.

A special report published in the last number of the ‘Journal’
describes the trials which took place, and the awards which
were made in Classes 1 and 2. The trials of Classes 6 and 7,
being necessarily postponed till autumn, are the subject of a
separate paper in the present number by the highly competent

Fig. 1— David Hart & Co.’s Weighing Machine.
[See p, 198.]

pen of Mr. John Coleman, one of the Judges, whose recent death
all agriculturists and readers of the ‘ Journal’ will deplore. In
Class 5 the prize was withheld.

In Classes 3 and 4 the Judges awarded the prize ot 201. for
a weighing machine for sheep and pigs, together with the prize
of 25/. for a weighing machine for cattle (Arts. 2304 and 2305),

198 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

to Messrs. David Hart & Co., of North London Iron Works,
City Road, London. Both machines are alike in construction,
the former having a platform
72 in. by 34 in., and weighing
up to 21 cwt.; the latter, a
platform 45 in. by 25 in,,
weighing up to 63 ewt.

Fig. 1, on p. 197, shows
the general appearance of
both the prize machines, the
special feature of which is the
absence of all loose weights.

The goods are weighed by
means of two weights sliding on
the steelyard, one representing
ewts., the other lbs. When both
are at zero, they balance the plat-
form and other working parts of
the machine. When in use, the
large weight is first slid along the
steelyard, until it almost balances
the goods. Afterwards the small
weight is moved, until a perfect
balance is obtained, the exact weight
of the goods being indicated by the
position of the sliding weights, in
ewts., qrs., lbs., or any other de-
sired standard, ona plainly engraved
scale (see fig. 2). This arrangement
prevents mistakes, and obviates the
necessity of calculation. As the
weights are never taken off the
steelyard, they cannot be lost, or
mixed with those of other machines,

When the machine is out of use,
or is being loaded or unloaded, wear
and damage to the centres are pre-
vented by a relieving apparatus
which unhooks the steelyard, dis-
connecting it from the working
parts of the machine, at the same
time lowering the platform on to
solid supports, and the levers to the
bottom of the box or frame.

The frames are made with
solid, close bottoms to exclude
damp, and all the centres work in
cups of oil. The platforms are
suspended on a uniyersal joint,
and swing freely in any direction,
without grinding or damaging the
centres, or disturbing the levers or
any of the under parts.

A special weight, not shown

DAVID HARTACS
WENLOCK ROAD

7 cwt. 3 qrs. 10 lbs.

HABTS LATENT. G

Fig. 2.—Plan of Steelyard, showing the manner in which the Weight of Goods is Indicated.
The position of the sliding weights in this engraving indicates that the weight on the platform of the machine is

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 199

upon either of the drawings, balances the hurdle, and when this is removed
the weight in question is taken off also, the platform, without the hurdle,
being thus instantly equilibrated without the chance of error arising in
making a special adjustment.

In Class 8, the prize of 25/. for a one-man power Cream
Separator, price not to exceed 20/., and to be capable of dealing
with 20 gallons of milk per hour, fell to G. D. Laval’s Hand-
power Separator (Art. 971), exhibited by the Dairy Supply
Company, of Museum Street, Bloomsbury, London.

Fig. 3 below shows the general appearance of the Laval
Hand Separator, whose various parts and their action will
be readily understood, without
further explanation than the Fig. 3.
drawing supplies, now that the Laval’s Hand-power Separator.
centrifuge is so well and gene-
rally known.

This machine, when under
trial, separated milk at the rate
of 234 gals. per hour, one man
turning the machine for 41
minutes 45 seconds, at the rate
of 40 revolutions of the handle
per minute. At this speed, the.
milk-vessel made 6,400 turns
per minute, and the work did
not appear hard for the man.
Dynamometer tests demon-
strated that the machine ab-
sorbed 4,455 foot-pounds of
energy per minute, which may
be considered as a moderate
effort for a man working in
short spells of, say, one hour,
seeing that a man can exert
about 3,200 foot-pounds of effort
per minute, working 8 hours a day on a winch.

The separation was good, but the milk unfortunately not
in good condition, so that particulars of Dr. Voelcker’s analysis
of the skim-milk are omitted as likely to mislead. There was
great difficulty in getting milk in proper condition at the New-
castle Show, owing to the distance of the source of supply.

Two other hand-centrifuges, viz. Laval’s Horizontal Separator
(Art. 972) and the “ Danish” Hand Separator (Art. 721), the
former exhibited by the Dairy Supply Company, Limited, and
the latter by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, Limited, were
entered for competition, The ‘ Danish” machine was accident-

200 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

ally injured, and so failed to put in an appearance; but Laval’s
Horizontal Separator was tested by the Judges.

In this machine, the milk-vessel, which is bottle-shaped, lies
horizontally, and is carried upon very ingeniously designed
bearings, described below, from which it is easily detachable for
the purpose of cleansing. It is driven by a combination of
toothed and frictional gear, the first motion consisting of a
wheel and pinion, while the second motion, giving the greater
part of the increase in speed, is frictional. Hach end of the
spindle of the milk-vessel is furnished with a small friction
roller, not much larger or thicker than a penny, and haying a
rounded edge. These rollers turn upon the flat peripheries of
two large wheels, the contact of their respective edges being
regulated by a slight pressure given through india-rubber
washers.

Simple and excellent as was the general appearance of this
arrangetnent, and neat as is the whole design of the horizontal
separator, it failed to satisfy the Judges. The work was only
fairly done, too much butter-fat being left in the skim-milk,
and the power required was too great. Not only did the man
show signs of fatigue, but the dynamometer indicated that
6,250 foot-pounds of energy were being absorbed per minute, an
amount considerably in excess of one man’s power. It is but
fair, however, to say that this result may have been due to
some maladjustment; for the exhibitors emphatically declare
that, in general practice, this machine runs lighter than the
other, and seem themselves to prefer it to the vertical separator.
However this may be, it certainly exceeded one man’s power at
Newcastle, and was therefore hors concours.

SILVER MEDALS.

The following implements were considered sufficiently meri-
torious to justify their recommendation to the Implement
Stewards for silver medals, which were granted :—

1. Barnard and Lake’s Improvements in Thatching Machines.

2, Mayo’s Straw Trusser, or Bolting Tier.

3. Fowler & Co.’s * Anti-balance ” 5-Furrow Steam Plough. .

In addition, General Brigg’s Turnip Thinner (Art. 640),
and the “Jersey” Creamer (Art. 913), a new implement ex-
hibited by Thyss, Lockyer, & Co., of Euston Road, London,
were recommended by the Judges for trial next year.

Fowler & Co.’s Anti-Balance Plough is not a new imple-
ment, and was fully described in the ‘ Journal’ for 1886 (Vol.
XXII. p. 562), so that it needs no further notice here.

Messrs. Barnard & Lake, of Rayne Foundry, Braintree,

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 201

Essex, exhibited the same Thatch-making Machine (Art. 519)
as that to which the 25/. prize of the Royal Agricultural Society
was awarded at Norwich in 1886, improved in certain parti-
culars. The Judges of miscellaneous implements recommended
these improvements for a silver medal, which was granted.

The machine itself was fully described in the ‘Journal’ for
1886 (Vol. XXII. p. 529), and needs no further notice. The
improvements in question are twofold. The straw, or reed, was
originally supplied to the sewing needles by hand, and the
attendant had to be very careful in order to prevent the feed
from becoming intermittent. A feed-roller, driven by gearing,
has now been added to the machine, and materially diminishes
the need for constant watchfulness on the part of the man in
charge. The stitching-twine, which was previously used with-
out any dressing, is now drawn through a mixture of tar and
petroleum before entering the needles. These two apparently
trifling changes have considerably enhanced the value of this
clever and useful machine.

Thomas T. Mayo, of Llangunnock, Ross, Herefordshire,
showed a “Straw Trusser, or Bolting Tier” (Art. 420), manu-

Fig. 4.—View of Mr. T. T. Mayo’s Bolting Tier.

i ,F
q

factured by Kell, Meats, & Co., of Ross, to which, after trial,
both with loose straw and behind one of Ransome’s thrashing
machines, the Judges awarded a silver medal. This implement
was shown as a novelty at Norwich last year, described in the
‘ Journal,’ and ordered forward for trial at Newcastle. Having
now taken a medal, it will be re-described here.

The function of the machine is that of trussing and binding
straw as it issues from the thrashing machine, an object which
is accomplished in the following way (see fig. 4) :—

A pair of straw receivers, each consisting of three wrought-iron U’s, are
fastened vertically to a long board, which slides easily upon rollers contained

202 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

in a trough-like bed-plate. Each receiver is about the same width as the
thrashing machine, and its limits of length are defined by vertical boards, of
which one occupies the centre, and other two the ends of the trusser. Of
the three U’s forming each receiver, two are plain forks, while the third, or
central U, is provided with compressing levers operated by the foot, and
armed with about two hundred strings, lying each in a groove of its own, for
the purpose of tying. When in action, one of the two receivers, say A, is
slid underneath the straw shaker, whence it receives the issuing straw, a
boy packing this, as it falls, neatly in the U’s. When sufficiently full,
receiver A is slid to one side, and receiver B, taking its place, begins to
receive straw from the machine. The truss already gathered in A is, first,
slightly compressed by the levers provided for that purpose, and then tied
with one of the strings with which, as already described, the centre U is
furnished. For the sake of saving time, each string is ‘provided with a
button at one end and a loop at the other, so that “ tying ” should properly
be called “buttoning.” After the truss has been removed by the pitch-fork,
receiver A is ready ‘to take the place of B for another load. Matters are so
arranged that the ‘boy attending A has ample time to tie and get rid of one
truss before receiver B is full, and vice versd.

The Judges remark that the trusses were not neatly enough

made or tied for purposes of sale, while it would be difficult to
insure their being of uniform weight.

NOVELTIES.

Among the novelties exhibited at Newcastle, the following
are those of chief interest :—

Messrs. Clayton & Shuttleworth, of Lincoln, showed a small
but not unimportant novelty (Art. 15) in the shape of a con-
trivance for preventing the escape from the mouth of a thrashing
machine of such grain as is thrown out by the action of the
drum ; a quantity always appreciable and, in the case of some
wheats, considerable.

A flat sliding-plate, furnished with slots and set screws for
fixing in any position, and placed opposite the feeder, covers a
portion of the drum-mouth. A second plate is hinged to the
front edge of the first, and depends vertically, or nearly so, from
it. Upon the slight inclination of this quasi-vertical plate it
depends whether grain, flying from the drum, is arrested or not,
and very slight changes in the angle it makes with the vertical
are sufficient to bring about the required results with grain of
various specific gravities,

To compass these changes, the short end of a lever, whose
farther extremity is pivoted to the framework of the thrasher, is
fastened to the hanging plate, while its fulcrum is formed on
the flat sliding-plate itself. When the latter is slid back or
forth, therefore, the hanging plate moves through a small are,
the relative amounts of the two movements depending upon the
relation of the lever arm and fulcrum, which is about 4 to 1.
After a little trial and error, the angle of the hanging plate best

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 203

adapted to stopping grain is found, when the flat plate is secured
in place by means of its set screws.

Messrs. W. J. and C. T. Burgess, of Victoria Works, Brent-
wood, Essex, showed, as a New Implement, a Mower and Hay
Tedder combined (Art. 225). The space between the wheels
of the Mowing-machine is occupied by a narrow Haymaker,
which, while the grass-mower is cutting one swathe, turns that
cut on the previous round. The drawing (fig. 5) illustrates the
action of the machine, and the following advantages are claimed
for the combination.

The hay is got up in better condition, particularly in showery weather.
The thick end of the swathe, as left by the track-board, is broken up and the

whole spread loosely over the ground in the best possible condition for air to
circulate through it. The use of a separate haymaker is dispensed with,

Fig. 5.—Burgess’s Combined Mower and Hay Tedder.

————

ar) |

a

and the expense of an extra horse and driver obviated. The wheels do not
run on the crop at any time. The wheels of an ordinary haymaker run over
the hay, both before and after tedding. The tedding apparatus can be put
out of gear when not required, as when the machine is cutting clover, &c.
At such times the forks or tines are turned back entirely out of the way of
the crop. Very little power is consumed in driving the tedding apparatus.

Charles Hearson & Co., of 285 Regent Street, London,
showed a simple Thermostat, applied to an Incubator (Art. 444),
but useful in any situation where it is desired to maintain a
perfectly even temperature for an indefinite time (see fig. 6).

Hearson’s thermostat is, in effect, a tiny steam boiler about
the size of a postage stamp and thickness of a penny. It is
made of very thin brass plate, and, having first been filled with
ether, is hermetically sealed. ‘The boiling-point of ether is 94°,

=

204 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

so that whenever the little capsule is brought to that tempera-
ture the volatile fluid within it becomes steam, whose pressure
causes the flexible walls of the thermostat to bulge like an
india-rubber cushion when inflated. Mixing a little spirit of
wine, which boils at 173°, with the ether will, of course,
increase the temperature at which the “boiler” begins to bulge,
and, indeed, the contained liquid should be one that boils at, or
about, the temperature which the thermostat is designed to
preserve.

The woodcut illustrates the action of this simple device when
applied to an incubator,

Fig. 6.—Hearson’s Thermostat.

S is the Thermostat. O,a rod the lower end of which rests on the flat
surface of S, while its upper end touches the underside of the lever G,
which is hinged at P, and from whose farther extremity depends the damper
F. Lisa flue, passing through a water vessel occupying the upper part of
the chamber to be heated, while T is a lamp, having a chimney, V, closed
by the damper F. It is evident that the amount of heat passing from the
lamp through the flue, L, would be determined by the position of the damper.
When this was lowered, all, and, when raised, almost none of the lamp
heat would take the course in question. Now the damper, F’, is under the
control of the capsule S; when this expands it is lifted, when it contracts
it is lowered, and in this way the temperature of the chamber is kept
steady at, or about, the boiling-point of the liquid contained in the Thermo-
stat. Adjustments of this temperature may, however, be made by means of
the sliding-weight, H,

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 205

Thomas Corbett, of Perseverance Iron Works, Shrewsbury,
showed a new form of Pulverising Plough (Art. 478), which
differs from the “Spider” plough described in last year’s
‘ Journal,’ and from all similar pulverising ploughs. Mr. Corbett
mounts a small ‘‘ Norwegian Harrow ” on a horizontal axis just
behind the plough-breast. The ‘‘harrow” consists of 6 six-tined
sections, all or any of which may be used at pleasure. The axis
is adjustable both vertically and horizontally, and is fitted with
a sleeve, having a hexagonal exterior, upon which any chosen
number of the tined sections can be threaded. The object ot
this arrangement is that all the tines in use shall retain the
hexagonal division of the circle, and follow each other at regular
intervals. A lateral guard is provided in the rear of the plough-
breast, which prevents the furrow-slice from slipping away
sideways while the harrow is operating upon it (see fig. 7).

Fig. 7.—Corbett’s Pulverising Plough.

Lhe Aylesbury Dairy Company exhibited as anew implement
Johnson’s Improved Ensilage Stack Press (Art. 722), to which
a few words may be devoted, notwithstanding the fact that this
Inventor's successive advances in stack-pressing have already
occupied several pages of the ‘Journal.’ (See Norwich and
Preston Reports.)

Mr. Johnson’s efforts in this direction have, from the first,
been directed to the “ tight-lacing,” so to speak, of ensilage
stacks, and his improvements have all consisted in bringing the
means for accomplishing this to a higher mechanical standard
than that which characterised his earlier plans.

The “Rachet bar,” showed at Norwich, which was fully
described in last year’s ‘ Journal’ (Vol. XXII. p. 535), has given
way to a “ Rachet drum” at Newcastle. A dozen or so wire
ropes, more or less being used according to the size of the rick,
placed a few feet apart, are thrown over the stack, and each end

206 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle,

of each rope is secured to a small crab-barrel, provided with a
ratchet and pall, and bolted to the timber “sleepers” upon
which the stack rests. A lever, common to all the barrels,
enables the attendant to rotate them one by one, and so haul in
slack, which, when gained, is held fast by means of the ratchet
and pall already mentioned. Whether, taking account of the
rough-and-ready way in which these barrels must necessarily
be fixed to the “sleepers,” the wire-rope can be prevented from
“surging” on the crab-barrels is a question—a question upon
which some light is, perhaps, thrown by the following caution
to users, extracted from Mr. Johnson’s catalogue :—

“ When in use, the ropes should not be allowed to lap themselves on the
drum, as otherwise they will be injured by the severe pressure.”

Fig. 8.—Lockyer’s Jersey Creamer.

It is not impossible that a fourth number of the ‘ Journal’
may yet describe some future improvement on the “ Ratchet
Drum” system of stack silage.

Messrs. Thyss, Lockyer, & Co., of 8374, Euston Road, London,
showed a new implement (Art. 913), called the “Jersey”
Creamer (see fig. 8), which the Judges recommended for trial at
next year’s meeting.

The milk-pans are double-bottomed, have double sides, and are made,
the outside pan of enamelled zinc, the inside pan of tinned steel plates.

The open part of the pan receives the milk, and the empty space between
the pan contains, in summer, ordinary cold water (50-55 degrees), con-
ducted into each pan by a brass tap connected with a galvanised tube at the
back of the creamer; water being supplied by the pipes on the premises, or,
if there be no water supply, by means of an ordinary tank, as shown in the
drawing.

The jacket being filled, the water should be kept dripping as long as
possible through it; the surplus water escaping from a hole at the back of
each pan into a lower trough connected with a small waste pipe at the side,

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 207

The action of the water flowing round the pan causes the cream to rise in
about 14 or 15, instead of 36 or 48 hours, as with the old systems. In
winter, hot water can be used first.

Each pan is fitted with a tube, having at its lower end a very fine wire
gauze, through which the skim-milk passes, leaving the cream in the pan
from which it is taken by first removing the tube and stopper, and then
tilting the pan forward on its hinges.

The Judges attempted a trial of this “Creamer,” which,
however, came to nothing, because the water supply was turned
off during the night, and the experiment thus brought to an
end. Similar intermittence in the water supply of the yard
caused several delays to the Engineers and Judges of engines
during the trials.

The Dairy Supply Company, of Museum Street, Bloomsbury,
London, exhibited several novelties of interest, of which the fol-
lowing claim a notice :—

1, Laval’s Vertical Hand-Power Cream Separator (Art. 971).

2. Laval’s Horizontal Hand-Power Cream Separator (Art. 972).

3. Laval’s Improved Power Cream Separator (Art. 974).
4, Laval’s “ Turbine ” Cream Separator (Art. 973).

Of these machines, Nos. 1 and 2 competed in Class 8 for the
Hand Separator prize, which fell to the vertical Separator, and
they are, together with the trials, described in that portion of
the Report devoted to the prize classes.

Referring, in the first instance, to the improved Laval Power
Separator, a very simple constructive change is said to have
effected a remarkable improvement in the performance of this
machine. Hitherto, the rotating milk-chamber has been
furnished with a wing, for compelling the rotation of the
milk, which wing did not extend to the wall of the centrifuge,
and, hence, a portion of the peripheral milk failed to rotate at
the same speed as that of the vessel itself. The wing has now
been extended to the wall of the centrifuge, with, it is said, the
surprising result of adding 50 per cent. to the effectiveness of
the separator. The old Laval separated sixty gallons an hour,
the new Laval separates ninety gallons an hour, the power and
speed required being the same in both cases.

The Turbine Separator is illustrated by the woodcut on p. 208
(fig. 9), and consists of an ordinary Laval centrifuge, having
its spindle fitted with a “ Barker’s Mill,” forming a motor; the
object being to render the separator independent of the steam
engine.

The “Turbine,” which is enclosed in the case forming the base of the
machine, consists of a pair of S-shaped arms into which steam is led, and

from whose extremities it issues just as water does from a “ Barker’s Mill,”
or steam from a “ Hero’s Engine.” Conical rollers support the footstep

308 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

bearings of the machine, which, in all other respects than the above, is an
ordinary Layal Separator.

As might have been expected, it was found on trial that the
“Turbine” Separator is a greedy steam user, requiring a boiler-
power of 2°82 horses, and this fact will, probably, militate
against the general introduction of the new separator. There
may, however, be cases where the consideration of power is a

Fig. $.—Laval’s Turbine Cream Separator.

minor factor in the sum, and where, therefore, the ‘ Turbine”
Laval may find a home.

Messrs. Penney and Company, Limited, of the City Iron
Works, Lincoln, exhibited a new form of adjustable and self-
cleaning Corn Screen (Art. 1539). At the Preston Show
Messrs, Rainforth showed a very pretty means of constructing

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

adjustable and self-cleaning corn
screens of the flat type, a plan
which was tried and highly spoken
of by the Judges at that show.
Only two years later, Messrs.
Penney and Company appear with
an entirely different but, appa-
rently, equally effective method
of obtaining the same results, ap-
plicable whether to flat or rotary
corn screens.

The screening wires are of rect-
angular section, and are laced on to
cross rods by spiral springs, which not
only hold the wires down but also tend
to push them apart. The sides of the
screen (or the ends if it be the cylin-
drical form) can be moved nearer to-
gether or farther apart by screws, and
when this is done the wires accommo-
date themselves to the change, crowd-
ing together or spreading, as the case
may be, the spaces between them being
uniform over the entire riddle. In a
shaking screen the spiral springs clear
out, at each reciprocation, all the grain
which has been caught between the bars.

The Anti-Friction Conveyor
Company, of Mark Lane, London,
exhibited a new ‘ Conveyor”
(Art. 2847) for moving grain,
meal, &c., in any desired direction,
whether vertical, horizontal, or
otherwise. The woodcut (fig. 10)
clearly illustrates this somewhat
remarkable invention.

Screw conveyors for corn and
meal have long been employed in
mills, but the thread of the screw
has always been of a disc-like
character. In the present inven-
tion the place of this disc-like
screw is taken by a mere spiral
of wire, which is quite as efficient
as its heavier and more expensive
forerunner for the transport of
grain and meal, whether through
vertical, inclined, or horizontal

VOU. XXIV.—<S. 8;

Fig. 10.—The “ Anti-Priction Conveyor,” with Casing or Trough.

209

210 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle,

shoots. The effect produced by this revolving spiral is really
surprising. Setting only a small quantity of the mass contained
in the trough in motion, it persuades the remainder to follow.
This, no doubt, results from the fact that the impulsion is peri-
pheral—in other words, that the material is urged forward just
at, if only at, the point where it is in frictional contact with the
trough. The quasi-homogeneous character of the mass itself
does the rest.

Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, of Spittlegate Iron Works, Grant-
ham, showed a new Double Furrow Plough (Art. 2,928), having
an interest of its own, as illustrating the rapidity with which
the long turn-furrow of the past is giving way to the short
digging-breast that has always characterised American ploughs.

After many years of subservience to artificial ideas of what
a furrow-slice ought to be like, plough-makers are gradually
returning to the use of short digging-breasts, which, if they do
not lay a brick-sectioned slice at a prescribed but arbitrary
angle, at least break up the soil in a way very favourable to
cropping. This return took effect, first, in simple ploughs, but
is now spreading to double-furrow ploughs, whose construction
is vastly simplified by the reform.

Robert Maynard, of Whittlesford, Cambridge, showed a
chaff-cutter (Art. 2,956), cutting chaff and litter from 3 in. to
6 in. in length.

Ordinary chaff-cutters experience a difficulty in cutting long
lengths, because the arms upon which the knives are mounted
pass in front of the chaff-box, and the issuing straw, unless the
feed be moderately short, comes in contact with them.

Maynard evades this difficulty by placing the axis of his
wheel a little to one side of and high above the chaff-box, its
periphery being entirely clear of the latter. 'The knives are
attached peripherally to removable brackets, and, by using one
or more knives, combined with suitable changes of the feed
gear, any length of chaff and litter within the limits mentioned
can be cut, the straw issuing from the chaff-box finding nothing
to bar its egress.

Messrs. Shirlaw & Co., of Suffolk Works, Birmingham, showed,
as a novelty, “ Spiel’s” petroleum engine (Art. 3,054), which
merits description on the ground of its offering to the farmer
who is unable to take advantage of that most convenient motor,
the gas engine, a means of obtaining power without a steam
engine, an advantage which the enormous sale of gas engines
proves to be both great and general. It is unfortunate that the
engine shown at Newcastle used petroleum of a volatile cha-
racter, haying a flashing point of too low a temperature to meet
with the Judges’ approval; but this fact, although properly de-

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle, 211

terring the officers of the Society from pronouncing upon the
merits of Spiel’s engine, must be taken for what it is worth by
individual buyers, who, if cautious, need have no fear of accident
in using benzoline (see fig. 11). :

Spiel’s petroleum engine is a German invention, only re-
cently introduced into this country, where it is manufactured
by the exhibitors. It depends for its action upon the explosion
in the cylinder of a mixture of petroleum spray and air, just as

Fig. 11.—Spiel’s Petroleum Engine.

Hi Ri LAN RCS)
INEER' ta
IN

a gas engine depends on the explosion of a mixture of coal gas
and atmospheric air.

At the first, or “induction ” stroke, the piston draws in behind it a supply
of air through a suitable valve, which opens at the right moment for this
purpose. At the same time, a small but definite quantity of petroleum is
measured out from a reservoir by means of a plunger working in a barrel like
that of a pump. At the end of the first stroke the air valve closes, and the
oil plunger is lifted, ready to furnish a second supply. The air and oil, thus
measured, enter the cylinder together, the former in a fine spray, a con-
dition assumed under the action of the oil plunger, which, driving it forcibly
against certain obstacles, breaks it up into the finest particles.

During the second, or ‘‘ compression,” stroke, the explosive mixture is
compressed by the piston to about three atmospheres, and, at the end of this
stroke, is exploded through a firing valve. The next is the “working
stroke,” at the end of which the exhaust opens, and the return of the

P2

212 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

piston clears the cylinder of the products of combustion. The speed is
governed, as in the Gas Engine, by cutting off the supply of oil when the
engine is running too fast, and readmitting it when she falls below the
proper number of revolutions.

An experimental test of Spiel’s engine, made by Dr. Hop-
kinson, F'.R.S., seems to demonstrate that, with oil at 7d. a

Fig. 12.—The “ Essex” Steam Boiler.
[See p. 213.] eR

ai
a

Gm” i

gallon, the cost of fuel would be about 14d. per horse-power per
hour. This is somewhat more than the cost of fuel in a gas
engine, but where small motors, doing intermittent duty, are

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 213

concerned, this is not a matter of much moment. These engines
are made from 4 to 8-horse nominal horse power.

Messrs. Davey Paxman & Co., of Colchester, Essex, exhibited
a vertical “Essex” steam boiler (Art. 3,123) of a somewhat
novel construction, which is illustrated by fig. 12 on page 212.

A curved tube, riveted to the crown of the fire-box, conveys the products
of combustion into a lateral chamber, of triangular section, having flanges by
which it is secured to the boiler-shell, and furnished, exteriorly, with a door.
An exactly similar chamber occupies the opposite side of the boiler, and has
an exit into the chimney. These chambers are connected, one with the
other, by means of curyed horizontal tubes, having a radius somewhat
greater than that of the boiler shell, so that they can be got into, or out of,
position without remoying either chamber. This arrangement, although
involving somewhat complex forms in the tube chambers, which are shaped
in a hydraulic press, gives great accessibility everywhere, and ready means of
repairing when the tubes, or tube chambers, need overhauling.

Messrs. Whitehead & Co., Albert Works, Preston, Lanca-
shire, showed a new brick-receiving table (Art. 3,127), with side

Fig. 13.— Whitehead’s Brick-Receiving Table.

sa =e

delivery cutting action, which is an ingenious and valuable
addition to their brick-making plant (see fig. 13).

This table is mounted upon a short line of rails, and acts in
the following manner ;—

214 Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle.

The stream of clay issuing from the die of the machine comes, eventually,
against a vertical stop, placed at the front end of the table, thus pushing
it along the rails; the clay and table then move at the same speed, and
the stream of clay is divided square across by the single wire at the rear
of the table into the length required to produce a certain number of bricks,
usually nine, or more, according to thickness. This cut is effected from the
front end of the table, by moving the small lever shown in the drawing.
The attendant now pulls the table towards him, and cuts the separated
block of clay into bricks in the usual manner, by side delivery action, which
deposits them on the boards, upon which they are transferred to the barrow
without being handled. The table is then pushed back, and the operation
repeated.

- The chief advantages obtained are: 1. A greater number of bricks are
cut and delivered directly on to boards than by any other method at present
in use. 2, The table is easily worked by one lad, and can be applied to any
ordinary machine. 3%. Waste is almost entirelyavoided. 4. The labour and
time hitherto employed and the mauling involved in pushing the block of
clay by hand in front of the fixed cutting wires are entirely abolished.

Mr. William Johnson, of Castletown Foundry, Leeds, ex-
hibited a well-designed and well-made pair of machines (Art.
3,140 and 3,141) for making and pressing bricks. Two methods
of brick-making are in common use, viz. the wet, or plastic, and
the dry process, of which the former may be looked upon as
a modification, by means of machinery, of the old method of
moulding bricks by hand; while the latter consists in reducing
dry clay, or other suitable material, to powder, and pressing the
finely divided earthy matter forcibly into moulds. Dry-process
bricks require no drying, while wet-process bricks must be dried
before going to the kiln—a fact which is economically in favour
of the former method of production.

Mr. Johnson aims at making high-class bricks from clay
which is neither wet nor dry, and which, while requiring no
drying before being burnt, shall possess all the best qualities of
wet-process bricks. With this end (not in itself new) in view,
he feeds the clay, rather dry than wet, into a horizontal pug-
mill, whose revolving blades, set spirally on the spindle, knead
the materials into a stiffly plastic body.

The mouth of the pug-mill is closed by a horizontally revolving cylinder,
whose periphery is recessed at intervals into brick-moulds. When one of
these, in the course of the cylinder’s revolution, comes opposite the mouth of
the pug-mill, the spiral blades of the latter fill it forcibly with clay, which,
becoming cut off from the general body of clay in the pug-mill itself by the
continued revolution of the mould-cylinder, presently appears at a receiving
table, upon which it is discharged by the action of a plunger, forming the
bottom of the mould, and operated by a cam. -

A boy receives the issuing bricks, which, at this stage of the
process, have rough surfaces and broken edges, and passes them
on to a table, whence an automatic intermittent feed delivers
them, a brick at a time, to the brick press. The latter machine
consists of a mould and two plungers, one of which presses,

Report on Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle. 215

while the other discharges, the finished bricks in excellent form,
ready for the kiln. A second boy minds the brick presser, and
a third feeds the clay into the pug-mill. The machine turned
out bricks at the rate of 1,200 per hour.

Mr. Fawcett, of Burmantofts Foundry, Leeds, showed a dry
process Brick-Making Machine (Art. 3,145), which consists of a
clay-grinding mill, elevator, and brick-press combined.

_ The clay, or other material, is first finely ground under a
pair of edge runners, and then elevated to a hopper, whose dis-
charging mouth rests, with a pretty close fit, upon a reciprocat-
ing chamber, sliding back and forth upon a planed surface.
The forward half of this chamber forms a box, open at top and
bottom, while the rear half is closed at top and bottom.

When, in making its backward stroke, the open portion of
the reciprocating chamber comes under the hopper, it receives a
charge of clay, which is kept from escaping downwards by the
surface plate upon which the chamber slides. On the forward
stroke the charge is delivered into four brick moulds, and,
meanwhile, the mouth of the hopper is closed by the rear, or
closed, portion of the reciprocating chamber.

The brick moulds have each two plungers—one for pressing,
the other for discharging the finished bricks; the former being
operated by means of four toggle joints, connected by links, and
operated from a single crank; while the latter are moved at the
proper time by cams. The discharging plungers thrust the
bricks up out of the moulds at the same moment that the reci-
procating chamber is advancing with a fresh charge of clay,
and the front wall of this chamber consequently pushes the
finished bricks before it, while advancing to discharge its new
load into the empty brick moulds. A table, attended bya boy,
receives the finished bricks, which are delivered at the rate of
3,000 an hour.

THe WorxkinG Darry.

In view of the fact that the Working Dairy has been so often
described in the pages of the ‘ Journal, while a Guide to that at
the Newcastle Show was printed by order of the Dairy Committee
and sold on the ground, it is needless to give any detailed de-
scription of this always interesting and attractive feature of the
Show. But it may be remarked that the Dairy, on this occa-
sion, was designed to illustrate the English, French, and Danish
methods of butter-making, as well as the making of the soft
cheeses, called “ Neufchatel,” or “Swiss Double Créme.”

A practical examination of butter-makers was held at the
dairy in the showyard on Thursday, July 7. Only four persons
submitted themselves for examination, when the Judges

216 «Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines.

awarded the Ist prize and certificate to Mrs. Stevenson, the
2nd prize to Ernest Giles, and the 3rd prize to Mrs. Carr,
Miss Margaret Hunter being commended. The small number
of persons entering tends to show that the present system of
awarding prizes requires alteration.

It should also be added that the implements used in the
dairy are not specially recommended as the best. They were
selected with a view of illustrating, as impartially as possible,
the best systems in use. If space had permitted, it would have
been easy to show more appliances, but difficult to operate them,
because it is almost impossible to obtain a large supply of milk
for a limited period in good condition at Show-time. The chief
object kept in view in the selection of such vessels as were not
exclusively dairy appliances was to illustrate the various ways
in which labour may be saved.

With the exception of the “ Jersey ” Creamer (copommnenele
as stated elsewhere, for trial next year), the hand-power sepa-
rator, and turbine separator of Laval, both described elsewhere,
there was no new type of dairying implement exhibited.
Fjord’s centrifugal milk-tester has often been described, and
M. Baquet’s Delaiteuse was fully treated of in last year’s
‘ Journal.’

The thanks of the Judges of Miscellaneous Implements are
due, and are hereby tendered, to the Stewards and Engineers of
the Society for the readiness and courtesy with which they
responded to any and every request, whether for administrative
or technical assistance.

X.—Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines at Newcastle.
By the late Jonn CoLeman, The Mount, York.

[ Mr. CoLeman’s death having occurred before the revision of his
report for the printer, that duty devolved upon me, as one
of his colleagues in judging the potato-raising machines,
I take this opportunity of expressing my own personal
regret, and the regret that must be felt by the members
of the Royal Agricultural Society and the agricultural
world, for his loss. Mr. Coleman has done much work for
the Society, and he has done it well; his death leaves a
blank that cannot easily be filled.—JamEs A. Catrp. ]

THE deferred trials of these important implements, for which
the Royal Agricultural Society offered two prizes of 20.
each, took place on Tuesday, October 6, 1887, on the farm of
Mr, Stephen Fairbairn at Gosforth, near ‘Newcastle, Thanks ta

Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines. 217

the admirable arrangements carried out by Mr. Jacob Wilson
and the stewards, everything was ready for work at the stated
time, 10 A.M., and, aided by the weather, a rather formidable
programme was got through with comparative ease by 5 P.M.
The weather was favourable not only at the trial but for many
days previously, resulting in a dryness and friable condition of
the land, which facilitated working, and was more advantageous
to the competitors than to intending purchasers, for whom a
severer test, more in accordance with ordinary conditions, would
have been desirable. As it was, all the machines in the first
class made good work, and even the lower-priced implements got
through the trials in a way that was better than we anticipated.

The Society were fortunate in securing a uniform crop of
York Regents, at least so far as the amount of top was con-
cerned. Here, again, competitors were in luck, inasmuch as the
original luxuriance of the haulm was considerably reduced by
the sharp frosts of the previous week, so that with one or two
exceptions there was no difficulty in dealing with the crop in
its natural state—a point of much importance, as the labour of
removing the tops, which is necessary in some cases and for
some kinds of implements, must be a considerable item. <A
flat of about six acres was divided by suitable headrigs into three
equal portions of 100 yards long, and each containing eight
drills for each machine, with one cleared drill between each
pilot. The two upper lots were left as they grew, the first being
utilised for the preliminary runs, the second for the more ex-
haustive tests, whilst the third, from which the tops had been
most carefully removed, was mainly useful for the draft trials
by the dynamometer, and for any final test that might seem
necessary. ‘There were eleven machines entered for trial, seven
in the first class, for which the conditions were that the cost
should exceed 5/., and four in the second class, in which the
price of the machines should not exceed 51.

Most of the machines were very similar as to general design,
differing slightly in details. Thus they comprised a strong
cast-iron framework carried on the axle of two large travelling
wheels, on the peripheries of which spuds are bolted, which
prevent slipping and secure adequate driving power motion by
means of ratchets on both wheels; and bevel gearing is communi-
cated to a shaft, carrying, at its termination behind, a revolving
fork furnished with eight arms, which are bifurcated at their.
ends. The diameter of the travelling wheels being usually
about 4 feet, that of the fork 3 feet 6 inches, the respective
speeds being about six to one, i.e., for every 12 feet of advance,
the fork-wheel makes six revolutions. This considerable speed
is required to lift the tubers, and a large portion of the soil, a

218 Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines.
proper distance from the row, and this is more especially the
case when the soil is either of a close heavy nature or at all
moist. Beneath the fork and attached to its shaft, is a broad
triangular-shaped share. In most cases both share and fork are
actuated by a leverage from the front wheel, the depth being
regulated by a lever handle, fitting into a graduated bar or
ratchet; but in some cases the depth of the share can be altered
independently of the fork by a screw actuated by a wheel-
handle. This is a decided advantage, as being much more expe-
ditious and certain than lowering the arms of the share by
loosening a wedge. Some of the machines had no front wheel,
and were consequently less steady in action.

I proceed to a more detailed description of the machines that
were noticed by the Judges.

IMPLEMENTS THE PRICE OF WHICH EXCEEDED DJ.

pie Name of Exhibitor Address of Exhibitor Price Remarks
logue
oa 3
1667 | Allan, J. D., & | Culthill Implement | 1210 0 Commended
Sons Works, Dunkeld,
N.B.
1766 | Elder, William | Tweedmouth Imple- | 13 0 0 —
ment Works, Ber-
wick-on-Tweed
1557 | Jack, Alexander, | Maybole, Ayrshire 13 “0-0 —
& Sons
1670 | Kyd, Robert Cupar Angus, Perth- | 13 0 0 | Reserved number
shire, N.B.
1540 | Penney & Co., | City Iron Works, Lin- | 16 0 0 -—
Lin. | coln
1835 | Powell Bros., & | CambrianIron Works, | 13 13 0 Prize of £20
Whitaker Wrexham
1628 | Thompson, OldTweedImplement | 14 0 0 Highly com-
Moorhouse A. Works, Berwick-on- mended
Tweed :

No. 1835. Powell Brothers & Whitaker, Wrexham, are the
manufacturers of the prize machine, invented by Mr. J. A.
Lewis, of Hassall, near Sandbach. The illustration opposite
gives a good idea of it. Its principal features are that the
fork wheel, instead of being cast in a straight form, is cone-
shaped, with forks set on an angle, by which it is contended,
and I think correctly, that the forks work more directly under
the ridge, thus moving the tubers with less soil, and insuring
more perfect work. Another important point is that the
number of forks can be varied from 6 to 12 to suit the soil and
crop; but as the fork wheel is speeded somewhat slower than
most of the machines, it is generally desirable to employ the

Report on the Trials of Potato~raising Machines. 219

larger number of forks, which was done at the trial. It is also
capable of adjustment backwards or forwards, i.e. it can be
brought closer to, or further from the back of the share, to suit
heavy or light soil. Another novelty is the substitution of a
revolving wheel or cratch, in place of the fixed screen usually
adopted, as a means of collecting the potatoes in rows so as to
facilitate packing and prevent burying. It is hung loose upon
its axle, and caused to revolve by the force of the soil thrown
against it. It was claimed for this arrangement that it arrested
the tubers more completely. and allowed the soil to pass through
more effectually, but, owing to the angle at which it was, and

Fig. 14.—Powell Brothers & Whitaker's Potato-Raiser.

a, fork-wheel, showing angle at which tines are set; 0, revolving cratch-wheel;
¢, position on rim of wheel for studs which are bolted underneath ; d, bevel
gearing ; e, pole for draft; 7, lever rod for lowering or raising fork-wheel and
share ; g, lever-handle for throwing in and out of gear; h, driver’s seat; i, share.

which I think was unnecessarily acute, a considerable number
of the potatoes passed beyond the screen. Moreover, the col-
lection was not so perfect as it might have been. This was
pointed out by the Judges, and I am glad to learn that the
manufacturers fully realise the present imperfection of this
portion of their machine, and have decided to make the position
of the cratch adjustable, so that it can be worked at several
angles.

I can quite imagine that a revolying-wheel would bruise the
potatoes less than a fixed screen, but I do not believe that this
or any other machine can dig one row after another and make
economical work without the potatoes being first picked up.

220 Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines.

Both driving-wheels are adjustable on the axle to suit the width
of ridges, and are self-cleaning. The gearing is simple, strong,
and well protected, the speed is gained by spur and bevel wheels.
The machine is fitted with a pole, which insures steadiness and
does away with the necessity for a fore-wheel. It is also pro-
vided with a seat for the driver, which is a distinct advantage,
as, though the pace travelled is not fast, much unnecessary
exertion is thus saved. Moreover, the driver has within easy reach
the two levers which regulate the working parts of the machine.
That on his left hand regulates the depth of the share, and
allows of his lifting it clear of any obstruction, whilst a shorter
handle on the right puts the machine in or out of gear.

The workmanship throughout is excellent, and the price
reasonable. The exhibitors stated that the speed was as 4 to 1.
The diameter of the driving-wheels was 37 inches, that of the
fork 44 inches. In the first trials as to cleanness of work a
considerable number of tubers were left—viz., in a distance of
20 yards, 7 in the first test and 18 in the second; but upon the
share being lowered about half an inch, the work was much
better, only two single potatoes being missed. To this machine
the Judges awarded the prize in Class 6, and so entirely was
the verdict of the public in accordance with the decision of the
Judges that a number of orders were given prior to the award—
one by Mr. Fairbairn, the tenant of the farm.

No. 1670. Mr. R. Kyd’s machine was granted the reserve
number, not on account of excellence of manufacture, but for
the presence of a fore-carriage carrying two small wheels. This
gave great steadiness to the machine, as was proved by the
dynamometer trial, which might have been even better but for
the exhibitor’s lowering the depth in the middle of the run, a
very superfluous proceeding on his part. Kyd’s is a very light
machine, the gearing protected by a rough cover of sheet iron.
There is only one bevel wheel and pinion. One lever sets in
gear and regulates depth. The fork wheel is 39 inches in
diameter, the driving-wheels nearly 4 feet, and the revolutions
54 to 1. The frame is of wrought iron as well as the fork-
wheel. All this might be of malleable cast metal with great
advantage to the machine, and allow of a considerable reduction
of cost. The work was highly creditable, and, if turned out in
a more mercantile form, the machine should be both cheap and
useful for light soils, and especially for undulating ground.

No. 1628. Moorhouse A. Thompson. This is an exceedingly
well-made machine, well deserving its high commendation, and
its work was excellent, whilst, as will be seen by reference to
the table of draft, supplied by Mr. F. 8. Courtney, of the firm
of Easton & Anderson, the Society’s consulting engineers, this

(Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines. 221

was the lightest of all. There is a very excellent arrange-
ment for altering the depth of the share, independently of the
revolving fork. The latter comprises 8 tines, but differs from
the rest of the machines in having three prongs at the end
of each tine, which may prevent the occasional bruising of the
tubers, that must occur when, as occasionally happens, they
become wedged between the prongs. There is, however, one
defect in this machine, which might be easily remedied. The
pauls on the wheels are not guarded, and would be likely to
get clogged in moist soil. The peculiarity of this machine is
that the “‘spuds” or projections on the rims of the wheels are
cast with the wheels and extend right across their surface, a fact
that no doubt facilitates operations in the field, but would
render the machine incapable of being travelled on paved road-
ways, and is hence a doubtful advantage. Considering that this
arrangement somewhat reduces the cost of manufacture, I am
at a loss to understand why the price should be so high.

No. 1667. J. D. Allan & Sons. This machine was com-
mended, principally on account of good work and light draft,
as there was nothing specially meritorious in its construction.
The gearing was fairly strong and well inclosed, and price rea-
sonable. One lever in front regulates depth and puts in and
out of gear. There is no mechanical arrangement for raising the
share independently of the fork: The potatoes were consider-
ably bruised, probably owing to a rather rapid revolution of the
fork-wheel. The clearance was exceedingly good, on two trials
only two potatoes in each case were found undisturbed.

Only one other machine requires brief notice, viz. No. 1540,
shown by Messrs. Penney & Co., Lincoln. This, it will be seen
by reference to the table at the end of the report, proved of ex-
ceptionally heavy draught. The manufacturers explained that
it was intended for the strong warp soils of Lincolnshire,
where a heavy machine was indispensable. It is needless to
say that from such a firm excellent workmanship was a certainty,
and in this respect the machine left nothing to be desired. In
one respect, viz. that of the share, it was different from the
rest. Messrs. Penney stated that they had discarded the ordinary
form of share, which they found cut the potatoes too much,
and this was a great improvement. It consists practically of an
upright ploughshare fixed on the left side of the implement,
with a cutting surface of 14 in. which is supposed to go under
and thoroughly disturb the drill; but we found, unless held very
hard into the row, it was apt to miss a number of tubers on
the extreme right, and at the first no fewer than 24 were
left in 20 yards. We should certainly much prefer to have one
occasionally cut, to such inefficient work as this. The rake

222 Report on the Trials of Potato-raising ere:

appeared to travel rather fast, and there was a beicins to ay
the tubers, which must add te the cost of collecting.

IMPLEMENTS COSTING NOT MORE THAN DJ.

Fp |
nie Name of Exhibitor Address of Exhibitor Price Remarks
logue
gar £ on @
1808 | Cooke, John, & | Lindum Plough Works,|} 415 0 —

Sons Lincoln

1767 | Elder, William. | Berwick-on-Tweed 410 0 Reserved
1576 | Gregory, John . | Westoe, South Shields} 410 0 Prize of 202.
1631 | Lankester & Co. | 44 Sumner Street, Lon-| 210 0 —

don, S.E.

Before describing these machines in detail, it may be stated
generally that all comprise an ordinary plough frame, with a
share which has either one or two wings, and some special
arrangement of skeleton fingers in place of mould board. So
that, in fact, any ordinary plough may be made equally efficient
by simply substituting an open breast for the ordinary mould
board; or, if it is preferred to split the drill and throw the
potatoes on either side—which certainly has advantages, as
rendering them less liable to be buried—we take the double
mould board plough, and apply the open breast. Hence it does
not appear desirable to encourage the introduction of a separate
implement, and the utility of the prize would have been greater
if it had been for the addition or substitution of parts in a
common single or double mould board plough, which render it
best adapted for raising potatoes.

No. 1576, John Gregory’s machine consisted of an ordinary
plough beam and frame carrying a broad double-winged share,
with a pair of wheels in front, the double breasts being replaced
by sets of open bars on each side, which allowed a good deal of
the soil to fall through, leaving a larger proportion of the tubers
exposed than any of the other machines. The best work was of
course made where the haulm had been removed ; indeed, imple-
ments of this sort are not capable of dealing with very luxuriant
tops, as the latter are apt to clog between the bars and the
under side of the beam; but, as there is a fair amount of space
in this machine, it did quite as good work as could be expected.

No. 1767. William Elder. This implement resembles an
ordinary ridging plough, with very long and straight boards,
behind and below which are placed prongs projecting backwards.
The idea is that as the soil and potatoes fall back from the end
of the boards, they are received and separated on the prongs ;
but, as far as we could see, the work would have been as eflicient

Report on the Trials of Potato-raising Machines, 223

without this addition, Anyhow, it was decidedly the second
best, and therefore reserved.

No. 1808. John Cooke & Sons. This implement, worked as
a one-way plough, with the skeleton mould board on the right
side, is capable, by the alteration of the share and the addition
of mould boards on each side, of being converted into a ridging
and earthing plough. Or it can be worked as a general purpose
plough; or as a digging plough, being Cooke’s No. 45 con-
vertible plough. It is a thoroughly strong, well-made imple-
ment, and if all the various additions are included in the price,
4l. 15s., it is a cheap implement, although, as a potato-raiser
even in such favourable soil, the work was anything but efficient,
the furrow being turned over almost unbroken, and a large por-
tion: of the crop was consequently buried.

Lastly, we have the implement No. 1631, exhibited by
Lankester & Co., of London, manufactured by Messrs. B. F.
Avery & Sons, of Louisville, U.S.A., described as a steel wing
potato-digger. It consists of a very short beam, with a broad
double-winged share, and steel tines on either side, which are
placed much too near the under side of the beam. It is without
front wheels, and consequently difficult to keep straight ; more-
over, when dealing with the crop in its natural state, owing
to the defects we have pointed out, it continually blocked and
could not make good work at all. When worked on the haulm-
less crop, by dint of constant agitation of the stilts it did ex-
tremely well, and appeared to separate the tubers from the soil
more perfectly than any of the others in the same class. Of
course, a machine that can only be successfully used when the
tops are removed is not qualified to take a prize. It has the
merit of being very reasonable in price, viz. 2/. 10s.

ENGINEER’S REPORT ON DyNAMOMETRICAL TESTS AT Porato-
RAISING TRIALS AT NEWCASTLE.

Exhibitor Catalogue No. Mean draught in Ibs.

Penneyre Co: GIM) apf 6 f% 6) gee 1540 576)
ACK COSONS! « 5 ke. ye ep) si 6,0 0 1557 3832
Oe MreAianceONS 4 . « « © «- 1667 3633
ODeMnp ACA He Pie liao.) Sistem te 1670 3774
WalltarasPlders- Siar sete ee) ape. 1766 4255
Powell Bros. & Whitaker ..... 1835 366 &
Moorhouse A. Thompson .... . 1628 372

Remarks on Individual Exhibits—' Two runs gave each a mean pull of
515 Ibs. and 536 lbs.; in these the machine was not set sufficiently deep to
clear all the potatoes, A third run, with machine set deeper, gave 679 lbs,
mean pull.

* The first run gave a mean pull of 431 lbs., the last two a mean of 369
and 348 lbs,

924 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

8 Two runs with this machine gave very uniform mean draught. *

4 The range of draught in each run was very limited in this machine,
two runs of same depth giving mean draught 361 and 364 lbs. each, a third
run, set deeper = 408 Ibs,

5 Two uniform runs.

° Owing to this machine having a pole there was a little difficulty in
fixing the testing machine. Extra length of pole had to be fitted.

General Remarks.—There is nothing that calls for special engineering
comment in these trials, beyond the statement that in every case the mean
draught of each run was very similar, which tends to prove the correctness
of the record.

Possibly Powell & Whitaker's draught may be a little excessive. That
machine was fitted with a pole, and, to fix the dynamometer underneath
it, it was necessary to prolong the pole. To keep the prolonged end of
this pole below the horses’ collars somewhat depressed the machine and
may have added to the draught, owing to the share passing through the
ground at an angle other than that at which it was set.

Kyd’s machine was not worked to the best advantage by the exhibitor ;
there was less oscillation of draught in this machine than. in any of the
others. ‘This was owing to the play allowed by the fore carriage.

Thompson does not come out so well on the dynamometer as his position
in the award should warrant; a very trifling difference of depth, however,
makes a very appreciable difference in the draught. In this trial the machine
was set so as to turn the potatoes well up, and this no doubt accounts for
the draught appearing somewhat high.

(Signed) F. S. Courtney.

XI.— Report on the Farm Prize Competition in Northumberland
and Durham in 1887 ; Classes 4 and 5. By Tuomas Ricey,
Sutton Weaver, Cheshire.

Judges.

Wit1iaM Pripay, Linton, Gloucester.
FRreDERICK PuncHarp, Underley Estate Office, Kirkby Lonsdale.
Tuomas Riesy, Sutton Weaver, Cheshire.

THE reporting Judge in Classes 1, 2, and 3 has described at
length, in the last number of the ‘ Journal,’ the farms which he
and his colleagues inspected, and has given an elaborate and
lucid account of the chief features of the Farming and kindred
characteristics of the two Counties. The Judges of Classes 4
and 5 are therefore relieved from making the usual explanatory
or introductory remarks to the Farm Reports, and only propose
to report as briefly as possible on the management of the Farms
that came under their own inspection.

In Class 4 there were six competitors for the two Prizes of
501. and 251. offered for the “ Best and Second-best Managed
Dairy Farm of 75 acres and upwards, where the management and
cultivation are most successfully directed to the production of
milk, butter, or cheese.”

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. .225

In Class 5 there were four competitors for the two Prizes of
50/. and 25/. offered for the ‘ Best-managed Arable and Grass
Farm of 100 acres and upwards, occupied and carried on in
conjunction with a Colliery.”

The Judges commenced their first inspection on Tuesday,
December 14, 1886, and finished it on Saturday, the 18th, one
of the coldest days of the winter. Their second inspection
began May 17, 1887, and ended May 26. All the farms had a
full day given them on this inspection, except two of the
smallest, which were taken on the first day. On the third visit
two farms in Class 4 and one in Class 5 were not visited, but
all the others and one of those entered in Class | (the winning
farm in the champion class) were carefully inspected, beginning
July 4. The awards were all decided upon on July 8, were
made known at Newcastle during the Show, and were reported
in the last ‘ Journal.’

Cass 4.

The competitors in Class 4 all resided within a few miles of
Newcastle, and the list on page 226 shows their names and ad-
dresses, and certain features of their holdings, in a tabular form.

It will be seen from this Table that the competing farms
varied in character in almost all the points mentioned. But the
differences did not end there. ‘The proportions of the arable
and pasture lands differed greatly. One farm grew a large
quantity of corn; another had more than half its area in pas-
ture; a third had only a sixth in grass; whilst a fourth had but
an eighth. Again, on the farms near to Newcastle, the growth
of hay, green fodder, and root crops for sale in that town made
their cultivation almost as important an object to their tenants
as the production of milk; whilst on the two others farther
away the rearing and grazing of stock for feeding or for other
purposes than dairying had no inconsiderable bearing on the
system of cultivation and management followed. But the
greatest difference (and one which forced itself most on the
minds of the Judges) lay in the extent to which the production
of milk was made the leading feature. Milk only is mentioned
because, although the farms were entered as “ Dairy Farms pro-
ducing Milk, Butter, or Cheese,” the first-named commodity was
almost the only dairy production, butter and cheese being seldom
made, and only when the supply of milk exceeded the demand
for its wholesale or retail distribution. As a consequence of
this, the production of milk followed chiefly the difference in
number of milking cows kept in proportion to the extent of the
farm. Thus, on one farm the cows kept were as one to three
acres ; on two others as one to six acres; on a fourth as one to

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Report on the Farm Prize Competition: Classes 4 and 5, 227

eight; ona fifth as one to eleven; and ona sixth as one to
thirteen acres. It was, therefore, soon evident to the Judges
that they had to compare farms which differed greatly in stock-
ing and management, and that in judging the farms as “ Dairy
Farms haying their management and cultivation the most suc-
cessfully directed to the production of Milk, Butter, or Cheese,”
they would have to treat as secondary matters items to which, if
they had been judging the farms simply as arable farms, they
would have had to attach considerable importance.

Mr. Stephen Fairbairn’s holding, situate 2} miles north of
Newcastle, consists of three farms—‘‘South Gosforth,” 256
acres; “Three-mile Bridge,’ a farm of 125 acres, adjoining it
on the north side; and “Gosforth Moor House Farm,” 2224
acres, also adjoining it on the north. The high road from
Newcastle to Morpeth lies along the west side of the whole
holding for more than a mile, and an occupation road lies
between ‘it and the adjoining estate, almost parallel to it on the
east side. The land is divided into nearly equal-sized fields,
having good gates and fences and a considerable length of more
occupation roads in good order, many yards being newly made
and well done. ‘South Gosforth Farm” is the milk farm of the
three. On it the tenant resides in a good and comfortable house,
and from it the dairy of milk is served. The buildings are sub-
stantial, convenient, and in good keeping, with a well-filled
stackyard adjoining. A colliery is worked on the east side of
this farm, and a tramway for its use crosses the holding here.
“Three-mile Bridge” and ‘“ Moorhouse” farms have several -
small plantations of trees upon them, but they lie compactly
together, and have commodious homesteads and good stocks of
cattle, horses, and sheep. A large part of their area is pastured
and mowed for hay. The green crops on the whole occupation
were 57 acres of turnips, 32} potatoes, and 14 cabbage, tares
and grass, all looking remarkably well and being under forward
and good cultivation. The corn crops were 67 acres wheat, 97
oats, 84 barley, and 114 beans. The hay crop covered 220 acres,
and 78 acres were in pasture. Twenty farm horses and four
breeding mares were kept, and the whole place was under effi-
cient management.

Mr. John Reay’s farm, East Brunton, is separated from Gos-
forth Moor Farm only by the Morpeth high-road, alongside
which it lay for nearly half a mile in form of a parallelogram,
It is crossed in the middle by a road that passes the homestead
near the centre of the land, and the fields all lie conveniently
near. The house and buildings are substantial stone erections,
covering a large space, and have an imposing appearance. The

buildings had been erected for a stock and corn-growing farm,

a2

228 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

but three of the feeding sheds had been altered and adapted for
tying up milking cows. The land was chiefly in grass—50 acres
old pasture, 116 acres newly laid down grasses, and 67 acres
meadow grass; of the arable land 16 acres only were in turnips
and 6 in tares, 30 wheat, 22 oats, and 6 barley. The gates
were all newly painted, the hedges (a limited length) were newly
trimmed, and the fences—much of which were wood posts and
wire—had all been newly repaired or lately erected. The oceu-
pation roads were in good keeping. The land lay well to view
- from the approach to the farm. The stackyard, filled with the
previous year’s crops, was a grand sight on our first visit, and
the large wheat and hay crops on our last visit were equally im-
posing. A large quantity of manure is carted from Newcastle,
and upwards of 100 loads of gas-lime are used annually. Ten
farm horses and colts, two milk ponies, and two young harness
horses in the breaker’s hands, were the whole of the stock kept
besides the cows, of which more hereafter.

Mr. William Trotter's farm, South Acomb, is 13 miles west
from Newcastle, 325 feet above sea level, and is gained by a
steep road that crosses the farm, and leaves the land lying right
and left of it with a pleasing appearance, and mostly to the
noonday sun. It is divided into ten fields, of average size,
having good gates to enter, and remarkably well-kept hedges.
Forty acres of it lie detached and lower than this part, with
a large fir plantation intervening. ‘There are 83 acres in pas-
ture, 64 to be mowed for hay, 14 turnips and green crops, and
25 acres in oats and barley. The soil on half the farm is fairly
fertile, lying on a subsoil of millstone grit ; the remainder is-a poor
thin soil, on weak clay. The herbage of the pastures is fresh-
looking but short, and is kept short by heavy stocking. The
land recently laid down is composed of well-selected grasses, and
the pasture promises to come out well as it gathers age. The
stock of the farm consisted of 28 milking cows, 16 heifers,
8 calves, and 100 ewes and lambs. Besides these there were some-
thing like 20 cart stallions, breeding mares and young horses,
the property of Mr. Trotter, jun., which were kept on the farm,
but fed largely on purchased food. These animals, being well
fed, greatly improve the manure heap, and the whole farm had
the appearance of being well fed like the horses.

Mr. Charles Marshall’s farm, of Broomhaugh, lies in the
valley of the Tyne, and about two miles lower down the river ;
about half the farm is in grass, the other half arable. The
cultivation and cropping of the arable portion was well done.
The pasture land had good herbage, was free from noxious weeds,
and was in good heart. The soil and subsoil were gravelly and light
—a hot dry soil would be an apt description. “It burns without

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. 229

provocation,” said the tenant; adding, “In hot weather we are
afraid to light a pipe on it.” There were 22 acres of oats and
barley, 11 of turnips, 37 of mowing and 8} in pasture, 2 active
compact farm horses and 25 milking cows.

Mr. James Thomson's farm, Whitchester, lay across the
country, 9 miles distant from Newcastle, on the line of the old
Roman road, which pursues its ancient course straight on very
distinctly for 20 miles further. This farm is 400 feet above sea
level, and has all kinds of soil and subsoil upon it, and nearly
every possible aspect and condition. It was taken on lease for
14 years four years ago, in a very rough state, by the present
tenant, and has been greatly improved in many ways since then.
But though much has been done, much still requires doing. The
landlord has contributed to many permanent improvements, and
the tenant has made a large outlay upon the farm in draining
and in arrangements to economise labour. It argues the posses-
sion of rare enterprise, sound judgment, and great industry in
both Mr. and Mrs. Thomson, to see them trying to make their
outlay and cultivation pay, as well as promise to pay. They
were growing 34 acres of turnips, 66 of corn, and 50 of clover.
They had 255 acres in pasture, and keep 8 horses, 56 store
cattle, 100 breeding ewes and their lambs, besides 38 milch
cows. All the work of the farm is done in a practical manner.

Mr. Joseph Lambert's farm, Whickham, is the least in extent
of the six. It is situated 4 miles west of Newcastle, and is
a fine example of what family co-operation can do in making a
small farm profitable. It has only 11 milch cows on it, but
upwards of 100/. is expended annually in cake and feeding stuffs’
for them; 400 loads of manure and 60 of gas lime are put upon
the land; about 10 acres are put into potatoes and turnips, 22
corn, and 28 hay. The soil is fairly good, but lies on an open
stony subsoil. Its situation and the roads to it do not facilitate
its management, but the farm wears an improving look and
challenges complaint. The tenant richly deserves a better farm.

MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE AND OF MILK By COMPETITORS,

Mr. Stephen Fairbairn had his milking cows standing in
single row in two byres, 20 in one and 15 inthe other. They
were nearly all well-bred Shorthorns of a good milking type.
About a third of them had been reared on the place, the others
were purchased as calving cows. The practice was to feed all
well, rear calves from the best milkers for future stock, milk the
others as long as they give a fair quantity, and then sell as beef.
‘The cows were kept very clean, and their byres were swept and
rinsed daily with water. They had hay given them twice a day,

230 — Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

turnips three times, and of barley, wheat, and pea-meal ground
together, they had 4 lbs. per day each, mixed in two feeds of
brewers’ grains. The milkers are women, and are paid 3s.
per week. They begin their work at an early hour both morning
and afternoon. The milk is all passed through a refrigerator
together, and then sold by retail in the suburbs of Newcastle at
Ad. per quart, two men taking it round in carts. From 45 to
55 gallons are thus distributed daily. Mr. Fairbairn had con-
ducted the business in this way for eight years, and there had
been a milk trade done from the place for fifty years. He had,
at the time of inspection, 150 customers on his books.

Mr. Reay’s cows stood in five sheds in single lines, arranged
with much uniformity as to size and colour. They were all fine,
well-bred dairy cows of the Shorthorn type, 53 in number, and,
when seen on May 19, 48 were giving milk. In one byre were
13 white or light-coloured cows: all with large udders. In
another shed were 10 roans or strawberry-coloured, all very fine
beasts. In the next were 10 blood-reds, all very good; in the
next 9 roansand 1 black cow, and in the next 8 roans and 2 red
cows, all large beasts and in good condition. The plan pursued
here was to purchase only very fine cows recently calved, or near
calving, feed them well, but keep the bull from them, and sell
again to be killed as soon as the natural flow of milk abated and
came to be small. Some were kept only six months, but others
kept their place in the herd nearly two years, the average being
nine or ten months. Seven fat cows had been sold since our first
visit, and an increased number of fresh calved cows of superior
quality purchased to fill their places and to provide more milk
to supply a recently made contract with the caterer of the New-
castle Exhibition. The cattle were a fine sight when all were
turned out of the byres and put together into an early pasture
as we were leaving. ‘There was the same number of cows on
our final visit, but a few were not doing well, and the sales made
had not been replaced with quite so good-looking stock. They
were still all well fed. Hay and turnips were supplemented with
pea-meal or maize-meal or other cereal food of good quality,
served with brewers’ grains, and with cut chaff steamed, and
seasoned with sugar or molasses. ;

The practice was to watch the market and to purchase
that food which was best and cheapest. Newcastle seems to
offer favourable opportunities for this. In July Mr. Reay was
using carrots, purchased at 20s. per ton from the quays, good
and sound, and wishing for more, or for anything as likely that
might turn up and be as good. His contract price for milk was
1s. per gallon for the year round, delivered wholesale in New-
castle twice a day, The milk was all passed through a refrige-

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. 231

rator, and mixed together carefully before being sent away.
The milk-house and premises and the cans used were all scrupu-
lously clean. '

Mr. Trotter’s cows were nearly all pedigree or grade Short-
horns. Most of them had been bred on the place, and one or
two families had held long possession. They were 41 in number
—28 cows and 13 heifers. The milking cows were fed upon
mixed foods, and kept in clean condition in a double-row byre
having a yessel-house at the end, in which the milk was refrige-
rated and prepared for market. All the cans and vessels were
dealt with in a very efficient manner. Six pounds of barley, or
3 lbs. of barley and 3 lbs. of maize-meal, per cow, was the usual
allowance of corn, besides hay and turnips, at our first visit,
and 74 lbs. barley, 21 lbs. hay, and 42 lbs. turnips were the
daily rations later on. The most satisfactory and economical
mixture that Mr. Trotter had found out was made of—

Pt oak
2 tons of coarse barley, at . - ° ° » 3 5 Oper ton.
1 ton of best barley-meal, at . ’ ‘ +, 5 10) Oe
1 ton of wheat sharps, at , ° ° . on SAO On es
1 ton of oat-meal dust, at . 5 ‘ . » 1 10

”?

The cost of this mixture was 54d. per 1+ lbs., or 31. 13s. 4d. per
ton. Cotton-cake is not used at all now. Cows were often lost
from milk fever when it was used, but since it had been given
up Mr. Trotter said he had not lost any from this cause.

The yield of 25 cows from November 1, 1886, to May 1, 1887,
had been 7,500 gallons milk, which was sold at 10d. per gallon.
The previous summer half-year it had been 8,000 gallons, and
then it was sold at 9d. delivered at the station. From these
prices $d. per gallon had to be paid for freight to Newcastle,
13 miles.

Mr. Trotter, who has quite a mechanical genius, has made a
dial-plate weighing-machine for weighing the milk of each cow,
and recording it in Ibs. and tenths of lbs. As soon as drawn, it
is hung on the machine in the can, and its weight at once written
opposite the cow’s name or number in the stock-book.

A summary of the weights thus kept of the milk from 28
cows taken during the year 1886, with periods of calving,
date of purchase or if bred on the farm, and age, was handed to
the Judges, and from it the following interesting particulars are
taken :—

The average weight of milk given per cow during the year was 6471:6
Ibs. ; 10 of the 28 were first calf heifers. The heaviest weight, 10359-8, was
given by a cow bred on the farm—half Ayrshire, calved March 13, The
next heaviest was given by a purchased cow, a ‘ Cross’—calved March 11
—8653:0 Ibs. The next by a grade Shorthorn, bred on farm, calved March 28

232 - Report on the Farm Prize Competition im

—8484:9 lbs. The heaviest weight given by a pedigree Shorthorn was ©
7759'6, calved July 24. The average of 6 pedigree Shorthorns for the year
was 6349°4. The average of 10 grade Shorthorns, 6334-2 Ibs.

Mr. Charles Marshall had also kept a full account of the
produce of his cows. From May 1885 to May 1886 he recorded
the doings of 12 cows to be an average of 764 gallons each, or a
total of 9,171 gailons. One of them, “Primrose,” had given
1,107 gallons in 13 months, from calving November 1, 1885, to
November 30, 1886, and her milk had realised 411. 5s. in that
time. The summary of his milk sales from 22 cows for six
months, from April 1 to October 1, 1886, was 8,261 gallons 3
quarts, for which he had received 306/. 12s. 6d. They were all
well-bred, useful dairy cows. These weights may be more readily
compared with those in the statement given by Mr. Trotter, if a
gallon of milk be taken as 10 lbs. weight.

The milk was sent into Newcastle by train in a number of cans
of various sizes to three customers at 9d. per gallon in summer,
and by them fetched from. the station and delivered to consumers.
The freight was $d. per gallon: The corn-feed consisted of barley
boiled, or barley ground, of own growing and grinding, and of
purchased bean-meal, maize-meal, bran and cake, and about
6 lbs. per day given to each cow (two-thirds being barley). Hay
was given three times daily, and pulped turnips with chaff twice.
The byres, pulping-house, and stack-yard were all arranged very
conveniently for feeding. The milk was dealt with very
economically in the matter of labour, and the milk-house was in
perfect keeping.

Mr. James Thomson had 35 milking cows on our first inspec-
tion in December, giving 12 quarts per day each on an average,
and on our second visit (May 20) he had 58, and was sending
120 gallons of milk away daily. They were young and useful
cows—cross-bred Shorthorns—and had large square well-shaped
udders. The milking hours were 3.30 in the morning and 1.30
in the afternoon, in order to catch trains running into Newcastle
to serve customers. The cows were kept tied up in the shippon,
and only allowed to go out for about two hours after the after-
noon’s milking. Their feed was barley, pea, or maize-meal, malt
combings, cotton-cake, and bran given in scalded chaff; and
turnips once a day—hay four times. Mr. Thomson had to cart
his milk nearly three miles to a station, and to pay $d. per gallon
freight afterwards; but he understood the work both of milk-
production and of its disposal, as he had been in the trade, and
was building up a large and increasing business.

Mr. Lambert had a noted cow in his small herd whose doings
deserve to be reported. She was a big white cow called “ Beauty,”
was bred in Westmorland, and was 13 years old. She had not

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. 233

been dry for 9 years, but had milked continuously and given as
much as 36 and 38 quarts of milk daily, keeping to this quantity
for four months after calving, and never going below 9 or
10 quarts per day. She had had a calf every year for 7 years,
but only one in the last 18 months. She was now nearly blind,
but in good health. Mr. Lambert gave 321. for her when 4 years
old, at Kirkby Stephen fair. She was a great feeder, and would
eat nearly as much as two cows. Mr. Lambert sent his milk
into Gateshead, sold it by retail at 4d. per quart, and at 3d.
in quantity. His milk realised about 35/. per month. He
and his wife had their hearts in their farm and in its success.
They fed their cows liberally, cared for them almost as for their
children, and spared neither thought, labour, nor outlay to make
them profitable. “ Beauty” always got a double portion at Mrs.
Lambert’s hands, and was milked three times daily.

The Judges, on their first inspection, conceived the idea of
having the milk of the several stocks of cows subjected to a
chemical analysis, thinking it might confirm or correct the
generally accepted idea of the feeding value of different kinds
of food, and also give some indication of the value of the hay or
the pasturage of each farm. Having obtained the consent of
the Council of the Society, and the obliging co-operation of Dr.
Voelcker, their Consulting Chemist, the Judges sent him samples
of milk taken by them on their second visit from the bulk of the
milk at each farmhouse, as it was being sent away for sale.
Six samples were thus sent, and an extra one from the milk of the
Westmorland cow “ Beauty,” at Mr. Lambert’s, making seven
samples in all. The results of the analysis of each sample are
thus stated by Dr. Voelcker :—

Mr. Mar- | -.. Mr. Fair- | Mr, Lam- f ,. | Mr. Thom-
‘ shall’s, ee ae a penta Mr. Lam- Mr ae aed! = ents
Constituents Broom- Icons South Whick- bert’s cow Brant an Whit-
a5 cows | 2cows | Sore | arooms | ty | aBcows | Se cows
Waters oo) S712 86°38 86°71 87:04 88°56 86°51 86°73
Fat. ~ CR ery 3°87 4:58 4:37 3°85 2-00 4°53 4:29
Casein, milk- 8-21 8°33 8:16 8:41 770 8°25 8:24
sugar, &c.
Mineral matter 0:81 0-71 0:76 0°70 O74 0-71 O-74
(ash)
100-00 100°00 | 100-00 | 100:00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00
Specific gravity | 1:0326 1:0310 | 1:0318 | 1:0322 | 1:0304 | 1:0314 | 1-0321
at 60° F.
Total solids. .| 12°89 13°62 13°29 12:96 11-44 13°49 13:27

Solids not fat . 9°02 9-04 8:92 O11 8-44 8:96 8-98

234 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

Remarks.—* The milks, with one’ exception (that of the cow ‘Beauty ’),
came out very high indeed. As instances of the good quality of milk which
can be obtained in winter-feeding of cows, the results are most satisfactory,
and, with the exception of ‘ Beauty,’ are much above the present limits fixed
under the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, viz. 3 per cent. of fat and 84 per
cent. of solids-not-fat. Comparing the different analyses, there is practically
nothing to choose between 'l'rotter’s, Fairbairn’s, Reay’s, and Thomson’s.

“ Marshall’s and Lambert’s are lower in quality than the other four, but
they are both of really excellent quality, and well above the limits. The
milk of ‘ Beauty’ is far inferior to any of the others in quality, but it could
hardly be expected that such enormous quantities could be produced of
quality ejual to the others. (Signed) “J, Aveustus VOELCKER.”

" & May 28,1887.”

Several interesting questions might be discussed as to these
yields: but I cannot here attempt comparisons on the various
points which arise. It must suffice to say that the Judges, keep-
ing in mind the terms on which the prizes were offered, carefully
considered, in accordance with their instructions, the general
management, the crops, the quality and suitability of stock; the
management of grass land, the state of fences, roads, and general
neatness; and the management of the milk and dairy. They
awarded the prizes in accord with the weight of evidence and
impression on these points as a whole. They are free to say
they had most difficulty in fixing the places of the two first
named. Mr. Fairbairn’s crops were more extensive and his
management of superior order on the whole; but Mr. Reay’s
cows, and his management of them in the production of milk,
stood higher than the others, while his farming was also superior,
and the Judges unanimously gave the first prize to him.

Cuass 5.

This class was for farms occupied and carried on in conjunc-
tion with a colliery, and it was soon apparent that farming for
its own sake, or to make profit, was not the chief business of
the competitors. It was rather to escape claims for damage
to the surface by its sinking through the getting of coal
from under it, or to reduce the charges upon the business of
colliery proprietors, that the land was worked by them either as
owners or as tenants; and the able and enterprising way in
which it was done no doubt accomplished the desired result in the
most satisfactory manner, while it left them free to act without
those frequent references to the rights of each party and to
arbitrations to assess damages which are always sources of
annoyance to both parties.

The competitors in Class 5 were—

1. Messrs. Strakers & Love, Brancepeth Colliery,

Willington, Durham,

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5, 235

2. The Seaton Delaval Coal Company, Seaton Delaval
Colliery, Northumberland.

3. The Cramlington Coal Company, Cramlington, North-
umberland.

4, The Earl of Durham, Lambton Castle, Fence Houses,
Durham.

‘The occupation of Messrs. Strakers & Love consisted of four
holdings, two of which were their own freehold property—The
Burn Farm, 202 acres, 1 rood, 17 perches, and the Rough Lea
Farm, 144 acres, 3 roods, 27 perches. The other two were the
property of Lord Boyne—Oakenshaw, 164 acres, 3 roods, 3
perches, and Brandon Farm, 75 acres, 38 perches—and of these
they were yearly tenants. Total—587 acres, 1 rood, 5 perches.

The nature of the soil on all the farms was of medium
character, the subsoil being boulder-clay. There were good,
substantial buildings on the first-named holding, suitable for
feeding beasts and for breeding mares. There was a fine hay-
shed, 50 yards long by 20 feet wide, with a slated roof fixed on
larch poles, 13 on each side, and 20 feet high. The floor was
laid with 3-inch planks, 2 inches asunder. There was also a
shed for lambing ewes, containing 30 pens, convertible into
loose boxes and shippons; this was 60 feet long by 15 feet
wide. An implement-house, a turnip-house, a hen-house, and a
large collection of poultry were notable.

The grass lands near the house were fairly good, but wet in
places through the sinking of the surface, caused by getting
coal from under it. The clover and grass seeds for mowing were
full average crops; part of them were cut green, for consump-
tion by the horses and ponies used in the collieries under the
land. The oat and turnip crops were of average quality, as
were the meadows mowed for hay. No wheat was grown.

The Rough Lea Farm adjoining had been lately purchased
in a poor, rough state, and was being improved. Since obtain-
ing possession, a year ago, the firm had drained about 100
acres, applied 240 tons of gas lime to corn and turnip crops, had
eradicated 800 yards of old hedges, cut down much useless
timber, and were fixing wire fences to divide all the land into
fields of uniform size.

Oakenshaw Farm had been held for 21 years; the soil was
lighter, and was cultivated under the 4 and 5 years’ rotation of
cropping—about 60 acres had been drained. ‘This farm lay in
an exposed situation, and was 650 feet above sea-level. Both
the grass land and the crops were poor, and the surface gene-
rally was much affected by sinking. The coals in this district
lie near the surface, are of a soft nature, not suitable for house

236. —- Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

purposes, and are largely made into coke in kilns or ovens ad-
joining the land. Much harm is done to all the vegetation
around by the smoke of these ovens.

Brandon Farm is held certainly more because of the coal
under it than for the crops that may be got on its surface.
The buildings were substantial erections; but very little can be
said for the crops or the stock. All the manure made on the
farm—80 tons—and about 20/. worth purchased, was applied to
the grass seeds and turnip crops, but no artificial manure or lime
had been used for the last 4 years. A large open ditch had been
covered in at a cost of 50/., and the average expenditure in cake
was but small.

The management of all these farms was as good as was pos-
sible in their situation, and the manager, Mr. William Arrow-
smith, had been at his post for over 20 years; but it was evident
to the Judges, after their second inspection, that the claim could
not compare with any of the other competitors, and they did not
visit it on their third round.

The Seaton Delaval Coal Company's occupation consisted of
1,167 acres, of which 677 acres were in pasture, 120 acres
meadow, 252 acres arable, and 118 acres were plantations,
occupation roads, and waste. Of the arable land 164 acres
were in wheat, 91 acres oats, 10 acres barley, 11 acres beans,
484 acres turnips and green crop, and 75 acres clover and grass
seeds. The corn crops were all good, the turnips and other green
crops very clean and promising, and the clover and grass seeds
were heavy crops. The meadow lands were of fair average
character, but the pasture land was irregular in character and
three-fourths of it but poor. Some parts of the surface had
sunk very much, and the drainage was therefore interfered with
adversely.

Eight farm horses were kept for the farm work, and 17
milking cows, the milk of which was sold at 1s. per gallon for
retail among the colliers, and averaged 10/1. per week. Besides
these there were 45 fatting heifers, 76 store beasts (about two
years old), and 15 rearing calves.

The sheep flock consisted of 320 breeding ewes, 8 rams and
16 wethers, which, with 7 pigs, made the total number of live
stock 1,024. Part of the ewe flock were half-breds, and were
getting 1 lb. of oats each daily when suckling, and their best
fat lambs were being sold to kill at the end of May and in
June. The other part were blackfaced ewes, —— with their
lambs on the poorer pastures.

In all, 631 acres had been drained by the tenants, and a
single wire had been fixed alongside nearly all the hedges
on the farm to strengthen them as fences. A large outlay was

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. 237

being made annually in feeding stuffs, lime, superphosphate,
and town manure. The farm buildings ‘had been enlar ged and
improved during the last thirteen years at a cost to the tenants
of 2,352/.

Extensive collieries under the farm are worked by the Com-
pany, which employs upwards of 2,000 men and boys, and uses
about 250 horses and ponies; the latter are supplied with hay
and green food from the farm. A total of 3,000 tons of coal
per day is got here from four pits, which are worked on an
average ten days to the fortnight. The Judges had an oppor-
tunity of inspecting one of these pits, and were much interested
in all they saw, and especially in the humane treatment of the
ponies used.

The cottages in which the colliers reside are all owned by
the Company, and number nearly 1,000, standing in long rows
of upwards of 100 in each row, having a garden attached,
which was cultivated to grow vegetables or flowers, as the tastes
of the tenants dictated, and having butcher, grocer, baker, and
general stores adjacent. The farm buildings were in good order
and well arranged for the attendance and feeding of cattle in an
economical manner, and the management of all the stock at
pasture was wisely directed by distribution into uniform lots all
over the pastures, and into the fields which were most suited
to improve their growth.

A strike among the colliers existed during our second visit,
and the horses and ponies had all been brought out of the pits
and were enjoying unwonted liberty in three of the largest fields,
though on bare pasture. It was an unusual sight to see so
many together, and all stallions. The average cost of keep of
each pony when in the pit was 7s. 6d. per week, though just
then, in consequence of the low price of corn and hay, they
could, we were informed, be kept at 11s. each per fortnight. It
will be noticed that the number of farm stock of all kinds was
but small in proportion to the extent of the holding. This fact
impressed the Judges adversely. After allowing for the presence
of so many horses which were confined to a limited area, and
were there only for a short time, it was felt that the farm ought
to carry at least 30 per cent. more live stock.

The Cramlington Coal Company reported, through their farm
manager, Mr. Henry Storey, that they had 871 acres in occupation,
189 acres of which were in pasture, 249 acres in clover, seeds, and
meadow mown for hay, 106 acres of wheat, 193 acres of oats,
105 acres of turnips, and 35 acres of potatoes, tares, and bare
fallow. In their cultivation they use 26 farm horses, and feed
about 50 head of cattle, 166 breeding ewes and 313 lambs, and
about 50 hoggets. The land is held on lease with the collieries

238 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

from Captain Shawe Storey; it is generally a strong clay soil,
with stiff or stubborn clay subsoil. It has evidently been
liberally manured from the farmyard and the ashpits of the
colliers’ cottages. From the farmyard 1,400 to 1,500 tons of
manure are annually drawn, and 2,000 to 3,000 tons of the
colliery manure and night-soil from cottages.

The turnips and potatoes get the chief portion of this manure,
and the fertile and mellow character of the soil showed that
something like this must have been its usual dressing for some
time. Thirty tons of superphosphate of bone, 25 tons special
dissolved bones, 10 tons of nitrate of soda, and 600 to 1,000 tons
of gas lime have also been used annually, and 300/. expended in
cakes and purchased feeding stuffs. Part of the land has been
held for 40 years, but another part only 4 years. The Company has
spent 1,212/. in draining the land, for which the farm is charged
6 per cent. per annum. The owner had expended over 1,546l. in
draining, for which he charged the tenants with interest at the
rate of 5 per cent. per annum, and he had further drained subsided
portions of the land at a cost of 827/. from time to time, free of
interest. About 730 acres of the farm had thus been drained.
One field was pointed out where the slope of the surface had
been entirely changed, and where the outfall was running in an
opposite direction to that of a few years before.

It will be seen that all the operations on this farm are on a
large scale, and that it requires much capital and great energy
and perseverance in its superintendence. In addition to this, the
manager had to provide 400 tons of hay annually, and also to
provide on the farm-premises chopped hay, Indian corn, beans,
or other corn, for 400 horses and ponies, and deliver it daily at
the several coal-pits of the Company for consumption. The
relative cost of horses per week in corn and hay or grass, we
were told, was, in 1886, 8s. 04d. each; in 1885, 8s. 43d.; and
in 1884, 9s. 3id., two ponies being counted as one horse. In
1885, 33 horses were suffocated in 10 minutes in one of the
pits, and it took 436/. to replace them.

The green crops on this holding all looked remarkably well
at our final inspection, and the corn crops very promising. The
stock of cattle was of mixed character, and not as good in
quality as the sheep flock. This was both well selected and
skilfully managed ; the ewes were of the border Leicester breed,
and their lambs were being sold at nine months old for 42s. each.
The plan followed was to distribute them over the grass land in
small numbers, and to keep moving them frequently, and always,
if possible, into a better pasture. The cultivation of the arable
land was also done in a skilful manner, The horses, which were
all geldings, were fine strong animals, were well kept, and were

Northumberland and Durham in 1887: Classes 4. and 5. 239

made to cultivate both as deep as was needful and to step out with
a speed that was born of determination on the part of the manager
to have every part of the land done in proper season. Another
added difficulty was the detached and widely separated lay of the
holding. The knowledge of every part of it, and the prompt and
equal attention given to each, were eloquent testimonies to the
efficiency of the management.

These two farms, Seaton Delaval and Cramlington, adjoined
each other, and were not unlike naturally. They were both being
managed with good judgment and with the best friendly feeling
of their managers towards each other. The latter holding, how-
ever, the Judges thought, came out best in results, and, as the
published award has proclaimed, was placed higher in the scale
of merit.

The Earl of Durham’s farm consisted of 759 acres, of which
2774 were in pasture, 69} clover, 127? meadow, 108 wheat, 662
oats, 104 potatoes, 79 turnips, 8 mangel-wurzel, 7 tares, and 5
stack-yards and occupation roads. The stock consisted, at our
second inspection, of 14 farm horses, 3 breeding mares, 2 fillies,
60 fatting bullocks and heifers, 76 store ditto, 33 ditto under
two years old, 170 wethers and breeding ewes, 285 lambs, 30
rams, 315 gimmers, 104 mule sheep, 20 pigs, 37 ponies ; total,
1,149.

His Lordship is both owner and occupier of the two farms
that comprise the claim. ‘‘ Bowes House” contains 609 acres,
and “ Over the Hill” 150 acres. The latter is a medium soil on
limestone ; ‘ Bowes House” is stronger soil, on a stiff clay sub--
soil; they are worked together and under a very liberal outlay
for manure and feeding stuffs. About 3,200 loads of manure
are annually made, and 150 purchased, which is chiefly applied
to the turnip crop and to about 20 acres of old grass cut for
hay. ‘Thirty-three and a half tons of artificial manure are also
used in turnip cultivation, at a cost of 3ls. 6d. per acre, con-
sisting of 2 cwt. of raw bones, 2 cwt. superphosphates, 1 cwt.
guano, and 2 ewt. dissolved bones. ‘To the old grass and seeds
17 tons superphosphates, 7 tons of salt, 34 tons nitrate of soda,
had been applied at the rate of $ ewt. of nitrate, 14 salt, and 24
super.; this cost 14s. per acre.

About 100 loads of gas lime are also used on the old grass
land, at the rate of 8 to 10 tons per acre. The cattle and sheep
are all well fatted, and the cake and corn bills amount to nearly
1,200]. annually. It is the practice to hold an auction sale of
fat stock at Christmas and at Midsummer every year, and the
Judges had the opportunity of seeing on their first inspection
those which were sold on December 20, 1886. According to a
statement obligingly furnished by Mr, Tully, Lord Durham’s

240 | Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

farm manager, the sale realised 1,384]. 10s. for 49 fat bullocks,
an average of 29]. 5s. each; 60s. 3d. each for 76 half-bred
Cheviot wethers, and about 50s. each for 168 half-bred ewes.
On June 6 following, 58 fat steers and heifers made 1,459/. 5s.,
an average of 25]. each, and 145 wethers averaged 53s. 3d. each,
65 gimmers 60s., 25 fat lambs 46s. 3d., and 7 fat ewes 59s. each.
We learned from the newspaper reports that these sales had been
in existence for 37 years, and were highly appreciated by the
butchers of the neighbourhood because of the excellence of the
stock and of the bond fide character of the sale.

The sale on December 12, 1887, realised 3,6341. 15s. for 140
fat cattle, and 1,652/. 16s. for 626 sheep. The whole of this
stock was not fed on these two farms. Some of it came from
other lands that his Lordship has in hand; but the extent of
these sales and the sums realised justify the outlay on the land
cultivation, and prove more than ordinary skill on the part of
the manager in feeding so large and such a varied stock.
Three hundred cattle and from seventeen to eighteen hundred
sheep and fat lambs are annually sold. Breeding ewes are pur-
chased in the autumn, but only once lambed, and then sold fat.

It ought to be explained that this record does not include all
the land Mr. Tully had under his care, or all the stock he had to
provide for and to manage. He had to make large purchases
of ponies annually for his Lordship’s numerous coal-pits, and to
direct their breaking in and their training for the work they
had to do below ground, for they were all purchased as colts
and came from the Shetland Isles and from the hills of Wales.
Besides the land here reported upon, his Lordship had up-
wards of 3,000 acres more in his own occupation, and the total
number of stock in hand, as Mr. Tully informed us on our
first visit, would not be less than 1,000 ponies and horses, 650
head of cattle over nine months old, and 2,300 sheep—half-
breed and pure Leicesters. Large quantities of hay were pur-
chased from adjoining tenants and sometimes from Ireland, and
the estimated stock at the time was 2,100 tons, which was
insured against fire for 9,000/. Very large quantities of Indian
corn and Swedish oats were purchased, 5,000 quarters of the latter
having just been bought at 16s. 3d., and 252 quarters of Indian
corn at 21s. Swedish black oats were afterwards purchased
at 15s. 9d. per quarter of 336 lbs.

The total consumption of corn last year was 10,500 quarters
of oats, 520 barley, 600 Indian corn, 1,340 quarters of beans
and peas, 722 cwt. of bran, 25 tons linseed, and 29 tons of
cotton-cake, besides 2,000 tons of hay.

The head workmen on the place were all intelligent and
capable men, and seemed to have a personal and practical inte-

Northumberland and Durham in 1887. 241

rest in their work. The head shepherd had been at his post
twenty-seven years.

The colliers’ houses were all in good order, and their family
wants, both temporal, educational, and spiritual, were well pro-
vided for by good shops, schools, and places of worship. The
Co-operative Stores’ principle of supplying their wants was
largely adopted. Coals were supplied to them free, and were
carted to upwards of 2,500 houses tenanted by the colliers and
by the numerous clerks and officials.

The farm called ‘‘ Over the Hill” contained 150 acres, and
was known as Lord Durham’s model farm. It was situated in a
valley with good roads running on each side of it, and had first-
class stone buildings about the centre of the land, with three
cottages for workmen adjoining, all built so as to form good
compact premises. There were 32 boxes for winter-feeding
bullocks, with open yards, and sheds on the outside for imple-
ments and for store cattle to run under from the fields during
storm or from the heat of the sun in summer. All the crops on
this farm, both green crops and corn crops, were remarkably
good. The fences, chiefly strong thorn hedges, were well kept
and neatly trimmed, and the whole occupation beyond adverse
criticism.

Bowes House Farm was not so complete, but it had exten-
sive and substantial buildings, in which were fixed the steam-
power and machinery for grinding corn, and generally preparing
the mixture for the colliery ponies. There was a large and .
well-filled stack-yard, and a lambing-yard, with a large number
of small pens around for the accommodation of a fine flock of
12 score of Leicester ewes at lambing time. About 30 shearling
rams of first-class quality were being prepared for sale, and all
the pastures were more than full enough of stock, because of
the dry weather. Water had to be carted into troughs placed
in the fields; and, said the shepherd, “‘ We have not been so
badly off for meat for 19 years on account of the drought.”
Notwithstanding this, the mangel-wurzel crops were both very
forward and very healthy-looking. The swedes were all fresh,
and covered the ground completely.

There was a large number of fine feeding bullocks and heifers
in the buildings on this farm at all our visits. There were
some very fine young horses in the cart stable, and a double-
engined set of Fowler's steam tackle, used for ploughing the
strong land. Indeed, the whole occupation bespoke not only
extensive means with which to work, but great capacity in using ©
them. We saw the hall, with its magnificent buildings and its
large and well-kept gardens ; the park, with its seven-mile long
wall to fence it in; the colliers’ cottages, the churches and

VOL, XXIV.—S. S, R

242 Report upon the Spring Show of

schools, and all the surroundings of an old and rich property, all
being administered to with superior intelligence and devotion
by all the employés from the lowest to the highest.

The Judges had ample evidence on which to base the award
of the First Prize, and will not soon forget the farming they
saw here, nor the farm manager's attention and readiness to
show and to explain any matter in question. They thank all
the competitors for their unfailing kindness and courtesy, and
for the honourable action and spirit they manifested towards
each other in the competition, and believe that the emulation
evinced will not only benefit the winners of the prizes, but those
who tried to win but did not. All deserved success if they
did not all attain it in this form, and their example cannot but
remain a power and a stimulant to their neighbours.

XIT.— Report upon’ the Spring Show of Thoroughbred Stallions
at Nottingham. By G. S. Lows, The Hermitage, Potters’
Bar.

THE repeated refusals on the part of English Governments to
give any real encouragement to the cause of horse-breeding
may be accounted for by three reasons. First, from a general
view that means will always meet extremes; secondly, from an
unwillingness to create a department somewhat difficult to
control; and thirdly, because there is a belief that to legislate
at all upon horses has a tendency to interfere with individual
interests and private enterprise.

The rapid march of events may undeceive Englishmen in
the future with regard to the first undefinable reason, which is
applied in like manner to all military and naval requirements.
The modern historian has not been too lavish in his praise of the
general organisation that marked our expedition to the Crimea
in 1854-55. There were many defects at that time, when the
pressure of emergency tested the most vital points of our
systems. :

The German-Franco campaign of 1870 taught a great many
important lessons, and, chief amongst all, it showed the rapidity
of war. ‘Two great nations were in outwardly friendly relations
in May, but before summer had changed into autumn the dogs of
war had been let loose, several battles fought, an empire upset, and
a victorious army was marching on the capital of the defeated.
Such an extraordinary collapse, practically decided in a few
weeks, had a great effect on armaments throughout Europe,
and the political friction ever since has been caused by the

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 243

anxiety of the various Powers to keep themselves in complete
readiness. England, dependent on her insular position, and on
the old principle that means will meet extremes, has been more
lax than her neighbours, for, at any rate, she has allowed the
foreigner to strengthen his own position at her expense through
an excess in the exportation of horses from these shores.

The two remaining objections to Government interference
can be classed together, as, in the absence of any State control
over the supply of horses, the work is left entirely to individual
interest and enterprise. ‘That such a state of things should
have been allowed to exist so long is to be wondered at, from
whatever side the question is viewed. English horses, through
the sporting manners of the people, the climate, soil, and other
essentials, are immensely superior to those that can be bred in
other countries. Is it not, therefore, a source of wealth to the
nation, worth preserving with the most jealous care ?

The strenuous efforts of other countries to cultivate our
breeds, the great expenditure allowed, and the importance of
the State departments devoted almost entirely to the horse
supply, should surely be sufficient to convince our rulers that
this country is being made use of, and that if we husband a
natural product in anything like the degree others consider it
is worth, the result must be a national gain. Singularly enough,
there has been no awakening to such ideas with any party hold-
ing office, albeit the question has been often enough before the
country, and time after time Government studs have been pro- -
posed, besides other special encouragement.

In the opinion of the late Admiral Rous, a Haras system
would be fraught with fraud and corruption, and this has been
the cuckoo-cry ever since; but it seems extraordinary that a
great nation should have any fear of incapacity in the control
of a special department. If such conceptions were allowed,
every effort in the cause of improvement and progress would
come to a standstill, as there must be contractors and middle-
men in almost every concern of life. It may be a subject of
regret that a State stud was not established thirty or forty years
ago, in consequence of the success then attending the movement
in France. That country may be taken as the greatest example
of how a national stock of horses can be raised in half a century ;
indeed, it was in France, under Napoleon the Great, that the
idea was originated which has recently been put into substantial
form by the Royal Agricultural Society and the Royal Com-
mission on Horse Breeding.

-There had been State Haras in France so far back as the
middle of the seventeenth century ; but, after an existence of
125 years, they were suppressed during the Revolution by a

R 2

244 Report upon the Spring Show of

decree of January 29,1790. The second Cesar had doubtless
experienced considerable difficulties in horsing his numerous
armies, and it has always been asserted that his cavalry was
the weakest arm in his service. It was in accord with such
circumstances, therefore, that he should devote some attention
during his earliest leisure to the encouragement of horse-breed-
ing, if only to meet his own supplies for the mighty projects he
had in view. ‘The decrees which he signed in 1805 restored the
public studs, and the following year regulations were drawn up
‘to provide for six Haras and thirty depots for stallions. Two
millions of francs were devoted to the purpose, and it was
decided to give premiums to the best produce bred by farmers
under certain conditions, one being that a colt so primed could
not be castrated without the consent of the inspector-general of
the district.

There had been no racing in France at this time of any note ;
the sport, such as it was, beg mostly in the form of matches,
and competitions of a very mixed order. Consequently the
stock of horses the first Napoleon deemed it wise to improve
were the native breeds of the country, and a few importations.
Hostilities with this country debarred him, of course, from the
best source, and it is difficult to form any idea of the material
upon which it was proposed to build up a very great institution.

A ten years’ residence in France during the last Empire gave
me the opportunity of watching very closely much of the good
work done by the Imperial Haras. I must confess to impressions
strongly based upon the splendid organisation of the system, and
the great results derived from it, for, allowing that the first
Napoleon put the plan into motion, he wrecked it again before
its foundation was secure, since what could have been the
position of France in regard to a supply of horses at the time
the allied armies occupied Paris? In fact, no country could have
been in a poorer condition, and for many years afterwards there
was scarcely a good horse in the country. In 1825 it was very
difficult to travel in France owing to the scarcity of horses suffi-
ciently good to do the most moderate amount of roadwork, and
the army had to be supplied from outside sources entirely. It
was computed that 25,000 horses were imported annually at that
time, mostly for the army, and that the exports were 3,000 only,
confined entirely to the heavy breeds. This was what Louis
Philippe essayed to alter, and during his reign the State stud
was replenished by the first consignments of English thorough-
bred stallions, and the turf was taken up under the fostering
care of “La Société d’Encouragement pour |’Amélioration des
Races des Chevaux.”

The changes of Government in no way altered the Harag

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 245

system, excepting that the late Emperor developed a good deal
that Louis Philippe had commenced, and the Imperial policy
was to make the country entirely self-supplying as regards the
stud of stallions. To bring this about, more encouragement was
given to racing, and more first-class stallions were purchased
from England. It was at this time that such horses as The
Baron, Gladiator, Ion, Lanercost, Faugh a Ballagh, The Emperor,
and Collingwood were secured by the French agents, and before
the close of 1859 so many had been purchased as to have made
the Government stud of France the greatest in the world. Once
a year the list was published in the “ Bulletin Officiel,” and I
recollect the numbers were over 400. What a wondrous
amount of quality could be found in that list, with such horses
in it as Weathergage, Pretty Boy, Slane, Sting, Womersley,
Nunnykirk, Buckthorn, and, in fact, three parts of our stoutest
and best cup horses! It was wonderful how Frenchmen could
have selected them with so much judgment, as in many cases after
the horses had left our shores it was discovered that their pro-
duce comprised the best of the day.

The whole system appeared to work into the right grooves,
as when the horses arrived in France their locations were in-
variably happily chosen. I remember the little horse Sauce-
box, the St. Leger winner of 1856, being purchased, and he was
nothing more than a pretty pony; but, given a south-country
station, where the mares were big, he got beautiful stock. Then
the choice was so large that nearly every breeder in France could
get the horse he wanted located near him, or loaned to him; and
the horses, so long as they were liked, were always retained in
a district, so that they might leave a goodly number of their
own stamp.

A peculiar feature of the Haras system also was the ease
with which reform was brought about without in any way
disturbing the institution—as in 1860, for instance, after the
Flying Dutchman had been purchased for 4,0001., there was
a certain amount of friction between the Government and the
members of the French Jockey Club. It was contended by
the racing authorities that the presence of so many first-class
stallions at small fees was a bar to private enterprise, since no one
could afford to give a large price for a stallion against such com-
petition. The Government conceded nothing ; but, shortly after-
wards, the stallions at the Chantilly depot were removed, and the
Flying Dutchman alone was kept at the Paris establishment.
The opportunity was taken, however, to institute premiums,
much in the same fashion as the Royal Agricultural Society and
the Royal Commission are giving them now; and, before the fall
of the Empire, there was almost a second stud of stallions

246 Report upon the Spring Show of

belonging to private individuals, but still under a certain
amount of State control. The connection maintained with the
turf also was always of a useful character; stout runners
were the horses sought for in England, and Prix des Haras and
Prix Impériaux were always fixed at 4,000 metres (two miles
six furlongs), and under fairly heavy conditions as to weight.
It was considered also that horses capable of winning steeple-
chases over four miles, under twelve and thirteen stone, were
likely to get the sort of horses the country required, and so
such steeplechases were established for thoroughbred stallions.

The races for half- or three-parts-bred horses born in France
were another important feature, and, just as the third Napoleon
was completing his days of empire, the results were great indeed
of what may be called two decades of the Haras system. The
racing stables had more than doubled in numbers in twenty
years; they were full of horses as good as could haye been bred
in England, with Gladiateur standing out as a specimen, at
that time regarded as the horse of the century. There was no
more necessity to go to England for stallions, as the horses bred
in the country gave a choice much greater than the supply for
the Haras required ; and, to speak of the half- and three-parts-
bred stock, I have seen as good a field of cross-bred French
horses run in a steeplechase provided for their class, as could be
found in hunter stakes in England. The horses brought out by
the great Normandy breeders—the Messrs. Forcinal—were very
prominent in this division, and they were the admiration of all
the English hunting men who patronised the steeplechases at
Vincennes.

The Anglo-Normans looked quite like a rising breed just
before the war broke out, and I can recollect seeing a regiment
of cavalry pass, in the neighbourhood of Paris, which in the
opinion of an old English officer, who was standing near me, and
who had ridden a winner in a Grand National at Liverpool, had
the best horses he had ever seen under uniforms. His idea was
that he could have picked fifty young hunters out of the ranks.
Many of these fine regiments were, I know, annihilated at almost
the outset of the war, and I suppose the disasters which befel
France exhausted most of the ready stock of horses; but that
had nothing to do with the Haras system.

The character of the French horses had been changed completely
in a few years by a constant method of breeding from the best of
English thoroughbred stallions ; and from being the worst-horsed
country in Europe, France was possibly one of the best in 1870.
Such results are worth considering in these days, when the cry is
raised that England is by no means what she used to be as
regards her supply of horses; and this assurance can be given,

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 247

that if an almost barren country, such as France was in 1825,
can make a horse-supply in forty years, England could replenish
her stock in a fourth of that time with the advantages which
she has at command.

It is not a Government movement that has come to the aid
of England in this extremity; but a wave of agricultural de-
pression has brought the public mind into a state of anxiety to
make the most of all our natural resources. Enough has been
seen, if the policy of France in the past is alone taken, to show
what can be done by the development of a horse industry in
England through the very materials that have enriched other
nations. ‘To judge such materials as others have judged them
may not be the worst policy to pursue, and to adopt some
of the methods of neighbouring countries may be equally wise.
A national stud is not to be thought of at present ; but the past
year has seen the nearest approach of Government support to
the cause, through almost accidental circumstances. The Royal
Agricultural Society took up the subject to meet a requirement
of the day, and the bestowal of a premium of 200/. to each of
five stallions last year at Newcastle was so much appreciated by
the owners of horses, and met with such general approval, as to
set others thinking about a speedy advancement of the scheme.

The accidental part of the question now comes in, as it
so happens that racing has altered so much in its character
during the last few years as to make stakes that once appeared
valuable look exceedingly paltry. It would have been out of all
question to have touched a Queen’s Plate ten years ago, as old-
fashioned time-honoured meetings like Odiham and Egham
quite depended on such events. A change has quickly come
over the scene, as the old race-gatherings have collapsed
altogether in the face of gate-money meetings, and stakes of
100/. or 3001. have been dwarfed by a new kind of liberality,
bestowed on the principle that money makes money. An op-
portunity was offered, therefore, to divert the Queen’s Plates,
that originated in years past for the encouragement of horse-
breeding, from the old lines of racing, to the system adopted
by the Royal Agricultural Society and the Hunters’ Improve-
ment Society. There was practically no opposition to the pro-
posal from either the magnates of the turf or other quarters,
and hence this small State grant has become the nucleus of a
movement which may achieve most of the objects of a national
stud.

The appointment of a Royal Commission was the first step,
to inquire into the special requirements for the grant, and to
be the trustees, in fact, of the fund. The Master of the Horse,
in whom has been vested the direction of the Queen’s Plates

248 Report upon the Spring Show of

from the time such events were instituted, was by reason of his
office placed at the head of such a Commission, and with his
Grace the Duke of Portland were associated the Earl of Coventry,
as Master of the Buckhounds, Lord Ribblesdale, who had drawn
attention to the matter in the House of Lords, the Rt. Hon.
Henry Chaplin, M.P., Major-General F. G. Ravenhill, Mr.
Jacob Wilson, representing the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, Mr. John Gilmour, representing the Highland Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland, and Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, repre-
senting the Central Chamber of Agriculture.

The Royal Commission, after several sittings, published on
December 22, 1887, its first report, in which it was recommended
that the 3,000/. diverted with Her Majesty’s sanction from the
Queen’s Plates, with the 2,000/. added by the Lords of the
Treasury, should be expended in awarding premiums of 2001.
each to twenty-two thoroughbred stallions, to be distributed over
six-sevenths of England and Wales and four districts in Scot-
land: the remaining one-seventh of England haying been pro-
vided for by the Royal Agricultural Society at its then projected
spring show at Nottingham. It was decided also to hold the
show of the Royal Commission in conjunction with the Royal
Agricultural show, and the conditions of the newly instituted
premiums were nearly the same as those decided upon by the
Royal Agricultural Society—namely, to be for three-year-olds
and upwards, the winner of each premium to serve not less
than fifty half-bred mares, if required, during the season of
1888, and to stand or travel (at the owner’s option) in the dis-
trict for which he was exhibited, at a fee not exceeding 40s. each
mare, and 2s. 6d. the groom. Powers were reserved to the
Commission of providing stallions other than those competing, if,
in the absence of sufficient merit, such a course was considered
necessary ; and this, as it proved, was a very wise provision.

The Royal Agricultural Society had by this time issued its
prize schedule offering five premiums of 200/. each and a special
gold medal for thoroughbred stallions, subject to the condition
and restriction that each stallion winning a premium should
serve not less than fifty half-bred mares, if required, during
the season of 1888, and should stand or travel in such parts
of Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire,
Nottinghamshire, and Rutlandshire, as should be subsequently
specified, at a fee not exceeding 40s., except for mares belong-
ing to members of the society, to whom the fee was to be 30s.
In the case of the Society’s premiums, the location of the
stallions was to be decided by ballot, at which the local com-
mittees formed for each county would be représented. ‘The
ballot-box was not brought into requisition for the classes in

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 249

which the Royal Commission found the premium-money, as the
arrangements respecting the particular location of the stallions
winning premiums in the same class were left to be arranged
by the owners with the approval of the Commissioners.

Twenty-seven premiums of 200/. each were thus provided
for, to be decided at the spring show at Nottingham, held on
the 9th and 10th of last February. A show of such unusual
attractions was likely to receive its full share of public patron-
age, and the entry was sufficiently satisfactory to prove that
the movement had a widespread interest. Ninety exhibitors
entered stallions to the number of 105 for competition, and
each district was fairly represented.

The show was held on the site of the Hay Market at
Nottingham, the use of which for the purpose had been per-
mitted by the Corporation of Nottingham, who had also gene-
rously given a grant towards the necessarily heavy expenses of
erecting a large covered building for the protection of the
stallions and spectators in winter-time. The organisation of
the show, carried out as it was by the experienced staff of the
Royal Agricultural Society, was admirable; and a special word
of praise must be given to the excellence of the arrangements
for the veterinary inspection, which was effected in a large space
at the back of the Grand Stand. The attendance of the public
was good, especially on the first day, and at times the Grand
Stand was inconveniently crowded.

The Judges to whom had been confided the award of the
premiums in all the classes were Lord Arthur Somerset,
Mr. Robert G. F. Howard, of Temple Bruer, Lincolnshire, and
Mr. J. L. Naper, of Loughcrew, Oldcastle, Ireland. The
following is a list of the premiums granted in each class, an
asterisk denoting those horses that, in the absence of awards by
the Judges, were subsequently selected by the Royal Commission
for service in districts other than those in which they were
entered :—

THe Royant AGRICULTURAL SocreTY OF ENGLAND’s PREMIUMS.

District Class C. 24 Entries.

[Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire,
Nottinghamshire, and Rutlandshire. |

2007. and Special Gold Medal to Isaac Clark, for Jack Tar.

ts Fe to Henry W. Freeman, for Khamseen.
. i 5 + to Alexander Taylor, for Lancastrian,
ey tess > 7, to James E, Platt, for Silver Crown.
238 to W. R. Marshall, for Tiber.

11. Reserve Number m to John Harle Welby, for Lord Malden.

250 Report upon the Spring Show of

QUEEN’s PREMIUMS OFFERED BY\THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON
Horsr BREEDING. :

District Class A. 14 Entries.

[ Be lfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Essex, Hertfordshire,
Huntingdonshire, Middlesex, Norfolk, Oxfordshire, and Suffolk. ]
No.
28, Premium of 200/. to the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, for Zion.

32, Premium of 2002, to Walter Gilbey, for Pedometer.
36. x, to Lord Chesham, for Sowlouque.
25. Reserve No. 1 to Frederick H. J ennings, for Beau Masque.
* 26, Roserve No. 2 to the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon, for City Arab
(see District G).

District Class B. 11 Entries.
[ Cumberland, Durham, Northumberland, and Westmorland. ]

ae Premium of 2007, to William Steel, for Blue Grass.
9 *) to Robert Clarke, for Even.
a 5 to E. Hodge Banks, for Moss Hawk.
* 46, Res:rve No. 1 to R. F. Trenholm, for Omeg ga (see District K).
* 40, Reserve No. 2 to the Hon, F. W. Lambton, for Conaglen (see
District F).

District Class D. 10 Entries.

[Berkshire, Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Hampshire, Kent,
Somersetshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Wiltshire. ]

50, Premium of 200/. to the Compton Stud Company, for Aerzdes.

H 5 3 to the Compton Stud Compnny, for Huguenot.
58, es to Charles J. Fletcher, for Westburton.
*56, Reserve No. “ to William Warren, for Royalty y (see District H).
59, Reserve No. 2 to Samuel H. Harding, for Young Glen Arthur.

District Class #. 16 Entries.
[ Yorkshire. ]

64, Premium of 2002. to Lord Middleton, for Eseamillo,
66. 5 as to Sir William Vavasour, Bart., for Jarnac.
69. of to David Oooper, for Linneus.
* 61. Reserve No. 1 to George W. Elliot, M.P., for Bradgate (see Dis-
trict H).
72. Reserve No. 2 to Joseph Shepherd, for St Joseph.
70, Reserve No, 8 to William Jackson, jun., for Pursebearer.

District Class F. 11 Entries.

[Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Monmouthshire, Shropshire, Stafford-
shire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and South Wales. |

83. Premium of 200/. to William E, Litt, for Q.C.
84, i to John Rees, for Scherzo.
% The above two Premiums were awarded by the Judges.)
* 40. (Reserve No. 2 in Class B) to the Hon, F. W. Lambton, for Conaglen,
(Selected by the Royal Commissioners for service in this district.)

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 251

District Class G. 7 Entries.
[Cheshire, Lancashire, and North Wales. ]
No.
90. Premium of 200/. to Sir Humphrey F. de Trafford, Bart., for Pres
scription,
93. Premium of 2007. to Albert O. Haslewood, for Sulezman.
(The above two Premiums were awarded by the Judges.)
* 26, (Reserve No. 1 in Class A) to the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon,
for City Arab.
(Selected by the Royal Commissioners for service in this District.)

District Cuasses H, I, J, anp K (Scornanp).

No awards’ were made by the Judges, but the following horses in
other classes were subsequently selected by the Royal Commissioners for
service in these districts :—

District Class H. 2 Entries.
[Aberdeenshire and district. |

* 61, (Reserve No. 1 in Class E) Premium of 2007. to George William
-. Elhot, M.P., for Bradgate.

District Class I. 4 Entries.
[ Perthshire, Fifeshire, and District. ]

* 56, (Reserve No. 1 in Class D) Premium of 2007. to William Warren, for
Royalty.

District Class J: 4 Entries.
[Ayrshire, Dumfriesshire, and district. ]
* 47, Premium of 200/. to Montagu Hulton-Harrop, for Polardine.

District Class K. 3 Entries.
[Roxburghshire, Berwickshire, and district. ]

* 46, (Reserve No. 1 in Class B) Premium of 200/. to Robert F. Trenholm,
for Omega.

The report of the Judges upon the horses brought before
them was in the following terms :—

Report of the Judges.

Before commencing our report upon the Stallion Show at Nottingham, we
should like to express our thanks to all the officers of the Society for the
civility and courtesy with which the Judges were treated by those gentle-
men.

With regard to Class C, there were twenty-four entries, two of which
were not brought before us. There were some useful-looking horses amongst
them, and we hope the stallions that obtained a premium will do good.
But in this, as in other classes, owing to so many good-looking horses having
been rejected by the veterinary surgeons, the Judges were obliged to fall
back upon inferior animals for premiums and reserve numbers.

In Class A, fourteen horses were entered, thirteen of which came before

252 Report upon the Spring Show of

the Judges; and out of the ten which were sent to the veterinary surgeons
only five passed. Taken as a whole we think the class was fair. No, 28
(Zion),! which won a premium, is a well-bred horse, and was one of the best,
if not the very best, all-round mover in the yard, though rather deficient in
substance. It is much to be regretted that No. 38 (Zruefit) was unsound,
as he is by far the most likely-looking horse in the class to get good stock,

In Class B, eleven horses were entered, and all came before the Judges.
Of these seven were sent to be examined, and two were rejected—one a par-
ticularly nice horse, No. 42 (Friar Rush), and the other a very useful-looking
one, No. 43 (Glenjillan). The horses that obtained a premium in this class,
No. 39 (Blue Grass), No. 41 (Even), and No. 45 (Moss Hawk), were
decidedly good; and of the reserve horses No. 46 (Omega) is a very nice old
horse, with great liberty, and No. 40 (Conaglen) is useful.

In Class D, ten horses were entered, eight of which came before the Judges.
Of these seven were sent to be inspected by the veterinary surgeons, and two
rejected. The three horses that obtained a premium are most useful, and
the reserves would have obtained a premium in some of the other classes.
No. 50 (Aerides) and No. 52 (Huguenot) are particularly good. No. 58
(Westburton), when he grows down, will make a very fine horse, with great
substance, though a little leggy. No. 56 (Royalty) and No. 59 (Young
Glen Arthur) are certainly useful.

In Class E, sixteen horses were entered, fifteen of which came before the
Judges. Nine were sent to the veterinary surgeons, and three of them were
rejected. It is only fair to say that there were two other horses in the class
so palpably unsound that the Judges did not send them to be examined.
The fact of No. 68 (Knight Templar) being unsound is much to be deplored,
as he looks like a valuable stallion. Of the premium horses No. 64 (Esca-
millo) is a very nice compact horse; the colour of No. 69 (Linneus) is
against him, but he is a nice horse, and No. 66 (Jarnac) is a good-looking old
horse, with great liberty. Of the reserve horses No. 61 (Lradgate) is cer-
tainly useful, and No. 72 (Str Joseph) and No. 70 (Pursebearer) are fairly so.

In Class F, eleven horses were entered and came before the Judges. Of
these eight were sent to be examined, and six were rejected, leaving the
Judges a very bad selection. No. 83 (Q.C.) is a good-actioned horse, and
No. 84 (Scherzo) is exceptionally good-actioned; but had No. 76 (Albert
Edward), No. 81 (Lammermoor), or No. 86 (Vibration) passed sound, the
premium horses would only have taken reserve places. No. 85 (Somerton),
too, only just out of training, was rather a nice horse, but he also was
Tejected.

In Class G, seven horses were entered and came before the Judges. Of
these six were sent to the veterinary surgeons, and four were rejected. Of
the premium horses No. 90 (Prescription) is a magnificent horse, wha will
make a good sire, particularly of carriage horses, and would have taken a
premium in any case. No. 93 (Suleiman) is a nice horse, but does not show
the amount of power we should like to see. The fact of the unsoundness
of No. 88 (Gumbo) is a great misfortune. No. 92 (Returns) and No. 91
(Quicksilver) are very useful-looking horses had they been sound; and the
old No. 87 (Duke of Athole), who runs in the station omnibus at Gains-
borough, has, we understand, got some very good stock. :

As for Classes H, I, and K, we can only describe the horses in
them as doing harm instead of good to any district. Had No. 104 (Rat-
catcher) and No. 100 (Barbieston) been sound they might have been useful,
but the other horses were utterly worthless.

In conclusion, we beg to draw the attention of exhibitors to the fact that,

! For greater clearness the names of the stallions mentioned have been
added in italics to the catalogue numbers as reported by the Judges.—Ep,

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 258

while a stallion may himself have been speedy and a good performer although
pinned at the elbows, it is one of the worst faults he can transmit to his
offspring.
(Signed) ARTHUR SoMERsET.
Rosert G. F. Howarp.
J. L. Naver.

It may be convenient here to give also the report of the
Veterinary Inspectors (Professor Brown, C.B., Sir Henry Simp-
son, F.R.C.V.S., and Mr. George Williams, F.R.C.V.S.), as their
rejections of animals favoured by the Judges is referred to by
the latter :—

Report of the Veterinary Inspectors.
Sixty-four horses were submitted for examination, and of these thirty-
four were rejected as unsound.
The following summary of the causes of rejection is submitted for the
information of the Royal Commission and the Royal Agricultural Society :—

Unsoundness of wind Fi ; P : . : a8
Unsoundness of eyes ; ; : : : 5 LO
Curb : : hall
Unsoundness from bony deposits affecting joints: Spavin
9, Ringbone 8 : : A
Unsoundness from diseased feet 5 : ; . ~'S
34

(Signed) G. T. Brown.
HENRY SIMPson.
GrorcE WILLIAMS.

The above reports open up a large field for discussion, as—to
commence with Class C, representing the division for the five
premiums bestowed by the Royal Agricultural Society—the
Judges complain that eight out of the fourteen sent up to the
veterinary inspectors were rejected, and that in this, as in other
classes, they were obliged to fall back upon inferior animals for
premiums and reserve numbers. In the selection of stallions
for a national purpose such as this is, the main object of all
must be to prevent any inferior horse being made use of. This
is one of the great points I observed in the working of the
Haras system in France. The Government never gave less than
3,000 francs for a stallion, and the same rule was observed
in giving premiums, of which there were two classes—one of
1,500 francs, and the other of 800 francs. The lower class, at
the time I am alluding to, was the premium bestowed upon a
horse worth three or four thousand francs, or say 150/.; but
there was no sort of chance for an owner to get even 32/. a year
for keeping an animal worth 40/. This seems reasonable enough,
and all the more obvious and important in England, as, in giving
premiums of 200/., a higher class is appealed to. The object
is not simply to get up a supply of cavalry horses, but to im-

254 Report upon the Spring Show of

prove the position of the farmer and breeder, and it is by no
means a natural consequence that a horse worth less than 100).
should get a hunter worth 1501.

With all the difficulties thrown in the way of the Judges
allowed, I do not think there is much to regret in the selection
made for the Royal Agricultural Society’s premiums. Khamseen,
whose quarters will be Leicestershire, should be quite the
breeder’s friend, as, from what he could himself do on the turf
and over a country, he might well get good hunters, and his
beautiful colour and fine upstanding appearance are well in
keeping with all that is wanted in a high-class carriage horse.
Jack Tar is a very useful stamp of horse, and, as he has got good
stock in Wiltshire, a change into Northamptonshire may be very
beneficial to that county. Silver Crown is a very perfect-shaped
animal in nearly all respects, and as his breeding is well known in
Nottinghamshire, in consequence of his sire Silvester having got
good hunters in a neighbouring county, the result of the ballot
has given great satisfaction to the local farmers. Lancastrian
will have more rivals to compete against in Derbyshire, a county
by no means badly off for ‘stallions; but he is a fine powerful
horse, with plenty of bone and substance, and his pedigree, if
it does combine the roaring strain of Longbow, is exceptionally
stout by Toxophilite ont of Lady Sefton by West Australian.
The remaining premium stallion, Tiber, is rather a light-framed
horse ; and unfortunately the ballot has sent him back to Lincoln-
shire, where he has not met with much appreciation.

Many good horses of a class such as foreign agents would
have been only too pleased to select from were found in all the
district classes of the show, including those that had shown
much the same sort of form as our old Queen’s Plate horses—and
these are the animals to be looked for, I feel sure. Their value
also cannot be questioned, as they are well known, and evidence
would not be required to prove that very large sums had been
paid for them. It is creditable to the cause that such a horse
as Blue Grass is a hunting sire, as many of an inferior class are
now rated at high fees as racing stallions. He inherits old blood
also, as his American ancestry takes in the blood of Lexington,
and likewise of Yorkshire, a horse shipped to America many
years ago, and said to have contributed a great deal towards
giving stamina to both racehorses and trotters. 3

It was unfortunate that Knight Templar failed to pass the
veterinary examination, as he is as nearly as possible a model
of what a hunter should be like, the shape of his loins and his
back ribs being just what breeders are always trying to get, as
when they are built in that way, no matter whether it is a big
horse or a little one, it must carry weight.

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 255

The best-looking horse, hitherto unknown at shows, was
unquestionably Aerides, a liver-chestnut by Cremorne, out of
Masdevallia by Mandrake or North Lincoln; and either way this
is good hunting blood, as Mandrake got capital hunters, and
North Lincoln, during the time he was allowed to serve half-
bred mares down in the Vale of Aylesbury, was quite exceptional
as the sire of valuable hunters, one of them selling for 600
guineas to the late Mr. Gerard Legh. Aerides belongs to
the valuable order of hunting sire, as he was purchased for 1,000/.
a few months ago, and it is satisfactory that he took one of
the premiums.

The total collapse of the Scotch classes, both for want of
merit and unsoundness, was a subject of regret; but exhibitors
had only themselves to blame for it, as the want of any value or
quality about these would-be premium-takers was palpable.
The result showed the wisdom of having a clause in the regu-
lations which enabled the Royal Commission to substitute
other horses in classes in which no merit could be discovered ;
and in two cases at least very valuable substitutes were found
from the reserve horses in other classes, as it is quite possible
that the best hunting sire in the show was Omega, although, in
point of make and shape, he cannot be quite accepted as a type
of perfection. His stock is so good, though, and young hunters
by him are realising such large prices, as to make it a subject of
congratulation for the breeders of Berwickshire and Roxburgh-
shire that he is to be at their service. The little brown horse
Polardine also has done such yeoman service in Shropshire in
getting hunters of the highest class as to make him a great
acquisition on the other side of the Border.

There was certainly a diversity of quality at the Nottingham
show, but the difference of size and shape gives a very wide
scope to suit the many ideas on the subject of hunting sires.
The Judges declined to decorate anything of the narrow spiry
order, deficient in bone and substance—such a horse was Canzont;
beautifully bred by Petrarch out of Frivolity; and there was
another son of Petrarch in Class A, with the same sort of faults,
and he would not do. Petrarch himself is the most bloodlike
stallion in England, to my mind; but his racing stock are often
light of bone, and it may not be quite the source from which to
get hunting sires. Other sons of Lord Clifden are much more
likely to be useful in this direction. Hampton, for instance,
was a much hardier horse than Petrarch, and his son Somerton,
in Class F (No. 85), might be exactly the sort to get good
hunters. He failed to please the Veterinary Inspectors, however,
and this was the class in particular that failed so conspicuously
in these examinations. It was noticeable that several of the

256 Report upon the Spring Show of

medium-sized bloodlike horses were included in this division,
such as Albert Edward, own brother to the Derby winner George
Frederick, Lammermoor, quite a quality sire in every particular,
and by Scottish Chief. Vibration is another, justly spoken of
by the Judges as belonging to a likely stamp. There was also
a pretty little horse called Canary, but very small.

It was a little singular that very few Irish-bred horses were
exhibited, for as a rule they are thought a great deal of as
hunting sires. I picked out four that could claim their birth-
rights from the sister isle, and three—namely, Prescription, Lion,
and Soulouwgue—had premiums awarded to them. Iion, shown
by the Duke of Hamilton in Class A, and got by Rostrevor
out of Queen of the Forest by Ranger, a well-known sire by
Voltigeur, was decidedly the best actioned horse in the show,
and, after his trotting form had been seen, the question rose in
one’s mind as to the value of thoroughbred horses to get
roadsters. ion got a premium to serve in the land of the
trotters, Suffolk and Norfolk. The value of Pedometer, another
winner in Class A, has been proved; and I liked the third
honour-taker, Lord Chesham’s Soulouque, the Irish-bred horse
by Roman Bee, so exactly the sort to get hunters—and it is
said that no one has ever heard of a Roman Bee being a roarer.
Soulouque is a little high on the leg, and perhaps somewhat
split up, but he has very good shoulders, and he is a bold-
looking horse, such as might well be appreciated in most
hunting quarters.

It was a highly representative show in a stud-book point of
view, as there was scarcely a known strain without a reminder
of it, however scarce it might be. For instance, there are only
three horses in England by Cambuscan—namely, Camballo,
Cavaliero, and Bradgate—and the last-named was found in the
Yorkshire Class. Here also was one of the two remaining sons
of the Flying Dutchman now in this country—namely, Jarnac—
and he was one of the three premium-takers in the class. I
can make no objection to the choice, as Jarnac is a fine old
horse and the sire of a great; many good hunters ; but his success
in this instance opens the question as to whether a limit of age
should not be a future condition, as twenty years is an advanced
stage of life for a country stallion.

It is considered that more hunting sires have sprung from
King Tom than any other modern celebrity, and three of that
line are among the twenty-seven that took premiums—namely,
Pedometer, Huguenot, and Even. The last-named won a pre-
mium in Class B, the northern district; and his sire Quits, by
Restitution, son of King Tom, was shown in Class C for the
Royal Agricultural Society’s premiums ; but, however useful the

Thoroughbred Stailions at Nottingham. 257

last-named has been as a hunting sire both in Lincolnshire and
Shropshire, he is not as typical as his son ven, perhaps the
most powerful horse in the show, on short legs and possessing
immense bone. He well deserved his premium; and so did
Suleiman in Class G (Cheshire, Lancashire, and North Wales);
as this son of Knight of the Crescent has plenty of bone, and he
is so very bloodlike. The little horses, Royal George by Toxo-
philite, and Ratcatcher by Young Monarque, have both creden-
tials for getting good useful hunters; but unfortunately they
failed in obtaining the necessary qualifications from the Vete-
rinary Inspectors.

The report of the Veterinary Inspectors clears away some
doubts as to why there have been so many discrepancies between
the decisions of the most eminent men. It is seen from this
report that seventeen out of thirty-four horses were rejected for
unsoundness from bony deposits affecting joints, of which nine
were from spavin and eight from ringbone. If the last terms
fully implied everything, there can be little question about such
horses being unsound; but the prefix about bony deposits
affecting joints gives one the idea that there was a tendency in
some cases to spavin or ringbone; and this is just where the
difference of opinion comes in. Many people think—and I am
of that opinion myself—that bony deposits in old horses must be
allowed a good deal of margin, as very few horses that have
been in training escape such signs of wear. I am convinced
in my own mind that the Veterinary Inspectors were practically
correct in all the decisions they came to at Nottingham, and, as
I happened to know a good deal about most of the horses,
I was pretty well aware of all they had to consider. ;

It is highly necessary that the public should be made com-
pletely aware of what constitutes hereditary: unsoundness, and
I believe that the best plan to adopt is to throw the onus on the
Judges, by making the veterinary decisions simply a guide to
go by in deciding the qualifications of a horse. That something
will be done on the basis of some of the different suggestions
which have been thrown out is probable enough; and reform in
this direction is very necessary, as by the system at present in
vogue the particular horses required by the country can be very
easily lost sight of.

There is little doubt that the pattern taken by all the
Government studs of Europe has been the English hunter. The
nearest approach to such a horse is the best cavalry horse, and
the best horse for general purposes, and to obtain this excellent
type the foreigner has copied everything that has produced our
best results much more closely than we have done ourselves.
To supply the French Haras of which I have spoken our stoatest

VOL. XXIV.—S. S. S

258 Report upon the Spring Show of —

runners were invariably purchased, and they were not trans-
planted about year after year from one Haras to another, but
kept to do service in one quarter for many years.

What have we to say about our own best results, the results
indeed that made the whole character of the English hunter, which
was precisely all the French have copied? The oldest hunting sire
in Lincolnshire was a horse called Lance, by Javelin, belonging
to Lord Egremont. He was a King’s Plate horse of some note ;
but, breaking a hind fetlock whilst running in a race at Ascot,
he was given to a Boston blacksmith. That horse was located
at Boston for more than twenty years, and is said to have set
the stamp of the Lincolnshire hunter. Contemporary with, or
just after him, was a horse called the Flyer, travelling between
Grantham and Boston for ten years; and the horses got from the
crosses of the two stallions were veritable fortunes to the Lin-
colnshire farmers. Tor three got by the Flyer out. of a Lance
mare a thousand pounds was offered, in those days, before the
elder of the trio was six years old. Gainsborough had about .
nine seasons in Devonshire, and he fairly made the country into
a breeding field for hunters. He was adored by the farmers,
and, although it is now sixty years since he left the quarter, his
name has never been forgotten. Asa type of what a hunting
sire should be, he must have been pretty nearly perfection—a
long low brown horse, standing 15.3 on short legs, and as a
performer he was the hardest worked King’s Plate winner in
England. There was Belzoni, again, at Lutterworth, in Leicester-
shire. He must have stood there seven or eight years, and for
a long time no hunters were thought as good as those got by
Belzoni. In later years the Ugly Buck travelled year after year
from Oakham to Northampton, and it is said to this day that
no other horse in the Midland counties ever did as much good.

I could go on enumerating a great number of such hunting
sires, and I am quite certain that the list tells us one great
secret, which is that a good horse has always made a country
into a notable breeding district, for the time at least, both as
regards quantity and quality. A horse starts off by getting a
good batch of produce, and in four years, when his earliest
offspring can be seen as young horses, their promise is fayour-
ably spoken of. The next year, perhaps, two or three sell for a
couple of hundred guineas apiece, and what is the consequence ?
It is the talk of the country round, and there is quite a furore
to send mares to the successful stallion, whilst as soon as his
favours are filled another horse is patronised. If the success
continues, so will the breeding; but if a farmer happens to try a
chance stallion coming into his neighbourhood, and the produce
is a failure, he never ceases to talk about it, and to deplore the

Thoroughbred Stallions at Nottingham. 259

absence of the old horses kept in his country when he was a
young man. ‘To this I attribute the failure of nearly all the
Glasgow stud horses. They never remained in one quarter long
enough to be appreciated, and it was difficult to fill a subscrip-
tion to one of them for fifty mares, when Theon, Ugly Buck,
and Augur were getting regularly their hundred mares a year.

These ideas as to the special good a successful hunting sire
can do in a country have been much strengthened by the recent
result of the Grand National Steeplechase at Liverpool. It
was, perhaps, one of the greatest test races of real grit and
merit that has been witnessed for many years, as the weights
were very high, and in a field of twenty, comprising many pre-
vious performers on the flat, the winner was simply a hunter
bred by a tenant-farmer, and got by the hunting sire Ripponden,
which was kept at the Belvoir Castle stables by the late Duke of
Rutland for the benefit of his tenantry. The pedigree of this
now famous steeplechaser’s dam was unknown, but she was both
hunted and worked on a farm in Leicestershire, and may be
taken as the type of the ordinary brood mare, such as used to
be common enough. The same class should become plentiful
again if farmers would but breed from their young mares, and
the chances of breeding hunters as good as Playfair should not
be lost sight of.

There cannot be a better look-out for the future than that
which is offered by the programme of the Royal Commission,
as the sires are not necessarily changed from one quarter to
another. An owner can keep his horse at home, and he has
a chance to renew his premium year after year, so as to make
the horse earn 200/. per annum. In the majority of cases the
owners may be the best judges of the kind of horse best suited
to different parts of the country; but great mistakes are made,
as I am convinced that special strains of mares exist in many
districts, very suitable for some horses, but very unsuitable for
others. In the light soils, such as in Devonshire, the working
animal is no other than the unfashionable-looking hunter. They
have been bred on the farms for generations, and sometimes
they are by a thoroughbred horse, and sometimes by the passing
roadster or trotter, the latter being probably half or three parts
bred. I could name farms where such horses are bred, and
very seldom sold, the farmer keeping perhaps nine or ten for
his work, and breeding a colt every other year to keep up the
number. ‘These are the farmers who require inducements to
breed three a year; and perhaps their old-fashioned stock, full
of good blood of one sort and the other, might produce the best
type of general utility horse. In other districts, where the soils
are heavy, and the Shire Horses or Suffolks do most of the

$2

260 Report upon the Spring Show of Thoroughbréd Stallions.

work, there is a new foundation entirely to be considered, as sorts
are presented that have never been crossed with the thorough-
bred at all. Exquisite neatness and quality are wanted here, and
hence it is that horses of a smaller type are seen to do best in
such quarters.

The work of the Royal Commission will demonstrate all this,
as we are told in the report published on December 22 that the
Commission was not prepared to extend the benefits of the grant
to Clevelands, and other so-called special breeds, first on account
of the inadequate amount at disposal, and secondly because the
breeds mentioned required looking into, and it was the inten-
tion of the Commission to make “such inquiries. In doing so,
much will be learnt as to the difference of the half-bred stock
in the different counties, and doubtless such information will
be acted upon. ‘The late show, if in a certain measure experi-
mental, proved, first of all, that the thoroughbred horses in this
country are by no means scarce, and there were also unmis-
takable signs that, despite the great increase in the value of
stallions, and in like manner in fees for the production of race-
horses, there is still a fair proportion of at least the best second-
class available as hunting sires. ‘T'wo horses that gained pre-
miums at Nottingham have been very recently purchased, in one
case for 1,200/., and in the other for 1,000/., and eight or ten
others have changed hands at 500/. and upwards. This fairly
signifies quality, and if a reserve list of such horses were in future
at the disposal of the Commission, it can well be seen that a
better class of hunting sire would become general.

The local committees which have been appointed might do
good work in regulating the location of stallions. If a horse
was specially liked by breeders and farmers, and, instead of
getting fifty mares as stipulated by the conditions, got from
eighty to a hundred, a report of the same should be made to
the Royal Commission, with a recommendation that the horse
should be again the recipient of the premium. ‘This might be
repeated year after year until his produce had reached the age
of three, when a change might be desirable, as the system of
breeding from three-year-old fillies cannot be too strongly ad-~
vocated, both to increase the stock of horses in the country and
for the advantage of breeding from young fresh animals. This
plan would give the Royal Commission an opportunity to place
horses according to their strains of blood in years to come; so
that the lines of one horse might cross well with those of a
predecessor,

The Royal Agricultural Society had plenty of evidence last
year at Newcastle that the policy of giving valuable premiums
for the encouragement of good stallions of the right stamp to get

Report on Experiments by Local Agricultural Societies, 261

hunters was sound, and that it was appreciated by farmers and
the general public as a step in the right direction. It was then
for only five stallions, and the benefits to be derived from such
a small number were of course of a limited character; but it was
the stepping-stone to something better, as from that beginning
the Royal Commission has taken its stand. Twenty-seven
stallions is still a small number to be spoken of in connection
with a movement to increase the national stock of horses. The
grant at the disposal of the Royal Commission on Horse
Breeding is manifestly inadequate, and the insignificance of the
amount appears still more apparent when it is remembered that
other countries have spent millions upon what England has left
to chance. The popular view of the subject has been made clear
enough by all that has been seen at the two shows held under
the direction of the Royal Agricultural Society, and it is to
be hoped that future Governments will see the necessity of
aiding in a cause that should be of the highest national import-
ance, not only as an industry belonging specially to this country,
but as a means of defence.

XIII.—Report on the Experiments conducted in 1887 by
Local Agricultural Societies, in conjunction with the Royal
Agricultural Society of England. By Dr. J. Auaustus
VoELcKER, B.A., B.Sc., Consulting Chemist to the Society.

THE scheme of co-operation between the Royal Agricultural
Society and local agricultural societies for the carrying out of
experiments in different districts was, it may be remembered,
instituted in the spring of 1886. In that year four different
societies undertook experiments, viz. :—

The Essex Agricultural Society.

The Royal Manchester Liverpool and North Lancashire
Society.

The Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, and

The Yorkshire Agricultural Society.

Devides these, the Bath and West of England had already on
foot a series of experiments of their own. ‘The results of 1886
are recorded in the report made by me in this ‘Journal,’ Vol.
XXIII., 2nd Series, Part I. (1887), pp. 252-73.

The present is a report on further experiments conducted
in 1887, the same societies taking part in them as in 1886,
with the exception of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, owing
in great measure to the serious illness of Mr, John Coleman,

262 . Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

whose death we have since had to lament. In addition to the
three societies, the Bath and West of England Society carried
out an extensive inquiry on the growth of barley, in accordance
with the plan they had adopted, and which has, I may say, very
much to recommend it, viz. that of having one and the same ex-
periment over a number of districts, and consequently with great
variety of soil and climatic conditions. The experiments them-
selves while in progress were duly inspected by myself, and the
local societies, as before, drew up their separate reports, which
were presented at the March meeting of the Special Experi-
ments Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, and of
which it is now my duty to present an abstract. In doing this
it is a pleasure to me to congratulate the societies on the energy
with which they have taken up this really important work, and
on the care which has been bestowed on the efficient carrying
out of the experiments. Further, I am glad to note the extended
interest felt in the experiments locally by members of the several
societies, feeling sure, as I do, that it is a step in the right
direction.

I. Essex AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

(Abstract of Report of Mr. Bernarp Dyer, B.Sc., Consulting
Chemist to the Society, and Mr. E. Rosiine, of Melbourne,
Chelmsford.)

For the second year in succession Mr. Rosling has placed
land at the disposal of the Essex Agricultural Society, and
Mr. Dyer has continued the planning and direction of the ex-
periments. My personal inspection warrants me in saying that
no care has been wanting on the part of either to bring the ex-
periments to a successful issue. Season, however, will assert
its influence, and if the report of 1887 has to chronicle partial
results only, it is due to the exceptional weather alone. All
agriculturists know what an unfavourable year 1887 was for
root crops and for the action of manures, and it is on account
of such influences that those who set themselves to experiment
must, like the Essex Agricultural Society, be prepared to carry
out experiments, not for one year only, but for a succession of
years.

A. Experiments on Oats.

In 1886, experiments had been conducted on mangolds, the
principal crop of that part of Essex. The soil, an analysis of
which was given in last year’s report (p. 264), is a decidedly
stiff loam of clayey appearance resting on a gravel subsoil, a
soil certainly of very good quality, After a wheat crop, the

Local Agricultural Societies.

263

PLor

H

Manures per acre used for
mangolds in 1886

No dung, no artificials . .

12 tons dung, no artificials

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. Sane:
phosphate .. .

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 1 cwt. nitrate
of soda, applied at seed-
time .

12 tons dung, 3 owt. super-
phosphate, 1 cwt. nitrate
soda, top-dressed in July

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 3 cwt. sul-
phate of ammonia, ap-
plied at seed-time .

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, # cwt. sul-
phate of ammonia, top-
dressed in July. -

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 2 cwt. nitrate
of soda, applied at seed-
time

12 tons dung, 3 ewt. super-
phosphate, 2 cwt. nitrate
of soda, \oaieaads in
July ..

12 tons dung, 3 ewt. super-
phosphate, 14 cwt. sul-
phate of ammonia, ap-
plied at seed-time.

12 tons dung, 8 cwt. super-
phosphate, 13 cwt. sul-
phate of ammonia, top-
dressed in July. . .

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 1 cwt. nitrate
soda, mixed with 1 cwt.
salt, top-dressed in July

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 13 cwt. sul-
phate of potash, top-
dressed in July, with 1
cwt. nitrate of soda .

12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
phosphate, 14 cwt. sul-
phate of potash, 2 cwt.
sulphate of ammonia, ap-
plied at seed-time

j
|
|
|

5
|
|
|

1886

Mangolds per
acre

tons cwt. qrs, lbs.

14 12 2 20
2212 1 8

2210 0 16

23 4 2 4

2410 12 0

2413 1 4

22 14 3 12

£6 0 1 20

2516 2 0

25 0 3 0

24. fel 4

24 10 4

23. 3 0 4

1813 2 16

Bushels
per
acre

52°18
65°30

66°40

67:06

58°45

64°88

67:08

69-98

64°72

68°67

68°83

60°92

59°74

54:37

1887
Oats

Weight
per | Straw per acre
bushel

lbs. |tonscwt.qrs. lbs.
37:25| 1 0 3 24
38:16; 1 9 2 12

38:31; 1 11 2 O

36°62}1 8 0 8
37:50| 1 8 O 20

SiO kee tee, One
Big) | BA at Choma)
3812} 112 2 0
38°50; 1 11 1 24
38:91|110 0 4
38:06; 112 1 8

39:00) L 19), 0) 0

38:83, 1 9 1 24

3825;1 8 0 8

264 Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

land was dunged throughout for the mangolds. The general
results, in a season which was a dry one, were that dung
(12 tons per acre) could best be supplemented by the addition
of nitrate of soda, which latter could be advantageously used
even to the extent of 2 cwt. per acre, and that top-dressing
after singling was the best mode of application; that super-
phosphate added to the dung gave no increase, though the
experiment left it undecided whether superphosphate added to
nitrogenous top-dressings increased the yield; that sulphate of
ammonia did not give such good results as nitrate of soda; but
that to sow it with the seed was better than top-dressing. In
1887, on the same land, oats were grown, with the object of
seeing what effect, if any, the manures used for the mangolds
would have on the subsequent oat crop, no fresh manure
being therefore added. In the Table on page 263 are given
the results both of the mangold crop of 1886, and the oat crop
of 1887.

As a general result, the manure which gave the heaviest
mangold crop also yielded the heaviest oat crop, 43 bushels of .
oats and 3 cwt. of straw more than from dung alone being the
highest increase. Such a result, as Mr. Dyer rightly remarks,
is probably due not so much to any actual residues of nitrate of
soda, sulphate of ammonia, &c., applied, but to the store of food
left in the soil by the rootlets of the mangold crop. The benefit
from superphosphate was very slight, whilst there was none from
potash manures or salt. The influence of dung over no manure
was very distinct; 13 bushels of corn and 9 ecwt. of straw, as
well as 8 tons of mangolds in the previous year, having been the
additional produce. ‘This supplies interesting evidence of the
efficiency of dung for a second season.

B.—LExperiments on Mangolds.

Mr. Rosling having found in 1886 a high manuring to be so
successful, wished to extend it still further. _ Whether he would
in an ordinary season have been successful cannot be told; at
any rate, in the present case the important factor of the weather
upset all calculations, and deferred to a future year the full
solution of these interesting problems. The scheme of 1886 was
extended in the direction in which it had been found most
profitable—viz., the use of nitrate of soda—and was further
supplemented by the addition of plots in which guano and basic
cinder were used. The field selected was one somewhat similar
to that used the year before, but the subsoil, instead of being
gravel, was white clay containing chalk nodules. It was richer
in lime, potash, and phosphorjc acid, and was altogether decidedly
arich soil, ‘The analysis of it was as follows :—

Local Agricultural Societies. 265

Chemical Analysis of Fine Soil, dried at 212° Fahr.

Silica and silicates insoluble in apices acid . - 82°880
Oxide of iron . - . ! » 3935
Alumina . : = ° ° . ° . . « 4880
Lime... : : : : : : : ° . 1:68
Magnesia . . 5 : : - : - : 360
Potash . P . é - : - - : - 594
Soda F : . . ° bop Ae AS 359
Phosphoric acid : . : : F . . 205
Sulphuric acid ‘ . . . : : : ‘ 044
Nitric acid . . : . . ‘ : ‘ . 002
Chlorine . . it . . . , . 003
Carbonic acid (combined) Ci ae aie . 802
1 Organic matter, water of combination, &e. : ° » 4368
100:000

1 Containing Nitrogen . . ° ° > ote te 147

Dung was last applied in 1885, and in 1886 an oat crop was
grown with 2 cwt. of superphosphate and 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda
peracre. The seed (Orange Globe Mangold) was sown on the ridge
on April 12, the manures, with the exception of the top-dressings,
having been placed just below the seed. The superphosphate
used contained 29°78 per cent. of soluble phosphate ; the Peruvian
guano was one highly phosphatic in nature, containing 47-02
per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, with 5-07 per cent. of
ammonia ; and the basic cinder contained 17°16 per cent. of phos-
phoric acid (equal to 37°36 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of
lime). The nitrate of soda was sown in various quantities up to
4 cwt. per acre. Where 2 cwt. were put as a top-dressing, the
first application was on July 16, the second on July 28. Of the-
larger quantities, 1 cwt. was put in at seed-time, the rest at
intervals. The plant was very backward, but fortunately regular,
and it is certain that a quantity even of the nitrate of soda was
never thoroughly washed in. The roots: were pulled early in
November and weighed.

After due caution as to the danger of putting an arbitrary
money-value on dung, a computation of 5s. a ton was fixed, and
in the report a table is given showing the increase due to the
several manures over the produce of the unmanured plot, also
the cost per acre of manuring and the cost per ton of the
increased yield. The general result, however, is to show
the extravagant cost of the dung, and that the increase is
due to the artificials. We may, therefore, pass on to the next
Table, in which the increase over the dunged plots is given;
and to this Table I append the plots on which no dung was
used.

The increase due to dung alone was about 2 tons only, the

266 Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

Mangolds per

Cost per
Increase of crop | Cost per | ton of in+

PLor Manures per acre over dunged acre for creased
ears land artificials | yield a
mango
‘ tons cwt, qrs. lbs. |tonscwt.qrs.lbs.| &£ 8 d. | £ 8. de
F | 12 tons dung, no artificials 1117 3 24 — — _—
12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
J}{ idehate f) 10"9 “ras none’*| |.0 SS ee
12 tons dung, 2 cwt. nitrate
OF rapes: at at J { 14 1 3 16 2 8 320/1 1 6/0 910
12 tons dung, 3 ewt, super-
C phosphate, 2 cwt. nitrate;| 15 12 224) 314 3 0|;1 9 9/0 8 O
of soda . :
12 tons dung 4 owt. nitrate ;
a ee a “}) 14 5 024) 27 10/2 3 0/018 2
- 12 tons dung, 3 cwt. super-
L phosphate, 4 cwt. nitrate}}15 6 3 8| 3 7 312|)211 3/015 O
of soda. . : , .
12 tons dung, 4 cwt. basic ;
K | cinder, 4 cwt. nitrate vet 1418 0 24 3-0 1. (05) (2°10) (ORO mGr iS
soda .
B 12 tons dung, 2 owt. guano 14) AC TOMES || 28S "eed! 0 14 “670M 9
12 tons dung, 2 cwt. guano,
E { Sad witrato of coda a 1411-3 4 |! 2°73 38 Te ORO as
G | 12 tons dung,4cwt.guano, |16 4 312] 4 6 316/1 9 0/0 6 8
12 tons dung, 4 cwt. guano,
Hl{ oo owt nibate of mda} | 18 4.0 12] 6 6 O16) 1 tc noymeee
12 tons dung, 4 cwt. guano
Deg ot Renee oe eng a | 212/ 7 1 216/812 0]010 2
ica’ ait “ynanared land
odung, noartificials
O| | Ditto’ ditto smem{| 918 0 4 rz ra in
m |{Nodung, 4 owt. nitrate of}| 19. (¢ gasili's 18 1942 oar
No dung, 4 cwt. basic cin-
N { der, 4 cwt. Piahitelat foidatt 12 7 220) 2 9 216/210 6) tose
No dung, 3 ewt. superphos-
le phate, 4 cwt. nitrate of;| 1619 216) 7 1 212/211 8|0 7 38
soda .
Q {No dung, 6 owt. guano, 4 7 1818 0 0| 819 32/4 6 6/0 9 7

ewt. nitrate of soda .

estimated cost being 31. per acre, or 30s, per ton of increased
crop. It is probable that, as last year, superphosphate added to
dung did no good, though I must regard as accidental the lower
yield of plot J as compared with F. In last year’s experiments
the produce was nearly identical on both plots. A comparison
of plots D and C, as also of R and P, would lead to a conclusion
favourable to the use of superphosphate, at least when used with
nitrogenous manures. Nitrate of soda, 2 cwt. per acre, would
appear to have produced about 2 tons additional crop, and 4 cwt.
nitrate of soda to have been more effectual than 12 tons of dung.
Basic cinder proved inferior to superphosphate ; but the results
obtained with guano were decidedly satisfactory, 2 cwt. per

Local Agricultural Societies. 267

acre having given about the same result as 2 cwt. of nitrate of
soda, viz. 2 tons per acre over the dung produce; 4 cwt. of guano
per acre doing still more.

Looking at the results from an economical point of view, the
best results were given by plots P and Q where no dung was
applied, P (3 ewt. superphosphate, 4 cwt. nitrate of soda) yielding
an increase of over 7 tons per acre, at a cost of 7s. 3d. per ton of
increase, and Q (6 cwt. guano, 4 cwt. nitrate of soda) 9 tons per
acre increase, at a cost of 9s. 7d. per ton. Omitting the cost
of dung, the guano plots H (4 cwt. guano, 2 cwt. nitrate of
soda), G (4 ewt. guano), and. B (2 cwt. guano) gave the best
returns.

Mr. Dyer made analyses of roots taken from the different
plots, and these showed the average percentage of dry matter to
be about 144, which is a high figure, 12 per cent. being in any
ordinary season about the average. There were, therefore, much
more dry matter and less water in the roots than is usual, the
roots being thus much richer.

The total rainfall from January to the end of October was
only 12°03 inches, and the soil was very parched. The principal
conclusions drawn are these :—

1. That, owing probably to the extreme dryness of the season, dung alone
produced a comparatively small effect at an extravagantly high cost.

2, That the addition of artificials to,ibe dung increased the yield con-
siderably at a relatively diminished cost.

3. That the most efficacious artificials as additions to dung, both as
regards increased yield and cost of increased produce, were guano and nitrate
of soda used together.

4, That artificials alone proved much more economical than dung, or any
mixture of dung and artificials.

5. That nitrate of soda, whether with or without dung, did not produce
its maximum effect without the addition of phosphatic manure, such as guano
or superphosphate.

6. That basic cinder, although it increased the crop, did not act as well
as superphosphate.
7. That the roots, almost throughout the field, contained much more dry

or solid matter, and therefore less water, than roots grown in an ordinary
season,

In consequence of the dryness, which doubtless prevented the
manures from exercising anything like their full benefit, as seen
in the small produce, the Essex Committee considered it desirable
to repeat these experiments another year. The Experimental
Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society think this a very
wise course to adopt, and they further recommend that the tops
be weighed as well as the bulbs.

268 Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

Il. Tae Royat MaAncHESTER LIVERPOOL AND NORTH
LANCASHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The Experimental Committee of this society, under the
direction of Mr. Smetham, the society’s chemist, and Mr.
Holland, their botanist, decided upon carrying out experiments
on the laying down of grass for permanent pasture, and also for
one, two, three, and four years’ ley, these subjects being of the
most importance in the districts in which the experiments were
to be conducted.

The society has two stations, one at Saltney, near Chester,
and the other (more recently added) at Rostherne, on the estate

-of Lord Egerton of Tatton.

A.—Grass Experiments at Saltney, near Chester.

The field selected is in the occupation of Mr. John Roberts,
and is 17 acres in extent. The soil is a strong one, 10
to 12 inches deep, with a clay subsoil. Wheat was the crop
in 1885, oats following in 1886. Five acres were laid down
with mixtures of grass-seeds suitable for permanent pasture,
whilst five other acres, comprising ten half-acre plots, were laid
down with different mixtures of clovers and grass-seeds, for one,
two, and three years’ ley. Besides this, specimen plots of the
clovers and grasses were sown, and other plots laid out for the
cultivation of different varieties of potatoes.

All the plots were pastured up to March 28, 1887, and the
whole then manured with 3 cwt. of bone manure per acre. Each
plot was then divided, one half being hurdled off for mowing,
and the other half left to be fed. The hay was mown on July 2.

Mr. Holland remarks, with regard to the effect of mowing
permanent pastures during the first year, that the root was
clearly not so thick on the mown as on the unmown portions;
and that this effect was felt by the grasses rather than the
clovers, which latter seem to have suffered little. In the case
of the rotation plots the object is of course a different one, viz.
to ges as much bulk as possible during the first year. Of the
different grass-mixtures plot 3 in the permanent pasture series
(composed of the stronger grasses only) seemed to be eaten off
best; and among the rotation grasses plot 6. The mixtures of
seeds sown per acre in each case were as follows :—

Prot No. 3.

2 lbs. Italian Ryegrass. 4 lbs. Meadow Foxtail Grass,
6 ,, Cocksfoot Grass. 4 ,, White Clover.

5 ,, Meadow Fescue Grass, 1 ,, Red Clover.

3 ,, Tall Fescue Grass, 1 ,, Alsike Clover,

3 ,, Timothy Grass.

Local Agricultwral Societies. ° | 269

Prior No. 6.
4 lbs. Italian Ryegrass. | 3 lbs. Timothy Grass,
6 ,, Cocksfoot Grass. 3. ,, Red Clover.
3 ,, Meadow Fescue Grass. 14 ,, White Clover,
2 ,, Tall Fescue Grass. 1i ,, Alsike Clover.
2 ,, Meadow Foxtail Grass, |

As regards permanent pasture mixtures, no great difference
can be noted ; and, indeed, time alone can settle the matter, some
grasses, ¢.g. Meadow Foxtail, only showing the fourth year.

As far as the experiments on rotation grasses have gone,
they would appear to be all against complicated and expensive
mixtures, -plot 14 (22 Ibs. Italian Ryegrass, and 10 lbs. Ame-
rican Red Clover) having done as well as anything. Mr. Hol-
land especially comments on plot 1, a cheap mixture which has
formed a wonderfully thick sward and covered the ground very
quickly, and which was composed as follows :—

Prior No. 1.

24 lbs. Devonshire Evergreen | | 41bs. Wild White Clover.
Ryegrass.. . | + 3 yy Sweet.Vernal Grass.
4 ,, Crested Dogstail-Grass. - | .

He adds that, though probably not generally to be recom-
mended on low-lying lands, on poor land and in elevated posi-
tions such a mixture would be found very useful as a sheep
pasture. Of the separate specimen: plots, that of Bird’s-foot Tre-
foil (Lotus corniculatus) was the best and the most sought after
by the sheep when put on if: ‘so much so, indeed, that they went
on it at the first opportunity and kept it bare. On the plot
containing it as a constituent of the mrxture, the same luxu- .
riance was noticed. Mr. Holland says there appears to be some
difficulty in getting. the. seed pure,. but attention should cer-
tainly be directed tovits further cultivation.:

B.—-Grass Experiments at Rostherne.

This, the second experimental station, had its origin in the
liberality of Lord Egertan .of. Tatton, who, besides bearing the
‘cost, has placed at the society’s disposal every facility for carry-
ing out the experiments. Upon a field planted one half with
wheat and the other half with oats, seeds both for permanent
pasture and for four years’ and two years’ ley were sown in the
spring of 1887. The plots are half an acre each in extent, each
mixture being sown in duplicate, in the one case in the wheat
crop, and in the other in the oats. The dry summer of 1887
has unfortunately militated greatly against obtaining a good
‘plant, and there is at present nothing special to record about
this experiment.

270 Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

IIJ.—NorFoLk CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE.

The annual report of the Chamber contains the account of
another year of activity in the prosecution of experimental
enquiry, and in this Mr. F. J. Cooke, of Flitcham, has again
been indefatigable in his efforts, while Mr. Garrett Taylor and
Mr. Sapwell have been his able supporters.

Further experiments on barley have been carried out on the
farms of the above gentlemen under varied conditions :—

A.—Ezxperiments on Barley after Roots drawn of the Land.
(a) Mr. Taytor’s Farm at WHITLINGHAM,

Produce per acre
PLor Manures per acre
Head-corn Straw
bushels ewt. qrs.]bs.
l ecwt.nitratesoda.... ote tena :
. te », superphosphate . capoeira ‘} ah 33116
2 HN NOUONG AS We amertink (we vac. Moll Gt” cot ticiee el (sete 36°25 23 1 12
2 cwt. nitrate soda. . =u « | © «uw Mlle
3 2 »» superphosphate, « « « « « « « = 49°87 37 3 20
1 ,, muriate potash . Py tte CoM RPT) =O
| { 13 ,, sulphateammonia. . . « « » « «
ih ES rie Go 70 0 6 ¢ 42°50 ol 1° 0
(1 py IMULAbeNPOLASH: tse ie ite) Nontennte ne
| ( 3 ,, sulphateammonia. « . « «© «© 6 «
5 |}2 ,, superphosphate. BS. PO Ae 42°12 32 1 24
| (1 », -Imuriate potash , a. el me? (lutte iets
(lea. Mmitratesoda’ . eV. i eure Breet Meiers ;
6 iia 5, muriate potash , aC ie) Well eek Oks 2H 49°25 32.2 12
7 | 13,, nitrate soda , a You lehare pack ome 40°78 28 1 8
es, se ULTALe SOU vs - e) @ eee ela cael ieiare
8/42 ,, superphosphate . ° i Chm ac | 42°12 30 1 4
1, muriate potash. « « « 0 ee «
9| Nothing. . . anh?) hr eye oem 34:62 25 0 0
2 ewt. superphosphate. . .« « « « « e :
10 Ret pe eMmuUnate OLASI A. mle! Moun loumetuetars ‘} 33°34 2210
11 | 1},,, guano (10 per cent. ar eee 37°93 28 116
| (Roots folded with sheep and a dressing of 3 ;
12 { ewt. fish salt, sown March8 , . « « « } 52-50 39 0 16
1 25

13 | Duplicate—Roots folded,&c. . . . ss . | 5312 | 40

Here barley followed swedes, which had been manured with
A ewt. of bone-flour, 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, and 1 ewt.
of gypsum per acre, the produce being nearly 20 tons. Mineral
manures were sown for the barley on February 17, the barley,
guano, and sulphate of ammonia being put in March 7-9, and
the nitrate of soda top-dressing April 7. The produce of the
unmanured plots, even in a season like the last, was a high one,
viz. 354 bushels per acre, which gives an idea of the fertility of
the land. In consequence the increased produce due to the

Local Agricultural Societies. 271

manures could not be exceptionally large. Sulphate of ammonia
in such a dry year did not equal nitrate of soda in its results.
The highest yield was where 2 cwt. nitrate of soda per acre was
used in conjunction with superphosphate and muriate of potash,
viz. 49 bushels. Judging from plot 7, minerals would seem to
have helped the produce. Though plot 3 gave the highest and
an excellent return, the best-paying one was from plot 1 (1 cwt.
nitrate of soda, and 2 cwt. superphosphate). In last year’s
similar experiment, 2 cwt. superphosphates, 1 cwt. nitrate of
soda, and $ cwt. muriate of potash per acre did best. The
results this year differ, therefore, only in respect to the advan-
tage of using the additional small quantity of potash-manure.

(>) Mr. Cooxe’s Farm, Fritcnam (OLD Sarnrory FIELD).

In this case white turnips was the crop drawn off. Mr.
Cooke here carried out a plan which both he and I had, for some
time previously, had in contemplation, viz. by experimenting on
land which was known from previous experience to require
potash, to ascertain in what form it could be best supplied. In
the combinations of potash used on plots 1, 2, and 5, approxi-
mately the same quantity of potash (K,O) per acre (about 56
Ibs.) was applied in each case; a rather less amount was given
to plot 6 (49 lbs.), and a double amount (112 lbs.) to plot 7.
The results were as follows :—

Produce per acre
PLoT Manures per acre
Head corn Straw
bushels ewt. qrs. lbs,
cS 3 cwt. superphosphate . . ...-.-
1 sy WMUAte potash 5 5. MS e: tents 33°12 23° 1:20
ls eltoratelsoda, 5 «) ss 5 s @ -
3) »45--Superphosphate « « « . « «>
2 i! “3 STEEETA “gh Fai an cee ae } 28-62 20 38 20
2 ,, nitrate soda SUneTiee) Get ccdewers
St), Superphosphate ... .s) «ie .e bec ;
3 {9 » nitrate Sis elke Stieatese cai ane ae ‘} ot Tey, Oe20
4 Zs, WMitrate Soda 5 .« .» ce» purce 20°62 13 1 12
3 ,, superphosphate . .. ’ .
5 1 ,. sulphate potash . . . . : 34:50 19352 a. O
2 ,, nitrate soda ° : .
3 ,, superphosphate , ef pn eo :
6 n a DAuMALe POLASH Ge je ue we 1c 6 : 37°12 20 2 16
fees) EALGINOB) <6 jo't,0 asus ve Ls
ieee SUPCEPNOS PHATE: 6. c.ociecn.m ic ‘|
fa ( WeLINUriate pOLash, «. <5 6 <« . 37°73 ae nS
2).\,.) mitrate:soda. 6. 34 oy

The barley was sown on February 16, the mineral manures
being put on the day before, and nitrate of soda as a top-dress-

272 Report on Experiments conducted in 1887 by

ing subsequently, in two lots. The need of potash is shown by
the low produce of plots 3 and 4. Plot 3 (nitrate of soda and
superphosphate) was indeed the lower, but this was perhaps
due, as Mr. Cooke says, to the situation of plots 1, 2, and 3 not
being as good as that of the rest. The kainit also probably did
not give thoroughly satisfactory results owing to this cause; at
any rate, it did not give as good results as were obtained from
the use of 1 cwt. per acre of either sulphate of potash or muriate
of potash, which gave about an equal return. The sulphate of
potash produced rather more corn, the muriate more straw. The
best results, however, were obtained by using 1 ewt. nitrate of
potash per acre, the quantity of nitrate of soda being reduced on
this plot so as to give the same application of nitrate on this plot as
on the others. ‘The yield, it will be noticed, was nearly as high
as on the plot on which double the amount of potash, as muriate,
was used. These are interesting results, which will well bear
repetition.

B. Eaperiments upon Barley after Barley.
Mr. Cooxr’s Farm at Fiircnam (HouGuton Firxp).

This experiment was similar in some respects to the last-
mentioned, the relative effect of kainit and muriate of potash
being tried where barley followed barley. Common salt was
also used on one plot to see whether the beneficial results which
Mr. Cooke had obtained with muriate (chloride) of potash were
due to the potash, or possibly to the chlorine, in which latter
case common salt (chloride of sodium) should have answered as
well. The results were as follows :—

Produce per acre
PLor Manures,per acre _

Head corn Straw

———— ee —

4 bushels ewt.. qrs. Ibs,

NO ww

27°37 18 0 16

+ ewt. muriate potash “
»» superphosphate ..

, nitrate of soda

a
; : » Kainit : - |
2 ee superphosphate . - 27:75 18 0 16
l2 », nitrate of soda :
§ 4, common salt... <= « & & #
3 8 ,, superphosphate... . +. « | 23°37 lb 12
2 ,, nitrate of soda PPE ek el tle
4 2 , nitrateofsoda + - +. + = « % 16°50 10.0 12

——

Nitrate of soda aloné was practically the nothing plot. Salt
with superphosphate increased the yield by 7 bushels; but both
the muriate and the kainit added yet another 4 bushels, and
‘between them there was nothing to choose.

”_

Local Agricultural Societies, 273

C. Experiment on Barley (unmanured) after Mangolds
(manured).

Mr. Taytor’s Farm (WHITLINGHAM).

This experiment was to test the value, for a barley crop, of
the residue from the manures applied for the mangolds of the
year previous. The following table gives the results :—

: Produce per acre
PLoT Manures per acre applied for mangolds in 1886

Head-corn | Straw per acre
a7 bushels ewt. qrs, lbs
1 ZOMOAGSI GUNG pr set eh ses toe 43:00 26
10 loads dung oS Sic eo! he .
2 { 2 cwt. nitrate of soda . Hy iy ac ae i, 41:26 20h 8

£5, superphosphate .. . : +: . »

6 | 2 ,, nitrate soda A SaaS) ike to eae 38°50 25 0 24
ueyeecommonisaltig. % & % § + % s

7 4 ,, superphosphate . 1 1 «© » « » 28°00 17 3 12
$5, superphosphate; 3; . +. s » «)

13 AM eSUCCOANOW 6. ye se 5 ay it 43°87 26 2 12
feeremunate;potashy 3 i) a = 6 a

As to the difference between plots 6 and 7, it is stated in
the report to the Norfolk Chamber that plot 7 was almost cer
tainly inferior land, having produced 2 tons per acre less root
than the unmanured plots, and over 13 tons less than plot 6.
Mr. Cooke discusses the interesting question whether irregularity
of soil alone accounts for the high result on plot 6, or whether
there is a residue from the nitrate of soda applied the year
before and still available for the succeeding barley crop. He
inclines to the belief that the latter may have been the cause,
after such an exceptionally dry season, and estimates that about
4 bushels of the increase was due toit. Iam afraid I can hardly
follow Mr. Cooke in this. I would direct attention to a similar
case occurring in the Essex experiments on oats after mangolds
recorded in an earlier part of the present paper, where Mr. Dyer

_ makes what I think to be avery pertinent remark—viz., that

the increased corn crop after a heavier mangold crop is due in
all probability rather to the large accumulation of plant food in
the rootlets of the heavier mangold crop than to any residue
from nitrate of soda. At all events from plots so varying it
would be unwise to draw a definite conclusion. Fish guano in
the second year appears to haye told well.

VOL, XXIV.—S; S, dt,

274 Report on Experiments by Local Agricultural Societies.

D. Experiment on Mangolds after W heat.

Mr. Sapwewu’s Farm (AYLSHAM).

This was undertaken chiefly with a view to determining
whether superphosphate was of use for mangolds, to see how

PLor Manures per acre Roots per acre Tops per acre

tons cwt. qrs. lbs. | tons ewt. qrs. lbs.
DCWLTOL Salvi «pce (lt te (en teu he
1 ,, nitrate of soda . 20 1D 3 et6 6 OF00
1. ,, nitrate of soda top- dressing
4 ,, superphospk e€ ... »
3
1
if

He Ghillie es Stott ecto ‘
» nitrate of soda . 22 -.8.-.3.- 20-7) i aa
nitrate of soda top- -dressing .
Nothing . Can Mek ace Ef fe ec
3 ewtisalt3.. fis 0% 5 a te
» nitrate of soda. . . -
» nitrate of soda fop-dressing
»» Superphosphate. . 1... .
3 | Salticve:. Le oa seep.
» nitrate of ate ee ee
yy itrate of soda top- ‘dressing’
,, superphosphate mixed with
pePDOne-OUtim Een Gates te ae
nitrate of soda. .. . 7
» nitrate of soda top- dressing :
cwt. superphosphate. . ... .
ee HalG. eee oars
» luriate of potash . ai hese
» Nitrate of soda © in 5 bee
», nitrate of soda, top-dressing .

|
|
|
|
Bao
|
|

w

2 Soe

wo
_
-
o

211.0 © 18 | biG Hoe t

1912 3 2] 314 2 26

» lmuriate of potash. . .
» nitrate of soda . -
nitrate of soda, top- -dressing "i
10 loads Gunp/gee ses ee ee aes
Sicwtusalt! an 2s E Teis. a
1 ,, nitrate of soda . :
1 ,, nitrate of soda, top- -dressing ;
NOUILUZLY Mod toe a tal oe a ets oe
i@losds dune. s 8 F Helle Le
3cwt.salt. . . vince why
1 ,, sulphate ammonia .
1 ,, nitrate of soda, top- “dressing
1OjJoads dune? Tia a 9s).
BOW Selle bo at ee
11 ,, guano. . :
», nitrate of soda, top- dressing ?
1Olondsdung sf. (teria, ries
B.Cwt, fishsalt. sorcanlbe weecgrreg) be
»» Superphosphate °
8 stone bone-flour : : i: 4 . «
1 cwt. muriate of potash. . ...
5 mitrateior soda a 5) ss 3
» nitrate of soda, top- dressing 2

Pek fet ee Ht eto HD DO CO HE DO

10

1918 3 0} 4°62 2

—
bo

19 16 120} 410°0 0

oe
Ordinary farming

e
|
|
|
|
"|
‘|
|
|
|

ea Wer Vaan SORE Sa

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn, 275

nitrate of soda could best be used, and if common salt were a
useful or necessary adjunct to muriate of potash. The results
are given in the table on page 274:

On comparing the plots 1 and 2, and also plots 4 and 5, the
addition of superphosphate will be found to have given about
2 tons more in the first case and half a ton more in the second.
The Norfolk experiments of 1886 and 1887 have consequently
shown no very decisive advantage from the use of superphosphate
for mangold, at least on the particular land experimented on.
The addition of a small quantity of bone-flour to superphosphate
would not appear to be required, and the joint use of salt and
muriate of potash was evidently not requisite. Lastly, the
smaller dressings of nitrate of soda were equally efficacious with
the larger, but the season may have had much to do with this
in not effectually washing in these top-dressings.

Further experiments were carried out at Whitlingham,
Aylsham, and Flitcham, upon swedes, but the results, owing to
the dry season, are of very uncertain nature. The report to the
Norfolk Chamber contains also records of several additional
experiments (e.g. on pasture, rotation seeds, clover, sainfoin,
&c.) conducted by the Chamber on their own account, and more
specially of local interest.

A meeting of the Special Experiments.Committee of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England was held at 12, Hanover
Square on March 6, 1888, when delegates from various local
societies attended, and the reports, of which the foregoing is an
abstract, were duly presented. In the course of the discussion
an opinion was expressed, and appeared to meet with general
approbation, that it would be very desirable in a future year to
plan one particular experiment to be carried out simultaneously
in their several districts by the local -societies affiliated for this
purpose with the Royal Agricultural Society.

XIV.—Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn,
conducted on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England during the year 1887. By Dr. J. AuGusTUS VOELCKER,
B.A., B.Sc., Consulting Chemist to the Society.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE ConTINUOUS GROWTH OF WHEAT.

TE experimental plots were prepared for sowing at the beginning
of October 1886. Mineral manures were sown on October 11,
and Browick wheat at the rate of 9 pecks per acre was dibbled

in, October 13-16, The wheat was well up by November 16,
ra

276 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn.

and there was a good plant throughout the season. The farm-
yard manure for the dunged plots 10B and 118 was made by
four Hereford bullocks which were put in the pits and fed for 21
days, November 22 to December 13. During this period they
consumed :—decorticated cotton-cake, 2 cwt. 2 qrs.; maize-
meal, 4 cwt.; white turnips, 30 cwt.; wheat-straw chaff, 5 ewt. ;
and they were supplied with 12 cwt. of wheat-straw as litter.

The dung after being made was removed from the pits and
kept under cover until February 11, 1887, when it was found to
weigh 24 cwt. 1 qr. 26 Ibs. On the same day plots 108 and 11s
were dressed with the dung in quantity to supply per acre
respectively 100 Ibs. and 200 lbs. of ammonia.

Throughout January there was continued frost, but the
wheat did not appear to suffer at all. The cold weather, accom-
panied with snow at intervals, continued throughout February,
right on to March 21, when it broke. The plots were harrowed
on March 28; transplanting was done on April 1, hoeing on
April 13, followed by horse-hoeing. The nitrogenous top-
dressings of ammonia-salts and nitrate of soda were sown on
plots 2, 3, 5, 6, 8a, and 9a, on April 29. Rain fell on May 2, 3,
and 4, and washed the manures in well. By May 7 the weather
had turned warm, and the top-dressings of nitrate of soda had
already by that time begun to tell. The effects of the ammonia-
salts were also visible by May 9. On May 12, the plots were
hoed the second time. The plots on which nitrate of soda had
been put appeared throughont stronger than those dressed with
ammonia-salts, the more ready solubility of the former telling
in the dry season. The wheat grew well, and, during the
long drought which succeeded the rain of June 3 and con-
tinued till after harvest, it did not appear to suffer much, form-
ing a striking contrast to the shallower-rooted barley. It has
before been remarked that the soil of Stackyard Field, though
so light in character, is well adapted for suffering extremes both
of wet and drought ; its open character, especially with a plant
like wheat, enabling the rootlets to find their way readily to the
lower and moister levels of the subsoil. Plot 9a (heavy dressing
of nitrate of soda) was a big crop and went down somewhat,
appearing too much for an ordinary season. Plot 6 (smaller
dressing of nitrate of soda) on the contrary stood up well, as did
plot 5 (smaller dressing of ammonia-salts). Towards harvest it
was noticeable that the plots 2 and 5 (ammonia-salts) ripened
some considerable time before the corresponding nitrate of soda
plots. Plot 3 (nitrate of soda alone), like 94, went down
somewhat.

On August 5, after close examination of the wheat plots,
puparia of ‘the Hessian fly were found on some of them ; other

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 277

fields in the neighbourhood had also been visited by this pest.
By August 9 the attack had extended to all the wheat plots ;
specimens were collected and forwarded to Miss Ormerod, the
Society’s Consulting Entomologist, for identification, and she re-
ported on the attack as being that of the Hessian fly. Consider-
able damage was also done by the corn saw-fly. Coming so near
harvest, it would appear that the Hessian fly attack had but a
trifling effect on tlf& crop, which was cut on August 15, and
stacked in the field on August 19. The straw was cut rather
high up, and the stubble turned in at once, to prevent further
mischief. The corn was thrashed October 18-21, dressed and
weighed October 25-28. The results are given in Table L.,
page 278.

‘The plots are 4-acre ones, with the exception of the A’s and
B’s, which are } acre each.

The season, a very dry one, was not on the whole unfayour-
able to the wheat crop, and the results stand considerably above
those of last year. They resemble nearly the produce of 1885,
and are decidedly above the average of the last ten years. On
the unmanured plots the yield was 21:3 bushels and 24°6 bushels
per acre against 12-2 bushels and 14-5 bushels in 1886, the
average of the ten preceding years being 17 bushels. Mineral
manures used alone gave even a poorer result, viz. 17-7 bushels.

Ammonia-salts proved decidedly inferior to nitrate of soda
this year as a top-dressing; this was probably due in great
measure to the extreme drought. When ammonia-salts were
used alone, the increase was only 3 bushels over the average of
the unmanured plots, but with nitrate of soda the highest produce
since 1881 was obtained—viz. 35 bushels. Combined with
mineral manures, ammonia-salts (200 Ibs. per acre) gave only
3 bushels more, but nitrate of soda (275 lbs. per acre) similarly
combined yielded 40-2 bushels, or nearly 8 bushels more than
the average. When double the amounts of ammonia-salts and
nitrate of soda were used, 36°5 bushels in the one case and 43°8
bushels in the other were obtained. The omission of these
nitrogenous manures for a single year (they having been applied
last in the spring of 1886) reduced the produce to 27:4 bushels
and 20°3 bushels. It would thus appear that there was more
residue remaining from the previous application in 1886 of
ammonia-salts than from that of nitrate of soda, the crop on the
nitrate plot being even below the unmanured one. In the case
of the dunged plots, the application of four tons per acre pro-
duced some benefit, the yield being 30:2 bushels; eight tons of
dung gave 36:9 bushels per acre. Where no dung had been —
applied since 1882, there was still an increase of three or four
bushels above the unmanured crop.

278 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn.

TasLe I.—Propuce or Continuous WHEAT.

ELEVENTH Season, 1887.

Piots

or

10B

11A

1lB

|
i

f
il

i

|

|
/
|

* Ibs. sulph. potash, 100 Ibs. sulph.

MANURES PER ACRE

Unmanured ...

200 lbs. ammonia- salts, ‘containing
lbs. ammonia .

Nitrogen = 50 Ibs. ammonia
200 Ibs. sulph. potash, 100 lbs. sul ph.
soda, 100 lbs.

275 lbs. nitrate of soda, containing ey
)|

suiph. magnesia, 33>

cwts. superphosphate of lime . }

200 lbs. sulph. potash, 100 lbs. sulph.
soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 3

200 lbs. ammonia-salts. .
200 Ibs. sulph. potash, 100 lbs, sulph.

ewts. superphosphate of ah and
275 lbs. nitrate of soda .

Unmanured

The same minerals as in 8p, ‘and 400
lbs. ammonia-salts z

200 lbs. sulph. potash, 100 Ibs. sulph.
soda, 100 Ibs, sulph. magnesia, 3}
ewts. superphosphate of lime

The same minerals as in 9B, and 550
ibs. nitrate of soda ,

| -
| ewts. superphosphate of lime, and |

soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, cl)

soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia, 33 -
ewts. superphosphate of lime.

No manure (having received manure
as 10B in each of the five seasons
previous to 1882, but none in 1882
or since)

Farmyard- ‘manure, estimated to con:
tain nitrogen = 100 lbs. ammonia,
made from 672 lbs. decorticated

cotton-cake, 1,075 lbs. maize-meal, |

8,064 Ibs. turnips, 1,344 Ibs. wheat- |
straw,as food; and 3, 174 1bs. wheat-

straw as litter. Weight about 4 tons) |

No manure (having received manure
as 11B in each of the five peo
previous to 1882, but none in 1882
or since)

_Farmyard-manure, estimated to con-

tain nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia, ) |

made from 1,344 lbs, decorticated
cotton-cake, 2,150 lbs. maize-meal,
16,128 lbs. turnips, 2,688 lbs. wheat-
straw chaff, as food; and 6,348 lbs.
wheat-straw as litter. Weight
Gnome S tons «5 is oars

PRoDUCE PER ACRE

—

a

—

Dressed Corn
Number
Weight | if i
usheis
ai
Ibs. /
1,290". }; 22163
1,541 | 261
2,071 35-0
|
1,063 a7
1,697 29°7
2,373 402
1,378 24-6
2,050 36°5
1,514 | 27-4
2,526 | 43°8
1,200 20°3
1,510 26-4
1,716 30°2
1,578 27°8
2,094 36:9

Weight

per
Bushel
lbs.
60°45
59:08
59°16

60°06

57:14

59°12

55°92
56°25

55°33
57-75

59°25

57:17

56°83

56°67

56°88

Straw, Chaff,
&e.

28

37

19
36

23

45

17

21

25

22

31

to

26
12

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn, 279

EXPERIMENTS ON THE CoNTINUOUS GROWTH OF BARLEY.

The farmyard manure for the plots 10B and 118 was made
by four Hereford bullocks which fed for twenty-one days at the
same time, and consumed the same amount and kinds of food
as those which made the dung for the continuous wheat plots.
The dung, after removal from the pits, was put under cover, and
weighed on February 23, 1887, being then applied to the plots 10B
and 118, so as to supply to them 100 Ibs. and 200 lbs. of ammonia
per acre respectively. The plots were ploughed and rolled
February 28 to March 3, and mineral manures sown broadcast
on March 8, and harrowed in. The barley, nine pecks per acre of
“Golden Melon,” was drilled on March 22. Owing to continued
cold weather it was slow in showing itself, but came through
about April 16. It made, however, but little progress, and the
growth throughout was unsatisfactory—first the cold and then
the drought being altogether against it, causing the yield to be
small and the straw exceptionally short. The plots were har-_
rowed April 18-23. On May 5 nitrogenous top-dressings
(similar to those used for the wheat) were sown. Rain fell on_
the next day, and the effect of the nitrate of soda was clearly
discernible on May 18. By May 21, the ammonia-salts also
showed slightly the result of their action. During June and
July there was a long spell of drought, in the course of which the
barley felt very much the want of rain. The nitrate of soda
plots, as with the wheat, were stronger than those dressed with
ammonia-salts ; but here again the ammonia plots ripened more
quickly, though the manure appeared to impart to the crop a
sickly reddish colour. Very striking also was the effect of
mineral manures added to nitrate of soda (plot 6) as compared
with nitrate of soda alone (plot 3), the minerals appearing to
produce much earlier ripening.

The Hessian fly, which attacked the wheat on May 5, did not
so early attack the barley, but by August 9 it appeared on all the
plots, though apparently doing but little damage. ‘The barley,
which was a poor short crop, was cut on August 15, and carted
and stacked August 18; the ground was ploughed immediately
after and the stubble turned in, to prevent future damage from
the Hessian fly. The barley was dressed and weighed October
25-28 ; the results are given in Table II., page 280.

As in 1886, the produce was a very low one, the results of
the two years being very similar, and considerably below the
average of the preceding ten years. The straw was also very
short, and in the case of one plot only (plot 94, mineral
manures with 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda) was the general average
reached. The unmanured plots yielded 19-9. bushels and 20-4
bushels per acre, against 19:2 bushels and 18:2 bushels last

280 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn.

TasBLe II.—Propuce or Continuous BARtuey.

ELEVENTH Season, 1887,

PLotTs MANURES PER ACRE

Unmanured ,..

200 lbs. ammonia- salts, alone c

275 lbs. nitrate of soda, alone. .

200 lbs. sulph. of potash, 100 lbs. sulph. )
of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. magnesia,
33 cwts. superphosphate of lime ‘)

200 ‘bs. sulph. of potash, 1001bs.sulph. ‘

> wre

of soda, 100 Ibs. sulph. of magnesia,

or

35 ¢ewts. superphosphate of lime,
and 200 lbs. ammonia-salts . .
200 Ibs. sulph. of potash, 1001bs. sulph.
of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia,
33 cwts. of superphosphate of lime,

and 275 Ibs. nitrate of soda. .

Unmanured

The same minerals 2 as in 8B, “and 400
lbs. ammonia-salts . .

200 Ibs. sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. sulph,
of soda, 100 lbs. sulph. of magnesia,
33 ewts. of superphosphate of lime

9A The same minerals as in 9B, and 550

lbs. of nitrate of soda .

:

{ J
eee
200 Ibs. sulph. of potas bs. sulph.
0 Ibs. sulph. of potash, 100 Ibs. sulpl
ees
! |

7
8A

of soda, 100 Ibs. sulph. of magnesia,
33 cwts. of superphosphate of lime

No manure (having received manure
as 10B in each of the five seasons
previous to 1882, but none in 1882
or since) . 5

Farmyard-manure, estimated to con-
tain nitrogen = 100]bs. of ammonia,
made from 672 lbs. decorticated
cotton-cake, 1,075 lbs. maize-meal,
8,064 lbs. turnips, 1,344 lbs. wheat-
straw chaff, as food; and 3,174 lbs.
wheat-straw as litter, Weig ht about
4tons .

No manure (having received manure
as 11B in each of the five seasons
previous to 1882, but none in 1882
or since) . ,

Farmyard-manure, estimated to con-
tain nitrogen = 200 lbs. ammonia,
made from 1,344 lbs. decorticated
cotton-cake, 2,150 lbs. maize-meal,
16,128 lbs. turnips, 2,688 lbs. wheat-
straw chaff, as food; and 6,348 lbs.
wheat-straw as litter. Weight
Bbout/§ tons: 7. (ioe Pte eieeee

10B

11A

11B

PRODUCE PER ACRE

Dressed Corn
Straw, Chiff,
Number | Weight &e,
Weight of per
Bushels Bushel

lbs. Ibs. ewts. qrs, lbs.
1,078 19:9 54:0 10 ee 5
1,621 30°3 53°54 15 2 24
1,600 30°7 52:07 17 2 20
1,140 22'1 51°6 12:72 a
1,782 | 335 | 5312 |19 8 6
2,353 43°8 53°75 25 2 18
1,082 20°3 53°15 10 2 20
2,346 43°0 54°55 23 2 20
1,628 29°6 55:08 16 3 20
2,846 54:1 52°63 32° 2 24
1,416 25°8 54°83 12 2 24
1,368 26'3 54:08 14 0 22
1,344 24:8 5L17 iz 1 20
1,942 35°5 54°75 18 2 18
1,776 32°3 65:06 | 17 0 14

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn, 281

year, the ten years’ average being 23 bushels. Mineral manures
alone gave 22:1 bushels; ammonia-salts alone, 30°3 bushels;
and nitrate of soda alone, 30°7 bushels. The last two results
are nearly identical, which is unlike what was noticed in the
case of the wheat crop; both are, however, considerably below
average. Ammonia-salts combined with mineral manures gave
only 3 bushels per acre more, but nitrate of soda raised the
produce by 13 bushels. These nitrogenous top-dressings, when
used, as with the wheat, in double quantities, produced in either
case 10 bushels more tian when used in single amount; the
yields were—with ammonia-salts and minerals, A3 bushels ;
with nitrate of soda and minerals, 54°1 bushels. This latter
result is the only one which reaches the average of the ten
former years.

Where nitrogenous manures, applied last in the spring of
1886, were omitted for a single year, the produce fell to 29°6
bushels in the case of ammonia-salts, and to 25:8 bushels in
that of nitrate of soda, thus showing, as with the wheat, that
there was more residue left from ammonia-salts than from
nitrate of soda, and also that there is more residue of these
nitrogenous top-dressings available for a subsequent barley than
for a wheat crop, when each is grown continuously. The appli-
cation of 4 tons and of 8 tons per acre of farmyard manure
gave increases of 5 bushels and 12 bushels per acre respectively.

Reference is here directed to a summary by Sir J. B. Lawes
of the continuous wheat and barley experiments during ten
years, 1877-86, which appears in another part of the oe
number of the ‘Journal.’

THE Roratton EXPERIMENTS.

It will be borne in mind that, on the conclusion of the
second 4-course rotation in 1885, an alteration of the original
plan was made, in consequence of decorticated cotton-cake not
having shown itself superior as a manure to maize-meal similarly
used. With the object of testing if this was due to any over-
fertility of the land, and with the view of exhausting this, if
existing, the four plots of each rotation were divided by a cross-
path into eight plots of half an acre each. On four of these plots
the rotation is continued as before, though the manurial treatment
is not so heavy or so frequently repeated, while on the other four
plots the same crops are grown in rotation without manure, and
carried off the land entirely. In this way it is believed the
true differences of manurial value may be brought out, and the
question of over-fertility settled.

Rotation No. 1.—¥Four acres. 1885, tares (2 acres); peas
(2 acres). 1886, wheat (4 acres). 1887, swedes (4 acres).

282 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. -

That the year was a disastrous one for root-growing will be
readily admitted. It was with difficulty indeed that a plant
could be obtained, and, as it was, the mangolds which were
sown on April 28 on plots 5, 6, 7, and 8 without manure, and
which it was intended to cart off entirely, never came up suffi-
ciently to form a plant, and had eventually to be ploughed up
and the land re-sown with swedes. Plots 1, 2, 3, and 4 were
drilled on May 23 with 3 Ibs. per acre of swede seed, 3 cwt. of
superphosphate being sown broadcast before the drill. Despite
the terribly dry weather, the plant was fair; it was set out on
June 17. The re-sowing of plots 5, 6, 7, and 8 with swedes
took place also on June 17, 3 cwt. of superphosphate being used
as before. This fortunately came up by June 25. The want
of rain was of course greatly felt, and later on the plant became
badly mildewed. Of the two sets the later sown fared rather the
better. The roots were pulled and weighed November 21-29,
and the weights were :—

Taste ITI.—Propuce or SwepEs (Rotation No. 1) 1n 1887,

Produce per Acre

Produce per
PLots
aS | Acre ot
4-Acre Manures per Acre Wheat in
1886

Roots Leaves

Tons cwt. qrs. lbs, Tons ewt, qrs. lbs.) Bushels
3 cwt. superphosphate (after ?
wheat—cotton-cake plot) lowe 20) radia
3 cwt. superphosphate (after : ar
wheat—maize-meal plot) 9G Ta 20H EO Te aaa to
3 cewt. superphosphate (after

wheat with artificial

equivalent of cotton-cake 1150.0 «2 iadved Bae 20'S

if

| dung) .

3 cwt. superphosphate (after

wheat with artificial

equivalent of maize-meal

dung) .

{3 cwt. superphosphate (after }
wheat—cotton-cake plot)

1° ewt. superphosphate (after }
wheat—maize-meal plot)
3 ewt. superphosphate (after
wheat with artificial
equivalent of cotton-cake
dung) ..

3 cwt. superphosphate (after

wheat with artificial ,
8 equivalent of maize-meal 87 8 Bi dé Onl tomes aie
UNC) iS en

Ode. ONS FL PASMOR Zz 25°15

"1

It may be remembered that the crop of 1885 (tares and

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 283

peas) failed, and too much reliance must not be placed on the
wheat results of 1886, owing to the uneven plant. Still, taking
together the root crop of 1887 and the previous wheat crop of
1886, it is clear that the cotton-cake plots produced higher
results than the maize plots. For instance, plot 1 (cotton-cake)
has yielded 204 bushels of wheat and 11 tons of swedes, against
154 bushels of wheat and 10 tons of swedes in the case of plot
2 (maize-meal). Similar differences are observable in the case
of the other plots, the cotton-cake plots always coming out
the better. The fact that between the upper half of the field
(plots 1, 2, 3, and 4) and the lower (plots 5, 6, 7, and 8) there
was practically no difference in the swede crop, is not to be won-
dered at, inasmuch as the tares and peas both failed in 1885,
and, no manure being applied to the wheat in 1886, the treat-
ment of both halves was thus practically alike.

Rotation No. 2.—Four acres. 1885, swedes (2 acres), man-
golds (2 acres); 1886, barley (4 acres) ; 1887, tares (2 acres),
peas (2 acres). The peas (Sangster’s White, No. 1) were drilled
on plots 5, 6, 7, and 8, on March 5, 1887, at the rate of 2
bushels per acre; and the tares in the same quantity on plots
1, 2, 3, and 4, on March 10, both without manure. The peas
were cut and harvested July 23-30, and the tares the first week
in August. Both lots were thrashed October 18-28 ; the results
are given in Tables IV. and V. below.

The crops were not nearly as heavy as those of 1886. It may
be remembered that it was on this rotation, in the case of the
barley of 1886, that the first indication of the high yield due to
cotton-cake as against maize-meal was observable ; and here to

TasLE TV.—Propuce or Tares (Roration No. 2) 1x 1887.

Produce per Acre

PLots

3-Acre Manures per Acre Number | Weight
Weight of per Straw, &c.
Bushels | Bushel
N (af batt ewt. qrs. Ibs. lbs. |cwt. qrs. lbs.
o manure (alter barley— : ; fr
I cotton-cake plot) . }|11 3 22] 209 | 6385/19 2 92
2 No manure (after barley— 11 2 5i| 201 | 6452 |15 3 252

maize-meal plot) .

{
{ ee:
He manure (after barley with

124 lbs. nitrate of soda, arti-
ficial equivalent of cotton-
cake dung) ,.

No manure tae barley with
no manure, artificial equi-
valent of maize-meal dung)

10° 0 I} 17:2 |65:06 |14 0° 26

9 0 9} 158 |6421/13 0 5

284 Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn,

TABLE V.—Propvuce oF Peas (Roration No. 2) 1n 1887.

Produce per acre
PLots

ealers Manures per Acre Number] Weight
a. Weight of per Straw, &c,
Bushels} Bushel
ewt, qrs. Ibs. lbs, |ewt. qrs. lbs,
No manure (after barley— : :
{ cotton-cake plot)... } 20.0 0) 346/628 jay ae
No manure (after barley— F Sr
Pe | it re es ye }|17 1 7/298 |6507/14 1 3
No manure (after barley with
124 lbs. nitrate of soda— 1 ? }
7 artificial equivalent of cot- 13 3 165) 222 [6851 113 “1 45
ton-cake dung). .
No manure (after barley with)
8 no manure—artificial equi-}| 9 1 0} 161 |6444/15 3 11
valent of maize-meal dung) }

some extent this is continued. Still, tares and peas are at best
uncertain crops, and were only sown because clover, owing to the
alteration of the plan of the experiments, had not been sown
with the barley. The evidence of unexhausted fertility is
strong when it is remembered that the plots 5, 6, 7,8 produced
in 1885 11 tons of mangolds, which were carted off entirely ;
then, without further manure, 35 bushels of barley; and now
(still without manure) 30 bushels of peas.

Rotation No. 3.—Four acres. 1886, tares (2 acres), peas (2
acres); 1887, wheat.

The tares and peas were both reaped in 1886, and the suc-
ceeding wheat (8 pecks of Browick wheat per acre) was drilled
on Oct. 23. It ripened well, though towards the close it was
badly attacked by the Hessian fly. It was ent and stacked
Aug. 11-13, 1887. On account of the attack by Hessian fly
the stubble was cut quite 9 inches high, which accounts for the
very small yield of straw recorded.—(See Table VI. opposite.)

Rotation No. 4.—Four acres. 1886, swedes (2 acres),
mangolds (2 acres) ; 1887, barley.

The swedes on the one half of the rotation had been grown
in 1886 with 8 cwt. mineral superphosphate per acre, 5 the
produce being :—

Produce of Swedes
ge Manures per Acre in 1886

tons cwt. qrs. lbs.

1 Cotton-cake plot . . . . « « « « « «15 &. a0 0nee
2 Maize-meal plot . . .. «| (See
3 Artificial equivalent of cotton-cake dung. «os alt are 20
4

Artificial equivalent of maize-meal dung. . .| 7 9 1 16

eS TS

Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn. 285

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Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn, 287

' The root crop being so small, the whole of it was fed off by
sheep, with additional foods as follows :—
Plot 1 (half-acre) . with 200 lbs. decorticated cotton-cake
“ A : ‘ 200 Ibs. maize-meal
' » no purchased food

” ” 7 3

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A little wheat-straw chaff (70 lbs. per $ acre) was also given
to the sheep. On plots 3 and 4, artificial equivalents of the
cotton-cake and maize-meal dung respectively were applied to
the succeeding barley. The sheep were put on the roots Dec. 2,
1886, and finished them by Dec. 31. After ploughing, barley
(8 pecks of ‘Golden Melon ” per acre) was drilled on March 24,
1887, over the whole rotation. The nitrogenous manures were
sown on plots 3 and 4 on May 10.

On the lower half of the rotation, mangolds had been grown
in 1886, the produce being :-—

|
Pe Produce of Mangolds
PLotTs Manure per Acre in 1886

tons cwt. qrs. lbs.
Li 8

5 @ottonscakeiploti as « «te «© i «|e i 2
6 Maize-meal plot... “Fe, ig | Rao) See Tee 2)
a Artificial paren of cotton- cake dung roencs 19 18 3 14
8 Artificial equivalent of maize-meal dung - on els! Loe 2 eae

These were carted off entirely. The barley (of 1887) did
not make much progress at first owing to the continued cold,
but came up fairly well, and was cut and harvested Aug. 12-16.
The results are given in Table VII. on p. 286.

From these figures it will be seen how striking was the
difference when even such a small crop of swedes had been fed
off by sheep, and when mangolds, 10 to 16 tons per acre, were
carted off entirely. The top-dressings of nitrate of soda on plots
3 and 4 would appear to have been rather more effectual than
the dung; the difference between the cotton-cake and the maize-
meal, though indicated, is not very pronounced.

EXPERIMENTS ON THE COMPARATIVE MANURIAL VALUES OF
DECORTICATED COTTON-CAKE AND MAIZE-MEAL, CONDUCTED
IN LANSOME FIELD.

1885, barley; 1886, broad clover; 1887, wheat. On
October 16, 1886, 9 pecks per acre of Essex rough-chaff wheat
were dibbled, this variety being tried for a change of seed. It
is worthy of remark that, while the red wheat sown on all the
ether fields suffered from the Hessian fly attack, this white

7

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288 Report on the Field and Feeding Exper

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Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. 289

wheat was not affected at all. The crop was cut and harvested
July 29—August 5, 1887; the results are given in Table VIII.

The duplicate unmanured plots show considerable difference,
but taking the mean of them we find that for the third consecu-
tive year the highest result has been obtained by the decorti-
cated cotton-meal used direct as manure (plot 3), while on this
plot the most straw also has been produced. It is probable that
plot 1 more truly represents the unmanured produce, but the
entire crop was but a poor one on this land.

Crawley Mill Farm is situated near Woburn, Bedfordshire ;
the soil is a very light reddish loam, about nine inches deep,
with a subsoil of almost pure sand.

RAINFALL AT WOBURN DURING 1887, TAKEN AT 8 A.M. DAILY AT
Crawiey Mitt Farm.

Inches Inches

ements! oie a 1°79) | July. oe ee he . O64
February . : . . O41 | August : : . a 0:85
March . : eee . 1:05 | September . 5 : Bae LPH
April . : : : . 1:33 | October : : : 5 ES
May . ‘ : . . 1:30 | November . - : = 29
June . é . , . 1:69 | December . . c LOG
Total vainfallin year. : é : 15:04

RAINFALL IN 1882, 1883, 1884, 1885, 1886, anv 1887.

=, | 1882 | 1883 | 1884 1885 | 1886 1887

| |
| | i
Imehesi.atvs %). : 28:14 | 24-20

During THE Harvest Monrus or AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER
THE RAINFALL WAS—

17-84 | 2497 | 25:05 | 15-04
|

Aec.. 1883 1884 1885

1886 | 1887
62

a6 | 2

FACHES nes (8G oe 8 2 AOS 2:76 6°65 |

XV.—Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist.
By Eveanor A. OrmeErop, F.R.Met.Soc., Torrington
House, St. Albans.

DurinG the twelve months since I rendered my preceding annual

Report, there have been constant applications regarding in-

jurious insects. ‘These have chiefly been regarding the attacks

of the Hessian fly, the corn saw-fly, and also the ribbon-footed
VOL. XXIV.—S. S. U

290 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist.

corn-fly to corn stems; the attacks of eel-worms to oats and
clover ; and, likewise, there has been a very large amount of
correspondence, and very satisfactory communication, regarding
ox warble-fly, showing the great benefit arising from destruction
of the maggots.

Amongst the corn attacks, that of the Hessian fly has been
reported by the largest number of observers, although in the
individual instances (as far as reports to myself show) it has
not been as serious in its damages as the Chlorops teeniopus, the
ribbon-footed corn-fly, which has long been here.

In my report on Hessian fly made to the Council in
November, I mentioned that four kinds of the British parasites
which I had forwarded to Moscow to the inspection of Dr.
Lindeman had been found by him to be Russian species. I
have since been in communication with Professor Riley, Ento-
mologist to the Department of Agriculture of the United
States, during his stay in England, and he still further confirms
the fact of our British parasites being Russian forms. Professor
Riley’s opinion is of great value from his personal knowledge of
the subject. After two days’ investigation of specimens reared
from British puparia, together with Russian specimens for-
warded to him by Dr. Lindeman, he has placed in my hands a
short account of the result of the examination, and I submit a
list of the scientific names of these British parasites.

They are as follows:—1. Platygaster minutus; 2. Semio-
tellus nigripes; 3. Eupelmus Karschii; 4. Merisus intermedius ;
5. Tetrastichus Rileyi; 6. Euryseapus saltator, all species of
Lindeman, and 7. Dacnusa senilis, Hald.

This result of the investigations of Professors Lindeman and
Riley puts an end up to the ‘present date to any reason for sup-
posing that the Hessian fly attack has been brought to us from
America. The parasites above mentioned are excessively
minute four-winged flies, which can only be certainly identified
by comparison of specimens, as there are not full descriptions
or figures attainable. Probably two, if not three, of the kinds
will be found to be similar to (or to minutely resemble) British
kinds previously known here; but this point will be further in-
vestigated.

The examinations as to presence of flax-seeds in imported
straw have still been continued at Hull by Mr. Edmund Riley,
more especially with reference to the very large imports of eggs
from Russia. As some of these come over in straw of rye, which
is one of the corn crops liable to infestation, mischief might be
feared, but I am informed by Mr. E. Riley, who is investigating
on my behalf (and is perfectly qualified for an examiner), that
the straw is mostly cut aboye the second joint. I have myself

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomolojist, 291

had a sample sent, showing that the straw was so bruised to
shreds to make it soft for packing material that it appeared
hardly possible it could have flax-seeds adhering to any of it;
further, I have obtained information, through one of the largest
egg importers, that the straw used for packing eggs from the
Russian districts whence the eggs are long in transit, has to be
artificially dried. This is done by placing it in heated rooms in
racks, which would very effectually kill the chrysalids.

As the watch on straw has now been going on since the
spring of the year, and in.all the straw and sweepings from
different countries searched by many different observers (though
quantities of things resembling “flax-seeds” at first sight
have been sent me for identification), we have only found
one single puparium, I think we may now discontinue the
work,

From last season’s experience, there does not seem to be
any reason to anticipate serious damage from Hessian fly,
excepting what may occur, more or less, to barley. The point
which is of the greatest importance now, as a measure of
prevention, is the complete destruction of the ‘ flax-seeds ”
which are found in the fine siftings and rubbish beneath the
thrashing machines. If this is not done, each centre of neglect
will be a centre of infestation to the neighbourhood.

Many communications were sent to me regarding Chlorops’
attack on barley. This occurred (speaking generally) in much
the same districts of England that were affected by Hessian fly,
and were often not distinguished from it. Very little about it
was reported to me from Scotland, and two of the worst attacks
were in the south of England. In the samples of one of these,
the ears had not freed themselves from their sheaths, and the
plants were stunted down to only about seven to nine inches
high; in the other the ears in some instances were hardly
freed, and the stem betweerm the highest knot and the ear only
about an inch and a half or two inches long. The direct
injury from the gnawing of this corn-fly maggot extended half
way up the ear.

The reports agreed in great amount of damage being done
—usually stated (generally) as very “serious,” ‘“ considerable,”
and so on. But the only precise estimates sent were of loss of
one-third of the crop, and of one bushel an acre. From the
samples forwarded, I have no hesitation in considering the
damage to have been of a most unusual amount, which I
believe to have been owing to the unusual heat and drought of
the past season.

This attack has long been known in England, and it is on
record with localities given that in 1846 from half to two-thirds

v2

292 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist.

of the barley crop was destroyed by it at various places in the
east of England.

The injury is caused by this corn-fly—the Chlorops teeniopus
(which is a stumpy-made, two-winged fly, black and yellow in
colour, and only about one-eighth of an inch long)—laying its
egg on or near the lowest part of the ear, and the maggot which
hatches out gnawing a channel down one side of the stem to the
uppermost knot. This blackened furrow, and the ear often
injured at the lowest part, and frequently unable to free itself
from its sheath, are the special signs of Chlorops’ attack.

Various recipes are given for checking this attack, but I
believe that a healthy growth where the plant is neither gorged
by damp in the water furrows, nor dried and unmanured on bad
ground, where I have specially seen it, is the best method of
preventing loss from it. But judging by records and my own
experience for fifteen years or more, I know no reason to
expect a recurrence of this, which has been our worst corn
attack of the last season, unless we have again a season of
exceptional heat and drought.

Corn saw-fly attack (that of the Cephus pygmcus) was also
unusually observed last season, and was certainly very injurious
in some localities, though not nearly as much reported to me as
Chlorops. This saw-fly is a small black-and-yellow, four-winged,
and somewhat wasp-like fly, and does harm by its maggot
feeding within the corn stalks, travelling up through the knots,
and then down again, and ending by biting the stem nearly
through in a ring just about ground level when the corn
is nearly ripe. As a matter of course, the stem falls easily,
and in common circumstances may pass as storm-broken, but
in last year’s alarms the fallen straw attracted unusual atten-
tion.

This attack, like that of Chlorops, has long been here. I
have had personal knowledge of it myself as long as about
eighteen years ago; it has been recorded as abundant as far
back as the year 1835, and though widely distributed on the
Continent of Europe, I am not aware of it being recorded
amongst the injurious insects of America. I mention the above
points in consequence of great alarm having been expressed
as to this being a new attack now being imported from
America.

As the maggot goes into chrysalis at or below ground level,
in the stump which it has itself sawn the top off, there is not the
slightest fear of it being imported in either seeds of any kind or
straw, and any recurrence of last season’s attack from the chrys-
alids now in the stumps may be easily and surely prevented by
skimming and dragging the roots and stubble, or collecting

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. 293

them in any way preferred, and burning them. As the saw-fly
does not come out until early summer, attack is thus easily
checked.

A rather serious attack affecting various kinds of corn, but
with us more especially affecting autumn-sown wheat, has been
reported for some years, and with the help of Mr. Meade, of
Bradford, I have traced this from specimens reared by myself to
the frit fly—the Oscinis frit—a small two-winged fly, of which
the maggot feeds within the young shoot, and sometimes much
harm is done thereby in spring, unless there are sufficient un-
attacked shoots to carry on growth. As this attack cannot be
caused by anything else than the autumn brood of frit flies
laying their eggs on the plants, I should advise that, in infested
districts, the sowing should be as late as possible, so that the
flies might be dead before the wheat sprung.

Other corn attacks, as of moth caterpillars, to the ears, or
stacked -with the straw; likewise of granary beetles, and
especially of granary weevils, have been reported; but it is
worth notice that the Cecidomyia tritici, the British wheat
midge, producing the well-known “red maggot,” and corn
aphides, have been very little reported.

I have given particular attention to the Anguillule, or eel-
worms, which last year I reported as having been found to cause
tulip-root in oats, and which it appeared likely would be found
to cause the special form of disease in clover known as “ clover
sickness.” For several months I procured specimens of diseased
plants, and examined them myself to the best of my ability, and
also forwarded samples to the Netherlands to the skilled exami-
nation of Dr. J. G. de Man, of Middleburg, and Dr. J. Ritzema
Bos, Professsor of Zoology at the Royal Agricultural College,
Wageningen.

The result has been that we found that in plants affected by
the true “ clover sickness” there was presence in all its stages
of the same kind of eel-worm—namely, the Tylenchus devastatriz,
Kuhn, which causes the “‘tulip-root” disease in oats; the disease
known as “stem sickness” in rye, and also attacks other plants
too numerous to mention. This eel-worm was present in the
truly clover-sick plants, in all conditions and stages—male,
female, larvee, and eggs.

The proof of the kind of Tylenchus being the same in all the
attacked plants has been given by Dr. Ritzema Bos, showing
that they would take the infestation from each other. Onions
(which are liable to this disease) when sown by him on earth
mixed respectively with “ clover-sick” plants, ‘“ tulip-rooted ”
oats, &c., were found to become infested by the Tylenchi; and,
reversing the order of the experiment, oats sown by him on

294 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. -

earth containing “clover-sick” plants, and also on diseased
onions, were found to become “ tulip-rooted.”

The investigation showed that clover suffered from various
causes, and notably from fungi, and various kinds of eel-worms
were present in decayed stems, &c., but where specimens of true
“‘ clover-sick” plants were sent, there were the Tylenchi in such
numbers and conditions as to point them out as the cause of the
disease ; and also in the most severe and well-marked attack the
shoots or buds along the main clover shoots had the same kind
of swollen and stunted appearance that we find in other cases
of Tylenchus attack.

The only note sent in this year of an entirely successful
application to the diseased clover was top-dressing with a
mixture of sulphate of potash in large proportion, together
with sulphate of ammonia and steamed bone-flour. This
brought on the crop very satisfactorily. The history and habits
of this microscopic eel-worm have been gone into before, but a
broad view of this case appears to be that oats, clover, and
onions are the most liable of our common crops to this attack.
The Tylenchi likewise infest some of our common weeds, and
can remain for a great length of time alive in the surface soil
of infested fields. Therefore deep ploughing, which will put
the minute worm too far down for it to come up again, is a very
desirable measure.

Inquiries were also forwarded regarding such common crop
pests as wireworms, “rust,” i.e. fly maggot attack to carrots,
cabbage butterfly, caterpillars, &c., &c., and also regarding
turnip grub (the caterpillar of the Turnip or Dart moth, the
Agrotis segetum), which has done great mischief to turnip bulbs
in many places during the autumn, and is very likely still at
work where the weather is not too severe. From the circum-
stance of this caterpillar living through the winter, it is very
desirable to skim and stir the surface of fields that have been
badly infested, for if the caterpillars are thrown out of their
shelters they will be killed by bad weather, though mere cold
would not hurt them in their shelters inthe ground. “ Blight,”
as it is called, that is, attack of aphides on turnips, has been
very bad, but there does not appear to be a hope of checking
this attack until some plan can be arranged for washing, as
with aphides on hops.

Amongst insects injurious in fruit-farming the grubs of the
Pear Sawefly, and likewise the Phytoptus (a small mite which
causes a gall growth of the leafbuds of black currants), were
troublesome, but both these attacks can be easily kept in hand,
and the extremely simple method of preventing attack of the
winter moth caterpillars in spring by smearing bands round

a

ml

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. 295

orchard trees so that the wingless moths cannot get up them to
lay eges now, is being well carried out, and found to answer.
This is important to fruit-farmers, for the caterpillars are exces-
sively destructive. Various other crop and fruit attacks were
reported, to all which I gave requisite attention.

In regard to cattle insects, the attention paid to warble
attack has been highly beneficial. About twenty-two thousand
copies of the leaflet on ‘‘Ox Warble” have been distributed, and
the simple measures recommended are reported by very large
numbers of cattle-owners to answer excellently, both in destroying
the maggot, and (consequently on this maggot not being allowed
to develop into a fly) in preventing much of the galloping from
warble-fly attack in summer. We are really at last undermin-
ing the idea that dozens of maggots an inch long feeding in the
hides of the cattle are only a sign of health. Communications
have also been sent in about the ox gad-fly (Tabanus bovinus)
and also the horse warble-fly, and one or more kinds of horse
bot-fly (Gasterophilus); but as the latter attack is a regular
subject for veterinary treatment, I have merely given such
points of the history of the insect as were requisite to my cor-
respondents.

Specimens have also been sent me of the sheep’s-nostril
maggot, the larva of the fly known as the Cephalemyia ovis.
These had been taken from the head of a sheep badly affected
with the disease known as the ‘‘ gids,” and were considered by
the sender to have been taken out of the brain. As it is a not
uncommon belief (even to the extent of affecting the sale of.
sheep’s heads at the season when. the maggot is to be found)
that it harbours in the brain, and also as it is quite possible
that the maggots in their earliest stages could make their way
through minute orifices into the brain, I have carefully investi-
gated the matter.

The head of another sheep from the same flock, suffering
under the same symptoms, was sent me, and opened surgically,
and not a trace of maggot presence was found; but it showed
severe presence of the well-known hydatid attack, producing
the various symptoms known as“ gid” or the “ giddies.” Other
heads were brought, showing this attack in the brain, or
maggots high up in the nostrils, and the two attacks might
occur together; but there was nothing to give any reason to
suppose that the maggots existed and grew to maturity in the
brain. I think it is worth while to maintain this, as the possi-
bility has been brought forward on somewhat high authority.

The general work in my department continues steadily to
increase. In the preceding year (1886) the number of letters
written by myself in reply to inquiries on subjects directly con-.

296 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Botanist.

nected with injurious insect matters, or requisite coincident
correspondence, was approximately eleven hundred. In the year
1887 it was more than fourteen hundred. Much of the increase
turned on correspondence regarding warble attack, Hessian fly
and other corn-straw attacks, and crop eel-worms.

Besides British correspondents, I have had much communica-
tion with leading entomologists in our own colonies, also in the
United States and in various European countries, and I wish to
acknowledge with thanks the very serviceable and courteous
assistance which they have invariably afforded in any points of
difficulty.

XVI.—Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Botanist. By
W. CarRuTHERS, F.R.S., P.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Norwood,
S.E.

Durinc the past year I have attended to 341 applications
from members of the society, referring mainly to seeds for
permanent pasture. The general result of my examination of
pasture seeds testifies to the continued maintenance of their
improved quality; there is, however, evidence to show that a
large quantity of utterly bad seed finds its way into the hands
of the farmers. Thus, in seeds bought from seven merchants in
the east of England, the white clovers contained 10 per cent. or
more of weeds, and the red clovers and alsikes had seeds of
dodder besides other weeds. ‘The timothy was ergotted, the
cocksfoot was very impure, one sample containing no less than
34 per cent. of other and worthless seeds; and even the rye-
grass was made the vehicle of spreading Yorkshire fog on the
land, one sample containing 12 and another 15 per cent. of this
grass, which is never eaten by stock unless under the greatest
necessity. In some cases of these seeds, the germination was
very low. ‘Trefoil germinated in one case only 36 per cent.,
and in another not more than 20 per cent., red clover 34 per
cent., white clover 47 per cent., and cocksfoot 41 and 43 per
cent, The committee wished to publish the names of the firms
which had supplied these seeds, but the member of the society
on whose behalf the examination was made objected, and failed to
give the information necessary to justify the taking of this step.

During the past year I have met with only a single case of
meadow-fescue which contained ryegrass in such quantity as
to show that it had been introduced for the purpose of adultera-
tion ; there was 20 per cent. of ryegrass in the sample. Indeed,
it would seem as if the ryegrass had been in some quarters a
scarce commodity, for a sample of pure and good meadow-fescue

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Botanist. 297

was supplied to a member as ryegrass, and charged, I suppose,
the price of ryegrass. The germination of the meadow-fescue
was high, the average showing nearly 96 per cent., and in no
less than 12 per cent. of the samples every seed placed in the
germinating case produced a plant. One sample of tall fescue
contained 12 per cent. of ryegrass, but the other samples were
entirely free from it. The average germination of this species
was 74 per cent.

Cocksfoot has been somewhat impure, as much as 20 per
cent. having contained considerable quantities of Yorkshire fog.
The germination averaged 76 per cent., but one sample con-
tained only 6 per cent. of living seeds. It consisted almost
entirely of empty husks, and was apparently the chaff from
which “ shelled” seeds had been obtained. It must have been
placed in the market in the first instance as a deliberate fraud,
and though the member who purchased it satisfied himself that
the merchant from whom he had it was innocent, it is impos-
sible for me to understand how any merchant could have passed
such a sample through his hands without detecting that it was
only chaff. It shows that much has yet to be done before all the
members of the seed trade are intelligently acquainted with what
they are dealing in.

The smaller fescues were free from weeds, and their germina-
tion was satisfactory. It is not easy to get true sheep’s-fescue,
the smaller seeds of hard fescue being frequently sold for that
grass. But the small fescues—jine grasses, as they are often
called—are of little value in pasture, their slender wiry leaves
affording little food ; and hard fescue is on the whole the better
of the two. ‘Timothy, with the exception of the ergotted sample
referred to, was throughout good, and the average germination
was no less than 97 per cent. Meadow-foxtail often contains a
large proportion of Aira cespitosa. The germination of foxtail
is very irregular. The average of the samples examined during
the past year was 62 per cent.; the highest sample reached
88 per cent., and the lowest fell to 33 per cent.

Of the meadow-grasses, Pow trivialis, or rough-stalked
_ meadow-grass, was of the best quality. The seeds were pure, the
germination averaging 79 per cent. This is important, as this
Species is certainly the best of the meadow-grasses. Three
samples of Poa pratensis yielded only one, four, and fifteen
plants to the 100 seeds, and the same number of samples of
Poa nemoralis germinated only 12, 15, and 16 per cent. These
were sent to me along with good samples of Poa trivialis, and
were probably obtained from the same merchants. The seeds
of the Poas early lose their vitality, and those that are carried
ayer even for a single year become very greatly deteriorated,

298 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Botanist.

They should not be used, or, if used, it should be in such largely _
increased quantity as to make up for the loss of vitality. Sweet.
vernal grass gave only a little over 50 per cent. of germination
in the average. One sample had a considerable mixture of the
annual vernal grass (Anthoxanthum puellii), and another had a
large quantity of the minute seeds of the Wood Rush (Luzwa
campestris). Only one sample of fiorin was free from ergot.
Considering the questionable value of this grass, it seems to me
more than doubtful whether a farmer is not paying too great a
price for it when he almost certainly introduces with it the
dangerous ergot into his pasture.

~The clovers have been more impure than usual. Over a half
of the white clovers contained an appreciable quantity of weeds,
and in some the quantity was considerable. In the red clovers
40 per cent., and in alsikes 20 per cent., contained impurities,
and in most of these the seeds of dodder were among the im-
purities. This dangerous weed, being smaller than the clover
seeds, could easily be separated from them by a cleaning-machine;
but, unhappily, not a few seed-merchants do not know the seeds
of dodder, and, consequently, they ignorantly distribute the un-
clean seed. Some even deny that the dodder can be detected
in the clover seed. It is not met with among the seeds of white
clover, but is too frequent in alsike and red clover. Last
summer a member lost a considerable quantity of spring tares
from dodder appearing and rapidly developing on them. The
loss was the greater because of the want of food during a dry
summer. The germination of the clovers has been satisfactory;
there has, however, been a considerable range in their vitality.
In some extremely good samples of red clover every seed ger-
minated, but one fell so low as 34 per cent., while in alsike the
best germinated 98 per cent., and the worst was not more than
30 per cent., that is to say, three pounds of the poorer seed in
these two clovers would be required to produce the same number
of plants as would grow from one pound of the better samples,
though possibly the price per pound of each was the same.

Having been informed by Mr. De Laune that Mr. Moore, of

the Royal Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin, had been grow-
ing for some years an experimental plot of the true cowgrass
(Trifolium medium), I applied to Mr. Moore with the view of
procuring some of the seed. He has been so good as to send
me a small quantity, which I propose to sow at Woburn along-
side of the experimental clover plots. This is a truly perennial
plant, and is the only red clover specially fitted for permanent
pasture. The plant has a zigzag stem, taking an obviously
different direction at each leaf, and the round head of flowers is
borne on a short, leafless stalk. The two species can be easily

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist. 299

determined when in seed, as in the red clover (Trifolium pra-
tense) there is a single seed in the pear-shaped pod, and the pod
opens by the top falling off, while in cowgrass (Trifolium
medium) there are two seeds in the oblong pod, and the pod opens
along the edges like the pod of a pea. The seed also is more
heart-shaped than in the red clover. Sinclair recognised the
importance of cowgrass sixty years ago, but he found it hard
then to purchase the seed—now it is impossible. All the seeds
now’sold under the name of cowgrass belong to varieties of red
clover, and these differ among themselves just as the varieties
of cultivated wheat differ. I have reason to hope that the true
_cowgrass may be soon available to the farmer.

Different estimates are formed of the germinating value of
mangold seeds. They are obtained from the seed-merchant,
not as separate seeds like clover or turnip, but enclosed in a
compound fruit, each containing two or three seeds covered by
the enlarged fleshy base of the calyx of so many flowers. Each
fruit should consequently produce two or three plants. These
plants when they grow are, however, produced so close to-
gether that they are of no practical use to the cultivator, and
have to be carefully thinned out. In testing the mangold seed
I have determined whether each compound fruit would produce
a plant; others have taken each seed that germinated into ac-
count, and consequently record good mangold ‘“ seed” as grow-
ing—say, 180 per cent. This, of course, means that of the seeds
in 100 compound fruits, amounting in all to 200 or 250, 180
have grown. As the farmer must, however, consider each com-
pound fruit as if it were a single seed, it seems the only fair
way to test it from that point of view, and so to determine how
far each-“‘ seed” supplied by the merchant is available to pro-
duce a plant.

XVIL.—Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist.
By Dr. J. Augustus VorELcKER, B.A., B.Sc., 12 Hanover
Square, W.

THE number of samples analysed in the Society’s laboratory
during the past year was, in all, 1,615; of these 1,536 were
analyses made for members of the Society, 56 were in connec-
tion with the Woburn experiments, and 23 analyses on behalf
of local Agricultural Societies carrying out experiments in
conjunction with this Society. At the end of this Report is
given a list of the different kinds of analyses, and their number.

Of the 1,615 samples analysed, nearly 700 have been of
feeding-cakes. By far the larger proportion consisted of linseed-

300 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist.

cakes ; indeed, the chief feature of the analytical work of the year
has been that performed in connection with linseed-cakes, their:
adulterants, and the methods of detecting and estimating the
same. It is hardly too much to say that the practice of mixing
foreign seeds and other materials with linseed, previous to
pressing it into cake, reached its climax in 1887. The Royal
Agricultural Society has for a long time contended for the purity
of feeding materials, and the increase of adulteration has led to
renewed activity on its part, as is evidenced by the Quarterly
Reports of the Chemical Committee in the present number of
the ‘ Journal.’

_ During the year I took an opportunity kindly offered me of
inquiring personally into the manufacture of linseed-cakes more
or less impure. One of the chief points that forcibly impressed
itself upon me was the impossibility of judging from the figures
of analysis alone whether a linseed-cake were a pure one or not,
and the necessity of a special microscopical examination in all
doubtful cases. This is a practice which I am glad to find has
since been taken up by other chemists, as the necessity has
become more and more apparent. Of the materials used to
adulterate linseed-cakes, the one now most frequently occurring
is rape refuse, or rape seed from which the oil has been extracted
by chemical means. The following table gives analyses of linseed-
cake made from pure seed, and of other cakes made from the
same seed after admixture with different percentages of the
aforesaid rape refuse :—

Linseed Linseed Linseed

in oe d cake with | cake with | cake with

mar ; 5% rape | 10% rape | 30% rape
: refuse refuse refuse
MORE aes a at ew | OWS 12°28 10:97 11:32
oil 5 | 12°66 11:33 10°53 10°60

? Albuminous compounds (flesh -form-

ing matters). . cai 28°59 29°67 28°93 30°87
Mucilage, digestible fibre, & Ke.. - .| 34°85 32°37 35°19 31:07
Woody fibre. . . ses be 8-07 8°81 880 | 10:16
? Mineral matter (ash) . et: hae ae 554 5°64 558 | 5:98
-100:00 | 100-00 | 10000 | 100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . .. .j| 4:57 4°73 4°62 4:94
ZInclnding sand sj.0 . 2. 7%.) > BO 80 *b9 1:09

Taking these a ee there is not one single constituent
that could be pointed out as indicating the least suspicion of the
cake being impure. The sand is not high in any of them, nor
the woody fibre exceptional. In the mixtures containing 5 and
10 per cent. respectively, there is but little more of either than

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist. 301

in the pure linseed-cake, and even where 30 per cent. of the
adulterant is added, there is not more than frequently occurs
with pure cakes. Nothing in short is to be gathered from the
figures alone so far as this particular adulterant is concerned.

The result of niy inquiry and a careful examination of all
the points involved led me to suggest that the following should
be the requirements which a linseed-cake should satisfy in order
to be fairly termed a pure one :—

1. That it be made from sound seed of not less than 96 per cent. purity,
subsequently well screened.

2. That it contain no ingredients of a poisonous or deleterious nature.

3. That it be entirely free from sophistication of any kind.

4, That it contain not more than 2 per cent. of sand.

5. That it be sold in good, merchantable condition.

The Merchandise Marks Act, which was brought forward
shortly after my visit, had immediately the effect of causing
the word “ pure” to disappear almost entirely from the brands
and invoices of seed-crushing firms, though some few firms of
high standing, confident in the quality of their cakes, have had
the courage to keep to it. There never was a time when farmers
should more strongly insist upon having only pure cakes sup-
plied to them, and make a point of getting a guarantee for the
cakes being so. It is a frequent practice for a manufacturer
or dealer to put forward an analysis giving merely the percentage
figures of the different constituents. But it must be remembered
that it cannot be a matter of indifference whether what is
stated in an analysis as “oil” is linseed oil or some other of
inferior value; and similarly whether the nitrogen and other
elements arise from linseed or from some less valuable material.
I would urge this necessity of insisting upon pure cake being
used, inasmuch as, so soon as admixture of any kind is admitted,
there is no limit to its quantity or its nature; for this reason
I have been unable thoroughly to accept what is known as the
“95 per cent. pure” standard, for it leaves ont of account the
important point as to the nature of the remaining 5 per cent.
Nor has chemical analysis yet arrived at that point at which it
is possible to say, after the seed has been crushed, whether
5 per cent. or not of foreign seeds previously existed in it; only
an approximate result at best can be obtained.

The information given in the Quarterly Reports of the
Chemical Committee makes it unnecessary for me to refer in
detail to other adulterants in frequent use; I may briefly say
that in addition to rape, cockle-seed, mill-sweepings, niger-
seed, locust-bean, and hemp have been the principal ones.

American linseed-cakes have generally been pure, though,
as usual, hard-pressed. In English-made cakes the percentage

302 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist.

of oil has not on the whole decreased, and several firms, I have
reason to believe, have done well in offering cakes guaranteed
to possess a high percentage of oil. Last year I commented on
many instances that had come under my notice, of sand existing
to a large degree in linseed-cakes. This year, I am happy to say,
there has been a decided decrease in the quantity, though the
2 per cent. margin, which I have ventured to suggest in my re-
commendations for ‘‘ pure” cake, is still too frequently exceeded.

In a great number of cases which have been brought under
the notice of the Chemical Committee, cakes haye been offered
to purchasers at prices at which it is impossible to produce a
pure cake; and while the doctrine of caveat enyptor may to a
certain extent apply, and purchasers should not allow themselves
to be tempted too much by low prices, it is I think far worse
that unscrupulous traders, by offering such inducements, and
professing cakes to be pure which are not really so, should
undersell honest makers of pure cakes.

Decorticated Cotton-Cake.—As predicted in my tae year’s
report, the percentage of oil in this kind of cake has gone lower
and lower, until it is quite a rarity to come across a cake having
even 12 per cent. of oil. This lowering of the oil has been accom-
panied by inferior mechanical condition, and I have had many
instances brought before me where feeders haye given up the
use of this cake on the latter ground. Still, here and there a
good cake is occasionally to be found, one or two firms showing
an aptitude for picking up a good cargo as soon as it arrives.
The following is a case in point :—

Moisture . - : : : : ' « 1015
Oil . : sel
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) ., 46:12
Digestible fibre, &c. . , é : : - ~ _LO:al
Woody fibre (cellulose) . é 6 : : c 3°70
Mineral matter (ash) ‘ ; 5 . : . | | 545
100-09 ©
1 Containing nitrogen ° ° 7°38

This was a rich and soft cake, and in June 1887 it cost only
61. 5s. a ton, delivered in Oxford, which is a price by no means
more than much inferior qualities of decorticated cotton-cake
were selling for at the time. Indeed, I find generally that the
good cakes cost no more than the bad ones.

Undecorticated Cotton-Cakes have been generally free from
impurity, though the complaints as to the husk being very coarse
and having much cotton-wool still adhering to the seed are far
from uncommon. ‘The following two analyses are those of a
kind of cotton-cake known as ‘ Brazilian Cotton-Cake,” which,
whilst approaching the decorticated cotton-cake in composition,

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist, 308

has not the husk so much removed, and frequently has a con-
siderable amount of hair still attached to it from the bags in
which it has been pressed. As the vendor in one case rightly
remarks, ‘it is very roughly crushed and requires care in using ;
only about half the usual quantity should be given.” I would
go a step further and say that this kind of cake is not one which
I could recommend for use at all.

Moisture . - : : : : : ° 9:10 10°45
On. 1137, 10:90
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 42°80 85°90
Digestible fibre, Ke. . ; ‘ : : . 25:06 26°50
Woody fibre (cellulose) ~ . : : : - 6:77 10°60
Mineral matter (ash) , : : . . : 5°10 5°65
100-00 100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : ; : . 6°84 5°74

Rape-Cake, used as manure, has been hard to obtain pure or
of good quality. Admixture of earth and dirt is yery frequent,
and cannot arise purely from accident, at least in the following
sample which I examined :—

Moisture. : ; . : c - : of ef lS
1Organic matter. ‘ . : < : é . 96:97
Phosphates . 3 : : : : : : . . ooo
Alkalies, &c. ; é : : : : : . 3380
Sand . ; : ; : : : . . 28°60
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . . : 5 Pee ar)
Equaltoammonia_ . 5 : : . 4:32

Rice Husk.—A sample of rice iia was sent to me, of which
the following is the analysis :—

Moisture . : . : - . : < : 8:98
Oil. : : 1:50

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matter s) - 2°63
Starch, digestible fibre, &c. : f P = . 33°59
Woody fibre (cellulose) . F . 7 . » 88°53
? Mineral matter (ash) ‘ : : - : ag ALT,
100:00

’ Containing nitrogen : c s - : 42

2 Pa silica . : : a ; ° 13-08

This is a material which has but very little feeding value.
Niger- and Sunflower-Cake.—The following analysis may be
found interesting :—

Moisture . . . : : . . . . 9:02
Oil. : : : 7°50

1 Albuminous compounds (tlesh-forming matters) . 81:00
Mucilage, digestible fibre, &c. . : . . 27-64
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : : : + W667
* Mineral matter (ash) . ° oe ate 5 er ED,
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen. ° . . F - » 4:96
? Including sand. 6 ‘ e e e F a, o04

304 Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist.

The price of this was 4/.aton. The fibre, it will be noticed,
was considerably higher than in linseed-cake, and bearing in
mind the nature of the materials, I hardly think it compares well
with linseed-cake.

Peruvian Guano.—The improvement in respect of guano
noticed in my last report has been continued; and, generally
speaking, the samples submitted have agreed well with the official
analyses given, and the guanos have not been at all dear as
compared with other manures.

Fish Guanos.—Last year I gave the results of determination
of oil in several different samples, and spoke of the variation
found in them. In two samples sent to me by a member of the
society, which were both charged at the same price, I found the
oil to vary considerably, one sample containing 11-4 per cent.,
and the other 21-9 per cent.

Sud-Cake.-—A sample of this manure was sent to me with
the request that I would determine the amount of potash pre-
sent, of which it was said to contain a large quantity. It was
stated to be made from the washings of wool after the oil had
been squeezed out. The following is my analysis :—

Moisture : é ; : : : ; ; . 15°66
1Organic matter. ‘ c ; - : : . 8429
Phosphate of lime . : : 5 ; : ; . traces
Carbonate of lime . : é : : : ; » . 108
? Alkalies &c. . : ; : 5 : ; ; « ,90t
Sand ,. . . : : . : P ‘ . 89°92
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen ° ‘ ‘ ‘ , ~) 788
Equal to ammonia . . : . s 2lo

? Including potash (K, 0). A ; : . reer 227)
Equal to sulphate of potash . ; : am Bah

It will be seen that the amount of wae was very small,
whilst there was nearly 40 per cent. of sand. ‘The price, 20s,
per ton at the works, would hardly bear the additional 10s.
chargeable for carriage in the case under notice.

Sewage Sludge-—A rather large number of samples of this
material have been sent me during the year. As showing the
great variety among them | append the following analyses :—

No.1. No. 2. No. 3.
WIOISCULOM, as ee. tease. ite. 6 gu Comien ane 58°40 43-01 45°45
Organiowmatbter <n 2 Ae. ee 14:80 12°85 12°43
Phosphateorime '. §5 « cps esa oe 1:08 ‘26 3°53
Carbonate of lime. . fs 14:64 5:23 24°43
Oxide of iron, alumina, alkalies; &e. Sy ee 2°24 4°64 3°34
BANG! Te.Gs ev-ce ahiete 60 ce) ee re eens 8°84 34:01 10°82

100-00 100:00 100:00
Containing nitrogen .2. § . % 1% . “60 “49 72

Equaltoammonia ... «sss « * 72 *b9 87

Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist. 305

It is, of course, evident that very much depends on the
proximity of the place of manufacture to the field on which the
sludge is to be applied; indeed, this is generally the deciding
factor. However, the above analyses show that in different
sludges the composition varies greatly also. No. 1 cost about
4s. 6d. per ton upon the land, and this could not be considered
too much; for spreading on grass land it would be serviceable.
No. 2, costing about the same, would, I was informed, require
screening as well; it is decidedly inferior in quality to No. 1,
and far too dear. No. 3 is the richest of all, having consider-
ably more phosphates, and also being higherin ammonia. This
sludge, I was told, was put on rail free of charge, the cost
of carriage to the sender of the sample being 11s. 3d. a ton.
Though well worth having if near at hand, it would only just
about cover the cost of carriage. These sewage manures, when
sufficiently dry, as some of them are, might I think be usefully
employed for mixing with concentrated artificial manures for
the purpose of diluting them and procuring better distribution.

Basic Oinder—I was in hopes of being able to report
the results of some experiments on swedes which I have con-
ducted with this material, upon two different fields at Woburn,
especially as considerable public attention has been directed to
basic cinder, which, if found to be of practical value, must
prove a valuable addition to our supply of phosphatic manures.
Unfortunately, however, owing to the extreme drought, the
results, so far as the basic cinder is concerned, are not satis-
factory ; but so much is due to the untoward weather that it
would be unfair to draw any conclusion as to the efficacy of the .
manure.

I have contributed the following Papers to the ‘ Journal’ of
the Society during the year :—

1. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn
during the year 1886,

2. Report of Experiments on Ensilage at Woburn, 1886-87.

3. Sheep-Feeding Experiments at Woburn during 1886-87.

4. Report on the Experiments conducted in 1886 by Local
Agricultural Societies in conjunction with the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England.

List of Analyses made for Members of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England from December 1, 1886, to November 30, 1887.

Feeding-cakes - . - : - : : . 633
Compound-cakes . : - : - : : slg. es
eecegeicals : : : : F ; : Be yi
Superphosphates, dissolved bones, and compound) 295

EEE o_o tae tee eae |e Ooo
Guanos : : : : : . : : - 60

VOL. XXIV.—S. Ss. x

306 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

List of Analyses—continued.
Coprolites . : P ‘ . 4 : r 3

Bones, bone-meal, &e. . bes . ‘ : LOS,
Refuse-manures , 5 , ; : 5 3 oye (66
Manure-cakes 5 : : : : : é Hier 30)
Fish-manures ‘ , f : : F F SEID7
Dried blood. ‘ . : 3 , ; I, 4

Wool-dust and shoddy ; : - : wtp Yele dal
Nitrate of soda. : ; : - : 5 - 42
Kainit and potash salts ‘ ° : : : Oy

Sulphate of ammonia . ; . : , ; -- i383
Soot . . ; 5 6
Lime, limestone, ay pum, uals minerals, &e. ; 7
Soils . - ° : : . : ¢. 20
Waters C : F : : : - 89
Examinations for poison ” ; , : : - 8
Ensilage . ; ; . 5 : ; : ole
Miscellaneous. : : : - : , : 1
1559

Woburn experiments, analysesfor .. . 5 - 56
Total : : : . 1615

XVIUL.— Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee.
Aprit, 1887.

1. The Committee insert the following case and the corre-
spondence to show how very flexible is the makers’ definition of
*¢ pure ” cake.

The Committee cannot accept this definition of “ pure.”

On October 2, Mr. W. Wright, of Wollaton, Nottingham,
sent for analysis a sample of linseed-cake. Dr. Voelcker’s ana-
lysis and report were :—

“ October 9, 1886.

Moisture. - : : : . - 12:06
Oi » 10-40

1 Albuminous ‘compounds (tlesh- forming matters) , 24:19
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . « - + 86:00
Woody fibre | (cellulose) : ' . . « 8738

* Mineral matter (ash) . : : : , » ~ 8:62
100:00

' Containing nitrogen . : ; ; : . 3:87

2 Including ‘sand ‘ F : : . 378

“This is by no means a pure cakke—was it aa to you as such P
“J, Aveustus VOBLCKER.”

Two tons of this cake had been purchased, at 7/. 17s. 6d. per
ton, from Messrs. H. & I’. Warhurst, Queen’s Walk Wharf,

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 307

Nottingham, agents for Messrs. Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High
Street, Hull. The invoice was as follows :—

“September 4, 1886.
To 2 tons P. Lin, Cake | 7/17/6 | 152. 15s. Od. | ”

In reply to Dr. Voelcker’s inquiry, Mr. Wright said that the
cake was sold to him as pure. A few days later he forwarded
the following correspondence :—

“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
October 21, 1886.
“ Messrs. H. & F. Warhurst.

“ Dar Srrs,— ... 95 per cent. cakes have from 1 to 3 per cent. of
sand in, according to the class of seed used. The finest Baltic Seed has, say,
5 per cent. ash, of which about 1 per cent. is sand. E. J. seed-cakes of
the finest quality about 7 per cent. ash, which contains about 2 to 3 per cent.
sand. Of course, no sand would be added in manufacture of the cakes.
Thus you see that sand is more or less in all cakes, and the percentage rises
or falls according to the price paid for the cake.

“ As to the term pure cake, that term has no definite meaning. It is a
term of degree, The highest class cakes containing 95 per cent. purity are at
the highest price, and, as the price declines, the percentage of purity does—
there being 30s. difference between K.G.’s and 95 per cent., but the delivery,
we believe, sent to your friend may accidentally have been not quite up to the
usual standard. The E. J. seed has pieces of earth here and there which
are riddled out, but dust is left and this makes ash. ’

“Tn all cakes not 95 per cent. the percentage of ash will be rather high—
say in B.W., W.H., and B.

“We shall be glad to have the further report your friend speaks of. Did
he expect 95 per cent., think you ?—Yours faithfully,

“A. Denniss & Co.”

“The K.G.’s are nice, very, to-day—new seed.”

“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
October 22, 1886.
* Messrs. H. & F. Warhurst.

“Dear Srrs,—We think you will find the percentage of purity in the
K.G.’s as high as in any other cake at the same price. We enclose analysis
of a 95-per-cent. cake containing nearly 8 per cent. of ash, which would have
at least 3 per cent. of sand. This by Dr. Voelcker, and the price is 8/. 5s.
in Hull. If Dr. V. be told the price of the K.G.’s, we think he will say it
is worth the money paid.

“ Will you please send us part of the cake analysed that we may have it
tested, also copy of Voelcker’s analysis and report? He may have made an
error, and any one who circulates erroneous reports we shall hold liable. If
any error has been made in the delivery we shall be glad to take the cake
back or make compensation, but the inferiority must first be tested by our-
selves.— We are, yours truly, “ A. Denniss & Co.”

“ Nottingham.”

The following letters passed :—

“W. Wright, Esq. “ December 1, 1886.
“Dear Sir,—I am obliged for the correspondence sent me. I ought to

tell you in reference to Messrs. Alfred Denniss & Co.’s letters, that my re-

marks as to the cake being by no means pure, were not confined at all to the

ps

308 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

sand in the cake, though the amount of that is sufficiently large. The cake,
besides this, contains a large quantity of foreign seeds and starchy bodies.
Among these foreign seeds I find Cotton-seed, Niger, and Polygonum, in some
amount. The impurities account for the cake being lower in nitrogen than
it ought to be.— Yours faithfully, “J, Aveustus VOELCKER.”

““Wollaton, Nottingham: December 20, 1886.

“ Dear Sir,—I am much obliged by your letter of the.18th inst.

‘“‘T have done nothing farther with Messrs. Warhurst. They called at my
office a day or two ago, and made a long statement very much like the ex-
planation given in the merchant’s letter which I seut to you.

“T could simply say that I had nothing to do with that; I must be guided
entirely by your report and analysis. I do not see what I can do further in
the matter... .

“T shall be happy, however, to act upon any suggestion you may make.—
Believe me, yours very truly, “Ww. WRIGHT.”

“ Dr. J. A. Voelcker.”

“W. Wright, Esq., Wollaton, Nottingham. “ December 24, 1886.

“DEAR StrR,—I am much obliged for your letter of the 20th. There re-
mains nothing more but to thank you for the particulars sent. I will lay
these before the Chemical Committe, who will take such action as they
think fit.

“T presume you will communicate to the vendors the contents of my letter
of December 1, so that if they, or the manufacturers, desire to make any ex-
planation before the case is mentioned again (end of January), they can do
so. I take it that they have not made you any allowance for the cake.

‘“‘ Messrs. Denniss in their letter to Messrs. Warhurst, October 2, say— If
any error has been made in the delivery, we shall be glad to take the cake
back or make compensation.’ I should be glad to hear, if it is not troubling
you too much, whether either of these proposals has been acted on.—Yours
faithfully, “J, Avaustus VOELCKER.”

“ Wollaton, Nottingham: December 28, 1886.

“ Dear Sir,—In reply to your letter of 24th inst., I have this day sent
to Mr. Warhurst all the correspondence between us, so that the manufac-
turers of the cake and himself may be fully informed of what is going on,
and have the opportunity which you suggest of giving any explanation.

“They did not take the cake back, for the simple reason that it was all
consumed before I received your analysis. They have not made any com-
pensation, probably because there is still an outstanding account due from
me to them, and they may be intending to make some deduction when this
is settled, but I delayed paying any more money until matters were cleared
up.—I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, “Wm. WRIGHT.”

«“ J. A. Voelcker, Esq., 12 Hanover Square, London, W.”

“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
“Dr. J. A. Voelcker. January 8, 1887. :

“DparR Srr,—You have analysed a sample of linseed-cakes supplied
through Messrs. H. & F, Warhurst, of Nottingham, by us, to Mr. W.
Wright, of Wollaton, Nottingham, who states the analysis to be inferior,
but will not furnish a copy, and refers us to yourself; we should be obliged
by your sending us one.— We are, yours truly, A. Drnniss & Co.”

“ P.S.—The sample is No. 1,403. We should be glad to receive also part
of the sample, which may not fairly represent the bulk.

“ Please also state the brand on the cake. There may be some error
here,’

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887, 309

“ January 15, 1887.
“Messrs. Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull.

“Dear Srrs,—Mr. Wright, of Wollaton, informed me on December
28, 1886, that he had sent to Messrs. Warhurst the whole of the corre-
spondence that had passed between us, so that the latter gentlemen will be
able to give you the full particulars,

“At the same time, [ will write to Mr. Wright and tell him he will be
quite in order in giving you a copy of my analysis and remarks,—Yours
faithfully, “J, Aueustus VOELCKER.”

“Wim. Wright, Esq., Wollaton, Nottingham. “January 15, 1887.

“DEAR Srr,—I hear from Messrs. Denniss & Co, that they cannot
obtain from you a copy of my analysis and remarks on the cake. I beg to
inform you that in cases of dispute, such as this, it wonld be quite in order
for you to give Messrs. Denniss a copy of my analysis and remarks, and of
my letter of December 1, explaining what the impurities were, and that I
thought it only fair that you should do this if they applied for it.—Yours
faithfully, “J, Augustus VOELCKER.”

«“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
“Dr, J. A. Voelcker. January 17, 1887.

“Dear Str,—We are obliged by your letter, and have written Messrs,

Warhurst to get us copy of your report and analysis.
. “Tn yours of December 1, to Mr. Wright, you state you found cotton and
niger-seed in the cake. Now, if the cake you have analysed is ours, you are
in error in these respects, and we request you will have the goodness to
inform Mr. W. of your mistake.

“It is a by no means infrequent thing for analysts to wrongly describe the
constituent seeds of an oil-cake.

“ You say ‘ the cake is by no means pure.’ Now we are not aware that
the Royal Agricultural Society of England has a standard of purity for
cakes, nor have you or your predecessor fixed a standard, therefore it is
absurd to talk of a cake being pure or not pure. We believe the law will
allow cakes made of linseed as imported to be called ‘pure. Are you’
aware that seed as imported contains from 5 to 50 per cent. of foreign matter
other than line seeds? What, therefore, becomes of your definition? We
pis aes personally to pure on any cakes, as there is not an absolutely pure
cake. The presence of 1 per cent. of impurity in the seed destroys the
principle of purity. In the finest cakes guaranteed 95 per cent. purity you
admit by that guarantee the presence of five per cent. of impurity. The
term ‘pure’ therefore becomes a trade term of degree. The highest price
‘pure’ cakes, containing the highest percentage of purity, are the highest
price, and as the price declines the percentage of purity declines, The cake,
however, 30s. per ton less in price than 95 per cent. purity may be as well
worth the money as the 95 per cent.

“We blame the R.A.S. of E. for fixing no standard—after first consult-
ing with the cake vendors and seed importers of the country, and also for
not taking steps to have the food for cattle protected by a similar Act as
that dealing with the adulteration of food for human beings.

“The cake Mr. Wright received was a good useful cake, and no doubt
his stock did well on it, but it was not 95 per cent., being sold at 25s. and
30s. below the price of 95 per cent. We enclose one of our ¢rade circulars
—showing that ‘ pure’ covers a range of value from 6/. 12s. 6d. to 81. 5s.

“We do what we can to induce buyers to buy the best cakes, but they
will have what is the cheapest. Our prices are for dealers who retail out
to consumers,

310 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

“ We contend that Mr. W. got the full value that he paid for.—We
are, yours truly, “A, Drenniss & Co.

“ P.S.—We sell about 15,000 tons oil-cakes per annum, but the quantity

of 95 per cent. linseed-cakes included is not large. It is however growing.
“ ALFRED DENNIsS & Co.”

“191 High Street, Hull: January 26, 1887.
“Dr. J. A. Voelcker, :

“Dear Str,—I have not been favoured with a reply to my letter of
19th inst. I consider your analysis and report have done injury, which I
feel sure you will be willing to repair without any undue pressure from me.
I again, with firmness but respect, request you will at once explain your
_mistake as to the cotton-seed and niger-seed, which you erroneously stated
were in the cake to Mr, Wright; and also state what you intended by the
term ‘pure.’

. . . . ° e ° . .
“Esteeming your reply, I am, yours truly, ALFRED DENNIss.”

“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
January 19, 1887.
“ Dr, Voelcker.

“DEAR Str,—We have received the analysis from Mr. Wright, No,
1,403, but there is nothing on it showing it to be of our cake, It is simply
called ‘ Linseed-cake ;’ but presuming there is no error and that it is the
‘K.G. Pure’ brand we will comment thereon. We have requested Mr.
W. to send us sample from the bulk that we may test your analysis.

“The analysis is that of a good linseed-cake. There is nothing injurious
in it. It is as pure in principle as the very finest, but not in degree. You
say :—‘ This is by no means a pure cake, was it sold as such?’ In refer-
ence to this extremely ambiguous statement and query, we refer to our letter
of 17th inst.

“We presume you meant to say that the cake was not from the finest
Linseed; was it soldas such? It is not of the finest quality, and was not
sold as such. It is average Hull quality, and was sold at a price in accord-
ance ; ata price which represents its value as a feeding cake. We sold it to
Messrs. Warhurst at 6/. 15s. per ton, and they put their profit of, we believe,
some 10s. per ton on to that price—a reasonable profit for a dealer to charge
the farmer, who takes, often, long credit ; 6/. 15s. being the wholesale prompt
cash price. A 95 per cent, pure would have been 25s. to 30s. more than
this.

“Will you please tell Mr. W., that as you understand the price
charged was so much less than the price of a perfect cake, that you consider
he has got good value for the price charged P

“Tf the matter is brought up before your committee we hope you will
read our letter of the 17th instant, and show our circular manifesting the
different qualities of pure. We should like to sell nothing but 95 per cent.,
but the buyers will have the lowest-priced cakes, all of which that we sell
are very good yalue at the money,—We are, yours truly,

“ A, Denniss & Oo.”

The following extract is from the circular referred to in
Messrs. Denniss’s letter :—
“191 High Street, Hull: December 31, 1886.

“ Dpar Srr,—We beg to submit our to-day’s prices, free to cart or craft
at mill or warehouse as under :—

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 311

‘¢ LINSEED-CAKES.

Per ton.

£s d
**Pure, 95 per cent. purity (Hull shape) . ye 0) 0
D.B. Pure do. do. : ot a 6
Anglo Pure do. (Thin narrow shape) . 8 26
8. X. Pure do. : 617 6G
K. G. Pure (Hull shape) : ‘ 615 0
A, D. Pure do. oar : 615 0
P. B, Pure do. . . ogi’ ORO
S. G. Pure do. : : 612 6
B. Pure do. . : oy 0
T. LT. Pure do. . : . . <3 612756
B. F. Pure do apa Sey aiiay 21% . None

S. H.S. Pure (Anglo) ot sted : . None

“ LinsreD-CakeEs.—A quiet trade at firm prices. It cannot be too
widely explained to any ignorant of the fact, that the word ‘pure’ covers
a range of values differing 30s. per ton, and that buyers can have the
highest percentage (95 per cent.) of purity if they will pay the price, but
that naturally the percentage of purity declines as the price declines, though
the cheaper cakes at their prices may be as well worth them as the 95 per
cent, theirs.

“Tn Hull makes we recommend S. X. 95 per cent. Pure at 8/. 2s. Gd. ;
**95 per cent., 8/.; S. Pure, 6/7. 17s. 6d; A. D. Pure, 6/7. 15s.; K. G. Pure,
Gl, 15s.; S. G. Pure, 62. 12s. 6d.; T. T. Pure, 62. 12s. 6d.”

The correspondence was continued as follows :—

‘“* Messrs, Alfred Denniss & Co. ‘February 10, 1887.

“Dear Srrs,—I have your several letters in reference to the cake
analysed for Mr. Wright, of Nottingham.

‘You ask me to write to Messrs. Warhurst informing them of a supposed
error that I have made; but as no error whatever has been committed, you
must excuse me from doing this. You admit the term ‘ pure’ both in your
letters and circulars, and the cake was supplied to Mr. Wright under that
description. Considering, as I do, that the word ‘pure,’ even in a qualified
sense, ought by no means to be applied to such a cake asthe one I examined,
I reported on it as I did.—Yours faithfully,

“J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

« Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
February 11, 1887,

“Dear Str,—Your letter received. We asked you to withdraw the
allegation of the presence of niger and cotton-seed in your analysis, as they
did not exist, This is a reasonable request, and we beg respectfully to
repeat it.

“Asto the term pure we disapprove of its presence on any cake, but
cannot control the trade; we are vendors, not manufacturers, and we do all
we can, as you will have seen from our circular, to put the trade on a
logical and fair basis ; but we do think, with all due respect, that you do not
do your part in bringing this about. We, however, need not reiterate what
we have already stated, The thing ought to be ventilated in the public
journals.—Yours truly, “ A. Denniss & Co.”

“12 Hanover Square, London, W.: February 12, 1887.

“ Dear Srrs,—lI told you in my letter that I had made no mistake what-
ever, and therefore I haye nothing to withdraw,

312 Quarterly Reporis of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

“T have the cake in question by me, and am at any time prepared to
show the presence of the foreign seeds I named as occurring in it.—Yours
faithfully, “J. A. VoELCKER.”

“ Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull:
“ Dr. Voelcker. February 14, 1887.

“Dear Str,—We are obliged by your letter, but distinctly affirm that
there was neither niger nor cotton-seed in the cake. We should be glad if
you would send us a small piece of the cake you analysed that we may
Inspect it to see whether it is our cake, and to have it tested. You desire,
like ourselves, nothing but the truth, we are sure.—Yours faithfully,

“ A. Denniss & Co.”

“12 Hanover Square, London, W.: March 7, 1887.
“ Messrs. Alfred Denniss & Co., 191 High Street, Hull.

“Dear Strs,—The matter of Mr. Wright's cake was laid before the
Chemical Committee at their meeting on March 1, and after a consideration
of the circumstances I was requested to inform you that it is against the
Society’s rule to send to others the samples which have been forwarded for
analysis by private individuals. At the same time I have to inform you
that the cake is retained here, and if you wish to see it, or send any one as
representing you for the purpose, you are at liberty to do so.— Yours faith-
fully, “J, AuGcustus VOELCKER.”

2. Mr. W. T. Culverwell, of Durleigh Farm, near Bridg-
water, sent on December 9, 1886, a sample of linseed-cake
marked “C, D.,” which was reported on thus :—

“ December 18, 1886.
Moisture . ‘ ° : . : : . 12°55
Gril, : : ; : 5 = : . 10:33
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters). 20°15
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 36:95

Woody fibre (cellulose) : } . 12:07
* Mineral matter (ash) . : ; : - + Ve tp
100-00

} Containing nitrogen . ; ; : . B22

? Containing sand . ; - 3 ; . 3:03

“A cake grossly adulterated with starchy compounds. Asa consequence
it is excessively low in nitrogenous bodies. It ought to have from 4 to 44
per cent. of nitrogen. « J. Avaustus. VORLCKER.”

Mr. Culverwell purchased a ton of this cake at 8/. per ton,
but refused to give the vendors’ name, writing as follows :—

“ Durleigh Farm, nr. Bridgwater : January 31, 1887.

“ Dear S1r,—In reply to yours of Jan. 27th, £ beg to say that the cake,
No. 47, was bought subject to analysis, but no analysis mentioned; the
vendor has very fairly met me on the price, therefore I do not wish to expose
the name.—Yours respectfully, “W. T, CULVERWELL,”

“J. A. Voelcker, Esq.’

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 313

3. Mr. Gerard C. Meynell, of 20 Whitehall Place, S.W.,
sent on January 26, 1887, on behalf of the Right Hon. Sir W.
Hart-Dyke, Bart., M.P., a sample of linseed-cake, 4 tons of
which had been purchased at 8/. 2s. 6d. a ton from Mr. T. Mill-
house, Horton Kirby Flour Mills, Dartford, agent for the Oil
Seed Crushing Company, Dover. The analysis and report
were :—

“February 2, 1887.

Moisture. : - : - - - Jy 12:02

i ; - : : : : : ‘ . 10:49

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 18°37
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . > a oAOl
Woody fibre (cellulose). ; - - elena,

? Mineral matter (ash) . . . . : « 945
100:00

1 Containing nitrogen . : : ; : . 2°94

2 Including sand . : : - : ; . 514

‘This is an adulterated cake, containing quantities of locust bean, also
cotton husk and other foreign seeds, besides over 5 per cent. of sand. The
cake in consequence shows an extremely low percentage of nitrogen, and

j j “c 7 ”
proportionately high fibre. J. Aveustus VOELCKER.

The following correspondence is a full record of the trans-
action up to its conclusion :—

T, MiziHovse to Mreynett & PEMBERTON.
“ January 4, 1887.
“Being agent for the Oil Seed Crushing Company, Dover, I can offer
you linseed-cake at 8/. 2s. 6d. per ton, delivered in four-ton lots, at Eynsford
Station, carriage paid; if less than four tons, ls. 6d. per ton extra. If you
should be buyers I will have the order lodged so that you may have it
delivered any time this month.”

Mr. Meynett ro T, MILiHovse.
“ January 5, 1887.

_ “Tam obliged by your letter of the 4th instant. What percentage ot
oil aS of purity can you guarantee in the cake you offer at &/. 2s. Gd. per
ton 5

T, Mitigovse to Mr. Meynett.
“ January 6, 1887.
“The linseed-cake I quoted to you is the same as used by Robert Russell,
Esq., and all the principal farmers. They tell me their stock do well on it.
The Dover Oil Crushing Company do a large business, and I have always
found the cake of good quality and sell a great quantity.”

T. Mitrmovse to Mr. MeyNeELt.
“ January 13, 1887.
“T beg to acknowledge receipt with thanks, and any order you favour
me with shall be booked at the lowest price. The Dover Mills will deliver
a lower quality linseed-cake at 10s. per ton less than the 8/. 2s, 6d. quality
quoted to you last week. Bran is 85s, per ton at the mill.”

314 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

Mr. Meynett ro T. MiLiaouse.
“ January 15, 1887.
‘On the terms mentioned in your letter of the 4th instant, please send

four tons of linseed-cake addressed to Mr, E. Lawrence, Eynsford Station,
and inform me and Mr, Lawrence when it is sent.”

T. MitrHovse To Mr. Mrynett.
“ January 19, 1887.
“The four tons of linseed-cake has been sent to Hynsford Station to the

order of Mr. E. Lawrence. I have also by this post sent a number of cakes,
946, that he may see the delivery is correct.”

“TCopy Invotce. }
“ Horton Krrsy Frour Mrs.
“ LULLINGSTONE ESTATE.
“To T, MixtHovse, Corn, Linseed-cake, and Seed Merchant.
1887.

January 20,—4 tons linseed-cake . . " . 321. 10s. Od.”

Mr. Meynert to T, Minimotss.
“February 11, 1887.

“T have to-day received your bill for four tons of linseed-cake, and
simultaneously the report of the Consulting Chemist of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, to whom I sent a specimen of the cake for analysis.
He reports that this is an adulterated cake, containing quantities of locust-
bean, also cotton-husk, and other foreign seeds, besides over five per cent. of
sand. The cake in consequence shows an extremely low percentage of
nitrogen and proportionate high fibre. I shall be glad to know what remarks
you have to make on this report, and whether you are prepared to take back
the unused portion of the cake, or what other course you are prepared to
adopt.”

T, MitiHovse to Mr. MEYNELL.
“February 15, 1887.
“T sent on your letter to Dover, and, by their reply, the (D) linseed-cake

was sent in mistake, the price of which is 7/. 15s. per ton ; the pure, 8/. 2s. 6d.
I will take the unused back, and send the pure if you wish it.”

Or Seep Crusnine Company, Lien, to T, Minimovse.
“ February 14, 1887.

“* We have received your letter of the 12th inst., with enclosure, which
we return herewith ; and, in reply, our (D):linseed-cake is not as represented
in the letter you send. You are aware that the cake is not pure, and if you
have guaranteed it so, we should think it would be better for you to take

back the unused portion, which we can exchange for pure at 7s. Gd. per ton
more.”

Mr. Meynett to T, Mitimovse.
“ February 16, 1887.
“Your letter is scarcely satisfactory. When you offered the cake I
inquired what percentage of oil and of purity you could guarantee, from

which you should have understood that I desired a supply of practically pure
cake, You offered a lower quality at 10s, (not 7s, 6d.) a ton less,

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committec, 1887. 315

“ The question, however, is not merely one of price. It appears that Sir
William’s cattle have been supplied with, and have eaten, a mixture con-
taining worthless and injurious substances, a fact which I could not have
discovered had I not sent a sample to the Consulting Chemist of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England for analysis.

“JT will now consult Sir William on the course to be adopted under the
circumstances.”

T, MiuttHovse To Mr. Meynett.
“ February 17, 1887.

“ Your letter to hand this morning respecting the cake. Had you asked
me for a guarantee for its purity, I should have referred you to the makers.

* When I wrote to you I said it was the same cake many of the farmers
—Mr. Robt. Russell and others—were using, and it had always given satis-
faction. You mention the price I quoted you’at the time being 10s. less
(not 7s. 6d.). The price is not always the same, having this morning had a
circular with an alteration, viz., 2s. 6d. per ton cheaper. I am sorry this
misunderstanding should have been. I can assure you it is against my wish
to wrong any one, which your letter almost said I had been guilty of,”

Mr. Mryne.t To T. MILLHovsE.
“ February 21, 1887.

“ Since the date of my letter of the 16th instant, I have consulted Sir
William on the subject of our correspondence. I am authorised to make the
following offer to you, viz., that you at once send for and remove the re-
maining cakes, and that you be allowed at the rate of 6/. a ton for the
quantity already consumed.

“ This offer, if not accepted by Wednesday next, must be considered as
withdrawn. In any case Sir William reserves liberty to make any use he
may think proper of this correspondence.

“Tn regard to the last paragraph of your letter of the 17th inst., I may
remark that your principals, in their letter to you of the 14th inst., appear to
attempt to shift the blame from the manufacturer, and to attach it to their

agent, by saying that you were aware that the cake was not pure, and that
in effect the price was incorrect.”

T, Miz~tHovse To Mr, Mrynett.
‘February 22, 1887.

“T have written to the Oil Seed Company, and as soon as I have an
answer will write and let you know if I am to accept your terms,”

T. Miriyovse to Mr. MeyneE ct.
“ March 1, 1887.

“T have this day sent for the unused cake and find it to weigh 1 ton

18 ewt. 3 qrs, Also enclosed samples of seed oats, with the price, should you
be buyers.”

Mr. Mrynett to T, MInLHovse.
“ March 2, 1887.

“You mention that you have removed the unused linseed-cake, but you
do not state whether or not you accept the offer of 6/. per ton for the
quantity used. Assuming the quantity you name as being returned, viz.,
1 ton 182 ewts., to be correct, the quantity to be paid for is 2 tons 12 ewts.,
which at 6/. per ton would be 12, 7s. 6d., for which I am prepared to advise
Sir William to sign a cheque.”

316 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

T. MiriHovsE TO Mr. MEYNELL.
“ March 3, 1887.

“7 have had a letter from the Company in which they say the cost of the
cake to them is 7/. 7s, 6d. per ton. I will leave it in your hands to pay what
you think right.”

Mr. T. Mreyneti to T. MiniHovse.
“* March 10, 1887.

“In reference to your letter of the 5rd instant, leaving in my hands the
question of payment for the adulterated meal, I have advised Sir William
Dyke to pay you for the 2 tons 1} ewt. used at the rate of 6/. 5s. per ton,
and enclose accordingly his cheque for 127. 17s. Gd. and shall be obliged by
your receipt in full. Had the cake been simply adulterated with locust bean,
my task in deciding the amount Sir William might be advised to pay would
have been more simple, but the large admixture of injurious substances is
not so easily dealt with.”

No letter was sent with the receipt, of which the following
is a copy :—
“ Horton Krrspy Frovr Mitts,
“THe LULLINGSTONE Estate.
“To T. MitiHovsn, Corn, Linseed-cake, and Seed Merchant.
1887.

January 20,—4 tons linseed-cake . : : : ; . £3210 0
Cr. by 383-cwt. returned : . £1514 9
Cheque . : - : spd Ir 1)
Tare : : ; : - oulda=go
£32 10 0
“ Received payment as above, March 11, 1887. T. MrziHovss.”
JuLY, 1887.

The Committee had before them a case, typical of many
which have happened of late, in which the purchaser, a member
of the Society, had followed the recommendations issued by the
Society—viz., in the case of linseed-cakes, to insist on having the
word “ pure” inserted on the invoice; but in which the inten-
tion had manifestly been to evade the guarantee by the insertion
of a qualifying sign, word, letter, or letters preceding “ pure.”

It is maintained by some makers and dealers that the use
of such qualifying prefix does not necessarily carry with it the
guarantee of purity, but merely specifies a particular brand or
quality of cake.

The Committee are conscious of the fact that were these
qualifying prefixes generally accepted by the trade as bearing
such interpretation, great injury would be caused both to the
agricultural interest and to honourable manufacturers of and
dealers in cakes.

The Committee, therefore, propose in future to take cogni-

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 317

zance of all cases of adulteration reported to them in which the
word “ pure,” whether stated on the invoice or branded on the
cake, has been used, with or without any prefix.

1. Mr. T. Goodall, of the Park Farm, Hurleston, Nantwich,
sent on February 19, 1887, a sample of boiled bones. 4 tons
had been ordered, at 4/. 2s. 6d. per ton for cash, the bones to be
genuine. The vendor was Mr. Samuel Smith, of Hargreaves
Street, Rogers Street, Redbank, Manchester, who was the

manufacturer. The analysis was as follows :—
“ March 2, 1887.

Moisture . - : : : : , - . 13°68
1 Organic matter . ee . : : > . 18:47
Phosphate of lime . : : : ; : 42°57
Common salt (chloride of sodium) . : - . 2°65
Sulphate of lime . - : 3 : - . 18°73
Carbonate of lime, &e. ; : : : : . 3800
Insoluble silicious matter . : : : E : ‘90
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : : : : 5 117
Equaltoammonia . : : - 1-42

“This sample is adulterated with sulphate of lime (gypsum), and has
also over 23 per cent. of salt; by this admixture it is lowered in value to
the extent of about 1/. a ton. “J. Aveustus VoELCKER.”

After inquiry made as to how the case had been settled,
Mr. Goodall wrote on May 3: “Mr. Smith allowed me a
deduction of 1/. per ton, as suggested in your letter.”

2. Mr. H. Potter, of Bentwood, Arnold, Notts, bought two
tons of bone-dust at 6/. 15s. a ton, and sent a sample for ana- -
lysis, the result of which is given below :— ;

“ April 11, 1887.

Moisture. - : - - ; : : . 16:26
‘Organic matter . . - ‘ : . : . 27°30
Phosphate of lime. : : : : : . 40°79
Carbonate of lime, &c. : : . c ; 5°67
Chloride of sodium (common salt) . ‘ : a SA)
Insoluble silicious matter . ; ‘ : : . 419
100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . - : : ; - 2°86
Equal to ammonia . 5 : : : 2 Suara

“This is a low quality sample, adulterated with nearly 6 per cent. of

salt, “J. Augustus VoELCKER.”

The name of the vendors was not forthcoming, Mr. Potter
saying that he had promised not to give it; they were friends
and close neighbours. The vendors, however, made an allowance
of 25s. a ton.

318 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

8. Mr. C. P. Harvey, of Sudborough, Thrapston, ordered on
February 24, 1887, four tons of a manure described to him as
“patent carbon fertiliser” for oats, the price being 41. a ton.
The vendors were Messrs. Hewes, Hewes & Geary, of Coalville,
near Leicester, they being also the manufacturers. The firm
was described as the manufacturers of the Hygeian Disinfecting
Powder and Hewes’ Anti-incrustation Powder, &c.

Dr. Voelcker’s analysis gave the following results :—

“ March 24, 1887.

Moisture . ° : i : : : A . 2061
1 Organic matter . z : : 11°82
Oxide of iron and alumina . 6:59
Phosphate of lime - 4:26
Carbonate of lime wh2icst
Alkalies,&c. . : 2°68
Insoluble silicious matter 32°33
100-00

1Containing nitrogen . ‘ : : - <P S65
Equal to ammonia . : : F ‘79

“« A material not worth a sixth of what it costs.
“J. Augustus VOELCKER.”

In answer to Mr. Harvey’s complaint the following letter
was received :—

“MEMORANDUM. :
“ Frou March 28, 1887
HEWES, HEWES & GEARY,
Manufacturers of the To

‘Hygeian’ Disinfecting Powder and
Hewes’ Anti-incrustation
Powder, &c., &c., COALVILLE, near
LEICESTER.

C. P., HARVEY, Egq.,
SvUDBOROUGH,
THRAPSTON.

“Dear Srx,—In reply to your favour of the 25th, which has been
handed to me, I herewith give you a full explanation of the analysis of the
‘Patent Carbon Fertiliser’ as supplied by our firm,

“T will take the analysis as it stands,

“1st—The moisture = 20°51 per cent. No doubt it will somewhat
surprise you when I state that the moisture is the special feature of our
manures, and it is not a simple stinking bone oil put in to acquire a suitable
density for the manure, but a liquid extract distilled from solid excreta by
our own special patent process, at a very considerable cost, and cannot be
supplied by any other firm in the world; the moisture in one ton of our
manure is worth in itself to us 2/. 15s., as we can sell it readily for turnip-
dressing at 2/7. per cask of 40 gals. I send you by this post sample of the
liquid extract, twenty per cent. of which is equal as a fertiliser to twenty-
five per cent. of soluble phosphates, and eight per cent. of sulphate of
ammonia—we practically tried and proved it,

“2nd.—The organic matter is quite right, the percentage of nitrogen
varies a little. The greater part of the ammonia would come off in analysis

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 319

with the moisture on heating, as the alkalies present would liberate the
ammonia.

“ 3rd.—The other part of the analysis is up to standard, the alkalies
rather above.

“ 4th.—The insoluble silicious matter is principally fine granular garden
sand, for the purpose of preventing the liquid extract forming a solid cake
with the carbonate and phosphate of lime and organic carbon matter.

“T can guarantee that you will be perfectly satisfied with the result you
will get after using it.

“The analysis is quite right, but the generality of manures have their
principal ingredients in solids, but this being of a volatile nature, in
analysis, would at once come off and be registered as moisture, and its com-
position would not be noticed. .

“Trusting this explanation will be sufliciently explicit to afford to you
satisfaction as to its quality. Any further information you may require I
shall be most happy to forward you, or if preferable will come over and see

ou.
tae I was not at all surprised at the tone of your letter, as it is the first
time it has been sent to Dr. Voelcker, and he, not knowing the nature of the
moisture, would fail to notice any peculiarity init. I put the terms—three
months—on the inyoice so that you will have the opportunity of seeing
something of the effect before paying for it.

“ Sincerely hoping we may be favoured with your further orders for root
manures, satisfaction of which we will guarantee.— Yours obediently,

“ Frep. C. Geary, Chemist to the firm.”

Dr. Voelcker wrote on May 4 :—

“«C, P. Harvey, Esq., Sudborough, Thrapston. “ May 4, 1887.
“Oar Manurz.—No. 461:

“ Dear Str,—I am much obliged to you for sending particulars about
the Carbon Fertiliser, and am very much amused with the letter which the
vendors send. The process of analysis which I adopt would not allow any
ammonia that the material might contain to escape estimation, and the
water and the fine sand, however useful they may be to the manufacturer,
are not of value to you.

“The manure is one quite unsuited for a crop of oats, and, as I said, is
not worth one-sixth of what it costs. ;

“ Will you kindly let me know how the matter has been settled P—
Yours faithfully, “J, AveusTUS VOELCKER.”

The makers wrote on June 13 as follows :—

«C, P. Harvey, Esq., Sudborough, Thrapston.

“ Dear Srz,—In answer to yours of the 11th inst., xe manure for corn
crops, we thank you for your offer of one-sixth, but would prefer waiting
until the corn is cut, when you will be better able to judge the value of the
rari and unless the yield is satisfactory we would rather take no pay
at all.

“We do not wish to say anything against Dr. Voelcker’s process for
mauure analysis, but, nevertheless, we know ‘practically’ as well as ‘ chemi-
cally’ what our manures are capable of doing, and unless we had perfect
confidence in them we should not think of pushing them.

“Hoping to hear your decision after harvest, we are, yours faithfully,

“Hewes, Hewes & Geary.”

320 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

4. A member of the Society sent on March 10, 1887, a
sample of linseed-cake which he had been giving to a valuable
thoroughbred filly, nine months old, together with other food.
The filly was seized with general paralysis, and her life was in
considerable danger. Thinking the cake might be the cause,
the member referred to forwarded a sample for analysis, of which

the following is the report :—
““ March 23, 1887.

Moisture. . : ; : : E . ° 12°32
One ‘ : : : : : : . 841
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 27°44
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 36°47
Woody fibre (cellulose). ; : ; Pee cece
Mineral matter (ash) . : ; : ; . 639
100-00

‘Containing nitrogen < é . . . 4:39

“This is a cake low in oil and very impure. It contains an immense
quantity of weed and other seeds, among which I recognise mustard. It is
one of the worst cakes I have examined for a considerable time.

“J. Aveustus VoELCKER.”

The cake was shipped from South Riga, and was stated to be
of Schmitz’s manufacture. The name of the vendor could not
be obtained.

5. Mr. W. Hughes, of Norsted, Chelsfield, Kent, forwarded
on March 18, 1887, a sample of ‘‘ Sootigine,” of which he had
bought 10 tons at 35s. per ton, this material having been repre-
sented to him as equal to guano. The vendors were the New
Carbolic Sanitary Company, Hackney, London. The analysis

was :—
“ March 28, 1887.

Moisture . 4 5 : : : ‘ » 21°91
1Organic matter . ; : : . ; . 26:14
Phosphate of lime, . : : : . traces
Oxide of iron and alumina . : : - - 12:01
Carbonate and sulphide of lime, alkalies, &c. . 21°57
Insoluble silicious matter . : : - . 18:37
100:00

! Containing nitrogen : : : : : “81
Equal to ammonia . ‘ ‘ : - 5 ‘99

“ About three times too dear; it is poor manure.
“J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Mr. Hughes wrote on May 2 :—

“Dear Srr,—I now send you the bill you ask for in your report on
sample of sootigine, which in its application quite carries out your report,

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 321

and is, I fear, quite a useless manure. It was applied as a top-dressing to
wheat early in February, and a piece was left not dressed, but I fail to see
any difference where applied and where not.—Yours faithfully,

“Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker.” “Ww. Hueuss. ”

6. Mr. W. T. Scarth, of Raby Castle, Darlington, sent on
April 4 a sample of linseed-cake, on which the following report
was given :—

“ April 7, 1887.

Moisture. : . : . . . . 14:05
Oi : ‘ ee. : : ‘ 2 E07
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters). 20°31

Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 2669
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : . : . 18:98
? Mineral matter (ash) . . : . . » 895
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : . . . 3:21

2 Including sand . : . . » 3°95

“This cake is an impure and nasty tasting one, containing, besides 4 per
cent. of sand, cotton-husk, niger-seed, and other impurities. It is exces-
sively high in indigestible fibre, and very low in nitrogenous matters.

“J. Avaustus VOELCKER.”

“ A ton of this was purchased from an agent of the manufac-
turers, Messrs. Eyre & Co., of 6 High Street, Hull, and Scul-
coates, Hull, and was invoiced as “ + Pure,” the price being
71. 5s. per ton. A small quantity of the cake only had been
used before its impurity was discovered, and the remainder of
the delivery Mr. Scarth returned.

7. Mr. J. HE. Hill, of Gressenhall, Dereham, forwarded on
May 10, 1887, a sample of manure bought as dissolved bones
at 61. a ton delivered. The analysis and report on this were—

“ May 24, 1887,
Moisture . : - : . : - 11:08

1Organic matter . : : : ; : » 25:26
Phosphate of lime . . : - . 23:24
Sulphate of lime, &e. . : . : - - 33:18
Insoluble silicious matter . : : > . 24

100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . : - ‘ » 1°74
Equal to ammonia : : - ; : 211

“This is not dissolved bones at all, and the price, 6/., is very excessive ;
47, a ton would more than represent its value to you delivered.
“J. Augustus VoELCKER,”
VOL. XXIV.—S. S, iy;

322 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

Mr. Hill wrote on June 5 :—
“Dis, Bonrs.—No. 882.

“ Dear Srr,—Having always had a good understanding with the man
of whom I bought the dis. bones, and he having accepted my offer of 4/7. for
the ton, which I bought at 6/., I cannot undertake to expose him.—I am,
dear Sir, yours truly, «Jj. , Biase.

“J. A. Voelcker, Esq.”

DECEMBER, 1887.

In accordance with a resolution passed June 29, 1887, the
Committee have now to report on a great number of cases where
the word “ Pure” with some qualifying prefix is stamped upon
the cakes. They consider that the term “Pure” cannot be
qualified by a prefix, and is not applicable to any cake which
contains other materials than the article from which the cake
professes to be made.

1. Major E. C. Robertson, of Widmerpool, Nottingham, for-
warded for analysis on May 14, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake,
the report upon which was :—

“ June 8, 1887.
Moisture . . « 9210
Gil. : ; ; : - : : . 7:84
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) , 27°43
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . . 33°40
Woody fibre (cellulose) . - - . . 14°73
? Mineral matter (ash) . ’ . . . Tw
100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . : - - - 439
2 Including sand . : - : - . 2°26

“Poor quality and impure. It contains rape.
“J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Though repeatedly pressed to give the particulars, Major
Robertson declined to give the names of the manufacturers,
stating that the firm was an old-established one who had a good
name, and that he was disposed to accept their explanation as
contained in the following letter from the firm :—

« June 28, 1887.

“Since receiving your first letter we have gone thoroughly into the
matter, and find that the parcel of seed worked at the time you were last
supplied was not altogether satisfactory, as the cakes produced turned out
dry and poorer in quality than our usual production. We know you have
not had any from us previously that would be of inferior quality, and it is a
matter of much regret to us that you should have had this,

“If Dr. Voeleker considers you did not receive money value, we shall be
glad to make a concession on this parcel, either upon his estimation or what
you in your own judgment consider a fair allowance,”

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 323

Dr. Voelcker wrote further, pointing out that the explanation
given, whilst it might account for the poor quality of the cake,
would not account for its impurity. No further information
could, however, be obtained.

2. The Right Hon. Lord Kesteven, of Casewick, Stamford,
sent, on May 19, 1887, along with other samples, one of linseed-
cake, on which Dr. Voelcker reported :—

«June 8, 1887.
Moisture , . . : . : , . 18:26
Oil, 7. 10:97
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 21:67
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 37°68
Woody fibre (cellulose) ; - - . 889
? Mineral matter (ash) . : - - . Beas:
100-00
' Containing nitrogen . 7 : - of Oren
2 Including sand . . : : - « 269

“The linseed-cake is an impure one, having a disagreeable and bitter
taste, and being much mixed with materials of a starchy character.
“J. Aveustus VoELCKER.”

Five tons of this cake had been purchased, at the price of
61. 11s. 8d. per ton delivered, from Mr. Geo. Shillaker, Market
Deeping, agent for Messrs. David Salmond & Son, of Wil-
mington Oil Mills, Hull. Each cake was branded “ D.§8. Pure,”
and was invoiced as such. ‘This lot was a portion of a delivery
running from January 1, 1887, over 254 tons having been pur-
chased up to May 14. In consequence of beasts having done
badly, his lordship forwarded the cake for analysis.

Lord Kesteven on August 8 sent a second sample, which was
part of a delivery made in January of the same cake and through
the same agent. The analysis and report were :—

“ August 18, 1887.

Moisture . . . < : : » 855
Ou. : : eZee
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-for ming matters) . 22°84
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . ; . 39°93
Woody fibre | (cellulose) . : - 2 OL
? Mineral matter (ash) . ; : : ° « G40
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : c - = SG

2 Including sand . r : : ° 5 2°40

“An ure cake, containing some quantity of rape, together with other
impurities of starchy character, It has a decidedly bitter taste.
“J, Avevsrvs Voutormr,”

"2

. ——————

324 = Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

3. Mr. Thos. S. Radford, of Mount Pleasant, Church
Broughton, Derby, sent on July 19, 1887, for opinion, a
sample of linseed-cake, which he had bought as pure. Dr.
Voelcker advised a full analysis, which was made as follows :—

“September 24, 1887.
Moisture . * ‘ . . e ‘ + 8°59

Oise. 10°50
1 ATbuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 23°69
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 38838
Woody fibre (cellulose) : : : . ibs
2 Mineral matter (ash) . : ; ‘ . « jee
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : . . os) ae

? Including sand . P 2°28

“A very impure cake; the fibre is excessive, a the cake contains

quantities both of rape and ‘of starchy bodies,
“J. Aveustus VoELCKER.”

The sample was taken from.a 2-ton lot, forming part of a
contract for 12 tons, to be delivered between July and December,
1887. It was purchased from dealers near Derby. The cake
was invoiced as “D. S. Pure Linseed Cake,” each one being
branded “D. 8S. Pure.” The price was 6/. 12s. 6d. per ton,
delivered. Mr. Radford stated that the manufacturers were
Messrs. David Salmond & Son, Hull, adding: “The vendor is
a respectable man, and I supposed I was buying pure cake, as
it was so stamped.”

4. Mr. A. S. Berry, of Pheasey Farm, Queeslet, Great Barr,
near Birmingham, sent, on June 1, 1887, a sample of linseed-

cake, on which Dr. Wasicker reported : ==
“ June 15, 1887.

Moisture. : : : ‘ : ‘ . 13°20
Oils 5 ‘ . yl b@e
: Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters). 24:87
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . 3148
Ww oody fibre (cellulose) . : : ’ » rer
2 Mineral matter (ash) . . : . . » 975
100-00
1 Containing nitrogen ‘ : : ‘ » 3:98
? Including ‘sand. . . . » £10
“This is an impure cake; it has over 4 per cent. of sand and much
starchy admixture and foreign seeds. “J. Avaustus VOELCKER.”

Four tons of this cake had been purchased, at 7/. a ton
delivered, from Mr. Thomas Bradburn, of Wednesfield, Wolver-
hampton, the makers being Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows,

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887, 325

of Hull. The cake was branded “W. H. & W., Pure,” and
invoiced as “ W. H. & W. Pure Linseed Cake (our usual make
and quality).” Before the cake was sent for analysis the follow-
ing correspondence passed between the vendor and the manu-
facturers :—

« Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows, Hull. “ May 27, 1887.
“Gentlemen,—On the 18th inst. you sent 4 tons of linseed-cale to
H. and B. Railway labelled ‘ Great Barr, and I invoiced them to my customer
as 4 tons of linseed-cake, but he refuses to accept this. I have therefore
invoiced them to him as you invoiced them to me. He is going to have
them analysed, and I hope that they will come out all right. I do not want
my name figuring in the ‘ Journal. —Yours faithfully,
“THos; BRADBURN, per R.J.S ”

“Willows, Holt & Willows, Oil Mills, Hull:
“ Mr. Thos. Bradburn, Wednesfield. “ May 28, 1887.

“DzEar Str,—We have your favour of yesterday, contents of which we
note, and have no doubt the analysis will turn out satisfactorily. Of course
your friend quite understands we do not sell the W. H. & W. Pures as a
95 per cent. linseed-cake, our price for that description being 30s. per ton
more money.— Yours faithfully, We Hoa

Subsequently to Dr. Voelcker’s report being received, the
vendor wrote again to the manufacturers :—

“ Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows, Hull. “ June 17, 1887.

“ GENTLEMEN,—Please refer to my letter of May 27.

“ My customer has had this cake analysed, and I enclose copy of analysis.
You will perceive that it is an impure and very dirty cake.

“Dr. Voelcker encloses blank form for my customer to fill up, I presume
for publication.

*T am going out to-morrow for a week’s holiday, and shall not therefore
be in the office next week, or see my customer again until Thursday week.
I might just say that he refuses to pay for it, and not only so, but he is
very angry and much annoyed.

“He was under the impression that-your cake was commercially pure and
of good yalue.

“Tt is very hard lines indeed for a dealer to have his name exposed in
the R.A.S.E.’s ‘ Journal’ and papers, coupled with the names of the manu-
facturers of a bad article, when he is quite an innocent party in the business.
—I am, gentlemen, yours faithfully, * THos. BRADBURN.”

A sample of the delivery was, at the makers’ request, taken
from the bulk and forwarded to Mr. Penney for analysis, and on
July 7 they wrote to Mr. Bradburn as follows :—

“Mr. Thomas Bradburn. July 7, 1887.

“Dear Str,—We have received and enclose Mr. Penney’sanalysis of the
sample you sent us, eg., the 4 tons W. H. & W. Pures to Great Barr.
From the analysis it appears this lot is not up to our usual quality, the seed
not having been so well screened as it should have been, We are willing

326 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

to make an allowance of 5s. per ton, which will fairly meet the difference in
yalue.—Yours faithfully, “ Wittows, Hott & Wittows.”

“ Chemical Laboratory, 11 High Street, Hull:
“ July 7, 1887.
“ CERTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS.
“From M, D. PENNEY, F.C.S.
‘ Sawpre.—Linseed-cake, marked ‘W. H. & W. Pure, Great Barr,’
received July 5, from Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows.

Moisture. pti sc int coxcherwl (ek a
ibn « ; : . : . 10:20
Albuminous compounds ; : : é . 25°70
Mucilage, &c. . : : - 2 : . 3446
Woody fibre 2 : : : : : . 832
Ash . ; - : ; : - . 10-08
100:00

Nitrogen . - : . . - = - £06
Equal to ammonia . : : . - £93

‘‘ This is linseed-cake of fairly good ee except that the ash is too
high. M. D. PEnyey.”

Mr. Berry did not accept the offer of 5s. a ton reduction, but
paid the amount in full, adding that he considered Mr. Bradburn
blameless in the matter, and did not wish his name mentioned.

5. Mr. Berry, on June 21, 1887, sent another sample of
linseed-cake, six tons of which had been purchased, at 7/. a ton
delivered, from Mr. J. K. Bourne, of Atherstone, the cakes being
inyoiced to him as “ Pure Linseed-Cake,” and branded “ W. H.
& W. Pure,” the makers being Messrs. Willows, Holt &
Willows, Hull. The report on this was :—

“July 6, 1887.
MRO ose om lec) port ithe ? von wie
Oil - 8°47
1 Albuminous compounds (fesh-forming matters) , 27°25
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : » 35°08
Woody fibre. (cellulose) ») 3» 0i-4i «as ST: phe LOBOS
? Mineral matter (ash) A : . . F 7°48

100-00
1 Containing nitrogen , . : . . 4:36
2Including sand . - F - : : 2-09
This s an adulterated cake, of low quality ; ; it contains a quantity of
ape mixed with it. “J, Avaustus VOELCKER.”

The makers, as in the previous case, requested a sample to
be forwarded, which was done. The following copy of certificate
was handed to Mr. Berry by Mr. Bourne :-—

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 327

“ (Copy. ]
“Chemical Laboratory, 11 High Street, Hull :
July 23, 1887.
“ CERTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS.
“From M. D. PENNEY, F.C.S.
“ Sample, ‘ W. H. & W. Pure’ L. Cake, received July 20, from Messrs.
Willows, Holt & Willows :—

Moisture . ’ : . : ‘ . » 144

i. < . - : - : : - 9°12

Albuminous compounds . ; aptttire » 28°35

Mucilage, &c. . 5 : : : : . 36:21

Woody fibre, : : : : : ree LOGE,

Ash . ‘ , . ° ° . . . 7:16

100-00

Nitrogen - . . . . : ; 4:48

' Equal to ammonia ' . . . . 544
“ This is excellent L. Cake. (Signed) M. D, Penney.”

On inguiry, Dr. Voelcker ascertained that the reference
sample had not been marked or sealed in any way to secure its
identification with the cake referred to in the case in dispute.

6. Mr. H. Mellish, of Hodsock Priory, Worksop, forwarded
on August 9, 1887, for analysis, a sample of linseed-cake. On

this Dr. Voelcker reported :—
“ August 18, 1887.

Moisture . ‘ . . ’ . . . 11°45
Oil . . ’ . ° . . . . 13°67
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) 33°53
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . . . 26:50
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : - . 2 8:43
Mineral matter (ash) . . : . . 6:42
100-00

1Containing nitrogen . . . , : 5°36

A high analysis, but not a pure cake—it contains rape.
“ J, Avcustus VOELCKER.”

Two tons had been purchased, at 8/. 3s. 4d. per ton delivered,
from the Agricultural and Horticultural Association, Creek Road,
Deptford, being described as “One and All” English-made lin-
seed-cakes, guaranteed pure and to contain 11 per cent. of oil;
and Mr. Mellish added that the cakes were made for the Asso-
ciation under a contract. It subsequently transpired that the
makers were Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows, of Hull.
Mr. Mellish complained to the Association, who sent down a
representative to draw fresh samples. The following letter
explains the rest of the transaction :—

328 = (juarterli) Reports of the Chemica! Committee, 1887.

“The Agricultw al and Horticultural Association, Limited,
Creek Road, Deptford, 8.E.:
“ November 24, 1887.

“ Dpar Srr,—I have much pleasure in giving you all the details respect+
ing the supply of cakes to Mr. Mellish.

”« Tn accordance with the objects of our Association, and to ensure purity
of supply for our members, it is our custom to make contracts with leading
manufacturers to supply us with cakes under a guarantee which has been
carefully settled after consideration of all that has been said on the question
by yourself and other scientific authorities.

“We have for some time had contracts of this kind with Messrs,
Willows, Holt & Willows, the leading manufacturers in Hull.

“The contracts with them haye been worded as follows. They only
differ from those we have with other makers in ‘being a trifle lower in oil,
Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows being unwilling to go above 103 per
cent. in the guarantee, whilst some of our contractors will guarantee 11 per
cent., and some 12 per cent,

“TERMS OF CONTRACT.

“<One and All’ Pure Linseed Cake guaranteed 95 percent. purity. The
average proportion of oil to be not less than 10} per cent., and sand not ex-
ceeding 2 per cent.

“ We have paid Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows on the average quite
30s. per ton extra price over their own ‘pure’ cakes for ‘One and All’
quality made for us under these contracts, and, as a safeguard for our
members, we have required the cakes to be stamped with our brand of ‘ One
and All’ to keep them from getting mixed, &c. We have allowed the con-
tractors to send out the cakes direct to our members, but have kept analysing
deliveries at irregular intervals to keep a check on the make.

“These safeguards have appeared to us to suffice until the present case,
as we have had only one previous complaint, and that did not appear to us
to be proved upon investigation by our ‘ Complaints Committee.’

“In the present case, so soon as we heard from Mr. Mellish, we sent
down at our own cost to have sealed samples mutually drawn. Of these
we sent one lot to Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows, and retained the
second ourselves for test by you. A third set we have still here unopened.

“Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows had the cakes analysed by Mr.
Penney, of Hull, and sent us the following report by him, which they
thought we ought to accept as satisfactory :—

« ANALYSIS.

“ Sample linseed-cake (two pieces), marked ‘One and All Pure,’ received
September 30 from Messrs, Willows, Holt & Willows :—

Moisture. “ ‘ : : ° . . 10:60
Ounes ° : : ° . . 13°32
Albuminous compounds : . . . . 38190
Mucilage,&c. . : ° : : . 30°38
Woody fibre : ; 4 : : ° . 804
Ash . : ; : ; : : : 9) OG
100-00

Nitrogen : ‘ a F . , ; 5°04.

E qual to ammonia . - : ei oul:

“This is a very fine linseed-cake, high i in oil ai albuminous compounds,

and low in ash,
(Signed) “M. D. PENNEY,”

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 829

“ Our Complaints Committee, wpon considering the terms of Mr, Penney’s
report, did not think it was satisfactory, and instructed me to go personally
to Hull to see both him and the makers. We also had the reserved sealed
sample analysed by yourself, with the result of a report as follows :—

& ANALYSIS,

“ Sample of linseed-cake sealed ‘ Agricultural and Horticultural Associa-
tion,’ and a crest.

Moisture . . ’ ‘ . . . 9:25

Oi. - : - : : ES . 13°43

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 33°75
Mucilage, sugar, digestible fibre, &c. . ; . 2868

Woody fibre (cellulose) - : : . . . O14

Mineral matter (ash)... . . . «LOM

100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . ; . - . 5:40

“We have made a careful examination of this cake; the analysis is a re-
markably high one, but the cake contains rape, and is therefore not a pure
one, (Signed) “ Avaustus VOELCKER & Sons.”

“ The result of my visit to Mr. Penney was that he pointed out he had
not passed the cakes as ‘ pure,’ although he had spoken of them highly in
other respects. I arranged with him that in all analyses for us the word
‘pure’ should never be used except as meaning cakes coming up to the
standard of 95 or 96 per cent. purity.

“The result of my interview with Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows was
that they would only give their general belief that the cakes were made from
seed equal to 95 per cent. purity after passing the screens, and that if any
default had been made it.was accidental, and they would allow for it. I
then arranged that in future notice should be given to our representative in
Hull of each lot crushed for us, and that each lot shall in future be sampled
and analysed before it leayes the mill.

“We have written Mr. Mellish proposing to allow him the difference
between ‘One and All’ pure cakes and ordinary ‘ pure’ cakes (so-called),
which we estimated at 30s. to 40s. per ton, or to allow him whatever other
difference your judgment may think fair.

“Tf your Chemical Committee can suggest any other measures which can
be taken by our Association to give practical effect to their recommenda-
tions, we shall feel obliged for them, as our first and chief object is to obtain
reliability of supply for our members, You will see that in this case woe
haye not hesitated about expense or trouble’ to bottom the facts and find a
remedy for the complaint.— Yours faithfully,

“Epwp. OwEn Greening, Managing Director.

“Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, Consulting Chemist, Royal Agricultural Society,
12 Hanover Square, W.”

7. Mr. M. Blair sent on August 26, 1887, on behalf of Lord
Bolton, Bolton Hall, Bedale, a sample of linseed-cake for ana-
lysis, and the following report was given :—

330 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

“September 5, 1887.
Moisture . . . . . ‘ . 13°89

Gul- *; » 12438
- ATbuminous compounds (flesh-forming matter) » 29°81
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre , . - » 2o0e
Woody fibre (cellulose) , . . ‘ « Gite
Mineral matter (ash) . . 2 . : - 609
100:00

1 Containing nitrogen . . ° oS TEE

“This cake is not a pure one; it contains cocks and other foreign seeds
in some quantity. “ J, Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Two tons of this cake had been purchased from a dealer at
Bedale, the makers being Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows,
Hull, and the cakes were branded “ W. H. & W. Pure,” and
invoiced accordingly. The price was 7/. 5s. per ton delivered.
No application was made for a reduction.

8. Mr. W. H. Grimes, of Bubbenhall, near Kenilworth, sent
on September 17, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake for analysis,

on which Dr. Voelcker reported :—
“ September 24, 1887.
oo

Moisture . ‘ . . . ry ‘ .
Oil : « 1043

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters). 27:94
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 33°08
Woody fibre (cellulose) , “ : : a i ils

? Mineral matter (ash) . semana - ° » hidtnee

100-00
1 Containing nitrogen , . ’ ’ te
2 Including sand . . . ° «. Wahoo

“ An impure cake; contains rape in some eee
“ J, Aveustus VOELCKER.”

The cake was invoiced as ‘“‘ Pure Linseed-Cake” at 71. 5s. a
ton. Three tons had been purchased from dealers, the makers
being Messrs. Willows, Holt & Willows, of Hull, and each
cake was branded “ W. H. & W. Pure.”

9. Mr. R. F. Shackel, of West Hyde Lodge, Rickmansworth,
sent for analysis, on November 5, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake
which he had purchased as pure. The report on this was :—

“‘ November 10, 1887.
Moisture. : : : : : : » 13:38

‘ . , . : : : : » 9°80

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 26:19
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . , . 3479
Woody fibre (cellulose) , ‘ . . 9:30
Mineral matter (ash) . . s : . . 6b
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen , . . . . *I9

“Th s is not a pure cake at all, J, Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 331

Three tons of this cake had been purchased from Mr. John
Parkhouse, Rickmansworth, the makers being Messrs. Willows,
Holt & Willows, of Hull, and the word “Pure” was branded
on each cake. Mr. Shackel wrote :—

“ November 28, 1887.

“ Dear Srr,—Respecting the linseed ‘pure’ cake, I wrote to Messrs.
Willows, Holt & Co., informing them I had had their cake analysed, and
the report was it was impure. On November 26 I heard from them, asking
me to send them a sample of the cake, which I have done, They informed
me that Mr. Parkhouse was not their agent, but a»merchant who bought
direct from them, and that they sold a ‘special’ cake guaranteed 95 per
cent. pure.—Believe me, yours truly, “R. SHACKEL,”

“Dr, Voelcker.”
“December 3, 1887.

“Duar Srr,—I enclose you the analysis made by Dr. Baynes for
Willows, Holt & Co.; also his remarks. W., H. & Co. state that their
circulars state that they make a higher quality from linseed of 95 per cent.
purity, at 22s. 6d. per ton more money. I wrote to them to say that did not
do away with their word ‘Pure,’ and I had bought cake at the same time
with better analysis at 10s. per ton less money.—Yours truly,

“ Dr, Voelcker.” “R, SHACKEL.”

“ ANALYSIS OF W. H. & W. PURE CAKE.
Moisture . c f ° ; e e » 14:28

Oil: . . : : : ‘ : ny iO

1 Albuminoids . : : : - : . 26°58
Digestible fibre . : ; : : 6 . 33°02
Woody fibre. : : F - : >= 9:50:
Ash , - : 5 ; ; j : 5 Sas
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . . . . 5 e210)

“This cake is of excellent value for feeding purposes. It contains
nearly 70 per cent. of readily assimilable matter; the oil and albuminoids
are in good proportion, whilst its woody fibre is low. It is in capital con- ~
dition, and easy of digestion. “ Jas. Baynes.”

10. Messrs. Bolam & Carnac, of Palace Chambers, West-
minster, sent on June 16, on behalf of Mr. Chas, Hoare, of
Saynden Farm, Staplehurst, Kent, a sample of linseed-cake for
analysis. On this Dr. Voelcker reported :—

“July 1, 1887.

Moisture. ‘ ac ’ ‘ . = Ie Al
Oi. : ; : 5 : , A . 1414
? Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) , 2481
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre , . . 31:92
Woody fibre (cellulose) , , - ‘ 2) oO
Mineral matter (ash) , 5 - ; eo
100-00

‘Containing nitrogen, : ¢ : . 68:97

332° Qiiarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

“ This cake is not pure. It has a bitter taste, and, on examinatio n,I
find it contains some rape-seeds, “J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Ten tons had been purchased, at 7/. a ton, from the Oil Seed
Crushing Company, Limited, Dover, who were the manufacturers,
the delivery being guaranteed pure, and to contain 12 per cent.
of oil. Five shillings a ton allowance was made and accepted.

11. Mr. C. Mannington, of Park House, Northiam, Sussex,
forwarded, on June 25, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake for
analysis, on which the report was :—

“July 6, 1887.
Moisture . F : - . ° . . 12°70
Oi. : . . 13:87

1 Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) . 26°37
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 80°93
W oody fibre (cellulose) ; - - . 893

* Mineral matter (ash) . - . : : nea hel

. 100:00
1 Containing nitrogen . 5 3 ; , 4:22
*Including sand. . - : : - 17730

“ A cake having a bitter and unpleasant taste, and containing rape and
other impurities. “J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

Four tons 5 ecwts. had been purchased, at 7/. 5s. a ton
delivered, from Mr. Albion Thorpe, Battle, Hawkhurst, the cake
being invoiced as ‘‘ Dover Pure.” The makers, who were the Oil
Seed Crushing Company, Dover, asked for samples of the cake,
and these were sent. On September 12 Mr, Mannington wrote :—

“Dr. J. A. Voelcker. “ September 12th, 1887.
“ LINSEED-CAKE.

“Dear Str,—In reply to yours of the 8th inst., Mr. Thorpe has agreed to
allow me ten shillings per ton on the cake in dispute. I have not yet had
the invoice, as we have not settled our account.

“The makers own ‘that their men must have mixed other than linseed
by mistake,’—Truly yours, “ CHARLES MANNINGTON.”

12. Mr. Isaac Mannington, of Court Lodge, Ewhurst, Hawk-
hurst, sent a sample which he described as linseed-cake, writing
on July 25, 1887 :—

“Dear Srr,—I bought the sample of cake sent you for ‘Pure-Linseed’
cake—‘ Dover cake’—but, not liking its appearance, sent it you. I give
71. 5s, per ton for 20 tons.

“ Please forward the analysis, and oblige,—Yours truly,

“ Dr, J, A. Voelcker.” “ Tsaac MANNINGTON,.”

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 333

Dr. Voelcker reported :—
“ July 28, 1887.

Moisture . . : . ’ : ’ . 10°42
Ciba. ese
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) . 32°06
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 80°45
Woody fibre (cellulose) , : , : = Oton
2 Mineral matter (ash) . : : 2 : » 933°
100:00

1Containing nitrogen * . : . 5. 5:13
2Including sand. . , te Sree

“ This is not linseed-cake at all, but mustad-cake.
“J, Augustus VOELCKER.”

Mr. M annington wrote on September 12 :—

“S1r,—In reply to yours at hand. On inquiry, it was found there were a
few mustard-seed cakes put in the linseed-cakes by mistake.—Yours truly,
“J. A. Voelcker, Esq.” “Tsaac MANNINGTON.”

Dr. Voelcker was not able to obtain further particulars, nor
a reply to his inquiry as to how many cakes were linseed and
how many mustard, though he pointed out how serious the mis-
take might have been had the cakes been used.

13. Mr. Montague Kingsford, of Littleborne, near Wingham,
Kent, sent on October 29, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake for
analysis. The report was as follows :—

“ November 4, 1887.

Moisture . e ° ‘ ° . . . 13°53
Oil : . 12:60
1 ATbuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters). 24:48
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 33°30
Woody fibre (cellulose) i : . : A tht)
z Mfiiaral matter (ash) . . - : . S39
100-00

1Containing nitrogen. . . 2 2 jas'92
?Including sand 5 . : . = . 244

“This is a cake showing a very high degree of adulteration, and possess-
ing a bitter taste. “J, AUGUSTUS VOELCKER.”

This was taken from a lot of four tons, forming the first por-
tion of a contract for twenty tons, which had been guaranteed
as pure and to contain 12 per cent. of oil. It was invoiced as
pure, the vendor being Mr. Frederick Elgar, of Rochester, and
the makers, the Oil Seed Crushing Company, Dover. The price
of it was 7/. 10s. a ton delivered. This cake contained a quan-
tity of rape, also mustard and other foreign seeds. Ultimately

261. was paid for the four tons.

=. SS

334 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Cominittee, 1887.

14. Mr. H. Potter, of Bestwood Park, Arnold, Notts, sent
on July 1, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake for opinion as to its
purity. On Dr. Voelcker reporting that he believed it to be
impure, and advising a full analysis, this was made, and the
following report sent :—

“ July 19, 1887.

Moisture . . . at he) TEM eS
Oil nT. . Pe ll
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 26°94
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . 32°12
Woody fibre (cellulose) . . . . 8:03
? Mineral matter (ash) . : : - : Bee tens:
100:00
1 Containing nitrogen 5 5 : : . 431
? Including sand : : : : : » 385d
“This cake has a good deal of rape-seed in it, together with other foreign
seeds, also 34 per cent. of sand. «J, Avevsrus VoELcKER.”

One ton of this had been purchased from Messrs. F. White
& Son, of Retford, at 7/. a ton delivered (5s. discount), the
cake being invoiced and branded as “ B. Pure.” The makers
were Messrs. Walker & Smith, of Hull.

Mr. Potter, in answer to inquiries, reported that up to date
he had not been able to obtain any settlement, in consequence
of the vendor having gone abroad.

. Mr. Charles Walker, of Southfields, Coleshill, near Bir-
ete sent, on September je) sample of linseed-cake for
analysis. Dr. Voelcker’s report was :—

“ September 24, 1887.

Moisture . . : . : : : . 10°98
Ouse. : : : . 11°41

1 Albuminous compounds (tlesh-forming matters) . 30:25
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre. : . 80°73
Woody fibre (cellulose) . 5 : : - 969

? Mineral matter (ash) . : : : : . 6:94

: 100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : : ‘ » 484

2 Including sand . . 5 § : . 201

“ A cake adulterated with rape. J. Avacustus VOELCKER.”

Mr. Walker purchased four tons of this cake from dealers
at Warwick, at 4/. 18s. 6d. a ton delivered, the cakes being
branded “B. Pure.” The makers were Messrs. Walker &
Smith, of Hull, and the cakes were invoiced ‘““W. & S. Pure
Linseed-Cake,.” On November 25, Mr. Charles Walker wrote :—=

Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887. 335

“Southfields, Coleshill.
“Dear Srz,—In reply to yours of the 19th in reference to cake, the
agent made me an allowance of 10s. a ton, although he said the makers quite
ignored the matter. I am buying cake now warranted 95 per cent. pure.—
I am, faithfully yours, “ OCHas, WALKER.”
“To Dr. Voelcker, 12 Hanover Square.”

16. Mr. John Morrison, of Bushmead Priory, St. Neots, sent
on October 10, 1887, a sample of linseed-cake for analysis. The

report given was as follows :— :
“* October 21, 1887.

Moisture ’ . . . . . ’ . 10°67
Orie es : - : : . : : . 9-40
‘ Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) , 26°31
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . ‘ . 33°60
Woody fibre (cellulose) ;: : - C » 9:20
? Mineral matter (ash) . - 5 - - . 10°82
100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . . : “ si - 402
2 Including sand . : : : : : 5:18

“This cake has far too much sand in it. J. Aveustus VoELCKER.”

This cake had been offered to Mr. Morrison at 7. 7s. 6d. a
ton delivered, but on having the above report he declined to
purchase.

17. Mr. Martin Seth-Smith, of Colwood Park, Bolney, Hay-
ward's Heath, sent for analysis on November 4, 1887, a sample
of linseed-cake. The report upon this was :—

“* November 12, 1887.

Moisture . . 6 ' . . ° . 10:28
Os : - - - ; : ° tall
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) , 30°94
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 32°73
Woody fibre (cellulose) . . . : A teal
? Mineral matter (ash) . ‘ : : : Oo
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen , . : : . 4:95

2 Including sand . . . . . » 2:80

_ “Acake that has no right to be called pure; it is made from decidedly
dirty seed. “J. Aveustus VOELCKER.”

This cake contained a quantity of niger-seed, also rape-seed,
and some mustard. Mr. Seth-Smith stated that it had been
sold to him at the highest market price as pure linseed-cake,
from Calcutta seed, 10 per cent. oil guaranteed. Five tons of
the cake had been purchased, forming the first part of a contract

336 Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887.

for 20 tons, at 7/. 1s. 3d. per ton delivered. It was invoiced as
“Pure Linseed-Cake,” and described as ‘“Tovil Pure.” The
makers were Messrs. T. W. Brook & Co., Tovil Oil Mills,
Maidstone. On Mr. Seth-Smith complaining, the following
letter was received by the vendors :—

“ Toyil Oil Mills, Maidstone, November 18, 1887.
“Messrs: % * Kqek x *

“Dear Srrs,—Yours of the 17th inst. to hand, containing Mr. Smith’s
complaint about our linseed-cake. The cakes in question were made from
Calcutta linseed bought on the 96 per cent. basis, and as you well know some
parcels come dirtier than others, and we consider 2°80 sand is not an exor-
bitant percentage, at the same time we should like to see it less ourselves.
As to the percentage of oil, we always reckon on 10 per cent., and the few
points under that figure are very slight, and we have no doubt that the bulk
would have shown 10 per cent. We consider the cake is what we sold it
you for, and we cannot think of admitting any claim.— Yours truly,

“T, W. Brook % Co,”

Year
when
elected.

1879
1855
1857

1861
1861
1871
1863
1868
1854

1839
1856
1861

1873
1867
1847
1876
1858
1872
1865
1867
1852
1869
1874

1871 |

1881
1877

1880
1875
1871
1886
1874
1884
1883
1883
1885
1887
1886
1882
1879
1875

Kopal Agricultural Docicty of England.
1888.

President.
SIR MATTHEW WHITE RIDLEY, Barrt., M.P.

Trustees.
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mail.
ACLAND, Sir THOMAS DYKE, Bart., Killerton, Exeter, Devonshire.
BRIDPORT, General Viscount, K.C.B., Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somer-
setshire.
CATHCART, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
DENT, J. D., Ribston Hail, Wetherby, Yorkshire.
EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire.
KINGSCOTR, Col., C.B., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
LICHFIELD, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire.
MACDONALD, Sir ARCHIBALD KEPPEL, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Lip-
hook, Hants.

PoRTMAN, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.
Powls, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

-WELLS, WILLIAM, Holmenood (Huntingdonshire), Peterborough.

Uice-Presivents.
BEDFORD, Duke of, K.G., Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire.
DEVONSHIRE, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire.
EVERSLEY, Viscount, G.C.B., Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants.
FEVERSHAM, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire.
LAtTuHoM, Earl of, Zathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire.
LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.
LoPEs, Sir MASSEY, Bart., Waristow, Roborough, Devon.
RAVENSWORTH, Earl of, Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead, Durham.
RICHMOND AND GorDON, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex.
RIDLEY, Sir M. W., Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland.
SPENCER, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northamptonshire.
WAKEFIELD, WILLIAM H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland.

Other Members of Council.

ALLENDER, G. MANDER, 31 St. Petersburgh Place, Bayswater, Middlesex.
ARKWRIGHT, J. HUNGERFORD, Hampton Court, Leominster, Hereford-

shire.
ASHWORTH, ALFRED, Tabley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
AYLMER, HuGH, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk.
BoWEN-JONES, J., Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, R.S.O., Salop.
CAIRD, JAMES A., Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.
CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire.
CHAPLIN, Rt. Hon. HENRY, M.P., Blankney Hall, Lincoln.
CLAY, CHARLES, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
Coxe, Hon. EDWARD K, W., Longford Hall, Derbyshire.
CovENTRY, Earl of, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire.
CRUTCHLEY, Percy E., Sunninghill Park, Berkshire.
DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE, Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne, Kent.
EMLYN, Viscount, Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales.
Foster, SAMUEL P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland.
FRANKISH, WILLIAM, Limber Magna, Uleeby, Lincolnshire,

VOL. XXTIvy.—S, §, a

li List of Officers.
Year
when

elected.

1881 | GILBEY, WALTER, Zlsenham Hall, Essex.
1879 | GORRINGE, HuGH, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex.
1879 | GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE, Glastonbury, Somersctshire.
1874 | HEMSLEY, JOHN, Shelton, Newark, Notts.
1876 | HOWARD, CHARLES, Biddenham, Bedford.
1878 | HowARD, JAMES, Clapham Park, Bedfordshire.
1883 | JERSEY, Earl of, Middleton Park, Bicester, Oxfordshire.
1869 | LEEDS, ROBERT, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich.
1881 | LITTLE, HERBERT J., Coldham Hall, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1885 | Luoyp, ARTHUR P., Leaton Knolls, Shropshire.
1886 | MAINWARING, C.5., Galltfaenan, Rhyl, Denbighshire.
1874 ans JOSEPH, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Bly, Cambridge-
shire.
1884 | MILLER, T. Horrocks, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire.
1880 | MoRETON, Lord, Zortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O. Gloucestershire.
- 1886 | MunvTz, PHILIP ALBERT, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire.
1881 | PARKER, Hon. CEcIL T., Zccleston, Chester.
1886 | PELL, ALBERT, Hazelbeach, Northampton.
1888 | PORTLAND, Duke of, Welbeck Abbey, Worksop, Notts.
1861 | RANDELL, CHARLES, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.
1886 | RANSOME, J. E., Holme Wood, Ipswich, Suffolk.
1871 | RAWLENCE, JAMES, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts.
1875 | RUSSELL, RoBERT, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford, Kent.
1874 a GEORGE H., Langdale Lodge, Atkins Rd., Clapham Park,
Urrey.
1886 | ScaARTH, W. T., Keverstone, Darlington.
1878 | SHERATON, WILLIAM, Broome House, Lilesmere, Salop.
1886 | SmirH, ALFRED J., Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
1882 | STAFFORD, Marquis of, Trentham Hall, Stoke-upon-Trent, Staffs.
1875 | STRATTON, RICHARD, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.
1883 | SuTTon, MARTIN J., Dyson’s Wood, Kidmore, Reading, Berkshire.
1881 | THOROLD, Sir JoHN H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
1882 | WARREN, REGINALD AuGusSTUS, Preston Place, Worthing, Sussex.
1870 | WHITEHEAD, CHARLES, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent.
1865 | Wruson, JAcoB, Chillingham Barns, Belford, Northumberland.

Secretary anv Evitor.
ERNEST CLARKE, 12 Hanover Square, W.

Consulting Chemist—Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 12 Hanover Square, W.

Consulting Botanist—W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Nor-
wood, §.B.

Consulting Entomologist—Miss E. A, ORMEROD, F.R. Met. Soc., Torrington
House, Holywell Hill, St. Albans.

Consulting Veterinary Surgeon—Professor JAMES BHART SIMONDS, St¢. John’s
Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Veterinary Inspectors—THE OFFICERS OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE.

Consulting Engineer—W. ANDERSON, 3 Whitehall Place, 8.W.

Surveyor and Superintendent of Works—WILSON BENNISON, 66 Ashley Road,
Crouch Mill, N.

Consulting Surveyor —GEORGE HuNT, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Publisher—JOHN MuRRAY, 50 Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers—Tuk LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, St. James's Square Branch,
S.Ww.

( ii)

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1888.

Finance Committee,

KryqscorTe, Colonel (Chairman),
BRIDPORT, General Viscount.
RIDLEY, Sir M. WHITE, Bt., M.P.

FRANKISH, W.
RANDELL, CHARLES,
SANDAY, G. H,

House Committee.

CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee,
THE PRESIDENT.

BRIDPORT, General Viscount.
PARKER, Hon. C. T.

ALLENDER, G. M,
RANDELL, C,
WILSON, JACOB.

Soaurnal Committee.

CATHCART, Earl (Chairman),
JERSEY, Earl of.

EMLYN, Viscount.

THOROLD, Sir. J. H., Bt,
CAIRD, J. A.

DEnT, J. D.

FRANKISH, W.

HOWABD, J.

LITTLE, H. J.

PELL, A.

SuTtTon, MARTIN J,
WELLs, W.
WHITEHEAD, CHARLES,

Chenrical Committe.

WELLS, WILLIAM (Chairman).
BEDFORD, Duke of.
EMLYN, Viscount.
PARKER, Hon. C. T.
ACLAND, Sir T. D., Bt.
LAWES, Sir J. B., Bt.
MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt,
ARKWRIGHT, J. H.
BOWEN-JONES, J.

CAIRD, J. A.

DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE,
DENT, J. D.

GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE.
HOWARD, C.

LITTLE, H. J.

PELL, A.

VOELCKER, Dr.

WAKEFIELD, W, H.

WARREN, R. A.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES.

Seevs and Plant Diseases Committee.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES (Chairman),
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H.

BOWEN-JONES, J.

CAIRD, J. A.

CARRUTHERS, W.

DE LAUNE, C. DE L, FAUNCE.

FRANKISH, W.
LiTTuez, H. J.
ORMEROD, Miss E. A.
STRATTON, R.
SUTTON, MARTIN J.

Geterinary Committee.

THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. (Chairman),
BRIDPORT, General Viscount.
EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord.
MoreETOoN, Lord.

PARKER, Hon. C. T.

RIDLEY, Sir M. WHITE, Bt., M.P.
ALLENDER, G. M.

ASHWORTH, A.

AXE, Professor J. WORTLEY.
Brown, Professor.
CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H,

CopE, A. C.

DENT, J. D.
FLEMING, GEORGE.
FOSTER, S. P.
HARPLEY, M. J.
KINGSCOTE, Colonel.
MILLER, T. H.
PELL, A.

SANDAY, G. H.
Srmonps, Professor.
SMITH, A. J.
WAKEFIELD, W,. H.
WILSON, JACOB.

Stock-PBrises Committec.

WILSON, JACOB (Chairman) CAIRD, J. A.
CovENTRY, Earl of.
EMLYN, Viscount.
MORETON, Lord.
CoKE, Hon. E. K. W.
PARKER, Hon. C. T.
ALLENDER, G. M.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H.
ASHWORTH, A.
AYLMER, H.
BoWEN-JONES, J,

FOSTER, S. P.
FRANKISH, W.

GORRINGE, H.
HEMSLEY, J.
HOWARD, C.

MARTIN, J,

CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H,
CRUTCHLEY, P. E.

GILBEY, WALTER.

MAINWARING, C, S,

MILLER, T. H.
RANDELL, C.
SANDAY, G. H.
SCARTH, W. T.
SHERATON, W.
Srmonps, Professor,
SMITH, A. J.
STRATTON, R.
The Stewards of Live
Stock,
a2

iv Standing Committees for 1888.

Lmplement Committec.

HEMSLEY, J. (Chairman). CLaAy, C. SANDAY, G. H.
BRIDPORT, Gen. Viscount. FRANKISH, W. SHERATON, W.
MoreETON, Lord. GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE. SMITH, A. J.
PARKER, Hon. C. T. HOWARD, C. STRATTON, R.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt, HOWARD, J. WILSON, JACOB.
ALLENDER, G, M. LITTLE, H..J. The Stewards of Im-
ANDERSON, W. MARTIN, J. plements.
BoWEN-JONES, J. RANSOME, J. E.

General Nottingham Committee.

THE WHOLE COUNCIL, with the following representatives of the
LocAL COMMITTEE :— i

BARRON, J. KNOWLES, R. M. NOTTINGHAM,
FoLJAMBE, F. J. S. LAMBERT, W. TOWN CLERK OF.
Forp, W. NOTTINGHAM, MAYOR OF, SMITH, HENRY,
HODGKINSON, GROSVENOR. WRIGHT, W.
Show-Vard WHorks Committee.
RANDELL, CHARLES (Chair- CLAY, CHARLES, SANDAY, G. H.
man). FRANKISH, W. STRATTON, R.
ALLENDER, G. M. HEMSLEY, J. WILSON, JACOB.
ASHWORTH, A. HOWARD, C.

Committee of Selection.

CATHCART, Ear] (Chairman). MoRETON, Lord. PELL, A.
CovENTRY, Earl of. ASHWORTH, A. WHITEHEAD, C,
BOWEN-JONES, J.
And the Chairmen of the Finance, Journal, Stock Prizes, Implement,
and Chemical Committees.

Evucation Committee.

MOoRETON, Lord (Chairman). DENT, J. D. PELL, A.

EMLYN, Viscount. FOostTER, 8. P. RANSOME, J. E.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. KINGSCOTE, Colonel. SUTTON, MARTIN J.
BOWEN-JONES, J. LItTuE, H. J. VOELCKER, Dr.

MAINWARING, C. S.

Bairy Committee.
PARKER, Hon. C. T. (Chair- THOROLD, Sir. J. H., Bt. BOWEN-JONES, J.
man). ASHWORTH, A. MAINWARING, C, 8.
BRIDPORT, Gen. Viscount. ALLENDER, G. M. SHERATON, W.
EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord. ARKWRIGHT, J. H.

.

Cattle Plaque Committee.
THE WHOLE COUNCIL.

*,* The PRESIDENT, TRUSTEES, and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members
ex officio of all Committees.

Ropal Agricultural Society of England,

GENERAL MEETING.

12 Hanover Seuarz, THuRsDAY, December 8, 1887.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Council have to report that the list of Governors and
Members has undergone the following changes during the
past half-year :—The deaths of 5 Governors and 78 Members
have been recorded, and 40 Members have resigned; on the
other hand, 166 New Members have been elected, amongst
whom the Council have the gratification of announcing that
the name of Prince Albert Victor of Wales is included.

The Society now consists of :—

69 Life Governors,

61 Annual Governors,
3,460 Life Members,
5,417 Annual Members,

16 Honorary Members,

making a total of 9,023, showing an increase of 41 since the
meeting in May last.

The Council announce with regret the death of three of
the Honorary Members of the Society, Professor Boussingault,
of Paris, Professor Solly, of Sutton, and the Hofrath Adolph
Stockhardt, of Tharand, Saxony. The Council have elected
as an Honorary Member, Professor Charles V. Riley, M.A.,
Ph.D. of Washington, Entomologist to the United States
Department of Agriculture.

The half-yearly statement of accounts to June 30 last has
been examined and certified by the Auditors and Accounts

vl . Report to the General Meeting.

ants, and has been printed in the October number of the
Journal for the information of Members.

Since the date up to which that statement was made, the
Council have found it necessary to sell out the 2,010/. 1s. 3d.
Consols, and 4,0001. of the New Three per Cents. belonging
to the Society (making 6,0101. 1s. 3d. in all), towards meeting
the exceptional expenditure which has been incurred during
the year. 1,155]. of this expenditure represents the cost of
New Entrances for the Country Meetings, and about 1,800/.
the cost of the alterations and improvements in the Society’s
House. . There was a loss of 1,004/. in connection with the
Spring Show of Stallions which took place at Newcastle in
January 1887; and a further loss of about 2,000/. in connec-
tion with the annual Country Meeting at the same city in
July. In addition to the above, a grant of 1,300/. to the
family of the late Secretary has been made, as reported at
the General Meeting in May last.

A Special Committee of the Council, consisting of the
Chairmen of the various Standing Committees, is now engaged
upon an examination of the expenditure of the Society, and
the Council have reason to hope that as a result of its labours
considerable economies will be effected.

The attendance at the Newcastle Show was upon the
whole satisfactory, although the numbers admitted on the
half-crown days fell below expectation, and the closing day
(Friday) was marked by inclement weather. On the Thurs-
day, however, the unprecedentedly large number of 77,869
persons paid for admission.

The Exhibition of Stock was in many respects far above
the average, and with the exception of the Battersea and
Kilburn Meetings, no such completely representative display
of British breeds of Live Stock has ever been seen at the
Country Meetings of the Society.

The trials of Portable Agricultural Steam Engines, con-
ducted under the superintendence of Sir Frederick Bramwell
and Mr. William Anderson, as Consulting Engineers of the
Society, were followed with much interest, and the Council
have reason to believe that the considerable expense involved
in these trials, amounting with the prizes to about 800/., has

Report to the General Meeting. vil

been abundantly justified by the results announced in the
valuable Report of the Consulting Engineers which appears
in the current number of the ‘ Journal.’

A new feature of the Show was the competition of Shoe-
ing Smiths practising in the district in which the Meeting
was held. This competition proved very popular with the
trade and with the general public, and the Council are there-
fore encouraged to hold another contest of the same kind in
connection with the Nottingham Meeting next year.

The Stallions which gained the Premiums at the Spring
Show of the Society in January last were exhibited at the
Summer Meeting, and their owners received the gold medals
awarded to them by the Society at the hands of H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales, who, with his two sons, honoured the
Meeting with his presence on Tuesday and Thursday of
the Show-week.

The Council have arranged for a second exhibition of
Stallions, which will be held at Nottingham on February 9
and 10, 1888.

The Annual Country Meeting at Nottingham will com-
mence on Monday, July 9, 1888, and close on the following
Friday evening. The Implement-yard only will be open on
the previous Saturday, July 7.

In connection with the Nottingham Meeting, the Council
will offer the following prizes for agricultural implements ! :—

Crass 1.—Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Steam
power . ‘ . ’ . Frrst Prize £30
Srconp PRIzE £20

Crass 2,—Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Horse
power . : . : . First Prize £20

SEconD PRIZE £10

Crass 3.—Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Hand
power. ’ : ’ . First PRize £20
SEconp PRIZE £10

Crass 4,—Best Apparatus for Condensing Mik, suit-
able for use on a farm . ‘ . ° £25

To the customary Prizes offered by the Society for Stock
to be exhibited at the Nottingham Meeting, the Local Com-
mittee has added Prizes for Shire Stallions and Foals,
Hunters, Harness Horses and Ponies, Hackneys and Road-

1 An additional prize of 20/. for a Press for Old Hay worked by Hand Power
was granted by the Council at its meeting on March 7, 1888,—[ED.]

vill Report to the General Meeting. ©

sters, Dairy Cattle, Shropshire Sheep, Lincoln Sheep and
Wool (subscribed by the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society),
Butter, and local Hard and Soft Cheeses. Prizes will also
be offered by the Shorthorn Society, the Shire Horse Roche
and the Hereford Herd Book Society.

Prizes amounting in all to 315/. for the best-managed
Farms in Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire have been offered
in three classes by the Local Committee. Thirty-five Farms
have been entered for competition, and the Judges will com-
mence their inspection in the course of a few days.

The number of samples analysed in the Society’s Labora-
tory during the past year has been 1,615, 1,536 of these being
for Members of the Society and 79 in connection with the
Woburn experiments and affiliated Societies. The Consult-
ing Chemist’s reports have shown that adulteration of Lin-
seed-cakes has been practised to a larger extent than ever
before. The passing of the Merchandise Marks Act, 1887,
will, however, aid the efforts of the Society in securing that
the supply of Linseed and other cakes shall be of a character
strictly in accordance with the description or brand given
to them.

The Woburn experiments have been conducted as here-
tofore, and reports of these, as well as of further experi-
ments on Ensilage and on Sheep-feeding, form part of the
contents of the Society’s Journal.

The experiments of Local Agricultural Societies have
been continued for another year by the following Societies :—
The Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, the Royal Manchester
Liverpool and North Lancashire Agricultural Society, and
the Essex Agricultural Society.

During the past year 342 applications have been received
by the Consulting Botanist from Members of the Society,
chiefly for information as to the purity and vitality of seeds
for pasture. Judging from the samples submitted, the use
of Ryegrass as an adulterant of the Fescues has almost
disappeared. There remains, however, in some samples a
considerable quantity of worthless or injurious seeds, like
those of Yorkshire Fog and the Hair grass, especially in the
Meadow Fescue. The clovers (chiefly the White or Dutch

Report to the General Meeting. ix

and Alsike) are the frequent medium of introducing a large
quantity of weeds on the farm. The vitality of the seeds
gave a high average, though in some cases it was very low,
especially in seeds which are small and have no thick
covering to protect them from desiccation, as in Foxtail
and the Meadow grasses. Some samples of smooth-stalked
Meadow grass did not even germinate ten per cent., though
otherwise they were good and clean seeds. Information has
been given to Members as to plant diseases, weeds, and
injury to Stock from constituents of the pasture, which will
be given at length in Mr. Carruthers’ Annual Report.

here has been a considerable increase of work in con-
nection with the Entomological section of the Seeds and
Plants Diseases Committee. The applications made to the
Consulting Entomologist during the year, for information
concerning the attack of various insects upon crops, have
been over 1,400 as against 1,100 in 1886, proving that culti-
vators are becoming more interested in these pests, and
anxious to be furnished with methods of preservation and
remedies against them.

The Report presented to the Society by Professors
Robertson and Penberthy on experimental work on Pro-
tective Inoculation for Anthrax and Quarter Ill has been
received, and is printed in the current number of the ‘Jour-
nal.’ The Council regret that further investigations with
regard to the protective value of inoculation for Quarter Ill
and other contagious diseases of animals cannot be carried
out except by operators individually licensed, and that in
consequence of a misunderstanding as to the state of the
law on this point, Professor Robertson is at present unable
to continue his inquiries.

The Council have had under their anxious consideration
the continued prevalence of pleuro-pneumonia, and they
have appointed a deputation to wait upon the Lord Presi-
~ dent of the Council to urge the adoption of more stringent
measures for the suppression of the disease, both in this
country and in Ireland.

Colonel Picton Turbervill’s annual prize of 251. has
this year been offered for the best essay on Welsh Dairy

<i Report to the General Meeting.”

Farming. Three essays were sent in for competition, and
the adjudicator has awarded the prize to the essay bearing
the motto “‘ Welsh Black Cattle,’ the author of which is Mr.
W. Barrow Wall, of Pembroke.

The examinations for the Society’s junior scholarships
were held on November 8 and 9. The number of schools
from which candidates were entered was larger than in any
year since the Junior Examinations were first started in
1874, ten schools sending up pupils, as compared with six in
1886 and 1885, and seven in 1884. Forty-three candidates
were entered from these ten schools, but three did not at-
tend. The result of the examination is that 21 competitors
obtained sufficient marks to qualify them for a Scholarship,
as against 15 competitors in 1886, and 20 in 1885. Of the
successful candidates, the first ten in the following list,
arranged in order of merit, will receive Scholarships upon
complying with the Society’s regulations, and the remainder
will receive certificates :—

Portsmouth Grammar School FREDERICK Wm. RUssEuu.
Northampton Grammar School Lewis Henry Cooxe.

Surrey County, School Joun Ramsry BisHop.
» ” ” BARNARD JOHN WATKIN.
» er af Cuarues F. H. GREeENwoop.

x 5 is PETER GREEN.
Portsmouth Grammar School Frank Ernest Rock.
Bedford County School Francois JAMES STEWARD.
Ashburton Grammar School ArtHurR JoHN ELLIs.
Portsmouth Grammar School Wma. CuTHBERT CHILDS.

Northampton Grammar School SamurL WARREN PRICE.
Aspatria Agricultural College Brrnarp MARpEnN.

» “ as Sotomon Honurpay.

» » >» JOSEPH BRIGGS.
Surrey County School Francis M. Seat.
Bedford County School FRANK Roaps.

5 ea Be Wiii1am Henry Hare.
Northampton Grammar School Epwin Coates.
Ashburton Grammar School Grorge PEARSE FOADEN.
Surrey County School Wm. Freperick HERBERT.
5 fs o Jonn Hutte Bouwer.

Report to the General Meeting. xi

Of the 19 boys who are unsuccessful in getting the mini-
mum number of marks, 3 failed in all four subjects—Agri-
culture, Chemistry, Mechanics, and Land Surveying: 8
failed in three subjects, 2 in two subjects, 4 in one subject
(of whom 3 failed in Agriculture only), and two, though
passing in all subjects, did not earn the number of marks
qualifying for a certificate.

The Examiners in all the subjects speak favourably of
the quality of the papers submitted to them. The Examiner
in Chemistry adds that the number of decidedly bad papers
is very much smaller than last year, and that as a whole the
answers show very fair knowledge.

In consequence of the rapidly increasing work of the
Society in all its branches, it has been found necessary to
apply the whole of the rooms in the Society’s House (with
the exception of those sub-let to the Shorthorn Society and
the Smithfield Club) to office purposes. The Chemical
Laboratory, greatly enlarged and improved, has been trans-
ferred to the upper rooms formerly occupied by the late
Secretary, and the old laboratory on the ground floor has
been converted into a general office for the clerks.

These alterations have left free the front room on the
ground floor, which the Council have fitted up as a general
waiting and reading-room for Members, a convenience
which has been an admitted necessity for a considerable
length of time.

By order of the Council,

ERNEST CLARKE,

Secretary.

Gopal Agricultural Society of England.
1888.

DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY AND OF MEMBERS

OF COUNCIL.
; {| NUMBER
NUMBER OF | OF
DISTRICTS | CoUNTIES Mempers | MEMBERS | MemMesERs oF CouNcIL
OF Society | oF |
| | | Councit |
|
: | | {Duke of Bedford, K.G., v.P.;
BEDFORDSHIRE . 117 3 \ ©. Howard; Same n ae
| BUCKINGHAMSHIRE $9 a |
CAMBRIDGESHIRE .| 151 2 | H. J. Little; J. Martin,
Essex ae 209 1 | W. Gilbey,
) HerrrorpsiiRe 135 | 1 # | SirJ. B. Lawes, vr.
A. ~ | HUNTINGDONSHIRE 50 fsa | W. Wells, tT.
\| MIDDLESEX .| 426 hate | G. M. Allender.
|(HL.R.H. the Prince of Wales,
NORFOLK . . . .-| 332 | 3 i; KG., t.; Hugh Aylmer;
|| Robert Leeds.
OXFORDSHIRE 135 ! | Earl of Jersey.
SUFFOLK . , 188 2 J. E. Ransome; A. J. Smith.
| | —_—1842 | =
CUMBERLAND 180 | 1 S. P. Foster.
= {Earl of Ravensworth, y.P.;
ae! DURHAM . . 195 | 2 \l W.T Scarth. .
: . be u | (Sir M. White Ridley, v.P.;
NORTHUMBERLAND | 248 2 ll “Sacole Wiles ‘
WESTMORLAND 66 «a W. H. Wakefield, v.P.
— 689 | — 6
| |
|
| |
* } ; Hon. E. K. Coke; H. Chandos-
DERBYSHIRE. . 188 ' 2 | Pols
LEICESTERSHIRE 98 }—
< : Eas | Sir J. H. Thorold; Rt. Hon. H.
c. LINCOLNSHIRE , 255 | 3 { Chaplin; W. 2 :
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE| 135 | 2 Earl Spencer, v.P.; A. Pell.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE | 227 ce Duke of Portland; J. Hemsley.
RUTLAND . a VRS /_—
' 922|— 9

i

Distribution of Members of the Society.

xili

DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY—continued.

|
DISTRICTS | CouUNTIES
|

BERKSHIRE » e« +
| CORNWALL ates

| DEVONSHIRE. . .
DORSETSHIRE ,

HAMPSHIRE . .

RRGHRT Ole @ of fo te

| SOMERSETSHIRE.
| SURREY. ...,

PSUSSER. 2 . 4 4

» ~ie

YORKSHIRE

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

HEREFORDSHIRE
MONMOUTHSHIRE .

SHROPSHIRE .

STAFFORDSHIRE,

WARWICKSHIRE.
WORCESTERSHIRE .
SouTH WALES .

CHESHIRE .

|
|

G, LANCASHIRE .

NoRTH WALES abs

SeePNEANEN daa Sat bl og ain obs

TRELAND. . . Ene
CHANNEL ISLANDS A
FOREIGN COUNTRIES ..
HONORARY MEMBERS .
MEMBERS WITHOUT ADDRESSES

NUMBER
NUMBER OF*| © OF S628 “NA ISeS oP
Mempers ,| MEMBERS , MEYBERS OF CoUNCIL
OF SocIETY OF |
COUNCIL |
150 2 M. J. Sutton; P. E. Crutchley.
63 —
: (Sir T. D. Acland, T.; Sir M.
il = \ Lopes, v.P.
63 1 . Viscount Portman, T.
| anes Eversley, v.P.; Sir
186_ 3 A. K. Macdonald, T. ; te
Caird.
362 3 ; R. Russell; C. Whitehead ;
aoe ae * @. de L. F. De Laune.
152 = ; Visct. Bridport, T.; R. Neville
ne o5 /\ Grenville.
185 1 G. H. Sanday.
| (Duke of Richmond and Gor-
250 5 don, v.P.; H. Gorringe;
R. A. Warren.
125 a! J. Rawlence.
1647 | — 18
= : .| (Baal Cathcart, T.; Earl of
657 4 Feversham, V.P.; C. Clay;
; spect ede Do Dente
. r;Lord Moreton; Col. Kings-
200 2 { cote, T. =
130 1 J. H. Arkwright.
32° i 2 R. Strattor.
: {A. P. Lloyd; J. Bowen-Jones;
a 3 UW. Sheraton.
{ Earl of Lichfield, T.; Marquis
238 - 3: - lof Stafford.
197 1 P. A. Muntz.
181 2 Earl of Coventry ; C. Randell.
162 1 Viscount Emlyn.
1583 | — 13
389 5 (Lord Egerton, T. ; Hon. Cecil
= \ TT. Parker; A. Ashworth.
Duke of Devonshire, v.P.;
460 - 3-- : . Earl of Lathom, v.p.; T. H.
: : a » Miller. ad
217 2 eo of Powis, T.; C.S. Main
33 teil ... | Waring.
966 | — 8
148 .
LEY: ¢ t
12
123
16
101 |
a

iy ROYAL AGRICULTURAL
Dr. : HALF-YEARLY CasH ACCOUNT

& 5. a. Ei A ats & ss a,
To Balance in hand, 1st July, 1887 :-— A

Bankers. ses» (© snete:venie “ol ein MenespeoUr Ome
Secretary sss e eeu seas ene « 2 59 6 9
356 10 6
To Income :— ;
Dividends on Stock « « e «© » ww ew © ww we we 464 9 6
Subscriptions :— s ele
Governors’ Annual . « «© se © « © © we 68D
Members’ Life-Compositions . . « + « « » 363 0

Members’ Amnual. . 0 0 2 © ss eo we ow 194 IL

roo S

Vi92 1 0
Journal :—

SaIGS™ neo ean We o6) we cnr ce iwyiein' we ial spans 4 esO a)
Sale of Pamphlets . 2. « «© e » ee eee 9 910

Advertisements: = « . 6 s = ost » sus l4£412 Biss
Ss 226 211
Chemical :—
Laboratory Fees (3 Quarters) . 1 « es e we e eee 300 1 3
Education :— = ee
Sale of Insect Diagrams . « « e e@ we we ew ew ew we 10 5
Farm Prize Competition :—
Prizes given by Newcastle Local Committee. . 475 0 0
Entry Fees for 1888. 2 « es ee ee w e 40 0 OO
nee 522 0 0
Norwich Meeting te Mette, mee tee al @Laan ia gute ats 25 611
Total Income. Sica) ecissreske. ei weenie n a «se OS 2,781 2 0
To Neweastle Meeting . 2» 2» «© 2 e ee ss ec ewe ee 15,954 4 2
To Stock :—
Sale of 2,0107. 1s. 3d. Consols «4 « » « © © © » © 6 « 2,035 3 9
» 40007. New Three per Cents. « « « es © oo 4,080 0 0
SS 6,115 3 9
To Bankers :—
‘Balance’ ULC: ie: es eve (s) ria) e| Alm be 50) lS metal ve. Ge) ie an 192 4 @
| £25,349 4 6
BALANCE-SHEET,
To Capital :— LIABILITIES, Seta £ s da.
Surplus, June 30th, 1887 . . « «© «© © © © ew ew ww we 38,620 19 3
Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during
the Half-year, viz. :—
Expenditure . . «ee + © © © we © 19017 0
Income a et haktes. @ a: op iw . abinw seat asso aes
————— 4,459 15 0
d . - — 34,161 4 3
To Excess of new over old valuation of Country Meeting baie 2116 5 0
and other property . « « e » © e ee we we ee ow -S ?
36,277 9 3
To Excess of Expenditure oyer Receipts:—
Newcastle Meeting . « « «ee © © w © © © 6 8 Oe eye 1,978 .2 .2 |,
Stallion SHOW sis) iss iecde p anr a) (ea) Weigh (e Rigielene 1,564 6 5
SS 3,582 8 7
£32,745 0 8

QUILTER, WELTON, & CO., Accountants.

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

XV
FRoM lst JuLy To 3lst DECEMBER, 1887. Cr.
By Expenditure :— £ os. a & s. d. & s da.
Establishment :—
Salaries, Wages, &e. . «= e 2 © 1204 0 0
House :—Rent, Taxes, Alterations, ‘&e. <) pre 22003, 03 4 <
Office :—Printing, Postage, Stationery, &e. . 317.12 5 4 ne
3,524 13 8
Journal :—
Printing and Stitching . . »« « « » « «© « 7518 2
Printing Advertisements . « « . « « «© 2 55 16 3
Postage and Delivery. .« « «:e-0 © © « » - 200 0 0
Literary Contributions . » e:e.0 »« © » «. 175, Q 0
WWOOdGUES! Sous sce « © we ee 8 ts 7 7G
1,220 111
Chemical :—
Salaries . We iC) a a ee 391°13 +4
Apparatus and Chemicals coe) +) ee 33°19 9
Printing, Advertising, and Stationery miata Ljigalee |
Petty Payments . «ee » © we we ee 15 0 0
‘ 45719 7
WELCOME YS s/iuile 8 818 08 08 ©: 8 0 0 8 6.8 @ «6 102 5 0
Seeds and Plants Diseases:—
Consulting Entomologist’s Salary . . + « « 50 0 0
Consulting Botanist’s Salary . 2. . 2 © «© « 50 0 0
100 0 0
Education :—
IMGEVORIISING 5 6 6 «le 8 ee us © 8 8 ay ae
RENIN ML eval aiieita— es) ule > «) ap. . 200 0 0
PEGUDINGES Te ea 8 8 8s 8 8 kl 1515 0
231 2 2
Farm Prize Competition :—
ETIVEME Ost icue a. eres << ee @ a « 9—4%0: 0 0
Judges... erewre 0 o@ 0 we 06% FD 1
Gratuities to Farm "Servants eels, ae we 9 00
Expenses on account of 1888 . . . »« 2 « « 134 6 9
1,187 15 10
Sundries se ee ee ee wee ee ee we es 351 18 10
Worwieh Meeting’. 2 = i» © 0 8 « « & © © © © © Oo 15 0 0
Total Expenditure. » «s »« e « «© ee © so Ae 7,190 17 0
By Neweastle Meeting . . 2. 2 ss es ee te we wwe .
TBy Gupiiiain Rips” 6) eG eeto ee Ce nee : Gente
By Nottingham Meeting... .. +... cater 50 200 0 0
By Balance in hand, 31st December :—
BGQRCIaUyeGmi ieee sles sa 8 ce 0 8 8 8 6 8s ite yo
£25,349 4 6
3lst DECEMBER, 1887.
ASSETS, & 5s. d. & 8. ae
By Cashinhand. . e ey 5 2 4
By New Three per Cent Stock 25, 8857. 4s. 4d. cost * | eee 25,062 13 4
(Of this, 6.5957. is held against unexhausted Life
: Compositions, and 1307. against special Sieg Tie
By Books and Furniture in Society ’sHouse. . . « ey mae 3,537 18 1
Pmeomiien Mecune Plant ~ . 4 6 6 se et ewe = 2,158 0 0] =>
DSS LUT CIS TAES Bcc SRO CMC) aCe nC INCU aC aie Maa amma 1,655 15 0
SSS 32,419 8 9
At Debit of Nottingham Meeting . . . a) gee) aL as, « oon 517 16 0
32,937 4 9
eUMeLOPBANKGIS (so ule) ¢ =) kee 0) @ 6 6 of *# © 192 4 1
* Value at 1034 = 26,7261. ds, 3d.
Mem.—The above assets are exclusive of the amount
recoverable in respect of arrears of Subscriptions to
31st December, 1887, which at that date amounted to
1,704/, £32,745 0 8

FRANCIS SHERBORN,

A, H, JOHNSON,

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 23rd day of April, 1888,

} Auditor's on behalf of the Society.

xvi . ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. YEARLY CasH AccouNT,
ness £a dad £4. a
To Balance in hand, 1st Jan. 1887 :—
BANKOrS.. a:46. ee veeens em aalet teieeieuy te hes: 720 11 2
DOCeLATY: Tes ig cw ue ca de Merees ho onte SNPte cues se 5616 6
[SSS 17_ 8
To Income -—
Dividends on Stock .. Os Ceo Ons eve: 926 19 1
Interest on Deposit Account oh Vo eho uel te) wim ene 11 13 11
Subscriptions :—
Governors! Annual, . . s » «6 ev 6 eis 240 0 0
Members’ Life-Compositions . . ....s.-s 907° 0 0
Members’ Annual . . « «© © « e 8a « 4,913 10 0
6,060 10 0
Iistablishment :—
REN CCav wy = 6 ww Bie ww 8 el ne 200 0 0
Journal :—
Sales... Pe Pee catalase 157 14 9
‘Advertisements Sean Ci acecy cpicercde ceo 302, Gat
Sale of Pamphlets... a, ‘eae pb witanle eae 12°10 6
Col, Turbervill’s Essay Prizes . vy ae bem Ba 75 00
SSS = 547 7 2
Chemical :—
Laboratory Fees. » se es sw Cee ew rer 376 6 6
Education :—
Sale of Insect Diagrams. . 2 4 % @ & » cw > 10 °2°
Farm Prize Competition :—
Prizes given by the Newcastle Local Committee 475.0 0
Hintry Fees for 1888. . « « s 0 s « « » « 47 0 0
aie 522 0 0
Norwich Meeting . « . «© « «© © @ © ew we ae 48 11 4
Newcastle Meeting . . © « © «© ee ee a 22)351 aaa
Stallion Show. . . » «6+ ses wseees Gale 652 9 0
Total Income . ¢ « « « » F ae 31,699 10 3
To Stock :—
Sale of £2,010 1s. 3d.Consols . . . a ae 2,035 3 9
» £4,000 0s. 0d. New Three Per Cents, : : ot 4,080 0 0
—_—_—_—__—_|| “Gb 39
To Bankers :—
iBalaniceiue -Fs 0) sv © 6: e) » iw lenlel Ww) iets cad fa 192 4 1

| 488,784 5 9
a ee a

hy as *
SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. xvii
-FRoM Ist JANUARY TO 3lst DECEMBER, 1887. Cr.
& s a. & 8. da, ae a, ae
By Expenditure :—
Establishment :—
Salaries, Wages, &c. , on 1,599 0 0
House: Rent, ‘Taxes, Alterations, Repairs, &e, 2,369 10 1
Office : Printing, Postage, Stationery, &c, . , |. , 733.18 2
SES 4,702 8 3
Journal — : :
Printing and Stitching onntal 6: 90 ere 1,434 19 6
Printing Advettigenterits) © 7) 2. it: His 12 3
Postage : and Delivery reer ato autabete; vs ex Chl: <e 400 0 0
‘Advertising’. o Ales. ed (ania fs 914 6
Literary Contributions CE Odowo Ho econ 352 10 O
Prizokesaye 2 3 0 8 8 SSS 5 DOnOn OF ©
Wood Engravings . . Gi ‘ 6 Gen 3017 6
ekg Perla any | 9 ISERIES fy
Chemical :— . : ke ‘
Salaries . . Cea eieral sta) e 750 8 4
Apparatus and Chemicals Bia ae ect 6913 3
Printing, Advertising and Stationery Cibo Ly GG
Petty Payments. 2... eu wa 33. 4 9 .
870 12 10
Veterinary :—
Professionalees . . . eerialt uel awe ikt bei ee) One
On account of Investigations en tense elses 50 0 0
Grant to Royal Veterinary College | 1 2); 200 0 0
252 5 0
Seeds and Plants’ Diseases :-— -
Consulting Entomologist’s Salary ..... 100 0 0
Consulting Bofanist’s Salary .. . 1... | ° f00° 0 0
, 200 0 O
Education : =
Fees to Examiners . . Ses ete wh vay aieten te 52°10 6
Printing and Advertising Fads Al ae 15) % 2
mcnolagstaps) <) % %, % ws, 8% ° . 200 0 0
REICH iementita Mies <b Gioia is, 00s abe aaa bh he 50 0 0
317 17-2
Farm Prize Competition :—
SEREGS oA apt CNPC OR RRC EIO Ra He ane 475 0 0
Judges . eee a ak cet a 569 9 1
Gratithies to Farm Servants. erent . $8 0 0
Expenses on account of 1888 , . , ; 134 6 9
1,187 15 10
Gratuity to Mrs. Jenkins . .......-. 1,300 0 0 1,300 0 0
Sundries. . . syns erst ha <. Toemer es 373 10 10 373 10 10
Norwich Meeting 3 he Doty at CRC oe eat es nina 35 0 0
Neweastle Meeting ..« «.-. 2... 25,119 19 11
£ sd.
Less debited to Country MeetingPlant 1,191 14 6.
» == Stallion Show... 348 19 5
» - Nottingham Meeting, 317160
———| 1,858 911
|| 28,260, 10% 10
NOnINEHAMOMEeHING. 66 6 @ os 0 0 « s ie 517 16 0
MEMDACHRONG WiMCMy irs) ef tebe (alt a, el, esis, es ster 2,152 19 3
Total Expenditure... . ac 5a =37,565 $8 11
By Country Meeting Plant . . . 2... ee ee alee ‘as 1,213 14 6
By Balance in hand, 31st December, 1887. . . . . oa oe 5 2 4
£38,784 5 9
VOL. XXIV.—S. S. b

Subscription from Newcastle . . « «
Admissions to Show Yard by Payment .
Admissions by Season Ticket. . 2 « «
Admissions to Stand at Horse Ring . .
Admissions to Dairy. « « «see «
Sale of Catalogues. . « « « « we « «©
Entries in Implement Catalogue .. .

Advertisements in Stock Catalogue . .

COUNTRY MEETING ACCOUNT,

Implement Exhibitors’ Payment for Shedding

Non-members’ Fees for Entry of Implements.

Fees for Entry of Live-Stock. « « « s
Fees for Horse Boxes and Stalls. . . .
Fees for Entry of Pouliry . . « » © «
Fees for Horse-Shoeing Competition. .

Premium for Supply of Refreshments .

Premium for Cloak Rooms, Lavatories, &c.

Fines for Non-Exhibition of Live Stock
Implement Fines « 2 e ws ec eee

Sales of Dairy Produce and Guides . .

REcmEIPTs,

To Balance

Bye ide
« « 2,000 0 0
+. Beis 3
+a A718 0.
- « 65217 0
5 gr eat a0
e « 58219 0
« « 240 0 0
ce 20017 6
« .o) 268333 2
«. «ep 8
ee 853 5 0
os 344.20 0
oem 780 2.4
ote 1010 0
« « 315 0 0
ed 60 0 0
ae 2707050
ana 5 00
ee ee
£17,558 4 4

s « 3020 4 7

£19,587 8 11

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, 1887. xix

EXPENDITURE.
& 8 a: & « &
Snuow-Yarp Works :—
By Timber and Joinery .. . eee ee Sp © ee) ee ete, Sacorlom Dl
» Ironmongery, 1857. 13s. 3d. ; Teedien 1501. 3s. 4d. Baty Me ae scree. Sob) Ome
» Paints, Oils, Glass, &c., 777. Lis. 6d. ; Bricks, Lime, and Cement, 462. 4s.6d. 123 16 0
», Canvas, Felt, Baize,&e. . . . a wade ence. 0 L Qkon- ome
» Railway Charges, 3197. 5s. 8d. ; Hara Hire, 1347, 12s. ‘ha. Serie epee SG Ay’
», Insurance, Coals, and Sundnies = 2 SSW Cn Ee ae 33:19 3
PROSIBPO EDO MEAWUONETY. foo ow es we hs ew lw el le 8 46 6 7
REGRESS yi ey wlan is ef e 6, 6, ey’ 50 Gait a 0-00 BOC ecourr acne IGE fab:
;, Superintendent of Works—Salary and Expenses fae ft We hone ve POGGTLEEO
ICM EMENT a a stig) ec isv a weet srs) sl te ee ee «6403 DET weet
9/862
Per Contra :—
By Materials CER GO Niscceuos! ts) s)¢) e si.qiye. oi arg a dn « este 249 4 10
» PSBCIGMIBLCIMIS Merc: Re Bewectue. cece cf che. wie woe if w “we « 2,264 194 4
» Work for Exhibitors and Purveyors. . « . »« «© 0 © © © © ww ew 1,300 0 0 Ps,
Z i 2
6,128 15 9
Judges’ Fees.—Implements, 1557.; Stock, 5647.5; Poultry, 27/. 14s.; Cheese and aa) $2317 8
361. 13s, 8d. ; Horse-Shoeing, 407. 10s. . Secs leiy Waves whicere a el ce epual er cu oy "alia el eles
Inspectors’ Fees.—Veterinary, 85/7. 10s, ; Shearing, 217. 10s. 6d.; Veterinary Assistants, 18/. 13s, 12513 6
Police.—Metropolitan. . ... rac 5 . : ee eece 607Gb Garo
Clerks and Assistants.—Secretary aaa Stewards Your. Lis. Gd. ; Haaeces 181. 8s. 6d. . Pe tiet. 143 0 0
Foremen and Assistant-Foremen. . . eens 5 Sie a) Tol at Eh wit 135 11 3
Yardmen, 308/. 8s. 10d. ; Grooms, leniiea ae eae ileus nts 962. rae «) Wh epee aw ey re 404 13 10
Superintendent of Turnstiles Money Changer, and pages eae 607. 18s. ; pms a
BOR SES ow ac ary od agen
Stewards’ Expenses at ieenion House, ie 2440, Gs. 4d. ; ee xeatstenn ote neeaes 48l. ve ‘od. 2 Nae be 29210 6
Lodgings for Stewards, Assistant- seers Implement Tadees: and Veterinary APY 25313 0
and other Officials. i a ae Se oe Gy eh at ie ah Gene
Official Luncheons, Geeahetenes! od awanecs . . . . . 300 5 5
Catalogues.—Implements, 2912. 12s. 4d.; Stock, 4462. 15s. yee eS 441. 16s, 6d. Plan of
Yard, 297.; Guide to Dairy, 117. 8s. 6d. ; New Packing Cases and Carriage, 491. 14s. 2d.; | 927 14 10
Commission, 547.8... . 5 ss cues ac amo) of se) uel. ef at: itiay” Wie cameo
Printing, 1,1387. 3s. $d.; Advertising ort Bill Posting, 7367. oGnOGa eis ew es wl et we el ot 6 924 19
Postage, Stationery, Telegrams, Carriage, &e. . . . . . oe el etek esis mee 187 10 8
Engineering.—Repairs, 1017. 10s.; Professional Fees, 2351.3 Engineers and "Assintants
1487. 6s. 8d.; Wages, 1107. 2s. 3d.; Insurance, 92. 3s. 9d. 3 Carriage, 367. Is. 9d. 3 Coats, 683 7 10
91. 14s. 8d.; Ironwork, 271. 0s. 5d.; Tarpaulins and Petty Payments, 67. 8s.4d. . .
Dairy.—Milk, 63/7. 18s. 6d.; Ice, 62. 38. 11d. ; pea 387, 2s. 6d. 5 eens: &e., 121. 6d. ; i} 13412 4
Carriage, 147. 6s. lld. . . . « « :
Hay, 2157. 13s. 8d.; Straw, 3867. 3s. od.; ean mou: 1642, 10s, Gd. ; : Seackanes Ges 20. ‘os, Pat 768- 9 11
Trials——Land, 317, 15s., and miacelianbdns: ASTATSHALGS fen dite talte e 6 50 211
Horse-Shoeing.—Hire of Forges, &c., 7/. 2s.; Carriage, 31. 15s. 4d. ; nae ‘Sas 151. jase a 30 4 8
Sinayiigs, SF, ROGGE LS ace i ae ee ae PIT IR
PIRISCEMIPLORPEIAPESTINOP. tg) gs) cs) alis o) s @ @ 6 6) 6 6 6 8 ee et te ow eo ee, 148 FG
PreoriasivmantnGrtcrmi pitt sod wo ae ee 8 6 ee se ee ew ee 8 es 33 13 10
Poultry Attendant and Food .... Cattrc, ood letra toma tom Cho 1513 3
Telephone, 207. ; Fire Engines and Men, 397. "18s. bd. Se ee ed atta alana Oe tte 5918 5
Commissionaires, ARE) 28) Bde = ROY) Messengers, 102.) seus ers) dis) a vexer a oh ts) ie el wh dl 50 2 6
Hire of Furniture, 247. 7s. ; Hire of Chairs, 267. 9s. 8d.; China, Glass, and Towels, 47. 19s. . « 5515 8
Jackets and Caps, 87. 14s, 2d.; Hats for Boys, 47. 18s. 7d.; Baskets, 1J. 28.6d.. . . 1 « « 1415 3
Bee Exhibition, 407. ; Rosettes, 197. 1s. 5d.; Badges, 247. 14s. 9d.; Medals, 57. 855 . . 1 « 89 4 2
Ironmongery, 277. 5s. 9d.; Moss Litter, Hire of seemmoniam, Newspapers Coals, Corn, Bas 56 19
and Petty Payments, 287. EDIe ote os 5 a sage
*Prizes.—Stock, 4,110/. ; Implements, 4101; Poultry, 2947. ; Gheése atid Butter, 1721.; Peps 2) 5,060 0 0
making, 10/7. ; Horse Shoeing, 647. . Saath BEinp clade” aesok theet ola. at ©) veh ‘a ial: Wie ke
£19,587 8 11

* Exclusive of 1,446/. given through the Newcastle Local Committee ; 507. by the Shire Horse Society ;
421, by the Clydesdale Society; 507. by the Shorthorn Society ; 307, by the Hereford Herd-Book Society ; 50/.

by the Polled Cattle Society; and 50/7. by the Galloway Cattle Society.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

ELEMENTARY EXAMINATION or Pupits or MippLe-Crass

’ AND OTHER ScHOOLS.*

_Ezanination Papers, 1887.

A. AGRICULTURE.

November 8, 1887.
(Three hours allowed.)

N.B.— Your place will be determined more by the quality than the
quantity of your work.

I—THE SOIL.

1. In what ways does Land Drainage (a) affect the fertility of
a water-logged soil? and wherein (b) are irrigation and land drain-
age alike in their influence and mode of action ?

2. Explain in detail the influence as a manure of caustic lime
applied to the soil.

3. How may burning a calcareous clay soil increase its fertility ?

4, Explain on the one hand (a) the benefit of a bare fallow, and
on the other (6) the possible injury which it may do,

II.—THE CROPS.
5. Explain how a crop taken from the soil may be either restora-
tive or scourging, in its influence on fertility.

6. In what ways may ploughing a green crop into the ground
increase the fertility of the soul ?

* For the new Regulations for these Examinations, see page xxy.

‘Agricultural Education—Ewanuination Papers, 1887. xxi

7. Explain the policy of crop rotations—the advantage of taking
grain and green crops after one another in rotation, instead of each
in succession, always on its own plot of ground.

JII.—LIVE-STOCK.

8. Explain the fertilising influence of the sheep-fold.

9. In what respects do milk selling, butter dairying, and the
cheese manufacture, differ in their influence on the fertility of the
farm ?

10. Considering all England as a farm, carrying an immense
head of stock, and receiving annually enormous quantities of im-
ported food and manure, why is it not continually increasing in
fertility ?

B. ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY,

November 8, 1887.

(Three hours allowed.)

1. What features does water exhibit at the following tempera-
tures—0° C., 4°C., 100°C. ? What is meant by the Jatent heat of
steam ?

2. What are the principal characteristics which distinguish the
so-called metallic and non-metallic bodies? Is the distinction an
absolute one ?

3. What do you understand by the term chemical action? Illus-
trate your reply by examples.

4. Describe the preparation of Chlorine. What are its principal
uses in commerce ?

_ 5. The following four salts are given you, viz. Sulphate of Am-
monia ; Sulphate of Soda ; Sulphate of Potash ; Sulphate of Mag-
_nesia : how would you distinguish between them ?

6. Describe the structure of the flame of a candle. Point out the
special features of each portion of the flame,

7. Explain the separation of chemical substances by the. mode
termed dialysis, Give an example,

xxii Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1887.

8. Describe very briefly the preparation of metallic Iron from
its ores.

9. Give the chemical composition of the following :—Saltpetre ;
Quartz ; Lampblack ; Chlorate of Potash ; Glauber’s Salts; Gra-
phite ; Caustic Soda ; Zinc blende ; Bicarbonate of Potash ; Quick-
silver.

10. How is Sulphuretted Hydrogen prepared? Give the prin-
cipal tests for Sulphides.

C. MECHANICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

November 9, 1887.

(Three hours allowed.)

1. State what is meant by stable and unstable equilibrium.
Give an example of a body in stable equilibrium and of a body in
unstable equilibrium.

2. Draw a right-angled triangle A BOC, and suppose it capable
of moving freely in its own plane round D, which is a point in the
hypotenuse A B such that AD isa fourth of AB; the length of
AC is 15 in., that of BC is 12 in.; a force of 10 units acts from
A to C; find the force acting from B to C required to balance the
former force.

3. AB isa lever of the first order, 10 ft. long, capable of turn-
ing round a fulcrum (F) 9 ft. from A; CD is a parallel lever of
the second order, 12 ft. long, capable of turning on a fulerum at C,
and carrying a weight of 9,000 lbs. at E, 6 inches from C; the ends
Band D are connected by a vertical link BD ; find the force P
which, acting at A, would just support the weight at E ; find also
the tension of the link.

4, A thread is fastened firmly by one end to a fixed point A ; it
passes over a smooth fixed point B, and carries a weight of 200 lbs.
at the other end C; given that A B is inclined downwards at an
angle of 45° to the horizon, find (by construction or otherwise) the
pressure on the point B. What is the magnitude of the pull on the
point A, and why ?

5. What is meant when the velocity of a body is said to be
uniformly accelerated? If the velocity of a body is uniformly

Agricultural Education—Eaamination Papers, 1887, xxiii

accelerated, and if at the end of the first second of its motion its
velocity is 7 ft. a second, and at the end of the second second its
velocity is 10 ft. a second, what will be its velocity at the end of
the 10th second of its motion ?

6. A force can just support a mass of 5 oz. against gravity ; if
that force were applied to a body of 4 lbs. perfectly free to move
(for instance, if the force were applied horizontally to the body
placed on a smooth horizontal table), what distance would it make
the body describe from rest in the first three seconds of its motion
(g = 32)?

7. A cork is tied by a fine thread to the bottom of a vessel ;
water is poured in, and the-vessel filled to such a depth that the
thread keeps the cork from rising to the surface; explain why the
thread will be in a vertical line, when the water and cork come to
rest,

8. State Boyle’s Law. A quantity of air, under a pressure of
3 atmospheres, has a volume of 1} cubic feet; what will be its
volume if the pressure is reduced to 2} ea ee ? What is
meant by a pressure of one atmosphere ?

9. What is latent heat? Mention any circumstances under
which heat becomes latent.

10. The area of a piston of a steam-engine is 2,000 square inches ;
the length of the stroke is 6 ft. ; the mean pressure of the steam is
22 lbs. per square inch ; the cee makes 10 strokes a minute;
what is the horse-power of the engine? If this engine overcame at
the working point a constant resistance of 1,000 lbs., what would be
the velocity of the working point? What eee is tacitly
made in your answer ?

D. MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING.

November 9, 1887.
(Two howrs allowed.)

1, ABC is a triangle, whose area is 145,000 sq. ft. ; the base
A B is 575 ft. long ; and the angle A is one of 67° 30’; Gos the
triangle to a scale of 100 ft. toan inch. Note the nee of feet
in the other sides, and the number of degrees in the other angles,

xxiv Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1887.

2. A BCD isa four-sided figure ; A B is 1,270 ft. long, and the
following angles are measured, viz., DA B = 123°,C A B =31° 30’,
DBA= 43° 20’, CBA=135°; draw the figure to a scale of
500 ft. to an inch, and note the length of the side CD, and of the
diagonal A ©,

3. A brick measures 83 x 441 x 232 in.; if bricks could be
stacked quite close and without mortar, how many would there be
in a rod of brickwork (i.e. 304 sq. yds., a brick and a half thick) ?

4, A rectangle has two edges horizontal, and its plane inclined
at an angle of 25° to the horizon—like the cover of a book lying
on a table and kept partly open ; the horizontal edges are 50 ft.
long, the others are 30 ft. long ; find, by construction, the inclina-
tion of a diagonal to the horizontal plane.

5. Draw a line 4 in, long, and divide it accurately into 15 equal
parts,

6. AB isa side of an ornamental piece of water; at A, where
the stream enters, there is a waterfall of 4 ft. ; at B, where the
stream goes out, there is a fall of 5 ft. ; at a point C, a little above
A, there is a sluice by which the stream can be sent along a semi-
circular watercourse to D, a point just below B; from C to Dina
straight line is 800 yards ; what is the fall (in inches per hundred
feet) of the stream when it is being carried along the semicircular
watercourse ? Show, in a sketch drawn to scale, the point of the
watercourse which is on the same level as the piece of water.

(: xxv J

REGULATIONS AS TO JUNIOR SCHOLARSHIPS.

[The following new Regulations for these Scholarships were ap-
proved by the Council on April 11, 1888, and will come into force
Sor the Examinations to be held in November neat. ]

1. In addition to the present examinations of advanced students,
a more elementary examination is held annually in November by the
Royal Agricultural Society. .

2. Ten Scholarships of 20/. each are offered, on condition that the
Scholar remain at School until the end of the summer term in the
following year, or spend the ensuing year with a practical agriculturist
or a land agent, to be approved by the Education Committee of the
Society, or at one of the Agricultural Colleges, or partly at a School
and partly with a practical agriculturist or a land agent or at an
Agricultural College.

3. No Scholarship will be paid until after a formal certificate of
good conduct and industry be produced from the head-master of the
School, principal of the College, or the practical farmer or land agent
with whom the Scholar has complied with the preceding regulation.

4. Candidates for the Scholarships must be between 14 and 18
years of age. No candidate is eligible for examination a second
time who has already obtained a Scholarship.

5. Candidates still at School can only be entered for these
Scholarships through the head-masters of their respective Schools.
Other Candidates must satisfy the Education Committee of their
fitness to compete by sending Certificates of Education, or of their
having passed any Examinations in connection with the Science and
Art Department, or of any University in the United Kingdom.

6. Any head-master intending to enter Candidates for these
Scholarships, and any Candidate intending to enter himself, must
inform the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society of his intention
to do so, on or before October 1 in each year. Entries of individual
competitors must be made on or before October 15, on forms to be
obtained from the Secretary.

7. The annual Examinations will be held in the month of
November simultaneously at such Schools as have Candidates, and
at the Society’s Rooms, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. The
Scholarships will be awarded to the boys who obtain the highest
aggregate number of marks,

( soy)

8. The subjects for examination for the Scholarships will be :—
1. The Principles of Agriculture, especially with reference to the
Rotation of Crops, the Nutrition of Plants and Animals, and the
Mechanical Cultivation of the Soil; 2, Chemistry, as applied to
Agriculture ; 3. Elementary Mechanics, as applied to Agriculture ;
4, Land Surveying.

9. The maximum and minimum marks allotted to each subject
are as follows :—

Maximum ‘ Minimum
Agriculture, : ° ° . 400 150
Chemistry : , : : » 200 75
Mechanics . 5 : A . 200 ls
Land Surveying ° e . . 100 40

10, A Candidate who does not obtain the minimum number of
marks in any of the subjects in which he is examined will be con-
sidered as failing in that subject. No Scholarship or Certificate will
be granted to any Candidate who fails in any subject, or who does
not obtain a total of 450 marks, 7.e. half the maximum marks for all
four subjects.

11. Subject as above, the Scholarships will be awarded to the ten
Candidates who obtain the highest aggregate number of marks. A
Certificate stating that he has qualified for a Scholarship will also be
granted to each Candidate after the first ten, who passes in each
subject, and obtains not less than 450 marks in the aggregate.

12. For the conduct of the examination at each School having
Candidates, a Local Secretary will be appointed by the Royal
Agricultural Society.

Sealed packets of the examination papers will be sent to the
Local Secretary ; these packets will be opened and distributed
to the Candidates in his presence, or in the presence of some
one specially deputed by him.

During the time the papers are being answered there will be
present the Local Secretary or his deputy, who will, at the
end of the time appointed by the examiner for answering,
collect the papers, seal them in packets, and forward them to
the Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society.

By Order of the Council,

ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.

12, Hanover Sauarz, Lonpon, W,
April 11, 1888.

( xxvai*)

SYLLABUS OF SUBJECTS

For the Examination of Candidates for the Society’s Junior Scholarships,

AGRICULTURE.

Varieties of soil and climate in Great Britain. ‘Tillage operations.
Drainage. Rotation of crops. Rotations adapted to different circumstances
of soil and climate. Cultivation of cereal crops (wheat, oats, barley),
Cultivation of pulse crops (beans, peas), Cultivation of green crops (swedes,
turnips, mangolds, potatoes, vetches). Cultivation of artificial grasses.
Management of permanent grass. Haymaking and harvesting, General
management and feeding of horses, Dairy management. General manage-
ment and fattening of cattle, sheep, and pigs. Calendar of farm operations,

The Examiners will be requested to put the questions relating to the cultivation
of the soil in a general form, so that each Candidate may be enabled to
answer them with special reference to the agriculture of the neighbourhood

of his own school.
CHEMISTRY.

General properties of matter. Weights and Measures. Specific weight.
Chemical affinity. Atomicity. Differences between mechanical and chemi-
cal combinations. Principal laws of combination by weight and volume,

Oxyeren.—Preparation and properties. Oxides. Combustion, Acids
and basic oxides. Ozone.

Hyprocrn.—Preparation and properties. Water. Its electrolysis and
composition by weight and volume. Distilled water. Rain water, Spring
and well waters. Sea water. Hard and soft water. Clark’s “ soap-test.”

Nirrogpn.—The atmosphere. Physical properties of the atmosphere.
Its composition. The uses of the different constituents of the atmosphere in
relation to animal and vegetable life.

Comrounns oF NiTRoGEN WitH OxyGEn, especially nitric acid.

Nitrogen and Hyprogrn.—Ammonia, its properties and preparation,
Tests for ammonia, Chloride of ammonium. Sulphate of ammonia.
General properties of ammonia salts. Manures containing ammonia.

CarzBon.— Different varieties of carbon—Diamond—Graphite—Vegetable
carbon—Animal charcoal—their properties and uses. Carbon and oxygen.
Carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. Sources of carbonic acid in the atmo-
sphere. Properties. Tests for carbonic acid. Methylene, acetylene, ethy-
lene. (Compounds of carbon and hydrogen.) Coal-gas. Structure of flame.
Davy’s lamp.

CHLORINE.—Preparation and properties. Its uses, Chlorine and
hydrogen. Tests for hydrochloric acid. General properties of chlorides.

SurtpHur.—Native and refined sulphur, Properties. | Sulphides.
Hydric-sulphide. Compounds of sulphur and oxygen, particularly sulphuric
acid. Uses of oil of vitriol in agriculture.

PHospHorus.—Preparation and properties. Phosphoric acid. The
composition of bones. Minerals consisting mainly of phosphates. Phos-
phatic manures.

” SILIcon AnD Sruicic Acip.—Different varieties of silicic acid. Soluble
silica.

Potasstum.—Caustic potash. Carbonate of potash. Wood-ashes.
Chloride of potassium. Nitrate of potassium,

Soprum.—Carbonate of soda. Chloride of sodium. Sulphate of soda.
Silicate of soda. Glass,

CaxcruM.—Quicklime, Chalk and limestone, and their uses, Shell-
sand. Sulphate of lime. Phosphate of lime.

Maenesium.—Carbonate and sulphate of magnesia,

Bartum.—Chloride of barium, Sulphate of baryta.

( xxvite ))

Atoumintum.—Alumina, Alums. Clays.

Tron.—Cast iron. Malleable iron. Steel. Oxides of iron. Iron
pyrites. Ferrous sulphate. Tests for ferrous and ferric salts.

Copprr.—Sulphate of copper. Tests for copper.

Merrcury.—Oxides of mercury. Chlorides of mercury.

Leap.—Oxides of lead. Sulphide of lead. Acetate of lead.

Z1nc.—Oxide of zine. Sulphate of zinc.

Siiver.—Silver nitrate.

ARSENIC,—Arsenious acid.

MECHANICS, ETC.

Position of centre of gravity in simple figures—circle, triangle, &e.
Properties of the centre of gravity. Stable and unstable equilibrium.

Composition and resolution of forces acting at a point, and conditions of
their equilibrium, 7.¢., parallelogram and triangle of forces.

Relation between two forces holding a body in equilibrium on a fixed
Axis, t.e., equality of their moments.

Applications to equilibrium of lever, wheel and axle, pulley, toothed-
wheels, and of a body resting on a smooth plane, horizontal or inclined.

Friction of plane surfaces, and coefficient of friction.

Newton’s three laws of motion. Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
produced in a body of given mass by a force of given magnitude. Absolute
unit of force ; gravitation unit of force.

Work and its measurement ; foot-pound, foot-poundal.

Relation between work done by power and work done against resist-
ances in a machine moving uniformly.

Energy of a moving particle; equation of work and energy for a particle.

Transmission of pressure through a fluid, and fluid pressure on a body
wholly or partially immersed. Applications to find specific gravity of solids
and liquids,

Weight, pressure, and elasticity of air. The barometer. Boyle’s Jaw.

Applications to suction and forcing pumps, siphon, hydrometers,
hydraulic press.

Freezing and boiling points of water and graduation of Thermometers.
Solid, liquid, and aeriform states of matter. Unit of heat; specific heat;
latent heat. Relation between volume, density, pressure, and temperature
of gas. Mechanical equivalent of heat.

Arrangement of parts and mode of action of stationary steam engine—
Condenser, parallel motion, eccentric, governor and throttle-valve, crank
and fly-wheel. Calculation of horse-power of engine.

N.B.— Candidates are expected to be able to work easy examples and answer
questions on the suljects specified in the above Syllabus.

MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING.

Construction of triangles from various data with scale and protractor.
Determination of area of a triangle when it has been drawn accurately to
scale.

Mensuration of rectangular areas; and of other areas so far as it can be
effected by drawing them to scale, and dividing them into triangles.

Area and circumference of circle determined from radius, or conversely,

Mensuration of rectangular solids, and of prisms, cylinders, and cones.

To plot from notes a three or four sided field, and to find its area when
plotted.

Construction of easy plane scales.

Verniers.

Levelling.
N.B.—Each Candidate should have with him in the Examination a pair of

compasses, scale of equal parts, and protracter,

(Cee)

MEMORANDA.

Abpness or Lerrens.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the
letter W, Members, in their correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin
that letter to the usual address.

GENERAL MEETING in London, Monday, May 22nd, 1888, at noon,
CountTRY MEETING at Nottingham, 9th to 13th July, 1888,
GENERAL MEETING in London, December, 1888.

Moyraty Councin (for transaction of business), at noon on the first Wednesday in every month,
excepting January, September, and October: open only to Members of Council and
Governors of the Society,

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks
do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first Wednesday in August to
the first Wednesday in November; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first
Wednesday in February,

OFFICE Hours.—10 to 4, On Saturdays 10 to 2,

Disrases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to the Vete-
rinary Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College,
Camden Town, N.W.—(A statement of these privileges will be found on page xxxiii. in
this Appendix.)

CueEmMiIcaL ANALYSIS.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society
will be found stated in this Appendix (page xxx.).

BOTANICAL AND ENTOMOLOGICAL PrrvILEGES.—The Botanical and Entomological Privileges en-
joyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (pages xxxy. and
XXxXvi.).

SupscripTions.—1. Annual.—The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1,
due in advance on the lst of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by
the Ist of June.

2. For Life-—Governors may compound for their subscription for future years by
paying at once the sum of £50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members
who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose subscriptions
are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year
inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £5 for aMember. No Governor
or Member can be allowed to enter into composition for life until all subscriptions due by
him at the time shall have been paid. Governors or Members not resident in the United
Kingdom will be required on election to pay the life composition.

No Governor or Member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the privileges
of the Society.

PAYMEN'TS.—Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory
manner, either at the office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., or by means
of postal arders, to be obtained at any of the principal post-offices throughout the kingdom,
and made payable to him at the Vere Street Office, London, W.; but any cheque on a_
banker or any other house of business in London will be equally available, if made payable
on demand. In obtaining postal orders care should be taken to give the postmaster the
correct name of the Secretary of the Society (Ernest Clarke), otherwise the payment may
be refused ta him ‘at the post-office on which such order has been obtained ; and when
making remittances it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent.
Cheques should be crossed ** London and Westminster Bank.”

Ou application to the Secretary, forms may be obtained for authorising the regular
payment, by the bankers of individual members, of each annual subscription as it falls
due. ‘Member’ are particularly invited to avail themselves of these Bankers’ orders, in

* order‘to save trouble both to*themselves and to the Society. When payment is made to the
London aud Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society,
it will be desirable that the Secretary shouJd be advised by letter of such payment, in order
that the entry in the bankers’ book may be at once identified, and the amount posted to the
credit of the proper person. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered,

New Memeerrs.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by a
Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and
post-town, of the eandidate, either at a Council mecting, or by letter addressed to the

. Secretary., Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary. The
Secretary will inform new Members of their election by letter.

#,%* Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an abstract of the
Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of
Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected
with special departments of the Society’s business, .

( xxx )

Governors’ and Members’ Privileges of Chemical Analysis.

(Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the
manufacture or sale of any substance sent for Analysis.)

Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Con-
sulting Chemist for the bond-fide and sole use of Members of the Society. Members have also
the privilege of sending samples for Analysis on behalf of any farming company of which they
may be directors or managers, provided that the substances so sent shall be for use on the
farm of the Company and not for sale to other persons. Members of the Society are also
allowed to send to the Society’s Laboratory for analysis, at the same scale of fees, any manures
and feeding stuffs which are to be used by their outgoing tenants, or which they propose to
give free of cost to their occupying tenants.

These analyses are given on the understanding that they are required for the individual and
sole benefit of the Member applying for them, and must not be used for other persons, or for
commercial purposes, Except in case of dispute, the analyses and reports must not be com-
municated to either vendor or manufacturer. Land or Estate Agents and others sending
samples for analysis on behalf of their principals are only entitled to do so when the latter
are themselves Members. The names of the principals should in such cases be given,

To avoid all unnecessary correspondence, Members are particularly requested, when apply-
ing to the Consulting Chemist, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its
number in the subjoined schedule,

The charge for analysis, together with the cost of the carriage of the specimens (if any),
must be paid to the Consulting Chemist at the time of application.

No.

1.—An opinion of the genuineness of bone-dust or oil-cake (each sample) . . « 28.60,
2.—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples in the market) of sul-

phate and muriate of ammonia and of the nitrates of potash andsoda. -. 5s.
3.—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand,

phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its value, pro-

vided the selling price of the articles to be analysed be sent withit . r d 10s,
4,—An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an

estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed be

sent withit . : 3 Z - . . c : . . . . . . 5s.
5,—An analysis of superphosphate of lime, showing the proportions of moisture, organic

matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia,

and an estimate of its value, provided the selling price of the article to be analysed

besent withit . . Teer . ° c ° 2 ee ee ee 10s,
6.—An analysis, showing the value of bone-dust or any other ordinary ificial

manure, provided the selling price of the manure to be analysed be sent with it. 10s,
7.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime . .« « .« .« « 17.6d,
8.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of Jime and magnesia , a 10s,

9.—An analysis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of carbonate, phosphate,
and sulphate of lime and magnesia, with sandand clay . < i . . 10s,

10.,—Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay, sand, organic matter,
and carbonate of lime . . eae wae ° 7 «ioe 10s.
11.—Complete analysis ofasoil . ‘ . . é 5 P; = F F, a « £3

12.—An analysis of oil-cake or other substance used for feeding purposes, showing the

proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre,

as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate; and an opinion of its
feeding and fattening or milk-producing properties . . . . . . . 10s,

13.—Analysis of any vegetable product . 7 r 6 = F . F, ¢ rH 7 10s.
14,—Analysis of animal products, refuse substances used for manures, &c. . from 10s. to £1
15.—Determination of the “hardness” of a sample of water before and after boiling « 5s.
16.—Analysis of water of land-drainage, and of water used for irrigation . . ‘ #1
17.—Analysis of water used for domestic purposes s z - F a « Ps s £1108,
18.—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water ‘ 7 d . 8 e e 10s,
19.—Examination of Viscera for Metallic poison . . ‘ . . ‘ . ’ « £228,
20.—Examination of Viscera complete, for metals and alkaloids . . fo Ve . £5 5s.
21,—Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual hours of attend-

ance, Monday excepted, will be from 11 to 3, but to prevent disappointment, it is

suggested that Members desiring to hold a consultation with the Consulting

Chemist should write to make an appointment). . . . . . . ‘ 5s.
22.—Consultation by letter é é d Fe . e . . . . é -— ie
23,.—Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters . . oe e ¢ 10s,

The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, London, W., to which address the
Consulting Chemist, Dr. J. Auaustus VOELCKER, requests that all letters and pareels (postage
and carriage paid) from Members of the Society, who are entitled to avail themselves of the
foregoing Privileges, should be directed, Cheques and Postal Orders should be crossed “ London
and Westminster Bank,”

( xxxi_)

GUIDE TO THE PURCHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
AND FEEDING STUFFS.

Frrepine CaKEs.

1. Linseed-cake should be purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this
word on the invoice should be insisted upon. The use of such words as
“ Best,” “Genuine,” &c., should be objected to by the purchaser.

2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and
purchased by sample.

3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased
by sample.

4, Undecorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “Pure,” and
purchased by sample.

N.B.—AIl feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the
guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample
(taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a
competent analytical chemist. The remainder of the cake from which the
sample sent for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence
of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES.

1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “Pure”
Raw Bones guaranteed to contain from 45 to 48 per cent. of tribasic phos-
phate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent. of ammonia.

2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure” Boiled Bones guaranteed
to contain from 55 to 60 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield
not less than 1 per cent. of ammonia,

3. Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various
prices per ton; therefore the quality should be guaranteed under the heads
of soluble phosphate of lime, znsoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its
equivalent as ammonia. The purchaser should also stipulate for an allow-
ance for each unit per cent. which the dissolved bones should be found on
analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three sub-
stances already mentioned. :

4, Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a
sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of
soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be
attached to insoluble phosphates.

5. Compound Artificial Manures should be purchased in the same manner
and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones.

6. Mitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain 95
per cent. of pure nitrate.

7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain
not less than 24 per cent. of ammonia.

8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be
in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia,

N.B.—Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered in a suffi-
ciently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by the drill. A
sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery,
by emptying several bags, mixing the contents together, and filling two tins
holding about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins
should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute,
and the other forwarded to a competent analytical chemist for examination,

( =x Jj

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING
SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES.—Take a large handful of the manure from three
or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the
hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil-silk, about 3 oz. of
the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12, HANOVER SQUARE, W., by post; or
place the mixed manure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by
string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very
wet and lumpy, a large boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent
either by post or railway. :

Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by peat: by attaching
two penny postage stamps to the parcel.

Samples not exceeding 8 oz., for three penny postage stamps.

Samples between 8 and 12 oz. can be sent by parcels-post for threepence.

The parcels should be addressed: Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 12, HAN-
' OVER SQUARE, LONDON, W, and the address of the sender or the number of
mark of the article be stated on parcels.

The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other
materials.

SOILS.—Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to
12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark
out in the field a space of about 12 inches square; dig round in a slanting
direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil with its subsoil
9 to 12 inches deep; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the
wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade
under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid, and send
it by goods or parcel train to the laboratory. The soil will then be received
in the exact position in which it is found in the field.

In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be
at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out.

WATERS.—The water, if possible, should be sent in a glass-stoppered
Winchester half-gallon bottle, which is readily obtained in any chemist and
druggist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be
sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit-jars, surrounded by wickerwork.
For the determination of the degree of hardness before and after boiling, only
one quart wine-bottle full of water is required.

LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.—
Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 0z., should be sent enclosed in small linen
bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz.

OILCAKES.—Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end
break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the
two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, and send by parcel-
post. The piece should weigh at least from 10 to 12 oz. If sent by railway,
one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded, carriage prepaid,

FEEDING MEALS.—About 8 oz. will be sufficient for analysis, Enclose
the meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post,

On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the Laboratory
specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object
in ylew.

( xxiii)

Members’ Ueterinarp Privileges.

I.—VIsITS OF A PROFESSOR OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE.

1. Any member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special
adyice in cases of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary
of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town,
London, N.W.

2. The remuneration of the Veterinary Surgeon or a Visiting Inspector will be
21. 2s. each day as a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such
have been incurred, which will in no case exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be
allowed to charge the cost of travelling, including railway fare, and one shilling per
mile if by road, to and from the locality where his services may have been required.
The whole or any portion of these charges may, however, in case of serious or extensive
outbreaks of contagious disease, be remitted, so far as the Members of the Society are
concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step being recommended to them
by the Veterinary Committee. —

3. The Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or Visiting Inspector, on his. return, will
report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to
the Veterinary Committee, in writing, the result of his observations and proceedings
with reference to the disease ; which Report will be laid before the Council.

4, When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the
Principal of the Royal Veterinary College may, subject to the approval of the Vete-
rinary Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who
shall be remunerated at the same rate.

IJ,— CONSULTATIONS WITHOUT VISIT,

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector ane cnet OgtGrte
Consultation by letter . = . . 2 ° ° . 10s. 6d,
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon . . |. 2ls. 0d.

A return of the number of applications from Members of the Sociéty during each half-
year is required from the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon,

III.—ADMISSION OF DISEASED ANIMALS TO THE ROYAL’ VETERINARY
COLLEGE, CAMDEN Town, N.W.; INVESTIGATIONS AND’ REPORTS.

1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs
to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms, viz. by
paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for
sheep and pigs, 3s. 6d. per week.

2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary
of the College, or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be fur-
nished to the Council quarterly ; and also special reports from time to time on anv
res of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the
College.

3. An annual grant of 200/. is made by the Society to the Royal Veterinary College
in aid of the further development of Cattle Pathology. In order to assist the authori-
ties of the College in making the necessary investigations, members of the Society are
particularly requested to send to the College any diseased animals (cattle, sheep, or
swine) which they would otherwise destroy as useless, and also any specimens of dis-
eased parts of an unusual character. In the event of living animals being sent, it
will be necessary to telegraph to the College at Camden Town the time of their arrival
at _a London station, so that a van may be sent to meet them. The expense of transit
will be defrayed by the Royal Veterinary College.

IV.—VISITS OF PROVINCIAL VETERINARY SURGEONS.

The following Veterinary Surgeons have been appointed, at different centres in
England and Wales, for the purpose of enabling Members of the Society to consult
them with regard to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs.

County, Name and Address,
Anglesey ® : : “ x - Hugh Jones, Brynarron, Langefni.
Bedford , Py P - : > . Henry Crofts, Harper Street, Bedford.
Berks ,. . ° . e ; . Henry Allnutt, Thames Street, Windsor,

Brecon. . John Price, Brecon,

VOL. XXIV.—S. 8S. é

XXXIV

County,

Bucks .
Cambridge .
Cardigan.
Carmarthen
Carnarvon
Chester .
Cornwall
Cumberland
Denbigh.
Derby .
Deyon .
Dorset
Durham .
Masex. . .
Flint
Glamorgan
Gloucester
Hants . s
Hereford, 5
Herts ©
Hunts . .
Kent 2 e
Lancaster
Leicester F
Lincoln (South)
Lincoln (Mid)
Linco!n (North)
Merioneth

Metropolis and Middiesex

Monmouth

Montgomery .
Norfolk . .
Northampton

Notts. .
Oxford (North)
Oxford (South)
Pembroke ,
Salop . .
Somerset
Stafford .
Suffolk

Surrey . °
Sussex (East)
Sussex (West)
Warwick 5
Wilts. .
Worcester .

.

.
.

.
.
.
’
.
.
.
.

York (East Riding)

York (North Riding)
York (West Riding)

= Oe m® emer e

.
.
,
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.

eer eves

Northumberland and Westmorland

Members’ Veterinary Privileges.

Name and Address.
G. A. Lepper, Aylesbury,
G, A. Banham, Downing Street, Cambridge.
Not yet appointed.
Ditto.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele.
W. Lewis, 1 South Street, Nantwich Road, Crewe.
Thos. Olver, Truro.
John Bell, Lonsdale Street, Carlisle.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele.
Not yet appointed.
W. Penhale, Barnstaple,
W. Vessey, Weymouth.
John E, Peele, 8 New Elvet, Durham.
James Taylor, Vengewell Hall, Wix, Manningtree.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele.
Charles Moir, Cardiff, : (Cirencester,
Professor Nicholson Almond, Royal Agricultural College
J. D. Barford, 57 Above Bar, Southampton.
W. Good, 30 Mill Street, Ludlow.
W. Wilson, Berkhampstead,
A. T. Sprague, Kimbolton.
W. A. Edgar, Westfield House, Dartford.
J. B. Polding, Red Lion Street, Burnley.
John Wiggins, Market Harbro’.
Captain B. H. Russell, Grantham.
Charles Hartley, 4 Norman Place, Lincoln.
J. B, Greswell, Mercer Row, Louth.
Eyan Wynne Williams, 1 Queen’s Row, Dolgelly.
Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town.
G. Lewis, Monmouth.
James M‘Cavin, Montgomery.
[Vacant.]
T. J. Merrick, Castilian Street, Northampton.
C, Stephenson, Sandyford Villa, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
C. Gresswell, Albert Square, Derby Road, Nottingham.
Chas. N. Page, Banbury.
P. S. Walker, Oxford,
Not yet appointed.
W. E. Litt, Shrewsbury.
T. D. Broad, Broad Street, Bath.
Harry Olver, Trescoe, Tamworth.
J. Worsley, Ipswich.
J. L, Lupton, Richmond.
R, A, Stock, Lewes.
I, H. Callow, Horsham.
Osborn Hills, Leamington.
H. Hussey, Devizes.
H, R., Perrins, Upper Butts, Worcester.
James Jebson, Yapham Grange, Pocklington.
W. Barker, Middlesborough.
Joseph Carter, 28 Great Horton Road, Bradford,

Members may obtain the attendance of a Provincial Veterinary Surgeon in any case
of disease by paying his travelling expenses (which include railway fares, and 1s. per
mile if by road, including the return journey), and the cost of his visit, which will be

at the following rate, viz. :—

£8.
When the whole day is occupied . : ‘ . - 110 0
When half a day or lessis occupied . ° . ° - 01 0
Personal consultation with Veterinary Surgeon . : - 010 0
Consultation by letter . . 5 ° : - . -» 0.56
Post-mortem examination and report thereon . . ee Be

A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each
half-year, embodying a statement of those cases which may be of public interest, is
required from each Provincial Veterinary Surgeon. These half-yearly reports should
reach the Secretary by the end of May and November respectively.

Wembers’ Wotanical Privileges.

The Council have fixed the following rates of charge for the examination, by
the Society’s Consulting Botanist, of Plants and Seeds, for the bona fide and in-
dividual information and benefit of Members of the Society et being seeds-
men).

The charge for examination must be paid at the time of application, and
the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid.

No.
1.—A report on the purity, amount, and nature of foreign materials,
the perfectness, and germinating power of a sample of seed a Is.
2.—Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any
epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and

the means for its extermination or prevention : B is;
3.—Report on any disease affecting farm crops . ls.
4. Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found

in any district, with a report on their habits and pasture value . 5s.

N.B—The Consulting Botanist’s Reports on Seeds are furnished to enable
Members,---purchasers of seeds and corn for agricultural or horticultwral
purposes,—to test the value of what they buy, and are not to be used or made
available for advertising or trade purposes.

PURCHASE OF SHEDS.

The purchaser should obtain from the vendor, by invoice or otherwise, a
proper designation of the seed he buys, with a guarantee that it contains not
more than a specified amount of other seeds, and is free from ergot, or, in the
case of clovers, from dodder, and of the percentage of seeds that will germinate.

The germination of cereals, green crops, clovers, and timothy grass should
be not less than 90 per cent.; of foxtail, not less than 60 per cent.; of other
grasses, not less than 70 per cent.

The Council strongly recommend that the purchase of prepared mixtures
should be avoided, and that the different seeds to be sown should be purchased
separately.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES,
I. SEEDS.

In sending seed or corn for examination the utmost care must be taken to
secure a fair and honest sample. In the case of grass-seeds, the sample should
be drawn from the centre of the sack or bag, and in all cases from the bulk
delivered to the purchaser and not from the purchase sample. When bought
by sample the whole or part of that sample should be sent.

When it is considered necessary to secure legal evidence, the sample should
be taken from the bulk and placed ina sealed bag in the presence of a reliable
witness who is acquainted with the identity of the bulk, and care should be
taken that the purchased sample and bulk be not tampered with after delivery,
or mixed or come in contact with any other sample or stock,

One ounce of grass and other small seeds should be sent, and two ounces
of cereals or larger seeds. The exact name under which each sample has been
bought should be sent with it.

Grass-seeds should be sent at least TOUR WEEKS, and clover-seeds TWO
WEEKS before they are required, and they should not be sown until the report
has been received.

II. PLANTS.

In collecting specimens of plants, the whole plant should be taken up, and
the earth shaken from the roots. If possible, the plants must be in flower or
fruit. They should be packed in a light box, or in a firm paper parcel.

Specimens of diseased plants or of parasites should be forwarded as fresh as
possible, They should be placed in a bottle, or packed in tinfoil or oil-silk.

All specimens should be accompanied with a letter specifying the nature of
the information required, and stating any local circumstances (soii, situation,
&c.) which, in the opinion of the sender, would be likely to throw light on the
inquiry.

Parcels or letters containing seeds or plants for examination (carriage or
postage prepaid) must be addressed to Mr. W. CARRUTHERS, F’.R.S., 44 Central
Hill, Norwood, London, 8.E.

——_—

( xxi)
ABembers’ Entomological Privileges.

The Council have fixed the charge of 2s. 6d. for the determination of the
species of any insect, worm, or other animal which, in any stage of its life,
injuriously affects farm-crops, with a report on its habits, and suggestions as to
the methods of prevention and remedy.

Portions of the plants injured should accompany the specimens of the
insects. :

All specimens should be sent in tin or wooden boxes, or in quills, so as to
prevent injury in transmission.

Parcels or letters containing specimens (carriage or postage paid) must be
addressed to Miss E. A. ORMEROD, F.R.Met.Soc., Torrington House, Holywell
Hill, St. Albans.

General Privileges of Aembers,

Free admission to the Show-Yard and to the Grand Stand at the Country
Meetings, during the time the Show is open to the public, by tickets issued by
the Secretary; Exhibition of Live Stock and Implements at the Country
Meetings at a reduced charge ; the ‘ Journals’ of the Society which belong to the
year for which their subscription has been paid, transmitted by post, free of
charge, to their address; analyses of Manures, Feeding Stuffs, &c., made at
a reduced charge by the Consulting Chemist (p. xxx.), and examination of
Plants and Seeds by the Consulting Botanist (p. xxxv.), and of Insects, &c., by
the Consulting Entomologist (see above) ; the liberty of consulting the books
in the Library; leave to report the outbreak of disease among catile, sheep,
and pigs, and to request the personal attendance of one of the Society’s Vete-
rinary Inspectors ; power of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Royal Vete-
rinary College on payment of a small sum for keep and treatment (p. xxxiii.).

No member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the privileges
of the Society.

All Members belonging to the Society are bound to pay their annual sub-
scriptions, until they shall withdraw from it by notice in writing to the
Secretary.

‘ Journal,’—The Parts of the Society’s ‘ Journal ’are published half-yearly, and
(when the subscription is not in arrear) they are forwarded by post or carrier to
Members, or delivered from the Society’s office to Members or to the bearer of
their written order.

The back numbers of the‘ Journal’ are kept constantly on sale by the pub-
lisher, JOHN MURRAY, 50A Albemarle Street, W.

*,* All communications intended for the Society should be addressed to
the Secretary, at the House of the Society, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.
Replies by Telegraph cannot be sent unless paid for in advance, and cannot
be guaranteed in any case,

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.—VOL. XXIV.

Ud’ - DARE yee OLD 4

r, yf Ce a
a a
a
=
\
te
rial
‘ AYES UOT
PRINTED BY

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., ae SQUARE >

- 4 A A POKa MO

~—- RSIS eoora

et mS

THE

JOURNAL

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

SECOND SERIES.

VOLUME THE TWENTY-FOURTH.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1888,

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE ,OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRAC-
TICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND
OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS
AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED, THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT
OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE
THE EXECUYION OF THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS,

Von THAER, Principles of Agriculture.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXIV.

SECOND SERIES.

PAGE
STATISTICS AFFECTING BritisH AGRICULTURAL INTERESTS . F % I

ARTICLE
I, The Permanent Wheat and Barley Experiments in Stackyard

Field, Woburn. By Sir John kgs Bart., Rothamsted,
St. Albans .

II. On the Conditions of Wicek:Growing: i in Tdi By Geass
Watt, M.D., F.L.S., C.I.E., Reporter on Economic Products

to the Goyernnient of India. : 8

III. The Indian Wheat Trade. By William ‘E, ae Streatham. 50

IV. Modern Improvements in Corn-Milling Machinery. By W.
Proctor Baker, Broomwell House, Brislington, near Bristol. 81

V. The Practical Value of Dung as Compared with Artificial
Manures. ‘By R. Vallentine, Burcott, Leighton Buzzard . 108

VI, Recent Experiences in laying down Land to Grass, By James:

A. Caird, Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants . ; 124
VII. Wool and its Uses. = John W. nade 126 Swan Arcade,
Bradford. . 156
VIII. Recent Bee eats 3 in Cider and eon Mele By D. R.
Chapman, The Athenzeum, Liverpool . : 2 Lah

IX. Report on Miscellaneous Implements at an By Dan.
Pidgeon, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Holmwood, bac Hill, pens

Reporting Judge . : . 195
X. Report on the Trials of PetatecHuanite Mach nee at ‘Neweuass
By the late John Coleman, The Mount, York : . 216

XI. Report on the Farm Prize Pes arent in Northumberland and
Durham in 1887: Classes 4 and 5. By Thomas Rigby,
Sutton Weaver, Cheshire

XII. Report on the Spring Show of Poached Stallions at
Nottingham. a G. 8. pai The Hermitage, Potter’s
Bar | : . 242

XIII. Report on the aatemeta Bevaiataal in 1887 by ical ‘heals
cultural Societies in conjunction with the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England. By Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
B.A., B.Sc., Consulting Chemist to the Society . 261

vi , CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE
XIV. Report on the Field and Feeding Experiments at Woburn,
conducted on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England during the year 1887. By Dr. J.Augustus Voelcker,

B.A., B.Se., Consulting Chemist to the Society - . 275

XV. Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Entomologist. By
Eleanor A. Ormerod, F.R.Met.Soc., Torrington Honey St.
Albans . . 289

XVI. Annual Report for 1887 of the Ocisuliing Botanist.. By W.
Carruthers, F.R.S., P.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Norwood, 8.E. 296

XVII. Annual Report for 1887 of the Consulting Chemist. By Dr. J.
Augustus Voelcker, B.A., B.Sc., 12 Hanover Square, W. 299

XVIII. Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, 1887 . . 806

XIX. The Principles of Forestry. By C. E. Curtis, F.S.1L, F.S.S.,
Professor of Forest psp at the eotece of Agriculture

Downton . : . O37

XX. Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. By William
KE. Bear, Riggindale Road, Streatham . 365

XXI, The Propagation and Prevention of Smut in Oats and Base
By J. L. Jensen, Copenhagen . : . 397

XXII. The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. By WFream,B B.Sc. Lond.,
LL.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., College of Agriculture, Downton . 415

XXIII. Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.
By Henry F. Moore, Frome, Somerset. : . 447

XXIV. Feeding Experiments conducted at Crawley Mill rag
Woburn, in the Winter of 1887-8. By Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, B.A., B.Sc., Consulting Chemist to the Society . 476

XXYV. Fruit Evaporation in America. By Dan. Hier eony Holmwood,
Putney Hill, S.W. . - . 486

XXVI. Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. By Ronee =
Mistley, Essex . . 492

XXVII. Report on the Farm Prize Competition i in Notiiigiadnantrs
and Lincolnshire in 1888; ClassI. By Frederick I. Cooke,

Flitcham Abbey, King’s Lynn : ° - 2 008
XXVITI. Report of the Senior Steward of Tisiiotdeats at Nottingham,
By John Hemsley, Shelton, Newark . . - « 565

XXIX,. Report on the Trials of Hay and Straw Presses at ise
By Dan. Pidgeon, Assoc.Inst.C.E., Reporting Judge . 570

XXX. Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham,
By Viscount Emlyn, Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire . 609

XXXI. Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.
y Sir John Thorold, Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, 682

XXXII, Report on the Horse-Shoeing Competition at Nottingham.
By Charles Clay, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Steward of
Horse-Shoeig. “3° eC

CONTENTS. vil

ARTICLE PAGE

XXXIII. The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and the Principles of
Shoeing. By Professor G. T. Brown, C.B., Principal of
the Royal Veterinary College . : - : - 652

XXXIV. Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials. By Wm.
Anderson, M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Society 672

XXXY. In Memoriam:

(a.) The late Charles Randell. “By John Dent Dae
Ribston Hall, Wetherby : “ - . 679

(6.) Some Late Contributors to the Journal. By the Bditor 685

APPENDIX.

List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- -

land, 1888 . : C F < ¢ F 3 i, XXXVii
Standing Committees for 1888. : : ill, 3K
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 8th, 1887 v
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22nd, 1888 xi
Distribution of Members and Council . xii
Half-yearly Cash Account, from 1st July to 31st December, 1887 xiv
Half-yearly Cash Account, from 1st January to 30th June, 1888 . 1
Yearly Cash Account, from 1st J anuary to 3lst December, 1887 . xvi
Country Meeting Account : Newcastle, 1887 . : 2 RVilE

List of Stewards and Judges, and Awards of Prizes at the Notting-

ham Meeting . ‘ . . S hii
Agricultural Education: Examination Papers : * XX, Cxxix
Agricultural Education: New Regulations and Syllabus ¢ XXV, CXxxix
Memoranda of Meetings, Payment “of Subscriptions, &c. . . xxix, cxlv
Governors’ and Members’ Chemical Privileges . Xxx, cxlvi
Guide to the Purchase of Artificial Manures and Feeding Stuifs xxxi, cxlvii
Instructions for Selecting and Sending Samples for Analysis xxxii, exlvili
Members’ Veterinary Privileges . . ¢ XXxili, cxlix

Members’ Botanical Privileges = 2 : : ; C xxxyv, cli
Members’ Entomological Privileges . . ° : oe) eexvi, cli
Members’ General Privileges. «+ © © oc «© © <xxavi, clii

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with roman numeral folios,
and place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Sta-
tistics &c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume; the lettering at
the back to include a statement of the yea7 as well as the volume; the first volume belonging to
1839-40, the second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, ‘and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter and, in one instance, an Article in the body
of the Journal (which at the time had become obsolete) were omitted; the roman numeral
folios, however (for convenience of reference), were reprinted without alteration in the
Appendix matter retained,

a

eee Ae

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

XIX.—The Principles of Forestry. By C. E. Curtis, F.S.1.,
F‘S.S., Professor of Forest Economy at the College of
Agriculture, Downton, Wilts.

Ir will, I think, serve to elucidate my remarks on the Principles
of Forestry if I define (1) what is meant by the term Forest, and
(2) what is meant by the term Timber.

Medieval writers define Moresta as an open wood, as opposed
to the Parcus or walled-in wood. In England the term Forest
originally implied a large tract of open land set apart for the
preservation of wild animals, and for sport, and did not neces-
sarily imply the presence of timber. Practically, however, in
this country there are no forests at all. In the more modern
acceptation of the term it implies a large tract of land set apart
for the growth of timber trees; but on account of the limited
areas of these tracts in England the term Wood more correctly
applies. Then, again, we have the term Plantation, and this
attaches to an artificially reared area of woodland. The term
forest nevertheless, notwithstanding its ambiguity, is sufficiently
precise to render the meaning of the word Forestry clear and
decisive. It is comprehensive, and includes both arboriculture
and sylviculture—terms often somewhat mixed and confused.

With regard to the term Jimber, I cannot do better than
quote from Woodfall’s “ Practical Treatise on the Law of Land-
lord and Tenant.” He says, in the 12th edition, page 590 :—

“By the term timber is meant properly such trees only as are fit to be
used in building and repairing houses; thus, oak, ash, and elm trees are con-
sidered timber in all places, and under whatsoever circumstances they are
grown. But only trees of not less than six inches in diameter or two feet girth
(allowing for irregularities of shape) appear to be reckoned or considered
as ‘ timber.’ ”

‘Many descriptions of trees which are not generally considered as timber
are so in some places by the custom of the country, being there used for the

VOL. XXIV.—S, S, Z

338 ' ‘The Principles of Forestry.

purpose of building; thus it has been laid down that horse-chestnuts, limes,
birch, beech, asp, walnut trees, and the like, may under such circumstances be
deemed timber, and are therefore protected by the law as such. It has been
determined that in the county of York birch trees are timber, because they
are used in that country for building sheep-houses, cottages, and such mean
buildings.”

“ When beech is admitted to be timber by the custom of the country, the
general rule of law applicable to timber trees in general attaches upon it, so
as to give it the properties and privileges of timber at twenty years’ growth.”

These extracts clearly define the meaning of the word timber,
and all that it seems necessary to add is, that in practice all
kinds of trees which have reached a measure of six inches quarter-
girth under the bark are treated as timber, and in the following
pages I imply this definition.

It must not be supposed that forestry, in the sense in which
I have defined it, is an unknown study in England, or that the
value of the knowledge and its application has been altogether
ignored. ‘True, it has greatly fallen into abeyance, and private
landowners have for many years practically ceased to apply the
principles of forestry to their woodland areas; but this has
arisen through lack of requirement, brought about by a long-
continued era of agricultural prosperity, which led to the com-
plete disafforestment of large tracts for purposes of cultivation
in various parts of the country. This suspension of principles,
so to speak, has been negatively proved by the fact that, owing
to a long era of depression, the necessity for its resuscitation has
been so extensively recognised.

I use the term “ private landowners” to distinguish them
from the Crown lands presided over by the Commissioners of
Woods and Forests. The areas under their management, espe-
cially the young oak plantations, stand out from the mass of
general woodland as examples of the application of those
branches which serve to make up the term “ true forestry.”

Public opinion, so long ago as 1763, when peace was con-
cluded in Paris, began to express itself with regard to the
rapid depletion of oak timber caused by the immense drain upon
our resources for the building of war vessels. ‘This culminated in
the appointment of Commissioners to inquire into the state and
condition of the woods, forests, and land revenues of the Crown ;
who presented their first report in January 1787. This, how-
ever, was purely preliminary in its character. In their second
report, issued in December of the same year, they say :—

“Tt was our intention that the woods and forests should haye been the
subject of our second report; because the abuses which we have discoyered
to exist in that department, and the importance of preserving and protecting

those nurseries of timber for the support of the naval strength of this king-
dom, :eemed to demand from us the earliest attention, But we found it

The Principles of Forestry. 339

indispensably necessary, for enabling us to report the state of the forests
with due accuracy, to cause geometrical and descriptive surveys to be made
thereof.”

In their third report, issued in June 1788, the Commissioners
say :—

“We are aware that there have been similar complaints, and apprehen-
sions of a want of naval timber in every age, from very early times; and it
may therefore probably be supposed that the danger is not more real now
than it has formerly been. It may be imagined that if there be an increased
demand for naval timber, as that demand must necessarily add to the price,
and thereby give greater encouragement to importation and planting, there
can be no reason to apprehend that where industry is so general, and pro-
perty so secure, as they are in this country, an ample supply will not always
be obtained from private property or from general commerce.”

They proceed, however, to take exception to this supposi-
tion, as will be seen by the following extract from the same
report :—

“Tt will be found, however, that this principle does not hold in the case
of naval timber, . . . and our information as to the reality of the general
decrease of timber zs too certain to admit of any doubt” (the italics are mine),

In their eleventh report, issued in 1792, they say :—

“The public interest certainly requires that so extensive and so valuable
a part of the landed property of the country should not be suffered longer
to continue in its present unproductive state; and that either the plan of
management which has been pursued ever since the beginning of the present
century, and which has had such destructive effects, should be completely
altered, and new regulations established, which may render those forests
useful nurseries of timber for the navy; or that they should be sold, and
conyerted to tillage or pasture, so as to add to the produce and population
of the kingdom.”

In their report of 1793 they say :—

‘Tn our reports on the several forests we have described the manage-
ment and pointed out the prevailing abuses; and we have proposed such
alterations . . . to pave the way to the improvement of each forest.”

The system which arose from the above reports began to
be carried into effect in the year 1813, and has been kept in
view ever since.

In 1812, however, a further report was issued by the then
Commissioners in compliance with the Acts of 34th George III,
cap. 75, and 50th George III., cap. 65, Part IT. of which should
be read carefully by all interested in this subject. It dwells
almost entirely on the subject of the available supply of oak, and
the enormous demand upon it for naval purposes; and arrives at
this alarming deduction—that to meet the requirements of the
nayy on its then scale, a thousand acres of fully developed trees
(taking forty to the acre, containing each one load and a half of
timber) would be required for each year’s use.

Z2

340 ‘The Principles of Forestry.

Space does not permit a further reference to this interesting
report, and I must pass on to the report of the Select Committee
issued in 1848.

This report did not advert in detail to the evidence of the
witnesses examined, and therefore throws but little new light
upon the subject. But the minutes of evidence taken by them
are extremely valuable; and this, coupled with the reports of
Messrs. Robert and John Clutton and Thomas Neve, not only
point conclusively to the genuineness of the inquiry, but to the
fact that it paved the way to extensive improvements, and to the
planting of large areas of oaks in various parts of England, which
stand now as striking proofs of what may be done by an exercise
of knowledge and expenditure of capital.

About this period, however, iron began to be used for ship-
building, which gradually allayed public excitement on the
subject ; ‘and it is no doubt owing to this that the state of apathy
to which I shall allude has arisen.

I have endeavoured, by referring briefly to these reports,
to show that England, notwithstanding the present unsatisfac-
tory state of her woodlands, has been in the forefront of forest
improvement from a very early period. Nevertheless the subject
was first treated scientifically by Germany, and this arose from
the increasing scarcity of wood, as in our own case. The out-
come, however, in her case was totally different from our own.

Except during the long-continued wars—that is, during the
latter half of the eighteenth century to the peace of 1815—
public attention has by no means been attracted to forestry.
When dealing with agriculture, however, the public mind has
been easily and readily impressed because public interest is
so closely connected with its welfare. This is proved by the
sympathy which has been shown with reference to the wide-
spread destitution brought about by the long-continued agricul-
tural depression. Fall in prices of every kind of agricultural
produce has resulted for the time being in something like a
panic, but that this will pass away and give place to an era of
prosperity is a foregone conclusion. Whether prices will rise,
or whether the cost of production will fall to the level of the
altered circumstances, is an open question. But the fact re-
mains that in a country possessing such wealth and energy,
agriculture cannot become a dead industry, though many look
upon it, even now, as moribund.

The principles of agriculture have, however, been so long
instilled into the minds of all directly interested in the subject
that the agricultural collapse cannot be attributed to the lack
of such principles, True, there is room for improyement, room

The Principles of Forestry. 341

for the teaching of science, and still further, necessity for its
application; but a lack of the knowledge of the vital principles
is not the cause of this vast depression. It is, as all know,
owing to the importation from abroad of commodities, hitherto
grown successfully at home, at a cheaper rate than they can be
produced by our more expensive methods. So long as this con-
tinues, so long must depression continue.

The same rules and principles, however, do not apply to the
growth of timber. Our landowners, though apparently they
have failed to recognise it, could still compete favourably with
foreign growers if they managed their woodlands on the true
principles of forestry. Competition, in fact, in timber is abso-
lately essential, rendered so by the fact that the home supply
is insufficient, and often unsuitable. The amount imported,
large as it is, has not reduced the price of home-grown timber
below a paying level. ‘This statement may be scouted by many,
but is nevertheless true.

It is often asserted that it cannot pay to plant new areas
when existing timber cannot be sold at remunerative prices ;
but upon what basis is this assertion made? The price of timber
or other commodity is high or low only as it is compared with
some standard; and what standard is to be taken with regard
to timber ?

The landowner who sells timber which he inherits, sells
something whereon he has bestowed little or no labour: he is
reaping the benefit of an act of self-denial exercised by some
previous owner. If he has succeeded to his inheritance, the only
cost to him has been the succession duty on the timber he has
inherited; if he has purchased his estate, he has bought the.
timber at its market value, based on the then existing prices. In
the former case the standard is low, and prices below those at
present obtainable will leave a fair residue. In the latter case
the standard will be the price given. As a rule—and it is a
fair one—the waste will more than cover the cost of felling.

Timber, in fact, represents latent, or rather inactive, wealth,
whilst it is standing; but by judicious management this state
of inactivity may be made accumulative, whereas by neglect of
ordinary rules of forestry, waste will assuredly occur.

By latent or inactive wealth is meant not the absence of
accretive power, nor the absence of the power of decretion, but
that it is dormant or locked up. The state of English wood-
lands proyes, only too conclusively, that landowners have looked
upon their wealth in this respect as something which requires
no care, and upon which they can draw at will to meet the
various demands upon them, Until they can be brought to

342 - The Principles of Forestry.

realise that the application of the principles of forestry will
materially increase this wealth and at the same time yield them
a regular yearly income, forestry will not rise above its present
low level.

Not only has there been neglect in the management of
woodland, but little if any progress has been made towards pre-
venting gradual depletion ; and if steps are not taken to remedy
this state of things, actual disafforestment may ensue, as it has
already done in Ireland. ;

The landowner need not fear foreign competition, for there
is a barrier which will prevent the price of timber falling below ,
a remunerative standard. That barrier is freight, which will
rise with an improvement of trade,—an improvement now

‘taking place—-and the recession of supplies from the accessible

coast-line. In fact, the price of timber would rise far above
what it has been, were it not for the extended use of iron and
other materials. This, however, will act only as a restraining
influence, and prevent rapid and uncertain fluctuations, which
are never desirable nor beneficial.

Most civilised States are now turning their attention to the
conservation and extension of their woodlands and forest areas.
They have awakened from a long sleep of culpable negligence
and indifference, to see that a source of wealth has been reck-
lessly used. They have approached, in fact, to the state of a
leaseholder who has created no sinking fund, and whose term
is rapidly expiring. It is high time England also awoke from
the lethargy she has so long indulged in.

In new colonies this state of things is natural, and no
teaching will prevent the same thing occurring again. arly
settlers require wood for building and for burning, and naturally
settle as near as possible to the supplies, and recklessly cut all
they require without a thought for the future. It is only when
the supply recedes, and extra labour, and therefore cost, is in-
curred, that a value attaches to it. Then, and not till then, the
authorities step in, and, by judicious laws, preserve what remains.

Foreign supplies have of course prevented a recourse to State
interference in this country. There has been no want, no scarcity ;
therefore public attention has not been drawn to the subject.
Even now there is no sign of scarcity; and had it not been for
agricultural depression probably nothing would have been heard
of the Select Committee on Forestry. The long-continued
depression, and the national evils arising from it, have focussed
public attention on all matters relating to land produce, and the
growth of timber has naturally been looked upon as an important
factor.

The Principles of Forestry. 343

The attention of landowners, too, has been drawn to the
subject owing tothe diminution of rents, and the desire to make
up deficiencies by drawing upon their woods. This has led to
inquiry, which has resulted in the discovery that the woodland
area is not so productive as it might be rendered. In other
words, land has not been supporting its full amount of timber,
neither has it been developing that class and quality which
alone will meet with a ready sale. The standard that should
be arrived at is the greatest possible amount of timber upon a
given space, compatible with natural reproduction, and that of
the highest possible quality and dimensions. Anything short
of this leaves room for improvement and development.

It may therefore be taken for granted that all the woodlands
of England are capable of improvement, for no area has reached
this state of perfection. In a few instances, no doubt, present
landowners and those who preceded them have grasped this
ideal, and have endeavoured to reach it, in which case the woods
show signs of improvement.

It is only too evident to those who understand the subject
of forestry that the present condition of woodland is lamentable
in this country ; and that it has arisen through a widespread dis-
regard of the most ordinary rules of forestry is equally evident.
In thinning, the best timber has been taken, the ill-conditioned
left. Decay has not been checked, pruning has been ignored,
trees have been allowed to pass maturity or have been realised
before maturity has been reached, young germens have been
either recklessly destroyed or allowed to run to waste, the thicket
stage has been entirely ignored. In fact, Nature has been left
to her own devices, and man has reaped the consequences of his
neglect. It was never intended that the earth should yield full’
increase without aid.

Compare this unsatisfactory state of things with what might
have been had true forestry been applied in years gone by.
There would have been a regularity in management—a system ;
natural reproduction would have been studied, and there would
have been a succession of timber trees following closely on those
realised. There would have been trees in all stages of growth,
from seedlings to matured timber. Each acre would have
earried its full complement of fine, long, straight-grained
timber; any sign of decay brought about by broken branches
and other injury would have been artificially stayed, pruning
would have been scientifically performed, and final realisation
would have been followed by natural or artificial reproduc-
tion.

The true spirit of forestry would have penetrated the minds

344 The Principles of Forestry.

of even the working foresters without State-aided education.
Areas would have been kept intact, not necessarily under fully
developed timber, but in some stage of tree growth. There
would have been no area lying waste and unproductive. More
than this, land not remunerative under the plough would have
been planted, and the area of woodland would have largely in-
creased. As it is, notwithstanding the fact that large tracts are
lying idle and waste, very little extension of planting is taking
place.

It is, however, never too late to mend, and if landowners will
only rouse themselves and act, a very different state of things
may exist in an early generation. Landowners are not asked

to exercise self-denial or to sacrifice anything to benefit the
nation directly ; they are asked to improve what they possess,
and to extend their possession in timber, and indirectly to
benefit the nation by adding to its substantial wealth, and by
giving work to the unemployed.

True, it may be difficult to find the necessary capital, but
this is by no means an insurmountable difficulty. If the capital
so found be judiciously expended in the planting of new areas—
areas now lying idle—the return is certain; it only becomes
uncertain when the work is carried out recklessly and unwisely.

If the foregoing remarks are summarised they will result in a
direct indictment against the existing management of our woods
and plantations, and in the condemnation of the system of waste
so evident in the neglected condition of the timber. To support
the conclusions arrived at it is only necessary to turn to the
Report of the Select Committee on Forestry, and to the evidence
taken by it. In their valuable report (1887) they state: “ Your
Committee are satisfied that, so far as Great Britain and Ireland
are concerned, the management of our woodlands might be
materially improved.” ‘This of course implies that the present
condition is unsatisfactory.

The evidence so ably given by Colonel Pearson in the inquiry
held in 1885 and 1886 is most valuable; and although he does
not profess to have had much practical experience of home
forestry, his foreign experience and the result of his keen obser-
vation throw much light upon the question. He does not even
claim to possess a scientific knowledge of the subject, and _yet
he is fully alive to the necessity of teaching it to all would-be
foresters and land-agents. His whole evidence condemns the
present management of the home woodlands.

Again, M. Boppe, Inspector of French Forests, in his able
and interesting ‘‘ Report on a Visit to the English and Scotch
Forests by the Professors and Students from Nancy Forest

The Principles of Forestry. 345

School,” condemns our system, or rather our want of any system

at all. He says :—

“Tt is, therefore, a matter of reeret that, among all the forests visited by
us in our travels, there is not a single one suitable for the teaching of sylvi-
culture on that broad basis so essential when the pupils are called upon to
apply it in all parts of the globe. In England, as in Scotland, all the wood-
lands may be arranged in two categories, the.one containing plantations
too young, recently created by the hand of man, the other containing
plantations too old, or too much overworked, to be useful for the purpose.
Nowhere did we see a hich timber forest formed of really mature trees.”

These words surely, if correct, thoroughly condemn the
forestry practices of Great Britain. Nevertheless, allowance
must be made for his attachment to the French method of
natural reproduction.

- Next, as to the evidence taken in 1887; and preference is
given to the evidence of those who may be called practical wit-
nesses,

Mr. H. A. Britton, manager to the firm of Messrs. Richard
Shelton & Sons, timber merchants, Wolverhampton, says in
reply to the direct question—

“ What is your opinion as to the management of woodlands in those
(Herefordshire, Worcestershire, and Oxfordshire) counties?” _

“There are exceptions, of course, but generally speaking it is very bad.”

Mr. John Macgregor, head forester to the Duke of Athole,
says, in reply to the question, ‘‘ What is your opinion as to the
management in Perthshire ?”

“Tt might be better.”

Mr. John Clutton says :—

“ As regards the large proprietors their woods are well managed. Asa
general rule the smaller woods are not very well managed.”

Mr. Evan Powell, of Llanidloes, in Wales, says :—

“T think that there has been a great deal of injudicious planting from
the want of knowledge of trees suitable to the soil, and there has been a
great deal of neglect in the management of timber. I have seen many
estates in England where the timber has been grossly mismanaged, and
where an immense loss occurs to the owner through the want of a proper
knowledge of forestry.”

Sir J. D. Hooker, M.D., K.C.S.1L., says :—

“T have observed that they [woodlands] are very much neglected.”

These extracts, coupled with the implied testimony which
runs through the whole evidence, fully confirm the opinion I
have expressed that our woodlands are in a neglected and lan-
guishing condition owing to the want of a knowledge of the
principles of forestry, and the direct application of it.

The question will therefore naturally arise, How can this

346 The Principles of Forestry.

knowledge be obtained? I will first endeavour to show what
kind of knowledge is required (what, in fact, is meant by Prin-
ciples of Forestry); then, how it may be obtained; and finally,
how it may be applied, and the beneficial results which may be
expected.

There are two classes of knowledge required—namely, scien-
tific and practical. This applies equally to all applied sciences,
but vitally to forestry. To possess a knowledge of the natural
sciences applicable to tree growth—botany, geology, zoology,
entomology, biology, and so forth—is insufficient; and no one
possessing a full amount of all or either of them could claim
to be a forester. But one who possesses such knowledge, espe-
cially if directed to this particular branch of study, and who
also possesses a knowledge of those subjects which bear directly
upon the application—surveying, levelling, drainage of land,
practical agriculture, timber measuring, economic uses of timber,
planting, pruning, and final realisation—may fairly claim, if ex-
perience be added, to be a really efficient and valuable forester.
This, then, is what should be aimed at ; this should be the defini-
tion of a true forestry education. Limit it in any way and you
get imperfection; carry it through in its entirety and you
obtain, practically, perfection.

What are the branches of study which may be profitably
applied to forestry? First, as to science, or art—the latter is
perhaps the more correct expression. For if we take Johnson's
definition—science is that which depends on abstract or specu-
lative principles; art is that which depends on practice or per-
formance. This at once shows the impossibility of separating
the two. No art can be successfully carried on unless science
is embodied in it. Vegetable physiology, descriptive botany,
morphology, zoology, entomology, biology (in a modified form),
geology, chemistry (purely elementary of course), form what are
usually called the scientific branches of forestry. A knowledge
of our land laws, incidence of taxation, land drainage, surveying,
and ordinary field engineering, mechanics, uses of materials,
tree nomenclature and identification, practical forest operations,
nursery practice, realisation and book-keeping, and such kindred
subjects, form what may be termed the practical branches of
forestry.

It is clear that a knowledge embracing so many subjects
cannot be acquired without an expenditure of time and money.
Anything, however, short of this will result in a mere superficial
acquaintance with a vast and wide-spreading industry. How,
then, can this be acquired? It is somewhat strange that the
woodlands of England should be in such an unsatisfactory con-

The Principles of Forestry. 347

dition, as there is evidence to prove that the true principles
of forestry, so to speak, were not wanting in past ages. In
fact, it is somewhat extraordinary how well acquainted some of
the old writers were with both agriculture and arboriculture.
Probably they lived somewhat in advance of their time. Hear
what Thomas Tusser, gentleman, says in his “ Five Hundred
Points of Husbandry,” written in the sixteenth century.
For the month of January—

“ Tn lopping old Jocham, for fear of mishap,
One bough stay unlopped, to cherish the sap.”

For April—

“ Sell bark to the tanner, ere timber ye fell,
Cut low by the ground, else do ye not well.
In breaking save crooked for mill and for ships,
And ever, in hewing, save carpenters’ chips.”

For August—

“ Flops had, the hop-poles that are likely preserve
From breaking and rotting, again for to serve ;
And plant ye with alders, willows a plot,

When yearly, as needeth, mo poles may be got.”

These quaint verses show either a trained mind or a shrewd
power of observation—a power, by the bye, which should. be
encouraged, and which is essential to the true elucidation of all
cultural subjects.

This course of study is absolutely necessary for those who
would be foresters, to fit them for managing large areas of
woodland, to ensure the full development of timber, upon which
alone rests future success or failure. This course can be obtained
by those who can pay for it and who can afford the time. The
necessary machinery exists, the teachers exist—it only requires
to impress upon landowners the necessity of this special qualifi-
cation in their agents to set the matter rolling. Let them accept
this, and let them require in all future appointments evidence
of the possession of this knowledge, and intending agents will
obtain it.

No State aid—that is, financial aid—is needed for this class,
as it may be taken for granted that both landowners and land-
agents can afford to pay the necessary fees. If labouring wood-
men must be taught, of which hereafter, then State aid becomes
imperative.

First it will be necessary to ask the following question: Is it
essential to secure a perfect result that professors should have
woods under their control for the purpose of teaching forestry ?
If this is answered in the affirmative, then State aid must be

348 The Principles of Forestry.

sought; but my opinion is entirely against this part of any formu-
lated programme. I consider it not only unnecessary, but abso-
lutely detrimental to any scheme which may be advanced, and I
base my opinion upon the following assertions: that an immense
amount of teaching requires no ocular demonstration whatever ;
that a difficulty will be found in the selection of qualified
teachers capable of rendering a combined scientific ‘and practical
course of instruction ; that the time required for the supervision
of a large area of woodland would seriously interfere with class
teaching ; and that the operations upon a circumscribed area,
no matter how large, would be stereotyped to a great extent,
and not invariably yield the ocular instruction required. Drainage,
for instance, could not be taught on a piecemeal system to suit a
constant succession of classes; planting and after-treatment must
be constant to yield instruction, and the area must be large or
the planting unduly limited, if such a fixed area is to be perma-
ment. No single area, no matter what size, can contain all the
elements of instruction required. It must be remembered that
the process of planting is for a practically permanent purpose,
and the limit of any area must be sooner or later reached. The
processes are not annual as in agriculture.

Now it is beyond dispute that all the branches named can
be taught in the class-room—that is, practical forestry from a
theoretical point of view can be taught without outside aid;
although the liberty of entering at will large areas of woodland
would naturally promote the end in view, and assist the professor
in his teaching. This privilege, however, could no doubt be
secured by private arrangement, or by utilising the New Forest,
the Forest of Dean, the woods of Windsor or other Crown
demesne.

When this theoretical course has been achieved, the correct
plan would be for the student (I am assuming that he possesses
the necessary means and time) to spend a further period with
some practical forester, and to watch and take part in all the
operations. He would enter upon the work with an enlightened
and trained mind, with the power of observation on the alert,
and emerge from the ordeal a perfect forester. This course of
study, then, is open to this class of students—is open now; and
no State aid, as far as I can see, will advance it, except so far as
I shall presently show.

If, however, the working forester is to be educated specially
for the purpose, this class of education will not meet the case.
Nothing short of a national forest school, or the teaching of
the elementary sciences in our national schools, can possibly
satisfy the requirement. No private enterprise—at least unas~

The Principles of Forestry. 349

sisted—can bring the course of instruction within reach of such
a class. But can any sensible man who understands the subject
recommend such acourse? In a limited country like this, and in
such a limited area of woodland as we possess, men educated in
this way could not expect to find employment.

I do not for one moment underrate the value of education,
and I believe fairly educated men make the best and most intel-
ligent workmen; but this education should be general and not
of a special character. A man with a general education will be
more intelligently observant—he will inquire into and find out
reasons for this and that operation, and will not work like a
machine. The present system of national education is rapidly
bringing abont this class of men, for those who cannot read and
write are yearly becoming more rare.

A man whose duty it is to fell a tree, and who has acquired
his knowledge by long experience, cannot be taught better by a
professor of forestry ; other of his daily duties, purely practical
as they are, cannot be taught by theoretical teachers; but an
educated man will be able to acquire the knowledge why such
and such an order is given, and why such and such an act is to
be performed.

Technically educate the landowner and the land-agent, and
the knowledge will soon percolate among the men. There is no
room in this country for a middle class of woodmen, except such
as may rise above the ordinary level by sobriety, honesty, and
manual skill. If a system of promotion were encouraged it
would do more than anything else to stimulate a knowledge of
forestry among the working woodmen. ;

What would be the result of a national school of forestry ?
An implied national idea and belief that a large number ot
woodmen were required. Nothing could be more unfair, I may
say unjust, than to spread abroad such a false belief. Many
would in times like these enter the school, and leave it to find
all their hopes disappointed. In a limited area such as we
possess educated working foresters are not required.

I will presently show what the Government may do; but now
it will be well to turn again to the evidence given before the
Select Committee, and gather from it the opinions of acknow-
ledged authorities on the necessity of a forest education.

Colonel Pearson in 1886 says :—

“Tam very strongly impressed with the desirability of doing something
to promote forest education in this country ; or, rather, to put it in the way
of young men who may be desirous of obtaining it. . . . The main object,
then, seems to be to provide a certain amount of practical education in

forestry to supplement the present generally very useful education given to
the land-agent class, and at the same time to teach the wood-bailiffs and

350 The Principles of Forestry.

foresters who are employed under their orders in our own private woodlands,
not only the elements of sylviculture, but also the best known methods of
conducting ordinary forest work, such as planting, thinning, pruning, the
management of coppice, and the best way of disposing of the crop, &c.”

It may be well to point out that Colonel Pearson lays great
stress upon the necessity of a large area of forest land being
allotted for the special purpose of teaching, and under the direct
control of the professor of forest economy.

M. Boppe, too, lays great stress upon this point. He says :—

“The science of forestry is, however, a science of observation, based upon
facts which must be studied both from a practical and theoretical point of
view. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that a forest school should have
attached to it a forest which has for some time past been under scientific
management, serving, so to speak, as a natural laboratory for experiments,
and without which the best theoretical teaching in the world would be of
no ayail.”

Mr. J. C. Rogers, Secretary to the Surveyors’ Institution, in
his evidence given before the Inquiry in 1885, concurs in the
general advisability of instituting a forest school; but modi-
fies the term school to a system of instruction which would in-
volve no prolonged residence, and which would terminate with
an examination. He also expresses his opinion that a large
amount of good would result from such a course. He takes no
pessimist view of the knowledge of forestry possessed by land
agents, but considers that the knowledge they possess requires
gathering up and systematising. In 1886 he dwells strongly
in his evidence on the matter being a purely national one, and
considers it “hopeless to expect the landowners to expend a
large amount of capital in view of remote contingencies.”

He then proceeds to lay down his scheme of instruction,
which it is not necessary here to follow in detail; but the final
report in 1887 proves conclusively that it was practically adopted
by the Select Committee. The recommendations of Colonel
Pearson, already and hereafter referred to, agree substantially
with those of Mr. Rogers, owing no doubt to an interchange ot
views between them.

Mr. Barron, of the Elvaston Nurseries, says :—

‘‘ Your forester ought to be a practical man with a scientific knowledge,
and at the same time he should be able to take the tool out of the wood-
man’s hand and show him how to use it.” :
Could there be more sound common-sense advice given than
this? It strikes at the root of the whole matter, and lays before
us the ideal forester.

Again, in reply to Dr. Farquharson, he says :—

“ First of all, they (the students) ought to become acquainted with the
species which are grown in this country, and also the sexes and the mode of
raising the seeds,”

The Principles of Forestry. 351

“Practical knowledge as to the pruning of trees.” <e
“The students ought to have a knowledge of geology, and the suitability
of soils.”

Mr. Britton says :—

“There is no doubt that a more general knowledge of forest management
would tend to prevent those mistakes of planting trees upon soils which do
not suit them. . . . The general result I have come to is, that very few land-
agents know anything of forestry, or very little... . But very few land-
agents know anything about the felling of timber.”

The Hon. S. Lascelles says :—

“T cannot but think that it would be a good thing that land-agents
should have some means of educating themselves in forestry better than they
can now; but I can hardly see how what are called woodmen—say men at
30s.a week—are to avail themselves of a scientific school, and I hardly think
that on most of the estates in England they would have any scope for the
exercise of the knowledge they would acquire at a scientific school... . I
think it would be useful that there should be some means of collecting and
of giving information generally upon the subject of the management of
woods,”

Mr. John Macgregor says :—

“Factors and woodmen are deficient in the knowledge of what trees
ought to be planted on suitable soils and when thinning-out ought to
commence, and, in fact, the general management of woods altogether.”

“Those who haye charge of woods ought specially to understand the
soils and situations suited for the different varieties of forest trees to be
cultivated for profit, and they ought to know the proportions in which
these trees ought to be planted, and whether they ought to be planted mixed
or pure.’

“The insects affecting trees is also a subject which requires to be very
much studied.”

Mr. John Grant Thomson,-head forester of the Dowager
Countess of Seafield at Strathspey, says :—
“Tt would be all the better if there could be a school of forestry. If

they had the theoretical as well as the practical part it would be all the
better for foresters.” (Alluding evidently to head-foresters.)

_ Mr. William M‘Corquodale, head forester to Lord Mansfield,
says :—

“T think they could be sufficiently trained as practical foresters without
a forest school.”

The general idea, however, running through his evidence points
to a theoretical knowledge being desirable.

Mr. Dundas, of Arniston, dwells strongly upon the necessity
of practical knowledge, but admits that scientific knowledge
would stimulate the power and accuracy of observation. He
says :—

“ The want of accurate observation is a great drawback to foresters and
farmers, They have never been taught to use their eyes in matters of

352 The Principles of Forestry.

minute detail, especially as to the causes of diseases of wood and the diseases
of plants. It is very difficult to get an accurate account of what the man
really sees, unless he has gone through a certain amount of training to fit
him for accurate observation.”

This is a most important statement, coming as it does from one
who has evidently acquired the power himself; and it fully agrees
with my own often expressed opinion.

Mr. Gilchrist, head woodman to Lord Powerscourt, says :—

“T have a very strong opinion with regard to the scientific instruction
that a forester requires. It would have been of great advantage to the
country if there had been more of it years ago. . . . Of course, as regards
the working forester, if he means to remain a working forester all his days,
do not let him bother his head about science; but if he wants to improve
his position and become a really scientific and practical forester, let him take
advantage of that scientific education.”

Mr. John Clutton says :—

“There was no scientific training in my day; when I began life 60 years
ago, I had no opportunity of being taught forestry of any kind. All I know
I have learned from my practical experience of woods, which has been very

extensive.”

“T think the land-agents should instruct the lower class of men under
them. Ifa land-agent is well instructed, I think the lower class will acquire
from him sufficient knowledge for practical purposes without their going to

any school.”

Sir J. D. Hooker says :—

“T think that an establishment teaching forestry would b2 exceedingly
useful. . . . I think that a sound elementary acquaintance with five or
six branches of science would be very useful to a student of forestry, but not
more than a young man could pick up at such a course of instruction as I
should contemplate, and as is, I believe, to be obtained at the agricultural
colleges. . . . The branches of science I would suggest he should be acquainted
with would be meteorology especially, and the organs and tissues of plants,
physiological botany, geology, and elementary chemistry.”

Here, then, is ample and conclusive evidence that a know-
ledge of the science of forestry would materially advance the
interests of individual landowners, and the nation as a whole.

It seems to me that, with this before us, doubt as to the
necessity of such knowledge should be at once dismissed. What
remains, then, is to determine upon the course to pursue. The
evidence is almost unanimous that landowners and land-agents
should be first educated, and that the teaching of woodmen
should be left to their enlightened operations. Common sense,
too, points to this as the correct course and the correct outcome
of a purely practical inquiry.

If the labour of the Select Committee ended here, it
would not have been in vain. This irrefragable evidence will
stand and bear fruit indirectly if not directly. Further, it is
not too much to say that the result of their inquiry up to this

The Principles of Forestry. 353

point has already had a marked effect in the development of
teaching, and in the desire for instruction.

I have before stated that this instruction can now be
obtained by the students at the Agricultural Colleges if they,
when they leave, spend a short time on some estate where there
is a large area of woodland, managed on approved principles.
More, however, may be done by a well-organised series of
lectures in London, or some other centre, on the subjects which
relate to the principles of forestry already specified. This
course of instruction should be coupled with demonstration
classes in the Museum of Natural History in Cromwell Road,
or at the Museums and Gardens of Kew. There is ample
material for instruction in these noble institutions and in many
of the provincial museums, but it is unproductive from want of
appreciation.

I shall now endeavour to show how, by a course of lectures
in London encouraged by a Board of Forestry, the knowledge
of forestry may beadvanced. London being, as it were, the head-
centre, holds out inducements which can be offered by no other
centre to the young and forthcoming land-agents, students
of the Surveyors’ Institution, private pupils, articled clerks,
and others. Lecturers on the various subjects are there; the
accommodation, museums, exhibitions, &c., are there. Woods,
forests, the gardens of Kew, and nurseries are within easy.
reach; everything, in fact, which is requisite is focussed
there.

If the Forest Board recommended by the Select Committee
were formed, probably one of their chief functions would be to
encourage and promote such a course of lectures, and, further,
by offering certificates of merit or diplomas on the passing of a
strictly scientific and practical examination, to stimulate the
desire to obtain the training.

Such lectures would, I believe, when once started, be largely
attended, and would probably become, to a great extent, self-
supporting. There need be no establishment—that is, no money
for the present need be expended upon bricks and mortar—
for many of our learned bodies would, I feel sure, willingly
lend their lecture-rooms for the purpose. Knowledge might be
further advanced by throwing open to the professors and students
at all times, or at certain seasons, the New Forest or other
Hampshire forests, the Windsor woodlands, and other Crown
areas. Private owners, too, might do much, and probably
would, by permitting, under proper control, the classes to enter
their woods and inspect the works in progress. Forest
nurserymen would willingly, I believe, throw open their nurserieg

VOL. XXIV.—S, §, AA

B54 The Principles of Forestry.

for a similar purpose. Thus advantages would be concentrated,
advantages which must otherwise be sought for far and wide.

I know by my own experience that great ignorance exists
upon the most trifling matters relating to forestry, and no
teacher who appreciates his task will have the least difficulty in
finding in these woods at any season of the year ample material
for instruction. There is no need whatever, as I have already
stated, for the professor to exercise control over the operations.

The scope of the lectures, to be perfect, must include a full
and practical course on reproduction ; the impregnation of seed ;
the preparation of seed, the sowing of seed, and the early
treatment of young plants; the transplanting and preparation
for planting out; the whole course of planting and after-
treatment until the period of final realisation ; the difference ot
treatment between trees planted for commerce and for orna-
ment, or for shelter and specimen purposes.

It must also include a complete and comprehensive course
on the diseases of trees and plants—the remedies and prevention.
Land-agency subjects, especially as they bear on forestry, must
be clearly set forth in practical, not legal, phraseology, so that
the untrained mind may receive it.

The natural sciences, especially descriptive botany, vegetable
physiology, zoology, entomology, &c., should be lectured upon in
a clear and concise manner; confining the course as far as
possible, as time would be limited, strictly to their bearing upon
the special object in view. I mention this because there is
always a tendency, when dealing with wide and comprehensive
subjects, to treat them too fully and more exhaustively than
time permits. This is natural to the teacher who loves his
subject, and the avoidance of it approaches almost to an art.

It must be borne in mind that no such course can be com-
plete. The student will terminate his studies with but little
more than a veneer, but with a mind so far trained and cultivated
as to be susceptible of those facts and natural laws that govern
Nature’s plan. The spirit of observation will haye been gene-
rated, and a knowledge of true forestry will eventually result.

I have always found this a difficulty when sending out
young men into the practical world. They ave diffident of their
own powers, and mistrustful, and do not readily realise the fact
that experience alone can complete the work which the teacher
has only commenced.

The end and aim of this proposed special course of teaching,
by whatever means carried out, will be to improve our present
woodlands, and to increase the area by wise and judicious plant-
ing of land now waste or unremunerative. I have shown. that

The Principles of Forestry. 395

this is necessary, manifested by the present unsatisfactory con-
dition of our existing woods and by the inadequate knowledge
of forestry in those who own or who manage our landed estates.

It will perhaps be best to lead up to the methods of improve-
ment by showing in detail the defects of our present system.
Dealing first with existing woods, perhaps the greatest defect of
all is the too early cutting of timber trees. Home-grown timber
is often insufficiently matured when cut, and therefore builders
and others prefer that from the Baltic and America, because
it is more durable. It is seldom of sufficient girth and length
to secure the highest price, and the grain, except when the
trees have been carefully grown, is not straight enough for the
more important uses.

Thinning out is often either entirely neglected, or, what is
more common, often too severe and sudden. Growth on the one
hand is weak for want of sufficient foliage to elaborate the sap,
for only the upper branches of the trees exposed to the light
and air bear leaves. There is an insufficiency of room for the
proper development of root-fibre, the trees being too thick upon
the ground. The best trees, too, are often taken instead of the
worst, which is totally contrary to all rules of good forestry.
When the thinning is too severe and sudden the result is
premature decay, and death to many trees which have sud-
denly been exposed to winds and weather; storms are allowed
to sweep through the wood and to loosen the root-hold; large
gaps become frequent which bear no timber and therefore no
revenue to the owner. Young trees which spring up in the
gaps so formed are weak and too scattered to enable the forester
to treat them as he would a regularly arranged thicket.

The natural pruning of conifers is not sufficiently attended
to; this is most important, especially when dealing with larch
plantations. It is only by a careful study of distance that this
can be fully secured; because if too close canker and other
diseases will be sure to manifest themselves; and if too far apart
the lateral branches will not die off, but need artificial pruning.
To develop a full complement of timber there must be sufficient
foliage ; this golden rule must not be forgotten. When arti-
ficial pruning is resorted to it is generally incorrectly performed,
and when pruning is neglected evil results are not checked in
time.

The signs of decay, so often manifest in old woods on trees
apparently in full vigour, are not noticed as they might be, but
decay is allowed to go on until the trees which have been in-
tended for profit yield nothing at all. Young shoots and germens
are destroyed in forest operations in a most careless way; and

AA2

396 The Principles of Forestry.

in the management of underwoods the gradual conversion to
high timber is usually entirely neglected. The forester, in fact,
lives in the present, and not, as he should do, in the future.
Foresight is required in forestry more than in any other branch
of rural economy.

The differences of management required in large and small
areas are not appreciated, and shelter belts are, as a rule, de-
plorably sad to look upon, simply because they have been
treated upon the same principles as large areas. In our country
the planting of shelter belts is more general than the planting
of large areas, and therefore more attention should be given to
the rules necessary to make them serve the double purpose of
shelter and the development of commercial timber.

Planting for shelter, if wisely performed, adds greatly to the
value of agricultural land, and in many cases the indirect benefit
which results is sufficient to pay all the expenses attaching to
the planting. This has been made clear in the evidence given
before the Select Committee, and is a most important point in
favour of an extension of our forest area. It is not too much to
say that on exposed coast-lines, or bleak hill-sides, and valleys
open to prevailing winds, wise and judicious planting will
add 25 per cent. to the rental value of the surrounding land.

In the home nursery there is often most marked ignorance
both in the preparation of the soil and in the manipulation of the
young plants. ‘To overcome this, many landowners buy their
trees, or plant by contract, in doing which they largely increase
the expenditure and add to the risks which naturally attach.

The late Mr. Frampton, of Moreton House, Dorchester—who
planted during the sixty years he was in possession no less than
3,338,878 trees, and who might serve as an example to many
landowners now living—said in his quaint, but practical and
useful ‘‘ Maxims for Moreton ”—

“Tis waste of money, trees to buy;
Raise them in your nursery.”

“Plant not young trees in beds too close together:
They grow tall, weak, and will not stand the weather.”

“‘ Transplant your Scotch fir seedlings every year ;
They'll grow more stout, and pay the labour clear.”

“ Scotch firs and larch, at three years old best thrive ;
Oak, ash, at two or three, spruce four or five.”

These couplets show a spirit of observation not often met with
in landowners, and the result of his labours will speak for itself

at Moreton.
Planting, the initial step to success or failure, is as a rule,

an small estates, yery carelessly conducted, ‘Those employed

The Principles of Forestry. 357

seem to forget that it is the most important step of all. Success
does not rest alone in careful planting, however, but in the pre-
paration of the ground, the choice of soil and site, the choice of
such trees as suit the soil and the local demand, and the
treatment during growth.

These, then, are some of the defects of our present system,
and an inculcation of true forestry among those responsible for
the inception and the manipulation would gradually but surely
rectify them and bring about a new era in the growth of
timber. Another and important result would undoubtedly be a
large extension of planting; and lands now lying waste or un-
productive, and further areas which are rapidly passing out of
cultivation, notably the thin poor soils and the cold clays, might
be made to yield a large supply of valuable timber at no distant
period. Thereby landowners and the nation would be enriched,
and depression such as now exists might in a measure be suc-
cessfully combated. ‘To a great extent, too, employment would
be found for those who are, so to speak, indigenous to the soil,
which would be more rational than providing funds for emigra-
tion and for the transplanting of our best bone and sinew.

To do this, however, necessitates the expenditure of capital,
and this is of such vital importance as to need some careful
consideration. The reduction of the interest on Consols will
undoubtedly do much to stimulate the expenditure of capital on
the land, and this alone may lead to an extension of planting.

The first question naturally will be, Will it pay? and the
next, How can the money be obtained? That planting will
pay if conducted on the lines of true forestry is in my opinion
a foregone conclusion ; and that it will not pay if these rules are
ignored is equally certain.

The expenditure, even if the strictest economy is exercised,
will be considerable, especially in the south of England, and
therefore any one unwise enough to plunge into it without due
and careful consideration, and without skilled advice, courts
failure. To ensure success, soil not adapted to the growth of
timber should not be planted, trees suitable to the soil should
be chosen, and trees, moreover, for which there is a general or
local demand.

These assertions, however, are insufficient to convince the
practical mind, and figures must be resorted to. I approach
these, however, with some reluctance, as, no matter how care-
fully they may be compiled, there is always room for doubt and
question. ‘This must be so in all hypothetical cases. Again,
no series of figures will be complete without taking into con-
sideration the accumulation of locked-up capital, and the yearly

398 The Principles of Forestry.

expenditure of money not arising from direct revenue. In
practice, however, the initial cost is, as it were, written off
when expended, and the annual payments for local taxation,

tithes, and interest on capital become merged with the general
expenditure. Nevertheless, to arrive at actual cash results
there is no alternative. I have therefore endeavoured to show
in the following calculation that, even with a maximum ex-
penditure and a minimum return, a fair profit will result.

It has been necessary in making such calculation to bear in
mind that there are diversities of soils and situations, and the
figures I have chosen may seem high to some and low to others.
It is impossible in one example to meet all cases, and even if
the examples were multiplied the same differences would
exist.

For my purpose, I have taken 5/. 10s. as the cost of planting
one acre of land with oaks or other hard-wood trees, nursed with
Scotch and larch firs, which sum should include fencing. Fencing,
of course, will be necessary in almost every instance, and the
cost will vary with the size of the plantation—that is, the larger
the area the less will be the cost per acre. The rent, rates, taxes,
tithes, &c., I have taken at a low figure, because no one would
plant land for commercial purposes capable of commanding a
reasonable rent. Under these circumstances 9s. an acre seems
a reasonable sum to take. The distance apart I have taken as
A feet, because this is a useful distance, avoiding as it does the
two extremes. The period taken is 40 years, a short period no
doubt for the realisation of a crop of timber, but one sufficient to
mature the firs planted as nurses. At the end of this period the
land will be fully furnished with hard woods at the rate of nearly
200 to the acre. These I have not attempted to value, but they
become, nevertheless, an important factor in the calculation. A
further allowance of 200 trees, too, I have allowed for deaths
and casualties. ‘True, thinning out would probably take place
at more frequent intervals, but for the purpose before us it does
not seem necessary to go into minute detail. The object is to
show that a fair return may be reasonably expected from wise
and judicious planting.

Cost of planting one acre of land with mixed trees for commercial purposes,
and the probable return in 40 years.
cid. WB GR

Cost of trees (2,700), Hlanting, fencing, and care during

two years . .
This stim will accumulate in 40 years ‘at 5Y, to. . 3810 0
Rent, rates, taxes, tithes, &c., say 9s. per annum
This annuity will accumulate in 40 years at 5% to . 54 0 0

£92 10 0

The Principles of Forestry. 309

Value of Produce,

First thinning, 15 years after planting, say, 1,500 larch

and Scotch fir, at 10s. per 100 (net) = : AAO
This sum will accumulate in 25 years at 5% to. . : 52 10 0
Second thinning, 15 years later, say, 500 firs, at 5J.
per 100 (net)= ’ : 326-4080
Which will accumulate in 10 years to : 40 15 0
Third thinning, 10 years later, say, 300 firs at 1 Bl. per
100 (net) = = . ° r) . . Ab 0. 0
£188 5 O
Deduct expenditure as on page 358 < . 3 9210 0
Balance in fayour of planting , eye . : £45 15 0

To this sum of 45/. 15s. must be added, as already stated,
the value of the permanent hard-wood trees, which at 40 years
of age, under the best method of management (which is of
course implied), should be of considerable value. I have not
taken into consideration any of the indirect benefits which in-
variably attach to planting operations.

These figures, then, I shall submit without further remark,
and leave others to find in them what they are intended to
convey. It is now necessary to pass on to the subject of the
best methods of obtaining the necessary capital.

It might be supposed that money for this purpose might be
obtained from the “‘ Land Loan and Enfranchisement Company,”
or the ‘General Land Drainage and Improvement Company,”
incorporated by special Acts of Parliament. But the Land Com-
missioners for England who control these Acts have ruled, in
regard to planting, that money can be advanced only for planting
for shelter in connection with agricultwral improvements.

The Settled Land Act, 1882, however, meets this difficulty
to some extent by allowing capital trust money arising under
the provisions of the Act to be expended in planting, and there
seems no restriction as to what this planting should be for.
This, nevertheless, is also subject to the control of the Land
Commissioners, in so far that the enumeration of improvements
contained in section 9 of the Improvement of Land Act, 1864,
is extended so as to comprise all improvements authorised by
this Act. Limited owners, therefore, have now a power which
they did not before possess ; but still it necessitates the raising of
capital money.

It is worthy of consideration whether the powers of the
existing land improvement companies might not be extended to
include planting generally, and not for shelter or periodical cut-
tings only, subject of course to the controlling influence of the
Land Commissioners. Further, if the period of 25 and 31 years

360 The Principles of Forestry.

respectively could be considerably extended in cases of planting
—which would tend to reduce the amount of the rentcharge—
more landowners might be induced to take advantage of the
means offered them.

There is, of course, always private capital which may be
expended in planting, but in the case of limited owners there is
little inducement to make such an investment, as such a step
would be to increase the value of the freehold. The fall in the
yield of Consols may tend to liberate capital for this purpose. I
would here refer again to the tables of cost and return which I
have given, and place the matter in a simple light. If, for
instance, 5/. 10s. were invested at 5 per cent. and allowed to
accumulate, and a yearly sum of 9s. also regularly invested at
the same rate of interest, at the expiration of 40 years a sum ot
921. 10s. would result: this, too, without any labour or risk.
On the other hand, if a similar sum of 5/. 10s. were expended
in planting, 138/. 5s. would result, subject only to weather and
other influences, which have, however, to some extent been
allowed for. Surely this is worthy of consideration.

Again, to promote the expenditure of capital in planting land
now lying waste, could not some relief be afforded to landowners
in shape of a discontinuance of local and imperial taxation on
such land for a period until actual return commenced? ‘True,
for this period the burden upon the remainder of the rateable
property would be increased, but it would be so infinitesimal as
to press heavily on no one. M. Boppe calculates that there are
5,000,000 acres of land in Scotland alone that might be profit-
ably planted; then if that lying waste in Ireland and in Eng-
land be added, there is a vast area ready for wise expenditure
of capital. Much of this may be done by the State; and with
the borrowing powers it now possesses surely something might
be done.

Take Ireland, for instance, which has been almost disaf-
forested: what an immense benefit would result from judicious
planting! Much exposed land on the west coast, now waste and
unfit for agricultural purposes, might by shelter be rendered
fit for occupation, and thousands of men now out of work might
be profitably employed. Look, too, at the employment which
large areas of woodland would give to those living in and around
the locality.

Much valuable information was elicited from the Rey.
T. EK. F. Flannery, P.P., Lord Powerscourt, and Mr. Gilchrist,
in the evidence they gave before the Select Committee. ‘This,
coupled with the report of Mr. D. Howitz, Forest Conservator,
laid before the Government in 1884 in the “ Re-afforesting of

The Principles of Forestry. 361

Waste Lands in Ireland; and the application of Forestry to the
Remedy of the Destructive Torrents and Floods of the Catch-
ment Basins of the Chief Rivers of Ireland,” should suffice to
bring about this desirable object. ;

The Government must, however, do this; private owners
have neither the right to perform, nor the interest in such a
widespread improvement. Their interests are centred in their
demesnes, and planting, if conducted at all, will be confined to
these areas. ‘True, some more practical information will be
needed before commencing such an important work; for, valu-
able as Mr. Howitz’s report is, it lacks the essential element of
practical finance. He places figures upon the probable produce
of conifers which could not possibly be realised, and throws alto-
gether too rosy a light on the undertaking. This does not imply,
however, any doubt on a successful result. A large scheme of
planting, too, would tend to relieve the congested districts of
Ireland which are such a source of evil.

Some will say, no doubt, that to plant in such exposed sites
would end in failure; but if the true principles of forestry are
followed this will not be the case. What is required is to plant
wide belts of conifers and other desirable trees simply for the
purpose of shelter, and then to plant useful timber for com-
mercial purposes inside these. Failure would not result if the
areas planted were less small and restricted.

The evidence of the Rev. T. E. F. Flannery points to the
fact that extensive planting could be carried out without in-
juring the rights of the people, and without depriving them of
common and grazing rights; and he also expresses his belief
that the people would themselves protect the areas so planted,
knowing that the result would be for their own benefit.

It would be interesting to follow more closely the evidence

of this witness, but it is already before those who really take an
interest in the matter. It bears out most fully the belief that
planting on a large scale on the west coast of Ireland would
benefit the “ distressful” country directly and indirectly.
_ Forestry, in the broad acceptation of the word, will not alone
be advanced by a spread of the true principles among the masses ;
for assuredly, as the special education permeates the classes
directly interested, so it will gradually reach the masses. It
will in this way affect the London parks and open spaces, and
extend and control the planting of streets and thoroughfares
throughout the country.

Every one will admit that there is room for improvement in
Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, the Green Park, and other
spaces of the kind, which are such a feature in the vast. metro-

362 The Principles of Forestry.

polis. Perhaps there is no area in the country which affords
such pleasure, such invigorating influence, and such intense en-
joyment to all sorts and conditions of men as the large combined
area of the London parks. Though sylviculture is seen through
a veil of smoke and soot, there is still something refreshing in
the presence of tree life.

It is a source of regret to many to see how rapidly the fine
old trees in many of the parks are dying, and it needs no stretch
of imagination to depict a treeless area at no remote period, if
‘vigorous steps are not taken to stay decay. Whether a more
thorough and general knowledge of forestry would have pre-
vented what it is now impossible to cure is an open question,
and depends mainly upon the causes at work. There are
several probable causes, or more probably it is a combination of
causes, Which have resulted in such widespread mischief. Much
may be done to reinvigorate those trees which are dying, and
much, too, may be done to prevent a similar result to the newly
planted trees. If the Board of Works could be induced to
excavate round some of the moribund trees and to dig into the
subsoil, and by so doing ascertain the cause, much which is now
obscure would be made plain; and having found the true reason
of the decay a cure might be effected, or at least a similar result
prevented. I have very little doubt myself what the causes really
are, but this is not the place to give expression to them.

If a Board of Forestry existed this would probably form one
of its functions. With regard to street planting, how little it
is understood! Those who plant do not seem to realise the size
to which the trees will eventually develop. As they are now
planted the day is not far distant when they will form a nuisance
of no mean magnitude. It is not an uncommon sight to see lime
and other trees planted within six feet of a window, and on
footpaths six feet wide.

However, we look with confidence to the Board of Forestry,
and to the inculeation of a true knowledge of the principles of
forestry, to rectify and control these matters.

How does the Select Committee on Forestry propose to deal
with this* question? At what conclusions have they arrived
from the valuable evidence laid before them? ‘Their report
shows that their conclusions are practical, and the proposed
remedy equally so. To a great extent they have accepted the
scheme laid down in 1886 by Colonel Pearson and Mr, Rogers.
Colonel Pearson says :—

“Tn order that all societies and public bodies interested in the good

treatment of the land should have an interest in the system of education,
I think that the general direction and control should rest with a Council or

~

The Principles of Forestry. 363

Board, of which the Director of Kew Gardens might be ev officio president,
and the forest professors at Cooper's Hill members, and to which the Royal
Aericultural Society, the Highland Society, the Surveyors’ Institution, and
similar bodies should send delegates, while two or three of the great owners
of private woodlands should be requested to sit on the board. This board
would be necessary to keep the teaching in touch with the requirements of
the country; and it should control the course of study, arrange for the
examinations and granting of diplomas, and regulate the scale of fees.”

The Select Committee in their report, say :—

“ Your Committee recommend the establishment of a Forest Board. They
are also satisfied by the evidence that the establishment of forest schools,
or at any rate of a course of instruction and examination in forestry, would
be desirable, and they think that the consideration of the best mode of carry-
ing this into effect might be one of the functions entrusted to such a Forest
Board.

“ As regards the Board of Forestry, the Committee submit the following
suggestions :—

“‘], That the Board should be presided over by a responsible official (an
expert by preference) appointed by the Government and reporting annually
to some department of the Government.

“2. That the Board should be so constituted as to comprise the principal
agencies interested in the promotion of a sounder knowledge of forestry,
especially the various teaching and examining bodies, as well as the profes-
sional societies.

A - E2 That the following bodies should be invited to send delegates to the
oard ;—
The Royal Agricultural Society of England ;
The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland ;
The Royal Dublin Society ;
The Office of Woods and Forests;
The Linnean Society ;
The Surveyors’ Institution ; -
The English Arboricultural Society ;
The Scottish Arboricultural Society ;

and that the Director of Kew Gardens should be a member ex officio.

“4, That the Board should also comprise three members of each House
of Parliament, and a certain number of owners or managers of large wood-
lands, a preference in the latter case being given to those who are in a
position to afford facilities for study in their woods.”

I have quoted the above in eatenso, as it places the matter
before us in a clear light; it will also be seen how fully the
recommendation agrees with that suggested by the above-named
witnesses,

Further, with regard to the functions of the Board :—

_ “(a@) To organise forest schools, or, at any rate, a course of instruction
in forestry.

“ (6) To make provision for examinations.

“(c) To prepare an official syllabus and text-book.”

That the examiner should be required to examine in the
following subjects, namely :—

364 The Principles of Forestry.

“(a) Practical forestry.

* (6) Botany.

“(c) Vegetable physiology and Entomology, especially in connection

with diseases and insects affecting the growth of trees,

“ (d) Geology, with special reference to soils.

“(e) Subjects connected with land-agency, such as land drainage, sur-

veying, timber measuring, &c.”

Here again the report agrees substantially with the sugges-
tions already quoted.

It is difficult to conceive any better recommendations than
those quoted, and if carried into effect the results that will ensue
are such as will advance the wealth of landowners and the
nation. The large areas now lying idle will be clothed with
trees, and a system of culture will grow up similar to that in
France and elsewhere. British forestry will no longer be open
to the sinister comments of foreigners.

We have a climate better adapted than any other country in
Europe tothe growth of commercial timber, and yet our supply,
especially in England, is both trifling in quantity and poor in
quality. As has been pointed out, millions of acres might be
planted if landowners and the State could be induced to do it.
Another satisfactory result would be, as I have before stated,
that, instead of advancing money from local taxes to encourage
emigration, we should be able to give employment to our bone
and sinew at home; and the villages now vacated, owing to the
lapse of tillage, would again be full of life and activity.

The end and aim of the Board, if constituted, should be to
impress this with all the power of their official position upon the
landowners ; because, if the inertia cannot be overcome, no Forest
Board will be able to advance sylviculture in the least degree.

The Board, too, must be an active and not a passive body.
It must possess life and energy in the highest degree, because,
in addition to the duty of directing study, it will have to foster
and encourage a love for an art which is foreign to the sym-
pathies of those interested in our landed industries.

I have endeavoured in this article to lay before the reader the
state of the woodlands of Great Britain and Ireland. I have con-
demned their management, and supported my opinion thereon
by the evidence taken before the Select Committee. Then I
have shown that this arises from a lack of the knowledge of the
true principles of forestry, and this I have also supported by evi-
dence, I have shown, too, what these principles are, and how
the knowledge of them may be acquired ; how the capital may
be obtained for planting new areas, and how the existing areas
may be improved by enlightened management ; how the revenue
may be increased and rendered regular by a systematic method

ee

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 365

of management. Finally, I have supported the recommendation
of the Select Committee, and shown how a well-constituted

_ Board of Forestry, if active and enthusiastic, may encourage

and stimulate private efforts to improve existing areas and to
promote an extension of planting; how it may, by granting
diplomas, encourage a really sound system of education, and
attract young men of the right stamp to enter upon the course
of study laid down; how, too, by publishing a text-book of
forestry, the knowledge may be spread among the masses in an
incipient manner. The work must be gradual, and no violent
effort is needed. There must be a sufficient amount of en-
thusiasm in the Board to make itself felt among the landowning
class; for, as I have already stated, if this is not done no study
in the world will prevail against the inertia which has been
prevalent during the last half-century. What is required is to
bring about another sylvan period, like that already referred to
as prevailing between the years 1750 and 1815, during whicl
time the forest area largely increased.

Let me, in conclusion, recommend the owners of woodlands
and the owners of land lying waste or unproductive, to turn
their attention to the science of sylviculture. Let them obtain
the advice of experts and organise a system which will result
in improving the existing timber, in securing them a regular
revenue, and in the judicious planting of new areas. Let them
no longer be satisfied with the old rut, but leave it for a more
enlightened way, and endeavour to act upon the cream oi the.
evidence taken before the Select Committee, which must in
future form the foundation of British forestry.

If I were asked to recommend a work on forestry I should
unhesitatingly point to the three reports of 1885, 1886, and
1887, which contain the pent-up experience of half a century.

I cannot do better than conclude by quoting lines attributed
to Sir Walter Scott :—

“ Be aye sticking in a tree, ‘twill be

Growin’ whilst ye are sleepin’.”

XX.—Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. By WILLIAM
E. Bear, Riggindale Road, Streatham, Surrey.

Visits to the Channel Islands during the seed-time and harvest
of the most important crops; a careful inspection of some of the
best farms, fruit grounds, herds, and dairies; interviews with
some of the highest resident authorities upon the several branches

a

366 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

of agriculture and fruit-growing; a persistent quest for in-
formation from all sorts and conditions of men met in m

wanderings; and a careful study of official reports, books, and
essays relating to my subject: these are the grounds upon which
I venture to offer a few observations on the present condition
of farming in those Isles of the Blest, which lie so close to
France, and yet, happily, form part of the British Empire.

The present condition of any industry may be realised most
-clearly as a mental picture by comparison with the past con-
dition of that industry; and, fortunately, I have no need to go
beyond the volumes of the ‘ Journal’ for an excellent account of
the state of farming in the Channel Islands twenty-nine years
ago. It was in 1859 that the prize essay written: by Mr. (now
Colonel) C. P. Le Cornu, a native of and resident in Jersey,
appeared in this periodical (Vol. XX., Part I., First Series), and
it will be interesting to note some of the most striking of the
changes which have taken place since that period. As there
are great differences in the systems of farming pursued in the
several islands, it will be best to deal with each separately.

JERSEY.

Although by far the largest of the islands, Jersey has an
area of about 62 square miles only, the extreme length from

east to west being 12 miles, and the greatest breadth about 7.

miles. The total area is given in the Agricultural Returns as
28,717 acres, of which 20,561 acres were returned in 1887 as
under crops, bare fallow, and grass. A foot-note, however,
explains that some of the land is returned twice when two
crops are grown on it in the same year; while, on the other
hand, another note states that the acreage of woodlands is not
ascertained. The corresponding cultivated area in 1859 is not
given in the prize essay, but appears in the first complete
collection of Agricultural Returns, in 1867, as 20,357 acres, or
only about 200 acres less than in 1887. It cannot be supposed
that the double return of acreage is made at all commonly, for,
if it were, the cultivated area would come out much larger than
it does ; the growth of two crops in the same year on the arable
land being the rule rather than the exception. According to a
return of the acreage occupied by owners and tenants respec-
tively, there were 19,626 acres of occupied land in 1887.

From causes which I have not seen explained, the population
of Jersey has diminished since 1851, when it was 57,020; the
number returned at the census of 1881 having been 52,445.
Between 1871 and 1881 there appears to have been a decrease

——————

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 367

of population in all but two of the twelve parishes into which
the island is divided. If this decrease stood alone, it might,
perhaps, be accounted for by the fact that the population was
temporarily swollen by French refugees during the Franco-
German War; but as there was a fall between 1851 and 1861,
and, in spite of a rise in 1871, a further fall between 1861 and
1881, this explanation is not sufficient. The point is of im-
mediate interest in connection with my subject, because the
decrease in population during a period of great prosperity in
Jersey seems to show that the tendency to the subdivision of
landed property fostered by law, which forbids the willing
of land and requires its division among all the children of
a deceased owner, has been counteracted by sensible family
arrangements.

Whether the land is more or less subdivided than it was
when Colonel Le Cornu wrote his prize essay, I am not able
positively to determine; but, probably, it may be concluded
from the evidence just cited that there is not much difference.
At any rate, the average size of a holding is small enough; for,
according to the Official Return of 1887, the 19,626 acres of
occupied land were divided among 2,646 occupiers, partly owners
and partly tenants, or in the ratio of almost exactly 71 acres
per occupier. In 1859, Colonel Le Cornu wrote :—

Very many houses will be found to which only 2 or 3 acres are attached,
whilst others have 20 or 30; but an estate which contains 15 acres is by no
means considered a small one, end rarely do any exceed 50 to 60 acres; there
may, perhaps, be six or eight such in the whole island.”

This statement, I believe, holds good for the present time,
except that I could not hear of as many as six or eight farms of
50 acres and upwards. <A farm of 50 vergées (24 to the acre),
or about 22 acres, is reckoned a large one; and the owner of
106 vergées (47 acres), which he cultivated till he let half of the
land, informed me that he knew of only one larger farm in his
part of the island.

The law as to the succession to landed property is as fol-
lows :—The eldest son takes as his birthright the house and
premises, with a little more than two acres of land adjoining,
and about twenty Jersey perches, or two-ninths of an imperial
acre, for every man he is bound by ancient law to provide in
case of war. ‘The rest of the property is valued in rents, and
the eldest son takes one-tenth, the remainder being shared

. . . ?
two-thirds among the sons, including the eldest, and one-third
among the daughters. When there is only one son he takes all
that is above referred to as going to the eldest and other sons.
When the number of daughters is so small that each, if more

368 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

than one, would get more property than each of the sons, the
latter can insist upon equal division. Even during life, a father
cannot give to any child more land than would come to him or
her under the law of inheritance, and any gift of the kind, if ex-
cessive, can be annulled within one year of the father’s death.

The law of mortgage is so curious that it may be briefly
mentioned. In the event of an estate being over-mortgaged, the
last mortgagee can only recover his money by taking up the
estate and engaging to pay off all the burdens upon it. Should
he refuse, he loses all claim to the sum he has advanced ; and the
-estate is offered to the next mortgagee on the same terms, and
so on till it finds a proprietor. As all mortgages are registered,
it is contended that there is no hardship in this law, because
each successive mortgagee knows what burdens there are upon
the estate, and if he risks his money in increasing them, he does
so with his eyes open, and it is only just that he should not be
able by his folly to diminish the security of earlier mortgagees.
Not so defensible is the law which makes all parts of the pro-
perty of a landowner jointly and severally liable for his debts of
any kind, even including portions leased or sold: so that the
creditors can come upon the property of the leaseholder or the
buyer if necessary in order to recover their dues.

The most common method of paying for land purchased
greatly facilitates its acquisition by men of small capital. The
purchaser usually pays at least one-fourth of the price of the
land, and the rest can be paid in what are termed quarters of
rent, equivalent to a mortgage, but saleable in the open market
at a fixed rate of interest, a fraction over 4 per cent. There are
old rents (rentes, more like stocks than what are commonly
understood by rents in England) of 18/. a quarter, and new
rents of 20]. a quarter. Formerly the old rents were non-
transferable, and worth 16/. a quarter; but some time ago they
were made transferable at 18/. The security for old rents is on
all the real property of the borrower; whereas on new rents it is
on only the particular piece of property mortgaged. So long as
the purchaser of the land pays the interest on the quarters he
cannot be dispossessed, and he can at any time partly or wholly
redeem his property from the burden upon it by buying up some
or the whole of the rents. This he can do when and to any
extent that may suit his convenience; while the money can
never be called in, as it can be in the case of a mortgage.

Before referring to the prices at which land in Jersey is sold
and let, it may perhaps be desirable to say a few words about
the character of the soil and the climate. In a considerable work

on the Channel Islands, published in 1862 by W, H, Allen &

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 369

Co., of London, the authors (D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., and
Robert Gordon, M.D., F.R.S.), after describing at great length
the geological formations of the islands, say :—

“Jn all the underlying rocks of the various islands there would seem to be
a total absence of phosphorus, without which the cultivation of food-plants
is impossible. Potash, also, is either present in small proportion, or in a form
not readily separated. There does not seem to be any organic matter present,
except that derived from animal life now or recently at the surface. How-
ever rapidly, therefore, the soils obtained from these rocks become decom-
posed, and however well the resulting soils may look, there is clearly no
natural and large supply of certain ingredients essential for food crops. All
these must be supplied from without in the form of manure, either animal,
vegetable, or mineral.

“The latter [query the last ?] not being available, it results that without a
large and constant supply of animal and vegetable manures, the soil of the
islands could not be kept in such a state as to yield large crops of the most
valuable kinds of vegetable produce. It is clear, therefore, that, in spite of all
statements that have been made to the contrary, the soil in the islands cannot
properly be regarded as naturally rich” (p. 465).

The writers support these statements by elaborate details as
to the constituents of the rocks from which the soils of the
islands have been formed. On the other hand, the writer of the
prize essay says that, “although situated on a rocky bed, the
soil of Jersey is particularly rich and highly productive.” This
might be the case, and yet not in conflict with the statements
above quoted, for soils not naturally productive may be made so
by man. Colonel Le Cornu, however, says :—

“The rock is of the primary formation, void of any organic remains,
chiefly granite, syenite, gneiss, porphyry, and schist, with other varieties be-
longing to this series. It might be supposed that the fact of the soil repos-
ing on so rocky a bottom might produce meagreness, but itis not thecase. The -
soil is a rich loam, varying in lightness according to the stratum beneath it ;
if granite or syenite, it is lighter than where the other varieties of rock are
found. The cause to which this difference is attributable is, that imme-
diately between the granite and cultivated soil is a layer of coarse gravel,
which acts as constant drainage, whereas when the granite and syenite dis-
appear no gravel is found, but a light clay forms the layer between the soil
and the rock. As a general rule, the eastern district of the island may be
said to belong to the latter formation, and the western to the former, but in
both cases there are exceptions. For certain kinds of produce the one is
more esteemed than the other, but the universal opinion throughout the
island is that the eastern district is the richest and most productive.”

In the Report of the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horti-
cultural Society for 1887 analyses are given of three specimens
of Jersey soil, made by Mr. F. Woodland Toms, the States (of
Jersey) analyst, and M. Laurot, analyst of the Laboratory of
Granville. One sample was from a drilling-ground in the south-
west, another from a similar ground in the north-west (both
described as “‘ virgin soils ”), and the third from heavy pasture
land in the eastern district. The samples were taken as repre-

YOL. XXIV,—S. 8. BB

370 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

senting the light, medium, and heavy soils of the island. A
square block, one foot in depth, was used in each case, and it
was found that the subsoil for the next ten feet in depth was in
each instance of similar texture to the surface soil, which was
very free from stones. The analyses are given below :—

ComposItTions oF Dry Sorus PER CENT.
First 12 INCHEs.

St. Peter’s St. Mary’s | St. Saviour's
Soluble in weak acids. No. I. No. Il. No. III.
1} Organic matter, kc. . : : : 3°590 3-760 3:980
Oxide of iron C 5 ; . . *610 1724 2°245
Alumina 5 = “ fe : 2 "372 1:497 1-403
Lime . : 5 c A ‘ S 236 "187 576
Magnesia . : : 4 : . 148 “291 200
Potash. c - : - ; ‘086 114 "158
Soda . 5 P ; 6 5 . +328 "305 “537
Phosphoric acid . : : : : 128 131 195
Sulphuric acid. : : r : “182 236 184
Chlorine : = , 3 : ‘ “009 ‘O11 009
Carbonic acid . 5 F : . trace trace trace
Soluble silica . 3 < ; c ‘079 080 “084
Insoluble in acids.
Hydrated silica . . : : 2500 2-780 6-100
Insoluble silicates and quartz. : 91-732 88-834 84-329

100-000 100-000 100-000

1 Nitrogen in organic matter . . : 122 136 “141
Nitrogen as nitrates (per million parts) 2108 1:650 6°45

These analyses do not convey the idea of any high degree of
natural fertility, though No. III. is much superior to the two
others, and No. II. is rather better than No. I. All three are
deficient in lime and potash, and in only one is there a good
proportion of phosphoric acid. As to the organic matter, soldiers’
drilling-grounds can scarcely be quite like ‘virgin soils,” and
the old pasture certainly is not so. ‘They are all soils, however,
which can be worked with more or less facility; while two of
them are so constituted as to retain moisture fairly, and one so
as to retain fertilising material applied to it.

The “lay of the land” in Jersey is all that could be desired,
as it is a gradual slope downwards from the north to the south,
and this greatly enhances the value of the soil, and promotes
the early vegetation for which the island is famous.

Of the climate there is no necessity to say much, as it is
well known to be excellent. ‘There is seldom much snow, and

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 371

often none at all during the winter, and severe frost is uncommon.
During last winter and spring there was more snow, and greater
damage occurred from frost, than had been known for several

ears. The rainfall is abundant, especially in winter, and the
island seldom suffers from drought even in summer.

Whatever the natural resources of the soil of Jersey may be,
it is certain that it has been brought to a state of high fertility.
I have never so fully realised the idea of a country “ smiling ”
with an abundant produce, and with a general air of prosperity,
as when, in the latter part of June, I walked or drove through
the beautiful valleys and over the scarcely less charming plains
of Jersey. Bad as the season had been, the comparatively few
pieces of wheat were in ear, and almost without exception good
standing crops, where not absolutely heavy; while the potato
tops were a yard high, and so thick that the rows could not be
distinguished. Splendid crops of hay and “seeds” were being
cut or carried, and the tethered cows looked sleek and well fed.

But not even the abundance of the produce of the soil, or
the evidence of careful enterprise bestowed on every spot, strikes
the visitor familiar with the rural districts of England so forcibly
as the wonderfully prosperous aspect of the dwellings of the
people. There are scarcely any cottages in Jersey, for the
smallest of the farmers, as a rule, live in comfortable granite
houses, with well-kept flower and vegetable gardens attached to
them. The people themselves, too, have an air of contentment
and independence which is pleasing to behold.

The climate, no doubt, does great things for Jersey; but:
the marvellous industry and enterprise of the people do more.
The rents which those of them who hire land pay, and the
prices which buyers give for land, suffice to assure even persons
who have not visited the island that a vast quantity of produce
is got out of the soil. When Colonel Le Cornu wrote his essay,
he gave 4/. 10s. to 9/. as the range of rents. The present range
for cultivable land may be put at 7/. to 157. It must be very
poor land that does not let at more than 3/. a vergée, or 61. 15s.
an acre. The only farm which I saw that I had reason to sup-
pose was let at less than 7/. an acre was one containing a large
proportion of woodland; but there are, no doubt, a few others
equally poor and low-rented—as rents go in Jersey. As to the
prices given for the fee-simple, some actual instances of recent
sales may be cited.

Mr. Joshua Le Gros, Secretary of the Jersey Herd-Book
Society, a Jersey farmer of great experience, to whom I am
indebted for a great deal of valuable information, and for the
courtesy with which he accompanied me in some excursions and

BB2

372 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

directed me in others, sold a farm of about twenty-three acres
this year at 263]. an acre. He has since bought a small farm of
six acres, with a good house and premises upon it, at 180/. a
vergée (24 vergées to the acre), or 405]. an acre. In this case
the residence counts for a good deal; but Mr. Le Gros estimated
that the land alone would have realised 1401. a vergée, or 3151.
an acre. The farm is about a mile and a half from St. Heliers,
and it contains a little terraced land well suited for the growth
of early potatoes.

To take another instance. Mr. Philip Lefeuvre, of St. Owens,

informed me that he had recently bought 43 vergées of land for
500/., or at the rate of about 250/. an acre. This is in the west
of the island, where the soil is less rich than it is in the east or
in the vicinity of St. Heliers. The price, however, was con-
sidered exceptionally high for the district. Again, Mr. Gaunt,
of St. Saviour’s, in the east of the island, told me of a farm of
39 vergées sold the other day in his district for 3,5501., or at
about 206/. an acre. For his own estate of 106 vergées, bought
many years ago, he paid 801. a vergée, or 1801. anacre; and he
assured me that he could since have made a profit of 2,000/. if
he had been disposed to get rid of his land. He has recently
let half of his land at 101. 12s. 6d. an acre, but could have had
over 11/. if he had chosen to invite competition. Such an
extreme rent as 15/., I may explain, is obtained for very fayour-
ably situated spots not far from St. Heliers, and for small pieces
of very good ground ; slopes of land facing the south or south-
east, known as cétils,! upon which potatoes can be produced
very early, are the most valuable spots in the island when the
soil is good.

It will be noticed that interest at a little over 4 per cent.,
on even such high prices for the fee-simple of land as are
given above, would not come to as much as the highest of the
rents on land let to tenants. Perhaps this can partly be
explained by the existence of burdens upon owners that tenants
escape; but apart from that consideration, there is, no doubt,
a much greater competition for the hiring of land than for its
purchase. There would be nothing surprising in such a state
of things under ordinary circumstances ; but in Jersey there are
special circumstances to be considered. Numbers of French

1 As to this word “ cétil,” which one constantly hears in Jersey, I have in
vain endeavoured to trace its derivation. Coteaw is the only modern French
word that corresponds with the Jersey cétil in meaning—the slope of a hill.
Cote (hill) is, no doubt, the root-word. Colonel Le Cornu informs me that it
is doubtless an old Norman word, the literal meaning of which is hill-side
ground. It is found in old deeds of conveyance,

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 373

labourers, who come to the island for the potato-harvest and
save money, are anxious competitors for small farms, and will
pay almost any rent for them. They may or may not be in a
position to pay the small sum needed as a deposit on purchasing
land; but there is a more serious difficulty in the way, for
no foreigner can become possessed of land in Jersey until he
has been naturalised as a British subject, and naturalisation is
allowed only after several years’ residence, and very charily even
then. The authorities are not pleased at seeing the land more
and more occupied by Frenchmen, and they are not at all dis-
posed to facilitate the acquisition of rights of purchase by the
foreigners.

Every one must regret to see the fine race of Jersey farmers
—men whose ancestors have held land in the island since long
before the Norman Conquest—diminishing in number as they
are. There is no doubt that rents have been forced up to an
extravagant extent by the eager competition of Brittany peasants
who have been trained in the art of living on next to nothing,
and who can therefore maintain themselves and their families
upon meagre profits which would not content Jerseymen.
Under such circumstances, young Jerseymen who inherit land
are tempted to let it, and to supplement the income which they
thus obtain by engaging in commercial or other pursuits. Many
of them shrink from the unremitting and arduous labour in
which their parents have spent their lives, and which they have
shared during their boyhood.

It may be suggested that those of them who own moderately:
large farms, or what are deemed such in Jersey, might farm the
land without working constantly upon it; but the universal
testimony in the island is that this would not do, as it is only
by working with the few men he employs that the Jersey farmer
can thrive. Many English farmers have bought or hired land
in the island, and attempted to farm it after the English easy-
going fashion; but not one has succeeded. The only English-
man who has been successful as a farmer in Jersey, I was
assured, is Mr. John Gaunt, of St. Saviour’s, who came to the
island for his health many years ago, after having been success-
fully engaged in commerce in England. But Mr. Gaunt has
succeeded by doing as the Jersey farmers do. On the occasion
of my last visit to him he had been to St. Heliers, nearly four
miles distant, with one cartload of potatoes to be shipped, and
was getting ready for a second journey. He is over seventy,
and a rich man without family; yet he declares that when he
gives up work he will give up farming.

It must not be supposed, however, that there is anything

374 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

suggestive of penury in the style of living which the larger
Jersey farmers adopt. On the contrary, the houses and ap-
pointments, interior and exterior, of many a Jersey farmer
holding (and generally owning) twenty acres of land, strike the
visitor as superior to those of most English farmers of two
hundred acres. After finding the Jersey farmer at work in the
field with his men, it is somewhat surprising to a stranger to be
conducted by him into a drawing-room fitted up with all the
modern decorations found in a middle-class suburban residence.
There is not much “ tally-ho” for the Jersey farmers, I believe ;
but the plough does not keep them from getting a fair educa-
tion, while their wives and daughters happily distribute their
attentions between the cow and the piano.

It is the great returns obtained from the production of early
potatoes which have forced up rents to extravagant rates. In
all probability there will have to be a considerable fall before
long, for early potatoes have this year been coming more abun-
dantly than heretofore from other sources than the Channel
Islands, and prices have been very low in two out of the last
three years. There was, I believe, a downward tendency in
rents and land values two years ago; but it was apparently
stopped by the large returns obtained from the potato crop
last year.

Nothing more strikingly indicates change in the system of
farming in Jersey than this sentence in the prize essay of
1859: “Jersey was once famous for the cultivation of potatoes.”
The writer proceeds to point out that, before the visitation of
the potato disease, the production of 18 tons of tubers per acre
was not uncommon, whereas it was a good crop in 1859 to yield
8 or 9 tons per acre. It is to be borne in mind that “old” or
fully matured potatoes are here referred to, the practice of growing
new potatoes for export not having begun. ‘The general course of
cropping in 1859, the same writer states, was one of five years,
as follows:—(1) turnips, mangolds, parsnips; (2) potatoes,
and frequently carrots or parsnips; (3) wheat, in which clover
and ryegrass are sown; (4) hay; (5) hay. In this division,
potatoes occupied only about one-tenth of the land, and farms
of 20 acres, with few exceptions, where meadow-lands or
orchards predominate, are said to have been thus divided :—Hay
and pasture, 10 acres; turnips, 2; mangolds, 1; parsnips, 1;
carrots, 2; potatoes, 2; wheat, 3}. Even among the old-
fashioned farmers, the course is greatly changed now, being one of
potatoes for two years, corn for one year, and clover or mixed seeds
for one year or two years. More commonly, however, the farmers
grow potatoes for two or three years, and then rest the land by

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 375

sowing clover and ryegrass after the potatoes are dug, and letting
the crop stand for two or three years. In this case a good deal
of feed is commonly obtained in the autumn, the seeds being
sown in July. Very little corn is grown, as will be seen from
the table appended, and most of the barley is planted after
potatoes come off the land, to be harvested the same year. It
is not surprising, then, to find that potatoes occupy about one-
third of the total area under crops, fallow, and grass in Jersey,
instead of less than one-tenth, as estimated by the writer above
referred to in 1859—less than one-tenth, because he excepted
grass and fruit farms from his estimate.

Unfortunately there are no precise crop statistics for an earlier
year than 1867 (unless the doubtful figures for 1866 be taken),
and we must be contented with seeing the differences which
twenty years have brought about, as below :—

Crops IN JERSEY 1867 1887

Acres Acres

Wheat 5 c - : - 0 a 2,352 1,876
Barley . 3 : : . . 5 137 119
Oats . 5 = : ; 5 5 é 303 163
Rye % . : : : : : . 21 52
Beans . A - F 5 : 12 6
Peas . . 5 : 5 : i ‘ 2 20
Total Corn Crops . ; ; 2,827 2,236

Potatoes , 4 ‘ 5 C ; G 2,062 6,488
Turnips 5 A c 5 0 A 1,547 1,705
Mangolds . = : : : c : 730 724
Carrots ° ' : : 6 . cs 913 113
Cabbage, rape,&c. . F 2 6 . 159 50
Vetches, lucerne, &c. . A : ‘ : 225 583
Total Green Crops : 5 5,636 9,663

Clover, &c., and grasses under rotation 5 3,250 4,832
Permanent pasture . é : : Z 6,092 3,701
Hops . . : . 5 : A ° — 3
Bare fallow 5 ; 5 ; ; . 2,550 126
Crops, bare fallow and grass 20,355 20,561

Here we have a decrease of nearly six hundred acres of corn
crops, an increase of 4,426 acres under potatoes, a great falling
off in the cultivation of carrots, a great increase under vetches,
lucerne, é&c., and clover and grasses under rotation, a decrease of
permanent pasture by over 2,300 acres, and an approach to the
extinction of bare fallow.

376 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

Experienced farmers in Jersey say that many of the small
holders of land devote too much of it to the potato crop, and
frequently lose by so doing. For instance, they have to pay
considerable amounts for hay and straw imported from France
for their cattle. Many of them grow potatoes year after year
for several years on the same land, which is only saved from
deterioration by a heavy expenditure in manures. A second
crop is always taken after potatoes, consisting of roots of some
kind, or ‘‘seeds” when the land is to have a rest for a year or
_two, or occasionally barley. Probably when hay and straw are
cheap, and potatoes sell fairly, the profits on the latter crop
more than make up for the expenditure on imported fodder;
but last year high prices had to be paid for both hay and straw.

The details as to the cost of growing a vergée of potatoes
were supplied to me by Mr. Joshua Le Gros, and I add below
the corresponding amounts per acre :—

Cost OF GROWING POTATOES IN JERSEY Per vergée Per acre
£& « @ & ae.

Rent AOD 9 On 0
Seed : 4 0 0 9 0:70
Scotch manure 4+ 0 0 9. 10.00
Guano or artificial . 4 0 0 9 O70
Planting . ; : - = | cl 100 2b
Digging . : : 2 - Ae ae eye 216 3
Carting . : - : : : 012 0 Loe
Ploughing, hoeing, picking up, &c. 1 330 2 14.9
20 0 O 45 0 0

It is considered that at least 50/. an acre must be received
from the sale of potatoes in order to pay the Jersey farmer, and
it is clear that, on his small acreage, he needs more than that,
although his second crop, grown at a very small expense, must
not be lost sight of. When aman and his family do all the
work, the expense of raising the potato crop is, of course,
greatly reduced, especially when seaweed—vraic, as it is termed
—is chiefly relied on as manure. It is not deemed the best
practice to apply seaweed directly to the potato crop, though it
is often done. The better plan is to put it on for the temporary
pasture or “‘ seeds,” after which the potatoes are grown.

Seaweed is highly prized by the people of Jersey as a
manure, and no doubt it contains some of the constituents in
which their soil is deficient, including the potash so essential to
the potato crop. The cost of the labour in obtaining it, how-
ever, is so great that it is a question whether what it supplies
to the land could not be more cheaply obtained. In March last

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 377

I frequently met twenty or thirty carts loaded with wraic coming
up a road from the seashore. It costs practically nothing be-
sides the labour of getting it—only a nominal fee of a shilling
a year being charged for the right of cutting it from the rocks
on some parts of the coast, and, I believe, not even that in
others. Moreover, a great deal, of course, depends upon whether
a farmer and his sons do all the work or have to employ others
to assist in collecting the seaweed. At any rate, the ardour for
collecting it is still considerable ; one wealthy farmer, by way of
illustrating the fact, having assured me that his son had been
out all night at the work, and this more than once during the
week. Women used to help in the gathering, but seldom do so
now. Sometimes the seaweed is burnt, and the ashes are applied
as a dressing for the potato crop. In that case I think it may
be taken for granted that the ashes cost a great deal more per
ewt. than equally valuable artificial manure would cost.

Before referring to the returns of the potato crop, a few
remarks upon its cultivation are desirable. To begin with,
nothing is more important in the system pursued in Jersey
than the careful preservation and preparation of the seed tubers.
In the first place, a frequent change of seed is regarded as
essential, and seed tubers of the Ashleaf and other varieties are
imported from England regularly. In the first year after im-
portation the crop is abundant, but rather later than that grown
from Jersey seed. In the second year the stock is in its perfec-
tion, earliness and yield being both satisfactory. After that
the vigour of the stock deteriorates, as shown in declining yield,
and it is desirable to have a fresh lot of English seed after the
third year.

Whether home-grown or imported, the seed consists of
whole sets, as a rule, rather small tubers being alone saved for
seed. These are placed, eyes upwards, in shallow boxes of
thin deal, where they remain till taken out into the field to be
planted. The boxes are piled up one upon another in a shed or
barn, and the seed is taken in them to the field without having
been disturbed. The tubers have by that time sent out strong
green shoots, about an inch in length, which are carefully kept
uppermost in planting. In this way the produce is brought to
such a degree of maturity as it is allowed to reach, a month
earlier than it would be if potatoes without shoots were planted.
The system of cultivating the land for potatoes is well described
by Colonel Le Cornu in his prize essay on “ The Potato in Jersey,”
in the sixth volume of the present series of the ‘ Journal’ (1870).
In ploughing, a small plough drawn by two horses is used,
turning a 16-inch furrow, about 4 inches deep. This is followed

378 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

by the great Jersey plough, drawn by six horses, which goes
about 10 inches (deeper in 1869) below the depth touched by
the small plough. Formerly the stable manure or seaweed was
put on the land before the ploughing was begun; but now it is
usual to put it on just before sowing the seed, except, as already
explained, when seaweed is put on the temporary grasses of the
preceding year.

Planting is, in favourable seasons, begun in January, and
should be finished by the end of February; but this year the
work was not nearly finished by the middle of March. The seed is
planted in rows 14 inches to 20 inches apart, the sets being about
12 inches apart in the rows. The work is usually done with a
small one-horse plough, the sets being covered with only 2 or
3 inches of soil. From 30 to 40 cabots per vergée, or 17 to 26
cwt. per acre, according to the size of the sets, are commonly
planted now, according to Mr. Le Gros. Colonel Le Cornu, in
1870, said about 20 cabots per vergée used to be planted; but
this was probably when ‘“ old” potatoes were produced. The
land is usually lightly harrowed just before the tops prick
through, then forked up between the rows and hoed in
the rows when the tops show, and afterwards the tops are
earthed up with the plough. The crop is usually dug up by
hand, and not often ploughed up. ‘The price paid for digging
and collecting the tubers in rows is about 25s. a vergée when
labourers are hired to do the work; but this does not include
picking up or filling the carts.

The varieties of potatoes most commonly grown in 1870,
according to Colonel Le Cornu, were the Ashleaf, Prolific, Early
Fluke, Trois Mois, Dalmahoy, and Early Regents. At present
the prevailing sorts are the Ashleaf (Myatt’s), the Royal Jersey
Fluke, the Old Jersey Fluke, and Prince of Wales. The old
Jersey Fluke is considered the best of all varieties, or at least as
good as Myatt’s Ashleaf; but the favourite variety among
growers now is the Royal Jersey Fluke, although it is of inferior
quality. The reason of the preference for the last-named variety
is that it is very early and prolific, while the tubers are large.
London buyers, it appears, will have large tubers, no matter
what the quality may be. At any rate, although the quality of
the Royal Jersey Fluke is notoriously poor, it was selling at
1s. a cabot, or 52s. a ton, more than the Ashleaf at the end of
June. Such an argument for the growth of the variety is irre-
sistible; but there are some misgivings lest Jersey potatoes
should lose their reputation among British consumers, although
dealers appear to care more for appearance than for flavour.

In an early season, digging commences on the most forward

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 379

of the cétils in the last week of April or (more commonly) the
beginning of May, but was more than a month later than usual
this year. Indeed, very few potatoes had been dug when I was
in Jersey, in the third week of June. These remarks refer, of
course, to the outdoor crop, forced potatoes being ready as early
as January, and those grown in cool-houses in the latter part
of April; but the production of the crop under glass is not
common in Jersey, though it is in Guernsey, as will hereafter
appear. Although the yield of the potatoes first taken up—
often before the skins are properly set—is, of course, smaller
than when they are left to mature a few weeks longer, a week
makes such an enormous difference in the price that there is a
race to meet the early demand. In the season of 1887, which
was not an early one, the small lots of tubers shipped in the
week ending May 28, according to the weekly returns collected
by Mr. Barbier of St. Heliers, sold at the rate of 221. 10s. a ton,
while for the week ending June 16 the price was only 51. 12s. 7d.

This year the first lots realised 10s. per cabot, or 261. a ton ; but
in the third week of shipping the price had fallen to 1s. 8d. per
cabot for Ashleaf and 2s. 8d. for Royal Jersey Flukes, or 4. 7s.
to not quite 6/.a ton. This tremendous drop was owing to the
extreme lateness of the crop in Jersey, the London market
being speedily glutted with produce from other sources.

With respect to yield, Quayle, who wrote in 1812, vouches
for 12 to 14 cabots per Jersey perch (“‘ old” potatoes), or 234 to
24 tons per acre, being often obtained, and speaks of a quantity
equivalent to 26 tons per acre having been grown; but some
exaggeration may be suspected in these statements, though a
phenomenal crop of 24 tons per acre, mentioned with the grower’s
name, may have been produced once in a while before the disease
was known. A yield of 103 tons per acre is considered a good
crop now that only early potatoes are produced ; while 12 to 14
tons, occasionally grown, would be regarded as a great crop;
and 17 tons, talked of as having been produced, would be
reckoned a tremendous yield. Such yields are not obtained
upon the earliest diggings. Mr. John Gaunt, however, informed
me that he grew 6 cabots per Jersey perch, or 9 tons 13 ewts.
per acre all round, last year, and sold the produce at 1s. 9d. to
4s. 6d. per cabot. As the yield of the potatoes that sold at the
highest price was probably less than the average, it is not war-
rantable to translate these figures into 47]. 5s. to 1211. 10s. per
acre; but Mr. Gaunt’s average return was 90/. an acre on 60
perches of cétils for the three years ending with 1887. Another
account, given me by Mr. Philip Lefeuvre, of St. Owens, where
the land is not as rich as it is in Mr. Gaunt’s district, was to

380 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

the effect that his average returns for 13 vergées of potato-land
for the four years ending with 1887 was 271. per vergée, or
601. 15s. per acre. This season Mr. Lefeuvre was one of the
first to dig out-door potatoes, and he realised 8s. per cabot in
the first week of June, or 201. 16s. per ton. Probably the yield
of the crop was not large, as the tubers could scarcely have
attained much size; but if it were only 3 cabots per perch, the
gross returns were 108/. an acre.

More astonishing than any of these figures are those given
in the British Press and Jersey Times Almanack, as from
‘“‘reliable, though unofficial sources,” making the exports of
potatoes from Jersey last year amount to 50,670 tons, valued at
434,917]. As there were 6,488 acres of potatoes in the island
In 1887, this account makes the average gross returns equal to
over 671. an acre, without allowing anything for potatoes con-
sumed at home and saved for seed. Judging from the official
Annual Statement of Trade for the United Kingdom, and the
value of the exports from Guernsey, declared by the Guernsey
Chamber of Commerce, the figures given above are under-es-
timates; for the value of potatoes imported from the Channel
Islands is put down in the “ Statement” at 511,278/., while the
exports of tubers from Guernsey are valued by the Chamber at
50,0001. The balance, 461,278/., would allow over 71J. for every
acre in Jersey. In addition to the quantity exported, it is
estimated that 8,000 tons were retained in the island.’ It is
true that 1887 was an exceptionally good year for Jersey growers.
In 1886, which was a very bad year in respect of prices, the
exports were estimated at 62,208 tons, valued at 279,5721.
This valuation makes the return for exported tubers under
441. per acre on the 6,411 acres grown in that year; but there
is a great discrepancy between the official and unofficial values
for 1886. In the “ Annual Statement,” the value of potatoes
imported in that year from the Channel Islands (and there are
no direct imports from Alderney or Sark) is put at 459,3951.
Therefore, unless the value of the potatoes exported from
Guernsey in 1886 was very much greater than that of 1887,
which is unlikely, the value of the Jersey exports must have
been over 100,000/. in excess of the sum stated in the unofficial
estimate.

It is to be feared that the returns on the potato crop this
year will be lower than they have been in any previous year
since early tubers were grown in theisland. It has been stated

' The French Consul at St. Heliers, in a Report sent to his own Government,
valued the potato crop of 1887 at 72/, for every acre grown in Jersey.

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 381

that the price fell quickly to from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 8d. a cabot,
and the range of values did not long continue as high as
that. Writing on July 28, Mr. Le Gros says :—

“ As regards the potato crop, it has been almost a failure. Although
there has been a heavy crop, the price has been so low that the loss to
farmers is enormous. During this week it has come down to 6d. a cabot,

and many farmers have realised only from 9/. to 10/. a vergée, barely enough
to pay the rent and labour.”

Sixpence a cabot is 26s. a ton—certainly a ruinous price.
As the expenses of freight and commission exceed this amount,
it is to be presumed that Mr. Le Gros has allowed for them, and
that 6d. per cabot is the net price received by growers. Even so
it is ruinous in many instances, as it means a loss of over 201. an
acre where the cost of growing was nearly or quite 45/., and the
receipts 101. a vergée, or 221. 10s. an acre.

In the prize essay already referred to, there is a table giving
the exports of potatoes from Jersey in nearly every year from
1807—when the business commenced, and 600 tons were shipped
—to 1867. The largest quantity was that for 1842—18,560
tons. These were chiefly, if not entirely, fully-matured or “ old ”
potatoes. In 1845 the disease first affected the crop in the
island, and then the exports fell to 3,822 tons. By 1867 they
had risen to 6,251—still, to a great extent, “old” potatoes.
The figures given above for 1886 and 1887 show what a won-
derful increase has taken place, especially when it is borne in
mind that the exports consist entirely of early tubers, the ship-
ping being finished by the end of August.

Great numbers of Brittany peasants, with their wives and
some children, migrate to Jersey for the potato harvest. The
number is supposed to be from two to three thousand. This year,
unfortunately, these poor people came over too soon, the crop
being very late, and when I was there at the end of June
there were great numbers of them in St. Heliers with nothing
to do. Their case was a sad one, as they came over with scarcely
any money, and they could not afford to pay for lodgings. Since
in the previous year they had herded so thickly in the cheap
lodgings of the town as to leave a great deal of disease behind
them, the authorities had fitted up the cattle market, to the
extent of putting straw in the sheds and pieces of sailcloth in
front, for their reception. Over six hundred of them, men,
women, and children, slept in these comfortless lodgings ‘at the
time referred to. As a rule, when they have work in the
country, they sleep under hedges, when the weather is fine, or
in sheds, or under stacks—anywhere to escape the expense of
proper lodgings. They earn very good wages, 25s. a vergée being

2

382 Glimpsés of Farming in the Channel Islands.

the usual price for digging potatoes, though this season many
of them got only 20s. to 24s. A man often earns 5s. a day at
this work. When employed by the day, the men get 2s. 6d.
with food and cider, or 3s. 6d. without food. Women haye Is.
to 1s. 3d., with food and cider. Two men digging will keep
three women employed, one gathering tops, and two picking up
the tubers and laying them in rows. Ordinary wages appear
to be about 12s. a week and cider in the winter, and 15s., with
cider, in summer.

The system of storing hay in the island is peculiar. It is
generally tied in bundles and stored in granaries or barns,
though some is stacked. The scarcity of straw and the expense
of thatching render the farmers anxious to avoid stacks. The
crops of hay, especially of clover and rye grass, are very heavy,
as a rule. lucerne and ryegrass mixed, too, produce great
quantities of forage for several years. This plan of growing
lucerne is to be recommended, as no hoeing is necessary, and as
the mixture makes excellent food for cows or horses.

The production of other early vegetables than potatoes and of
fruit in Jersey is an important industry, though in compara-
tively few hands. On the other hand, the growth of apples,
pears, and other outdoor fruit is rapidly diminishing. The
table of crop-areas previously given does not include those of
orchards, market gardens, and nurseries. In 1887 Jersey had
1,015 acres in orchards, 97 iv market gardens, and 23 in
nurseries ; while the corresponding figures for 1886 were 1,165,
174, and 36, thus showing considerable decreases in a single
year. As to bush-fruit, only 56 acres were returned as grown
in orchards, between trees, last year. The apple orchards have
been greatly neglected of late, and are fast disappearing. They
are now chiefly valued for the making of cider. Pears, for
which the island has long been famous, are still grown to a
limited extent, but many fruit-growers have done away with
their pear trees to make room for glass-houses.

Small farmers in Jersey do not, as in Guernsey, build glass-
houses for the production of early fruit and vegetables, and that
branch of industry is chiefly in the hands of a few extensive
growers. One of these, Mr. George Bashford, of St. Saviour’s,
is deservedly famous as one of the most successful managers of
glass-houses in the world. Lverything that I saw in his
numerous houses on each of two visits paid to him this year
was flourishing, failure being apparently unknown to him. He
has now nearly thirteen acres of land occupied with glass-
houses, and the borders necessary for the vines in most of them,
and the heating pipes he uses measure about fifteen miles in
length. ‘Tomatoes and grapes are his most important crops,

Glimpses of Farming in the Ohannel Islands. 383

both being grown in the same houses, as a rule, till the vines
cover the glass, after which the houses are devoted to grapes.
In some houses, however, vines are not planted. Last year,
Mr. Bashford sent 80 tons of tomatoes and 25 tons of grapes to
England, and this year he expects the totals to be 100 tons of
tomatoes and 25 tons of grapes.

On the occasion of my first visit on March 12 of this year,
a few tomatoes in hot-houses had already been picked, and
22,000 plants were about to be put in between rows of potatoes
in cool-houses, in addition to a number previously planted. On
my second visit, at the end of the third week in June, these
tomatoes were bearing fruit, some ripe, and making a splendid
show, the potatoes grown with them having been dug and
exported. The bulk of the tomatoes grown in heat begin to
yield an abundance of ripe fruit by the ‘end of March or early
in April, and keep on producing till the end of June, when the
fruit in cool-houses should begin to come in. It is usual to
grow a crop of late tomatoes in the hot-houses after the early
crop. Tomatoes are also grown after cucumbers, for winter use.

The hot-house grape season is reckoned to begin in October
and end in May, and Mr. Bashford has a constant supply, I
believe, ready to send away during the whole period, as he has
special facilities for storing his fruit, having built two houses
for the purpose, with double walls lined, as are floors and roofs,
with sawdust to keep out frost. One of these is fitted up for
the reception of 10,000 bunches, which are preserved by putting
the stalks in bottles of water, placed in a slanting position
on laths, the grapes hanging down from the necks of the
glass bottles. A similar house holds 2,000 bunches. It is
usual to put the grapes in these houses about the middle of
December, and they can be kept there, if necessary, till February,
when the price is usually high. March and April are the
months in which prices are highest; but the supply for those
months is grown separately by Mr. Bashford, the fruit being
ready to be cut during that period, usually about two tons. Some
of the glass-houses, it should have been mentioned, are 680 feet
long.

Mr. Bashford grows a large quantity of potatoes under glass,
some in heat and others without. The heat, however, is not for
the potatoes, but for the tomatoes grown with them in alternate
rows. It does not pay, he says, to force potatoes, and those
grown in the hot-houses are planted later than the others, no
attempt beg made to force them to come to maturity earlier
than the tubers in cool-houses, as the yield is diminished by
forcing. In cool-houses, Mr. Bashford reckons his average yield

_is at the rate of 11 tons per acre; but he has grown 114 cabots

384 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

per Jersey perch, or nearly 20 tons per acre. Potatoes grown
under glass without artificial heat should be ready for market
by the end of April or early in May, just before the outdoor
crop is begun; but some growers force the tubers for sale in
January and up to April.

French beans are grown between rows of tomatoes in heat,
for picking in January and February. Peas are produced in
cool-houses only for picking early in April, and up to the time
when outdoor produce is ready.

Having briefly described the largest and best of the fruit
and early vegetable gardens in Jersey, it is not necessary to
refer to others. Mr. Bashford grows a few choice pears; but
glass will soon cover the diminished ground occupied by the
trees. Judging from what I learned of the quantities and prices
of his produce, I have no doubt that his money returns from
13 acres of land greatly exceed those of an ordinary English
farm of 1,300 acres. He does not wish his prices to be pub-
lished; but a few quotations of wholesale prices in Covent
Garden Market at different periods of the year may be useful to
young producers.

Tomatoes realise the highest prices in February and March,
when the wholesale quotations in Covent Garden are commonly
2s. to 3s. a pound, falling to 1s. to 2s. in April, 1s. to 1s. 6d. in
May, 9d. to 1s. in June, and 3d. to 4d. in the autumn, and
rising to ls. in January. Grapes (from cool-houses) range from
8d. to 1s. in August and September (when outdoor produce
from wine-producing countries sell at 3d. to 8d.) to from 4s. to
12s. in March and April. Potatoes realise 6d. to 1s. a pound in
January, and get cheaper as the season advances. French
beans sell at 2s. to 2s. 3d. a pound in January and February,
and peas in the pod at about 1s.in April and May. Prices
vary with the season to some extent; but those given were
mostly obtained last year.

But little space is available for reference to live stock and
dairying in Jersey. It is not necessary to describe the famous
breed of cattle, now more extensively bred in this country than
in its native island. The number has fluctuated during the
last twenty years between 10,000 and nearly 12,500. The
figures from the Agricultural Returns for cattle and other live
stock for 1867 and “1887 are as below :—

Livre Srock IN JERSEY 1867 1887

Cattle . - : ‘ .| 10,081 12,474
Agricultural Horses. : : -| 2,427 Gin 1869) 2,400
Sheep . . 529 349

ive ys Ge bat et ee oe 5,134

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 385

The accuracy of the return of cattle for 1867 is doubtful,
because the number in 1866 was put down at 12,037, while in
1868 it was 12,225, and a reduction of over 2,000 in the inter-
vening year is improbable. The number of cattle between 1868
and 1887, at any rate, has not materially increased, while there
is a decrease in sheep and also in pigs. Horses were not
enumerated till 1869.

That the system of tethering cattle, universal in the island,
is an economical one is beyond doubt, and the chief objection to
it is the torment which tethered animals suffer during the fly
season. There is no sheltering under hedges or in the shade of
trees to escape either from the flies or from the hot rays of the
summer sun. It would probably pay well to keep the cattle
indoors during the heat of the day in the hottest weather.
Formerly it was customary to keep the animals out all night
from some time in May till the end of October; but the owner
of the largest herd that I visited informed me that this is not
the custom now. Formerly cows were managed so as to calve
in the spring; but now calving may be said to go on all the
year round, winter dairying being profitable in a place so well
suited to it as Jersey is.

The prices of Jersey cattle, after getting up to a high
standard, have fallen to pretty nearly the rates current thirty
years ago. In 1859, Colonel Le Cornu gave 12/. to 14l. as the
price of a two-year-old heifer, and now it is 12/. to 15/.; while the
price of a first-rate four-year-old cow was about 25/. in 1859, and
is so still, though fancy prices are still occasionally given for show
animals. The foreign demand, which was so active a few years
back that prices were much higher than those above given, has
greatly slackened of late, chiefly because Jerseys have been ex- ©
tensively bred for some years in America and elsewhere; and,
of course, the English demand has fallen off for the same reason.
Space is not available for the description of the herds visited
during my stay in Jersey. One of the best I saw was that be-
longing to Mr. Edward Denyze, who has forty cows in milk.
The principal strains represented in this herd are Young Prince
(182), Bobby (208), and Jersey Boy (92). All the young stock
now on the farm are by the same bull, Browny’s Perrét 1st
(677). I saw also some excellent cattle on the farm belonging
to Mr. Albert Le Gallais, of St. Brelade’s, and a smaller number
belonging to Mr. J. P. Marett, of St. Saviour’s. Among other
well-known herds are those of Mr. Philip Labey, of Granville ;
Mr. J. A. Desreaux, of St. Mary’s; Mr. W. Alexander, of St.
Mary’s; and Mr. H. J. Langlois, of St. John’s.

No change has taken place in the prevailing system of butter.

VOL, XXIV.—S, 8, cc

386 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

making in Jersey. The old box churn is still in general use,
though a few farmers use the barrel churn. As a rule, too, the
milk is set in deep crocks or other vessels, and sour cream is
churned once or twice a week. There are, however, afew of the
now well-known Jersey creamers in use. The butter is churned
into a lump, and salted after it has been taken out of the churn.
One point of merit is that large wooden spoons are used for the
working of the butter, and not the hands; but that is a very old
Jersey practice, and in former times was one favourably distin-
euishing the butter-makers of the island. Cold water is used in
thus working the butter, to cleanse it as far as is possible after
it is in a lump—which is not very effectively—from butter-milk.
Jersey people think a good deal of their butter, and some of

it is good, though the bulk is not. The best farmhouse butter I
tasted in the island was that made in the dairy belonging to
Mr. Le Gallais, of St. Brelade’s, which is sent regularly to a
London dairyman. The butter served at two of the best
hotels in St. Heliers, at one in March, and at the other in June,
had none of the delicate flavour of good fresh butter. There is
one dairy factory in Jersey, in Trinity parish, not far from St.
Heliers, belonging to Messrs. Griffin & Co. The farmers who
supply milk to the factory are paid 8d. a gallon, and get part of
the separated milk back at half price, the rest being made into
cheese—the only cheese that I heard of as being made in the
island. A Laval separator, to deal with 70 gallons of milk per
hour, a Waide’s end-over-end churn, a Lundh (Norwegian)
butter-worker, and the Delaiteuse are worked by a small steam-
engine. The butter, made in accordance with the most ap-
proved modern system, is excellent. The dairymaid was trained
in one of the English or Irish dairy schools.

It is commonly said that a country inhabited by small owners
and cultivators of land is usually denuded of trees. This is not
the case in Jersey. On the contrary, the island is well-wooded,
and in many parts there is quite an extraordinary number of
trees of fair size by the roadsides. The inside hedgerows con-
tain a great many more pollards than the late Mr. Mechi
would have liked to see, woodlands being so scarce in the island
that the people are glad to preserve trees for lopping. For the

same reason, and also for shelter for crops and live stock, the
hedges are ‘allowed. to erow high. ‘To the English farmer,
accustomed to trimly-clipped whitethorn hedges,—though these
are not common in many parts of England—the rough fences in
Jersey, studded with pollards, appear unsightly ; but they add
to the picturesqueness of an island in which utility is certainly
not neglected,

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 387

The future of farming in Jersey is just now somewhat
doubtful, its recent high standard of prosperity having depended
to a very great extent upon the remunerativeness of the potato
crop. Whether the pre-eminence in the growth of this crop
which the island has long enjoyed will be maintained or not,
cannot be stated with certainty. If not, and if consequently
the enormous land prices and rents of Jersey should fall, there
is still no reason to doubt that a country so favoured in respect
of climate, and inhabited by as industrious and energetic a race
of farmers as it has ever been my pleasure to meet with, will in
one way or another continue to hold a foremost place in the
agricultural world.

GUERNSEY.

The total area of land and water in Guernsey is about 16,000
acres, of which about 10,000 acres, a slightly smaller proportion
than in Jersey, are under cultivation. ‘The climate is somewhat
less genial than that of the larger island, frost in spring being
less uncommon. But the chief drawback to Guernsey as com-
pared with Jersey is that the ‘lay of the land ” is quite different.
Instead of sloping downwards towards the south, as Jersey does,
Guernsey has the highest Jand on the south side, and the slope
is toward the sea level on the north. This, more than any
difference in soil—which is formed from rocks of the same
characters as those of Jersey—renders the land somewhat less
fertile than that of the sister island. Besides, Guernsey is not
so well wooded as Jersey is, while the fences are more untidy,
and the farming, apart from glass-houses, is less “intense.”
The difference in rents alone would suffice to show that less .
is got out of the land in Guernsey than in Jersey, as far as
ordinary farms are concerned ; but this is chiefly because of the
great returns of the potato crop in Jersey, and it by no means
follows that the farmers who get the greatest returns secure the
largest profits. The keen competition of Frenchmen who desire
to rent land is scarcely at all felt in Guernsey, so that rents are
not there, as they have become in Jersey, the margin of profit
beyond the cost of the meagre subsistence which satisfies a
Brittany peasant.

Unfortunately, when we come to official statistics, we must
reckon Guernsey with the smaller islands that make up its
bailiwick. In 1887 there were in the Guernsey bailiwick
1,553 occupiers owning the land they farmed, and 520 renters ;
the former holding 6,601 acres, and the latter 5,172 acres.
Thus in Guernsey and the smaller islands the occupying
owners are more than three times as numerous as the tenants,

cceQ

388 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands,

whereas in Jersey the two classes are nearly equal. It will be
noticed that the preponderance of acres owned by the occupiers
is much less than that of the number of owners. This is partly
accounted for by the fact that in Alderney a large proportion
of the land is rented, and in one small island the whole of it.
But the chief reason is that there are a great many freeholders
who own only an acre or two, or sufficient for a house, garden,
and glass-house. Indeed, a great many working-men buy as
little as half a vergée (nearly 24 Guernsey vergées to the acre)
for a green-house. This latter fact also explains the very small
average of land to each occupier. ‘The total area of occupied
land in the bailiwick of Guernsey in 1887 was returned at
- 11,773 acres, and the total number of occupiers (owners and
tenants together) at 2,506. Thus the average area of a holding
is only a minute fraction over 43 acres, as compared with about
74 acres in Jersey. According to ‘“‘Gardner’s Guide to Guern-
sey, the population of the island in 1881 was 32;607, of whom
nearly 17,000 resided in St. Peter Port. This gives an average
of 1,300 people to the square mile for the whole island, a
density described by the book referred to as nearly three times
that of any other European State. The population had increased
since 1871 by a little over 2,000. These figures relating to
population refer to Guernsey alone. The large number of
residents from England, living on their property, must add con-
siderably to the agricultural prosperity of the island.

The laws and customs affecting the inheritance and sale of
landed property are almost precisely the same as in Jersey,
though there are a few variations in the values of and rates of
interest on the rentes and in the privileges of the eldest son in
the two islands. Farm-rents in Guernsey range from 3l. to 101.
an acre, the most common amounts being 61. to 7/., or about 31.
less than in Jersey. Of course, where there is a good house,
with a glass-house as well, on a small spot of land, the rent
would be higher than the extreme given above as that paid for
agricultural land.

A comparison of the cropping of the bailiwick of Guernsey
in 1867 and 1887 is given on p. 389.

The decrease in the cultivated area (crops, fallow, and grass)
must be owing partly to the relinquishing of attempts to culti-
vate two of the smaller islands. Certainly in Guernsey itself
there are no signs of land haying gone to waste. On the other
hand, the increased area occupied by dwellings and gardens
in the island has, of course, been taken out of the agricultural
land.

Comparing the following table with the corresponding one

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 3889

Orors IN GUERNSEY, &C. | 1867 1887
| Acres Acres
Wheat . c ‘ . F : ; Ah 968 456
Barley . . P A : : i - | 623 399
eee ee eee. Fg | 449 540
tN eI elle | 30 12
Beans . - : : : - : : | 37 26
Peas. : : ; - : ‘ of leet 250 5
Total Corn Crops . | 2,157 1,438

; ————
pe PL Awaken Cay | 789 877
Turnips - : : E : 4, #1 142 89
Mangolds . . : 4 : ‘ Se} 244 247
Carrots : - . : 4 3. | 221 190
Cabbages, rape, &e. : : ; raaetdind 152 15
Vetches, lucerne, &c. . ; F ; ; NS P7/ 1,459
TotalGreen Crops . . + | 3,075 2,877
Clover, &c., and grasses under rotation “| 874 1,423
Permanent pasture . . . . «| 6,143 5,280
Bare fallow . : é : ; : er | 709 23
Crops, bare fallow,and grasses. | 12,958 11,041

for Jersey, it will be seen that the figures for Guernsey and the
smaller islands show a greater proportionate falling off in corn
crops than those for Jersey; that the green crops, exclusive of
clover, &c., have decreased instead of increasing, as in Jersey ;
that the increase in clover and grasses under rotation is much
greater in the Guernsey bailiwick than in Jersey; and that
there is still a much greater proportion of permanent pasture in ~
the former than in the latter.

The figures serve to emphasise what has already been said
as to the inferior “ intensity ” of Guernsey farming, although it is
always to be borne in mind that in such statistical comparisons
Guernsey proper suffers seriously by having Alderney, Sark
Herm, and Jethou reckoned with it. With all due allowance,
Guernsey land as a whole is not as highly farmed as that in
Jersey. When we come to the glass-houses, however, we have
an “intensity ” not touched in Jersey by the small farmers. In
some parts of Guernsey nearly every farmer, as well as many a
mechanic or other workman, has at least one glass-house, and
many have several of these structures.

Before referring to what is done with the glass-houses, a few
details about the fields may be given, and for these I am indebted
chiefly to Mr. Le Patourel, of St. Sampson’s; Mr. Mahi, of the

390 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

same parish; and Mr. Le Pelly, of St. Andrew’s; while Mr. De
Mouilpied, of St. Peter Port, afforded me a good deal of in-
formation as to the best farms to visit. The old course of
cropping, still pursued by a few farmers who disdain modern
innovations, is one of grass or “ seeds,” wheat, parsnips, potatoes,
roots—prolonged sometimes by growing roots or some other
feeding crop two or three years before returning to grass or seeds,
in which the land rests two or three years. The more usual
course now is one of grass or seeds, parsnips, potatoes, and
broccoli or turnips (planted as soon as the potatoes are off), and
potatoes again, with or without broccoli to come after them in
the same year. Broccoli is now one of the most profitable of the
crops grown in Guernsey, and it will be noticed that it takes
an important position in the new course of cropping, while
wheat is left out.

On a well-cultivated farm in St. Andrew’s parish, belonging
to Mr. Le Pelly, who keeps twelve splendid milking cows—
Guernseys, of course—and sells the milk in St. Peter Port, the
rotation pursued is (1) wheat, (2) parsnips, (3) vetches and
turnips, (4) oats, with which clover, lucerne, and ryegrass are
sown, to stand for six or seven years. Mr. Le Pelly rears and
fattens all his calves. I may mention, in passing, that he
told me he never dried off his cows, and other Guernsey farmers
said the same, giving as a reason that when the animals are
feeding on an abundance of succulent food, there would be danger
of milk fever if they were dried; but some cows cease of their
own accord to yield an appreciable quantity of milk for a few
weeks before calving, and they are dried off. Mr. Le Patourel,
however, informed me that it was the general custom to dry off
the cows for a few weeks.

The wholesale price of milk in Guernsey is 1s. a gallon (13}
cubic inches smaller than the English Imperial gallon) all the
year round,

Mr. Le Pelly has eighty-five vergées, or thirty-four acres, of
land, which constitute one of the largest farms in Guernsey. He
stated that there was only one farm of 100 vergées (40 acres) or
more in the island, probably referring to Mr. Le Patourel’s farm,
which is about 50 acres in extent. It will be seen from his
rotation that he grows a good deal of “seeds,” and he needs a
considerable quantity of fodder for his cows and bullocks; but
he also makes hay, and as he sold some this year at 7/. a ton, its
production is not unprofitable. He grows potatoes for export
on about 4 vergées of land, and turnips after them, year after
year—that is, on the same piece of land. Broccoli he also
grows for export, and his last crop was sold as it stood at 36/.

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands, 391

per acre; but as there are nearly 10,000 plants to the acre, and
the heads commonly sell at 14d. each in London in the middle of
March, or at 1d. clear of all expenses for carting and freight, a
crop often realises 40. an acre.

For his farm alone, Mr. Le Pelly told me, he would require
four men, besides himself; but he employs more hands, including
his son or sons, as he has other business on hand besides farm-
ing. In addition to selling milk in the town, he makes a large
quantity of cider for sale, buying the apples of his neighbours for
the purpose. He built an excellent glass-house last year, at a
cost of 230/., and grew tomatoes in it the first season which
realised 74/7. As an instance of the value of fairly good land in
Guernsey at a distance of a few miles from the chief town of
the island, I may mention that Mr. Le Pelly recently paid
3002..in cash (not the most common method of purchase) for not
quite 24 acres.

All authorities agree that Guernsey farmers make their
farms pay only by working with the men, when they employ
any. But this is not all, for they are at work long before the
hired men come on to the farm, and after they leave. The
labourers’ hours are from 7 A.M. to 6 P.M.; but the master, Mr.
Le Patourel says, is often at work from 4 A.M. to 9 P.M. in the
spring and summer. Wages on farms average about 3s. a day,
with 10d. extra when the men work two hours overtime, that
is till 8 P.M., in busy seasons.

A good deal of straw is imported, and some hay; but most
of the latter consumed in the island is grown there. Potatoes
for winter use, as well as new potatoes for export, are grown in
Guernsey.

An inspection of some of the green-houses (or cool-houses) '
belonging to small growers of fruit and early vegetables was very
interesting. Mr. Le Patourel has four of these houses, in which
he grows grapes, potatoes, and tomatoes, without artificial heat ;
as the term “‘ green-house,” as opposed to hot-house, implies.
Potatoes are grown before tomatoes, and grapes commonly in the
same houses; but when the grapes cover the glass, the houses
are devoted to them only. As tomatoes pay at present much
better than unforced grapes, however, many of the constructors
of new green-houses do not plant vines in them; or, if they do,
they adopt the method noticed in one of Mr. Le Patourel’s houses
—that of keeping the vines cut low down, so that they may serve
chiefly as an insurance in the case of the tomato crop failing to
grow or to pay.

Some of the best managed of the cool-houses that I visited,
were four belonging to Mr. Robin, of the Vale, who has about

892 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

six vergées (not quite two and a half acres) of land. In one of
these, 108 feet long and 36 feet wide, he had a splendid
crop of tomatoes, which some one had offered to take at the
market price of three tons of fruit. A good many of the
tomatoes were ripe, and they were selling in the last week of
June at 10d. to 1s. a pound in London, I believe. The
average value of the whole crop might very safely be put at
601. a ton, as it was an early crop, and the fruit was very fine:
so that the gross returns for the produce of a second crop
(following potatoes) in this one house would be at least 180.
Probably the total was a good deal more than that amount; but
the crop was an extraordinary one, and there is the cost of
freight and commission. to come off. Mr. Robin grows his
plants in rows 2 feet 9 inches apart, and 18 inches from plant
to plant, in the rows. As an instance of making the most of
the land outside the green-houses, I may mention that I noticed
a plot on which parsnips and carrots had been sown with
radishes. The last were first taken up, and the carrots were
ready to be taken up when I was there, leaving the parsnips.
Rents in the Vale, a famous fruit-growing district, are from
21. 10s. to 31. per vergée, or 61. 5s. to 71. 10s. per acre, for
holdings of fair size, and up to 8/. per acre for small, and even
91. for very small pieces of land.

Another Vale farmer, Mr. Bisson, grows melons and
cucumbers, of course with heat, and grapes and tomatoes with
and without heat. A few days before my visit, when potatoes
were quoted at 2s. to 3s. per cabot at the outside, Mr. Bisson
realised 6s. 8d. per cabot for some that he sent in small packages
to Covent Garden; but his tubers were full-sized and well
grown. There is no doubt that many Jersey growers do them-
selves harm by sending a lot of under-sized tubers mixed with
the fair sized ones; and as their regular custom is to put some
of the biggest on the top of each barrel, buyers are apt to
discount their produce by making a full allowance for what is
expected to be found underneath.

Four or five companies have recently been formed to grow,
in St. Sampson’s, near St. Peter Port, early vegetables and fruit
for export, and all but one are supposed to be paying well. I
visited three of these very interesting establishments, and greatly
regret that space will not allow of a full description of what I
saw in them and learned about the system on which they are
worked. It may be pointed out that any one who intends to go
in for glass-houses would do well to visit these establishments,
in order not only to see how forced vegetables and fruit are
grown for market, but also how, in two of them at least, glass-

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 393

houses can be constructed in the most economical manner. Two
if not three of the companies employ the same manager, Mr.
Bulgaize, who appears to know how to make the undertakings
pay. His method of growing tomatoes is a peculiar one, as far
as my limited experience enables me to judge. It is not nearly
as pretty to look at as Mr. Bashford’s, and it seemed to me that
the plants were far too thick, so as to half smother each other ;
but the test of results is the only one of importance, and it is
not for an outsider to criticise in positive terms an experienced
grower. In some of the houses of the Guernsey Fruit Growers’
Company, which were begun only in August 1887, and are in
sets of spans without inside divisions, costing only 5d. per
square foot, French beans were grown in alternate rows with
tomatoes, and after the beans were picked, the plants were taken
out and tomatoes put in their places. There were then tomatoes
in rows 3 feet apart, and | foot from plant to plant in the rows.
This is very thick, and the only explanation of such thickness is
that the plants are not allowed to grow more than about 3 feet
6 inches high, or to produce more than a few clusters of fruit each,
the idea being to get the fruit which comes first quickly ripened,
and then to uproot the plants and put in others, so as to obtain
two or three crops in a season. Melons and grapes are to be
grown after this year.

The Guernsey and Jersey Fruit and Produce Company has
been established three years, and its establishment appeared to
me to be the best worth seeing of any that I visited. ‘Two crops
at least are grown in a season in every house, and three of some
kinds of produce, such astomatoes. Nograpes aregrown. The
chief crops are tomatoes, melons, cucumbers, potatoes, French.
beans, and roses. About 30 tons of tomatoes are produced in a
season, and 7,000 to 8,000 melons. <A splendid crop of melons
had just been picked, except a few of the latest, in the last week
of June, and a second crop was to be ready in September. After
that cucumbers would be put in, for cutting in January and
February, then melons once more, and soon. Jn this way two
crops of melons and one crop of cucumbers are obtained in twelve
months from the same houses.

The great number of hot-houses and green-houses in Guern-
sey make work for a large staff of employés. In the busy
season men employed in them are paid 4s. a day, and women
2s. 6d.

The exports of vegetables, fruit, and flowers from Guernsey
in 1887 were given as follows at the last annual meeting of the
Guernsey Chamber of Commerce :—~

394 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

EXPorRTs FROM GUERNSEY Packages Price Value
Ea Bee: | &

Radishes and broccoli . = 37,000 0. 5..0 9,250
Grapes . : : ‘ 2 75,000 010 O 37,500
Tomatoes 3 ‘ é 5 92,000 (Oye) ts) 30,000
Flowers . ‘ A i A 23,000 0 2 6 3,000
Potatoes . ; : : 5 50,000 0 uss 0 20,000
Mushrooms . A ; ‘i 400 010 0 200
Total . ; : : 277,400 — 99,950

The increase over the exports of 1886 was upwards of 37,000
packages, and the number has nearly doubled since 1883. The
weight of the grapes is estimated at 502 tons, and of the tomatoes
at 1,000 tons. It is strange that there is no mention of peas,
beans, melons, cucumbers, or figs, all exported in considerable
quantity. Apparently the values do not include the cost of
conveyance to and sale in London, as the tomatoes come to less
than 34d. a pound, which is a very low price. They certainly
make more than that average price in London.

Being a great admirer of the Guernsey breed of cattle, it was
a pleasure to me to inspect a few of the herds in the island.
Mr. Le Patourel, who is the principal shipper of cattle in Guern-
sey, has a remarkably fine herd of twenty milch cows, and a few
bulls and young stock. The old Excelsior (by Fair Lad) and
the Climax strains are represented in the herd, in tracing descent
from bulls, and the Elegans, Cornucopcea, and Bonny Lassie
families, in tracing from cows. The famous herd belonging to
Mr. James, of Les Vauxbelets, was dispersed by auction in Eng-
land while I was in Guernsey. Mr. Le Pelly’s herd has already
been referred to in connection with his farm. The Excelsior
strain is represented in that as well as in Mr. Le Patourel’s
herd.

One of the best small lots of cows I saw was that belonging
to Mr. Edward Weedon, who lives about a mile from St. Peter
Port. He has a fine bull, Vulcan V., which he says is the only
pure-bred Vesta left in the island, all the rest of the family
having been sold to a well-known English breeder, Mr. Christie.
It is advisable here to refer again to an excellent mixture noticed
as grown on Mr. Le Pelly’s farm, as it was found on Mr. Weedon’s
farm also, and is much in favour in the island—one of clover,
lucerne, and ryegrass, sown to lie for six or seven years. Mr.
Weedon’s farm of fifty vergées well repaid inspection, as it is
excellently cultivated. Strawberries and flowers are among the
crops.

Mr. Mahi, of the Vale, and Colonel Gifford, of St. Sampson’s,

m4

Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands. 395

also have some capital specimens of the Guernsey breed. Mr.
le Carré, of Les Blicgs, St. Andrew’s, is especially well known
asa breeder. The Lady Jane strain is one of the most famous
represented in his herd. Mr. G. Le Page, of Catel, and Mr.
Prevost, of the same parish, should also be mentioned in this
connection ; but there are other notable herds which did not
come under my notice, and two or three of those named above
had to be left unseen. I was much struck with the generally
high standard of excellence in the Guernsey cows that I saw.
The uniformity of type is certainly greater than it is among the
Jerseys, and it seemed to me that the same might be said of the
standard of merit.

The numbers of the several classes of live stock in the
bailiwick of Guernsey for 1867 and 1887 compare as follows :—

LivE Stock IN GUERNSEY 1867 | 1887
Cattle . : - : . ‘ “ - 7,308 7,813
Horses. : “ A “ P F . | 1,923 Cin 1869) 1,502
Sheep . : - : * A : 2 1,348 566
Pear. Hrew Lerma ot Laois 6718 | 4,035

It will be borne in mind that these numbers include those of
animals kept in Alderney, Sark, and the smaller islands. As in
Jersey, there is a considerable decrease in the number of sheep
and pigs.

There are no better butter cows in the world than the
Guernseys, and the people of the island appear to think that
they make the best use of them. So long as they get ls. 6d. a-
pound for butter in the cheapest season, and 2s. for a great part of
the year, they may well be satisfied, and have no need to change
a system under which they, in reality, dispose of a considerable
quantity of cheese at those high prices. By churning the whole
milk, soured, and churning it into a lump, they necessarily
work a substantial proportion of caseine into their butter, which
is decidedly too solid and cheesy. Its fine natural colour makes
it attractive in appearance, and the Guernsey residents will give
more for it than for any other butter. The old dolly churn is
still generally used, though Englishmen in the island and a few
Guernsey men have the barrel churn. There is no dairy factory
in the island.

The cart-horses in Guernsey, as in Jersey, are small and
carelessly bred. I do not remember having seen a sheep, and
the pigs escaped my attention.

396 Glimpses of Farming in the Channel Islands.

ALDERNEY.

To Alderney I paid a visit, but not to Sark—which is, I
believe, well worth seeing—or the smaller islands (Herm, Jethou,
Brechou, Lehou, and Burhou), which are not at all important
from an agricultural point of view, and need not be further
referred to. Alderney has a deserted appearance, owing to the
houses of the farmers being all, or all but three or four, in the
little town of St. Ann’s. The absence of trees, too, adds to the
desolate appearance of the island, which, however, is by no
means devoid of natural fertility. Its exposure to the winds
of the Channel is, of course, against its cultivation for many
purposes, and it is chiefly devoted to the feeding of cattle,
though some parts of it are tilled. The total area is 1,962 acres,
and the inhabitants in 1881, including the military and their
families (517 persons), numbered 2,048, as compared with
3,900 in 1851.

To Mr. Shade, the cattle exporter of the island, I am in-
debted for most of the information I obtained about it, and for
his kindness in driving me to all the farms worth seeing. The
rent of good land is usually 21. a vergée, or 51. an acre; but
50s. an acre is a more common rent, and how the farmers
make the land pay at even the smaller sum is a mystery, as they
appear to export scarcely anything besides a few cattle. The
land is a great deal subdivided among owners, and by far the
greater part of it is let. Wheat (nearly all bearded) and oats
are grown a good deal on the cultivated land, as well as man-
golds, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, vetches, and lucerne. I noticed
some tremendous crops of lucerne and ryegrass mixed. From
20 to 23 bushels of wheat per acre would be reckoned a good crop.
Potatoes are allowed to grow to their full size, for winter use,
none being exported.

There are several rather large farms, chiefly in grass, on
which 25 to 50 cows are kept. Mr. Barker, an Mnglishman,
who has 25 cows, and has gained the first prize for two or three
years for bulls, was good enough to show me his farm and his
herd, which is a very good one. He has sent most of his
surplus cattle to England. One of his cows, which had calved
a month, was said to be giving 20 pots of milk a day, equal,
I believe, to about 40 pints. I was much struck with the
healthy and hardy appearance of the Alderney cows, and with
the excellent bags which they nearly all have. The breed is
now scarcely distinguishable from the Guernseys, except that
the standard size of the Alderneys is a little smaller than that
of the other breed, But as the Guernsey people have always

The Propagation and Prevention of Smut. 397

freely imported Alderney cows, though not the bulls, the breeds
are practically identical. It is not long since Jersey also re-
ceived Alderney cows. There are, however, still some black
cattle in Alderney. The breed had black points originally, but
as the Guernsey breeders will not buy cows with black points,
only white-nosed bulls have been used in Alderney for some time
past, so that black points are nearly extinct.

Alderney has a great disadvantage in not being able to ship
to England without transhipping at Guernsey. It would pro-
bably pay the farmers to co-operate in buying and using a cargo-
boat, for there is obviously a great deal of undeveloped wealth in
Alderney. Possibly, however, the people of the island are quite
as happy in their comparatively easy-going and primitive mode
of living as their more enterprising neighbours in Jersey and
Guernsey.

XXI.—Phe Propagation and Prevention of Smut in Oats and
Barley. By J. L. JENSEN, Copenhagen.

Communicated by Cuartes B. Prowrieut, F.L.S., King’s Lynn.
y 88 Ly.

THE disease of cereals known as smut (Ustilago segetum) is, I
believe, regarded in some parts of the country, in Norfolk for ex-
ample, with a superstitious reverence: as in bygone times the
black ears were considered to increase in some way the yield of
the crop. I found, however, in forty fields of barley and oats
in different parts of Denmark, that on an average 4 per cent. of
the barley and 8 per cent. of the oat plants were destroyed by .
it. This represents an average loss of 3s. and 6s. per acre
respectively, which is equal to about 20 per cent. of the rent, so
that in these days the subject is worthy of consideration by the
practical agriculturist.

A. PROPAGATION OF SMUT.

I. The spores of smut (U. segetum) falling on the ground in
a cornfield during the summer and autumn will not to any appre-
ciable degree affect barley and oats grown in that field in the
ensuing season. This is indirectly proved by the fact, which
will be hereafter demonstrated, that those spores of the fungus
which adhere externally to the seed-corn, however numerous
they may be, are practically incapable of infecting the young
plants. It is directly proved, however, by the following facts :—

On the Experimental Farm of the Royal Agricultural School
near Copenhagen, there is a plot upon which barley has been

398 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

continuously grown for nearly thirty years; and there also is
a similar plot on which barley is grown every fourth year, in the
following rotation, wheat, mangolds, barley, beans. In wheat
smut never occurs, because the seed-corn is dressed with sulphate
of copper. Now, if it were true that the spores which fell upon
the ground were capable of producing the disease the follow-
ing year in the crop, we should find the disease more prevalent
in the first-mentioned plot than in the second, provided they
were both sown with the same seed-barley. In 1885 and 1886
the smutted ears were computed in the following manner: I
walked slowly down the two plots for a distance of 120 yards,
counting as I went along all the smutted ears which I could
see on my left hand as I went, and on my right as I returned,

with the following result :—
Left Right

In the plot sown every year with barley, 86 smutted ears; 77 smutted ears,
In the plot sownevery 4th year ,, 266 Bs 302 a
Although by this means absolutely accurate results could not
be obtained, yet it is conclusively shown that, contrary to what
one would have expected, the plot which had been continuously
cropped with barley was the most free from the disease.

In 1886 amore exact method was adopted—namely, the per-
centage of blighted ears was determined in the two plots with
this result :—

8,000 ears with plot continuously sown with barley, . 70 smutted ears.
8,000 ears with plot sown every 4th year with barley . 130 "

The result was therefore the same; there was much less smut in
the plot continuously cropped with barley, than in the one in
which it was grown every fourth year.

It has been often asserted that dressing seed-corn for smut
is practically without benefit, because the crop becomes diseased
from the spores which have fallen upon the ground, unlike bunt
(Tilletia tritici), in which disease the plants are infected from the
spores adherent to the seed. The above observations, however,
show this assertion to be incorrect. Further, the eminent
Danish botanist Mr. P. Nielsen has tried to preserve the spores
of smut by burying them at different depths in the ground.
He experimented with myriads of spores, but found that, without
exception, they all lost their power of germination between the
end of summer and the following spring.

Although the two plots above mentioned were sown with
the same seed-corn, yet that which had been continuously
cropped with barley had less smut in it than the other. This
requires some explanation. When the young barley plants are
attacked by U. segetum they become truly diseased, some to

in Oats and Barley. 399

such an extent that they die and produce no ears, others—less
severely attacked—produce a smaller number of ears than sound
plants would do. Plants grown in an impoverished soil, such
as would be produced by 25 years’ consecutive cropping, have
less vitality to withstand the disease, so that not only do more
die outright, but those which survive produce a smaller number
of ears. Thus, I found 100 barley plants affected with smut
produced only 152 ears, all of which were diseased; while 100
healthy plants growing beside them, and taken indiscriminately,
produced 260 ears. The length of the straw was also dimin-
ished, for 100 blighted straws measured 5,843 centimetres,
while 100 sound straws from contiguous plants, taken indiscrimi-
nately, measured collectively 6,522 centimetres; so that on an
average each healthy straw was about three inches longer than
those produced by smutted plants.

This shows that smut has a more detrimental effect upon
the vegetative system of its host-plant than even bunt has. For
the celebrated French botanist Tillet found that

1,411 bunted wheat plants produced 4,521 ears = 3:20 per plant;

1,732 sound wheat plants produced 5,454 ears = 3:15 +
while Mr. P. Nielsen and myself found that wheat plants in-
fected with bunt produced on an average a few more ears than
sound ones did. Moreover, smut destroys not only the grain
but also the chaff, while bunt leaves the chaff and external coat
of the wheat untouched. I find, however, that bunt reduces the
length of the straw in about the same ratio as smut does.

II. The spores of smut in farmyard manure, when applied |
to the field, will not to any appreciable extent infect oats and
barley.

The eminent German botanist Brefeld has asserted that the
spores of the Ustilaginee, when placed in a proper nutritive
medium, such as a sterilised decoction of horse-dung, will develop
secondary spores, which, by budding like yeast-cells, multiply
themselves until the nutritive material in the solution becomes
exhausted. For this reason he considers that farmyard manure
is the great means by which smut and bunt are spread. And
he supports this theory by stating that practical farmers gene-
rally believe that fields manured with fresh farmyard manure
are more liable to smut and bunt than when no manure is used.

Although this theory of Brefeld is very plausible, yet my
investigations and experiments show it to be untenable as far
as barley and oats are concerned. First, because, as will be
shown below, the spores of U. segetwm adhering to the exterior
of the seed-corn do not to any appreciable extent cause the crop

400 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

to be affected. Secondly, while it may be quite true that farm=
yard manure when applied to fields causes the crop to have
more smut in it than is the case in unmanured fields, yet this
arises from the manure increasing the fertility of the land, and
not from the introduction of smut spores. Nor does it matter
in what way the fertility is increased, whether by farmyard or
by artificial manure, or by the system of cropping, the result
is the same.
That this is true the following facts show :—

(a) In the plot, which we may call the Permanent Barley Plot, previously
referred to, there was one portion which was heavily treated with farmyard
manure annually for more than Z5years. It is true that this portion had a con-
siderably larger percentage of smutted ears than those other portions of the
same plot where the crop was poorer, from the soil either being unmanured,
or treated with artificial manure from which some essential of plant-food was
excluded (nitrogen, phosphates, or potash), But the first-mentioned portion
of the plot (that treated with farmyard manure) was not more heavily
smutted than the other plot on which barley had been grown every fourth
year for the same period of 25 years, and which had never had during all
that time any farmyard manure at all upon it, but which, owing to the good
system of cropping adopted, produced very good and strong barley.

(b) At the side of the portion of the Permanent Barley Plot which was
treated with farmyard manure there was a portion which had annually
received a compound artificial manure in which all the necessary constituents
of plant life were present. Both these portions produced a good crop,
although that manured with farmyard manure was a little more luxuriant.

1885 1886
In the farmyard-manured portion . 42smutted ears 1-2 per cent. smut.
In the artificially manured portion . 35 - 1:0 “a

So that really the proportion of smut was very nearly the same in both cases,
and what trifling difference there may have been may fairly be attributed to
the difference in the fertility of the two portions.

It is well known to farmers in all countries that as long
as the seed-wheat has been properly dressed with sulphate of
copper, there is no need for them to fear bunt, inasmuch as it is
almost impossible to find a single bunted ear in these fields,
whether they have been manured with farmyard or artificial
manure. From this fact alone we must conclude that the
dunghill plays a very insignificant part in the dissemination of
bunt in wheat.

III. Spores of smut adhering externally to the seed of
barley and oats are unable, to any appreciable degree, to
infect the crop produced from that seed. It is a well-known
fact that when the spores of bunt (7. tritici) are sown ad-
hering to the seed-wheat the crop is certain to be more or less
bunted, and if many spores adhere to the wheat almost every
plant will be diseased.

in Oats and Barley. 401

Tn a field of smutted oat or barley the spores of the smut
fungus (U. segetum) are swarming in great quantities, and
may be found by microscopic examination on all parts of the
healthy plants, even upon the kernels themselves. It is also a
well-known fact that using seed from a smutted field, unless it
be efficiently dressed, will produce a smutted crop; and, more-
over, the more smutted plants there are in the field of seed-
corn, the greater will be the number of diseased plants produced
from its seed.

Up to the present it has always been considered that the
cause of this was the spores which adhered to the seed-corn. I
have, however, for some years made a considerable number of
experiments by sowing the live spores of smut upon oat and
barley-seed taken from healthy fields without being able to
produce smutted plants, while the crops always became smutted
when produced from seed taken from a smutted field. I, there-
fore, began to doubt whether the adherent spores on the seed-
corn could have had anything to do with the production of the
disease. —

This doubt was strengthened by a communication from Mr.
Plowright, in which he told me that in ten experiments with
oats he had tried in vain to produce a smutted crop by sowing
the seed-corn with the spores of (U. segetum) partly with the
ordinary spores, partly with the secondary spores before men-
tioned. In the summer of 1887, I made the following experi-
ments, which bring out this point very clearly :—

A quantity of oats was taken from a field in which more than 40 per cent.
of the ears were smutted. It was divided into three portions, A., B., and C.

A. was washed with water and fine sand ; each grain was found on ex- ~
amination to have on an average 50 spores adheri ing to it, and then planted.
B. was planted without any ‘preparation ; about 8,000 spores adhered to
each grain. C, was dusted with spores, so that about 40,000 adhered to each
grain, and then planted.

The germinative power of the spores was tested, and it was found that
each grain in A, had 25 living spores on it, in B. 4, 000, and in ©. 12,000.

A quantity of barley taken from a smutted field was treated in the same
way.

The above were sown, with the following results:— |

Outs, :
A. 25 living spores on each grain produced oe per cent, smutted ears,
B. 4,000 i aa ” ” ”
C. 12 000 » ” ” 36 ” ”
Barley.
A. washed, and having va few pe ot on
each grain - . 16 per cent. smutted ears,
B. unwashed, with many living spores on each

grain : pele:
C. dusted with additional spores on each grain 14
VOL. XXIV.—S. S, DD

402 The Propagation and Prevention of Snvut

Thus, we see the proportion of smutted ears bears no pro-
portion to the number of spores adhering to the exterior of
the seed. The large quantities of the spores dusted on the seed
did not increase the number of blighted ears, but. the washed
oats had a somewhat lower percentage of smutted ears.

IV. Although, as is shown by the foregoing, it is impossible
to infect oats and barley with smut spores to any appreciable
extent by applying them to the seed-corn, yet there can be no
doubt that the spores are the reproductive bodies of the fungus
by which smut is propagated in nature. The subjoined table,
showing the proportion of smut in 23 varieties of oats during
_ three consecutive years on the Experimental Farm of the Royal
Agricultural School near Copenhagen, leaves no doubt as to the
unerring certainty with which the fungus is reproduced by
nature :—

Smut IN 23 VARIETIES OF OAtTs, 1885-87.

Percentage of smutted ears
Names of variety
1885 1886 1887
1. Canada: .#ifs Satish tiie 28 30 224x
2. Berlie 5 Aarts. ot . 1 6 9
3. White Steier Mark Bikes : i iG 12
A SPotatoOats” Fe . ws , 1 3 22
5. Oatsfrom Scone .. : 0 2 6
6. Swedish Cub .% . . é 1 7 7
7. Forslev Oats . . 0 7 13
8. Avena Strigosa 0 0 0
9. Early from Belgium 1 8 14
10. Fionie iT as oe 0 6 19
11. White Maree: erained STA weTdE 0 0-2 4
12. Great White "Tarte ian. 10 10 37
13. Black Steier Mark . 0) 9 9
14. Black Swedish 4 5 10
15. Black Tartarian . 10 15 20
T6Oatsdxrom: Grenaa yas. es aie se 1 5 14
fee Manly Anos he. ube ptelthchi ice waists 8 (f - 28
its send Enns) JW oYenr hee Mey comic wowed soe & 2 3 6
19. New Zealand « 5 «s.¥ « 5.+« oy 22 17 21
20. China s Ohl we. Ye. pe ee a ee ce 5 6 3
Oe EIAS\ ee mw Oo og Ge 25 45 75
22. Provsti . aucrep ae e's 1 3 8
23. Experimental Farm eliseentel. ot 0 4 10

It should be remarked that the seed was taken from the
crop after it was cut, while the 23 varieties were lying side
by side on. the eround, so that there.was no thrashing of the
smutted and sound ears together. Avena strigosa was the only
species absolutely free from smut: This, of course, means that

in Oats and Barley. 403

A! strigosa is not liable to the attack of the common oat-
smut, for, grown under these conditions, it was as liable to
become affected as any other variety.

It is seen from the table that in 1885 six varieties were free
from smut. This was because they were grown for the first time
on the Experimental Farm, and from healthy seed. The other
varieties had been grown for many years. We notice that in the
22 varieties the disease has not failed to transmit itself in a
single instance, and upon the whole in an increasing scale.

The main question before us, however, is, In what manner
does the propagation of smut take place? To answer this
we must take cognisance of the following facts :-—

1. The spores of smut ripen and become diffused in the
fields of themselves while the corn is growing, unlike the spores
of bunt, which remain enclosed inside the kernel until this
is ripe.

2 The diffusion of smut spores is most profuse just after
the ears have appeared; hence it is most likely that this is the
most favourable period for the propagation of the fungus.

3. Since we have seen that spores simply adhering to the
exterior of the grain do not to any appreciable extent cause the
infection of the crop, it follows that this must take place by
means of those spores which succeed in entering the space
between the “cosh” or husk and the kernel.

4, As the kernels of oats and barley are tightly embraced by
the husk, except where the husk opens to allow the stamens to
protrude, it follows that this period is the most favourable for the
infection of the grain. This is supported by the fact that the
greatest number of smut spores are given off at the time the ears ©
are flowering ; and it should be observed that at this period the
spores fasten in great quantities on the viscid pistils, to which,
of course, the spores have as easy access as the pollen has.

The question presents itself, Does the corn become infected
by the spores which are inside the husk germinating directly
and sending a mycelial hypha or thread into the ovary, or into
the grain, while it is still green and soft? In which case the
presence of the fungus does not produce any observable effect
until the grain germinates in the ensuing spring. Or do the
spores, haying gained admission into the husk, remain there
quiescent until the grain germinates ?

I was unable absolutely to decide this question for some
time; but my experiments in the summer of 1887 clearly
pointed to the last-named as being the most probable explana<
tion. It is certain, however, that infection.takes place from
within the, husk, and not from without. + This is further shown

DD2

404 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

by several of my experiments with barley, in which all the
externally adherent spores were killed, and yet the crop was
more or less smutted. If we accept the view that the infection
takes place in spring from the spores included by the husk, we
shall arrive at the following conclusions :—

1. The experiment mentioned above, in which the washed
oats gave a slightly less proportion of diseased plants, may be
accounted for by supposing the water entered the space between
the kernel and the husk, and washed out some of the spores.

2. If we remove the husk from oats, and apply spores of
U. segetum to the kernel itself, we should expect the resultant
plants to be smutted. During the summer of 1887 I performed
this experiment. A quantity of oats was disinfected with
warm water in the manner hereafter described. This was
divided into four parts, each containing 100 oats. The treat-
ment of each of these lots, and the results of the experiment
regarding the smutted plants which were produced from them,
were as follows :—

No, 1. Husk removed, spores dusted on

the bare kernel, gave. . 8dears, of which 4 were smutted.
No. 2. Husk removed, no spores dusted on

the bare kernel, gave. 53 of 0 ‘5
No. 3. Husk not removed, pee dusted

on the outside . 50 > 0 =
No. 4. Husk not removed, ‘no spores

applied . ° ° - : 38 162 = 0 =

The plants produced by the above seed did not thrive well,
partly because they were injured by being bitten off by a stray
horse. But it will be seen that only where the spores were
applied to the bare kernel were any smutted plants produced,
and then four ears were produced from two plants. The total
number of plants is, however, too small to render the experi-
ment conclusive.

During the year 1888 I obtained satisfactory evidence that
barley and oats become infected by smut from the spores of the
fungus finding their way inside the husk (or glumelle), and not
from the entrance of threads of spawn (mycelial hyphz) into
the ovule. A quantity of oats was disinfected by immersion in
water at 133° F. It was divided into two equal portions, from
both of which the husk (glumellee) was removed. ‘To one portion
(A.) smut spores from an oat plant were applied to the bare
kernels ; the other portion (B.) was planted without further treat-
ment. The subjoined was the result :—

A.produced .» « « e« . 21 per cent, smutted ears.
'* ” « ° ° e id 0 ” ”

in Oats and Barley. 405

A quantity of similarly disinfected barley was soaked for half
an hour in water, and from the kernels the outer coat was
removed with a knife. Smut spores from barley were then
applied to half the kernels before they were sown (A.) ; the other
half was sown without the application of smut spores (B.). The
subjoined was the result :—

A. produced - . . . . 27 per cent. smutted ears.

B. ” ° - ' = - 1 ” ”
I further found that oats can be infected without removing the
husk by dipping them into water charged with smut spores,
although dusting the dry spores on the seed is as a rule without
appreciable result. Thus :—

Oats dipped in spore-charged water produced . 29 per cent. smutted ears.
Oats dusted with dry spores. . : ae Br 7

B.—VaARIETIES OF SMUT.

Is the smut which affects barley, oats, and wheat the same
fungus, or are there more than one species of smut? As long
as no certain method of infecting these cereal plants with smut
was known, this question could not be answered by botanists,
because the spores produced on barley, oats, and wheat resemble
one another so closely under the microscope as to be practically
indistinguishable. Still some botanists have doubted their iden-
tity. I have this year conducted some experiments upon this
point. Spores of these smuts were applied to the bare kernels
of their respective host-plants, with the following results :—

Oat Smut.
per cent.
Spores from smutted Oats on bare kernels of oats gave 21 smutted ears.
” ” ” barley en. ”
” ” ” wheat ” 0 ”
Barley Smut.
Spores from smutted Barley on bare kernels of barley ,, 26 s
” ” ” oats » O ”
” ” ” wheat ,, 0 ”
Wheat Smut.
Spores for smutted Wheat on wheat kernels. 7H .s00ill 3
” ” oats ” A ~ ” 0 ”
” ” barley ” bs 4 ” 0 ”

From the above it seems clear that if these smuts are not
different species they are at least well-marked varieties, although
their spores and the manner in which they germinate are in
the present state of our knowledge indistinguishable. To the

406: The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

practical farmer this information is of importance, as there is
no fear of adjacent fields sown with different crops infecting one
another: a smutted barley field, for instance, will not infect a
field of oats, or vice ver'sd. .

I further find, however, that there are two distinct species or
varieties of smut which affect barley. One, the commoner, com-
pletely destroys the entire ear, including the outer envelope of
the kernels, so that in a week or two the spores are scattered by
the wind, leaving the rachis bare. The affected ears emerge from
their sheaths in the same way as healthy ears do, namely from
the top. This I propose to call Ustilago segetum, var. nuda,
“The naked smut.”’ The other kind, which is less abundant in
Denmark, does not destroy the outer case of the kernels; this
remains intact for some time, but eventually a certain proportion,
of the spores escape through numerous minute fissures which
appear in it = var. tecta, “The covered smut.” The affected ears
are, moreover, at first nearly twice as broad as the healthy ears
are, and do not, like them, emerge at the top of the sheath but
through its sides.

In 1886 I examined a great number of specimens of these
two varieties and satisfied myself of their distinction. Sub-
sequently, however, I had sent to me a few plants affected with
both kinds (nuda and tecta), which led me to re-investigate the
subject this year. In the experiment quoted above with barley
smut, the variety tecta only was used for infecting the bare
kernels. The result was, that out of the 78 smutted ears thereby
produced, two only, and these were produced on the same plant,
were of the variety nuda. In the control plot, however, sown
with barley which had not been artificially infected, a single
smutted plant was produced, and this was also of the variety
nuda, Wemay conclude therefore that these two plants affected
with nuda arose from a natural infection of the seed corn. Both
kinds may usually be found in the same field, but nuda as a rule
most abundantly. In those rare cases in which both varieties
occur on the same plant, the explanation is simply that it has
been naturally infected with the spores of both varieties.

With regard to the variety of smut which occurs on wheat,
it should be remarked that only one diseased plant was produced
in the infection experiment quoted above. Now the gérmina-
tive power of wheat-smut spores is much more feeble than of
the other varieties. I found that of last year’s wheat-smut spores
only one or two in a thousand germinated when examined this
year, although they had been kept in a dry place all the winter.
Further, wheat-smut spores produced this year (1888) germinated:
even more feebly, while with barley-smut and oat-smut spores:

in Oats and Barley. 407

the germinative faculty was more than a hundred times as great.
This accords with the well-known fact that wheat is less liable
to be smutted than other kinds of corn. All this tends to show
the distinctness of wheat smut from the other varieties.

Further researches are desirable before we pronounce these
different kinds of smut to be true species. “ For the present it is
safer to regard them as varieties, which may be thus designated :

Wheat smut, Ustilago segetum, var. tritici.

Oat smut, Ustilago segetuwm, var. avene.

Naked barley smut, Ustilago segetum, var. hordei nuda.

Covered barley smut, Ustilago segetum, var. hordei tecta.

I would also add that some smutted ears of oats differ very
considerably in their appearance from others, but I have not had
the opportunity of investigating this question minutely.

3. Now, as it has been shown that infection is due to spores
included within the husk, we cannot regard it as impossible
that plants may now and again, in very rare instances, be
infected from spores adhering externally to the husk in cases
where a spore or two may chance to be very favourably placed.

4, As the husk of barley is closely adherent to the grain
on all sides, it is impossible to wash out the spores when once
they have gained an entrance, while with oats it may be possible
to a very limited extent to do this. On the other hand, by dip-
ping oats into water charged with spores, it is quite possible, as
the above experiment shows, that some of them may be carried
through the fissure in the husk to the kernel; but this is impos-
sible with barley. It is possible that in the process of thrashing
some of the husk of oats may become detached—and even to a’
lesser extent may this happen to barley; and when such grains
are sown with spores adhering externally they may produce
diseased plants. This may be the explanation of those experi-
ments in which some persons have asserted that they have
produced smutted plants by dusting the seed-corn with spores
—although it is most probable that the experimenter uncon-
sciously employed grain already containing spores inside its
husk from natural infection.

C.—PREVENTION OF SMUT.

Various dressings have been recommended as preventives
against smut in barley and oats, amongst which are (1) sulphate
of copper in solution alone, (2) solution of sulphate of copper
with quicklime applied about twelve hours afterwards, (3) sul-
phuric acid and water, (4) quicklime with or without subsequent
treatment with common salt,

408 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

During the year 1887 I conducted a series of experiments
with these dressings, the results of which are appended in a
tabular form.

RESULTS OF DISINFECTION EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS.

a | £3
2 a a Bt 4s
BSeo | was Estimation of quality of crop
No. Means of Disinfection Zuo | B20 at the beginning of July.
nes | 2558 Scale 1 to 5
a =? = ae
BF sd veaeee
oS °
1 | Undressed A iad: eee 20 | 5. Very good
2 | +p.c. sulphate of copper . s 5 | 4. Good
3 | 1 p.c. sulphate of copper 0 0 | 1. Very bad
411 p.c. sulphate of copper ;
with 4 p.c. quicklime . 3 ? | 44 Good, almost as good
5 | 2p.c. English sulphuric as No. 1
acid." ix. Sees 24 ASP ahor 2s Goad
6|1p.c. English sulphuric
ats WP gee a ae 2 2? | 3. Moderate
7 | 14 p.c. English sulphuric
acie:, 72) iar ered z ? | 3. Moderate
8 | 13 p.c. English sulphuric
YO ieee. pa we. 0 0 | 2. Bad
9 | 4 p.c. quicklime and 2 p.c.
Sale teal ae a Wyse OM 9 4 | 4, Good
10 | Dry heat. 122° F. for 7
FONTS os is, pogsd Met ical oe 20 | 43. Good, almost as good
11 | Dry heat. 129° F. for 7 as No. 1.
ROUTE a9 at fea oe OE ? | 43. Good, almost as good
12 | Moist heat. 127° F. for 5 as No, 1.
hours fe ee 0 0 | 3. Moderate
13 | Warm water. 127° F. for
Gminutes : 4.4. . 3 3 | 6. Very good
14 | Warm water. 133° F. for
BO ETIUES 6 ounces ones Pes 0 0 | 6. Very good

Having found that the spores of smut lose their germinating
power when they are placed for two or three minutes in water
at a temperature of from 127° to 137° F., and that the seed-
corn was uninjured by the treatment, I was led to think that
this method would be a good and convenient one for preventing
smut in these plants; preferable to the disinfection of the seed-
corn by the chemical agents enumerated above, all of which
have some drawbacks. I also tried a number of experiments
with moist and dry heat, although these methods were obviously
less adapted for practical use even if they proved efficacious:
The seed-oats employed in these experiments were taken from
a field badly affected with smut, while the barley-seed was from
a field in which three per cent. of the ears were diseased,

in Oats and Barley. 409

Hundreds of spores adhered externally to the oats, the germi-
nating power of which was tested before they were planted.

The chemical disinfectants in the first nine experiments
were mixed in the stated proportions with water. It will
be observed that No. 10, in which the germinating power of
spores was not diminished, gave as many blighted ears as the
undisinfected sample No. 1; also that the complete destruc-
tion of the vitality of the spores in experiments 3, 8, 12,
14 was followed by a crop without a smutted ear, and that a
considerable reduction in the vitality of the spores was accom-
panied by a considerable reduction in the proportion of the
smutted ears in the crop (Nos. 2, 5, 9, 13).

In one of the experiments, however (No. 2), the reduction
of the smutted ears in the crop was considerably greater (from
36 to 4 per cent.) than would have been anticipated from the
moderate reduction in the vitality of the spores (from 20 to 5 per
cent.). Provided the disease in the crop does not arise from a
mycelium in the seed, which is, I think, almost out of the ques-
tion, this discrepancy may be accounted for by the fact that the
sulphate of copper, which was the agent employed, not only
kills a part of the spores, but poisons a certain proportion of the
remainder. In this the action of sulphate of copper differs from
the other substances employed. Many of the seeds germinated
incompletely by emitting the embryo only, so that the young
plants remained for two or three weeks rootless in the ground. It
is possible that in Experiment 2 the sulphate of copper had only
killed three-fourths of the spores, yet the other fourth was so |
enfeebled by its action that the spores were incapable of sending
a mycelium into the young plant.

Respecting the action of the above methods of dressing the
seed-corn the following remarks suggest themselves :—

Sulphate of Copper.—A watery solution containing only a
3 per cent. of this salt reduced the number of smutted ears to
such an extent (1:72) that it might be considered practically
sufficient. But part of the seed-corn was killed, and the crop
suffered not inconsiderably. With a one per cent. solution
about three-fourths of the seed-corn was killed, and a large
number of the young plants remained without rootlets for two or
three weeks. This lot was still green when all the others were
almost ripe.

Sulphate of Copper and Iime.—The effect of a one per cent.
solution of sulphate of copper, followed twelve hours afterwards
with lime, was very remarkable. The addition of lime saved a
considerable portion of the seed from destruction, though not all,
so that the crop was almost as good as that from No. 1 (the

410 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

undressed sample). It will be seen from the table, however,
that, to a certain extent, it preserved the spores from injury, as
there were a number of smutted ears in the crop.

Sulphuric Acid.—It was found that when the acid was
employed of sufficient strength to kill the spores, it killed a con-
siderable quantity of the seed-corn as well.

Lime and Common Salt reduced the smut to one fourth ; but
this is not sufficient; moreover, the crop was injured in no small
degree. Probably this was due to the action of the salt. The
lime was applied in a state of powder in the proportion of half

_@ bushel to a quarter of oats.

The experiments with the chemical agents above mentioned
were made by pouring the solution on the corn in saucers to
such an extent that rather more solution was used than the
grain could absorb in twelve hours; the grain was frequently
turned, so as to ensure all parts of it being brought into contact
with the solution.

Disinfection by Heat.—Dry heat for seven hours did not
diminish the blight, but heating in moist air for five hours
completely killed the spores, but also injured the seed-corn.
Heating the seed-corn in water for only five minutes at 133° F.
entirely protected the crops from smut and did not injure the
oats at all. Immersing the seed in water at 127° F. for five
minutes reduced the blight to such an extent (1:72) as to be
sufficient for all practical purposes. But more than this, the
same simple treatment is sufficient for the protection of wheat
from bunt (T. tritici); and from my experiments with barley
and rye it is evident that they can be by the same simple treat-
ment protected from their respective smuts.

These 1887 experiments with oat-smut were so conclusive
that further evidence of the disinfecting power of water at a
temperature of 127° to 133° F. is almost unnecessary. I will
therefore only give the results of two experiments made on a
large scale by Mr. C. F. Jensen on the Rodstenseje farm during
the present year (1888). Five bushels were dipped in water at
127° F. and one bushel in water at 133° F. for five minutes each.
Subjoined is the result :—

Oats unprotected, out of 4,000 plants . . 294 were smutted.
Oats dipped for 5 min. in water at 127° Fabr. ; the

whole crop . E ‘ 0 iss =
Oats dipped for 5 min. in water at 133° Fabr.; :

whole crop . . ‘ . . . ‘ 0 ” ”

Not a single fade re) ear could be found in these compara-
tively large plots of protected oats.

in Oats and Barley. 411

Experiments with Barley.

Similar experiments were conducted with barley, but some of
the results differed from those obtained from oats in an unex-
pected manner. Sulphate of copper and sulphuric acid, it has
been asserted, are very effectual dressings for barley ; but I find
that their action as such is hardly appreciable if we keep within
the limits usually recommended for not damaging the seed-corn.

Undressed barley . ° . . in 1,000 ears 16 were smutted.
1} per cent. sulphuric acid. 7 F * Het tiki Sal 2: re
1 per cent. sulphate of copper . . ate shell bat pe As iy

These remarkable results were corroborated by similar ex-
periments conducted by my friends under my direction at
Rodstenseje and Gersdorfslund. Their experiments are the
more interesting as the quantity of sulphuric acid was nearly
double in one series, while in the other no less than a 5 per
cent. pore solution was employed.

RoDsTENSEJE.

Undressed barley . ‘ : . amongst 2,000 ears 49 were smutted.
1 per cent. sulphate of copper . ” : op oe

FF quicklime 12 hours after 3 2,000 ,, 50 -
2-7 per cent. sulphuric acid. : a: 2,000, , 43 y

A quicklime 12 hours after __,, 2,000 ,, 41 ae

GERSDORFSLUND.

Undressed barley . » amongst 2,000 ears 40 were smutted.
12 per cent. sulphate of copper . - 2,000 ,, 58 59
5) per cent, - oo . os 2,000 ,, 18 ye

In the first series the seed was completely immersed in the .
solution for twelve hours. The figures speak for themselves.
The sulphuric acid of this strength killed a great deal of the
corn, but was of little value in preventing the smut; and the
same is true of the 5 per cent. sulphate of copper, which,
although it killed much of the corn, did not completely prevent
smut.

Time and Salt did not appreciably diminish the blight.

Heating—A quantity of the seed-barley heated for five
hours to 127° F. did not produce a single smutted ear, and the
vitality of the seed was not materially damaged, while a similar
quantity of oats so treated lost half its germinative faculty.
The samples were moistened, put into two bottles, and heated in
a water bath. Possibly this difference may have arisen from the
barley not having been quite so much wetted as the oats; at
any rate, subsequent experiments showed that, like oats, barley
soon loses its vitality if heated too long or too much, D
heating did not diminish the smut. Heating in water to 127°
F, and 133° F, for five minutes was also without effect.

412 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut

The question presents itself, why do sulphuric acid, sulphate
of copper, and warm water, as previously described, kill the
smut in oats and not in barley, although all the spores adhering
externally were proved to be killed? I think it is because the
barley is closely and completely invested by its husk, while the
oats are not; so that the disinfecting solution can freely enter
the space between the husk and the kernel and act on the spores
in the latter, and not in the former. With barley the disin-
fecting solution cannot arrive at the kernel without soaking
through its outer coating, and in so doing, as chemists tell us, a
solution of sulphate of copper would by osmosis be materially
reduced in strength by the time it reached the kernel. Thus it is
that the germinative power of barley is apparently not injured
by comparatively strong copper solutions. In like manner the
reason that dipping barley for five minutes in warm water is
without effect on the smut is because the water had not time to
soak through and get to the kernel, and, therefore, the included
spores were only subjected to a dry heat, which, as we have
seen, is comparatively easily withstood by the spores. If we
suppose the barley kernel to be pervaded by a mycelium the
same explanation obtains. It seemed probable that by first
soaking the barley for a longer period, such as half a day or a
day, and then dipping it into heated water, complete disinfection
could be obtained. This has been confirmed in the most satis-
factory manner by Mr. C. F. Jensen of Rodstenseje, who this year
(1888) at my suggestion treated all his seed-barley (about 200
bushels) by steeping it in cold water for half a day and then
dipping it for five minutes in water heated to 127° F., with the
following result :—

2,000 unprotected barley plants had 45 smutted.
2,000 treated with warm water as above, none smutted.

In fact, in the whole field of protected barley only a single
smutted plant was found. The germinative power of the
barley was unimpaired; it is now (August 6) growing luxuriantly
and promises to produce a heavy crop. It must be observed
that steeped barley will not stand more than 127° F. without
injury, but when only sprinkled with water 133°F. for five
minutes will not injure it. This last proceeding, however, does
not appear to be so efficacious.

Is it necessary to repeat the protective dressing for smut every
year? Probably not, because smut propagates itself comparatively
slowly. The rate of increase in the different varieties of oats
grown on the experimental farm at Copenhagen cannot be taken
as a guide on this point, hecause these varieties were grown in

in Oats and Barley. 413

adjacent plots, whereas in actual practice the oatfields would
be scattered about the farm. So long as the amount of smut
does not exceed } per cent. it is hardly necessary to dress the
seed. It must, however, be remembered that some varieties
are more susceptible to smut than others.

Practical Application of Heat to the Seed-corn.

We have seen that smut can be prevented in oats and barley
by dipping the seed in heated water without injuring its vitality.
This is easily practicable in the following manner. ‘The grain
to be dipped is placed ina shallow cylindrical basket about twelve
inches deep lined with coarse canvas, and provided with a cover
made by stretching the canvas over a ring of such a diameter
as will pass inside the mouth of the basket. The canvas should
overlap the ring by about an inch all round. An ordinary boiler,
such as is found on every farm, is filled with water and heated
to boiling point.

Two vessels of sufficient size are placed near it. These may
be designated 1 and 2. Supposing the boiler to contain 35
gallons of boiling water, if 12} gallons of cold and the same
quantity of boiling water be put into each vessel, we shall have
25 gallons of water at 132°F. in both of them. The exact tem-
perature may be readily obtained by adding a little more hot
or cold water, as the thermometer shows to be required.

A basket containing three quarters of a bushel of corn, which
must not be more than eight inches in depth, is now dipped into
No. 1 four times; this will take rather more than half a minute, -
and will reduce the temperature of the water eight or nine
degrees. It is now to be rapidly dipped five or six times
into No. 2, which will take about one minute, and then dipped
once per minute for three minutes longer, i.e. five minutes
altogether in the two vessels. This will reduce the temperature
of the water in No. 2 from 132° to 129°-130°. If steeped
barley be used the original temperature of No. 1 should be
129°-130°; but with unsteeped grain, for oats, barley, or rye, it
does not matter if the original temperature be 153°-136°.

The seed-corn must now be cooled. This is best done by
placing the basket on the top of a third vessel and pouring a
couple of buckets of cold water upon the corn in it, taking care
that the cold water falls not only upon the centre, but round
the edges, so that the corn may be uniformly cooled. The
basket is now emptied on the floor, and the corn spread out in a
thin layer, so that it may cool completely. The water used in
cooling the corn will have its temperature raised and may be

414 The Propagation and Prevention of Smut.

employed in replenishing the boiler. The requisite temperature
(132° F.) of vessels Nos. 1 and 2 must be maintained throughout
the process by adding from time to time boiling water from
the boiler and transferring from them a similar amount back
again to the boiler. The temperature must be regulated by
a thermometer, which when used must be plunged deeply into
the water.

The basket must be completely immersed each time, then
lifted quite out of the water so as to allow it to drain for four or
five seconds before it is dipped again.

The above process in practice will be found simple and easy
enough to perform, although its description is necessarily some-
what complicated.

D. PREVENTION OF Bunt.

With bunt, so much more virulent is the power of infec-
tion, that annual dressing of the seed-corn is necessary, and this
appears to be the custom amongst farmers of all nations. I
have made a number of experiments with bunt as well as with the
smut of rye (Urocystis occulta). These are now so far complete
as to enable me to affirm that dipping the seed-corn in water
of 127° F. for five minutes will effectually prevent both these
diseases. No previous steeping of the corn being necessary,
there is no danger in employing as high a temperature as
133° F. This, however, is the maximum limit and it is advisable
to keep a little below it. I have conducted a series of experi-
ments in which the results obtained by disinfection by heated
water, and by sulphate of copper (the ordinary method), were
contrasted. The following is an epitome of the results :—

(a.) Sulphate of copper in the quantities generally employed
will destroy not only the fungus, but from three to ten per cent.
or even more of the seed-corn. Disinfection by heated water does.
not injure the seed-corn to any appreciable degree.

(b.) Sulphate of copper impairs the vitality of the young
plants even when it does not kill them; so that their average
weight in autumn is distinctly less than that of those dis-
infected by warm water. This injury to the young plants is
of far greater importance than the mere killing of a certain
proportion of the seed-corn.

(c.) The first-named plants are therefore less able to with-
stand the winter than the latter. Not only do a greater
number die during the winter, but those which survive are less
vigorous, and in summer have a smaller average weight. It is
obyious, therefore, that as a general. rule the crop produced’

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 415

from seed dressed with sulphate of copper will be essentially
diminished thereby. Especially so will this be the case after
such a severe winter as 1887-8 was in Denmark; for I found
in my experiments this year (1888) with wheat that the yield
of the corn averaged 30 per cent. more on those plots sown with
heat-disinfected seed than on those sown with seed-corn dressed
in the usual way with sulphate of copper. The yield of straw
too was 23 per cent. in favour of the heat-disinfected seed.

It may be remarked that the above results were obtained
from corn thrashed in the usual way (by a machine), but I
found that when the grains were picked out of the ears by
hand it suffered much less from the treatment with sulphate of
copper.

CoNCLUSION.

Dressing cereals with sulphate of copper in the usual manner
against smut and bunt causes as a rule a waste of the seed-corn.
It is injurious to the plants and unnecessary. Treating the seed-
corn with water heated to a temperature of 127° F. for five
minutes prevents these diseases equally well, and protects barley
much better, while it has the advantage of not injuring the
seed-corn or the resulting crop.

XXII.—The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. By W. FReEaM,
B.Se. Lond., LL.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., College of Agriculture, -
Downton, Salisbury.

THE grass lands of England constitute so large a proportion of
her agricultural wealth as to justify, and even to demand, the
most careful observation and study to which pastures and
meadows can be subjected. Within recent years one branch of
the subject, that of laying land down to grass, has been very
fully discussed, and much valuable experience has incidentally
been placed on record. But although considerable information
has been forthcoming concerning the most approved methods of
forming new grass lands, it can hardly be said that our know-
ledge of the constitution, and more particularly of the herbage,
of old grass lands has made much progress.

Yet, from an economic point of view, the old meadows and
pastures of this country are far more important and far more
valuable than those of recent creation, whilst many of them are
so famed for their general excellence of character that they may
fairly be taken to constitute the ideal in the direction of which

416 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

it should be the object of the cultivator to improve the inferior
grass lands. ‘To create a good meadow or pasture is a legitimate
triumph of agricultural skill, and the more nearly such new
grass land can be made to resemble the best old grass lands of
the country the more complete the triumph becomes. That the
herbage growing upon a meadow or a pasture is one of the most
essential factors of its feeding capacity is a proposition that
needs no support, and the chief object of this paper is to inquire
into what may be termed the botanical composition of some of
our best meadows and grazing lands.

The subject had attracted attention in this country more than
a century ago. In Kent’s “ Hints to Gentlemen of Landed
Property ” (2nd Edition, 1776) we read—

‘Meadow and pasture land is oftener neglected than ploughed ground,
notwithstanding it generally admits of a much greater proportion of im-
provement. The best grasses cannot be collected at too great an expense ;
for I have seen a small spot of land, in the middle of a large piece which
was laid down twelve or fourteen years since by Mr. Stillingfleet, upon
the estate of Mr. Price, of Foxley, in Herefordshire, with some choice
seeds, at the same time when the remainder of the field was laid down
with common seeds; and this spot is considerably better than the rest. It

not only appeared so to my judgment, but was allowed to be so by
Mr. Price’s bailiff, who was well acquainted with its produce.”

At the end of the last, and beginning of the present century,
William Curtis—referred to by George Sinclair in his “ Hortus
Gramineus Woburnensis” as “the late excellent Mr. Curtis”
—was probably the leading authority on the subject in this
country. In 1790 he published a work entitled ‘ Practical
Observations on the British Grasses, especially such as are best
adapted to the laying down or improving of meadows and pas-
tures: likewise an enumeration of the British Grasses.” In
1812 the fifth edition, “with additions by John Lawrence,
author of the ‘ New Farmers’ Calendar,’” was issued, so that in
all probability the work enjoyed considerable popularity. In
order to determine the specific nature of the natural herbage
growing in certain situations Curtis procured from each of the
under-mentioned commons in Hampshire and Sussex a turf, about
six inches in diameter, and planted it in his garden. A turf from
Selborne Common yielded, of grasses, Agrostis vulgaris, Avena
flavescens, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca duriuscula, Poa annua,
and Cynosurus cristatus; of leguminous plants, Trifolium
repens ; and of miscellaneous weeds, Plantago lanceolata, Crepis
tectorum, Achillea Millefolium, Galium verum, Hypocheeris
radicata, Hieracium Pilosella, and Thymus Serpyllum. <A turf
from Oakhanger produced, of grasses, Holcus ]anatus, Poa annua,
Agrostis vulgaris; and of clovers, Trifolium repens. <A turf

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 417

from Deortun gave, of grasses, Lolium perenne, Holcus lanatus,
Festuca duriuscula, Agrostis alba; of clovers, Trifolium repens ;
and of weeds, Ranunculus repens, Prunella vulgaris, Crepis
tectorum, and Achillea Millefolium. Two turfs from Glynd Hill
yielded, the one, Poa pratensis, Medicago lupulina, and Achillea
Millefolium ; the other, Avena flavescens, Festuca ovina, Festuca
duriuscula, Agrostis vulgaris, Trifolium repens, Hieracium Pilo-
sella, and Thymus Serpyllum. A turf from Short Heath afforded
Aira precox, Festuca bromoides, Poa annua, Agrostis vulgaris,
and the rush, Juncus campestris. A turf from Mount Cabron pro-
duced Avena flavescens, Festuca duriuscula, Medicago lupulina,
and three weeds—Rumex Acetosa, Daucus Carota, and Poterium
Sanguisorba. A turf from Ringmer Down yielded, of grasses,
Avena flavescens, Festuca duriuscula, Festuca ovina, and Poa
pratensis ; of leguminous plants, Trifolium repens, Ornithopus
perpusillus, and Lotus corniculatus; and of weeds, Linum
catharticum, Scabiosa Columbaria, Hypocheeris radicata, Crepis
tectorum, Juncus campestris, Hieracium Pilosella, and Thymus
Serpyllum.

These eight turfs were all taken from sheep-fed land, and
the following statement shows the number of turfs each species
of grass and leguminous plant occurred upon :—Grasses.—
Festuca duriuscula 5, Agrostis vulgaris 4, Avena flavescens 4,
Poa annua 3, Poa pratensis 2, Festuca ovina 2, Holcus lanatus 2,
Agrostis alba 1, Dactylis glomerata 1, Cynosurus cristatus 1,
Lolium perenne 1, Aira precox 1, and Festuca sciuroides 1;
there being in all 12 species of grasses detected.

Leguminous Plants.—Trifolium repens 5, Medicago lupulina
2, Ornithopus perpusillus 1, and Lotus Corniculatus 1.

These results may probably be relied upon as showing the
botanical composition of native down sheep pastures a century
ago. As is well known, the short, sweet natural herbage of these
downs differs much from the richer, greener, and more succulent
vegetation met with in prime old pastures and meadows. Since
Curtis’s time, and since that of Sinclair, very little exact obser-
vation seems to have been directed to the botanical composition
of our grass lands, though within recent years Sir John Lawes
has had several pastures submitted to botanical analysis.

It will probably prove convenient, and save the reader trouble,
if I at once enumerate the plants to which I shall have occasion
to refer in the following pages. Accordingly, in the subjoined lists
will be found the names of the gramineous, leguminous, and mis-
cellaneous species of which mention will be made, and for facili-
tating reference they are arranged in alphabetical order and not
in botanical order. Any one who has had occasion to read French,

VOL. XXIV.—S. S. EE

418 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

German, or American writings upon agricultural botany will be
familiar with the confusion and uncertainty which arise from a
careless style of nomenclature, a fault from which many of our
English writings are not free. Hence, in these reference tables I
have given the systematic name of each plant, and the authority
for that name —“ L.,” Linneus; ‘“ Huds.,” Hudson ; and so on
—a system which is invariably adopted in scientific writings.
Moreover, as the common names are much confused, not only
between different countries, but between different parts of the
same country, I shall throughout employ the systematic name,
as this is good currency in all civilised countries. By referring
to the following tables the reader may see at a glance what is
the common name of any plant mentioned in the subsequent
pages :—
Gramineous Species, or Grasses.

Agrostis alba, L. F - :
Agrostis alba var. stolonifera, L.
Agrostis vulgaris, With. .
Aira cespitosa, L. :
Alopecurus geniculatus, L.
Alopecurus pratensis, L. .
Anthoxanthum odoratum, L.

. Marsh bent grass

. Fiorm

. Fine bent grass

. Tufted hair grass

. Floating foxtail

. Meadow foxtail

. Sweet-scented vernal grass

Avena elatior, L., or Arrhenatherum

_avenaceum, Beauv.
Avena flavescens, L. : ‘
Avena pubescens, Huds. . :
Briza media, L. . , .
Bromus mollis, L. ‘
Bromus racemosus, L. :
Cynosurus cristatus, L.
Dactylis glomerata, L.
Festuca elatior, L.
Festuca pratensis, auct
Festuca ovina, L. :
Festuca duriuscula, L.
Festuca rubra, L. F
Glyceria aquatica, Sm.
Glyceria fluitans, R. Br.
Holcus lanatus, L. :
Hordeum pratense, Huds.
Lolium perenne, L.
Phalaris arundinacea, L.
Phleum pratense, L. or
Phragmites communis, Trin.
Poa annua, L. :
Poa pratensis, L. , , é
Poa trivialis, L. . , ‘ ‘

. False oat grass
. Yellow oat grass
. Downy oat grass
Quaking grass
. Soft brome grass
. Smooth brome grass
Dogstail
Rough cocksfoot
Tall fescue
Meadow fescue
Sheep’s fescue
Hard fescue
Creeping fescue, red fescue’
Reed sweet grass
Floating sweet grass
Yorkshire fog, woolly soft grass
. Meadow barley grass
. Ryegrass
Reed canary grass
. Timothy, or meadow catstail
. Great reed
. Annual meadow grass
. Smooth-stalked meadow grass
. Rough-stalked meadow grass

Leguminous Species.

Lathyrus pratensis, L. . F
Lotus corniculatus, L. ; <
Lotus major, Scop. . . r

.. Meadow vetchling

.» Common birdsfoot trefoil

. Narrow-leaved birdsfoot trefoil

*The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 419

Medicago lupulina, L, « « ‘« Yellow trefoil, “hop,” “trefoil,”

black medick
Trifolium minus, Sm. » « . Yellow suckling clover
Trifolium pratense, L, ‘ . . Purple or meadow clover
Trifolium repens, L, . . : . White or Dutch clover
Vicia Cracca, L. . ‘ ’ . Tufted vetch

Miscellaneous Species.

Achillea Millefolium, L. , ‘
Bellis perennis, L. _.
Bunium flexuosum, With. . :
Centaurea nigra, L. . , :
Cerastium triviale, Link. . .

Yarrow or milfoil

Daisy

Earth-nut or pig-nut

Black knapweed

Narrow-leaved mouse-ear chick-
weed

. Cow-parsnip

Heracleum Sphondylium, L.

Ranunculus repens, L.
Rumex Acetosa, L. .
Rumex crispus,L. .
Taraxacum officinale, Web.
Veronica Chamedrys, L. .

Creeping crowfoot or buttercup
: . Common sorrel or sour dock
: . Curled dock
. - Dandelion
: . Germander speedwell

Leontodon autumnalis, L. = .» Autumnal hawkbit
Leontodon hispidus,L. . : » Rough hawkbit

Plantago lanceolata, L. . ‘ . Ribgrass, ribwort, or plantain
Potentilla Anserina, LL. . . . Silver-weed or goose-tongue
Prunella vulgaris, L. . «bate Selfheal

Ranunculus acris, L. . , . Upright buttercup
Ranunculus bulbosus,L. , Bulbous crowfoot or buttercup

The water meadows of the southern and western counties of
England afford a convenient means of studying the effects of a
long-continued uniformity of conditions upon meadow herbage,
though but little advantage appears to have been taken of the -
opportunity thus offered. Marshall, in his ‘ Rural Economy of
the Southern Counties,” published in 1798, describes the water
meadows around Salisbury, and gives the following extract
from his note-book under date of July 5, 1791 :—

“The herbage of the watered beds is various in species, as ray-grass, the
meadow poe, the marsh and other bent grasses, and the meadow fescues ; the
loliacea and the pratensis, here putting on very different appearances. On
the sides of the trenches, and ditches, the flote fescue, reed canary grass
(Phalaris arundinacea) and the water poe (Poa aquatica) are common, also
the meadow rue (Thalictrum flavum) and the water dock. ; . . . At what
an excessive cost must these lands have been brought into their present

state! When, and in what manner, was so great and spirited a public work
executed ? ”

In the subjoined list are enumerated all the grasses I have
been able to find growing upon about fifty acres of water
meadows situated in the valley of the Christchurch Avon in
Hampshire, my observations having extended over several years.
I found on these irrigated grass lands the following twenty-six
species of grasses, and no more :—

EE2

420 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

1. Agrostis alba. 14, Festuca elatior.

2. Agrostis vulgaris. 15. Festuca loliacea.

3. Aira ceespitosa 16, Festuca pratensis.

4, Alopecurus geniculatus. 17. Glyceria aquatica.

5. Alopecurus pratensis. 18, Glyceria.fluitans.

6. Anthoxanthum odoratum, 19. Holcus lanatus.

7. Avena elatior. 20. Lolium perenne.

8. Avena flavescens. 21. Phalaris arundinacea.
9. Briza media. 22. Phleum pratense.

10. Bromus mollis. 23. Phragmites communis.
11. Bromus racemosus. 24. Poa annua.
12. Cynosurus cristatus. 25. Poa pratensis.
13. Festuca duriuscula. 26. Poa trivialis.

Of these, Holcus lanatus is first in point of quantity, the
second place in this respect belonging to either Bromus mollis or
Lolium perenne. It is a noteworthy circumstance that Dactylis
glomerata does not occur upon these water meadows. Institut-
ing a comparison between the grasses of the water meadows and
the species which have been deteeted upon the very old non-
irrigated grass land in Rothamsted Park (“ Phil. Trans.,”
Part IV., 1882), it appears that thirteen species are found in
both situations, and these are printed in italics in the foregoing
list. Furthermore, Aira cespitosa: and Phleum pratense occur
sometimes upon some of the experimental grass plots in Rotham-
sted Park, whilst two other species, Festuca elatior and Festuca
loliacea, though they have occasionally been found at Rotham-
sted, are extremely rare there. Three very common species at
Rothamsted, Avena pubescens, Dactylis glomerata, and Festuca
ovina, do not occur upon the water meadows.

The herbage found growing upon these water meadows
comprises twenty-six gramineous species, seven leguminous
species, and fifty-three miscellaneous species. The leguminous
plants are :—

1. Lathyrus pratensis. 5. Trifolium pratense.
2. Lotus corniculatus. 6. Trifolium repens.
3. Lotus major. 7. Vicia Cracca.

4. Medicago lupulina.

Of these, all excepting Medicago have been found in Rothamsted
Park, under one or other of twenty different conditions of
manuring.
Numerous attempts have been made, with varying degrees
of success, to lay land down to permanent pasture. Any one
would probably feel well satisfied with his endeavours should he
at length arrive at a result comparable with the rich old pastures
of England and Ireland. A desirable means to this end would
obviously be some exact knowledge as to the nature of the
herbage growing upon these old grass lands. In the case of

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 421

meadows which come annually under the scythe, such know-
ledge is not difficult to acquire; but in the case of many of the
best pastures, which are continuously grazed but never mown,
many obstacles present themselves. A pasture may possess
excellent fattening properties, or it may be famous for the rich
and copious flow of milk it promotes; but from the very fact
that it is always grazed, an exact knowledge of the botanical
composition of its herbage may remain a sealed book even to
those who see the pasture daily. Certainly it would be possible
to fence in a small portion of a pasture, and so allow the enclosed
area to declare the specific character of the plants growing upon
it; but it would be difficult and expensive for one observer to
keep a number of these under constant inspection in different
parts of the country. There is one other practicable method,
and that is to collect typical specimens of the turf from a number
of the best grass lands, and grow them all side by side in one
place, so that they can be subjected to continuous inspection
and examination. This is the system I have followed in the
experiments now to be described.

As it might be objected that paring off a turf and trans-
porting it to another soil might influence the development of
the herbage, fayouring the growth of some species and hinder-
ing that of others, I arranged that, notwithstanding its removal,
each turf should continue to grow upon its own soil. Thus, my
request to those gentlemen who have so kindly aided me was
that each turf should be cut 2 feet long, 1 foot broad, and
9 inches deep, and in the majority of cases these dimensions
have been adhered to. The superficial area of each turf is thus
about nine times that of the turf upon which Curtis made his
observations at the end of last century, whilst the depth of
9 inches is quite sufficient for, at any rate, one season’s growth.

In the Botanical Garden, at the College of Agriculture,
Downton, I set apart a bare fallow bed, 72 feet long by 6 feet
broad, and, as the turfs came to hand, holes were dug in the bed
and each turf was planted so as to bring the herbage to the
level of the general surface; the turfs were planted symmetri-
cally along the middle of the bed, and between each turf there
was left a bare space somewhat exceeding the width of the turf.
The first turf was planted on November 29, 1887, and is called
No. 1, the others receiving consecutive numbers in the order in
which they were planted. The bed was kept free from weeds
throughout the season, but the turfs received no attention what-
ever—they were simply allowed to grow, and were periodically
inspected, every species on each turf being noted as soon as it
became recognisable, a record also being kept in my note-book

422 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

of the general appearance of each plot. It was specially desired
that each turf should be cut from, and should be typical of,
what practical men regard as the best grass-land of each district.
In no case did I select the turf myself, preferring always to be
guided by those whom long experience had taught where to
select the best old herbage in their respective districts.

In all, 25 turfs were received and planted, 17 from England
and 8 from Ireland. The English specimens comprised 3 from
Somerset, 2 each from Dorset, Wilts, and Kent, and 1 each
_ from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire,
Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, and Devon-
shire. The Irish specimens were 1 each from the counties of
Tipperary, Kildare, Mayo, Meath, Cork, Wexford, Dublin, and
Clare. With one or two exceptions, which are noted, all these
turfs were taken from old pastures and not from meadows.

In the month of July the herbage upon each turf was cut,
but they were not all cut simultaneously, for a reason which
will at once be made apparent. Directly a turf was mown the
herbage was, without loss of time, separated into what I may
call its proximate botanical constituents of gramineous herbage,
leguminous herbage, and miscellaneous herbage, and each sec-
tion was at once divided into its specific elements. This work
is of a tedious and laborious character, particularly the separa-
tion of the gramineous herbage into its component grasses ;
but it is the method which has been followed in the Rothamsted
experiments, and no better system is available. As soon as
the botanical analysis or separation was completed the various
sections were weighed on a balance, with metric weights, and
the results recorded. ‘The separation was performed in the
shade, and the green weights were taken, as it is in the green
state that the herbage of pastures is consumed.

My note-book records (1) the general appearance of each
plot from time to time, (2) a note of every species of plant
observed growing upon each plot, (3) the total weight in grams
of the cut herbage from each turf, (4) the actual weight—when
it exceeds one gram—of each species of plant found in the
herbage of each plot, (5) the calculated percentage by weight of
each species when present in a significant proportion. —

It is impossible to burden this paper with all these details.
Accordingly, in the following brief summary of the results
afforded by each turf, what has been attempted is to give (a) a
short account of the origin and history of each specimen, ()) the
respective percentages by weight of its gramineous, leguminous,
and miscellaneous herbage, (c) the proportionate weight per
cent. in which the various species of grasses are contained in the

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 423

gramineous herbage, and (d) a few notes on the leguminous and
the miscellaneous herbage. Then follows asummary table, into
which much information has been condensed; but this will be
referred to in its proper place.

It is necessary at this stage to direct attention to two points
concerning the nomenclature adopted in the following descrip-
tions. In the first place, it will be found that the expression
« Agrostis sp.” is used, meaning that the plant is a species of
Agrostis, though the particular species is not expressed. In
the reference table of species already given there occur Agrostis
alba, Agrostis alba variety stolonifera, and Agrostis vulgaris.
Botanists, however, are not entirely agreed as to these being
separate species. Bentham, who was probably the greatest
systematist of this century, regards all three as the same species,
and he remarks ( ‘“‘ The British Flora,” 1878) :—

“ Besides the great differences in size and stature, it varies in the more
or less spreading panicle of a light green or purplish colour, in the length
of the ligula of the leaves, in the degree of prominence of the nerves of
the glumes and the roughness of their keel, and in other minute particulars ;
but all attempts to combine these characters so as to show distinct species,
or even to separate marked or permanent varieties, have hitherto failed.”

Accordingly, I have not attempted the well-nigh impossible
task of separating Agrostis into its varieties, though the form
known as Agrostis stolonifera was as unmistakably present upon
some of the plots—the Staffordshire turf (No. 6) for example—as
the form usually regarded as Agrostis vulgaris was present on
others.

The second point concerns sheep’s fescue and its varieties,
which I have estimated together under the designation “ Festuca
ovina et var.” Two types of fescue grass are known to agri-
culturists, the broad-leaved forms, of which Festuca pratensis
may be taken as the type, and Festuca loliacea and Festuca
elatior probably as extreme modifications, and the narrow-leaved
forms, represented typically by Festuca ovina. Both Bentham
and Hooker, and even Babington to some extent, regard Festuca
duriuscula and Festuca rubra as mere sub-species or varieties
of Festuca ovina, and accordingly “Festuca ovina et var.”
may mean any or all of these three. The labour of separating
the grasses was severe, and it would have been mere waste of
time to have attempted to distinguish between the several forms
of Agrostis and of the fine-leaved Festucas; indeed, as in many
cases there were only leaves, or fragments of leaves, it would
have been impossible. Bearing this reservation in mind, we
may pass on to the examination of the series of turfs.

No. 1—A turf sent by Mr. James Martin, of Wainfleet,

424 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

Lincolnshire. It was cut from one of the best cattle-feeding
pastures of the district—Mr. Epton’s, of Northolme—and the
sample presented the appearance of a rich brown friable loam.
Mr. C. H. Hooper writes that the pasture from which the sample
was taken is three miles from the Wash, lying upon an alluvial
soil, between marsh and fen. The land becomes mossy in places,
and is occasionally undulating, but mostly flat. This plot was
cut on July 16, and a botanical analysis of the herbage gave the
following percentage results :—

Gramineous herbage . : : . : : » OS

_ Leguminous herbage . : ebitetts . ° > 11 {100
Miscellaneous herbage 5 ; : . of 14

The gramineous herbage was thus made up :—

Lolium perenne , ‘ ‘ ‘ i é oh Se
Dactylis glomerata . , : : : : . 20
Bromus mollis . : . : . ° : . 4
Holcus lanatus
Cynosurus estat : . . . . . 8\.100
Agrostis sp.

Poa trivialis

Avena flavescens
. ° . . e . . 1
Festuca ovina

The leguminous herbage was all Trifolium repens, whilst three-
fourths of the weeds consisted of Cerastium triviale, the re-
mainder being chiefly Rumex Acetosa.

No. 2.A turf sent by Mr. George Button, of Tenterden,
Kent. The land from which it was taken is situated in the
parish of Tenterden, and the sample had the appearance of a
stiff plastic moist clay, of a yellowish-brown or ferruginous
colour. It is probably marine alluvium, and the pasture
possesses good feeding, though not fattening, properties. The
herbage, cut on July 21, yielded the following results :—

Gramineous herbage . : ; . : . . at:
8 -100

Leguminous herbage . . . : . . .
Miscellaneous herbage : . . . 5 2 J

The grasses were made up as follows :—

Lolium perenne . : ° : . . . ~ 80
Cynosurus cristatus . 6 y's ON ae ee
Phleum pratense : . . . : . ’ ef
Agrostis sp. | 100
Alopecurus pratensis

Tfordeum pratense . . e e ° , 5

Holcus lanatus

It is obvious that this was a very pure or “ grassy” herbage.
The small proportion of leguminous plants consisted entirely of
Trifolium repens, and the really insignificant amount of weeds

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands, 425

was made up mostly of Cerastium triviale, the remainder being
Ranunculus acris.

No. 3.—A turf sent by Mr. Campbell F. L. Sanctuary, of
Mangerton, Sherborne, Dorset, who writes: ‘The turf comes
from a first-rate meadow, about three miles from Bridport. The
field from which it comes will fatten cattle in the summer with-
out artificial food.” The sample consisted of six or seven inches’
depth of loam resting on stiff blue clay. The herbage was cut
on July 18, and the botanical analysis gave the following
results :—

Gramineous herbage . ; . : : . +) 80
Leguminous herbage . . ° . : {roo
. Miscellaneous herbage : : : - : wens

The grasses were separated with the subjoined results :—
Lolium perenne . - : . : : ide
Dactylis glomerata . : : : . : ; 13)
Cynosurus cristatus . ; ; ‘ é : - 5 |
ROMCUENOMIENS 5 96g te poe gE LOD
Agrostis sp. y |
Poa trivialis ss
Festuca ovina i eo PM cP Bae = Si A re
Avena flavescens

The leguminous herbage was composed, in about equal parts, of
Trifolium repens and Trifolium pratense. In the weeds Cerastium
triviale preponderated, but there were also Ranunculus, Leon-
todon, Plantago, Veronica, and Bellis, their relative abundance
being in the order indicated.

No. 4.—A turf sent by Mr. J. P. Oatway, of Little Marston,
Sherborne, Dorset. The land from which it was taken is in the
parish of West Camel, Somerset, about 120 feet above the sea-
level, and with southern aspect; subsoil, a slaty clay; feeding
properties, fattening. The soil in the specimen had the appear-
ance of a stiff ferruginous clay loam. The herbage of this
pasture, which was cut on July 23, gave the following percentage
results :—

Gramineous herbage . : : ; ° : - 100°
}r00

Leguminous herbage :

f r
Miscellaneous herbage oe

The grasses were thus made up :—

Lolium perenne . : ; : ‘ : ‘ en
Holeus lanatus .

Agrostis sp.

Alopecurus pratensis ,

Cynosurus cristatus

Phleum pratense

There were present trivial neantities of Misifolieas repens, and of
Cerastium triviale and Ranunculus acris, but the total quantity

erwoonl

426 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

of these did not exceed half of one per cent. It may be said
that practically the herbage is all grass.

No. 5.—A turf sent by Mr. W. Hancock, of Wiveliscombe,
Somerset, who describes it as “‘ what we consider a fair sample
of one of our best pasture fields.” The soil of the specimen
was a bright red loam, and was cut from a dry pasture on the
side of a valley. The field faces south, and it has been mown
every year excepting the last three years. It is a very good field
for sheep and cattle, but is kept chiefly for the latter. It is about
a mile west of Wiveliscombe, and is rather over 300 feet above
sea-level. The herbage was cut on July 16, and gaye the
following percentage results :—

Gramineous herbage . oly itshes Seaterinpade ‘ 70)
Leguminous herbage . ‘ ‘ ae on Ta ‘ et! ad
Miscellaneous herbage set ‘ ‘ . » 29)

The grasses, when separated, were found to be present in the
following proportions :—

Lolium perenne . . . ‘ : . , . 82
Agrostissp.” . «.« «. « +s ¢ GaGa
Holcus lanatus . 4 : F ® ° ; e 5 100

Cynosurus cristatus eee Te

Anthoxanthum odoratum
Poa trivialis

The leguminous herbage was practically Trifolium repens, and
the miscellaneous herbage was almost entirely made up of
Leontodon sp.

No. 6—A turf sent by Professor J. P. Sheldon, of Sheen,
Ashbourne, who writes that it was dug in the parish of Sheen,
North Staffordshire, from a permanent grass field that has not
been under the plough for a century, if ever. During the last
twenty years or so it has been pastured; previously it was
meadowed, pretty regularly, for a long period. In a favourable
season, and under good management as to manuring, it will cut
about two tons of hay to the acre. Five acres of such land will
fatten four shorthorn barreners, between the middle of May and
the beginning or middle of August, in a fairly good season ;
they will afterwards fatten, say, a dozen or fifteen wether sheep.
The soil is a deep loam, not needing artificial draining; height
above sea-level about 700 feet. The soil of the specimen sent
had the appearance of a very friable dark-grey loam. The
herbage was of a very mixed character; it was cut on July 24,
and yielded :—

Leguminous herbage .. «. eo eo om» om

Gramineous herbage . .» « «© « « « 92
100
Miscellaneous herbage aunt. .

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 427

A botanical analysis of the grasses gave the following result :- -

Dactylis glomerata ,
Lolium perenne
Agrostis sp . : .
Festuca pratensis
Cynosurus cristatus
Holeus lanatus

. Avena flavescens
Phleum pratense .
Poa trivialis
Anthoxanthum odoratum

27
18
17
18
11
a
+
2
il

The leguminous herbage was exclusively Trifolium repens, and
the great bulk (86 per cent.) of the miscellaneous herbage was
Rumex Acetosa, the remainder consisting of Ranunculus, Plan-
tago, and one specimen each of Cerastium and Heracleum
Sphondylium.

No. 7—A turf from Mr. C. R. Morris, of North Curry,
Taunton, Somerset, who describes it as “some of our best
pasture land.” The soil of the specimen was a brown clayey
loam. ‘This turf showed early signs of an abundant growth of
Achillea Millefolium, and at length it became smothered with
this plant to an extent which would never be possible in con-
tinuously grazed land. Cut on July 17, the herbage gave the
following remarkable result on separation :—

Gramineous herbage . : ‘ ‘ ‘ 5 All
Leguminous herbage . . . . ‘ . a trace 100
Miscellaneous herbage . ‘ss Secanilt , 89

The grasses were thus constituted :—

Lolium perenne . ° . : : : : . - 90
Festuca ovina et var. . : : : : : . 8|
Cynosurus cristatus i 100

Poa trivialis

Anthoxanthum odoratum | 2
Avena flavescens j

The trivial amount of leguminous herbage present consisted of
Trifolium repens, whilst the miscellaneous herbage was practi-
cally nothing but Achillea Millefolium,

No. 8.—A turf taken from a pasture eight miles north of the
town of Thurles, in county Tipperary, Ireland. The soil is a
light-brown clay loam, resting upon the Carboniferous Lime-
stone. ‘The feeding properties of the pasture are described as
excellent ‘not only to make the cattle fat, but grows the bone
well.” Height above the sea about 155 feet. This was a some-
what weedy turf, and late in commencing growth. The herbage
was cut on July 24, and yielded :—

428 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

Gramineous herbage . . at ie . : - 49
Leguminousyherbage,. | «s\ < ys cesta 2} 100
Miscellaneous herbage . : ; 5 : : . 49
The grasses were made up in the following proportions :—
Lolium perenne . : : > ; : . . 66
Agrostis sp. - ‘ : : . ; A ee 7]
Holcus lanatus . . : : : : : 16
Dactylis glomerata 100
Cynosurus cristatus \ ]
Anthoxanthum odoratum ; 7 B .

Poa sp. J

The leguminous herbage was chiefly Trifolium poabeeae the
remainder being Trifolium repens. Rumex Acetosa made up
75 per cent. of the weeds, the remainder consisting of Leontodon,
Ranunculus, Plantago, and one specimen of Cerastium.

No. 9.—A turf sent by Mr. Gilbert Murray, of Elvaston,
Derby. The specimen had the appearance of a very compact
friable loam, chocolate-coloured. Mr. Murray writes that the
specimen was cut from a grass field in the parish of Elvaston,
county of Derby; that the soil is a deep sandy loam of alluvial
origin, resting on a gravelly subsoil, the drainage being perfect
except during high floods, when the land is submerged. The
exact locality is four miles south of Derby, the elevation about
200 feet above the sea-level, and the average rainfall 28 inches.
Concerning its previous history Mr. Murray writes :—

“ Permanent pasture for at least sixty years. I have no means of ascer-
taining how it was laid down. The Jand has occasionally been mown, but
more generally it has been grazed with fattening cattle and dairy cows.
In dripping seasons it produces a large quantity of grass. It will fatten
cows and heifers, but is not sufficiently strong to graze steers or oxen. Ite
is very suitable for dairy cows, which yield large quantities of milk of good
quality. Sheep thrive well in the summer, but do not winter well on the

land, particularly lambs or hogs. Shearing wethers do much better, and
escape the hoose so fatal to the lambs.”

The herbage of this plot, which was cut on July 19, yielded :—

Gramineous herbage . : 5 : : : : 18)
Leguminous herbage : : 5 : . a trace } 100
Miscellaneous herbage : : 5 : » SBE
The grasses were a very mixed lot, comprising :—

Dactylis glomerata . ; 5 : : : eer
Avena flavescens 5 ; ; ‘ ; : + §R20)
Festuca ovina . ' : . . : : ee
Agrostis sp. : : : : : : : . 12}100
Cynosurus cristatus . ‘ : ; ‘ ; : 7
Anthoxanthum odoratum . : . : : . 7
Holeus lanatus . : : . . : : ; 3

The very trifling amount of leguminous herbage present was
composed of Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium repens. Of the

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 429

miscellaneous herbage, seven-eighths was Rumex Acetosa, the
residue being Plantago lanceolata, Centaurea nigra, Cerastium
triviale, Bunium flexuosum, and Ranunculus.

No. 10.—A turf from Mr. Robert E. Tucker, of Ashburton,
Devon. This was a friable loam, and the herbage, cut on
July 17, had the following percentage composition :—

' Gramineous herbage . : : . , . AN orks
Leguminous herbage . : é - : : : c} 100
Miscellaneous herbage : : - : - els

The grasses were composed thus :—

Lolium perenne . : . : : . . ~ 82
- Phleum pratense» . : 3 é - : - 13} 100
Agrostis sp. ‘ ‘ : ‘ ‘ . ’ : 5

The leguminous herbage was Trifolium repens. Of the miscel-
laneous herbage, five-sixths was Achillea Millefolium, and the
remainder was made up of Rumex crispus (one plant only).

No. 11.—A turf sent through Colonel Curtis-Hayward, of
Quedgeley, Gloucestershire, who writes: ‘The sample is from
Berkeley, cut from a meadow just below the castle; it is rich
grazing-land of the same description as the grazing-grounds at
Slimbridge ; the soil is alluvial deposit from the Severn.” In
the specimen the soil was a dirty, yellowish-brown, plastic clay,
becoming darker towards the surface. The herbage, cut on
July 21, gave, on separation :—

Gramineous herbage . - - . d : . 57)
Leguminous herbage . - ; - A - - 388;100
Miscellaneous herbage . ° . 5)
The grasses were thus made up :—
Lolium perenne . : : : d - : ass
Agrostis as ; ‘ - : : : : oe 16
Dactylis glomerata 100
Poa trivialis . . : : 2
Holcus lanatus

This was a beautiful piece of pasture, the leguminous herbage
consisting entirely of a rich bottom growth of Trifolium repens.
The trivial percentage of miscellaneous herbage was made up
of Ranunculus acris and Cerastium triviale.

No. 12.—A turf sent by Mr. Robert McKerrow, of Carton,
Land-steward’ to his Grace the Duke of Leinster. Mr.
McKerrow writes :—

“The turf was drawn from a meadow in county Kildare, with southerly
exposure, and, as far as I can learn, is over seventy yearsold. The sub-
soil consists of deep, dry, brown loam, lying on limestone rock. The
meadow is covered with a close, firm, deep-rooted turf, free from fog. It
grows a tich and luxuriant crop of sweet herbage, which stock eat closely

430 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

and thrive extremely well upon. The meadow is considered well suited to
grow either beef or mutton. It is grazed at present (February 18) with
dairy cows, which develop well upon it, and give abundance of rich
produce.”

The specimens sent had the appearance of a brownish clay
loam, rather stony. The herbage was cut on July 23, and gaye
the following result :—

Gramineous herbage . ° ‘ ‘ ' ' + 66
Leguminous herbage . RO” Woke dol dcsement 3 100
Miscellaneous herbage ' : ‘ : . . 32

The grasses were separated into :—
Lolium perenne .. ‘ A . . : m sr 90)
Dactylis glomerata . e - ‘ ‘ : ‘ 8
Avena flavescens . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ee hs 1}100

Cynosurus cristatus
Agrostis sp.

e s e . 4 1

The small quantity of leguminous herbage consisted, to the
extent of two-thirds, of Trifolium repens, the remainder being
Lotus corniculatus. Six-sevenths of the miscellaneous herbage
was made up of Rumex Acetosa; the remainder was Prunella
vulgaris, Ranunculus bulbosus, and Cerastium triviale, in the
order indicated.

No. 13.—A turf sent by Mr. Frank Minohead, of Cloona
Castle, Ballinrobe, county Mayo, who writes as follows :—

“The turf was taken from the best pasture field on this farm. The field
lies near Ballinrobe, and so far as I can judge will be 150 feet above sea-
level. The soil is a light limestone soil lying on limestone rock, with a
depth of earth of 22 inches, and then a subsoil of poor, weak, yellow clay
and sand on the particular part of the field where the sample was taken.
The field has not been under tillage in the memory of any one about here.
It has been pastured by sheep mostly, but black polled cattle have been
put into it at nights in the early part of winter, and during the day only
as the weather got more severe. The rainfall here will be nearly 40 inches ;
the soil dries very quickly, even after heavy rain. The rain, as a rule, is
well distributed over the whole year, so that the climate is favourable in
that respect for grass. The winter is never severe; we have a few days’
frost now and then, with a little snow, but fields are rarely unfit for cattle
or sheep to procure what grass may be on them. There has been no extra
food consumed on the field where the turf was cut for at least six years.
The field is always much greener and the grass closer eaten than the
generality of this big farm—2,200 acres—showing the quality of the grass
to be the best we have.”

The specimen had the appearance of a chocolate-coloured loam,
The herbage, cut on July 26, gave the following results :—

Gramineous herbage . . ‘ . . . o 24
Leguminous herbage . . . . : A ; 6} 109
Miscellaneous herbage : ‘ : > : Feo)

The grasses were thus composed :—

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 431

Lgitumipererme, « <¢ ©, 6, ow fy =o _ 62
Agrostis sp. “ie gina de sgh nT Bee ee OS:
Dactylis glomerata 100
Cynosurus eis ate ° ‘ ’ 2
Holcus lanatus

The leguminous herbage was about equally divided between
Trifolium repens and Trifolium pratense, with one plant of
Lotus corniculatus. The miscellaneous herbage was made up
of Plantago lanceolata (60 per cent.) and Leontodon hispidus
(30 per cent.), the remainder being Taraxacum officinale and
Ranunculus bulbosus.

No. 14.—A turf from county Meath, the specimen haying
the appearance of a loose, friable, brown loam, rather stony.
The herbage was cut on July 27, and yielded :—

Gramineous herbage . : : : : . » B21
Leguminous herbage . ‘ ; . ‘ . . 1; 100
Miscellaneous herbage . : : . : . fe

The grasses were thus proportioned :—

Wolimnisperenne gi) at (eb) ue fe mm «oe GL
Dactylis glomerata , ‘ . ‘ ° ~ 28
Agrostis sp. F ‘ : ’ : : : . 9
Cynosurus cristatus 7 100
Anthoxanthum odoratum

Poa trivialis : ° ° : . 2

Festuca ovina
Holcus lanatus

The small proportion of leguminous herbage was all Trifolium -
repens. Of the miscellaneous herbage 99 per cent. was made
up of Leontodon sp., the produce, however, of only two very
robust plants which occupied between them fully one-half the
plot, and, of course, smothered the herbage which otherwise
would have sprung up there. ‘The rest of the miscellaneous
herbage consisted chiefly of Plantago and Ranunculus.

No. 15.—A turf sent by Mr. George Fairbairn, of Dromagh
Castle, county Cork, who writes :—

“The meadow rests upon the table-land on which the castle stands, the
soil is from 12 to 18 inches deep, and the subsoil is a yellowish clay and
sand, varying from 3 to 12 inches thick. It was always the greenest
pasture we had last summer (1887), and the grass comes early on it. As
it is well sheltered and dry, the dairy cows have been put into it at nights
for forty yearsat least. It is named the Barley Field, as it is said the last
crop on it was barley; but the oldest man here does not mind of that,

P.S.—Since writing, I have heard from an old man that it is about fifty-five
years since the field was tilled.”

The specimen appeared to be a somewhat stony brown loam,
and was well permeated by roots; the herbage, cut July 26,
had the following composition :—

432 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

Gramineous herbage . a ae - | ee
Leguminous herbage . - - - Sang. : 2} 100
Miscellaneous herbage : - - ; a | 2:
The grasses were :— ep:

Lolium perenne . - - . : p A 5,
Agrostis sp. : : - - P : » 33}109
Cynosurus cristatus t

Poa trivialis ; 7 : °. Se

The small proportion of leguminous herbage was Trifolium pra-
tense, whilst nearly half the miscellaneous herbage was Rumex
Acetosa, the remainder consisting of Leontodon sp., Prunella
vulgaris, Ranunculus acris, Centaurea nigra (one plant only),
Plantago lanceolata, Cerastium triviale, and Veronica Chameedrys,
in the order indicated.

No. 16.—A turf sent by Mr. William Fraser, of Johnstown
Castle, county Wexford, who states that the field from which
it is cut is of an undulating nature, and about 200 feet above
the sea level; it has been in grass for over twenty-five years :—

“The grasses composing the herbage are for, the most part crested
dogstail, sweet vernal, perennial ryegrass, and some Yorkshire fog. It is
not what would be-considered a first-rate fattening pasture, and would be
better adapted for sheep than cattle. I consider this field about the best
and cleanest old pasture we have. I may mention that the vernal grass
seems to grow naturally about here in all pastures, and I see it coming
thick in some new pasture which I have sown down, though I never sow
any of it. The soil of the field is very good brown clay loam toa depth
of 9 inches to a foot, resting on a yellow and bluish sandy clay.”

The specimen had the appearance of a reddish-brown friable
loam, somewhat sticky. Of all the twenty-five turfs the herbage
of this was most suggestive of a good typical sheep pasture, quite
confirming the opinion contained in Mr. Fraser’s letter. The
herbage was cut on July 28, and was found to consist of :—

Gramineous herbage . : : - . : - 130
Leguminous herbage . © «3 od tel ei a0} 100
Miscellaneous herbage : 2 : “ ° - 40
The grasses were made up as follows :—
Agrostis sp. x : . . . . ‘ . 69
Festuca ovina . . : : . é . - 218
Lolium perenne . : : . > : : Pa |
Cynosurus cristatus . . . . : ‘ . 5,100
Anthoxanthum odoratum . : ° . . . 3
Poa pratensis |
Holcus lanatus ? rp janes 7 7 :

Of the leguminous herbage 60 per cent. was Trifolium repens,
30 per cent. was Lotus corniculatus, and the remainder was
Trifolium pratense and Lathyrus pratensis. Of the miscella-
neous herbage more than 80 per cent. was Achillea Millefolium,

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 433

the rest being Ranunculus repens, Potentilla Anserina, Taraxa-
cum, Prunella, and Cerastium.

No. 17.—A turf sent by Mr. James Robertson, of La
Mancha, Malahide, co. Dublin, who writes that the pasture
from which it was taken is within one mile of the sea, and is
considered very good land—indeed, about the best in the
county—and has been in pasture for very many years. The
specimen had the appearance of a loose, brownish, very friable
loam, almost sandy. The herbage was cut on July 26, and
yielded :—

Gramineous herbage . . : é ° : 5 36)
_Leguminous herbage . : . : : : . 227100
Miscellaneous herbage : : c d - 42)
The grasses were made up thus :—
Lolium perenne , ; - ; a 5 ? eG
Dactylis glomerata . . : : c : a eo
Festuca ovina . ; . : : . 4 - 3
Cynosurus cristatus ) 100
Bromus mollis 1
Briza media r : J
Poa trivialis

Of the leguminous herbage, seven-eighths consisted of Tri-
folium pratense, the remainder being Trifolium repens. Three-
fourths of the miscellaneous herbage was Plantago lanceolata,
the remainder consisting of Cerastium triviale, Ranunculus,
and Taraxacum.

No. 18.—A turf sent by Mr. P. J. O’Dwyer, of Ennistymon, °
co. Clare. It was drawn from a piece of old grazing-land
within two miles of the sea, in the parish of Doolin, near Lis-
doonyarna, co. Clare. The specimen had the appearance of a
stiff, stony clay, varying in colour from dull reddish to yellowish
and bluish. ‘The herbage, cut on July 18, yielded the following
percentage composition :—

Gramineous herbage . : : : . : , =)

Leguminous herbage... : : : 0 . 6 +100

Miscellaneous herbage ° . : . . oO
The grasses were thus composed :—

Lolium perenne . : ° . . ° . = 186

Agrostis sp. poe Pec : : . . : F 7

Dactylis glomerata . : . . . : : 4} 100

Cynosurus ag 3
‘ . . ‘ . . *

Holcus lanatus

The small percentage of leguminous herbage consisted of Tri-
tolium repens. Of the miscellaneous herbage, over 90 per cent.
was Rumex Acetosa, the remainder being Plantago lanceolata,
Ranunculus sp., Cerastium triviale, and Veronica Chameedrys.
VOL. XXIV.—S, 8S, FF

434, The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. —

No. 19.—A turf from a rich old pasture in Buckinghamshire,
the soil being a dark-brown loam of very good quality. From
the time this sod was planted, at the end of January, to the day
when the herbage was cut, on July 18, it always presented a
beautiful appearance, and it won the admiration of all who saw
it. The herbage was composed of :—

Gramineous herbage 5. .« -« 0 « «, so
{100

Leguminous herbage . ‘ . : ‘ tp
Miscellaneous herbage . . ° ° ° » a trace

The grasses were in the following proportions :—

Isolium perenne =: ¢ « © ° © gauseesl gees
Phieum pratense .- “2-6 ‘s dx obey ieee
AProstiesp. 4. Ss ee Koes

Alopecurus pratensis 100

Cynosurus cristatus
Holcus lanatus
Poa trivialis
The leguminous herbage was all Trifolium repens, and the
only miscellaneous plant present was Ranunculus.

No. 20.—A turf sent by Mr. Louis T. Deleomyn, of The
Old Court, Bredwardine, Herefordshire, who writes: ‘It is a
fair specimen of our uplands old pasture, and is never touched
by the floods which we have in winter over the greater part of
our pastures. It comes from a pasture called ‘The Radnor,’
and is used chiefly for sheep, but they seldom get cake while on
it.” The specimen was a rich, reddish, friable loam, and the
turf was absolutely free from weeds. ‘The herbage, a choicer
natural sample than which it would be difficult to find, was cut
on July 23. Nothing can so eloquently describe this excellent
turf as the following brief table showing the percentage
composition of the herbage :—

Gramineous herbage (exclusively Lolium perenne) . 88 )
Leguminous herbage (exclusively Trifolium repens) . 121100
Miscellaneous herbage A ‘ ° . . ‘ 0 }

Of course, in this case, Lolium perenne forms 100 per cent. of
the grasses, and Trifolium repens 100 per cent. of the clovers.

No, 21.—This and the two following turfs were sent through
the courtesy of the Marquis of Bath, and the information con-
cerning the lands whence they were drawn is supplied by Mr.
H. Fry, his lordship’s. bailiff at Longleat. No. 21 comes from
Corsley Meadows, Longleat, Wilts. Itis old grass land of the best
quality, possessing excellent fattening properties ; was formerly,
twenty-five years ago, a water meadow. It is now mown almost
every year, and Scotch oxen graze the aftermath for Christmas
beef. The specimen had the appearance of a brown stony loam

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 435

resting on a pale adhesive clay. The herbage was cut on July 21,
and was composed as follows :—

Gramineous herbage . : - ; 3 ; » 96
Leguminous herbage. - ; ; . : ; 3} 100
Miscellaneous herbage . : ' ‘ ; : Gree
The grasses proper afforded the following percentages :—
Lolium perenne . C : : - : : . 88
Agrostis sp..* .* . ; . : . : nied
Holeus lanatus . : : : . . . ‘ee
Cynosurus cristatus ) 100
Alopecurus pratensis 1
Poa trivialis ao aa : : :
Festuca ovina et var.

The leguminous herbage consisted of small quantities of Trifo-
lium repens, Trifolium pratense, and Lathyrus pratensis. Such
miscellaneous herbage as was present consisted of Ranunculus
acris.

No. 22.—A turf from Webb’s Meadows, Longleat, Wilts.
This was drawn from grass land at least sixteen years old, which
has the reputation of being the best butter-making pasture on
the estate. Mr. Fry says the dairymaid can tell when the cows
are in this pasture, there being more cream and a different
flayour to the butter. When this land is mown the hay requires
a great deal of drying. The specimen presented the appearance
of a light-brown friable loam. The herbage, cut on July 24,
yielded :—

Gramineous herbage ,. A : , : : : 45)
Leguminous herbage . . : : oh se - 93/100
Miscellaneous herbage . : . : ’ : : 52)
The grasses were composed as follows :—
Festuca ovina et var. . 57
Holcus lanatus ’ ‘ : : , 15
Festuca pratensis ~ , ‘ : ; . : ep ll
Lolium perenne , : , : : . : . 10,100
Agrostis sp. . ‘ ‘ . : . 6|
Anthoxanthum odoratum ; 1

Cynosurus cristatus

The leguminous herbage consisted of Trifolium pratense and
Lotus corniculatus. Six-sevenths of the miscellaneous herbage
was Plantago lanceolata, the remainder being Rumex Acetosa,
Prunella vulgaris, Ranunculus bulbosus, and Cerastium triviale.
During growth, the herbage of this plot was seen to be of a very
heterogeneous character.

No. 23.—A turf from St. Alger’s Farm, Woodlands, near
Frome, Somerset—the Selwood Forest district. The sample
was drawn from a celebrated Cheddar cheese pasture. It used

EF2

436 The Herbage of Oid Grass Lands.

to yield excellent cheese, which made the highest price in the
district, but the produce has not been so good since the land
was drained some ten years ago. ‘The specimen had the ap-
pearance of a light-brown loam resting on gravel. The herbage,
cut on July 25, yielded the following results :-—

Gramineous herbage : : ‘ ‘ ‘ 7 188
Leguminous herbage ‘ ’ ‘ ' ‘ . 6 100
Miscellaneous herbage » .« «© « 8 « @

The grasses were made up in the following proportions :—

Lolium perenne . : . , : rh fisil

Phleum pratense . . . 7 10
Holcus lanatus . . - 3 \io9
Agrostis sp. . . . : . . 1
Alopecurus a a éiaee

Poa trivialis : : : ;

The leguminous herbage was exclusively Trifolium repens, and
the miscellaneous herbage Ranunculus repens. Of the three
turfs, Nos. 21, 22, 23, the herbage of this was the greenest, the
most homogeneous, and apparently the best.

No. 24.—This turf was made up of five sections drawn from
five different fields in Romney Marsh, Kent, all fatting land.
The specimens were sent by Mr. Alfred Hutchinson, of New
Romney, Kent. The herbage, cut on July 23, contained :—

Gramineous herbage ; . . ‘ . ees
Leguminous herbage ° é . : : Pim) ee bl 1,0)
Miscellaneous herbage . , . '

The grasses comprised :—

Lolium perenne ; / : yes + Oh
Avena flavescens 3
Agrostis sp. . ‘ : : ; : 100

° A . a trace

Cynosurus cristatus
Poa trivialis .

The leguminous herbage consisted entirely of Trifolium repens.
My observation on this herbage in the third week of June
appears thus in my note-book: ‘“ Very good; nearly all grass,
some clover, no weeds.”

No. 25.—A turf sent by Mr. Thomas Nuttall, of Beeby
Manor, Leicester. This turf was cut from the famous Stilton
cheese pastures in Leicestershire, and the specimen had the
appearance of a stiff rich brownish clay, easily drying. The
herbage was cut on July 30, and yielded the following results :—

Leguminous herbage ’ ‘ ’ : ’ » 42

Gramineous herbage ; ¢ - c e . 58
100
Miscellaneous herbage , e e e ° + a trace

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 437

The grasses were represented in the following proportions :—

Lolium perenne . : : - - : 2 7, nGe
Dactylis glomerata . . : : - : « 226
Agrostis sp. - : : . - . : - 6 }100

Phleum pratense
Cynosurus cristatus

The leguminous herbage consisted to the extent of over 98 per
cent. of Trifolium repens, the rest being Trifolium pratense.

The table (I.) showing the distribution of species, which is
given on page 438, may be regarded as a summary of the results
obtained. In it are named all the gramineous species, all the
leguminous species, and seven of the most noticeable miscel-
laneous species detected amongst the herbage of the twenty-five
turfs. Seventeen species of grasses are enumerated, but, if
Agrostis sp. be regarded as denoting two species and Festuca
ovina et var. as denoting three species, the number is brought
up to twenty, as compared with twenty-six species of grasses
found. upon the water meadows, or with twenty species of
grasses which have been identified on the variously manured
plots in Rothamsted Park. The table is, of course, strictly
qualitative, and not in any sense quantitative. For example,
Briza media was represented by a solitary plant found upon one
plot only, and Poa annua, a weed grass, though recorded for
six plots, was never present save in very insignificant quantity.
The total number of leguminous species represented was only
four, as compared with seven on the water meadows and ten in
Rothamsted Park. The list of miscellaneous species might be
continued to a much greater extent, but the seven which are
enumerated in the table include the really significant ones, the
others being in very small quantity and more of botanical than
of agricultural interest. The table is further useful as being a
census of species, recording as it does the relative frequency of
occurrence, in different localities, of each plant mentioned. In
this respect the premier position is taken by Lolium perenne
amongst the grasses, and by Trifolium repens amongst the legu-
minous plants. The greatest number of species of grass which
occurred on any plot was ten on one of the Kent turfs (No. 2),
on the Stafford turf (No. 6), and on the Tipperary turf (No. 8) ;
the least number was three on the Herefordshire turf (No. 20).
Not one of the turfs was utterly destitute of leguminous plants,
though on fifteen of them only one species was represented, and
only on the Wexford turf (No. 16) did all four species occur.

It is possible, however, to present a quantitative view of the
results, as is done in table (II. ) of percentages by weight of green
herbage (page 439). This table shows that in fifteen cases the

438 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

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440 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

gramineous herbage formed more than 50 per cent. of the total,
and that in the remaining ten cases the advantage was with the
miscellaneous herbage. In table (III.) on the same page, showing
the percentages by weight of species in the gramineous herbage,
only those species are recorded which were present to the extent
of at least 5 per cent. of the gramineous herbage. It may be
seen that Lolium perenne was first in twenty-one cases, Dactylis
glomerata in two cases (No. 6, Staffordshire, and No. 9, Derby-
shire), Agrostis sp. once (No. 16, Wexford), and Festuca ovina
et var. once (No. 22, Wiltshire).

The remarkable proportion of miscellaneous herbage in some
~ cases, amounting indeed to as much as 89 per cent. on the
Somerset turf (No. 7), is probably to a great extent attributable
to the circumstances under which the turfs were allowed to
grow. Certainly, under the normal treading and grazing of
stock, such species as Achillea Millefolium, Leontodon sp., and
Rumex Acetosa, would never make the display which charac-
terised several of the turfs. An interesting case in point is
afforded by the Derbyshire turf (No. 9). This yielded as much
as 70 per cent. of Rumex Acetosa, and, without mentioning
this circumstance, I wrote to Mr. Gilbert Murray to ask whether
or not this plant occurs in any quantity on the pasture. His
reply, dated July 25, is—‘There is very little sorrel or sour
dock noticeable, and as the land is kept closely grazed I have
little opportunity of ascertaining the names of the grasses.”
This quite coincides with the opinion I had formed that in well-
grazed pastures the bulky miscellaneous species are kept down,
whilst the freely tillering grasses supply a large ratio of the
effective herbage.

The principle of expressing the grasses in percentages of the
gramineous herbage only has been adopted because it serves
to bring out in a more significant manner the relative degree
in which the various gramineous species are developed. The
remarkable abundance which the figures assign to Lolium
perenne merely corroborates what had been anticipated from
constant observations of the turfs during growth. Dactylis
glomerata, though a bulky grass and weighing heavily, was
present on only half the turfs; and even in its greatest abun-
dance (the Derbyshire turf, No. 9) it made up only one-third
of the gramineous herbage. It is significant that not a single
specimen of Avena elatior was detected in the whole series of
turfs; whilst the broad-leaved fescues, of which Festuca pra-
tensis may be taken as the type, made but a poor show. As
regards the leguminous herbage the premier position is taken

» 5

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 441

easily by Trifolium repens; whilst it deserves to be noted that
Medicago lupulina was never once discovered.

The verdict which these turfs have given in favour of Lolium
perenne and Trifolium repens has led me to look elsewhere in
order to discover, if possible, any confirmatory evidence. In
France the rich grass lands of Normandy do not differ greatly
in their climatal surroundings from many of those of England,
and a knowledge of their botanical composition would for pur-
poses of comparison be very valuable. In a recently published
work, ‘‘ Herbages et Prairies naturelles,” the outcome of thirty
years’ patient study and observation, M. Amédée Boitel, Membre
de la Société nationale d’Agriculture, supplies information of
the kind required. The meadows and pastures of Normandy,
M. Boitel tells us, are everywhere of good quality. In 1885
very exact observations were made upon the pastures of Cotentin,
the native home of the Cotentin breed of cattle. A good
meadow situated near Saint-L6, due south of Isigny and west
of Caen, and resting on a schistose soil, yielded 50 per cent.
of gramineous herbage, 40 per cent. of leguminous herbage, and
10 per cent. of miscellaneous herbage. The grasses, arranged
in the order of their abundance, are :—

Lolium perenne Anthoxanthum odoratum, fairly
Holcus lanatus common

Cynosurus cristatus Agrostis alba

Dactylis glomerata Bromus mollis jae
Poa pratensis Festuca elatior

Poa trivialis

} very common
te aie

The leguminous herbage is made up almost entirely of Trifolium .
repens and Trifolium pratense.

In the Duchy of Coigny, in the Department of the Manche,
the best pastures rest upon an old alluvium, enriched by the
calcareous detritus of oolitic rocks. The herbage is 60 per cent.
gramineous and 40 per cent. leguminous, the miscellaneous
species being utterly insignificant in quantity. The grasses are
the following :—

Holcus lanatus, very common Cynosurus eristabus:)

Lolium perenne Poa pratensis fairly common
Anthoxanthum odoratu beommon Festuca rubra f

Bromus mollis Dactylis glomerata, rare

The leguminous plants are chiefly Trifolium repens, Trifolium
pratense, and Trifolium minus, the remainder being Lotus
corniculatus.

The pastures of Isigny rest upon a very fertile fluvio-marine
alluvium, and are classed among the most fertile and the most
productive of France. One of these celebrated pastures, situated

442 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands,

between the mouths of the rivers Vire and Aure, yielded 70 per
cent. of gramineous herbage and 380 per cent. of leguminous
herbage. ‘The grasses are the following :—

Hordeum pratense, extremely Cynosurus cristatus

common Lolium perenne in moderate
Avena flavescens, very common Dactylis glomerata /{ quantity
Poa trivialis, common Holcus lanatus

The leguminous herbage is composed of Trifolium repens and
Trifolium pratense, the former largely preponderating. The
only miscellaneous weeds present are thistle and buttercup, but
these are utterly insignificant in quantity. Two other pastures
situated upon the right bank of the Vire have the same bo-
tanical composition, but with a larger proportion of leguminous
herbage; this latter indeed, chiefly Trifolium repens, probably
makes up half the bulk.

The pastures in the valley of the Auge are devoted exclu-
sively to the fattening of cattle and sheep, and, in examining
these grass lands, the observer is at once impressed with the
purity of the herbage. Save for a few thistles and buttercups,
representing together not one-fiftieth part of the total herbage,
there is nothing but grasses and clovers. The thistles are cut
down and left to wither, in which state they are readily eaten
by the cattle. The herbage consists of from 50 to 60 per cent.
of grasses, and from 40 to 50 per cent. of leguminous plants.
The grasses are :—

ee cristatus, very common

ollum perenn

Poa trivialis common
The other grasses are Anthoxanthum odoratum, Poa pratensis,
Dactylis glomerata, Hordeum pratense, Alopecurus pratensis,
Festuca rubra, Holcus lanatus, and Agrostis vulgaris, which
are present in only small proportions, about equally divided.
The leguminous herbage is almost entirely Trifolium repens, the
proportion of Trifolium pratense, which makes up the remainder,
being small. In fact, Trifolium repens is the most abundant
and the best grazed plant in these pastures.

Another pasture, situated on a slope above the same valley,
and employed for the fattening of horned stock—five acres
fatting four bullocks—is composed of 50 per cent. grasses and
50 per cent. leguminous plants. The grasses are :—

Poa trivialis, very common Phleum pratense

Lolium perenne Alopecurus pratensis in small
Dactylis glomerata }eomaon Agrostis vulgaris quantity
Cynosurus cristatus Anthoxanthum odoratum

The leguminous herbage is composed almost entirely of Trifolium
repens, the remainder being Trifolium pratense.

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 443

It is not explained how the estimates given in the fore-
_ going notes on the Normandy pastures were arrived at, but it is
obvious that, throughout, a very creditable position is assigned
to Lolium perenne, whilst Trifolium repens appears to be even
more abundant than the results obtained from my experimental
turfs would indicate to be the case in English grass lands.

But another piece of evidence, from a very high authority,
is forthcoming. In the second edition of Mr. Martin J. Sutton’s
“Permanent and Temporary Pastures” it is stated (page 51,
footnote) that—

“ Sir John B. Lawes visited Leicestershire for the express purpose of
examining the famous ox-pastures of that county, and subsequently had
the herbage of the best two pastures carefully analysed. The report estab-
lishes beyond a shadow of doubt the fact that Lolium perenne is the grass
of which the pastures in question principally consist, and that it must have
existed in them for more than forty years, although during that time it
has never been allowed to seed. Further, it is clearly shown that the pas-
tures actually owe their high reputation to the abundant presence of peren-
nial ryegrass and white clover.”

An interesting confirmation of this is afforded by the results
yielded in the case of the Leicestershire turf, No. 25.

Independently, however, of the testimony just given, I am
able, through the kindness of Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert,
to quote here some extremely valuable quantitative results show-
ing “the composition of the herbage of very good fattening
pasture, Mr. Fisher’s meadow, Market Harborough, Leicester-
shire.” Sir John Lawes has subjected the herbage of this
pasture to botanical analysis on eleven occasions in four dif-
ferent years, namely, twice in 1879 (May 31, June 21), six
times in 1880 (May 20, 31, June 25, July 6, 21, August 6),
twice in 1882 (May 22, June 28), and once in 1888 (July 6).
From the figures recording the mean results for each of these
four years I have calculated the following mean percentage results
for the entire series of eleven botanical separations :—

Gramimeous herbage « eye o poyrshice* €2 Pie FE
Leguminous herbage , ’ : ’ ° ° ° ai} 100
Miscellaneous herbage . ’ ’ . = , 7 8

The following are the mean percentages of grasses :—

Lolium perenne
Agrostis vulgaris .

. .
.
Poa triyialis F i
oJ
.

e co

STE DS B® OL OU 0 ONTO

Cynosurus cristatus
Holcus Janatus
Poa annua . .
Phleum pratense . :
Dactylis glomerata , 3 :
~ Festuca ovina. : : :
°

100

.
.
.
°
.
‘
.

Avena flavescens ,
Other grasses

444 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

The ‘other grasses” include nine species, but of these, Aira
czespitosa, Avena pubescens, Bromus mollis, and Festuca pra-
tensis were detected each in one year only; Poa pratensis and
Briza media each in two years only; Anthoxanthum odoratum
in three of the years; and Alopecurus pratensis and Hordeum
pratense in all four years. The lowest percentage of Lolium
perenne was recorded in 1879 (28 per cent.), and the highest in
1882 (50 per cent.), but this species was always first amongst
the grasses, whilst no other grass secured for itself an invariable
position. Of the leguminous herbage more than 99 per cent. is
Trifolium repens, the remainder being Trifolium pratense.

It is with considerable satisfaction I avail myself of the per-
mission given me by Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert to quote
these results, but I think it right to state that the whole of the
results obtained upon my own turfs were already in the printer’s
hands before I had seen the figures just quoted.

In Mr. James A. Caird’s valuable paper! on ‘ Recent Ex-
periences in laying down Land to Grass,” he speaks of “ the
evident perennial nature of the ryegrass on Newcastle Town
Moor.” And visitors to the Royal Agricultural Society’s Show at
Nottingham in July, 1888, can hardly have failed to notice,
in Wollaton Park, the abundance of Lolium perenne near the
hoardings, and in other places where the herbage had been
allowed to grow.

During the season, and whilst the turfs were in growth, they
were inspected at Downton by many agriculturists from different
parts of the country, and the noteworthy preponderance of
Lolium perenne and ‘Trifolium repens was obvious to all ob-
servers; so much so, in fact, that before half the plots had been
looked at I got quite accustomed to hear the remark, “ They
seem to be mostly ryegrass and white clover.” Amongst the
gentlemen to whom I had the pleasure of showing the experi-
ments was Mr. William Young, J.P., an experienced Irish agri-
culturist, and the abundance of ryegrass led to some conversation
between us, as a result of which’ Mr. Young kindly sent me a
letter from which I extract the following salient points :—

“T had paid a visit to Sharsted Court in June, 1884, and being pleased
with the appearance of the recently laid down pastures there, concluded to
adopt a modification of the seeding recommended by Mr. Faunce de Laune.
Accordingly, in the spring of 1885, having twenty English acres to lay
down, I adopted the seeding named below. The land was a good loam
resting on limestone rock and limestone gravel, it had been well manured,
and had grown a good crop of mangels and swedes—half the crop eaten on
the land by sheep, consuming at the same time cake and corn. It was

' Journal of the Royal Agricultural: Society, Part I., 1888, p. 148.

The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. 445

thoroughly clean ; the seeds were sown down with barley and grew well.
I did not allow either sheep or cattle upon the young grass, but mowed it
for hay when the grasses were just coming into flower in 1886. It gave a
heavy crop of excellent hay, and since then it has been pastured by sheep
and cattle, eating cake most of the time.

“The grass seeds were obtained from two of the best known English
firms, were guaranteed pure, came in separate bags, and were mixed under
my own inspection, The quantities used were, per English acre :—

Ibs. 1
Meadow foxtail , . 10 | Timothy . ‘ : 5
Cocksfoot . » « @|Red clover (perennial) .
Tall fescue : . 3 | White clover (perennial) .

Meadow fescue 6 | Alsike clover . : .
—_ J

robo ag

' 37 Ibs. per acre.

No appreciable difference, further than what might be caused by slight
variations in the soil itself, was observed between the seeds supplied by the
two firms.

“To see the effect, however, of an addition of perennial ryegrass I
added to the above seeding on one and a half acre, right across the field,
one bushel of perennial ryegrass (weighing 26 lbs. per bushel), say about
16 lbs, per acre. The result, broadly speaking, is that there is now no
difference in appearance between the portion in which the ryegrass was
sown and that where there was none. There is little ryegrass now in
either portion—about as much in one as in the other—showing that where
it was sown it has died out in three years to a considerable extent, and
where none was sown a small quantity has come naturally, either from
seeds being in the land or from falling out of the hay chaff given the
sheep in racks in the pasture. The natural grasses and clovers have made
quite as good and thick pasture where the ryegrass was sown as where it
was not, but for the first hay crop and for the after-grass, and for the next
year’s pasture, that in which ryegrass was sown was a much heavier crop.

“The net result is that I shall never again omit, say, 14 to 16 lbs. rye-
grass from any mixture for permanent pasture.

“Brockley Park, Stradbally, Queen’s Co. :

July 24, 1888.”

In connection with this instructive record of Mr. Young’s
experience, the following extract from Mr. James A. Caird’s
paper, already referred to, is full of interest :—

“The question as to the perennial nature of ryegrass cannot be said
to be solved by my inquiries. The opinions are nearly equally divided.
Some of my correspondents maintain that it dies out and utterly disappears
in two or three years, while others believe either that it is perennial, or
that it seeds itself and so continues. There is, however, a nearly unani-
mous testimony in favour of sowing it in various quantities in permanent

grass mixtures, the object being apparently to secure a crop of some kind
while the grasses of more tardy growth are developing.”

The results which have now been discussed are based upon
observations made upon samples of permanent grass lands ob-
tained from an area bounded by Lincolnshire in the north and
Devonshire in the south, by Kent in the east and Clare and

446 The Herbage of Old Grass Lands.

Mayo in the west. It might be objected that the turfs were
not large enough to be representative, but it is very doubtful
whether half a dozen or even a dozen such turfs from the same
field would have yielded average results much different from
those actually obtained, or whether the relative positions of the
various gramineous and leguminous species would have under-
gone any material alteration. Again, although every species of
plant, identified upon each plot, was noted, the percentage com-
position by weight would no doubt have been different had the
mowing taken place earlier or later. "With earlier cutting,
Alopecurus pratensis and Anthoxanthum odoratum would have
made a better show, with later cutting the advantage would
have been in favour of Phleum pratense. And yet again, the
season is known to be a potent factor in determining the
character of the herbage of grass land. In their masterly
memoir describing the Rothamsted experiments upon the
mixed herbage of permanent meadow, Sir John Lawes and
Dr. Gilbert arrive at the conclusion (‘‘ Phil. Trans.” Pt. I. 1880,
p. 405) that “a given quantity of gross produce of the mixed
herbage may be one thing in one season and quite another in
another season, both as to the proportion of the different
Species composing it and their condition of development and
maturity.”

Against such objections as I have endeavoured to anticipate
I venture to place one weighty circumstance, and that is the wide
area from which the twenty-five turfs were collected. When itis
remembered that these turfs were drawn from twelve English
and seven Irish counties, when it is borne in mind that they
were selected by men of sound agricultural experience as re-
presentative of the best old grass land of their respective districts,
and when it is recollected also that each turf continued to grow
upon its own soil, then it cannot but be admitted that the
general result should be trustworthy. And if there is one fact
which, more clearly than any other, is demonstrated in the
results obtained, it is the position taken by Ryegrass and
White Clover, which appear to constitute the backbone—if I
may so express it—of many of our best grass lands.

Though other profitable lines of inquiry are suggested by
the results which have been recorded, it is not possible to
discuss them within the limits of this paper. The method of
experiment which has been described might with advantage be
still further extended amongst the best grass lands of different
parts of the kingdom. By this means we should arrive at an
exact knowledge of the constitution of pasture herbage such as
we have never yet possessed, and the information would be of

Practicat Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 447

the greatest value in indicating the limes along which the
methods of sound agricultural practice should proceed.

I desire to thank all those gentlemen who were good enough
to send me samples of their grass land. My special thanks are
due to the President of the Surveyors’ Institution (Mr. E. P.
Squarey), who possesses a wide and intimate knowledge of our
English pastures, and to Mr. James Robertson, of La Mancha,
Malahide, who enjoys an equally extensive acquaintance with
the grass lands of Ireland. To the kind introductions afforded
me by Mr. Squarey and Mr. Robertson I am indebted for quite
one-half of the turfs included in the experiments,

XXUI.—Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for
Stock. By Henry F. Moore, Frome, Somerset.

During the past few years a great deal of attention has been
directed, chiefly in Germany and the United States, to the
question of the preparation of food for the live stock of the farm,
chiefly and especially to the ideal proportions of food for various
purposes. Thus there have arisen chemists who will give an
exact food to produce a milk for a given purpose, the only factor
taken into account being the weight of the cow. This phase of
the feeding question is so purely ideal and so unpractical that it
is not likely to have any very long life. Feeding—like all other
farming operations—depends so much on the resources of a farm
(the best being made of what is actually at hand, helped judi-
ciously, it may be, by purchases) that ideal feeding is next to
impossible. With, however, this aspect of the question, other
incidental matters have become involved, and these certainly
merit attention. In what form should food generally be given
to stock, and is there economy or loss in its more careful pre-
paration either by chaffing, mixing, cooking, or steaming ?
This is essentially a question for the practical man, and how far
the answer is regulated or modified by circumstances of locality
or management is well worthy of attention.

In order to bring out a record of practical experience on this
point, I addressed inquiries to some two hundred well-known
agriculturists, asking them to give me their experience and prac-
tice as to (1) chaffing, (2) mixing, (3) cooking, and (4) steaming
foods. On each of these points questions were asked, in answer
to which I have obtained a yast amount of practical information.
The questions were as follows :—

448 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food tor Stock.

Schedule of Questions.

1 and 2. [Do not relate to the subject under discussion. }

8. Do you use straw for feeding purposes ?

4, If so, what substitute do you use for litter, and what is the cost as
compared with straw ?

5. Is the straw chaffed ?

G6. Is hay given chaffed or unchaffed ?

7. In your experience what usefulness or economy is there in using these
foods chaffed as compared with unchaffed ?

8. What other foods do you generally use, and are they given mixed ?

9. If so, (a) What are the actual quantities and proportions of the
mixtures? (%) What are the quantities given per head per day? (ce)
What are the times of feeding ?

10. What are the foods you give to (a) Horses; (6) Dairy Stock;
(c) Fattening Beasts; (d) Breeding Sheep; (e) Fattening Sheep, and
(f) Swine, respectively ?

11, What are your general arrangements and methods of feeding in
summer and winter respectively ?

12. Do you use brewers’ grains, and, if so, what is your practice in
storing, salting, preserving, and feeding ?

13. What saving do you find in the use of chaffed and mixed foods, and
how do the animals thrive, (a) With regard to milk, butter, and cheese
yields; and () With regard to fattening ?

14, Are you in the habit of cooking or steaming foods for your stock,
and if so, what is your practice ?

15. What are the foods cooked or steamed, and the proportions of the
mixtures ?

16, What, in your opinion, is the cheapest method of cooling or steam-
ing foods ?

17. What benefit have you derived from the system ?

18, For what stock would you recommend this method ?

19. Have you tried the giving of warm food and water in the winter to
dairy or other stock, and if so, with what result? !

To these questions the following are some of the answers
received :—

Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., F.R.S,, LL.D., Rothamsted,
St. Albans, Herts.

8. All oat straw; some wheat straw. 4. No substitute.

5. Yes. 6, All chaffed. 7. Much less waste.

10. No sheep are kept. Dairy cows (60 to 60) when in milk have
decorticated cotton-cake all the year round, about 4 lbs. usr day in summer,
4 lbs. to 6 lbs. or 7 lbs, in winter, according to the yield of mill; also in
winter, 4 Ibs. of bran per day, chaff (half hay and half straw), mangolds,
50 lbs. to 60 Ibs. per day, according to the crop ; also ensilage instead of part
of the mangold.

11, Oxen fattening on grass in summer, 5 lbs, to 7 lbs. cotton-cake daily ;

1 Where numbers corresponding to any of these questions do not appear in
the replies which follow, it should be understood that the question is answered
in the negative, or that the writer has no experience to record

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 449

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448, |

Sir J. B. Lawres—continued.

in winter, cotton-cake, sometimes maize or rice, mangolds, hay. Oxen
should increase about 1 lb. for each 10 Ibs. or 12 Ibs. of dry food consumed.
12. No.
14, No. The Woburn experiments, which were carried out many years
ago, were not favourable to cooking, and the more recent German experi-
ments are against it.

Mr. Henry Srumonps, Bearwood Farm, Wokingham.

3. Not to any very considerable extent; chiefly as a mixture with hay
iu equal proportions for chaff.

4, Moss litter is used, but only in a small way. Do not consider, to a
farmer, it can be economically substituted for straw.

5. Mostly; but some long straw is given in racks to store cattle, with
oil- or cotton-cake. The cattle eat the best of it, leaving the worst to be
thrown out of the racks as litter.

6. Chaffed for sheep. The fatting cattle get a little long hay the last
thing at night. The horses have straw chaff, and two trusses long hay each

er week.
. 7. When chaffed, you can use inferior straw and fodder, making it palat-
able by mixing it with oil, treacle, or meal of many kinds, or with oil or
cotton-cakes. Cattle eat more in quantity than when the feeding stuffs are
given separately with unchaffed straw, &c.

9. Feeding times: cake and meal night and morning, with hay-chaff;
roots after breakfast; hay, a little (long) last thing at night, say eight
o’cloek.

10. Horses: 2 bushels of oats, $ bushel split beans, with two trusses
hay and straw chaffed, per week per head, when in full active work. Dairy
stock: Jersey herd kept for use of mansion only ; no roots allowed; only
hay, crushed oats and a little cake or bean meal. Futting beasts: 6 lbs.
oil-cake, 2 gallons mixed meals, $ to 1 bushel roots, with hay chaff and a
little long hay per day. atting sheep: roots, 1 lb. oil-cake, with malt dust
cr hay chaff daily. Pigs: cut roots, with beans and water for large stores,
or miller’s offal. Fatting hogs: barley meal, sometimes peas or beans mixed
with the barley.

14-18. Nothing done in this way, It was carried on to some extent on
a neighbouring farm, but without any great success apparently.

19. Warm water given to dairy stock in cold damp weather is no doubt
good, and will greatly increase the yield of milk and cream.

Mr. Martin Jonn Sutton, of Dyson’s Wood, Kidmore,

Reading.
3. Yes. 4. Peat-moss litter.
5. Yes. 6. Principally unchaffed.

7. Great saving in using straw chaffed. Hay is probably more economi-
cally used as chaff, but fattening cattle thrive better with long hay before
them.

8. Waterloo round cake and linseed cake, not mixed. Tail-corn (ground)
mixed with roots or chaff, or both. Swedes, mangold, cabbage, sometimes
mixed and sometimes not mixed. When used with chaffed straw, generally
mixed with it.

VOL. XXIV.—S. §, GG

450 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.
[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. ]

Mr. Henry StTraker, Riding Mill, Northumberland.

3. I have used straw and chaff this year for the first time, viz., that
from oats and tares, and the chaff therefrom, &c., so that not a basketful was
wasted, but carefully stored as all came from the thresher. The tares were
grown to feed off with sheep, but were obliged to be mown and won, for
good reasons ; consequently had to be used for cattle.

4. Moss-litter at 30s. per ton at my station. I calculate 3 cwts. serve
as bedding for each beast in its loose box (cemented bottom and sides, no
drains, about 8} feet square) three weeks, with frequent turnings over,
corners into middle and wce versd, and then carted straight away, and laid
on the grass-land at the rate of about 25 loads per acre—more if I can spare
it—not a drop of liquid manure being wasted.

5. Yes, and put into oblong boxes about 16 ft. x 3 ft. x 3 ft., standing
end on to and underneath two iron cylinder boilers, containing about 450
gallons each of water, which is boiled by steam; and then a mixture of
2 Ibs. of bran, 14 Ib. of crushed linseed, 13 oz. of salt, 24 lbs. of tare meal
(discontinued), per head per day, is stirred into this boiling water, left boiling
for two hours, and then run off in this state over the chaff and straw, re-
maining so for 12 to 15 hours, and then served three times daily to the
cattle, viz., at 6, 12, and 6 o'clock.

6. I do not give any hay at all.

7. Chaffing absolutely stops waste, a given quantity feeding more beasts.
There is also less anxiety about fire when the cattle-man is feeding by
candle-light, when he has no long straw near him,

8. Four pounds of maize meal at 10 a.m.,and 3} Ibs. bean meal at 4 P.M.

10. Horses when in full work get about 5 stones of crushed oats each
per week, with long hay ad libitum, and a bran mash, with a little boiled
linseed in it, twice a week during winter weather, the oats being reduced
greatly when the weather stops work.

17. Every particle of chaff off the oats and also from the tares, as
well as all straw, old and new, I used up as already named. With a fixed
8 h.p. engine, chaffing of straw, crushing of oats for horses, peas, beans,
cake, linseed, &c., is done, as well as the boiling of the water for the cattle
“soup,” all being done by the hinds from time to time as required when
their horses are not at work.

18. For milking cows I think it first-rate. For fattening beasts I am not
satisfied with it,as I have only sold six fat animals out of 32 which I
“boxed” last November, the other 26 being still on hand. No doubt the
inferiority of the tare straw, &c., which was bleached with high winds and
heavy rains, to some extent accounts for their slowness in feeding ; also they
were put up too late, as the cattle house was under repairs, and the pastures
were so bare (and not very good any part of the year, through the drought)
that they lost a good deal of what “lyer” they had gained on the grass,
I am not satisfied again, because the fat heifer I got fairly weighed before
and after death only realised 55 per cent. of dressed meat—she was a picked
one. The remaining ones are, many of them, too big-bellied; there will be
too much offal; they are fairly fat big beasts, but not typical fat beasts. I
tried this “soup” over chaffed hay with more meal, &c., in it many years
ago, and the result was similar. I have a strong opinion of chaffed straw
steamed, having either oil or treacle, with meal, &c., added while it is very
hot, which answers better than giving the cattle so much sloppy food.

Prastical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 451
[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Mr. W. T. Scartu, of Westside House Farm, Darlington.

3. I use oat and barley straw and wheat chaff for pulp.

4, I use moss-litter, which costs about 30s. per ton, whereas straw costs
about 3/. 10s per ton, and 4/. this year.

5. The straw is chafted for pulping purposes.

6. Hay is given both chaffed and unchaffed; used mostly chaffed for
horses and sheep, and given whole to cattle.

7. When chaffed there is less waste.

8. Luse for cattle pulp containing a little salt, straw, cotton cake, meals,
and turnips, and for sheep cake and oats mixed, and cut turnips.

9. (a) About two parts cotton to one of linseed. (0) Three stones of
pulp in the morning, three stones of sliced turnips at noon, and three stones
of pulp a: the evening. (c) Morning, between 6 and 7 ; noon, 12; evening,
4 o'clock.

10. (a) To a horse, 14 peck of corn per day, and cut hay. (6) To dairy
stock, hay and cotton cake. (c) To fattening beasts, pulp containing cotton
and oil cake, and ground oats. (d) To breeding sheep, a small feed of turnips
a day, anda little chopped hay and a few oats. (e) To fattening sheep, oats
twice per day, and cut turnips on tillage land, with a little chaff.

11. The above (No. 10) is winter feeding. In summer cattle graze in
pastures, with 3 lbs. of cotton cake per head; sheep graze and get nothing
else.

13. (6) They feed and digest their food better.

14, I have always steamed chaff and barley meal for young cattle.

15. A mixture of meal and chaff, and given cold.

16. By utilising the waste steam of a fixed engine, and also by using
Barford and Perkins’s steaming apparatus.

17. It keeps cattle in good health, and they thrive better,

18. For all stock except sheep.

Mr. Toomas JEnninGs, Staincross, Barnsley.

3. I have partially for a number of years,

4, I have had no need to buy, as I have always been able to grow more
than I could consume in straw-yards.

5. Yes.

6. Mostly unchaffed to milch cows ; chaffed and mixed to others.

7. Lconsider a very great economy is derived by chaffing, mixed with
meal and pulped roots. Young stock especially will thrive well at a mini-
mum cost per head.

' 8. Linseed and cotton-cake: two-thirds former to one-third of latter,
Peas and Indian corn, with a little bran. Seconds wheat, barley, &c., for
swine, =

10, Horses: Corn, peas, maize. Dairy stock: Turnips, limited, twice
a day; one feed of chaffed straw and meal and hay: and cake once a day.
Fattening beasts: Turnips twice, chaffed straw and meal, and cake, Breeding
sheep: 'Turnips ; to graze after November ; no corn or cake. Fattening sheep :
Chopped turnips, with cake, mixed. Pigs: Mixed seeds, &e. &c.

11. Cattle generally have been kept well in early spring, so that the

| early grass with a little help has soon made them fit for butchers, so as tu

oe the best prices for grass beef. In winter arrangements have had to
be made according to circumstances, and to the outlook of the future. Sheep
in like manner.

GG 2

452 Practical Ewperiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Mr. THomMAs JENNINGS—continued.

13. (a) Chaffed food, or “lick,” as it is termed here, causes both milk
and butter to be sweeter and of better quality, and free from taste of turnips.
(6) It is very useful, as it qualifies to a considerable extent the other foods
given, and causes the animals to make beef more rapidly.

Professor J. P. SHELDON, Sheen, Ashbourne, Derbyshire.

3. On my father’s farm we used a large quantity of oat straw as food for
cattle, and a little for sheep, in the winter months. One way of using it was
to chaff it, mix pulped turnips with it—enough of the pulp to thoroughly
moisten it—and also some kind or other of meal that was cheapest and best ;
the chaff, after mixing, lay in a heap for twenty-four hours or so, during which
time it grew warm, and the straw was thoroughly softened. Another way,
chiefly with yearlings and stirks, was to put the straw out-of-doors for a few
days, either to be rained on or to have water thrown on it; in this way it
was thoroughly softened, and the labour of digesting it was correspondingly
diminished. Cake and turnips were also fed to young cattle eating the straw
—the cake broken and the turnips sliced—and they always grew remarkably
well.

4, I hold to the belief that litter, generally speaking, is a superfluity and
a waste, though I am aware that it is commonly used for horses, cattle, and

igs. I know from experience that pigs do not need it, if only they have
Boards to lie on; the same is just as perfectly true in reference to horses, if
their stalls are well planned and drained. For my cows of all ages I have
never used any litter at all; the stalls are smoothly paved with freestone,
and there is no need whatever for litter.

5. I do not think all the straw ought to be chaffed. One feed a day, at
all events, ought to consist of unchaffed straw—of straw that has beforehand
been well soaked with water.

6. I seldom chaff hay except for my horses. I find that my cattle do
very well with it unchaffed ; and I have made some very good beef from
cake and unchaffed hay. At other times I have given to fattening cattle
one or two feeds a day of chaffed hay, with which one or more kinds of meal
have been mixed. Cattle ruminate all the better if they eat unchaffed hay;
they eat chopped hay too greedily asarule. In any case it should be chaffed
in inch or three-quarter-inch length, in order that it may demand mastica-
tion.

7. Whatever gain there is in using chaffed instead of unchaffed straw
and hay consists, first, in the facility it lends to the employment of various
meals, which are so readily mixed with chaff; and, second, in the
moistening and softening which chaff usually receives before it is
eaten. Unchaffed straw and hay may, however, be moistened and softened,
and thereby much improved, inasmuch as the softening prepares it for the
stomach, and makes it all the more easily digestible.

8. I use maize, rice, pea, and bean meals, always mixed with chaff that
has been moistened with water. I also use a good deal of linseed and de-
corticated cotton-cakes. I should seldom use linseed-cake, save to cows in —
milk, and to yearlings, if only my cattle would eat enough of the cotton-
cake, Asa matter of fact, they will not eat enough of it, particularly when
out at grass; and I induce them to eat more by giving them half cotton and
half linseed. My land does not scour, or I should use the undecorticated
cotton-cake, I think.

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 453

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Professor J. P. SHELDON—continued.

9. (a) I generally use about four quarts of meal to each bushel of chaff,
first moistening the chaffto make the meal sticktoit. (b) Inever pretend to
weigh or measure the food out to the cattle, specially to fattening cattle. I
give them all they will eat with a relish—all they will eat up cleanly.
(c) The feeding hours are about 6 and 10 a.m., and 12.30, 4, and 8 p.m.

10. To horses, hay, hay chaff, maize, and pea meals, split beans, boiled
linseed. To cattle the same, except the beans and the linseed, instead of which
they have cakes. To fattening beasts, as much linseed and cotton cake as
they will eat, along with hay ad lb., and sometimes chaff and meals.

11. In winter as above in the stalls. In summer my feeding cattle have
all the linseed and cotton cake they will eat out on the grass.

12. Ido not use them. Were I a milk-selling farmer I should.

14, No. Damping the straw or chaff, as before described, is equal or
superior to steaming, and much less costly and troublesome.

Mr. RicHarD Stratton, of The Duffryn, Newport,
- Monmouthshire.

3. Yes. 4, I use moss litter when short of straw.

5. Not asarule. I prefer to feed it long, and litter the cattle with the
refuse, I only chaff in years of scarcity like the present.

6. Unchaffed generally, excepting as above, when it is cut and mixed
with straw.

7. Chaffing does not pay for the labour. Cattle are far less liable to get
out of health on long food.

8. I use cake and meals, generally mixing the latter with a little chaff.
The kind of food varies according to prices.

9. (a) Nothing definite. (6) Varying, according to age of animal, from
2 Ibs. to 12 Ibs. (c) Morning and evening with cake and corn; morning
and eyening and middle-day with hay and straw.

10, I have no hard-and-fast rule, but buy what I consider cheapest.

11. Dairy cattle have only grass in summer. Fattening cattle have a
little cake or meal.

12, Sometimes; [ use them fresh.

13. I find no saving as a rule, but when keep is short it is sometimes of
necessity to consume al/ straw and litter with moss.

Mr. J. Brockir, of Golden Grove Home Farm,
Carmarthenshire.

3. Yes; for both horses and cattle, but not chaffed.

4, Plenty of straw for feeding and litter.

5. No. Have tried it, but do not approve of it. Not one of our farmers
can say it is good for anything but cheating the animals by mixing the good
with the bad. I let the animals pick out the best straw for feeding, and
litter them with what they refuse to eat.

6. Unchaffed when given, for the reason stated above. No broken-
winded horses on the farm, as they eat nothing but clean sweet fodder.

7. Unchaffed. Animals in better condition, and a great amount of
labour saved. What have animals got teeth for?

8. Oil-cake and grain.

9. (6) Only a little, not weighed. (¢) Morning, noon, and evening.

454 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. ]
Mr. J. Brock1ze—continued.

10. Horses: straw unchaffed and swedes, as much as they can eat, and
13 bushel of oats uncrushed, and swedes uncut. Dairy stock: straw and
hay, mangolds, and corn. Fveding beasts: turnips uncut, straw, and corn.
Rag ad ewes: hay, turnips, and grass. Feeding sheep : turnips, corn, grass,
and hay.

11. Out-of-doors in the summer ; in-doors in the winter. Turn out to
graze in May, and turn in about November, guided by weather.

14. Have tiied cooking for two winters, but shall not do soagain. Stock
did not do so well when turned out to graze.

Mr. T. Duckuam, Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire.

3. I use all the barley and oat straw for feed, not chaffed, for cattle.
Oat or wheat straw chaffed with fodder for horses. Wheat straw for
litter.

4, Not any. 5. For horses only.

6. Hay, chaff, pulped roots, and meal, for fattening cattle and calves,
with a little hay in the racks at night.

7. There is less waste of hay, animals consume it quicker, and the food
is more readily assimilated.

8. I never separate the chaff from cavings in thrashing. My store cattle
and breeding cows live exclusively on two feeds of cavings mixed with the
must from cider-making during the season, followed by pulped swedes or
turnips, and supped with barley or oat straw. When short of roots, or the
cavings have suffered damage from rain during harvest, I apply linseed tea,
boiling hot.

9. (a) Peck of linseed to 20 gallons of water. (6) As much as they will
clear up. (¢) Early morning, noon, and six in the evening.

10. Horses: clover or hay and straw chaff, equal parts, with crushed
oats, bran, and linseed tea. Futtening beasts: hay, chaff, pulped roots, meal,
oil-cake, and a little hay at night; oil-cake early in the morning. Breeding
sheep run the pastures until within a few weeks of lambing, with a few
turnips ; before lambing they are on turnips by day, in lambing-fold at night,
with an allowance of fodder. attening sheep: folded on roots; linseed
cake, hay, chaff, and meal.

11. In summer fattening cattle have cake in boxes on the pastures; fat-
tening sheep, cake and corn on clovers, In winter: Reply given in No. 10

uery.
e 17. My breeding cows and store cattle, kept in the way described under
the heading ‘ Mixed Foods,’ are always in excellent condition and very healthy,
Using the chaff with the cavings induces the latter to be all consumed in
the manner described.

Mr. Rosert T, WitLiaMs, Waterloo Farm, Fromefield, Frome.

3. I mix a small quantity with hay chaff, which I buy, I consider it
improves the feed.

4, Straw for litter, which I have to buy,

5. Yes, with hay.

6. Hay, given night and morning, unchaffed ; chaff as the second meal.

7. I steam the chaff; it creates an appetite, and the corn (meal) is mixed
with it, and, sticking to the chaff, there is no waste, I find also that cows

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 455

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. ]
Mr. Rosert T. Witt1ams—continued.

haying steamed chaff only require water once a day, whilst the others need
it twice a day.

8. Oil-cake, barley meal, bran, and maize meal. The barley meal and
maize meal are given alternately.

10. Horses: hay, and bruised oats and bran. Cows in Milk: 2 Ibs. per
day oil-cake, 1 lb. per day barley meal or maize meal, 2 Ibs. per day bran,
and 4 Ibs. per day chaff. Hay directly after milking; chaff at 11 a.m. ; oil-
cake at 2 P.m., and after being out for an hour or two; hay the last meal in
the evening, about 6 P.M.,as much as they will eat without waste. I do
not weigh this. Swine: Pollards and house refuse. Three days before and
after farrowing they have bran; then pollards and bran, adding barley
meal and milk as soon as the young begin to eat. Fattening pigs: one
bucket of pollards, one barley meal, and one of maize meal, steamed in

iry wash.

11, In summer grass only, The previously mentioned rations are given
from October to May.

13. (a) No opportunity yet of testing. (4) With regard to pigs, I should
say 25 per cent. I consider them much healthier. They eat and lie down,
never hunting round the sty for grit to aid digestion.

14, I steam all the food by means of a five-horse-power steam boiler.

15. Pollards, chaff (hay and straw), barley meal, maize meal. In fact, I
should steam all meals for the cattle. Proportions already given.

17. A great saving of food and labour.

18. For all stock in the winter; fatting animals all the year round.

19, ‘The cooked food is aJl given warm. This winter the cows at the home
stannen haye had warm water—that is, the chill taken off, say from 55° to
60°,

Mr. Cartes Howarp, Biddenham, Bedfordshire.

8. Yes, cut up with hay.

4. Use no substitute, but reserve enough straw for litter.

5. Yes.

6. A small portion unchaffed; the bulk chaffed.

7. In my opinion it is more economical to chaff food, as the animals can-
not separate the cake flour and roots so easily from the chaff, particularly if
damped somewhat more than the roots would damp it of themselves.

8. I generally boil some tail wheat or barley, as the case may be, and
throw over the chaff, and then add mixed flour, linseed, and undecorticated
cotton-cakes. This season, having plenty of potatoes, and being cheap, I
have boiled them, and thrown them over the chaff. The bullocks have done
remarkably well.

9. 5 lbs. to 6 Ibs. of mixed cake, 7 lbs. to 8 lbs. of mixed flour, with the
warm chaff, as above. Animals fed morning, noon, and evening.

10. Horses; Hay and straw chaff, oats, split beans, and maize. In sum-
mer, besides the corn, trefolium, tares, clover, and grass. Dairy stock and
fattening beasts—See answer to No. 8. Breeding sheep: A. month or six
weeks before and after lambing, some dry food with oats and cake; on grass,
if possible, before lambing. attening sheep: roots, clover-chaff, split beans
and peas, linseed and cotton-cake, oats and a little malt. Pigs: pollard,
mixed flour, and potatoes.

11. The winter arrangements are described above. In summer the sheep
are in clover, tares, trefolium, cabbages and grass, with cake and corn;
cattle are on the pastures, fatting bullocks getting a portion of cake.

456 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |
Mr. CHarLEs Howarp—continued.

13. My experience is that cattle thrive much better on chaffed and
mixed foods.

16, I use a forty-gallon iron furnace, in which the food is boiled as de-
scribed in Answer 8.

17. Inferior chaff of hay and straw may be sweetened and made palat-
able, the animals doing well.

18. All kinds of cattle. 19, Yes, and with the best results,

Mr. JosepH PaGet, of Stuffynwood, Mansfield.

8. Yes; all the oat straw and part of barley straw is eaten.

4, Wheat straw is used for litter for hunters and carriage-horses, and for
thatch, and barley straw for litter for cattle. Sometimes moss litter is pur-
chased ; it is cheaper when wheat straw will sell for 3/. to 3/. 10s. per ton.

5. During winter a large proportion is chopped up for sheep and mixed
with their corn, flour, and cake. Oat straw is also chopped up to mix with
corn for cart-horses, and corn-flour or cake for cattle when milking or feed-
ing. Barley straw is more frequently chaffed for the same purpose for store
cattle, but the great bulk of straw for the cattle is eaten long.

6. Unchaffed, unless it be inferior hay, to mix with straw.

7. I have come to the conclusion that there is no advantage in chaffing
straw, except to mix with other food and prevent the waste of flour, or
for sheep, which waste long straw very much. The cattle leave the long
straw given them in racks, like horses, and waste little. That which they
do not eat serves for bedding.

8. Crushed oats or barley, mixed with decorticated cotton or linseed
cake.

9. (a and 6). See Answer 10, (c) Milking cows: 6.30 to 7 aM,
turnips or mangolds, after milking; 11.30 a.m. to 12 noon, cake, corn, and
chop; 2.30 p.m., hay; 5 P.M., turnips or mangolds, and straw after milking.
Sheep: cake or corn with chaff from 9 a.m. to 10 A.M.

10. Horses: one bushel of oats per week (except when out at grass), hay,
sometimes a little bran and chopped straw. Milking cows: 8 lbs. of linseed
or cotton cake and oat flour mixed (generally equal parts) to the best
milkers ; less to others, unless they are to be fed; little or none in summer
when butter is cheap ; 40 Ibs. roots, 6 lbs. hay, 10 Ibs. oat straw long, and
2 \bs, chaffed. Feeding beasts: 4 lbs. cake, 4 lbs. corn, 7 lbs. hay, 60 Ibs.
roots and oat straw, ad lib, Breeding sheep: 4 lb. maize before putting to
the ram ; afterwards about 4 lb. corn or cake till they lamb; then 1 lb. oats
or cake till the lambs are weaned. Feeding sheep: from } lb. to 1 lb. cake
and corn. Swine: sows in pig and stores, boiled roots and swill; feeders,
1 lb. barley meal, increased to 2 lbs, in addition, and afterwards increased
to 7 lbs.

11. Lambs are put on rape as soon as clover loses its quality, in Sep-
tember or October; afterwards on rape and white turnips, which are
drilled in alternate three rows, the latter being chopped; then on turnips
only. Breeding ewes have white turnips, and then swedes, and finally
mangold-wurtzel given whole on grass. Oattle begin with white turnips,
then they have swedes, and finally mangolds. We do not like to give the
latter to any stock before March, as they are apt to produce scouring,

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 457
[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Lord ArtHuR CECIL, of Orchardmains, Innerleithen, N.B.

3. We feed our farm horses on straw (oat) almost entirely, though to
mares getting heavy in foal, about March or April, we give a little hay.

4, We are breeding horses largely, and where the colts and brood mares
can run in and out we find moss litter, at about 30s. per ton, better than
straw. We do not like it, however, where horses have to stand constantly
on it, as it draws the soles of their feet.

5. No; though we use it chaffed in our steamers. 6. Both.

7. By chafling and mixing the chaff with oats we save nearly two bushels
of corn to each pair of horses in the week, and keep our work-horses much
better in health and condition. We have never, amongst upwards of 60
horses, had a case of gripes since we used the mixture (five years).

8. We boil and steam turnips, bran, cut hay, beans, and barley, and each
horse, when at work, gets half an ordinary stable pailful every night, at
6 p.m. Young horses and brood mares get it twice a day, or once, according
to the kind of land or pasture they may be going on to substitute grass.

9. We vary the proportions of boiling considerably, according to our
observations on the dung of the horses, adding or withholding bran chiefly,
which is-done by the one man responsible for the health of all the horses, as
he serves it out of the cooking pans. The times of feeding vary according
to the time of year.

10. We give our breeding sheep nothing but hay on the hill. The low-
land portion of our flock are on turnips for three hours daily from November
till April, if the turnips last as long; we do not fatten any. Cows thrive
well on something the same kind of boiling as the horses,

14, Yes.

15. Barley, beans, cut hay, and turnips, and mixed with bran as it comes
out of the steamer. The proportions for horses require great skill and know-
ledge, and should depend greatly—first, on the kind of horse ; secondly, on
the other feeding ; and thirdly, on the time of year.

16. We use a series of steamers made by Messrs. Barford and Perkins,
and which are attached to a small engine, which pulps the turnips, cuts the
_ hay, crushes corn, &c., while the steamers are working. This we find quite
invaluable; but for a small scale a common boiler with a steamer on the top
does very well.

17. It is the only way to bring out draught horses, healthily and cheaply,
in the winter time. The boiling supplies the place of grass.

18. Draught horses and cows.

19, It is always done in the west of Scotland.

Mr. Joun Warts, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

3. Yes. 4. Peat moss litter; less than half. 5. Yes.

6. Unchaffed chiefly ; early in the morning and last thing at night, chop
being given throughout the day.

7. The economy in chaffed fodder is in some seasons very great, inasmuch
as yery inferior stuff might be steamed and mixed with pulped roots or other
succulent food, sprinkled over with a little fenugreek, thus making a palat-
able mixture for store cattle; whereas, if given unchaffed, it would be
attended with great waste.

9. Chaff ad lb.; about 100 Ibs. of swedes for fatting cattle, with meal
and cake; 20 lbs, to 40 lbs. ditto for stores, according to age, with a little
meal or cake,

458 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. ]
Mr. Joun Warrs—continued.

10. Horses get straw chaff, with some hay, and two bushels of crushed
oats per week. Dazry stock: hay, if possible; if mixed with straw chaff,
2 lbs. cotton-cake per day extra; straw chaff scalded with boiling linseed
tea, and pulped roots. fattening cattle: as much as they can eat of chaff
scalded with linseed tea, about 100 Ibs. of swedes, 4 lbs. of meal, and 4 lbs. of
cake. Breeding sheep: roots and hay. Fatting sheep: ditto, with corn and
cake, about $1b. each. Swine: grass run as long as possible, with a little
dry corn. Jatting pigs: pulped roots and grain, with barley, wheat, and
other offal corn, ground,

11. In summer most of the cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are out at
grass—except calves under a year old. In winter all are brought to the
-yards that room can be found for; some remain out all the winter, having a
shed to go in—a plan which might be practised to advantage.

12. Not more than can possibly be helped, and then for pigs only, having
generally a fair supply of roots or cabbages.

13. If dairy cattle are in loose boxes or open yards they often waste a
great deal of hay, if unchaffed ; but if they are tied up and have proper feed-
ing mangers they are very contented with unchaffed hay, and thrive quite as
well, saving the labour and expense of cutting and mixing. Fatting cattle
would be better fed with chaffed and mixed food, to get them to eat as
much as possible.

14. For years our practice has been to steam the chaff used for every
kind ot horned cattle and horses, with boiling linseed tea thrown over the
chaff required for twelve hours’ consumption. The chaff is well mixed up
and the steam confined, which in a very short time ferments and gives the
whole mixture a very sweet-smelling flavour which the stock very much
relish. To this is added the allowance of roots and meal for the respective
classes of cattle to be fed.

15. For fattening cattle, two-thirds hay to one of straw; for store cattle
and horses, all straw, should hay be in limited supply, as is the case this

ear.
17. That good use may be made of both hay and straw which might
have been damaged by weather during harvest.
18. To all kinds eating hay and straw.
19, Always to very young cattle; quite agree to it for old ones.

Mr. F. R. Moore, Littlecott, Upavon, Wilts.

8, Cut into chaff, mixed with hay; say one-third straw and two-thirds
hay.

4, Wheat straw for litter; barley or oat straw for cutting into chaff.

5. Yes.

6. All hay is chaffed, either with or without straw, which is a great
saving, and doubly pays for the extra labour.

7. Hay will go much further; sheep will eat it up cleaner, and lie down
and rest afterwards. ;

8. Best linseed-cake, old English beans, meal, pollard, malt dust.

9. (6) Half lb. per day for stock things. (¢) Morning and night for
fatting sheep; morning for stock.

10. Breeding sheep: cut hay with little straw, small quantity of roots.
Fattening sheep: cake and beans, with a little meal, two or three times a
day, with cut roots, cut hay, and uncut hay; also a little green food.

12, Brewers’ grains are very good for breeding ewes if procurable daily,

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 459

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |
Mr. Sanpers Spencer, St. Ives, Hunts.

3. Yes; chaffed, and mixed with a very few pulped roots, cotton-cake
and cocoanut meals,

4, For the cattle the litter from the piggeries is used,

5. Yes.

6. A portion chaffed with the straw, the remainder given long.

7. A considerable saving in quantity used, and greatly increased facility
in the admixture of other foods.

8. Principally foreign products, including foreign grain.

10. Horses: oats and maize. Dairy stock: roots, cotton-cake, and cocoa-
nut meals, mixed with hay and straw chaff. Prgs: bran, sharps, English
and foreign wheat and barley (ground), beans, maize, cocoanut meal, cotton-~
cake meal, roots, green clover and lucerne, growing grass, &c.,

14, [ have only attempted with pigs,

17. None; but a considerable loss,

18. Not for pigs.

19, I have found the mixing of the pigs’ food with warm in place of
cold water result in great benefit, especially with young pigs and sows
suckling.

Mr. Rogert TurnsBuL, The Mount, Wolverhampton.

8. Yes. Oat-straw and hay are chaffed and mixed with pulped swedes.
Barley-straw is sold to mattress-makers unless it contains a good proportion
of clover. Barley-straw is never given to cows in milk, as it tends to ‘dry’
them. Barley-straw may with advantage be given to cows that are difficult
to ‘dry,’ but it should be chaffed and mixed with hay-chaff and a little
boiled linseed, Cattle largely fed on oat-straw are usually afflicted with lice.

4, When straw is not plentiful the horse-manure and bedding is spread
daily on the meadows, and the straw, after a drying wind, is raked up, and
is used for bedding young stock. The oftener straw is dried the further it
goes as bedding. When straw is dear the cows have sparred floors—13 x 3}
spars resting on 4 x 54 supports. In-calf cows and cows in milk are always
liberally bedded, however dear straw may be. When sparred floors are used
the bedding goes as far again, and the cows are much more easily kept clean
than when they stand on a flagged or boarded floor bedded in the usual way.

5. Yes, to some extent to cows in milk and for feeding cattle. In-calf
cows and heifers and young stock get long oat-straw at night and for the
first foddering in the morning. The rough leavings are used for bedding.
Wheat-straw is always chaffed for cattle, It is a good plan to chaff wheat-
straw a few months before it is required, and to mix 1 cwt. of pulped roots
with 1 ton of straw. Green clover may be mixed with the first thrashings
of straw in the autumn—a thick layer of straw and a thin layer of clover.
The clover improves the flavour of the straw.

G6. For cows in milk, two-thirds hay and one-third oat-straw are chaffed
and mixed with pulped roots when roots are plentiful, otherwise with boiled
linseed, crushed oats, and Indian corn, for all fodderings except the first in
the morning and the last at night, when the best long hay is given, Cows
are liable to lose their cud unless they get at least one foddering a day of
long hay. When hay and straw are good in quality, neither are chaffed for
young stock or in-calf cows and heifers, unless roots are scarce, in which
case straw and hay are chopped and mixed with roots for two fodderings.

7. Cows with defective teeth, and young stock when they are getting
their teeth, eat chaffed food more readily than long hay and straw. When

460 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448, ]
Mr. Rozsert TurnsuLL—continued.

straw and hay are inferior in quality through long exposure in harvesting,
the quality can be raised to the right standard by the admixture of meal
and linseed. Some cattle will well-nigh starve rather than eat inferior hay
and straw unchaffed and unmixed with meal or roots. Hay and straw,
when harvested very dry, are more readily digested after being chaffed and
mixed with roots or linseed, and allowed to stand 24 hours before being fed
to the stock.

8, Linseed-cake, crushed; pea-meal; the Driffield Company’s undecorti-
cated cotton-cake; malt culms; crushed oats; bean-meal; cotton-cake in
the early summer months, and when roots are plentiful ; linseed-cake when
grass is scarce; bean-meal in preference to cotton-cake when beans are
cheap. My experience of cotton-cake is that it helps to make butter firm,
but when fed regularly to cows it weakens their breeding powers. Sweet
skim milk: when cattle are in low condition skim milk and cod-liver oil
are amongst the best restoratives. Treacle to dairy cows for a week before
and after calving.

9. The proportion of each description of food must be regulated by the
weather and the end in view. A liberal supply of carrots in severe weather.
Cows: in winter, 5,30 A.m., long hay; 6, linseed-cake; 8, chaff, pulped
roots, &c.; 11, ditto; 3 p.m., ditto; 5, long hay.

10. Horses: clover, hay, carrots, crushed oats, bran, and 1 lb. of linseed-
cake daily to cart-horses, wheat-straw, oat-straw. Dazy stock: clover and
meadow hay, linseed-cake, oats, bran, Indian corn, carrots, swedes, golden
tankard mangold, cabbages, tares, pea-meal, oat-straw (if well got, not
otherwise). Fattening cattle: winter-sliced swedes, oat-straw and hay
chaffed and mixed with meal, long hay at night. Fat cattle thrive better on
sliced roots than when fed on pulped roots; sliced roots appear to cause a
better flow of saliva than pulped food, and as stalled cattle get no exercise
this is a very important consideration. The sweet juice of swedes appears
to agree better with fat cattle than pulped roots that are slightly fermented.
Fat cattle, after eating sliced roots, rest and sleep more contentedly than
after a meal of pulped food. Sheep: white turnips in the early winter,
then swedes, hay and pea-meal, malt culms and cake, the proportion depend-
ing on the weather. Swine: boiled potatoes and barley-meal.

11. Constant change of pasture. I prefer to stock heavily early in the
season, and to graze cattle not under two at May-day that have good coats
and are fully 50 per cent. carcass weight to begin with. I prefer cattle to
have never been housed or in a covered yard, and cattle never to have tasted
artificial food. Cattle reared on milk, grass, and hay, I find graze better
than cattle raised in the turnip and straw districts, No cattle graze better
than Cumberland bullocks, which are usually fed on grass in summer and on
hay of prime quality in winter. Rock salt should be placed in every pas-
ture. In very hot weather, when flies are about, both fat cattle and dairy
cattle should be put in cool yards in the heat of the day, and should be
supplied with tares, ryegrass, clover, lucerne, &c. I always like to have a
ryegrass pasture in May and June, to put young cattle and calves in when
old pastures have a scouring effect. Ryegrass is much safer than cotton-
cake for young stock.

12. No. I keep pastures well eaten down, believing that grass contains
more nutriment when it first springs than at any other stage of growth.
Pastures are cleared for a fortnight at a time, or longer in dry weather.
Stocked at May-day, after the first month they are rarely grazed more thana
fortnight together, I attach great importance to a constant supply of pure

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 461

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448.]

Mr. Rosert TurRNBULL—continued.

soft water, and to frequent change of pasture, especially where sheep are
concerned. I prefer seeds for sheep to old pasture; white clover when the
land is strong and rich,

13, When hay and straw are chaffed there is less waste when the quality
issecond rate. Hay, if at all mouldy, should not be given to breeding stock
in any form, or to young stock. It should be steamed as well as chaffed, and
given to strong store bullocks. When roots are given to cows sliced the
milk tastes strongly of the roots, but if the roots are pulped and mixed with
chaffed hay and straw, and allowed to stand twenty-four hours without
being fed, the milk is not unfavourably affected, no matter whether fed
before or after milking. As before stated, I prefer sliced roots for fattening
cattle, but if hay and straw have been much exposed in harvesting, chaffing
and pulping must be resorted to.

14, Not asarule. I believe steamed food to be the best for cattle that
have weak digestions and for newly-calved cows that are heavy milkers,
or that have defective teeth. I would not buy cattle for summer grazing on
any account that had been fed on steamed food in covered yards.

15. Hay, meal, bran. Bran and hay tea are excellent for newly-calved
deep-milking cows.

16, Barford and Perkins, of Peterborough, have given special attention
to this matter. The waste steam from an engine can be economically used
in steaming hay by turning it through a false floor.

17. I believe that by giving newly-calved cows food in the most digesti-
ble form the risk of milk fever is greatly reduced ; and that in the case of
cattle with defective teeth, the food consumed is more readily digested.
When plenty of poultry and pigs are kept there is little actual waste of food,
as the manure, if thinly spread on the manure heap, is carefully picked over.

18. Aged cows, newly-calved cows, cattle that have defective teeth, cattle
that have weak digestions.

19. Ihave found that cows milk more abundantly when the chill is taken
off the water in cold weather.

Mr. CLarE SEWELL READ, Honingham Thorpe, Norwich.

3. Yes.

4, [have two covered yards, and so economise the litter for bedding cattle.

5. All the oat-straw is chaffed, and some of the best barley-straw ; cut
with steam power and trodden into old barns and a little salt added, and
occasionally a small quantity of vetches, clover, or grass, but sometimes this
addition causes mould or too much heat.

6. All the hay save that used for the riding stable is chaffed.

7. You cannot get the cattle to eat a large quantity of long straw, and
by mixing pulp or shredded roots with the chaff they will eat any quantity,
and so you give the necessary bulk of food at a little cost, and can keep more
stock upon your farm.

8. The lean cattle have only roots and straw chaff. The fat stock and
cows in milk have hay and straw chaff, and such roots, cake, meal, and
malt as you allow them.

9. Apportion the roots and artificial food to the different kinds of stock
and allow them to eat as much chaff as they please ; they are fed three times
aday. Crushed malt will sweeten a large quantity of dry unpalatable chaff,

10. Cart-horses ave fed with hay-chaff (a little straw and corn-chaff
added), crushed oats, and a few roots in winter; in summer, crushed oats
and chaffed lucerne. Fattening beasts: in winter—roots (all cut into fingers
or shreds), hay and straw-chaff, linseed and decorticated cotton-cake, meal,

462 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448, |

Mr. CiareE SEwELL READ—continued.

and malt. Dairy stock: much the same, only the cows go out for grass
and white turnips on the pastures, and have mostly cotton-cake. wes have
to run over stubbles and grass in winter, and pick up the turnips after the fat
sheep, and eat straw-chaff until lambing, when they have better food. Fat
sheep have whole turnips and swedes, hay-chaff, cake, malt, and corn.

11. The cart-horses are kept in the yards all the year round. Dairy
stock are housed at night in winter, running out whenever the weather
permits ; have always cotton-cake in summer. I hardly ever have any fat
beasts in summer, and the young stock are sent down to grass marshes by
Yarmouth.

12. No. (A record of the way in which grains are stored round about
Burton will be found in our Report of the Prize Farms at the Derby
(1881) Show.)?

13. The first year I commenced farming on my own account my cart-
horses had the ‘ strangles,’ and I allowed them all the long hay they liked.
They ate and spoiled so much in three months that I have never used any
long hay since.

Mr. Joun Sperr, Newton, Glasgow.

8. Cows in full milk get from 8 lbs. to 10 Ibs. of fresh oat-straw uncut ;
dry cows as much as they care to eat.

4, My litter is principally composed of thatch from grain stacks, potato
or carrot pits, &c., straw being too easily sold here to be allowed to be simply
trodden under foot to make manure. I have tried moss in the byres by
nailing a two-inch spar along the edge of the gutter at the cow’s heels, and
filling it in front with moss. The body of moss was, however, too thin, and
the cows kicked it largely into the gutters. It was, therefore, discontinued
as being too costly.

5. No.

6. Generally unchaffed, unless it is wished to boil or steam it in order
to mix it with meals.

7. Chaffing has no advantages unless it is wished to mix it with meal or
cake, or for the purpose of using up hay which would in great part not be
eaten alone owing to bad quality.

8. Silage, oat-straw, hay, cabbages, cut clover, tares, in season, all as
grown, and unchaffed. Brewers’ or distillers’ grains, mutton pea meal (dall
of India), decorticated cotton-seed-cake in meal, refuse maize-meal from the
starch manufactories, linseed-cake, bean-meal, malt-sprouts, &c., all mixed
in whole or part with brewers’ grains.

salicias TRCE unto Dry matter] Starch pARaneRD Oil

8 lbs..dat-sivaw. < « 2 « «w « » 6°53 32 cif 05
10 Ibs; silage (grass) <) »).« « %s “s a Cee cE 2 ‘06
14 Ibs, potatoes. . «1 » 2 «© « « 35 29 29 02
TO Tos eCAs eee are ae te 2:2 1:08 39 ‘08
3 lb. linseed-cake (American). . . 4 ‘08 07 03
Albs. mutton peas. .... « « » 33 2:0 8 05
24 lbs. refuse maize-meal . . . 2°2 1:5 “4 13
21:13 11°86 2°26 42

1 See Vol. XVII. (2nd Series), Part II., page 462.

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 463

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. }
Mr. Joun Sperr—continued.

sag ey a Dry matter} Starch rape Oil

§ lbs! oat-stvaw.. < «© « » » 6°53 32 ab "O05
20 Ibs. silage. « » » » «© 8» « » 6:0 2°2 4 12
AOSIOTAINS:) cS 8 kt 2°2 1:0 4 08
4 lb.linseed-cake . . . . . = - “4 08 07 03
4 bs. mutton peas. . . . » «= « 3:3 20 8 05
24 Ibs. refuse maize-meal . .. , 2:2 Gy 4 13
20°6 9-98 2°18 *46

Cake-is given during milking in the morning (4 A.M.); grains and meals
6 a.M., 12 A.w., and 6 p.m; silage, mid-forenoon; potatoes, mid-afternoon ;
also straw, 10 am.,4Pp.m.and 6.15 p.m. Stock, Ayrshires, 8 to 83 ewt.

10. Horses: 16 lbs. bruised oats, 4 lbs. maize broken, 12 lbs. to 14 Ibs.
hay, one-fourth of which is cut and mixed with the grain, the remainder
given long. Dazry stock: see No. 9.

11. Dairy stock: concentrated food as given under No. 9 for all winter,
which is occasionally altered according to the price of the different materials.
The green food used in early autumn isspring tares, or second cut Italian or
clover; then the sprouts of early cut cabbages sold for table use. From
about October 20 to November 30 carrot leaves are alone used, and very good
they are. Cow cabbages fill up the time till the new year, with Italian and
clover second cut made into silage after. Diseased potatoes are largely used
during October and part of November, and to the extent of from 14 lbs. to
21 Ibs. daily from the new year until now (April). In summer, in addition
to pasture, each cow'gets about 7 lbs, grains and 4 lbs, of decorticated cotton-
cake meal, and 3 lbs. of oat-straw or hay, and an equivalent of cut grass.
They are in the house all night.

12. I use brewers’ grains all the year to the extent of one-fifth to one--
third bushel to each cow, according to season and price. I can generally
get them fresh, and prefer them in that state, even although a little dearer,
to preserved ones. I have preserved them several years in houses like a silo,
covered with sods, but have had better results when fresh ones were used.

13. Where all the produce is of such a quality as will be cleanly eaten
seperately, I see no gain and no econon\y in chafling, but there is needless
abour.

14, All meals are boiled by steam for between one and two hours before
use, the mixture being given sloppy and warm. So much water is given in
the green food and along with the steamed meals that it is rarely a cow in
full milk takes a drink of water. They are generally offered such for a few
days after calving, bnt at other times, unless a month just now, they never
take it, although offered it.

15. The pea and maize meal shown in No. 9, which see.

16. I am partial to a small upright boiler with or without tubes. Such
raises steam quickly, is cheap, and easy of attention; egg end boilers take
more coals to raise steam than an upright one to raise and supply it. For
steaming meal and heating water I use ordinary farm boilers (cast-iron), set
in a row against the wall, built firmly in with cement, a pipe going down
the one side, The boilers are emptied with shovels or buckets,

17. The very best possible results,

464 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |
Mr. Joun SpEIR—continued.

18. For cows in full milk only, or with a slight modification for store in-
calf cows. My experience does not go further.

19. I feel quite convinced that the most cannot be made out of either
cows or food unless they are kept warm, and their food and drink are given

warm. ‘This applies particularly to cows in full milk. So much is this the
case that even with very comfortable quarters every night’s frost will lower
the production of milk from 2 up to 10 or 12 per cent., which immediately
returns with the mild weather. A single drink of cold water will often cause
congestion in the udder, and always lowers the milk yield.

Mr. HunTER PRINGLE, Hastmere, Watton, Norfolk.

8. Yes. I use for feeding purposes three-quarters of the straw I grow. I
do so in the firm belief that straw, when porer treated, is valuable food, that
by using as much as possible for food I can keep a maximum of stock, and
therefore have a maximum of manure (both quantity and quality), and have
a maximum of profit from stock, The system of open yards is a great flaw
in English husbandry. I calculate the loss entailed by waste of valuable
feeding straw in England amounts to a tax of 7s. per acre on the arable land
throughout the country.

4, My cattle are partly tied up, on a system which renders litter straw
almost unnecessary. The platforms on which they stand are formed of con-
crete, laid off in V-groove bricks. The platform is 6} feet long, with a slope
of one inch to the foot. Behind the bullock is a small sunk gutter, into
which the solid manure drops. The liquid from heifers falls direct into this
gutter ; with bullocks the V-grooves carry it at once into the gutter. In order
to make the best manure in every place, the rough manure from four horses is
shaken up, the feces are thrown upon the manure heap (under roof), and the
straw spread below the tied-up cattle. The straw from four horses beds eight
beasts. In my covered yards waste, wet, or soiled straw, weeds, thatch
straw, or any useless material is used as litter. I find we use fully twelve
of food straw to one of litter. -

5. I chaff all my straw. Were I to litter my tied-up beasts with straw
other than what comes from the stables, I would have it all chaffed. Cattle
do not pull chaffed litter into rolls or lumps, consequently the bed is always
even. Where a Maynard is used, the riddlings or dressings should be used
for litter and the short lengths for food. I consider the chafling of straw
absolutely necessary if the greatest profit and the least waste is to be derived
from cattle or stock-feeding or management,

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 465

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. ]
Mr. Hunter PringLe—continued.

6. As hay is a severe crop on our poor light lands, I do not make much.
I always have a little, but the acreage under hay is the lowest possible. I
chaff it all. My work horses are allowed some during times of extra hard
work; at other times they get only oat straw. I may say that on this farm
four horses, each pair working a double furrow plough, have to plough, seed,
and work 60 acres of land for roots and 125 for corn. The work is always
well done, and the horses are always fat and fresh,

7. In my opinion, and from my experience, I am led to conclude that
the advantage to be gained from chaffing is only felt when the pulping of
roots and the mixing of stock food is also carried out. Stock, ze. store
cattle, fed on straw of sound quality, do equally well on long straw, but
they pull out and waste a great deal, and they select the best and decline
the worst. Chaffing prevents this, of course, but mixing is the great means
of haying everything eaten up.

8. Ensilage, cut straw, pulped potatoes, pulped roots (turnips, swedes,
and mangolds). Always given mixed, and the mixture always of the same
age. I never allow any variation in the length of time the food lies in
heap. During autumn I allow the mixture to soak one full day; in spring
the roots are drier, so the heap lies for two days undisturbed.

9. One lot of cattle (A) gets per head per day 23 stones silage, 2 stones
pulped potatoes, 2 stones pulped mangolds, 16 lbs. cut_straw, 3 lbs. cake to
begin with, 6 Ibs. cake to finish with ; these cattle drink no water. Another
lot (B) get per head per day 2} stones silage, 4 stones pulped mangolds,
15 lbs. cut straw, cake as before ; these cattle drink no water. Store cattle
get 2 stones pulped mangolds, 1} stone silage, 10 lbs. cut straw, 2 Ibs. cake ;
these cattle drink a little water, but not much. Hours of feeding : half cake
first in the morning; an hour afterwards half mixture; at 2 p.m, half
mixture ; 6 P.M., half cake.

10. Horses: A mixture of pulped roots, cut straw, and at times cut hay,
with one stone apiece of silage through the mixture. Breeding ewes: Only
grass until one month before lambing, when 10 lbs. to 14 Ibs. of roots are .
allowed (never swedes); when on roots, cut straw and hay, or oat chaff,
is always given. If there is a lot of rough pasture, the ewes run there
during the day and on the turnip fold during the night. After lambing,
and when all danger of fever and inflammation has gone, I feed as liberally
as possible, never forgetting dry food and a little bran, cake, and oats.
When grass is plentiful in summer I give no other food.

11. This being a light land farm, I keep mostly a sheep stock. Cattle
are not suited for summering here; the grass grows too short, and the
soil is too hot for cattle. During autumn, winter, and spring I treat cattle
on the system already explained. At the same time I always have a few
young beasts during summer; these I run thinly with the sheep for the
benefit of the pasture. The cattle eat down the rough herbage refused by
the sheep, and coarseness in the pastures is thereby avoided or prevented.

13. I bought a lot of cattle on December 15, 1887, at 102. Yesterday
ee 19] I sold half of them at 18/. 10s. ; the others are worth 177. 10s.

he cost of food as described under letters A and B, I calculate, amounts to
83d. per day. No charge is put upon straw, but no credit is taken for
manure. Roots are valued at 10s. per ton, silage at 10s. per ton, and cake
at ld. per lb. On the old system, roots ad libitum, and long straw and hay,
I calculate the cost would be half again as much, and not such rapid fattening.

14, No. I highly approve of steaming chaff, but do not think cooking
roots beneficial. A trial made some years ago did not please me.

VOL. XXIV.—S. S. HH

466 Practical Bxperiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Mr. Wo. Stratton, Kingston Deverell, Warminster.

3. Yes. 4. Damaged straw. 5. No. 6. Unchaffed. ;

7. I consider it bad economy to chaff, and I never use a chaff-cutter.

8. Whatever description of corn or cake can be bought or kept back
from market to best advantage at the time.

9. Various, depending upon the kind of stock,

Mr. JoHN TREADWELL, Upper Winchendon, Aylesbury.

3. Yes. 4. Use straw for litter.

5. Some is, and mixed with hay; some is used whole.

6. Both mixed and chaffed if you have some that is not so good. You
can get stock to eat it better; and mixed with other things it becomes more

alatable.
y 7. There is less waste, and it enables you to mix the best and worst hay
together, which, with meal or cake in addition, makes it more profitably
used. Ithink, in giving dry stock whole straw, they will reject the worst
and eat the best, thus doing better than if they were made to eat all alike.
Of course, they require cake or meal with straw, or they will not thrive
well enough, or make the manure good enough.

8. American linseed cake and decorticated cake, often mixed. Meal is
made of about one-ninth malt, two-ninths wheat, two-ninths maize, two-
ninths Indian peas, and two-ninths barley this year. Of course this varies
according to the price of different articles; but I always use from one-
eighth to one-tenth malt for everything—cattle, sheep, pigs, or horses. I
believe that it is better than any condiment; it keeps stock healthy and
assists to digest and assimilate their food. What surprises me is that
farmers do not use it more generally; I have used it for years for all kinds
of stock.

9. (a and b.) Answered inNos. 8and 10. (¢) Morning and afternoon.
Hay first and last ; roots, meal, cake, and chaff given about 8 to 9 a.m. and
3 to 4 P.M.

10. Lkeep my cart-horses on hay and straw chaff, with an allowance of
1 bushel ground maize, } bushel oats, and 3 peck of crushed malt per week.
Breeding dairy cows get 10 Ibs. mixed meal per day in hay and straw
chaff, with long hay ad libitum. Fattening dairy cows get 5 lbs. mixed
linseed and decorticated cotton-cake, and 5 lbs, up to 10 Ibs. of mixed - meal,
with mixed chaff and long hay, with two-thirds of a bushel of sliced man-
golds, per day. Fattening beasts get the Jarger allowance of meal as well
as the roots and cake. The dairy cows are fatted off after their third calf,
or previously if bad milkers. In the summer mixed linseed and cotton cake
is usually given with the grass, about 5 lbs. to the breeding cows whilst in
milk; the fatting dairy cows get about the same allowance of cake and meal
as in winter, with a little chaff, only they do not eat quite so much meal,
5 lbs. meal and 5 lbs. cake being about the maximum. Sheep are fed
according to circumstances. Swine have what meal they will eat when fat-
tening; same mixture as cattle.

13. I find that I can keep many more cows by feeding in this way, that
my grass land very much improyes, that my cows milk well, holding their
milk for a great length of time, and when killed fat the butcher gets an extra
quarter in their loose fat, as they generally die remarkably well, often turn-
ing out 15 to 20 stone (of 8 Ths.) of loose fat. F

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 467

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448.
Mr. Henry Woops, Merton, Thetford, Norfolk.

3. Yes; oat straw.

4. German moss litter is used extensively as well as straw ; the former
is found too cold for pigs in winter, but answers well for horses, cattle, and
large stock. I consider the moss much cheaper than straw ; 1 ton of the
former (including all expenses) costs 45s., and is equal to 14 ton of wheat
straw, value 60s.

5 and 6. For horses, and also for cows, &c., when mixed with other
food such as pulped roots. Otherwise it is given long, like hay.

7. The chaffing system prevents the food being consumed too hastily,
avoids waste of food, and promotes digestion. It prepares the diet also in
a more concentrated form, and helps the use of less palatable food by the
process of fermentation, which, with the additional aid of spices or con-
diments, will convert poor or sour edibles into wholesome nutriment.

8. None in general use.

10, Horses: One and a half gallon oats and hay chaff, 1 stone long hay,
occasionally 2 lbs. or 3 Ibs. linseed cake. Dairy stock: 3 lbs. linseed cake,
1 gallon crushed oats and bran, and 1 stone long hay or oat straw; also
28 lbs. drumhead cabbage, occasionally 1 stone parsnips. Futtening beasts :
6 lbs. to 8 lbs. linseed cake, 1 gallon crushed beans or peas, hay, and
cabbages. Breeding sheep: Ground oats and bran, or cake, and cabbages or
swedes. Fuattening sheep: Ground or crushed peas or maize, cake (linseed),
hay, or cabbages. Swe: Barley meal and bran, skim milk and refuse
vegetables, &c., acorns.

11. In summer dairy eattle and young cattle get a few pounds of linseed
cake on the pastures, and the sheep later on when the pastures begin to
fail. Cart-horses are turned out to graze for two or three weels between hay-
time and harvest. In October cows come in at night, and are put on half
winter diet. The sheep remain out on extra food (cake, oats, or hay) when
required; at the end of November the winter system of feeding com-
mences, ;

12. No. Not selling milk, we prefer less watery food, and use malt culms
in preference. The latter, however, have now been abandoned, being hardly
ee equal to good bran, and we intend giving desiccated grains a trial
if possible.

PS. We rely chiefly on concentrated diets containing a high albuminoid
ratio, 1: 6 or 7, in order to increase the proportion of butter to milk. The
practice with regard to fattening (No. 10) has a similar object, in increasing
animal fat so far as it is allied with health and quality of produce.

14. Only during the cold months for pigs, which receive their usual food
warmed up in a large copper heated by a stove beneath.

16. [have found the following the best and most simple, of which a
rough sketch is appended (see next page). The stove is situated in a corner
of the meal-house, and the chimney is carried through the roof,

The building and making of this stove cost 2/. 7s. 6d., with the exception
of the chimney pot, which had been placed there by a former tenant. The
copper is worth about 5s. Total, 27. 12s. Gd. It has been up about three
years, and has repaid its cost handsomely.

18. For all cattle, dairy stock, and pigs during the cold season. The
outlay in coal or coke is very trifling, and the larger amount of food cooked
and increased size of copper, will reduce this expense proportionately, The
copper should never be empty when the stove is ignited, otherwise it may
crack ; a gallon or two of water will prevent this mishap, Any food may

HH 2

468 Practical Expertences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. }
Mr. Henry Woops—continued.

be cooked in this way, and the water will boil in a few minutes. A large
fire, however, should not be made unless there is sufficient food to pay
for it.

19. Yes; a very good plan. Iced water has a decidedly injurious effect

if indulged in too frequently. The water should not be warmed higher
than 55° or 56° Fahrenheit (ordinary summer or autumn temperature).

Mr. H. J. SHeLpon, Brailes House, Shipston-on-Stour,
Warwickshire.

8. Yes, when I have roots to pulp and mix with it ; but this winter (1887)
have used only long straw for things to pick over and eat as much as they
would, and used the remainder for litter.

6, Chiefly unchaffed.

7. The expense of chaff-cutting, even by steam, is heavy, and, unless for
the purpose of mixing with pulped roots, too great to be incurred,

10. Horses: Oat straw, hay, oats. Beach of all kinds, hay and straw,
Breeding sheep: Clover hay. attening sheep: Clover hay, oats, oilcake,
peas, and a very few roots. Swine: Barley meal and sharps,

Mr, GeorGe WriGut, Cranmore, Shepton Mallet, Somereetshire.

8. It is all chaffed and consumed.

4. I endeavour to cut a little fern for cows to calve on ; at other times
they have no bedding whatever,

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock, 469

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448.]

Mr. GEorGE WricHt—continued,

5. Yes. 6, Whole.

7. Straw is most economically given chaffed, and inferior hay too, as
much would certainly be wasted: but best hay, given whole, I find eaten up
clean.

8 and 9. Grain. (a) 2 bushels of chaff to } peck of grains ; (0) 4 bushels
of chaff and 1 peck of grains, and they pick a little grass when turned out ;
(c) 6 a.m. and 4 P.M, ; stock are turned out from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m. for
exercise, excepting in very rough weather.

10. Horses: One peck of oats daily, cut chaff, and a little whole hay.
Dairy stock: In winter 4 bushels chaff, 1 peck grain, 4 lbs. cotton-cake ; in
summer months only grass. Fattening sheep: 1 lb. mixed cotton and lin-
seed cake daily, and green food ad. lib. Swine: Whey and barley meal for
fatting pigs; grain and wash for breeding ditto. :

11. Generally speaking, most of the cows are dry in winter, and are kept
out ; some half are in milk, and are fed as per former replies.

12. They are had fresh every week.

13. (a) I find a great saving in chaffed food for consuming straw and
inferior hay, and cattle thriye better on a little mixture ‘than on only one
kind of food. (4) Do not fat,

Mr. T. H. Hutcutnson, Catterick, Yorkshire.

8. Yes; all the best straw.

4, Inferior straw and moss litter. Moss litter I consider excellent for
cow-houses and for drying up liquid manure.

5. Yes. 6. Mostly chaffed.

7. Less waste; the food is more palatable; cattle fill themselves quicker,
consequently have more time to rest and put on flesh. A mixture of pulped
turnips and chaff does not reduce the temperature of the animal’s body so
much as a large feed cf sliced turnips does, and heat is equivalent to food.
When pulp is mixed with straw, the latter is softened by the juice in the
turnip, and is made much more digestible,

. Pulped turnips mixed with chaff and chaffed straw; linseed cake and
meal.

9. (a) The pulp and chaff mixture depends upon my root crop; if I have
plenty of turnips I use more in the mixture. (b) What each beast will eat
without waste. (c) 64.mM.,8 a.m, 11 a.o., 3 P.M, and 7 P.M.

10, Horses: Chaffed oat straw, ground oats, bran, a few roots, and 1 Ib.
linseed cake. Stock: Pulped turnips, steamed food one meal, a few sliced
roots, and a little cake, Sheep: Turnips, grass, hay, oats, bran, malt combs,
&e. Pigs: Offal corn, ground ; sometimes with boiled potatoes.

11, In summer cattle graze in the pastures, getting cake if required for
the butcher. In winter they are eae and fed as above dered

13. By using pulp, chaff, &c., I think you can feed 20 per cent. more
cattle, and they will thrive better.

14, Having a steaming apparatus fixed to use waste steam from my
engine, I can steam food at little expense, so I generally cook a large steamer
full daily for milking cows. The mixture is composed of boiled linseed,
crushed oats, malt combs, bran, pea or bean-meal, and chaffed hay, When
Ihave roots to pulp and mix with chaffed straw I do not consider I gain
by steaming, excepting that J like to giye milk cows one good feed per day
of the cooked food, In feeding cattle much depends upon having proper

470 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448. |

Mr. T. H. Hurcuryrson—continued.

machinery, buildings, and convenient arrangements. Messrs. Barford and
Perkins make the best steaming pans I have seen. Ie

17. I have benefited to the extent of keeping about 20-per cent. more
stock. The fcod being given in a more palatable form, cattle have thriven
better, and I have less illness. : :

18. For all cattle Irecommend pulp and chaff, but for milk cows and
fattening cattle I would give one feed per day of turnips put through a
slicer or finger cutter, and give meal along with the turnips. I do not
recommend mixing meal with pulp and chaff long before it is used.

19, Yes, with milk cows, and I think you undoubtedly get more milk.

Mr. GiLBertT Murray, Elvaston, Derby.

3. All the straw is chaffed, mixed with meal of various kinds, and fed
to horses, cattle, and sheep.

4, For every description of stock, except carriage horses and hunters in
work. Moss litter only is used, the cost of which is 32s. per ton, as against
80s. per ton for wheat-straw. I consider 1 ton of moss litter ‘equal to
30 cwt. of straw. For dairy cows and young stock it is much more whole-
some ; it is a first-rate absorbent, and keeps the sheds perfectly sweet.

5. Yes.

6. One of hay to two of straw is the usual proportion; the whole is
chaffed; scarcely any long hay is used. ,

7. There is great economy in chafling. With ordinary attention there is
no waste ; the mangers are swept out after each meal ; the leavings from any
of the milking cows are given to the dry stock. Long hay cannot, under
the most careful management, be used without considerable waste.

8. The following is the mixture of foods which I use: oats, wheat, white
peas, linseed. These are all ground together; at present prices the cost is
under 7s. percwt. I think the albuminoid and carbohydrate ration cannot
be improved.

9. Oats, 1 ewt.; wheat, 1 cwt.; white peas, } cwt.; linseed, } cwt.- To
a cow in full milk the allowance is 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. per day. ~

10. Young horses have 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. per day of the mixed meals, as
above, with cut chaff (hay and straw); the meal and chaff are mixed
together and saturated with water twelve to twenty-four hours before being
used. Dairy cows are fed in the same way. The fattening beasts have
4 Ibs. of meal and 4 Ibs. of linseed-cake, with cut chaff, and 28 lbs. of
pulped roots per day. Breeding sheep have 1 lb. of the mixed meal per
head per day with chaff, and a few roots spread about the pastures. Fatten-
ing sheep have 1 lb. per head daily of best linseed-cake and cut swedes.
Swine are fattened on whey, skim milk, or butter milk, with barley and
pea-meal. ;

11. For fattening beasts, 4 lbs. to 6 Ibs. of a mixture of linseed and
cotton-cakes are used on the pastures during the last six weeks before going
to the butcher. The dairy cows in full milk, and the calves and yearlings,
have an allowance of mixed meals throughout the summer, I find the
mixed meal answers admirably for young growing stock.

12. Brewers’ grains are of low nutritive value; they contain a large
percentage of water, which during the winter months must be raised to the
temperature of the body at the expense of a considerable waste of carbo-
hydrates. The effect of brewers’ grains on the yield of mill is chiefly
due to the quantity of water held in suspension, The same object can

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 471

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448.]

Mr. Gitpert Murray—continued.

obtained by the addition of water to the chaff and mixed meals, and be
effected at much less cost. ah

13. Foods, when skilfully compounded, prevent the waste of nutritive
matter, Stock thrive well on the mixture. The component parts of the
food are varied to suit the object in view, whether this be milk, butter, or
cheese, or the growing or fattening of young stock. :

14. The chaff and meal is mixed in the desired proportions, placed in a
brick or wooden cistern haying a perforated bottom lining. Beneath this
the steam is admitted from the boiler of a steam-engine, or from steam
generated in an ordinary metal furnace, over which is placed a tin or zinc
dome.

+ 165. Chaff, roots, and meal, the proportions of which vary according to
the kind of stock to be fed, For dairy cows in full milk the proportion of
meal to chaff is one of the former to six of the latter.

AA, tin or zine dome fitting into the furnace-pan or copper. So long as
the water in the pan remains above the lower end of the cone or top no steam
can escape except through the steam pipe. BB, tank for supplying the boiler
with water. C, the feed pipe. The supply of water is regulated by a brass
tap as shown in sketch. JD, brick cistern containing the food to be cooked.
The perforated pipe is carried near the false bottom to a chamber into which
it is distributed and from which it gradually permeates the mass contained in
the cistern. The top is covered by a closely fitting lid, which prevents any
escape of steam. The chaff and meal should be well saturated with clean
water when placed in the cistern, H, the feed pipe from the water cistern.
This pipe is carried under the pan, when it comes into direct contact with
the fire and thus acts as a superheater. The heated water rises through the
return pipe F, and is discharged into the boiler at G. I, the pan or copper,
which may be of any size, from 10 to 120 gallons, The size will depend on
the amount of work it is expected to perform. Sufficient food has been

472 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

[For Schedule of Questions, see page 448.]

Mr. Gitpert Murray—continued.

cooked during the winter months to satisfy the requirements of 40 head of
cattle and horses with a 25-gallon pan. J, the fire for heating the pan, which
is set with a flue all round. This insures the greatest economy from the
quantity of fuel used.

17. It is a mistake to suppose that the food isrendered more nutritive by
cooking. Nevertheless there is considerable economy, as the food is more
easily digested. The waste, both of flesh-formers and heat and fat producers,
is lessened. In the case of ruminants, coarse food has frequently to be re-
masticated three or four times before it becomes in a fit state to pass to the
second stomach, and the secretion of saliva cannot be effected without a
certain expenditure of food.

18. I have successfully used cooked food for every description of farm-
stock, more particularly for dairy cows. Cooked food, when given in a moist
or semi-liquid state, takes the place of roots or brewers’ grains, and produces
the same result at a greatly reduced cost.

19. In the case of winter dairying the flow of milk is increased, and a
certain economy of food effected, by giving the food at a temperature of 60°
to 70° Fahrenheit,

Mr. WILLIAM JANES, Hunter’s Farm, Leavesden, Watford, Herts.

3. Yes.

4. I use for litter the refuse of straw and such as is not sweet and good
enough for feeding.

5. Yes; cut with one-third hay.

6. Principally chaffed, but a proportion unchafted, for both beast and sheep.

7. Both cattle and sheep eat them better in chaff without waste.

8. Linseed and cotton-cake, with meal made from thin barley unfit for
malting, ground with a mixture of lentils or Indian peas.

9. (a) Equal quantities. (b) Sheep, 1lb. per day; beasts, 2 years old,
7 lbs. per day. (c) Morning and night.

10. Horses: straw, chaff, and oats and maize. Dairy stock: linseed
and cotton-cake, grains, and chaff. Fat beasts: linseed and cotton-cake,
meal, chaff and hay, and roots. wes: grass, mixed chaff, and oats. Fat
sheep: linseed and cotton-cake, chaff, hay and turnips. Pgs: barley and
pea-meal, and whole peas.

11. Beasts in summer have some linseed and cotton-cake in boxes in the
fields—one to each animal. Beasts in winter are in yards, or tied up in
sheds. Sheep in winter are on turnip land, and have cake, chaff, and hay
night and morning.

12. I use brewers’ grains fetched direct from the brewery twice each week.

13. Both cattle and sheep do better with a mixed food, eating it better,
and not getting sick or cloyed, as they will by feeding them altogether on
one kind of food. ;

14, I boil linseed, and pour it whilst hot over the straw and hay chaff,
and let it remain one day before using. i

15. Linseed or refuse small wheat, or any kind of offal seed.

16, I simply boil mine in a copper about four hours, but farmers who
have a steam-engine can steam their chaff in a closed bin cheaper and with
less trouble.

17. All the stock eat it well, but at present prices it does not pay.

18. For feeding or dairy stock, Calves, ewes, and lambs—in fact, all
stock—like it, ;

———— Sea nn

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 473

These replies, as was to be expected, show a great variation
in practice, this variation being as a rule controlled by local
custom, and the actual resources of the farm.

Chafing —Taking the first subject, the answers show a
general consensus of opinion in favour of chaffing foods. Of
the whole of the replies, no less than 70 per cent. show chaffing
to be adopted, while in 20 per cent. more it is partially adopted,
and in 10 per cent. only is the answer in the negative. The
further answers on this question are of the greatest interest,
showing as they do how much straw is now used for feeding,
only the rough being used for bedding, and where this is also
used for food, moss litter is the usual substitute. No less than
46 per cent. of my correspondents use this substitute, and as a
rule the remainder either have sufficient straw both for feeding
and litter, or else use the rough for the latter purpose. Over
the whole of the replies in which prices are given there is a
saving of 55 per cent. in the cost of moss litter as compared
with the value of straw. In one case the very bold opinion
is put forward that litter is not required for any description of
stock. This opinion is expressed by Professor J. P. Sheldon, a
gentleman farming in the bleak peak district of Derbyshire, the
last district from which we should expect to hear that “litter,
speaking generally, is a superfluity and a waste.” All the
replies to questions 3 to 7, as given by Professor Sheldon, are
well worthy of careful attention (see page 452). On the whole
question, there is a general agreement as to the usefulness and
economy of chaffing foods. The latter comes chiefly from the
avoidance of waste, and the great facility it gives for moistening .
and mixing with various meals. Another point which is really
of great importance is brought out in the very valuable reply by
Mr. Henry Straker (page 450), where he says that “there is also
less anxiety about fire when the cattle-man is feeding by candle-
light, when he has no long straw near him.” On the other hand
there are some influential opinions against chaffing. Whatever
is said by such experienced men as the Strattons deserves atten-
tion. Mr. Richard Stratton, of The Duffryn, Newport (Mon.),
believes that “chaffing does not pay for the labour, and that
cattle are less liable to get out of health on long food” (see page
453). But it is a curious commentary on this opinion, especially
when taken in conjunction with the practice and opinion of such
a large number of other feeders, that in years of scarcity the
food is here given chaffed. Unless this is because of the greater
economy of the practice, it is impossible to imagine the reagon.
Mr. William Stratton, another good farmer, considers it bad
economy to chaff, and never uses a chaff-cutter (see page 466),

474 Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock.

These two opinions are, in reality, the only pronounced ones
against the economy and usefulness of chaffing, for that. given
by Mr. H. J. Sheldon is more conditional than pronounced.

On the whole, therefore, the opinions are in fayour of the
system, and may well be summed up in the carefully expressed
answer by Mr. Henry Woods, of Merton (page 467). ‘The
chaffing system,” he says, ‘‘ prevents the food being consumed
too hastily, avoids waste of food, and promotes digestion. It
prepares the diet also ina more concentrated form, and helps the
use of less palatable food by the process of fermentation, which,
with the additional aid of spices or condiments, will convert poor
or sour edibles into wholesome nutriment.” The opinions, also,
of Mr. C.S. Read (page 461) and Mr. Gilbert Murray (page 470)
may also be referred to as putting very well the claims for chaffing
foods.

Mixed Foods.—The replies are entirely favourable to this
practice, but it is impossible to evolve any very general rules as
to what the mixture should be. In this matter the feeder must
be ruled by what he has, or what he can best and most cheaply
obtain. ‘The various experiences given in the replies will, how-
ever, be of value as giving a good guide in cases where similar
foods are the best obtainable. The reader must refer to the
answers for the actual practice on the several farms described.
It can only be said in a general summary that the use of food-
mixtures has become very general on most of the good farms of
the country, and that the use of meals, chiefly of corn, is be-
coming more and more common. ‘This results generally from
the low prices which haye of late prevailed in our markets.

Cooked and Steamed Foods.—So far as the economy and use-
fulness of cooked or steamed foods are concerned, there is the
greatest variety of opinion, but on the whole it must be said
that there is not so much in favour of the system as there is in
favour of chaffing and mixing foods. Sir John Lawes has very
kindly sent me a short summary giving the results of experi-
ments on the subject, in which he says :—

“While the various methods of preparing fodder for animals, such as
steaming, ensilage, &c. &c., may be accompanied by practical advantage, all
the experiments hitherto executed show that the digestibility is not sensibly
increased. It was found by Hellriegel and Lucanus, that the digestibility
of rye-straw by sheep, was not increased either by fermenting or cooking
it. Experiments in Proskau by Funke gave the same results regarding the
digestibility of the total dry matter and the cellulose of a mixed ration, fed
to milk cows.

“Recent experiments at Popplesdorf showed decreased digestibility of
hay as a result of steaming. Coarse hay fed to oxen, first dry, then steamed,
showed a reduced digestibility of all the constituents, but especially of the

Practical Experiences in the Preparation of Food for Stock. 475

protein, which was reduced from 46 per cent. to 30. Boiled bran given to
oxen was less digestible than dry bran. The digestibility of concentrated
fodder is not increased by cooking.”

In the face of such pronounced results as the above it cannot
be claimed for these systems that they make the foods them-
selves more valuable. At the same time, as Sir John Lawes
points out, they may have practical advantages, such as the
avoidance of waste by making the most of the foods so prepared
and by the more thorough incorporation of the various mixtures
employed. Thus Mr. Henry Straker finds that with hot food
treacle can be added and mixed more readily. In several
cases, reference is made to the value of steaming as restoring
damaged hay and making it more palatable eating for stock.
For aged cattle with defective teeth, and young stock, there
may be considerable advantage also.

Opinions are however not favourable for its use for stock which
require hardiness; and several correspondents give a very decided
opinion that animals that have been fed with cooked or steamed
foods in covered yards do badly afterwards when grazing.

For the purposes indicated, much also depends on the cook-
ing and steaming being done cheaply and simply, and descriptions
of some very good apparatus have been sent by certain of my
correspondents. Three of these are of a character that may be
adopted on any farm possessing a steam boiler. Where this is
not the case, Messrs. Barford and Perkins’s apparatus may be
usefully employed.

But it cannot be too strongly pointed out, that in no other
branch of this enquiry is it so clearly shown that the advantages
are clearly bounded by definite lines. Neither cooking nor
steaming can be recommended beyond very small limits, and
each feeder must really be the judge as to whether in his case
any advantage can be gained. No less than 65 per cent. of my
correspondents in this enquiry either haye no opinion to offer
on the subject or are opposed to the system, and only in 35 per
cent. of the instances is the practice adopted.

These are the lessons brought out in the enquiry. That
they are of value cannot be doubted. Good feeding consists of

ing the best use of the foods available, or most cheaply
obtainable, under given circumstances. Speaking broadly,
chaffing straw and hay, and giving these foods as a portion of a
mixture (meals of corn and cake and pulped roots being most
usually added) may be generally adopted with advantage.
Cooking and steaming cannot be so generally recommended.
The value of these operations is clearly limited, and—in the
case of hardy animals—may be non-existent. Under some

476 Feeding Experiments at Crawley Mill Farm, Woburn,

circumstances, foods may he more easily mixed, while in others

they may be improved. But no rule can be formulated ap-
plicable to all circumstances.

XXIV .-—Feeding Experiments conducted at Crawley Mill Farm,
Woburn, in the Winter of 1887-8. By Dr. J. AuGustus

VoELCKER, B.A., B.Sc., &c., Consulting Chemist to the
Society.

A.—Sheep-feeding Experiments.

THESE experiments were in continuation of those made in the two
previous years, with the object of throwing light on the profitable
use of cereals as additional food for sheep feeding off swedes on the
land. The sheep were, as before, of the Hampshire and Oxford-
shire cross, 10 months old, and 40 in number, divided into 5 pens
of 8 sheep each. The foods selected for trial were as follows :—

Pen _I. received Oats (crushed).

Pen II » Barley (grittled).

Pen Ill. ,, Oats and barley, in equal quantities.

Pen IV. ,,. Wheat (whole).

Pen V. ,, Oats and wheat, in equal quantities,

In each pen the sheep received as many sliced swedes as they
would eat, and also hay-chaff, the quantities of both being
weighed out to them.

The experiment began on December 19, 1887, and lasted
until April 9, 1888, a period of 16 weeks (112 days). For the
first week 3 lb. of the additional foods was given per head daily,
but after that it was increased to 2 lb., remaining at this until
the close of the experiment. Analyses of average samples of the
foods taken from time to time were as follows :-—

— Cee Gritted ats and wrest (Oat ant swede | ae
Moisture. . . . . | 12°50 | 16°79 | 15°15 | 18°70 | 15°28 | 88:25 | 15°28
Oilsiese ere exec fee 6:30 | 2:10] 4:81 1:97 500} — —

1 Albuminous com-

pounds . om) 18:06"| “SST 287 4 eget 1:32 9°00
Starch, digestible :

fibre, &c. . . . . | 57°17 | 65°76 | 58:14 | 66°18 | 55°68 | 9-01 68°85
Woody fibre. . .. 787 2°74 6°53 1:87 6°74 ‘78 }
Mineral matter. . 3°10 | 2°74 2°50 179 | 4:24 “64 6:92

ee ee ee ee es ee

} Containing nitrogen | 2:09 | 158! 2.06] 152] 2:09] O21) 144

in the Winter of 1887-8. 477

The costs of the additional foods were, including cost of
crushing :—

& d.
Oats (weight per bushel, 42 lbs.) . . . 23 6 per 336 lbs.
Barley ( i: waLoGe ee) iy DAO, Aa Srl bas
Wheat ( = POUr s)he) 20) 0". 450h bs,

The weights of the sheep at commencement were :—

WEIGHTS OF SHEEP PUT UNDER EXPERIMENT ON
DrcremBer 19, 1887.

— Pen I Pen II, Pen III. Pen IV. Pen V
ewt. qrs. lbs. ewt. qrs. lbs. ewt. qrs. Ibs. ewt. qrs. Ibs. ewt. qrs. lbs.
1 0 72 0 3 144 0 3 173 1 0 133 I 0 105
1 0 8 1 0 155 1 0F © Or i 1 0 103
1 0 123 1 0 152 On 4 0 3 25 Te Ord
1 0 153 1 010 Ong TSORES 1 0 23
ite. O § Op 3,22 1 0 22 Lt Ono 1 0 8%
0 3172 1 0 212 Leong OL b 1-0)
1 0 22% 1 0 122 Om tL 1 0 163 1 016
0 3 25 I, (0, 8 i Onur 1 0 42 Onc
Total of L ~3 43
en 82656 | 8 2 7h | 8 1258 | 8 1243 | 8 2 6

The sheep were daily given a first feed of sliced swedes at
7 A.M., corn and hay between 10 and 11 a.M., and a second feed
of swedes at 4Pp.M. The average amounts of food consumed
during the whole period by the sheep per head daily were :—

— Pen I. Pen II. | Pen III, | Pen IV. | Pen V.
lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs.
Dmedesr es irc Ser... 20 193 19% 20 162
awenattn 2. x q 4 = t 2
Oats. ae iene Ps == = => 4
Banleyrc sg oc oe _ = 3 — _
Vitek ler -— —_ —_

During the winter, which was avery open one, the sheep fed
capitally and kept well, with one exception. This was a sheep
in pen 5 (wheat and oats), which died on January 24, after
shifting the pens from one field to another. The sheep was
examined by a veterinary surgeon. It was found to be very fat
around the kidneys, but there was no undue quantity of wheat
or oats in the stomach, these with the other foods being all well
digested. It is not unusual, I believe, for sheep to die after
shifting from one field to another, from the consequent excite-
ment and partaking, it may be too freely, of the fresh food

478 Feeding Experiments at Crawley Mill Farm, Woburn, ¢
i

just afterwards. This seemed to be the case here. The animal

on December 19 had weighed 1 ewt. 4 lbs., and on January 24

the carcase weighed 9 stones (of 8 lbs.).
The weights at the conclusion of the experiment were :—

WEIGHTS OF THE Five Pens or SHEEP AT THE END OF 112 Days,
Dec. 19, 1887, to April 9, 1888.

Pen I. | Pen Il, | Pen Tl. | Pen IV. | Pen V.

at acs paciey | Oxisand | nage | Ontsana
SP lowe ae. the: qrs. Ibs. | cwt. qrs. lbs. | cwt. qrs. Ibs, | cwt. qrs. Ibs. | ewt. qrs. Ibs, ‘
t 2 409 St 3) 2b i ew a Be! f--2G Pees
T £20) Ol ee B7 1 - 4 a2 Mec & 1,1 9b
ft 4325 1 F125 1. te Te 2 ee a
: I 2 8 1 22 38 1° 2 OR SSE e SMe x Mies Ef
Weights of Sheep{} 1 1 95/ 1 1/2] 1 216) 1 124]:1 197
eae a0 i 72.10 1 124] 1. 1 22 | died Jan. 24.
1 3 2 1 2 it 1 133 i. 2 Le) Ba at 26
t 025 1 7295 12° 6 BM st gh fp 2s
Total weight of

sheep, April 9,}/ 11 3 21}11 3 9/11 318/11 3 22}10 016
TES ee i —~—

Total weight on 1 ~3 3
Dec. 19, 1887. ! 8 2 6 |.8.26 72) 8 12osSwigeaeia 2

Total increase in
weight of sheep | | )
during 112 [i
days;
Equivalent i in Ibs.
Increase per head ;
during th att | 47 Ib. 8 02. 45 Ib. 100z.| | 48 1b. (48 1b.100z.! 42 Ib.
whole period .
eer ill 6-80z. | 6:5 oz. 6-90z. | -7oz. 6 oz.

| |
| | |
|

3-116] 3 1 13) 3 1203 3 1953) 2 2-14

380 Ibs. | 365} Ibs. | 3842 Ibs. | 3892 Ibs.-| 294 Ibs.

* 7 sheep only.

These results show in the case of four of the five foods com-
paratively small differences in the increase of live weight. The
actually highest result was got with wheat, but both oats and’

oats-with-barley nearly approached it, whilst barley given alone
showed a less favourable result, and w vheat-with-oats the lowest.
of all, It would appear that between foods so nearly approach-"
ing one another in chemical composition as these, the differences |
in live weight obtained are likely to be but small, but that the
mixture of oats and wheat is not so suitable, whilst as to the
rest, barley given alone is hardly as good a food as the others,
As regards wheat, the experiment proves, I think now beyond

in the Winter of 1887-8. 479
doubt, that this may be both safely and profitably used for
feeding sheep off on roots. For the third year in succession
wheat has been tried, and each time has shown very good results.

I was careful in this experiment not to disturb the sheep by
more frequent weighings than were necessary, and the experi-
ment was allowed to proceed throughout with one weighing at
the commencement and one at the end only. The more I see of
experiments, the more I am convinced of the undesirability of
frequent weighings. As an instance of this I may note that owing
to the difficulty of disposing locally of so many sheep at one
time, they were sent off in two batches, one half (four from each
pen) on April 9, the other half on April-16. On re-weighing
after the week’s interval, the same feeding being continued,
the remaining sheep in each of the pens were found, with one
exception, to have lost weight, as follows :—

lbs.

Pen I. (4 sheep) ojisas Lidew J. solesscg2

: PEN Nie ” ° e . . ” 14
Rene Lit. < 55 ° : - gan 3

Penolv ~;, = : : A loss’ 27

Pew V.(@sheep) . «.« ‘« « ole

For those interested in the question of live and dead weights,
I append the following statistics. All the sheep were weighed

i Aver-
os Car- | “fasted. leareace
— Date | ae Date Fasted weight Date |weight welt weight
| weig in 8lb. a ib. deen
stones} "stones in 8lb.
stones
\ewt. qrs. lbs. ewt. qrs. ]bs.=141b. st. st. Ibs.) st. Ibs. |st. Ibs.
| st. S.
4sheep.|Apr.9 |} 5 3 25 |Apr.10|5 2 0=44 0 jApr.11|41 3
la, -| . is 312| 17/5 120=43-6| >: 18/4 li 310.2
Pen II. 4sheep|Apr.9 | 5 1 O |Apr.10;5 1 O=42 0 /Apr.11/39 1 1
arley)l4,, | ,, 165 314| , 17/5 2 3=44 3| ,, 18 | 1|f20 11/10 12
en III. | ae
ats J 4sheep |Apr.9|5 3 5 jApr.10 5 2 O=44 0 /Apr.11}40 4 111 12/10 32
Barley) es oe a Ge ORGS 17) 5. 2 10=44 .10 |.,,, 181/43 Oj) 2
en IV.;4sheep|Apr.9 | 5 3 24 |Apr.10} 5 1 16=43 2 |Apr. 11/40 3},
- Final ae 165 227) 3 5 1.2=42 9|., 18|40° 7) 20 2/10 4
=. ( eee }
.)4 sheep | Apr.9 | 5 2 16 /Apr.10) 5 0 24=41 10 jApr.11|39 3 :
os : 3 19 4116], 17/4 0 1=32 7], 18/31 ajie 83/10 0;
ercentage of Pen I. Pen II. Pen III, Pen IV, Pen V.
offal (including
whole wool). 45°75 46:19 46°21 45:56 45°71

480 Feeding Experiments at Crawley Mill Farm, Wobwii,

on the morning of April 9, and twenty of them (4 from each pen)
were then sent on their journey, their destination being Notting-
ham. They were kept fasting and weighed again in the market
on the morning of April 10; they were then killed and the
carcase weights recorded on the next day. Mr. Fraser, the
resident manager at Woburn, personally superintended the whole
of the operations from beginning to end, so that the figures
given may be accepted as absolutely correct. The remainder of
the sheep continued to feed as before till April 16, when they
were weighed and sent off to Nottingham for slaughter, just like
the others, Mr. Fraser again personally seeing to the accurate
recording of the results.

Here it should be mentioned that in consequence of the cold
weather the sheep were not shorn before being killed, so that
the live weights and also offal include the whole wool.

As to the meat, the purchaser's remarks were to the effect
that the quality of it was in every-way excellent. The “ripest ”
mutton was however that from Pen I. (oats), although that
from the oats-with-barley and the wheat-fed sheep was also very
ripe.

Next to be taken into consideration are: the expense of
the additional foods, and their relative cost in producing the

increase in live weight.

Relative cost in
additional food per
lb, of increase

- ; in live aaa
dee S, a, a.
Pen I. 658 Ibs. Oats (crushed) . : cost 2 6 0. . 145
Pen Il. ,, ,, Barley (grittled) . ; -3; ado ssa Pe iies{)
399 ,, Oats 7
Pew III. | | 2 Barley} ¢ 2
Pen IV. 658 ,, Wheat (whole) . 5 Pee ee ote op & G22,
, (829, Oats
Pr V. | rae Wheat , °.o . =) 32 oe

The differences in manurial value and in chemical composi-
tion of the foods are so slight as to make it unnecessary to enter
into calculations of them.

The wheat, it will be noticed, produced the most increase
at the lowest cost per lb. of increase. The increase of weight
in all the pens was very satisfactory, and somewhat similar
to the results obtained in the first year of the experiments, the
wheat (as then) producing one pound of increase at the lowest
cost. Oats-with-barley was the only other food alike in the
two sets of experiments, and the results in the two cases are
nearly the same.

in the Winter of 1887-8. 481

B.—Bullock-feeding Experiments.

In addition to the sheep-feeding experiments it was deter-
mined to institute some on bullock-feeding, with the view of
seeing how far home-grown food could be utilised, and how it
would compare with cake. There was accommodation in the
farm buildings for sixteen bullocks, viz. eight in the feeding-
boxes, four in a covered shed, and four in an open yard. The
bullocks were three-year-old Herefords purchased at North-
ampton market. The plan was to have three comparative
experiments as follows :—

3 lbs. Linseed cake

a. Bullocks to receive fe lbs. Decorticated cotton cake

daily per head and 3lbs. Maize meal. in addition
b 3 lbs. Bean meal, 3 Ibs. Oats, _—}..: to Swedes
r ” 3 lbs. Barley. and Hay.
3 lbs. Wheat, 3 lbs. Oats,
= 2 3 lbs. Barley,

The wheat was in this case given grittled and not whole, the
oats and barley crushed.

In the feeding-boxes were placed four bullocks receiving
food as in (a), and four having food asin (b). In the covered
shed were two more fed as in ()), (making six in all to this set),
and two fed as in (c), whilst the remaining four in the yard
were also fed like the last-named. The amounts of swedes and
of hay were altered according as the bullocks would take more
or less, but the weights of these consumed were recorded, as also
of the water drunk.

The analyses of the various foods were :—

ANALYSES OF Foops CONSUMED By BULLOCKs.

Decortd.

— | Cotton | Hasse’) Bear | Beans |ineat and Oats Swedes | ae | Serta
Moisture . 9:28] 11-73| 12°67| 18-49] 16-76|A.% | 88°95] 20-19] 15-69
Oil 10-47| 12-41] 4:07} 1:47] 184/32 — |—] —
1 Albuminous 39°81 | 25°62] 9-44| 21°94) 868\ag 1:27| 10-44] 4-24
compounds Pits)

Mucilage, starch, | 27°44| 34:12) 70°50| 47°54) 68°86)" & | 8:36
ene fibre, a bot 62°16) 74-52
Woody fibre . 4-97| 8-93] 163} 787| 177/398] -86
Mineral matter .| 8:03) 7:19] 1:69) 269] 209/328] -56| 7-21] 6:55
100-00 |100-00 |100:00 |100:00 |100:00) — ‘100-00 100-00} 100-00
1Containing ni- | 6-37] 4:10] 1:51] 351} 1:39] — | -20] 167] -68

trogen

VOL. XXIV.—5. S,

Ly

482 Feeding Experiments at Crawley Mill Farm, Woburn,

The respective costs of the foods were, including cost of
delivery, cartage, breaking, &c. :—

Ly 8. .<de

Linseed-cake (at 8/. per ton delivered to nearest
station) . sabe ei) ie ton

Decorticated cotton-cake (at 61. per ton, 10s. cantinge) 6 14 10
Maize-meal (at 26s. per quarter = 480 Ibs.) 1 8 Sper "480 lbs.
Oats (at 20s. 6d. per quarter = 336 lbs.) . - 1 3 6 per 336 lbs.
Beans (at 86s. per quarter = 604 lbs.) 118 3 per 504 lbs.
Barley (at 25s. per quarter = 448 lbs., home-er own) 1 7 O per 448 Ibs.
Wheat (at 29s..per quarter = 480 lbs. ) F ’ 1° 9 0O per 480 lbs.

As the four bullocks fed on cake and meal (a) were in the
same building and under precisely the same conditions as the four
others fed on beans, oats, and barley (0), itis better to regard this as
one experiment, although there were altogether six fed on food b.
The comparison is further a better one since these eight bul-
locks were sent off together to be slaughtered, and their fasted
and carcase weights were recorded at the same time. The ex-
periment began on December 19, when all the bullocks were
weighed and put up, and it continued until April 9, a period of
112 days. The bullocks in the boxes began by eating about
38 lbs. of swedes per head daily, 4 lbs. of straw-chaff and 6 lbs.
of hay, and they drank about 22 lbs. of water. They soon took
more hay, viz. 7 lbs. daily, and drank more water, 35-45 lbs.,
the quantity of roots also increasing to 40 lbs. After this the
amounts of roots, hay, and chaff taken did not increase, and the
animals fed steadily on. During the whole period the weights
of food consumed were :—

By puller te [

on linseed-cake,

desbetloatedt cot-| Average per te beni sigs, Average per

eee a gad head daily. ley during 112 days. head daily.

ing 112 days.

ewt. qrs. Ibs. lbs. ewt. qrs. Ibs. Ibs.

Swedesscy bo «fie alog, lb 39:9 168% slo 39°5
Straw-chaff OWS Oe 16 3 22 4-2 16 0 26 4-1
TEI Beg) coal CAO The NS) 6°85 20) BPG 69
Cake or Meal . . .. 36 0 I18 9 36 O 18 9
Water) 4 fs «ba liaae ls 0) 43°1 | 143 G0 35°9

On April 9 the bullocks were weighed at the farm, then
sent off, like the sheep in the previously recorded experiment,
to Nottingham, they being fasted meanwhile. The fasted weights
were taken in the market on April 10, the beasts slaughtered,
and the carcase weights taken on the next day. Mr. Fraser
was present all the time, and took every possible care to ensure
accurate records being obtained.

Meanwhile two more bullocks had been feeding in the
covered shed on the food b (beans, oats, and barley), and two

in the Winter of 1887-8. 483

on the food ¢ (wheat, oats, and barley), while in the open yard
were four also taking the food c. The four in the boxes
did very well, but not so those in the open yard, for among
them ringworm broke out, one beast suffering in particular.
This made them rather low, and they did not all feed well.
While in this condition two of them, Nos. 14 and 16, were at-
tacked on February 12 by an illness, the nature of which could
not be found out. They lingered for a considerable time, re-
fused their food, and appeared to be in great pain. On Feb-
ruary 20 the first one (No. 16) died, and the local veterinary
surgeon not being able to state the cause of death, parts of the
animal were sent to the Royal Veterinary College for examina-
tion by Prof. Wortley Axe. Some long time had, however,
elapsed before they could be examined, and they were then too
stale. Prof. Axe himself visited the farm on February 22, and
ordered the second bullock to be carefully watched, and should
it die parts of it to be at once sent to him. The poor beast
suffered greatly, so much so indeed that the humane feelings of
the attendant induced him on February 29 to give it relief
from its pain by a friendly blow, and the necessary parts were
forwarded for investigation as before. It may be mentioned
that it was feared that anthrax had broken out, but whether
this was the case could not be ascertained, for it transpired that
the humane blow struck had prevented the appearance of the
very organisms which would have been recognisable in the case
of anthrax had the animal been allowed to die naturally. Thus
the outbreak, whatever it was, was not traced to its cause.
Whether the food was unsuited to the animals or not is also
uncertain ; under ordinary circumstances the best thing to do
would probably have been to change the food, but this was not -
possible in an experiment. The remaining bullocks fed on to
the end, were weighed on April 9, and again on April 16, when,
like the sheep, they were found to have lost weight. Accord-
ingly calculations are based on the weights taken on April 9,
when, we may say, all three experiments closed. These re-
maining bullocks were treated just like the first lot, viz., weighed
on the farm on April 16, fasted, weighed again in Nottingham
market on the morning of the 17th, then slaughtered, and the
carcases weighed on the following day.

It may be here observed that while the cake-fed bullocks
ate up their cake and meal quickly and then lay down, the two
other lots took their supply less quickly, but made two feeds of
it, lying down between times. The general plan of feeding was
20 lbs. of roots, 44 lbs. of cake or meal, and 2 lbs. of straw, the

112

484 Feeding Experiments at Crawley Mill Farm, Woburn,

first thing in the morning; at 10 a.m. 4 lbs. of hay, and
at 4.30 P.M. roots, straw, cake, and corn, as in the early
morning.

The amounts of food consumed by the 4 bullocks in division
ce during the period were :—

By Bullocks feed-
ing on Wheat, Average per
Oats, and Barley. Head Daily.
ewt. qr. Ibs. Ibs.
Swedes - 159 2 16 399
Straw-chaff 16. 0. 3 4
Hay . 27 8 14 6:97
Meal . : ~ "S607 Is 9
Water - . 14 2°70 28'S

In the appended tables, on page 485, are given the full par-
ticulars as to the increase in weight, the live weights at farm,
fasted weights, and carcase weights, of all the 14 animals that
went through the experiments.

For the purpose of comparison, it will be noticed that the
two bullocks in the yard did just about as well as the two in
the shed having the same food, and these four animals may
accordingly be taken together, as representing the increase on
the diet of wheat, oats, and barley. It is true that the two
single animals fed on beans in the shed appear to have done
better than the four in the boxes, but the comparison with four
animals is a much safer one than with two only, and hence the
four on beans in the boxes are taken by preference as represent-
ing the gain due to the beans, oats, and barley mixture, the
conditions here being exactly similar to those in the case of the
cake-fed animals.

We come thus to the conclusions :—

Fed on linseed- |
cake, decorticated Fed on beans, Fed on wheat,
ae ed cotton-cake and | oats, and barley | oats, and barley
maize-meal -
7 hit 4 ewt. qrs. lbs, ewt. qrs. lbs. ewt. qrs. Ibs.
Increase in live weight o |

bullocks, feeding 112 age if 2) 48 9 1 16 8 2 13

Equivalent in Ibs. 1189 lbs. 1052 lbs. | 965 lbs.

Gain per head daily . 2°65 lbs. 2°35 Ibs. | 2°16 Ibs.

On calculating the composition of the entire mixed food

given to the animals in each experiment, the “ albuminoid
ratios” were found to be as follows:—Cake-fed Bullocks, 1 : 4°8;
Bean-fed Bullocks, 1 : 6°35; Wheat-fed Bullocks, 1 : 7°65.

in the Winter of 1887-8.

485

Weieuts or Buuiocks, 1887-8.

3 ;
Weight at Unfasted weights
commence-

Number

On ‘April 9, |On April 16,

1888 1888

I, Four Bullocks fed on Linseed-

Increase in Fasted live weights

live weight| jin ewts., qrs. and lbs. | Garcase weight
during 112! and also in stones of A 8
days ended lbs. in 8 lb, stones

April 9, 1888

Cake, Decorticated Cotton-Cake, and

Maize-Meal (in Bowes).

; ’ (April 10)

ewt, qrs. lbs./ewt, qrs. lbs,;cwt. qrs. lhs./cwt. qrs. lbs.;ewt. qrs.Ibs.| st, 1b. st. lbs.

1 ie 7 le 2 0 — 2 3 21/13 2 0; 108 O 108 7

2 Ske Per 213 a 2 0 27|10 220) 85 6 89 1

3 8 322/11 3 2 —— 2 Sh SLO 3 Oe Sén 0 88 4

4 HOMES 7 2) 53, 20 -- 2 213/11 3 24} 95 10 99 0
ete t|40 022/50 83 7; — |10 213/46 316/375 2 oer a

IT, Four Bullocks fed on Beans, Oats, and Barley (in Bowes).

6 9. 3.18/12 0 20 —- Zs Te V2 LIL J4 | Sie 955 2

6 eee 2b lt, 62) 27. a= 2 A 2s lee FOR SORT 93 6

7 9 314)12 014 -—— 2 ales O} Es i 4a SO 94 0

8 11 0 8'/13' 2°20 a 2 212)12 2 0; 100 0 103 6
Frciiocr, }/40 2 9/49 225] — | 9 116/46 121} a7 7 {fee

III, Tno Bullocks fed on Beans, Oats, and Barley (in Covered Shed).
(April 17)

2 TOnaie OF Oli sei 2) 3 20 tr O 4 88" 4 87, 3

10 LOS OMS B23) LZ 2°92) 23) 12> 2 8) 100" § 102 3
a oteec}{19° 3 7/25 123/25 116| 8 216/23 2 12| 188 12 ee toe :

IV. Tro Bullocks fed on Wheat, Oats and Barley (in Covered Shea).

UE 9 116/11, 210/11 1 14/ 2 0 22/10 220] 85 6 88 4

12 HOR 2b t2) Ss 212 3 7) 2 O 2512 O14) 9% O 97. 7
Potalof2}/19 3 21/24 112/24 021] 4 1 19/22 3 6| 182 6 fenneiaae F
| ‘ ~U.

V. Two Bullocks fed on Wheat, Oats, and Barley (in Open Yard).

13 9 2 O11L 120/12 022) 1 3 20)10 1 24) -83 10 85 1

15 LOM EL a2) 2 1612, 2 0), 2b Dll .3).0} 94 0 98 1

Total of 2 183 2
Ealidoks 19 3 14|24 O 8/23 2 22] 4 0 22/22 0 24} 177 10 fe: 58-93 pc.

Oh

486 - Fruit Evaporation in America.

Taking next the cost of the additional foods consumed during
the whole time we have :—

£8, d,

Linseed-cake 1350 lbs... 3 : . cost 4 18 8

(a) [De cotton-cake 1350 ,, . 5 : a greed ire
Maize-meal 1350 ,, ; ; : con 5) OO
£12 19 4

{outs or . 5 = egy ore RO Sennen
(b) + Oats ssi, ro eure 5 - arse pelle
Barley ah ee : ; og Me ale eet
#13 18 2

Wheat By en eee : J <) )) G

(ec )| Oat $51 Gy : : c <)> ogg ht erase
Barley =, 5 5 : | Gee TA Aa
12 yeas

These would give the following as the relative cost of each

mixture per lb. of increase of live weight :-—

Relative cost
per lb, of In-

crease in Live
Welen’
(a) Linseed-cake, decorticated cotton-cake, and maize-meal . 2 ‘62
(4) Beans, oats, and barley. ; ‘ c . ° Fh uly
(c) Wheat, oats, and barley . . . : : . oe

This shows clearly the superiority of the cake-feeding as
against the other foods, at the prices at least which they cost at
the farm where the experiment was carried out. On examining
the carcases, the meat of the cake-fed beasts was pronounced by
experts to be “riper” than that of the bean-fed beasts, while
similarly the meat from the bean-fed ones was very superior
indeed to that from the wheat-fed bullocks, the fat of the latter
being very pale in colour. Beyond this is also to be considered
the great superiority of the cake-fed manure.

XXV.—Fruit Hvaporation in America. By Dan. PIDGEON,
Holmwood, Putney Hill, 8.W.

THE appearance at the Nottingham Show a an American “ Fr uit-

Kyaporator,” an appliance in common use by farmers of the

United States for the purpose of drying apples, peaches, rasp-

berries, and other fruits, created a great deal of interest among

advanced agriculturists.

As one of the Judges of Miscellaneous Implements whose
duty it was to adjudicate upon the claims of this Evaporator
to be regarded as a ‘‘ New Implement,” and entitled, therefore,
to compete for the Society’s Silver Medals, I took the oppor-
tunity, whilst in America this autumn on other business, to

Fruit Evaporation in America. 487

inquire | into the present development of the fruit-drying in-
dustry in the United States. The following brief notes sum up
the information which I was able, in the short time at my dis-
posal, to obtain upon the subject.

The town of Rochester, in the State of New York, is the
recognised centre of the industry in question, which has
already assumed immense proportions. ‘The rapid growth of
fruit-drying in this region throws incidental light upon a some-
what obscure question, viz., ‘‘Why is the British farmer so
slow, and his transatlantic cousin and competitor so quick, in
adapting himself to altered conditions of cultivation ? ”

Illustrations of the fact are not far to seek. The entry of
the Great West, in the character of a wheat-grower, upon the
agricultural stage of the world created a “depression” in the
agriculture of the Eastern States of America no less marked than
that which followed from the same cause in England. New
England, no more than Old England, could, after that entry,
any longer afford to raise the traditionally “important crops.”
A change of front became inevitable there, as here, and was
made with a rapidity which England might envy, but has not
approached.

Thanks to the mine of statistical wealth embodied in the
quinquennial Census of Massachusetts, it is possible to measure
the depth of the depression in question in one of the most
densely populated States of the Union. More than half the
towns in the leading agricultural county of Berkshire, Mass.,
lost fourteen per cent. of their inhabitants between 1865 and
1875, while in Middlesex, the second farming county in the State,
one town in every five parted with three-fourths of its people
during the same period.

Yet the agriculture of Massachusetts has not declined. The
farmer has, indeed, given up raising the ‘“‘ important crops,” but
their place has been more than filled by an increase in the pro-
duction of milk, eggs, vegetables and fruit. Twelve times as
many eggs and forty times as much milk are now produced in
this State, than was the case thirty years ago; while the increase
in such crops as beets, carrots, beans, cranberries, and onions
is almost equally great. The total value of the farm-produce of
Massachusetts increased by nearly twenty per cent. within the
ten years ending 1880, notwithstanding the fact that many
farms, once the homes of prosperous men, are going begging for
customers at a tenth of their original cost, while the population
of all the agricultural towns is slowly dwindling.

If Massachusetts has survived an “ agricultural depression,”
it is because the Yankee is a totally different person from the

488 - Fruit Evaporation in America.

English farmer. Tenancy for rent is practically unknown in
America, although men sometimes let some of their land upon
the “ Metayer,” or share-of- profits system. The farmer is always
a freeholder, and the farms are small. More than half of those
in Massachusetts, for example, are between twenty and one
hundred acres in extent. The greater part of the remaining
half are smaller, while there are very few properties containing
more than three hundred acres. For every four of these farms,
again, there are but three labourers. Whatever the theoretical
advantages possessed by the English triad of squire, farmer,
and labourer, it is beyond all doubt that the American combi-
nation of freeholder, husbandman, and labourer in one man,
stimulates energy and develops ingenuity in a very remarkable
manner.

Western New York, again, was itself formerly the granary
of North America, and Rochester was a city of mills. All has
changed with the introduction of Western wheat.. Wheat-fields
have become orchards; the mills, once thickly lining the banks
of the Genesee River, have disappeared, or become factories ;
the very citizens have forgotten their old pride in the “ Flour
City,” and now call their town (without reason, it must be con-
fessed) the ‘Flower City.” Throughout twelve of the most
fertile counties of Western New York, the cultivation of fruit,
especially of apples, has, within fifteen years, superseded that of
every other crop. The orchard products of New York State
were valued at nearly nine million dollars in 1880, the last
census year, and will probably be worth far more in 1890.
The greater part of these apples are grown around Rochester,
where, within a radius of forty miles, nearly two thousand fruit-
drying establishments are now in operation.

Only by the aid of these “ Evaporators ” could such a condition
of cultivation as that now prevailing in the district under review
be maintained. Thousands of tons of apples are prepared annually
from grades of fruit formerly wasted or allowed to rot on the
ground. The fruit-drier and the extension of fruit-farming have
gone hand-in-hand, and, following naturally upon their union,
the dried-fruit merchant has appeared, and flourishes. He does
not himself evaporate fruit, but buys both from Evaporating
establishments and the farmer, packs for export, and exploits
the whole world for markets. Chief among these gentlemen in
the town of Rochester ranks the firm of Michael Doyle & Co.,
to whom the writer gladly acknowledges his obligation for nearly
all the information on the subject of fruit-evaporation to be found
in this article.

Glancing, first, at general facts indicating the character and

Fruit Evaporation in America. 489

extent of this new industry, 1,500 evaporators were at work
in the neighbourhood of Rochester during the year 1887,
and some 150 more were started during 1888. These range
in capacity from 25 to 1,000 bushels of apples per day. The
1,500 Evaporators in question gave employment, during the
autumn and winter of 1887, to 30,000 hands, who earned from
5 to 12 dollars each per week, according to skill and experience.
The total quantity of dried apples produced was about 30 million
pounds, and their value two million dollars. Five million bushels,
or 250 million pounds of green apples, were required for this
purpose, from which more than 200,000 tons of water were
driven off by the consumption of 15,000 tons of coal.

The product finds a market all over the world, but the chief
consuming countries are Germany, England, Belgium, Holland,
and France. Evaporated apples are packed in cases each con-
taining 50 lbs., and the cost of carriage per case to Liverpool is
30 cents, or ls. 3d. The same quantity of green fruit sent in
barrels would cost $2.50, or 10s., and canned fruit $2.10, or
8s. 9d. .In the case of evaporated fruit no damage is done, even
by the longest transit, while fresh fruit suffers enormously, and
canned fruit is always liable to ferment.

The refuse of the apples, consisting of cores and parings, is
not lost, for these also are dried, and form the basis of all the
cheap jellies now so largely manufactured. Twelve millions of
pounds of dried cores and parings were exported from America
during the year in question. Sliced apples, dried without coring
or paring, are exported in large quantities to France, where they
are used in the production of the cheaper wines, and, sometimes,
by the distiller. Eighteen thousand barrels, containing four mil- _
lion pounds of sliced apples, were sent to France during 1887, and
of this quantity more than half was furnished by the Rochester
Evaporators. The dried apples of Western New York can now
be bought in almost every town on the continent of Europe,
while an increasing demand for them is springing up even in
such remote parts of the world as Australia and Western Africa.

Passing from the general to the particular, it may, in the
first place, be remarked that the practice at Rochester is to dry
not only apples, but peaches, plums, and raspberries.

Green Apples are bought, in average years, at from fifteen
to twenty cents (74d. to 10d.) per bushel of 50 Ibs. The actual
cost of drying averages from twelve to fifteen cents (6d. to 74d.)
per bushel. The total cost of the dried product is from six to
ten cents (3d. to 5d.) per lb., and the average selling price seven
to twelve cents (34d. to 6d.) per lb. One bushel of green apples
produces about 6 lbs. of dried apples. The best apples are

490 Fruit Evaporation in America.

barrelled and exported as fresh fruit, only the second-grade fruit
is evaporated, while a third-grade goes to the cider-mills at an
average price of 7} cents (33d.) per bushel. Nothing is wasted.
The cores and parings are dried and sold for jelly-making at an
average price of $20 (4/.) per ton. A bushel of apples yields
30 Ibs. of “meat” and 20 Ibs. of refuse. The 30 lbs. of “meat”
is reduced to 6 lbs. by evaporation, and the 20 lbs. of refuse to
4 lbs. One pound of coal is consumed in evaporating one
pound of fruit.

Peaches are dried both in the “ pared” and “ unpared” state.
The cost of a bushel of good peaches, in average years, is fifty
cents (2s. 1d). Hach bushel yields 44 lbs. of dried “ pared,” and
8 lbs. of “unpared” fruit. The actual cost of drying, in both
cases, is fifteen cents (74d.) per bushel, the cost of the dried
“pared ” product fifteen cents (74d.) per lb., and its selling value
twenty to twenty-two cents (10d. to 11d.) per lb. The cost of
“unpared” dried peaches is eight cents (4d.) per lb., and the
selling value from ten to twelve cents (5d. to 6d.) per lb.

Taspbervies (black) cost, in average years, six cents (3d.) per
quart. A quart of fruit yields one third of a pound of dried pro-
duct. The actual cost of drying is two cents (1d.) per Ib., and
the total cost of the dried raspberries twenty cents (10d.) per lb.
The selling price varies from twenty-five to thirty cents (1s. 03d.
to 1s. 3d.) per Ib.

Plums are only evaporated when so abundant as to become
unsaleable. One bushel of green plums produces 8 lbs. of dried
fruit, whose average selling price is seven cents (34) per lb.

Fruit evaporation is mainly an independent business. The
1,500 evaporating establishments already mentioned as sur-
rounding Rochester are all of this character. The farmer indeed
owns a dryer of his own whenever his orchards are large, but
he sells for the most part to the nearest ‘‘ Evaporator.” Apple
orchards in Western New York are commonly from 100 to 300
acres in extent, Peach orchards from 50 to 150 acres. The
Evaporators themselves vary in capacity from 10 bushels to
1,000 bushels a day. .

The smaller drying apparatus is of the simplest description.
It consists of an iron stove, surmounted by an upright wooden
casing, the stove being fixed in the basement, and the wood
casing on the floor above. The products of combustion are carried
away by a flue, while the hot air rising from the stove passes
upwards through the box-like dryer, which terminates in a cowl
and vane. The dryer itself is fitted with a number of sliding
trays, made of wire netting, upon which the fruit is placed,
and these are replenished by hand as the drying proceeds.

Fruit Evaporation in America. 491

Evaporators of the greatest capacity do not differ from the
smallest in principle, but the former usually employ steam instead
of fire heat. The cost of the smaller (Farmer’s) apparatus is
very trifling, and the cost of coal has already been stated as
1 lb. per lb. of evaporated fruit.

Mechanical appliances for coring and paring apples are ex-
tremely ingenious and very numerous. They are worked by hand,
and are continuous in action, i.e. one apple is being “chucked”
while a second is being pared, and a third cored. Peach-paring
machines are also in vogue, and cherries, when these are dried,
are stoned by a very pretty special machine. None of these
mechanical adjuncts to the system of fruit-evaporation are ex-
pensive, although it must be said they are all especially Ameri-
can productions.

The cut below gives a good idea of a small Farmer’s dryer,

A Farmer's Evaporaior.

and the apparatus is so simple as not to require an additional
word of explanation.

492 Baviey from a Maltster’s Point of View.

Whether fruit-growing and fruit-drying are likely to assist
the British farmer as they have assisted the farmers of New York
State in a predicament of exactly similar character, is a question
yet to be solved. One thing, however, is certain, that a little of
the alertness which, within fifteen years, has changed the old
granary of America into an orchard, and the “Flour City ” of
Western New York into a fruit-drying centre, might be imported
with advantage, even if the methods resulting from such importa-
tion took other forms than that which this paper attempts to out-
line. <A second thing is, in the writer’s view, equally certain—
that the conditions under which the British farmer works must
at least approximate to those which surround his freeholding com-
petitor in the States before he can, prudently, plant fruit trees.

XXVI.—Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. By Ropert
FREE, Mistley, Essex.

THE art of making good malt out of bad barley has not yet been
discovered, and hence there is usually a range of 20s. per quarter
in the prices which maltsters are prepared to pay for the various
samples of English barley offering on the markets during the
season. Nevertheless, the cost of producing barley worth 45s.
per quarter is practically the same as that of producing barley
worth only 25s., and, leaving out of account the influence of un-
favourable weather, such as we have had this season, there is no
valid reason why so large a proportion of the barley grown in
this country should be of inferior quality. The British farmer
has, unfortunately, many adverse circumstances to contend with
which are wholly beyond his control, but that is surely the best
reason for seizing every available opportunity of turning the
land to profitable account, and for making the most of produce
in which there yet remains a chance of competing successfully
with the foreigner. If I remember rightly, Mr. C. 8. Read and
Mr. Albert Pell, in their joint report to the Royal Commission
on Agriculture, gave it as their opinion that our farmers could
in future only hope to hold their own against more favourably
situated foreign and colonial rivals, in grazing and the growth
of barley. As regards the grain with which my thirty years’
experience as a maltster has made me familiar, I do not hesitate
to endorse their views, but with the condition, which must of
course have been expressed or taken for granted by them, that
in the struggle which has practically become one for very exist-
ence, British growers should not neglect any one of the essential
elements of success.

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 493

There are possibilities in barley which I say emphatically
have not been realised, and, indeed, speaking generally, I do not
scruple to add that the most obvious means for their realisation
are lamentably and wilfully neglected. As a rule we have stood
still or retrograded whilst foreign and colonial growers have
steadily improved their methods of cultivation, and consequently
the quality of their produce. The main object of the present
paper is to point out, in the plain language of a business man,
the causes which tend to the production of so large a proportion
of inferior barley in this country, and the means of improvement
which suggest themselves. I shall also add information which
will, I think, be instructive as well as interesting, as to what be-
comes of the barley after it reaches the maltster’s hands. There
can be no question as to the importance of the subject, and I am
aware that it is one upon which great diversity of opinion is sure
to arise. But I shall depend chiefly upon facts and figures that have
come under my own observation, though for the purpose of this
article I have sought the assistance of various authorities to whom
allusion will be made later on.

It is indisputable that whilst during the last thirty years
rapid progress has been made in every other branch of industry
in this country by the adoption of new and improved processes
dictated by scientific discoveries, agriculture has not made a
proportionate advance. So far as barley for malting purposes
is concerned, I am of opinion that the average quality of the
season’s crop was better twenty or thirty years ago than it is now.
Of course I do not refer to the exceptionally bad prospect of this
year for quality, as it is due to climatic causes, nor do I pre-
tend to discuss agricultural chemistry or the results of scientific
farming. But in the matter of barley growing there are certain
plain means to the desired end which have been, to an almost
incredible extent, neglected. The general absence of care in the
selection of seed is perhaps the most radical defect. Buyers of
grain are not usually backward in pointing out the shortcomings
of samples submitted to them, and therefore the growers can
scarcely plead ignorance as to what is required in a malting
barley. They know at all events that amongst the first condi-
tions looked for are that the grain should be well matured and
evenly ripened; and yet it is a fact that thousands of acres of
good arable land in this country are regularly sown with such
samples of barley as the farmer finds unsaleable to the maltster
in consequence of their inferior quality or condition, or with the
cheapest lots that can be bought on the markets. Worse still,
there are large quantities of “‘screenings” purchased from the
maltsters and dealers at a low price, and then dressed and sown.

4.94, Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

Perhaps I should explain that these latter generally comprise
the “screenings” from all the different parcels of barley, English
and foreign, that the maltster has received into store during the
season, maturing early and late, short-strawed and long-strawed,
thick-skinned and thin-skinned, good coloured and bad coloured.
These are all inextricably mixed, and ought only to be bought
for feeding purposes, where the mixture is of no consequence.
One might as well expect to gather ‘“‘figs from thistles” as
to secure a good even harvest of barley from this mixed refuse
as seed! :

This is not a matter of science, but of common sense. If
rubbish be sown, it would be strange if there were anything but
rubbish to reap. As, however, the object of the farmer is to
grow malting and not grinding barley, it is simply suicidal folly
to sow his fields with what could not, by anything short of a
miracle, produce the desired result, even if the season were the
most favourable ever known. I am aware, of course, that motives
of economy are accountable for the practice referred to; but a
very little calculation will suffice to convince those who have
hitherto adopted it that it is the height of false economy, since
the difference in cost between “ screenings ” and best seed barley
at two bushels to the acre is infinitesimal as compared with the
relative value of the respective crops.

It may be said that I am deprecating only extreme and
exceptional cases; but the same rule holds good throughout.
Most farmers seem to think that barley is barley, and that
cheapness is the one desideratum in buying their seed. They
do not, it is true, all sow “ screenings,” but, on the other hand,
very few of them go to the trouble and expense of selecting
their seed ; and yet there are as many varieties of barley, good,
bad, and indifferent, as of other kinds of agricultural produce.
If the fruit-grower means to cultivate pears or the florist roses,
he takes care to select the best stock for his purpose, and even
in regard to wheat the farmer does not display the same amount
of happy-go-lucky indifference that he does with respect to
barley, though quality really affects the market value of the latter
far more than that of the former. The miller cannot, like the
maltster, afford to give long fancy prices for fine samples of grain,
because the conditions of his trade preclude the possibility of
an adequate return; whereas the maltster is always ready to pay
handsomely for exceptionally fine parcels of barley, because really
first quality malt readily commands a relatively high figure.
Nor is there any secret about the reason for this. The brewers
obtain a considerably higher price per barrel for their fine than
for their ordinary ales, and as they reckon three to four barrels

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 495

to the quarter of malt, it is easy to understand why they should
be willing to pay higher prices for really fine malt. Moreover,
there are several of our leading brewers (it would be invidious
to mention names) who will not buy inferior malt at any price,
and therefore farmers who grow only poor barley are necessarily
shut out from a considerable portion of the market altogether.

These considerations all point directly to one conclusion,
viz., that the aim of our farmers should be to grow the best
malting barley, and to this end it is imperative in the first place
that they should select the best seed. I will now mention a
few varieties of barley that experience has proved to be best
adapted for malting purposes, but it must be understood that of
recent years they have one and all of them sadly deteriorated by
mixtures, owing to the want of care in preserving the several
kinds intact. ‘The ‘‘ Chevalier,” the “‘ Golden Melon,” and what
is known as “ Page’s Barley,” are amongst those which may be
relied upon in a fair season to ripen evenly and give a mellow,
thin-skinned barley ; but doubtless there are in every barley-
growing district other kinds which have secured a local reputa-
tion equal to those named. There are also “ Saale,” “ Austrian,”
and ‘“‘ Hungarian” barleys which possess the desired qualities,
and which might also be used for seed with advantage. The
great thing is to bear in mind the properties desired by the
maltster, viz., that the grain should be of good size, evenly
ripened, mellow, and thin-skinned, and to select with care and
judgment seed of this character. I do not mean to say that it
will prove at all an easy task, for the reasons already given, but
it is certain that vast improvement on the present slipshod
methods might be immediately effected, and if the demand
existed for really first-class seed barley, there is no question that
in a year or two the supply would be forthcoming.

Having touched upon the initial stage, let me add a few
words upon the subsequent operations of cultivation and pre-
paration for market. Let it be clearly understood at the outset
that I do not presume to minimise the inevitable influence of
the season upon both the quantity and quality of the crop. In
this variable and capricious climate it frequently happens that
unfavourable weather will nullify allthe farmer’s best efforts and
most careful calculations. Nor is it possible wholly to prevent
the losses thus occasioned. My remarks must therefore be held
to apply to the circumstances of an average season, and they are
based upon my own observation and the experience of leading
farmers whom I have consulted. The description of soil best
suited for barley varies so much with the season that it is quite
impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule. Sometimes

496 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

light sandy land, at others good mixed soils, or in a dry year
even deep clays, will yield the best harvest of barley. And a
change of seed from heavy to light land and vice versé has
—often proved beneficial; but the condition of the land is of con-
sequence.

There seems to be a general consensus of opinion that it is not
necessary to manure for barley, unless indeed the land be in an
exceptionally impoverished state, and that the effect of artificial
manure is to produce a heavier crop of straw, but not to improve
the grain. Barley generally does best as the. succeeding crop
to wheat or roots, especially if the land has been well manured
for them, and under such circumstances nothing is gained by
manuring for barley itself. The practice of sowing barley in
the autumn does not seem to be warranted by results, for the
crop is generally moderate as to quantity, and there is no cer-
tainty of any appreciable advantage as to quality. But it should
be sown as early as possible in the spring—that is, directly the
ground is dry enough to be well pulverised—and care should be
taken not to put in tco much seed, say not exceeding two to two
and a half bushels to the acre, for the grain is sure to be poor
if the ‘plants are too thick. It has often proved a great mis-
take to sow seeds along with barley, as is commonly done in
many districts, for in a wet season the clover gets as strong as
the barley, and is pretty certain to spoil its colour either in the
field or in the stack. As good a layer of seed is secured by
drilling after the barley is above ground, and then at harvest-
time there is no undergrowth to contend with.

These are of course controversial questions in practical
farming about which I do not presume to speak dogmatically,
not being a farmer myself; and hence I have relied chiefly on
recognised authorities with whom I have been in communication,
including Mr. Amis Hempson, of Ramsey, Essex, Mr. Edward
Catchpole, of Kelvedon, and others whose courteous assistance I
desire to acknowledge. But a maltster’s views may be held to
have some weight in regard to the operations of harvesting,
dressing, &c., because they materially affect the condition and
the value of the barley. It too often happens that the farmer’s
convenience, and not the fitness of the barley, is the predominant
factor in determining when it shall be cut. Indeed, many
farmers do not hesitate to say that it is immaterial whether the
grain is ripe when it is cut, for, if not, a few days in the field
before carrying it to the stack or the barn will suffice to: mature
it. I am convinced that this is altogether a mistake so far as
barley for malting purposes is concerned. It should be allowed
to ripen thoroughly before the scythe is put in, for thus only can

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 497

a really mellow grain be secured. When cut too early the
grain becomes steely, and hence of far less value to the maltster.
It is at harvest-time that the evil effect of using mixed seed
manifests itself, for some kinds of barley will ripen fully a fort-
night earlier than others, and it follows that if these be sown
together, a part of the crop will be dead ripe before the rest is
fit to cut, and an evenly matured sample is therefore simply
impossible. Steam thrashers, which are now almost universally
employed, have of late years proved more satisfactory than
formerly, because of the improvements introduced in them, but
I venture to think that there is still room for further progress
in this direction. With a properly constructed machine the~
awn should be knocked off without in any way injuring the
grain, as too often happens, and care should especially be taken
not to set the thrasher too close, or the skin of the corns will be
cut and mould ensue. In respect to “dressing” I have one
practical suggestion to make, which if acted upon would prevent
much of the disappointment occasioned to buyers and loss to
the sellers of barley. The common practice is to “‘ dress” only
once ; but a second dressing would be found not only to give
satisfaction, but would prove positively remunerative to the
farmer, as the following simple calculation will demonstrate :—

toe Leh

100 qrs. barley once dressed at 29s. . - ‘. . . ~ L450 20
96 qrs. barley twice dressed at 30s, a Wiesi@ “AE srilhyy chokes eee iio
4 qrs. of screenings at 20s. . . : ° : ; 4 0 0
148 0 O

Cost of dressing 100 qrs. at 14d. «1 wl ll sw 12 6
LAG lg 6

showing a difference of 21, 7s. 6d. in favour of the second.
dressing.

Assuming, however, that the best barley has been sown, and
that the methods of cultivation, harvesting, and thrashing
employed upon it leaye nothing to be desired, there is yet
another vicious practice only too common with English farmers,
which must be corrected if they want to deliver the grain to the
maltster in perfect condition. I refer to the custom of storing
the barley in great heaps on the barn floor, for days or even
weeks at a time, without turning it over, until it has acquired
an earthy, or as it is sometimes termed, a ‘‘ mushroomy ” smell.
Now it is superfluous to point out that there is always a certain
amount of moisture in the grain, which, as it lies in a heap,
must sooner or later induce a certain heating and sweating.
This in its turn not only produces the disagreeable smell referred

VOL. XXIV.—S, 8, KK

498 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

to, but also injures the germ, and consequently the growth of:
the barley. Farmers generally wait till the mischief is done
before they take measures to guard against it; in other words,
they do not think there is any need to have the barley heap turned
so long as it does not smell badly. The fact is, however, that when
once that ‘‘mushroomy ” scent has been acquired, the quality of
the grain has deteriorated beyond reparation. It is far better
to be on the safe side and have the heap turned over every few
days. The cost is trifling, and all danger of damage is thus
avoided.

In one of the communications alluded to above, the following
passage occurs, and I quote it because the opinion expressed is
perhaps shared by many of the writer's confréres, and it is
desirable that it should be corrected: “A good deal of injury
has been done to the barley and malt trade by the rush for
barley in the autumn, and the large customers leaving off buying
so early. If large deliveries could be taken during February
and March, farmers would feed the market more regularly, and
the barley would be much better kept in the straw than in the
huge heaps by the maltsters, which are now general.” It is a
farmer who writes thus, and it affords a curious illustration of
LKsop’s fable, wherein the wolf charges the lamb with fouling
the stream, though it flowed from him to it. The responsibility
for the state of things complained of lies with the farmer, not
with the maltster. It would obviously be greatly to the
maltster’s advantage if the deliveries of home-grown barley
were extended uniformly over eight months of the year, instead
of being for the most part compressed into four, because he
would not then be compelled, as at present, to receive and store
eight months’ consumption in half that period. The “rush”
complained of is assuredly not of his creation, but it is due to’
the fact that in times of agricultural depression, which are now
unfortunately chronic, farmers are, generally speaking, in haste
to realise before Christmas. }

Before proceeding to follow home-grown barley from the
farmer to the maltster, attention must be called to the ever
increasing competition of imported barleys, because this should
serve to stimulate English producers to fight the foreigner with
the only weapon left to them, viz. quality. The repeal of the
malt duty has acted very much against the interests of the
farmer by opening an immense field to foreign barley for malting
purposes that did not previously exist, since the heavy duty of
21s. 8d. per quarter formed a protection to English producers, as
the best and worst barleys were liable to the duty if once steeped.
‘There was always a risk of foreign barleys not germinating

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

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500 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

properly, and in that case the maltster would be liable to very
heavy loss. Consequently, only the selected foreign barleys of
the finest description were used, and these barleys always com-
manded high prices, and did not therefore seriously injure the
English farmer; and further, at that time there were many
growths, such as Smyrna, Algerian, and other Southern sunripe
barleys, that could have been used with great advantage to the
brewer, but were prohibited by the excessively high duty they
would have to pay. The Government levied the duty by making
the charge upon the grain after it had been steeped for fifty
hours in the cistern, and as the barleys named—being so perfectly

-. dry—absorbed such a large amount of water, the increased duty —

would be equal to an additional charge of 7s. or 8s. per quarter.
Since the repeal, the brewer only pays upon the extract in his
' mash tun. This difference, therefore, now no longer exists, and
consequently large quantities are regularly used, as well as many
varieties of sunripe barleys from Southern Europe and the
East, which certainly have a material effect upon the average
price of barley.

The Table on page 499 shows that whilst our imports of foreign
barley have fluctuated considerably during the last ten years,
their amount being regulated to some extent by the quantity of
home-grown barley available, still the total has not materially
increased, the figures for 1878 being practically the same as
those of last year, and no rule being observable in the years
intervening. Nevertheless, it is undoubtedly a fact that the
quantity of foreign barley used in malting has of late years
steadily increased, and therefore I can only suppose that the
relative cheapness of maize has affected the consumption of
foreign barley for distillimg and grinding purposes. Un-
fortunately, there are no means of putting this to the proof by
statistics, as no record is kept of the sources from which malting
barley is supplied. It will be observed that Southern Russia
now sends us fully one-half the total foreign supply, and that
Roumania comes next with about 500,000 quarters, or more
than double that of any other country except Russia. These
Roumanian barleys are classified in the trade as Danubian, and
latterly they, as well as Russian, have been to a considerable extent
employed in malting on account of the comparatively low price
at which they were attainable. This year, for instance, Russian
has actually been selling at half the price of average English
barley, say 13s. 6d. to 18s. per quarter, and a considerable quan-
tity of the best qualities have been used for malting purposes.

Next to Russia and Roumania comes Germany with nearly
250,000 quarters, then Denmark with over 200,000, then the

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 501

Pacific ports of the United States with 180,000, then France
with over 160,000, then Sweden with over 150,000, and then
the Austro-Hungarian Empire with under 100,000. <A con-
siderable proportion of all these barleys are purchased for
malting purposes, and there can be no doubt therefore that
foreign barleys are now more largely used in malting than
formerly, though, unfortunately, no statistics are available to
show to what extent this is the case. The excise authorities at
Somerset House keep a return of the quantity of malt and sugar
annually consumed in brewing, which I append, but there are
no means of ascertaining what proportion of the malt owes its
origin to home-grown and what to foreign barley respectively :

Malt and Corn Sugar in Tons. Equal Qrs. of Malt,

in Quarters. at 2 cwt. per Qr.
epee situ. 6 G99097- . 173907 as; at TS2G70
SCHEME Ms i 1O,4ee.504 - GOisti 2 '5 3 «y 668.470
Heda vA. @ . . 6486186 .o 64.970! . LL) Sf). 449-790
ee ayes 2a) ois 6,6DE-69B01. F59,804..0 5 <6) 2 9808,040
WEB SM ee recei4 ad scr O41645L vs O6307%. 2 aid, 419 568;070
fee es . 5848.070¢ . 67,109 .. 3. «) 4.5,571,000
eee ws = 3 6487405. . 56907... Sl Be ReIG
WSSOM ES... 5.136, HOOPS. S6GI02Z00 what) OO 290

(9 months’ return)

SAME oe ys et ht GAS IT 1... 52000); 3° 4 eu hs. 0620:000
eee POAL IG 2. B6,000 9g ait one ae HOOD

I have already mentioned that some of the Saale, Austrian,
and Hungarian barleys are of excellent quality, and as an
illustration of what may be done by determined effort in the
matter of seed selection and cultivation, I would refer especially
to the marked improvement that has taken place of recent years
in Danish barleys, a large proportion of which now take rank
with the average of English growths for malting purposes.
Only a few years ago the barley production of Denmark was
practically confined to a coarse thick-skinned native grain
suitable only for distilling or grinding, and the change is mainly
due to the energetic action of the Danish Royal Agricultural
Society, with the assistance of the Government. In 1883 a
committee of the Society was formed to ascertain by what means
of cultivation, &c., the best possible quality of barley, yielding
the greatest commercial value, might be obtained, and a sub-
vention of 3001. per annum was granted by the State to the
Society for this purpose. The committee accordingly distributed
some 800 lots of seed, each consisting of half a hundred-
weight of fine ‘‘ Chevalier ” barley, to farmers in districts where
it was found that barley could be profitably grown. The con-
dition was imposed upon every recipient that he should report.

502 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

the results of the experiment, and an annual exhibition ot
malting barleys was established in Copenhagen, when their com-
mercial value was appraised by experts. It has been found, that
in every case, out of seven or eight kinds of imported seeds, the
“‘ Chevalier ” gave the most profitable returns to the farmer, and
this has naturally led to its general adoption.

The experiments in cultivation have also had an important
influence. Early sowing was found to be most satisfactory, for
the spring in Denmark is generally dry, and it was therefore
desirable to get the seed into the ground while it.retained some
of the winter moisture. As to harvesting, it was ascertained that
the best time to cut was when the grain was fully matured and
the ears began to droop. Useful hints, based on the experience
gained, were also circulated among the growers by the Society

_as to stacking, thrashing, and storing, and the practical result of
the whole has been to revolutionise this branch of agriculture in
Denmark, the annual money outlay, be it observed, amounting
to no more than 3800/. It is now estimated that one-third of
the arable land in Denmark is devoted to barley culture, and
the total yield is about 2,750,000 quarters.

Having briefly referred to the various sources from which
the maltster obtains his barley, let me describe what becomes of
it after reaching his hands; and it may fairly be said that,
speaking generally, he has shown eagerness in adopting all the
improvements in his processes that chemistry and mechanical
science have been able to suggest, so that the modern practice
of malting differs materially in its methods from that in vogue
thirty years ago, though the principle of course remains the
same. With all its faults and shortcomings, English barley
is delivered in much cleaner condition than the bulk of the
foreign, but even it requires considerable dressing and screening
before it is fit for the steeping tanks, whilst as regards the
Smyrna, South Russian, and some other Hastern barleys, they
invariably contain an admixture of tares, seeds, and dirt which it
is essential to remove. Hitherto agricultural implement makers
have designed their screening machinery with a view to its
being used upon English-grown barley, or at any rate for barley
grown by farmers who take the trouble to keep their land clean
and free from tares, and who use thrashing machines of some
description or other. But it is otherwise with the Hastern
barleys, and hence elaborate automatic screening machinery has
been invented for the purpose. My firm erected such a plant
last year in connection with our new maltings at Mistley, and
as it does its work with wonderful precision and thoroughness,
a brief notice will be of interest.

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 503

The barley passes through two sets of machines. The first, known as the
“ Victoria Separator and Eccentric Grader,” does the rough work, separating
the sample into coarse refuse, large tares, and three grades of barley.
This machine is, in principle, a series of five reciprocating sieves, with
different sized perforations. These sieves or screens deliver at different
spouts the material passing over them, and are worked from an upright
shaft by eccentric and connecting rods. An exhaust fan acting on the barley
sucks up any fine dust or light grains, and delivers the refuse, which collects
in an enlarged pocket of the main pipe, by a spout into sacks. ‘he exhaust
can be regulated by a movable sluice to any degree of suction.

It can readily be understood that simple sieves will not extract broken
or half-corns, nor tares of a diameter equal to that of the barley. This
machine alone is, therefore, insufficient to do the whole of the work, and
the final cleaning is done on other machines, consisting of six pairs of
cylinders, each about 2 ft. diam. and 8 ft. long. The cylinders are arranged
in pairs, one over the other, the upper cylinder acting as a separator to ex-
tract the smaller tares and half-corns from the whole barley, and the lower
as an ordinary screen. The upper cylinder is not perforated, but covered
with hemispherical indentations smaller than the length of a grain of barley,
though larger than half a grain. Hence the half grains, tares, and other
seeds left from the first machine fall into the indentations or recesses, and
are carried round in them until they fall into a trough below, in which an
endless screw works, and delivers into sacks at the end of the machine. The
whole-grain barley, which is thrown against the side of the upper cylinder
above its horizontal centre line, is kept from going round with the cylinder
by a series of scrapers, resting on the cylinder as itrevolves. The full grains,
of course, cannot fall completely into the recesses in the cylinder, and any-
thing projecting from the recesses is pushed out by the scrapers, and by them
conducted into the feeding trough to be presently described.

The barley is fed to the different cylinders by an endless screw working
in a trough at the ends of the cylinders, and at right angles to them. In
this trough are openings delivering the grain into the cross or feeding troughs,
one to each upper cylinder. In these cross troughs revolve blade propellers
throwing the corn, as mentioned above, against the revolving cylinder in an
oblique direction. The barley is thus being continually thrown up by the
blades, and returned to the trough by the scrapers, and at the same time
gradually advanced by the oblique action of these blades. In this way the
seeds and half-corns are gradually separated as the barley travels along the
trough and cylinder. The barley passes then through the lower or screwing”
cylinder, where it is acted upon by a second exhaust fan, to draw off all
light corns and other refuse which are useless for malting purposes, and which
had escaped the action of the first machine.

It must, however, not be supposed that screening machinery
is only useful on foreign barley. Owing to imperfect thrashing,
English barley is often broken. Broken barley is useless and
injurious to the maltster, and the machinery above described
may be advantageously used for separating these half-corns in
English barley.

Owing to the extended use of various foreign barleys, and
especially to the numerous improvements in the art of brewing
that have taken place of late years, the process of malting has
become of a far more scientific character than formerly. Each
class of barley requires different treatment in the cistern, on the

504 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

floor, and on the kilns, and the brewer is far more exacting in
his requirements in the manufacture of malt than formerly, so
that the maltster’s powers are severely taxed to produce the best
possible article from the material he has. to deal with. To treat
the grain with advantage, it is necessary to have well constructed
maltings, and to this end I may personally claim to have made
many considerable improvements. I will now describe the pro-
cess that the barley undergoes after it has passed through the
screening and cleaning machinery already noticed, which is the
most perfect and effective yet constructed. By its means the
bulk is greatly improved, and is then in a fit state for the first
stage of malting, viz. the cistern.

In most cases cisterns are constructed upon the ground-
floor of the malting. Consequently, when the barley has under-
gone the required amount of steeping, say from 50 to 60 hours,
it is drained and removed from the cistern by manual labour
with shovels on to the growing floor. This process causes a
serious amount of damage, as the men are obliged to stand upon
the soft and swollen grain during the whole of the time required
to empty the cistern, and they cannot possibly avoid crushing
some of it during the unloading. Every kernel that is so
damaged produces mould during its growth on the floors, and this
spreads afterwards to the other grain. To remedy these eyils,
and to save the hardest labour in the malting, I planned a self-
emptying steeping cistern with a cone-shaped bottom. These
cisterns are placed on the upper floors, and are emptied by means
of a valve at the bottom of the cistern, so that after the barley
has undergone the necessary steeping, it is let down by means
of iron shoots on to the different growing floors, thus saving
all manual labour, and damage to the grain. This method of
emptying does not occupy more than a few minutes, against two
or three hours by the ordinary process. So much does the
maltster value the necessity of avoiding all friction by which
the grain may become damaged, that we have also constructed
such machinery as will convey the barley from the railway and
farmers’ waggons by elevators to the granary floor and thence
on to canvas conveying bands; and by a simple but ingenious
contrivance, we are able to shoot off the grain into the cistern or
to any desired part of the extensive barley stores without the
slightest handling.

The barley, after it has left the cistern, is then laid on the
floors to a sufficient thickness (varying according to the tem-
perature of the season) for generating the necessary amount of
warmth to stimulate the germination of the grain. This is a
point that requires great care, as any excess of temperature is

Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View. 505

most injurious to the future growth of the grain. It is of the

‘greatest importance that the germination should commence

throughout the entire bulk as nearly as possible at the same time,
otherwise it is impracticable to make a perfectly even conversion
of the grain. Vegetation will usually start in from twelve to
twenty-four hours, and as it proceeds it is requisite to turn the
barley so as to prevent a too rapid growth, which would materially
injure the quality of the malt. This is, however, only one of the
risks which the maltster has to avoid by the exercise of constant
watchfulness ; for, on the other hand, it is sometimes needful to
promote the growth by increasing the depth of the grain and
by sprinkling it with water, and under any circumstances a
judicious application of moisture is requisite during the early
stages of vegetation. I may here say that it is upon what is
called the working or growing floor that the maltster’s skill and
judgment are fully brought into play, as it is a fact that immense
quantities of grain are made into what is called malt, whereas it
is nothing better than spoilt barley. It is not my intention in
this paper to write a minute description of the process of malt-
ing, as this would involve an article in itself; but I desire to
state that it is upon the growing-floor that the maltster has
to contend with all the evils that have been caused by the want
of care on the part of the farmers, viz. unevenness of ripening,
damage by thrashing, and defective condition when delivered.
So soon as the barley has gone through the process of ger-
mination on the floors, which should be completed in about ten
or twelve days from the time it is unloaded from the cisterns, it
ought to be in a fit state for kiln-drying. This operation forms
a most important and valuable part of the manufacture, as no
good malt can be produced unless carefully and perfectly kiln-
dried. It is the kiln-drying that regulates the colour of the
malt, which is varied according to the purposes for which the
malt is required; but, in every case, it is imperative that the
malt should be evenly and thoroughly dried, whether it may be
required for the finest pale ales or for any other description of
malt liquors where a certain amount of colour may be desired.
In these cases it is most important that the malt should be so
dried that during the process it should not sustain the slightest
scorching or burning. The old kilns are so constructed as to
render it almost impossible to avoid injury to the malt in this
respect, as the drying-floors are too near the furnace and the
means provided for properly regulating the temperature are very
defective. The greatest care is therefore essential on the part
of the working maltster, and this cannot always be relied upon.
Though these are serious faults, they have always been known

506 Barley from a Maltster’s Point of View.

to exist, and it will be easily understood that as maltsters we
have always been desirous of obtaining some effectual improve-
ment upon the old means of kiln-drying.

A number of alterations for the better haye been made
during the past few years, but it was only a few months since
that I was able to perfect a principle by which we have obtained
all the advantages in kiln-drying that we have so long desired.
The results obtained are such as to entirely revolutionise the
previous system of drying. When the barley is first loaded on
to the drying kiln, it is generally laid to a depth of ten or twelve
inches, and occupies between three and four daysin drying. It
is always found, even in the best constructed kilns, that a con-
siderable difference exists in the temperature, that of the malt
at the top being many degrees lower than that underneath.
Consequently, if not regularly turned on the kiln, the malt is
liable to partial burning and discoloration, which frequently
occurs when an attempt is made to dry malt at a high tem-
perature. This is owing to the want of a current to carry the
heat through the whole of the malt; and to obtain that result
Ihave always beenstriving. After numerous costly experiments,
I haye at last succeeded in obtaining the power of perfect drying
we have so long desired. To effect this I have made the fol-
lowing alterations in what is known as “ Free’s Patent Malt
Kiln,” the construction of which gave excellent results by
materially increasing the draughts and giving a very equal dis-
tribution of heat to the whole surface of the drying-floor. Under
the new principle we construct the roof as nearly air-tight as
possible, and place in the neck of the steam outlet a ‘‘ Blackman’s
Air Propeller” or exhaust fan, by which we draw through the
grain about 20,000 cubic feet of air per minute. This in itself
tends to purify, sweeten, and bleach the grain when first loaded,
and to carry the moisture entirely away, instead of allowing it to
continuously condense in the bull of the grain, which it must
necessarily do by the ordinary plan. As the air always contains
more or less moisture, I have fitted a large number of iron pipes
in the furnace shaft, which become heated by the furnace so as
practically to remove the moisture from the air which passes
through them. Consequently an enormous volume of perfectly

hot air is continuously drawn through the perforated floor
of the kiln and the malt lying upon it. By the aid of a set
of carefully constructed dampers and the corresponding regu-
lation of the air propeller, it is possible to increase or decrease
the temperature of the kiln at will, and it is found practicable to
dry off at a far higher fire heat temperature than can possibly
be done by any other system.

Barley from w Maltster’s Point of View. 507

_ Every practical man will at once recognise the importance
of these improvements, as affecting the quality of the malt,
hops, and other produce. ‘The process of drying need no longer
be governed by rule of thumb, for by these new appliances it
becomes a scientific process capable of being regulated to a
nicety. Equally important to the maltster, with its influence
upon the question of quality, is the effect of the new system
upon the time occupied in drying. By its means we can now
dry off the same quantity at a far higher temperature in one
third the time hitherto necessary, and in constructing new malt-
ings the requisite kiln space may therefore be proportionately
reduced.

The old theory of malting. was that the process of vegetating
barley needs to be conducted in the dark, and without air as well
as light, so that the level of the erowing-floor was generally
excavated to some feet below the ground. There was barely
room for a man to stand upright upon it without knocking his
head against the floor above, and ventilation was conspicuous by
its absence. Now this idea has been altogether exploded by
modern experience, and the new maltings just erected by my
firm at Mistley (which we claim to be amongst the largest and
most perfectly constructed in the kingdom) consist of five floors
each averaging eight feet in height from the floor, and all of them
thoroughly ventilated and lighted throughout. The block of
buildings occupies an area of about 200 ft. in length by 140 ft. in
depth, of which about one-fourth is occupied by the kilns, malt
stores, engines, &c. Of the remainder, the top floor, measuring
140 ft. by 120 ft., is devoted to the storage of barley after it has
been screened, and is capable of holding between 8,000 and 10,000
quarters, and the other four contain the steeping cisterns, and
are used as “ growing floors.” It is found that so far from light,
and air being detrimental to the growth of barley, they are posi-
tively beneficial, and it stands to reason that malt made under
such conditions must be superior to that manufactured in the
badly constructed buildings which still do duty as maltings in
many places throughout the country.

In the process of malting barley a remarkable property is
developed in the grain which is known to chemists as the
diastase, and its importance in brewing lies in the power which
it possesses of rapidly and completely converting the starch cells
of the malt into brewing sugar. Now it is the presence of this.
diastase which has of late years led to the preparation and sale
throughout the civilised world of large quantities of ‘ Malt
Extract ” for medicinal purposes. It is found to be an effective
aid to digestion, and it also contains valuable nutritive and

K

508 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

strengthening properties, so that a new use for barley malt has
been created, and it is steadily increasing. Hitherto a large
proportion of the malt extracts sold in this country have been
of foreign origin, chiefly American and German ; but recently
large works equipped with machinery and plant of the latest
and most approved type have been erected at Mistley in close
proximity to the maltings of my firm, and the manufacture of
extract is now being carried on there by the “ Standard Malt
Extract Company ” from English malt of the finest quality, and
therefore under conditions which ought to render its product
equal if not superior to anything of the kind at present in the
market.

This paper has already extended to greater length than I
purposed at the outset, and it only remains for me to summarise
the conclusions to which my remarks have tended, viz., 1. That
the Repeal of the Malt Tax opened the door to foreign competi-
tion in malting barley more widely than ever before. 2. That
maltsters and brewers are rapidly adapting their appliances and
practices to the changed conditions thus created. 3. That
English farmers can still grow barley to a profit, but to accom-
plish this it is essential that they should pay due attention to
the selection of seed, that they should employ only the most
approved methods of cultivation, and that they should exercise
great care in regard to harvesting, thrashing, dressing, and
storing the grain.

It is not in any spirit of captious criticism that I have
written, but my mind has been solely influenced by the desire
to stimulate our growers to improve the quality of barley. By
so doing they would increase the money return from the land,
and at the same time confer a decided benefit on the brewing
trade of the kingdom,

XXVII.—Report on the Farm Prize Competition in Nottingham-
shire and Lincolnshire in 1888; Class 1. By FREDERICK I.
CookE, Flitcham Abbey, King’s Lynn.

Ir has been customary of recent years for the Local Committees
appointed to make preparations for the annual country meetings
of the Royal Agricultural Society to offer prizes for the best
managed farms within a certain radius of the town where the
Show is to be held. This example was followed by the Notting-
ham Local Committee, who offered, in connection with the
meeting of 1888, prizes amounting in all to 300 guineas for the”

Nottinghamshire and Lincolashive in 1888: Class 1. 809

best managed arable and grass farms in the counties of Notting-
ham and Lincoln, together with such portions of the counties of
Leicester and Derby as are contained within a district of ten
miles beyond the boundary of Nottinghamshire.

The competing farms were divided into three categories as
below :—

_- Crass 1.—For the best managed arable and grass farm of 300 acres and
upwards, of which not less than one-half shall be arable. First prize, 100
guineas ; second, 50 guineas,

Crass 2.—For the best managed arable and grass farm above 100 acres
and not exceeding 300 acres, of which not less than one-half shall be arable.
First prize, 50 guineas ; second, 25 guineas.

Crass 3.—For the best managed arable and grass farm above 25 acres
and not exceeding 100 acres. First prize, 50 guineas; second, 25 guineas.

The competition in all three classes was limited to tenant
farmers paying a bond fide rent for at least three-fourths of the
land in their occupation, no competitor being allowed to enter
more than one farm for competition. In the event of a com-
petitor having more than one farm in his occupation, he had to
declare which of his farms should be entered for competition,
but at the same time he had to define the whole of his occu-
pation, both as to position and area, so that the other farms
might be inspected (though not for competition) if the Judges
thought necessary.

So many entries were made for these liberal prizes that it
became necessary to divide the work of inspection between two
sets of Judges, one set taking the 15 farms entered in Class 1,
and the other set the 20 farms entered in Classes 2 and 3. The
present Report is concerned only with the farms competing in
Class 1,! the Judges of which were :—

JosepH Martin, Highfield House, Littleport, Cambs,
RicnarpD Brirren, Abington Grange, Northampton.
Freperick I, Cooxe, Flitcham Abbey, King’s Lynn.

All the Judges met the Secretary of the Society to receive
final counsel and instructions on the evening of Monday,
December 12, and started before daylight the following morn-
ing on their first round of inspection.

There is little opportunity in the short days of winter, if the
work is to be got through in reasonable time, to see much more
than the buildings, the live stock, and the roots of the several’
farms, with such portions of the grass lands and the remaining
arable as are necessarily brought into view in the walk. Nor

‘The Report on the other two Classes, from the pen of Mr. Thomas Stirton,
es Stratton, is necessarily held over until the next number of the Journal.—
De

510° —. Report on the Farm Prize Competition in —

would there be much advantage in a closer inspection at the
dead season. It is usually quite enough to yield very useful
preliminary indications of the master and his skill.

The second visit was begun by the reporting Judge on the
Ath of May, and all the Judges started for the third inspection
on the 25th of June.

Before describing in detail the management of the compet-
ing farms, the writer proposes to follow recent precedents in
giving a brief and general sketch of the léading features of
agricultural interest which characterise the two whole counties
open to the competition.

LINCOLNSHIRE.

Lincolnshire has been described as, agriculturally speaking,
the premier county of England. It certainly possesses many
natural advantages of a high order, which on the whole have
been turned to first-rate account. The great diversity of soil
under plough or in grass throughout the large area of the
county, and the exceptionally fertile character of so much of it,
have led to equal variety in its distribution amongst owners and
occupiers. All vexed questions of large versus small estates or
holdings have here had a free and favourable field for their solu-
tion. That is to say, they have been very much left to settle
themselves by the only really sound and economical process of
natural selection, which, despite its simplicity, may be safely
trusted to work for the best in the long run.

Thus there are the usual large estates with their large farms
where the land is of a character to attract men of capital and
skill, and to yield the safest return from treatment on a large
scale; whilst the small cultivators, as owners or occupiers, have
chiefly settled upon the richer but less easily cultivated soil,
where expensive artificial stimulants are not so essential to the
production of good crops, and where labour is the principal
investment required.

But whether in large holdings or in small, both classes
have been distinguished for excellence of cultivation, and for
the character of the live stock upon them.

It may be that here and there a less satisfactory picture has
just now to be acknowledged, but if so the shadow may be
traced with little difficulty “to the passage of those clouds of .
recent years which have more or less frowned upon us all. No-
where has the trouble been more felt than upon the wheat-
crowing soils of the smaller farmers, who, on the whole, may °
not be as well armed as the larger farmers are with the advai-

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 511°

tages of capital, enterprise, and modern acquirements with
which to meet it.

In area Lincolnshire is second in size of the counties ot
England, Yorkshire only being larger. It contains in gross
extent of land and water 1,767,962 acres, 28,000 of which is
waste or uncropped land.

Some of the following tables of statistics have been suggested
by those in Mr. Little’s Report of last year, which the writer
feels to have been much too interesting and useful to be neglected
as a precedent in this.

Thus, the table below shows the population of Lincolnshire
and Nottinghamshire, and the number of persons per square
acre in each county, with the same particulars of England for
comparison :—

_ Lincoln Notts England

‘TA ‘75

Population in 1881. . . . . »« « «| 469,919 | 391,815 | 24,608,391
No. of persons per square acre. . . . 27 |

Lincolnshire therefore, in spite of a large proportion of small
holdings, as will be shown directly, is very thinly populated,
much less densely than Notts, or than England as a whole.
The number of people per square acre is singularly alike in the
two latter cases. The census returns readily explain the anomaly
by showing how few persons are engaged in Lincolnshire in any
industry other than that of agriculture, the only other in fact of
any note being—fittingly enough—the manufacture of agricul-
tural implements, which is considerable.

The number of persons per 100 acres engaged solely in
agriculture is about the same in both counties. The proportion of
permanent grass in the total cultivated land is, as will be shown,
rather less than one-third for Lincoln, and for Notts but very
little less than a half, so that more hands per acre of arable land
must be employed in the latter county, and this too in spite of
the fact that Lincolnshire contains the larger proportion of small
holdings, which usually absorb the most labour.

The Distribution of Holdings of Land.—Lincolnshire is very’
much a county of large estates, and, as usually follows, of large’
farms. Thus there are 14 owners of 10,000 acres and upwards,
a number exceeded only in the case of Yorkshire, where there’
are 31 such owners, and by Northumberland, where there are
17. The area of Yorkshire is, however, more than twice that of ‘
Lincolnshire. The average number of such owners per county-

512° Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

for all England and Wales is four. Again, the number of
owners of 1,000 acres and under 10,000 in Lincoln is only
exceeded in the two cases of York and Norfolk. In the latter
there are 211 such owners, in Lincoln 210.

On the other hand, Lincolnshire is almost as remarkable for
the great number of small owners of land in it. Thus, there
are no less than 13,380 people who own each an acre or more of
land, but under 50 acres. Yorkshire, with its enormous area, has
only 21,701 of such occupiers, and most other counties are left
very far behind indeed in this comparison,

The principal owners are the Earl of Yarborough, Lady
Willoughby de Eresby, Mr. H. Chaplin, Lord Aveland, the
Marquis of Bristol, the Crown, Earl Dysart, Mr. C. Turnor, and
others with estates almost as large.

The following table gives some interesting particulars of the
number of farms of certain sizes in the counties of Lincoln and
Notts, with corresponding figures for the whole of England :—

LINCOLN Norrs | ENGLAND
Rerceu ce Percentage Peerees {Percentage ES ae Se pa
~ - | of acreage of acreage . of acreage
Classes of Holdings obs siren lof holdings oie Elvan of holdings a of holdings
Sais in a given Sa in a given ehale in a given
number of coe Fa number of oe number ee oe
holdings of 3 holdings of holdings o:
all sizes in | #cTeage of all sizes in | 2°e98e of all Siena nie ge
county connby, county county England el

From } acre to

es 32°01 1:42 28°14 1:32 29°96 1:19

From Sacres tol) 44i0 | 1843 | 45:93 | 1460 | 4108 | 1823
Hrom50acresto}) 43 | 1048 | 959 | 1248 | 1088 | 1849
From ween }| 10-48 | 3221 | 1839 | 41°96 | 1426 | 41-32
Fr Dacca }| .82t | 227 |. 263 | 1795 | 2B | ane

From 500 eet 1°58 17°62 +82 9:02 “99 10°83

to 1,000 acres

In Lincolnshire there are 43 holdings of above 1,000 acres
each, and in Notts six such holdings. ‘There are practically no
uncultivated farms in either county.

There are in Lincolnshire 11,710 occupiers of allotments,
detached from cottages and less than half an acre in size, and in
Notts 14,795. Of garden allotments attached to cottages there
are 15 251 i in the former county, and only 5,209 in the latter.
The much larger proportion of detached allotments in Notts

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 518

must be owing to the demands of miners and others who are not
of any agricultural class.

The following analysis shows the distribution of detached
allotments according to size :—

Number and Percentage of Allotments or Field Gardens of different
sizes detached from Cottages, in June, 1886.

of 4 ne ae bipienie '3
acre acre te
Counties Under g of and under epee Total fn all lesen allotments
BEB aUS i acre Lacre of holdings | in total
acreage
Lincoln. . . 1,782 3,765 6,163 11,710 1,510,825 ris
INOUE s 6. ie 9,445 3,751 11,599 14,795 455,085 3°25
England. . . | 128,566 | 116,487 | 103,819 348,872 | 24,891,539 1:40

In all, 478 labourers have runs for a cow in Lincoln, but
only 28 in Notts. Further particulars under this head will be
given subsequently.

Physical Aspects—The fens and marshes of Lincolnshire,
which comprise about one-third of its surface, are about as flat
and level as the sea—an aspect dreary and depressing in the
extreme to the unaccustomed eye of the average Briton, yet not,
it is well to know, without power to kindle some of the finest
imaginations. For the charms which have so unfortunately
been hidden from common mortals have, happily, been revealed
to a Tennyson and a Kingsley, who both actually sang the
praises of these flat districts—the former finding rapturous
similes between the glories of fen and sea. The area in question
includes the whole south-eastern portion of the county, and a
wide fringe of marsh skirting its eastern sea-board. It ex-
tends also up into the centre of the county as far as the city
of Lincoln, near which it is called the “Carr.” On its eastern
and western borders it is relieved by a double range of cal-
careous hills, which, starting from the neighbourhood of Brigg,
at the north of the county, for an apex, run down, the one in
a south-easterly, the other in a south-westerly direction, so as
to form two sides of a rather acute triangle enclosing the fens.
From the moderate elevation of these hill-tops, the western
range of which forms the magnificent site of the Cathedral of
Lincoln, a sufficiently extensive and interesting view may be
had, over the gentle dip and rise of a fertile and varied land-
scape, to redeem the county from unfair charges of universal
flatness.

The Rivers of Lincolnshire are somewhat insignificant, if we

VOL. XXIV.—S. 8S. LL

514 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

except the Humber, which is the northern boundary of the
county, and the Trent, which marks its western limits, only
entering for a little at its north-east corner. These are both
liable to disastrous floodings, owing in part to periodical visits
from a tidal phenomenon called the “ eager” or “ bore,” which
causes a rise of waters sometimes to the extent of six or eight
feet.

Geology.—The concealed rocks, the upper surfaces of which
are being continually powdered down into Lincolnshire soils by
nature’s constant friction of many kinds, belong to what is called
the Middle Period. ‘They are found in a fairly complete series
from the Trias to the chalk, and succeed one another in ascend-
ing order from the east to the west of the county, so that the
different beds of rocks lie in parallel belts from north to south.
_ Of these beds some are of clay and some of limestone. The
softer clay yields first to the continual washings, and longitudinal
valleys in the direction of the beds are thus formed between the
more stubborn layers of limestone, which consequently in time
stand out in more or less bold ridges above them. ‘This com-
paratively simple arrangement of surface soil is, however, com-
plicated to a rather unusual extent by huge deposits of “ drift,”
a material mostly composed of clay and sand which was brought
down at a later period from other districts on the back of the
huge ice sheets which slowly swept over the face of the country
in the glacial period.

The total consequence is seen in that immense variety of
Soils which has been previously referred to, and from what has
already been said of the lie of the rocks it will be seen that
by far the greatest variation would be found in crossing the
county from east to west, or vice versd. The soil of the eastern
range of hills or wolds is a sandy, flinty, or chalky loam, with
occasionally a rich loam or chalky marl. Along both the eastern
and western borders of this range, or parts of them, is a band
of rich brown loam, or of poor cold clay, with, in some places, a
better clay soil. Hasterly of this again is a fringe of rich marsh
grasses bordering the sea. The soil of the western range of
hills, which north of Lincoln is called the Cliff, and south of it
the Heath, varies from a very light to a good sandy loam.
Westerly of these hills is more grass land of various quality.
The fens and carr-lands are mostly of two kinds, (1) the dark
and peaty soils—relics of submerged forests of a former period ;
and (2) those low-lying lands, or marshes, nearest the sea, which
have received a greater or less deposit of alluvial silt from tidal
sources. A very large area of land has in this way been re-
claimed from the Wash within recent years. Amongst both

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 515

these divisions of fen soil are spots of higher land, which were
alone above the level of the floods in pre-drainage times, and
now—as perhaps then—principally in grass of first-rate quality.
The peaty fens have a subsoil of soapy blue clay, but the black
surface soil is of a light character. Some of the alluvial lands
are also of a lightish nature, but others are much wetter and
heavier in surface as well as subsoil. Elsewhere are found clay
and greensand soils, and very numerous examples of artificial or
drift soils which are much too various for classification.

The climate of the higher grounds of Lincolnshire is noted
for its fine, dry, and bracing character—too much so, perhaps,
for the county is peculiarly exposed to cutting easterly winds in
the spring. These may have been even more fierce than now,
for where the ancient forests of the fens have been exposed to
light, the buried trees are often found leaning from the effects of
the chilling blasts. Before the present effective drainage, these
fen districts were productive of constant ague and other dis-
eases to.their inhabitants. The rainfall, like that of the other
great corn-growing counties of the eastern coast, is considerably
below the average for England as a whole. One good test of
the mean temperature of a district is roughly supplied in its
suitability or otherwise for the growth of mangolds. The
agricultural returns show that Lincolnshire—and most probably
its more southern part—is about the most northerly limit of the
profitable cultivation of this root. Thus the acreage in man-
golds as given for the county of Norfolk, immediately below it,
is four times as great as that returned for Lincolnshire. York-
shire, next above, grows less than half as much as Lincoln, and
there are no more than 190 acres of this warmth-loving plant
returned for the whole of the large county of Northumberland.
Happily the prohibition, though a proof of lower temperature, is-
not without its compensation, for no doubt this is fully provided
in the more and more favourable climate for turnips of one kind
or another which each northward step secures.

Acreage under various descriptions of crops.—The following
table shows the percentage of the total acreage of arable Jand in
Lincoln, Notts, and England under each kind of crop, or in
bare fallow, in 1887. It also shows the percentage of the total
acreage of cultivated land in the same places, which was in
permanent pasture in 1887. In an adjoining column are the
same particulars for 1877, in order that it may be seen what
alterations or modifications of previously prevailing systems or
rotations of crops, if any, have been induced by a long period of
low prices for farm produce.

me Tez

516

Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

Crop Sratistics, 1877 anp 1887.

Lincoln Notts England
Description of crops
1877 | 1887 | 1877 | 1887 | 1877 | 1887
Corn crops :—
Wheat 27°07 | 21°74 | 24:23 | 18:56 | 22-20 | 17°75
Barley 17:28 | 18°19 | 17-49 | 14:05 | 14°86 | 14-21
Oats 8-90 | 11:07 | 7-02 | 12°45 | 11-07 | 14:28
Rye ‘17 16 65 96 36 ‘37
Beans . 3°57 | ‘s34e) savor) 2574)" Sazonmiee
Peas 2:04 | 1°88 2°91 171 2°27 | 1:82
Total corn crops 59°03 | 56.38 | 55-21 | 50°30 | 54-25 | 51:25
Green crops :—
Potatoes . : 3°45 4-32 2°01 2°64 2°25 2:98
Turnips and swedes . 12°87 | 13:03 | 12:45 | 13°54 | rx-rr | 11°46
Mangolds, xc. 1°89 | 2-04 1°41 1:55 2°58 2°84
Cabbage, &c. . . I-gI 1:40 “50 “61 1°41 1:29
Vetches and other green
crops except clover 210 | 2:09 2-15, 1:99] 3°12 3:07
and grass .
Total green crops . 22°22 | 22°88 | 18-52 | 20°33 | 20°47 | 21-64
Clover, sain- ( For hay 6 97 8:55 9°23 | 12-46 | 11°96 | 13°80
foin, and|Not for hay 9°06 | 9:37 | 10°95 | 11°56 8-38 | 9:02
grasses
under ro-{ Total. 16°03 | 17:92 | 20°18 | 24:02 | 20°34 | 22°82
tation
e orhay .| 6:21 | 7:57 | 11°46 | 14-68 | 13°32 | 1575
Permanent | Not for hay | 22°52 | 23:95 | 24-44 | 29°13 | 31°35 | 3458
pasture .. ‘|
Total . 28°73 | 31°52 | 35:90 | 43:81 | 44°67 | 50°33
Flax . i 02 _ — 05 “02
Hops . = _ ‘Ol — *52 ‘S1
Bare fallow or uneropped ‘ iS . ’ 3 :
2 er eS i: 2°51 | 273 | 5:99) 527 | 4:28] 3°68

The figures are not revolutionary, and on the whole can
hardly be said to prove any very unusual or considerable de-

parture from previous practices.

On the contrary, they appear

rather to support the opinion of many competent men that no
very great alteration of the kind is practicable or advisable,
At the same time the wheat area has certainly been markedly
reduced, even in the county of Lincoln, a great part of which

is so thoroughly adapted to its cultivation.

But probably upon

that part the reduction has only taken place to a limited extent.
More than half the deficiency of wheat is, it appears, made up
by an increased acreage of barley and oats, The rotation grasses

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 517

are more by nearly two per cent., and the permanent grasses
more by a little over three per cent., than they were in 1877,
the increase in permanent grass out of the total land cultivated
being nearly exactly equal to the decrease of wheat amongst
arable crops. In Notts nearly four per cent. less wheat was
grown in 1887 than ten years ago, two per cent. more barley
and oats, four per cent. more rotation grasses, and eight per
cent. more permanent pasture. The decreased acreage of wheat
in England is as nearly as possible the same as in Lincoln,
but the increase of permanent pasture is nearly twice as much,
namely, six per cent.

So far as their opportunities for observation and inquiry
served them, it appeared to the Judges that the newly laid
down grass was chiefly confined to the thin and intractable
soils of both the counties visited, and that there was a growing
tendency—in Nottinghamshire particularly—towards leaving
the rotation grasses for a second year, but seldom longer.

Tive Stock Statistics—The following table gives similar
statistics of live stock to those of the crops :—

Live Srock Statistics, 1877 anp 1887.

Showing number of each kind of Stock per 100 acres of cultivated
land in Lincoln, Notts, and England in 1877 and 1887.

Lincoln Notts England

Description of stock

1877 | 1887 | 1877 | 1887 | 1877 | 1887

Horses :—

Used solely for Agricul-
ie gue }| 3°26 | 330} 3:26) 320) 313) 3-07
Unbroken and kept)

solely for Breeding . °o7|' 1-13. | x16 | 14:13) 1-23 132

Total Horses. . . . | 4°23 | 4:43 | 4°42 | 17°33 4°36 439
Cattle :—
Cows and Heifers in Milk : Z ‘ “= 2 Be
orin Calf. | 3°58 420 4°96 Gib 6°40 7°38
Two Years old and above 4°72 5:03 5°OI 5-09 4°41 4-65
Wader 2, Years... . . 5°06 6:37 6:28 7:45 5°55 6-50
Total Cattle . . . . | 13°36| 15°60 | 16°25 | 18°69 | 16°36] 18°53
Sheep :— |

One Year old and above | 62°45 | 49:28 | 37°79 | 2868 | 47-22 | 39:84
Underlyear . .. . | 38°60 | 33:25 | 25°16 | 20°82 | 28-16 | 26:16

Total Sheep . . . . |101°05 | 82°53 | 62°95 | 49°50 | 75-38 | 66:00

Biagio te bate et 3?" ~ 6°96 6-11 6°39 | 5:33 8-69 778

518 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

These figures appear to prove the lamentable fact that the
larger acreage of permanent grass has not resulted in an increase
of the total number of stock in either of the counties under
consideration, or in England as a whole. We are, therefore,
producing less corn by decreasing its acreage, and probably
diminishing its yield, whilst not at the same time making more
meat in its place. Yet the main arguments for the change have
been the greater profits from the production of meat, and the
better opportunities of meeting our foreign competitors by its
means rather than by the growth of corn. It may be right to
suppose that it will pay better to have land under grass than
under corn, but wrong to think that we necessarily increase our
capacities for the breeding and feeding of stock by such means.
A little attention to the particulars of the first and second prize
farms, which will be given presently, will go far to show that
the meat returns from very poor land, which is in great part
arable, can be made much greater than those from similar land
laid down to grass, if not indeed from those also of the richest
pasture land of the country.

Whilst dealing with a county in which both large and small
holdings are so exceptionally represented, the writer thinks
that a comparison of the numbers of stock kept upon each of
these classes respectively will be of some interest.

The following table has been prepared for the purpose from
Government Returns obtained in June, 1885, and shows the
number of farm animals under their several heads per 100 acres
of land in large holdings of above 500 acres but not exceeding
1,000 acres, with the same particulars for small farms of above
50 but not exceeding 100 acres of land.

Torses Cows and

vl arg ther
Description of farms per 100 4
ores cattle per

100 acres

Sheep and
lambs per
100 acres

Pigs per
100 acres

Large Farms of above 500 acres, but
not exceeding 1,000 acres }

Small Farms of above 50 acres, but not
exceeding 100 acres

3°33 11:16 | 103-19 4:24
4:89 22°83 50°92 9:13

Large farmers and small, therefore, seem to keep about the
same number of horses in proportion to their acreage. ‘The
smaller holders are clearly much stronger in cattle, and just
about as much weaker in sheep, whilst the pig, of course, is a
favourite animal with the smaller capitalist. 1t appears likely
that the value per acre of the live stock as a whole would in
each case be singularly uniform. But it is to be feared that a

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 519

return of the yields per acre of other produce would be found
less favourable to the smaller holdings.

It would be difficult to speak too highly of the types of
live stock which are to be found on Lincolnshire farms,

The prevailing breed of Cattle is the shorthorn, although
the term is perhaps a little too general to describe them with
sufficient accuracy and justice. There is no doubt that many
of them still retain, in some degree, the distinctive points of
the “Old Lincolnshire Ox.” The constant use of pure-bred
bulls upon cows with some of this blood about them has at
length developed the celebrated modern animal which has for
so many years been shown in great perfection at the large fairs
of the county, whence they have been eagerly bought and
widely distributed. The best cattle of to-day are of the rich
red colour which has been prized and preserved for so many
generations. They are both deep and wide of frame, have for
the most part downpitched horns, and develop into great size
and weight if allowed time to do so. But perhaps they are
most of all remarkable for the fleshiness of carcase which the
butcher is sure to find with them, a matter of more and more
importance in catering for modern tastes.

It is sad, however, to be compelled to add that the average
quality of Lincoln store cattle, as shown at the present fairs
and markets, has greatly deteriorated from the high standards
of only a few years ago. A part of the relapse may be, and it
is to be hoped is, due to modern improvements towards earlier
maturity. The lower values of store cattle may have revealed
more painfully the unprofitableness and waste to some one of
breeding a good animal, or buying a good calf, and neglecting
to keep it well, or allowing it to lose its early condition and be
carried over two or three comparatively unproductive summers
and winters before seriously attempting to fit it for the butcher.
Where, as in Lincoln, the expensive system of rearing the calves
on new milk has extensively prevailed, the waste must be pro-
portionately greater. How much of the deterioration of store
animals is due to this cause, and how much to the mistaken
economy of using inferior sires as perhaps practised by the many
smaller breeders, cannot be shown here, but about the fact of
the deterioration itself there can be no question.

The chief breeding districts are in the north-eastern and
south-western portions of the county, and in spring and autumn
the occupiers of the rich grazing grounds in the fens and other
parts, as well as many strangers, come to buy of the breeders at
the numerous large fairs in their neighbourhood. The importa-
tion of Yorkshire and Irish beasts for feeding is no doubt growing.

520 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

There is very little dairying done in the county, utiless it
is quite in the immediate neighbourhood of the larger towns.
Most farmers, large or small, keep a few cows and rear their
produce.

The present Lincoln Sheep are probably, in most cases, much-
improved descendants of the ‘Old Lincolnshire Long Wools.”
These in their time have been known as coarse and unshapely
animals, though remarkable for weight of wool—a much greater
consideration in earlier days than at preseut—and for size of
frame, which was also of more value when large joints were
saleable, and quality not put so much before quantity by the
public. Extraordinary weights of wool and mutton are given
by these sheep after some years of improvement, as much as
14 stones of 14 lbs. per carcase being mentioned. They were
- yery hardy, and therefore well suited to the climate as well as
to the soil of the county. There are several famous breeders of
Lincoln rams in the county, one of whom will be mentioned
particularly. Sheep that would attain great weights were till
lately in much demand for summer grazing in the fat pastures
of South Lincolnshire, but modern tastes and prices have quite
changed the system, as even in many cases the breed itself.

Very contrary opinions were expressed to the Judges by
different feeders and breeders upon the ability of the white faces
to hold their own in the future, some asserting that they must
at any rate be crossed with more “colour” because they sell so
badly, whilst others maintained that they had not found it so.
Much appears to depend upon the place of sale. If a local one
the depreciation is not, it seems, by any means so apparent
as it clearly is, for instance, in London. Still we do not wonder
that the Lincoln men stick to their breed, for not only are the
sheep co well acclimatised, but they are less liable to lameness
than many others, they finish quicker on the kind of winter food
which is given them, and, if the writer’s judgment serves him,
they are more fitted to the summer tredtment they receive.

The Draught Horses are of the Shire Breed, and excellently
do they represent its famous and characteristic points. It may
be said in fact that the breed originated in the lowlands of
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, although Derbyshire now
appears to be rather stealing the front place.

Mr. Reynolds says in his most interesting and valuable
paper on “The History of the English Cart Horse,” in vol. i.
of the Cart Horse Stud Book :—

_ “It is probable that in the seventeenth century, when the fens of Cam-
bridgeshire and Lincolnshire were brought into more extended cultivation
by Vermuyden and his compatriots, a number of massive horses, whose

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 521

progeny still exist as a specialty in these two counties, were imported from
the continent for use in those great drainage undertakings, As late as
the beginning of the present century it was not unusual for enterprising
horsebreeders to import both stallions and mares from Flanders” (pages x—xi).

He then goes on to show that black was the predominating
colour of draught stallions in the first quarter of the present
century, and says that ‘‘ the Eastern Counties horse was known
and described as the ‘ Black Lincolnshire Horse.’ ”

Certain peculiarities of soil or climate, or both, undoubtedly
tend to produce and preserve the much-prized points of feather
and bone which so greatly distinguish the Shire breed; and
Lincoln has them in abundance. A summer run on its strong
pastures has a marvellous effect in building up frame and
substance in any colts which are thinly put upon them. The
county should therefore be able to hold its own in the competi-
tion. But whether or not Lincoln men now reap the lion’s
share of the Shire horse prizes, no traveller by road or rail, who
sees the splendid teams in the fields or upon the roads of the
county, can fail to be struck with their high average excellence,
and may well doubt if it is anywhere surpassed.

The curly-coated and lop-eared Lincolnshire Pigs are capital
animals too of their kind. ‘They fatten readily, and make up to
a great size, and with a Berkshire cross in addition can be made
to suit any possible requirements. Some astonishing mountains
of flesh and fat were shown to the Judges upon several of the
competing farms, which were to be killed and salted for the
boarding team-men, in accordance with a custom which will be
alluded to again.

General System of Farming in Lincolnshire.

Variety of soil leads very naturally to great differences in-
its treatment, and it would probably be difficult to find any
system of farm management, any description or rotation of
crops, in practice or in use elsewhere, which is not somewhere
or other represented within the wide borders of the county.

Lincolnshire is famous for the rapidity and thoroughness of
the revolution which, beginning in earnest only towards the end
of the last century, so effectually transformed its 350,000 acres
of fen morass into one of the richest and most productive
districts of England. At a still later period, and in still shorter
time, its trackless heath, so lonely and vast that it needed, and
actually had, its tall lighted beacon to guide the traveller by
night, like a mariner at sea, across its barren wastes, was changed
into trim and highly farmed enclosures, productive as a garden.
Again, at about the same time the hitherto wild and very

522 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

extensive area of the chalk wolds was similarly turned into
celebrated examples of high and skilful cultivation.

Besides all these exhibitions of public and private enterprise,
there is the still vaster and more important one of the fen drain-
age, which was the only possible means of turning the richest
advantages of the county to account. The outlay was enormous,
involving a perpetual rate upon the improved land of from 38s.
to lls. per acre. The scheme necessitated embanking the’ old
watercourses to improve natural outfalls, the cutting of numerous
new drains and watercourses, and the erection of very extensive
steam machinery to lift the water from those lower levels whence
it could find no natural outlet. No detailed description of the
enormous and interesting engineering operations of this great
work can be attempted in the present report, but those wishing
fuller information upon it cannot do better than consult the
exhaustive report of 1851, by Mr. J. Algernon Clarke, in Vol. XII.
of the First Series of this Journal (pp. 259 to 411).

The counties of Lincoln and Notts have long been associated
as celebrated pioneers in the support and practice of the just
principle of Tenant's Right to the residue of such improvements
as he may have left unexhausted behind him on quitting his
holding. A custom has long been in use which provides a
guide and scale to valuers to fix the price of such improvements,
and under it almost all occupations in the two counties have
long been, and still are, held on a yearly tenure, with six months’
notice to quit on either side. Leases are almost unknown.
The arrangement seems to be in great favour, and certainly
very capital understandings between landlord and tenant have
grown up under it; such as continually lead to the retention
of land in the same hands for generations. The provisions
of the recent Agricultural Holdings Act are largely based on
the above customs, and so much does the offspring resemble the
parent, that the Act is now frequently substituted, with the
cordial consent of all parties, for the custom, or an amalgamation
of the two has been substituted. New tenancies usually begin at
Lady Day in both counties.

The following slight sketch of the principal details of the
Lincoln custom may not be out of place :—

The outgoing tenant is by it often allowed for the erection of permanent
and suitable buildings which have been put up at his own sole expense, on
what is called the twenty years’ principle, which means that a deduction
from the prime cost to the amount of one-twentieth shall be allowed for
each year following the date of erection, When the material is found by
landlord and the labour, &c., by the tenant, compensation to be on the ten
years’ principle. Special allowances are made for laying down land to
pasture, The cost of underdraining is allowed on a fifteen years’ principle

4

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 523

when the tenant finds tiles and labour, on a ten years’ principle when
the tenant finds labour only. Of all the above improvements due notice
must be given to the landlord, and his consent previously obtained, but not
to the following. Allowances on a graduated scale are made for the use of
cakes and feeding stuffs (except corn grown on the farm), for bones, and for
liming, claying, &c., and for customary tillages to date of exit.

Certain lands were very commonly let with a waygoing
crop, which practically meant that the corn crops upon them of
the harvest after date of exit belonged to the outgoing tenant,
although the incomer had the pleasure of paying the rent, to-
gether with all the costs of collecting and thrashing. Now that
farms are more difficult to let, the additional capital required
to meet such a remarkable arrangement is not forthcoming.
The landlords, therefore, are paying off the claim as required.

Two white straw crops together, but no more, are commonly
allowed, and the usual restrictions against the sale of certain kinds
of produce are very much in force. A general reduction of
rent to the amount of 25 to 30 per cent. is said to have been
established.

So much was heard and written of the wonders of the
Wolds a few years since that the pride and glory of Lincolnshire
farming must haye been supposed by many to centre and cul-
minate in that neighbourhood. Perhaps it did; but Sir James
Caird in 1851 was evidently of opinion that the district was a
little overrated. He named other places, though not in Lincoln,
where higher standards of modern improvements—then in their
infancy—had in his opinion been attained. At the same time
there can be no doubt that the Wold farming had, and has, a
well deserved reputation, and it was a great disappointment to the
Judges that they were not afforded the opportunity, which the
entry of one of these farms would have given them, of a closer
inspection of the neighbourhood for themselves. Nor was thisthe -
only presumably highly cultivated district of so famed a county
of which the same could be said. The richer and deeper soils
of both Lincoln and Notts, whence it was hoped to reap much
= both interest and profit, were practically unrepresented in

lass I.

There is doubtless something of healthy rivalry between the
large farms on the large estates of the two long ranges of ele-
vated land to east and west of the county. The Earl of Yar-
borough heads the list of great and spirited proprietors of the
Wolds, and Mr. Chaplin, of the owners of the Heath and Cliff.
The land is all of light or tractable character, that of the Wolds
being the better staple. Good buildings have been erected in
both cases ; and at reasonable rents men of capital and enterprise
haye embraced the opportunity of tenancy, and, in spite of some

524 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

theories of the economists, have taken and kept the lead in their
calling.

The fens of Lincolnshire are, as we have seen, of two kinds,
and both of them are for the most part highly productive. The
peaty fens owe almost all their fertility to the soapy blue clay
below them, which is so near as to be within reach of the plough
in some places, and where not it is cast from trenches, at very
little expense, and spread thickly on the surface. The heavier
portions of the alluvial soils require under-draining. The hold-
ings are small, 200 acres being considered a large one, and the
farm buildings are mostly both inefficient and insufficient. Few
roots are grown here, or cattle grazed in winter, and the holders
of the best grass-lands, like those, for instance, round Spalding,
usually keep the beasts which they buy at the autumn fairs very
thickly in their cramped yards upon straw and cake till the
spring, when they finish them on the grasses.

The course of cropping on these lands is various enough,
but, so far as could be learnt, there is no great departure from
the old rotation upon them of oats after a fallow, followed by
seeds or pulse, and wheat again. Upon the peaty soils a good
deal of rape is grown. No doubt more potatoes have been
taken of late years after the fallow, and occasionally barley
after the wheat, on account of the low price of the latter, but it
is a very risky crop upon the fens, whilst the wheat upon well-
farmed land, and in a good year, is of almost unrivalled mag-
nificence. Few sheep are to be seen upon much of this district
in the winter, save where they are required to eat the rape in
the early part of it.

Some of the peaty soils have been immensely enriched by a
process called warping.! The Isle of Axholme, at the north-
western corner of the county, is a remarkable example of it.
The low-lying land is there temporarily flooded from the rivers
for the sake of the rich deposit left behind by the waters, and
very astonishing crops indeed, particularly of potatoes, are
obtained by the small cultivators who chiefly occupy it.

In the neighbourhood of Spalding, gigantic four-square stacks
may be seen to tower well above the highest buildings. These
often comprise the whole yield of straw from as many as 120
acres of this productive land, or all the wheat ricks of the stack-
yard. The straw is carried as thrashed, sometimes for a hundred
yards or more, from the mouth of the shakers in large bunches
held together by pin and chain. In this position it is drawn

1 Described at length by Mr. J. A. Clarke in the Report above referred to.
See pp. 371 et seg. Vol. XII. 1st Series (1851).

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Olass 1. 525

by an endless wire worked by the engine to the top of a pole,
fixed in or near the centre of the stack, upon reaching which it
is released at the highest point, to be moved by hand where
required.

There is a good deal of Crown property in south Lincolnshire
—entrance to which is at Michaelmas, and it certainly did not
appear that these lands were any less deficient than others in
their neighbourhood in building conveniences.

Good authorities give from 30s. to 40s. per acre as a
common expenditure for labour upon the larger fen farms.
When many potatoes are grown, it is often run up to 50s.
Lincolnshire takes the lead amongst the counties in the culti-
vation of this tuber, and a very wide acreage is sown to it. It
appeared indeed to the Judges, from what they themselves saw
in their travels, that Lincoln ought to be able to supply the
rest of England with potatoes. The area devoted to them
widens yearly, not only in the fens but on the higher lands, to
where they have rapidly extended, stimulated no doubt by the
low price of other produce.

The arable clays, which divide the Carr lands from the Wolds
to the east, and from the Heath to the west, are farmed on the
four-course system. But whether under plough or grass, many
of them have not a very rich or inviting appearance to the
stranger, and not a few of them must be very poor and thin,
and look to be quite dropping out of profitable cultivation.

The farmhouses, cottages, and outbuildings appeared to be,
as a rule, good and sufficient on the larger farms and in the
higher districts; but, as has been said, upon the better land,
where one would suppose it to be more required, the building
accommodation is decidedly inferior.

Besides the advantages already specified, the Lincolnshire _
farmer possesses at least one other of inestimable value which
must on no account be overlooked, and it is this: He not only
has access to some of the very finest grass-land in the kingdom,
and to a great deal more which is at all events very useful, but
the worth of this great boon is infinitely increased to him by the
manner of its distribution. So that, for instance, the light land
farmers of the Wolds have a fine frontage of grazing land in ths
fringe of famous marshes which run between their chalky hills
and the sea. ‘The Heath farmers also, and their highland neigh-
bours, have access to a similar strip of grass, if not of equal
quality to the former, running by the western foot of their oolite
range. Similar advantages are enjoyed by many of the central
and southern districts, where a happy intermixture of grass and
arable so frequently prevails. It is this judicious blending of

526 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in —

a sufficiency of permanent pasture with good or useful corn-
growing soils, rather than an excess of either in the hands of
any one man or district, which, far better than any other arrange-
ment, enables the best to be made of them both.

The Lincolnshire ricks are a too prominent feature in the
landscape to pass unnoticed. The amount of skill and patience
elaborated upon their architecture is no doubt an index of many
good qualities in both master and workman, and the example
might well be useful to the stackers of other and bordering
counties, where this work is often done in a most slovenly and
shamefully ineffective manner. At the same time, in a country
of such fickle climate as ours, and where the late men often get
so severely punished in the last days of their harvest, speed in
rick-building is after all a very practical consideration, and the
very high and steep roofs of a Lincolnshire corn-stack, to say
nothing of other evidences of excessive care, may excusably
be thought to delay the harvest operations rather more than
some people would admit to be wise or necessary.

The farm waggons of the average or perhaps older type of
the locality are of awkward and clumsy appearance to the
stranger, and must be a very fair load for one horse without
anything whatever upon them.

The single labourers, or the team-men, are now mostly
boarded by the foreman in au adjacent cottage, instead of in
the farmhouse as formerly. The Judges had several opportunities
of inspecting the houses of these foremen, and were much
struck with their proportions and conveniences. Hxtreme
cleanliness everywhere prevailed within them, as well as much
evident effort on the part of the housekeepers to promote the
comfort and well-being of their lodgers. The well-stocked
larders, with their goodly quantities of beef and mutton, are
supplemented by the resources of the bacon room, wherein
are hung the well-cured sides of those monsters of the sty
which have been noticed before. The: wages of the boarders
vary from 9/. to 18/. each, according to age and capacity.

The foreman seems to have a pretty good time so far as this
world’s goods are concerned. One of these men on a farm we
inspected —and probably the case is fairly typical, although no
doubt there is considerable variation—received first of all 301.
yearly in money—a sort of foundation of the agreement appa-
rently, on which was subsequently built the following additional
receipts: House and garden rent free; all the potatoes required
for the household; the produce of two cows kept at the master’s
expense; 30 stones of bacon; 40s. in lieu of beer; and 20s.
per calf reared to the age of three months. Then, in further

ee

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Olass 1. 527

supplement to the above, came 101. in money, 30 stones of bacon,
40s. in lieu of beer, and 25s. for candles for each boarder per
head. Good services are said to be obtained, as they ought, in
return for this good paying and high feeding, and the convenience
of having so much help always on the spot, and available for
Sundays or any emergency, is considered to be very great.

Cow Allotments.—There are villages in Lincolnshire with as
many as forty or more cottages which are let to farm-labourers,
together with two grass fields, in the following way. One of
the fields is divided by permanent marks into equal-sized allot-
ments, each cottage having one of them. Hach man mows his
own plot for hay, and when made the farmer is bound to lead it
to the home of the labourer who works for him. Here it is
stacked for the consumption in the winter of his cow, kept in a
shed on the premises. Meanwhile, as the hay is growing and
making, the cows graze all together in the second field, which is
held in-common by all the cottagers, until the aftermath of the
allotment field is fit for stocking in the same manner. There
are in all about 34 acres per man of the allotment, and a share
of the grazed field. About 10/. a year is given for a house with
these advantages, and half an acre of garden ground in addition.
The men club together to effect an insurance on their animals,
by which means the loss of one of them is effectually met, and
no resort is made to the objectionable practice of begging with
a brief. If a calf is run on the cow 15s. extra is paid for the
summer. Formerly houses with cow runs were much appre-
ciated and sought after, but now, with butter occasionally at 7d.
a pound, the opportunity is not looked upon in quite the same
light. The bulk of the additional work falls on the women, who,
if they have large families, seem to find it quite hard enough for
them.

The universal practice of the sheep-breeders, who naturally
occupy the higher and lighter lands, seems to be to run ewes
and lambs together upon the young seeds as soon as the turnips
are finished. The lambs have no forward fold upon better pas-
ture, and often get little or no change until weaning-time, which
is frequently as late as the middle of July or into August. It
is rare indeed to find vetches or any other early or late catch
erop provided for them, and consequently a comparatively large
breadth of what might have been hay is sacrificed to their use.
At the time of the July inspection the seeds were almost every-
where so bare that it was a marvel what the sheep found upon
them. Yet they seemed perfectly contented with their lot, never
broke bounds, and looked in very fair condition, and the owners
appeared to suffer none of the apprehensions which under such

‘528 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

circumstances would, it was felt, have afflicted the flock-masters
of other localities. Rightly or wrongly, the advantage was put
down in favour of the Lincoln breed of sheep, if it is advisable
to keep them in that particular way. Almost entire reliance is
placed by the larger and lighter land farmers in their flocks,
whether grazing or feeding, rather than in their herds, and ewes
and lambs were frequently seen upon grass grounds which had
the appearance of being fit for something better.

Amongst all the peculiarities of soil and system which have
now been slightly and imperfectly sketched, it will not be thought
likely that there are many important farming practices peculiar
to the whole, or the greater part of the county, as compared
with the practices of others. One such, however, it is believed
has been observed, in pursuing which Lincolnshire farmers are
not only at variance with most, if not all, of their next-door
neighbours, but in particular with the custom—and even the
most notable of all the customs—of the county of Notts, which
will be next considered. The peculiarity in question is the very
unusually large proportion of stubble ground which is annually
sown to common white or soft turnips, to the great neglect of
the undoubtedly far more valuable swede turnips, and other
roots. The Judges in Class I. drove through whole districts
where not a swede was to be seen.

Now it is proverbially recognised amongst competent and
observant farmers that immense respect should invariably be
shown by a stranger to local customs in other counties, however
they may differ from his own, since he will find them, when put
to the proof, almost if not quite always to be soundly developed
from a long series of accumulated and transmitted experiences.
In the particular matter to be noticed, however, it may perhaps
be allowable, under the friendly wing of more competent author-
ities, to indulge in a little scepticism. One of the authorities
in question is Sir James Caird, who in writing of the Wold
farming in 1851 points to this rejection of the swede turnips
as a great defect, and compares the consequences with those
from its very successful cultivation upon similar land, enjoying
almost the same climate. Like opinions have been expressed
by other writers, and, in the course of our rounds, by a very good
Lincolnshire farmer who has learned the value of the swede
elsewhere. Sir James and others added their belief that Lin-
colnshire men have seen their mistake, and are gradually con-
forming their practice to that of neighbouring counties, where
the swede turnip is regarded as their very sheet-anchor. But
as far as their limited opportunities of observation and inquiry
served the Judges, there was little enough to justify the suppo-

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 529

sition. The swede turnips seemed to be in little favour anywhere
in the county, except perhaps on some Heath farms, and very
often the pains and expense taken to grow them there, and to
preserve them from frost afterwards, are not such as to suggest
a full appreciation of their value. It will scarcely be denied
that the swede is far more nutritious than the white turnip,
that its keeping qualities are also better, and that in most places
greater weights per acre of it may be grown. Most farmers also
will probably allow that swedes are a better preparation for barley
than other turnips, although this experience is not always ad-
mitted in Lincoln. Perhaps it may be added, too, that the
answers to our repeated inquiries why swedes were not grown
were sometimes considered a little unsatisfying. At the same
time it is not at all doubted that there are some lands, notably
the thin clays bordering the Wolds, which will not grow swedes
at all satisfactorily.

NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.

The county of Nottingham runs alongside of Lincolnshire
for the greater part of the length of both counties. The former,
however, is very narrow, and contains in total area only
526,176 acres, 13,000 of which are waste, or uncropped land.
The population, as shown in the table already given, though
much denser per square acre than that of Lincoln, is about the
same as that of England generally.

Physical Aspects.—The surface of Notts is nowhere broken
into hills of such ambitious proportions as that of its neighbours,
Yorkshire and Derbyshire. Its slight elevations are, however,
patched with abundant foliage and picturesque villages, and
intersected by several rich and pretty river valleys—the average
characteristics, in fact, of our much-prized English scenery.
Such hills as there are run, like those of Lincolnshire, from north
to south. They are in fact, and speaking now geologically, a
continuation of those sections of stratified rocks, which begin-
ning at the eastern boundaries of Lincoln succeed each other
through both the counties. Notts, therefore, being a narrow
county, when measured across it from east to west, the condi-
tions are clearly not favourable to a great variety of rock forma-
tions. There are Coal-measures in the south-west portion of the
county, and these are its oldest deposits. This district, with a
part of Yorkshire and Derbyshire adjoining it, form altogether
the most extensive coal-field in England. The Magnesian Lime-
stone is met with in a long narrow stripe at the west of the
county, and above this are the marls and limestones. But the
geological formation most common to the county is the New Red

VOL. XXIV.—S. S, MM

530 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

Sandstone, a bold cliff of which formed the site of the old castle of
Nottingham. ‘This stratum contains a great number of peculiar
water-worn pebbles, chiefly of liver-coloured quartz rock—or
“‘ petrified kidneys,” as they have been well called. The surface
of the ancient forest of Sherwood, of which the Judges saw a
great deal, is completely strewn with them.

The Soils of the county are chiefly of sand or gravel, of lime-
stone or coal land, or. of clay. The whole of the poor forest land
is of the first division, and also that by the banks of the Trent.
The limestone soils are at the extreme west of the county. The
clay districts are of two kinds, the more northerly being very
fertile because of an admixture of sand. The southern clays,
which embrace the Vale of Belvoir, and are less extensive, are
of a more stubborn and sterile character.

The banks of the Idle are covered to some distance by large
deposits of mud, and gypsum is largely found in this neighbour-
hood, as well as in South Nottinghamshire, where valuable beds
of it are dug for manure.

The chief Industries are coal-mining, and the manufacture
of lace and hosiery goods. A large number of people are
employed upon them, and the various ‘centres of population so
collected necessarily make healthy demands upon the produce of
adjacent farms. here are also considerable maltings in the
neighbourhood of Newark.

The Climate of Notts is a dry and healthy one, the rainfall
being very considerably less than that of its western neighbours,
where the loftier hills attract and hold the passing clouds to a
much greater extent, whilst, as regards temperature, the fact
that as many as 1,400 acres of hops have been grown at once
in the county says much for its mildness in such a northerly
latitude. The acreage of hops, however, declined to 55 in 1876,
and to 26 in 1886, probably because recent prices of the plant
could only be successfully met under the very fittest conditions.
It has been asserted by some people that the temperature is so
much higher than that of other counties of equal latitude, as to
bring the crops to harvest in equal season with those of much
more southern ones. ‘The only evidence, however, that the
Judges had opportunity to gather in proof of the statement was
the late date (May 12 to 14) at which barley might be sown
with reasonable expectation of its proper maturity.

There are three very large states in the county, which
belong respectively to the Dukes of Portland and Newcastle, and
to Earl Manvers, and the areas of which are 35,000, 34,000,
and 26,000 acres. ‘There are four other owners of 10, 000 acres
and above ; so that Notts also may be called a county of

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 531

large estates, and there are fewer small owners in it than in
Lincoln.

It will be seen by the table already given (on page 512) to
show the Size of Holdings that the proportion of occupations of
each class is very similar for both counties ; the chief difference
being the greater number of very large farms of over 1,000
acres in Lincolnshire.

The Shorthorn breed of Cattle prevails in the county, and a
good many are reared on the borders of Derbyshire, where good
bulls are now used, and the quality of the produce is improving.
Trish bullocks are, however, largely bought at York by the
great winter graziers.

The Sheep are principally Leicesters, or Lincolns crossed
with Leicester rams, but the change to darker faces is probably
extending faster here than in Lincolnshire. For a neighbour-
hood of 20 miles around the first and second prize farms, for
instance, the Norfolk, or Cambridgeshire, half-bred sheep are
chiefly bought for grazing. Pure Shropshire sheep are being
increasingly bred, as also the cross between them and the white
faces. But the acclimatisation of imported sheep always takes
some time to accomplish, till the expiration of which it will be
impossible to gauge its success. Notts has always been much
more a sheep-breeding than a cattle-rearing county, and its
agriculturists were amongst the first to see the importance of
using the best rams, chiefly of the Leicester breed, for which
they were enterprising enough to pay prices considered in early
days almost fabulous. There was the old “ Forest” breed of
sheep peculiar to the large wocdland districts, which seems to
have been of by no means remarkable merit, and which is now
probably extinct.

The Shire Breed of cart-horses. is in very good favour and
force, particularly upon the stiffer soils, and not a few of the
Notts farmers seem rightly determined to partake in the advan-
tages of the revival of the trade in them. ‘Those of the Vale
of Belvoir have long been famous for their successful attention
to this branch of their business. Mr. Reynolds says of them in
the paper already referred to: “As early as 1804 I find the
breed of heavy horses was encouraged in Nottinghamshire,”
and goes on to specify particular stallions and their owners.

- The Pigs most in favour are the large white Yorkshire, the
Berkshire, or the cross.

It so happened that several of the competing farms occupied
the site of the ancient Sherwood Forest, with all its famous
history, tradition, and romance. It was, therefore, impossible
that even presumably prosaic farm judges could look upon this

MM 2

582 Report on the Farm Prize Competition wm

now productive district, with its highly cultivated fields, enclosed
by the trimmest of blackthorn hedges, without a thought of the
marvellous revolution which had been effected there, and much
of it even within living memory. A part of Sherwood Forest
was cleared for cultivation in the year 1600, but by far the
greater portion was enclosed long afterwards and down to the
beginning of the present century. A few picturesque bits of it
even yet remain within the noble grounds of Welbeck, Worksop,
and Clumber, and these three seats, almost in touch of each
other, form a cluster of magnificent country seats and surround-
ings which even England can scarcely elsewhere rival.

The General System of Farming in Nottinghamshire.

The western division of Nottinghamshire, including the
whole of the light and sandy forest district, as well as the
narrow stripe of still poorer magnesian limestone land bordering
on Derbyshire, is let for the most part in large holdings as com-
pared with the rest of the county. Thus we have here again
the worst land in the larger occupations, and so well farmed as
to offer a good example to the smaller holders, if they need it,
which I understand from my colleagues, the Judges in Classes
II. and III., they do not. The smaller farmers have, however,
the advantages not only of better land, but also of by far the
larger share of the permanent grass of the county, if that is the
saving clause in the situation which it is frequently said to be.

The chief feature of the farming of the lighter soils, as of
some others which the Judges had an opportunity of seeing, is
the extraordinary expenditure of labour, skill, and capital upon
the cultivation of the root crop, and its remarkable success.
Curiously enough too, after Lincoln experiences, the particular
root which was considered worthy of all this effort was the
hardy and nutritious swede, to the almost entire exclusion of
the softer turnip. The Judges felt that it would be difficult
to forecast whether the envy or the astonishment of the farmers
of the southern counties, who were put to such terrible shifts by
the loss of their roots in 1887, would have been the more excited
to find, as we found, field after field, and farm after farm, with
the most magnificent swedes upon them; yet this was our
pleasant surprise. They were clear in skin, superb in quality,
marvellously level in size, touching almost in places as they
stood in the rows, and this in some cases upon land looking
dear at 10s. per acre rent!

It was the opinion of Mr. Lowe, to whose work on Notting-
hamshire Agriculture, written many years ago, the writer is

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 538

indebted for some useful information, that the introduction of
the swede turnip, somewhere about the beginning of the pre-
sent century, together with autumn cultivation, which is still
almost universal with all good farmers, was at once marked
by a very great and rapid improvement in the prosperity of
Notts farmers and the general productiveness of their land. <A
second impetus was given by the introduction of bone manures,
which still further developed the root crop resources, and
brought into profitable cultivation a great deal of poor land
which had previously been thought unfit for it. Other im-
provements naturally followed, and Notts became deservedly
a county of no mean agricultural reputation.

In Arthur Young's time the Norfolk four-course system of
cropping was much in favour on the lighter lands, but in recent
times the practice of leaving the seeds down for a second year
has been very much followed. Upon the clays and stiff loams,
at the south-east portion of the county, 300 acres is considered
a large farm, and 100 acres is a much more common size, and
upon soils of this description, here as elsewhere, it is to be feared
there has- been much distress and depreciation. By far the
greater part of the permanent grass is in this district, some of
it of very good quality, and—as in Lincolnshire—the bullocks
are mostly finished upon it in the summer, after being kept in
store condition in the yard through the winter. Turnips are
sown more than formerly upon the stronger soils, other than
the stiffer clays, instead of a full summer fallow, and beans are
extensively grown in the district. This crop is taken after seeds
in preference to wheat by many of the best farmers, because of
the danger from slugs to the latter. Wheat comes after the beans,
and with much more success, and the seeds are sometimes left
even here to a second year. Artificial manure is very little
used for any crop, but the system of spreading and ploughing-in
the yard manure in the autumn for roots grows amongst the
best farmers, and is found very beneficial.

The hedges are remarkably good and well kept in the
county generally. There have been great improvements in the
drainage of the wetter soils within the present century, but it is
very doubtful if it has been sufficiently continued to the present
time.

There is very little dairying in the county except in the
neighbourhood of the larger towns. Malt dust and malt-house
sweepings are in great demand all over the county for feeding
purposes and manure, but it is fully met—perhaps was originally
stimulated —by the large supplies of this waste product from the
numerous local maltings. Its theoretical vyalye as a nitrogenous

534 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

food has probably been underestimated by farmers generally, and
it is pleasant to know that the scientific view is so satisfactorily
supported by practical experience. The Notts farmer has also
a well-founded faith in the feeding value of oats for almost all
classes of stock. Skegs, though now perhaps going out of
fashion, is a crop which has long been grown—sometimes very
largely grown—in the county, and so far as the writer knows
is quite peculiar to it. Skegs are very thin and light oats, not
perhaps greatly removed from wild ones. They are sown upon
the worst lands, for which they are—or were—supposed to be
more adapted than better varieties, a larger bulk of both straw
and corn being grown from them. It is usual to chaff the
whole produce for horses as it comes from the stack without
thrashing.

Pigeons play a quite appreciable part in the economy of
most Notts farms. The manure from the dovecote, in which
very large quantities of birds are often kept, is looked upon
as quite an important addition to the general supply, and a good
sum is often made by the sale of the youngsters for shooting-
matches.

The farm buildings are better upon the stiffer soils than
those for the same class of land in Lincolnshire, and there has
been immense improvement in modern times in the farm-houses,
cottages, and premises of Nottinghamshire generally, until now
upon many estates they are quite exceptionally good and abun-
dant. Dutch barns are not at all uncommon, and even covered
yards are growing apace, of which some details will follow.

Tenancies usually terminate at Lady-day, and leases are very
uncommon. A provision of Tenant Right is, as has been said,
common to both counties, and the capital of the outgoing man
is adequately—perhaps excessively—provided for by Notting-
hamshire custom, where the valuation on account of it mostly
reaches the higher total of the two, yiz. 2/. to 3l. per acre,
whilst that of the lower is about 1/. to 21. The former amount
is felt and said by some Notts farmers to have become a too
serious drain upon the resources of the new-comer, who must
be particularly well provided with capital to afford to allow so
much of it to lie dead and useless until he quits the farm.
The charge also appears to remain too steadily fixed, and to
slide insufficiently, if at all, with the fluctuations of the tenant’s
other items of receipt and expenditure. It is on these accounts
no doubt that the more moderate allowances of Lincoln custom,
and the Agricultural Holdings Act, are, as was said, being
gradually substituted. More expensive tillages for roots, pay-
ment for manure left in the yards, and for hay and straw in any

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 535

quantity at consuming value, are apparently the main causes of
the excess in Notts. No doubt such charges have always a
great tendency to increase unless strenuously resisted by the
yaluers in combination. The principle is good beyond dispute,
and when reasonably and moderately worked has everywhere
produced the best possible results. The only wonder is that
the just claims of the tenant to proper security of his capital
should have been so long resisted or unprovided for elsewhere.

Game does not as a rule appear to be extensively or inju-
riously preserved in either Lincoln or Notts, yet clearly on two
at least of the competing farms serious damage was done to the
property of excellent tenants by the depredations of the land-
lord’s hares. It seems not a little surprising that tenants
should, at any rate in such times as the present, lack the
courage to take advantage of an Act of Parliament passed
expressly to meet their needs.

Another source of great injury to more than one competitor,
as well as to a large proportion of Notts farmers, is the aston-
ishing quantity of beech and other trees in the hedges. Of
little intrinsic value themselves, their untrimmed arms hang in
many places for yards over the crops, almost bending to the ears
of the wheat, and destroying infinitely more than they are worth.
Very little indeed could possibly grow under them, and one
tenant stated that the little barley there was could not ripen
to match the rest of the sample, and when cut had to be taken
from under the trees before it would dry, and afterwards carried
by itself. Destruction to the beauty of the countryside was
always, it was said, the excuse pleaded by the owners of the
trees, and there may be an amount of justification for the con-
tention; but it seems, to say the least of it, unfortunate that
the great cost of preserving the beautiful in English land-°
scapes should fall upon one comparatively impecunious class of
the whole community.

The plan of pulping the roots and mixing with straw chaff
for the beasts is pretty well universal, each farmstead, or set of
premises if there is more than one on the farm, having its fixed
or portable engine for this, for grinding and for other pur-
poses. The cost of motive power is small, coals being so cheap.
Liming the fallows is very generally practised, and is usually
found a complete remedy for “anbury” in turnips. Oats are
much substituted for wheat in some districts.

The Duke of Portland is to Nottinghamshire what the Earl
of Yarborough is to Lincolnshire, and the water meadows at
Welbeck are one of the great’ show places of the county to
agriculturists. The hard-worked Judges, however, were not so

536 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

fortunate as to be able to visit them. The site of them was
originally a barren hillside covered with gorse and heath, some
seven miles long, and 400 acres in superficial extent. It was
all laid out many years ago in the best possible manner for its
purpose at a cost of some 40,000/., and the waters of a small
stream, charged with the sewage of the neighbouring town of
Mansfield, pass over them. The success of the enterprise is
said to have been so pecuniarily good as to justify the large
outlay. é

The farmers of both counties admit that they possess good
educational advantages for their sons in well-endowed grammar
schools, which are for the most part within easy reach.

Only one attempt at ensilage was met with, and that was
nothing more than the extemporaneous use of a common store-
house for the purpose of preserving a few green tares that they
might be got sooner off the ground to make room for earlier
turnips after them.

The American chilled ploughs appeared to be everywhere
coming into universal use, and whether on good land or on the
lighter soils were always most highly spoken of as great savers
of horse and hand labour, and as in every respect more efficient
implements than those of the older patterns.

Rents, it is very generally believed, have been reduced some
25 per cent. to 30 per cent. in the last 10 years throughout the
county. There is a widely prevailing impression that less meat
and corn are produced than formerly, and that in most districts
other indications of declining capital are unhappily to be ob-
served ; at the same time it was mostly admitted that the year
ending in April last had been a decided improvement on many
of its predecessors.

In the Table on page 539 as many of the leading statistics
respecting the occupations as were freely furnished to the Judges
by each of the competitors can be seen at a glance and
are arranged for convenient reference and comparison. ‘The
number of stock entered in the schedule, as found on the
different farms in the summer months, must not be taken to
represent in all cases the total number of such animals in
possession of the farmers. Some two or three of them had out-
lying grass-fields, not entered in the competition, and which
the Judges did not see, carrying stock which were, or were to
be, wintered on the competing farms. ‘The above does not,
however, apply to either of the two prize farms.

Again, in all cases the year 1887-88 gave better, in some
cases considerably better, pecuniary returns than any preceding
ones. It is very important therefore to observe that where

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 537

Tue CoMmPETITION.

The following list contains the names and addresses of the competitors
in Class I., with particulars of their holdings :—

No. Name Address | Acreage | Nature of soil Sub-soil Remarks
tAws (Rte, 2B:
1 | Beasley, Chas.| Harston, Grantham | 595 3 18} 1 part clay, | Miscellaneous | Highly
3 parts light commended
2 Bowles, T. .| Lyndhurst, Mans- | 721 38 21 / Light Sand Highly
/ field commended
3 | Brown, W. C. | Appleby, Brigg 611 0 0} Miscellane- | Limestone Highly
} ous and sand commended
4 Dyson, Wm. | Goldthorpe, Worksop | 420 212/Sand and/ Gravel, sand, | Commended
limestone | and lime-
stone
5 | Faux, J. W.. | Coleorton, Ashby-de- | 425 0 0/| Heavy Clay Commended
la-Zouch
6 Glossop, W. Forest House, Ret- | 587 1 6) Light Chiefly sand
Pete ct = ..| , ford
7 | Henson, Geo. | Prestwold Farm, | 400 0 0} Mixed Various Commended
Loughborough
8 Howard.Robt. | Temple Bruer, Gran- | 752 0 0} Light Limestone Highly
Gels «||. tham commended
9 | Longstaffand | High Toynton, Horn- | 300 2 29 | Light White clay
Dunham. . castle
10 | Lynn, Chas, | Church Farm, Strox- | 433 0 0 | Light Rock and | Commended
wea. |) ton, Grantham ironstone
11 | Machin, Forest Farm, Papple- | 522 0 0} Light Bad sand Ist prize
Samuel C. .| wick, Nottingham
12 | Machin, Wm. | Papplewick, Notting- | 839 3 15} Light Sand clay | 2nd prize
ham and rock
12 | Martin, Wainfleet 632 1 18 | Light Silt
Walter . .
14 | Morley, R. N. | Leadenham Old Hall, | 569 0 2)|Light and| Limestone Commended
Grantham clay and clay
15 | Wilkinson, Car Colston, Bing-| 430 2 30) Light and/Clay stone
| William. «| ham heavy and sand

results of the last year only are furnished, the previous ones, if

given, would probably have yielded no better proportionate -
returns than did those earlier ones, of which particulars are

given. If this is not remembered, it is obvious that the accounts

of those competitors, which include the results of one or more

previous years, will be unfairly prejudiced.

The instructions to the Judges of farms have often been
given in the Journal, but may nevertheless be once more
repeated here :—

i In making their awards the Judges are instructed especially to con-
sider ;—
1. General Management with a view ; 5. State of Gates, Fences, Roads,
to Profit. and General Neatness,
Productiveness of Crops, 6. Mode of Book-keeping followed
Quality and suitability of Live- (if any).
Stock. 7. Management of the Dairy and
. Management of Grass-Land, Dairy Produce, if Dairying is
pursued,

e ws

538 Report on the Farm Prize Competition.

The Judges are also authorised to recommend to the Council the Award
of Certificates to any really deserving persons employed on any of the
competing farms for distinguished merit in the discharge of their duties,
such recommendations to be accompanied by a certificate of good character
and length of service from the competing farmer,

Now it may be said at once that the Judges, as practical
men, desire to make no secret of the fact that they have
given very great prominence to No. 1 of the Instructions, as
being in their opinion of the greatest importance in itself,
and as to a considerable extent including some of the others.
After making due allowances, therefore, for the raw material on
which each competitor had to work, and unless other matters
were very unequal, that man had very decidedly the best chance
whose general management with a view to profit was the best.
Or, in other words, it is the opinion of the Judges that he is
mostly the best farmer who contrives to get the utmost possible
return out of his land at the least cost, whilst maintaining or
increasing its fertility and cleanliness. No undue weight has
been given to excessive elaboration, for although it is very
pleasing indeed to the eye, is it not the pocket which is in the
most need of nourishment, particularly now that we are engaged
in such deadly competition with all the greatest slovens of the
civilised world? At the same time, of course, it has been by no
means forgotten that neatness, order, and good workmanship
are but a part of the truest economy in the management of
every good farmer.

The Table on page 539 shows the amount of the total
receipts under separate headings for each of the farms, and also,
in the same way, the expenditure, exclusive of tradesmen’s bills
and sundries, for as many years as could be obtained, and the
net returns per acre.

First PrizE Far.

Occupied by Mr. S. C. Machin, The Forest Farm, it ick,
Nottingham.

It was plain to all the Judges at their first visit to this farm
that it was under no common management and each subsequent
one much strengthened the impression, and they were ultimately
convinced that they had never before seen more sound economy
and fertility of resource, united with the capacity and the
determination to turn every possible opportunity to the best
account. Mr. Machin is a great doer, as are all about him;
but he is eminently a thinker first, and it became strikingly
evident throughout the inspections that there was no detail of

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540 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

his business too small to receive a considerable amount of
thought.

The farm is held from year to year, subject to six months’
notice, and the tenant is protected by the usual Notts Tenant
Right custom. The agreement contains the usual restrictions
against what is considered unfair cropping and the sale of certain
descriptions of produce, but they are in no way a hindrance in
the present case.

The dwelling-house stands pleasantly upon slightly elevated
ground, and is well built and comfortable. It is also conveni-
ently situated.for the farm, which lies all round it.

Mr. Montagu, of Yorkshire, is the owner of the soil, and the
occupation has been in its present hands for 20 years. It was
amongst the very last of the Forest Lands to come under the
plough, and was enclosed some forty years ago by Mr. Machin’s
father. The present tenant, finding the fields too large, has
since divided them all into an average size of about thirty acres
at his own expense. Both the old and newer hedges have
planted well, and grow with surprising strength, considering
the nature of the soil. They have clearly been well trained
from the first, and are kept now in admirable order.

The soil in question is upon the New Red Sandstone, and con-
sists of a very light and sandy surface soil above a greater depth
of sandy subsoil. All of it is of a poor and hungry description,
and some of it so bad that the Judges do not hesitate to say
that, had the farm been to let at the present moment, it would
be difficult to find any man of business, and a stranger to the
district, who could be got into a second field with a view to
hiring it. Many of the hedgerows are billowed with soil which,
from time to time, has been blown from the surface of the fields ;
and indeed the writer saw a field of barley in May which had
but just previously been injured from this cause.

The surprise, therefore, was proportionately great to find at
the December visit, and in the very dry year of 1887, perhaps the
finest crop of swedes we ever saw growing. They were of very
great and uniform size, remarkably even in plant, and of quite
perfect quality, clear, bright, and almost as fresh in the skin,
as the choicest of dessert apples. A great part, if not all, of the
crop was estimated to weigh little, if any, short of 380 tons per
acre; and Mr. Machin told the Judges afterwards that a
measured acre could not be got upon a ton cart 30 times filled.
The stock of turnips was chiefly “Lord Derby,” which is con-
sidered very hardy, and is in general good favour in the
neighbourhood. This forest land, when well and generously
treated, is clearly much adapted for this description of root, and

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1, 541

otherwise it could not pay the cost of cultivation. The main
and much the most important object, therefore, of Mr. Machin,
and other good farmers of similar land, is to get a good crop
of roots. To this end all the home-made manure of the year
is always applied straight from the yards; and if it can be said
that an excess of energy or any other kind of effort is specially
concentrated on any individual item of his work, where all of it
absorbs so much, that excess Mr. Machin certainly devotes to
the production of good swedes.

About twelve loads per acre of farmyard manure is usually
placed on the swedes, and a great point is made of applying it
from the yards, where it has not previously been touched, to the
ridges at seeding time, although the plan involves a great
pressure of work at an especially busy and anxious time. Both
the First and Second Prize men are great upon the superior
virtues of green manure over that which has been treated in
any way; and they are ready with instances in which experi-
ment and observation have proved their contention. They
also point with much satisfaction to the evidences of “ last” in
their green manure, as shown in the many undissolved bits of it
to be seen about the land after one or more crops—although
there may certainly be two opinions as to whether this par-
ticular feature should be reckoned among the advantages or
disadvantages of the system. The manure, however, is all
made under cover, and comes from the yards, not only in a very
rich, but a very well rotted and manageable state. In addition to
it 5 ewts. kainit and 14 cwt. sulphate of ammonia are sown
by hand for the roots. Each day’s ploughing is drilled before
night, to ensure germination in all weathers, and at a very dry
time the excellent plan of ridging with a single-breasted plough -
is adopted, to bring up the moistest soil for the seed-bed.
The ridges are 27 inches apart, and sowing commences about
May 20. No white turnips or mangolds at all are grown.
Directly the young turnips show themselves, a side hoe of
Mr. Machin’s own invention, which is attached behind the
rollers of the drill to prevent the mould from burying the
plants, is got to work. The usual L hoes follow next with
harrows attached.

Much careful attention has been given to the preservation
of all the roots not wanted till after Christmas, as it is very
difficult to keep them sound upon the forest land, particularly
for the length of time which is there required. The surviving
plan after many trials is to open a furrow with a single plough
along the side of every double row of roots, into which two
rows only are very carefully placed, when the furrow is turned

542 Report on the Farm Prize Convpetition in

back again upon them. It is essential that the bulbs do
not touch, nor be too much buried under the soil, but just so
deeply only that their crowns be fully covered. ‘They are
ploughed out again for use, when another ingenious invention
of Mr. Machin’s, which is attached to the plough, levels down
the furrow after the turnips are lifted out to make all safe for
the sheep. The writer, although hailing from a county not
entirely innocent of swede-growing, will not easily forget seeing
this operation in practice some days into May, and the turnips
coming out juicy, heavy, and fresh as when they were put in,
and after a little root-trimming clean enough for a drawing-
room. One-third of the roots are drawn for the bullocks in the
yards, and the others are consumed on the land by sheep.

Barley follows, and a splendid crop of it was shown to the
Judges in July, as might well be expected after such a pre-
paration as has been described. Barley is sown successfully as
late as May 14, and five to six quarters per acre are looked
for in favourable years. If a few acres of roots are folded after
that date vetches follow, with seed sown amongst them to keep
the land in the same course.

The awnless barley is usually grown, as it stands well, and
is more inclined to a bolder berry than many other kinds. The
sample upon this light land is generally too thin to tempt the
maltsters greatly, and therefore a large portion of it, as well as of
the oats, are mostly used for home feeding.

Seeds, 14 peck English and Italian ryegrass, 10 lbs. white
clover and cow-grass, and a little sheep’s-parsley, are sown in the
barley, and left down for a second year. It does not pay to leave
them down longer, as they so much deteriorate and become
choked with the old forest grass, which is of no feeding value
and apparently indigenous to the soil. Upon the two years
ley the clovers had died out, and upon the “set,” which was
seeded with the barley of 1887, they had been killed by the
drought, so that very little but ryegrass was left in either
case. One field only of the first year’s seeds is mown yearly,
and none of the second.

Wheat or oats unmanured follow the second year’s seeds,
and neither of these crops in the present year is a very heavy
one. The spring had been too dry for the oats, which were
sown upon exceedingly poor fields of land, the worst pro-
bably of the farm. What was left of the wheat looked
vigorous enough, but it had suffered seriously in plant, in
common with almost all the rest seen upon our rounds,
particularly upon the lighter soils. One field was mended with
barley, which promised, though late, to be very fairly successful.

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 543

Very little over 3 quarters per acre are locked for in ordinary
seasons.

The wheat stubbles, weather permitting, are all invariably
broken and crossed with a narrow share cultivator in the autumn,
and in accordance with Notts custom the stubble, and what
couch-grass there may be—and some will inevitably appear on
this land after two years’ seeds—is collected and stacked in the
fields, whence it is drawn to the yards for litter in winter. The
land is then ploughed clean and deep with the American digging
ploughs, of which Mr. Machin has the highest opinion, so much
so that he has ceased to use his double-furrow ploughs, and
intends to break them up... More ploughing and dragging take
place in spring to kill any chance weeds which may still have
escaped. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to keep the
farm so clear from couch as it is by spring cultivation only, the
land running so much to dust at that time. The fallows are
limed every ten years, at the rate of three to four tons per acre, and
at the cost of lls. per ton at Linby Station, three miles distant.
The lime is put on in little heaps and spread when slacked, and
no operation is more essential. It improves all the crops, cures
“ anbury ” in the turnips, and keeps down sorrel and other indige-
nous weeds. Without it the farm would probably be worthless.

The grass land, which les a little distance from the main
holding, together with one field of arable, is also of very poor
quality, and is useful only as a change and stowage for young
store beasts and for shearlings.

Notwithstanding the very remarkably light expenditure for
labour, 16s. to 17s. per week is paid to full men in these low
times, and the price appears to be above the average for the
district. Mr. Machin is a great believer in the economy to ”
master and man of good wages, if thoroughly earned, and
certainly poor service would nowhere be at a greater discount.
Where, as here, master and son are able and willing to illustrate
a good day’s work by their own example, it is no doubt difficult
for the men to shirk it. As an instance of what can be done in
this way, and for one department only, Mr. Machin’s son has
trimmed 1,070 yards of his beautiful hedges in a single day.
The labourers work from six to six with an hour for dinner, and
the teams from six to three.

The schedule shows that Mr. C. Machin contrives to keep
his labour bill down to the—as far as the writer’s experience
goes—unprecedentedly low figure of 15s. per acre taking the
whole farm, and 17s. per acre for the arable land only.

There is cottage accommodation on the farm for four out of
the five married men employed upon it. They are very good

544 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

homes, containing five rooms each, and are held rent free by the
tenants. Five single young men, with wages from 16/. to 171.,
board in Mr. Machin’s own house, and complete the ordinary
staff of the farm.

The horses of the farm are above an average for the class of
land. They go out to grass in summer, and in winter, besides a
liberal allowance of corn, each on coming home from work gets
a goodly help from the linseed gruel tub, which seems to be a
pretty universal institution in the two counties.

The cattle and sheep are all bought for the farm, and none
of them leave it till they are fit for the butcher; for although
both Mr. Curtis Machin and his brother, whose farm will be
next noticed, may occasionally buy stock on commission for other
people, such purchases are not brought home and temporarily
fed upon their farms before resale, according to the practice of
many ordinary dealers. A foal or two, a calf or two, and pigs
only are bred. Some 100 to 150 cattle are generally finished
during the winter and spring months, the greater part, if not
all of which are the best class of Irish bullocks which can be
bought in the autumn at York market, where they come then
in great numbers and variety. Upon arrival they have roots
thrown them for a time on the seeds, after which they are put
at once into the yards. The standard allowance of cake seems
to be about 10 lbs. per bullock.

Mr. Machin prefers linseed-cakes, which, as well as all pur-
chased feeding stuffs, are bought forward at the cheapest times.
All beasts have pulped roots and straw chaff in unlimited quanti-
ties. In the dark mornings of winter the horsemen help to feed
them before they can see to work on the land, and again after
they return in the afternoon, and nothing is given between.
The bullocks appeared to be thriving well, and the practice is
common in the neighbourhood, but the Judges thought the
interval between meals decidedly too long. Three milch cows
only are kept, and their produce sold as butter at Nottingham.

Shearling sheep in fresh condition are bought in May to
stock the seeds, and sold as they can be got fit from August
onwards. As many half-bred lambs as the farm can carry are
purchased from the Norfolk or Peterborough markets, and more
afterwards for the turnips if required. Lincoln and Hampshire
is a favourite cross, and many of the hoggets seen in December
made from 50s. to 54s. out of their coats, and the lambs in the
following July were bought with much judgment. If the trade
is good the sheep are cleared off by the end of turnips in May.
But as barley can be sown as late as May 14, when the seeds
should be ready for stocking, the sheep are sometimes put on

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Olass 1. 545.

them for a short time, and the calamities which occasionally
befall those who are forced to sell at a time of full supplies
between the two periods of turnips and grass feeding are thus
avoided. The sheep get daily 4 lb. cake and } Ib. oats, besides
hay chaff and malt dust. The turnips are cut for the sheep in
November, and given in unlimited quantities.

Mr. Machin has a capital stock of both Berkshire and
Lincoln pigs, of which he sells some both pure and crossed at
good prices. Bacon also is sold. The Berkshire pigs are
killed for the house and packed in salt, the bottom pieces being
brought to the top, and vice versd, once a month. The bacon is
then hung up to dry before packing in oats, where it is said to
keep very sweet, dry, and good for any possible length of time,
and the oats are not injured by the process.

Fowls are a most important item of the live stock of the
Forest Farm. The return from them last year was 671., but
probably next year it will be much more, because of the great
success of a new incubator by Hearson and Christie, which
has replaced a very inferior one previously used. This very
capital artificial mother had hatched off 500 chickens in early
July as fast as it could act, and without a check of any kind,
and all of them were the very picture of health and thrift.
The temperature is regulated by a most ingenious self-acting
arrangement, which shuts off the heat when a proper degree of
it is reached, and thus obviates the great danger which besets
most incubators. The young chickens are generally fed with
wheat dari and oats, and those of early spring are sold for
5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. a pair. In the autumn and winter they make
7d. a lb. to private customers in Nottingham, and the breed is
so good that 16 lbs. is not an uncommon weight for a couple of |
them. The eggs are supplied from seven fowl-houses on wheels,
which have been made at home from old carts or vans, and
boarded in and properly fitted for the laying hens. Each con-
tains when desired a separate breed, or a cross between them, of
50 or so in number, and the houses are drawn from field to field
about the farm, to secure the healthiness of a new run, and to
give the fowls an opportunity of living principally upon the
worms or insects which are useless or injurious to the farmer.
As the fields are cleared after harvest, of course they are taken
to pick up the leavings there. The eggs are gathered by the
younger sons before and after school. A favourite cross is
Plymouth Rock with Langshan or Dorking. The pigeons yield
191. a year, besides seven loads of manure frcm them and the
fowls, which is also carefully treasured for the roots.

Upon the premises there is a place for everything and every-

VOL. XXIV.—S. S. NN

546 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

thing is in it. The Judges were repeatedly assured that no
departure of any kind from ordinary custom had been made for
their visit, and they had no difficulty in believing it. But the
great feature of the farm buildings is undoubtedly the two
covered yards—or rather semi-covered, for Mr. Machin thinks
the stock are more healthy when not quite roofed in, and there
is more facility for carting in their litter. The roofs to the
yards are of a new design, at least to the Judges, but the first of
them was put up, it seems, some fourteen years ago, and has
stood well. They are now spreading with great rapidity over
Notts and Lincoln, as we had the opportunity of seeing. The
chief merits claimed for them are cheapness and superior venti-
lation. The roofing is entirely of wood, $-inch deal being used
as a covering, each board of which is nailed from ridge to eaves,
but leaving, oddly enough, a small space between each of them
of =1, to } of an inch, which widens in dry weather to at least
2 an inch. The boards are grooved at each upper edge to
make small gutters to carry off the rain, and very little indeed
of it comes inside, because, it is said, of an upward draught,
which drives the water into the grooves, unless the fall is ex-
ceedingly heavy. The wood is never tarred or otherwise pre-
served from the effects of the weather, first, it was said, because
it does not want it, and secondly because it would interfere
with the free flow of the water. The suggestion by the writer
of a creosote bath for the boards was rather strongly approved
in one or two cases.

Mr. Machin’s yards were covered by contract at 2s. 8d. per
square yard of them—not of the roof. The price does not
include supporting fronts, which are not necessary unless the
space is too wide for a single span. At the figure given, which
could probably be reduced in many cases, the saving in straw,
in warmth and comfort to the bullocks, in labour—for half the
quantity of straw carted in and out is. certainly of more value
than double the quantity of washed-out manure would be—
should cover the cost in a very short time indeed. As the
design is probably a novel one to most farmers, and may be
considered worthy of imitation by tenants as well as landlords,
details are given in the woodcuts on page 047.

Wooden posts for supporting the shedding are shown in Fig. 1, and must
obviously be employed at the junction of eaves where a double span is neces-
sitated. But where the width of yard can be bridged by a single span,
sufficient support can often be obtained without the posts by junction with
existing buildings.

Fig. 2 is a section of a roofing board to show grooved gutters, the
boards to be affixed ,'; to } in. apart.

One long nail (Fig. 3), which fastens the board to the perling, is used to
every hob-nail, and is driven through as closely as possible to it,

547

ghamshire and Lincolushire in 1888: Class 1.

Nottin

Details of Covered Stock Yards at Messrs. Machin’s, of Papplewick.

1S 0d doom

“O1udad 40 AGIS

ONIHONOL WOU NMOG
sdauvog dioH 01) DNIGIOH
SI1IVN GOH YO4 SIIVN

£ 913

NN 2

548 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

Willcock’s cattle mangers of glazed earthenware, 24 ft. long
by 2 ft. wide, price 6s., set in brickwork, are carried round as
much of the wall space as possible, and it is difficult to imagine
anything cleaner or more durable. .

There is a powerful and excellent 12-horse power fixed
engine on the premises which Mr. Machin bought second-hand at
a very low price, and his son—who seems to inherit plenty of his
father’s intelligence with quite a genius for practical mechanics—
soon converted it to its new requirements. ‘He has also con-
trived a pipe to warm with the waste steam the water which
supplies the boiler, as well as other ingenious and economical
improvements. The steam-power is used for pulping roots,
cutting chaff, and grinding corn and cake, and the different
machinery is so arranged and mechanically assisted that one
man drives the engine and sees to the mixing of roots and chaff,
whilst another feeds both the chaff-cutter and the mill. A boy
outside to fill the shoot to the pulper with swedes completes all
the requirements. A small quantity only of roots is got up at
once to avoid a second moving. Mr. Machin shares a portable
engine with his brothers for thrashing purposes. There is a
very fine Dutch barn in the stackyard built upon brick piers, a
building which seems to be very common upon this estate.

There is a blacksmith’s and carpenter’s shop on the premises
to which a blacksmith comes about one day in each week, and
a carpenter one or two. The work of these men, with the
oversight and assistance of head and hand supplied by both
master and son, appears to keep the tradesmen’s bills down to a
very insignificant and enviable item indeed. It is in this way
that a new sheep-dipping apparatus, with tub, dripper, cradle to
hold the victim in a standing position, and lever to raise and lower
it complete, has just been made. By it some 500 sheep are
dipped in a day, with the help of three men and a boy, at a cost of
1s. a score. Thence emanated also a great number of ingenious
and labour-saving contrivances for the farm, of which a few only
can be named. One of them isa drill affixed to the ordinary
presser, in which all light land Nottinghamshire farmers have
very great faith. It is used for all crops after seeds immediately
behind the ploughs, and presses the turf into deep grooves,
into which the newly invented drill deposits the seed instead of
broadcast-sowing as previously. Harrows also fastened to the
presser follow the drill, which being made of sufficiently extra
width, complete the whole work of rolling, seeding, and harrow-
ing three times in a place at one operation. From the same source
was turned out an elevator which, fixed to the hind part of the
dressing machine, raised the corn into sacks without extra

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 549

labour, an improvement Mr. Machin claims to have had in use
before the machinists thought of it. A very neat little rail and
trolly arrangement was also noticed for placing under the
gardener’s turnip-cutters in the fields in which the hods were
run in and out to fill and carry to the sheep. It was said to
save the bottoms of the galvanized pans to an immense extent,
as well as to facilitate labour, and as one man grinds all the
turnips required for the entire flock of sheep, no doubt he is
glad of all the mechanical assistance he can get.

In the blacksmith’s shop were shown some all-steel bars
for shoeing the farm-horses, which came ready grooved for use,
so that the smith has only to turn them to shape and punch
the holes before fitting to the horse’s feet. Although very light,
they are said to last much longer than the ordinary iron shoes,
and the steel costs 9/. 10s. per ton.

Very few new implements seem to be bought, but advantage
is taken of every opportunity to buy other people’s failures or
castaways cheaply, when it is seen that a little ingenuity and
work of head and hand will turn them to profitable labour-saying
account.

Mr. Machin has built at his own expense a little malt-house
and kiln, which probably he originally intended for malting
the large quantity of barley he gives his stock, as also to
supply the raw material for the beer which is all brewed at
home, or for drying corn, wool, or other produce requiring it.
As, however, experience seems to have made Mr. Machin scepti-
eal of the superior advantages of malt over raw barley as a food
for stock—in which, as in several other like conclusions, he is
quite in accord with the most approved scientific opinions of the
day—the kiln is seldom put now to the former purpose, although’
it is of great service for the others.

The very extensive and powerful waterworks of the Notting-
ham Corporation are situated on the farm, and from them water is
laid on to the dwelling-house, premises, and every field of the
occupation on its way to Nottingham. It would be difficult to
estimate the importance in economy of labour alone of this con-
venience, to say nothing of the benefit to the stock of a never-
failing and ample supply of pure water in so dry a spot. There
are stone receivers and a meter at every outlet, and there is a
small charge per 1000 gallons, amounting to the insignificant
sum, in comparison with the benefits, of about 12/. a year. But
this is only paid under protest, there having been, it was said,
an original provision by which in return for certain conveniences
the water should have been delivered free. Mr. Machin has
laid down some of the delivery pipes at his own expense. Long

550 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

lengths of ordinary firemen’s hose are kept coiled up near the
house for fixing to a convenient hydrant, whence there is
pressure enough to send the water to any part of the buildings.
The arrangement would of course be of great service in any out-
break of fire, and pending this it is turned to a great variety of
practical purposes.

Mr. Machin keeps no very elaborate accounts, and, therefore,
could produce no exactly stated balance-sheet. All sales and
purchases are, however, carefully recorded, and they, as well as
other figures which were given, will be found in the schedule of
all such particulars. No accounts were forthcoming of any
previous years, but there was offered in other forms the most
ample evidence to show that Mr. Machin has no reason what-
ever of a pecuniary kind to regret his choice of a business, hard
times notwithstanding.

SECOND PRIZE Farm.
Occupied by Mr. William Machin, Papplewick, Nottingham.

The First and Second Prize-men, rather curiously, are
brothers, living in the same parish, and their methods of cropping
and tilling their land, of buying and feeding their stock, in fact
of management generally, are so very similar, that having entered
rather minutely into the practices of Mr. Curtis Machin, it
would be in great part a needless repetition to give the whole of
those of Mr. W. Machin.

In speaking of the latter, therefore, where nothing is said to
the contrary, it is to be assumed that his practice is the same as
that which has been already described.

Mr. W. Machin occupies a good modern house, which, how-
ever, is situated too much at one corner of a rather straggling
farm, and too near the village street, for quite an ideal position.

But certainly the number and the conveniences for stock
and crop afforded by his premises are enough to excite the
admiration and envy of many of his less fortunate brethren.
Thus, besides home premises, he has two sets of conveniently
situated field-buildings, with a substantial and commodious
Dutch barn at each of them; and there are two Dutch barns at
home. Then there are no less than six covered yards for his
grazing beasts, three at home and three at the off-premises,
each of an average area of about 25 yards by 20. At two out of
the three sets of premises there are fixed engines for chafing the
straw, pulping the roots, and grinding the cake. At the third,
a mill for grinding the corn is driven in addition by water from
a fine stream which runs through some of the meadows, All

6

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 551

the corn for the stock is ground here—to the quantity, sometimes,
of 500 quarters in the year.

At the May visit, the whole of the yards were full of a very
superior class of Irish cattle, 168 in number. Indeed, they
were more than full, for each bullock had to be content with
17 square yards of space. Yet there was no sign at all of rest-
lessness or of driving amongst them, and they could scarcely
have been quieter if in separate boxes, though it is true they
were not seen at feeding time. Mr. Machin accounts for this
superior amiability and content as resulting from his practice of
sawing off the tips of the animals’ horns.

The cattle were of great size and weight, and particularly
ripe for the time of year. In fact, the impression could not be
resisted that they would have paid better if sent to market
before. This opinion was subsequently strengthened by working
out, approximately, the weekly returns of these beasts against
those of Mr. Curtis Machin, who had sold sooner, when it
appeared that the latter gave about 12s. to 13s. gross gain
per week and the former 9s. to 10s.

The roots on this farm were perhaps even superior to those
of the brother, and an extraordinary quantity of stock were
kept upon them all through the winter. There were over 1,400
grazing-sheep still eating ground swedes at the May visit, all in
the same fold, and taking the whole field before them. The prac-
tice of feeding so many together was, however, by no means com-
mended. A small army of boys under the direction of a man
were cleaning and heaping the turnips, and attending to the
wants of the sheep, just outside the advancing hurdles.

The soil of Mr. W. Machin’s farm is some of it very light, |
and other is of a poor peaty character. Yet it is mostly of a
cooler subsoil, and in the opinion of the Judges on the whole
decidedly superior to that of Mr. Curtis Machin. They were
on this account a little disappointed not to see some of the
growing crops a little heavier than they were found to be at the
July visit, and a little freer from annuals and weeds of a longer
life. The corn also seemed very backward, and no doubt the
late season which had kept it in check gave the annuals a chance
they would not otherwise have had.

It is only fair, however, to say that some 400 acres of this
farm were taken by Mr. Machin only four years ago, and as the
Judges were told, in a bad condition, which circumstance could
hardly fail to place him somewhat at a disadvantage. But un-
fortunately a greater disappointment awaited the Judges in the
appearance of the young turnips, which were the most backward
they had seen, and rather stunted and weak of plant. No doubt

552 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

they may make a tremendous start when they get down to the
lavish dressing beneath them, but all the same they had clearly
been losing valuable time, and it could not be forgotten that
they were the crop of the farm. Mr. Machin had been so unfor-
tunate as to follow a practice, which however good in a moist
time is very dangerous in a dry one, such as was experienced in
the present spring. He had allowed the ploughs to get a good
deal ahead of the drill, and when sown the turnips could not
germinate. Whilst sympathy was felt with the reasons given
for the practice, and their weight acknowledged, it was yet
found impossible to commend it. The reason of the plan was,
the immense pressure of horse and hand-labour entailed in haul-
ing so many tons of manure upon the land, and getting the
whole work of the turnip sowing completed within the short
season which had been found the best for performing it. Hence,
in order to forward the work, the dung hauling is begun before
it would be wise to sow the turnips. If when the time for sow-
ing comes the weeds have made such a start as to threaten to
outgrow the young turnips, Mr. Machin has hit upon a very
ingenious method of stopping them. It is a hoe or scraper
shaped to the ridge which precedes the drill and lightly shaves
the upper surface of the mould. But ingenuity notwithstanding,
the turnips in the present instance had not been able to germi-
nate, or at all events to grow healthily, and other competitors
had solved the same difficulty successfully.

There were but fifty acres of wheat on the farm, and a good
deal of this was after roots, oats mainly following the second
year’s seeds.

The permanent grass is chiefly of a very secondary or mild
character, and is mostly pastured with lambs, of which about
1,000 are usually bought.

The team-horses are very superior atiimals, of great size and
substance, and few, if any of them, are much over five years old.
That a great deal of just pride is centred here it was very plain
to see, and the cart-horses, as well as others of a lighter class,
which are bought or bred on the farm, are clearly hobbies of
Mr. Machin’s heart in more senses than one. Whenever a pro-
mising young animal is to be picked up reasonably, it is bought
and put to grass and corn. At four years old all the purchases
are taken into the teams in place of as many five-year-olds,
which are sold. Mr. Machin calculates that this system of per-
petual change not only avoids the gradual depreciation of all-
round value, which afflicts the like property of his neighbours,
but nets him an average profit of 10/. per horse besides; which
it certainly ought to do considering the judgment and capital

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 553

employed, and the risk and trouble it involves. The produce of
five or six cows is sold as milk in the village at 10d. a gallon.

Although the adjacent collieries are no doubt the cause of
higher wages, they are made helpful in a way to the labour bill.
It appears that boys are refused employment underground until
long after an age when they are very useful on a farm. There
is consequently a pretty good supply of available youngsters, of
which advantage is taken, and a number of them are put with a
man.

Mr. Machin’s son acts as his deputy in his absence, and the
daughters very efficiently and cheerfully assist Mrs. Machin in
the domestic economies, and with the fowls, &c., preferring to
dispense with much hired service in the house. As no men are
boarded in the house, the work, it may be hoped, is consider-
ably lighter than that which appeared to fall upon the shoulders
of Mrs. Curtis Machin.

Water is received here also from the Waterworks for some of
the premises and fields, at a charge of 4d. per 1,000 gallons.

The figures of the farm accounts, shown on page 539, speak
pretty eloquently of good management, and if this is accom-
panied by a trifle less of the extraordinary economy, the versa-
tility, and the mastery and strict supervision of minutest detail
of the winner of the First Prize, the difference may be owing to
other duties of Mr. W. Machin as sub-agent to his landlord.
His farm is also upon the estate of Mr. Montagu, and both the
brothers speak in the highest and warmest possible terms of
their relationship with him. Mr. W. Machin’s son has kept very
strict and careful accounts in a proper and businesslike way for
the year 1887-88, which stood a pretty close analysis, and the’
figures on the schedule may be supplemented here by saying
that the net balance of the year, when all the expenses of the
farm are duly charged, amounts to the astonishing sum of 1,8001.
For the previous year it was 600/., and the accounts were less
satisfactory. It was the first attempt by father or son at any-
thing of the kind, and it was the opinion of the Judges that
some items of expenditure had been less carefully recorded, and
consequently that the balance should have been rather less. In
both cases, however, valuations had been made at the beginning
and end of the year.

Of course the capital employed is very large, and there is
no charge for interest against it in either case. Then it should
be remembered that the last year was in many ways peculiarly
favourable to the main business of this farm, viz. the manufac-
ture of meat. For instance, store stock were bought at unusually
favourable figures. The price of all feeding stuffs was exceed-

554 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

ingly low. The crop of roots was extraordinarily heavy, when
in many other counties there was a very small one or none at
all. Both mutton and beef were scarce, and sold well when the
stock went out. It should be stated too that the great weight
of roots was not, as is so often the case, peculiar to one or two
fields, but was common to the whole farm.

Both the Messrs. Machin have, in an extraordinary degree,
that knowledge of stock and of the market which is essential
to the success of their particular system, and if they are not
exactly what some would call scientific farmers, they have so far
gone to the bottom of things that it might puzzle some very
keen professors to suggest a profitable improvement.

As an instance of their union of practice with science, or, as
the latter word simply means, with knowledge, it may be in-
structive to give their own account of their reasons for changing
the four-course rotation of cropping, which they practised some
fourteen years ago, to the five-course—or two years’ seeds—
which they practise now. In the first place it is because turnips,
and particularly swedes, every four years was found to be too
often for the capacity of the land. Next because the greater
quantity of fibrous turf—organic matter perhaps the chemists
would call it—which came up with the two years’ ley helps such
light land to retain moisture, as well as nourishes every descrip-
tion of crop. Again, a less acreage of corn is preferred because
the land either does not grow full crops of it, or grows them
of poor quality, whilst it does grow all green crops well, and
the excess of grass does greatly assist in keeping down the
annuals, so that less weeds are found on the fallows than there
used to be with more frequent ploughings. Wheat is scarcely
worth growing at all at present prices on such land. By delay-
ing the corn crop another year much better crops are grown,
and the good offices of the manure mérchant, which may be
needful enough elsewhere, and upon land requiring a different
system, are held very much at a discount. And lastly; though
by no means least, the labour bill is greatly reduced by the
change from the four- to the five-course shift.

It may also be pointed out that when artificial manures are
used—which is almost entirely wpon roots—the Messrs. Machin
select them scientifically, that is to say, they discard what they
do not want, and yet that which is so omitted is just what would
first of all be recommended to them if they took the manufac-
turer’s advice—namely, phosphates in some form or other.
Indeed, one of the most curious facts about such wonderful
roots on land of this character is that they were grown entirely
without artificially supplied phosphates, all land mostly requir-

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 555

ing this manure for the purpose, and such land as this in parti-
cular. That it was right to withhold them is clearly proved from
the results, which could hardly have been better with them.

The problem seemed to the writer sufficiently interesting to
see what science in high places could say towards its solution,
and a sample of soil taken from a field typical of both the
Messrs. Machin’s farms has been obligingly analysed by Dr.
Voelcker with the following result :—

Sample dried at 212° F.

Reiter Ar WoO LI) Vy) hy ogy Lae <egraag
Oxide of iron . oy sige P : ‘ : 83
Alumina . A ° . . ° 5 - wales
Carbonate of lime . a . ‘ ; - - ‘57
Sulphate of lime ay Ais F 3 : 31
Magnesia . . : . . : . “40
Potash ‘ P : . . . ° ‘ 28
Soda . ‘ . . e ° . 15
Phosphoric acid hen se Te "22
Insoluble silicious matter . ° - ; e Reta

100-00
*Containing nitrogen . . . . : : ‘ 12

Equal to ammonia < . . . 15
per cent.

Total lime (CaO) . 0:45, equal to carbonate of lime, 0:80
Sulphuricacid . . 0°18.
(Signed) J. Aueustus VOELCKER.

Dr. Voelcker entirely supports the opinion of the Judges as
to the exceedingly light, sandy, and poor character of the soil
mechanically. He also adds that the amount of phosphoric
acid is decidedly high for such a soil (yet scarcely so high, the
writer ventures to think, that Dr. Voelcker would go the length
of advising no application of superphosphate for the root crop) ;
and that the potash is also high, whilst the organic matter is
extremely low as compared with average soils, and low even for
a sandy soil (a further justification of Messrs. Machin’s practices
as previously explained).

But not only do the Messrs. Machin discard the usual, and,
in their particular case, the useless in artificial manures, but
they supply the unusual in very large doses of potash as kainit,
and of nitrogen as sulphate of ammonia. In feeding stuffs,
again, Mr. W. Machin is a great believer in decorticated cake,
which, when it can be got soft and good, science agrees with
him in believing to be a good material to mix, as he largely
mixes it, with corn. As much, therefore, of artificial assistance
as can be employed profitably seems to be taken advantage of,
and great discrimination is exercised.

556 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

It has been more than once, and very naturally, suggested
that the good roots of the Messrs. Machin must have been
largely due to an excess of rainfall in their district over that of
others. The rainfall of the summer months of 1887 in the
neighbourhood of Papplewick was therefore requested of Mr.
J. D. Walker, of Bulwell, and most obligingly furnished; a
similar record has been also obtained from Appleby, Leaden-
ham, and Harston, or their neighbourhood, by the kindness of
the competitors at those places. In each of these three latter
districts, there was more or less difficulty in securing a plant of
swedes in consequence of the drought, partly perhaps because of
later sowing.

Particulars of Rainfall-from April 1887 to September 1887.

In neighbourhood of Papplewick eee Leddenham Harston
Inches | * Inches Inches Inches
PAST Gay eis. neste 1:08 . | 1:22 “SL 1°05
ENA Ska S 1:42 1:40 | 176 1°89
June, im & BE, | “O4 OF “bi
AUEL Vaasa air ucemede 1:39 | 1:44 } 1°36 1-01
AUSUBG x. «.| = 1:58 1:46 | "66 1:43
September. . 2°43 | 2°51 2:02 270

Before quite taking leave of the Messrs. Machin, it may
perhaps be allowed to anticipate a remark which other Judges
have heard before, namely, that it is the self-supporting farms
which should be encouraged. That is, those, presumably, where
the stock are bred and reared as well as fed upon them; and the
present Judges would have been glad to have been able to do it.
They, however, believe first of all in the men who most success-
fully adapt their practice to their situation, rather than their
situation to any preconceived notions of correct practice. After
all, surely it is the banking account which requires support, and
if any one can tell the Messrs. Machin how to improve it by
other practice than that which they now pursue, it may be con-
fidently predicted that they will be found both able and willing
to adopt it.

A sketch of the principal features of the prize farms has now
been traced, but there are such very strong points of merit in the
management of some of the less successful competitors, which
would have been well worthy of a prize in the absence of any-
thing better, that they cannot be passed by unnoticed.

Commended Farms.

The occupation of Mr. Robert G. F. Howard, of Temple Bruer,
gives much evidence of first-class management. It was about

Nottinghamshire and Tincolushire in 1888: Class 1. 557

the last remaining portion of Lincoln Heath to be enclosed, and
the land is quite as light and poor as might be expected from
that circumstance. ‘he skill and capital expended upon it,
however, are quite worthy of the best land of the country. The
hedges are admirably kept, and would be very good but for the
large number of overhanging trees, which are a great detriment
to them and the crops. Mr. Howard had, we believe, almost the
only large break of fully-planted swedes in his neighbourhood,
but they were by no means so big as those of the Messrs. Machin ;
nor do we think the land would grow them so in any season,
although the soil looks very similar. The land was clean on the
whole, though not entirely free from very small pieces of couch,
which it would be very difficult to remove altogether from such
dusty soil. The house, garden, roads, yards, premises, and
buildings were faultlessly kept, and with no appearance of tem-
porary effect. The wheat was thin, as everywhere else, but the
barley excellent for the land. The pride of the farm, however,
is the splendid flock of Lincoln sheep which was started by
Mr. Howard in 1849 from the oldest and most noted strains.
No expense has since been spared in selecting the best males
from the first Lincoln breeders, and Mr. Howard’s rams meet a
good foreign and home demand at high prices. Several have
made 30 and 40 guineas, and 60 guineas has been reached.
A hundred are sold every year, and those which we saw in July
were a grand lot of sheep of very unusual size and substance.!
Mr. Howard also breeds all his cattle from a valuable old strain
of Lincoln reds in much demand, and is very successful too with
young blood stock, sired by good stallions, the use of which
is granted on favourable terms by Mr. Chaplin, for whom Mr. °
Howard is agent.

It would be difficult also to speak too highly of the manage-
ment and appearance of another forest farm, namely, that
occupied by Mr. Bowles, of Lyndhurst. The premises and all
the surroundings, the hedges and gates, and all pertaining to
the farm, were models of neatness and good order which nothing
could at any rate excel. The crops, too, were very good for the
land. The young turnips looked remarkably well in July, and
the full-grown ones in winter and spring were almost, if not
quite, as good as those of the Messrs. Machin. The general
system, too, is similar to theirs, the chief exception being that a

' The Judges had great pleasure in recommending to the Council for a
certificate and gratuity Mr. Howard’s shepherd, Thomas Clay, who has been a
very valuable and competent servant to him for twenty-seven years, and his
yardsman, George Hayward, who has been in Mr. Howard’s service for twenty-
five years. j

598 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

flock of ewes is kept at Lyndhurst. All the tillage of the farm,
which is beautifully clean, is done in first-rate style. Liming is
largely practised, and gas-lime at a less cost is often used with
no ill effects when sufficiently exposed to the air. Much of the
land is very light and poor, and seeds are so very precious that
they are often sown without a crop to ensure a better plant.
The hoggets were of a saleable description and of great weight
in the spring, although Mr. Bowles has much contempt for high-
priced rams, being perfectly content with any half-bred sheep—
of the Norfolk or similar cross from which he breeds—with suffi-
cient colour of face and plenty of size and substance. The
draught horses are, perhaps, as good as could be found any-
where upon land of a similar class, and some are bought and
sold again at good prices. Some very fine Lincoln bullocks
were grazing in the yards in the winter. It was clear that
Mr. Bowles’ heart and great energies were very much in his
work, and that precision and efficiency were thoroughly en-
forced in every detail.

Mr. Beasley, of Harston, who is a land agent as well as a
farmer on his own account, occupies another of the farms we
had the pleasure of highly commending. His house is charm-
ingly situated at the edge of a deep and pretty valley which
skirts a part of the farm. From the opposite side rise the well
wooded heights so magnificently crowned with the imposing pile
of Belvoir Castle, and the whole neighbourhood is hilly and
picturesque in the extreme. Mr. Beasley’s land is on three
different levels, with a difference of some 500 feet between them.
Rather less than two-thirds of it is a rich, red, light or mixed
soil upon limestone rock, and occasionally, perhaps, a little too
near it. ‘he other third, or rather more, is a very stiff and
hungry ‘clay, chiefly hanging on the steep side of a valley. The
greater part of the latter is being gradually laid down to grass, by
the help of the landlord, as the least of evils for them both, and we
never saw a cleaner, or in any way better, preparation for
young seeds than on one of these stiff and awkward fields in
May. The red land grows capital corn, and the annuals, which
are a great trouble amongst it, are kept down by a very diligent
hand-hoeing, every acre of wheat and barley being so served.
Couch is so well under that digging the stubbles in the autumn
is practised. I'armyard manure is ploughed into the stubbles
in the autumn for roots, and all the tillage is well performed.
Potatoes and mangolds are taken after barley, which follows
roots, other barley following wheat, the rotation being a seven-
course one.

The great speciality of the farm, however, is the success of

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 559

the young seeds, which are sown in a somewhat novel fashion
without a corn crop. The land which has grown potatoes and
mangolds is seeded in the following spring with 4 lbs. red clover,
4 lbs. cow-grass, 4 Ibs. trefoil, 1 peck Italian ryegrass; and
4 lbs. rape seed is drilled with them. In some part of June
following the mixture should be quite fit for stocking, and at a
time when the earliest fed (second year) seeds are getting a
little bare for lambs, and they begin to want a suitable change.
The rape affords a little shelter for the young clovers, and though
not eaten by the sheep upon first entry is fed down readily
enough when the sweeter grasses have been closely bitten, as
Mr. Beasley says they ought to be. When all is fed as bare as
possible, the sheep are moved to another field to allow the first
to freshen. The seeds are, of course, left to a second year,
when they are mostly mown, and extraordinary crops of clover
hay are taken. The Judges were much impressed by the rich
and strong appearance of the young seeds in the later days of
June of a very unfavourable year for them, and believe that
upon land so suitable for the purpose, upon which no doubt
success mainly depends, the system is a very valuable one.
A flock of ewes provides all the sheep required for the farm,
and calves are bought or bred for rearing.

Mr. Beasley keeps very careful and accurate accounts, but
takes no valuation at beginning or end of each year, the number
and weight of live and dead stock being, he says, about the
same always at these periods, and he does not see the advantage
of estimating from time to time the fluctuations in their value
either one way or the other. He adopts the encouraging plan
of giving his workpeople a bonus, or a percentage, on his profits,
after deducting five per cent. interest on capital, and they are to
be congratulated at all events on the results of the last year.
The three previous years unfortunately show balances on the
wrong side; but Mr. Beasley is certainly not alone in that
experience, and the loss is put down in great part to the heavy
weight of some fresh land taken four years since in poor ‘con-
dition, which is only just beginning to give a reasonable return.

The back accounts show good returns upon the home farm
before the outlying land was taken in hand. The accounts of
the entered and non-entered farms are unfortunately kept as
one, and are quite incapable of disentanglement, hence all are
given together. The unentered land was seen as well as the
other, and the excellent crops upon it showed that effort and
enterprise were beginning to tell. It is worthy of notice that
if the interest received by Mr. Beasley upon his capital has not
always been very large, neither has the principal been large

560 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

either. To have taken 1,000 acres of land, as Mr. Beasley’s
accounts show that he has done, with a total outlay of some
6,0001., whilst maintaining or improving its cleanliness and
fertility, seems in itself to be a very creditable performance.

The system pursued by Mr. Brown, of Appleby, differs very
much from that of other competitors whose farms have been
noticed, but there is much that is highly commendable about it.
Mr. Brown seems to be thoroughly possessed with the commer-
cial spirit. He is one of those men, not perhaps so commonly
met with amongst farmers, who are ever watchful, and ready to
turn to good account any possible venture, old or new, which may
offer a reasonable chance of success. Alas that there should be
so few opportunities of profitable departure from the ruts of our
forefathers! Mr. Brown grows potatoes, celery, or anything
else likely to answer his purpose, for the London or other mar-
kets. It is to be feared that potato-growing is being consider-
ably overdone, but Mr. Brown has convinced himself from past
experience that he can hold his own against ordinary competition,
by reason, for one thing, of the nature of his soil. It is of good
staple, and above the limestone, or, in other places, of a sandy
subsoil, and well adapted, under proper cultivation, to produce
not only a good weight of tubers, but roots of such quality as
will always command a preference in the market. That the
risks are great, the fluctuations in the receipts of past years
abundantly prove; but Mr. Brown is keenly observant, and
humours popular fancies for new varieties, and so forth. But
in any case the expense of the crop is more certain than its
lucrative returns, and when it is planted so extensively as Mr.
Brown plants it, everything else on the farm has at times to give
way to its requirements. No less than 100 acres of land are
under potatoes at Appleby, and the Judges were much impressed
at their July visit by their general appearance. The land might
be called in perfect tilth and cleanliness, and the crop was of
the utmost promise. It had received 15 loads of home-made or
purchased manure, 2 cwts. sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt. muriate
of potash, and 4 cwts. of superphosphate per acre, and the system
of cultivation, which perhaps it is hardly necessary to describe
minutely, is conducted on the best and most improved principles.

The growth of celery is also being extended, and the expenses
necessary for its successful cultivation are much greater even
than that for the potatoes. Some measure of the skill which is
applied to it may be gathered from the fact that 13 roots of it,
taken from an ordinary field row, weighed 58 lbs.

Sheep are bred on the farm, and the management of the ewe
flock is very enlightened and successful. More attention was

Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire in 1888: Class 1. 561

paid to diet and other careful treatment than was customarily
met with elsewhere.

The corn crops were good, particularly the wheat after potatoes,
which was the best that had been seen off the stiffer soils. The
Judge who visited the farm in May was pained to see the num-
ber of hares which were injuring the crops of so excellent a
tenant—whose family had occupied the place for four genera-
tions—and could not forbear some expressions of surprise. Mr.
Brown was, however, very reticent upon the subject.

Mr. Faux of Coleorton is a well-known breeder of pedigree
shorthorn cattle, and at the first visit of the Judges to the farm
he had selected for competition, out of three in his occupation,
they found upon it the astonishing number of live stock which
is given in the schedule. It turned out afterwards, however,
that the entered farm was worked in conjunction with one of
the unentered ones of 164 acres, which is situated within easy
distance of the principal homestead. ‘The accounts also of the
two farms—so far as any at all could properly be said to be
kept—were inextricably mixed, and no satisfactory figures of
any kind could therefore be arrived at without taking the two
farms as one. ‘The number of stock per acre will be found very
large indeed, even when the extra land is taken into account,
but not greater, we were assured, than had been previously kept.
It was clear that such numbers could only be reared and fed by
the very great outlay on supplemental food, and in labour which
Mr. Faux seems to think it profitabie to expend. All the cattle
are bred upon the place, and the number given includes a fine
herd of 70 milking cows, of which several have proved their
quality, or that of their descendants, in the show yard.

Mr. Faux has won several first and second prizes at Birming- .
ham for young bulls, and out of 15 bull calves which were seen
in December, 9 averaged 42/. each there in the present spring.
The heifers, of which we saw and greatly admired some capital
specimens, seem to meet a good home and foreign demand. Price
is little studied in the purchase cf good sires, and all the young
stock were in admirable condition. Everything, including some
excellent Tamworth and Yorkshire pigs, not sold for stock pur-
poses is finished for the butcher. A flock of 143 well-bred
Shropshire ewes is kept, and the produce grazed on the farm.

The farm buildings are of the most miserably inadequate
and ancient description, and old barns and stables and all sorts
of curious sheds and outhouses are utilised as cover from the
weather. The overflow from them is wintered more or less in
the grass fields, which comprise nearly half the area of the
entered farm, to which pulped roots and chop, together with

VOL. XXiV.—S, S. (ome)

562 _ Report on the Farm Prize Competition in

generous allowances of artificial foods, are sent in carts. The
sheep in winter are also fed in precisely the same manner.

The land is heavy with a clay subsoil, and all the roots—
entirely swedes—are drawn and clamped for carriage at leisure
to the pulping and mixing houses. Of these there are two, one
at the home and one at the field premises, and a fixed engine at
each does this work and all the chaffing and grinding. A large
portion of the corn grown on the farm is fed to the stock, and does
not figure in the enormous ontlay given under this head. The
grass land is of an inferior character, some of it being much
given to hassocks, and this, it was plain, would be of very little .
feeding value without the amount of artificial food which is used
upon it. The occupation is just on the borders of Leicester-
shire, and the local six-course rotation of cropping is adopted
upon it, viz., turnips, barley, seeds, seeds, oats, and wheat. The
swedes were good, as they had need to be for the mouths they
had to feed; a sixth of 228 acres not being a very large area
of them. The corn crops looked promising, without being so
extremely heavy as might have been expected from the rich
droppings of so many highly fed animals, which, as the land
was nicely clean, does not perhaps say very much for the in-
herent qualities of the soil.

The produce of the 70 cows is manufactured into Leicester
cheeses of very good quality. In the course of initiation into
some of the mysteries of this art, a great effort was persever-
ingly made, with the cheerful if not very exact assistance of
Mr. Faux, to arrive at the gross return per cow per annum
from a good example of it, in order to compare the results with
those from the sale of milk and of butter. With no really
precise figures to guide one but the number of the cows, and the
total weight of marketed cheese, it is to be feared that only an
approximate estimate was obtained from our laboured efforts.
The inquiry was rather complicated by a number of difficulties
concerning some milk used for other purposes, &c., and chiefly
by the uncertain value of the waste or secondary products of
cheese manufacture. However, the conclusion ultimately evolved
was that Mr. Faux’s cows, which are good milkers for pedigree
animals—if the writer may be forgiven an apparent but of
course unintentional reflection—yielded him 12/. per cow be-
sides a ‘valuable calf. One of the Judges who sends his milk
to London was of opinion that he obtained 11/. 10s. per cow
by this means, also irrespective of the calf. Too many peopie
are conversant with average yields of butter per cow to make
any estimate of it at all necessary. But the cheese-maker
has one important point in his fayour which must not be

Nottinghamshire and Lincolushire in 1888: Class 1, 568

forgotten, namely, that he makes his commodity in the summer
months when the cows are living entirely upon grass—it
would ruin the cheese, it was said, to give artificial food—
and expensive winter provender is almost entirely avoided.
Thus Mr. Faux’s cows run out daily in winter to come home
to straw and alittle cheap mixture at night. About 70 ewts.
of cheese are sold in the year, and recently it has fetched 70s.
per cwt., though formerly 85s.—a less depreciation than that
affecting butter.

The country is undoubtedly very much indebted to its
breeders of good stock, and it is difficult to see how more could
be done in this way than by the interesting example which has
been thought worthy of a rather lengthened description. Yet
it is to be feared that the exemplar receives a very inadequate
reward for his outlay, industry, and enterprise.

Mr. Lynn, of Stroxton, again, is the happy possessor of an
extremely valuable and well-descended herd of Bates’ short-
horns, and his sideboard overflows with the spoils of the show-
yard—as well it may, since no less than 3,0001. has been won
for cattle by his father and himself since 1860, and something
over 1,000]. for sheep and pigs. The Stroxton herd is of the
Red Rose tribe, which are directly descended from the cele-
brated Cambridge Roses of Mr. Bates. Mr. Lynn’s father
refused 2,000/. for the foundation cow of the Stroxton cattle.
Very high prices have been made of young bulls to go to New
Zealand, and elsewhere across the water, and for one which the
Judges saw in their visits, about 12 months old, 2601. had been
refused by Mr. Lynn, whilst another of the same age was sold
to go to South America for 2107. Such a record, although far
from exhaustive, is sufficient to indicate the quality and blood
of the animals, and it is almost. unnecessary to say that the
inspection of those which were shown afforded an opportunity
of no ordinary interest. The herd at the present time numbers
29 very select specimens indeed, and the Judges do not doubt
that Mr. Lynn, who is a young man with his heart evidently in
the work, and but recently entered upon the occupation, will
turn his promising start tc the best advantage, and maintain, if
not surpass, the previous reputation of the family. He is also
breeding some useful sheep of Lincoln and Hampshire blood,
and has a superior stock of Berkshire pigs. The farm looked
well; and the crops were of some promise, and, like the animals,
of select varieties, and sold for stock. The occupation has been
in the family for several generations, and most of the premises,
as also, indeed, the greater part of the new parish church, seem
to have been erected by the tenants at their sole expense.

002

564 Report on the Farm Prize Competition in 1888.

Good accounts are kept, and a proper balance-sheet was forth-
coming.

The farm of Mr. Henson, of Prestwold, is managed throughout
all its departments in a manner which any man of business
would unhesitatingly commend, without presenting special fea-
tures of sufficient interest for detailed description. No accounts
were forthcoming.

The farms of Mr. Morley, of Leadenham, and Mr. Dyson, of
Goldthorpe, may be spoken of in very similar terms to the above.
The former, who is also a land agent, keeps very careful and
complete accounts, and had evidently effected considerable im-
provements upon his occupation, particularly to the permanent

ass.!

z Mr. Martin, of Wainjleet, whose farm was entered for com-
petition, withdrew from the contest shortly after the first visit
to him. In this course he was doubtless well advised, having at
length appreciated the almost insurmountable obstacle which his
very short tenure—of one year only—must of necessity present
to his chances of a prize. But for this unfortunate circumstance,
the Judges would doubtless have had at least one opportunity
of seeing a well-managed farm of the better Lincolnshire soils.
Certainly the quality of the stock, their treatment, and all that
was seen on the first occasion, awakened much anticipation of
future visits.

Conclusion.

It would be very ungracious as well as ungrateful to close
this report without a concluding word of thanks to the com-
petitors for their generous hospitality, and great readiness to
assist the Judges in so many helpful ways through their by no
means easy task. But though farm judging, if at all thorough,
may fairly be called hard work, it is at the same time certainly
very interesting, and, what is still better, very instructive.

Unle.:s the writer and his colleagues are much mistaken, it
has not often fallen to the lot of their predecessors to find so
high an average of good management, particularly upon the
lighter class of soils, as has been, however imperfectly, recorded
above. Clearly the pluck and enterprise of the British farmer
are still equal to the measure of his adversities. The very wealth
of good examples has in fact prevented the selection of any but
the most prominent features for description, and there was much

‘The Judges had great pleasure in recommending Mr. Morley’s farm
bailiff, Chas. Chapman,'to the attention of the Society as an old servaat of
twenty-one years, thoroughly reliable and capable in every department of
his work.

Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at Nottingham. 565

in the management of some even of the unnoticed farms that
was highly creditable, and above the average in merit. May no
future reporter have greater cause for regret!

XXVIII.—Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at
Nottingham. By Joun HeEmsLey, Shelton, Newark.

THE usual remarks expected from a retiring Steward of Imple-
ments will this year be very few: the report of the trials of Hay
and Straw Presses and general remarks upon the exhibition of
Implements being in such competent hands.

The site for the Nottingham Exhibition was one of the best,
if not the very finest, the Society has had. Situated upon a
naturally dry soil, with a surface sufficiently level, relieved by
picturesque clumps of trees, beautifully fringed on nearly all sides
by fine timber trees, and almost under the shadow of two such
noble buildings as Nottingham Castle and Wollaton Hall, besides
being within a mile and a half of the best parts of the town of
“fair” Nottingham, it was almost unique. The Local Committee
must feel much gratitude to Lord Middleton for placing at their
disposal, in such a generous and open-handed manner, this
part of his park. No other eligible site could have been
acquired within a reasonable distance of so populous a centre as
Nottingham.

The history of Wollaton Hall not being so well known as
that of the other grand feature of the vicinity (Nottingham
Castle), I thought it might be of interest to give a short history
of this noble building, and I am indebted for the following interest-
ing historical note to the facile pen of Lady Middleton—the lady
of the manor—who so kindly acceded to my request.

Wollaton Hall was built by Sir Francis, son of Henry Willoughby
and Lady Anne Grey (Dorset), who was aunt to Lady Jane Grey, the
nine days’ Queen. She and her husband died early, and left a young family,
who were mainly brought up with the Greys at Tytley. Thomas, the eldest
of these young Willoughbys, died as a youth, and his brother Francis, who
succeeded, not finding the ancient house of Wollaton commodious, com-
menced, in 1680, the present one. His architect was John Thorpe, styled
of Padua, whose architector or surveyor or clerk of the works was one Smith-
son, to whom there is a pretty tablet in Wollaton church.

The house was not finished till 1588; therefore this year is its tercen-
tenary, The stone was carried on the backs of mules, &c., from Ancaster [a
distance of 30 miles] and coal in payment sent back. Cassandra Willoughby,
Duchess of Chandos, daughter of the natural philosopher, Francis Wil-
loughby of Wollaton and Middleton, writes, in 1702, that the accounts for
the building, &c., were in the keeping of her brother Sir Thomas (first Lord
Middleton), that many artificers came from Italy, and that the cost of the

566 Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at Nottingham:

building, notwithstanding that labour was cheap, and without the value of
the stone, was in those days four-score thousand pounds,

Sir Francis Willoughby seems to have lived in some state, for when
Queen Elizabeth, who was his second cousin, announced a visit to him at the
old house of Wollaton, it was not considered fitting that less than fifty
gentlemen should form his retinue ; the directions for the marshalling of the
hall and buttery, and other household arrangements, also point to wealth, but
it appears that the new Hall was not wholly furnished for long, and a portion
was burnt not long after it was completed.

Sir Francis’s married life was unhappy. He only left daughters, the
eldest of whom married Sir Percival Willoughby ‘de Kent’ of the house
of Eresby, the direct ancestors of the present Lord Middleton.

Wollaton has been much altered internally, by Geoftry Wyatt, who has
deprived the interior of much of its Elizabethan character; the great hall
remains intact, save that the sixth lord stripped it of its panelling, which he
testifies was worm-eaten. ‘The second wife of the builder Sir Francis, and
the beautiful widow of the fourth lord, each in her day took care that very
little of interest or value was left, the former, among other things, carrying
off one hundred pieces of silver plate, and the latter removing all but the
worst of the furnishing plate, pictures, jewels, &c. Had not her heirs, and
her own conscience (by will) returned a little, Wollaton itself would be the
only record of past possessions.

Henry, sixth Lord Middleton, altered the outside gardens, &e., and spent
large sums, which in these days of agricultural woe make one stare: the
Lenton Lodge and the large Camellia House on the terrace having each cost
10,0007. He was a great employer of labour and a most popular man, and
spent his wealth right royally.

The Willoughbys of Wollaton seem to have been devout ; many bequests
appear in the family wills of jewels and other gifts to the Church.

It is believed that the papers stored in the muniment room contain much
of interest, historical and otherwise, among other things deeds of the time of
the kings of Mercia; but it would take much time to search out worthy
matter from the bulk of papers and parchments that crowd the shelves.

Besides the loan of the site of the Show ground, innumerable
concessions were made by Lord Middleton, and assistance of the
most valuable kind was rendered by his very efficient agent, Mr.
Wright, and others acting under him. There was also nothing
wanting on the part of the Local Committee, who were at all
times ably represented by their indefatigable Secretary, Mr.
Barron.

The yard was admirably arranged, and for convenience cer-
tainly an improvement on all previous ones. The extent of
shedding for implements this year was 10,743 feet, compared
with 8,217 at Newcastle in 1887, and the number of implement
entries 4,717 as against 3,616 at Newcastle. The charge for the
shedding for Agricultural articles has been lowered, and is now as
nearly as can be ascertained the cost price to the Society.

The following statement, showing the number of feet taken
of each description of shedding, and the number of articles
exhibited in the Implement Department during the last eight
years, may be useful for purposes of reference :—

Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at Nottingham. 567

Seer f Notting-| New-| Nor- | Preston|Shrews-| York |Reading| Derby
ge a ham | castle} wich bury
aaa 1888 | 1887| 1886 | 1885 | 1884 | 1883 | 1882 | 1881
feet feet | feet feet feet feet feet feet
Ordinary . . . . | 7,258 |5,508 7,155 | 8,417] 9,315} 9,569 | 9,326] 9,138
Machinery in motion | 1,607 |1,125| 2,017} 2,063 | 2,035 1,949 | 2,289] 2,102
Special shedding 1,888 /1,584| 1,640] 1,520] 1,554] 1,618] 1,402) 1,511
(Including seeds,
models, &c.)
Total feet of shed- |10,748 8,217 |10,812 |12,000 |12,904 |13,136 |13,017 |12,751
ding |
No. of articles ex- | 4,717 |3,616| 4,656] 5,313] 5,241| 6,058] 6,102] 5,960
hibited

Some extraordinary mistakes sometimes come under the
notice of the Stewards from exhibitors either not reading or not
paying attention to the printed regulations sent to them. The
Judges appear to have more difficulty year by year in recom-
mending to the Stewards the disposal of the Silver Medals.
The Council in offering prizes for Hay and Straw Presses wished
to simplify and economise that operation, and so to reduce the
cost of railway carriage and other means of transit : the advan-
tage gained under this head is fully shown in Mr. Pidgeon’s very
able report.

I may point with satisfaction to the increasing attention
which appears to be paid to Bee-cultnure—application having been
made for double the amount of space for this department of our
show-ground as compared with former years.

Although not coming directly within my province, yet I may
be permitted to allude to the great interest manifested during the
whole time of the show in the Dairy operations and exhibitions, °
and to the unwearied and able manner in which these were organised
and conducted by Sir John Thorold. I may also be allowed to
remark, that although the time of year is not suitable for a show
of Poultry, yet in my opinion a national Agricultural exhibition
like the “‘ Royal” could not be considered complete without it.

The expeditious and careful manner in which the Midland
Railway Company (with their grand display of horses) got the
machinery and implements into the yard was highly satisfactory,
and I imagine sleeper roads within the yard have become a sine
qua non.

The marked harmony of this year’s meeting in all its varied
departments, and the exceptionally good report the London
Police gave of the behaviour of an enormous crowd at Nottingham,
are matters of congratulation to all—and especially I allude to this
in my native county—not a single case having been reported by
the police.

568 Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at Nottingham.

The weather during the week was disappointing, and on
Monday and Wednesday a good deal of rain fell. The attend-
ance of the public, notwithstanding, was of the most gratifying
kind, and if Nottingham cannot boast of the largest amount of
gate-money in the annals of the Society, it has at least achieved
the proud pre-eminence of sending the largest number of people
into the show-yard on any one day. On Thursday the 12th
July the phenomenal number of 88,832 persons paid for ad-
mission, and taking into consideration the exhibitors and their
assistants, the staff, members of the Society, season ticket holders,
and others entitled to free admission, it is hardly an over-esti-
mate to say that there must have been a hundred thousand people
on the ground. Those who saw the on-coming crowds from the
top of the Lenton Lodge could only liken them to a swarm of ants
bearing down upon Wollaton. At the time of greatest pressure
all the exits were turned into entrances, and the stewards of
finance, the secretary and all his available staff were taking
shillings in their hats, in their pockets, or in pouches, in order
to relieve the pressure on the turnstiles, which clicked inces-
santly for hours.

The figures as to the attendance were indeed so interesting
that I asked the Secretary to compare them with the records of
past years, and I subjoin the memorandum which he has sent
me on the subject.

On the Thursday of the Nottingham Meeting the number of persons that
paid for admission (88,832) was the largest in “the annals of the Society.!
The nearest approach to these figures was on the Thursday of the Newcastle
meeting last year, when the attendance was 77,410. The first sbilling day
always has had, indeed, a special attraction for visitors, and it may be in-
teresting to record the numbers on each occasion when the attendance has
exceeded 50,000 in one day.

1861. Leeds ... ... . | 73,824.) 1877. Liverpool) so een Ones
1864. Newcastle . . . . 656,902 | 1879. Kilburn. . 50,255
1868. Leicester . . . . 52,829 (2nd 1s. day, Saiurday)

1869. Manchester. . . . 657,129 | 1881. Derby ... . 53,291
1871. Wolverhampton . . 52,466 | 1883. York. . . . . . 68,097
1873. Hull. .. . . » . 60;812 | 1887. Newcastle’ > Jue re
1876. Birmingham . . 58,384 | 1888. Nottingham . . . 88,832

» (second 1s. day) 61,567

1 The number was also the largest one-day’s total in the history of exbibi-
tions of recent times, and is believed to have been only exceeded in the year
of the Great Exhibition of 1851, when in the last week (October 6-11),
103,516 persons passed the turnstiles on the Monday, 104,630 on the Tuesday,
105,663 on the Wednesday, and 86,887 on the Thursday—the last shilling day.
(First Report Roy. Commrs. of 1851, Appx. xvi.). There are stated to be only
two other occasions besides these of 1851, and the Newcastle and Nottingham
Shows of the Society in 1887 and 1888, when more than 75,000 persons pa.
for admission at any Exhibition on a single day, viz., at the Colonial ava
Indian Exhibition on the Whit Monday and August Bank Holiday of 1886,
when 80,294 and 81,516 admissions respectively were recorded.—E.C.

Report of the Senior Steward of Implements at Nottingham. 569

The total number of persons passing the turnstiles during the Nottingham
Show was 147,927, which has only been three times exceeded: at Manchester
(1869), when there was an extra shilling day—Saturday—which brought in
36,392 persons, and raised the total to 189,102; at Birmingham (1876),
when there were two splendid shilling days on Saturday and Monday, which
made the total attendance 163,413; and at Kilburn (1879), when the show
was open for ten days and there were 187,323 admissions. Nottingham
stands, therefore, fourth on the list. The occasions on which over 100,000
persons have passed the turnstiles during the show are :—

HeGheemecds . « =. ~ « 146,738 | 1878. Bristol. « . . = 122,042
1862. Battersea . . . . 124,828) 1879. Kilburn .., . . 187,323
1864. Newcastle. . . . 114,683 | 1881. Derby . . . . . 127,996
1869. Manchester . . . 189,102 | 1883. York . . . . . 128,117
1871. Wolverhampton . 107,519 | 1886. Norwich . . . . 104,909
ispoetiall |. . Cw C«:«Cd'4,722 | 1887. Newcastle . . . 127,372
1876. Birmingham. . . 163,413 | 1888. Nottingham . . . 147,927
1877. Liverpool. . . . 138,354

The total turnstile receipts on the Nottingham Thursday exceeded 4,4187.,
a day’s total which has only been beaten on one occasion since the Society was
established. On Wednesday, July 21, 1869, at Manchester, their Royal
Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales visited the Society’s showyard
together, and on that day 39,405 persons paid half-a-crown for admission to
the yard, yielding a total sum of 4,9537. On no other occasion has so much
as 4,000/. been received from admissions in one day. The days on which
more than 3,000/. was received have been as follows :—

Date. Place. recisiie = ipa
22 July, 1858 . . . Chester . . 23. 6d. . c - 93,101
18 July, 1861 . : - Leeds. ls Se fers . 3,695
20 July, 1869 . ; . Manchester . 5s. : : . 38,243
21 July, 1869 . : : os 25 Gdi ee - . 4,953
24 July, 1876. Sit . Birmingham . Ils. : hoe 3,066
12 July, 1877 . : . Liverpool. wos Oden : . 3,057
19 July, 1883 . : . York - Slee ; - . 93,159
14 July, 1887 . i . Newcastle Jiils: - : . 3,864
12 July, 1888 . ‘ - Nottingham .._ 1s. : : . 4,418

The total receipts at the Nottingham Meeting from Admissions, Cata-
logues, Season Tickets, and the Grand Stand were 10,5217. 9s. 10d. The
only occasions on which the total receipts have exceeded 10,000Z. have been :

£ | £
meee ecds... ......« .-~ 10,570 | L8G Kilburn .) 16) ies We te LG 214
1862. Battersea. . . . . 10,664 | 1881. Derby. . . . . . 10,731

1869. Manchester . . . . 18,114
1876. Birmingham . . . 13,543
1877. Liverpool. . . . . 14,471
iegoeBristel-..... . . 11,073

_ The accounts for the Nottingham meeting have not yet been finally ad-
justed, but so far as they have been made up they show a surplus of receipts
over expenditure of upwards of 4,900/. So large a surplus has only been
recorded on four other occasions in the history of the Society, viz. at Leeds
in 1861 (4,4717.), Manchester in 1869 (9,153/.), Derby in 188] (4,5007.), and
York in 1883 (5,200/). In all but fifteen of the forty-nine country meetings
of the Society the receipts have been insufficient to cover the expenditure, |

TSSS Yor 5 40.9% « '5 EEZOG
1885." Preston ~:~ +’ 4103309
1888. Nottingham. . . . 10,521

570 ty Report on the Trials of

A rather interesting and amusing finish to the meeting took
place on Saturday morning. A sum of money was collected by
a few gentlemen to be given in prizes for athletic sports, to be
competed for by the London and local police in tugs-of-war,
running, throwing the ball, &c. In most of these contests
the county men were either too much or too strong for their
friends, greatly to the gratification of the local spectators. And
thus was brought to a close one of the most pleasant meetings
the Society has éver held.

I cannot close my report without expressing a certain
amount of regret at quitting office; and I sincerely thank my
brother Stewards and all other officials connected with the
Society for their kindness shown towards myself. This has
greatly added to the pleasure I have had in again serving my
term as Steward of Implements, the duties of which are ren-
dered as light as they -can be, mainly by the able manner in
which the business of these great meetings is organised and
carried out by the Honorary Director, Mr. Jacob Wilson.

XXIX.—Report on the Trials of Hay and Straw Presses at
Nottingham. By Day. Pinceon, Assoc. Inst. C.E., Reporting
Judge.

Judges.
Dan. Prpceon, Holmwood, Putney Hill, S.W.
W. Scorson, Mossley Hill, Liverpool.
T. H. TuursFieLp, Barrow, Broseley, Shropshire.

SEVERAL causes have recently conspired to bring the question of
hay and straw pressing into notice. The agricultural depres-
sion has obliged the British farmer to make the best of every-
thing he produces. The conditions under which he farms have
become less stringent with dwindling rents; while tlte foreigner,
who is sending large quantities of compressed hay and straw to
this country, has, thereby, given him a rude lesson in thrift.

Such are the circumstances under which, braving the possible
reproach of “‘ encouraging the foreigner,” the Royal Agricultural
Society determined to offer prizes for hay- and straw-pressing
machinery at the Nottingham meeting, little imagining, perhaps,
at the time when this resolution was ; taken, how large an entry
of such implements would result from their action.

It may well be supposed that, in thus breaking new ground,
some difficulties would occur in settling the conditions of trial ;
but, after a good deal of consideration, the Society’s Consulting
Engineer was able to suggest, and the Council to adopt, a scheme
for ascertaining the relative merits of the machines in question,

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 571

which worked exceedingly well, and gave results agreeing accu-
rately with those general impressions which Judges must, in
any case, receive during the progress of competitive trials.

The practice of hay- and straw-pressing divides naturally
into two branches. The shipper, who pays freight upon
measurement, makes his bales as dense as he possibly can;
while the English farmer, who has no foreign markets, aims
only at getting 50 ewt. of hay or straw into a railway truck,
and thus securing the lower rates at which compressed
hay and straw are carried by the railways of this country. A
density of 2 cwt. to the cubic yard, or 83 lbs. per cubic foot,
is more than enough for this purpose, and only a few points
of merit were consequently allotted in this competition to the
attainment of densities in excess of the amount in question.

The following table, giving the rates of three important rail-
way companies for pressed and unpressed hay from Peterborough
to some of the larger towns in the country, illustrates the cha-
racter of the advantages which hay- and straw-pressing offers to
the farmer :—

TasLe I.—SHowinG Rattway RATES FOR PRESSED AND UNPRESSED
Hay AND STRAW FROM PETERBOROUGH TO VARIOUS STATIONS.
(Company’s Risk.)

Straw Hay
Station. BRS Pressed, | Unpressed, Pressed, | Unpressed,
50 ewt. to 20 ewt. to 50 ewt. to 30 ewt. to

truck truck truck truck

Great Northern— Se as sd. dr de fea
IEGUS) @ <- ss 110 105) 0) 31. 68 iy 0) 26 8
Wiondons. « . 76 Les 28 4 TS 20 O
Liverpool. .. . 160 Li 6 40 0 ef 31 48
Manchester . . . 126 15 10 Bia) (0) 15 10 il) a0)
Sheffield . ... 85 12 6 30 0 12 6 2b 0

North Western—

Birmingham. . . 78 LT. 38 24 2 LSS ZIP SS
Birkenhead . . . 147 Vie "6) 40 0 Li 6 31 8
Burton-on-Trent . 82 i 8 26 8 11 8 22 6
Gator. kk 94 13 4 30 0 Loi 25 0
Stockport. ... 146 16 8 35 (0 16 8 30 0
Wolverhampton. .| 124 15 0 32 6 15 0 27 6
Epes ica. 159 20 10 50 0 20 10 36) <8
Bradford)... . 115 15 10 334 15 10 28 4
oo) 170 17 6 40 0 ea 6: sl 8
De 70 10 0 24 2 10 O 20 0
Lancaster. . . . 198 21 8 45. 0 21 8 36 8
Newport, Mon. . . 187 20 O 43 4 20 0 Bi aK)

Note—These rates were obligingly furnished to the Reporting Judge by Mr. Perkins,
of the firm of Barford and Perkins,

572 Report on the Trials of

No elaboration of these figures is required to show that there
is, roughly speaking, a saving of half the cost in carriage, as
between compressed and loose hay or straw; while, as will
presently appear, the cost of baling, even with the rudest press,
is vastly less than the saving in question. Under these cir-
cumstances it is not a matter for surprise that the pressing of
hay and straw has, somewhat suddenly, assumed the character
of an important and profitable industry, or that certain houses
employed in this business are working as many as twenty or
thirty presses apiece and making good profits.

That ‘‘ demand creates supply ” is a truism, indeed, but there
is probably no example of supply following more rapidly upon
demand than in the agricultural implement business, where no
new want remains long unexploited, thanks, in a great measure,
to the influence of the Society’s Annual Show, where makers are
brought into close touch both with users and with one another.
However this may be, the Society’s offer of prizes to a class of
implements, not indeed new, but newly in use on British farms,
produced no less than forty-three entries of hay- and straw-
presses, of which number thirty-two machines (see Table II. on
page 573) came to trial in one or other of the four following
classes :—

Prizes and Conditions of Trial of Hay- and Straw-Presses.

Crass 1,—For a hay- and straw-press worked by steam power—

First Prize . E 3 . . . . £30
Seconp PRIzE : ; : : : . 20
Crass 2.—For a hay- and straw-press worked by horse power—
First Prize . : 3 <§) lon eee . 20
SEconD PRIZE : : : : : . 10
Crass 3,—For a hay- and straw-press worked by hand power—
First Prize . ; ; ; : . SaPzAY)
Srconp Prize ; ; ie

Crass 4.—For a press for old hay worked by hand power . 20

Subjoined are the conditions under which the presses were
tried :-—

1. Notice of the place and date of the trials will be posted to every com-
petitor as soon as they are fixed. ‘

2. Every competitor must himself provide for the delivery of his machines
on the trial ground, and for the removal of the same after the trials.

3. Horses will be provided by the Society to work machines during the
trials, but competitors who desire it may provide their own horses. These
will be charged at a uniform rate against the machines. Except in the case
of combined steam engines and presses, the Society will provide a portable
engine for driving Class 1. The engine will be charged at a uniform rate
against the presses, [ Continued on p. 574,

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 573

Tasie LI.—List or Exuisitors IN Hay anp Straw Press CoMPETITION.

Correspond- Price as
ey aD teent Exhibitor’s name Exhibitor’s address ee
entered Catalogue Catalogue

£ &
1 3800 Foster, William & Co., | Wellington Foundry, Lincoln. . .| 75 0
Limited (Also entered in Class 2).
1 3762 Howard, J. &F.. - « «| Britannia Works, Bedford .. ..}/ 40 0
(Also entered in Class 2).
1 8815 | Ladd, John H. & Co. . . | 116 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.. . .| 80 0
(Also entered in Class "2).
£ 3814 Lincolnshire Hay and | Boston, Lincolnshire . . o- ah s)\y4Q) 0
Straw Patent Pressing (Also entered in Class 2).
Company
1 2299 Samuelson & Co., Limited | Britannia Works, Banbury . . . .| 120 0
2 3815 Ladd, John H. & Co. . . | 116 Queen Victoria Street, E.C. . .| 80 0
(Also entered in Class 1).
2 3814 Lincolnshire ay and | Boston, Lincolnshire . . sre alt OS) O
Straw Patent Pressing (Also entered in Class 1 4
Company
2 3819 Stephenson, George . . ./| Trent pee Works, Newark . . .| 70 0
2 PaeOn | Ditto. 4 5 6. 8). . | Ditto. . sigh er Ta ath teen | eae")
3 558 Allen, Valentine Ingram .| Spalding. . . ea «| o0L0
} (Also entered in Class 4).
3 557 Bamber, Joseph . . . . | Saul Street, Preston. . Fae | atl A
: (Also entered in Class 4).
3 3801 Foster, William & Co., | Wellington Foundry, Lincoln . . .| 70 0
Limited
3 566 Hartope, J.& Co. . . .| Midlands Depét, Leicester . . . .| 20 O
3 523 Hoodless, James Spencer . | Walkeringham, Notts... =o oti ote 0
(Also entered in C lass 4).
3 3R16 Ladd, John H.& Co. . . | 116 Queen Victoria Street, E.C OY) gale AL
3 3099 McKenzie, Thomas & Sons | 212 Great Brunswick Street, ioe 17, 0
3 560 Mayos, Thomas T. . . Llangunnock, Ross, Herefordshire .| 13 0
(Also entered in Class 4).
3 524 Ruck, Henry . . . . .| Castle Hill, Down Ampney, Cricklade 4 4
3 3821 Stephenson, George. . .| Trent Bridge Works, New ark a ae en DOO
3 3806 Warnes, William. . . .| Mintlyn, King’sLynn. . . . . .] 35 0
(Also entered in Class 2).
4 558 Allen, Valentine Ingram . | Spalding. . . at oh. 30) 6
A Gee entered in Class 3).
4 557 Bamber, John. . . , Saul Street, Preston. . ae le LO
(Also entered in Class 8).
| 4 2263 Barford and Perkins . .| Peterborough. . . sc lay, Baler a Ie a
4 2264 TD DELO ie, qpece > de altho. ce. ve 29 0
| 4 562 Bradbury, J oseph. ce Pi) Charles Street, Oxford Street, "Man:
chester... 2 3). 22 0
With Travelling Wheels
| = and Shafts £3 extra
4 - 8802 Foster, William & Co., | Wellington Foundry, Lincoln . . .} 20 0
Limited
| 4 523 Hoodless, James Spencer . | Walkeringham, Notts. . ..../ 24 0
| (Also entered in Class 3).
, 4 3817 Ladd, John H. & Co. . «| 116 Queen Victoria Strect, E.C. . .| 12 0
| 4 560 Mayos, Thomas T. . . . | Llangunnock, Ross . . ~ Saino
; (Also entered in Class B);.
| 4 522 | Scott, Elton . . . . .| 169A High Street, Lincoln’. . . .| 25 0
| ¢ 8822 Stephenson, George. . .| Trent Bridge Works, Newark? aha te) 20. 0
| 4 8808 Warnes, William. . . .| Mintlyn,King’sLynn ...../| 35 0
|

Kk

574 Report on the Trials of

Conditions of Trial (continued).

4, Every machine must be delivered at the depot on the trial ground, in
proper working order, before 9 A.M. on the first morning of the trials.

5. Exhibitors are expected to provide their own drivers and attendants,
but the Society reserves the right to provide men and to work any machine
if a competitor be absent or not ready, or who says that his men are absent,
after due notice has been given to him to bring his machine out for trial.

6. Before starting work, the competitor must declare the number of men
and horses required by his machine. If he, personally, or any other extra
attendant, not included in such declaration, should render any actual assis-
tance in working or adjusting the machine during the trial, the fact will be
noted by the judges,

7. Each machine will be allowed a preliminary trial not exceeding one
hour's duration with each material it may be required to compress.

8. The trial will last till not less than 50 cwt. has been pressed by horse or
steam power, and till not less than one ton has been pressed by hand power.

9. No trial will be considered as of any use unless the bales have such a
form and density that 50 ewt. of pressed material can be loaded into a rail-
way truck having a capacity of 25 cubic yards.

10. The machines in Class 1 will be tried ee straw, new hay, and old
hay. The straw-pressing machines in Classes 1, 2, and 3 will be tried with
straw and new hay, and, should any competitor desire it, with old hay also.
The hay presses in Class 4 will be tried with old hay only,

11. ‘The following will be the points awarded :—

Points.
1. Cost of machine compared with the rate it is capable of
( is, cost per ton per day of 10 hours ay ls
2. Cost of labour and power per ton per day of 10 hours—
mechanics rated at 5s. per day, labourers at 3s. per day
—steam engine and driver 2s, per nominal horse-power
per day—horse-works, horse, and driver 9s, per day—

Ditto two horses, 16s. per day .. 3 , Fb

3. Density attained beyond 2 oe to the cubic yard 5

4. Uniformity im weight . : : : 5

5. Time in binding bales : ; “ : : ; 5

6. Cost of bands of bales. : 10
7. Form of bales with reference to 0 packing ‘into trucks and

handling : . =f, LO

8. Condition of pressed material on opening bales 3 : 5

9. Transportability of press and facility for erection . . 10

10. Mechanical simplicity, strength, and durability = =. &. 20

The trials commenced on July 3, and were continued, day
by day, until the evening of July 9, when no less than forty-seven
separate experiments had been concluded. The presses were
not tried in the order of their classification, a commencement
being made on Class 3, but it will convenience readers of the
Journal to describe them in that order, even at the expense of
some inversions of dates. or the same reason, the results of
the trials will be displayed, class by class, in a tabular form, to
which, instead of a too detailed account of each trial, the reader
in search of general conclusions is referred.

oe ne a a ne eee es

or

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 57

TRIALS OF Hay sanp STRAW PRESSES WORKED BY STEAM
PoweEer.—Cuass 1.

Four machines competed in this Class, viz :—

Samuelson , : - No. 2299] Ladd . - : . No. 3815
Howard . - ° ° 5, o¢62 | Foster. - : > OCUU

The trials commenced on July 6, and ended on July 9.
They were conducted first upon loose straw and loose hay, while
the final trials took place on new hay, carted, in rather damp
condition, from Lord Middleton’s hay-fields. Each exhibitor was
allowed a preliminary trial, of which the Judges took no notice,
in order that he might see if his press was in working order.
All four machines were tried a second time, but Foster’s press
(No. 3,800) was thrown out before the final trials, which took
place upon new hay.

Article No. 2,299 (Fig. 2, p. 602) exhibited by Samuelson
& Co., Banbury, Oxon., was first tried in this class.

This machine, better known as the “ Pilter” Press, is of
American origin, improved by the makers in this country. It
produces cylindrical bales of considerable density, permitting
10 lbs. of straw, or 16 lbs. of hay, being packed into a cubic
foot of freight measurement. The cylindrical bales are easily
rolled from place to place, a great advantage in view of the fact
that the practice is to make straw bales weighing 14 cwt., and
hay bales weighing 2} cwts.

Hay, or straw, is fed by two men, standing one on each side of the
machine, into a kind of divided “chaff box,” its passage along which is
assisted by a pair of packing-forks, entering the “chaff boxes ” from below,
with a motion similar to that of a sewing-machine feed.

On reaching the mouth of the press, which is two feet in diameter, the
hay, or straw, as it issues from each feeding-box, is laid hold of by a conical
roller, revolving against a metal disc, which, itself slowly rotating, forms an
abutment against which the loose material is compressed by the action of
the roller.

This disc, or platten, slides backwards, as the material accumulates, against
the resistance of a pair of compressors, which clip, with a determinable
amount of friction, the square spindle of the platten.

After the latter has retreated some four feet, the machine stops auto-
matically, and a compressing screw is thrown into gear which forces the
platten back over about a third of the path it previously travelled.

_ The bale is bound, while under this secondary pressure, with two pre-
viously prepared wires, having a loop at each end, and caught together by an
open chain-link, easily removed, when it is desired to open the bale, by means
of a special spanner, both wires and links being available for repeated use.

The “ Pilter” Press is, strictly speaking, discontinuous in
its action. The time occupied in making a bale is about five
minutes, of which three minutes are occupied in baling, and

576 Report on the Trials of

two in tying. Baling takes place against a resistance which,
as will presently appear, involves a loss of energy; while the
stoppage of two minutes in every five for the purpose of wiring
constitutes a supplementary loss of time. The number of men
tending the press was two; the output was relatively small,
but the density obtained very great. Straw was crushed a good
deal in the process of baling, while the power absorbed was
considerable. When the compressing screw was put into gear,
the engine was, momentarily, asked for some four times the
power required during the rest of the operation. ‘The press
worked supported on its own travelling wheels, and is easily
transported from place to place.

Article No. 3,762 (Fig. 3, p. 603), exhibited by J. & F.
Howard, Britannia Works, Bedford, was the next machine tried.
This was, strictly speaking, a ‘‘ continuous” press, for the pro-
cess of baling, although intermittent, was not stopped for the
purpose of wiring.

Hay, or straw, the latter as it comes from the thrashing machine, was
fed into a capacious receiver, whence it passed into a compressor, consisting
of two endless bands, inclined to each other, and constructed of strong
wooden slats, hinged together, and travelling over vertical rollers. These
“aprons” are 6 ft. long, 4 ft. apart where the hay or straw enters, and 14 in.
apart at the mouth of the press, which is 18 in. deep. A crank and ratchet
arrangement gives an intermittent rotating movement to the forward rollers
around which the endless bands turn, the latter advancing 4 inches for every
movement of the ratchet, or 3 feet per minute, at the speed adopted by the
exhibitors.

The bale, issuing from the mouth of the press, is temporarily held together
by means of U-shaped steel cramps, or “retainers,” which are slipped over
it until wire ties can be substituted for them. These, which are usually
placed 1 foot apart in straw, and 8 in. apart in hay, are passed by needles
through grooves in a table which receives the rectangular ‘‘ sausage” of hay
or straw, and then twisted up by a pair of pliers.

A man, armed with a “ Lightning” hay-knife, cuts the “ sausage” off to
any required length while it is still issuing from the press, being assisted in
this operation by a downward inclination given to the path of the truss at
the point where he stands, an inclination which encourages the bale to open
under the action of the lmife, and assists the operator in the same way as
does a sawyer’s wedge.

One man feeds, and another, standing in the receiver, tramples the material
into the mouth of the compressor, while four men are required at the mouth
of the press for the purpose of cramping, wiring, and cutting off the bales.

The output of this machine was good, while it. could eyi-
dently have done much more work if its speed had not been ~
limited by the inability of four men to cramp and tie as fast as
the “sausage” issued. In the particulars of trampling, cramping,
wiring, and cutting off the truss, the Judges felt that this
press was a compromise between manual labour and machinery,
and the fact that six men, in all, were required for one or other

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 577

of these purposes was fatal to the prospects of the machine
as a competitor for either prize.

But, aside from these considerations, the performance of the
Howard Press was admirable. It obtained a density, not great,
indeed, but more than was required by the conditions of the
trials. Its output was large, and might have been larger if the
bales could have been wired automatically. It was well suited
to receive and to deal with stuff coming from a thrashing
machine. The low, but sufficient, density, together with the
“end on” feed, ensured the best possible condition of straw in
the bale, while the power absorbed was moderate.

Article No. 3,815 (Fig. 1, p. 602), Ladd’s Perpetual Press, was
exhibited by J. H. Ladd & Co., Queen Victoria Street, London.

Ladd’s Press is a continuous machine, no stoppage being
made for wiring or removing the bales. It is a modification,
under Capel’s patents, of the well-known American ‘ Dederick ”
Press, which has been exhibited at several Royal Shows, and
described in past numbers of the Journal.

Let the reader imagine a square pipe, partially filled with
plastic material, to which a fresh portion of similar material is
added at every stroke of a plunger, moving backwards and
forwards in the unoccupied portion of the tube, and he will have
a picture of the “Ladd” Press. If he further supposes that the
occupied part of the*pipe can be cramped at will upon its con-
tents, he will understand how the density of Ladd’s bales is
determined. In such an apparatus every addition of unpressed
material causes the extrusion from the end of the pipe of a
similar quantity of compressed stuff, whose density depends upon
the amount of friction induced by cramping between the pipe
and its unextruded contents.

In the press under review, the material to be baled is fed by a man,
handling a fork, piecemeal into the body of the press. There, a platten,
which has a to-and-fro motion communicated to it by a suitably geared
crank and connecting rod, drives each mouthful of hay or straw introduced
by the feeder back upon other already compressed material occupying the
rear of the box. Six lateral latches, three on either side of the press-body,
serve to retain each newly pressed mouthful of hay, and when enough for a
bale has been compressed, the feeder introduces a square board, called a
“follower,” loosely fitting the box, and provided with three cross grooves for
the later admission of the binding wires. Binding is accomplished as each
bale passes rearward, and after it has reached a portion of the press-body
from which the sides have been removed for this purpose. After wiring,
the bales, together with their “followers,” are successively extruded from

the press, the former being removed, while the latter are returned to the
feeder for repeated use.

The output of Ladd’s Press was greater than that of any
other machine tried in Class 1, while the density obtained was
VOL, XXIV,—S, S. ver

578 Report on the Trials of

considerable, approaching nearly to that of the Pilter Press. The
condition of the compressed material was not so good as in the
ease of the Howard machine, but better than that of the “ Pilter”
Press. The power absorbed was considerable, but uniform in
amount, and the cost of baling per ton was less than that of
any other competitor in the Class. Three men were employed
in tending the press, but neither of them was overworked.

In passing rapidly, as was unavoidable in these trials, from
the pressing of one material to another, it was not easy to
adjust the density of Ladd’s bales in a moment; but it was
evident that, in ordinary work, the compression screws being
once set, they would need scarcely any attention all day
long.

"This press is well adapted to take stuff as it issues from a
thrashing machine. Its output is large, density high, and the
cost of baling relatively moderate. The machine works sup-
ported on its own travelling wheels, and is easily removed from
place to place.

Mention has been made of the large absorption of power ex-
hibited by both the “ Ladd” and “ Pilter” Presses, and an expla-
nation may be conveniently given here. In both machines, but
in Pilter’s case continuously, while in Ladd’s case discontinu-
ously, the bales are extruded, after compression, against con-
siderable friction. This friction, in the ‘‘ Pilter” Press, consists
of the resistance to the issue of the bale offered by the com-
pressors, which grip the square shaft of the platten, while in
the “ Ladd” Press the issuing hay is itself gripped by the press-
body. In the latter case, after a mouthful of hay has been
compressed to a determined density, the abutment against which
such compression was effected is itself moved backwards for an
inch or two against a frictional resistance equal to that which it
afforded to material in course of pressing, and so on for eyery
stroke of the piston. Exactly the same thing occurs in the
“ Pilter ” Press, although the action in this case is continuous
and not intermittent. Howard’s Press is free from this defect,
and hence its more moderate use of power.

Article No. 3,800 (Fig. 4, p. 604) was exhibited by Messrs.
W. Foster & Oo., Limited, Wellington Foundry, Lincoln. This
press, constructed under the patents of Messrs. Watson &
Starkey, is double-acting, one truss being compressed while the
material for a second truss is being fed into the box and trampled.

The machine consists of a long box, forming the press-body, carried
horizontally upon travelling wheels. In the box there moves back and
forth a piston, or platten, having two ears or lugs projecting through slats
on either side of the box. Each lug carries a nut threaded upon a horir

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 579

zontal screw running the entire length of the machine. Both screws are
driven, by belting, through suitable pulleys and gearing, the former furnished
with an ordinary reversing motion, like that of a planing machine. The
press-body has a central opening for the reception of the stuff to be pressed,
while each end of the box is closed by a strong wooden door having four
slots in it for the passage of the wire by which the bales are ultimately
bound. Assuming that a bale has just been expelled, and the press-body
full of loose hay, then, by throwing the belt on to the proper pulley, the
platten moves away from the bale already pressed towards the other end of
the box. When bale number two has been sufficiently squeezed, the belt is
shifted, automatically, on to the reversing pulley, and, in the meantime,
the press-body has been again filled with loose material. The finished
bales are partially extruded from the press-body by continuing the action
of the piston after the end door is opened, and this extrusion absorbed a sur-
prising amount of power. The bearing of this fact on the loss of energy in
* continuous” presses of the Ladd and Pilter type is evident.

Four men were engaged about the Foster Press. The out-
put, whether in hay or straw, was moderate, while the density
obtained in straw was only 7 lbs. per cubic foot, or less than
the Society’s requirements, and only 92 lbs, in hay.

The condition of the bales was good, standing, in this
respect, about midway between Howard and Ladd. ‘The power
absorbed was considerable, especially towards the end of the
platten stroke, when the loud beating of the exhaust, coming,
it must be remembered, from an 8-horse engine, told, as plainly
as the indicator diagrams themselves, of the severity of the work.

Want of uniformity in the power absorbed must prove a
great drawback to any hay-press. The size of engine required is
determined, not by the minimum, but by the maximum demand
for power, and the Foster Press needs a large engine to drive
it, while making very irregular use of its energy. The cost
of baling, due to an excessive power and labour bill, coupled
with a moderate output, was considerable, and, in view of these
considerations, this machine was excused from taking part in
the final trials.

The First Prize in Class 1 fell to Ladd, and the Second Prize
to Samuelson, but it was a matter of regret to the Judges that
the principle of Howard’s Press did not receive a fairer show at
the hands of its makers. But for its excessive labour bill, this
machine would have run both the Prize Presses hard.

The trials in Class 1 were rendered specially interesting by
the fact that all the competing presses differed entirely one from
the other in their mode of working. A further striking fact
was that they all, except Howard’s, absorbed a great deal of
power in proportion to the work done, while the cost of baling
per ton was, generally speaking, greater than in the best hand
presses, although, it must be added, the densities obtained were
also much greater. This variety in constructive principles,

PP2

Date of Trial

580 Report on the Trials of

together with the waste of energy already alluded to, indicate
that the steam-power straw- and hay-press of the future is still
to seek. Perhaps, when Ladd and Pilter have stopped their
open leaks of power, and Howard has substituted machinery for
men, some future trials of the Royal Agricultural Society may
introduce farmers to an economical as well as efficient press of
this kind. The efficiency is already on hand, but the economy
might be greatly improved. .

TasLE I1I.—SnHow1ne Resutts or Trias 1n Crass 1.

| Ds oY ret iS 3
gi teleeleg [od fd [Bien eit
3 cat wy PEE PEP [ee 3 s 2) &|an| Be] 32
2 EI 4 || 3 3 Be Bi 2) S|s3| ea) e6
Ba 3 es wy » Ss 2 . ie ais be a oe
ah Name of a Bg || © sh 2 fe a | oy | et sia ere
° ree) 2 a oe S ==] > | Aa Se | 3
Z Exhibitor = «|| 8 = 2 Z Hl) ealet|3 eid
= 2 | 2 3S Ee & oO Lo] es = a} s S| a g
8 S (2) 8) So) Bh Gog Sa ee
So") 8 lod] og ee ealeeneea
Manchiectbat lo =
First Trials, in Loose Straw, at Fodder Yard.
£ || min.} lbs, tons. pais LHP) CO SN ae Ce 2
58 | Samuelson 2299 ||128)|| 45 | 1196 7-10 | 13°40 | 5 4/} 80] 60/140
40 | Howard 3762 || 40)) 15 656 | 11°70 890 | 35 | 3] 6 0/18 0) 24 0
42 | Ladd . [saoLo 80 || 15 788 | 14:00 | 10°77 | 45 4} 80; 90/170
44 | Foster 3800 7d || 23 905 | 10°50 6:90 | 7 6 | 12 0/12 0] 24 0
Second Trials, in Loose Hay, at Fodder Yard.
39 | Samuelson | 2299 || 128 || 37 1583 | 11°45 | 19°70 | 5 4] 80] 60/140
41 | Howard 3762 | 40 || 16 944 | 15°80 | 13°55 | 33 | 3] 6 0) 18 0/24 0
43 | Ladd 8815 || 80)| 11 | 1185 | 28°80 | 15°40 | 5 4) 80} 90/170
454| Foster . . | 3800 || 75(|| 21 | 1403 | 17:90 9°93 ||| 7 6 {12 0} 12 0] 24 0
Final Trials in Loose New Hay.
45 | Samuelson ! | 2299 || 128}; 25 | 1690 | 18:10 |! 26:40 | 5 4/80] 60/140
46 | Howard . | 3762 40 || 10 | 921 | 24:60 | 18°20) 35 | 3 | 6 0/18 0) 24 0
47 | Ladd? . 3815 |) 80)) 11 | 1373 | 33:40 | 23°40 | 5 4] 8 OF 9 0/17 0
+ Second Prize, * First Prize,
TRIALS OF Hay AND STRAW PRESSES WORKED BY
Horse-PowEr.—Cuass 2.
Four machines came to trial in this class, viz. :
Stephenson . 6 . No. 8820'| Ladd |. |. 3) "0" Ngee
The Lincolnshire Hay Stephenson . ‘ «> yy BBE
and Straw Pressing Co. ,, 3814 :

The trials commenced on July 6, in loose straw and hay,
and were completed on the same day. Each exhibitor was
allowed a preliminary trial (of which the Judges took no notes),
in order that he might see if his press was in good working

&

werner

ror

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 581

order. After the first trials were completed, Ladd’s, and Ste-
phenson’s No. 3,819, were tried a second time upon loose hay,
when enough had been done to permit of a decision being made
without further experiments.

Article No. 3,820 (Fig. 5, p. 605), exhibited by Mr. George
Stephenson, Newark-on-Trent, was the first machine to come to
trial in Class 2 on July 6. This, and the succeeding machines,
were tried upon loose hay and straw, but not upon new hay, as
in the case of the steam-power machines. Stephenson showed
two presses in this class, characterised, one, by the employment
of an ordinary “toggle-joint,” and the other by a modification of
this well-known device, which may be described as a “ half
toggle” (see diagram on p. 605). In it, the lower limbs of the
ordinary toggle-joint are discarded, while the lower extremity of
each upper limb is furnished with a roller, which travels back
and forth upon a rail, forming part of the sole-plate of the
machine, as the limbs are drawn together or separated. The
press under review (No. 3,820) was a “toggle-joint” machine ;
the “ half-toggle” press was tried later.

The machine consists of a vertical box, or press-body, closed at the top
by a sliding door, and, laterally, by a swinging door. A platform, placed at
such a height that stuff can easily be received from the thrasher and forked
through the latter door, surrounds the press-body, and receives loose
material. Two men were employed upon this platform, either forking or
trampling, and one man drove the horse.

Within the box there is a moving platten which, during the charging
operation, forms the bottom of the press-body. The platten is supported by
the two upper limbs of the toggle, and is low down in the box when all four
members of the joint are widely open, high up in the box when these are
closed.

The toggle is operated by a chain, which, after passing around a guide
pulley to give it direction, is wound upon a windlass actuated by the horse.
The platten rises, quickly at first, and slowly at last, through a considerable
space—a movement well suited, as it appears, to the pressing of hay and
straw, where a gradually increasing pressure, ending in a powerful final
pinch, is the thing desired.

When the toggle is open, and while there is little or no pressing to do,
the horse’s energy is used in bringing the widely separated limbs of the joint
together, the leverage being at that moment greatly against him; but when
the final pinch is given, and the work of compression is hardest, there is a
hardly appreciable leverage against the horse, qua the toggle, so that his
work is equalised throughout the whole movement of the platten.

After a bale has been completed, the windlass is released by means of a
clutch, and the platten falls by its own weight, the rapidity of its descent
being checked by a brake on the chain-barrel, under the control of the
attendant. The bales are tied in the usual way, either with cord or wire,
and afterwards tumbled from the platform to the ground.

The ratio of movement between the horse and the platten at the point
of maximum pressure is 151 to 1, so that, estimating the pull of the horse
at 1} cwt., this would give 11°3 tons pressure upon the platten,

582 Teeport on the Trials of

This machine was tried upon straw, in which material the
density obtained was only 6 lbs. per cubic foot. It was mani-
festly a new and untried apparatus, which, for good reasons of
their own doubtless, the makers did not wish to test too severely.
However, as will appear when Stephenson’s other presses come to
be described, the principles upon which it is constructed are good.
The output of the machine was the largest obtained in this
class, but, as already stated, the density was low.

The power absorbed was very moderate, or equal to that of
one horse, pulling about 1} cwt. for one minute out of every
five, and standing during the other four minutes. The cost
of baling per ton was the lowest recorded in this class, but
the machine was passed over by the Judges because of its ob-
vious imperfections—imperfections, however, consisting merely
in matters of detail.

Article No. 3814, exhibited by the Lincolnshire Hay and
Straw Pressing Company, Limited, of Boston, Lincolnshire, was
next started in straw. It made one bale, having a density of
4 lbs. to the cubic foot, but, though it continued working for
some time afterwards, was not further noted by the Judges.
The press was a crude construction, having so many working
parts, operating so irregularly, and with so much friction that
any description of it here is unnecessary.

Article No. 3815 (Fig. 1, p. 602), exhibited by John H.
Ladd & Co., 116 Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C., was the
same article as that already described in Class 1, but rigged for
horse-power instead of steam. The exhibitors elected to run the
press with a single horse, choosing a very powerful animal for this
purpose; but the trial had not progressed far when it became
evident that two horses should, properly, have been employed.
Jt is true that the single animal got through the first trial in
straw, lasting seventeen minutes, but pulling much harder than
was good for him. In the hay trial, which followed, the same
horse, after working seven minutes and making three bales,
stopped and was changed for another. The second horse was an
even finer animal than the first, but five bales, accomplished in
sixteen minutes, brought him also nearly to a standstill. Hence,
in computing the cost of horse-power per ton, Ladd’s Press has
been debited with two horses (see points of merit) instead of
one, as in the case of Stephenson’s machine.

The ratio between the movement of the horse and that of
the platten was ascertained to be 148 to 1, which, assuming the
pull of the horse to have been 24 ewts., equals a pressure of 184
tons upon the platten. The press employed three men, also a
horse-driver, while its output was a trifle less than that of

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 583

Stephenson’s No. 3820. The density was considerable, the
power, as already noted, also considerable, and the cost of baling
per ton large in accordance. The press did its work well in
every respect, and, employing two horses instead of one, would
give satisfactory results.

Article No. 3819, exhibited by Geo. Stephenson, of Trent-
bridge Works, Newark, was of the “ half-toggle ” type, having no
lower toggle limbs. In all other respects it is exactly similar to
No. 3820 (see page 605), consisting of a vertical box, filled from
a platform through a lateral door, and a platten which rises and
falls as the limbs of the toggle are brought together or separated.

The closing of the toggle-joint is accomplished by means of
a chain made fast to one of the arms near the roller, reeved
round a snatch block on the other arm, and then led back,
parallel to the rail upon which the toggle rollers travel, to a
horse-windlass, exactly similar to that which has already been
described in connection with machine No. 3820. Considerable
height is saved in the “ half-toggle” press by the suppression
of the lower limbs of the toggle, but at the expense of its length,
a change which is, however, taken advantage of to get a better
arraugement of travelling wheels. Still it must be confessed
that both of this maker’s horse-presses are somewhat heavy and
cumbersome machines.

The press under review was tried first in straw, and after-
wards in loose hay, and did exceedingly good workin both. One
horse, walking one minute and standing four out of every five,
drove the press with ease, and could have kept on all day long

Taste [V.—SuHowinGa GENERAL REsuLtTs oF TRIALS IN Crass 2.

| : @ 4
zs |} = > ke 3 2 PY
3 3 EI ie s 3 3 a= s q
= i = 2 = H H Orv ice}
cat mie apy ein Peek (LS FIMEva tp Soe ens
sa Name of | g S sy a aS ct Bo Ho
p> a Be Exhibitor ee ‘SLs 4 2 Sie) ECE Mlter
|2 | Ey eniherne a Ss | es) n2| oe
Est ell were Sal fae le Shwe une seie |e celts
S el kel lg a $ | 3 a 3
a 4H ical a
First Trials, in Loose Straw, at Fodder Yard.
| No. £ min.| lbs. tons. pee Say Ge Wy & Ga | 83 de
uly 6| 31 Stephenson - .| 3820 |} 651 || 18 | 575 8:50 6:20 |6 0 90/150
| ,, | 32 | Lincolnshire Co. | 3814 || 65 Machine failed. BY Birk es
ee 38 | Ladd .. . .| 8815 || 802 || 17 8:00 | 10°40 16 25 0
Pr 34 | Stephenson . . | 3819 || 701 || 21 666 8°50 8°60 3 0 ches 15 0
Second Trials, Be Loose Hay, at Fodder Yard.
my | 36 85 | Ladd® . .. 3815 Pilla 627 | 10°50 | 13:37 | 9 0] 16 0 { 250
a Stephenson 4 3819 7” 27 | 1368 | 13°50 | 14:10 | 6 0 90} 15 0

Cost per ton

s. d.
19
ou

ut

2 45
ee

* Price includes horse-gear. * Price without horse-gear, * Second prize, * First aoe

584 Report on the Trials of

at the work. It was estimated that his pull was at no time
more than 2 cwt.

The ratio of movement between the horse and the platten at
the moment of maximum pressure was 301 to 1, equal at 2 cwt.
pull of the horse to a pressure of 30 tons on the platten. Two
men tended the press, and a third drove the horse. The out-
put was large, a bale, weighing 24 cwts., being turned out every
five minutes, while the density obtained was over the require-
ment in straw, and considerably over it in hay. The condition
of the baled material was good, the bales box-like in shape and
well-made, the power absorbed very moderate, and the cost of
baling per ton light in accordance.

The First Prize in Class 2 fell to Stephenson’s Press No,
3819, and the Second Prize to Ladd’s Press, No. 3815.

TRIALS OF Hay AND STRAW PRESSES WORKED BY HAND Power.
Cuass 3.

These trials, with which the competition was opened at Notting-
ham on July 3, brought forward nine competitors, as follows :—

Allen . : “ . No. 558 { Hoodless : . No. 523
Ruck . : - ~ 59) Ded | Wares, 5 : +... pOSUe
McKenzie . ; - 5, 8099 | Hartope 4 sg) gOOO
Bamber. » 057 | Mayos . : - » 060
Stephenson ») 0821

Of these, four machines, viz. Allen, Bamber, Hoodless, and
Mayos, were also entered as presses for old hay, worked by
hand-power, in Class 4.

The trial commenced on July 3, when all nine machines
were set to work successively upon hay and straw, each having
been first allowed to make a bale as a preliminary trial (of
which the Judges took no notice), in order that the exhibitor
might see his press was in good working order.

After the first trials upon straw and hay, five machines,
viz. Bamber, McKenzie, Stephenson, Hoodless, and Warnes,
went through a second trial, conducted upon loose straw and
hay, which also took place upon July 3; and three machines,
viz. Warnes, Bamber, and Hoodless, were selected, after the
second trial, for a final trial in hay, cut from the stack.

It is to be regretted that none of the machines tried in this
class can be considered as thoroughly satisfactory straw presses,
whatever they may doinhay. Only one of the machines selected
for a final trial was provided with a compression-box, and this

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 585

machine was finally thrown out on other grounds. A compres-
sion-box appears to be indispensable (except in the case of the
so-called continuous machines) to the proper baling of straw.
When no such box is used, the bales must be trimmed by the
knife in order to ensure such uniformity in size as will permit
of their being advantageously stowed in the railway truck, while
cutting the straw itself makes waste, and takes value from the
baled stuff. The case is similar, but not so important, in baling
hay. Here, the loss by trimming is of less consequence, while,
as a matter of fact, almost all the hay pressed in this country
is cut direct from the stack, and better manipulated without
a box than with one.

A further point must be noted in connection with these trials.
In laying down condition No. 9, which specifies that 50 cwt. of
pressed material must be loaded into a railway truck of 25 cubic
yards capacity, the Society inadvertently demanded a needless
amount of compression, unobtainable by hand, except at the cost
of more time than could be afforded for its economical production.
As a matter of fact, the moderate densities which were obtained
by the best hand-presses proved sufficient to permit of 50 cwt.
of straw bales being loaded into a railway truck. The railway
companies allow hay and straw to project 6 inches on all sides of
the truck, while they also top up the bales in a roof-like form.
Actual inquiry of the Midland Railway Company’s officials at
Nottingham disclosed the fact that one of their trucks measures,
for the purpose of hay and straw transport, 32 instead of 25 cubic

ards.

: Under these circumstances, and bearing in mind that the
Society’s object would be thereby fully obtained, prizes were -
awarded in this class to machines which obtained a density less
than that actually specified, but not until after it had been ascer-
tained, in the case of the First Prize machine, that straw boltings
such as are delivered by the trusser of a thrashing-machine
could be compressed by it to the specified density of 83 lbs. per
cubic foot. This, however, was a mere experiment, conducted
independently of the trials, and having no influence upon the
awards,

Mayos’ machine (No. 560) fulfilled the specified condition as
to density, but it took nearly half an hour to make a single bale,
whether of hay or straw—an expenditure of time which is, of
course, out of the question. It may here be remarked that
Mayos’ machine did not receive a second trial on account of an
informality in entry, and it is not known, therefore, what this
machine could accomplish when aiming at lower densities,

5986 Report on the Trials of

Trials of Class 3 in Hay and Straw.

Article No. 558, exhibited by Valentine J. Allen, Spalding,
Lincolnshire, was the first implement to come to trial in Class 3
on July 3. After making one bale, this machine became dis-
abled by the slipping of a pinion over two teeth of the rack in
which it engaged, whereby the second motion shaft of the machine
became bent and the press itself put out of the competition.

Article No. 524, exhibited by Henry Ruck, of Castle Hill,
Down Ampney, Wiltshire, was a homely tool rather than machine,
consisting of a very simple apparatus wherein manual labour is
applied directly to the compression of the bale. Hay or straw
is laid horizontally between four wooden uprights, opposed to
each other, and firmly fastened to a wooden base plate. Along
the latter lie two chains, either of whose outer extremities are
connected by a cross-piece of wood. When the retainer is full,
the chains are thrown around its contents, like strings around a
parcel, their wooden terminations forming treadles, upon each
of which one of the two attendants stands. These men are
furnished each with a wooden maul, wielding which with their
right, while clasping each other’s left hands, they stamp upon the
crossing of the chains, their own weight, meanwhile, serving to
take up and retain all the slack chain which they can thus succeed
in producing. When the compression is complete, the bale is
tied with two cords, and makes way for another supply of loose
material.

Ruck’s Press, which can hardly be called a machine, suc-
ceeded in throwing out a bale every five minutes, but it pro-
duced an almost inappreciable compression, whether in straw
or hay, only 1:7 lb. of the former and 5:5 lbs. of the latter
material being pressed into a cubic foot. ‘Two men were em-
ployed about the press; the bales were rough and shapeless, the
power absorbed, in relation to the work done, considerable, and
the cost of baling, in relation to output and density, high. The
machine was not ordered for second trial.

Article No. 3099, exhibited by Thomas Mackenzie & Sons,
of 212 Great Brunswick Street, Dublin, is of American origin,
and consists of a vertical box having two lateral doors at the
bottom of the press-body.

The body is filled from the top with loose materials, These, after being
trampled, are covered with a platten, and this again with a cross beam,
whose extremities project through slots in the ends of the box. Two long
wooden levers act, one on each end of this beam, shifting fulera being pro-
vided for them by the teeth of a pair of racks which line the sides of either

slot. The platten thus descends step by step, what is gained at each stroke
of the lever being secured by palls attached to the cross-beam, and falling

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 587

into the same rack-teeth which furnish the fulera. When no more pressure
can be given, the truss is tied with cord in the usual way and discharged from
the lateral door at the bottom of the press.

The leverage in the McKenzie Press was 164 to 1, which,
taking the weight of the two men employed at 280 lbs., gives
a pressure of 2 tons on the platten. Two men, one at each lever,
worked the press. It was unfortunate that the men employed
in the trial were quite unskilled in the use of this machine.
Had it been otherwise, there is no question but that the imple-
ment, which is extremely simple in construction, would have
made a much better show. As it was, from fifteen to eighteen
minutes were occupied in making each bale, whereas a couple
of skilled men would, probably, not have taken half the time.
The density obtained did not exceed 43 /lbs. per cubic foot in
straw, and 84 lbs. per cubic foot in hay, while the cost of baling
was correspondingly high. Under these circumstances the press
was excused from final competition.

Article No. 557 (Fig. 6, p. 606), exhibited by Joseph Bamber,
of Saul Street, Preston, Lancashire. This press was, without
question, the simplest machine on the ground. In appearance
it was just like an ordinary cheese-press, provided with a pulley
and endless cord for obtaining a quick return of the screw. Two
men operated the machine, compressing the materials by means
of capstan levers, which rotated the screw. After compression,
the platten was returned quickly by means of the pulley and
cord, and this simple arrangement worked extremely well. There
being no compression-box, the exhibitor was obliged to trim his
straw bales with the knife, a practice which has already been _
discussed and condemned.

The ratio of movement between the capstan lever and the
platten was 120 to 1, which, assuming each man to exercise a
force of 100 lbs. on the levers, equals a pressure of 10-7 tons on
the platten.

The output of this press was good, and the density obtained
in both hay and straw relatively good also. The materials were
left in good condition in the bales, while the power required was
moderate, the two men employed being evidently capable of
continuing the work all day without undue fatigue. The cost
of baling was low in accordance. This press, which weighs less
than 3 ewt., can be easily transported by a hand-cart, which
adds 4/. to its cost, but if two or more of the Bamber Presses were
worked on a farm, one hand-cart would serve for them all, adding
little to the first cost of the presses. The extreme simplicity,
cheapness, and portability of this machine strongly recom-
mended it to the consideration of the Judges, and to the

588 Report on the Trials of

agricultural experts especially, while, its work being expe-
ditiously and economically performed, it was ordered for further
trial.

Article No. 3,821, exhibited by George Stephenson, of
Newark-on-Trent, Notts, was exactly similar to the same ex-
hibitor’s horse-machine, No. 3,820 (see page 605), but worked
with a winch-handle instead of a horse-gear. There is no need,
therefore, to re-describe the machine, the more so as it, unfortu-
nately, failed in its first trial.

The chain which is employed, as in the horse-power press,
to draw the limbs of the toggle-joint together, was wrapped
round a very small barrel, and took on to this at so bad an
angle that it was no matter of surprise when, after a few surges,
the chain in question broke. The accident was, however,
claimed to be due to a defective link, and permission to “ repair
damages” was accordingly given. But, on the following day,
the chain broke again before two straw bales had been made,
and the machine was adjudged hors concours. 'This failure was
unfortunate, because, in many respects, the press promised well,
and was all the more regretted by the Judges since it deprived
them of making a comparison between the “toggle” and the
* half-toggle” principle.

Article No. 523, exhibited by James S. Huodless, of
Walkeringham, Gainsborough, was a vertical press, having a
platten, forced downwards, by the action of a screw and gearing,
into a compression-box with a lateral door for the extrusion of
the bale.

The press is filled from the top, the platten sliding out of the way for
the admission of the loose material. After this has been trampled, the platten
is replaced, and acted upon, in the first instance, by means of a winch-handle
without multiplication of the screw’s effect. When no more compression
can be obtained by the direct action of the screw, the men who tend the
machine shift over to capstan levers on the side of the machine opposite
the winch, and impart the final pressure through gearing, which considerably
reduces the speed of the platten. The latter is raised, after compression has
been effected, by means of the winch. The bales are tied by cords in the
usual way, and turned out, at the ground level, through the lateral door.

The press worked slowly, turning out its first (straw) bale,
weighing 120 lbs., in 17 minutes, and its second (hay) bale, weigh-
ing 207 lbs.,in 15 minutes. This want of speed was due, in some
measure, to the difliculty experienced in trampling. The cross-
head through which the compressing screw passes is close down
upon the press-body, and is not removable, and the trampler,
consequently, worked with his body inclined instead of upright.
The output was small, but the density high, and the cost of
baling considerable. Two men tended the press, but, whether

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 589

trampling or pressing, they were hard-worked. The Hoodless
Press has no special means of transport, but requires to be
loaded up into a cart in order to move from place to place. This
machine, in the general dearth of meritorious competitors in
this class, was ordered for a second trial. The ratio of move-
ment between the capstan levers and platten was 372 to 1, equal,
at 100 lbs. pull per man, to a pressure of about 32 tons in the
platten.

Article No. 3086 (Fig. 7, p. 606), exhibited by William
Warnes, of King’s Lynn, Norfolk, was a heavy and powerful
press, acting vertically on the materials, which are squeezed
between a descending platten, forced downwards by a screw and
gearing, and a table standing about a foot above the ground-level.

The press is open on three sides, its jaw-shaped frame, which is made of
steel angles and plating, being strong enough to take the thrust of the screw.
When loose hay or straw is operated upon, it is confined laterally by two
swinging doors, while, on the third side, the stuff is kept in place by the
plated framework of the machine, together forming the equivalent of a com-
pression-box. The nut in which the screw works is rotated by means of a
winch operating upon bevil gears, Of these, there are two pairs, one giving
a fast, and the other a slow movement. A clutch between the two pinions
serves to put either of them into gear, or to stop the press. The table of
the press forms the platform of a weighing machine, counterbalanced by a
steelyard and sliding weight, so that the bales can be accurately sized.
The winch is turned from a platform attached, at a suitable height, to the
framework of the machine, and approached by a short wooden ladder.

The ratio of movement between the winch-handle and the
platten is 883 to 1 in the slow motion, equal, with two men on
the winch, at 50 lbs. each man, to 39 tons pressure on the platten.

The output of the Warnes Press was not large, but the density _
obtained was the highest recorded in Class 3. The men, how-
ever, were hard-worked, and the cost of baling was considerable.
The bales were tied with cord in the usual way. The condition
of the stuff in the bales was good, but the want of a proper com-
pression-box for straw obliged this exhibitor also to trim his
straw bales with the knife. The press was supported on its own
travelling wheels when at work, and could be immediately moved
by putting a horse in the shafts, which were not removed. The
size of this press was comparatively enormous, and its weight
more than twelve times that of Bamber’s, but, thanks again to
a dearth of worthy competitors in the class, it did the best work
of any machine except Bamber’s, and was consequently ordered
for a second trial.

Article No. 566, exhibited by J. Hartope & Oo., Midlands
Depot, Leicester, made only a single truss of straw, and, proving
a failure, was withdrawn by its exhibitors.

Article No, 560, exhibited by 7’. 7. Mayos, of Llangunnock,

590 Report on the Trials of

Ross, was next brought to trial in straw. This press is a modi-
fication of the American press exhibited by McKenzie, so far as its
method of pressing is concerned. But Mayos uses three plattens
instead of one, and forces these down upon the loose materials,
successively, by levers which operate in exactly the same way as
those of the McKenzie Press. He thus obtains a greater density,
but with acorresponding expenditure of time. In addition, Mayos’
Press is made up of such a number of pieces that almost as much
time was spent in taking it apart and putting it together, ready to
make a bale, as in making the bale itself. The receiver, in which
loose material is placed for the purpose of baling, is similar to
the ‘“‘ Bolting Tier ” exhibited by Mr. Mayos at Newcastle, and
described in the last number of the Journal (p. 201). Like that,
it is furnished with a number of strings previously prepared,
and so placed that the two ends of any given string can be
brought together and buttoned around the truss after it has been
compressed.

As previously stated, Mr. Mayos’ machine did not get be-
yond a preliminary trial by reason of an informality in his entry.
In that trial, it succeeded in compressing straw to a density
of 8 lbs. per cubic foot, but took nearly half an hour to make
a bale. There was no opportunity, for the reason just stated,
of ascertaining the rate at which this press would make less
dense bales, but it would have been very slow without doubt.

On July 3 and 4 the machines of Bamber, McKenzie,
Hoodless, and Warnes, which had been selected for a second
trial, were again tried upon loose straw and hay, All these
machines have already been described, and their performances
in a second trial did not differ notably from the first, but
McKenzie’s continued want of density threw this machine out,
and only three machines, viz., those of Bamber, Warnes, and
Hoodless, took part in the final trials.

These were conducted on July 4 upon old hay cut out of
the stack. Warnes, who went in first, pressed the cut bales,
at the rate of 54 tons per day, with a density of 94 lbs. per
cubic foot; Bamber, who came next, baled, at the rate of
82 tons per day, with a density of 9:1 Ibs. per cubic foot; and
Hoodless, who came last, baled, at the rate of 4-2 tons per day,
with a density of 9°7 lbs. per cubic foot—Warnes and Bamber
making trusses of exactly the same size, and as nearly as pos-
sible of 1 ewt. each, while Hoodless’s bales were considerably
larger, averaging 132 Ibs. each. Finally, Hoodless was ruled
out, leaving Bamber and Warnes masters of the situation.

As between these two machines there was no question
which should be placed first. Bamber had beaten Warnes in

Date of Trial

July 4

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham.

Or
Jo}
—

TABLE V.—SHOWING RESULTS OF TRIALS IN CLass 3.

Order of Trial

OANATEWNHe

CaANIAarwdore

i
o

11

i
to

13

i
~~

15
16
17

Name of
Exhibitor

Catalogue number
Price of machine

Duration of trial

Weight of bales made
Tons baled per day

First Trials, in Loose Stran, at Fodder Yard.

* Price, ineluding cart,

? Density deficient,

* Second prize,

n el
o s §
rca a] »
< ag 3
3 as a
b Be bo
~ 5 0 S
a Sm =
q Ss s
o es 2
i=) 4 Ww
= ox i)
g ae a
s ° °
oO oO

| £ s, || min.| Ibs. | tons | bat tr & ad | ay a

Allen . . .| 558 || 30 0 Machine broke in making 1st bale.
Ruck «| 524 /| 4 4/]) 4] 32 | 210 | 3:00../ 60 | 2 10
McKenzie ., | 3099 re 0 || 18 80 | 1:20 430 |6 0|5 0
Bamber a oat PS OF ls 9) |p 143) | 4-207 PP a-2Or error 5
Stephenson . | 8821 || 50 0] 3) 48| 430 | 40019 0/2 1
Hoodless . .| 523 || 24 0 || 17 | 120} 1:30 | 650 |}6 0/3 4
Warnes’ . . | 3806 || 35 0 9 88 | 2°60 5:20 |9 0/3 5
Hartope - | 566 | 20 0 || Failed, and was withdrawn,
Mayos 560 || 18 0 || 25 | 112 | 1:20 | 8:30 {6 0| 5 O

Second Trials, in Loose Stran, at Fodder Yard.
Bamber 557 || 15 01|| 25 | 302] 3:20 | 400 |6 O]| 1 103
McKenzie .| 3099 | 17 0 || 19 | 222] 3-10 4:10) [6 0) |) de Ie
Stephenson . | 3821 || 50 0O Machine failed by breaking chain.
Hoodless . , 523 || 24 0 || 22 | 223] 2-70 550 |6 0|2 24
Warnes . ./| 3806 || 35 0 |] 15 | 181] 3:20 | 510 |9 0} 2 93

First Trials, in Loose Hay, at Fodder Yard.
Alleny . 4. «| 5b8 | 30) 0 Machine failed in straw.
Ruck ss 524 4 4 5 40 | 2:10 550 |6 0] 2.10
McKenzie , | 3099 || 17 0 || 15 | 172 | 3:00 | 840 |6 0/2 0O
Bamber -| 557/15 OF 7/103) 3:94 | 824 |6 0} 1 62
Stephenson? . | 3821 || 50 0]]. 5; 72] 3:85 | 670 |9 0/2 4
Hoodless . 523 || 24 0 || 16 | 207 | 3-46 820 |}6 0; 1 8%
Warnes , 3806 || 35 O 9 | 129 | 3°84 900 |9 0/;2 4
Hartope . .| 566 | 20 O || Machine failed in straw, and withdrawn.
Mayos. . .| 560/18 0 || 20| 172| 2:30 |11°86 |6 0|2 7

Second Trials, in Loose Hay, at Lodder Yard.
Bamber . 557 || 15 01/ 16 | 238| 400 | 9:75 16 O|]1 6
McKenzie , |} 3099 || 17 0 || 18 | 356| 529 | 690 |6 0 | L 14
Stephenson . | 3821 || 50 O Machine failed in straw, ;
Hoodless , 523 || 24 O || 27 | 387| 3:80 | 9:67 |6 O11 7
Warnes . 3806 || 35 O || 17 | 291] 4:54 | 8-45 ‘3 0 | 1 112

Final Trials, in Old Hay, at Stack.

Warnes® . . | 3806 || 35 0 || 27 | 557 | 5:50 | 9:55 ]9 O/] 1° 8
Bamber* , 557 || 15 0O*) 18 | 560 | 830 | 910 | 6 oO! 0 83
Hoodless , .| 523 || 24 O | 42 | 668 | 4:20 | 970 ]6 O/1 5

* Tirst prize,

592 Report on the Trials of

output, power, and cost of labour, and his density was well
above the requirement in hay; while Warnes, in spite of his
double-geared screw, could no more than Bamber obtain the
specified density in straw. On the other hand, Bamber’s
machine was not one-twelfth the weight, and only one-third the
price, of Warnes’s Press. Without computation of the points
due to each machine, the result was in no way doubtful, and, after
such computation, Bamber was easily ahead. The First Prize in
Class 3 fell, consequently, to Bamber, and the second, faute de
mieux, it must in all candour be said, was awarded to Warnes.

TRIALS OF OLD Hay PRESSES WORKED BY
Hanp-PowrEr.—Cuass 4.

The trials in Class 4 commenced on July A, and were com-
pleted on the same day. Nine machines came forward for
trial, viz. :

Bradbury . : . No. 562 | Scott . - No. 522
Bamber : . =) a 067 |. Barford & Perkins . =1% yheeee
Stephenson . - y, 3822 | Warnes. ; : ot! 4x) 3808
Barford & Perkins . < x waoe! | Koster . : «my our
Ladd . : yy 3817

On completion of the first trials, which took place upon hay cut
from a stack on Lord Middleton’s estate, four machines, viz.,
Bradbury, Bamber, Barford, and Warnes, received a second
trial, upon the results of which the decisions were given. Pre-
liminary runs, of which no account was taken, were given as
before, that makers might ascertain if their presses were in
working order.

Before describing the trials proper, something must be said
about hay in the stack, and something also about this par-
ticular hay-stack. The density of hay in a stack differs, of
course, very greatly in its upper and lower layers, so that the
performance of any old hay press is largely influenced by the
position in the rick from which trusses are cut. A truss cut,
for example, from the upper part of Lord Middleton’s stack,
and having a capacity of 13°66 cubic feet, weighed 85 Ibs., or
6°22 lbs, to the cubic foot; while another truss, from the bottom
of the rick, having a capacity of 12°8 cubic feet, weighed 152 lbs.,
or 11-9 Ibs. to the cubic foot.

Under these circumstances, great care was taken that every
competitor should have fair play, and all be served as nearly as
possible alike. Mr. Scotson, whose practical knowledge rendered
him just the umpire for the purpose, stood by during the whole
of the trials in Class 4, directing exactly where each truss should
be cut, and, so far as was possible in a case of some difficulty,

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 593

seeing that justice was done to each press. Hven so, it must be
remembered that the tabulated outputs and densities in Class 4
are not so exactly comparable as in classes where loose hay and
straw were baled.

Article No. 562 (Fig. 9, p. 607), exhibited by Joseph Brad-
bury, Charles Street, Manchester, was a press in which a
suspended platten, balanced by counterweights, is pulled down
upon the stuff to be baled by the action of a long lever, acting
through a ratchet and gearing upon a pair of chain-barrels
situated beneath the floor of the press.

The lever imparts an intermittent motion, by means of a pawl and
ratchet-wheel, to the spindle of a pinion which gears, with a ratio of 4 to 1,
into a wheel keyed on the chain-barrel shaft. A second (bevil) pinion,
gearing into a second set of teeth cast on the same wheel, and operated by a
winch, serves to give a quick motion to the chain-barrel shaft at the begin-
ning of pressing; the man in attendance then throws the quick motion out
of gear, and completes the operation by some strokes of the lever, on which he
finally hangs all his weight. The bale is tied with cord in the usual way,
and the platten, on being released, is raised by counterweights, a simple but
ingenious arrangement of “ snail” pulley on the shaft forming the axis of the
counterweights, lifting the platten higher in front than behind, and opening
the press widely for the admission of a second charge of hay.

The ratio of movement between the end of the lever and the
platten at the moment of greatest pressure is 120 to 1. A
man and a boy worked this machine, but the man only gave
the pressure, so that, assuming his weight to be 140 lbs., this
would equal 7:5 tons pressure on the platten.

This machine worked extremely well ; it gave a good, though
not relatively high, density, was easy work for a man and boy,
and made a good output. The condition of the hay in the bales
was, of course, unaltered from that of the stack, and this was the
case with all the machines in this class. The cost of baling
was low, and the machine altogether a very satisfactory one. It
was quickly and easily mounted for travelling, or dismounted for
going to work, an operation which only occupied a few minutes.

Perhaps there are more parts and more mechanical com-
plexity than need be in the Bradbury Press, but it is one which
would assuredly give satisfaction to any farmer employing it.
The machine might have obtained more points, had Brad-
bury cut his trusses larger; and, indeed, it would have been
better had each competitor been obliged to cut a given sized
truss from the stack. But this was a matter manifestly outside
the control of the Judges, who could only say to all the com-
petitors, “‘Go as you please, and show your machine to the best
advantage,” while exercising their judgment as to whether any
trusses were, or were not, too large to be practical.

Article No, 557 (Fig. 6, p. 606), exhibited by Joseph Bamber,

VOL. XXIV.—S. S, QQ

594 Report on the Trials of

of Preston, was the same press as that (see page 587) which
competed in Class 5, and will not, therefore, be again described.
The machine worked extremely well in the old hay, making a good
output, and giving a high density. The cost of baling per ton
was less in the final trials than that of any other machine in the
class, the work was easy for the two men employed, while the
extreme simplicity of the machine and its very moderate price
recommended it in the strongest way to the Judges. Bamber’s
machine, as already described, is moved from place to place on
a simple hand-cart, into which it can be loaded in two minutes.

Article No. 3822, exhibited by George Stephenson, of Newark-
on-Trent, was constructed, like all of Stephenson’s machines, on
the “toggle-joint ” principle—the toggles, in this case, having
no lower limbs, and the upper limbs being provided at their
lower extremities with rollers running upon rails, which serve
to form the sole plate of the press.

The toggles are pulled together by a chain, wound round a barrel by means
of a long lever and ratchet-wheel, which turns a bevel pinion gearing into a
wheel, giving a considerable decrease in speed.

The ratchet-wheel is double-acting, giving motion to the chain-barrel on
the upward as well as on the downward stroie. The platten in this, as in
all Stephenson’s presses, is placed below, and receives an upward thrust. It
is furnished with a lateral slide, which, being pulled out, gives a free head-
way for piling the loose hay, and is afterwards pushed back into place ready
to receive the pressure. After pressing, the platten and bale are allowed to
fall by their own weight, the speed of descent being controlled by a small
brake.

The ratio of movement between the extremity of the lever and that of
the platten at the point of maximum pressure is 162 to 1, or, taking the man’s
weight at 140 lbs., 10:1 tons upon the platten.

This machine failed; chiefly for want of range in the press.
Stuff enough could not be put in to get the full pressure on the
bale, and a density of only 6°3 lbs. to the cubic foot was obtained.
The press exhibited evident signs of being a ‘first machine,”
and it was matter for regret that, except in one case, Mr.
Stephenson should have shown presses not yet perfected, for
it appeared probable that, in the toggle, he has got hold of a
principle very applicable to hay and straw pressing. This
machine was excused from second trial.

Article 2263 (Fig. 8, p. 607), exhibited by Barford &
Perkins, Peterborough, is similar in principle to that of Brad-
bury, already described, but employs a longer hand-lever, which
works directly, instead of through gearing, upon a ratchet-
wheel keyed to a spindle passing under the floor of the press,
and furnished with two “ snail” chain-barrels.

As these are rotated by the action of the lever, the platten is pulled
down, quickly at first, and slowly at last. and is returned, after compression

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 595

has been effected, by counterweights, The platten is guided in its descent
by two rollers, one on each side of the machine; an arrangement which, leaving
the platten free to accommodate itself to the surface of the bale, avoids the
friction common to guides, which keep it horizontal. The floor of the press
slides out laterally for taking a charge of hay. It is then pushed back, the
platten being, meanwhile, at its greatest height.

Three men tended this press, which worked rapidly and well,
turning out bales of the requisite density, and without at all
distressing the men, who could undoubtedly go on all day at
the work. The ratio of movement between the hand-lever and
the platten at the moment of greatest pressure is 36 to 1, and
the two men employed in pressing were ascertained to weigh
together 298 lbs., which equals a pressure of 4°8 tons on the
platten.

It will be noticed that these exhibitors do not aim at giving
the heavy pressures which many others do to the bale, but, in
view of the fact that the press accomplishes its object, viz.,
loading 50 ewt. into 25 cubic yards, a clear gain in speed and
cost is obtained by this policy. The same thing is true of the
Bamber screw-press, wherein sufficient pressure is given with-
out a second motion, while hand-presses, furnished with gears,
appear merely to “butter bacon” at the expense of output
and economy.

Article 3817, exhibited by H. Ladd & Co., of Queen Vic-
toria Street, London, would have made a better showing but for
the obvious fact that it had only recently been finished, appar-
ently for the purpose of competition, and that it embodied
certain crudities of detail, such as are inseparable from “ first:
machines.” The floor of the press supports two vertical wrought-
iron racks, while the platten is furnished with a winch operating
a gear haying two movements. Winch and platten descend
together, so that the operator, who begins by turning a handle
about as high as his head, finds this, at last, when the pressure
is being put on, at a convenient height for exerting all his
‘power. After pressing, the winch is slid out of gear, and the
platten returned quickly by means of a temporary handle
slipped into a socket in the first motion-wheel. The ratio of
movement between winch and platten at the moment of maxi-
mum pressure is 205 to 1, or with one man, exercising 50 lbs.
pressure on the handle, about 4°5 tons total pressure on the
platten; with two men, 9 tons. The machine did not obtain
the required density, and was excused from a second trial.

Article 522 (Fig. 10, p. 608), exhibited by Hilton Scott, of
High Street, Lincoln, was next tried.

Scott’s Press is cart-like in appearance, and is set to work
by removing a pair of travelling wheels and up-ending the

Q@Q2

596 Report on the Trials of

shafts. When on the road, the attendant sits on the press as in
a cart, and drives the horse. When at work, the press-body is
vertical and the platten below. The latter is furnished with a
lateral slide for receiving the charge of hay, and it is raised, by
means of ropes wound upon a barrel, operated by a winch and
gear of two movements. When the pressing is completed, the
platten falls by its own weight, the winch being slipped out of
action, and its too rapid descent is checked by a brake under
control of the attendant. The ratio of movement between
winch and platten at the moment of maximum pressure is
256 to 1, or, with one man exerting 50 lbs. pressure on the
winch, 5°7 tons on the platten, and 11-4 tons when two men
press. The press did not obtain the required density, and was
excused from a second trial.

Article No. 2264, exhibited by Barford & Perkins, of Peter-
borough, was a duplicate of No. 2263, already described, with
the addition of a device for weighing the hay before baling, and
thus ensuring uniform trusses. The design of the steel-yard is
simple, adding little to the complexity of the machine, and not
in any way inconveniencing the men. The weighing device
unfortunately failed in the trial, not on account of any inherent
defect, but simply because the notches for carrying the steel-
yard weights were too shallow. The shaking of the machine
when at work shifted the weight, and gave all sorts of results.
The case again illustrates the danger of putting a ‘first machine”
into trial. This press was excused a second trial.

Article 3868, exhibited by William Warnes, of King’s
Lynn, was practically a duplicate of the press tried in Class 3
(see page 589). Warnes’s Press was now, however, in presence,
not only of the machine which had beaten it in Class 3, but of
several other much more formidable competitors than it had
met in that class, and, although it was ordered for second trial,
its chances of final success were not great.

Article 3802, exhibited by William Foster & Co., Limited,
of Wellington Foundry, Lincoln, was a double-acting machine,
consisting of a platten moving vertically between the floor and
the roof of the press, matters being so arranged that the top
press received a charge while the bale, previously formed below,
was being tied.

The platten is operated by two vertical screws, standing one on either
side of the machine, which do not themselves revolve, but are furnished
with nuts, toothed peripherally, and actuated each by a tangential screw,
as in the well-known “Haley ” screwjack.

The ratio of movement between the platten and winch-handle is 480 to 1,
equal to a pressure of 10? tons on the platten, one man turning the handle—
or double this with two men turning.

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 597

In spite of its great apparent power, this press failed to ob-
tain the required density, but this was due to a want of room
in the press-body, and not to want of power. The movement
of the platten was limited by a certain guide-wheel, so that it
could not approach its abutment within 18 inches, while there
was not room in the press-body for loose hay enough to
give the required density without more movement of the platten.
The press, which, from a mechanical point of view, was very
satisfactory, being well-made, simple, strong, and not liable to
get out of order, was excused a second trial.

Final Trials of Old Hay Presses worked by Hand-Power.
Class 4.

These commenced on July 5 with a second trial of Brad-
bury’s machine, followed by Bamber, Barford, and Warnes.
Such variations as took place from the performances of each of
these machines in the first trials were slight, and are dealt with
in the tables below. The competition between Bamber and
Barford was very keen, while Bradbury also pressed both of
these machines hard. So far as the two former presses are con-

TABLE VI.—SHOWING GENERAL RESULTS OF TRIALS IN CLass LV.

ca ee So ee ee | s g
re a ae eh a) le 3 FE a 7
ae: E}eiei/a)} 2 | 3 |). 88) 8
54 ih Name of a e/e]| 3 re Bc z8 2.
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First Trials in Old Hay at Stack.
£ |min.| Ibs. tons Dee Ss. d.| s d.
July 4/18 | Bradbury . .| 562 | 19 |719 | 428] 6:0 Sb 16 0 |) 0
Pe 19 | Bamber’. . .}| 557 | 15 /#24 | 485 | 5-4 (3G) Ont ieee
v4 20 | Stephenson. . | 3822 | 25 | 25 | 355 | 3:8 6:36 (Oe ae
” Zi |. Barford . . . | 2263 | 25 |'11 | 500 | 12:1 12" 9 (OF) Ord:
a° ee add... | 8817 | 12 | 14") 472 | 9:0 76 GO), G58
” gon Sent... 522 | 25 |-20 | 468 63 73 6 0/0114
” 24 | Barford . . .| 2264 | 29 | 14] 5610) 9:7 76 9 0} O11
be 25 | Warnes .*. . | 3808 | 35 | 30 | 553 | 5:0 9:67>}, 9) 0) | eo
7 26 |. Foster. . . .| 3802 | 20 |°21 | 472] 6:0 TI ha SO 20
Final Trials in Old Hay at Stach.
July 4| 27 | Bradbury . .| 562 | 25 { 24 6
o 28 | Bamber’. . . 557 | 155 35 |1021 6
- 29 | Barford?. . .| 2263 | 26 | 22 9
* 30 | Warnes . . . | 3808 | 35 | 43 9
+ First prize. ? Highly commended, > With cart.

| | |

Report on the Trials of

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Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 599

cerned, it was a case in which a decision would hardly have
been possible without the aid of “points,” and these, after
a most careful allotment, gave the First Prize to Bamber. So
few points, however, divided the first from the second machine
that the Judges recommended Messrs. Barford & Perkins for
a second prize—there being only one prize of 20/. offered in this
class—and, upon the Council announcing their inability to make
any change in the published programme, the Judges highly
commended Barford & Perkins’s Press, coupling this award
with the statement that it was made because no further money
prize could be awarded by the Council. The effect, however,
was to put the press in question closely into the second place.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

It now only remains briefly to deduce certain general con-
clusions from these trials, and to notice some extraordinary
discrepancies in the practice of the various makers—discre-
pancies which, while they tend to show that the art of press-
making is in its infancy, prove also that, whatever may be
thought of the prize system generally, its application to
machines still in course of development benefits both users and
makers. There is no way, indeed, short of the slow process
known as the “survival of the fittest,” whereby any mechanical
device is ultimately perfected, bat the advantage of such trials as
those at Nottingham resides in the fact that artificial selection
aids natural selection, and brings the “ fittest ” sooner into being.

So far as Class 1 is concerned, it has already been pointed -
out that both the Ladd and Pilter Presses are wasteful of power,
and the cause of this wastefulness has been explained. The
uneven character of the load imposed upon the engine by the
Foster Press has been dwelt upon, together with the fact
that this machine calls for a more powerful engine than would
be needed if its demands for energy in relation to the work
accomplished were more constant. On the other hand, the
Howard Press, with all its crudities, did not throw away power,
like the Ladd and Pilter Presses, on the extrusion of the trusses,
for, if it thrust its hay or straw sausage forth intermittently,
little or no loss of power was thereby occasioned, because the
inertia of the issuing stream was trifling. This intermittence
itself would probably disappear by the adoption of an automatic
binding apparatus, with the addition of which apparently feasible
improvement the Howard Press has a future before it.

In the 2nd, or Horse-power Class, Ladd’s weak point
came into strong relief when his press was brought into compe-
_ tition with that of Stephenson. A great part of his horse-power

600 Report on the Trials of

was manifestly used, not to compress, but to discharge his bales,
while Stephenson showed that one-fourth of a horse-power, pro-
perly applied, is enough to do more work than Ladd accom-
plished with one horse, or could, probably, have accomplished
with two. Immature as, unfortunately, were all the machines
exhibited by Stephenson in other classes, his performance in
Class 2 demonstrated that “toggle-joint” machines are very
economical of power, and therefore of time and money. It re-
mains for Mr. Stephenson, or some other maker, to give a better
practical expression to this principle than, aside from the horse-
power machine, was forthcoming at his hands at Nottingham.

Turning now to the hay and straw presses worked by hand-
power (Classes 3 and 4), the following table discloses not only
some extraordinary differences in the present practice of makers,
but the fact that the principles which should govern the art of
hay and straw pressing are as yet little understood. Several
machines have been omitted from the table in question, some
because they failed altogether, others because they were not
worked up to their powers, and others, again, because they were
disqualified or withdrawn ; but enough remains to startle the
mechanic as well as to give him hints which ought to guide
future construction.

TasBLE VIJI.—Hay anp Srraw PRESSES WORKED BY HAanp-
PoweEr.-—CLassEs 3 AND 4.

Cata- Namelot p REtaOnIeTar Pressure on Mean density
Hogue. |-| cxhibttas | ever Winch] “*elotor [Pincers )
tons Tbs, per ce. foot
3090 | McKenzie x 164 2:0 ae
2263 | Barford . 4 36 4°8 9°8
562 | Bradbury x 120 15 8:3
557 | Bamber. . x 120 10-7 9°7
523 | Hoodless . x 372 16:0 7
3802 | Foster . . “2 480 aly ¢ Ter
3808 | Warnes. . x 883 39°0 11:0

Now, in view of the fact that all these presses simply aim
at getting 50 cwt. of hay or straw into a railway truck, and
that this can be accomplished by squeezing something less than
8 lbs. of either material into a cubic foot, it is clear they cannot
all be built upon correct principles.

The stack of old hay operated upon at Nottingham had,
itself, a density of 6 lbs. per cubic foot at top, and 12 Ibs. at
bottom, and, although a good deal of density is no doubt lost in
cutting out trusses, there is not really much work to be done in
old hay pressing,

Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 601

It is true that McKenzie’s Press, with a leverage of 164 to 1,
failed to obtain the required density, but Barford succeeded in
doing all that was wanted with a leverage of 36 tol. Mean-
while, at the other end of the scale, Warnes, with a leverage of
883 to 1, got only a little more density than Barford, losing
speed and time correspondingly, and needing a mammoth frame
to withstand useless strains.

This Report does not, of course, pretend to say where the
“happy mean” between these extremes lies; its duty ceases
with pointing out discrepancies in practice which, before trial
and examination, no one would have suspected. If Barford’s
pressure of something under 5 tons upon the platten is enough
to do the work required from an “old hay press,’ machines
which aim at obtaining from twice to eight times this platten
pressure cannot possibly be the “fittest,” and will, probably,
not ‘‘ survive.”

Similarly, the Bamber Press weighed less than three cwt.,
while the Warnes Press must have weighed nearly as many tons;
yet, such was the chaos of principles, and such the exigency
of the situation in Class 3, that the Judges had no choice
between giving the Second Prize to the Warnes machine or with-
holding it altogether. This is faint praise for those machines
which failed in Class 3, but it is solid fact.

Surely, never was an occasion when unexpected results, such
as those which followed the Nottingham trials, formed a better
justification of the modified prize system as it exists to-day.
The mere tabulation of those results is itself an education to
makers who are, probably, learners of the art, not to say the
“mystery,” of press-making.

A last, and pleasant, duty remains—viz., to acknowledge, on
the part of the Judges, the willingness—and, it might on this
occasion be added, the patience—with which all their demands
upon the exhibitors were met; the value of the technical assis-
tance afforded by Mr. Anderson, Mr. Courtney, and their assis-
tants; and the services of that faultless implement steward,
Mr. Hemsley, in foreseeing and providing for every possible
want. Three other less conspicuous aids to the Judges’ labours
require acknowledgment: Mr. Avery’s kindness in lending
weighing machines; Messrs. Aveling’s courtesy in putting one ©
of their engines at the disposal of the Judges for more than a
week ; and, finally, the services of Metcalfe, Messrs. Aveling’s
engine-driver, who won the admiration of all the Judges by the
quiet, skilful way in which he placed and handled his engine, and
the ready politeness with which he fulfilled their every request.

Report on the Trials of

02

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Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 603

Fig. 3. Howarp’s Hay anp Straw Press.

(Class 1.)
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Report on the Trials of

604

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Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham. 605

Fig 5 Srepuenson’s Hay anp Straw Press.
(Awarded First Prize in Class 2.)

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(See teat, page 581.)

606 “ ~ Report on the Trials of

Fig. 6. Bamper’s Hay anp Straw Press.
(Awarded First Prize in Classes 3 and 4.)

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—
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—

Fig. 7, Warnes’ Hay anp Srraw Press.
(Awarded Second Prize in Class 8.) !

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607

and Straw Presses at Nottingham.

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Fig. 8. Barrorp & Perkrns’s

Onp Hay Press.
(Highly commended in Class 4.)

mi

9. BRADBURY’S
Otp Hay Press.

Fig.

(Class 4.)

608 = Trials of Hay and Straw Presses at Nottingham.

Fig. 10. Exron Scorr’s Onp-Hay Press
(Class 4)
As arranged for works

~ ye a a STAN lei nh thar ha id sir nt RR cab
ep, ll My Se OO Sp ate, Mr od ee old ee

The same, as arranged for travelling.

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 609

XXX.— Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.
By Viscount Emtyn, Golden Grove, Carmarthenshire.

Toe 49th Annual Show held at Nottingham in last July
may be fairly considered to have been a success, whether we
look merely to the number of exhibits, to their quality, or to
the number of visitors who attended the Show throughout the
week.

The Show-yard, situated in Lord Middleton’s park at Wollaton,
was as convenient for its purpose as could well be wished. The
soil was such that the ground remained firm and dry in spite of
the heavy rain that fell during part of the week, and the trees
that were grouped in different parts of the yard added much to
the beauty of the scene.

Though the weather was cold and stormy at times, and one
night was rough enough to cause some discomfort to both animals
and their attendants, yet on the whole the weather did not in-
terfere to any material extent with the success of the meeting.

In the. memory of all those who had any share in the manage-
ment of the Show there will ever be prominent a grateful recol-
lection of the generous welcome to Wollaton Park that was
given to the Society by Lord and Lady Middleton, of the kindly
hospitality extended by them to many of its members, and of
the warm interest taken by them in all that affected the success
of the Show. To them the Society is indebted in no ordinary
degree.

The warmest thanks of the Society are also due to the local
committee, to their indefatigable Secretary Mr. Barron, and to
Mr. Wright (who kindly undertook the arduous duties of
Steward of Forage), for their active and most willing help, and
to the Mayor of Nottingham, Mr. Alderman Turney, for the
hospitality he extended to the members of the Society. Men-
tion must also be made of the courtesy and efficiency with
which the Midland and other Railway Companies provided the
necessary accommodation for the conveyance of both visitors
and stock to and from the Show.

Of late years it has been the privilege of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society to be able to record the presence of H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales at many of the Shows, and we recognise with
gratitude the interest that he has taken for many years in the
well-being of the Society. It was therefore with deep regret
that those who were interested in the success of the Show at
Nottingham learned that it would not be possible for the Prince
to fulfil his intention of being present. But while it is im-
possible to conceal the disappointment that was felt in every

VOL. XXIV.—S. S, RR

610 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

quarter at the enforced absence of His Royal Highness, it is
with respectful sympathy that we would claim to join in the
universal feeling of regret at that which caused his absence
—viz. the death of one of the noblest of sovereigns, one of the
best of men. ‘That there may be, at the date of the Society’s
next meeting, no cloud of sorrow in the Royal home is our most
earnest hope.

On Saturday, July 7, the exhibition of implements com-
menced, the stock-yard being opened, as on recent occasions, on
the Monday following, an arrangement which appears to be
admitted both by exhibitors and officials of the Society to be the
most convenient.

On Sunday the 8th, the usual service was held in the Show-
yard, the sermon (which few who heard it will readily forget)
being preached by the Bishop of Adelaide.

On Monday the judging of stock was commenced at an early
hour, and in spite of some heavy showers the Judges were able
to get through their work without serious inconvenience.

This being the first meeting that the Society has ever held
in Nottingham, it is not possible to compare the results of
former meetings in the same town with that of the current year,
as has sometimes been the case; but we can indicate to some
extent the progress made in the number of exhibits at our Shows,
and of visitors “attending them, by comparing the numbers this
year with those at Newcastle in 1887, and also with those at
Lincoln in 1854, Leicester in 1868, and Derby in 1881, as

below :—

Year. No. of Entries No. of Persons
ar. of Stock. admitted.
1888. Nottingham . : ae he « 1807. oo ww af oa 7027,
1887. Newcastle . c . . Ae eligcbb} ot 9 - 127,372
1881. Derby . ; : . é 7 e290", ; . 127,996
1868. Leicester : . ; ; 5 on 204 ar ; . 97,188
1854, Lincoln . ‘ . ‘ . ) afGoDe “ « 87,635

On reference to past records it will be found that the entries
of stock for this year’s Show are the largest for any year since
the foundation of the Society, with the exception of those for
Battersea in 1862, and London in 1879, when the numbers
were respectively 1,986 and 2,879; whilst it may be mentioned
that the number of visitors paying for admission to the Show-
yard on one day (Thursday) in the Show week, amounting to
88,832, has never been equalled at any Show the Society has
ever held.

The following tabular statement of the entries of stock for
the Nottingham Meeting, as compared with the eight 5 foe
years, may be found interesting :—

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 611

Notting-| New- | Nor- | Pres- |Shrews-| York, | Read- | Derby,| Car-

Ls ham, | castle, | wich, ton, bury, ing, lisle,

1888 | 1887 | 1886 | 1885 | 1884 | 1883 | 1882 | 1881 | 1880

Horses. . .| 546 | 500 | 493 |} 438 | 407 | 611 | 239 | 256 | 487

Cattle. . .| 646 626 | 681 | 539 | 579 | 462 | 598 | 392 | 434
Sheep. . .| 587 513 | 446 | 433 | 490 | 412 | 442 | 414 | 434
Pesan. «| tae 194 | 203 } 203 | 211 | 200 | 188 | 167 | 146

Total. . | 1,877 | 1,833 | 1,823 | 1,613 | 1,687 | 1,685 | 1,467 | 1,229 | 1,501
een mats 1 405) 190. 995. (pf

It will be seen from this table that there were 546 Horses
entered, which is the largest total since Kilburn, with the single
exception of York (1883). The Cattle numbered 646, the
largest entry of recent years, with the exception of Norwich,
when there were 681. Of the 646 entries, 158 were Shorthorns.
The Sheep were more numerous than on any occasion during the
last nine years, there being 537 entries. Pigs numbered 148,
which was a smaller entry than usual. In all, there were 1,877
entries of live stock, as against 1,833 at Newcastle, 1,823 at
Norwich, and 1,613 at Preston. The entries of Poultry num-
bered 343, as against 405 at Newcastle, 191 at Norwich, and
325 at Preston, when the Poultry Show was first instituted.

For some years past it has been customary to entrust the
duty of reporting upon the Live Stock exhibited in our Show-
yards to an Official Reporter, appointed ad hoc by the Council.
One Show being now very much like another, it had become
increasingly difficult for the gentlemen selected for this duty to
infuse any element of novelty—it may even be said of interest
—into these reports; and inasmuch as the Official List of the
Awards, with the name of the animal, its exhibitor, breeder, and
pedigree, is given in full in the Appendix of the Journal, whilst
the reports of the Judges are also printed in extenso, the Council
decided that, for this year at all events, they would leave to the
retiring Steward the responsibility of making such general
remarks as to the Stock exhibited as appeared to him to be
called for.

This task haying devolved upon me, I think I shall best fulfil
the wishes of the Council by referring readers of the Journal
to the Judges’ Reports which I append, and, amongst these, I
should like specially to draw attention to the remarks by Mr.
Walter Gilbey and his colleague on the Jersey Cattle, which for
ability and completeness leave nothing to be desired.

All that I need add here, is that among the Horses, those
calling for especial notice were the three classes of fillies, and

RR 2

612 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

the stallions foaled in 1886 and 1887 amongst the Shires; the
yearling fillies among the Clydesdales; and all the younger
classes amongst the Hunters, notably two-year-old geldings,
which are mentioned by the Judges as being as good a class of
two-year-olds as ever appeared in a show ring. This improve-
ment in the younger class of hunters cannot but be a source of
great encouragement to those who for many years have been
endeavouring to improve this class of horse.

Hackneys and Ponies were much above the average. In the
harness classes the entries were but few, and confined to “ old
prize takers, with perfect action and very bad to beat.” It
might be worthy of consideration whether the adoption of the
recommendation of the Judges with reference to prizes in these
classes might not lead to increased competition and to larger
entries.

Among the Cattle the Shorthorns were good, especially the
winners in the classes for cows. The Hereford exhibits have
perhaps never been surpassed for merit. The Jersey classes
were strong in numbers and of unusual excellence, and the Red
Polled cattle were remarkable for the absence of any moderate
animals among them.

Sheep were good all through; special attention being called
by the Judges to the excellence of the Oxford Downs, while it
is satisfactory to notice a clean sheet in the report of the
Inspectors of Shearing.

The Breeding Sows of the large white breed are the only
class of pigs calling for any special mention, while the large
number of disquatifications among the younger classes of white
pigs is worthy of remark.

In the report on the exhibition of live stock at Preston in
1885, attention was drawn to the large number of absentees.
The regulations as to the time of entry were modified for the
Norwich Show, and those that: have since been held. Instead
of the entries closing on May 1, as in 1885, the date of entry

was extended to the 12th, while post entries at double fees were
instituted, the final date for which was June 1.

Bearing this change in mind, it is interesting to observe
what has taken place” since Preston with regard to absentees.
Since 1885, amongst the horses they have steadily increased,
until this year they reached as high a figure as 27 per cent. of
the entries, as against 19 per cent. in 1885—the average for the
last three years being 23 per cent. Cattle, which showed in
1885 21 per cent. of absentees, stand this year at 18 per cent.
—the average for the last three years being 18 per cent. The
sheep, which showed in 1885 a percentage of 11 of absentees,

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 613

show during the last three years an average of 15 per cent.
Pigs, which were reported as the greatest offenders in this
respect in 1885, have since then shown considerable improve-
ment, the average of the last three years being 15 per cent., as
against 23 per cent. in 1885, and it is noticeable that the Jersey
cattle—which ranked next them in that year—haye in like
manner steadily improved :—

The following tabular statement of absentees, which has
been prepared for me by the Secretary of the Society, will be
of interest in connection with this subject.

STATEMENT SHOWING NUMBER OF ENTRIES AND NUMBER OF
ABSENTEES (with percentage to Total Entries) ar EACH OF
THE LAST FOUR MEETINGS.

PRESTON, 1885 NorwiIcu, 1886 || NewcasTLe, 1887 ||NoTTiINGHAM, 1888 bo et
ge
o8 a |28 _ lee nlosisar
— |x3ls8 22 )e3 | 38 ell ss | 38 (PS las | 8 [28 [883
38 3a Sz oe 38 Sa 3 oa 82 oe oa 52 Q82
4g | 42 (84 | 4a | 44 |85 4a | 22 |f4 | 4a | 2 [54 | 82°
ie Meee | ssl 3) Aeneas
Horses.—
Shires.) . 147) SL ar || 78) 22 |) -28 || 83 | 24) 29 || 187 |} 62) 39 | 3x
Clydesdale 64 | 17 | 27 55 | 15 | 27 93 18 | 19 64 | 13] 20] 22
Suffolk. .| 21 4/219 || 98] 14] x4 || 21 3] 14 || 37 9} 24] 17
Thorough-
breds and
Hunters .| 90 21 | 23 |} 101 | 22) 22 || 140] 27} 19 || 161 | 40) 25] 22
Hackneys. | 65 4} 6}/ 107} 13 | r2}) 106) 22] 20}/ 78} 15] 20) 17
Harness . 13 1 8 | 43 8 | 18 — —|— 19 10 | 53 29
Others. . 8 if exe) || al 1} 9|) 50] 14} 28] — | — |—}] 25
Totals | 408 | 79 | x9 || 493 | 95 | 19 |/ 493 | 108 | 22 || 546 | 149 | 27 | 23
——— = || ———s
|

Cattle.—
Shorthorn. | 180 | 29 | 22 || 82) 20 24 |) 107 | 12) 1x || 158] 35] 22] 19

Hereford .| 76 | 16] 2r || 73) 13) 18 |) 66) 17 | 26)| 57 8 | 14] 19
Devon. .| 26 6 | 23 || 28 3 ||) XE SL 3 | 10 || 34 CN eee ae
Sussex. .| 23 8/35 || 41 | 141] 34 28 8 | 29 54] 17} 31 2
Red Polled | 33 7 | 2x || 146) 18) 12)| 30 2) 7 || 383 o ore ae
Welsh. . | 29 27) a dal eae 1) 4]/—-- | —|—|| 30 3 | 10 7
Jersey . .| 127] 35 | 28 || 187 |) 45 | 24 |) 102 | 13] 13 |] 181) 82) 18] 19
Guernsey .| — | — |—|] 41 3| 7 || 36 Al rash Gor | ez) eis
Dairy . .| 23 3) 13 ]} 17| 11] 65 ]| 23 4|17 || 34 3| 9| 24
Others. .| 64 5| 8 41} 13 | 32 || 205 | 20} 10]/ — | — |—| 33

- Totals | 531 | 111 | 2x |) 681 | 141 | 21 || 628 | 83] 13 || 646] 119] 18 | 18

Sheep . .| 426) 47) xx || 446] 76) 17 /|/ 511 | 78) x5 || 587 | 64) 24] xs

Pigs . . .|198| 46 | 23 || 203| 384/17 |) 193} 34] 18 || 148) 18] 9] xs

In face of the present beggarly array of empty boxes, I
would submit that this matter is well worthy of attention, when

614 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

we consider that in the classes for horses alone unnecessary
accommodation had to be provided at Nottingham for some 150
animals. It was commonly rumoured that many sales of horses
had taken place a short time before the Show ; but this would
hardly seem to account for this steady and progressive rise in
the percentage of absentees since 1885.

In conclusion I wish to offer my most cordial thanks to all
the coileagues with whom I have been associated during my
term of office, to the Assistant Stewards (to whose invaluable
help and tact we are indebted for any success in our parades of
stock and for a very general lightening of our labours), and to
the staff of the Society, for their cordial co-operation and gene-
rous help in the duties we had mutually to discharge. I can
only hope that my successors in office may be as fortunate in
this respect as I have been.

REPORTS OF THE JUDGES OF THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF STOCK.

Horses.

Report of the Judges of Shire Horses.
[Classes 1 to 4, 15 to 17, 26 to 28.]

Crass 1. Stallions foaled before 1885.—A very middling class, the First
Prize horse (Mr. Freeman-Mitford’s Laughing Stock *) a very good one.

Crass 2. Stallions foaled in 1885.—The first three good ones, the re-
mainder nothing to note, The First Prize horse (Lord Hindlip’s All Here)
was the champion.

Crass 3. Stallions foaled in 1886.—This class the best class of stallions
we saw.

Crass 4, Stallions foaled in 1887.—A very good class. Several horses
in this class looked like coming to the front another day.

Crass 15. Mares and Foals.—The first three prize animals in this class
had previously won Champion Prizes at the Royal and London Shows,
and in this class we had the Champion Shire Mare of the day (Mr. Free-
man-Mitford’s Chance).

Crass 26. Fillies foaled in 1885.—This class was very good ; far superior
to any young class we had. We thought we were justified in asking for
two additional prizes.*

Crass 27. Fillies foaled in 1886.—This was a very good class, and several
very good fillies in it. We also recommended a fourth prize in this class.*

Crass 28. Yearling Fillies.—A good class as a whole.

WILLIAM JONAS,
Joun WILLs._

1 For greater clearness, the names of the animals mentioned, with their
owners, have been added to the descriptions given by the Judges.—Ep.
2 These extra prizes could not be granted by the Council.—ED.

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 615

Report of the Judges of Clydesdale Horses.
[Classes 5 to 7, 18, 29 to 31.]

Crasses 5 and 6—Stallions foaled in 1885 and 1886—were well repre-
sented and good, both as to number and quality.

Ciass 7—for Yearling Colts—was small in number, and not of high
merit.

Criass 18—Brood Mares—were, onthe contrary, of excellent quality, but
short as to numbers.

Cuasses 29 and 30—Thrce-year-old and Two-year-old Fillies—were
also deserving of praise, especially the Frrst and Second Prize animals in
each class.

Crass 31—Yearling Fillies—was an exceptionally good class, and we
would call particular attention to the First Prize animal (Mr. R. 8. Scott’s
Scottish Rose).

W. S. Park.
Rosert Renwick.

Report of the Judges of Suffolk Horses.
[Classes 6, 9, 19, 32, 33.]

We wished all those that entered horses and mares for the Show at
Nottingham could have sent them. Notwithstanding, they made a very
good show, as compared with other breeds. There were not so many
exhibited as at Norwich, which there always cught to be at a Reyal Show;
but there has been a great demand for ‘ Suifolks, and many of the best were
sold. We hope that at Windsor, next year, there will be the largest
exhibition of them that we have ever had, and that there will be more
classes, better prizes, and more of them given, for this pure and old-esta-
blished breed.

Crass 8. Stallions foaled in 1885.—There were seven entries only, four
of which put in an appearance. No. 119 (Mr. A. J. Smith’s Stockwell) was
first, and No. 117 (Mr. Horace Wolton’s Emperor) second. The latter isa
good sort of a horse, and many outside the ring might consider him the
best, but he had that whichis very objectionable in any horse, more especially
in the ‘Suffolks, which should be quite clean in their legs, No. 118 (Mr.
A.J.Smith’s Samson) was RESERVE NuMBER. No. 123 we thought went lame.

Crass 9. Stallions foaled in 1886.—Ten horses were shown in this class.

Crass 19. Mares and Foals.—Three mares and three foals only.

Crass 32. Fillies foaled in 1885.—There were but two entries, and we
recommended that a Srconp Prize should be given to No. 360 (Mr. S.
Wolton’s Smart). No. 359 (Ma. A.J. Smith’s Sadly) we awarded First Prize.
Why the owners of three-year-old fillies do not show them we are unable
to say, as we know of several quite as good as the two that were exhibited.

Cuass 33. Fillies foaled in 1886.—The best class of ‘Suffolks’ in the
Show, nine entries, and all sent. In addition to the two prize-winners we
Highly Commended one animal and Commended all the others.

ARTHUR Wx. Crisp.
Jonun Mayuew.

Report of the Judges of Thoroughbred Stallions and Hunters.
[Classes 10, 20, 21, 34 to 42.)
Crass 10, Thoroughbred Stallions—This was a good class. The winner

(Colonel Barlow’s Baldwr) and reserve (Mr. Burdett-Coutts’s Truefit) were
very equal in merit, and it took us some time to decide on their final positions.

616 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham,

Nos. 140 (Compton Stud Company’s rides) and 144 (Mr. Edwin H. Banks's
Moss Hawk) were well worthy of their high commendations.

Crass 20— Hunter Mares and Foals—was a fairly good class of average
merit, but contained nothing of very superior quality.

Crass 21. Hunter Mares in Foal—Only two mares were entered, but
these were exceptionally good in quality, and we therefore specially recom-
mended that the Seconp Prizn should be given.

Crass 34, Weight-carrying Mares and Geldings foaled before 1884.—This
was only a moderately good class. The prize-winners were fairly good, and
well known in the Show ring, but as a rule those that possessed good quality
were deficient in bone to carry fifteen stone over a strong country.

Crass 385. Light Weight Mares and Geldings foaled before 1884.—This was
quite a moderate class, with the exception of the First Prize horse (Mr. T.
Crutcher’s Huntsman), which was good, but he was better suited for fourteen
than twelve stone.

Crass 36. Four-year-old Geldings.—This was a fairly good class, the First
Prize horse (Lord Middleton’s Beefeater) being an exceptionally nice animal.

Crass 387. Four-year-old Mares.—A fairly good class, but small in
number: the First Prize taker (Mr. John Cooper’s Wandering Maid) a beau-
tiful mare, and the Sxconp (Mr. Jas. S. Darrell’s Brunette) almost equally
good.

Crass 38. Three-year-old Geldings.—This was a good class, the Prize
animals being of exceptional merit.

Crass 39. Three-year-old Fillies—This was a fairly good class, but
small in number.

Crass 40. Two-year-old Geldings——A class of great merit, and large
in number. The average merit was perhaps as high as that of any class of
two-year-olds that ever appearedina Showring. The quality and substance
were both excellent.

Crass 41. Two-year-old Fillies—This was fairly good, but small in
number, and calls for no special remark.

Crass 42— Yearlings—was very good, the First (Mr. N. H. Hodgson’s
Rumtifoozleum) and Srconp (Mr. Charles Clarke’s chestnut gelding) Prize
animals being of exceptional quality.

It must be a source of great satisfaction to all those who have been tak-
ing an active part in promoting the breeding of hunters, to note the very
excellent show of young horses which appeared in the various classes at this
Show, denoting as it does that there are mares still left in the country capable
of breeding good hunters, and that the distribution of sound well-bred sires
is already beginning to bear fruit which it may be hoped will rapidly increase
in quality and quantity in the course of a few years.

We cannot conclude our Report without expressing our sense of the
admirable manner in which the Stewards of our department performed their
difticult task, and lightened our labours by rendering us every assistance in
their power.

CoveNTRY.
C, Rivers BULKELEY.
P. ALBert Munvtz,

Report of the Judges of Coaching or Cleveland and Harness Horses.
[Classes 11, 22, 43 to 49.]
We considered the First Prize takers in each of the classes for coaching,
stallions, and mares, the only animals with good action.

There were very few animals in the harness classes brought before us.
In Class 47, for animals exceeding fifteen hands there were five entries,

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 617

but none put in an appearance. The two other classes were repre-
sented by a few animals with perfect action and old prize-takers that go the
round of the Shows and are bad to beat. This might be the cause of the
short entry.

We recommend the Council to consider if it would not be desirable, in the
interest of the breeders and for the purpose of increasing the entries, to make
a rule that no animal should take the same prize two years in succession.

We think it would have that effect.

James Hornsby.
Romer WILLIAMS,

Report of the Judges of Hackneys and Ponies.
[Classes 12 to 14, 23 to 25, and 43 to 46.]

The Judges, in reviewing the classes which passed under their observa-
tion, consider that generally the entries were very creditable, and much above
the average. They noticed particularly in Classes 12 and 14 (Stallions),
23 (Mares above 14.2 with Foals), and 43 and 44 (Mares and Geldings), that
the winners were very superior in appearance, action, and breeding.

The Judges think the Exhibition was one which cannot fail to carry out
and encourage the desire and aim which the Royal Agricultural Society
have in view for the improvement of this class of horse.

~- Rozserr H. Borrowss.
ALFRED ASHWORTH,

Cattle.

Report of the Judges of Shorthorns.
[Classes 50 to 57. ]

We have great pleasure in reporting that the classes for male shorthorns
were well filled, and showed a high average of merit.

The Bulls calved in 1887 (Class 53) formed an unusually numerous class,
and we are glad to say that in our opinion the animals show evidence of
more robust constitution than has for some time been’ observable at former
Shows. Bulls of practical merit were numerous, and there are many animals
likely to improve the stock of the country.

We were struck by the unusual quality of the Cows, and we consider the
three Prize winners to be magnificent types of shorthorns. The younger
classes of Heifers were large, and furnished the champion female shorthorn
(Mr. R. Thompson’s Belle Madeline) as well as the Reserve. It will be
satisfactory to the Shorthorn Society, which is the donor of the champion
prizes, to know that the winners, particularly the old bull, were animals
well worthy of the distinction.

As a whole, the show of shorthorns at Nottingham affords a most satis-
factory indication of the improvement which is being effected in this leading
breed,

BEcTIvE.
J. W. CRUICKSHANK,
Jas. How.

Report of the Judges of Hereford Cattle.
[Classes 58 to 66.]
Crass 58. Aged Bulls—A remarkably good class, headed by Mr. H. W.

Taylor’s well-known Maidstone, closely pressed by Lord Coventry's Rare
Sovereign, both bulls possessing extraordinary substance, but having a slightly

618 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

overfed appearance. No, 707, the Tuirp Prize bull (Mr. Richard Edwards's
Magnet), is of surpassing quality and evenness of flesh, and would have been
placed higher but for his weak head and neck. ;

Crass 59. Bulls calved in 1885.—The Frrsr Prizn, No. 712 (Mr. W.H.
Cooke’s Grove Wilton 3rd), is a bull of great scale, heavy flesh, good quality,
and excellent masculine character, a little irregular on top, and faulty in flank.
The Srconp Prizz, No. 713 (the Karl of Coventry’s Rondeau), is a stylish
bull of good quality. The Turrp Prizz, No. 715 (Mr. Rees Keene’s Thee
R’s), is a useful stock bull. j

Ctrass 60. Bulls calved in 1886.—F i1rst Prize, No. 719 (Mr. John Price’s
Prince Alfred), is a remarkably good heavy-fleshed, short-legged, symmetrical
bull of beautiful character and quality, and is far ahead of the other exhibits
in this class. This bull is also awarded the champion prize for the best
Hereford exhibited. The Srconp Prize, No. 716 (the Earl of Coventry’s
Golden Miner), is a good level bull.

Crass 61, Bulls calved in 1887.—F 1rst Prizn, No.720 (Mr, A. E. Hughes’
Royal Head), is a stylish well-shaped bull of extraordinary scale and superior
quality. Srconp Prizn, No. 724 (Mr. Thomas Fenn’s Downton Wilton), is
an animal with good top and beautiful touch. THrrp Prizes, No. 721 (the
Earl of Coventry’s Royal Ruler), is a level bull, somewhat plain in his hind

uarters.

- Crass 62. Cows and Heifers calved in or before 1884.—F rst Prize, No.
735 (Sir Joseph Spearman’s Myrtle 6th), is an exceptionally good cow of
rare quality and nice character, but with rather weak thighs. SeconD PRIzE,
No. 729 (Her Majesty the Queen’s Mabelle), is a capital cow, but not so
even as No. 735, and is also deficient in thighs. Turrp Prizn, No. 734 (Mr.
James Rankin’s Fortwne-teller), is a very nice breeding cow, scarcely in
Showyard condition, which may be accounted for by her nursing a strong
calf.

Crass 63. Cows and Hetfers calved in 1885.—¥F rrst Prize, No. 740 (Mx.
H. W. Taylor's Cardiff Lass 2nd), is a nice-shaped heifer, full of character
and quality. Srconp Prizu, No. 786 (Mr. Ralph Palmer’s Lightfoot), presses
No. 741 very closely, being a very thick heavy-fleshed heifer. Turrp Prize,
No. 738 (Colonel Bridgford’s Princess), is also a good animal.

Crass 64. Heifers calved in 1886.—First Prizz, No, 742 (the Earl of
Coventry's Rosewater), is a magnificent heifer, possessing great wealth of
flesh, of truly symmetrical character. Srconp Prize, No. 743 (Mr. J. H.
Arkwright’s Ivington Lass 24th), is a gay stylish heifer, not quite right in
the rumps. THIRD Prizn, No. 744 (Mr. William Tudge’s Lady Wilton),
strongly contested the second honours.

Crass65, Heifers calved in1887.—F r1rst Prize, No. 753 (Mr. Rees Keene's
Blanche Bangham), is a very heavy-fleshed, beautiful-quality heifer, with a
good true back. Srconp Prizn, No. 748 (Mr. A. E. Hughes’ Princess), is
also a nice shapely-grown heifer, but dips slightly in the back and is not a
good handler. Tnirp Prizn, No. 747 (Her Majesty the Queen’s Belle), is a
scaly deep-ribbed heifer, with exceptionally straight under-line. The whole
class is of unusual excellence.

Oxass 66. Bull and two Heifers, all calved in 1887.—The groups in this
Class had a very taking appearance. First Prizn, No. 758 (Mr. H. F.
Russell’s Str William, Dorothy, and Queen Bess), though small, far sur-
passed the other exhibits in quality and touch, and matched exceedingly
well. Srconp Prizn, No. 760 (Mr. Stephen Robinson’s First Fruits, White
Spark 6th, and Red Spark 6th), showed great scale but lacked quality. Nos.
759 (Mr. A. P. Turner’s Salisbury, Beatrice, and Veronica) and 761 (Mr.
John Price’s Provost, Patient, and Dido) included animals of great merit, the
one heifer in 759 being especially good.

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 619

‘We are of opinion that the exhibits of Hereford Cattle for excellence of
quality have never been surpassed, there being a large number of high-class
animals, both male and female, of all ages.

Saux. Goong.
JoHN CRANE.

Report of the Judges of Devon Cattle.
[Classes 67 to 71.]

In compliance with the request of the Council that the Judges of the
several departments should make any special comment they may think fit on
the merits of the animals brought before them, we beg to say that, consider-
ing the great distance they had to be taken from their native home, the
different classes of Devons were fairly well filled with specimens which did
their owners much credit. And though the names of Quartly, Davey,
Turner, and Walter Farthing no longer appear in the catalogue as exhibitors,
still, when we have as substitutes and exhibitors Lord Falmouth, Sir W.
Williams, A. C. Skinner, and others, it is unlikely that the Royal Society's
prizes could be won by Devons undeservedly.

We, therefore, hope that the Society will continue its liberal encourage-
ment to this famous as well as ancient breed of cattle.

In making our awards we were unanimous in our endeavour to give pre-
ference to those specimens which had the character, style, air, and quality
of flesh mostly resembling a thoroughbred.

We think it best to forbear offering remarks on the comparative points
of excellence of the exhibits, beyond expressing our opinion that the Frest
PRizE animals, particularly in Classes 67 and 69—Budls—and 70 and 71—
Heifers—though they somewhat lack in size and grandeur, represent, or very
approximately so, the correct type and character of the pure-bred Devon.

Saun. P. NewBery.
T. Brown.

Report of the Judges of Sussex Cattle.
[Classes 72 to 76.]

The Sussex Cattle were well represented. In the Aged Bull Class (72)
there were eight entries. The First PrizE was awarded to No. 801 (Mr. W.
S. Forster’s Mtkado), a well-formed bull of great substance; No. 799 (Mr.
Joseph Godman’s Nobleman) was SEconD, showing good quality and great
length, and the THirpD Prize winner (Mr. W. Wood’s Oxford 2nd) is a com-
pact animal of good quality.

There was a good Class (73) of Yearling Bulls with twelve competitors.
No. 807 (Mr. J. Stewart Hodgson’s bull by ‘King Rufus’) shows substance
and quality, and is awarded the First Prize. No. 816 (the Earl of Winter-
ton’s Gold) is a level promising animal, and No. 809 (the Aylesbury Dairy
Company’s Clancarty) is of good substance.

The Cow Class (74) had nine entries, four of which were absent. No.
817 (Mi. W. B. Waterlow’s Elsa) is a grand cow, and may be termed the
champion of the breed; No. 819 (Mr. Hodgson’s Laura 7th) shows sub-
stance and quality, and No. 818 (Mr. Louis Huth’s Lily 2nd) is nicely formed,
not quite so thick in flesh, but of fine quality.

Crass 75. Heifers calved in 1886.—No, 882 (Mr. W. S. Forster's
Parade) is a good level heifer with nice quality; No. 830 (Mr. Godman’s
Comely 9th) is also of nice quality, and No. 831 (Mr. Forster’s Acorn) is
very useful-looking.

Cass 76-—Heifers calved in 1887—has the largest number of entries, viz.

620 Report of the Senor Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

15. The First Prizz winner, No, 849 (Mr. Barclay Field’s Primrose), is a
good heifer; No. 838 (Mr. C. B. Godman’s Sunset) is of nice quality, and
No. 836 (Mr. Hodgson’s Pride of the Family 7th) is a very level heifer with
fine touch.
ALFRED HEASMAN,
Epwarb VICKRESS,

Report of the Judges of Welsh Cattle.
[Classes 77 to 81.]

The Welsh breed of cattle showed up in considerable force, and were
well represented. They show marked improvement on previous exhibitions,
many animals of great merit coming before us, especially Nos. 851 (Colonel
Platt’s Ap Gwilym), 872 (Colonel Platt’s Princess Tonet), 873 (the Earl of
Cawdor'’s Rosal 7th), and 877 (Colonel Platt’s heifer). We are of opinion
that this breed of cattle will grow in popular favour, owing to their great
hardihood of constitution. They are unquestionably adapted for cold
climates.

Sama. Goons.
JoHN CRANE.

Report of the Judges of Red-Polled Cattle.
[Classes 82 to 86.]

The Red Polls were evidently the pick of those exhibited at the local
Shows, for there was scarcely a middling animal amongst them, and the
reputation of this rising breed was fully maintained.

Crass 82—Bulls calved in 1883, 1884, 1885, or 1886—consisted of six
good animals, but had neither a Davyson 3rd nor a Falstaff.

Crass 83. Bulls calved in 1887.—As in the preceding Class, we com-
mended all the animals, the First Prize youngster (Lord Hastings’ Viceroy)
being of rather exceptional merit.

Crass 84— Cows—was another good Class: the Frrst and Second PRIZE
animals were especially good.

Crass 85—Heifers calved in 1886—though it contained one of the best
animals, was the weakest Class of the breed.

Crass 86—FHeifers calved in 1887—was again a good Class, the First
Prize (Mr. J. J. Colman’s Mar’) being a gay level heifer that promises to grow
into a grand cow.

T. Brown.
Sami. P, NewBERY.

Report of the Judges of Jersey Cattle.
[Classes 87 to 92.]

To make this report of interest to those who in the future may not, at
the time of reference, have a copy of the catalogue available, we have since
the close of the Show gone carefully through the skeleton Judging-books,
with the Show catalogue, and added the names of the animals, their ex-
hibitors and breeders.

The classes were of unusual excellence, and owing to the large number
of exhibits our work was one requiring much time and labour.

Crass 87 consisted of twenty-eight Budls, two years old and upwards.
To adjudicate upon them was an invidious task, and our difficulties were
increased by the excellence of the class generally. The First Prize was
awarded to No. 921, Chestnut Boy, exhibited by Mrs. Hopwood of Ketton.

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 621

He was a son of the celebrated bull ‘‘ Nero du Coin,” a prize-winner in Jersey
as well as in this country. He showed great quality and wonderful colour
and richness of skin. The Szeconp Prize went to a very promising animal,
No. 930, Marius, bred and exhibited by Lord Londesborough, and the
Tuirp Prize to a beautiful young bull, No. 935, Franciscan, bred by
Mr. J. S. Arthur in Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. J. R. Corbett, of More
Place, Betchworth, which was second in his class at the Royal Counties
Show at Bournemouth, and first at the Bath and West’of England Meeting
at Newport. No. 933, Frivol, bred and exhibited by Mr. W. E. Budgett, of
Stoke Bishop, was Hicuty CoMMENDED and Reserve Numser. The
HiegHtLy ComMENDED animals were No. 924, Griffin & Co.’s Prophet; 927,
Mr. William Alexander’s Str Richard; and 929, Mr. Hugh C. Smith’s
Duke Martyn (all bred in Jersey by Mr. William Alexander, of Grasfort,
the two first sent direct by island exhibitors, the latter purchased by
Mr. Hugh C. Smith last season); No. 940, Yemptation, bred by Rev. J. C.
Plattin in Norfolk, and exhibited by Mr. John E. Groom, of Great Wal-
singham ; and No. 931, Dog Fox, bred by Mr. J. Cardus, Southampton, and
exhibited by Mr. Brutton, Yeovil, a victor in many a contest, but whose age
tells against him. The ComMMENDED animals were No, 914, Ranksborough,
bred and exhibited by Mr. E. H. Baldock, of Melton Mowbray; No. 919,
Khedive’s Boy, bred by Mr. W. Amy, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. Thos.
Shaw, M.P., of Halifax, Yorkshire; and No. 932, Gordon, bred and exhibited
by Mr. Joseph Brutton, of Yeovil.

Crass 88 was for Yearling Bulls. The First Prize fell to No. 965,
Hamilton, bred by Mr. J. C. Hamon in Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. Wm.
_ Arkwright, of Sutton Scarsdale, Derbyshire, a bull showing great quality
and rich colour. He promises to be an animal likely to acquire distinction,
not only in the show-ring but in the herd. The Seconp Prize went to
No. 942, Bessie’s Boy, bred and exhibited by Mr. G. Simpson, of Wray Park.
He is a finely-grown and consequently for the moment a somewhat un-
shapely bull. The TuHirp Prize fell to No. 948, Hamley, by Mr. James
Blyth’s “ Wolseley’s Glory 2nd,” bred and exhibited by Mr. S. Baxendale,
of Bonningtons, Herts, a small animal which owed his position among many
much more forward competitors to his extraordinary symmetry and quality,
a confirmation of his previous performance at the Royal Counties Show at
Bournemouth, where he was first. No. 967, Growville’s Champion, bred by
Mr, W.G. Aubyn, of St. Saviour’s, Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. W. D.
Tucker, of Southampton, was ReseRvE and HigHity CommMENDED. This bull
had already taken two first prizes on the island as well as the first prize at the
Oxfordshire Show at Abingdon, the only place in England where he had
previously been exhibited. Many of the animals in this Class were of
exceptional quality. The H1ieu~y ComMENDED were No. 945, Lemon Peel,
bred and exhibited by the Hon. C. R. G. W. Bampfylde, a beautiful specimen
of a yearling bull and a credit to any breeder in this country; No. 966,
Royal Gem, bred and exhibited by Capt. Le Brocq, of Jersey; and No, 968,
Jubilee Day, bred and exhibited by Mr. W. D. Watson, of Knutsford,
Cheshire. The CommrennDED were No. 943, Monopolist, bred and exhibited
by Mr. G. Simpson, showing much of the quality of island animals; No.
952, Royal Calyph, bred and exhibited by Mr. John Swan of Lincoln;
No. 955, Leonora’s Laddie, bred and exhibited by Mr. H. J. Cornish, of Sher-
borne, Dorset, having much of the quality of his celebrated dam; No. 960,
Silver King, bred and exhibited by Mr. W. Alexander, of Jersey, a rich,
deep, and fine-skinned animal ; No. 963, Sunlight, bred by Mr. W. Alexander
of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. E. P. Fowler, of Southampton. ;

Crass 89. Cows in Milk or in Calf, calved previously to or in the year
1884.—Rarely, if ever, has a better class of aged cows been seen. The FIRst

622 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

Prize went to No. 987, Black Bess, bred by Mr. J. Arthur, of Jersey, and
exhibited by Mr. W. E. Budgett, of Stoke Bishop, a cow without a particu-
larly taking head and with no special claims to beauty, but with an udder of
such shape and size that it was impossible to hesitate as to placing her in
the premier position. The Seconp Prize went to No. 970, Bessie, also bred
in Jersey, a well-known winner, and exhibited by Mr. G. Simpson, of
Reigate. The Tuirp PRiIzE was won by No. 971, Rosy 3rd, bred by Mr.
W. Alexander of Jersey, also exhibited by Mr. G. Simpson. ‘This cow isa
daughter of Mr, J. Blyth’s famous Rosy, and destined to take a high posi-
tion hereafter. No. 983, Les Prairies Flandrine, bred by Mr. P. W. Picot,
of Jersey, and exhibited by Lord Londesborough, was HigH~ty ComMENDED
and Reserve Number. ‘This was a beautiful cow, and, but for the paucity
of prizes, entitled to a monetary honour. The H1eéniy CommEnpEpD cows
in this Class were No. 972, Lady Nina, exhibited by the Hon. OC. R. G. W.
Bampfylde, of Bretton Park, a lovely specimen of an old Jersey cow;
and No. 982, Precoce Znd, bred by Mr. T. Mourant, of Jersey, and exhibited
by Lord Londesborough; and the CommenpED were No. 976, La Belle
Bergére, bred by Mr. P. G. LeSauteur, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. C. J.
H. Tower, of Brentwood; No. 977, Geranium, bred by Mr. F. Bircham, of
Walton-on-Thames, and exhibited by Mrs. Hopwood, of Ketton, an English
Jersey Cattle Society’s Gold medal cow; No. 978, Clotho’s Gem, bred by
Mr. F, Roissier, of Jersey, and also exhibited by Mrs. Hopwood ; No. 990,
Pretty Maid, bred by Mr, Firminger, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. Wm.
Adams, of Tuffley, Gloucestershire.

Crass 90, for Cow or Heifer in Milk or in Calf, calved in the year 1885,
was also of exceptional merit. The Frrst Prize went to No. 996, Butter-
maker's Daughter, bred by Mr. Robinson, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr.
J. E. Groom, of Great Walsingham, a beautiful heifer bred in the island ;
the Srconp Prizx to No. 1002, Beauty, bred by the late Dr. Meadows and
exhibited by Mr. Hugh C. Smith, of Mount Clare, which might easily be
taken for an imported animal; and the Turrp Prizez to No. 1000, Governess,
bred and exhibited by Lord Londesborough. No. 994, Rozels Fuschia, bred
by Mr. J. Germain, of Jersey, and exhibited by Sir Humphrey de Trafford,
was Ruserve Numper and Hieuty Commenpep. The HiguHry Com-
MENDED animals were No. 1003, Stargazer 4th, bred and exhibited by
Mr. J. R. Corbett; No, 1005, Scarsdale Rose, bred by Mr. Robin, of Jersey,
and exhibited by Mr. W. Arkwright, of Sutton Scarsdale; No. 1007,
Linda's Belle, bed by Mr. J. J. Le Gros, of St. Peter’s, Jersey, and exhibited
by Mr. H. J. Cornish, of Sherborne, Dorset. The ComMENDED cows were
No. 999, Hopbine, bred and exhibited by the Hon. Mrs. Cecil Howard, of
Great Missenden, Bucks, and No. 1008, Blue Stocking, bred by Mrs. Hunt,
of Stamford, and exhibited by Lord Rosslyn.

Otass 91, for Heifers calved in the year 1886, consisted of forty animals.
The Frrst Prize was easily won by No. 1036, Golden Lass 4th, bred by
Mr. J. P. Marett, Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. E. P. Fowler, of South-
ampton, a heifer rather dark in colour but of great richness and symmetry.
The Suconp Prize went to No. 1009, Pandora 10th, bred and exhibited by
Mr. G. Simpson, and the Turrp Prize to No. 1026, Madeira 3rd, bred by
Mr. E. Renouf, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. H. J. Cornish. Lither of
these three animals would be a credit to any herd. ‘There were no less than
11 Hienty Commenpep animals, viz., No. 1018, Milkmaid 13th, bred by
Mr. G. Simpson and exhibited by the Hon, C. R. G. W. Bampfylde; No. 1016,
Mabel, bred by Mr. W. Peel, of Rickmansworth, Herts; No, 1017, Wolseley’s
Janette, bred by Mr. James Blyth, of Stanstead, Essex, and exhibited by
Mr. Salisbury Baxendale, of Bonningtons, Herts; No. 1022, Wrangler's
Fancy, bred and exhibited by Mr, G. W. Palmer, of Reading; No, 1028, Try

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 623

2nd, bred by Mr. Langlois, Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. Cornish, of Thornford,
Dorset; No. 1034, Cicero’s Sultan, bred by My. J. P. Marett, of Jersey, and
exhibited by Mr, E. P. Fowler, of Southampton (this animal was RrsERVE
Numer); No. 1037, Improved 4th, bred by Mr. John Trachy, Jersey, and
exhibited by Mr. E. P. Fowler; No. 1039, Attolia 2nd, bred by Mr. T. P.
Gallechau, of Jersey, and exhibited by Capt. Le Brocq, of Jersey; No. 1041,
Bay Leaf 4th, bred by Mr. P. Arthur, of Jersey, and exhibited by Capt. Le
Broeq, of Jersey; No. 1044, Zttic, bred by Mr. T. Biampied, of Jersey, and
exhibited by Capt. Le Brocq; No. 1045, Lady Horace, bred by Mr. Noel
de Gruchy, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. W. D. Tucker, of Southampton ;
No. 1046, Lady Safety, bred by Mr. Hlias Vardon, of Jersey, and exhibited
by Mx. H. D. Tucker. The following were CommenpDeED: No. 1010, Pandora
11th, bred and exhibited by Mr. G. Simpson, and No. 1032, Sweet Viola,
bred by Mr. S. H. Hyde, of Sunbury-on-Thames, and exhibited by Mr.
Walter Barron, of Sefton Park.

Crass 92—Heifer calzed in the year 1887—was again a large class of
43 animals. The !irst Prize went to No. 1070, Fair Angela, bred by
Mr. F. Le Brocq, Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. H. J. Cornish, of Sherborne,
Dorset, a very taking calf. The Srconp Prize winner, No. 1050, Lady
Godiva, bred and exhibited by Mr. G. Simpson, ran the first very close, but
she was scarcely of equal quality; and the Turrp Prizex, No. 1065, Fancy’s
Pride, bred ‘and exhibited by Mr. G. W. Palmer, of Reading, was again
rather coarser but a very nice heifer. No. 1093, Mildred 7th, bred and
exhibited by Mr. J. R. Corbett, was Reserve Numper and Hieuiy Com-
MENDED. ‘lhe HigHity CoMMENDED heifers were No. 1052, Alice, bred and
exhibited by the Hon. C. R. G. W. Bampfylde; No. 1053, Her Majesty,
bred by the late Mrs. Malcolm, of Lyndhurst, and exhibited by Miss
Margaret Peel, of Rickmansworth ; No. 1071, Nero’s Derby 2nd, bred by
Mrs. Lee, of Penshurst, Kent, and exhibited by Mr. H. J. Cornish; No.
1072, Jubilee Queen, bred and exhibited by Mr. H. J. Cornish; and No. 1,091,
Lady's Pride, bred by Mr. M. Pinel, of Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. W.
D. Tucker, of Southampton. The CommenpDeD were No. 1057, Barton Rose,
bred and exhibited by Sir H. De Trafford, Bart., of Tratford Park; No.
1073, Bragga’s Daisy, bred by Mr. Louis L, Vautre, of Jersey, and exhibited
by Mr. H. J. Cornish ; No. 1076, Fame, bred and exhibited by Mr. H. J.
Cornish ; No. 1080, Tiara, bred and exhibited by the Duke of Portland ;
No. 1083, Dog Violet, bred and exhibited by Mr. W. Barron, of Sefton
Park; No. 1088, Scarsdale Dairymaid, bred by Mr. W. Alexander, of
Jersey, and exhibited by Mr. W. Arkwright, of Sutton Scarsdale; and No.
1090, Belle of Suffield 3rd, bred by Mr. A. Goold, of Jersey, and exhibited
by Capt. Le Brocq.

In conclusion, we should like to say that milking properties were the
main points which influenced our decisions, and that it is for its dairy qualities
that the Jersey breed deserves the reputation it is rapidly earning. Consider-
ing the very large number of animals exhibited in the various classes, and
the prizes which we had to distribute among a few meritorious animals,
leaving out many others which approached the selected ones very closely in
symmetry and quality, and which by other Judges might have been con-
sidered superior, we hope that the Society, at their next meeting at
Windsor, the centre of a district in which the breed abounds, will see their
way to increase, nut only the amount, but the number of prizes.

We may mention that Mr. Hugh CO. Smith, of Mount Clare, Roe-
hampton, assisted us in Classes 88, 90, 91, and 92, and that in consequence of
a difference of opinion between us in Class 87 (for old bulls), we called in
the assistance of the umpire.

WaAtrter GILBEY.
Tuomas Fanta, Jun.

7"

624 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

SumMAry OF JERSEY CATTLE EXHIBITED.

: Home bred Island bred
Home | Island

= | No. of
No, and Class ares bred bred Com- Com-
i Prizes | menda-| Prizes | menda-
| ons tions
Bulls ee rey toa
87 Oldbulls ...j] 28 12 | 16 1 4 } 2 es
88 Yearlings ... 27 19 8 2 5 1 +
1
Total Bulls. | 55 31 | 24 3 9 I 3 8
Cons a>) a
89 1 a eee 23 5 18 1 3 6
90 3-year-old SO 16 8 8 2 3 1 3
| 1
91 2-year-old i 40 19 21 1 6 2 { 7
92. Nearlmr<; ... 3 + 44 38 6 2 9 | 1 =

Total Cows. 123 70 53

Report of the Judges of Guernsey Cattle.
[Classes 93 to 97.]

We had 52 of this breed brought before us for adjudication.

In Crass 93—Bulls calved in 1883 to 1886—the animals were of fairly
average merit. Nos. 1098 (Mr. H. S. Morris’s Norman), 1097 (Mr. W. A.
Glynn’s Hopeful), 1103 (Sir Francis Montefiore’s Si Francis), and 1096
(Mr. George Long's Original) were in our opinion unquestionably the best
bulls in the class, and were awarded First, Second, and Turrp Prizes and
RESERVE NUMBER in the above order.

In Crass 94— Young Bulis—there was a good and level lot of young
animals, without any one of extraordinary merit. It is worthy of remark
that twin-brothers were awarded the first and third places.

Crass 95— Cows or Heifers in Milk—was by no means a or typical
group of the breed, the Frrst Prize, No. 1119(Mr. H. S. Morris's Blossom),
being by far the best, although some persons may take exception to her black
nose.
Crass 96. Heifers calved in 1886.—In this Class the quality and cha-
racteristics of the breed were better and more decided than in any of the
foregoing. We would mention, however, that though we commended No.
1136 (Mr. W. D. Tucker's Rosy of Calais) for her very promising dairy
properties, we consider her colour (pale-red and white) is against her as a
typical Guernsey.

Cass 97—Heifers calved in 1887—was an unusually large and promising
Class, when we remember that this breed is but little known in the northern
counties, though its hardy character and excellent dairy properties only
require to be more widely known to increase its popularity.

J. G. S. Nicwot.
G. Nevis Wyatt,

¢

——————EEO

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham, 625

Report of the Judge of Dairy Cattle.
[Classes 98 and 99.]

Crass 98— Cows of the Shorthorn type—was well represented, the whole
number of cows possessing excellent merits both as dairy cows, also for
fattening purposes. I strongly recommended a THIRD PRIZE in this Class, as
the whole were an exceptionally good lot.

Crass 99. Heifers of any breed or cross under three years old.—The
number forward in this Class was disappointing, but the quality was very
good indeed.

I would respectfully suggest that two Judges be appointed in future for
these Classes, instead of one.

THomAs CARRICK.

[For Report on Dairy Cattle Competition in Classes 100 and 101, see
page 639].
; Sheep.

Report of the Inspectors of Shearing.

We have this morning (July 9) finished our inspection of Sheep-shearing
at this Show.. We have carefully gone over the very large number of sheep
shown, and beg to report, with great satisfaction to ourselves, the continued
improvement we find in all Classes. The appearance of some odd lots of
the heayy-growing woolled-sheep—at first glance—drew our close attention
to more minute examination, which proved to us that the whole of the sheep
in the Yard have been shorn to the satisfaction of your Inspectors. We
recommend the Council to pass the whole, and to make a clean sheet for
1888.

We did draw attention of some shepherds to some little faults we found,
but not to such an extent as to warrant us to recommend disqualification in
any one case.

Wiiam Jonson.
J. B. Workman.

Report of the Judges of Leicesters (Classes 102 to 105), Cotswolds
(Classes 110 to 113), and Lincolns (Classes 114 to 117).

Crass 102. Leicester Two-shear Rams.—We consider the animals

' exhibited in this Class to be of exceptional merit.

Crass 105. Leicester Shearling Ewes.—All the Prizn and ComMMENDED

| pens are of very great merit.

Crass 110. Cotswold Two-shear Rams.—All good sheep.
Crass 111. Cotswold Shearling Rams.—A small but good Class, not

| equal to those entered in the preceding Class (110).

Crass 112. Cotswold Ram Lambs.—Well-grown lambs, and very pro-

| mising.

Crass 114. Lincoln Two-shear Rams.—A very good Class, the First

_ Prizx sheep being exceptionally good.

Crass 115. Lincoln Shearling Rams.—A very numerous Class—36

_ sheep exhibited. The number of commendations (eight) shows our opinion
, of the high character of the Class, The merits of the prize-winners were

very equally balanced, and were well worthy of the large prizes given.
Jno. Percy Crarx,
W. T. Garne.
H. Macxrnper.

1 This extra prize could not be granted by the Council. —Ep.
. VOL, XXIV.—S, S. ss

626 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

Report of the Judges of Border Leicester and other Short-woolled
Sheep.

[Classes 106 to 109, and 141 to 143.]

The Judges have much pleasure in remarking the great improvement in
the whole class of Border Leicesters, both in number of entries and quality
of sheep.

In Crassrs 141 to 143 the Judges could not come to a satisfactory
conclusion, owing to there being so many different varieties of breed, which
could not fairly be brought into the same competition.

JOHN DAVISON,
Goro. REA.

Report of the Judges of Oxfordshire Down Sheep.
[Classes 121 to 124.]

Crass 121. Two-shear Rams—Nothing exhibited calling for special
notice.

Crass 122. Shearling Rams.—In a Class numbering twenty-seven
entries some excellent specimens of this useful breed of sheep were exhibited—
indeed, so good were they, the Judges felt that they could not do less than
commend the whole Class, and also recommend thata THirp Prizu be given.

Crass 123. Ram Lambs.—On the whole this was a satisfactory class.

Crass 124. Shearling Ewes.—This was an exceptionally good Class, all
the exhibits, in addition to the prize pens, being CommENDED.

The Judges wish to place on record that in their opinion the present
exhibition of Oxfordshire Downs is one of the best that has ever been held.
W. D. Lirrte.
NATHANIEL Srrieor.

Report of the Judges of Shropshire Sheep.
[Classes 125 to 128.]

Shropshire sheep-breeders may congratulate themselves upon the fine
display the representatives of that breed have made at Nottingham.

Crass 1295—Two-shear Rams—comprising twenty-four entries, with few
absentees, would be considered a numerous Class, The Frrst Prizp was
awarded to the fine ram (Mr. Joseph Beach’s Royal Jubilee), the winner in the
Shearling Class last year at Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The Seconp Prizp, No,
1433 (Mr. John Harding’s Lord Cardigan), is an animal of beautiful quality
even and compact throughout, with good Shropshire character. The Tarrp
Prizz, No. 1423 (Mr. F. Bach’s ram), is a massive sheep, with fine outline:
had he possessed a better head he would have been hard to beat. The
FourrH-Prizs winner was No. 1431 (Mr. A. 8, Gibson’s Bulwell Prince), a
rather small sheep of beautiful quality. 7

Crass 126—Shearling Rams—comprised ninety-six entries, an immense
Class, and, with few exceptions, wondertully good, and taking the Judges mue
time to adjudicate the prizes. The First Prize fell to No, 1468 (Mr, A. #,
Mansell), a ram worthy of the honours conferred upon him, being even and
true throughout, and possessing all the attributes of a pure-bred Shropshi
The Snconp Prizr, No. 1521 (the Executors of the late Sir Robert Lo
big, with good flesh upon short legs, and only beaten for First Prize by the
excellent quality of the winner in the Class. The Turrp, No. 1480 (Mrs,
Barrs), a compact sheep, of nice quality and great scale. The Fourrn, No
1514 (Mr. Joseph Beach), was a ram also of wonderful quality; rather t

=

Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham. 627

fine in the head and neck. The number of Higuty CommeEnpeEp (12) and
ComMENDED (15) animals in the Class testified to its general excellence.

Crass 127—Ram Lambs—containing twenty entries, some of which are

of great merit. The First Prize, No. 1551 (Messrs. T. and 8. Bradburne): a

en of great muscular lambs, promising to make good sheep. The SEconp
.No. 1560 (the Executors of the late Sir Robert Loder): strong, lengthy
lambs, likely to make heavy sheep. The Turrp, No. 1554 (Mr. Richard
Brown), are upon a smaller scale, with nice quality. The Fourru, No. 1550
(Messrs. T. and S. Bradburne), were also useful lambs, not very well
matched.

Crass 128—Five Shearling Ewes—contained twenty-four entries, which
caused the Judges considerable trouble to award the prizes. Seldom has this
Class been so numerous and generally good. The First Prizp, No, 1589 (Mr.
P. Albert Muntz, M.P.), are fine specimens of this popular breed, being well
matched, with good coats and heads. The Seconp, No. 1586 (Mr. Thomas
S. Minton), were very thick, compact, and symmetrical, showing good
constitutions, likely to thrive in any climate. The Turrp, No, 1574 (Mr.
William F. Inge), were big, roomy ewes of great size and good character.
The Fourtn, No. 1592 (Mr. Joseph Pulley), were well-matched, with good
heads and short legs.

Several of the highly commended and commended pens in the Shrop-
shire Classes are but little inferior to the prize-takers.

eo Prter EVERALL.
Joun Epwp, Farmer.

Report of the Judges of Southdown Sheep.
(Classes 129 to 152.)

Both numerically and in point of merit this breed was well represented
there being no less than sixty-eight entries in the four Classes.

Crass 129. Two-shear Rams.—The First Prize ram, No. 1610 (Mr. Edwin
Ellis), barring his neck, is a remarkably fine, well-formed animal, with a
particularly good leg-of-mutton. The Seconp Prizs, No. 1607 (Mr. J. J.
Colman), a smart sheep, and carries his head well. The Turrp Prizm, No.
1594 (H.R.H. the Prince of Wales), exhibits masculine character, but is
a bad walker. Seven others also gained distinction, being either highly
commended or commended. Amongst the latter was a ram which would
have stood much higher had not nature endowed him with a hairy breech.

Crass 130. Shearling Rams.-—There were twenty-seven entries, some of
which, for the credit of the breed, would have been better absent. The Frrsr
Prize goes to No. 1634, and the second to No. 1635 (both Mr. J. J. Colman’s),
two sheep of nearly equal merit. Probably next year these two, if shown,
may change places, inasmuch as the F'rrst Prize animal has already rather
a protuberant paunch. The Turrp Prize falls to No. 1613 (H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales), a strong useful sheep. In addition to these, eight good
rams received recognition at our hands.

Crass 131. Pens of Three Ram Lambs.—Judging from the greasiness
of their coats, some of the lambs appear to have been housed. We strongly
deprecate this premature forcing, We awarded First Prizz to Pen No.
1640 (Mr. Alfred Heasman). These were sent, we should say, in a natural
state, and are well-grown lambs, although apparently older than the rest.
In the Srconp Prize pen, No. 1647 (the Pagham Harbour Co.), two are
good lambs, but the third is an indifferent one. We Hieuty Commenpup
two more pens,

Crass 132. Pens of Five Shearling Ewes.—These were so uniformly exce}-
lent that we had much pleasure in commending the whole Class. The First

s$s2

628 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

Prize pen (Duke of Richmond and Gordon), possibly the smallest sheep
in the Class, were notwithstanding such perfect specimens of the Sonthdown
type, and altogether of such sweet feminine character, that we could not do
otherwise than award them the premier position. The Szconp (Mr. J. J.
Colman) and Turrp (Mr. Edwin Ellis) prize pens had not much to choose
between them, the whole ten being beautiful ewes.
We desire to express our opinion that on this occasion the females were
far away better than the males. aot
MANFRED BIDDELL.
Tuomas FULCHER.

Report of the Judges of Hampshire, Suffolk, and other
Short-woolled Sheep.

[Classes 133 to 136, 137 to 140, 141 to 143.]

Crass 133. Hampshire Two-shear Rams.—The First Prize winner (Mr,
Henry Lambert) : a good heavy sheep, with good wool and quality. The
Seconp Prize (Messrs. C. and T. Coles): useful, but hardly well enough
covered, and not quite good behind. Tuirp Prize (Mr, Frank R. Moore) :
a short sheep, not good in wool.

Crass 134, Shearling Rams.—Frrst Prize (Mr. Henry Lambert): deep,
but has the fault of all the Class in being light in leg. Srconp Prize (Mr.
Frank R. Moore): long and kind, but might be covered better; good
coat. Turrp Prize (Mr. Robert Coles’s Young Victor), a useful sheep, but
light in thighs, Reserve (Messrs. C. and T. Coles) : best back in the Class;
lacks size, and has a bad dock.

Crass 185. Ram Lambs.—Class fairly represented, but in each lot, two
out of the pens were far better than the other, which somewhat spoiled the
Class.

Class 186. Shearling Ewes.—Three first pens very good. First pen (Mr.

H. Perry Keene): two ewes, rather dark round the ears, very good bodies, —

Second pen a trifle short.

Crass 137. Suffolk Two-shear Rams.—A fairly represented Class.
No. 1693 was disqualified because, in our opinion, he was suffering from
hereditary disease.

Crass 138. Shearliny Rams.—First PRizE winner (Marquis of Bristol's
Van Tromp 5th), a very nice sheep, with good quality and wool ; we think
the wool in this Class should be more free from grey.

Crass 139. Ram Lambs.—A good Class. First Prizz (Marquis of

Bristol), will grow into a grand sheep. ‘The hest lamb in the Class was in —

the reserve pen (Warl of Ellesmere.)

Crass 140. Shearling Ewes.—First Prizu pen (Marquis of Bristol), nice
quality, but badly covered. Srconp PrizE lot (Mr. Joseph Smith), plenty of
size, but one had a very bad coat.

Francis P. Brown,
Grorer Kine,

Wool.

Report of the Judge of Lincolnshire Long Wool.
[Classes 144 and 146.]
T have to report that the whole of the fleeces shown in Classes 144 and
145 were of the true lustre type, very well bred, and well handled.

Of the he-hog wools, lots 1730 (Mr. George Marris) and 1738 (Sir J. H.
Thorold, Bart.) were all strong and sound, but the she-hog wools, 1784

4
:

}

Report of the Senior Steward. oy Live-Stock at Nottingham. 629

(Mr. G. Marris) and 1738 (Mr. John Pears), were somewhat weak, and in
some of the fleeces the staple would break about the middle. This is a more
serious fault in lustre woul than in any other sort. The wools which won
the First and Srconp Prizz in both Olasses were very near in point of ex-

_ cellence, and both were wools which left little or nothing to be desired from
_ a wool-trade point of view.

Tt seems a pity that in the midst of such a good lustre-wool growing
district as Nottingham there was not a larger entry for these prizes. Bright
wool makes in proportion as good a market price as other sorts, and it

is highly desirable to keep up its peculiar qualities and characteristics,

although they do not command for the moment the higher proportionate
rates current some years ago. I would recommend that in future competi-

_ tions, where there are two prizes, that one should be given for hog wool and
_ the other for wether, or wether and ewe wool. He-hog and she-hog are to

the wool manufacturer meaningless distinctions. There seems to me to be
more merit in producing a well-sustained ewe fleece than in producing ex-
cellence in wool of the first shearing.

Joun W. TURNER.

Pigs.

Report of the Judges of White Pigs.
[Cla ses 146 to 149, 159 to 153, and 154 to 157. ]

LARGE WHITE BREED,

Crass 146. Boars, farrowed in 1887.—A fair Class; first- and second-
prize animals (both Earl of Ellesmere’s) are good representatives of the
breed.

Crass 147, Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1888.—The Prize pigs are of ordinary
merit.

Crass 148. Breeding Sows,—A grand Class of breeding sows; the prize
animals are of exceptional merit, and the remaining exhibits good.

Oxass 149. Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1888.—The first- and second-
prize pens are good, and show much quality.

MIDDLE WHITE BRUED.

Crass 150. Boars, farrowed in 1887.—With the exception of the Prize
animals, this is a moderate Class.
__ Crass 152. Breeding Sows.—A good Class; the Frrsr Prize sow (Mr.
FP. A. Wallcer-Jones’ Lilly) is a fine specimen of the middle breed ; the other
prize-winners are smaller, but have considerable merit.

SMALL WHITE BREED.

_ Ctass 154, Boars, farrowed in 1887.—There are two good boars shown,
_but the remaining entries are moderate.

Crass 155, Boar Piys.—Two entries; the First Prize pigs (Earl of
Ellesmere’s) are not good specimens of the small white breed.
__ Crass 156. Breeding Sow Pigs.—There are some excellent sows shown
in this Class ; the Frrsr and Sxconp Prizz winners (both Hon, Mrs, Meynell
|Ingram’s) are especially good.
_ In consequence of the number of disqualifications in the younger Classes,
the competition among white pigs is not so strong as we have seen at former

|

Shows of this Society.
Gnoren Manates,

Wiuiiam Tart,

630 Report of the Senior Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham.

Report of the Judges of the Berkshire, Black and other Coloured Pigs.
[Classes 158 to 161, 162 to 165, 166 to 169. ]

The pigs in the Black and other Classes call for no special remark, ex-
cepting the Berkshire Breeding Sows (Crass 160), and the Pens of three
Small Black Boars (CiAss 163),

BERKSHIRES.

To take the Classes in rotation, we may say that the Berkshwre Boars,
farrowed in1887 (CxiAss 158), were a small Class of medium quality, the Frrst
Prizz going to No. 1817 (Mr. Alfred E. W. Darby’s Terrick Prince), a long
and useful, though rather coarse pig, which had the defect of drooping ears,
with one of them partly white. The Szconp Prizz, No. 1815 (Mr. Arthur
S. Gibson's Knight Errant), was of better Berkshire quality, but small for
his age, and rather drooping behind. No. 1816, the Rusprvr (Mr. J. P.
King’s Tankerville), was a nice style of pig, but light round the throat.
No. 1819 (Mr. N. Benjafield’s Fai Trader) would probably have taken a
different place if his age had not been several months under that of his
competitors.

There were only four entries in Cuass 159— Boar Pigs—and neither quite
satisfactory ; an unlevel inferior pig spoilt the appearance of Pen No. 1825
(Mr. Nathaniel Benjafield), which was awarded the First Prizz. The
SEconD Prize pen (Mr. Alfred Darby) was also spoilt by one animal with
an unsightly head, whilst all three were too light in their gammons, but
otherwise weve rather taking and of nice quality. We could not allot the
ReEseRvVE NUMBER, as we considered we must haye withheld the Prizes if
there had been nothing before the remaining pens.

Cuass 160—Breeding Sows—was really a strong one in sixteen entries ;
scarcely one would have been marked off as of not sufficient merit if they
had been within distance of the prize. Drafted to half their number they
were certainly a grand lot, and we had some difficulty in deciding between
No. 1834 and No. 1839, the former (Mr. Alfred Darby’s Trafford Maid)
eventually taking First, and No. 1639 (Mr .N. Benjafield’s Blanche) Second ;
No. 1830 (Mr. J. P. King’s Lady Dorchester) standing a very good Third.

In Crass 161—Pens of three Berkshire Sows—Nos. 1843 (Mr. T. 8.
Minton) and 1841 (Mr. Alfred Darby) were almost a perfect match, both
exceedingly nice quality. Pen No, 1840 (Mr. Arthur S. Gibson) contained
much the largest pigs in the class, but they were not even on their backs.

OTHER BLACK BREEDS,

With two of the best entries disqualified, Cass 162—Boars farrowed in
1887—came before us as a very poor one.

Crass 163—Boar Pigs farrowed in 1888—showed a decided improvement.
There were only three entries ; still, as a class, they were unusually matching
and perfect, not one in the class that did not stand out as a promising young
boar on his own merits. We mention this feature as not of frequent occur-
rence with nine animals in the same Class, ’

Both the breeding sows and pens of three sows of this breed (CrAs
164 and 165) were very short entries.

TAMWORTH,

This breed is evidently becoming more popular, and, we take it, for this
reason; with careful breeding they appear to be gradually losing the dis-

Report of the Senor Steward of Live-Stock at Nottingham, 631

advantage of being hard-feeders. It was the general opinion—and we quite
indorse it—that a large proportion of the Tamworths at Nottingham showed
a great improvement in this respect.
JosprH SMITH.
Heser Humerrey.

[For Reports on Poultry Classes see page 644.]

Bee Department.
Report of the Judges of Hives, Honey, and Bee Appliances.

It may be fairly claimed for the Bee Department of the “Royal” Show
at Nottingham that it was one of the most attractive and most numerously
attended, in the successful meeting of 1888. Judging by the crowded state
of the manipulating tent, and the general interest taken in the very large
display of bee appliances on view, particularly on the last two days of the
show, there can be no doubt that bee-keeping has made a considerable im-
pression on the minds of the agricultural population.

Hitherto farmers have been disposed to look askance at bee-keeping,
evidently considering it either so small a matter as to be unworthy of atten-
tion, or that the difficulties attendant on success in honey production are
too great for them, Besides these, some few farmers, to our own knowledge,
have looked upon bees as positively injurious to their crops; arguing that
what accrues to the bee-keeper is lost to the farmer, in fact, that the nectar
extracted by bees from, say clover bloom, is so much produce stolen from
him. It is gratifying, however, to find these prejudices rapidly dying out;
the more enlightened intelligence of to-day admits that the last-named
grievance has no foundation whatever in fact. Not only so, but farmers are
—slowly, it is true, but surely—introducing bee-keeping on their farms as
being far more profitable than some other things requiring greater care and
attention than the keeping of a few colonies of bees.

We Imow of nothing that can so readily be added to one branch of
dairy-farming, i.e. milk retailing, as honey selling. Among at least a dozen
farmers in Lancashire, of whom we have personal knowledge, and who have
within the last year or two taken up hee-keeping, one in particular—who
runs three milk shandries—assured us that his only difficulty was in getting
sections of honey sufficient for his customers. His men are asked “ when
the honey will be ready,” and it is freely purchased as socn as produced; so
that the farmer here has what so many lack, viz. a good market for his
produce without seeling for it. We were also much interested of late,
while passing through the market at Carlisle, where on market days small
farm-produce is sold, to see a farmer’s wife busy selling sections of honey
from her own farm, to the evident envy of her neighbours, who had only
eggs, butter, &c., to offer.

In short, the Shows of the British Bee-Keepers’ Association haye made
an impression on the mind of the farmer, which in these times of agricul-
tural depression is beginning to assert itself. There is no one from whom
the small farmer especially will so readily take a lesson as from one of his
own class, and this is just what he is now doing. So soon asa man makes
a few stocks of bees “ pay well,” his neighbour will take note of the fact ;
and he needs but to attend a “Royal” Show to see bees handled, and to
find bee-keepers ready and willing to give him all the information in their

ower.
y The form in which bee-keeping most commends itself to farmers is
not to embark extensively in the business, but to begin by keeping two or
three hives as an adjunct to the ordinary farm work, and advance accord-

632 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

ingly as he finds it succeeds. This is the wisest course to adopt in all
cases.

It must have been a source of extreme regret to the promoters of the
Nottingham Meeting that the season of 1888, so far as honey production goes,
has been one of the very worst on record ; and as the authorities of the Show
very properly attach greater importance to the honey display than to the
department devoted to bee-appliances, the failure of the honey crop was a
great disappointment. It is, therefore, to be hoped the year 1889 will
—as according to precedent it should—be an exceptionally good honey year.
Bee-keepers will then have an opportunity, of which they will not be slow
to avail themselves, for showing their produce.

Notwithstanding the adverse conditions named above, the display was
most creditable. Of honey, as might be expected, the quantity was small,
but of bee-appliances and objects of interest to bee-keepers generally, there
has probably never been so large a collection exhibited at any previous show.
The total number of entries nearly reached 300, and included no less than
ten collections of hives and appliances, the whole of which were staged. All
the leading manufacturers were represented, and every article shown was of
the most advanced modern type. In nearly all the classes for appliances
the competition was very keen, while many of the articles were so nearly
equal in merit that judging was not an easy task. :

In concluding our report, we may say that taking the Bee Department
as a whole, it was both instructive and educational, and it is certain to bear
fruit in the interest of the classes for whom it was intended. ‘The amount
of shedding allowed for the Department was greater than usual, but had the
whole of the entries been staged—as they certainly would have been, but
for the bad season—the space apportioned would have been quite inadequate
for the exhibits.

GEORGE RAayNoR
Wm. BrovGcuron CARR.
Watrer Martin.

XXXI.—Leport of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at
Nottingham. By Sir Joun THoroup, Bart., Syston Park,
Grantham.

THE period of three years for which, by favour of the Council,
I was in 1886 appointed Steward of Dairying, having now ex-
pired, it becomes my duty to present a report on this most
useful and instructive feature of our Annual Shows; and in doing
so, I wish to thank those officials of the Society whose constant
assistance has enabled me to carry out the duties of a department
in which I take the greatest interest, and which in the past has
been, and will in the future still more be, of material assistance
to the British farmer.

Tue NorrinGHaM WorKING Dairy.

The Working Dairy has been so often and so fully described
in past numbers of the Journal, that there is no necessity now to
speak of its general scheme and objects in any detail, and it

Report of the Steward of Duirying and Poultry at Nottingham. 633

must suffice to say that each successive year appears to reveal a
greater interest by the public in its operations.

The Council having determined to institute a competition of
butter-makers in connection with the Nottingham Meeting, it
became necessary this year to make considerable alterations in
the arrangements. As it was hoped that the entries would be
numerous and that the whole of the floor space would be required
by the competitors, the articles shown in the Dairy were restricted
as much as possible, and all apparatus requiring power to drive
it was excluded. The entries were unfortunately few, and by
placing the churns used in the demonstration at one end of the
dairy, ample space was obtained.

The dairy was roofed with Messrs. Major's patent tiles, which
looked well, and were water-tight and cool. But as the dairy
faced the north, and everything had been done to provide for the
hot weather we have usually had to contend with, it soon became
apparent that it was much too airy for the chilly breezes we
were to encounter at Wollaton Park. Cream placed in the churns
at the usual temperature, and churned on the most approved
principles, took an inordinate time to become butter, and fairly
puzzled all the professors. It was only by putting up canvas
screens and by closing the ventilators, that the dairy was made
tolerable to those who had to use it.

The milk, supplied by Messrs. Shardlow & Co. of Derby, was
of good quality, and was punctually delivered. Some very good
milk was purchased in the yard, and it is worth considering
whether in future an attempt should not be made to arrange
with the exhibitors to purchase all the milk their cows give
during the Show week at a price to be agreed upon beforehand.
The extreme simplicity of our engineering arrangements was
the cause of some trouble and delay. The pulley of the engine
lent by Messrs. Davey, Paxman, & Co. was too large for Messrs.
Freeth & Pocock’s Victoria Separator, and a smaller pulley had
to be procured and fitted. It was only by the hearty co-opera-
tion of all concerned that the cream was separated by 9 o’clock
on Thursday night; after this the engine (which really had no
work to do) ran as smoothly as possible, while supplying ample
steam for heating purposes, and the Separator did its work in a
most efficient manner. A small dairy was provided at the side
for exhibiting the Jersey and Dorset Creamers, to the former of

which the Judges of Miscellaneous Implements awarded a Silver
Medal.'

* The report of the Judges on these Creamers is included in the General
Report on the Miscellaneous Implements at Nottingham, the publication of
which is necessarily postponed until the next number of the Journal.—Ep,

634 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

As usual, we had some difficulty in disposing of our skim
milk during the commencement of the Show, but charitable
persons in the town undertook to distribute it, and we were
informed that it was greatly appreciated. Later in the week
the demand for skim milk, for butter, and for the small French
cream cheeses greatly exceeded our supply. :

Miss Smithard lectured to a very large and attentive au-
dience during the week, explaining the Normandy and Danish
systems of butter-making. She also made the French cream
. cheeses, which seemed to be extremely popular at Nottingham,
‘and would be found to be much more profitable than butter
during the summer months.

Advantage was taken of the crowds which daily thronged
the stand to make a free distribution of some very plain and
practical Rules for Butter-making. which had been kindly drawn
up for the Dairy Committee of the Society by its chairman (the
Hon. Cecil Parker), and which have since been issued with the
authority of the Committee on a printed sheet adapted for hang-
ing up in dairies.!. These Rules indicate so well the essentials
of proper butter-making, that I do not hesitate to reproduce
them below :—

Simple Rules for Butter-Making.

Wash, in cold water, all dairy utensils to be used, such as churn, butter
worker, wooden butter hands, &e.

Now scald with hot water, wash again with cold.

Always use a thermometer.

The churn and cream to be at a temperature of 56° to 58° in summer,
and 60° in winter.

Ventilate the churn freely and frequently during churning, until no air
rushes out when vent-peg is taken out.

Churn at 40 to 45 revolutions per minute,

Stop churning immediately the butter comes. This can be ascertained
by the sound ; if in doubt, look.

The butter should now be like grains of mustard seed.

Draw off the butter-milk, using a piece of straining cloth—so as to
prevent the loss of any butter—and wash the butter in the churn with plenty
of cold water. Turn the churn two or three times very gently, then draw
off the water, and repeat the process until the water drawn off is quite clear
and free from butter-milk.

Make a strong brine and pour into churn through a hair sieve. Wash
the butter thoroughly and draw off brine; take the butter out of the chum
and put it on the butter worker, which use until every drop of butter-millk
is pressed out of the butter.

N.B. Never touch the butter with your hands.

! Copies of this sheet can be obtained at the offices of the Society at 1d,
each or 5s. per 100.

Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham. 635

THE BurreR-MaAkInG COMPETITION.

Mention has been made above of the competition of butter-
makers which had been arranged by the Council to take place
during the Show, and which it was hoped would attract a large
number of candidates for the prizes offered. This was the first
actual competition that has been held under the auspices of the
Society, though in each of the three preceding years a “ practi-
cal examination” of dairy-workers had been held in connection
with the country meeting, though before the actual Show days.
Perhaps I may be permitted, before speaking of this year’s
competition, briefly to summarise the previous action taken by
the Society to encourage the proficiency of dairy workers, since
this happens to be the one feature of the Dairy Department that
has yet received no formal notice in the pages of the Journal.

In the report to’ the General Meeting of Members held
on December 11, 1884, it was announced that the Council had
decided to apply a portion of the Educational Grant to the
practical testing by an examiner of the skill of cheese and
butter-workers, in the hope, as expressed in the next report of
the Council, that ‘‘a scheme of practical examinations may tend
to the benefit of the dairy workers who obtain the Society’s
certificate of efficiency, and at the same time lessen the difficulty
which dairy farmers find in obtaining competent persons to
make butter and cheese.”

The examination took place in the Working Dairy at
Preston in July, 1885, during the week preceding the Show. ©
For the certificate of proficiency in cheese-making, no dairy-
women, and only two young dairymen, competed. The ex-
aminers reserved their awards until after the cheese made had
become fully ripe; and eventually reported that they did not
feel justified in recommending the grant of a certificate to either
competitor.! For the Butter-making Certificate there were five
competitors, and the Examiners awarded the first prize of 51. to
a dairymaid, the second prize of 31. to a lad of fifteen, and the
third prize of 2/, to a dairyman, commending another (female)
competitor.

At the Norwich Show in 1886, prizes and certificates were
offered for both Cheese and Butter Workers, subject, as re-
gards the former, to the entry of six candidates. As sufficient
competitors did not present themselves, there was no examina-
tion of cheese-workers. But, as regards butter-workers, there

* The full Report of the Judges will be found on pp. 333-36 of the Joumal
for April 1886—Vol. XXIL., Part I.

636 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

were three competitors, and certificates of efficiency were
awarded to all of them, the first two prizes going to men, and
the third to a dairymaid. ,

At Newcastle (1887) there were four competitors. The first
(5/.) and the third (2/.) prizes were won by dairymaids, and
another dairymaid was commended; while the second (31.)
prize was awarded to a lad.

In connection with the Nottingham Meeting, the Council
determined, in December 1887, that there should be a competi-
tion of Butter-Makers during the Show week in three distinct
classes, viz. members of a farmer’s family, male hired servants,
and female hired servants ; champion silver and bronze medals
-being offered for subsequent competition by the prize-winners in
each class. The following were the principal regulations of
the competition as finally settled :—

The Competitors will be divided into the following classes :—

Crass 1, (Tuesday). Members of a farmer's family,

Crass 2, (Wednesday). Male hired servants.

Crass 3. (Wednesday). Female hired servants.

Oxass 4, (Thursday). Champion—limited to the winners of prizes in
the three preceding classes.

The following prizes will be given in each class in the event of the Judges
considering that sufficient merit has been shown by the competitors :—
First Prizp . 51. Srconp Prize . 3. THIRD Prize . 21.

The Society’s Silver Medal will be given to the competitor who is ad-
judged first in the Cuampron Crass, and the Society’s Bronze Medal to the
competitors placed second and third.

The Society’s Certificate of efficiency will also be given to the com-
petitors who win money prizes.

With the exception of churn makers, vendors, or their assistants, these
prizes are open to general competition.

Eight quarts of cream will be provided for each competitor, and the
butter made will be the property of the Society. Competitors must bring
their own churns and butter boards, but the Society will provide tables
scales, and pails.

[The railway companies have consented to allow competitors who may
travel to the Show-yard by rail, to take their churns with them free of
charge, as passenger’s luggage. |

The number of competitors who entered themselves was as
follows: Class I., 8 members of a farmer’s family; Class IL.,
3 male hired servants; Class III., 5 female hired servants.

It is greatly to be regretted that these entries were so
small, but the deep interest shown by the spectators should
encourage the Society to offer the same prizes another year, and
to ascertain if it is possible in any way to reduce the expense to
which the competitors are now put. It was perhaps fortunate
for the officials of the dairy that the competitors were not
more numerous, especially as the time occupied in churning was

Report of the Steward of Dairying aud Poultry at Nottingham, 637

much longer than usual, as an opportunity was thus afforded of
seeing the difficulties that would arise in the management of a
larger entry. As Mr. H. Hildyard, the assistant steward of the
dairy, had had previous experience in the conduct of similar
competitions, I asked him to undertake the management of this
competition, which he carried out to the entire satisfaction of
those concerned. The thanks of the Council are due to Mr.
Carrick, who as sole Judge had a difficult and responsible task
toperform. I append his report, with the addition of the names
of the successful competitors.

Report of the Judge in the Butter-Making Competition.

Crass 1.—This class brovght forward eight competitors, viz., 7 women
and 1 man. Each competitor was supplied with 8 quarts of cream at a
temperature of 58°. All commenced churning at the same time, in churns
of various makes chosen by the competitors. ‘he first prize was awarded
to No, 3 [Mrs. Matilda Holmes, of Home Farm, Leigh, Tunbridge, Kent],
who produced 5 lbs. 6 oz. of very good butter in sixty-four minutes. No. 8
[Mrs. Stevenson, of Rossburn House, Shincliffe, Durham] obtained the
second prize, and No. 1 [Miss Amy Barron, of Borrowfield House, Borrow-
ash, Derbyshire] third prize. The whole of the competitors did their work
in a most creditable manner.

Crass 2 only brought forward three competitors. The first prize was
awarded to No. 9 [James Walker, Portmahon Farm, Everton, Sandy, Beds},
who produced 6 lbs. 5 oz. of butter in seventy-two minutes; the butter was
fair quality and made in good style. No. 10[ Thomas Smith, of Barrow-
more Farm, Chester] was awarded the second prize, and No. 11 [ Thomas
Kew, 15 Market Place, Leicester] third.

Crass 3.—Here again there were three competitors. The first prize was
awarded to No. 14 [Miss Frances M. Walshe, of Wood House, Aldford,
Chester], who produced 5 lbs. 4 oz. of butter in seventy minutes. No. 13
[Mrs. Walker, of Portmahon Farm, Everton, Sandy, Beds] was second, .
and No. 12 [Miss Alice Aldridge, of 9 Market Place South, Leicester] third.

The quality of the butter made in this class was moderate.

Cuampion Crass.—Nine persons competed in this class, 5 women and
4 men. The first prize—a Silver Medal—was awarded to No. 3 [Mrs.
Matilda Holmes], who produced 4 lbs. 15 oz. of butter in 2 hours and 13
minutes; the second and third prizes—Bronze Medals—to No. 13 [Mrs.
Walker | and No. 9 [James Walker] respectively.

The butter made in this class was poor in quality and took a long time
in churning owing to the temperature of cream being low.

The whole of the arrangements for carrying out the various competitions
were perfect, and the courteous and assiduous attention of the Stewards of
the Department made the duty of judging comparatively light.

THomas CARRICK,

Datry CAtTTLe.

The competition of Dairy Cows was carried out under the
immediate direction of Mr. Wakefield, the Steward of Cattle, but
as the results are of particular interest to the dairy, I hope I

638 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

shall not be accused of trespassing when I include them in this
report.

The competition had failed in previous years to give satisfac-
tion. At Preston and Norwich the prizes were offered for cows
giving not less than 18 quarts and 12 quarts of milk respec-
tively per diem, to contain not less than 12 per cent. of solids
(butter-fat), with the result that at Norwich the Judges reported
that ‘‘ either the conditions are too stringent, or the cows ex-
hibited were deficient in milking qualities.” These conditions
were omitted at Newcastle, where the Judges reported as follows :

“They were instructed to base their awards upon the relative apparent
milking properties of the animals exhibited, there being no provision made
‘for testing accurately either the quantity or quality of the milk produced.
This the Judges much regretted. They would have been better satisfied, and
so most likely would some of the exhibitors have been, if the milk had been
weighed and the quality carefully ascertained, as was done at Preston in 1885,
and at Norwich last year.”

Upon this report the chairman of the Dairy Committee, the
Honourable Cecil Parker, took counsel with Dr. Vieth, who has
had exceptional opportunities for testing both the quantity and
quality of milk yielded by various breeds of cattle, and it was
decided to recommend the Council to offer prizes, based upon
the idea that the animal giving the largest amount of butter-
fat in proportion to its live weight was the most profitable
animal to keep. In addition, therefore, to the prizes offered by
the Local Committee for classes of two cows of the Shorthorn type
and of two heifers under three years old, to be judged as at New-
castle by their apparent milking qualities, there were in the
Nottingham Prize sheet the two following new classes, in each of
which a first prize of 201. and a second prize of 10/. was offered :—

Crass 100.—One cow, in-milk, of any breed or cross, over 1,200 Ibs.
live weight, and giving not less than 40 lbs. (about 4 impl. galls.) of milk
daily.
Crass 101.—One cow, in-milk, of any breed or cross, under 1,200 Ibs.
live weight, and giving not less than 25 lbs, (about 24 impl. galls.) of milk
daily.

The Regulations affecting these classes ran as follows :—

46, The Cows entered for competition in Classes 100 and 101 will be
milked dry on Sunday evening, July 8, 1838, in the presence of the Steward,
or a representative of the Society duly authorised by him.

47. They will be milked by the servants in charge of them, at hours to
be fixed by the Steward, on the morning and afternoon of the Monday and
Tuesday of the Show. Any animal which does not at the four milkings
yield an average of at least 40 Ibs. weight of milk (about 4 gallons imperial)
per day for cows entered in Class 100, and at least 25 lbs. weight (about
24 gallons imperial) for cows entered in Class 101, will be disqualified.

48. The milk yielded by each cow will be weighed after each milking,

Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham. 639

and samples taken for the purpose of ascertaining the percentage amount of
butter-fat contained therein.

49, The cows will be weighed on Monday morning, July 9, 1888, after
being milked, and again before the last milking on the next day (Tuesday).
The mean between these two weights will be held to be the weight of the
animal for the purposes of the competition.

50. The Prizes in these Classes will be awarded on the certificate of the
Steward [of Cattle], and will be given to those animals which, in proportion
to their weight, yield the largest amount of butter-fat in their milk.

Dr. Voelcker, ably assisted by Mr. Arthur Beck, the assis-
tant Steward of Cattle, superintended the milking of the cows,
weighed the milk, and took samples, which he analysed in a
room reserved for him in the Working Dairy.

The awards were made upon his report by Mr. Wakefield,
the Steward of Cattle, on Thursday, July 12.

Taking into consideration the fact that the conditions were
new, and not very well understood, the classes filled remarkably
well, and though another year improvements may be made in
the regulations with regard to the weights of the animals and
the minimum yield of milk, yet on the whole we can claim the
classes to have been successful, and to have afforded some useful
information, which may be gathered from the following report
of Dr. Voelcker.

Report of the Consulting Chemist on the Analyses of Milk from the
Cows competing in Classes 100 and 101.

In obedience to the instructions of the Council, I attended with my
assistant in the Nottingham Show-yard, in order to carry out the analyses
of the samples of milk yielded by the dairy cows entered for competition
in Classes 100 and 101. A temporary laboratory had been erected for my
use at the back of the Working Dairy ; and the samples when drawn were
taken there immediately and subjected to analysis.

Soxhlet’s Areometric Method was employed, as being the most suitable
one for the estimation of butter-fat under such circumstances as existed.
The method was found to work satisfactorily on the whole, though a sudden
frost and consequent lowering of temperature during one night caused some
inconvenience. The chief difficulty experienced arose, however, from the
fact of there being no provision made in Soxhlet’s tables for milks of such rich
quality as some which had to be dealt with here, the tables not being
carried on further than for milks with 5:12 per cent. of butter-fat. This is
a manifest defect, and the tables require to be carried out for richer milks.
Dilution of some of the richer milks with water had accordingly to be re-
sorted to, but investigation is necessary to see to whatextent dilution affects
the accuracy of the tabular results.!

The cows arrived in the Show-yard on Saturday July 7, and were all
milked dry on the evening of July 8. Experience having shown that results
obtained from a single milking may frequently prove fallacious from several

‘ Subsequently to the date of the analyses, Dr. Vieth suggested to me
that dilution with skim milk of known composition might be more satisfactory.
Dilution of the separated ethereal fat solution with ether gave, I found, dis-
sordant results.—J. A. V. ;

640 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

external causes, such as the animals not having thoroughly settled down
after journeying, the trial was extended over four milkings, viz., on the
morning and evening of the following Monday and Tuesday, the hours being
8am. and5 p.m. Similarly, the live weights were taken on the mean of
the weights obtained before milking on the one day, and after milking on
the other. The milk was weighed at each time of milking, and samples were
drawn by myself. The weighing machines used were obligingly lent to the
Society by Messrs. W. & T. Avery of Birmingham.

In Class 100, nine cows were entered; of these, one (No. 1180) did not
put in an appearance ; one (No. 1172) was not milked on one occasion owing
to the absence of the man in charge ; another (No. 1174) was disqualified as
being under weight, and in the case of a fourth (No. 1175) the milk smelt so
badly, owing to the cow being unwell and having been physicked, that it
was not included in the full trial. This left practically five to compete for
the prizes, and nearly all of these were cross-bred cows.

A perusal of the Table on page 641, giving the detailed results obtained from
each cow in this class, will show that all the cows gave more milk on the second
day than on the first, with the exception of No. 1176, which fell off very
much on the second day ; and that the morning quantity was much more
than that of the evening on both days, which would be accounted for by the
longer interval between the two milkings. On the other hand, the morning milk
was the poorer, the quality being especially low on the first morning and
improving on the second. The greatest quantities were yielded by No. 1177
and No. 1179, but the quality of the milk of the latter was poor. Calcu-
lating the total amount in lbs. of butter-fat obtained in the four milkings, No.
1177 gave the highest result, then No, 1178; but on going into the figures,
taking both on the basis of an animal weighing 1,200 Ibs., these two came
out identical, and but very little ahead of No. 1176, a smaller cow than
either. Equal prizes accordingly were awarded to No. 1177, the heaviest
cow of all, a big cross-bred with a very large udder, but by no means a
shapely animal, and to No. 1178,a neat Shorthorn, and a capital type ofa dairy
cow. It will be noticed that the cross-bred gave on an ayerage 63 lbs. of
milk per diem, and the Shorthorn 56 lbs. To those interested in analytical
matters it may be mentioned that, owing no doubt to the physic, the butter-
fat would not separate out from the milk of No. 1175 by means of the
ethereal solution of potash used in the method of analysis employed (Soxhlet’s
Areometric Method).

In the second class (Class 101), restricted to cows under 1,200 Ibs. live
weight, there were 11 entries, of which 10 appeared for competition ; three
of these were Jerseys, two Guernseys, one Ayrshire, one Red-polled, and the
others cross-breds. All came within the conditions as regards weight and
yield of milk. It will be noted from the table thatone cow only (No. 1183) fell
off in live weight. There was but little difference between the yields of milk
on the first and second days, and, as in other cases so here, the evening’s
milk was less in quantity than the morning’s, but much richer. The greatest
weight of milk, viz. 644 Ibs. per diem, was obtained from the cross-bred cow,
1188; the next, 47 lbs., from No. 1192 (Jersey).

The Jerseys gave more and richer milk than the Guernseys, and it was
extremely rich in quality. ‘The Ayrshire cow, No. 1184, gave nothing like
the Jerseys either in quantity or quality, while the Red-polled, though
superior to the Ayrshire, was in both respects below the Jersey. Making
Salone as before, No. 1192 (Jersey) stood easily first, and another
Jersey, No, 1183, second, The very regular yields of these two cows are
specially to be noted, the daily averages being excellent and the milk ex-
eeedingly rich. The other Jersey cow, No. 1189, came third, and then the
cross-bred cow, No. 1188.

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642 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

Comparing the two classes, it will be seen that the figures of the second
class stand relatively higher, and that the cross-bred in this division shows
a higher result of butter-fat for its size than the prize-winners in the other
class. This gives additional evidence to the great value of Jerseysas butter
producers.

No. 1192 and No. 1183 were both beautiful animals; the former, which
was only four years old, had a considerable advantage over its older rival,
now in her ninth year. Taking this into account, the record of the latter, a
well known animal (“ Frieda”) is a splendid one. I was informed too that
she had not been quite well since her journey to the Show, and her yield of
milk, which was generally 44 lbs, a day, had fallen off by about 7 Ibs. The first
prize winner, “ Daisy” (No. 1192), hashad two calves, and was stated to give at
home 45 Ibs. of milk daily, never going dry, whilst from four milkings 44 lbs.
of butter are reckoned to be obtained. The figures both of quantity and
butter-yield agree, it will be seen, very closely with the weights I obtained
and with the results of my analyses on the Nottingham Show Ground.
Incidentally it may be mentioned that decorticated cotton cake (broken fine)
was the food given to this cow, together with bran and crushed oats. No.
1183 was also fed with decorticated cotton-cake and other foods.

J. Aveustus VoELCKER.

Butter.

The entries of butter were 158, and in the opinion of Mr.
Hudson—whose report I append—they were unusually good.

Report of the Judge of Butter.

The show of fresh butter in Classes 180, 181, and 182 was exceedingly
uniform, and of first-rate quality. I have not seen so many fine exhibits of
butter at one time for many years past. The weather being so very cold, in
my opinion added considerably to this fact. Class 183 of salted butter,
with the exception of the first and second prizes, was not a good class;
most of the exhibits had an old and strong flavour from over-keeping.
Butter kept beyond a fortnight should be hermetically sealed.

Jas. Hupson.

Last year at Newcastle no condition was imposed to test the
keeping qualities of the salted butter. This year it was sent in
a month before the commencement of the Show, and kept in a
very cool cellar at Wollaton Hall. It is disappointing to find
so little improvement has been made in the art of potting butter.
Following up Mr. Hudson’s suggestion, it might be well to offer
a prize for the best hermetically sealed vessel which did not
require the use of solder, and which would not taint the butter.
I would suggest that the fresh butter should be sent to the Show
in pound pats or rolls, wrapped in butter paper or muslin, and
that ice, cabbage leaves, flowers, and other extraneous articles,
should be prohibited. The Society now provides cases covered
with glass for the butter, so that it might well be sent in on
Saturday and judged with the other exhibits on the Monday
morning.

Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham. 643

CHEESE.

There were 115 entries of cheese; the hard cheeses made a
very fine show, but the soft cheeses were disappointing. ‘here
was no exhibition of the Colwick cheese, a locally made soft
cheese something like the French Brie cheese, which is high\y
popular in Nottingham and must be very profitable to the
makers. I had the good fortune to obtain half of one of the
First Prize Stiltons which had been presented by the maker to
Lady Middleton, and could not resist sending a portion to the
Society’s laboratory in the hope that Dr. Voelcker might be able
to throw some light upon the cause of its excellence. He found
it to contain 46 per cent. of fat, and to be richer than the best
cheese the late Dr. Voelcker analysed and reported upon in his
able article on Cheese in Part I. of Vol. XXII. of the First Series
of the Journal. As Mr. Jubal Webb points out in the report
which I append, if this class of cheese were more common, we
should hear less of the watery and strong-flavoured Gorgonzola
now flooding our markets. ‘The successful makers of Stiltons
were well rewarded at the Nottingham Show, Mr. Morris, of
Manor Farm, Saxelby, Melton Mowbray, taking First and
Second Prize in the class of Stiltons made in 1887, and Second
Prize in the class for any British cheese made in 1888. It
appears to be desirable to restrict exhibitors of cheese to one lot
of three or more cheeses in each class, and that a special class
should be instituted to encourage early ripened Stiltons made
in the year of the Show.

I have to express my regret that well-founded complaints
were made by some of the exhibitors of butter and cheese, that
their exhibits or the cloths belonging to them were lost. Great
care was taken to return everything, but in consequence of some
of the exhibits being sold to the agents recommended by the
local committee, and of some of the articles being removed by
the exhibitors themselves, there was not, on this occasion, that
regularity which was desirable.

Report of the Judge of Cheese.

In reporting on the cheese at the Nottingham Show, it is very
gratifying to be able to state that it was both comprehensive in the varieties
shown, and satisfactory as regards the general standard of quality that pre-
vailed. The lateness and the coldness of the season prevented the cheese
being so well developed in flavour and ripeness as would otherwise have been
the case, but notwithstanding this drawback the exhibits were such as to
deserve high commendation.

Though the Cheddar cheese held and maintained a well earned and justly
deserved reputation, and the Cheshire strove hard to follow suit, successful
attempts at early ripening being especially noticeable amongst them, yet

Ty 2

644 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

the palm for excellence must certainly here be awarded to Stilton cheese.
There was a large entry in this class, and with only one exception all of a
very high order of merit indeed ; in fact, seldom if ever have finer specimens
of this cheese—a speciality of English make—been submitted for the
inspection of the British public. Rich, ripe, mellow, clean, are terms that
accurately describe their merits. A soft silky rich curd that is so often
alluded to as a matter of memory, but seldom as a reference to recent
experience, was there ; and the questicn arises—was not this a result of the
awakening from the lethargy which claimed that a cheese made in the
shape of a Stilton was a valuable commercial article, without regard to
quality or its having to do battle with the foreign product? I think it was,
and I can say with certainty that if our English farmers will as a rule—not
as an exception—place the high standard attained at the Royal Agricultural
Show at Nottingham before them and strive to equal or surpass it, we shall
see Stilton cheese rehabilitated in public favour, a pride and a glory of the
dairy interest in England, and a winning competitor with that foreign pro-
duct that has largely worked its way into public esteem, viz. Gorgonzola
cheese, simply through the opportunities afforded it by the indifference of
the producer to the quality of the product he turned out, and which he called
Stilton cheese—however badly made—so long as it was in the shape of a
Stilton.

Due attention must be given to these matters by our friends the farmers,
as they have to face formidable rivals who have been allowed to obtain a
firm footing here; who in a trade of only a few years’ growth send in at
present forty tons per week; and who are now, as a sequence of the demand,
sending a somewhat inferior article to that which gained them their laurels.
Here then is the opportunity for British resource and energy to display
itself, reassert its ascendency, and recover its market.

The Cream Cheese exhibits were few in number, their merits as a class
being also somewhat circumscribed. JUBAL WEBB.

POULTRY.

The Poultry Show having failed to fulfil the expectations of
its founders, the propriety of its continuance, at any rate in its
present form, is now receiving the consideration of the Council.
As I did not feel competent to offer any suggestions as to the
future management of this department, I asked the Judges to
favour the Society in their reports with any suggestions for the
improvement of the prize list that would tend to make the Show
more popular with the exhibitors, and more practically useful to
the breeders of farm poultry.

ceport of the Judge of Heavy Poultry.

The heavy poultry were a creditable lot, and some of the classes were
well represented. Perhaps the quality taroughout has not been equalled at
any previous exhibition of the Society. It is also satisfactory to notice that
most of the prizes were won by birds belonging to farmers who have taken
up the hobby of rearing and exhibiting poultry, This is as it should be, and
in fact the original idea of the Council. It is quite out of the question to
ever expect farmers and others who breed commercial poultry only, to exhibit:
successfully at any exhibition in the kingdom, in competition with the

Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham. 645

“ fancier,” any more than the farmer who breeds ordinary horses, cattle,
sheep, &c., has, in exhibiting in our Agricultural Show Yards in competition
with enthusiastic admirers. But these commercial breeders are glad to avail
themselves of the opportunity of attending important exhibitions of stock,
where they can choose a variety and select a strain from which they can
procure animals to improve their stock at home. There is no doubt that
hundreds of farmers have seen the prize poultry exhibited at the “ Royal ”
of recent years who would never think of entering a Fancier’s Show pure
and simple, and I have little doubt that many such have been influenced
thereby to study their own interests in looking more particularly after the
welfare.of their poultry at home.

I think it most essential that poultry should be one of the branches re-
presented by the Royal Society. .The benefit to the country may be gradual
and unseen for a time, but ultimately I feel convinced it will stimulate
farmers—more than any other Show can do—to take a greater interest in
domestic poultry.

The improvement and cultivation of all well-bred stock will be sure and

ermanent if the example and copy-head is shown to go by. Iam greatly
in favour of pure-bred animals and poultry. In all their various strains [
would strongly advocate and encourage their purity. One or two classes of
non-pedigreed animals in each department is ample crossing to encourage.
In the poultry exhibition, a class for Table Poultry is ail the crossing that
should receive countenance from headquarters.

I feel convinced that if the Poultry department of the Royal Show was
more economically managed and better arranged, it would become one of the
most interesting and successful exhibitions of the year. I have no doubt
that Messrs. Spratt could have comfortably arranged five or six hundred pens
of poultry in the shed of this year, in quite as favourable a position for
Judges and visitors as the present management, where 350 pens occupy the
entire space.

Other improvements in the right direction would be to extend the classi-
fication, to divide the sexes, and make the classes for single birds. Another
point of the first importance is to arrange the whole of each class on the same
line or level: whether it be on the top or bottom tier of pens is immaterial,
so long as each class is at the same elevation.

I strongly approve of keeping the names of the Judges a profound secret.
There is much more to be said in favour of the Council’s established rule in
this particular than against it. That practical Judges are always elected is
sufficient for exhibitors to depend on and know.

Brahmas and Cochins were fairly represented at the Show. They are
useful varieties to encourage, they add size and frame to commercial poultry,
and produce good winter layers.

Dorkings, our popular English table fowl, were large classes, which con-
tained some of the best specimens of the breed.

The good qualities of the Langshans are being appreciated by the country ;
they were represented here by 27 pens, mostly uniform and typical birds, They
are large, long-breasted, fleshy table birds, and combine good laying properties.
They deserve all the patronage accorded them.

Plymouth Rocks, as here, generally muster well at all Shows. They are
now well established, and are essentially a commercial fowl, very hardy,
mature early, useful table birds, and good layers. In all, 24 pens were ex-
hibited, the chickens being specially good.

Scotch Greys do not muster well out of Scotland, but they are certainly
deserving of encouragement and cultivation. They are suited for any climate,
are handsome and graceful fowls, with good table and laying qualifications,
The prizes in this class all went to birds direct from Scotland,

646 Report of the Steward of Dairying and Poultry at Nottingham.

Any other Variety Classes, for adult8 and chickens, consisted of Polands,
Malays, Indian Game, Spanish, La Fleche, Redcaps, Wyandottes, &c., most
of which possess such good all-round commercial qualifications that they
should in future be favoured by this Society with separate classes.

Respecting the Ducks, Geese, and Turkeys, wWich were judged together
by Mr. Cresswell and myself, it is only necessary t0 say that the Waterfowl!
were small classes, accounted for by the adult birds’ being in their worst
plumage at this present season. The specimens, howevet, were very fine, and
the youngsters very forward and well grown. 5

The Black or Bronze Turkeys, cock and hen, brought forwatd a good and
attractive class, the winning birds being magnificent.

D. Brage.

Report of the Judge of Light Poultry.

Taking the classes of Light Poultry as a whole, I do not consider them 86
well filled as might be expected at a Show of such importance as that of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and when the prize list is on so liberal a scale.

Houdans, the most hardy and generally useful of the French breeds, came
first; the prize birds in the adult class were all fine specimens, the chickens
were throughout promising, but it seems a matter of regret that only six
pairs should be shown of a breed remarkable for early development.

Créveceurs. A few fine adults of this magnificent table-fowl appeared,
but no chickens at all.

There was a good entry in both classes of Andalusians, a breed both
beautiful, and useful as excellent layers; the quality was fair throughout.

Minorcas, another excellent egg-producing breed, were well represented
in both classes.

Leghorns were more numerous in the adult than in the’ chicken classes,
though some of the latter were forward for their age, the pullets giving great
promise of early laying.

All the four classes of Hamburghs contained fine and meritorious speci-
mens, some of the chickens other than black being very forward for this cold
and inclement year.

Game. In 5 out of the 6 classes for thése breeds, there were a few excellent
specimens from a fancier’s point of view’; in the class for Brown Red Chickens
there was no entry at all. Considering the chief objects of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, | would venture to suggest that it would be well to allot
one or more classes to specially useful breeds of game-birds, and to give
special instructions to the Judges to judge them as such. In the absence of
such special directions, a Judge can only make his awards according to
the standards generally accepted at present among poultry fanciers. I thus
regretfully felt myself obliged to leave out of the prize list a pair of old-
fashioned white-legged “ Derby ” Black Reds, a hardy race of good table
fowls, peculiarly useful for crossing. In the case of most breeds, the points
insisted upon by fanciers are those which make the breed specially useful for
some particular purpose. In the case of game, unfortunately, it is not so ;
the length of leg now required makes the race unsuitable for the table, and
peculiarly liable to weakness in the hocks.

Waterfowl were fair throughout the classes. The time of year is unsuit-
able for the exhibition of adult ducks; the classes for young ducks were not
so well filled as we should have expected them to be.

The class for Black or Bronze Turkeys contained several magnificent pairs,
the hens in the first prize and second prize pens being super-excellent. In
the class for Turkeys of any other colour, a pair of Bronze birds were shown,
which obviously should have been entered in the other class,

Before closing this report, I may perhaps be allowed to make a few sug-

Pia

Report on the Horse-shoeing Competition at Nottingham. 647

gestions for rendering this Poultry Show of the Royal Agricultural Society
more popular another year, and therefore more widely useful,

1. I would suggest that there should be classes for ghickens of such
first crosses as are found to be specially good for table or for laying purposes.
I do not wish to be mistaken, or thought to encourage generally the keeping
of mongrel fowls. I fully recognise the high use of distinctive breeds of
poultry, as of other live stock, with strongly marked characteristics; and
more than that, I believe that poultry fanciers have been of great use to
the country by aiding in the production and perpetuation of such distinctive
races, As in the case of horses, cattle, and sheep, it has in the first instance
been the enthusiasm of the fancier which has attempted and drawn atten-
tion to the improvement of breeds of poultry. But for the farmer, first
crosses from these pure races are often the most advisable stock to raise, as
coming to earlier maturity than the pure breeds themselves, and as being
more hardy. It would therefore obyiously be of use to set before those who
regard poultry solely from a commercial point of view, examples of the size
and excellence to which young birds from such crosses may be brought in a
few months,

2. I would suggest that all birds shown in such classes should be on
sale at moderate prices to give purchasers an opportunity of testing the
quality of the chickens; indeed, it might be well to give additional classes
for pure-bred chiekens to be entered on the same conditions.

3. I would Jastly suggest that prizes should be given for hen’s eggs.
These are gsually shown in collections of a dozen, each dozen necessarily
coming from hens of one variety or of one cross. It is usual for eggs to be
divided into two classes, one of white, the other of coloured eggs. I invariably
find this classification popular, and accompanied by large entries.

OswaLp ERNEst CRESSWELL.

XXXII.—-Report on the Horse-shoeing Competition at Nottingham.
By Cartes Ciay, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Steward of
Horse-Shoeing.

As Steward of the Horse-Shoeing department it is my pleasing
duty to present a second report for publication in the Journal.
Speaking generally, the proceedings were a complete success,
and the public interest in this question seems to be as keen
as ever, the stand being besieged throughout the trials by an
attentive crowd. Many influential ladies and gentlemen were
kind enough to visit the yard in spite of the unavoidable smoke,
and to take considerable pains to acquire a knowledge of the
| various operations then going on. This I look upon as one of
| the best features of these competitions. It is only when the
|

public and those interested in horses awake to the fact that our
| present system of horse-shoeing is wretchedly bad that any
| hope of improvement can be looked for; and nothing is better

calculated to open their eyes than to watch a competition of
| this sort, and to witness the inferior work of some of the men,

who, from no fault of their own, are under the fond delusion
| that their doings cannot be improved upon.

648 Report on the Horse-shoeing Competition at Nottingham.

The prizes offered by the Society were the same as last year,
viz. 61., 41., 31., 21., and 1/.; but there were only two classes of
competitors in ’ place of four, Class 1 being for hunters, and
Class 2 for agricultural horses. In addition to these prizes the
Lincolnshire Agricultural Society very generously added half
those amounts in cases where the winners came from that
county. Moreover, the Worshipful Company of Farriers most
handsomely offered to elect the first-prize men in each class
members of their guild free of cost, an honour which in itself
should stimulate our shoeing smiths to advance in their pro-
fession, and I am sure will be highly appreciated both by the
present and future prize takers.

The Competition was confined to Shoeing Smiths residing
in the district for which the Nottingham Show was intended to
serve, viz. the counties of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, North-
ampton, Nottingham, and Rutland. Each competitor was re-
quired to forge and fit a hind and fore shoe and to put the fore
shoe on. The hind shoes were retained by the Steward, and
those made by the five prizemen were subsequently deposited
at the Society’s house in Hanover Square as samples for future
reference.

The number of entries was 48 in Class 1, and 45 in Class 2.
Competitors were allowed to enter in both, and 34 men in
Class 1 consequently appeared again in Class 2. I am not quite
sure that this is a desirable arrangement, and it may require
revision hereafter.

The time test was omitted this year as an experiment. This
was certainly a mistake, and resulted in such very dilatory pro-
ceedings that I was requested to warn the men when Class 2
came on that the Judges would take note of any evident waste
of time. This had the effect of improving the speed of the work
considerably, and, strange to say (as appears also in the Judges’
remarks), the average quality of the work was much better.

In my last year’s report I ventured to state my opinion that
“most of our best shoeing smiths are very deficient in knowledge
respecting the anatomy of the horse’s foot.” It was one of the
objects of the present competition to ascertain definitely whether
there was sufficient ground for such a serious statement. For
this purpose the Judges, at my request, drew up the following
half-dozen simple questions, and put them to twenty-five of the
best selected workmen separately—

. How many bones are there in a horse’s foot ?

. Name them.

. Where is the hoof of the fore foot the strongest for holding the nails ?
. Where is the hoof of the hind foot the strongest ?

. What is the use of the frog ?
. How is the hoof attached to the sensitive part of the foot ?

Qoeoot

Report on the Hor'se-shoeing Competition at Nottingham. 649

I regret to say that not one of the candidates could answer all
the questions correctly, and to my great surprise several of the
men confessed they knew nothing about these things, and had
not given any attention thereto. The answers given by others,
although often amusing, displayed a most lamentable ignorance
of even the common names of the various parts, and only in
one or two instances was any approach to scientific terms
applied to them.

Under these depressing circumstances it becomes a very
serious question how to deal with this matter in future. That
something should be attempted to raise the shoeing of horses
to a higher and more scientific position is, I think, now beyond
all cavil.! It is evident that the smiths themselves are not in
a position to acquire the necessary education, and I am sorry
to say the veterinary profession do not seem to give the atten-
tion to this question which I think it demands from them. I
am informed that horse-shoeing is usually considered as not
altogether within their purview, that it is a farrier’s business
entirely, and that if improvement is desirable the smiths must
take up the matter and improve themselves. This is an easy
way out of the difficulty, and may be very well from a pro-
fessional point of view; but I would ask: How are the smiths
to acquire this knowledge? If none of them are in a position
to teach even themselves, they cannot certainly impart the in-
formation to their workmen and apprentices, and so the rule of
thumb must remain their standard, to the continued detriment
of our horses’ feet, with all its consequent evils.

Surely this only points to the necessity for the Royal Agri-
cultural Society interesting itself more earnestly in this question,
and by distributing printed matter with plain intelligible draw-
ings and possibly cheap models of the horse’s foot, and by other
means available, to endeavour to raise the status of the men
employed in this business.

I would venture to suggest that our veterinary surgeons might
with advantage be induced to acquire a practical as well as a
theoretical knowledge of horse-shoeing, so that they should be
able themselves to forge the shoes and fit them on. The Royal
Agricultural Society, having satisfied themselves by examination
and practical tests, might grant certificates to such surgeons
throughout the country, and it should be the duty of the latter,
for some small fee, to teach the smiths in their respective dis-
tricts the scientific principles of horse-shoeing, and see that they

' In support of this I may add that the answers given to the same set of
questions at the shoeing competition.of the Great Yorkshire Agricultural
Society held in Huddersfield in August last were equally unsatisfactory.

650 Report on the Horse-shoeing Competition at Nottingham.

were carried into practice. Owners of horses would, I feel sure,
be glad to support such efforts by giving preference to men so
instructed, and my own opinion is, that until owners, trainers,
grooms, jockeys, and all connected with horseflesh, insist upon
a higher standard of efficiency, the same old routine will con-
tinue until Doomsday.

My experience at these shoeing competitions (now extending
over many years) and inquiry in other quarters lead me to the con-
clusion that there is much more mischief going on in the country
in this respect than most people are aware of. The damage is
not only serious as an agricultural question, but I have every
reason to believe that to our thoroughbreds this much-neglected
matter of horse-shoeing is of vital importance.

It is not quite within my province here to suggest that many
of our finest racehorses are not unfrequently ‘‘most mysteri-
ously amiss,’ and ‘“ suddenly go wrong,” for which the shoeing
smith is very often responsible, although in many instances he
is only carrying out the imperative orders of either the trainer
or jockey or some one in authority, who fancies a newly rasped
and polished hoof, together with ‘‘a nice clean cut frog,” will in
some unaccountable way help to win the race, or at least catch
the eye of the betting fraternity, and assist to “raise the price.”
If I can secure aid even from this outside interest, by pointing
out the importance of the shceing question to them, I trust I
shall be excused referring thereto in this report.

Whether they manage these things better abroad than we
do, I am not prepared to say ; but I observe that a very extensive
horse-shoeing competition at Brussels has recently taken place,
for which, as I understand, no less than 180 competitors were
entered. In the regulations of this competition the first im-
portance was attached to the theoretaeal part of the examination,
as the men were not permitted to shoe a horse until they passed
the veterinary examination. Under such conditions our com-
petitions would terminate in a summary manner; yet I am in-
clined to think we shall improve the character of our trials by
giving points another year to the competitors in proportion as
they pass the anatomical examination creditably or otherwise.

As last year, I must express a hope that the Council will
now continue in the course so well started, and allow these com-
petitions to continue annually until some other and better plan
can be devised, as I think we must acknowledge there is a wide
field for improvement, and a mass of ignorance and prejudice
which can only be removed by the judicious application of
“ Practice with Science.”

In conclusion, let me thank the Judges, whose report I

Report on the Horse-shoeing Competition at Nottingham. 651

append, for their very careful attention to their duties, for the
infinite pains taken to select the best men, and their evident
desire to impress upon the candidates the necessity for improve-
ment both theoretically and practically in their important
calling.

Report of the Judges of Horse-Shoeing.

Crass 1. Hunters——When we considered that the district open to com-
etitors this year embraced the hunting counties of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln,
Northampton, Notts, and Rutland, we naturally expected to see a large per-
centage of the work done in a skilful manner; but in this we were much
disappointed.

Of the 48 competitors entered, 46 appeared. Before beginning work we
addressed the whole of the men in both classes, with two or three excep-
tions, and cautioned them against a too free use of the knife and rasp, also
against burning the foot. As the horses to be shod varied considerably in
size in Class 1, we particularly requested the competitors in that class to
remember that they were supposed to be shoeing hunters, and that the shoes
were to be adapted for that purpose, keeping carefully in view the character
of the foot allotted to them forshoeing. We are confident that our remarks
as to cutting, rasping, and burning the foot had a good effect, but we regret
to say that little or no attention was given to the size of the horse or the
Character of the foot, and although different sizes of iron were supplied only
one Sie was used. Hence horses with large flat feet, that as hunters could
have cared from 16 to 18 stones, were shod with shoes very much too light,
and which would have been not only useless in actual work but positively
injurious. One big‘mare was the cause of our disqualifying three men, as
each of these men made shoes wholly unfitted for the animal. In other
cases little light horses with small feet had too much iron to carry.

The recorded time test was very bad: it varied from 39 to 88 minutes,
This was largely attributable to the timeonsumed in filing and polishing
the shoes—a process that was carried out to ridiculous extent. The
average time was 57 minutes. Only one competitor wasiess than 40 minutes,
ten from 40 to 50 minutes, seventeen from 50 to 60 minutes, and the remain-
ing men exceeded one hour. We observed in many cases that the nail heads
were rasped down when the shoe had been nailed on and ‘‘clenched” up.
This ought not to be necessary, and is not so with really good workmen.

Crass 2. Agricultural Horses.—In this class the work done was far
better than in Class 1, and we were pleased with the general result, Forty-five
competitors entered, but two were absent. With few exceptions the work
was really good—the shoes well-shaped, strong and sound, and adapted to
the feet and description of work the horse was expected to do.

The recorded time was a great improvement upon that in Class1. It
varied from 25 to 57 minutes—the average being 31 minutes, which is too
long for this sort of work. We think it only fair to mention that the first
prize winner was a young man only 21 years of age. His work would have
been a credit to any man—it was wonderfully good, especially under the
_ disadvantage of the foct he had to shoe being the worst in the whole col-
lection of horses. The winner of the second prize was also a young man,
_ 22 years of age, but his work was far behind that of the first prizeman.

At the close of each competition we examined the best workmen (25 in

all, 14 in Class 1 and 11 in Class 2) as to their knowledge of the structure
_ and uses of the various portions of the horse’s foot. We found that very
_ few indeed had any but a confused idea of this subject, and we may,

652 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

pines broadly, assert that the best men at their work knew the least
about the foot.

We respectfully suggest that if in future competitions examinations are
to be held on the structure and uses of the different parts of horses’ feet, the
men should be supplied, aiong with their entry forms, with some plain brief
information on the subject, and that models, drawings, and preparations of
feet should be on view during the competition.

We further beg to suggest that seeing how much time is wasted in
superfluous “ finish ” of the shoes, some limit should be fixed for each class—
mie from 30 to 45 minutes—as the period in which the work ought to be

one.

Your excellent Steward in this department, to whom we feel deeply
indebted for the pains he took in making such complete arrangements for
the carrying out of the necessary work, and for the unflagging interest he
took in the proceedings, was present during the examinations taking notes
of the few very simple questions put by us and the answers given, and we
leave him to make any further remarks he may think fit on the subject.

CLEMENT STEPHENSON,
JosepH M, PARKER.

XXXITI.— The Structure of the Horse's Foot and the Principles of
Shoeing. By Professor G. T. Brown, C.B., Principal of
the Royal Veterinary College.

From the title of this paper a very long and scientific account
of the anatomy and functions of the horse’s foot, with a history
of the art of shoeing from the earliest times, might be expected.
The writer intends, instead, to produce a very short and practical
essay for the use of practical men, leaving the antiquarian and
the learned inquirer into the mysteries of the art to consult the
classical work on Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing, by Dr. George
Fleming.

Most persons, when thinking or speaking ot the foot of the
horse, have in their minds the idea of their own foot as an organ
by the aid of which they stand, or walk, or run. But the first
step in the inquiry must be to show that the horse does not put
his foot on the ground at all, but only a small portion of it;
and that the organ which is always called the foot of the horse,
is really the point of the toe, A few drawings will make this clear.

In the figures in Plate 1 (page 660), a is the hind foot of
the horse, complete with the full set of bones; b is the foot of
the man, with the like set of bones. A glance at the cuts is
enough to prove that the bones of the human foot lie along the
ground from heel to toe ; while the horse’s heel, being in fact the
point of the hock, is some two feet or more off the ground.

In Plate 2, on page 661, there are two figures which show ~
what would happen if the horse could or did put the whole of |
the foot on the ground as the man does, and if the man were to
support himself with his toes only on the ground, as the ballet-

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 653

dancer does sometimes, after long and painful training, and the
horse does always without any effort at all.

After grasping the idea which the woodcuts are meant to
convey, it will be easy to go on a little further, and find out
how the toe of the horse is made to serve the purpose of a foot
chiefly by the extra growth of the nail, which instead of being
a mere horny scale on the top of the toe, covers the part all
over like a case or box of horn. ‘The bones of the fore foot may
in like manner be compared with those of the hand and wrist of
man. Butas the human hand is not used to support the weight
of the body nor to assist in moving it, the human foot furnishes
the best type of the foot of the horse.

In beginning the inquiry about the structure and uses ot
the foot of the horse, it is most natural and easy to take the
outside part of the organ, and in so doing it will be best to com-
pare the foot of the horse with that of the foal at birth, before
the organ has been used to bear the animal’s weight. Plates 3
and 4, on pages 662 and 663, show the external form of the foot of
an adult horse, and Plate 5, on page 664, that of a foal, and it will
be noted at once that there is a great difference in the state of the
horn, especially at the bottom of the foot in the two specimens.

In the adult foot, as it is seen resting on the ground, the
wall of horn a, from the hair at the coronet down to the ground,
is first noticed, and for the purpose of description it is divided
into several parts. Exactly where the skin joins the hoof is the
coronary ring d. The outside of the hoof is the wall or crust.
At the back of the hoof are the heels,cc. A portion in the
front a, is called the toe, and the sides of the wall are the inside
and outside quarters. Only imaginary lines mark the points of
separation of these different parts from each other.

In thickness, the wall of the foot varies according to the
size of the animal and the treatment it has met with from the
rasp of the shoeing smith. An average of half an inch may be
taken as near enough for practical purposes.

Having made out the general characters of the outer surface
of the hoof as it rests on the ground, the next thing to be done
is to lift it off the ground and look at the bottom of it, which
can be seen in the next figure (Plate 4, on page 663). The
parts exposed to view are the crust (2), bars (3), sole (1), and
frog (4). The crust is turned in at each heel to form the two
bars which meet nearly in the centre of the circle, leaving a
triangular space behind which is filled up by the mass of soft
horn called the frog, and a half-circular space in front, in which
is the sole. In form the sole is concave at the bottom and
conyex above, as may be proved by dissection. But in the foot

654 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

which has been left for some weeks without the smith’s care,
the ground surface will be nearly flat—crust, bars, frog, and
sole forming one rough level, covered with loose pieces of
horn breaking off from the sole and frog, which organs want no
help from the knife to keep them in proper condition.

Between the fully formed foot of the horse and the half-
grown foot of the newly-born foal, there are important differ-
ences, which may easily be seen, as specimens of both organs are
common enough. The first thing which strikes the observer
is the great difference in the arrangement of the base of the
foot in the two animals. In the hoof of the foal (Plate 5, page
665) the fibres of horn at the bottom of the foot are continued
to a point, the fibres being joined together not unlike a half-
cleaned paint-brush. No frog or ‘crust or bars can be seen in
this specimen; but, after a few days’ contact with the ground,
the brush-like masses of horn fibre are broken off and the sole
becomes flat or slightly hollow, but never presents the deeply
concave form until it has been brought under the knife of the
shoeing-smith.

Up to this point only the horny covering has been described as
it is seen without dissection; and it is now time to see what is
to be seen by taking the foot to pieces. The workman who is
fond of his work will look beyond the surface, if only for the
sake of finding out the nature of the things he has to deal with.
He may proceed in many ways, all leading to the same end, and
it is not a matter of much moment whether he begins by taking
off the hoof and then working inwards to the bone which is
the foundation of the foot, or makes a cut which will enable
him to see at one view all the parts of which it is made up.

Perhaps it will be most interesting to begin by seeing the
structures in their proper position. For this purpose a cut
must be made quite through the centre of the organ. In Plate
6, on page 665, a section of the kind is drawn from a specimen
which is so thin as to be transparent, and the various parts are
represented as seen by a low magnif ying power. The parts
shown are a, skin of coronet ; 0, fibres of coronary frog band ;
c, fibres of wall ; d, horny inieaitia e, fibres of sole; f, fibres of
frog ; g, section of coffin bone ; h, section of navicalar bone ;
7, section of flexor tendon ; /, section of coronet bone ; J, section
of fatty frog.

A careful inspection of the figure, and close reading of the —
description, will give the reader a fair idea of the arrangement
of the parts which are included in the foot, and assist him in
the next step in the inquiry, which will consist “in taking the
foot to pieces and looking at each part separately.

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 655

When the hoof is taken off by the aid of heat, or by soaking
for a time in water, the internal foot is displayed, and also the in-
side of the horny box ; and the drawings in Plates 3 and 7 (pages
662 and 666) show these parts after separation. The points for
special notice are the very perfect fitting of the internal foot to
the inside of the hoof. The coronary band (Plate 7, 1-3) of
the one rests in the hollow in the upper part of the hoof
(Plate 3, d), the folds of membrane (lamin) of the internal
foot (Plate 7 (2)) are lodged between the horny folds (lamine)
of the inside of the hoof (Plate 3, a), and the sole of the internal
foot, with the frog and the bars, find their exact counterparts in
the inside of the hoof which they form for their own covering
and protection. See Plate 8 (page 667), which shows the bottom
of the foot: (1) coronary band continuing to sensitive frog (4) ;
sensitive lamina (2) continuing to bars (5); sensitive sole (3).

After the hoof is off there is nothing in the way of the knife,
which may now be used to take off the membrane which secretes
the horn. The observer will find that the tissues beneath are
bone, fibrous structure, fat, and cartilage. The bones actually
inside the hoof are the pedal bone and the navicular bone, both
of which are shown in Plate 9, figures a, B. To the pedal or
coffin bone are fixed two wings of cartilage (2, 3), also seen in
fig. A, and in the space between the cartilages is a mass of fibre
and fat, making together an elastic pad which Coleman called
the “ fatty frog.”

It will be noticed that the pedal bone is a very dense
structure, like ivory in hardness, and also that there are many
canals passing through it in various directions for the passage
of blood-vessels to supply the secreting membrane with blood.
Branches of nerves are also very numerous, and the membrane
of the internal foot is therefore correctly described as a highly
vascular and sensitive structure.

The navicular bone (Plate 9, B) is known as the seat of the
navicular disease, which is a common cause of serious and often
incurable lameness in the forefeet. It is also remarkable for the
extent of its joint surfaces compared with the size of the bone:
Its upper surface forms part of the coffin joint with the short
pastern. In front (2) it joins the pedal bone, and at the back
(1) it forms a joint with the main flexor tendon, which passes
over it to be fixed to the bottom of the pedal bond, This is
the joint in which navicular disease occurs.

FUNCTIONS OF THE Foor.

After seeing all the parts which form the foot of the horse,
the inquirer will begin to speculate about the use of each, and
will most likely do what has been done before, viz. invent clever

656 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

theories which will not stand the test of common sense, and will
rather hinder than assist him in deciding what plan of shoeing
is the least open to objection.

Taking the foot as a whole, it is evident that it is so formed
that it can support the animal’s weight, at the same time that its
various parts yield under pressure just enough to avoid con-
cussion. The hoof is produced as fast as the wear and tear, under
natural conditions, make new material necessary. So long as
the horse is left to take care of himself and his feet, all goes well ;
but when man sets his needs in place of the animal’s instincts,
things commonly go wrong, and the hoof among other parts
gives way.

The first and most important function of the foot then is to keep
itself in repair, a work which it performs well within certain limits.

Next, the hoof horn is wanted to protect the internal sensitive
structures by which it is formed, just as the outer or scarf skin
covers and protects the true skin. The scales, which are the
elements of the outer skin, and hair become crowded together to
form the hoof, which is really a mass of hairs glued together, and
it adds to toughness and density a fair degree of elasticity.
Perhaps if we had contrived to use our horses with such care
that shoes would not have been required, we might by this time
have been in possession of a race of tough-hoofed horses, for which
the services of the shoeing-smith would not have been wanted.

Lastly, the function of the foot is to afford the horse a firm
support and secure hold of the ground at all paces. That the
hoof yields under pressure is admitted. That it spreads out, as
some people contend, when it is placed on the ground, is denied
by all who have carefully looked at the arrangement of the parts
of the organ in their relation toeach other. The suggestion that
the foot expands so much that the shoe ought to have a hinge at
the toe to allow the movement to go on without hindrance is
not worth discussion, nor, indeed, is any point connected with
the theory of ground surface expansion and the tendency of the
concave sole to assume the form of a plane under the pressure
of the animal’s weight.

The whole theory, in fact, may simply be left to the ingenious
persons who are fond of splitting straws. The practical man
need not be concerned about such matters. His own common
sense will teach him that the base of a horse’s foot cannot
expand, nor the sole descend to any extent without tearing the
inside of the hoof from the internal foot to which it is every-
where closely and securely attached.

When the sole does descend it is the result of disease, and
then it does not ascend again, but remains in its distorted state,

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 657

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SHOEING.

It seems to be impossible in the present circumstances to
dispense with the iron shoe to save the hoof, and it will be a
wise thing to decide at starting on what principles the practice
which has been in operation from early times shall be carried on.
No question of art or science has caused more disputes than this,
and yet, so far as principles are concerned, nothing can be more
simple. The basis of the art of shoeing is, or should be, the
principle of non-interference, and it is not easy to carry this
principle too far. Nothing can be better for the purposes of the
horse than the foot in its natural state. While, therefore, trying
to save it from too rapid wear, the most simple means should
be used, and the organ left alone as far as may be. ‘To this
end a little knowledge of history will be useful.

No one can say at what date the art of shoeing began; but
it can hardly be doubted that as soon as horses were used by
man for his pleasure or profit, it was found out that the hoofs
which served the animal well so long as he was left to himself,
were worn more quickly than they grew when his master fixed
the amount of work which the horse was to do. In such
circumstances, some protection was required, and it may be
supposed that the first idea of the human owner would be to
adapt some sort of sole to the bottom of the foot, much as he
did for his own feet; and it is not unlikely that his first attempt
at fastening would be by means of strips of hide or thongs which
he used for his own feet as fastenings for his sandals. These
failing, as they always do, iron spikes or nails would offer them-
selyes as a means of fixing iron shoes to the horn. Dr. George
Fleming, in his article on the Principles of Shoéing, in Part I.
of the Journal of the Society for 1881, remarks that the art of
shoeing was probably known as early as B.c. 300, as a coin of
that date has on it a figure of a horse being shod. The same
author also observes that in a climate like ours, some substantial

| hoof armature must have been desired by a horse-and-chariot-

driving people like the ancient Britons, and further that the

_ superstitions which still cling to horse-shoes appear to be

derived from the Druids, who were not only priests but skilled
workers in metals.

Having regard to the time that has passed since shoeing
was first practised, and the amount of care and thought which
scientist and mechanic have bestowed upon every detail con-

_ nected with the foot and the shoe, the practice ought now to be

perfect. But in reality we seem to have progressed in a crab-
like fashion. It is not flattering to the workman of the nine-
VOL, XXIV.—S, S. UU

658 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

teenth century to be told that the “children of the desert” did
better things in the way of making and fixing shoes to horses’
feet than are done now; but there are good reasons for the
statement. The Arab shoe was light, it protected the bottom
of the foot from injury, the nails had very large heads, and were
so driven that only the lower part of the crust was pierced, and
the heads of the nails gave a better foothold than is obtained by
the modern system of shoeing.

The drawing in Plate 10 (page 669) shows the form of the
Arab shoe, copied from Dr. Fleming’s work on Shoeing, and it is
evident that this thin flat plate of iron can be fastened to the foot
in such a way that the whole of the bottom of the organ, the crust,
the sole, and the frog, shall be equally pressed. In fact, the
Arab shoe is in the position of a thin sheet of iron between the
bottom of the foot and the ground, causing the least inter-
ference with the natural tread.

Let us now take the modern shoe and present system of apply-
ing it to the foot. First, as will be seen by Plate 11 (page 670),
the shoe is a narrow rim of iron, with the nail holes so close to the
outside edge that the nails must be driven some distance up the
wall of the hoof to get hold enough to keep the shoe on. Then
the inside of the shoe is often beaten out (seated), so as to rest
on the crust only while the sole and frog are pared away, and
all the parts of the ground surface of the foot which should help
to support the animal’s weight are lifted off the ground.
Plainly stated, the Arab shoe allowed the whole of the base of
the foot, wall, sole, and frog, to rest on a hard surface. The
modern shoe lifts the greater part of the base from the ground,
and thus the whole of the horse’s weight rests on the edge of the
wall. The diagrams in Plate 12 (page 671) will show the differ-
ence in the results of the ancient and modern system.

A system of shoeing, known as the Charlier system, has of
late years attracted some attention and even made some pro-
gress. Many difficulties stand in its way, but in its principl
the plan is as near perfection as possible. The Charlier shoe is
a narrow rim of iron which is let into the wall of the foot for a
certain distance round the toe and quarters, leaving the whole
of the bottom of the foot to take its proper place on the groun
A foot thus stood is as nearly in a natural position as it can b
with any form of shoe. The organ is better placed than with
the Arab shoe, because the bottom of the foot is in contact with
the earth, instead of with an iron plate, and in either way t
foot is better off than with the ordinary shoe, because with that
the sole and frog are in contact with nothing at all.

Keeping in view the true principles of shoeing, the adyi

/

}

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot aid Principles of Shoeing. 659

which is to be given on the practice of the farrier’s art may be
put into very few words.

To begin with, all efforts at neatness of finish by the aid of
rasp and oil-brush to the wall of the hoof should be at once dis-
couraged. ‘The sole, bars, and frog, dirty, ragged, and scaly as
they will be when the horse comes to be shod, should be left alone.

By the use of the rasp the crust may be lowered as much as
in the judgment of the farrier is required, and the front of the
foot will always have to be rasped more than the quarters or
heels. The skill of the smith is shown in his ability to keep a
perfectly level base, so that the horse standing on the unshod
foot has a natural position. No doubt can be felt as to the truth
of the maxim that the shoe should fit the foot so that no after
rasping is wanted. Fitting the shoe without applying it hot to
the crust is easy to a good workman, but no great harm is done
if the hot iron should be kept in contact with the horn for a few
seconds. The farrier who is forced to adopt the device cannot,
however, claim to be a master of his art.

Nails should be driven so as to take a short and wide hold
of the crust, and if the shoe can be secured by three nails on the
outside quarter, and two on the inside, the work is well done;
every additional nail driven into the foot, especially the forefoot,
demands some sort of apology, or at least explanation.

A concave ground surface for the shoe gives a far better hold
than a flat one, and if with that arrangement the frog is in full
contact with the ground, it will be possible to do without calkins
for the hind shoes of all horses which are not required for
heavy draught-work in hilly districts.

Before, however, the present system of shoeing can be altered
to conform to the rules laid down in this paper, the horseman
and his servants, rather than the farrier, must be taught. At
the present time no shoeing-smith dare send home a horse shod
in the way which is known to be the right one, because the
master of the animal and his men would denounce the work as
crude and unfinished, and solemnly promise never to choose the
same workman again.

If a few final words are necessary, they must take the form
of a protest on the part of the writer that there is nothing in
the foregoing remarks on the horse’s foot and the principles and
practice of shoeing which has not been said and written over
and over again by competent persons: nothing, indeed, which is
not well known to all veterinary authorities and to many of the
best practitioners of the art of shoeing. But the awkward

_ thing is that between knowing how to do, and doing, there is a

gap to fill up which takes a long time.
vua

660 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing.
PLATE I.

ih

6. FOOT OF MAN. NATURAL POSITION.

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 661

PLATE II.

HUMAN FOOT, TOE ON GROUND

WHOLE OF HORSE’S FOOT ON THE GROUND,

662 The Structure of the Horse's Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

PLATE Il.

4 Dh
Wp pHy
yh

ff
j}

‘qsu0H 40 JO00H ~

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 663

PLATE IV.

NY
pi

\

GROUND SURFACE OF HORSE’S FOOT, SOME WEEKS AFTER SHOEING.

664 The Structure of the Horse's Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

PLATE V.

FOOT OF FOAL,

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 665

PLATE VI.

“LOOd SASUOH JO TUINTO HYAOUNL NOLLOUS

666 The Structure of the Horse's Foot and Principles of Shoeing.

PLATE VII.

HOOF REMOVED,

MEMBRANE OF INTERNAL FOOT,

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 667

PLATE VIII.

MEMBRANE OF INTERNAL SOLE AND FROG,

“UNO AVINOIAVN

iples of Shoeing.

VNC

PLATE IX.

as

AN

SAG

\

SS

668 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Pr

ARAB SHOE AND NAIL

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 669
PLATE X

670 The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoevig.

PLATE XI.

ORDINARY FORE-SHOE (SEATED).

The Structure of the Horse’s Foot and Principles of Shoeing. 671

PLATE XIl.

HT i
NY) ! f afl 3
NY | / at Ci ut |
. / Sa EN Ni ill Ay |
GU) WARZ ZT yyD
aa

DIAGRAM OF MODERN SHOE NAILED TO FOOT,

672 Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials.

XXXIV.—Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials. By
Wm. Anverson, M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer to the
Society.

THERE are several matters connected with the engine-trials at
Newcastle in July 1887, and the deductions made from them,
which it will be beneficial to review.

Exception has been taken to the mode adopted, in the
engineers’ report, of reducing to a standard temperature and
pressure the quantity of water evaporated by the boilers. It
has been pointed out that instead of assuming the water to have
been actually evaporated at 212°, as has been done, the larger
quantity of heat at the working pressure should have been
allowed for. ‘Thus, in the case cited of engine No. 3114, the
steam in the boiler was at 120 lbs. pressure, equal to 350° tem-
perature, and each pound contained 1188-75 units of heat above
the freezing point. ‘The water was pumped in at 83°6°, or 51-6°
above 32°; hence the number of units per 1 lb. of steam was
1187-1, and not 1095 as stated in the report; and the quantity
of water evaporated should have been estimated at nearly 4 9%
higher. The correction, if made, will not sensibly affect the
comparative results, and it should be understood that neither
method of reduction will give even an approximation to what
a boiler working at some given pressure would do if worked at
that of the atmosphere. The rate of evaporation in a boiler
depends not only upon the quantity of heat which has to be
imparted to the contents of the boiler, but also upon the differ-
ence of temperature between the products of combustion in
the furnace and flues, and the water in the boiler. The lower
the pressure the greater this difference becomes; but as we have
no means of measuring the mean temperature of the furnace
and of the products of combustion, we cannot tell what the
difference of temperature may be, and therefore one of the
factors in the calculation is missing.

It is difficult also, if not impossible, to arrive at any con-
clusion by direct experiment, because, in boilers such as those
generally used in agricultural engines and in locomotives, the
mass of water and the free surface from which the steam can
escape are small compared with the volume of steam generated.
At high pressures these volumes are reduced in proportion to
the pressure: thus at 120 lbs. per square inch each bubble of
steam would be 4 the size of the same weight of steam at atmo-
spheric pressure. Hence ebullition in the latter case is much more
violent, and the consequent priming of the boilers more severe.

In some recent experiments with an eight-horse boiler I

Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials. 673

found that the boiler could not be worked at a lower pressure
than 35 lbs. to the square inch, because water was so abundantly
ejected with the steam. At 98 lbs. pressure, 5°85 lbs. of water
were evaporated from 49° by 1 lb. of inferior coal, while at
353 lbs. pressure, 6:48 lbs. were evaporated from 474°, or nearly
the same temperature. The units of heat imparted per 1 lb. of
steam were only as 1167-5 is to 1152-3, and the evaporation at
the lower pressure should only have been 5°94 lbs. of water per
1 lb. of coal, instead of the quantity given above. The excess,
amounting to 9 %, was due probably to the increased difference
of 55° between the temperature of the water in the boiler and
the furnace, and no doubt also, to some extent, to priming.

The method of ascertaining the rate of cooling was not
satisfactory. It was impossible to seal the ash-pans and
the fire-box and smoke-box doors completely, so as to prevent
all access of cold air to the inside of the boiler ; and the condi-
tions during cooling were not the same as when the engines
were at work, for the observations commenced generally in the
evening when the weather was colder, and the runs took place
in a covered shed, while the cooling proceeded in the open air.

In future efficient means of closing the chimney should be
provided, and the sheds should be made roomy enough to allow
the engines to coal in the same place where they worked.

With respect to the general conduct of the trials, it would
be weli that on a future occasion there should be two weighing
machines appropriated to each engine. One should be fitted
with a coal-box large enough to hold the whole of the coal
required for the trial run, and should be so arranged that the
driver could fire direct from it; and the second machine should
be fitted with a water tank capacious enough to hold the whole
quantity of water likely to be used. The weight of coal and
water should be taken every ten or fifteen minutes, so that the
rate of consumption throughout the run might be ascertained,
and all chance of error avoided. It may, indeed, be necessary
in some cases—when, for example, the condensed steam from the
feed heaters is returned to the feed tanks—to use two small
supplementary tanks and weighing machines besides the main
feed tank, in order to gauge correctly the quantity of water
evaporated.

It is desirable to alter the revolution counters on the brakes,
so that the figures should appear clearly on the revolving dials,
in order that the number of revolutions may be easily read off

_ while the counters are running ; and this reading should be taken

simultaneously with the observation on the weight of coal and

_ water. By taking these precautions, a run will not be lost in

VOL, XXIV.—S, 8S, XxX

674 Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials.

the event of some temporary mishap in the trial, a circumstance
which often occurs.

In future, a good clock with a seconds hand should be fixed
in aconspicuous position, and should be the standard of reference
for time. Hitherto the watches of the Judges and engineers
have been used, but considerable confusion has more than once
arisen when a Judge has not been able to see a trial run through.
He has had either to hand his watch over to his colleague, or to
get the watch of the latter set to his own.

With respect to the employment of automatic recording
instruments, about which many suggestions have been offered,
I do not think that they are applicable to the wants of the
Society. In the first place, the time allowed for the trials is -
necessarily short, and it would therefore be difficult to fix and
adjust the apparatus; but the chief objection is, that it is impos-
sible to find out from the exhibitors, in reasonable time, what
their engines will be like.

Many of the engines are not even designed at the time of
entry, and are not completed till a very few days before the
trials; the speeds and brake horse-power are not fixed, and
even such a simple matter as the indicator gear is not properly
prepared. Thus at the last trial one engine had indicator cocks
and pipes so small that the diagrams were worthless; in two
other engines the gear had to be altered, and these same engines
ran in a direction contrary to all the others, so that a spare
brake, provided for such a contingency, had to be altered on the
spot for their special benefit.

It might perhaps be instructive, after the competition is over,
to run the prize engines a second time, and make observations
which could not be undertaken during the competitive runs ;
but it is doubtful whether the exhibitors would like any such —
proceeding, as it would prevent the engines appearing ate once
on the stands.

s There has been a good deal of controversy in the engineering
eis respecting the action of the Society’s brakes fitted with —
Appold’s automatic adjusting levers.

It appears that both Mr. Appold and Mr. C. EK, Amos were
aware of the effect which the pull upon the upper end of the

adjusting levers has on the power developed on the brake; they _

do not seem, however, to have attached any importance to it, or
to have made any corrections in respect of such error in the |
trials recorded in the Journal. The late Mr. Rich, who con- —
ducted most of the brake experiments after the retirement —
of Mr. J. C. Amos, was well aware of the possible source of ©
inaccuracy, but he was of opinion that it was insignificant, or,

:

|

Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials. 675

at all events, not serious enough to affect the comparative results,
which it was the main object of the trials to obtain.

The point was not lost sight of when it became necessary to
decide upon the mode of conducting the Newcastle trials. It
was considered important that those trials should be carried out
as nearly as possible in the same manner as those at Cardiff, and
with the same instruments, in order that a comparison might
be made which would indicate the advantages, or otherwise, of
the compound system.

It might be argued that if the sources of error were known,
arrangements might have been made for measuring the pull on
the ends of the adjusting levers, and obtaining in that way the
means of making corrections if any were required. But any
such attempt would have involved an important change in
the brakes; that is to say, the points of suspension of the
levers would have had to be made moveable instead of fixed,
and the brakes would consequently not have been the same as
those used at Cardiff. The importance of precise similarity is,
in the eyes of the competitors, very great, a fact which is illus-
trated by the circumstance that Messrs. McLaren were not con-
tent to be tried on a brake exactly similar to that assigned to
Messrs. Davey, Paxman, & Co., but they wished to be run
upon the very same instrument. Had time permitted, I should
certainly have preferred to run all the engines on the same brake.

The pull upon the upper ends of the adjusting levers depends
upon two things: first upon the load suspended to the brake
strap ; and secondly upon the mode of lubrication of the strap
and wheel, because upon this depends the tightness of the
strap.

With a given weight of strap, and up to a certain tension, the
amount of which depends upon the mode of lubrication, the strap
does not come into actual contact with the whole circumference
of the brake wheel. There is no appreciable variation of stress
at the points of attachment of the brake strap to the adjusting
levers, in consequence of variations in the load; the brake strap
does not press against the lower half of the wheel at all, and
hence the levers are inoperative, that is to say, the swing of the
lower ends will not alter the tightness of the strap, and there
is consequently no pressure at their fixed ends caused by the
load. When the lubrication is very good and the coefficient of
friction is consequently small, the brake strap has to be tighter
than when the lubrication is inferior and the coefficient of friction
large, and the pressure on the fixed ends of the adjusting levers
increases in proportion.

As soon as the strap begins to bear all round the wheel, the

xx2

676 Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Vrials.

pull on the upper ends of the adjusting levers begins to increase
proportionately to the load added. This pull will have the
effect of reducing the amount of the load on the brake by the
amount of such pull reduced, in the ratio of the distance of the
fixed ends of the levers from the centre of the brake shaft to
the distance of the point of suspension of the load from the
same place.

I am indebted to my partner Mr. Wm. Dickinson for the
following investigation into the theory of the brakes :—

Let W = Load on brake strap.
», T, T, = Tensions just above and below the points of suspension of W.
», I, T, = Tensions at two ends C and D of strap connected to lower ends
of compensating levers,

S =
oc

Bina

“
ne
we
"
“ic
ny

La)
Hie ks
“a '

-----------5 +

P

Pull on upper ends of these levers.

» 4,@ = KRadii of brake strap and wheel respectively.

» O D=4d,CD=8, andOE =e,

» , = Frictionof ABC,

» _', = Friction of AD, and F = total friction of brake strap.
The portion ABC of the brake strap is kept in equilibrium by the

=

Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials. 677

tensions T, and T, at its ends, the friction exerted on it by the wheel and by
its own weight. This gives, taking moments about O—
T,a = T,0M + F,a’+ moment of weight of A BC,
Considering the portions A D in the same way,
ON = T,a+ Fv — moment of weight of A D.
Adding these two equations, we get
T,a+T,ON=T,OM + T,a + (Ff, +F,)a’+ difference of moments of
weights A BC and A D.
But the moment of weight of ABC = moment of weight of A D because
the strap is accurately balanced.
(ie) a=) OM — TON + Bias
Now OM = OC sine OC M = (d — d) sine OCM
and O N = OD sine ODN = dsine ODN
and Wie
Substituting these values in the above equation we get
. Wa=T, (d — 5d) sine OCM — T, dsine ODN + Fa’
= d(T, sine OC M — T, sine ODN] — OT, sine OCM + Fa’
But, because the lever is in equilibrium, considering the forces at right angles
to it,
T, sme OC M =P + T; sine ODN
or P = T, sine CC M — T, sine ODN

And by taking moments about D of all the forces acting on the levers,
DE x P_ = CD sine OC M. T,
or (d —c) P = OT, sine OCM.

Substituting these two relations in the above equation we get

Wa=dP—-(d—-c)P+ Fa
Wa=cP + Fa’

or W -£P =F,
a a

That is to say, in order to get the effective value of W, the pull at E diminished
in the ratio of ¢ to a must be deducted.

This result agrees with the principle that the external forces acting on the
system should balance. Since it is at rest and the tensions are internal forces,
the Load, the Pull at I, and the Friction are the only external forces that have
to be considered, as the point of support is in the centre of gravity of the strap.

This gives, at once, by taking moments about O

GW. — ¢ Pits Bae

as before. Also because

p? T, sine OCM

d-—e

it follows that P depends upon the tension of the strap and upon the pro-
portion which C D bears to the whole length of the lever. Now the tension
of the strap depends upon the lubrication, hence the more efficient, that is,
the greater, will be the inaccuracy of the brake,

It is evident that in order to determine the probable amount
of error in the Cardiff and Newcastle trials, the pull upon the
_ upper ends of the levers must be ascertained when the brakes
are running under exactly the same conditions as to power,
speed, temperature of air, and lubrication. It would be impos-
sible to secure all these conditions, and I have consequently

678 Memorandum on the Newcastle Engine Trials.

made no attempt to repeat the trials. I have, however, satisfied
myself by experiment that when the lubrication is constant, the
pull on the upper ends of the levers always bears a constant
ratio to the load on the brake.

The amount of error due to the Appold arrangement is, I
believe, not great for moderate powers, and Messrs. McLaren
have given me the means of verifying this opinion. Feeli
dissatisfied with the results obtained at Newcastle, they re-
quested Mr. Halpin and Professor Barr to repeat the trials with
their compound engine, and for this purpose they used two
brakes, one designed by Mr. Halpin, and the other constructed
on the same principle as those used by the Society. Messrs.
Halpin and Barr’s report was published in the Engineer of
December 2, 1887, and indicates that considerable pains were
taken to make the trials as accurate as possible.

The following table gives the results obtained by Messrs.
McLaren, and at the Newcastle trials of the Society :—

pea) McLaren's Trial!

a R. os

2» rake rial

Helninia made like
R. A.S. E.

Indicated Horse-Power . . . .... «| 237 22-2 24:02
Brake Horse-Power " per eee. ete 1931 20°77
Coal per Brake H.-P. per hour. . . - 2-11 2714 2267
Water supplied per Brake H.-P. per hour . - | 22-1 22 21°53
Mechanical Efficiency . . a 85 “86 “86

It will be seen that the figures agree very closely : hence we
are bound to assume that the experiments at Newcastle were
substantially accurate, or that Messrs. Halpin and Barr haye
erred to the same extent as we are supposed to have done.

Nevertheless, as there is an undoubted source of error in the
Society’s brakes, I recommend that in future trials the Appold
levers be dispensed with, or some other form of measuring in-
strument be adopted. Improvements in instruments devised for
measuring power are going on constantly, and it would the
fore be unwise to fix on any particular form till the necessi
for making a selection arises.

The late Charles Randell. 679

XXXV.—IN MEMORIAM.

(a.) The late Charles Randell. By Joun Dent DENT, Ribston
Hall, Wetherby.

THIRTY years ago, when clay-land farmers were almost as much
depressed in spirits as they have been during the last few years,
Iremember the late Sir Henry Meysey Thompson asking me to
ride over to his farm at Kirby, to see some experiments in clay-
burning which he was carrying out with labourers sent to him
and advice tendered by Charles Randell of Chadbury. This was
the first special notice of Mr. Randell which occurs to me, but
I remember well how highly his practical knowledge was then
spoken of. Some years passed by, during which I only knew
him by report as a man facing the difficulty of clay-land culture
with spirit and with hope, and with success as times improved.

In 1861, however, I found myself, to my great delight, elected
a member of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society, and
my colleagues elected in that year were Earl Cathcart and Mr.
Wells (still happily surviving), and Mr. Randell. No one
could have seen Mr. Randell, then in the prime of life, without
being struck with his handsome presence and his fine manly
English address.'. When I undertook the office of steward of
live stock at the Show at Worcester in 1863, he gave me much
help in my endeavour to put an end to certain rascalities
existing amongst the exhibitors of pigs, and during the two
following years we were fellow-stewards of live stock at New-
castle and at Plymouth. At this time some of the newly
elected members of Council thought that there was room for
considerable improvement in the management of the Society,
and especially in the conduct of its Shows. Mr. Randell entered
heartily into these aspirations, and it was mainly owing to his
wide experience and his practical knowledge of business in
every form that we may attribute any measure of success that
was attained. He was very quick to see any mistakes even in
matters of detail, and very ready in remedies; while his firm-
ness and common sense always kept in check any dangerous
enthusiasm of his younger colleagues.

‘ One of my colleagues writes of him, “His commanding presence and
honest countenance betokened the essential qualities of the man—tender-
hearted, yet determined—holding his own with every one, I thought him
always most generous in the appreciation of others, and in the expression of
that feeling,”

680 In Memoriam:

From that time he took a prominent part for twenty-five
years in every department of the work of the Society. In the
management of its finances his sturdy sense and his practical
knowledge of work of every description were invaluable. He
was perhaps too strict a guardian of the funds of the Society,
and we sometimes thought that he encouraged the Finance
Committee to draw the purse-strings too tightly; although
when he could be convinced that the money would be well
spent, we had no cause to complain. He very soon acquired so
great an influence in the Council that, if any new departure
were suggested, it was generally considered desirable to see
what Mr. Randell thought of it before bringing the matter
forward for discussion.

On the question of education he and the late Mr. Holland
were the most conspicuous advocates of the party which held
that the Council should only deal with technical agricultural
education, and not concern itself with the general education of
the agricultural classes. At one time this was a much-debated
question in the Council, and led to a considerable divergence of
opinion, and ultimately to a compromise which has not been
quite so successful in its results as we could have wished. Seeing
things very clearly himself, and having great readiness and faci-
lity both in acquiring information and in imparting the results
of it to others, he did not, I think, recognise that the ordinary
farmer had not an equal readiness, and that in too many cases
the want of sound general education prevented him from suf-
ficiently appreciating the results which science was developing
in agriculture. At a later period something of the same kind
actuated Mr. Randell in regard to chemical investigation. He
was so anxious to put practical results before his fellow-agricul-
turists, that he rather looked down on scientific investigation,
and urged the Council to institute and encourage experiments
which should be carried ont by farmers as a part of the practice
of the farm, under the belief that the results would be suffi-
ciently accurate, and of more substantial value than those of
Rothamsted and afterwards of Woburn.

In both these cases his line of conduct was the result of a
mind of considerable power, which had made him active in ex-
periment before his fellows. By an opportune accident, the other
day I came across a French book published in 1855, giving an
account by M. le Comte Conrad de Gourcy of his third agri-
cultural tour in England and Scotland in 1851. Several pages
are devoted to this gentleman’s account of Mr. Randell and the
farm at Chadbury, and he says, “any agriculturists who have
some days to spend in England will do well to yisit this farm,

The late Charles Randell. 681

for Mr. Randell seems to me one of the best farmers of his
country.” This French gentleman enters into every detail of
the farm, the clay-burning, the cropping with vetches and other
green food, the feeding sheep in pens on burnt clay, the in-
genious hurdles for summer folding ; the cross-breeding of sheep
and of pigs. He specially notices the greyhounds, with which
at that time Mr. Randell was so successful;! and concludes his
remarks by saying that in all these experiments Mr. Randell,
who had been blamed at first by his neighbours, now found his
example very generally followed.

M. de Gourcy’s description of the man seems to me to afford
some insight into Mr. Randell’s conduct with regard to what I
may call the scientific work of the Council. He had a mind
capable of planning experiments, and exhibited patience and
skill in practically carrying out the same. He had himself
succeeded, and he believed there were many more amongst
English agriculturists who possessed an equal originality of con-
ception and fertility of resource. He did not, therefore, think
it necessary for the Royal Agricultural Society to concern itself
with general education, but rather to aim at encouragement of
special agricultural education, and of enforcing that teaching by
experiments carried out by what he called practical men. I fear
his estimate of his fellow-agriculturists was too exalted in this
respect.

I have alluded at some length to this portion of Mr. Randell’s
work on the Council because the subjects referred to are still
full of unsolved problems, and we have yet much to learn in
them. Technical education in agriculture, differing opinions as
to the efficacy of certain elements of manures, and other ques-
tions in relation to agricultural chemistry, are still matters for
discussion; and when discussed we shall miss the powerful
criticism he could bring to bear upon them.

His labours in the Showyard Contracts Committee, of which
for some years he was chairman, were marked with most satis-
factory results, not merely in economy to the Society, but in the
improvement of every detail of the yard. He strenuously advo-
cated a restriction of our then costly trials of field implements,
and to a great extent his views were adopted—viz. that the
Society should only offer prizes for new implements, or impor-

? Mr. Rawlence writes to me: ‘I first became acquainted with Mr, Randell
from meeting him at the coursing meetings on the Wiltshire Downs. I sawa
great deal of him from 1845 to 1855, as he used to attend the Wiltshire
coursing meetings and stay with my brother, He was as good a judge of a

greyhound as he was of sheep, cattle, and horses; he bred some yery good dogs,
and won some hig stakes,”

682 In Memoriam:

tant modifications of those already existing. Undoubtedly the
repeated trials of practically similar implements might be carried
to excess, and the expense of procuring trial fields, and of mak-
ing anything like exhaustive examination of the implements
presented, was a matter for serious consideration; but I have
never been quite able to agree to the practice of offering large
sums in our prize sheets for live stock, much of which shows
no improvement over the animals exhibited forty years ago, and
of limiting the prizes offered for machinery, which may give
such efficient aid in the production of food for the nation.

In every large society it is found necessary at times to look
into questions of management and expenditure, and both in
Lord Vernon’s Committee of 1871 and Sir John Thorold’s of last
year, Mr. Randell bore a conspicuous part and made many most
valuable suggestions. On questions which arose as to cattle
diseases and trade in animals, in conjunction with Mr. Booth
and Mr. Jacob Wilson, he collected and prepared most important
information for the Society and the Government of the day;
but, although quite willing to discuss such general agricultural
questions as the foregoing, he opposed any alteration of those
clauses of the Charter which prevent discussion in the Council
of political questions or matters pending in Parliament. Ex-
perience had taught him that on a grave emergency like cattle
plague the Council did exercise a discretionary power in dealing
with such matters; and that the happy harmony which for fifty
years had existed amongst men of widely divergent political
opinions at the Council might perhaps be seriously impaired
were these restrictions removed.

His high position as a farmer and a land agent made his
opinion most valuable when questions arose as to the compensa-
tion to be paid under the Agricultural Holdings Acts; but he
moved and carried, after some discussion, that the Council should
not publish as authoritative any suggestions to valuers, although
he quite approved of the issue in the Journal of the table pre-
pared by Sir John Lawes and Dr. Gilbert on the manurial
values of different kinds of food. I should make my recollections
too lengthy if I were to go more into detail. Looking through the
Proceedings of the Council for the last twenty-seven years, I find
him taking part in every question of interest. ,

When our late secretary came to us, and was anxious to
obtain all the information that his acquisitive mind could
digest, no one helped him more than Mr. Torr and Mr. Randell,
and to the day of Mr. Jenkins’s death he had no kinder friend
and adviser than Mr. Randell.

In the Journal for 1844 I find a letter from him to his land-

The late Charles Randell. 683

lord, Mr. Holland, giving a full account of the system of burning
clay which he had adopted. This was followed by another letter to
the late Mr. Thompson in 1863, giving the results of his expe-
rience. He was a very warm advocate of this practice, both as
an aid to cultivation and fertility when the clay, couch, and
other rubbish were burnt in small heaps and the ashes spread
upon the land; and also when banks were burnt in clamps, and
the burnt clay was used to bed sheep feeding in pens, and
afterwards as a manure for the growth of roots.

Shropshire sheep were reported upon by him in connection with
the Shows at Leeds and Bury St. Edmunds with a warm appre-
ciation of their merits as rent-payers, and at Bury he remarks
that their owners are unsparing in their efforts to excel one
another in breeding, feeding, and shearing. At the same Show
he is puzzled to find out the merits of the Suffolk sheep, and
writes strongly on the necessity of the Council dealing with the
shearing and trimming questions.

He was an excellent judge of most kinds of stock, and con-
stantly in request,' and he set his face very determinedly both at
the Council and in the Show-field against the tricks of sheep-
shearing and of colouring pigs.

He was very communicative to inquirers on agricultural
questions, and whether to Mr. John Algernon Clarke on steam
cultivation, or to Mr. Morton seeking for information on the
effects of seasons in 1868 and 1872, he was equally ready to
give the result of his experience. In 1868 he finished his
harvest on the last day of July, and had then only five acres of
cabbage and two of mangold for 1,000 sheep; but with his usual
resource he at once sowed 133 acres with mustard, rape, and
turnips, and these growing rapidly in the heated soil he con-
trived to winter his flock.

After the passing of the Agricultural Holdings Act of 1875,
he furnished for the Journal copies of agreements which he had
used for some years. The object of these was to “ provide for
freedom as to cropping and disposal of produce, a large amount
of compensation for unexhausted manures and food, and a
remedy for the landlord in case of waste by enabling him to set
off the penalty for default against the amount of compensation
to which the tenant is entitled for hay, straw, roots, and acts of
husbandry.”

He did not believe in tenants laying clay land down to
grass. In 1882 he writes: “Tenants know that with a return

* Mr. Randell judged Shropshire sheep for the Society on no less than eight
occasions, viz. in 1860, 1861, 1863, 1873, 1875, 1878, 1885, and 1887.

684 In Memoriam :

of better seasons all moderately good clay land will pay them
better in cultivation than in grass, and will carry more stock
while consuming green crops, such as vetches, clover, cabbages,
rape, and mangold, alternately with wheat, barley, and beans,
than it would do in permanent pasture.” At the same time he
recognises that landlords who have farms thrown on their hands,
and have not capital with which to farm, may be compelled to
lay clay land down, and he advises a course which he considers
likely to answer.

In reporting on Farm Accounts, the Committee of which he
_ was a member recommended only two simple books to be kept,
“their object being to put before farmers a simple form which
they can keep with the least possible trouble, and which will
show what farming does for them in every year.”

I must conclude these allusions to his papers in the Journal,
all full of the man and his suggestive spirit, with one extract from
the lessons to be learned by the wet season of 1878-79: “ That
even in such seasons, relying upon our own exertions and the
promise that ‘seedtime and harvest shall not fail,’ we must
determine to produce all we can, especially of such things as are
least abundantly imported—mutton and malting barley, to wit
—and hope that with more favourable seasons and an improye-
ment in the general trade of the country we shall, as heretofore,
get over all our difficulties.”

I might make many more quotations, but I think I have
given enough to show the spirit in which he thought and
worked, and the ready manner in which he could record the
results of his work for the information of others.

Failing health in the year 1886 made him propose to resign
his seat at the Council; but His Royal Highness the Prince
of Wales, as President, addressed him the following letter, which
expresses admirably the feeling entertained by his colleagues :—

“ February 3, 1886.

“ Str,—Your letter addressed to the Secretary of the Society, conveying
your desire to resign your seat on the Council, has just been read. The
Council have expressed their great sympathy with you in the circumstances
which have led to your desiring to relieve yourself of some of your public
engagements. At the same time they are unanimously of opinion that they
cannot afford to lose the benefit of your matured advice and assistance, which
have been of such signal use to the Society during a period of almost a
quarter of a century. They therefore trust that you will allow your name
to remain in the list of the Council, so that, although you may not feel able
to attend the meetings as often as hitherto, your colleagues may still be
able to consult you on important questions as they arise, in your continued
capacity of a member of the Council of the Society.—I remain, Sir, yours
faithfully, (Signed) “Atnert Epwarn P., President,”

** Charles Randell, Esq.”

Some Late Contributors to the Journal. 685

Tn consequence of this letter he worked on to the last, and took
an active part in our deliberations three short weeks before his
death.

For twenty-seven years I worked with him on the Council,
and took an active part sometimes in accordance and some-
times in partial disagreement with his views; and the impression
left on my mind, and I believe on all who came in contact with
hin, is that a finer type of an intelligent English agriculturist
never existed. He saw things rapidly, he felt their importance
or their insignificance very strongly, he had a vigorous power of
utterance of his opinions, and he never shrank from saying what
he thought was right, even if the language in which he did it
was at times somewhat forcible. But he was always fair, and
never uncourteous, to an adversary, and his memory will be dear
to his colleagues as that of an Englishman indeed!

(b.) Some Late Contributors to the Journal. By the Eprror.

It is a noteworthy but melancholy circumstance that in the
short space of six months the three leading professional writers
on agricultural subjects—each an old and trusted contributor
to this Journal—should have been gathered in by the Great
Harvester. If those officially connected with the Society—
such as the successive chairmen of the Journal Committees, the
late Editor, and the late Dr. Voelcker—he left out of the account,
probably no three writers have done more to advance agricul-
tural knowledge through articles in this publication and in
other ways than John Algernon Clarke, John Coleman, and
John Chalmers Morton.

It is not proposed on this occasion to attempt any elaborate
biography of these men, or any critical analysis of their life and
works; but it has been felt by those in authority that they
should not be allowed to pass away quite unrecorded in the
Journal to which they devoted some of the best efforts of
their brain. ‘The present writer is indebted solely to his official
position as Editor of the Journal for the privilege of writing a
brief tribute to the memory of these departed worthies of the
Society, and he must plead, in extenuation of any imperfections,
want of personal knowledge of those whose lives he attempts
to portray. As, however, this obituary notice is mainly con-
cerned with the triad in their relations with the Journal, less
disadvantage than usual will, it is hoped, arise from the cir-
cumstance that it is penned by one who had little or no personal
acquaintance with them,

686 In Memoriam :

John Algernon Clarke,

who was the first of the three to lay down his pen, was born in
the year 1828. The son of a Lincolnshire farmer, who was
himself well known as an agricultural writer and as a judge in
the show-yard (Mr. John Clarke of Long Sutton), his thoughts
were early directed to that interesting tract of land all round
him known as the Fen Country. During the first half of the
Royal Agricultural Society’s existence an important part of its
annual programme was the giving of prizes of substantial amount
- for the best essays on selected subjects. For the year 1847 one
of the twelve subjects for essays was ‘the Great Level of the
Fens,” and John Algernon Clarke, who could then have been
only nineteen years of age, won the prize of 50/. with a remark-
ably luminous and well arranged essay, which appeared in Vol.
VIII. of the Journal (1847). No doubt encouraged by his
success, we find him in 1850 competing again for and winning
a prize of 50/. on the ‘‘ Farming of Lincolnshire,” a subject on
which he was peculiarly fitted to treat. His very elaborate prize
essay on this subject takes up 155 pages of Vol. XII. of the
Journal (1851), and may still be read with interest and profit.!
A third prize of 50/. was granted to him in 1854 for another
essay on “ Trunk Drainage,” which appeared in Vol. XV. (1854).

The list of essays for the year 1859 contained a reference
to a subject which Mr. Clarke made his own, and to which the
Society for several years devoted much time and money, viz.
“ the application of steam power to the cultivation of the land.”
Mr. Clarke won the prize of 251. for the best essay on this ques-
tion, and his paper appears in Vol. XX. of the Journal (1859).
Four years later (in Vol. XXIV. 1863), he wrote an article on
“Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation,” in which he
summed up the “ mechanical improvements and practical results
which since [his former paper] had made steam tillage the pre-
eminent triumph of modern English agriculture.”

At the general meeting of the Society in May 1866, the
Council announced that “ the application of steam to the culti-
vation of the soil had received their careful attention, and they
considered that the time had arrived when an attempt should
be made to arrive at the results which had been obtained by its
use on different soils or in different localities.” Accordingly,
Inspection Committees were appointed to visit such farms as a

’ Note, for example, the use made of it by Mr. Fredk. I. Cooke, in his Report
in the present number on the Farm Competition in Nottinghamshire and
Lincolnshire.

John Algernon Clarke. 687

special Central Committee of the Council might select for the
purpose.

The second Inspection Committee consisted of Mr. Robert
Leeds, Mr. John Nicholson, and Mr. Edward Wortley, with Mr.
Clarke as secretary, and the area of their operations was very
large, including Northumberland, York, Lincoln, Nottingham,
Stafford, Salop, Kent, Montgomery, Worcester, Warwick,
Gloucester, Somerset, Dorset, Wilts, Berks, Oxford, Bedford,
and Northampton. In Mr. Clarke’s exhaustive report, which
appears with those on the same subject by Mr. Howard Reed
and Mr. John Coleman in Vol. III. of the New Series (1867),
the experience of 140 practical farmers on 66,000 acres is
summed up, and the facts are marshalled with his customary
lucidity. When the Society decided to give prizes at Wolver-
hampton (1871) for the best combination of machinery for the
cultivation of the soil by steam power, Mr. Clarke was naturally
selected as reporter ; and his masterly report in Vol. VII. of the
New Series, on the prolonged and expensive trials instituted by
the Society, is justly described as one of the most valuable con-
tributions ever made to the Journal.

The other papers of Mr. Clarke in the Journal included a
short account of the Lois-Weedon system of wheat-growing
(Vol. I. New Series, 1865); a paper urging the importance
of increasing our home production of poultry (Vol. II. 1866) ;
the official report on the trials of Reaping Machines at Leam-
ington, in connection with the Birmingham Show of 1876
(Vol. XIII.) ; and—a worthy conclusion to his services to the
Society—the paper on Practical Agriculture for the Memoir on
the Agriculture of England and Wales, prepared for the Inter-
national Congress at Paris in 1878. No one can read this
paper, or indeed any of Mr. Clarke’s articles, without appre-
ciating and admiring his wonderful grasp of his subject, and the
skill with which his facts and arguments are marshalled.

Not only in this Journal, however, but in other agricultura
publications of the time, Mr. Clarke’s busy pen was always
finding employment. In the year 1857 he began to report
for the Zimes the annual country meetings of the “ Royal”
and other Agricultural Societies, and his accounts of the succes-
sive Shows were always read with more than common interest.
His great mechanical knowledge and wonderful inventive
faculty gave to his descriptions and criticisms of new types of
implements and agricultural machinery generally, a very special
value. More recently he started in the leading paper a weekly
column of notes and comments on agricultural subjects, under
the heading “Crop and Stock Prospects.” The Times, too,

688 In Memoriam :

employed his services as special commissioner in procuring
graphic pictures of Irish life and Irish agriculture, when legis-
lation on Irish land was attracting public attention.

Mr. Clarke was the founder and original editor of the
Chamber of Agriculture Journal, and for twelve years, from
1867 to 1879, he also held the post of Secretary to the Central
Chamber of Agriculture, where his large acquaintance with
farmers in every county of England greatly aided his work. In
this capacity his services proved also of value on questions
relating to the prevention of Cattle Disease, and in the prepara-
tion of the exhaustive analysis of local Customs of Compensa-
tion for Unexhausted Improvements, made by a Committee of the
Chambers before the passing of the Agricultural Holdings Act
of 1875. For the last five years of his life, and until shortly
before his death, he was the Editor of Bell’s Weekly Messenger,
the oldest of our agricultural papers.

His sudden death from an apoplectic seizure on November 17,
1887, deprived the agricultural community of a ready writer
and an acute and thoughtful critic.

John Coleman

was born on July 1, 1830, and began his farming career at the
age of 16 at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. He was,
indeed, the very first pupil that ever entered the walls of that
institution. Two years later, while still a student, his uncle Mr.
Robert Brown, a founder of the College, made him his agent over
averysmall property. His first business engagement was as estate
agent at Albury Park, near Guildford, Surrey, then the property
and residence of the late Mr. Henry Drummond, and now of his
son-in-law, the Duke of Northumberland. Being then barely out
of his teens, his farming experience was at that time compara-
tively small; but his capabilities were considerable, and his zeal
and energy conquered all obstacles. Mr. Coleman soon made
his mark in the agricultural world; and after holding several
important stewardships, he became agent for the Yorkshire
estates of Lord Wenlock, by whom he was much esteemed. He
resided nearly twenty years on the Escrick property, which he
left several years ago, after the death of the second Lord.

From 1856 to 1862 Mr. Coleman was Professor of Agricul- _
ture at the Cirencester College, and quitted that institution in —
company with several other professors, including the late Dr. —
Voelcker and Professor G. T. Brown, C.B., now head of the
Agricultural Department of the Privy Council Office; but in-

John Coleman. 689

his later years he renewed his connection with the Royal Agri-
cultural College as honorary professor. In 1865 he became
agricultural editor to the Field, and from that time till a few
months before his death his life was a most active one, alike as
writer, journalist, and reporter, in addition to his work as private
land agent, and—since leaving Escrick—in business at York as
a land agent and farm valuer of great repute.

Mr. Coleman’s association with this Journal commenced in
the same way as Mr. Clarke’s, viz. by winning one of the
Society’s: Essay-prizes. In 1855, 40/. was offered for the best
essay on the causes of fertility and barrenness in soils; and
Mr. Coleman’s succinct and valuable prize thesis on this in-
teresting subject appeared in Vol. XVI. (1856). His next
appearance in the Journal was in 1859 (Vol. XIX.), when,
writing from Cirencester, where he was then installed as Pro-
fessor of Agriculture, he addressed himself to the very practical
question of “ how the general principles of commercial accounts
may be reduced to a form adapted to the general purposes of a
farmer.” His advice is sound and his method easily compre-
hensible: and it is a matter for surprise that so little improve-
ment has been manifested in the accounts of the ordinary farmer
during the 30 years that have elapsed since Mr. Coleman first
called attention to the matter in these columns.

Mr. Coleman was in constant request by the Society as a
Judge and Reporter in the Implement Department of its country
_ meetings, and in all his inquiries and reports was most unsparing
of himself. In 1864 he reported on the Implements exhibited
_at Newcastle, and particularly on the Steam Cultivation trials
which were the special feature of that meeting. At Plymouth
_ (1865), he reported on the Implement Department, and was a
Judge of Mowing and Reaping Machines and Miscellaneous
Implements. At Bury St. Edmunds (1867—there being no
show in 1866), he reported on the Implement trials, which that
year were made of peculiar importance and variety in view of the
absence of cattle from the Show in consequence of the cattle
plague, and he also acted as one of the Judges of Thrashing
Machines. In the same volume (New Series, Vol. III.) of the
Journal appears a report by his pen on the then burning ques-
tion of Steam Cultivation, he being the Reporter of the Supple-
)mentary Committee, deputed by the Society to inquire into the
‘| results of Steam Cultivation in Yorkshire, Durham, Cumberland,

Westmoreland, Lancaster, Salop, Nottingham, Stafford, and
| Leicester, as part of the general inquiry to which reference has
yh | already been made (page 686). He was a Judge of Steam Cul-
* | tivators at Leicester (1868), of Plans and Models of Labourers’
| VOL. XXIV.—S. S. YON

690 - In Memoriam:

Cottages at Manchester (1869), and he reported on the trials
of Implements at Oxford (1870).

The Journal contains nothing else from his pen until 1873,
when he undertook at short notice to write the Report on the
Trials of Ploughs and Harrows at Hull. In 1874 he was a
Judge of Waggons, Carts, &c., at Bedford, and in 1877 of Sheaf
Binders at Liverpool. Between these two dates he had acted as
chairman of the English Judges of Machinery at the Philadelphia
Centennial Exhibition, and his elaborate report on the inte-
resting exhibits of American and Canadian machinery shown
there is the first paper in the Journal for 1877. At the Bristol
Meeting in 1878 he was again a Judge and Reporter on the
Trials of Sheaf Binders and on the Miscellaneous Implements ;
and in the same year he acted as one of the Judges at the Great
Exhibition at Paris.

In 1879 he was appropriately selected as the Reporter on
the very extensive and varied collection of Implements at the
Metropolitan exhibition of the Society at Kilburn, as well as on
the trials of Railway Waggons intended for the conveyance of
fresh provisions. In 1881 he was Judge of and Reporter on
the Miscellaneous Implements exhibited at Derby; and he ful-
filled the same office at York (1883). In 1884 he varied his
occupations on behalf of the Society by acting as Judge and
Reporter on the Farm Prize Competition in connection with
the Shrewsbury Meeting. His last appointment by the Society
was as Judge of Miscellaneous Implements at Newcastle (1887).
He was so ill at the time of the Show that he had abruptly to
break off his work and return home; and though he managed
to attend and to report upon the Society’s Potato-Raising Trials
at Gosforth in the following October, his health was very un-
satisfactory. A malignant internal tumour, for which there was
no hope of cure, at length carried him off on the 19th February
of this year.

In addition to his work for this Society and for the I%eld,
Mr. Coleman acted as Assistant Commissioner for the seven
northern counties of York, Northumberland, Durham, Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, Lancaster, and Chester under the Duke
of Richmond’s Royal Commission on Agricultural Depression.
His report on his inquiries in these counties was remarkably
able, and much appreciated and cited. He also found time to
bring out in 1875 a large illustrated volume on “ The Cattle of
Great Britain,” in which he was assisted by some of the first
authorities on the respective breeds. This was followed, two
years later, by a similar book on sheep and pigs. His last ex-
tended literary work was in connection with the revision and

John Chalmers Morton. 691

re-writing of these books, so as to bring them up to date of
publication ; and they were issued in 1887 in one volume, under
the title of “The Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Britain.”
He was an influential member of the Council of the Yorkshire
Agricultural Society, and was for very many years a Member of
the Farmers’ Club, at whose meetings he was a familiar figure.
Earl Cathcart sums up admirably the personal characteristics
_ of Mr. Coleman in words which I am permitted to quote, and
| which may fitly close this brief sketch of a busy and useful life :---
| “TJ have been associated with Mr. Coleman during many
years, in many places, and late and early ; in the drawing-room
of the country house, in the common room of the busy inn, in
the trial field, in the crowded show-yard ; and always, and at all
times, found him the same modest, self-possessed, agreeable,
energetic, well-informed man.”

John Chalmers Morton

was born on July 11, 1821, and was the son of Mr. John Morton,
agent for upwards of fifty years to the Earls of Ducie upon their
Gloucestershire estate. He derived his second Christian name
from his mother, who was a sister of the famous Scottish divine,
Dr. Chalmers; and he was educated at the Merchiston Castle
School, Edinburgh, where one of his uncles was head master.
During the last years of his stay at Merchiston, he attended
certain of the University lectures—on chemistry, physics, natural
| history, and agriculture. In some reminiscences of his school
| life which he wrote in 1879 for the school magazine, he refers
to the fact that ‘his subsequent life was shaped mainly by the
_ circumstances which made him a student in the agricultural
class-room of the University, under the late Professor Low.”
Before he was nineteen he was summoned home to take charge,
under his father, of the Whitfield Model Farm on Lord Ducie’s
, estate. While here he was enrolled as a member of the English
Agricultural Society—then recently started—on the 4th Sep-
tember, 1839. He was thus what may be called a “ foundation ”
\ member of the Royal Agricultural Society of England when it
received its Charter on March 26, 1840. In the new pride of
membership, he went to the historic first Country Meeting of
the Society at Oxford in 1839 ; and it was one of his boasts that
he had been to almost every Royal Show since.! 'The present

1 In his memoir of Sir Brandreth Gibbs in the Journal for 1885, Mr. Morton
refers to the fact that he himself had attended every Show except those held
in 1840, 1842, 1848, and 1854 (Vol. XXI. p. 612).

¥¥2

692 In Memoriam:

writer well remembers the cheery exultation with which Mr.
Morton announced, on the occasion of one of their earliest meet-
ings, that he had just paid his fifty-first annual subscription.

In 1843 he commenced the association with the Agricultural
Gazette which was only to be terminated by death. It was no
small compliment to a young man of twenty-three to be invited
to start and direct a new paper; but Mr. Morton was equal to
the occasion, and threw the whole of his great energy into deye-
loping the Gazette and making it the influential organ of agri
cultural opinion which it soon became. So devoted was he
to its interests, that it is recorded of him that no less than 1,300
consecutive weekly numbers of the paper were brought out
without a single break under his personal supervision. From
week to week for forty-five years he handled with a masterly
pen all subjects connected with agricultural progress, at the
same time eliciting from the ablest of his friendly contributors
the details and lessons of their practical experiences. This was the
great work of his life, and nobly was it performed to the last.

His holidays were of the rarest and briefest. If he were
cajoled into taking a rest from the work of his paper, he usually
contrived to throw himself with even greater ardour into some
new subject which he had encountered in his wanderings. His
idea of resting his brain by a little harmless light literature—
when he grudgingly allowed himself this relaxation—was to
read several novels in the day. He was indeed a man of vehe-
ment energy, who could not exist without strenuous work.

In addition to his editorial functions, he was a constant con-
tributor to this Journal, and he found time moreover to perform
the duties of an Inspector under the Land Commissioners. In
the year 1855, when he was only 32 years old, Mr. Morton
brought out, with the assistance of fifty of the most eminent
scientific men of the day, his valuable and complete Encyclopaedia
of Agriculture, which contains 2,200 double-columned pages
and is still the most complete work of the kind extant. I
later life he schemed out and edited a series of seyen admirabl
little Handbooks of the Farm, which were published by Messrs.
Bradbury Agnew & Co. between 1881 and 1884, and discuss
the Cultivation of the Farm, its Live Stock and its Cultiva
Plants, Farm and Estate Equipment, the Chemistry of Agricu
ture, and the Processes of Animal and Vegetable Life.

Perhaps the most important extra piece of work which ]
ever undertook was the inquiry into the Pollution of Rivers
its remedy, for which a Royal Commission was issued in
year 1868. Mr. Morton was one of the Commissioners,
colleagues being Sir William Denison, K.C.B., and Profes

John Chalmers Morton. 693

Frankland, D.C.L., F.R.S. This difficult inquiry, which lasted
for six years, entailed much laborious work and careful observa-
tion, and Mr. Morton threw into it all that energy and en-
thusiasm for which he was so conspicuous, never resting content
with information at second-hand if;it was possible to obtain it
by personal investigation. All the chief river basins of Great
Britain were explored, the polluting matters discharged into
their running waters traced, and preventive or remedial measures
investigated. In the great majority of instances, and notably
in the case of the sewage of towns, the most effective remedy
was an agricultural one, and it was in this department of the
inquiry that the profound knowledge, extensive experience, and
sound sense of Mr. Morton were of the greatest value to his
colleagues. All the sewage farms and sewage cleansing in-
stallations in the kingdom were visited, and the data concerning
them carefully collected. He also studied in much detail the
so-called preventive measures, such as the Lancashire midden,
the dry earth closet, and the pail system. He drew a striking
comparison between these and the water-carriage system of the
disposal of excreta, and it is no exaggeration to say that the
searching investigations of Mr. Morton into these rival systems
placed them for the first time in their true economical and
sanitary positions. His vigorous pen and incisive sentences
may be traced throughout the Reports of the Commissioners ;
indeed the agricultural portions of those reports were virtually
his work.

Mr. Morton’s appearance in the Journal of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society began even earlier than his editorship of the
Agricultural Gazette, for we find him writing to Mr. Pusey, the
then Editor, on November 18, 1840, a letter sending particulars
of a crop of White or Belgian Carrots on Lord Ducie’s farm at
Whitfield, which was published in the second volume of the
Journal. In the seventh volume (1846) appeared Mr. Morton’s
first article: on the Maintenance of Fertility in new Arable
Land, as illustrated particularly by the occurrences at Whitfield
Farm since it had been drained and broken up out of old grass
land about eight years before. To Volume X. of the Journal
(1849) he contributed a Prize Essay some 40 pages in length
on the Means of increasing our Supplies of Animal Food.
Further articles by him appeared in Volume XIX. (1858) on
the Cost of Horse-power, which contained some very elaborate
and valuable statistical tables, and in Volume XX. (1859) on
Agricultural Maxima, in which were given details of largest
yields of agricultural produce of different kinds.

In the first volume of the Second Series (1865) appeared

694 In Memoriam :

Mr. Morton’s most valuable lecture on Agricultural Education.
This was the immediate cause of the appointment by the Society
of its Education Committee, which has since done such good work,
and for which Mr. Morton acted as examiner from the commence-
ment of the Society’s Junior Examinations in 1874 until his
death. In Volume IV. (1868) appeared a Report on Town Milk,
the quality and circumstances of which at that time received
much less attention than they do now. In the next volume
(1869) was a Report on the Agricultural Lessons of 1868, which
year was characterised by a warm spring and a hot dry summer.
A further Report appeared in the tenth volume on Spring Sown
Wheats in 1873, when a larger extent of wheat was sown
out of the usual season than had ever before been the case in
this country. In Volume XI. (1875) was a Report on Cheese-
making in Home Dairies and in Factories, and in Volume XII.
(1876) was a full and most interesting paper on Half-a-dozen
Sewage I’arms, selected as fairly representing the various soils
and circumstances under which Sewage Irrigation had been
adopted in various parts of the country.

Mr. Morton was the Reporter on the Dairy and Stock Farms
in the Liverpool Farm Prize Competition of 1877, and the similar
Competition at Preston in 1885. Both these reports are charac-
terised by his wonderful power of observation and skill in arrang-
ing his facts. He also contributed the paper on Dairy Farming
to the Memoir on the Agriculture of England and Wales pre-
pared under the direction of the Society for the International
Congress at Paris in 1878. In Volume XVI. (1880) was avery
exhaustive paper from his pen summing up the experiences of
the year of dismal agricultural record, 1879.

The ripe experience and powers of memory of Mr. Morton
made him of late the biographer par ewcellence of his colleagues
of the past. Thus he wrote in the twentieth volume of the
Journal a sketch of Mr. George Turner, like himself an original
Member of the Society ; in Volume XXI. the biography of the
late Sir Brandreth Gibbs, for more than thirty years Honorary
Director of the Show-yards, which contains much interesting in-
formation about the earlier country meetings of the Society.
Finally he wrote in the April number of the Journal for last
year a full and sympathetic memoir of the late Secretary of the
Society, Mr. Jenkins.

These brief references to his work in one publication suffice
to show the broad sympathies of the man, and his keen insight
into agricultural problems as they arose for discussion and
settlement. Mr. Dent, who, as a former Chairman of the
Journal and Education Committees of the Society and in other

John Chalmers Morton. 695

ways, had been much associated with Mr. Morton, has graphically
described the leading characteristics of his work in the follow-
ing words :—

The services of Mr. Morton to agricultural literature must ever be appre-
ciated by each class of those depending upon the cultivation of the soil for
their support. In all times, whether of prosperity or adversity, he wrote
with a spirit of the most kindly sympathy for their successes or reverses.
The wide experience of his life, the genial and appreciative temper of his
mind, with a substratum of humour underlying it all, made him one of the
pleasantest possible of agricultural writers.

To the Meetings of our own Society, and to those of the Bath and West
of England, he was a welcome visitor from the first, and though he never
spared what seemed a blot in our management, he ever recognised whatever
of advance was made.

On dairy questions, on stock-keeping, on effects of seasons, on use of
foods, he had the means of gathering information from a host of friends, and
of putting that information in a most acceptable and instructive shape.

Mr. Morton died, as probably he himself would have preferred,
in harness. On Thursday, May 3 last, he had gone to his city
office as usual to prepare for the next number of his paper; he
had subsequently travelled to Bishop’s Stortford on the business
of the Land Commission ; and had arrived at his Harrow home,
a little over-fatigued, in the afternoon. He was persuaded to
lie down for a while; but within half an hour a noise overhead
startled those in the room below, and, rushing up, they found
him on the floor, quite dead.

He was laid to his rest in the beautiful Harrow Churchyard
on the following Wednesday (May 9), when the present writer
had the privilege of representing the Society of which he had
been so old and distinguished a member.

The news of Mr. Morton’s decease was received in agricul-
tural circles with the deepest sorrow and regret. It was uni-
yersally felt that a great and irreparable loss had overtaken
agricultural journalism and literature, and at the meeting of
members of the Royal Agricultural Society held on May 22,
the Chairman (Earl Cathcart) gave eloquent expression to the
general sentiments. His Lordship remarked on that occasion
that, “as to the magnitude of the loss which the agricultural
world had experienced in the death of Mr. Morton, he could
speak with feeling, as Mr. Morton had been a personal friend of
his own. Mr. Morton was a man of great charm of manner, of
the utmost simplicity and integrity of character, and a man
with whom it was delightful to transact business.” Lord Cath-
cart related as an instance of Mr. Morton’s generosity and
kindness of heart, that it was with the greatest difficulty that he
could be induced to accept the usual honorarium for writing
the memoir of the late Secretary, and he only did so on the

696 In Memoriam :

ground that it would be useful for his private charity purse, an
observation which (said his Lordship) was highly characteristic
of the man.

At the meeting of the Council held on June 6, Earl Cathcart
moved the following resolution, which was carried unani-
mously :—

The Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England receive the
announcement of the death of Mr John Chalmers Morton with feelings of
great regret. This feeling of regret they desire to record, and request the
President, on the part of the Council, to convey to the family of a late
highly-esteemed fellow-labourer the expression of their appreciation, concern,
and sympathy. Mr. Morton was an original member of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, and during “the whole period of its existence
his busy pen has been continuously employed i in furthering the best interests
of scientific agriculture. Every page of his voluminous writings is indica-
tive of the writer’s character: kindly, able, and perceptive, he was, above
all things, a conspicuously fair and just man.

No better epitaph than this could have been desired by
Mr. Morton, and no added words could increase its value or
significance.

Charles Randell.

Great as the losses to the Society and the Journal have been
by the deaths of the three men whose lives have been imper-
fectly sketched above, an even greater loss has been suffered by
the decease of one who, if not directly a contributor to the
Journal, appears again and again in its pages as one of the most
prominent exponents of “ practice with science.” The farming
experiences of Charles Randell are quoted by writer after writer
and in volume after volume as worthy to be studied and followed,
and, in any general inquiry that was on foot, the facts which he
contributed were rightly held to merit particular consideration
and comment. Mr. Randell was, therefore, in the best and
most useful sense of the word, a contributor to the Journal.

Happily, a far abler pen than that of the present writer
gives expression in a foregoing page of this number to the magni-
tude of Mr. Randell’s services to the Society, and all that it
will be necessary to do here will be to give a few facts and dates
in his life which do not come within the scope of the personal
recollections so vividly sketched by Mr. Dent.

Charles Randell was born on the last day of the year 1810,
and was, therefore, in his seventy-eighth year at the time of his _
death. At a very early age he entered the office of his uncle, —
Mr. Richards, a land-agent in good practice in Lincoln’s Inn
Fields. Mr. Richards negotiated for the father of the late

Charles Randell. 697

Mr. Edward Holland the purchase of the Dumbleton Estate
near Evesham, and retained for himself the oceupancy of one
of the farms thereon, which he entrusted to the management
of his youthful nephew, though he was then barely fifteen
years of age. Mr. Randell resided at Dumbleton in this posi-
tion from 1826 to 1836, and there, by the acquisition of actual
practical knowledge, laid the foundation of his great career as
an agriculturist. In the year 1836 he took the Prospect House
Farm, at Bengeworth, which has in recent years been converted
into market gardens, and while residing there married a daughter
of the late Mr. James Ashwin, of Bretforton Manor.

In 1839 Mr. Randell took from Mr. Edward Holland, who
had then for some time come into residence at Dumbleton, the
farm at Chadbury, upon which he resided up to the time of his
death. The farm had up to that time been divided into two
holdings, comprising a large proportion of poor, cold, clay land,
generally held to be of small value. Long years of neglect and
slovenly management under the stress of bad times had reduced
the yielding properties of the land to the lowest point. It was
encumbered with a multitude of straggling hedges, containing .
numbers of small elm trees, and was for the most part un-
drained.

Directing all his great energies to the work he had taken in
hand, Mr. Randell soon made a complete transformation. By
burning the soil, draining, grubbing, and straightening fences,
bringing into use the best appliances, improving the breeds of
stock, and unceasing vigilance, Chadbury became changed from
a miserable poverty-stricken place to a model farm, a pattern to
the country at large, and was visited by landholders and culti-
vators from far and near as an example of what was possible to
be achieved for agriculture by enterprise, sagacity, and skill. It
is recorded in the volumes of the Journal that where Mr.
Randell’s predecessors kept 90 breeding ewes on the Chadbury
Farms, he increased their capabilities to carrying 300, and from
a growth of 150 quarters of wheat—all that could be grown in
the first two years of his tenancy—his growth sprang up to an
average of 1,100 quarters a year. The later years of Mr.
Randell’s life saw a further development of the arts of culture
applied to the Chadbury Farms, for the grain crops have now
for the most part been superseded by market gardens.

In conjunction with his own farming operations Mr. Randell
carried on a large land-agency practice, which at one time
extended to the care of 30,000 acres of land. Among the
noblemen and gentlemen for whom he acted in this capacity
may be named H.R.H. the Duc dAumale, the Marquis of

698 In Memoriam :

Hertford, the Earl of Harrowby, Earl Fortescue, the Earl of
Wemyss, Lord Sudeley, the late Mr. Holland, and Mr. Robert
Martin, and by all his employers he was regarded in the light of
a true and confidential friend whom they thoroughly respected
and esteemed. He was looked upon as a leading authority
on all matters connected with the letting and management of
land, and “ Randell’s agreement ” has become the leading prece-
dent of the agreements for farm letting over a very wide district.
In addition to his agencies, Mr. Randell’s services were continu-
ally in request as an arbitrator and valuer, and as he did all his
work conscientiously and thoroughly, it may be readily under-
stood that he led an extremely active life.

An old friend of his, who wrote the exceedingly able obituary
notice of him in the Evesham Journal from which most of the
above facts have been derived, vividly sketches his character in
the following words :-—

Mr. Randell had just that combination of mind and character which
give a man influence among those of his fellow-men with whom he was
brought into association. Terse and direct in speech, dealing only with
matters which he completely understood, and perfectly sincere and straight-
forward in motive, he rarely failed to carry to success any proposal he
favoured, while on the other hand few suggestions which encountered his
opposition attained or retained vitality. The very strength of his mind
and convictions occasionally gaye an impression of peremptoriness to his

character, and he never took much trouble to conceal the scorn with which
he viewed weakness, or what he deemed to be insincerity or double-dealing.

Mr. Randell was elected a Member of this Society on
February 2, 1853, and a Member of the Council on August 7,
1861, on the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs. On February 1,
1865, a Select Committee, consisting of Earl Cathcart, Major-
General the Hon. A. N. Hood [the present Viscount Bridport],
the Hon. A. Vernon [the late Lord Vernon], Mr. Fisher Hobbs,
Mr. Randell and Mr. Torr, was appointed to consider the whole
question of the Contract for the Show-yard.

Mr. Randell took from the first a prominent share in the
deliberations of this Committee, and was elected its first Chair-
man when it became a Standing Committee in 1866. He held
this position uninterruptedly (with the exception of the year
1870, when Lord Vernon took the chair) until 1877, when, owing
to ill-health, he retired altogether, at his own special request, from
the Committee, and from other Committees, such as the Stock
Prizes and Implement, on which he had previously served. In
1878, however, he was re-elected a Member of the Committee, and
during that year he acted as Chairman of the Finance Committee
during Col. Kingscote’s presidency. From 1877 to 1880, the chair
of the Show-yard Contracts Committee was held by Mr. Jacob

Charles Randell. 699

Wilson, who retired at the beginning of 1881 to become Chair-
man of the Stock Prizes Committee, and to make room for Mr.
Shuttleworth, on whose strong recommendation the present
Superintendent of Works in the Society’s Show-yard had been
appointed in the previous year. On Mr. Shuttleworth’s decease
in January, 1883, Mr. Randell resumed the Chairmanship of the
Committee, and was re-elected year after year until his death.

During last winter Mr. Randell was not particularly well,
and though he attended the Committee and Council meetings in
November and December, his old enemy the gout held him fast
at home, much against his will, at the time of the February and
March meetings. He took the greatest possible interest in the
inquiry of Sir John Thorold’s Committee, and was in constant
correspondence with the writer on points arising out of it.
Sending reluctantly back to the office the Agenda paper for the
February meeting of the Show-yard Works Committee, which
his gout prevented him from attending, he wrote expressing
the hope that some one other than himself would be elected
Chairman of the year, as he was too deaf and too unwell to
regularly undertake the duties. The Committee nevertheless
re-elected him as Chairman, and he was fortunately able to pre-
side at its April meeting, when much business of a complicated
mature was discussed and settled. He was present, also, at a
conference of the Finance and Show~yard Works Committees held
on the same day with reference to the Show-yard expenditure,
and took a prominent part in its deliberations. At the May
Council he was also present, and made an admirable little speech
in seconding, as the oldest Member of Council, Earl Cathcart’s
resolution recording the grateful thanks of the Society to Her
Majesty the Queen for consenting to act as its President during
its 50th year of existence. At the June meeting it was
generally remarked by those present that Mr. Randell seemed
better in health and spirits than he had been for years. In
addition to the work of his own Committee, he attended by
invitation a meeting of the Education Committee, and took an
active part in a prolonged discussion on a particular point in
which he had greatly interested himself. He spoke several
times at the Council meeting, and the writer had a long and
most instructive conversation with him after the Council rose,
in which he displayed all his old vigour.

A few days later, however, he was seized with faintness at
his home at Chadbury. Everything possible was done, but he
never rose again from his bed; and early on Saturday morning,
June 23, his sorrowing friends in London learnt that he was no
more.

700 In Memoriam: Charles Randell.

At the meeting of Council held on the following Wednes-
day, June 27, the President (Sir Matthew Ridley), before pro-
ceeding to the ordinary business, made a feeling allusion to the
magnitude of the loss which the Council had sustained, and ex-
pressed his extreme regret that previous important engagements
would prevent his personal attendance at the funeral to pay a
last mark of respect to their late friend. The following resolu-
tion was then moved by Colonel Kingscote, the Chairman of
the Finance Committee, and was carried unanimously, after
sympathetic remarks by Mr. Dent, the Earl of Coventry, and.
Earl Cathcart :—

The Council desire to place on record their sense of the great loss which
they have sustained by the death of their valued friend and colleague, Mr.
Charles Randell. For twenty-seven years Mr. Randell has rendered inyalu-
able services to the Council and its various committees, of many of which
he was an active member; and his kindly presence, wise counsel, and in-
defatigable energy will ever be remembered with grateful affection by his
colleagues.

They request the President to communicate this expression of their
feelings to Mr. Randell’s family, and to assure them of the deep sympathy
felt with them in their bereavement by this Council and by all the members
of the Society.

The funeral took place on the following day at Bretforton
Churchyard, the body being carried to the grave by the loving
hands of Mr. Randell’s workmen, from one of the rooms in the
picturesque Bretforton Manor, where he had in early life won
his bride. He was laid to his last rest amidst the tears of his
friends and neighbours, and by the side of the wife whom he had
loved so well. Amongst those who travelled down from London
to attend the funeral were his devoted friends Jacob Wilson
and C. W. Tindall, and Mr. G. Mander Allender, a Member of
the Council, the Society being officially represented on the sad
occasion by the present writer.

It was a typical ending to a noble life well spent, and the
closing scene—so calm, so peaceful, so beautiful—will not
easily be effaced from the memory of those who were privileged
to be present.

Ropal Aavicultural Society of England.

1888-9.
Wresivent.
= HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN.
ear |
i
Eieiall. Trustees,

1879 | H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mail.
1855 | ACLAND, Sir THOMAS DYKE, Bart., Killerton, Exeter, Devonshire.

1857 | BRipPoRT, General Viscount, K.C.B., Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somer-
setshire.

1861 | CatuHcart, Earl, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

1861 | Dent, JOHN DENT, Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

1871 | EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord, Zatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire.

1863 | KinescoreE, Col., C.B., Kingscote, Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
1868 | LicHFIELD, Earl of, Shugborough, Staffordshire.

1854 | MACDONALD, Sir ARCHIBALD KEPPEL, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Lip-
hook, Hants.

1839 | PorTMAN, Viscount, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.
1856 | Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1861 | WELLS, WILLIAM, Holmenood (Huntingdonshire), Peterborough.

CVire-Presitents.
1873 | BEDFORD, Duke of, K.G., Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire.
1867 | DEVONSHIRE, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire.
1847 | EVERSLEY, Viscount, G.C.B., Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants.
1876 | FEVERSHAM, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire.
1858 | LATHOM, Earl of, Zathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire.
1872 | LAWES, Sir JOHN BENNET, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.
1865 | LoPEs, Sir Massey, Bart., Maristow, Roborough, Devon.
1867 | RAVENSWORTH, Earl of, Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead, Durham.
1852 | RICHMOND AND GoRDON, Duke of, K.G., Goodmvod, Chichester, Sussex.
1869 | RIDLEY, Sir M. W., Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland.
1874 | SPENCER, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northamptonshire.
1871 | WAKEFIELD, WILLIAM H., Sedgwick, Kendal, Westmoreland.

Other Members of Council.
1881 | ALLENDmR, G. MANDER, 31 St. Petersburgh Place, Bayswater, Middlesex.

1877 | ARKWRIGHT, J. HUNGERFORD, Hampton Court, Leominster, Hereford-
shire.

1880 | ASHWORTH, ALFRED, Zubley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
1875 | AYLMER, HucH, West Dereham, Stoke Ferry, Norfotk.
1871°| BowEN-JoNES, J., Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, Salop.
1886 | Carep, James A., Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.

1874 CHANDOS-POLE- G Sat H., Hopton Hail, Wirksworth, Derbyshire.
1884 | CHAPLIN, Rt. Ii BNI un fc

1883 | Cuay, CHARI LES, Walton eg Li Wakefield, Yorkshire.
1883 | Coxn, E inp & , Longford Hall, Derbyshire.
1885 | Covintey, Earl of, Croome Court, Severn Stake, Worcestershire,

1887 | Ceutcuisry, Pescry E., Sunninghiil Park, Berkshire.
b d
2888 | DARBY, ALFRED, Zitt ec , HSarvewsbury, Shropshire.
> =
1886 | DE Lavne, C. pe L, Faunce, Sharsted Court, Sittingtowrne, Kent.
VOL, XXIV,—S. §S, a

Xxxviii List of Officers.
Year
when

elected.

1882 | EMLYN, Viscount, Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales.
1879 | FostER, SAMUEL P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland.

1875 | FRANKISH, WILLIAM, Limber Magna, Uleeby, Lincolnshire.
1881 | GILBEY, WALTER, Elsenham Hall, Essex.

1879 | GORRINGE, HuGH, Kingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex.
1879 | GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE, Glastonbury, Somersetshire. ;
1874 | HEMSLEY, JOHN, Shelton, Newark, Notts. :
1876 | HOWARD, CHARLES, Biddenham, Bedford.

1878 | HowarpD, JAMES, Clapham Park, Bedfordshire.

1883 | JERSEY, Earl of, Middleton Park, Bicester, Oxfordshire.

1869 | LEEDS, ROBERT, Keswick Old Hall, Norwich.

1881 | LirrLE, HERBERT J., Coldham Hall, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

1885 | Luoyp, ARTHUR P., Leaton Knolls, Shropshire.

1886 | MAINWARING, C.8., Galltfaenan, Trefnant R.S.O., North Wales.
1874 | MaRTIN, JOSEPH, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambs.
1884 | MILLER, T. Horrocks, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire,
1880 | MorETOoN, Lord, Tortworth Court, Falfield, R.S.O. Gloucestershire.
1886 | Munrz, PHILIP ALBERT, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire.
1881 | PARKER, Hon. CEcIL T., Hecleston, Chester.

1886 | PELL, ALBERT, Hazelbeach, Northampton.

1888 | PORTLAND, Duke of, Welbeck Abbey, Worksop, Notts.

1886 | RANSOME, J. E., Holme Wood, Ipsnich, Suffolk.

1871 | RAWLENCE, JAMES, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts.

1875 | RusSELL, ROBERT, Horton Court Lodge, Dartford, Kent.

1874 | SANDAY, GEORGE H., Langdale Lodge, Clapham Park.

1886 | SCARTH, W. T., Keverstone, Darlington.

1878 | SHERATON, WILLIAM, Broome House, Ellesmere, Salop.

1886 | SmirH, ALFRED J., Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

1882 | STAFFORD, Marquis of, Trentham Hall, Stohe-upon-Trent, Staffs.

1875 | STRATTON, RICHARD, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.

1883 | Surron, MARTIN J., Dyson’s Wood, Kidmore, Reading, Berkshire.
1881 | THOROLD, Sir JOHN H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
1882 | WARREN, REGINALD AUGUSTUS, Preston Place, Worthing, Sussex.
1870 | WHITEHEAD, CHARLES, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent.

1865 | WILSON, JACOB, Chillingham Barns, Belford, Northumberland.

Secretary and Citar,
ERNEST CLARKE, 12 Hanover Square, W.

Consulting Chemist—Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 12 Hanover Square,W. _

Consulting Botanist—W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.8., 44 Central Hill, Nore
mood, $B. P

Consulting Entomologist—Miss Ki. A. ORMEROD, FR. Met. Soc., Torrington -
House, Holywell Hill, St. Albans. :

Consulting Veterinary Surgeon—Professor JAMES BEART Srmonps, St. John's »
Villa, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Veterinary Inspectors—THE OFFICERS OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE, —

Consulting Engineer—W. ANDERSON, 3 Whitehall Place, 8.W. 4

Surveyor and Superintendent of Works—W1LSON BENNISON, 66 Ashley Road,
Crouch Hill, N. /

Consulting Surveyor—GEORGE Hunt, Lvesham, Worcestershire. ¥

Publisher—JOHN MuRRAY, 50 Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers --THE LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, St. James's Square Bri

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1888.

Finance Committee,

Krnescore, Colonel (Chairman),
BRIDPORT, General Viscount.
RIDLEY, Sir M. WHITE, Bt., M.P.

FRANKISH, W.
SANDAY, G. H.

Bouse Committee.

CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee.
THE PRESIDENT.
BRIDPORT, General Viscount.

PARKER, Hon. C. T.
ALLENDER, G. M.
WILSON, JACOB.

Sournal Committee.

CATHCART, Earl (Chairman).
JERSEY, Earl of.

EMLYN, Viscount.

THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt.
Carep, J. A.

Dent, J. D.

FRANKISH, W.

HowArpD, J.

LITTLE, H. J.

PELL, A.

SuTToNn, MARTIN J.
WELLS, W.
WHITEHEAD, CHARLES.

Chemical Conmmittec.

WELLS, WILLIAM (Chairman).
BEDFORD, Duke of.
EMLYN, Viscount.
PARKER, Hon. C. T.
ACLAND, Sir T. D., Bt.
LAWES, Sir J. B., Bt.
MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H.
BOWEN-JONES, J.

CAIRD, J. A.

DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE.
DENT, J. D.

GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE.
HOWARD, C.

LITTLE, H. J.

PELL, A.

VOELCKER, Dr.

WAKEFIELD, W. H.

WARREN, R. A.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES.

Seeds and Plant Diseases Committee.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES (Chairman).
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H.

BowEN-JONES, J.

Carrp, J. A.

CARRUTHERS, W.

DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE,
FRANKISH, W.

LITTLE, H. J.

ORMEROD, Miss E. A,
STRATTON, R.

SUTTON, MARTIN J.

Ceterinary Committee.

THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. (Chairman),
BRIDPORT, General Viscount.
EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord.
MoreErTOoN, Lord.

PARKER, Hon. C. T.

RIDLEY, Sir M. WHITE, Bt., M.P.
ALLENDER, G. M.

ASHWORTH, A.

AXE, Professor J. WORTLEY.
Brown, Professor.
CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H.

Corr, A. C.

Dent, J. D.

FLEMING, Dr. GEORGE.
Foster, S. P.
KINGSCOTE, Colonel.
MILLER, T. H.
PELL, A.
PRESIDENT OF RoyYAL COLL.
OF VETY SURGEONS.
SANDAY, G. H.
SIMONDs, Professor.
SMITH, A. J.
WAKEFIELD, W. H.
WILSON, JACOB,

Stock-Prises Cannmittec.

Witson, JAcosB (Chairman). Carrp, J. A.
CovENTRY, Earl of.
EMLYN, Viscount.
Moreton, Lord.
Coxe, Hon. E. K. W.
PARKER, Hon. C. T.
ALLENDER, G. M.

FosteER, S. P.
FRANKISH, W.

GORRINGE, H,

ARKWRIGHT, J. H. HEMSLEY, J.
ASHWORTH, A. HOWARD, C,
AYLMER, H. MAINWARING, C. S,

| Bowen-Jones, J. MarrIy, J.

GILBEY, WALTER.

MILLER, T. H.

CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H. Muntz, P. ALBERT,
CRUTCHLEY, P. E.

M.P.
SANDAY, G. H.
SCARTH, W. T.
SHERATON, W.
Srmonps, Professor.
SMITH, A. J.
STRATTON, R.
The Stewards of Live

Stock,

a2

xl Standing Committees for 1888.

Eniplement Connnittec.

HEMSLEY, J. (Chairman). Cuay, C. SanDAy, G. H,
BRIDPORT, Gen. Viscount. FRANKISH, W. SHERATON, Ws
MoRETON, Lord. GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE. SMITH, A. J.
PARKER, Hon. C. T. HOWARD, C. STRATTON, R.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt, HOWARD, J. WILSON, JACOB,
ALLENDER, G. M. LPT LR eds The Stewards of Im-
ANDERSON, W. MARTIN, JOSEPH. F plements.
BOWEN-JONES, J. RANSOME, J. E.
SHetropolitan and CUindsor Committee.

GILBEY, WALTER (Chairman). CRUTCHLEY, P. EK.
+ H.R.H. PRINCE CHRISTIAN, K.G. DE LAuN®, C. pf L, FAUNCE.

CATHCART, Earl, *HYKYN, ROGER.

CovENTRY, Earl of. Kinesoore, Col.

LatTuHoM, Earl of. tLone, G, H.(Town Clerk, Windsor).
*WINCHILSEA, Earl of. *MurpocH, C. T., M.P.

EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord. {PrErers, G. H. (Mayor of Windsor).
*The Right Hon. the LorD MAyor. *PHILLIPS,. Alderman.
*ALLSOPP, Col. the Hon. W. H. SANDAY, G. H.

PARKER, Hon. Crciu T. *SANDEMAN, A. G.
*MAXWELL, Sir J. HERON, Bart. SUTTON, MARTIN J.

RIDLEY, Sir M. WHITE, Bart., M.P. tTAIT, W.

THOROLD, Sir JOHN H., Bart. +THORNTON, A, H.
+Sumpson, Sir Henry. *WHITEHEAD, Ald, (Lord Mayor

ALLENDER, G. M. Elect).
Barry, F. T. WHITEHEAD, CHARLES.
t+BUCKLAND, F. B. WILSON, JACOB.

+CARTLAND, GEORGE.

* Representatives of the MANSION House COMMITTEE.
+ Representatives of the WINDSOR LOCAL COMMITTEE,

Show-Vard Works Committee.

ALLENDER, G. M. FRANKISH, W. Sanpay, G. H.

ASHWORTH, A. HEMSLEY, J. STRATTON, R.

CLAY, CHARLES. HOWARD, C. WILSON, JACOB,
Committee of Selection,

CaTucart, Earl (Chairman), Moreton, Lord. PELL, A.

CovENTRY, Earl of. ASHWORTH, A. WHITEHEAD, C,

BowEN-JONES, J,
And the Chairmen of the Finance, Journal, Stock Prizes, Implement,
and Chemical Committees.

Evucation Committee,

Moreton, Lord (Chairman), DENT, J. D. PELL, A.

EMLYN, Viscount. Foster, 8. P. Ransome, J. E.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. Kincscoreg, Colonel, SUTTON, MARTIN J.
BowEN-JONES, J. Lirrue, H. J. VOELCKER, Dr,

MAINWARING, C. 8.

Dairy Committee.
Parker, Hon. C. T. (Chair- THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. BoweEn-JoOneEs, J.
man). ASHWORTH, A. MaInwAnrina, C, 8
BrrpPort, Gen. Viscount. ALLENDER, G. M. SHERATON, W.
EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord. ARKWRIGHT, J. H. VOELCKER, Dr,

Pag The PRESIDENT, TRUSTEES, and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members
ex officio of all Committees,

@ at }

Hiopal eee Doriety of England.

GENERAL MEETING.

12 Hanover Square, TuEspay, May 22, 1888.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

THE Council have to report the following changes in the list of
Members of the Society during the year which has elapsed since *
the last Annual Meeting in May, 1887: 393 New Members
_ have been elected, whilst 4 Governors and 252 Members have
resigned, 7 ee and 133 Members have died, and 90
Members have been removed from the list by order of the
Council.

2, The Society now consists of :—

66 Life Governors,

56 Annual Governors,
3,521 Life Members,
5,225 Annual Members,

16 Honorary Members,

| making a total of 8,884, and showing a decrease of 98 Members
since this time last year.

____ 3. Since the General Meeting held last December, the follow-
ing changes have taken place in the Council: Earl Cathcart
has been elected a Trustee in the room of the late Duke of
Rutland, and the Earl of Feversham a Vice-President in the
room of Earl Cathcart. The vacancy thus caused in the Council
_ has not yet been filled up, but is now under consideration. The

xhi Report to the General Meeting,

4, The accounts for the year 1887 have been examined and
certified by the auditors and accountants of the Society, and have
been published in the current number of the Journal, together
with the statement of Receipts and Expenditure relating to the
Newcastle Meeting. The funded property of the Society is now
25,885/. 4s. 2d., while the balance of the current account in
the hands of the Society's Bankers on the Ist instant was
5,691. 19s. 9d.

5. The Special Committee of the Council, which, as stated
in the Report to the December meeting, has been engaged in an
examination of the expenditure of the Society, has now completed
its labours. The field of the Society’s operations is very wide,
and has been increased from time to time as new opportunities
for useful action have arisen. The expenditure has inevitably
‘ increased in proportion ; but all the items of it have been passed
in review, and the Council have every reason to expect that
important economies will be effected in the future by the
adoption of the Committee’s suggestions.

6. As the expenditure in connection with the annual Country
Meetings is the most serious item in the Society’s accounts, the
special attention of the Committee has been given to this subject.
Various recommendations have been made, to many of which
the Council have already given effect, but the Committee have
been unable to suggest any substantial reductions that can be
effected without interfering with the success and popularity of
the Meeting. It will be interesting to the Members to learn
that the saving in the cost of erection of the Showyard under
the supervision of the Society’s own Surveyor, as against the
superseded contract system, amounts to no less a sum than
2,237/. per annum on the average of the last seven years.

7. One of the functions of the Special Committee was to
report on the desirableness of reducing “the charges made to
Members for the entry of stock and implements, and for their
chemical and botanical privileges.” Upon the recommendation
of the Committee, the Council assented in December last to
reductions in the charges made to exhibitors for implement
shedding and for entries in the Implement Catalogue, and these
reductions were made applicable to the Country Meeting this

Tuesday, May 22, 1888. xliii

year. More recently, the Council have decided to reduce from
ds. to 1s. the botanical fee for the examination of grass and
other seeds, for the determination of the species of any weed
or plant, or for a report on any disease affecting farm crops, and
the fee for determination of a collection of natural grasses from
10s. to 5s. The Council trust that these reductions in the fees
will greatly benefit Members, and will tend to check the sale of
valueless seeds.

8. Amongst other recommendations of the Special Committee
is one for the reduction of the money qualification of Governors
from 5]. to 2l. per annum, with a corresponding diminution in
the life composition. As this proposal will involve an alteration
of the present Bye-Laws, which are also affected by various other
recommendations of the Committee, a Special Committee has
been appointed to revise the Bye-Laws throughout.

9. The Exhibition of Thoroughbred Stallions, competing for
the Society's five Premiums of 200]. each and a Gold Medal,
took place at Nottingham on the 9th and 10th February. The
Competition for the 22 Queen’s Premiums of 200I. each, offered
through the Royal Commission on Horse Breeding, was held at
the same time and place, and there were altogether 105 Stallions
entered in the several classes for the 27 Premiums. For the
five Premiums offered by the Society 24 horses were entered, and
the following Stallions were selected by the Judges, the districts
to which they were allocated being balloted for under the
direction of the President on the second day of the Show :—

JacK Tar. . . District of Northampton.
LancastriaAN . . District of Derby.

SitverR Crown. District of Nottingham.
KaMSEEN. . . District of Melton Mowbray.

TrBER = . . . District of Lincoln.

Satisfactory reports have been received from the local Commit-
tees as to the manner in which the nominations of mares to these
stallions have been taken up.

10. The Country Meeting at Nottingham will commence on
Monday morning, July 9, and close on the following Friday
evening; but the Implement portion of the Show and the

xliv Report to the General Meeting,

Working Dairy will be open to Members of the Society and the
public on Saturday, July 7.

11. The last date of entry for Live Stock and Dairy Produce
is May 12, but post entries, at double fees, will be received up to
June 1. ‘The last date of entry for Poultry is also June 1.

12. The Butter-making and Horse-shoeing Competitions will
be interesting features of the Nottingham Meeting. The Competi-
tion of Butter-makers will commence on Tuesday, July 10, and
will continue until the last day of the Show. Candidates will be
divided into three classes, viz. Members of a Farmer’s family, male
hired servants, and female hired servants. In each class three
Prizes will be given, of the respective value of. 5/., 3l., and 21.
The winners in these classes will compete on Friday, July 13,
for Champion Prizes, the Society’s Silver Medal being awarded
to the competitor who is adjudged first, and its Bronze Medal to
the competitors placed second and third.

15. The Horse-shoeing Competition will take place on
Tuesday, July 10, for hunters, and Thursday, July 12, for
agricultural horses. Five Prizes will be given in each class,
to which the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society will add further
amounts for smiths from the county of Lincoln who may be
successful in winning the Society’s Prizes.

14, The Council regret that there have been no entries for
the Prize of 251. offered by them for the best apparatus suitable
for condensing milk on a farm, On the other hand, there have
been forty-three entries for the Prizes offered for Hay and Straw
Presses, to the amount of which the Council added in March
last a further Prize of 201., for a press for old hay worked by
hand-power.

15. The Council have the utmost gratification in reporting
to the General Meeting that Her Majesty the Queen has been
graciously pleased to signify Her Majesty’s acceptance of the
office of President of the Society during its forthcoming Jubilee
year. His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, to whom the
Society is already so greatly beholden, has intimated his willing-
ness to undertake on Her Majesty’s behalf the more immediate
duties of the Presidential office,

Tuesday, May 22, 1888. xlv

16. An excellent site for the Country Meeting of 1889 has
been selected in the portion of Windsor Great Park known as
the Cavalry exercising ground, which site, with Her Majesty’s
gracious permission, has been placed by the Commissioner of
Woods and Forests at the disposal of the Society, The Cor-
poration of Windsor have executed the Society’s customary:
agreement, and enter with enthusiasm upon the furtherance of
the undertaking.

17. Under these auspicious circumstances of happy augury,
the Council have every reason to anticipate a satisfactory and
successful Jubilee meeting.

18. The Council have resolved that the Country Meeting of
1890 shall be held in District D, comprising Berkshire, Cornwall,
Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Hampshire, Kent, Somersetshire,
Surrey, Sussex, and Wiltshire.

19. It has been decided that the Prizes for Cheese in 1889
shall be for Cheddar, Cheshire, and Stilton made in 1888, and
any British cheeses made in 1889.

20. The Council have renewed the annual grant of 200/. made
by them to the Royal Veterinary College in aid of the further
development of cattle pathology. The Principal of the College
has reported that, in order to carry out the wishes of the Council,
it is important that members of the Society should send to the
College any diseased animals (cattle, sheep, or swine) which they
would otherwise destroy as useless, and also any specimens of
diseased parts of an unusual character. The expense of transit
will be defrayed by the College, and, in the event of living
animals being sent, it will be necessary to telegraph to the
| Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town, the time of their
| arrival at a London station, so that a van may be sent to meet
| them. The Council hope that members of the Society will co-
| operate with the authorities of the College by assisting in the
| manner suggested towards a better knowledge of the diseases of
| animals of the farm other than the horse.

21. The Examiners of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons have reported that the two students from the Royal
| Veterinary College who passed best in the subject of the
Pathology of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs at the recent Diploma

xlvi Report to the General Meeting,

Examinations, and who therefore became entitled to the Society’s
Medals, were :—

Mr. J. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., 56 New Bond Street, W.
(Silver Medal).

Mr. E. R. McHugh, Strokestown, Ireland (Bronze Medal).

22. In their last Report the Council announced that a
deputation had been appointed to urge upon the Lord President
the adoption of more stringent measures for the suppression
of pleuro-pneumonia both in this country and in Ireland.
Deputations from this and other Agricultural Societies waited
upon the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster at the Privy
Council Office on December 9, and on March 6 last an Order of
Council was issued requiring Local Authorities in England and
Wales and Scotland to cause all cattle, being or having been in
contact with cattle affected with pleuro-pneumonia, to be slaugh-
tered within ten days after the fact of their having been so in
contact has been ascertained, and to pay compensation for cattle
so slaughtered out of the local rate. A similar Order was
passed by the Irish Privy Council on the same day with regard
to Ireland. The Council trust that these Orders may have
the desired effect of stamping pleuro-pneumonia out of the
Kingdom.

23. The Council have for some time had under their anxious
consideration the difficulties experienced by Stock-owners and
Veterinary Surgeons with reference to the protective inocula-
tion of animals of the farm against anthrax and other con-
tagious diseases, owing to the interpretation placed by the Home
Office upon the Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876. Considering
it highly necessary that an Act should be passed exempting
Veterinary Surgeons from the provisions of this Act, when
there is a bond fide intention of doing good to the animals and
preventing suffering, the Council invited the authorities of the
Royal Veterinary College to join with them in appointing a
deputation to wait upon the Lord President to urge the import-
ance of such a Bill being introduced by the Government. A
Joint Deputation from the two bodies was received on April 24
by the Lord President, who was accompanied by the Home
Secretary. Although no hope was held out to the Deputation

Tuesday, May 22, 1888. xlvii

that immediate legislation could be attempted, the Council trust
that means will be found for relieving Stock-owners and Vete-
rinary Surgeons from their present difficulties in the matter.

24. The Council have appointed Mr. Frederick Low, of
Norwich, Mr. John E. Peele, of Durham, and Mr. J. P. S.
Walker, of Oxford, as Provincial Veterinary Surgeons for
Norfolk, Durham, and South Oxfordshire, respectively.

25. In the last Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee
attention is called to the practice of using the term ‘ oil-cake’ as
a designation for cakes which, previous to the passing of the
Merchandise Marks Act, were sold as ‘pure linseed-cakes.’
Intending purchasers of linseed-cake are advised, therefore, not
to accept the term ‘ oil-cake’ as a satisfactory description, but to
insist on having the words ‘linseed-cake’ inserted on the in-
voices, as well as obtaining a guarantee of purity. The Council
trust that their efforts to secure the greater purity of foodstuffs
and manures, through the publication of cases of adulteration
brought to the notice of the Chemical Committee, will receive
the active sympathy and support of the Members generally.

26. There has been a considerable increase of work in con-
nection with the Entomological Section of the Seeds and Plant
Diseases Committee, owing chiefly to the great number of
applications for information concerning injuries caused to the
stems of corn-plants by the Hessian Fly, Chlorops, and the Corn
Saw Fly, as well as for methods of prevention against the attacks
of the Ox Warble Fly. Much attention has been given to the
effect of eelworms, Anguillulidce, upon clover and other crops, to
the migration of the Hop aphis from hop plants to plum-trees,
and to the unusual amount of harm caused to peas and beans
by weevils, Bruchi.

27. Inthe Botanical Section the number of samples submitted
to the Consulting Botanist has been equal to the average. It
may be stated generally that the quality of the seeds continues
to improve. The seeds have been true to their kind and re-
markably free from weeds, though the germination has been
somewhat lower than usual. Dodder has been met with in
several clovers. No sample of Fiorin has been free from Ergot.
The Council have already referred to the recent reduction, from

xlviii Report to the General Meeting, May 22, 1888.

5s. to 1s. per sample, made in the fees payable to the Consulting
Botanist for the determination of seeds.

28. Twenty-four candidates have entered for the Senior
Examination, to be held in the Society’s house on Tuesday,
May 8, and four following days. This entry isthe largest in
any year since the establishment of the examination in 1868,
with one exception, viz. 1883, when twenty-six candidates

entered.!

29. The Council have approved New Regulations for the
Junior Examinations, which have been drawn up so as to make
Agriculture the dominant subject, and to prevent a candidate
receiving more than one scholarship. ‘The revised Regulations
are printed for general information in the current number of
the Journal.

30. The alterations in the Society’s house are now complete.
The library has been reclassified and rearranged, and is now
available for the use of Members. In order to enable members
of the Society to complete their sets of the Journal, and to
purchase at a reduced price the numbers issued in years before
they were elected, the Council have resolved that Governors and
Members may, for a limited period, have the privilege of pur-
chasing any of the back numbers of the Journal at three
shillings per copy, i.e. half the present publishing price; or if
not less than twelve numbers are purchased at the same time,
at two shillings per copy.

By order of the Council,
ERNEST CLARKE,

Secretary.

) The results of this examination were announced at the meeting of Council
on the 6th June, 1888. The following three candidates, placed in order of
merit, were granted first-class certificates and the life membership of the
Society, besides qualifying for the prizes stated below :—(1.) William Somer-
ville, Prize of 25/7. (2.) Devendra Nath Mookerji, Prize of 151. (3.) Syad
Mohammad Hadi, Prize of 107. In addition to the above, a second class
certificate was awarded to Walter Frank Perkins; and special certificates
(entitling to the life membership of the Society) to John Bardgett, Ernest
Emilius Bennett, Henry James Colbourn, and Alfred Henry Inman.—[ED.]

Cislix 5)

Minutes of Prorecdings

AT THE

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF

GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS,
TUESDAY, MAY 22, 1888,

EARL CATHCART (TRUSTEE) IN THE CHAIR.

1. The Trustees and Vice-Presidents, together with the 25 re-
tiring Members of Council, were re-elected.

2. The following Resolution was put from the Chair and carried
unanimously :—

The Royal Agricultural Society of England, in
general meeting assembled, receive with gratitude and
high appreciation the announcement that, during the
Society's coming Jubilee year, Her Majesty the Queen
has been most graciously pleased to accept the office of
President of the Society. The report of the Council
conveying Her Majesty's most gracious condescension
in this matter is hereby received and adopted, and this
resolution recorded as carried by acclamation.

3, The Report of the Council was received and adopted, on the
motion of Mr. H. W. Woolff, seconded by Mr. Fredk. King.

4, Various suggestions made by Members were referred to the
Council for consideration.

5. A vote of thanks to the Chairman was unanimously passed, on
the motion of Surgeon-General Ince, seconded by Mr. Yates Free-

body,

pe ee! & « 4d. & «a 4,
To Balance in hand, Ist January, 1888 :—
mecretary 2 2 = = » = - ae ee oe b 2
To Income :—
Dividends on Stock. . .... Sa ad, PPO eee
Interest on Deposit. . .. 5 5 28 3h)
Subscriptions :—
Governor's Life-Composition . 40 0 0
Governors’ Annual. 260 0 0
Members’ Life-Compositions . 763: FOLD
Members'Annual - 5. . « «4,217 10 0
5,270 10 0
Establishment :—
LAT aR a te =e 210 0 0
Journal :—
Sales Sw wes | BF ee ae SO tame
Advertsements\. <) a (<<) eee doe elbees
315 2 8
Chemical :—
Saboratory Fees . « . : «, « « alee 514 8 6
Education :—
Sale of Insect Diagrams . ..... . 518 9
Sunes th. Sc? wy SPR ee . 2713 3
Newcastle Meeting <0. "2 2 So: 37 5 4
Col. Picton Turbervill’s Prize . . = 25 0
Stallion Show (1887), 5... 2 sca, v6 ene 250 0
Biailion Show.({688)\ c) 3) 2 sean 5. cee 1,650 12 4
Nottingham Meeting . . . . . aialtts 7132 453 15,819 18 4
15,825 0 8

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

HALF-YEARLY CasH Account

QUILTER, WELTON, & CO., Accountants.

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM Ist JANUARY TO 30TH JUNE, 1888.

Se a

By Balance due to Bankers, Ist January, 1888 .

By Expenditure :—
Establishment :—

Salaries, Wages, &o. . « «. = «

House :—Rent, Taxes, Altera-
tions, &e.

Office :—Printing, Pasages Sta-
WOREnY eG. =e

Journal :—
Printing and Stitching
Printing Advertisements .
Postage and Delivery.
Literary Contributions
Prize Essay . 5
Balance of a/c previous : ournals .

Chemical :—
STESTGS| 5. 6 Sd ee
Apparatus and Chemicals .
eo oC ae
Petty Payments.

Veterinary :—
Grant to Royal Veterinary College
Seeds and Plants Diseases :—

Consulting Entomologist’s Salary
Consulting Botanist’s Salary

Education :—
NUON! 6 ue, se 8!
Fees to Examiners.

Insect Diagrams ...,

Stallion Show (1888) . . 2...»
Nottingham Meeting .....

By Balance in hand, 30th June :—
LORS 6h. Gl altri Crt
BEE ag a6 ef se

FRANCIS SHERBORN,
A. H. JOHNSON,
C. GAY ROBERTS,

Subscriptions paid in error returned .
Country Meeting Plant .....
Newcastle Meeting. ... 1...

848 15 0

685 8 6

oe 533 127-7

y=
abe
a)

hte
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ounwnorn
wow oOoNN OD eS
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for]

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2,067 16

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_

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10,873 14 0

4,759 2 7

15,825 0 8
Examined, audited, and found correct, this 10th day of September, 1888,

\ anaitr on lehalf of the Soe ia

( li )

NOTTINGHAM MERERTING.
1888.

STEWARDS OF DEPARTMENTS.

Implements. Live Stock,
J. HEMSLEY. VISCOUNT EMLYN.
S. P. FosTER. W. H. WAKEFIELD.
HUGH GORRINGE, T. H. MILLER.

LorD MORETON,

Dairying and Poultry.
Sir JonHn H. THOROLD, BART.

Horse-shoeing.
CHARLES CLAY.

Forage.
WILLIAM WRIGHT.

Finance,
WILLIAM FRANKISH. | G, H. SANDAY.

Honorary Director.
JACOB WILSON.

JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS.

Hay and Straw Presses. Miscellaneous,
DANIEL PrpeEON, Holmwood, Put- | THomMAs Bett, Hedley Hall, Marley
ney Hill, 8.W. Hill, Gateshead.
WrttiAM Scorson, Rose Lane, | J. W. Kiser, Fyfield Wick, Abing-
Mossley Hill, Liverpool. don. ‘

JT. H. THURSFIELD, Barrow, Broseley, | DANIEL PIDGEON, Holmwood, Put-
Shropshire. ney Hill, 8.W.

List of Judges at the Nottingham Meeting.

liii

JUDGES OF STOCK.

HORSES.
Shire.—Classes 1-4, 15-17, 26-28.

WILLIAM Jonas, Heydon Bury, Roy-
ston, Herts.
JoHN WILLS, Pengelleys, Exeter.

Clydesdale.—Classes 5-7, 18, 29-31.

W. S. PARK, Hatton, Bishopton, N.B.
Rospert ReENwIcK, Dalmuir Farm,
Dalmuir, Glasgow.

Suffolk Horses —Classes 8, 9, 19,
: 32, 33.

A. W. Crisp, Hill House, Orford,
Wickham Market.

JOHN MAyHEW, Honington Lodge,
Bury St. Edmunds.

Thoroughbreds and Hunters. —
Classes 10, 20, 21, 34-42.

Col. RrveRS BULKELEY, Oak Cottage,
Whitchurch, Salop.

EARL OF COVENTRY, Croome Court,
Severn Stoke, Worcestershire.

PuILIp ALBERT Mountz, M.P., Duns-
more, Rugby.

Coaching or Cleveland and Harness
Horses.—Classes 11, 22, 47-49.

JAMES HorwnsBy, Stapleford Hall,
Melton Mowbray.

RoMER WILLIAMS, 19, Great Cumber-
land Place, Hyde Park, W.

Hackneys and Ponies.—Classes 12,
14, 23-25, 43-46.
ALFRED ASHWORTH, Tabley Grange,
Knutsford.
Major R. H. Borrowes, Gilltown,
Newbridge, Ireland.

CATTLE.

Shorthorn.

THE EARL OF BECTIVE, M.P., Un-
| derley Hall, Kirkby Lonsdale.
J. W. CRUICKSHANK, Elrick, Sum-
merhill, Aberdeen.
_ JAmzs How, Broughton, Huntingdon.

Hereford and Welsh.

|SAMUEL GOODE, Montpellier House,
| Bodenham Road, Hereford.
| JoHN CRANE, Benthall, Shrewsbury.

i VOL. XXIV.—S.S.

|
|

Devon and Red Polled.

Tom Brown, Marham Hall, Down-
ham Market, Norfolk.

S. P. NEWBERY, Plympton St. Mary,
Devon.

Sussex Cattle.

ALFRED HEASMAN, Court Wick, Lit-
tlehampton.

EDWARD VICKRESS, Newbridge, Bil-
lingshurst, R.S.O.

Jersey.

THOMAS FALLA, Junr., Les Buttes,

St. John’s, Jersey.
WALTER GILBEY, Elsenham Hall,
Essex.

Guernsey.

Rey. J. G. 8. NIcHOL, North Litch-
field Rectory, Whitchurch, Hants.
G. N. Wyatt, Lake House, Chelten-

ham.

Dairy.—Classes 98 and 99.
THoMAS CARRICK, Low Row, near

Carlisle.
SHEEP.

Leicester, Cotswold, and Lincoln.

J.-P. CLARK, North Ferriby, Brough,
Yorkshire.

WILLIAM T, GARNE, Aldworth, North-
leach.

H. MACKINDER, Langton Grange,
Spilsby.

Border Leicester and Other
Longwoolled.

JOHN DaAyison, Tritlington Hall,
Morpeth.

GEORGE REA, Middleton House, Aln-
wick.

Oxfordshire Down.

W. D. LitrTLe, Middleton Stoney,
Bicester.

NATHANIEL STILGOE, The Green,
Adderbury, Banbury.

Shropshire.

PETER EVERALL, Ryton Grove, Dor-
rington, Shrewsbury.
J. H, FARMER, Felton, Ludlow.

Southdown,

MANFRED BIDDELL, Playford, Ipswich.
THOMAS FULCHER, Elmham, Dere-
ham, Norfolk,

é

liv

Hampshire, Suffolk, and other Short-
woolled.

FRANCIS P. Brown, Compton, New-
bury, Berks.

GEORGE KING, Abington Park, Great
Chesterford, Essex.

List of Judges at the Nottingham Meeting.

PIGS.

White.

GEORGE MANGLES, Great Givendale,
Borobridge, Yorkshire.
WILLIAM TAIT, The Prince Consort’s
Shaw Farm, Windsor.

Black.

HEBER HUMFREY, Shippon, Abing-
don, Berkshire.
JOSEPH SMITH, The Croft, Henley-in-
Arden.

Lincolnshire Wool.

J. W. TURNER, 126, Swan Arcade,
Bradford.

INSPECTORS OF SHEARING.

J. B. WORKMAN, Southend, Upton-
on-Severn, Worcestershire,

WILLIAM JoBson, Ashfield, Heaton,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

JUDGES.
CHEESE.
JUBAL WEBB, High Street, Kensington, W.

BUTTER.
JAMES HupsoN, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.

POULTRY,
Light.
O. E. CRESSWELL, Morney Cross, Hereford.

Heavy.
DAVID BRAGG, Southwaite Hall, Carlisle.
HIVES, HONEY, &c.

W. BRouGHTON CARR, Higher Bebington, Cheshire.
WALTER MARTIN, Wainfleet, Lincolnshire.
Rev. GEORGE RAYNOR, Hazleigh Rectory, Maldon, Essex.

BUTTER-MAKING COMPETITION.
THOMAS CARRICK, Low Row, near Carlisle.
HORSE-SHOEING COMPETITION.

J. M. Parker, 40, Cannon Street, | CLEMENT STEPHENSON, Sandyford

Birmingham. Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
FARMS. f
Class 1, Classes 2 and 3.
RICHARD BRITTEN, Abington Grange, | Hmnry CAMPION, Bletsoe Castl
Northampton. Bedford.

FREDK. I. Cookk, Flitcham Abbey,
Norfolk.

JoseEPH MARTIN, Highfield House,
Littleport, Ely, Cambs.

Joun J. HARLE, Whitfield, Falfiel
R.S.0., Gloucestershire,

THOMAS STIRTON, Estate Office,
ton, Micheldever, Hants.

AWARD OF PRIZES AT NOTTINGHAM.

—— +

Nore.—The Judges were instructed, in addition to awarding the
Prizes, to designate as the Reserve Number one animal in each
Class, next in order of merit, if it possessed sufficient for a Prize ;
in case an animal to which a Prize was awarded should subse-
quently become disqualified.

Prizes given by the Nottingham Local Committee are marked thus (*):

HORSES.

Class 1.—Shire Stallions foaled previous to the Year 1885.*

No. in oe [13 entries. ]

logue.

10 A. B. Freeman-Mirrorp, C.B., Batsford Park, Moreton-in-Marsh,
Gloucestershire: Frrst Prize, 30/., for “ Laughing Stock” (4516), bay ;
was foaled in 1884; bred by Mr. W. Smith, Flawborough, Orston,
Nottinghamshire ; s. ‘ Merry Lad” (2626) ; d. by “‘ Hydraulic” (11380) ;
g. d. by “ Thumper” (2182).

13 ALBEMARLE Cator, Woodbustwick Hall, Norwich: Srconp Prizx, 15/.,
for “ Julian ” (3766), black ; was foaled in 1883; bred by Mr. T. Brown,
Marham Hall, Downham Market, Norfolk; s. ‘Lord Byron” (351) ;
d, “ Jewel,” by “ Brown Champion” (292) ; g. d. by “ Wonder ” (2357).

1] A. B. Freeman-Mitrorp, C.B., Batsford Park: Turrp Prize, 52., for
“ Hitchin Conqueror” (4458), bay; was foaled in 1883, bred by Mr.
G. S. Shepperson, Lockington, Derby; s. “ William the Conqueror ”
(2848); d. “ Flower,” by “ Honest Prince” (1058) ; g. d. by “ Warrior ”
(Nix’s).

12 THs Countess or CAMPERDOWN, Weston House, Shipston-on-Stour,
Warwickshire: the Reserve Number and Mighly Commended, for “ Moder-
ator ” (2844), bay ; was foaled in 1881; bred by Mr. T. H. Miller, Single-
ton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde ; s. “‘ Honest Tom” (1105) ; d. “ Trimmer,” by
“ Emperor” (692) ; g. d. by “ England’s Glory ” (733).

Class 2.—Shire Stallions foaled in the Year 1885. [13 entries. ]

14 Lorp Hinpuip, Doveridge Hall, Derby: First Prizn, 25/., and the
CHAMPION Prizz of 25 guineas,’ for “ All Here ” (4829), bay; bred by the
late Lord Hindlip, Hindlip Court Farm, Worcester; s. “Harold”
(8708) ; d. “ Bonny,” by No. 1 (8898).

23 Tuomas Horrocks Mixter, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lanca-
shire : Seconp Prize, 15/., for “ Mohammed” (6173), bay ; bred by Mr.
T, W. Parnell, Thorney, Peterborough ; s, “Thorney Tom” (3870) ; d.
“Flower,” by “Thumper” (2126),

1 Given by the Shire Horse Society for the best Shire Stallion.
e2

lvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

22 Water Gripey, Elsenham Hall, Essex: Tutrp Prize, 5/., for “ King
Henry” (5336) (late “ Silverwood ’ ”), black; bred by Mr. = Skelton,
Carlton Grange, Newmarket, Cambridgeshire ; s. “Staunton Hero”
(2918) ; d. “ Withersfield Brown,” by “ Heart of Oak” (1009).

18 Henry Browne, Bury, Huntingdonshire: the Reserve Number for
“Sailor Prince” (5320), bay; bred by Mr. S. Hurry, Willow Hall,
Se at s. Thorney Fen Thumper” See d. by “ Samson ”
(1976) ; g. d by “ Major” (1462).

Class 3.—Shire Stallions foaled in the Year 1886. [36 entries. ]

35 Tue Eart or ELLESMERE, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Frrst Prizx, 251,
and the Reserve Number for CHAMPION Prizp, for “ R.R.” (6300), chest-
nut; bred by Mr. J. Woodhouse, Stalmine, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lanca-
shire ; s. “ M.M.” (3205); d. “ Bess,” by “ Sir Colin” (2022) ; g. d. by
o Ploughboy” (1745).

53 Tuomas Horrocks MIs, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde: Szconp
Prize, 151, for “ Moloch” (6174), bay; bred by Messrs. Swarbrick
Brothers, Hey Hous ses, Lytham, Lancashire; s. ‘ Fen Champion”
(3085) ; d. by “ What's Wanted iH '(2332).

42 Crement Keevit, Blagdon, Malden, Surrey: Turrp Prizes, 51., for
“ Peasant Boy ” (6255), grey; bred by Mr. G. F. Ogle, Bankside House,
Thorne, Doncaster, Yorkshire ; s. “Lincolnshire Lad II.” (1865) ; d. by
“Sir Roger = (2026); g. d. by “ Farmer’s Profit” (876).

66 Wuiru1am Cecrt Sarr, Willington, Burton-on-Trent : the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “ Albert Edward” (5467), brown; bred by
Mrs. Hulland, Eggington, Burton-on-Trent; s. “Royal Albert;” d.
“ Mettle,” by Noble (1641).

Nos. 34, 45, 57, and 59 were Heghly Commended.

Class 4.—Shire Stallions foaled in the Year 1887. [23 entries.]

65 Joux Ancock Barrs, Nailstone Stud Farm, Hinckley, Leicestershire:
First Prize, 15/., for his hay ; bred by Mr. Champion, Heather, Ashby-
de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire; s. “Big Ben” (3459); d. “Snip,” pe
“ Appleby Champion.”

63 Frepprick WARD, Quarrington, Sleaford, Lincolnshire: Szconp Prize,
10/., for “ Reciprocity,” brown; bred by Mr. J. Ward, Snake Hall,
Moulton Eaugate, Spalding, Lincolnshire; s. “ King John ” (4502) ; a.
“ Blossom,” by “ England’s Glory” (750) ; g. d. “ Brown,” by “ Brown
Champion” ( 292).

69 Tus Eart or EvrtesmMeR®, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Turrp PrizE, i)
for “ Black Watch,” black ; bred by himself ; s. “Sir Colin” (2022); d.
“ Western Blossom,” by “ William the Conqueror ” (2343). -

75 Water Gitpey, Elsenham Hall, Essex: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Warrior Duke,” bay; bred by Mr. Holling-
worth, Weston-on-Trent, Derbyshire; s. “ Duke of Hitchin” (8063) ; a
J Mettle, ” by “ Warrior " (2245).

Nos. 71, 78, and 82 were Highly Commended.

Nos, 64, 68, 74, 77, and 85 were Commended.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. lvii

Class 5.—Clydesdale Stallions foaled in the Year 1885. [8 entries. ]

90 THe Douxe oF Porttann, Welbeck, Worksop, Nottinghamshire: Frrst
Prize, 25/., for “ Macaulay” (5187), brown; bred by Mr. Mark J.
Stewart, M.P., Southwick, Dumfries; s, “ Macgregor ;” d. “ Lady Baily,”
by “ Pointsman.”

86 Toe Mareuts oF LonponDERRY, Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour, Co.
Durham: Second Prize, 15/., for “The Regent” (5408), bay ; bred by
himself; s. “The Viscount ;” d. “ Lucy,” by “ The Tifter.”

88 Joun Kerr, Red Hall, Wigton, Cumberland: Turrp Prizes, 5/., for
“Royal Bank” (5309), brown; bred by Mr. W. Reid, Portnellan,
Alexandria, Dumbartonshire ; s. “ Belted Knight ” (1395) ; d. * Nina of
Portnellan,” by ‘‘ Farmer ” (286); g. d. “ Neliy” (1666), by “ Prince of
Wales ” (673).

91 RicHarp B. Brocrsank, Crosby, Maryport, Cumberland: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Barcheskie” (4827), bay ; bred by
Mr. A. Mitchell, Barcheskie, Kirkeudbrightshire ; s. “Crown Jewel”
(2708); d. “Brenda of Barcheskie” (4901); by “Young Darnley”
(1874); g. d. “ Bess” (566), by “ Robbie Burns ” (700).

Class 6.—Clydesdale Stallions foaled in the Year 1886. [13 entries.]

103 AnpREW Monteomery, Nether Hall, Castle Douglas, Kirkeudbright-
shire: Frrst Prize, 25/., for “Sir Percival” (6300), brown; bred by
Mr. Mark J. Stewart, M.P., Ardwell, Stranraer, N.B.; s. “ Darnley ”
(222); d. “Susanna of Ardwell,” by “Prince Albert;” g. d. “Sally”
(282), by “Samson ” (741).

101 ANDREW Barrp Martruews, British Linen Bank, Newton Stewart,
Wigtown : SeconD Prize, 16/., for “Top Knot” (6360), bay; bred by
Mr. G. McCormick, Barquhill, Wigtown, N.B.; s. “Top Gallant”
(1850) ; d. “ Blue Bell” (5568) by “ Premier” (595).

105 Tre Eart or Cawnor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke: Tuirp Prize 51.’
for “ Macbeth” (6188) (late “ Oceana”), bred by Mr. G. Anderson»
West Fingask, Old Meldrum; s. “ McCamon” (3818); d. “ Octoroon’
(8703), by “ Kenmuir Prince” (1459); g. d. “ Better ” (647), by “ Ken-
muir” (426).

97 THe Marauis oF LonpoNDERRY, Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour, Co.
Durham: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended for “ Jupiter”
(5905), black; bred by himseif; s. “Castlereagh;” d. “Juno,” by
“St. Lawrence ;” g. d. “ Jess,” by “ Emperor.”

Class 7.—Clydesdale Stallions foaled in the Year 1887. [10 entries.]

110 Lorps Artur anp Lionet Crcit, Orchardmains, Innerleithen,
Peeblesshire: Frrst Prize 15/., for “ M’Claskie,” bay ; bred by them-
selves ; s. “ M’Gregor” (1487); d. “ Kelpie” (2034), by “ Young Lord
Lyon” (994) ; g. d. “ Darling” (340), by “Lorne” (499).

115 Richarp B. Brocxsanx, Crosby, Maryport, Cumberland: SEconp
Prizm, 10/., for “ Prince of Crosby,” brown ; bred by himself; s. “ Mac-
combie ” (4555) ; d. “ Princess of Kirkbean ” (1966), by “ Prince of Kirk-
bean” (1269); g. d. “ Smiler,” by “‘ England’s Glory.”

lviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

116 Joun Kerr, Red Hall, Wigton, Cumberland: Turrp Prize, 5J., for
“Master Jack,” brown; bred by Mr. 8. P. Foster, Killhow, Mealsgate,
Carlisle; s. “St. Gatien” (3988) ; d. “Trimmer” (6181), by ‘“ Young
Robbie Burns” (1369).

107 Grorcr Roper, Newton Bank, Preston Brook, Warrington: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Er] King,” bay; bred by
Mr. Ross, Cromarty House, N.B.; s. “ Royal Knight” (8977); d.
“ Queen” (4425), by “ Druid” (1120); g. d. “Queen Mary,” by “ Tops-
man” (886).

Class 8.— Suffolk Stallions foaled in the Year 1885. [7 entries.]

119 Atrrep JAmMes Surry, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk: First
Prizm, 20/., for “ Stockwell” (1692), chestnut; bred by Messrs. Pratt
and Sons, Melton, Woodbridge; s. “ Buck” (1579) ; d.“Seott ” (1954),
by “ Prince Imperial ” (1239) ; g. d. “ Brag” (644), by “Talbot” (378).

117 Horace Wotton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge: Szconp Prizz, 107,
for “Emperor” (1611), chestnut; bred by himself; s. “ Wolton
Diadem” (1553); d. “Empress of Paris” (1033), by “ Royal Duke
IL.” (1866); g. d. “ Newbourn Pride” (1046), by “ Monarch” (1348).

118 Atrrep JAMES SmirH, Rendlesham: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for “ Samson” (1778), chestnut; bred by Mr. A. Preston,
Worlingworth, Wickham Market, Suffolk; s. “ Cupbearer IIT.” (566) ;
d. “Matchet” (728), by Stanford’s “ Prince” (1141); g. d. “ Depper,”
by Johnson's “ Goliath” (745).

Class 9.—Suffolk Stallions foaled in the Year 1886. [12 entries.]

124 Horace Wotton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge: First Prizp, 201., for
“ Queen’s Diadem” (1721), chestnut; bred by himself; s, ‘“ Wolton’s
Diadem” (1533); d. “Queen of Newbourn” (1049), by “ Captain
Snap” (142); g. d. “ Duchess of Newbourn” (1032), by ‘ Warrior”
(1353).

125 Atrrep JAMes Smrru, Rendlesham: Snconp Prizp, 10/., for “ Hotspur”
(1774), chestnut; bred by Mr. W. Everitt, Levington, Ipswich; s.
“Prince Charlie” (1464); d. “Smart” (1409), by “Major Snap”
(155); g. d. “ Doughty.”

129 Witrram Wrtson, Baylham Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Great Hocks” (1772), chestnut ;
bred by Mr. Burch, Winston, Debenham, Suffolk; s, “ Vanguard”
(1827); d. “Crown Jewel” (132), by “Conqueror” (78); g. a.
“ Diamond,” by ‘* Royal George” (181).

Nos. 127 and 131 were Commended.

Class 10.—TZhoroughbred Stallions switable for getting Hunters.
[10 entries. ]

136 Cotonet Freppric Bartow, Hasketon, Woodbridge: the Prizr of
501, for “Baldur,” chestnut; foaled in 1883; bred by the Duke of
Westminster, Eaton Hall, Chester; s. “Doncaster ;” d. “ Freia,” by
“ Hermit.”

189 W. Burvert-Courrs, M.P., Holly Lodge, Highgate, London: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Truetit,” chestnut ; foaled

‘Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. hx

in 1880; bred by the late Mr. C. Snewing, Watford, Hertfordshire; s.
“ Outfit ;” d, “ Eleanora,” by “ Wild Dayrell;” g. d. “ Lady Peel,” by
“ Orlando.”

Nos. 140 and 144 were Highly Commended.

Class 11.—Coaching or Cleveland Stallions. [10 entries. ]

152 W. Burpert-Covurts, M.P., Holly Lodge: Frrsrt Prizn, 20/., for
“Sultan” (667), bay; foaled in 1884; bred by Mr. G. Leetfe, Fryton,
Slingsby, Yorkshire ; s, ‘‘ Emperor” (387) ; d. “ Beauty.”

146 CHristopHER W. Witson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, West-
moreland: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “Lord Rowland,” bay; foaled in
1885; bred by Mr. T. Harrison, Rowland Hill, Pocklington, York-
shire; s. “ Golden Emperor ;” d. by “ Inkerman ;” g. d. by “ Paulinus.”

150 Francis Henry Srericker, Danby House, Pickering, Yorkshire ;
Tuirp Prize, 5/., for “The Baron” (1207), dark bay ; foaled in 1886;
bred by Mr. M. Porritt, Danby, Castleton, Yorkshire ; s. “‘ Favourite ”
(581) ; d. by “‘ Bass Rock; ” g. d. by “ Barnaby ” (670).

149 Masor ARTHUR Fitzpatrick GopMAN, Smeaton Manor, Northallerton,
Yorkshire : the Reserve Number, for “ Guardsman,” bay ; foaled in 1885 ;
bred by Mr. Isaac Scarth, Mount Pleasant, West Rounton, North-
allerton ; s. “ Prince of Cleveland” (647) ; d.“ Darling,” by “ Salesman”
(272); g. d. by “Successor ” (301).

Class 12.—Hackney Stallions above 15 hands. [10 entries. ]

158 NarHanret Suaw Broveu, of Londesbro’ Wold, Market Weighton,
Yorkshire: First Prize, 20/., for “Matchless” (1517), chestnut;
foaled in 1884; bred by himself; s. “ Danegelt:” d, “Lady Lyons,”
by “Lord Lyons ;” g. d. “ Flora,” by “Sir Charles.”

156 Henry Moore, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Hull: Srconp Prizs, 101.,
for “ Confidence” (163), chestnut ; foaled in 1880; bred by himself;
s. “Denmark” (177); d. “Poll III.” (274), by ‘ Fireaway” (242) ;
g. d. “ Poll II.” by “ Black Rattler” (82).

160 Watrer Giipey, Elsenham Hall, Essex: Turrp Prizn, 5/., for
“County Member” (948), brown; foaled in 1881; bred by Mr. T.
Reed, Wood House, Beeford, Hull; s. “Lord Derby” (417); d. by
“Kendale Performer” (391); g. d. by “Grey Wildfire” (P. Rams-
dale). a

163 RicHarp TenNANT, Kirkburn Grange, Driffield, Yorkshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Connaught” (1453),
chestnut; foaled in 1884; bred by himself; s. “ Denmark” (Bourdass) ;
d. “ Fanny” (114), by “ Fireaway” (249); g. d. “ Polly” (1317), by
“Bay Phenomenon” (898).

No. 161 was Commended.

Class 13.— Hackney Stallions above 14 hands and not
exceeding 15 hands. [4 entries. |

169 Joun Roztyson, Cleveland House, Coltman Street, Hull: Frrst Prize,
201., for “ Young Lord Derby,” chestnut ; foaled in 1884; bred by Mr,
T. Stephenson, Ulrome, Lowthorpe, Hull; s. “Lord Derby IL”; @
“ Maid-of-all- Work.”

lx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

167 Atrrep Lewis, Heacham, Lynn, Norfolk: Srconp Prizz, 101., for
“ Confidential” (1379), bay; foaled in 1883; bred by Mr. J. Morton,
Stow Bardolph Fen, Downham, Norfolk ; s. ‘ Confidence ” (158).

166 AntHony Hamonp, Westacre, Swaffham, Norfolk: THrrp Prizz, 61.,
for “ Van Tromp,” roan; foaled in 1886; bred by Mr. H. Tallent,
Abbey Farm, Westacre; s. “ Viking” (1216); d. “ Tulip,” by “ Little
Wonder” (409).

Class 14.—Pony Stallions above 12 hands and not exceeding
14 hands. [9 entries.]

171 CuristopHeR W. Writson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, West-
moreland: First Prize, 15/., for “ Pomfret Wonder” (13871), black;
foaled in 1879; bred by Mr. J. Wright, Parkhouse, Doncaster; s.
“ Little Wonder ” (1237), alias ‘ Young Confidence”; d. “ Wrynose,”
by “Sir George” (778).

170 CuristopHER W. Witson: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Little Wonder
II.” (1610), brown; foaled in 1883; bred by himself; s. “ Little
Wonder” (1237), alias “* Young Confidence ;” d. “Snorer,” by “Sir
George” (778); g. d. “ Pet.”

175 Grorce Mann Nicuotson, Brisley Hall, East Dereham, Norfolk:
Tuirp Prize, 6/., for “ Pick Up” (1087), bay; foaled in 1881 ; bred by
Mr. Huggings, Fakenham, Norfolk ; s. “ Model” (1054).

174 Sir Ropert Witmor, Bart., Binfield Grove, Bracknell, Berkshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Look Here,” bay ; foaled
in 1885; bred by Mr. Graves, Lenwade, Norwich; s. “ Monarch”
(463), d. by “ Docking Robin Hood” (1764),

No. 178 was Commended.

Class 15.—Shire Mares and Foals. [19 entries.]

191 A. B. Frerman-Mitrorp, C.B., Batsford Park, Moreton-in-Marsh,
Gloucestershire: First Prizp, 20/., and the Cuampron Prize of 15
guineas,! for “Chance,” black; was foaled in 1880 [foal by “ Hitchin
Conqueror (4458)]; bred by Mr. Lawrenson, Ash Farm, Preesall,
Lancashire; s. “Lincoln” (1350); d. “ Brock,’ by “ Ploughboy”
(1745) ; g. d. “ Brock,” by “ Prince of Wales” (1809).

184 Tue Eart or Extesmere, of Worsley Hall, Manchester: Srconp
Prize, 10/., for “Lady Lincoln,” brown; was foaled in 1879 [foal by
“ Jupiter” (2602)]; bred by Mr. J. H. Smith, Alvaston, Derby; s.
“ Lincolnshire Lad II.” (1365) ; d. by “ Devonshire ” (594).

187 James Percrvat Cross, of Catthorpe Towers, Rugby, Warwickshire :
Turd Prize, 5l., for “ Kate,” brown; was foaled in 1878 [foal by
“ Harold” (3703)]; bred by Mr. W. Tattam, Springrove Farm, Win-
slow, Buckinghamshire ; s. “ Active” (51).

186 Tur Eart or ELtesmpre: the Peserve Number and Highly Commended,
for “Blackpool,” black; was foaled in 1884 [foal by “ Shrewsbury”
(4681)]; bred by Mr. Peter Blundell, Ream Hills, Kirkham, Lanca-
shire; s. “Bar None” (2388); d. “ Black Depper,” by “Sir Colin”
(2022) ; g. d. by “Sir Roger ” (2026),

Nos. 180 and 182 were Highly Commended.

1 Given by the Shire Horse Society for the best Shire Mare or Filly.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixi

Class 16.—Colt Foals, the produce of Mares, exhibited in Class 15.*
[6 entries. ]

199 Joun Harrison, Wilstrop Hall, Green Hammerton, Yorkshire: Frrst
Prize, 10/., for “ Lord Nottingham,” bay ; was foaled in 1888 ; bred by
himself ; s. “ Defiance ;” d. “ Nottingham Lady,” by “ Kenilworth.”

Class 17.—Filly Foals, the produce of Mares exhibited in Class 15.*
[5 entries. ]

205 Ropert Mirirxcron Kwyowres, Colston Bassett Hall, Bingham,
Nottinghamshire: Frrst Prize, 10/., for his bay ; was foaled in 1888 ;
bred by himself; s. “ Bar None” (2388), d. ‘‘ Pride of Colston,” by “ Ace
of Trumps” (17).

208 Lorp Betrer, Kingston Hall, Derby: Seconp Prize, 5/., for his brown;
was foaled in 1888 ; bred by himself ; s. “ Charter ” (2740) ; d. “ Violet,”
by “ Farmer ” (2578).

204 H.R.H. Toe Prince or Watss, K.G., Sandringham, Norfolk: the
Reserve Number for his black; was foaled in 1888; bred by His Royal
Highness; s. “ Gracchus” (3104); d. “ Jewel,” by ‘Sir Colin.”

Class 18.—Clydesdale Mares and Foals. [6 entries. |

214 Rosert Witson, Mansurae, Kilbarchan, Renfrewshire: Frrst Prize,
20/., for ‘‘ Jeanie Wilson,” dark brown ; was foaled in 1881 [foal by St.
Laurence]; bred by Mr. J. Fleming, Crookstone, Paisley, N.B.; s. “Top
Gallant ;” d. by “ Prince of Renfrew.”

209 THe Marauis or LonponDERRY, Sealiam Hall, Seaham Harbour, Co.
Durham; Second Prize, 10/., for “Star” (3739), bay ; was foaled in
188] [foal by Castlereagh]; bred by himself; s. What Care 1; d. “ Daisy,”
by “Time o’ Day.”

210 Tue DvxKeE or PortLann, Welbeck Abbey, Worksop, Nottinghamshire:
Tuirp Prize 6/., for “ Loyalty,” bay ; was foaled in 1883 [foal by Auld
Reekie (1920)], bred by Mr. J. Park, Bechmont, Cambuslang, N.B. ;
s. “ Lord Erskine” (1744) ; d. “ The Twin ” (625), by “ Prince of Wales”
(673) g. d. “ Lilly,” by “ Ailsa.”

Class 19.—Suffolk Mares and Foals, [6 entries. ]

216 Horace Wotton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, Suffolk: First Prize,
201., for “ Queen of Newbourn” (1049), chestnut ; was foaled in 1875
[foal by Chieftain (1354)]; bred by himself; s. “Captain Snap” (142);
d. *‘Duchess of Newbourn” (1032), by “ Warrior” (1353); g. d.
“ Victoria” (1011), by ‘‘ Barthropp’s Hero” (88).

215 Ropert Henry Warncg, Harkstead, Ipswich, Suffolk: Szconp Prize,
107., for “Juno” (1500), chestnut; was foaled in 1881 [foal by
“ Chieftain ” (1354)]; bred by Messrs. Rope, Leiston, Saxmundham ; s.
“ Cupbearer ILI.” (566) ; d. “ Moggy;” g. d. “Scott.”

220 Tue DvuKE or Hawitton AND Branpon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for ‘Gandy Poll”
(1606), chestnut ; was foaled in 1831 [foal by “ The Wanderer” (1463)];
bred by himself; s. “Statesman ” (657); d. “Smart” (430), by “ Emperor ”
(279); g. d. by ‘‘ Chester Emperor” (52).

}xii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 20.—Hunter Mares and Foals. (10 entries.] —

223 James Martin, Wainfleet, Lincolnshire: Frrst Prizn, 20/., for “ York-
shire Lassie,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1879 [foal by “ Fabius” ]; bred by
Lord Londesborough ; s. ‘The Mallard ;” d. by ‘“ Cariboo.”

222 Caprain Fire, Sandley House, Gillingham, Dorsetshire : Secon PRizxE,
10/., for “ Mermaid,” bay, aged [foal by “Scot Guard”]; breeder un-
known; s. “ Baron Cavendish ;” a, by “ The Dean.”

229 Robert JAMES Mann, Home Farm, Acton Burnell, Shropshire: THrrp
Prize, 51., for “ Maid of Mowbray,” black ; was foaled in 1879 [foal by
“ Vienna ”] ; bred by Mr. Noton, Topeliffe, Thirsk, Yorkshire ; s, “ Baron
Cavendish ;” d. by “ Ainderby ;” g. d. by “ Abernethy.”

226 Cuarzies Mires, Tatenhill, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Isoretta,” bay; was foaled in 1882
[foal by Lahnstein]; bred by Lady Emily Peel, Bonehill Paddocks,
Tamworth ; s. “Isonomy ;” d. “ Infanta,” by “ Pero Gomez,” g. d. by
“West Australian.”

Nos. 224 and 225 were Commended,

Class 21.—Hunter Mares in Foal, and not with Foals at foot.
[2 entries. ]

232 Joun Goopwin, Priory Court, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Frrst
Prize, 15/., for “ Marion,” chestnut ; was foaled in 1878 ; breeder un-
known; s. “Grand Master ;” d. by ‘‘ General Williams.”

231 Atpert Armitacsn, Cotgrave Place, Radcliffe-on-Trent, Nottingham-
shire: SrconD Prize, 10/., for “‘ Empress,” brown ; was foaled in 1877;
bred by Mr. Stephens, Newmarket ; s. “ Fortunis.”

Class 22.—Coaching or Cleveland Mares and Foals. [6 entries].

233 Grorce Scony, Beadlam Grange, Nawton, Yorkshire: Frrst Prizp,
15/., for “Hannah,” bay; was foaled in 1885 [foal by “ Charioteer ”
(702)]; bred by himself; s. “Salesman ;” d. “Sinnington Lass,” by
“ Candidate” (64) ; g. d. “Smiler,” by “ Pride of England” (228),

234 W. Burvert-Courts, M.P., Holly Lodge, Highgate, London: Srconp
Prize, 101., for “ Lily,” bay; was foaled in 1883 [foal by “ Sultan” (667)];
bred by Mr. J. White, the Grange, Appleton Roebuck, Bolton Percy,
Yorkshire ; s. “Candidate” (64) ; d. by “ Progress ;” g. d. by “ Hopeful”
(223).

238 James FrrtH CrowTHER, Knowl Grove, Mirfield, Yorkshire: the Reserve
Number, for “Lady Hilda” (190), bay ; was foaled in 1883 [foal by
“Santon,” (785)], bred by Mr. W. Kitching, Houghton-le-Side,
Darlington ; s. “Sportsman ” (291) ; d. “ Darling ” (152) ; by “ Forester”
(112) ; g. d. by “ Prince Albert ” (231).

Class 23.—Hackney Mares and Foals above 14 hands 2 inches.
[14 entries. }

241 Tomas Nicwo1son, the Grange, Watton, Hull: First Prizp, 16/., for
“ Belle II.,” bay ; was foaled in 1882 [foal by “ Wildfire ” (1224)]; bred
by himself; s. “ Denmark” (177); d. “Belle” (20), by ‘ Fireaway”
(249); g. d. Violet,” by “Screyeton.”

Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixiii

240 Henry Moors, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Hull: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for
‘ Primrose” (827), chestnut ; was foaled in 1884 [foal by ‘‘ Lord Derby
II.” (417)]; bred by himself; s. “‘ Denmark” (177) ; d. ‘‘ Empress” (95),
by “ Fireaway ” (249) ; g. d. “ Poll III.” (274), by “ Fireaway ” (2421.)

246 Joun G. Mackin, Auchencairn, Castle Douglas, Kirkeudbrightshire :
Tuirp Prizz, 5/., for “Silver Belle,” chestnut roan ; was foaled in 1883
[foal by “ Dorrington II.”] bred by Mr. T. R. Burnham, Frodingham
Hall, Yorkshire; s. “Lord Derby II.” (417); d. “Lady Landseer,”
(462), by “Sir Edwin Landseer ” (774).

239 Witt1AM HearnsHaw, Fox Hill, Burton Joyce, Nottinghamshire :
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Peggy,” chestnut;
[foal by “ Little Gun ”]; age and breeder unknown.

Nos. 242, 245, and 252 were Highly Commended.

Class 24.—Hackney Mares and Foals above 13 hands 2 inches, and
_ not exceeding 14 hands 2 inches, [4 entries. |

254 Ernest LAvEerTON, Shottle Hall, Shottle, Derby: First Prizz, 15/.,
for “Stella,” chestnut; was foaled in 1880 [foal by “Young Rat-
catcher” ]; breeder unknown.

2655 Witt1amM Harpwick, Burstwick, Hull: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “Fanny,”
brown ; was foaled in 1884 [foal by “ Topper” (1350)]; bred by Mr.
R. Bell, Atwick, Hull; s. “ Skipsea Performer ;” d. by ‘ Phenomenon ;”
g. da. by “ Walkington.”

Class 25.—Pony Mares and Foals above 12 and not exceeding 13
hands 2 inches. [3 entries. ]

259 Roprrt Houston Waker, Hartwood, West Calder, Edinburgh:
First Prizer, 15/., for “Polly,” bay; was foaled in 1877 [foal by
“ Alpha”]; bred by Mr. W. Peale, late of Hull; s, “ Prime Minister; ”
d. by “Tom Thumb.”

258 JAMEs ForsHAw, Carlton-on-Trent, Newark, Nottinghamshire: SxEconp
Prizz, 10/., for “ Crafty,” bay ; was foaled in 1884 [foal by “ Bluebeard” ];
bred by himself; s. “ Nobby.”

Class 26.— Shire Fillies foaled in the Year 1885. [14 entries.]

273 Lorp Wantage, K.C.B., V.C., Lockinge Park, Wantage, Berkshire:
First Prize, 15/., and the Reserve Number for CHampion Prize, for
“The Forest Queen,” brown; bred by Mr. W. W. MacGibbon, Range-
more, Burton-on-Trent; s. “ Royal Albert” (1885); d. ‘“‘Madam” by
“ Hercules ” (1022) ; g. d. by “Sweet William” (2093),

263 Tae Eart or Exiusmpre, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Szconp Prize

101., for “Princess Louisa,” brown; bred by Mr. J. Sargeant, Cheddle-
ton, Derbyshire; s, “ Royal Albert” (1885); d. by “ Champion Hero”
(3526).

269 Atrrep Henry Crarx, Moulton Eaugate, Spalding, Lincolnshire :
Turrp Prizn, 5/., for “ Wedger,’ grey; bred by Messrs F. and F,
Howard, Parson’s Drove, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire; s, “Thumper”
(2136) ; d. ‘ Blossom,” by “ Admiral” (69).

264 Tun Hoy. E. K. W. Coxn, Longford Hall, Longford, Derbyshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Courtship,” chestnut ;

lxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

bred by Mr. T. Wayte, Willington Hill, Derbyshire; s. “Admiral
Thumper” (2520); d. by “ Champion ” (419).

Nos. 260, 261, 262, 265, 268, and 271 were Highly Commended.

Class 27.—Shire Fillies foaled in the year 1886. [29 entries. ]

279 Tue Eart or Exieswere, Worsley Hall: Frrst Prizes, 152. for
“ Nectarine,” black; bred by himself; s. “‘ Western King” (4172) ; d.
“ Nectar,” by “ Nonpareil” (2470).

293 WaLteR GILBEy, Elsenham Hall, Essex: Seconp Prize, 101., for
“Playmate,” brown; bred by Mr. W. R. G. Farmer, White Hall,
Littleport, Ely, Cambridgeshire; s. “ Premier” (2646); d. “Darling,”
by “ Waxwork” (2309).

286 Tue Hon. E. K. W. Coxn, Longford Hall, Longford, Derbyshire:
TuHIRD Prize, 5/., for “Cerise,” red roan; bred by Mr. W. Bird, Foxley,
Daventry; s. “ Royalist” (2488); d. by “‘ Drayman” (3058).

291 Vincent Easteate, Strong’s Bank Farm, Holbeach, Lincolnshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Pride of the Fleet,”
brown; bred by himself; s. “True Briton” (2684); d. “ Brisk,” by
“ Matchless ” (1542); g. d. ‘ Flower,” by “ England’s Glory” (723).

Nos. 283 and 298 were Highly Commended.
Nos, 276, 277, 285, 288, 294, 295, and 297 were Commended.

Class 28.—Shire Fillies foaled in the Year 1887. [29 entries.]

317 Tue Hon. E. K. W. Coxn, Longford Hall: First Prize, 15/., for
“Credit,” brown; bred by Messrs. Averill and Wood, Lockwood Hall,
Cheadle, Staffordshire; s, “Charter” (2740); d. by “Sweet William ”
(2093).

330 Puinie AtBert Muntrz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire :
SeconD Prizp, 10/., for “ Form of Dunsmore,” bay; bred by himself ;
s. “ Canute ” (2736) ; d. “ Lively,” by “ Lofty ” (1420).

329 Paiure Apert Muniz, M.P.: Turrp Prizes, 5/., for “ Dunsmore
Violet,” bay; bred by Mr. J. Johnson, Tydd, Wisbech; s. ‘‘ Napoleon”
(1604) ; d. by “ Captain II.” (5641).

308 Tor Earn or ELLesMERE, Worsley Hall: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for ‘ Bloom,” grey; bred by Mr. T, Shaw, The
Island, Winmarleigh, Garstang; s. “ Vulean” (4145); d, “ Fuchsia,”
by “ Rival” (2885).

No. 312 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 306, 307, 311, 314, 316, 319, and 331 were Highly Commended.

Class 29.—Clydesdale Fillies foaled in the Year 1885, [8 entries.]

338 Jonun Gitmour, Montrave, Leven, Fifeshire: Frrst Prrzn, 16/., for
“‘Montrave Lady,” bay; bred by Mr. D. McKinnon, Poteath, West
Kilbride, Ayrshire; s. “ Topgallant” (1850); d. “Fanny of Poteath”
(3909).

834 Epwarp CxHartron, Shaw House, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, Northumber-
land: Seconp Prizp, 10/., for “ Black Bess,” black; bred by himself;
a. “ Merry Monarch” (538); d. “ Nanny” (2042), by “ Hamilton Jock”
(1151); g. d. “ Black Bess” (183), by “ Young Merry Tom” (1001).

Award of Tive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixv

335 Joun CastLEHOW Torprn, Musgrave Hall, Penrith, Cumberland: Tarrp
Prize, 5/., for ‘Galloway Lass,” bay; bred by Mr. J. Kerr, Buittle
Place, Dalbeattie, Kirkcudbright; s. “‘ Peter the Great” (3884); d.
“ Bet,” by “ Locklibo” (1468); g. d. by “ Victor” (892).

833 THe Marquis oF LonpoNDERRY, Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour, Co.
Durham: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Catherine,”
bay; bred by himself; s. “Prince of Wales”; d. “ Lady Colin,” by
“Lord Colin Campbell ;” g. d. “ Clydesdale Maggie,” by “ Old Times.”

Class 30.—Clydesdale Fillies foaled in the Year 1886. [9 entries.]

846 Joun Gitmour, Montrave, Leven, Fifeshire: Frrst Prize, 15/., for
“‘Primrose,” brown; bred by Mr. D. A. Hood, Balgreddan, Kirkcud-
bright; s. “ Darnley ” (222); d. “ Maggie of Balgreddan ” (781).

342 AnpREW Barrp MattHews, the British Linen Bank, Newtonstewart,
Le ae SEconp Prize, 10/., for “Top Blossom,” brown; bred
by Mr. T. Muir, Challock, Newtonstewart; s. “Topgallant” (1850);

d. “Blossom” (1519), by “ Warrior” (902); g. d. “Maggie,” by
“ Lochend Champion” (1448).

344 AnpRrew Monteomery, Nether Hall, Castle Douglas, Kirkcudbright-
shire: TorrD Prize, 5/., for his brown; bred by Mr. W. Rain, Kem-
pleton, Twynholm, Kirkcudbright; s. “Skelmorlie ” (4027); d. “ Lily”
(892), by “ Prince of Wales” (677); g. d. by ‘‘ Rob Roy” (714).

347 RicHarp B. Brocxsanx, Crosby, Maryport, Cumberland: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “Crosby Lass,” bay; bred by
himself; s. “Macgregor” (1487); d. “Crosby Bet” (1029), by “Clydes-
dale Tom” (176); g. d. “ Sall” (1028), by “ Lord Clyde” (477).

No. 340 was Commended.

Class 31.—Clydesdale Fillies foaled in the Year 1887. [10 entries. ]

850 Roperr Sryctarr Scorr, of Craigievar, Skelmorlie, Ayrshire: First
Prizx, 15/., for “Scottish Rose,” bay; bred by the Trustees of the late
Mr. J. M’Clew, Dinvin, Portpatrick, Wigtown; s. “ Darnley” (222);
d. “Ethel Newcome” (2599), by “Clansman” (150); g. d. “Tibbie.”

354 AnpREW Monteomery, Nether Hall, Castle Douglas: Srconp Prize,
10/., for his bay; bred by Messrs. Kerr and Craig, Auchengool, Castle
Douglas; s. “ MacGregor” (1487); d. “Mag” (2418), by “Samson”
(741).

856 Tue Eart or Cawpor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke: Turrp Prize, 51.,
for “ Snowdrift,” bay; bred by himself; s. “St. Govens” (3527); d.
“Miss Baxter” (4478), by “Simon Pure” (769); g. d. “ Blossom,” by
“ Dumbarton ” (253).

358 Rosperr Wutson, Mansurae, Kilbarchan, Renfrewshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “Jeanie Wilson III.,” brown;
bred by himself; s. “ Sir Hildebrand ;” d. “ Jeanie Wilson I.,” by “Top
Gallant.”

No. 352 was Commended.

Class 32.—Suffolk Fillies foaled in the Year 1885. [2 entries.]

859 Atrrep James SmitH, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Frrst
Prize, 15/., for “Sally,” chestnut; bred by himself; s. “ Cupbearer
III.” (566); d. “Rendlesham Smart” (840), by “Briton” (1308); g. d,
“Tuddenham Doughty” (844), by “ Sir Colin” (544),

Ixvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

360 SamugrLt Wotton, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: Szconp
Prizz, 10/., for “Smart” (1763), chestnut; bred by himself; s,
““ Wolton’s Chieftain” (1854); d. “ Blyth II.” (1073), by “ Wolton’s
Monarch” (1348); gy. d. “ Blyth” (1072), by “ Crisp’s Duke ” (419).

Class 33.—Suffolk Fillies foaled in the Year 1886. [10 entries.]

365 ALFRED J. Smirn, Rendlesham: First Prize, 15/. for “ Dora,” chest-
nut; bred by himself; s. “Monk” (1562); d. “Darling” (1617), by
“Field Marshal” (1106); g. d. ““Eyke Depper,” by “ Crisp’s Chilles-
ford Duke.”

370 Tur Duxe or Hamitton AND Brannvon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market, Suffolk: Srconp Prizn, 10/., for “ Vesta” (1997), chestnut;
bred by Mr. S. Wolton, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market; s, “Chief-
tain” (1854); d. “Foxhall Victory” (1080), by “Magnum Bonum”
(1847); g. d. “Foxhall Ruby” (1079).

362 James Touter, Blaxhall, Wickham Market: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Valiant,’ chestnut; bred by himself; s.
“Toller’s Verger” (1550); d. “ Venus” (923), by “ Hercules” (11674),

Nos. 361, 363, 364, 366, 368, and 869 were Commended,

Class 34.—Huwnter Mares or Geldings up to 15 stones, foaled
previously to the Year 1884.* [13 entries. ]

882 J. V. Kenvit, Shaw Farm, Melksham, Wiltshire: Frrst Prize, 30i.,
for “Conundrum,” chestnut gelding; was foaled in 1882; breeder un-
known; s. “ New Oswestry.”

3877 Joun Henry Sroxus, Great Bowden House, Market Harborough, Lei-
cestershire: Spconp Prizz, 15/., for “ Nigger,” black gelding; was
foaled in 1882; breeder unknown.

881 TimotHy Oarrie, Digby House, Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire :
Turrp Prize, 5/., for “Criterion,” bay gelding; was foaled in 1883;
breeder unknown; s, “ Cambuslang.”

371 Lorp Burton, Rangemore Hall, Burton-on-Trent, the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “Tip Top,” bay gelding; was foaled in
1880; breeder unknown.

No. 376 was Highly Commended.

Class 35.—Hunter Mare or Gelding up to 12 stones, foaled
previously to the Year 1884.* [18 entries. ]

384 Tuomas Crutcuur, Ivy Street, Salisbury, Wiltshire: First Prizz,
951., for “ Huntsman,” bay gelding; was foaled in 1882; breeder unknown;
s. “Old Tom;” d. “ Awfully Jolly.”

400 Tur EArt or Harrieron, Elyaston Castle, Derby: Suconp Prizz,
151., for ‘‘ Hodgson,” chestnut gelding; was foaled in 1882; bred by
himself; s. “ New Oswestry.”

387 Joun Henry Sroxes, Market Harboro’: Tarrp Prizs, 51., for “Sue-
cessor,” bay gelding; was foaled in 1882; bred by Mr. Howard, Grey-
stoke, Penrith; s. “Robin Adair;” d, “Sequence,” by “ Rataplan;”
g. d. “ Result,” by “ Mulatto.”

399 Trmorny Carrie, Digby House: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for “Oommotion,” bay gelding; was foaled in 1882; breeder
unknown; s. “ Haymaker;” d. by “Old Arthur,”

Award. of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixvii

Class 36.—Hunter Geldings foaled in the year 1884.* [19 entries.]

408 Lorp Mippter0n, Birdsall House, York: Frrst Prizn, 25l., for “ Beef-
eater,” bay; bred by himself; s. “King Harold;” d. “ Beeswing,” by
“Morocco;” g. d. “Queen Bee,” by “ Newminster.” :

419 Frank B. Wirxryson, Blyth Spital, Worksop, Nottinghamshire :
Seconp Prizz, 16/, for “Golden Drop,” chestnut; breeder unknown;
s. “ Haymaker ;” d. by “Solon.”

414 Wint1am Wricut, Wollaton, Nottingham: Turrp Prize, 5/., for
“The Captain,” black; breeder unknown.

406 T. Tomityson, Bradley Pastures, Ashbourn, Derbyshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for ‘ Meynell,” bay; bred by Mr.
Brough, Seaham; s. “Omega;” d. “ Levity,” by “ Laughing Stock,”

No, 416 was Highly Commended.

Class 37.—Hunter Mares foaled in the Year 1884. [8 entries.]

425 Joun Cooper, East Haddon, Northampton: Frrst Prizn, 26/., for
“ Wandering Maid,” bay; bred by Mr. W. Villar, New Court, Charlton
Kings, Cheltenham; s. “Truant;” d. “ Lady Price.”

426 James S. DARRELL, West Ayton, York: Seconp Prize, 15/., for “ Bru-
nette,” brown; bred by Messrs. Thomas and Sons, Pinchinthorpe, Guis-
borough; s. “ Bourbaki;” d. “ Flower,” by “ Favourite.”

424 Wittiam Wricut, Wollaton, Nottingham: Turrp Prizs, 5/., for
“ Barmaid,” bay ; bred by the late Mr. J. Harper, Prince of Wales
Hotel, Harrogate, Yorkshire ; s. “ Peter Grey ;” d. by “ Van Galen.”

427 Joun Macuty, Lynby, Nottinghamshire : the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Flower Girl,” vay; bred by Mr. T. William-
son, Oulsyke, Grosmont, Whitby; s. “ Charles II.”

Class 38.—Hunter Geldings foaled in the Year 1885.* [18 entries].

440 Tue Stanp Stup Company, Whitefield, Manchester ; First Prize, 20/.,
for “Pilgrim,” brown; bred by Mr. E. Barton, of Warton Grange,
Carnforth ; s. “ Carthusian ;” d. “ Matilda,” by “Voltigeur.”

441 Witt1am Horrsy, Rotsea, Cranswick, Hull; Srconp Prizx, 10/., for
“ King Twala,” brown ; bred by Mr. Stirk, Grazing Nook, Bedale.

442 Wesrtey Ricuarps, Ashwell, Oakham: Turrp Prizz, 51, for “ Titan,”

bay ; bred by the Hon. C. W. W. Fitzwilliam, Alwalton, Peterborough ;
s. “ Berserker ;” d. by “ Bonnyfield.”

437 Lorp MippteT0n, Birdsall House, York ; the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for his bay ; bred by himself; s. “ Peppermint ; ” d. “ Labur-
num,” by “ Morocco.”

No. 429 was Highly Commended.

Class 39.—Hunter Fillies (likely to become weight carriers)
foaled in the Year 1885. [10 entries. ]

455 Jonn Henry Sroxes, Great Bowden House, Market Harborough :
First Prize, 15/., for “ Golden Stream,” brown ; breeder unknown; s,
* Golden Horn ;” d. by “ Kingfisher.”

xviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

447 CHARLEs Crarxn, Ashby-de-la-Launde, Lincoln; Sxconp Prizs, 10/.,
for “ Beatrice,” brown ; bred by himself; s. “ Outfit,” d. by Dagobert.

451 Witrram Arxkwerrent, Sutton Scarsdale, Chesterfield, Derbyshire:
TurirD Prize, 5/., for “ Searsdale Hawthorne,” brown; bred by himself;
s. “ Highthorne ;” d. by “ XX.”

454 Rosrrt J. Mann, Home Farm, Acton Burnell, Shropshire: the Reserve
Number, for “ Sweetness,” chestnut; bred by Mr. T. Wells, Hutton
Conyers, Ripon; s. “ Duc de Beaufort.”

Class 40.—Hunter Geldings foaled in the Year 1886.* [23 entries.]

463 CHARLEs CLARKE, Ashby-de-la-Launde, Lincolnshire : First Prize, 201,
for his black; bred by himself; s. “ Outfit.”

472 Joun Rosryson, Leckby Palace, Assenby, Thirsk, Yorkshire: Seconp
Prizz, 10/., for his brown; bred by Mr. J. T. Robinson, Leckby Palace ;
s. “Sedan ;” d. “ Miss Whip,” by ‘‘ Baron Cavendish.”

467 Joun Ricwarpson Hopson, Crockey Hill, Yorkshire: Tarrp Prize,
5l., for “Mikado,” brown ; bred by himself; s. “ Martyrdom ;” d. by
“Grand Master ;” g. d. “ Gipsy,” by “Old Black Boy.”

457 Epwarp Barton, Warton Grange, Carnforth, Lancashire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Boulanger,” brown; bred by Mr.
Cornthwaite, Claughton Hall, Burton, Westmoreland ; s. “‘ Carthusian.”

Nos, 458, 464, and 477 were Highly Commended.
Nos. 461, 466, 468, 470, and 478 were Commended.

Class 41.—Hunter Fillies (likely to become weight carriers) foaled
in the Year 1886. [11 entries. ]

490 Tuomas Watson, Whitacre Hall, Coleshill, Warwickshire: First Prize,
15/., for “ Makeshift,” chestnut ; bred by himself; s, “ Make Haste; ”
d. by “‘ Omar Pasha.”

487 Cuarites Mines, Tatenhill, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire: Srconp
Prize, 10/., for “ Princess,” brown ; bred by himself; d. ‘ Lavinia,” by
“ Pero Gomez.”

484 Lorp MippLeron, Birdsall House, York: Turrp Prizz, 5/., for his
bay; bred by himself; s, “ Peppermint,” d. “ Monica,” by “ Morocco.”

480 Frank Gopson, Temple Bruer, Grantham, Lincolnshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Improver,” chestnut ; bred by
Mr. Everett, Brant Broughton, Newark ; s. “ Outfit ;” d. by “ Vendome ;”
g. a. by “ Broomielaw.”

No. 482 was Commended.

Class 42.—Hwunter Fillies or Geldings foaled in the Year 1887.*
[19 entries. | }

508 Narnanret Henry Honeson, Old Thornville, York: Frrsr Prize, 10/.,
for “Rumtifoozleum,” chestnut gelding ; bred by himself ; s, “ Highthorn ;”
d. ‘* Maggie,” by “ Bass Rock.”

493 Cuartes CLARKE, Ashby-de-la-Launde, Lincoln: Sxconp Prize, 5l,
for his chestnut gelding ; bred by himself; s, “ Outfit,”

Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. ]xix

509 Tuomas Watson, Whitacre Hall, Coleshill, Warwickshire : the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Matchless,” black filly ; bred by
himself; s. “ Make Haste;” d. by “ Kentucky.”

Nos. 499, 500, and 502 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 506 and 507 were Commended.

Class 43.—Hackney or Roadster Mares or Geldings above 14 hands
and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches, up to not less than 15 stones.*
[4 entries. }

513 Jonn Rosryson, Cleveland House, Coltman Street, Hull: First
Prizs, 15/., for “ Princess,” chestnut mare ; foaled in 1880; bred by
Mr. A. Fewson, Hedon, Hull; s. “Lord Derby II. ;” d. by “Tom
Thumb.”

510 Jounw Lanes, 5, Lea Road, Gainsborough, Lincolnshire: Second Prizz,
10/., for “ Emperor,” bay gelding ; foaled in 1883; bred by Mr. Curtis,
Sutton-on-Hull, Yorks ; s. “ Lord Derby II. ;” d. by “ Sportsman.”

512 THe Sranp Stup Company, Whitefield, Manchester: Tarrp Prizg, 52.,
for “ King of Fashion,” bay gelding; foaled in 1881 ; breeder unknown.

Class 44.— Hackney or Roadster Mares or Geldings, above 14 hands
and not exceeding 15 hands 2 inches, up to not less than 12 stones.*
[8 entries. ]

518 Joun Rosrnson, Cleveland House, Coltman Street, Hull: First Prizes,
151, for “ Lady Tankerville,” bay mare, aged; breeder unknown; s.
“ Confidence.”

521 Harry Livnsey, 2, Victoria Mansions, Westminster, S.W.: Seconp
Prize, 10/., for “ Brunette,” chestnut mare ; foaled in 1883 ; bred by Mr.
A. Fewson, Hedon, Hull; s. “ Lord Derby II.” (417); d. by “Tom
Thumb ” (830) ; g. d. “ Polly,” by “ Black Rattler.”

516 THe Stanp Srup Company, Whitefield, Manchester: Tarrp Prize,
51., for “ Constance,” brown mare; foaled in 1884; bred by Mr. S.
Rodwell, Burnham Overy, Lynn; s. “ Confidence ” (158).

519 ArrHuR Frwson, Hedon, Hull: the Reserve Number and Highly Com-
mended, for “ Lady Golightly,” chestnut mare ; foaled in 1884; bred by
Mr. E. Wright, Balrington, Hull; s. “Lord Derby II.;” d. by “Sir
Harry.”

No. 517 was Highly Commended.

Class 45.— Pony Mares or Geldings from 13 to 14 hands.*
[2 entries. |
522 Mrcnari, Faves, Colston Bassett, Bingham, Nottinchamshire:
First Prize, 10/., for “ Lilly,” chestnut mare; foaled in 1884; breeder
_ unknown.
523 Henry Spencer, Shrubbery House, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicester-
shire: Seconp Prizx 5/., for his chestnut gelding; foaled in 1884;
bred by Mr. R. Tebbett, Ibstock, Ashby-de-la-Zouch.

Class 46.—Pony Mare or Gelding, under 13 hands.* [4 entries. ]

525 Joun G. Macxrp, Auchencairn, Castledouglas, Kirkeudbrightshire ;
First Prizz, 10/., for “Sir Gibbie,” brown gelding; foaled in 1882;
bred by Mr. Wakefield, Kendal ; s, “ Sir George” (778).

VOL. XXIV.—S. S.

Ixx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

526 THomas DowxniaeEn, Cemetery Road, Castleford, Yorkshire; Srconp
Prizp, 5/., for “Strawberry Boy,” roan gelding; foaled in 1888;
breeder unknown.

527 Witttan Fiercuer, Bath Street, Ilkeston, Derbyshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Dandy,” bay gelding; foaled in
1883; breeder unknown.

Class 47.— Harness Mares or Geldings, exceeding 15 hands.*
[5 entries. |
No exhibit.

Class 48.—Harness Mares or Geldings exceeding 14 hands and not
eacceding 15 hands.* [9 entries. |

533 Henry Frissy, 14, James Street, Buckingham Gate, London: First
Prize, 15/., for “ Movement,” skewbald mare; foaled in 1877; bred
by Mr. E. C. Cooke, Litcham, Norfolk; s, “ Washington ;” d, “Spot.”

536 Cuartes Fow er, 203, High Street, Lincoln: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for
“Maid Marian,” bay mare ; foaled in 1884; bred by Mr. A. Fewson,
Hedon, Hull; s. “ Lord Derby II. ;” d. “ Polly ” (279), by “ Charley ”
(129); g. d. by “Tom Thumb.”

537 Tur Stanp Stup Company, Whitefield Manchester: Turrp Prizz,
5l., for “Conquest,” brown gelding; foaled in 1884; breeder un-
known; s. “ Confidence ” (158).

539 Guorer LAatusury, Hunter's Lodge, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire :
the Reserve Number, for his bay mare; foaled in 1883; bred by Mr.
West, Brigg, Lincolnshire ; s. ‘ Lottery.”

Class 49.—Pony Mares or Geldings not exceeding 15 hands,*
[5 entries. |

543 WitiraAm Porz, Cannon House, Downham Market, Norfolk: First
Prize, 15/., for “Magpie,” black and white mare; foaled in 1878; bred
by Mr. Cooke, Litcham, Norfolk; s. “Confidence” (Youngman’s), d.
“Spot,” by “ Premier.

542 Tun Sranp Srup Company, Whitefield, Manchester: Szconp Prizp,
101., for “Shooting Star,” bay gelding; foaled in 1881; bred by
exhibitors ; s. “Star of the East” (798) ; d. by “ Confidence” (158).

545 Henry Frissy, 14, James Street, Buckingham Gate, London: Turrp
Prize, 5/., for “Hard to Find,” brown mare; foaled in 1883; breeder
unknown; s. “ Reality,” d. by “ Confidence.”

CATTLE.

Shorthorn.
Class 50.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in either 1883 or 1884.
[9 entries. |

547 AtpxANpDER Morrison Gorpon, Newton, Insch, Aberdeenshire:
First Prizp, 20/., and the Cuamprion Prizm, 20/.,' for “ Mario”
(51713), roan; was calved February 24, 1884; bred by Mr. W.
Duthie, Collynie, Tarves, Aberdeenshire ; s. “ Field Marshal” (47870) ;
d. “Mina 3rd,” by “ Border Chief” (87874); g. d. “Mina,” by “ Lord
Irwin” (29123) ; gr. g. d. “ Mayflower,” by “ Vampire” (80201); g7.
g.g. da. “Mary,” by “ Lord Raglan ” (29199),

? Given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Male Shorthorn.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. lxxi

549 CHarites Wictiim Briertey, Rosedale, Tenbury, Worcestershire :
Second Prize, 10/., for “Ruckley,” white; was calved May 23,
1883; bred by the late Mr. S. L. Horton, Park House, Shifnal, Shrop-
shire ; s. ‘‘ Prince Saturn” (46926) ; d. “Constance Doon,” by “ Marquis
of Blandford Gth” (41983); g. d. “Lorna Doon,” by “ Abacot”
(82900) ; gr. g. d. “Ellie,” by “Prince Albert” (18579); gr.g. g. d.
“ Rose of Midsummer,” by “ Sir Colin” (15276).

548 Ricnarp Srrarron, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire: Txtrp
Prize, 5/., for “ Pilot” (51837); white ; was calved November 17, 1884;
bred by himself; s. ‘ Acropolis” (47316) ; d. “ Primula,” by “ Crowned
Victor” (36408); 7. d. “ Prima,” by “James I.” (24202); gr. g. d.
“Miranda,” by “ Knight of the Lagan” (20082); gr. g.g. d. “ Moss
Rose 4th,” by “ Hickory ” (14706).

550 CHartes WILLIAM BRIERLEY, Rosedale: the Reserve Number, for
“ Aristocrat” (50766), roan; was calved February 5, 1884; bred
by Mr. G. W. Lambart, Beau Pare, Meath; s. “Nobleman 2nd,”
(48363), d.. “ Albatross,” by “Jupiter” (88477); g. d. “Alba,” by
“Rupert ” (29920); gr. g. d. “ Anglia,” by “ British Sailor” (23472) ;
gr. g.g. 4. © Glory,” by “ Royal Standard” (40644),

Class 51.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Year 1885. [11 entries. ]

561 Rosert THompson, Inglewood, Penrith, Cumberland: Frrst Prize,
201., and the Reserve Number for Cuampion Prize,! for “Master
Shapely ” (63292), roan; was calyed January 16; bred by himself;
s. “ Beau Benedict” (42769); d. “Shapely,” by “ Brilliant Butterfly”
(36270) ; g. d. “ Sweetly,” by “Grand Dule of Fawsley 3rd” (31286) ;
gr. g. d. “Smartly,” by “ Marquis of Cobham” (22299); gr. g. g. d.
“Sprightly,” by “ Tweedside ” (12246).

562 Joun Hanpiey, Green Head, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland: Srconp
Prize, 10/., for “Macbeth” (54676); red, and little white; was
calved, April 30; bred by Mr. J. A. Gordon, Arabella, Nigg Station,
Ross-shire ; s. “ Macgregor” (50001); d. “ Bessie Bell,” by “ Rosario,”
(35315) ; g. d. “Betty Butterfly,” by “ Butterfly Charlie” (28111) ;
gr. g. d. “ Betty,” by “Mars” (29307) ; gr. g. g. d. “Lady Love,” by
“Gold Nugget” (16176).

557 Str Humpurey Francis DE TRAFFORD, Bart., Trafford Park, Man-
chester: THIRD Prize, 5/., for “Melton,” roan; was calved June 23;
bred by Mr. Edward Pease, The Crundalls, Bewdley, Worcestershire ;
s. “Earl of Aylesby 4th” (46291); d. “Park Nellie 3rd,” by
“Foster Brother ” (36661); g.d. “Nellie,” by “Chieftain” (20942) ;
gr. g. d. “Helen,” by “ Field Marshal” (16044); gr. g. g. d. “ Bessy,”
by “ Apollo” (9898).

558 RicHarp Brown, Ruyton of the Eleven Towns, Shropshire: the Re-
serve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Silkie Lad,” red and white ;
was calved February 17; bred by Mr. J. Humphreys, Hanley Hall,
West Felton, Shropshire; s. “ Sealskin ” (52122) ; d. “ Winter Rose,” by
“ Broderick ” (83234); g. d. ‘“ Woodbine,” by “ Arrogance” (17821);
gr. g. d. “Winter Rose,” by “Cormorant” (12540); gr. g. g. d.
“‘ Wanton,” by “ Valiant” (7662),

Nos, 563 and 564 were Commended.

1 Given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Male Shorthorn.

f2

Ixxii Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 52.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Year 1886. [16 entries. |

576 Joun Hanpizy, Green Head, Milnthorpe: First Prizn, 20/., for “Self
Conceit” (55026), red, and little white; was calved February 26; bred
by Mr. W. Handley, Green Head; s. “Self Esteem 2nd” (48675) ;
d, “ Derwent Queen,” by “ Baron Stackhouse ” (30488) ; g. d. “ Derwent
Lady 2nd,” by “ Vice Roi” (80214); gr. g. d. “Derwent Lady,” by
“The Premier” (27640); gr. g. g. d. by “ Baron Killerby ” (23364).

571 Joun Masxitt, Warren House, Brandsby, Easingwold, Yorkshire:
Second Prize, 10/., for “ Royal Saxon,’ red and white; was calved
March 2; bred by Mr. E. Tindall, Knapton Hall, Rillington, Yorkshire ;
s. “ Blairmore” (49156); d. “ Derwent Queen 2nd,” by “ Sampiero ”
(35466) ; g. d. “ White Thorn,” by ‘“ Cecil” (25725); gr. g. d. “ Miss
Wiley,” by “Cavendish” (15745); gr. g. g. d. “ Miss Spearman,” by
“Sir Charles” (16949).

569 JosepH THompson, Elswick, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire: Turrp
Prize, 51., for “Fylde Ingram” (54333), red and white; was calved
July 3; bred by Mr. T. Shaw, The Island, Winmarleigh, Garstang,
Lancashire; s. “ Royal Ingram” (50374); d. “ Diana 8th,” by “ Romu-
lus” (45487); g. d. “Diana 5th,” by Valentine's “Duke of Claro”
(40844); gr. g. d. “Diana 2nd,” by “Grand Duke of Oxford 3rd”
(31295) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Diana,” by “ Prince of Lancaster ” (22616).

575 JouHn Hanptey, Green Head: the Reserve Number and Highly Com-
mended, for “ Golden Treasure 2nd” (54378), roan; was calyed August
5; bred by Mr. W. Handley, Green Head; s. “Golden Treasure”
(51346); d. “Red Rose of Green Head,” by ‘“ Master Harbinger”
(40324); g. d. “Red Rose of Dingley 2nd,” by “Earl of Waterloo
2nd” (33819); gr. g. d. “ Dewdrop,” by “ Lord Chatham” (26625) ;
gr. g.g. a. “ Dairy Lass,” by “ Birthday ” (19313).

Nos. 572 and 574 were Commended.

Class 53.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in the Year 1887. [47 entries. |

603 Rosert PinpEr, Whitwell, Oakham, Rutlandshire: Frrst Prizx, 202.,
for “Royal Fieldsman,” red and white; was calved May 23; bred by
himself; s. “Wallace” (48899); d. “ Victoria Graceful,” by “M.C.”
(81898) ; g. d. “ Victoria Pulcherima,” by “ Bythis” (25700); gr. g. d.
“Victoria Pulchra,” by “Charles le Bean” (23542); gr. g. g. d. “ Vie-
toria Rubicunda,” by ‘‘ Ravenspur” (20628),

618 Lorp PotwarrH, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, N.B.: Szconp Prize,
102., for “Ironclad,” roan; was calyed February 8; bred by himself;
s. “King Alfonso” (49803); d. “ Wave Surf,” by “Knight of Knowl-
mere 2nd” (31542); g. d. “Wave Foam,” by “Manfred” (26801);
gr. g. d. “Wave Breast,” by “Breast Plate” (19887); gr. g. g. d.
“ Wave Princess,” by “ British Prince” (14197).

612 Joun HanpvrEy, Green Head, Milnthorpe: Tutrp Prize, 52, for
“Roseberry,” white; was calved February 19; bred by Lord Lovat,
Beaufort Castle, Beauly, N.B.; s. “ Bannockburn” (49035) ; d. “ Groam
Duchess,” by “ Duke of Beaufort” (88122); g. d. “ Beaufort Rose Ist,”
by “ Highland Chief” (38431) ; gr. g. d. “ Beaufort Rose,” by “ Bachelor
of Arts” (82982) ; gr. g. g. d., by “ Ohampion of England” (17526).

583 H.R.H. Tur Prince or Wats, K.G., Sandringham, Norfolk: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Dauntless,” red and —
white; was calyed March 1; bred by His Royal Highness; s. “ Fitz-

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixxiii

Mowbray” (49591); d. “Diadem 18th,” by “Baron Wolferton”
(44387): g. d. “Diadem 3rd,” by “ Royal Dublin” (35354); gr. g. d.
“Diadem,” by “ Fawsley Prince” (31150) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Diamond,” by
“The Chieftain” (20942).

Nos. 595, 600, and 627 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 590, 596, 604, and 606 were Commended.

Class 54.—Shorthorn Cows, in-milk or in-calf, calved previously
to or in the Year 1884. [10 entries. ]}

633 Roprert THomwpson, Inglewood, Penrith, Cumberland: First Prizz,
20/., for ‘ Molly Millicent,” roan ; was calved June 11, 1884; in-milk;
calved March 16, 1888, and in-calf; bred by himself; s. “ Beau Bene-
dict ” ees d. “Fair Millicent Onda bY Brilliant Butterfly ”
(36270); g. d. “Fair Millicent,” by “Grand Duke of Fawsley 3rd”
(31286) ; gr. g. d. “ Moss Rose 4th,” by “ Royal Gwynne” (22784);
gr..g. g. d. “ Moss Rose,” by “ Lord of Brawith ” (10465).

635 Wri11am Hosken & Son, Loggans Mill, Hayle, Cornwall: Seconp
Prize, 10/., for ‘ Alexandria 9th,” roan; was calved January 2, 1884;
in-milk ; calved May 11, 1888; bred by themselves; s. “Grand Duke
of Oxford 5th” (438318); d. “ Alexandria 5th,” by “ Prince of Oxford ”
(42212); g. d. “ Alexandria,” by “Earl of Oxford 2nd” (23844) ;
gr. g. d. “ Maid of Athens,” by “Sir Richard” (15298); gr. g. g. d.
“‘Miss Bloomer,” by “ Siddington Duke” (15263).

634 Atrrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury: Turrp Prizs, 51,
for ‘“ Lady Leodine,” white; was calved November 20, 1881; in-milk;
calved April 8, 1888 ; bred by himself; s. “ King Harold” (40053) ;
d. “ Leodine 4th,” by “Sir Windsor Broughton ” (27507); g. d. “ Leo-
dine,” by “ King Charles” (24240) ; gr. g. d. Lady Jane,” by “ Killerby
Lad” (20052); gr. g. g. d. “Lady Margaret,” by “Field Mate”
(16045).

632 CHartes WILLIAM Briertey, Rosedale, Tenbury, Worcestershire :
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Lady Worsley,” roan ;
was calvyed December 2, 1883; in-milk; calved June 14, 1888; bred by
Mr. J. Rowley, Vine Cottage, Norton, Doncaster ; s. “Self Esteem 2nd”
(48675); d. “Dewdrop,” by “ Paul ‘Potter ” (38854) ; g. d. “Trwin’s
Rose,” by “Lord Irwin” (29133); gr. g. d. “ Lady Irwin,” by ‘Lord
Albert” (20143); gr. g. g. d. ‘‘ Fragrance,” by “Mountain Chief”
(20383).

No. 636 was Highly Commended.

No. 637 was Commended.

Class 55.—Shorthorn Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved in
the Year 1885. [10 entries. ]

644 Roserr THoxwpson, Inglewood, Penrith: First Prizp, 20/., and the
Reserve Number for Cuampion Prizp,! for “Inglewood Gem,” roan;
was calyed September 14; in-milk; calved March 15, 1888, and in-calf:
Reed by himself; s. “ Royal Baron” (50854); d. “ Inglewood Belle,”

y “Beau Benedict” pie Gena Inglewood iP Ctr D Yai Brilliant
cay ” (36270); gr. g. d. “Love Token,” by “Grand Duke ot
Fawsley 3rd” (31286); gr. g.g. d. “ Farewell,” by “ Royal Westmore-
land” (35416).

' Given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Female Shorthorn.

lxxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

641 Cartes Witriam Brierey, Rosedale, Tenbury: Seconp Prizz#, 101.,
for “ Ancient Fashion,” roan ; was calved December 19; in-calf1!; bred
by Mr. R. Jefferson, Preston Hows, Whitehaven ; s, “ Young Albion”
(48999); d. “ Apricot,” by “ Regan” (45462); g. d. “Kate,” by
“‘ British Boy” (80597) ; gr. g. d. “Louisa 7th,’ by “ Hematite”
(31382) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Louisa 6th,” by “ Comet ” (21449).

643 CHarites WILLIAM BRIERLEY: THTRD Prize, 5/.,! for “ Victoria,” roan ;
was calyed October 27 ; in-calf [calved Oct. 2, 1888]; bred by Earl
Spencer, K.G., Althorp Park, Northamptonshire; s. ‘“ Darnley ” (47678) ;
d. “ Cowslip,” by “ Javelin” (46530) ; g. d. “Queen of the May,” by
“ Prince Rufus” (35177); gr. g. d. “Forest Queen,” by “Duke of
Wateringbury ” (23799) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Jewel,” by “ Ridlington” (22726).

642 Cartes WILLIAM BRIERLEY: the Reserve Number! and Highly Com-
mended, for “ Waterloo Cherry 13th,” red and white ; was calved June
12; in-milk ; calved January 4, 1888; bred by the late Mr. E. Grey,
Eastham, Cheshire; s. “ Duke of Certainty” (47719); d. “ Waterloo
Cherry 12th,” by “ Prince Saturn” (46926); g. d. ‘‘ Waterloo 9th,” by
“ Marquis of Blandford ” (41983) ; gr. g. d. “ Waterloo Cherry 4th,” by
“Tdeal” (31404); gr. g. g. d. “ Waterloo Cherry,” by “ Kirbythore
Waterloo” (24263).

No. 649 was Highly Commended,
Nos. 645 and 648 were Commended.

Class 56.—Shorthorn Heifers calved in the Year 1886, [18 entries.]

657 Rosert THompson, Inglewood, Penrith, Cumberland: First Prize,
201., and the CHAMPION Prize of 25/.,? for “Belle Madeline,” roan;
was calved August 21; bred by himself; s, “ Beau Benedict ” (42769) ;
d. “ Madeline Butterfly,” by “ Major Benedict” (41959) ; g. d. “ Ruby
Butterfly,” by “ Banner Bearer” (27907); gr. g. d. “ Phoebe Buttertly,”
by “ Duke of Wharfdale ” (19648); gr. g. g. d. “Double Butterfly,” by
“ Royal Butterfly ” (16862).

655 Bripeman LANGDALE Barrow, Sydnope Hall, Matlock, Derbyshire :
Sreconp Prize, 10/., for “ Fairy Duchess 11th,” roan ; was calved June
9; bred by himself; s. “Grand Duke 46th” (49671); d. “ Fairy Duchess
4th,” by “Duke of Oxford 50th” (43121); g. d. “ Violet,” by “The
Bursar” (35742); gr.g. d. “ Dattodil,” by “Duke of Oxfora 11th”
(19632); gr. g. g. d. “Young Daisy,” by “ Zadig ” (8796).

650 Her Masesty tun QuEEN, The Prince Consort’s Shaw Farm, Windsor :
Turd Prize, 5/., for “ Roan Lady 14th,” roan; was calved March 165;
in-calf; bred by Mr. W.S. Marr, Uppermill, Tarves, Aberdeenshire ;
s. “ Athabasca” (47359); d. “Roan Lady 5th,” by “Cherub 4th”
(33359) ; g. d. “Red Lady 2nd,” by “Heir of Englishman” (24122);
gr. g. d. “ Red Lady,” by “ Young Pacha” (20457) ; gr. g.g. d. * Roan
Lady,” by “Son of Young Ury ” (10984).

656 Cuartes WILLIAM Briercey, Rosedale, Tenbury : the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “ Rosedale Grace,” white; was calved
December 2; bred by himself; s. “Madrigal” (61694); d. “ Rosedale

1“ Ancient Fashion” having thrown her calf on the Wednesday of the —

Nottingham Meeting, and having thus become ineligible for a Prize, the
Second Prize of 107. has been awarded to “ Victoria,” and the Third Prize of
51, to “ Waterloo Cherry 13th.”

2 Given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Female Shorthorn.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xxv

Nun,” by “ Rosedale Oxford ” (48597) ; g. d. “ Snowflake,” by “ Bolivar’s
Farewell” (33173); gr. g. d. “ Bolivar’s White Tulip,” by “ Bolivar”
(25649) ; gr. g. g. d. “Tulip Flower,” by “ Lord Albert ” (20143).

Class 57.—Shorthorn Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [37 entries. ]

685 Rosert THompson, Inglewood, Penrith: Frrsr Prize, 20/., for “‘ Pearl
Bangle,” roan; was calved March 9; bred by himself; s. “ Royal
Baron” (50354) ; d. “ Pearl Armlet,” by “ Beau Benedict ” (42769) ; g. d.
“ Pearl Necklace 2nd,” by “* Hubback Junior” (31395) ; gi. g. d. “ Pearl
Necklace,” by ‘‘ Wild Boy” (25447); gr. g. g. d. ‘‘ Pearl, Powder,” by

“Grand Duke 9th” (19879).

683 Tomas Stoxses, Home Farm, Warmington, Oundle, Northamptonshire :
Seconp Prize, 10/., for “‘ Gladys’ Rose,” red; was calved May 2; bred
by himself; s. “ Gladys’ Hero ” (52940); d. “ Wild Rose,” by ‘ Duke
Wild Eyes 2nd” (43155); g. d. “Moss Rose,” by “Grand Duke of
Darlington 2nd” (41647); gr. g.d. “ May Rose,” by “ Lord Chancellor”
(20160) ; gr. g. g. d. “ May Flower,” by “ King of the Forest ” (24254).

696 THe Duxe oF PortLanp, Clipstone Park Farm, Mansfield, Nottingham-
shire : Torrp Prize, 5/., for “ Georgina 7th,” white ; was calved January
16; bred by exhibitor; s. “ Wanderer ” (50622); d. “Georgina 4th,” by
“Grand Ruth” (46459) ; g. d. Georgina 2nd,” by “ Cleveland ” (33396) ;
gr. g. d. “ Georgina,” by “ Vesuvius” (21017); gr. g. g. d. “ Gertrude,”
by “ Beppo” (15644).

679 CHaRLEs WILLIAM BRIERLEY, Rosedale, Tenbury : the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “ Rosedale Graceful,” white; was calved
January 16; bred by himself; s. “ Ruckley” (50398); d. ‘“ Rosedale
Snowflake,” by “ Rosedale Oxford” (48597); g. d. “Snowflake,” by
“ Bolivar’s Farewell” (83173); gr. g. d. “ Bolivar’s White Tulip,’ by
“ Bolivar ” (25649) ; gr. g. g.d. “ Tulip Flower,” by “ Lord Albert ”
(20143).

No. 693 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 670, 675, 680, 689, 695, 693, and 699 were Commended.

Hereford.

Class 58.—Hereford Bulls, calved in either 1883 or 1884.
[7 entries. |

708 Henry Writ11am Tarytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire :
Frest Prize, 20/., for “ Maidstone ” (8875) ; was calved April 20, 1883 ;
bred by himself ; s, “Franklin” (6961) ; d. “ Duchess 4th,” by “ Tredegar”
(5077); g. d. “ Duchess,” by “ Twin” (2284); gr. g. d. “ Duchess,” by
“ Alma” (1144); gr. g. g. d. “ Victoria,” by “ Prince Albert” (686).

705 Tas Hart or Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire :
SEconD Prize, 10/., for “ Rare Sovereign” (10499) ; was calved February
19, 1884; bred by himself; s. “ Good Boy” (7668); d. “ Rare Jewel,”
by “ Merry Monarch ” (5466); g. d. “Rarity 14th,” by “ Archduke ”
(4312) ; gr. g. do“ Rarity 3rd,” by “Silver Prince” (5583); gr. g. g. d.
“ Rarity,” by “ Conqueror” (1929).

707 Ricwarp Epwarps, The Sheriffs, Lyonshall, Kington, Herefordshire ;
Turrp Prizp, 5/., for “ Magnet” (8873); was calved July 7, 1883 ; bred by
himself; s.“‘ Marquis” (6057) ; d. “ Broken Horn 4th,” by “Commander ”
(4452) ; gr. d. “Old Broken Horn,” by “ Governor” (3137); gr. g. d.
“Peach,” by “ Pollox” (2163); gr. g. g.d.“ Peach,” by “ Pilot ” (1036).

Ixxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

710 Witt1am THompson CrawsuHay, Cyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydfil,
Glamorganshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for
“Stockton Prince” (10688); was calved April 8, 1884; bred by the late
Mr. T. J, Carwardine, Stocktonbury, Leominster, Herefordshire ; «
“Lord Wilton” (4740) ; ap ep ” by “Rodney” (4907); g
“ Bella,” by “ De Cote” (3060) ; gr. g. ad. “Charity,” by “ Hostt ot
Oak” (2035) ; gr. g.g. d. © Luna,” by ” Counsellas” (1939),

Class 59.—Hereford Bulls, calved in the Year 1885. [4 entries. |

712 Witi1am Hype Cooxn, The Green, Shelsley Kings, Worcester: Frrst
Prize, 20/., and the Reserve Number for Coampion Prizp,! for “ Grove
Wilton 38rd”; was calved March 16; bred by himself; s. “ Lord; Wilton”
(11295); d. “ Polyanthus,” ae Grove 3rd” (5051), g. d. “ Promise,”
by “Dauphin” (3058); gr. g. d. “ Primrose,” by “ Bachelor” (2941) ;
gr. g.g. a. “ Violet,” by “ Bolingbroke” (1883).

713 THe Ear or CovEntRY, Croome Court, Severn Stoke: Srconp Prizy
10/., for ‘ Rondeau;” was calved February 25; bred by himself; s.
“ Minstrel ” (8915) ; d. “ Rhodia 4th,” by “ Spartan ” (6009); g. d.
“ Rhodia,” by “ Subaltern” (2794) ; gr. g. d. “Norma,” by “ Boling-
broke ” (1883) ; gr. g.g. 4. « Qarissima,” by “ Felix ” (953).

715 Rers Krenn, Pencraig, Caerleon, Monmouthshire: Turrp Prize, 5/.
for “Three R’s ;” was caly ed May 4; bred by himself; s. “ Bangham”
(6793), d. “Jeffrey 7th,” by “ Lord Waterford ” (6045) ; Gua. Jeffrey
6th,” by “ Dulas” (807 9); gr. g. a. © Jeffrey 2nd,” by “ Garrick Junior”
(2532), gr. g. g. d. “Old Jetfrey,” by “ Sovereign ” (404).

714 Tue Eart or Coventry, Croome Court: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Textuary ;” was calyed January 28; bred by
himself; s. “ Good Boy ” (7668) ; d. “ Tulip 8th,” by “ Monkton Lad »
(5646) ; g. d. “Tulip 5th,” by “ Triumph 2nd” (3553) ; gr. g. d. “Tulip
3rd,” by Sir Frank (2762) ; ;gr.g.g. 4. “Tulip 2nd,” by “ France” (1993).

Class 60.—Hereford Bulls, calved in the Year 1886. [4 entries.]

719 Joun Price, Court House, Pembridge, Herefordshire : First PRIzE,
201., and the CHampion Prizu of 20/.,' for “ Prince Alfred ;” was calved
April 26; bred by himself; s. “ Monarch ” (78658); d. “ Playful,” by
se Hotspur” (7028); g. d. “ Plum 5th,” by “ Grand Duke” (5842) ; gr. g. d.
“Plum,” by “ Horace” (3877), gr. g.g. d. “ Plum,” by “North Star”
(2184).

716 Tun Earn or Coventry, Croome Court: Sxuconp Prizs, 102. for
“Golden Miner ;” was calved March 22; bred by himself; s. “ Cali-
fornian” (83855); d. “Golden Dream,” by “ Fisherman ” (6918), g. d.
“Golden Treasure,” by “ Maréchal Niel” (4760); gr. g. d. “ Giantess,”
by “Sir Roger” (4133), gr. g. g. d. “ Haidee,” by “ Battenhall ” (2406).

718 Henry WittrAm Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Sarchedon” (12656) ; was
calved August 27; bred by himself; s. “ ety ” (8875), d. “Fairy,”
by “Thoughtful” (65063) ; 9: d. “ Hazel, 3 “Tom Brown” (2828);
gr.g. d. “Hazel, ” by “Holmer” (2048) ; 9.9 * d. “Hazel,” by “Showle”
(1384),

1 Given by FREDERICK PLATT, Nsq., High Sheriff of the County of Notting-
ham, for the best animal in the Hereford Classes,

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixxvii

Class 61.—Hereford Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [9 entries. ]

720 Atten Epwarps Hvatns, of Wintercott, Leominster, Herefordshire :
First Prize, 20/., for “ Royal Head ;” was calved January 9; bred by
himself ; s. “ Cheerful” (6351) ; d. “ Beauty,” by “ Garfield 2nd” (7648) ;
g. a. “ Beatrice 2nd,” by Royalist ” (4921); gr. g. d. “ Brownmaid 2nd,”
by “ Tomboy” (3546) ; gr. g.g.d. “ Brownmaid,” by “ Pompey ” (2683).

724 Tuomas Funny, Stonebrook House, Ludlow: Srconp Prize, 10/., for
“ Downton Wilton ;” was calved February 3; bred by himself; s. “ Vis-
count Wilton” (11824) ; d. “ Hermione,” by “ King of the Lilies” (3892) ;
g. d. “ Queen of Hearts,” by “ Matchless” (2110); gr. g. d. “ Nelly,” by
“Sir Colin” (2216) ; gr. g. g. d. by “ Ben Bolt” (1871).

721 Tue Ear or Coventry, Croome Court: Turrp Prizz, 5/., for “ Royal
Ruler ;” was calved March 27; bred by himself; s. “‘ Rare Sovereign”
(10499), d. “ Rosemary,” by “ Grove 3rd” (5051); g. d. “ Rhodia 4th,”
by “Spartan” (5009); gr. g. d. “ Rhodia,” by “ Subaltern” (2794); gr.
g.g. @. “ Norma,” by “ Bolingbroke” (1883).

726 Henry Wititian Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury: the Reserve Num
ber and Highly Commended, for “ Royal Dublin ;” was calved January
2; bred by himself; s. “ Maidstone” (8875) ; d. “ Patience,” by Frank-
lin” (6961); g. d. “ Hazel 4th,” by “Triumph 2nd” (3553); gr. g. d.
“ Hazel,” by “ Tom Drown” (2828) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Hazel,” by “ Holmer”
(2043).

Nos. 722, 725, and 727 were Commended.

Class 62.—Hereford Cows or Heifers, in-milk, or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in the Year 1884. [7 entries. ]

735 Str JospepH Layton Etmes Spearman, Bart., of Llansannor Court,
Cowbridge, Glamorganshire: First Prize, 20/., for “ Myrtle 6th ;” was
calved June 2, 1880; in-milk; calved June 20, 1887; bred by Mr.
S. Goode, Ivingtonbury, Leominster; s. ‘ /mbassador” (4551) ; d.
“ Myrtle 4th,” hy “ Blucher ” (2964) ; g. d. “ Myrtle 3rd,” by “ Albert.”
(2921), gr. g. d.“ Myrtle 2nd,” by “ Pompey” (2683); g7.g.g.d. “ Myrtle,”
by “ Demetrius” (2494),

729 Her Masesty THe Qunen, Flemish Farm, Windsor: Srconp Prize,
10/., for “‘ Mabelle;” was calved July 18, 1881; in-calf; bred by the late
Mr. T. J. Carwardine, Stocktonbury, Leominster ; s. “ Lord Wilton”
(4740) ; d. ‘Charity 2nd,” by “ Longhorns” (4711); g. d. “ Charity,”
by “ Heart of Oak” (2035) ; gr. g. d. “ Luna,” by “ Counsellor (1989) ;
gr. g.g. da. “ Picture,” by “ Sir Thomas ” (2228).

734 James Ranxin, M.P., Bryngwyn, Tram Inn, R.S8.0., Herefordshire :
Turrp Prize, 5/., for “ Fortune-teller,” was calved March 23, 1884; in-
milk; calved April 5, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Pirate” (6105); d.
“Gipsy,” by “The Grove 3rd” (5051) ; g. d. “ Trinket,” by “ Spartan ”
(5009); gr. g. d. “Garnett,” by ‘ Vanguard” (5100); gr. g. g. d.
“ Amethyst,” by “ Provost ” (4067).

731 Wixtiam Tuner, Leinthall, Ludlow: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for *‘ Bella; ” was calved January 23, 1883 ; in-milk; calved
May 20, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Auctioneer” (5194); d. “ Bella-
donna,” by “ Orleans” (2661) ; g. d. “ Bonnie,” by “ Carbonel” (1525) ;
gr. g. d. “Beauty 2nd,” by “Young Walford (1820); gr. g. g. d.
“ Beauty,” by “ Nelson” (1021).

No, 733 was Commended.

Ixxviili Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 63.—Hereford Cows or Heifers, in-milk, or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in the Year 1885. [5 entries. }

740 Henry Witriam Taytor, Sbhowle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire:
First Prize, 201., for “ Cardiff Lass 2nd” ; was calved January 5, 1885 ;
calved June 2, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Franklin” (6961) ; d. “ Car-
diff Lass,” by “ Emperor ” (5890); g. d. “ Modesty,” by “ Tredegar”
(5077) ; gr.g.d. “Lovely,” by “Tenant Farmer” (2806); gr. g. g. d.
“ Blossom,” by “ Twin” (2284).

736 RatpH Patmer, Lodge Farm, Nazeing, Waltham Cross, Essex:
Srconp Prize, 10/., for “Lightfoot; ” was calved June 23, 1885;
in-milk; calved January 1, 1888, and in-calf; bred by himself; s.
“ Rosestock” (6651); d. “ Lillian,” by “ Rodney” (4907); g. d.
“Lilac,” by “ De Cote ”(38060) ; gr.g. d. “ Fanny,” by “ Heart of Oak”
(2035); gr. g.g. d. “ Alethea,” by “ Sir John 2nd ” (3455),

738 Coronet Ropert Briperorp, Kinnersley, Letton, R.S.O., Hereford-
shire: THIRD Prizp, 5/., for “ Princess;” wascalved June 5, 1885; in-
milk; calved February 25, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Regulator”
(6687) ; d. “ Victoria 2nd,” by “ Regulus” (4076); g. d. “ Victoria,”
by “ Berrington (2414) ; gr. g. d. “ Princess Royal,” by “ Sir Thomas ”
(2428) ; gr. g.g. d. “ Prize Flower,” by “ Arthur Napoleon” (918).

737 Tue Eart or Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Rare Gem;” was calved
January 13, 1885; in-milk; calved March 22, 1888; bred by him-
self; s. “Good Boy” (7668); d. “ Rare Jewel,” by “ Merry Monarch ”
(5466) ; g. d. “ Rarity 14th,” by “ Archduke” (4312) ; gr.g.d. “ Rarity
3rd,” by “ Silver Prince (5583) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Rarity,” by “ Conqueror”
(1929).

No. 739 was Highly Commended.

Class 64.—Hereford Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [5 entries.]

742 Tue EArt or Coventry, Croome Court, Severn Stoke: Frrst Prizn,
10/., for “ Rosewater ;” was calved February 27; bred by himself; s.
“Rare Sovereign” (10499); d. “Rosemary,” by “The Grove 3rd,”
(5081); g. d. “ Rhodia 4th,” by “ Spartan” (5009) ; gr. g. d. “ Rhodia,”
by “Subaltern” (2794); gr. g. g. d. “Norma,” by “Bolingbroke”
(1883).

743 Joun Hunerrrorp ArKwricHt, Hampton Court, Leominster, Here-
fordshire: Srconp Prizes, 10/., for “ Ivington Lass 24th ;” -was calyed
January 1; bred by himself; s. “Rose Cross” (7237); d. “Ivington
Lass 5th,” by “ Concord” (4458) ; g. d. “Ivington Lass 2nd,” by “ Sir
Richard” (8460); gr. g. d. “Ivington Lass,” by “Dan O'Connell”
(1952); gr. g.g. d. by “ Mortimer” (1828).

744 WitiiAm Tunes, Leinthall, Ludlow: Turrp Prizp, 5/., for “ Lady
Wilton;” was calved January 6; bred by himself; s. Lord Wilton ”
(4740); d. “Cherry Blossom,” by “Downton Boy” (5877); g. @
“Cherry,” by “Sultan” (4163); gr. g. d. “Cherry,” by “Prince
Charles” (4041) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Cherry,” by “ Vron End” (9372).

745 Wrtt1am THompson Crawsnay, Oyfarthfa Castle, Merthyr Tydfil,
Glamorganshire: the Reserve Number, for “Cyfarthfa Violet 2nd;”
was calved July 25; bred by himself; s. “Stockton Prince” (10688);
d. “Downton Violet,” by “ Downton Boy” (5877); g. d. “ Violet,” by
“ Grandee” (5344); gr. g. d. “Stockwell,” by “Stockwell” (2792);
gr. g.g. a. “ Violet 2nd,” by “ Trooper” (2838).

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. lxexix

Class 65.—Hereford Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [12 entries. ]

753 Reus Kournn, Pencraig, Caerleon, Monmouthshire: First Prize, 201.,
for “ Blanche Bangham ;” was calved January 11; bred by himself;
s. Bangham” (6793) ; d. “ Blanche 2nd,” by “ Return” (6639) ; g. d.
“ Lady Farewell,” by “Cheerful” (5254); gr. g. d. “Lady Blanche,”
by “Von Moltke 2nd” (4234); gr. g.g.d. “Fairmaid,” by “ Prince
Alfred” (8342).

748 Attpn Epwarps Hueues, Wintercott, Leominster: Srconp Prizp,
10/., for “ Princess ;” was calved February 22; bred by himself; s.
“Cheerful” (6351); d. “Newtown Plum,” by “ Rudolph” (6660) ;

d. “Plum 3rd,” by “ Commander ” (4452) ; gr. g. d. “Plum,” by
“Comet” (2469); gr. g. g. d. “Gem,” by “ Adforton” (1839).

747 Her Masesty Tur Queen, Flemish Farm, Windsor: Turrp Prize,
51., for “ Belle,” was calved January 26; bred by Her Majesty; s.
« Constantine ” (9750) ; d. ‘* Bonny Lass, ” by “ Hotspur” (7028); g. d.
“Blowdy,” by “ Grand Duke” (5342) ; ; gr. g. d. “Blowdy,” by
“ Horace ” (3877) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Blowdy,” by “ Paragon” (2665),

746 Her Masesty tHe QureEn, Flemish Farm: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “ Phyllis;” was calved January 15;
bred by Her Majesty ; s. “Horatius” (5390); d. “ Princess Victoria,”
by “ Conqueror” (7510); g. d. ‘“ Princess Elizabeth, ” by “ Prince Leo-
pold” (3351) ; gr. g. d. “Victoria II.,” by “ Ajax” (1843) ; GP. G» go a.
* Adela,” by ‘Will o’ the Wisp” (1454):

Nos. 749, 750, 751, 752, 754, 756, and 757 were Highly Commended.

Class 66.—Hereford Bull and two Heifers, all calved in the Year
1887.1 |4 entries. |

758 Henry Freeman RussEevt, Westonbury, Pembridge, Herefordshiro :
Frrst Prize, 20/., for “Sir William;” was calved March 12; s.
“ Horace Hardwick” (8748); d. “Lady Nancy,” by “ Horatius”
(5390) ; g. d. “Lady Hilda,” by “Colorado” (5257). “ Dorothy ;”
was calved January 22; s, “ Horace Hardwick ” (8748) ; d. “ Favourite
2nd,” by “ Corporal ” (6845) ; g. d. “Favourite,” by “ Bismarck” (8689).
“ Queen Bess ;” was calved April 13; s. “ Horace Hardwick ” (8748) ;
d. “ Whim,” by “ Horatius ” (5390) ; g. d. “Whiteback 2nd,” by
“ Remus ” (5585); all bred by himself.

760 SrepHen Roprnson, Lynhales, Kington, Herefordshire: Sxconp
Prize, 10/., for “ First Fruits;” was calved April 14; s. “ Highland
Laird” (7015); d. “ Princess Beatrice 2nd,” by “ Rose Stock” (6651) ;
ho AL Princess Beatrice,” by “Treasure Trove” (5014), “ his
Spark 6th;” was calved January 3; s. “Rose Stock” (6651); d.
“ White Spark 3rd,” by “Horatius” (5390); g. d. “ White Spark,”
by ‘Regulus ” (4076). “Red Spark 6th;” was calved January 13;
s. “Rose Stock” (6651); d. “Red Spark 2nd,” by “ Horatius ”
(5390); g. d. “Red Spark,” by “ Regulus” (4076); all bred by
himself,

759 ArtHuR Puitie TurNER, The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Salisbury ;” was calved
January 20; s. “ Sir Edward ” (10631) ; d. “ Promise 3rd,” by
“ Pirate ” (6105); g. d. “ Agnes,” by “ Jupiter 21S) pet Beatrice”

1 Prizes given by the Hereford Herd Book Society.

xxx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

was calyed February 2; s. “Sir Edward” (10681); d. “ Blossom,” by —
“ Pirate” (6105) ; g. d. “Sunflower,” by “Spartan” (5009). “ Vero- —
nica” was calyed March 9; s. “Sir Edward” (10631); d. “Venus —
3rd,” by “The Grove 3rd” (5051); gy. d. “Venus,” by “Spartan”
(5009) ; all bred by himself. :

No. 761 was Highly Commended.

Devon.

Class 67.—Devon Bulls, calved in either 1883, 1884, 1885, or 1886.
[7 entries. |

763 Viscount FatmournH, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall: Frrst Prize,
20/., for “Lord Wolseley” (2063); was calved January 8, 1884;
bred by himself; s. “Cairo” (1690); d. ‘“ Remembrance” (3882), by
“Cinnamon” (1039); g. d. “ Photograph” (3758), by “Sunflower”
(937); gr. g. d. “ Picture 4th” (2224), by “Napoleon 3rd” (464); gr.
g.g. d. “ Picture” (337).

766 AL¥rreD C. Skruyner, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard, Somersetshire :
Seconp Prize, 10/7, for “General Gordon” (1974); was calved
February 12, 1834; bred by himself; s. “ Lord Currypool” (1589) ;
d. “ Moss Rose 3rd” (5532), by “ Duke of Farrington” (1323); g. d.
“ Bouche’s Moss Rose ” (4124); gr. g. d. “ Splendid Ist ” (4955).

764 RicHarp Bickie, Bradstone Hall, Tavistock, Devonshire: Turrp
Prizz, 5/., for “ Champion” (1696); was calved July 14, 1883; bred by
the late Mr. H. Davy, Penhole House, Launceston, Cornwall; s.
“ Champion” (1522); d. “Cowslip 3rd” (6225), by “ Agricola 2nd”
(1675) ; g. d. “Cowslip,” by “ Napoleon” (1173); gr. g. d. “ Primrose,”
by “ Warrior” (548).

767 Joun Howsz, Stainborough, Washford, R.S.O., Somersetshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “The Vicar” (2156); was
calved January 16, 1886; bred by himself; s. “Druid” (1317); d.
“Lily 6th” (5479), by “Young Profit’s Duke”; g. d. “ Lily 4th”
(4684), by “ Master Bertie” (1402); gr. g. d. “Lily 3rd” (4683), by
“ Robin Hood” (914); gr. g. g. d. “ Lily 2nd” (4682).

No. 768 was Highly Commended.

No. 765 was Commended.

Class 68.—Devon Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [6 entries. |

774 Joun Farrurne, Currypool, Bridgwater, Somersetshire: First Prize,

201., for “Robin Hood,” was calved March 30; bred by himself; s.

“ Master Walter” (1808); d. “ Robin’s Duchess 3rd” (6293), by “ Roya’

Duke” (1640).
773 Joun Howse, Stainborough, Washford: Srconp Prize, 101, f
“Candy ;” was calved April 21; bred by himself; s. “ Druid” (1817)
d. “Lily 6th” [a] (6446); by “King of the Gipsies” (1580); g.
“ Lily 5th” (5478); gr. g.d. “Lily 3rd” (4683), by “Robin Hood
(914); gr. g.g. d. “ Lily 2nd” (4682),
Ricuarp Brexir, Bradstone Hall, Tavistock: Turrp Prize 52, fi
“ Actor;” was calved March 24; bred by himself; s. “Gladstone
(1737); d. “Actress 2nd” (5946) by “Narcissus” (1617); g.
“ Actress” (5068), by “Dolly’s Duke” (1315); gr. g. d. “Nora
(2895), by “ Garibaldi Ist” (842); gr. g. g. d. “ Primrose” (2264),

“7
bt |
to

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. Ixxxi

771 Viscount Fatmoutu, Tregothnan, Probus, Cornwall: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Jack in the Green ;” was calved
April 12; bred by himself; s. “Duke of Flitton 17th” (1544); d.
“Water Lily” (5050), by “Jonquil” (1131); g. d. “ Watercress”
(4006), by “Sunflower” (937); gr. g. d. “ Cheesewring” (2572a), by
“ Protector” (711); gr. g. g. d. “ Lilias,” by “‘ Duke of Chester ” (404).

No. 769 was Commended.

Class 69.—Devon Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved
previously to, or in the Year 1885. [5 entries.]

775 Sir WintiAm Wrttims, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple, Devonshire:
First Prize, 15/., for “ Fairmaid;” was calved February 16, 1884 ;
in-milk; calved January 15, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Duke of
Flitton 17th;” d. “ Gentle.”

778 AuFRED ©. SKINNER, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard, Somersetshire :
Sreconn Prizx, 10/., for “Moss Rose 8th” (7017); was calved Feb-
ruary 5, 1881; in-milk; calyed February 9, 1888; bred by the late
Mr. Walter Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgwater; s. “ Lord Stowey”
(1601); d. “ Moss Rose 5th” (4758), by a son of “ Forester” (1108);
g. d. “ Moss Rose” (3716), by “ Island Prince” (862).

779 Joun Howse, Stainborough, Washford: Turrp Prizz, 52. for
“Daisy” (5815); was calved December 22, 1881; calved June 2,
1888; bred by Viscount Portman, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorsetshire ;
s. “Shamrock” (1643); d. “ Damsel” (4380), by “Prince Albert”

| (907); g. d. “Damsel.”

Class 70.—Devon Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [8 entries. ]

780 Srr Witrram WIttiaqMs, Bart., Heanton, Barnstaple, Devonshire: First
Prize, 15/., for “ Flower 2nd;” was calved June 2; bred by himself;
s. “ Eclipse” (1728); d. “ Flower 8th” (4502), by ‘“‘ Young Palmer-
ston” (1251); g. d. “Young Flower” (4020), by “Duke of Flitton
4th” (827); gr. y. d. “ Young Flower” (1357), by “ Earl of Exeter ”
(88) ; gr. g. g. d. ‘ Flower” (189), by “ Hundred Guinea” (56).

781 Str Wiii1am WILiAMs, Bart., Seconp Prize, 10/., for “Georgina
2nd ;” was calved October 6; bred by himself; s. “Sir Michael ;” d.
“ Georgina.”

787 RicHarp Bickte, Bradstone Hall, Tavistock: TH1rp Prize, 5/., for
“ Jessie 2nd” (7427); was calyed July 21; bred by himself; s. “ Glad-
stone” (1737); d. “ Jessie” (4578), by “ Earl of Hexworthy” (1091) ;
g. d. “Jenny 2nd” (3583), by “ Garibaldi Ist” (842); gr. g. d. “ Jenny
Lind ” (2092), by “‘ Monarch” (460) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Jenny Lind ” (2091),

784 Epwarp J. Sranzey, M.P., Quantock Lodge, Bridgwater, Somerset-
shire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Princess 2nd ;”
was calved March 10; bred by himself; s. “ General Colley ” (1564) ; d.
“Princess Beatrice” (7114) ; g. d. “Her Majesty ” (6317).

No. 782 was Highly Commended.

No. 783 was Commended.

Class 71.—Devon Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [8 entries.]

789 Sir Wit1iamM Wittims, Bart., Heanton: First Prize, 152, for
| “Foam 8rd;” was calved June 4; bred by himself; s. “Foreman”
| (1968) ; d. “ Lady Currypool” (5480), by “ Profit’s Duke” (1194),

eee eel

]xxxii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

788 Str Wiit1AM Witt1ams, Bart., Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Daisy 4th; ”
was calyed January 8; bred by himself; s. “Sir Michael ;” d. “ Daisy
8rd,” by “ Duke of Flitton 17th.”

793 Atrrep OC. Sxrynur, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard: Tarrp Prize,
51., for “ Myrtle 28th;” was calved June 23; bred by himself; s. “Lord
Currypool” (1589) ; d. “ Myrtle 6th” (5543), by “ Duke of Farrington”
(1323); y. d. “ Myrtle 3rd” (4767), by “ Red Prince” (1482); gr. g. d.
“Myrtle 2nd” (4766); gr. g.g. d. “ Myrtle 1st” (4765), by “Squire
Winter” (1453).

790 Wittram H. Puncnarp, Bourton Hall, Totnes, Devonshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Gentle 24th; ” was calyed
April 14; bred by Mr. A. C. Skinner, Pound, Bishop’s Lydeard; s.
“Lord Currypool” (1589); d. “Gentle 16th” (7009), by “ Fancy’s
Robin” (1556); g. d. “Gentle 11th” (5346), by Duke of Farrington”
(1328); gr. g. d. “Gentle 7th” (4520), by “Sir Wroth ” (1451).

No. 792 was Highly Commended.

No. 791 was Commended.

Sussex.

Class 72.—Sussex Bulls, calved in cither 1883, 1884, 1885 or 1886.
[8 entries. |

801 Writ1amM Stewart Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone, Kent: Frrst
Prize, 201., for “ Mikado” (705); was calved January 15, 1884; bred
by Mr. A. Holmes, Rye, Sussex ; s. “Steyning” (729) ; d. “ Lily.”

799 JosppH GopMAN, Park Hatch, Godalming, Surrey: Suconp Prizz,
101., for “ Nobleman” (707); was calved April 30, 1884; bred by him-
self; s. “Napoleon 3rd” (396); d. “ Cauliflower” (2199); gy. d.
“ Comely ” (1482).

800 Wittram Woop, Clayton, Hassocks, Sussex: Turrp Prize, 5/., for
“Oxford 2nd” (771); was calved December 12, 1884; bred by Mr.
Stewart Oxley, Fen Place, Crawley, Sussex; s. “Oxford Ist” (513);
d. “Lady Ham” (2876), by “ Lord Bath” (281) ; g. d. “ Belle” (1917),
by “Croydon” (245) ; gr. g. d. “ Beatrice” (1832), by “ Bristol” (219);
gr.g.g. d. & Reeve.” :

803 Srr Francis Monterior®, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, Sussex: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Gold Dust 9th” (675) ;
was calyed February 14, 1885; bred by Mr. A. Stanford, Steyning,
Sussex ; s. “ Goldsmith ” (391) ; d. “ Hardy 3rd ” (2237), by “Clayton”
(319) ; g. d. “ Hardy Ist,” by “ Dorchester ” (235); gr. g. d. “ Hardy”
(2039), by “Young Westminster” (159); gr. g. g. d. “ Mayflower”
(1190).

Class 73.—Sussex Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [13 entries.]

307 J. Srewarr Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, Surrey: Frrst Prizp,
201. ; was calved May 7; bred by himself; s. “ King Rufus” (758);
“Laura 8rd” (2055), by “ Little Tom;” gy. d. “Laura Ist” (2053), by
“ Mottingham” (190) ; gr. g. d. “ Young Gentle.”

816 Tre Eart or Wryterton, Shillinglee Park, Petworth, Sussex:
Srconp Prize, 10/., for “Gold” (815); was calved July 16; bred b
Messrs. Id. and A. Stanford, of Eatons, Ashurst, Steyning; s. “ Gol
Dust 11th” (677); d. “Rosedew 3rd” (2181), by “Bedford” (816)
g. d. * Rosedew ” (2128), by “ Young Westminster” (159),

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. 1xxxiii

809 Tus Aytespury Darry Co., Limirep, Horsham, Sussex: THIRD PRIZE,
5)., for “Clancarty ;” was calyed February 11; bred by Mr. W. S.
Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone; s. “ Mikado” (705); d. “ Buttercup
2nd” (2791), by “ Bedlam” (448) ; g. d. “ Buttercup” (2197); gr. g. d.
“ Duchess.”

815 Witt S. Forster, Gore Court: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for “ Nero;” was calved June 27; bred by himself; s.
Mikado ” (705) ; d. “ Splendour” (2145), by “ Robinson Crusoe (267) ;
g. a. “ Saira.”

No. 08 was Commended.

Class 74.—Sussex Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved
previously to or in the Year 1885. [9 entries. |

817 Watrer Branprorp Warertow, High Trees, Redhill, Surrey: Frrst
Prize, 15/., for “Elsa” (38214); was calved April 29, 1884; in-milk;
calved January 11, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Wallace” (478); d.
“ Norma” (2272), by “ The Czar” (812) ; g. d. “ Nancy ” (1871) ; gr. g.d.
“ Strawberry.”

819 J. Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, Surrey: Srconp Prize,
10/., for “ Laura 7th” (3268); was calved January 6, 1884; in-milk ;
calved January 7, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Lord Oxford” (461) ; d.
“Laura 3rd” (2055), by “ Little Tom ;” g. d. “ Laura Ist” (2058), by
“ Mottingham” (190); gr. g. d. “ Young Gentle.”

818 Louis Huta, of Possingworth Manor, Waldron, Sussex: THrRD Prize,
52, for “ Lilly 2nd” (2882); was calyed April 15, 1880; in-calf [calved
September 30, 1888]; bred by himself; s. ‘Sir Roger 1st;” d. “Lilly”
(2636), by “Reeves ;” g. d. “ Lilly,” by “Gower” (70); gr. g. d. “Stag
Lilly ” (379), by “Lilly ” (8); gr. g. g. d. “Stag Lilly Ist” (94).

824 JosppH GopMANn, Park Hatch, Godalming, Surrey : the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “Noble Lady 2nd” (3541); was calved
January 27, 1885; in-milk; calved January 10, 1888, bred by himself;
s. “ Goldboy ” (541) ; d. “‘ Noble Lady” (2911), by “Napoleon 8rd ;”
(896) ; g. d. “ Noble” (2270) ; by the “ Bainden Bull;” gr. g. a. “ Noble”
(1800), by “Sultan.”

Class 75.—Sussex Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [8 entries. ]

832 Wittram S. Forster, Gore Court, Maidstone: Frrst Prize, 15/., for
“ Parade” (4106) ; was calved April 23 ; bred by himself; s, “ Mikado”
(705) ; d. “ Splendour ” (2145), by “ Robinson Crusce ” (267) ; g. d. Jaira,

830 JosepH GopmaNn, Park Hatch, Godalming: Sxconp Prize, 10/., for
“Comely 9th” (3682); was calved January 16; bred by himself; s.
“Goldboy” (541); d. “Cherry” (2558); by “ Napoleon 3rd” (396);
g. a. “ Cauliflower ” (2199) ; gr. g. d. “ Comely ” (1482),

831 Wit S. Forster, Gore Court: THtrp Prize, 5/., for “ Acorn”
3867) ; was calved August 8; bred by himself; s. “Stella’s Oxford ”
651); d. “Prebble” (5319), by “Beckley” (241); yg. d. “ Prebble”
1876).

833 Barctay Fietp, Bushy Trees, Kemsing, Kent: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “ Young Golding 2nd;” was calved Sep-
tember 23, 1886; bred by himself; s. “Young Hereford;” d, “Young
Golding Ist” (2739), by “Samson” (79),

Ixxxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 76.—Sussex Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [16 entries. ]

849 Barctay Fretp, Bushy Trees, Kemsing: Frrst Prize, 16l., for
“Primrose ;” was calved J anuary 21; bred by himself; s. “Gold ‘Dust
2nd” (593); d. “ Hardy 10th” ( 3048), by “ Goldsmith” (891).

838 CHaRtes B. GopMAN, Woldringfold, Horsham, Sussex: Srconp Prize,
10/., for “ Sunset” (4160) ; was s calved January 13; bred by himself; s.
+ Tees 4th ” (595); d. “ Sunshade ” (3598) ; by «Lord Beaconsfield”
(459); g. d. “Sunflower” (2495), by ;“ President ” (305) ; gr. g. d.
Sceptic (1726) ; gr. g. g. d. “ Primrose. »*

836 J. Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere: Turrp Prize, 5/., for
“ Pride of the Family 7th” (4119) ; was calved April 5; bred by him-
self; s. “ Prince Rufus” (515) ; d. “ Pride of the Family ond” (2469),
by “ Young Hariley ;” g. d. “ Pride of the Family,” by “ Midsummer the
Younger;” gr. g. d. oo Broad;” gr. g. g. d. “Broad,” by
« Monarch ” (20).

844 Wittiam Woop, Clayton, Hassocks, Sussex: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Briony 7th” (3921) ; was calved January 10;
bred by himself; s. “ Oxford Qnd” (771); d. “ Briony 4th” (3399), by
“ Golding ” (597) ; g. d. “ Briony ” (2323), by “ Knelle” (421).

Nos. 835 and 848 were Commended.

Welsh.

Class 77.— Welsh Bulls, calved in either 1883, 1884, 1885 or 1886,
[6 entries. |

851 Cotonet Henry Piatt, Gorddinog, Llanfairfechan, Carnarvonshire:
First Prize, 20/., for “ Ap Gwilym ;” was calved in February, 1883; bred
by Mr. W: illiam J ones, Taihirion, Gaerwen, Anglesey ; s. “ Gwilym ;”
d. “ Blackan ;” g. d. “ Blackan Back,” by “ Owain Tudor.”

852 CoLtoneL Henry Pratt: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Prince Frederick ;”
was calved in September, 1885 ; bred by Mr. W.E. Oakeley, Plas, Tan-
y-bwlch, Merionethshire; s. “ Duke of Chester ;” d. “Lady Mary.”

855 Tue Eart or Cawnor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke: Turrp Prize
for “ Ulundy ;” was calved January 6, 1886 ; bred by himself; s. “ Zulu ;”
d. “ Peggy Lewis” (82).

850 Wittram E. Oaxetry, The Plas, Tan-y-bwlch, Merionethshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Harlech ” (96) ;
calved June 3, 1884; bred by Lord Harlech, Glyn, Talsarnan, Meri
nethshire ; s. “Zulu” (138); d. “Gypsy” 254), by “Black Prince
(4); g. @. ‘e Clws,” by “ Prince Llewellyn 2nd.”

Nos. 853 and 854 were Commended.

Class 78.— Welsh Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [5 entries.]

859 CotoneL Henry Pratt, Gorddinog: First Prize, 20/., for “
well; ” was calved April 12; bred by himself; s. “Ap Gwilym ;”
“ Cariaa.”

858 Coronet Henry Pratt: Seconp Prize, 102, for “ Columbus ;”
calyed in May ; bred by himself; s. “ Ap Gwilym,” d, “ Cynnaes.”

Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Nottingham. \xxxv

157 AtexanpeR Mitne Duntor, Hafod-y-Bryn Farm, Llanbedr, R.S.0.,
Merionethshire: Turrp Prizn, 5/., for “ Nonconformist ;” was calved
June 17 ; bred by himself; s. “ Einion ” (92) ; d. “ Minnie My” (240), by
“Black Prince” (4) ; g. d. “ Queen.”

Class 79.— Welsh Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in the Year 1885. [9 entries. ]

865 Cotonren Henry Prarr, Gorddinog: Firsr Prizs, 15/.; was calved
in July, 1885; in-calf; bred by himself; s. “ Baronet Ist,” d. “ Selby.”

866 CotoneL Henry Pratt: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Mona’s Pride ;” was
calyed in March, 1883 ; in-milk ; calyed May 11, 1888 ; breeder unknown.

861 Witt E. Oaxetzy, The Plis, Tan-y-Bwlch: Tutrp Prizz, 51., for
“Regalia ” (307) ; was calved in January, 1879; in-milk; calyed January
5, 1888 ; bred by Mr. R. Richards, Victoria Hotel, Llanbedr, Merioneth-
shire.

864 Cononen Henry Prarr: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended ;

was calyed in January, 1885; in-calf ; bred by himself; s. “ Baronet 1st ;”
d, “ Black Queen.”

Nos. 862, 867, 868, and 869 were Commended.

Class 80.— Welsh Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [4 entries.]

873 Tun Eart or Cawnor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke: Frrst Prize, 15/.,
for “‘Rosal 7th;” was calved April 7; bred by himself; s. “ Young
King” (137); d. “ Rosal 2nd” (249).

872 Cotonet Henry Pratt, Gorddinog: Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Princess
Tonet;” was calved April 14; bred by himself; s, “Baronet 1st;” d.
“ Princess of Wales.”

870 Witt1am E. Oaxretny, The Plas, Tan-y-Bwlch, Merionethshire: Torrp

Prize, 5/., for “ Betty ;” was calved January 17; bred by himself;
s. “ Duke of Chester” (20); d. “Netty” (806).

Class 81.— Welsh Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [6 éntries.]

_ 877 Coronet Henry Pratt, Gorddinog: First Prizz, 15/.; was calved in
March; bred by himself; s. “ Ap Gwilym;” d. “ Black Queen 38rd.”

, 874 Wititam E. Oaxetey, The Plas, Tan-y-Bwlch: Suconp Prize, 101.,

| for “ Heather Bell ;” was calved February 17 ; bred by himself; s. “ Har-
lech” (96); d. “ Hatty” (804); g. d. “ Netty” (306).

| 875 Lorp Haztecn, Glyn, Talsarnan, R.S.O., Merionethshire: was calved

| January 21; bred by himself; s, “ Hinion;” d, “ Vesta.”

876 Coronet Henry Pratt, Gorddinog: the Reserve Number and Highly

Commended ; was calved March 11; bred by himself; s, “ Ap Gwilym ;”
d..“ Black Queen 2nd.”

No. 879 was Commended.

——————

Red Polled.

| Class 82.—Red Polled Bulls, calved in either 1883, 1884, 1885, or
| 1886. (6 entries. |

882 Wiri1am Amuvurst Tyssen-Amuerst, M.P., Didlington Hall, Brandon,
Norfolk: First Prizn, 20/., for “Didlington Davyson 2nd” (657) ;
was calyed January 7, 1883; bred by himself; s, “Davyson 12th”
VOL, XXIV.—S. Ss. y

|

Ixxxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

(481); d. “Davy 24th” (1448), by “Davyson 5th” (287); g. d. “Da
15th” (844), by “Davyson 3rd” (48); gr. g. d. “Davy 5th” (167), by
“Tenant Farmer” (213); gr. g. 9. d. “ Davy” (163).

880 Atrrep Tayzor, Starston Place, Harleston, Norfolk: Snconp Prize,
10/., for “ Bardolph” (977); was calvyed January 23, 1886; bred by
Mr. J. J. Colman, M.P., Norwich; s. “Falstaff” (803); d. “Silent
Woman” (25387), by “Rufus” (188); g. d. “Silent Lass” (1189), by
“Powell” (143); gr. g. d. “Silence” (548), by, “Rifleman” (175);
gr. g.g. a. “Silence” (O 9),

883 JpremiaH JAmBs Cotman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Turrp
Prizn, 5/., for “ Iago” (1025); was calved January 20, 1885; bred by
exhibitor; s. “Othello” (713); d. “Silent Lady” (1855), by “Rufus”
(188); g.d. “Silent Lass” (1189), by “Powell” (148); gr. g. d. “ Silence,”
by “ Rifleman ” (175); gr. g. g. d. “Silence” (O 9).

885 Lorp Hastryes, Melton Constable, East Dereham, Norfolk: the Re-
serve Number and Highly Commended, for “The Duke” (334); was
calved April 12, 1884; bred by himself; s. “ Roscoe” (559); d. “ Davy
Duchess 8rd” (2145), by “ Davyson 7th” (476); g. d. “Davy 16th”
(845), by “Red Jacket 7th” (169); gr. g. d. “Davy 7th” (160), by
“Young Duke” (234); gr. g. g. d. “ Davy 2nd,” by “Sir Nicholas”
(202).

No. 881 was Highly Commended.

No. 884 was Commended.

Class 83.—Red Polled Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [6 entries. ]

891 Lorp Hastrves, Melton Constable: First Prizn, 20/., for “ Viceroy ;”
was calved February 18; bred by himself; s. “Roscoe” (559); d.
“Rupee” (2520), by ‘ Priam” (878); g. d. “ Rosamond” (1136), by
“Norfolk Duke” (127); gr. g. d. “ Rosebud” (489), by Stoke Duke”
(209); gr. g. g. d. “ Rose of Eaton” (504), by “ Cringleford Sire” (44).

888 Witi1am Amuorst Tysspy-Amuerst, M.P., Didlington Hall, Brandon:
Srconp Prize, 10/., for “ Monarch ;” was calved March 8; bred by
himself; s. “ Morella” (895); d. “ Emblem” (2782), by “ Davyson 8rd”
(48); g. d. “Eleanor” (1477), by “ Brutus” (269); gr. g. d. “ Elmer,”
by “Elmham Sire” (67).

886 Atrrep TAYLOR, Starston Place, Harleston: Tutrp Prizp, 5/., for
“Nimrod ;” was calved June 20; bred by himself; s. “ Passion” (714) ;
d. “Sunbeam” (3164), by “Kelpie” (685); g. d. “Sly”.(1192), by
“ Sir Edward 1st” (197); gr. g. d. “Strawberry” (575), by “ Richard
2nd” (173); gr. g.g. d. “Tiny” (604), by “ Laxfield Sire” (101). .

889 Wittiam Amuurst Tysspn-Amnerst, M.P., Didlington Hall: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Murgatroyd;” was”
calved March 30; bred by himself; s. “ Morella” (895); d. “ Norfolk
Witch” (1054), by “ Norfolk Duke” (127); g. d. “ Witch” (657), by
“Tommy ” (216); gr. g. d. “Clara” (111). : ¢

No. 890 was Commended.

Class 84.—Red Polled Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved
previously to or in the year 1885, [7 entries.]

897 JprpemiAH James Corman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Fi
Prize, 15/., for “ Midsummer Rose” (2976) ; was calyed June 26, 1884;

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. —xxxvii

in-milk ; calved January 10, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Othello” (713);
d, “ Rosebud” (1797), by ’« Rufus” (188) ; g. d. “ Rosebud” (494), by
“Norfolk Duke” (127); gr. g. d. “ Cherry ” (K 17), by “Tenant
Farmer” (213).

896 Witt1amM AMHURST TyssEN-AMHERST, M.P., Didlington Hall, Brandon:
SEconD Prize, 10/., for “ Emblem” (2782); was calvyed February 4,
1884; in-milk ; calved February 6, 1888; and in-calf; bred by him-
self; s. “Davyson 3rd” (48); d. “Eleanor” (1477), by “ Bratus” (269) ;

g.@. “Elmer” (1483), by “ Elmham Sire” (67).

894 pe Hammond, Bale, Dereham, Norfolk: Turrp Prizz, 5/., for
“Davy 44th;” was calved August 16, 1882; in-milk; calved February
13, 1888 ; bred by himself; s, “ Davyson 7th: Bhar i Davy 27th” (1451),
by ss Davyson 5th; g. d. “ Davy 5th,” by “ Tenant Farmer.”

895 JoHn Hammonp, Bale: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended,
for “Davy 64th;” was calved January 30, 1885; in-calf; bred by
himself; s. “Roland;” d. “Davy 387th,” by “Davyson 7th;” g. d.
“Davy 21st,” by “ Davyson 5th.”

No. 898 was Highly Commended.
Nos. 892 and 893 were Commended.

Class 85.—Red Polled Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [6 entries.]

903 JEREMIAH JAMES Corman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: First
Prize, 15/., for ‘ Midget ;” was calyed February 4; bred by himself ;
s. “Ben” (795); d. “Rosebud” (1797), by “Rufus” (188); g. d.
“Rosebud” (494), by “ Norfolk Duke” (127); gr. g. d. ‘Cherry ”
(K 17), by “ Tenant Farmer” (213).

899 AtrRrEeD Taytor, Starston Place, Harleston: Srconp Prizx, 10/., for
* Coercion ” (3945) ; was calyed November 23; bred by himself; s.
“Kimberley” (867); d. “Cosy” (2719), by “Passion” (714); g. d
“ Cossett 2nd” (2103), by “ King Charles” (329); gr. q. d. “ Cossett”
(1405), by “ Rifleman” (175); gr. g. g. d. “ Cowslip” (O 3).

904 Lorp Hasrrnes, Melton Constable, East Dereham, Norfolk: Turrp
Prize, 5/., for “ Gladys ” (4066) ; aie ealved May 12; in-calf; bred
by himself; s. “ ae ” (746); d. “ Nectarine 2nd” (2405), by
“ Davyson 7th” (476) ; d. “Dainty” (819), by “ Prince Charlie ”
(151); gr. g. d. « Nancy a (359), by ‘‘Framshom Captain” (71); gr. g.
g. d. anit? (6).

900 Jonny Hammonn, Bale, Dereham: the Reserve Number — Highly
Commended, for “ Davy 73rd ;” was calved January 6; bred by
himself; s. “ Davyson 18th;” d. “Davy 48th,” by “ Davy Butler;”
g. a. “ Davy 34th.”

No. 901 was Commended.

Class 86.—Red Polled Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [8 entries.]

909 JEREMIAH JAMES Corman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: Frrst
Prize, 15/., for “ Mar;” was caly ed January 5; bred by himself ; 2
“Othello” (713); d. “Marham” (2356), » “Priam” (373);

“ Hester ” (267), by “The Peer” Aan gr. g. d. “Rose 5th” dni’ ‘3,
by “ Tenant Retna” (213); gr. ad. © Teed Rose” (M 2).

910 JeremtAn JAMzEs Cotman, M.P., ‘ash House: Srconp Prizz, 10/.,
for “Buttereup;” was calved ’ February 13; bred by himself; s,

g 2

Ixxxvili Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

“ Falstaff” (303); d. “ Brunette” (2044), by “ King Charles” (329);
g. a. “ Brown” (1343), by “ Duke of Norfolk” (295); gr. g. d. “ Isa-
belle” (P 3), by “ Norfolk Duke ” (127).

907 Wittram Amuurst TyssEN-AmuHeERST, M.P., Didlington Hall,
Brandon: Turrp Prize, 5/., for “ Poppety 2nd;” was calved Feb-
ruary 22; bred by himself; s. “ Didlington Davyson 2nd” (657); d.
“ Poppinette ” (2455), by “ Davyson 3rd” (48); g. d. “ Poppy” (2456),
by “Stout” (581); 97. g. d. “ Poppet 2nd” (1087); by “ Cherry Duke”
(382); gr. g.g. d. “ Poppet” (1086), by “Sampson” (191).

905 Tuomas Tinpat Merrnoxtp, Hepworth, Diss, Suffolk: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Hepworth Davy 2nd;” was
calvyed January 16; bred by himself; s. “Cortes” (645); d. “ Davy
41st” (2133), by “ Davyson 7th” (476); g. d. “ Davy 5th” (167), by
“Tenant Farmer” (213); gr. g. d. “ Davy.”

Nos. 908 and 911 were Highly Commended.

Jersey.

Class 87.—Jersey Bulls, calved in either 1883, 1884, 1885 or 1886.
[29 entries. ]

921 Mrs. Hopwoop, Ketton Hall, Stamford: Frrst Prize, 201, for
“Chestnut Boy,” silver grey;.was calved October 11, 1884; im-
ported; breeder unknown; s. “Nero du Coin” (1849 E.H.B.); d.
“Neva;” g. d. “ Daisy ;” gr. g.d. “ Young Daisy,” by “ Orange Peel”
(608); gr.g.g. d. “ Daisy.”

930 Tue Eart or Lonpessoroven, Northerwood, Lyndhurst, Hampshire:
Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ Marius,” dark grey; was calved February
18, 1886; bred by himself; s. “ Rainbow” (1943 E.H.B.); d. “ Maria
8rd ;” g. d. “ Maria” (1662 J.H.B.).

935 James RicuHarp Cornett, More Place, Betchworth, Surrey: THIRD
Prizn, 65/., for “Franciscan,” dark grey; was calved September 2,
1886; bred by Mr. J. S. Arthur, of St. Mary’s, Jersey; s. “ Royal
Khedive” (628 J.H.B.); d. “Golden Crown” (6524), by “Tusquan-
tum ” (262).

933 Witt1am Epwarp Bunperrt, Stoke Bishop, Bristol: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Frivol,” dark fawn ; was calved
July 15, 1886; bred by himself; s. “Royal Blue;” d. “Fair Maid,”
by “Rover” (1978); g. d. “ Patti,” by “Sambo” (748); gr. g. d.
“Pretty,” by “ Host” (423); gr. g. g. d, “ Sultana.”

Nos. 924, 927, 929, 931, and 940 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 914, 919, and 932 were Commended.

Class 88.—Jersey Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [28 entries.]

965 Witt1am ARKwRIcHT, Sutton Scarsdale, Chesterfield, Derbyshire:
Frrst Prize, 20/., for “ Hamilton” (1043 J.H.B.), dark grey; was
calved February 25; bred by Mr. J.C. Hamon, St. John’s, Jersey; s.
“Carlo 8rd;” d. “Gloire d'Or” (5628); g.d. “Procés” (4045), b
“ Carlo” (180); gr. g. d. “ Pry” (103), by “ Pankee” (27); gr. g. g. L
“Clyde” (446).

942 Grorce Suupson, Wray Park, Reigate, Surrey: Srconp Prize, 102,
for “ Bessie’s Boy,” grey fawn; was calved April 22; bred by him-
self; s. Wolseley’s Glory ” (2168 E.H.B.); d. ‘ Bessie,” by “ Noble
2nd” (1172 E.H.B.); g. d. “ Beauty ” (687 J.H.B.),

Award of Dive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. —|xxxix

948 SatispuRY BaxenpAte, Bonningtons, Ware, Herts: Turrp Prize,
51, for “ Hamley,” whole colour; was calved August 17; bred by
himself; s. “ Wolseley’s Glory 2nd” (2169); d. “ Briar,” by “ Young
Neptune” (1847); g. d. “ Blackberry,” by ‘“ Bacchus” (984); gr. g. d.
“ Briony.”

967 Witiiam Davin Tucker, 74, High Street, Southampton: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Grouville’s Champion,” dark
grey; was calved March 14; bred by Mr. W. G. Aubyn, Manfant,
St. Saviour’s, Jersey; s. “ Everton King” (390); d. “ Manfant
Prizicess ” (6004).

Nos. 945, 946, and 968 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 943, 952, 955, 960, and 963 were Commended,

Class 89.—Jersey Cows, in-milk or in-calf, calved previously to, or
t in the Year 1884. [23 entries. ]

987 Witt E. Buneert, Stoke Bishop, Bristol: Frrst Prizz, 16/., for
“Black Bess” (3749 J.H.B.); dark brown ; was calved in 1880; in-
milk; calved January 15, 1888; bred by Mr. J. Arthur, La Pompe,
St. Mary’s, Jersey.

970 Grorce Smrpson, Wray Park, Reigate: Srconp Prize, 10/., for
“ Bessie,” grey fawn; was calved May 12, 1879; in-milk; calved March
19, 1888; bred by Mr. P. Mourant, St. Saviour’s, Jersey; s. “ Noble
2nd” (1172 E.H.B.); d. “ Beauty.”

971 Grores Snrpsoy, Wray Park: Turrp Prize, 5/., for “Rosy 3rd”
(1540 J.H.B.), yellow fawn ; was calved January 26, 1884; in-milk;
calved April 8, 1888; bred by Mr. W. Alexander, jun., Les Marais, St.
Mary’s, Jersey; s. “ Wolseley” (2165 E.H.B.); d. “Rosy” (512 J.H.B.),
by “Carlo” (180 J. H. B.); g. d. “ Catherine” (1366).

983 THE Eart oF LonpEsporovuceH, Northerwood: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “Les Prairies Flandrine,” brown; was calved
March 29, 1883; in-milk; calved May 3, 1888; bred by Mr. P. W.
Picot, Beech Farm, St. John’s, Jersey; s. “Golden Cloud” (1632
E.H.B.); d. “Zinnia” (4519 J.H.B.), by “ Neptune” (586 E.H.B.)

Nos. 972 and 982 were Highly Commended.
Nes. 976, 977, 978, and 990 were Commended.

Class 90.—Jersey Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf ; calved in the
‘ear 1885. [16 entries. ]

996 Joun Epmunp Groom, Great Walsingham: First Prize, 15/., for
“ Buttermaker’s Daughter,” dark fawn; was calved September 23; in-
milk; calyed in June, 1887; bred by Mr. Robinson, St. Peter’s, Jersey ;
s. “ Buttermaker’s Boy” (432 J.H.B.); d. “ Joyful” (8720 J.H.B.).

1002 Huex C. Suir, Mount Clare, Roehampton, Surrey: Seconp Prize,
10/., for “ Beauty,” fawn; was calyed March 19; in-milk; calved April
20,1888; bred by the late Dr. Meadows, Poyle Manor, Colnbrook,
Buckinghamshire; s. “ Messenger” (1816); d. “Lily Grey,” by ‘‘ Mig-
non” (1157); g. d. “ La Perchade.”

1000 Tux Eart or Lonpessoroven, Northerwood: Turrp Prizp, 51, for
“ Governess,” dark fawn; was calved January 2; calved May 26, 1888 ;
bred by himself; s. “ Rainbow” (1943 E.H.B.); d. “ Dame Suzeraine.”

xe Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

994 Str Humpurey F. pe Trarrorp, Bart., Trafford Park, Manchester:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for ‘“ Rozels Fuschia,”
grey fawn; was calved May 27; in-calf; bred by Mr. J. Germain,
Ville Maux, Rozel, Jersey; s. “ Brave” (892 J.H.B.); d. “ Western”
(4098 J.H.B.).

Nos. 1003, 1005, and 1007 were Highly Commended.
Nos. 999 and 1008 were Commended.

Class 91.—Jersey Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [41 entries.]

1036 Epwarp Parsons Fow rer, Southampton: First Prize, 15/., for
“Golden Lass 4th,” brown; was calved March 16; in-calf; bred by
J. P. Marett, Jersey; s. “Sultan’s Cicero” (670 J.H.B.); d. “ Golden
Lass” (5711 J.H.B.).

1009 GrorcE Smipson, Wray Park, Reigate: Szconp Prizn, 10/., for
“ Pandora 10th,” grey fawn; was calved April 2; in-milk; calved
March 22, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Valentine” (2126); d. “Pandora
4th,” by “ Duke of Cyprus” (288); g. d. “ Pandora 2nd,” by “ Milord”
(566); gr. g. d. “ Pandora” (1645 J.H.B.).

1026 Hexyry James CornisH, Thornford, Sherborne, Dorsetshire: THrrp
Prize, 5/., for “ Madeira 8rd,” grey; was calved February 18; in-milk:
calved April 25, 1888; bred by Mr. E. Renouf, St. Brelade’s, Jersey ;
s. “ Wolseley” (2165 E.H.B.); d. “ Madeira” (2090 J.H.B.).

1034 Epwarp Parsons Fow er, Southampton: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “Cicero’s Sultan,” fawn; was calved April 25;
in-calf; bred by Mr. J. P. Marett, Jersey; s. “Sultan’s Cicero” (670
J.H.B.); d. “Sultana 7th” (771 J.H.B.).

Nos, 1013, 1015, 1017, 1022, 1028, 1037, 1039, 1041, 1044, 1045, and 1046
were Highly Commended.

Nos, 1010 and 1032 were Commended.

Class 92.—Jersey Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [44 entries.]

1070 Henry James Cornisu, Thornford, Sherborne: First Prize, 162,
for “Fair Angela,” fawn; was calved June 12; bred by Mr. F. Le
Brocq, St. Peter’s, Jersey; s. “ Highland Lad” (845 J.H.B.); d. “ Miss
Angela” (2040 J.H.B.)

1050 Grorer Snmrrson, Wray Park, Reigate: Turrp Prize, 10/., for “ Lady
Godiva,” yellow fawn; was calved July 9; bred by himself; s.
Zerebat (1886 E.H.B.); d. “ Lady Georgina,” by “Nero du Coin”
(1849 E.H.B) ; g. d. “ Ferrieres’ Pride ” (6727 J.H.B.).

1065 Grorer WittiAm Parmer, Elmhurst, Reading, Berkshire: THrrp
Prize, 5/., for “Fancy’s Pride,” fawn; was calved April 27; bred
by himself; s. “Baron Elmhurst 4th;” d. “ Wolseley’s Fancy,” by
“ Wolseley” (2165); g. d. “ Bobby’s Last” (6641).

10984 Mrs. Perkins, of Oakdene, Holmwood, Surrey: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended, for “Lady Prim,” light fawn; was calyed
January 18; bred by herself; s. “Lord of Carolina;” d, “ Longue-
ville Pride,” by “Cossack ;” g. d. “ Duchess Galopin.”

Nos, 1052, 1053, 1071, 1072, and 1091 were Highly Commended,

Nos, 1057, 1073, 1076, 1080, 1083, 1088, and 1090 were Commended.

Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xci

Guernsey.

Class 93.—Guernsey Bulls, calved in either 1883, 1884, 1885, or
1886. [12 entries. ] :

1098 Hueu Srantey Morris, Pear Tree House, Bitterne, Southampton:
First Prize, 20/., for “Norman” (198 E.G.H.B.), red and white;
was calved August 7, 1886; bred by Mr. F. Carey, The Cottage,
Castel, Guernsey; s. “ Volage;” d. “Trophy.”

1097 Witt1am AntHony Gtiynyn, Seagrove, Seaview, Isle of Wight:
Seconp Prizz, 102, for “ Hopeful” (25 E.G.H.B), orange fawn and
white ; was calyed May 17, 1884; bred by himself.

1103 Str Francts Monrnriorn, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, Sussex:
Turrp Prizs, 5/., for “Sir Francis” (155), fawn and white; was
calyed in December, 1884; bred by Mr. Robins, Castel, Guernsey; s.
“Climax” (48); d. “Fair Lass” (562); g. d. “ Mignonette” (229),
by “Fleurie;” gr. g. d. “Type 2nd” (163), by “Champion” (87);
gr. g.g. a. “Type Ist.”

1096 Grorer Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew, Marlborough, Wilts: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Original” (461), pale
red and white; was calvyed October 18, 1886; bred by Mr. G. Wil-
liams, Guernsey ; s. “Master Dick” (238); d. “Gold Drop of Mount
Arrisé,’

Class 94.—Guernsey Bulls, calved in the Year 1887. [9 entries.]

1112 Huew Srantry Morris, Pear Tree House, Bitterne: Frrst Prize,
20/., for “ Constantine,” fawn and white; was calved May 15; bred
by Major Green, St. Martin’s, Guernsey; s. “ Master Tom” (170);
d, “ Constance 2nd” (166).

1110 Wrirram AntHoNy Gtynn, Seagrove : Sxconp Prizn, 101., for
“ Surprise,” orange fawn and white; was calved July 26; bred by
himself; d. “ Havant.”

1111 Hoes Srantey Morris, Pear Tree House, Bitterne: THrrp Prize,
51., for “ Humphry,” fawn and white; was calved May 15; bred by
Major Green, St. Martin’s, Guernsey; s. “ Master Tom” (170); d.
* Constance 2nd” (166).

1108 Georce Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended, for “ Goldfield,’ lemon fawn and white; was
calved December 6; bred by himself; s. “ Cloth of Gold 17th” (87
E.G.H.B.); d. “ Lady Moore” (600 E.G.H.B.), by “ Mahomet ;” g. d.
“Polly.”

No. 1109 was Highly Commended.

No. 1113 was Commended.

Class 95.—Guernsey Cows or Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, calved
previously to or in the Year 1885. [12 entries. ]

1119 Hue Stantey Morris, Pear Tree House, Bitterne: First Prizp,
15/., for “Blossom” (21 E.G.H.B.), fawn and white; was calved
June 24, 1880; in-milk; calved March 10, 1888; bred by Mr. W. A.
Glynn, Seagrove, Seaview, Isle of Wight.

1117 Wittiam AntTHoNy GLynN, Seagrove: Srconp Prizp, 10/., for
“la Belle” (15 E.G.H.B.), orange, white and fawn; was calved
June 4, 1884; in-milk; calvyed June 8, 1888; bred by himself; s,

xcii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

“Billy 4th” (7 E.G.H.B.); d. “Lovely 2nd” (217 E.G.H.B.), by
“Billy 8rd;” g. d. “ Lovely Ist,” by “ Johnny Ist;” gr.g. d.
“ Beauty.”

1115 GzorcEe Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew, Marlborough: Tuirp Prize,
51., for “ Rheta ” (666 E.G.H.B.), lemon fawn and white; was
calved June 30, 1884; in-milk; calved December 10, 1887; and in-
calf; bred by Mr. E. Cohn, Landes du Marché, Vale, Guernsey; s.
“ Emigrant” (173); d. “ Rosette 2nd” (655), by “ Royal George ”
(120) ; g. d. “ Rosette” (529).

1125 Wiirram Davin Tucker, 74, High Street, Southampton: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Butter of Gold 3rd,” red and
white; was calyed April 20, 1834; in-calf; bred by Mr. F. Le
Messurier, St. Martin’s, Guernsey; s. “ Barman” (186); d. “ Butter of
Gold” (9431).

Nos. 1116 and 1126 were Highly Commended.
No. 1120 was Commended.

Class 96.—Guernsey Heifers, calved in the Year 1886. [12 entries.]

1129 Wititiama AntHoony Gutynn, Seagrove: First Prizes, 165/., for
“Favourite 7th” (7593 E.G.H.B.), orange fawn and white; was
calved July 22; in-calf; bred by himself; s. “Champion” (11
E.G.H.B.) ; d. “Favourite 4th” (111 E.G.H.B.), by “ Billy 4th” (7
E.G.H.B.); g. d. “ Favourite 2nd” (110 E.G.H.B.).

1131 Hvueu Srantey Morris, Pear Tree House, Bitterne, Southampton:
Second Prizx, 10/., for “ Frederica 4th” (558 E.G.H.B.), fawn and
white; was calved April 22; in-milk; calved April 18, 1888; bred
by himself ; s. “ Welcome” (198); d. ‘‘ Frederica 38rd” (657 E.G.H.B.)
by “Sarago” (32); g. d. “ Lady Frederica;” gr. g. d. “ Fayorita of
Saints.”

1128 Gzorce Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew, Marlborough: THIRD PRIZE,
51, for “Fan 4th” (544 E.G.H.B.), lemon fawn and white; was —
calved August 9; in-milk; calved May 9, 1888; bred by himself; s.
“Minstrel” (234); d. “Fan 3rd” (543 E.G.H.B.), by “ Farmer's
Pride” (157); g. d. “Fan 2nd” (105) by “ Trial” (94); gr.g. d. “ Fan”
(46), by “ Baron” (90); gr. g. g. d. “ Rose.”

1132 Tur Express Datry Company, Lruirsp, College Farm, Finchley,
Middlesex: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Con-
stantia” (1926), orange fawn and white; was calved January 31;
in-milk; calved May 5, 1888; bred by Mr. T. Le Patourel, Ville
Amphrey, St. Martin’s, Guernsey; s. “ Ajax” (208); d. “Black
Watch” (1319).

No. 1180 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 1133 and 1186 were Commended.

Class 97.—G'uernsey Heifers, calved in the Year 1887. [20 entries. ]

1140 Grorcr Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew: Frrst Prize, 15/., for “ Nora
3rd,” fawn and white; was calved March 25; bred by himself;
s. “Cloth of Gold 17th” (87 E.G.H.B.); d. “Nora 2nd” (rm by
“Dr. Bill” (161); g. d. “Nora” (498), by “St. Andrews 2nd” (2).

1141 Grorcr Lone, Ogbourne St. Andrew: Srconp Prize, 10/., for
“Colonia 1st;” lemon fawn and white; was calved March 11;

Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xclil

bred by himself; s. “Cloth of Gold 17th” (87 E.G.H.B.); d.
“Colonia” (338 E.G.H.B.) by “Turk” (165); g. d. “Polly 2nd of
Marais” (400),

1151 Tas Express Darry Company, Luwirenp, Finchley: Tutrp Prize,
5l., for “ Polly 4th,” fawn and "white ; was calved “May 28; bred by
themselves ; Sagar Squire of the King’s ’Mills” (802); d. “ Polly 3rd,”
by “ Luther ” (199).

1156 Srr Francis Monterrors, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, Sussex: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Laura 3rd,” fawn and
white; was calved August 20; bred by himself; s. “ Valentine;” d.
“ Laura 2nd” (1986), by “ Royalist.”

No. 1146 was Highly Commended.
No, 1157 was Commended,

Dairy Cattle.

Class 98.—Zwo Dairy Cows of the Shorthorn Type, in-milk.* [10
entries. |

1159 Witr1am Hortrs, Jun., Pleasley Vale, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire :
Frrst -Prizp, 20/., for “Daisy,” roan; was calved in February,
1883; calved March 26, 1888; bred by Mr. B. P. Gregson, Caton,
Lancashire ; and for “ Sabrina,” roan; was calved July 31, 1882; in-
calf; bred by the late Mr. Joseph Gibson; s. “ Fortune Teller ” (44836) ;
d. “ Seylla,” by “ Captain Gwynne ” (37940).

1161 JospepH Harris, Calthwaite Hall, Carlisle, Cumberland: Srconp
Prize, 101, for “ Indian Girl,” roan; was calved April 8, 1882;
calved April 10, 1888 ; bred ‘by himself; s. ‘ Wild Strawberry”
(44264) ; d,“ Indian Maid, pe Wild Indian ” (82867); and for “ Lady
Mary,” roan; was calved in 1882; calved March 6, 1888; bred by
Mr. M. Savage, Keld, Westmoreland ; s. “ Earl of Doune” (365 79).

1164 Georcr THompson, Mousley End House, Wroxall, Warwickshire:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Clarissa,” roan;
was calyed February 7, 1882; calved March 1, 1888; bred by Mr.
Kendal, Droitwich ; s. “ Albion;” d. “Cecilia 3rd,” by “ Javellar;”
g. 4. “Cecilia Ist,” by “St. Patrick;” gr. g. d. “Cecilia,” by “St.
John;” and for “ Miss Plumper,” roan; was calved March 1, 1881;
calved March 1, 1888; bred by himself; s. “ Ada’s Prince.”

Nos. 1160 and 1163 were Commended.

Class 99.—7'wo Dairy Heifers, under three years old, in-milk, of
any breed or cross.* [3 entries. |

1169 Joseph Harris, Calthwaite Hall, Carlisle, Cumberland: First
Prize, 15/., for “Oxford Duchess of Calthwaite 4th” (Shorthorn) ;
was calved October 1, 1885; s. “Duke of Holker 7th” (49456); d.
“Turncroft Duchess of Oxford, H by “Grand Duke 39th” (43308) ;
g. a. “Oxford Duchess of Killhow,” by “Oxford Duke of Killhow ”
(42091) ; and for “Eva Gwynne” (Shorthorn) ; was calved July 13,
1885 ; s. “ Model Butterfly ” (53323) ; d. “ Polly Gwynne,” by “ The
Colonel ” (85747); g. d. “Nannie Gwynne,” by “ British Knight”
(33230). Both bred by himself.

1170 Jonn Jervis Suarp, Broughton, Kettering, Northamptonshire :
SEconp Prize, 10/., for “Statira 33rd” (Shorthorn), roan; was

xciv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

calved November 26, 1885; calved February 28, 1888; s. “Con-
naught Lad” (47619) ; d. “Statira 31st,” by “ Viceroy” (47198); g. d.
“Statira 29th,” by “ Duke of Darlington 4th ” (38138); and for “Phylia’s
Bud” (Shorthorn); was calved January 28, 1886; calved May 31,
1888; s. “Connaught Lad” (47619); d. “ Phylia,” by “ Baron
Shendish 5th” (44874); g. d. “ Prize Flower,” by “ Duke of Darling-
ton 4th” (38138). :

1171 Lorp Eerrton of Tarron, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “ Her Highness,” red and
white; was calved in November, 1885; and his “ Roan ;” was calved
in March, 1886, Both bred by himself.

Class 100.!—Dairy Cow in-milk of any breed or cross, over 1,200 lbs.
live weight, and giving not less than 40lbs. (about 4 imperial
gallons) of milk daily.* [9 entries.

1177 Witt1am ArxwricHt, Sutton Scarsdale, Chesterfield, Derbyshire:
a Prize of 165l., for “Scarsdale Beauty” (cross-bred), roan; was
calved in 1881; calved May 9, 1888; breeder unknown.

1178 Gores Sampson, Beauchief Abbey, Sheffield: a Prize of 161,
for “Daisy” (Shorthorn), roan; calved June 11, 1888; age and
breeder unknown.

Class 101.!\—Dairy Cow in-milk of any breed or cross, under 1,200 lbs.
live weight, and gwing not less than 25 lbs, (about 25 imperial
gallons) of mitk daily. [12 entries. }

1192 Wriir1am Davrss, Bollington, Altrincham, Cheshire: Frrst Prize,
201., for “ Daisy ” (Jersey), silver grey and white; was calved in 1884;
calved May 22, 1888; breeder unknown.

1183 Epwarp Carrer, Puckpool House, Ryde, Isle of Wight: Srconp
Prizu, 10/., for “Frieda” (Jersey), fawn; was calved April 28,
1880; calved March 2, 1888; bred by Messrs. J. and M. Arnold, of
Court Farm, West Meon, Hampshire; s, “Five Hides” (826); d.
“Nan 3rd,” by “ Young Prince” (683).

SHEEP.

Leicester.
Class 102.—Zwo-Shear Rams. [11 entries. ]
1200 Rosurr Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, Yorkshire:

First Prize, 15/.; was dropped in March, 1886; bred by the late Mr.
T. Stamper, Highfield House, Oswaldkirk.

1193 Traspatr H. Hurcurnson, Manor House, Oatterick, Yorkshire:
Srconp Prize, 10/.; was dropped March 17, 1886; bred by himself.

1194 Tnaspatn H, Hurcuryson: Turrp Prizn, 5/.; was dropped in
March, 1886; bred by himself.

1202 Tom D. Srricknanp, the Stud Farm, Thirsk Junction, Yorkshire:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended ; was dropped in March,
1886; bred by Mr. J. B. Green, Silsden, Yorkshire.

No. 1195 was Highly Commended. ;

No. 1199 was Commended.

1 The prizes for Classes 100 and 101 were awarded on the certificate of the
Steward of Cattle.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xcV

Class 103.—Shearling Rams. [14 entries. ]

1205 Joun and Davi Linton, Low Street Brewery, Bedale, Yorkshire:
Frrst Prize, 15/.; was dropped April 12, 1887; bred by themselves.

1213 Ropert Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont: Szeconp Prize,
102. ; was dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1214 Ropert Harrison: THrrp Prize, 5/.; was dropped in March, 1887 ;
bred by himself.

1217 Witt1am Watsu, Gilstead, Bingley, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number
and Commended; was dropped March 7, 1887; bred by Mr.
J. B. Green, Low House Farm, Silsden.

Class 104.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three.
[6 entries. |

1222 Wit WaAtsH, Gilstead : Frrst Prize, 10/7. ; were dropped March 2 ;
bred by Mr. J. B. Green, Low House Farm, Silsden.

1220 Rosert Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont: Szconp Prize,
57. ; were dropped in March; bred by himself.

1221 Witriam Wats, Gilstead, Bingley: the Reserve Number and Com-
mended ; were dropped March 2; bred by Mr. J. B. Green, Low
House Farm, Silsden.

Class 105.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Fwe. [6 entries.]

1228 Ernest Francis JoRDAN, Eastburn, Driffield, Yorkshire: Frrsr Prizs,
151. ; were dropped in April, 1887 ; hred by himself.

1229 Ernest Francis Jonpan : Second Prize, 10/.; were dropped in April,
1887 ; bred by himself.

1225 Mrs. Perry Herrick, Beau Manor Park, Loughborough, Leicester-
shire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended; were dropped
about Apri] 1, 1887; bred by herself.

Border Leicester. :

Class 106.—Rams, Two-Shear and upwards. [10 entries.]
1234 Samurt Jack, Crichton Mains, Pathhead, Dalkeith, Midlothian :
First Prizs, 15/.; was dropped in May, 1885; bred by himself,

1231 THs Ricut Hon. ArtHurR J. Barrour, M.P., Whittinghame,
Prestonkirk, N.B.: Sxconp Prize, 10/.; was dropped in March,

1886 ; bred by himself.

1236 AtExanDER R. Metyry, Bonnington, Wilkieston, Midlothian: Tarrp
Prize, 5/.; was dropped in March, 1884; bred by Messrs. Clark,
Oldhamstocks Mains, Cockburnspath, Haddingtonshire.

1233 THomas Writer, High Coniscliffe, Darlington, Co. Durham: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was dropped in March,
1886; bred by the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., Whittinghame,
Prestonkirk.

The whole Class was Commended.

Class 107.—Shearling Rams. [20 entries.]

1241 Tue Rieur Hon. Arruur J. Batrour, M.P., Whittinghame: First
Prize, 15/,; was dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

x¢cvl Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

1255 ALEXANDER R. Metyry, Bonnington, Wilkieston, Midlothian: Szconp
Prize, 10/.; was dropped in March, 1887; bred by himself.

1240 Tur Ricur Hon. Artuur J. Barrour, M.P., of Whittinghame:
THIRD PRIZE, 5/.; was dropped in March, 1887; bred by himself.

1249 Samvret Jack, Crichton Mains, Pathhead, Dalkeith, N.B.: was
dropped about February, 1887 ; bred by himself.

Class 108.—Zwes, Two-Shear and upwards. Pens of Five.
[7 entries. ]
1260 THe Ricut Hon. Arrutr J. Barrovr, M.P., Whittinghame,
Prestonkirk: Frrst Prize, 15/.; ages various; bred by himself.

1265 ALEXANDER R. Metyry, of Bonnington, Wilkieston, Midlothian,
N.B.: Second Prize, 10/.; ages various; bred by himself.

1261 GrorecE Sruson, Courthill, Kelso, Roxburgh, N.B.: Tatrp Prizs,
51.; were dropped in March, 1884; bred by himself.

1266 Samvurt P. Foster, Killhow, Mealsgate, Carlisle, Cumberland: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended; ages various; bred by
himself.

Class 109.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. [6 entries.]

1267 THe Ricut Hon. Arruur J. Batrour, M.P., Whittinghame,
Prestonkirk: First Prizs, 15/.; were dropped in March, 1887; bred
by himself.

1272 ALEXANDER R. Metyry, Bonnington: Sreconp Prizz, 10/.; were
dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1268 GrorcE Srason, Courthill, Kelso, Roxburgh, N.B.: Turrp Prize,
5/.; were dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1269 Tuomas Wynter, High Coniscliffe, Darlington, Co. Durham: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended ; were dropped in March,
18&7 ; bred by himself.

The whole Class was Highly Commended.

Cotswold.
Class 110.—7Zwo-Shear Rams. [4 entries.]
1275 GrorcE BaGNatt, Westwell Manor, Burford, Oxon.: Frrst Prize,
151. ; was dropped in February, 1886 ; bred by himself.
1276 Grorcre BaGNnatt: Seconp Prize, 10/.; was dropped in January,
1886 ; bred by himself. -
1273 Russert Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester,

Gloucestershire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was
dropped February 10, 1886 ; bred by himself.

Class 111.—Shearling Rams. [6 entries.|

1277 Russert Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester:
First Prize, 15/.; was dropped February 7, 1887; bred by himself.

1280 Russert Swanwick: Seconp Prize, 10/.; was dropped February 7,
1887 ; bred by himself. ;

1278 Russet Swanwick: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended ;
was dropped February 7, 1887 ; bred by himself,

No. 1279 was Commended,

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xevii

Class 112.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888. Pens of Three.
[3 entries. |
1284 Rosert Jacoss, Signet Hill, Burford, Oxfordshire: Frrst Prizs, 10/.;
were dropped in January; bred by himself.

1285 Roserr Jacoss: Sreconp Prize, 5/.; were dropped about January
24; bred by himself.

1283 Russert Swanwick, Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester :
the Reserve Number and Commended; were dropped February 14;
bred by himself.

Class 1138.—Shearling Hwes.—Pens of Five. [2 entries. ]

1286 JosppH Mappocxs, Llanwarne Court, Hereford: First Prize, 151. ;
were dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1287 Grorcr Bacnatt, Westwell Manor, Burford: Seconp Prizs, 101. ;
were dropped in January, 1587 ; bred by himself.

Lincoln.
Class 114.!—T7wo-Shear Rams. [14 entries. ]

1294 Rosert Wricut, Nocton Heath, Lincoln: Frrst Prize, 25/.; was
dropped in February or March, 1886; bred by Mr. Charles Clarke,
Scopwick, Lincoln.

1300 Jonn Prars, Mere, Lincoln: Seconp Prize, 15/.; was dropped in
February, 1886; bred by himself.

1295 Rosert WrieuHt, Nocton Heath: Turep Prize, 5/.; was dropped in
February, or March, 1886 ; bred by himself.

1290 Henry Duppine, Riby Grange, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was dropped about March
14, 1886; bred by Mr. H. Mackinder, Langton, Spilsby, Lincolnshire.

Class 115.—Shearling Rams. [47 entries.]

1310 Henry Duppine, Riby Grange: First Prize, 30/.; was dropped about
March 14, 1887; bred by himself.

1316 Rosert Waicut, Nocton Heath: Sreconp Prizn, 20/.; was dropped
in February or March, 1887; bred by himself.

1317 Ropert Waicur: Turrp Prize, 16/.; was dropped in February or
March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1340 Jonny Pranrs, Mere, Lincoln: Fourra Prizz, 10/.; was dropped in
February, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1306 Henry Duppine, Riby Grange: Firra Prizz, 57. ; was dropped about
March 14, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1319 Roserr Wrieut, Nocton Heath: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended ; was dropped in February or March, 1887; bred by
himself.

Nos. 1320 and 1347 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 1302, 1334, 1339, 1341, and 1546 were Commended.

1 Towards the Prizes for Lincoln Sheep 95/7. was contributed to the funds
of the Local Committee by the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society,

xevill Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 116.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three.
[12 entries.] i

1358 Joun Prars, Mere, Lincoln: First Prize, 15/.; were dropped in
February ; bred by himself,

1359 Jonn Prars: SeconD Prize, 10/.; were dropped in February ; bred
by himself.

1356 Wu11am Ros, North Scarle Field, Newark: the Reserve Number and
Commended ; were dropped in February ; bred by himself.

The whole Class was Commended.

Class 117.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. [10 entries.]

1361 Henry Duppine, Riby Grange: First Prize, 25/.; were dropped
about March 14, 1887; bred by himself.

1363 Rosert Wricut, Nocton Heath: Srconp Prizz, 15/.; were dropped
in February or March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1365 Witr1Am Hessentinr, Beaumont Cote, Barton-on-Humber, Lincoln-
shire: Turrp Prize, 5/.; were dropped in March, 1887; bred by
himself.

1369 James CartwrieHt, Dunston Pillar, Dunston, Lincolnshire : the
Reserve Number and Commended ; were dropped about February 20,
1887 ; bred by W. and J. Cartwright, Dunston Pillar.

Other Long-Woolled.
Class 118.—7Zwo-Shear Rams. [2 entries.]

1371 Str Joun Huarucoar Hearncoat Amory, Bart., Knightshayes
Court, Tiverton, Devonshire: First Prize, 10/., for his Devon long-
wool ; was dropped February 21, 1886; bred by himself.

1372 Str Jonn Hearncoat Heatucoar Amory, Bart.: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for his Devon long-wool; was
dropped February 14, 1886; bred by himself.

Class 119.—Shearling Rams. [5 entries.]

1376 Atrrep ©, Sxryyer, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard, Somerset:
First Prizn, 10/., for his Devon long-wool; was dropped about
February 1, 1887; bred by himself.

1374 Str Joun Huarncoar Hnarucoar Amory, Bart., Knightshayes
Court: Srconp Prizp, 5/., for his Devon long-wool ; was dropped
February 28, 1887; bred by himself.

1375 Joun and Davin Linron, Low Street Brewery, Bedale, Yorkshire:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for their Deyon long-
wool ; was dropped April 17, 1887; bred by themselves,

Class 120.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. [1 entry.]

1378 Str Joun Hearncoar Heratncoar Amory, Bart., Knightshayes
Court: First Prize, 10/., for his Devon long-wools; were dropped
jn February and March, 1887 ; bred by himself,

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. xcix

Oxfordshire Down.
Class 121.— Two-Shear Rams. [3 entries. ]

1381 CuHartes Hosss, Maisey Hampton, Fairford, Gloucestershire: Frrst
Prizz, 15/,; was dropped about February 15, 1886; bred by himself.

1380 Grorcr Srreet, Maulden, Ampthill, Bedfordshire: Srconp Prizz,
107. ; was dropped in February, 1886; bred by himself; s. “ Tread-
well’s No. 25;” d. by “ Treadwell’s No. 2.”

Class 122.—Shearling Rams, [29 entries. ]

1401 Grorcr ApAms, Pidnell, Faringdon, Berkshire: Frrst Prize, 15/.,
for “ The Duke ;” was dropped in January, 1887 ; bred by himself; s.
“Mr. Druce’s No. 5;” d. by “ Young Swell.”

1394 Joun TreapweELL, Upper Winchendon, Aylesbury, Bucks: Srconp
Prize, 10/., for “No. 117;” was dropped about February 22, 1887 ;
bred by himself ; s. “ Case’s No. 10;” d. by “ Baron Oxford.”

1390 Joun TREADWELL: THIRD Prize, 5/., for “No. 74;” was dropped
about February 15, 1887; bred by himself; s. “ Brassey No. 22;”
d, by“ Duke of Oxford,”

1391 Joun TREADWELL: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for
“No. 55;” was dropped about February 15, 1887 ; bred by himself; s,
“Young Freeland ;” d. by “ Young Comet.”

Nos. 1882, 1388, 1392, 1395, 1398, 1899, and 1409 were Highly Commended.

The whole Class was Commended.

Class 123.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888.—Pens of
Three. (6 entries. ]

1413 Rozert W. Hoxgss, Kelmscott, Lechlade, Gloucestershire: First
Prize, 10/.; were dropped about January 25; bred by himself.

1412 A. F. Mitton Drvcs, of Fyfield, Abingdon, Berks: Srconp Prize,
51. ; were dropped about February 7 ; bred by himself.

1415 Grorer ApAms, Pidnell, Faringdon: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended ; were dropped in January; bred by himself; s, “ Mr,
Druce’s No. 5.”

Class 124.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. [6 entries. ]

1421 Guorer Apams, Pidnell: First Prizm, 15/.; were dropped in January,
1887; bred by himself; s. “Mr, Druce’s No.5;” d. by “Young
Swell.”

1417 Grorer Srrepr, Maulden, Ampthill, Bedfordshire: Szconp Prizz,
102. ; were dropped in February, 1887; bred by himself; ss. “C.
Howard’s No. i” and “Treadwell’s No, 25;” dd. by “ Treadwell’s
No. 2” and “ No. 28.”

1422 Tur Countess oF CAMPERDOWN, Weston House, Shipston-on-Stour,
Warwickshire: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended; were
dropped in February, 1887 ; bred by herself.

Nos. 1418, 1419, and 1420 were Commended,

c Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Shropshire.
Class 125.—Z'wo-Shear Rams. [24 entries.]

1436 JosrpH Bxracu, The Hattons, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire: Frrst
Prizx, 15/., for “ Royal Jubilee ;” was dropped in March, 1886 ; bred
by himself ; s. “ Royal Chief” (1022) ; d. by “ Minton’s Pride” (858).

1433 Joun Harpine, Norton House, Shifnal, Salop: Ssconp Prizp, 10/.,
for “ Lord Cardigan;” was dropped March 4, 1886; bred by himself.

1423 Francis Bacu, Onibury, Craven Arms, Salop: ‘THrrp Prizp, 5/.;*
was dropped March 19, 1886; bred by himself; s. “ Baron Coxcombe”
(1846) ; d. by “ Double R” (172).

1431 Arruvur S. Grason, Springhill, Bulwell, Nottinghamshire: Fourra
Prizs, 2/.,* for “ Bulwell Prince ;” was dropped in March, 1886; bred
by himself.

1446 Mrs. Barrs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone; the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended ; was dropped in March, 1886; bred by herself.

No. 1427 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 1484 and 1438 were Commended.

Class 126.—Shearling Rams. [99 entries. ]

1468 A. E. Mansett, Broughton, Harmer Hill, Shrewsbury: First Prize,
15J.; was dropped in March, 1887; bred by himself.

1521 Tur Exucurors oF THE LATE SiR Ropert Lover, Bart., Whittlebury,
Towcester, Northamptonshire: Seconp Prize, 10/.; was ‘dropped
March 1, 1887; bred by the late Sir Robert Loder, Bart.; s. “The
Dean” (2356) ; d. by “ Chesham 2nd” (362),

1480 Mrs. Barrs, Odstone Hall: Tu1rp Prize, 5/. ;* was dropped in March,
1887 ; bred by herself.

1514 JosrpH Beracu, The Hattons, Wolverhampton: FourrH Prizp, 2/.;*
was dropped March 2, 1887; bred by himself.

1479 Mrs. Barrs, Odstone Hall: the Reserve Number and Highly Com-
mended ; was dropped in March, 1887; bred by herself,

Nos. 1448, 1462, 1472, 1481, 1483, 1485, 1491, 1506, 1515, 1522, and 1528
were Ilighly Commended.

Nos. 1449, 1455, 1461, 1463, 1465, 1471, 1478, 1489, 1490, 1492, 1517,
1525, 1527, 1529, and 1536 were Commended.

Class 127.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888. Pens of
[22 entries. ]

1551 Tuomas and Samvrpt Brapsurnne, Ashwood Hill, Redditch, Wor-
cestershire: Frrst Prize, 10/.; were dropped in March; bred by
themselves; s. “Iron Chief.” :

1560 Tun Execurors of THE LATE Sir Ropurr Lover, Bart., Whittlebury,
Towcester: Srconp Prizp, 5/.; were dropped March 15; bred by the
late Sir Robert Loder, Bart.; ss. “The Baronet” and “ Aberdeen”
(2449); dd. by “Dudmaston Hero” (165), “Chesham 2nd” (362),
and “ Marl of Leicester” (171).

1554 Ricuarp Brown, Ruyton of the Eleven Towns, Salop; Turrp PRizE
3/.;* were dropped in March; bred by himself; s. “ Preston Grand
Ohief” (3175); d. by “ Prince Victor” (158),

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. x

1550 THomAs and SAMUEL BrapBuRNE, of Ashwood Hill, Redditch: FourtH
PrizE, 2/.;* were dropped in March, 1888: bred by themselves; s.
“Tron Chief.”

1558 Ricuarp Tuomas, The Buildings, Baschurch, Salop: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, were dropped in March, 1888; bred
by himself.

No. 1546 was Highly Commended.

Class 128.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five.
[26 entries. ]

1589 Purine Arnert Munrz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire:
First Prizy, 15/.; were dropped in February and March, 1887; bred
by exhibitor; ss. “The Candidate” (2838), and “ Dunsmore Ist”
(2009).

1586 Tuomas S. Miyron, Montford, Salop: Snconp Prizn, 10/.; were
dropped in February or March, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1574 Witttam F. Inen, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, Staffordshire: Turrp
Prizp, 5/.;* were dropped in March, 1887; bred by himself; s. “Sir
Arthur Thorpe” (2814).

1592 JosppH Putter, Lower Eaton, Hereford: FourrH Prizs, 2/.;* were
dropped March 1, 1887; bred by himself; ss. “Touchstone” (1775),
and “Young Blue Blood” (2877); dd. by ‘Touchstone” (1775),
“ Raton Sultan” (1455), and ‘ Young Colossus” (1301).

1593 R. M. Kyowtzs, Colston Bassett Hall, Bingham, Nottinghamshire:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended ; were dropped in March,
1887; bred by himself.

Nos. 1573 and 1577 were Highly Commended.
Nos. 1570, 1584 and 1590 were Commended.

Southdown.

Class 129.—7wo-Shear Rams. [18 entries. ]
1610 Epwin Etis, Shalford, Guildford, Surrey: Frrst Prizz, 15/.; was
dropped about February 14, 1886; bred by himself.

1607 Jeremiau J. Comman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich; Srconp Prize,
102.; was dropped March 1, 1886; bred by himself.

1594 H.R.H. Tus Prince or Watzs, K.G., Sandringham, Norfolk: Turrp
Prize, 5/.; was dropped in March, 1886; bred by His Royal High-
ness.

1595 H.R.H. Tur Prince or Watns, K.G.: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended ; was dropped in March, 1886; bred by His Royal
Highness,

Nos. 1604 and 1609 were Highly Commended.
Nos, 1597, 1600, 1602, and 1611 were Commended,

Class 180.—Shearling Rams. [27 entries.]

1634 Jermwtan J. Corman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich; First Prize,
15/,; was dropped March 1, 1887; bred by himself,

WOl., XXIV.—S. S. h

cil Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

1635 Jeremian J. Cotman, M.P.: Seconp Prizz, 10/.; was dropped
March 1, 1887; bred by himself.

1613 H.R.H. Tae Privce or Watss, K.G., Sandringham: Turrp Prrzu,
5/.; was dropped in March, 1887; bred by His Royal Highness.

1619 Tur Dux or Richmond AnD Gorpon, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester,
Sussex: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was dropped in
February, 1887; bred by himself.

Nos. 1615, 1632, and 1636 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 1618, 1620, 1627, and 1629 were Commended.

Class 131.—-Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888. Pens of Three.
[14 entries. |
1640 ALrrep Hnasman, Court Wick, Littlehampton, Sussex: First Prize,
10/.; were dropped February 15; bred by himself.
1647 Tun PacHam Harpour Co., Selsey, Chichester, Sussex: SECOND
Prize, 5/.; were dropped in February ; bred by themselves.

1650 JerpemiAnH J, Corman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended ; were dropped about March 1, 1888;
bred by himself.

No, 1651 was Highly Commended.

Class 132.—Shearling Ewes. Pens of Five. |[9 entries. |

1654 Tur Duxs or Ricamond anp Gorpon, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester,
Sussex: First Prize, 15/.; were dropped in February, 1887; bred by
himself.

1659 Jneremran J. Cotman, M.P., Carrow House: Srconp Prizz, 10/.;
were dropped about March 1, 1887 ; bred by himself,

1660 Epwiy Ettis, Shalford, Guildford: Turrp Prizn, 5/.; were dropped
about February 14, 1887; bred by himself.

1661 Tur Duxe or Hamitron AND Brannon, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market, Suffolk: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended ; were
dropped in March, 1887; bred by himself.

No. 1657 was Highly Commended.

The whole Class was Commended.

Hampshire Down.
Class 188.—7Z'wo-Shear Rams. [8 entries. ]

1665 Henry Lamubnrt, Babraham, Cambridge: First Prize, 161; was
dropped about January 14, 1886; bred by himself. ;

1667 C. and T. Corns, Manor House, Winterbourne Stoke, Salisbury,
Wiltshire : Srconp Prizp, 10/.; was dropped February 7, 1886; bred
by themselves. :

1662 Frank R. Moors, Littlecott, Upavon, Marlborough, Wiltshire +
Tuirp Prrzp, 5/.; was dropped in January, 1886; bred by himself.

1669 TH CoLttrcr or AaRicuLruRE, Downton, Hampshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended ; was dropped January 20, 1886 ; bred
by themselves,

,

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. cili

Class 134.—Shearling Rams. [11 entries.]”

1672 Henry Lamsert, Babraham, Cambridge: First Prize, 15/.; was
dropped about January i4, 1887; bred by himself.

1671 Frank R. Moors, Littlecott, Upavon, Marlborough: Srconp Prizp,
102. ; was dropped in January, 1887 ; bred by himself.

1679 Roxsert Cotzs, The Grange, Warminster, Wiltshire: Turrp Prize, 5,
for “ Young Victor;” was dropped about January 20, 1887; bred by
himself. ‘

1677 C. and T. Cores, Manor House, Winterbourne Stoke, Salisbury: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended ; was dropped February 1,
1887 ; bred by themselves.

No. 1673 was Commended.

Class 135.—Ram Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888,.—Pens of
Three. [6 entries. |

1685 Joun Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Frrst Prize,
102. ; were dropped in January, 1888; bred by himself.

1682 Henry Lampert, Babraham, Cambridge: Seconp Prize, 5/.; were
dropped about January 20 ; bred by himself.

1683 Rosert Cores, The Grange, Warminster: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended; were dropped about January 20; bred by
himself.

No. 1681 was Commended.

Class 136.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. [4 entries.]

1688 Henry Perry Keene, Rowfant, Crawley, Sussex: First Prize, 151.;
were dropped in January, 1887 ; bred by himself,

1689 C, and T. Cotzs, of Manor House, Winterbourne Stoke, Salisbury :
Seconp Prize, 10/.; were dropped about February 7, 1887; bred by
themselves.

1687 Frank R. Moore, Littlecott, Upavon, Marlborough: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended; were dropped in January, 1887 ;
bred by himself.

Suffolk.

Class 187.—Zwo-Shear Rams. [5 entries. ]

1695 Tue Marauis or Bristo1, Ickworth Park, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk :
First Prize, 15/., for “ Van Gwynne Ist ;” was dropped January 15,
1886 ; bred by himself.

1691 Josrra Suiru, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon, Woodbridge, Suffolk: Szconp
Prize, 10/., for “ Bismarck ;” was dropped in February, 1886 ; bred by
himself.

1692 JoserH Sut: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for
“ Norwich ;” was dropped in February, 1886; bred by himself.

Class 138.—Shearling Rams. [7 entries. ]

| 7702 Tur Marevis or Bristot, Ickworth Park: Frrsr Prize, 152, for
“Van Tromp 5th ;” was dropped January 20, 1887; bred by himself ;
¢. “ Van Tromp 3rd” (292). a

civ, Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham,

1696 JosrpH SmirH, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon: Srconp Prize, 10/.; was
dropped in February, 1887 ; bred by himself,

1697 JosepH SuirH: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was
dropped in February, 1887 ; bred by himself.

Class 139. — Ratt Lambs, dropped in the Year 1888, —Pens of Three.
[4 entries. ]

1706 Tue Maravis or Bristot, Ickworth Park: Frrst Prize, 10/.; were
dropped in January; bred by himself; ss, “ Van Tromp 3rd, re Van
‘Dyke Ist,” and “ Van Gwynne 3rd.”

1703 Joserx Suit, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon: Srconp Prize, Bhs were
dropped in February ; bred by himself.

1705 Tue Earn or Extrsmern, Stetchworth Park, Newmarket: the
Reserve Number and Highly Com: nended ; were dropped after January
21; bred by himself.

Class 140.—Shearling Ewes.—Pens of Five. ) [2 entries. ]

1708 Tur MArauis oF Brisror, Ickworth Park: Frrst Prizn, 15/.; were
dropped in January, 1887; bred by himself; ss. “ Van Tromp 2nd,”
“Van Tromp 3rd,” and “ Van Dyke.”

1707 JoserpH SmirH, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon: the Reserve Number and
Commended; were dropped in February, 1887; bred by himself.

Other Short Woolled.
Class 141.—7wo-Shear Rams. [6 entries. |

1711 Joun Ronson, Newton, Bellingham, Northumberland: Frrst Prize,
: 10/., for his Cheviot Ram ; was dropped in April, 1886; bred by him-
self. .

1712 Joun Rosson: Srconp Prize, 51., for his Cheviot Ram; was dropees
in April, 1886; bred by himself.

1713 Wirr1aM Watsu, Gilstead, Bingley, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number,
for his Lonk Ram; was dropped April 10, 1886 ; bred by Mr. P. Barker,
Silsden, Yorkshire.

Class 142.— Shearling Rams. [9 entries. ]

1719 Joux Rozson, Newton, Bellingham: First Prize, 10/., for his-
Cheviot Ram ; was dropped in April, 1887 ; bred by himself,

1720 Joun Ronson: Seconp Prize, 5/., for his Cheviot Ram; was dropped.
in April, 1887; bred by himself.

1718 Frank Surrnernd, Colwall, Malvern: the Reserve M umber for his
Ryeland Ram ; was dropped about March 20, 1887 ; bred by himself, -

No. 1722 was Highly Commended.
No. 1715 was Commended.

Class 143.—Shearling Lwes.—-Pens of Five. ) [6 entries.] ae

1725 Joun Ronson, Newton, Bellingham: First Prize, 10/., for his:
Cheviot Ewes; were dropped in April, 1887 ; bred by himself.

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. cv

1728 Witt1am Watsu, Gilstead, Bingley: Srconp Prize, 5/.; were
dropped in March, 1887 ; bred by himself and others.

1724 Witr1am T. Cutverwett, Durleigh Farm, Bridgwater, Somerset-
shire: the Reserve Number, for his Dorset Horn Ewes ; were dropped
December 25, 1886 ; bred by himself.

LINCOLNSHIRE LONG WOOL.’

Class 144.—He-Hog—Three Fleeces. [4 entries. |

1730 Grorce Marais, Holton, Caistor, Lincolnshire: First Prizp, dl.

1733 Str Jonn H. Tuorotp, Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincoln-

; shire: SEconpD Prizez, 2/.

1732 Henry Duppine, Riby Grange, Great Grimsby: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended,

Class 145.—She-Hog—Three Fleeces. [5 entries. ]

1734 Gzorce Marris, Holton, Caistor: First Prize, 5/. ;

1737 Str Jonny H. Tuoroxp, Bart., Syston Park, Grantham: Sxconp
Prize, 2/.

1735 Henry Dvuppine, Riby Grange, Great Grimsby: the Reserve
Numéber.

PIGS.

Large White Breed.
Class 146.— Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [8 entries.]

1742 Tae Hart or Ectesmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Frrst Prize,
10/.; was farrowed January 2; bred by himself; s. “ Worsley
General” (563); d. “ Lancashire Lass ” (742).

1741 Toe Eart or Etesmere: Seconp Prizs, 5/.; was farrowed
January 2; bred by himself; s. ‘ Worsley General” (563); d.
“ Lancashire Lass” (742).

1746 Tom D. Srrickiann, Stud Farm, Thirsk Junction, Yorkshire: Turrp
Prize, 3/., for “Thirsk Champion 12th;” was farrowed October 21;
bred by himself.

1743 Toe Hart or Evtesmere: the Reserve Number and Highly Com-
mended ; was farrowed January 2; bred by himself; s, “‘ Worsley
- General” (563) ; d. “ Lancashire Lass” (742).

Class — —Boar Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three.
[4 entries. |

1748 Tur Eart or Extesmers, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Frrsr Prizu,
107.; were farrowed January 2; bred by himself; s, “ Lancashire
Lad ;” d. “Cleopatra 8th ” (848).

? Prizes subscribed to the funds of the Local Committee by the Lincoin-
shire Agricultural Society.

evi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

1749 Tue Eart or ELtesmere: Srconp Prize, 5/.; were farrowed.
January 3; bred by himself; s. ‘Worsley Giant 2nd;” d. “Lanca-
shire Lass 7th.”

1747 James Howarp, Clapham Park, Bedford; the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended; were farrowed January 15; bred by himself;
s. “Duke 2nd ;” d. “ Strickland,” by “ Champion 3rd.”

Class 148.— Breeding Sows, farrowed previously to or in the Year
1887. [10 entries. ]

1753 Tur Hon. Mrs. Mrynert Incram, Temple Newsam, Leeds: Frrst
Prize, 10/., for “ Lady Shrewsbury ;” was farrowed March 20, 1884;
bred by Mr. Beal, Great Kelk, Hull.

1756 Witrt1aAm Ramspren, Westfield House, Knotty Ash, Liverpool:
Seconp Prize, 5/., for “ Sarah ;” was farrowed May 2, 1885; in-pig ;
breeder unknown.

1751 James Howarp, Clapham Park: Turrp Prize, 3/.; was farrowed in
July, 1885 ; in-pig [has since farrowed]; bred by the late Mr. Barnett,
Stratton Park, Biggleswade.

1758 Tom D. Srricktanp, Stud Farm, Thirsk Junction, Yorkshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended; was farrowed March 10,
1886 ; bred by himself.

No. 1759 was Highly Commended.

Class 149.—Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.
Pens of Three. {10 entries.

1762 Tur Ear or Ertesmers, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Frrst Prize,
10/.; were farrowed January 2; bred by himself; s. ‘ Lancashire
Lad;” d. “Cleopatra 8th” (348).

1763 THe Eart oF EttesmerRE: Seconp Prizp, 5/.; were farrowed
January 2; bred by himself; s, “ Worsley General 6th;” d. “ Lanca-
shire Witch 7th.”

1761 James Howarp, Clapham Park, Bedford: Turrp Prizx, 3/.; were
farrowed January 15; bred by himself; s. ‘Duke 2nd;” d. “Strick-
land,” by “ Champion 3rd.”

1765 Tuomas Cortinson, Shay Farm, Halifax, Yorkshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended, for ‘ Bessie,” “ Ella,” and “ Maggie ;”
were farrowed January 2; bred by himself; s. “Ding Dong”
(813); d. “ Lady Ramsden.”

No. 1764 was Commended.

Middle White Breed.

Class 150.— Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [6 entries. ]

1773 Tur Fart or ErtesmeRn, Worsley Hall: First Prize, 10/.; was
farrowed January 3; bred by himself; s, “King William” (593);
d. “ Worsley Princess 2nd” (936).

1772 Tue EArt or ExtesMERE: Suconp Prize, 5/.; was farrowed January
3rd; bred by himself; s. “ King William” (598); d. “ Worsley
Princess 2nd” (936), ’

Award of Irve-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. evil

1776 Witrtam Ramspen, Westfield House, Knotty Ash, Liverpool: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended, for “Joe;” was farrowed
June 10; bred by himself.

No. 1775 was Mighly Commended,

Class 151,—Boar Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three,
[2 entries. |

1777 Witr1am Ramspen, Westfield House, Knotty Ash: First Prize,
10/.; were farrowed January 4; bred by himself.

Class 152.—Breeding Sows, farrowed previously to or in the Year -
1887. [11 entries. ]

1789 F, A. Watxer-Jonus, Little Mollington, Chester: Frrst Prizs, 10/.,
for “Lilly;” was farrowed January "97, 1886; bred by Mr. ie
Ascroft, Rufford, Ormskirk; s. “Luck ;” d. Gyp” (212), "i “Old
Bill.”

1783 Tus Hon. Mrs. Mnyyett Ineram, Temple Newsam, Leeds: Srconn
Prize, 5/., for “ Her Majesty ;” was farrowed August 20, 1885; bred
by herself.

1782 James Howarn, Clapham Park, Bedford: Tuirp Prize, 3/.; was
farrowed June 25,1886; in-pig [farrowed August 20, 1888]; bred by
himself; s. “ Britannia Wonder; ” d. “ Spot.”

1784 Tuomas Conrrnson, Shay Farm, Halifax: the Reserve Number, for
“ Moss Rose ;” was farrowed May 22,1884; bred by Mr. N. Whitley,
Green Royd, Halifax; s. “ Young Duke” (195); d. “Kitty.”

Nos. 1787 and 1788 were Highly Commended,

Class 153.— Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.
Pens of Three. {4 entries. |

1790 Tur Kart or Evtesmprs, Worsley Hall, Manchester: First Prizx,
- 102.; were farrowed January 5; bred by himself; s. “Silver Crown ;”
d. by “ King William ” (593).
1793 Tom D. Srrickranp, Stud Farm, Thirsk Junction, Yorkshire
SrconD Prize, 5/,; were farrowed January 12; bred by himself,

Small White Breed.

Class 154.—Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [7 entries.]

1799 Tur Fart or Exrtesmpre, Worsley Hall: Frrst Prrzn, 10/.; was
farrowed January 6; bred by himself; s. “ Worsley Hero 4th;” d.
“Worsley Belle” (988).

1798 Tur Hon. Mrs. Mrynett Incram, Temple Newsam, Leeds: Srconp
Prizp, 5/., for “ Young Masher ;” was farrowed February 2; bred by
herself.

1797 Tue Eart or Rapnor, Coleshill House, Highworth: the Reserve

Number and Highly Commended; was farrow ed June 25; bred by
himself; s. “Pete: ;” d. ‘‘ Lady Emily ” (964), by “ Cromwell.”

evili Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 155.—Boar Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888. Pens of Three.
[3 entries. |

1802 THe Hart or Eriusmere, Worsley Hall, Manchester: Frrst Prize,
10/7.; were farrowed January 6; bred by exhibitor ; s. “ Silver Crown”
(397) ; d, by “The Swell” (249).

1801 ApoLpHus Httme Srapz, Castle Hill, ee Croydon, Surrey :
Seconp Prizp, 5/.; were farrow ed January 4 bred by ee 8.
“ Garibaldi” (403) ; d, “ Beauty ” (622), by “ Warwick.”

Class 156.—Breeding Sows, farrowed previously to, or in the Year
1887. [9 entries. |

1809 Tun Hon. Mrs. Mnynert Iveram, Temple Newsam, Leeds: First
Prize, 10/., for “ Duchess ;” was farrowed August 22, 1886; bred by
herself.

1808 Tur Hon. Mrs. Mrynett Inerax: Seconp Prizs, 5/., for “ Princess”
was farrowed August 22, 1886; bred by herself.

1810 F. A. WALKER-JONEs, Little Mollington! Chester: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended ; was farrowed November 21, 1884; bred by
himself; s. “ Roger; ” d, Snowdrop” (264), by “ Curly. HM

Nos. 1805, 1807, and 1811 were Highly Commended.

Class 157.—Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.—Pens
of Three. [2 entries.]
1813 Tar Earn or Rapnor, Coleshill House, Highworth: First Prize,
102. ; were farrowed February 4; bred by himself; s. “ Clanfield;” d.
“Shaftesbury,” by “ Gentleman,”

Berkshire.

Class 158.— Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [5 entries.]

1817 Aurrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury: First Prize, 102,
for “ Terrick Prince ;” was farrowed in January, 1887; bred by the
late Mr. L. Ponsonby, Terrick Farm, Tring; s. “Royal Duke;” d.
“Terrick Maid,” by “Speculation ” (151).

1815 ArruuR 8S. GrBson, Springhill, Bulw ell, Nottinghamshire: Srconp
Prizp, 5/., for « Knight Errant ;” was farrowed March 26; bred by
himself ; Bes Speculation a (151); d. “ Worcester 15th” ’(664), te
ce Wizard 5th.

1816 Joun Prirrman Kine, North Stoke, Wallingford, Berkshire: the
Reserve Number and Commended, for “ Tankerville ;” was farrowed
March 20; bred by himself; s, “Tinker 3rd” (978); d. “ Ruby”
(736), by “ Samphire ” (69).

Class 159.—Boar Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888,.—Pens
of Three. [4 entries. ]
1823 NATHANIEL BensArIELD, Short’s Green Farm, Motecomb, cs
Dorset: First Prizn, 10/.; were farrowed January 2; bred by
E. Drew, Marnhull, Blandford, Dorset.
1822 Atrrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury: Suconp Prizy, 51. ;
were farrowed January 24; bred by himself; s. “Terrick Prince ;” d.
“ Prescot Maid ” (1050), by “Speculation” (151),

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Nottingham. cix

Class 160.— Breeding Sows, farrowed previously to or in the Year
1887. [16 entries. |

1834 Atrrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness: Frrst Prize, 10/., for “ Trafford
Maid ;” was farrowed December 20, 1886; bred by himself; s, “ Lord
Conyers ” (122); d. “‘ Adcote Maid” (155), by “ Potentate ” (414),

1839 NarHanret BenJAFriexpD, Short’s Green Farm, Motcombe, Shaftesbury :
Seconp Prize, 5/., for “ Blanche ;” was farrowed June 11, 1886; in-
pig; bred by Mr. J. P. Andrews; s. “Speculation ;” d, “Queen of the
Isles ” (1375), by “ Bingley Lad 2nd” (34).

1830 Jonn Pirraan Kine, North Stoke, Wallingford, Berks: Turrp
Prize, 3/., for “ Lady Dorchester ;” was farrowed January 29, 1887;
in-pig; bred by Mr, G. F. Vincent, Compton Vallence, Dorchester; s.
“Sampler” (1281); d. “Compton,” by ‘ Prince.”

1832 ALFRED E. W. Darsy, Little Ness: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended, for “ Patty ;’’ was farrowed February 14, 1887; in-pig ;
bred by himself; s. “ Lord Conyers (122); d. “ Preference ” (1882),
by “Speculation” (151).

Nos. 1826, 1829, 1833, 1837, and 1838 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 1824, 1825, 1828, 1831, 1835, and 1836 were Commended.

Class 161.— Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.
Pens of Three. {6 entries. |

1843 THomas StrpHEN Minton, Montford, Shropshire : Frrst Prize, 107.;
were farrowed January 4; bred by himself; s. “ Wicket Keeper ”
(860); d. “ Fatty” (1400), by “ Speculation ” (151).

1841 Atrrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness: Seconp Prize, 5/.: were farrowed
January 24; bred by himself; s. “Terrick Prince ;” d. “ Prescot
Maid” (1050), by “ Speculation” (151).

1844 NaruanreL BensAFIELD, Short’s Green Farm, Motcombe: the

Reserve Number ; were farrowed January 2; bred by himself.

Any other Black Breed.

Class 162.— Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [5 entries. ]

1846 Grorcx Pxrrit, The Firs, Friston, Saxmundham, Suffolk: Frrst Prize,
10/., for “ Jack” (Suffolk), was farrowed July 17; bred by himself; s,
“ Danger ;” d. “ Victoria.”

1847 Grorce Prrrir: Ssconp Prize, 5/., for “Peter” (Suffolk) ; was far-

_ rowed July 17; bred by himself; s. “‘ Danger ;” d. “ Victoria.”

1848 JosrepH Atrrep Smitu, Rise Hall, Akenham, Ipswich, Suffolk: the
Reserve Number and Commended, for “ Harold” (Suffolk) ; was farrowed
May 1; bred by himself; s. “ Shamrock;” d. “Expectation” (52),
by ‘ Parnell ” (45).

Class 163.—Bour Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three.
[3 entries. |

1851 Grorce Perrtt, The Firs, Friston, Saxmundham: Frrsr Prize, 10/.,
for. “Three Gipsies” (Suffolk); were farrowed January 12; bred by
himself; s. “Gipsy King;” d. “ Rose.”

cx Award of Lnve-Stock Prizes at Nottingham,

1853 Tue Dukes or Hamittron anv. Branpon, K.T., Easton Park, Wick-
ham Market, Suffolk; Srconp Prize, 5/., for his small blacks ; were
farrowed March 6; bred by himself ;-s, “Tommy” (455); d. “ Prin-
cess” (618), by “ Young Robert.” c

1852 JosrpH ALFRED SmitH, Rise Hall, Akenham: the Reserve Number

and Commended, for his Suffolks; were farrowed April 3; bred by
himself; s, “Shamrock;” d. “ Expectation” (52), by “‘ Parnell” (45),

Class 164.— Breeding Sows, farrowed previously to or in the Year
1887. [5 entries. ]

1855 Grorcx Perit, The Firs, Friston: Frrst Prizz, 10/., for “ Polly ”
(Suffolk); was farrowed January 10, 1887; bred by himself; s.
“ Danger ;” d. “ Nancy.”

1854 Groner Prrrir: Second Prizp, 5/., for “ Primrose” (Suffolk); was
farrowed June 6, 1886 ; bred by himself; s. “ Danger;” d. “ Ann.”

1856 JosperpH ALFRED SmitTH, Rise Hall, Akenham: the Reserve Number,

for “ Florence” (Suffolk); was farrowed in June, 1886; in-pig; bred
by Mr. H. Biddell, Playford, Ipswich.

Class 165.— Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.
Pens of Three. [2 entries.]

1860 Tur Duxs or Hamitton AND Brannon, K.T., Easton Park, Wick-
ham Market: Frrst Prize, 10/., for his small blacks; were farrowed
January 6; bred by himself; s. “ Tommy” (455); d. “ Gipsy” (614),
by “ Robert the Devil.”

1859 Grorce Prrrit, The Firs, Friston: the Reserve Number and Com-
mended, for “ Three Duchesses ” (Suffolk); were farrowed February ] ;
bred by himself; s, “ Tommy ;” d. “ Jane.”

Tamworth.
Class 166.— Boars farrowed in the Year 1887. [7 entries. |

1864 Tur AyLtespury Darry Company, Liuirep, Horsham, Sussex: First
Prize, 10/., for “ Joseph;” was farrowed August 2; bred by
themselves; s. “ Moses;” d. “Tamworth Lass 4th,” by “ Peeping
Tom” (419).

1867 Witri1am Henry Mircuprn, Elmdene, Kenilworth, Warwickshire:
Srconp Prizp, 5/., for ‘“ Nepos;” was farrowed June 4; bred by
himself; s. “ Napoleon ;” d. “ Sylvia.”

1865 Tur Aytespury Darry Company, Limrrep, Horsham: the Leserve
Number and Highly Commended, for “ Jacob ;” was farrowed August
10; bred by themselves; s. ‘Moses;” d. “ Lady Foster Preston,” by
“The Peeler” (433),

No. 1866 was Highly Commended.

Class 167,— Boar Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888.—Pens of Three.
[7 entries. |

1873 R. N. Surroy-NeLrnorrs, Scawby Hall, Brigg, Lincolnshire: Frrst
Prize, 10/.; were farrowed January 5; bred by himself,

Award of Prizes at Nottingham. exi

1869 Joun Norman, Jun., Cliff House, Tamworth; and Josppn Norman,
Nether W hitacre, Coleshill : SECOND Puig, 51. ; were te
January 6; bred by Mr. Joseph Norman; s. “Curly” (633); d
“Sally” (564), by ‘ Redskin” (421).

1871 Tar AytespurY Darry Company, Limirep, Horsham: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended; were farrowed February 23; bred
by themselves; s. ‘ Solomon;” d. “ Last Chance,” by “ The Peeler ”
(483).

Class 168.— Breeding Sows, furrowed previously to or in the Year
1887. [4 entries. ]

1878 Thomas Watson, Whitacre Hall, Coleshill, Warwickshire: First
Prize, 10/., for “ Whitaker Queen 2nd ;” was farrowed in June 1887 ;
bred by himself; s. “ Tamworth Hero ;” d. ‘ Whitacre Queen Ist,” by
“ Old Sampson.”

1876 Witi1am Henry Mitonert, Elmdene: Srconp Prizx, 51., for
“Sylvia 2nd;” was farrowed June 14, 1884; bred by himself; s.
“Sampson ;” d, “ Sylvia,”

1875 Witii1Am Henry Mircnern: the Reserve Number and Highly Com-

mended ; was farrowed June 17, 1887; in-pig; bred by himself; s.
“Samuel ;” d. “Stoney.”

Class 169.— Breeding Sow Pigs, farrowed in the Year 1888,
Pens of Three. [8 entries. |

1880 Joun Norman, Jun., Cliff House, Tamworth; and JosepH Norman,
Nether Whitacre, Coleshill: First Prizz, 10/.; were farrowed
January 15; bred by John Norman, Jun.; s. “‘ Newcastle Hero;” d.
‘Newcastle Heroine,” by “ The Squire” (649).

1885 R. N. Surron-NetrHorrn, Scawby Hall, Brigg, Lincolnshire: Srconp
Prize, 5/.; were farrowed January 10; bred by himself.

1883 THe AytesBuRY Darry Company, Limited, Horsham: the Reserve
Number ; were farrowed March 2; bred by themselves; s. “ Dickie”
(635) ; d. “ Preston Tamworth Lass 3rd” (1018), by “The Peeler”
- (433).

CHEESE.

Class 170.—Three Cheddar Cheeses, not less than 50 lbs. each, made
in the Year 1887. [11 entries. ]
1 Tuomas Aten, Crookwood, Devizes, Wilts: Frrst Prize, 201.

9 Epwin Hiscock, Ashley Farm, Marnhull, Blandford, Dorset: Snconp
Prize, 107.

2 Tuomas ALLEN, Crookwood: Turrp Prizn, 5/.

7 Joun Hitrarp, Hook Farm, Stoke Trister, Wincanton; the Reserve
Number and Very Highly Commended.

Nos. 10 and 11 were Highly Commended,
Nos. 4, 5, and 8 were Commended,

exll Award of Cheese Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 171.—TZhree Cheshire Cheeses, of not less than 40 Ibs. each,
made in the Year 1887. [13 entries. ]

16 THomas HoviBrooks, Calveley Farm, Tarporley: First Prize, 201.

20 Joun Luz, The Crimps, Ellesmere, Salop: Seconp Prizz, 101.

14 Hveu R. Durron, Spurston Lower Hall, Tarporley: Turrp Prize, 57.

22 WitttAm Nopen, Wittenhall, Winsford: the Reserve Number and
Very Highly Commended.

No. 17 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 15 and 21 were Commended.

Class 172.—Siz Stilton Cheeses, made in the Year 1887.
[15 entries. |

- 36 Heyry Morris, Manor Farm, Saxelby, Melton Mowbray: First Prize,
201.

37 Henry Morris, Manor Farm, Saxelby : Seconp Prize, 102.

28 Mrs. FarrprotuEr, Beeby, Leicester: Turrp Prizzu, 5/.

27 Mr. Coreman, Long Clawson, Melton Mowbray: the Reserve Number
and Very Highly Commended.

No. 83 was Highly Commended.

Nos. 25, 26, 34, and 35 were Commended.

Class 173.—Three Cheeses of any British make, made in the Year
1888. [41 entries. |

47 Henry Cannon, Milton, Cleveden, Hvercreech, Somerset: Frrst
Prize, 20/.

71 Henry Morris, Saxelby, Melton Mowbray: Suconp Prizz, 102.

65 Tuomas Hovtsrooxg, Calyeley Farm, Tarporley: Turrp Prizp, 5/.

48 Henry Cannon, Milton: the Reserve Number and Very Highly Com-
mended.

Nos. 46, 63, 64, and 66 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 56, 57, 58, 59, 72, and 75 were Commended.

Class 174.—Vour Derbyshire or Leicestershire Cheeses, not less than
30 lbs. each, made in the Year 1888.* [8 entries. ]
83 Joun W. Fowter, Donisthorpe, Ashby-de-la-Zouch: First Prize, 101.
86 Wit1iam Gitman, The Cheese Factory, Rocester, Stafford: Srconp
Prizp, 5/.

81 Tue Croxprn Currse Factory Company, Oroxden, Uttoxeter: the
Reserve Number and Very Highly Commended.

No. 88 was Highly Commended.
No. 85 was Commended.

Class 175.—Vour Derbyshire or Leicestershire Cheeses, not less
than 20 lbs..and under 30/bs. each, made in the Year 1888.*
[10 entries. }
91 J. W. Fowtnr, Donisthorpe, Ashby-de-la-Zouch : First Prizp, 102.

92 Witt1Am Gitman, The Cheese Factory, Rocester, Stafford : Satomp
Prizp, 5/.

Award of Cheese and Butter Prizes at Nottingham. ‘extii

98 Joun Rowrnson, White Meadow Farm, Bradbourne, Wirksworth,
Derbyshire : the Reserve Number and Very Highly Commended.

No. 94 was Highly Commended.
Nos. 93 and 96 were Commended.

Class 176.—Your Trent Bank Cheeses, made in the Year 1888.*
[No entries. 1

Soft Cheese.
Class 177.—Three Cream Cheeses. [11 entries. ]

‘99 Epwin Brovceu, Wyndyate, Scarborough, Yorkshire : Frrst Prize, 31,

101 Wittiam H. Davis, Holme House, Gargrave,’ Yorkshire: Snconp
Prize, 21.

100 Ricuarp Cottny, Sylfam, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire: THrrp
Prize, 1/.

102 Roserr F. Eartn, The Grange, Barham, Huntingdon: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

Class 178.—Hight Colwick Cheeses.* (No entries.]

Class 179.— Three Soft Cheeses other than Colwick.* [6 entries.]
(No Merit.)

BUTTER.

Class 180.—7hree Pounds of Fresh Butter, absolutely free from
Salt. [51 entries. |
41 Mrs, Pret, Thornton Hall, Stony Stratford, Bucks: First Prizn, 52.

37 Witi1aM E..Munpp, Slade House, Thornthwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire:
Srconp Prizm, 3/.

29 Mrs. Horton, Crumleigh Heath, Little Leigh, Northwich, Cheshire:
THIRD Prize, 21.

10 Tuomas Davrus, Pont-faen Farm, hades: Rhyl, Flintshire: Fourrn
Prize, 1/,

51 Witiam Winter, Highberries, Carlisle: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended,

Nos. 8, 5, 11, 12, 21, 22, 32, 36, 40, and 48 were Highly Commended.
Nos. 4, 14, 17, 27, 31, 33, 34, 88, and 43 were Commended.

Class 181.—-Three Pownds of Fresh Butter, slightly salted.*
[55 entries. |
94 Mrs. Pent, Thornton Hall, Stony Stratford, Bucks: First Prizn, 51.
106 Wittram Winter, Highherries, Carlisle: Spconp ee 3l.
67 Mrs. Donson, Greens Burn, Brampton, Cumberland: Turrp Prize, 22,

Cxiv Award of Prizes at Nottingham.

60 WitLiam Burns, Victoria House, Witton-le-Wear, Co. Durham:
Fourtu Prizp, 1.

90 Wiit1am E. Mupp, Slade House, Thornthwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire:
the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

Nos. 56, 57, 63, 65, 66, 71, 73, 75, 81, 85, 89, and 93 were Highly Com-
mended.

Nos, 52, 54, 55, 61, 69, 74, 77, 78, 79, 88, 84, 95, 96, 101, and 102 were
Commended,

Class 182.— Three Pounds of Fresh Butter, slightly salted; made
by a Member of a Farmer's Family.* {32 entries.]

187 Micwart J. Wittiams, North Hill Farm, Chew Stoke, Somerset:
First Prize, 51.

133 Freperick C, Pains, Hengrave Mill, Bury St. Edmund’s: Szconp
PrRizs, 3/.

138 Wic1i1am Wrntor, Highberries, Carlisle: Turrp Prizx, 27.

112 Mrs. Dozson, Greens Burn, Lanercost, Cumberland: Fourru Prizz, 1/,

128 JosspH Haywarp Kemp, Walton, Wellington, Salop: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

Nos. 109, 126, and 131 were Highly Commended.

Nos. 108, 110, 111, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 128, 127, 129, and 130 were
Commended.

Class 183.—One Keg or other Package of Salt Butter, not less than
14 lbs. in weight. [19 entries. ]

141 RicHarp Cotzey, Sylfam, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire: First Prizes
61.

160 H»nry Hopson, Smeatonwood, Wrenbury, Nantwich, Cheshire:
Srconp Prizp, 31,

144 Mrs. Dosson, Greens Burn, Lanercost, Brampton, Cumberland ; Turrp
Prize, 27.

153 Jon Sway, Stonefield, Lincoln: Fourrm Prizp, 17.

142 Tuomas Davies, Pont-faen Farm, Rhuddlan, Flintshire: the Reserve

Number and Highly Commended.
Nos. 152 and 154 were Commended.

HIVES, HONEY, AND BEE APPLIANCES.

Prizes and Medals given by the British Bee-Keepers’ Association.

Class 184.—Collections of Hives and Appliances. [10 entries. ]
7 Neraupour & Son, 127 High Holborn and 149 Regent Street, London.
First Prize, 1/., and Strvpr MEpat,
5 J. H. Howarp, Holme, Peterborough: Snconp Prizz, 10s., and Bronze
MEDAL.
No, 3 was Highly Commended,

Award of Prizes at Nottingham. “CX¥

Class 185.—7he most complete Frame Hives for general use; price
not to exceed 15s., unpainted. [15 entries.]
22 CuartEs Repsuaw, South Wigston, Leicester: Frrst Prizg, 17.
13 Axssorr Broruers, Southall, Middlesex: Srconp Prizp, 15s.
11 T: B. Brow, Welwyn, Herts: Turrp Prizez,10s,
Nos. 19 and 25 were Highly Commended.

Class 186.—TZhe most complete Frame Hives for general use ; price
not to exceed 10s. 6d. unpainted. [15 entries. |

38 CuarLEs RepsHAW: Frest Prizp, 1/,
26 W. B. Baxer, Muskham, Newark: Srconp Prizp, 15s.
33 Mussrs. TuRNER & Son, Radcliffe-on-Trent: Turrp Prize, 10s.

Class 187.— Honey Extractors, with arrangements for reversing the
sides of Combs. [8 entries. ]

44 W. P. Meapows, Syston, Leicester: I'irst Prizz, 15s.
42 J. H. Howarp: Srconp Prize, 10s.
No, 41 was Highly Commended.

Class 188.—Zwo Section Racks complete ; price not to exceed 3s. 6d.
[17 entries. ]

57 Netaubour & Son: First Prizp, lds,
60 T. B. Brow: Seconp Prizz, 10s.

63 J. H. Howarp: Turrp Prize, 5s.

No. 63 was Highly Commended,

Class 189.—Feeders for slow stimulating feeding ; price not to exceed
ls. 6d. [8 entries. |

68 W.P. Meapows: Firsr Prizes, 10s.
71 CHARLEs RepsHAw: SrconD Prize, 5s.
No. 72 was Very Highly Commended.

Class 190.—Leeders for quick Autumn feeding ; price not to exceed
3s. [9 entries. ]

49 -W. P. Meapows: First Prize, 10s.
76 J. H. Howarp: Srconp Prize, 5s.

Class 191.—Smokers filled with the Fuel to be used. [13 entries. |

90 Nerenzour & Son: First Prizp, 10s.
92 W. Dixon, 5 Becket Street, Leeds: Suconp Prize, 5s.
No. 87 was Highly Commended.

Class 192.— Useful Inventions introduced since 1886,

121 A. Gopman, St. Albans: Sitver Mepat,
108 J, H, Howarp: Srtver Mepat,

exvl Award of Prizes at Nottingham.
114 Nerensour & Son: Sitver Mepat.

101 J. H. Howarp: Bronzp Mepat.

Nos, 97, 100, 104, 110, and 125 were awarded certificates.

Class 193.—7'welve Sections of Comb Honey, 54 by 64. [12 entries. ]

1381 Sutts & Son, Uffington: Frrst Prizs, 12.
128 H. Beswick, Tibenham, Long Stratton: Seconp Prizu, 10s.

Class 194.—Zwelve Sections of Comb Honey, 44 by 43 by 2.
[32 entries. |
152 CuHartes Arxtnson, Tockwith, York: First Prize, 12,
146 H. Beswick: Srconp Prize, 10s.
150 Sztts & Son: Turrp Prizp, ds.

Class 195.—7welve Reo of Comb Honey, 44 by 44 (width
optional). [18 entries. |;
173 H. Beswick: Frrst Prize, 17.
178 Setts & Son: Second Prize, 10s.
181 W. Wooptuy, World’s End, Newbury: Turrp Prizp, 5s.

Class 196.— Run or Extracted Honey, in Twenty-four 1- wb: a
Jars. [36 entries. |

197 A. Srrpson, Mansfield Woodhouse: First Prizs, 1

191 J. H. Howarp: Snconp Prrzx, 10s.

199 H. Beswick: Turrp Prize, 5s,

Class 197.—Rwn or Extracted Honey, in Twelve 2-lb. Glass Jars.
[21 entries. ]
228 J. H. Howarp: First Prize, 12.
225 A. Stupson: Srconp Prizp, 10s.
226 H. Beswick: Turrp Prize, 5s.

Class 198.—Zest Exhibition of Honey from one Apiary, not less
than 1 cwt. [11 entries.]

946 A. Stmpson: First Prize, 12. 10s.

255 J. R. Truss, Ufford Heath, Stamford: Suconp Prize, 12

248 Sects & Sons: Turrp Prize, 10s,

Class 199.—Znglish’ Bees’ Waa, not less than 14 lbs. [6 entries.]

257 T. Be Brow: First Prize, 17,
256 Axnporr Broruprs: Suconp Prize, 10s.
No, 260 was Highly Commended, ' ‘

Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham. exvil

Class 200.— The best and most complete Set of Apparatus required for
making Comb foundations from Bees’ Wax, as imported or other-
wise.

262 J. H. Howarp, Holme, Peterborough: First Prizz, 1d, and S1LvEr
MEDAL.

264 A, Gopman, St. Albans: Seconp Prizz, 10s., and Bronze MEDAL.

Class 201.—The best and most ready way of Testing the Purity of
Bees’ Wax.

(Prizes withheld for further trial.)

Class 202.—The most interesting and attractive Exhibit of any kind
connected with Bee Culture not mentioned in the foregoing Classes.
271 Axssorr BrotHers: First Prize. Si~tver Mepat.

276 A. Warxrns, Imperial Mills, Hereford: Srconp Prizz, Bronzp
MEDAL,

Nos. 272 and 277 were Highly Commended.

POULTRY.

By “ Cocks,” “ Hens,” “ Drakes,” ‘‘ Ducks,” “Ganders,” and “Geese,” are
meant birds hatched previous to January 1, 1888, and by ‘“Cockerels,”
“ Pullets,” “* Young Drakes,” and “ Ducklings,” are meant birds hatched in 1888,
previous to June 1.

Fowls.

Class 1.—Dark Brahma Cock and One Hen. [10 entries. ]

8 Joun Taytor, Alsagar, Stoke-on-Trent: First Prize, 3/.
6 Messrs. Prrtinc & Lorn, Healey Dell, Rochdale: Suconp Prizz, 2/.
7 Joun Taytor: THIRD Prize, 1.

4 Horace Linewoop, Creeting, Wickham Market: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended.

No. 2 was Highly Commended.

Class 2.—Dark Brahma Cockerel and One Pullet. [6 entries.]

13 Cuartes D. Jonzs, Bryn-y-mor, Hastings: First Prize, 31.
14 Horace Linewoon, Creeting: Seconp Prize, 2/.

15 Joun Taytor, Alsagar: Turrp Prize, 1/.

16 Joun Taytor: the Reserve Number.

No. 12 was Commended.

Class 3.— Light Brahma Cock and One Hen. [5 entries. ]
17 Wic11aM Cannan, Norwood, Cross Hills, Leeds: First Prizs, 87.
18 Gzorer T, Metsourne, Nocton Heath, Lincoln: Srconp Prizz, 2/,

19 Joun Mircuett, Elmdene, Kenilworth; Turrp Prize, 1/.
VOL, XXIV.—S. 8S, z

exviii Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 4.—Light Brahma Cockerel and One Pullet. [2 entries. ]

23 Tur Rev. Harotp Burton, Fauls Vicarage, Whitchurch, Salop: First
Prize, 31.

22 Tue Ruy. Harotp Burton: Szconp Prizx, 2.

Class 5.—Colowred Dorking Cock and One Hen. [6 entries. |

28 Burter Smirx, The Grove, Cropwell Butler, Nottingham: Frrsr
PRizE, 37.

26 AnpREwW Cricuton, Glamis, Forfarshire: Snconp Prizp, 22.
24 James Cranston, Tinwald House, Dumfries, N.B.: THrrp Prize, 17.

- 29 Burter Smiru, Cropwell Butler: the Reserve Number and Highly
Commended.

No. 25 was Highly Commended,

Class 6.—Coloured Dorking Cockerel and One Pullet. [10 entries. ]

31 Rosert B. Currers, Ashenden, Tenterden, Kent : First Prize, 3.
87 Burier SmitH, Cropwell Butler: Szconp Prizn, 27.

88 Burter SuitH: Tuirp Prize, 1/.

32 Roser B. Curtsts: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.
No. 39 was Highly Commended.

Class 7.—-Silver Grey Dorking Cock and One Hen. [9 entries].

43 Witi1am Cannan, Norwood, Crosshills: Frrst Prizn, 37.

44 Wiiiram Rog, Jun., North Scarle Field, Newark-on-Trent: Srconp
Prize, 21.

42 James Cranston, Tinwald House: Tu1rp Prize, 17.

46 Tuomas Rome, Charlton House, Cheltenham: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended. j

No. 41 was Highly Commended.

No. 47 was Commended.

Class 8.— Silver Grey Dorking Cockerel and One Pullet.
[11 entries. |

54 Jamns Rosurtson, Home Farm, Gordon Castle, Fochabers, N.B.: Frrst
PRizz, 31.

52 James Cranston, Tinwald House: Sxconp Prizn, 27.

51 James Cranston: TxHirp Prizp, 1/.

55 Jamus Ropertson: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

No. 56 was Highly Commended. -

No, 59 was Commended.

Class 9.—Any other Variety Dorking Cock and One Hen.
[6 entries. }
63 Jonn MitcHett, Kenilworth: Frrsr Prize, 37.
65 Parpr Wi1s0n, Colvinston, Annbank, Ayrshire: Snconp Prize, 22,

Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham. cxix

60 Atrrep E. W. Darsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury: Turrp Prizp, il.

64 Jonn E. Prtermm, The Shade, Sharnford, Hinckley: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended.

No. 61 was Highly Commended.

Class 10.—Any other Variety Dorking Cockerel and One Pullet.
[2 entries. |
67 CuartEs A. Gosneitt, The Park, Feltham Hill, Middlesex: Firsr
Prize, 3/.
66 ALFRED E. W. Darsy: Srconp Prize, 2/.

Class 11.—Cochin Cock and One Hen (any variety). [6 entries. |

69 Mrs. H. J. Goopart, The Priory, Melton Mowbray: First Prizs, 31.
72 Grorce H. Proctor, Flass House, Durham: Srconp Prizp, 27,

70 Mrs. H. J. Goopatt: Turrp Prize, 1.

73 GxroreE H. Proctor: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

Class 12.—Cochin Cockerel and One Pullet (any variety).
[3 entries. ]
74 Mrs. Barron, Warton Grange, Carnforth, Lancashire: First Prize, 37.
76 Mrs. H. J. Goopati: Sreconp Prizp, 2/,
75 Mrs. H. J. Goopatt: Turrp Prize, 17.

Class 13.—Langshan Cock and One Hen. [20 entries.]

83 THe Rev. ArtHur C. Davirs, Oldborough Rectory, Hanworth, S.0.,
Norwich: Frrst Prize, 3.

87 Roxpert J. Porr, Woodside, Barcombe, Lewes: Srconp Prizp, 2/.
84 THe Rey. AgtHurR C. Davies: THrrp Prize, lJ.

95 S. & W. Witson, 8 Northgate, Newark-on-Trent: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended.

Nos. 85, 86, and 88 were Highly Commended.
Nos, 77 and 92 were Commended.

Class 14.—Langshan Cockerel and One Pullet. [7 entries.]

97 C. Anranam & J. A, Horsrorp, Elm House, Long Melford, Suffolk:
First Prize, 3/.
102 Dr. G. C. Seartz, Burton House, Brixham, Devon: Suconp Prizn, 2
101. R. J. Pore: Turrp Prize, 1/.

98 Tus AytesBpuRY Darry Company, Horsham, Sussex: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended,

No. 103 was Commended.

Class 15.—Houdan Cock and One Hen. [10 entries.]

104 Joun ArnswortH, High Bank, Darwen, Lancashire: Frrsr Prize, 3/.
112 Samver W, Tuomas, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea: Seconp Prize, 20,
42

cxx Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham.

113 Samus, W. THomas: THrRD Prizs, 1.

107 Mrs. Irvine, Edentown, Carlisle: the Reserve Number and Com-
mended,

Class 16.—Howdan Cockerel and One Pullet. [6 entries.]
119 Tue Rey. R. 8. Mrrcntson, Barby Rectory, Rugby, Warwickshire :
Frrst Prize, 31.
118 Tue Rey. R. 8. Mitrcuison: Seconp Prizs, 21.
117 Mrs. Irvine: Turrp Prize, 17.
116 Mrs. C, Hitt, Queen’s Gate, Cheltenham: the Reserve Number.

Class 17.—Créveceur Cock and One Hen. [8 entries. ]

124 Joun L. Hoxpsn, Simonstone, Padiham, Lancashire: Firsr Prizz, 3/.
125 Jonn Merrxte, Mount Hamilton, Ayr, N.B.: Sxconp Prizp, 27.
123 Joun L. Hotpen: Turrp Prize, 17.

122 Joun S. Catvert, Keighley, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended,

No. 121 was Highly Commended.

Class 18.—Crévecewr Cockerel and One Pullet. [1 entry. |
[No Award. ]

Class 19.— Andalusian Cock and One Hen. [10 entries. ]

182 HattiweLt & Fincn, 15 Heatley Street, Preston: First Prize, 3/,
133 SamureL Hawes, High Street, Datchet, Windsor: Srconp Prizs, 21.

131 Tue Rey. Ernest R. O, BripGEMAN, Blymhill Rectory, Shifnal: Turrp
Prize, 1.

137 Epwin Merratt, Morton, Bingley, Yorks: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended.

Nos. 129 and 134 were Commended.

Class 20.— Andalusian Cockerel and One Pullet. [9 entries. |

146 Epwin Meprrati: First Prize, 31. é
145 Witi1aAM LetcHton, Bridge Street, Preston: Seconp Prizn, 20.

147 Tuomas Sion, Castle Hill Farm, Market Drayton, Salop: THirp
Prize, ll.

141 Davin Burrerrietp, 3 Laythorpe Terrace, Kast Morton, Bingley,
Yorks: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

No. 140 was Highly Commended,

Class 21.—Minorca Cock and One Hen. [12 entries. ]

157 Artuur G. Pirrs, The Firs, Highbridge, Somerset: First Prize, 387,
158 Jos Rawnstey, Langley Farm, Bingley, Yorks: Srconp Pxrizp, 22.

149 Witt1am Joun Amespury, 37 Langton Street, Cathay, Bristol:
Tuirp Prizp, 1.

Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottinghan. exxi

1654 George A. Grppons, Market Place, Alford, Lincolnshire: the Re-
serve Number and Highly Commended.

No. 153 was Highly Commended.

Class 22.— Minorca Cockerel and One Pullet. [12 entries.]

164 Samvet FRIEND, 23 West Street, Tavistock, Devon: Frrst Prizp, 31.

163 Witt1am T, Dornine, Milton Cottage, Chard, Somerset: Srconp
Prize, 21.

166 Micuart W. Hotes, Stonegate Farm, Low Bentham, Yorkshire:
Turrp Prize, 1/.

170 Epwarp Netson, Wareham, Wells, Norfolk: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended,

No. 162 was Highly Commended.

Class 23.—Leghorn Cock and One Hen. [10 entries.]

176 Writ11am Cannan, Norwood, Crosshills, Leeds: First Prize, 3/
175 Joun Berry, 40 Aireview Street, Silsden, Leeds: Szconp Prize, 2/.
180 JosepH Pripz, Thorverton, Devon: THrRp Prize, 17.

178 Wit1tiam LaveHer, Brynhyfryd, Cowbridge, Glamorganshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

No, 181 was Highly Commended.

Class 24.—Leghorn Cockerel and One Pullet. [9 entries.]

187 JosEPH Prine: First Prize, 3/.
185 Joun Berry: Second Prizp, 2/.
183 ALBERT Curzon Brapsoury, Nuthall, Notts: Turrp Prize, 1/.

189 Dr. G. C. Szarts, Burton Hause, Brixham, Devon: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

Class 25.—Plymouth Rock Cock and One Hen, [9 entries. ]

1£5 Joun Harttey, Gillroyd, Morley, Yorkshire: Frrst Prize, 3/.
192 Tom Barrine, Upton Pyne, Exeter: Seconp Prizp, 2/.
194 J. SreerE Harpy, Gedling, Notts: Turrp Prize, 14.

199 Miss Maxwett Sruart, Scarthingwell, Tadcaster, Yorkshire: the
Reserve Number and Highly Commended,

Class 26.—Plymouth Rock Cockerel and One Pullet. [15 entries. ]

213 Miss Maxwett Stuart: First Prizz, 3.
204 Joun L. HotpEn, Simonstone, Padiham, Sxconp Prize, 2/.

206 L.& S. Jackson, Manor Farm, Ringway, Altrincham, Cheshire: Tutrb
Prize, lJ.

200 Axszorr Broruers, Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk: the Zeserve Number
and Highly Commended.

Nos. 201 and 204 were Highly Commended,
Nos, 203 and 209 were Commended.

exxii Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 27.—Scotch Grey Cock and One Hen. [6 entries.] _
220 Marrunw Smiru, Townhead Farm, Thornhill, N.B.: Frrst Prize, 32.
218 Craupz L. Ratston, Glamis House, Glamis, N.B.: Srconp Prizs, 27.

217 AnpREw W. Henperson, Maryfield, Bridge of Allan, N.B.: THrrp
Prize, 17.

219 Jos Rawnstzy, Langley Farm, Bingley, Yorkshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

Class 28.—Scotch Grey Cockerel and One Pullet. [5 entries.]

922 ALEXANDER HaAmitton, Braidwood, Carluke, Lanarkshire: First
Prize, 3/.

925 Marruew Suitu, Townhead Farm, Thornhill, N.B.: Seconp Prizz, 27.
224 CraubE L. Ratsron, Glamis: Turrp Prize, 12

221 W.SrepHen Brack, High Kettleby, Melton Mowbray: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended,

Class 29.—Black Hamburgh Cock and One Hen. [5 entries.]
228 T. C. Huatu, Sneyd Farm, Cobridge, Staffordshire: Frrst Prize, 32.
229 Jon Rawnstey, Langley Farm, Bingley, Yorkshire: Spconp Prizsx, 20.
230 Ropert Witson, Paradise, Morton, Bingley: THrrp Prizs, 12.
227 WiiiiAm Cannan, Norwood, Crosshills, Yorkshire: the Reserve Number.

Class 30.— Black Hamburgh Cockerel and One Pullet. [6 entries. ]
236 Rosert Witson: First Prize, 3.
235 THomAs Ryman, Theale, Weston-super-Mare: Ssconp Prizp, 2/,
931 Witiiam Cannan: Turrp Prize, 1/.
232 T. C. Huatu: the Reserve Number and Commended,

Class 31.—Any other Variety Hamburgh Cock and One Hen.
[9 entries. |

238 WILLIAM CANNAN: First Prizz, 38/,

237 Miss BrerrHa Barxpon, Cottingley Bridge House, pases SECOND
Prize, 27.

243 Jos Rawnstny, Langley Farm, Bingley: Turrp Prizp, 1/,

242 Jos Rawnsipy: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended,
No. 241 was Highly Commended.

Class 32.—Any other Variety Hamburgh Cockerel and One Pullet.
[8 entries. |
247 WittiAM Cannan: First Prizz, 31.
248 Henry Diepy, The Burne, Birchencliffe, Huddersfield: Srconp Prizm,
21.

246 Witi1aM Cannan: Tutrp Prizp, 1.

252 Roserr Sisson, Cross Hill, Stanhope, Co. Durham: the Reserve Numb
and Highly Commended.

No, 253 was Highly Commended.

Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham. exxili

Class 33.— Black Red Game Cock and One Hen. [9 entries.]
261 SamvEt Marruew, The Elms, Stowmarket, Suffolk: Frrst Prizp, 3/.
257 Tue Hon. anv Rey. F. Durron, Bibury Vicarage, Fairford, Gloucester-

shire: SeconD Prizp, 2/.
259 Captary Heaton, Worsley, Manchester: Tu1rp Prize, 1.
260 Caprarn Heaton: the Reserve Number and Highly Commended.

Class 34.— Black Red Game Cockerel and One Pullet. [5 entries. ]
266 Caprain Heaton: First Prize, 3.
267 Captain Heaton: Sreconp Prize, 21.
265 Artuur S. Grsson, Springhill, Bulwell, Notts: Turrp Prizp, 12.
264 Miss Berroa Betpon, Cottingley Bridge House, Bingley: the Reserve
Number.

Class 35.— Brown Red Game Cock and One Hen. [5 entries.]
272 Samvst Marruew, The Elms, Stowmarket, Suffolk: First Prize, 3.
269 Cuartes W. BrieRvey, Rosedale, Tenbury, Worcestershire: SEconD

Prize, 2, .
268 CHartes W. Briertey: THIRD Prize, 12.

270 J. W. Brockpannk, The Croft, Kirksanton, Cumberland: the Reserve
Number and Commended.

Class 36.— Brown Red Game Cockerel and One Pullet. [No entry.]

Class 37.— Any other Variety Game Cock and One Hen. [3 entries.]
273 CHaRLEs W. BRrieRter: First Prize, 3/.

275 J. W. BrockBank: Sxeconp Prizp, 2/.

274 CuHartes W. Brrertey: Turrp Prize, 17,

Class 38.—Any other Variety Game Cockerel and One Pullet.
[3 entries. |
276 J. W. Brockpank: First Prize, 3/.
277 JosEPH CoLeRovE, Winslow, Bucks: Srconp Prize, 2/.

Class 39.—Cock and Hen of any other Variety. [15 entries. ]
289 Jos Rawns ey, Langley Farm, Bingley, Yorkshire: Frrst Prize, 32.
287 Joun Power tt, Hirst Mill, Saltaire, Yorkshire: Seconp Prize, 20.

288 Jon RawnsLeyY: Tuirp Prize, 17.

281 Wiriram Harpur Crewe, The Lawn, Etwall, Derby: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

Nos. 282 and 293 were Highly Commended,

Nos, 280 and 290 were Commended,

Class 40.—Cockerel and One Pullet of any other Variety.
[10 entries. |
299 Joun C. Huxrasrn, 58 South Street, South Molton, Devon: First
Prizp, 3.
295 Miss Berrua Bexpon, Cottingley Bridge House, Bingley, Yorkshire:
Srconp Prize, 2/,

cxxiv Award of Poultry Prizes at Nottingham.

298 Mrs. FRANKLIN, Syston Old Hall, Grantham: Turrp Prize, 1/,

302 JosHvua Roserts, 52 Kirkgate, Silsden, Leeds: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended.

No, 294 was Commended.
Ducks.

Class 41— Aylesbury Drake and One Duck. [2 entries. ]

305 Tue Aytessury Datry Company, Horsham, Sussex: Frrst Prize, 31,
304 THomas ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes, Wilts: Spconp Prize, 2/.

Class 42.—Aylesbury Young Drake and one Duckling. [5 entries.]
308 WittrAm Breort, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lincolnshire: Frrsr
Prize, 3/

309 Epwarp Netson, Warham, Wells, Norfolk: Seconp Prizm, 27,

306 Tur AyLespuRY Darry Company: Turrp Prize, 11.

307 Tue AyLespuRyY Darry Company: the Reserve a, and Highly
Commended.

Class 43.—Rouen Drake and One Duck. [8 entries. ]

311 Witr14am Byeort, Jun.: Frrst Prize, 3/.

317 Francis E. Richarpson, Holly Grange, Bramshall, Uttoxeter: Szconp
Prize, 21.

316 Joun MitcHet, Elmdene, Kenilworth, Warwickshire: Turrp Prize, 10.

3138 Mrs. F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore, Worcestershire : the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended.

No. 318 was Highly Commended.
No. 314 was Commended.

Class 44.—Roven Young Drake and One Duckling. [3 entries. ]
319 Witt1am Byeort, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Uleeby, Lincolnshire: First
Prize, 3/.
_ 820 Wir11am Byeort, Jun.: Srconp Prize, 2/.
321 THomas WAKEFIELD, Golborne, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire: TH1RD
Prize, 1/

Class 45.—Any other Variety Drake and One Duck, [7 entries.]

322 Tuomas ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes: First Prize, 31.

325 Mrs. F. Davis, Woolashill: Srconp Prize, 21.

323 Tue AYLEsBURY Datry Company, Horsham: Turrp Prize, ll.

327 Mrs. Mary ANNE Hayne, Fordington, Dorchester: the Reserve Number
and Highly Commended.

Class 46.—Any other Variety Young Drake and One Duckling.
[3 entries. ]

330 Hurpert Grirritus, The Rake, Hawarden, Flintshire: Frrst Prize, 32,

331 ArtHur Mitner, Sen., Stirthfield Farm, Stretton, Alfreton, Derby-
shire: Seconp Prize, 2/.

827 THomas ALLEN, Crookwood: Turrp Prize, 1/,

Award of Prizes at Nottingham. CXXV

Geese.
Class 47.—Gander and One Goose. [4 entries. ]

332 Joun Ewart, Ellen Hall Mill, Cockermouth, Cumberland: First
Prize, 31.

333 ArtHouR 8S. GrBson, Springhill, Bulwell, Notts: Snconp Prizp, 2/.
334 Joun Kourr, Red Hall, Wigton, Cumberland: Turrp Prize, 1,
335 Joun Lioyp, Astwick Manor, Hatfield, Herts: the Reserve Number and
Highly Commended,
Turkeys.

Class 48.—Black or Bronze Cock and One Hen. [7 entries. ]
342 Mrs. Wittrams, Hawkstone Hotel, Shrewsbury: Frrsv Prizz, 3/.
338 Epwarp Kenprick, Jun., Weeford House, Lichfield: Srconp Prizx, 2/.
336 AxsBotr BrotuErs, Thuxton, Hingham, Norfolk: Turrp Prize, 1.

337 Wii11amM Barnes, Moorhouse Mill, Wigton, Cumberland: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended,

Class 49.—Any other colour Cock and One Hen. [1 entry.]
No Award.

COMPETITION OF BUTTER-MAKERS.

Class 1.—Members of a Farmer’s Family. [8 entries. |
3 Mrs. Hotmus, Home Farm, Leigh, Tunbridge Wells: Frrst Prize, 5/.
8 Mrs. Srevenson, Rossburn House, Shincliffe, Durham : Secon Prize, 32,

1 Miss Amy Barron, Borowfield House, Borrowash, Derby: THIRD
PrRizz, 2/.

4 Mrs. Hutcutyson, Lockington Grange, Hull, Yorkshire: the Reserve
Number and Highly Commended,

Nos, 2 and 7 were Highly Commended.

Class 2.—Male Hired Servants. [3 entries. ]
9 James Watker, Portmahon Farm, Everton, Sandy, Bedfordshire: First
Prizp, 5/.
10 Tuomas Smrru, Barrowmore Farm, Chester: SxconpD Prize, 3/.
11 THomas Kew, 15 Market Place, Leicester: Tarrp Prizs, 1/.

Class 3.—emale Hired Servants. [3 entries. |
14 Miss Frances M. Watsur, Woodhouse, Aldford, Chester: First
Prizp, 51.
13 Mrs. Waker, Portmahon Farm, Everton, Sandy: Sxconp Prize, 2/.

12 Miss Arice AtpripeE, 9 Market Place, South, Leicester: Turrp
Prize, 1.

CXXVi Award of Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 4.—Champion, limited to Winners of Prizes in the preceding
Classes.
3 Mrs. Hormns: Sitver Mepat,
13 Mrs. Waker: Bronze MEpAt.
9 JAMES WALKER: Bronze MEDAL.

COMPETITION OF SHOEING-SMITHS.

Limited to the Counties of Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Northampton,
Nottingham, and Rutland.

Class 1—Hunters.

32 SAMUEL Patrre, Sadler Gate, Derby: Frrst Prizs, 62.1

38 THoMAsS SEWELL, High Street, Bracebridge, Lincoln: Snconp Prizs, 4/.”

20 GroreE Green, London Road, Weedon, Northampton: Turrp Prizx, 8/.

24 Joun Hurron, Scamblesby, Horncastle, Lincoln: Fourru Prize, 2/.*

30 Wiii1Am B. Mitnur, Jun., Kirklington, Southwell, Notts: Firrm
Prize, 1.

37 Hrrpert Brensamin Swett, Chaplin Street, Lincoln: the Reserve
Number and Very Highly Commended.

29 Tuomas Murram, Wharf House, Sleaford, Lincolnshire : was Com-
mended.
Class 2.— Agricultural Horses.

59 Freprick Cray, King Street, Alfreton, Derbyshire: Frrst Prize, 62.1

83 Grorce Ruoanpss, Chaplin Street, Lincoln: Suconp Prizz, 4/.*

70 Witx1AM Hout Green, Flore, Weedon, Northampton: Turrp PR1z8, 3/.

84 Herbert Benzamin Suwett, Lincoln: Fourtrs Prizs, 27.”

68 Grorcr Green, London Road, Weedon, Northampton: Frrru Prizp, 1/.

77 ArtuuR Kine, 24 Oxford Street, Market Rasen, Lincolnshire: the
Reserve Number and Very Highly Commended.

52 CurisropHEr Bert, High Street, Bracebridge, Lincolnshire: was Very
Highly Commended.

85 Tuomas Suwett, High Street, Bracebridge, Lincolnshire: was Very
Highly Commended.

93 Witt1AM Woopwarp, West Keal, Spilsby, Lincolnshire: was Highly
Commended.

75 Witi1AmM Stevenson Jounson, Guilsborough, Northamptonshire: was
Highly Commended.

79 Tuomas Mrrram, Wharf House, Sleaford, Lincolnshire: was Highly
Commended. ;

1 To these men, being the winners of the First Prizes in each Class, the
Worshipful Company of Farriers have granted, free of cost, the freedom of
the Company.

* These men, being shoeing-smiths residing in the County of Lincoln, also
received from the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society gratuities amounting to
half the araount of the prizes awarded to them by the Royal Agricult
Society.

Award of Prizes at Nottingham. CXXVil

IMPLEMENTS.

Class 1— Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Steam Power.

3815 Joun H. Lapp & Co. 116 Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C.:
First Prize, 301.

2299 Samvrtson & Co., Lriwirep, Banbury, Oxfordshire: S—conD Prize, 201,

Class 2.— Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Horse Power.
3819 Grorez StTepHENson, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.: Frrst Prize, 201.
3815 Jonn H. Lapp & Co.,.116 Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C,:
Sxconp Prize, 102.
Class 3.—Hay and Straw Presses, worked by Hand Power.
557 JosEPH BaMBeER, Saul Street, Preston, Lancashire: Frrst Prize, 20/,
3806 Wittiam WaARNEs, Kings Lynn, Norfolk: Srconp Prize, 102.

Class 4.—For a Press for Old Hay, worked by Hand Power.
557 JosrpH Bamper, Saul Street, Preston: Prize, 20/.
2263 Barrorp & Perxrys, Peterborough: Highly Commended.

Silver Medals.

3603 PriestMAN Broruers, Holderness Foundry, Hull, for Petroleum
Engine, 4 horse-power.

8885 Wuirmore & Bryyon, Wickham Market, Suffolk, for Middlings
Purifier, Weis’ Patent.

917 Tuyss, Lockyer & Co., 374 Euston Road, London, N.W.: for Jersey
Creamer,

FARM PRIZES.

Given by the Nottingham Local Committee.

Class 1.—Vor the best managed Arable and Grass Farm, of 300 acres
and upwards, of which not less than one-half shall be arable.

11 Samvet C. Macury, Forest Farm, Papplewick, Nottingham: First
Prize, 100 guineas.

12 Wirrtiam Macuin, Papplewick, Nottingham: Srconp Prize, 50

guineas.
Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 8 were Highly Commended.
Nos. 4, 5, 7, 10 and 14 were Commended.

Class 2.—Yor the best managed Arable and Grass Farm, above 100
acres and not exceeding 300 acres, of which not less than one-half
shall be arable.

26 W. E. Wanstzy, Dunsby, Bourne, Lincolnshire: First Prize, 50

guineas.

19 Wix11aM Cave, Baston, Market Deeping, Lincolnshire: Szconp Prize,

25 guineas.
No. 21 was Highly Commended.
Nos. 18 and 24 were Commended.

CXXvill Award of Farm Prizes at Nottingham.

Class 3.—The best managed Arable and Grass Farm, above 25 acres
and not exceeding 100 acres.

33 R. Suerton, Grange Farm, Ruddington, Notts: First Prize, 50
guineas.

27 Joun Bacutey, East Bridgford, Bingham, Notts: Sees Prize,
85 JaMEs Wuippowson, Hucknall Torkard, sone deere

equally divided.
Nos. 29 and 31 were Highly Commended.

Gratuities to Farm Servants.

The Council have, upon the recommendation of the Judges of Farms,
awarded certificates of distinguished merit in the discharge of their duties,
together with Money Gratuities, to the following servants on the competing
farms.

CHARLES CHAPMAN, Leadenham, Grantham, Recommended by Mr. R. W.
Morley, for good and faithful service as bailiff for 21 years.

Tuomas Cray, Temple Bruer, Grantham. Recommended by Mr. Robert G.
F. Howard, for 27 years’ service as shepherd. Specially mentioned as
an excellent servant in every way, as well as most efficient at his own
work.

TxHo1wAs Coutson, Baston, Market Deeping. Recommended by Mr. W. Cave,
for 36 years’ service. Specially mentioned as an excellent man with cattle
and general farm work.

Tomas GREEN, Dunsby, Bourne. Recommended by Mr. W. E. Wadsley,
for 36 years’ service with his father and himself. Specially mentioned
for general knowledge of stock, as having been awarded a prize for
raising the largest number of lambs.

Joun Happon, Baston. Recommended by Mr. Cave, for 22 years’ service,
Specially mentioned for hedging, thatching, and draining.

Witi1am Hamonp, Tydd Saint Mary, Wisbech. Recommended by Mr.
H. A. Kilham, for 283 years’ service with his father and himself.
Specially mentioned for general knowledge in the management of
breeding stock.

JosrpH Harpwick, Woodthorpe. Recommended by Mr. T. Bower, for 27
years’ service on the farm now held by Mr. Bower. Specially mentioned
as being an excellent man with stock, and as having a general knowledge
of all kinds of agricultural work.

Grorer Haywarp, Temple Bruer, Grantham. Recommended by Mr. Robert
G. F. Howard, for 26 years’ service as a yardman. Specially mentioned
as a good feeder of beasts.

Joun Hopxins, Dunsby, Bourne. Recommended by Mr. W. E. Wadsley, for
26 years’ service. Specially mentioned for excellence in draining,
thatching, and hedging. ;

Henry Trpeswertt, Hucknall Torkard. Recommended by Mr. James
Widdowson, for 23 years’ service as a good and faithful servant. Specially
mentioned as an excellent man with stock, as well as drilling, thatehing,
and stacking.

Robert Wrtes, Baston, Lincolnshire, Recommended by Mr, W. Cave, for
27 years’ service with his father and himself, as a good and excellent
horseman.

Crorax }
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

Papers set at Senton Examination, May, 1888.*

EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.

Maximum Number or Marks For THIS Paper, 200. Pass
Noumser, 100.

Tuesday, May 8th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m.

1. In the selection of a farm for profitable occupation, what con-
siderations would influence you in making your choice ?

2. What indications of natural fertility or poverty of the soil
would you look for ?

3. What are the systems of crop rotation best known and most
generally followed ; and to what circumstances are they respectively
adapted ?

4. What modifications of the four-course system have been of .
late introduced, and what are the conditions which have occasioned
such modifications ?

5. What are the general principles which underlie all systems of
crop rotation ?

6. Give the names of the principal corn, green, and forage crops
grown in England, with particulars as to—

(1) The ordinary season of sowing.

(2) The quantity of seed usually sown per acre.

(3) The crop ordinarily produced per acre under good manage-
ment on land suitable to the crop.

(4) The soils most favourable for their growth,

7. Give the names of the more valuable grasses and clovers for

laying down land for—
(a) Permanent pasture.
(b) Seeds for one year’s hay.
(c) Seeds for two or three years’ ley.

* For the new Regulations for the Senior Examinations, see page cxxxix,

exxx Agricultural Educatiou—Hzamination Papers, 1888.

8 Give particulars of a mixture for any one of these purposes on
a rich loamy soil.

9. How would you judge whether a crop of meadow hay ora crop
of red clover was fit for mowing ?

10. At what distance apart oad you drill wheat, beans, swedes,
mangolds ?

11. What is a fair day’s work on land neither light nor heavy
for—

A pair-horse team ploughing,

Three horses rolling, roll 7 ft. wide.

Drilling corn, drill 6 ft. 6 in. wide.

Three men filling manure from a dung-heap.

12. What are the most common weeds which are troublesome
and injurious to the farmer ; and what are the means usually taken
to eradicate or subdue them ? :

13. Give the names of the more important distinct breeds and of
the most successful cross-breeds of cattle and sheep in Great Britain,
and give some notes as to the localities and situations to which cer-
tain ioeeeds are best adapted.

14. Among sheep, specify some long-woolled and short-woolled
breeds.

15, What are the average periods of gestation for the following:

The mare.
The cow.
The ewe.
The sow.

16. What is meant by a full-mouthed ewe ?

17. What breeds of cattle are most suitable for dairy purposes ?

18. At what age are heifers ordinarily put to the bull ?

19. What is a good average yield of milk from a dairy cow per
diem for nine months after calving ?

20. Suggest a dietary for cows in full milk in winter, assuming
your own conditions as to supply of natural or artificial food.

21. What are the most striking improvements in the general
practice of agriculture in England during the last fifty years ?

Vivi Voce EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.

Wednesday Afternoon, May 9.

Maximum Number OF Marks, 100, Pass Numser, 50.

Agricultural Education—Ezamination Papers, 1888. cxxxi

EXAMINATION IN BOOK-KEEPING.

Maximum Numper or Marks, 200. Pass Numer, 100.

Wednesday, May 9th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

A farmer begins the year with 50/. cash, and a stock valued at
1,000/7., clear of all liabilities, and during the year makes purchases,

of which the following is a summary :—

Live stock : -

Cake : ‘ : .
Hay and straw : .
Horse corn, &e. i :
Seeds and seed corn :
Implements

Manure . ~ ‘ ‘
Sundries . S ‘ :

&
500
150

10
25
35
10
50
30

S10 Co mow ec.

eocoeoescoFr

having paid cash by the end of the year for all the above, with the
exception of 50/, still owing for cake, and 10/. for sundries. His rent
for the year amounts to 240/., of which 60/. is still owing at its close ;
and he has paid in cash the following expenses :—

Rates, taxes, and insurance

Labourers’ wages . :
Incidentals :
Own private expenses.

His receipts for the year are as follow :

Corn 2 . os
Live stock . . ;
Wool . : : .
Dairy produce .
Hay and straw . :
Keeping . A : ‘

Poultry and sundries .

ocooco

ogo coc 2”

(N= Ne!

Soe o cle oF

His stock at the end of the year is valued at 950/., and he has

250/. in cash.

Draw up abstract account showing Profit or Loss on the year’s

transactions.

Make out short statement showing amount of assets and lia-
bilities and balance of capital at beginning and end of the year,

exxxii Agricultural Hducation—Examination Papers, 1888.

EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY.

Maximum NumsBer or Marks, 200. Pass Numper, 100.

A. GENERAL CHEMISTRY.

Thursday, May 10th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

1. Give an account of the properties of carbon and charcoal.

2. What are the chief substances in solution in sea-water,
common spring-water, and rain-water, respectively ? How is water
from a pond affected by filtering it through a bed of sand 4

3. How may nitrates be made to yield ammonia? Calculate the
weight of ammonia which 1000 grs, of sodium nitrate will yield.
(Na = 23, N = 14.)

4. Describe the chemical characters of silica and silicic acid.
What silicates are soluble in water, and how may they be distin-
guished from salts of other acids ?

5. In what substances and in what states of combination does
sulphur most commonly occur in nature? How can sulphites, such
as sodium and calcium sulphite, be prepared? How do you explain
the antiseptic property of sulphites ?

6. State the composition, general properties, and mode of pre-
paration, of caustic potash. Explain its action with copper sulphate
and ferric chloride respectively.

7. Explain the chemical nature and distinctive properties of
copperas, red lead, alumina, pyroligneous acid, paraffin.

8. State the composition of urea, and explain why it is said to
be carbamide. What chemical changes does it most readily under-
go? How can it be made artificially ?

9. What are the chemical relations between cane and grape
sugar ? What conditions are requisite for the transformation of sugar
into alcohol? How can absolute alcohol be obtained ?

\

Agricultural Rducation—Examination Papers, 1888. cxxxiii

B. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Thursday, May 10th, from 2 p.m. to 5 p.m.

1. Illustrate by examples differences of root-range exhibited by
erops, especially with regard to the constituents they are capable of
taking up from the soil and from manures, and to their place in a
rotation.

2. What are possible causes of “clover sickness”? Give brief
accounts of any investigations bearing on the subject.

3. Name any special functions which the presence of the fol-
lowing constituents in soils is held to perform :—Oxide of Iron ;
Alumina ; Chlorine ; Sulphur ; Magnesia ; Soda ; Silica.

4, In what form or forms does Sugar exist in Swedes and in
Mangels, and in what respective quantities on an average? How
would you determine the amounts analytically ?

5. Compare oxen, sheep, and pigs in respect of relative increase
of live weight to food consumed. What are the chief differences of
composition shown by the excrements in either case ?

6. Describe the chemical nature and methods of preparation of
the following :—Creosote ; Malt ; Margarine ; Basic Cinder.

7. Describe special uses in agriculture of these materials :—
Seaweed ; Shoddy ; Salicylic Acid; Boracic Acid; Shell-sand; Saw-
dust ; Gypsum; Gas Lime ; Liquid Manure ; Peat.

EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND LAND
SURVEYING.

Maximum Numper oF Marks, 100, Pass Numper, 50.
Friday, May 1th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m.

1. The side B C of a triangle A B C is 12:37 chains long ;
the perpendicular from A to BC meets B C in N, where B N, N C
are 8°41 and 3°96 chains in length ; the length of A N is 11:08
chains. Draw the triangle to a scale of 5 chains to an inch ; note
the lengths of A B and AC and the number of degrees in the
angles ; and find the area of the triangle in acres, roods, and perches.

2. An ingot of steel is 3 ft. long, and has a square cross-section
whose side is 10 in.; find its weight, having given that the specific
gravity of steel is 7-8. If the ingot were formed into a rail 30 ft,
long, what would be the area of the cross-section of the rail ?

VOL, XXIV.—S. S. k

'.

exxxiv Agricultural Hducation—Haamination Papers, 1888.

3. The diameter of the funnel of a rain-gauge is 4°7 in.; what
quantity of water collected by the funnel would indicate a rain-fall of
one-tenth of an inch ?

4, A heap of gravel is made in the usual way on level ground ;
its base is 40 ft. long by 30 ft. wide ; its height is 4 ft.; the slope
of the sides is 4 vertical to 5 horizontal ; how many cubic yards of
gravel are there in the heap 4

5, If a map were drawn to a scale of 25 in. to a mile, what
number of square yards on the ground would be represented -by a
square inch on the map? But if the representative fraction of the

scale were y;'55, What number of square yards would now be repre-
sented by a square inch ?

6. On opposite sides of a stream, whose general direction is from
west to east, points A and B are taken 1°64 apart ; on the south
side, at right angles to A B, points A, C, D are taken
in a straight line, A C = 12°55, C D = 5:27; a point No. 1.
E is taken north of C D, such that CE =6:14, DE
= 464. The south side runs nearly along A C, C E
as shown in No. 1. On the north side of the stream 929 | 6-14
a point F is fixed by the angles F C D = 62°, F DC

= 72° ; the north side is then determined by No. 2. £
All the distances are in chains. O55 | 1255
Draw a plan of this portion of the stream, on a 0:47 6:14
scale of one inch to two chains. Me mit
7. After having drawn the plan in Q. 6, state any ae
other way that occurs to you of laying downa plan of A
that portion of the stream, and mention briefly the
advantages of the method you propose. Wo. @
8. Points A, B, &c., are taken along a road, the
horizontal distances in chains being as follows :— F
AB=66,BC=144,CD=DE=5,EF=76; | jes6 | ong
the heights in feet of the points A, B, &c., above the 14:73 | 095
datum line are 95°8, 86:4, 68°7, 67:0, 70°8, 85:2. i ee
Draw a section of the road, distances to a scale of 3:55 | 0-41
1 in, equal to 4 chains, heights 1 in, equal to 10 ft. 0-00 | 0:00
Tf the level is placed between A and B, and the or

staff held at A reads 2°67 ; what will it read when
held at Bt

9. AB C is a triangle, A B = 86°15 chains, A C = 61°45 chains ;
B bears 21° 20’ 8. of W. from A, C bears 43° 18’ N of W. from A ;
find, both by construction and calculation, the area of the triangle
A BC, and the bearing of C from B.

Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1888, cxxxv

EXAMINATION IN MECHANICS AND NATURAL
PHILOSOPHY.

Maximum Numper or Marks, 200. Pass Numser, 100.
Friday, May 11th, from 10 am. till 1 p.m.

1. Define the centre of gravity of a body. Mention any one case
in which the centre of gravity is not a point of the body itself.

Why is it difficult (or impossible) to balance a rod horizontally

-on your finger? Why is the difficulty diminished (or removed) when
a weight is hung from each end of the rod ?

2. A thread, which hangs over a fixed pulley, carries a body at
each end ; why will the bodies remain at rest if their weights are
equal? What frictions are there in this case tending to keep the
bodies at rest even when the weights are unequal ?

3. Show in a diagram how to combine a fixed and a movable
pulley into a system for raising a weight. If it is found by trial
that when either pulley is fixed (as in Q. 2) a weight of 500 lbs. is
required to lift off the ground a weight of 460 lbs., what force
would be required to lift a weight of 1,000 lbs. off the ground, when
the system shown in your answer to the first part of the question is
used ?

4. When a heavy body, such as the trunk of a tree, is moved
forward on rollers, how much faster than the rollers does the body

_ tend to advance, and why ?

5, Define a foot-pound and a horse-power. i

It is found that by a consumption of 1,200 lbs. of coals a train
of 60 tons can be made to move over 40 miles against a resistance
_ of 7 lbs. a ton ; how many foot-pounds of work are got out of each
bushel (84 lbs.) of coals consumed ?

6. A body weighing 10 tons is moving at the rate of 30 miles
an hour: how many foot-pounds of work is it able to do against a
resistance? If the resistance were a constant friction of 8 lbs. a
_ ton, how far would the body move before being brought to rest ?
(g=82).
- 7, Describe the method of finding the specific gravity of a liquid
. by a specific gravity bottle.

If the bottle when full of water is counterpoised by 988 grains

_ and the counterpoise of the empty bottle, and when full of sulphuric
acid by 1,742 grains and the counterpoise, what is the gore: gravity
. of the sulphuric acid ?

State briefly how the result would be affected by the buoyancy
of the atmosphere.

ke

exxxvi Agricultural Education—Ezamination Papers, 1888.

8. Write down the formula which expresses the relation between
the volume, pressure, and temperature of a given quantity of gas,
stating exactly the meaning of each letter which enters the formula.

The volume of a certain quantity of gas is 2,000 cubic inches, when
under a pressure of 29°325 inches of mercury, and when the tempera-
ture is 68° F. (20° C.) ; at what temperature would its volume be
2,500 cubic inches, under a pressure of 26:715 inches of mercury 4
(Temperature of mercury the same in both cases.)

9. Define a unit of heat and its mechanical equivalent.

When a steam-engine lifts a weight of one ton to a height of
386 feet, how many units of heat are consumed in doing this work ?

To what temperature would that number of units of heat raise
10 gallons of ice-cold water.

EXAMINATION IN BOTANY.

Maximum NumsBer or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50.
Saturday, May 12th, from 10 a.m. to 1 p.m.

1. How would you distinguish a plant from an animal in their
simplest forms ?

2. Describe the methods of multiplication of the vegetable cell.

3. What is, a, protoplasm ; 6, chlorophyll ; c, cellulose ; and d,
starch ?

4. Describe the structure of the leaf, and explain its function.

5. What are the principal elements of the food of plants ; where
are they obtained ; and by what organs are they appropriated 4

6. What are the external conditions necessary for the germina-
tion of a seed ?

7. What is the structure of a grain of wheat ? Compare it with
the structure of a pea.

8. Describe the organs of reproductiom in the Gymnosperms ;
explain how the ovule is fertilised ; and give the names of the gym-
nosperms which are natives of Britain.

9. Give a sketch of the life history of the fungus that causes
mildew in wheat.

10. Name three insectivorous plants ; describe the methods by
which they seize their prey; and explain how the insects are utilised
by the plants.

11. State the principal characters of the Graminer, Leguminosm,
and Crucifere.

12, Name and describe the plants A, B, and C, taking the organs,
if present, in the following order : root, stem, leaves, bracts, sepals,
petals, stamens, pistil, fruit, and seeds,

Agricultural Education—Examination Papers, 1888. cxxxyii

EXAMINATION IN GEOLOGY.

Maximum NumsBer or Marks, 100. Pass Number, 50.
Tuesday, May 8th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

1. Enumerate some of the different kinds of Soils. Of what are
they composed? How did they originate? Where are they,
respectively, met with? What is their relative agricultural value ?

- 2. Write an account of the origin and mode of occurrence of
Natural Springs; and state under what conditions water may be
expected to be found in common Wells and artesian Borings. Give
diagrams in your answer.

3. Of what great classes of Rocks is the Crust of the Earth chiefly
composed? State the nature and origin of each class ; and refer to
British or other localities for examples of each.

4, Draw a Section across any district, shewing how the form of
ground is dependent upon geological structure. Describe the details
of the Section.

5. Show how attention to the dip of strata will often save
expense both in the first construction and in the future maintenance
of a road carried along a hill-side, through a country composed of
stratified rocks.

6. Which are the best kinds of stone to be used for road-metal 4
Give your reasons for the selection ; and state where these materials
are most likely to be found.

7. Give some account of the different kinds of coal, lignite, and
peat; noticing their composition, external characters, origin, localities,
and uses.

8. Under the several headings of crystalline, massive, bedded,
schistose, and cleaved, tabulate the best known of the different kinds
of Rocks ; and give some notes on their respective origin and the
changes they have undergone.

9. On the accompanying outline map of the British Islands
indicate the distribution, range, and extent of the Carboniferous
System, in its several great stratigraphical groups or Formations.

10. Make a Table of either the Secondary or the Tertiary strata
of England. Explain the meaning and scientific value of the names
you use; give notes on the range of the several formations you
mention, and enumerate some of their chief fossils.

11. Give diagrams and descriptions of the geological structure of
either Snowdon and the Malvern Hills, ov Arthur’s Seat and the
Cotteswolds.

12, Describe the Specimens on the Table,

exxxvili Agricultural Education—Ezamination Papers, 1888. _

EXAMINATION IN ANATOMY AND ANIMAL |
PHYSIOLOGY.

~

Maximum Number or Marks, 100. Pass Numper, 50.
Saturday, May 12th, from 2 p.m. till 4 p.m.

1. Given that the movement of the lower jaw of the Ox in
masticating the food differs from that of many other animals, name
an animal from which it most differs, and state the advantages con-|
nected therewith.

2. Describe the action of the saliva on the food, and name the
principal glands which secrete the fluid, and the parts.of the mouth
where their ducts open.

3. Name the stomach into which the food first enters in rumi-
nating animals, and describe its function in facilitating digestion.
State also the names and functions of the other stomachs, particu-
larising the one in which digestion is completed,

4, Name the chief muscles which assist in the inspiration and
expiration of air in breathing, and say in what essential particulars
expired air differs from inspired.

5. Give the number, names, and relative position of the muscles
attached to the eyeball of the Horse, naming those which in the
several movements of the eyes act simultaneously and in pairs, and
which do not.

6. Describe the position and general structure of the kidneys,
and name the chief difference in their size and form, comparing
those of the Ox with the Sheep. State also the course which the
urine takes to be expelled from the body,

7. Give the period of utero-gestation in the several animals of
the farm.

8. Describe the so-called natural position of a fetus at the
time of parturition, and say in which animal, the Mare or Cow,
labour is the soonest completed, State also the average time it
occupies in each of these animals.

9. Give the names of the several membranes which envelope the
foetus in utero, and name the difference which exists in the attach-
ment of the outermost-placed one to the inner surface of the uterus
in the Mare and Cow.

(| exxxix )

REGULATIONS AS TO SENIOR PRIZES
AND CERTIFICATES.

[The following New Regulations for these Prizes and Certifi-
cates were approved by the Council on June 27, 1888, and will
come into force for the examination to be held in May 1889. |

1. An Examination of Candidates for the Society’s Senior Prizes
and Certificates is held annually in the month of May at the
Society’s House, 12, Hanover Square, London, W. The next Ex-
amination will take place in the week commencing May 6, 1889.

2. Forms of entry may be obtained of the Secretary, and must be
returned to him duly filled up on or before March 31 preceding the
Examination.

3. A Deposit of 1/. must be paid by each candidate at the time of
making his entry. This Deposit will be returned to all candidates
attending for examination at the proper time, but will in other cases
be forfeited, unless an explanation satisfactory to the Council be re-
ceived before the first day of the examination.

4, The examinations will be conducted by means of written
papers, and by a vivd voce examination.

5. The successful candidates will be placed in two classes, and
arranged in order of merit.

6. Certificates, to be termed first- and second-class certificates,
will be granted to candidates placed in the first and second class :
such certificates will specify the subjects in which the candidates
shall have satisfied the Examiners.

7. In order to obtain a first-class certificate, a candidate must
satisfy the Examiners in the Practice of Agriculture, Book-keeping,
Chemistry, Land Surveying, and Agricultural Engineering.

8. Each candidate obtaining a first-class certificate will thereby
become a Life Member of the Society.

9. The following prizes will be awarded to candidates placed in

the first class for aggregate merit :—First Prize, 25/.; Second Prize,
15/.; Third Prize, 10/.; Fourth Prize, 5/,

exl Regulations as to Senior Prizes and Certificates.

10. In order to obtain a second-class certificate, a candidate must
satisfy the Examiners in the Practice of Agriculture, and also
in three of the four following subjects, all of which must be bond
jide attempted :—Book-keeping, Chemistry, Land Surveying, and
Agricultural Engineering.

11. A candidate may offer himself for examination in one or
more of the following subjects, viz. :—Botany, Geology, and Anatomy.
Any knowledge which he may show of these subjects will be counted
to his credit in the general classification, provided that he shall
have fulfilled the foregoing conditions, and provided that the know-
ledge of these optional subjects does not fall below the standard
fixed as a minimum in each of such subjects.

12. A candidate who does not obtain half the maximum number
of marks in any of the subjects in which he is examined will be
considered as failing in that subject. The maximum number of marks
obtainable in each subject is as follows :—

AGRICULTURE. ... . . 200] Lanp Surveying . .. . 200
# vivd voce exami- AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 200
nation. . . . « + + 100] Borayy’ . . |
BoOK-KEEPING® ..) ¢c« +33. « 200:|GronoGy .) $5 oe ee
CHEMISTRY < . <<) <) « 200+! Anatomy!) . Sa ee

By Order of the Council,
ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.

12, Hanover Square, Lonpon, W.
June 27, 1888.

SYLLABUS OF SUBJECTS FOR THE
SENIOR EXAMINATION.

I, PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.

II. BOOK-KEEPING.,

To exhibit, by working out in proper technical form, a given series of
imaginary transactions, a knowledge of the use of the “Cash Book” and the
“ Journal,” and the preparation of a Profit and Loss Account, and Balance-
sheet, as the result of such imaginary transactions,

Senior Examination : Syllabus of Subjects. exli

III, GENERAL CHEMISTRY.

Definition and classification of elements. Occurrence in nature and
leading characters of the elements most commonly met with. Preparation
and properties of common products of inorganic chemistry (such as the
mineral acids, alkalies, salts, &c.). The Laws of chemical combination.
Ixplanation of equivalence and quantivalence. Distinction of chemical and
mechanical compounds. Laws of gaseous diffusion. The atmosphere.
Theory of combustion. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of atmospheric
air. Qualitative analysis of common inorganic substances. Quantitative
analysis in simple cases (such as the determination of strength of solutions,
proportions of acids and bases in simple salts) by volumetric and gravimetric
methods. Ultimate organic analysis by combustion. Proximate analysis by
solvents; dialysis and fractional distillation. Definition of compound radi-
cles. The chemical characters of cyanogen and its most common compounds,
urea, and uric acid. Saccharine and amylaceous compounds. Fermentation.
Ordinary alcohol and ether, and the most common compound ethylic ethers,
Oxalic acid, lactic acid, acetic acid and its homologues, fats, glycerine, and
soap. Paraffin. Phenol. Turpentine and resin. Tannin. Albumen.
Gelatine. - -

N.B.—In this section exact knowledge of general principles and typical
compounds ts expected, rather than diffuse information.

IV, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Chemical composition and analysis of soils. Chemical properties of soils.
Physical properties of soils. Chemical and other effects of ploughing, sub-
suiling, and draining. Paring and burning, The use of lime, marl, and
shell-sand in Agriculture. Means of improving the soil by the use of
Manures. Vegetable Manures. Animal Manures. Farm-yard Manure.
Liquid Manure. Sewage of Towns. Night-soil. Artificial Manures. Guano.
Composition of Peruvian guanos and phosphatic guanos. Adulteration of
guano and the means of detecting it.

The various forms in which bones are used in Agriculture. Superphos-
phate of lime; composition, value of different samples, analysis and deter-
inination of their commercial value. Nitrate of soda, common salt, sul-
phate of ammonia, soot, &c. Chemical phenomena of germination; func-
tions of leayes and roots. Forms in which the organic elements, carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus enter into plants.

The inorganic constituents of plants; potash, soda, lime, phosphoric
acid, &e. Composition of the ashes of plants.

Spring-water, River-water, and Sea-water. Properties of good and bad
drinking waters. Irrigation.

The properties and composition of milk, cream, butter, and cheese.

Composition and nutritive value of different kinds of food grown on the

Farm. Practical and commercial value of different kinds of oil-cake,
Manurial value of different kinds of food,

exhii Senior Examination : Syllabus of Subjects.

V. MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING,

Ordinary rules of superficial and solid mensuration. Volume of a pris-
moid. Applications to practical questions, Estimation of weights of bodies
whose dimensions and specific gravity are known.

Land surveying by chain. Plotting from field book, and determination
of areas surveyed. ‘The simpler “ ground problems.”

Levelling and plotting from field book.

Trigonometrical surveying, and determination of heights and distances
by Theodolite ; as essential to this, solution of plain triangles by the aid of
Logarithmic Tables,

VI. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

a. Mechanics.

Centre of gravity; stability of structures. The lever; toothed wheels ;
pulleys and ropes; wrapping connectors; winches; differential pulleys.
Laws of motion. Strength of materials, tensile, compressive, torsional, and
transverse ; elastic limit; ultimate strength. Work; horse-power; animal
and human power. Friction of surfaces and axles; lubrication.

b. Heat.

Nature of heat; thermometer; absolute zero; specific heat ; latent
heat ; the unit of heat. Total heat of water; as ice, water, and steam.
Conduction, convection, and radiation of heat. Mechanical equivalent of
heat. Principle of combustion. Quantity of heat generated by combustion,
Modes of transforming heat of combustion into power.

c. Aur.
Composition of air. Properties ofair; elasticity, specific heat, Barometer ;
moisture; movement. Winds, Windmills. Office of air in combustion;
quantity required.

d. Water.

Composition. Weight. Height ofcolumn to balance atmosphere. Flow
of water. Friction of water in pipes and channels. Usual speeds of flow.
Power derived from falls of water. Water-wheels; turbines; water-
pressure engines; pumps. Potable water. Sources of supply. Means of
purification. Storage,

e. Steam Engine.

Construction of an ordinary portable-engine boiler, of a Cornish boiler and
itssetting. Fittingsofa boiler. Construction of the stationary and portable
steam-engine. Singlecylinder. Doublecylinder. Compound, Slide-valve.
Expansion valve. Cylinder. Piston-rod. Glands. Connecting-rod. Crank
and crank shaft. Fly-wheel. Bearings. Pet cocks, Lubrication. Steam
and fuel consumed per horse-power,

J. Gas and Petroleum Engines.

Principle of action. Construction of valye-gear, Sources of loss, Fuel
and water required per horse-power.

Senior Hxamanation: Syllabus of Subjects. exliii

g. Agricultwral Implements.

On the mode of action and the general principles involved in the construc-
tion of farm implements. The adjustments of implements for different de-
scriptions of work, Lubrication. Working or wearing parts.

1. Cuntivatine IMPLEMENTS ACTUATED BY STEAM PoweER.

2. Horsk-cuttivatine ImpLements.—Ploughs of various kinds, Culti-
vators or Grubbers. Harrows. Rollers. Scrubbers.

8. Sowine ImpremeNts.—Drills. Manure and water drills. Broadcast
barrows. Broadcasters. Manure distributors. Potato Planters.

4, Horine Inprements.—Horse-hoes. Scuftlers.

5. IMPLEMENTS EMPLOYED IN SECURING Crops.—Reaping machines of all
kinds. Mowing machines, Hay-makers. Horse-rakes, Elevators. Potato-
raisers,

6. CarRiacEs.—Carts and waggons,

7. IMPLEMENTS FOR PREPARING Crops rok Marxet.—Thrashing ma-
chines. Wainnowing machines. Corn screens. Hummellers, Hay and
Straw Presses.

8. IMPLEMENTS FOR PREPARING Crops FoR Home Consumprion.—Mills.
Chaff-cutters. Pulpers. Turnip-cutters. Cake-breakers. Cooking appa-
ratus,

9, Datry Imprements.—Cream separators. Churns. Butter workers.
Cheese tubs. Curd mills. Setting-pans. Refrigerators,

10. IeLemEnts AND APPLIANCES USED IN LAND ImpRoVEMENtT.—Drain-
age instruments. lLime-kilns. Arrangements of shafting, pulleys, clutches
&c., for farm machinery at homesteads.

11. Sizage APPLIANCES.

Students must be prepared to point out the various adjustments, working
parts, merits, faults, and uses of the above-named implements. They must
also be prepared to answer questions upon the character and quality of the
work done, as well as upon the construction of the implements themselves.

* * Questions will be set upon all parts of the above syllabus of Agri-
cultural Engineering, but it 1s not contemplated that a candidate shall answer
more than half the questions put. Formal proofs of theorems will not be re-
quired, and credit will be given for practical knowledge shown,

VII. BOTANY,
The structure of plants.
The organs of plants and their functions.
The life of plants.
The- diseases of plants.
The chemical composition of plants.
The function of manures.
The useful, useless, and injurious plants of Agriculture,
The classification of plants.

N.B.— Candidates are required to tdentify three plants, and to describe
them in @ scientific manner,

exliv Senior Examination: Syllabus of Subjects.

VIII. GEOLOGY.

Nature and objects of Geological Science.

Chief minerals entering into the composition of rocks,

Origin and composition of rocks,

General principles of the classification of rocks.

Subdivisions of the stratified rocks, and their geographical distribution
in the British Islands.

Geological distribution of Fossils.

Characteristic Fossils of the Chief Formations.

The different kinds of soils, their origin and formation,

Relation of Strata to water supply and drainage.

Origin of springs.

The various mineral manures, their characters and mode of occurrence.

‘lhe weathering and disintegration of rocks,

Permeable and impermeable rocks.

Different kinds of building stones and road materials.

Distribution of the various economical substances.

N.B.— Candidates will be required to give the names of rocks, minerals, and
fossils.

Ix. ANATOMY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

Classification of the animal kingdom as applied to Domesticated
Animals.

Comparative osteology of the animals of the farm, inclusive of the
arrangement of the bones in the formation of the skeleton.

Composition, structure, and use of bone, cartilage, ligament, and tendon,
The formation and classification of joints.

Structure and function of muscle, voluntary and involuntary.

General anatomy of the brain and nervous system. Voluntary and
involuntary motion.

Structure and functions of the circulatory organs in Mammals. Heart,
arteries, capillaries, veins.

Composition and properties of the blood, chyle, and lymph.

Structure and function of the several organs of respiration. Animal
heat. Normal and abnormal temperature,

General structure of the reproductive organs-—male and female.

Impregnation, pregnancy, and parturition of domesticated animals,

Leading peculiarities in the digestive organs of the different classes of
animals.

Development and structure of teeth, Dentition as indicating the age of
animals of the farm.

Appropriation of food and water by the processes of digestion, assimila-
tion, absorption, and nutrition. Secretory and excretory organs.

Disposal of excess of nutritive matter; waste of body, how effected and
how repaired.

Structure and functions of the integumental parts of the body. Skin,
mucous membrane, and horny substance.

Structure and functions of the organs of sight and hearing.

N.B.—The knowledge of Anatomical facts and Physiological principles re-
quired of candidates in this section is not more than may be acquired by
the thorough mastery of elementary treatises which include the subjects
above prescribed,

( texlv /)

MEMORANDA.

Appress or LETrens.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district designated by the
letter W., Members, in thelr correspondence with the Secretary, are requested to subjoin
that letter to the usual address,

GENERAL MEETING in London, Thursday, December 13, 1888, at noon,
GENERAL MEETING in London, Wednesday, May 22, 1889, at noon.
CounTRY MEETING in Windsor Great Park, week commencing June 24, 1889,

MONTHLY CouNCcIL (for transaction of business), at noon on the first Wednesday in every month,
excepting January, September, and October: open only to Members of Council and
Governors of the Society.

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when those weeks
do not include the first Wednesday of the month ; from the first Wednesday in August to
the first Wednesday in November ; and from the first Wednesday in December to the first
Wednesday in February.

Orricr Houns,—10 to 4. On Saturdays 10 to 2.

Disrases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to the Vete-
rinary Committee of the Society, and of sending animals to the Royal Veterinary College,
Camden Town, N.W.—(A statement of these privileges will be found on page exlix. in
this Appendix.)

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.,—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members of the Society
will be found stated in this Appendix (page exlvi.).

BOTANICAL AND ENTOMOLOGICAL PRIVILEGES.—The Botanical and Entomological Privileges en-
joyed by Members of the Society will be found stated in this Appendix (pages cli. and
clii.).

SusscripTions.—1, Annwal.—The subscription of a Governor is £5, and that of a Member £1,
due in advance on the Ist of January of each year, and becoming in arrear if unpaid by
the 1st of June.

2. For Life-—Governors may compound for their subscriptions for future years by
paying at once the sum of £50, and Members by paying £10. Governors and Members
who have paid their annual subscription for 20 years or upwards, and whose payments
are not in arrear, may compound for future annual subscriptions, that of the current year
inclusive, by a single payment of £25 for a Governor, and £5 for a Member, No Governor
or Member can be allowed to enter into composition for life until all subscriptions due by
him at the time shall have been paid,

No Governor or Member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the privileges
of the Society.

PAyYMENTS.—Subscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory
manner, either at the office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London, W., or by means
of crossed cheques in favour of the Secretary, or by postal orders, to be obtained at any of
the principal post-offices throughout the kingdom, and made payable at the Vere Street
Office, London, W. In obtaining postal orders care should be taken to give the postmaster
the correct name of the Secretary of the Society (Ernest Clarke), otherwise the payment may
be refused to him at the post-office on which such order has been obtained ; and when
making remittances it should be stated by whom, and on whose account, they are sent.
Cheques should be crossed ‘‘ London and Westminster Bank.”

On application to the Secretary, forms may be obtained for authorising the regular
payment, by the bankers of individual members, of each annual subscription as it falls
due. Members are particularly invited to avail themselves of these Bankers’ orders, in
order to save trouble both to themselves and to the Society. When payment is made to the
London and Westminster Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, as the bankers of the Society,
it will be desirable that the Secretary should be advised by letter of such payment, in order
that the entry in the bankers’ book may be at once identified, and the amount posted to the
credit of the proper pe:son. No coin can be remitted by post, unless the letter be registered,

New MempBers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by a
Member ; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual place of residence, and
post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meeting, or by letter addressed to the
Secretary, Forms of Proposal may be obtained on application to the Secretary, The
Secretary will inform new Members of their election by letter,

*,® Members may obtain on application to the Secretary copies of an abstract of the
Charter and Bye-laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of
Chemical, Botanical, and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected
with special departments of the Society’s business,

( exlvi_)
Governors’ and Alembers’ Pribileges of Chemical Aualwsis,

(Applicable only to the case of Persons who are not commercially engaged in the
manufacture or sale of any substance sent Jor Analysis.)

THe Council have fixed the following rates of Charges for Analysis to be made by the Con-
sulting Chemist for the bond-jide and sole use of Members of the Society. Members have also
the privilege of sending samples for Analysis on behalf of any farming company of which they
may be directors or managers, provided that the substances so sent shall be for use on the
farm of the Company and not for sale to other persons. Members of the Society are also

allowed to send to the Soeiety’s Laboratory for analysis, at the same scale of fees, any manures
and feeding stuffs which are to be used by their outgoing tenants, or which they propose to
give free of cost to their occupying tenants.

These analyses are given on the understanding that they are required for the individualand
sole benefit of the Member applying for them, and must not be used for other persons, or for
commercial purposes. Except in case of dispute, the analyses and reports must not be com-
municated to either vendor or manufacturer. Land or Estate Agents and others sending
Samples for analysis on behalf of their principals are only entitled to do so when the latter
are themselves Members. The names of the principals should in such eases be given.

To avoid all unnecessary correspondence, Members are particularly requested, when apply-
ing to the Consulting Chemist, to mention the kind of analysis they require, and to quote its
number in the subjoined schedule.

The charge for analysis, together with the cost of the carriage of the specimens (if any),
must be paid to the Consulting Chemist at the time of application.

No.
1—An opinion of the genuineness of bone-dust or oil-cake (each sample) . . . 25, 6d.
2.—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average samples in the market) of sul-
phate and muriaté of sintacain and of tho uikrates of yubeds and soda . ‘ E
3.—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture, organic matter, sand,
phosphate of lime, alkaline salts and ammonia, and an estimate of its valne, —
vided the selling price of the articles to be analysed be sent withit . : 10s,
4.—An analysis of mineral superphosphate of lime for soluble phosphates only, and an
estimate of its value, eg the —— of the article to be — be
sent withit . : - = = bs.
kn analysis of eee Hime, rae the proportions of motetuiie! organic
matter, sand, soluble and insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia,
and an "estimate of its == eae ero a of the article to be analysed
be sent withit . - wn ee rn ee 10s.
6.—An analysis, showing the valne ‘of Same ae or — ae i ifici
manure, provided the selling price of the manure to be analysed be sent with it. 10s.

7.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime . . F . 1s. ti
8.—An analysis of limestone, showing the proportion of lime and vnigonbits 4 rs 10s.
9.—An analysis of limestone or marls, showing the proportion of aegis rors
and sulphate of lime and magnesia, with sandandclay . = = 10s,
10.— Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of nae sand, organic Soniteen 7
and carbonate oflime . .« <« + ce « . o)! nea 10s.
11._Complete analysis ofasoil . . e ° = es £3

12.—An analysis of oil-cake or other abhor ied for feats pecially aan the
proportion of moisture, oil, mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre,

as well as of starch, gum, and sugar in the aggregate; and an opinion of its
feeding and fattening or milk-producing properties. . . . .« .« « 10s,
13.—Analysis of any vegetable product . < é S
24. Aval ysis of antnel predicts, xdlaneloulialazees toed fee susicasat Git vs from 10s. to £1
15.—Determination of the “hardness” of a sample of water before and after boiling .
16.—Analysis of water of land-drainage, and of water used for irrigation oa
17.—Analysis of water used for domestic purposes . « «© « «© «© 28
18.—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water cos é
19.—An analysis of a sample of milk (to assist Members in the ‘aitiadtgealiie of their
Dairies and Herds, bond fide for their own information and not for trade se
or for use in connection with the Sale of Food and a Acts) . of ae 5s.
20,—Examination of viscera for metallic poison . . © «ys ae
21.,—Examination of viscera complete, for metals and alksloids .
22.—Personal consultation with the Consulting Chemist. (The usual peu of sian
ance, Monday excepted, will be from 11 to 3, but to prevent disappointment it is
suggested that Members desiring to hold a consultation with the Consulting
Chemist should write to make an appointment) . « 2 ° ‘ =
23.—Consultation by letter - . . . . .
3k, Consultation nectesiteking the vetliinig of Gluieliaxt teeun iebtata oe owed

The Laboratory of the Society is at 12, Hanover Square, London, W., to which
Consulting Chemist, Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, requests that all letters and parcels
and carriage paid) from Members of the Society who are entitled to avail themselves
foregoing Privileges should be directed, Cheques and Postal Orders should be crossed “*

minster Bank.”

and West

_

( exlvii )

GUIDE TO THE PURCHASE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
AND FEEDING STUFFS.

FEEpInG CAKEs.

1. Linseed-cake should be purchased as “ Pure,” and the insertion of this
word on the invoice should be insisted upon. The use of such words as
“ Best,” “Genuine,” &c., should be objected to by the purchaser.

2. Rape-cake for feeding purposes should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and
purchased by sample.

3. Decorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “ Pure,” and purchased
by sample.

4. Undecorticated Cotton-cake should be guaranteed “Pure,” and pur-
chased by sample.

N.B.—AIl feeding cakes should be purchased in good condition, and the
guarantee of the vendor should be immediately checked by a fair sample
(taken out of the middle of the cake) being at once sent for examination to a
competent analytical chemist. The remainder of the cake from which the
sample sent for examination had been taken should be sealed up in the presence
of a witness, and retained by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES.

1. Raw or Green Bones or Bone-dust should be purchased as “ Pure”
Raw Bones guaranteed to contain from 45 to 48 per cent. of tribasic phos-
phate of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent. of ammonia.

2. Boiled Bones should be purchased as “ Pure ” Boiled Bones guaranteed
to contain from 55 to 60 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield
not less than 1 per cent. of ammonia.

3. Dissolved Bones are made of various qualities, and are sold at various
prices per ton ; therefore the quality should be guaranteed under the heads
of soluble phosphate of lime, insoluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its
equivalent as ammonia. The purchaser should also stipulate for an allow-
ance for each unit per cent. which the dissolved bones should be found on
analysis to contain less than the guaranteed percentages of the three sub-
stances already mentioned.

4, Mineral Superphosphates should be guaranteed to be delivered in a
sufficiently dry and powdery condition, and to contain a certain percentage of
soluble phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per cent., no value to be
attached to zsoluble phosphates.

5. Compound Artificial Manwres should be purchased in the same manner
and with the same guarantees as Dissolved Bones.

6. Nitrate of Soda should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain 95
per cent. of pure nitrate.

7. Sulphate of Ammonia should be guaranteed by the vendor to contain
not less than 24 per cent. of ammonia.

8. Peruvian Guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be
in a dry and friable condition, and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia.

N.B.—Artificial manures should be guaranteed to be delivered in a suffi-
ciently dry and powdery condition to admit of distribution by the drill. A
sample for analysis should be taken, not later than three days after delivery,
by emptying several bags, mixing the contents together, and filling two tins
holding about half a pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the tins
should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for reference in case of dispute,
and the other forwarded to a competent analytical chemist for examination,

( exlvil )

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING ©
SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES.—Take a large handful of the manure from three
or four bags, mix the whole on a large sheet of paper, breaking down with the
hand any lumps present, and fold up in tinfoil, or in oil-silk, about 3 oz. of
the well-mixed sample, and send it to 12 HANOVER SQUARE, W., by post; or
place the mixed manure in a small wooden or tin box, which may be tied by
string, but must not be sealed, and send it by post. If the manure be very
wet and lumpy, a large boxful, weighing from 10 to 12 oz., should be sent
either by post or railway.

Samples not exceeding 4 oz. in weight may be sent by post, by attaching
two penny postage stamps to the parcel.

Samples not exceeding 8 oz., for three penny postage stamps.

Samples between 8 and 12 oz. can be sent by parcel post for threepence.

The parcels should be addressed: Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 12 HAN-
OVER SQUARE, LONDON, W., and the address of the sender or the number of
mark of the article be stated on parcels.

The samples may be sent in covers, or in boxes, bags of linen or other
materials,

SOILS.—Have a wooden box made 6 inches long and wide, and from 9 to
12 inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil of the field. Mark
out in the field a space of about 12 inches square; dig round ina slanting
direction a trench, so as to leave undisturbed a block of soil with its subsoil
9 to 12 inches deep; trim this block or plan of the field to make it fit into the
wooden box, invert the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade
under the box and lift it up, gently turn over the box, nail on the lid, and send
it by goods or parcel train to the laboratory. The soil will then be received
in the exact position in which it is found in the field.

In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box may be
at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure, and then dug out.

WATERS.—The water, if possible, should be sent in a glass-stoppered
Winchester half-gallon bottle, which is readily obtained in any chemist and
druggist’s shop. If Winchester bottles cannot be procured, the water may be
sent in perfectly clean new stoneware spirit-jars, surrounded by wickerwork.
For the determination of the degree of hardness before and after boiling, only
one quart wine-bottle full of water is required.

LIMESTONES, MARLS, IRONSTONES, AND OTHER MINERALS.—
Whole pieces, weighing from 3 to 4 oz., should be sent enclosed in small linen
bags, or wrapped in paper. Postage 2d., if under 4 oz.

OILCAKES.—Take a sample from the middle of the cake. To this end
break a whole cake into two. Then break off a piece from the end where the
two halves were joined together, and wrap it in paper, and send by parcel
post. The piece should weigh at least from 10 to 12 0z. If sent by railway,
one quarter or half a cake should be forwarded, carriage prepaid,

FEEDING MEALS.—About 3 oz. will be sufficient for analysis, Enclose
the meal in a small linen bag. Send it by post,

On forwarding samples, separate letters should be sent to the Laboratory
specifying the nature of the information required, and, if possible, the object
in view.

(»exlix )

Members’ Ceterinarp Privileges.

I.—VISITS OF A PROFESSOR OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE.

1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance and special
advice in cases of disease among his cattle, sheep, or pigs, should apply to the Secretary
of the Society, or to the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town,
London, N.W.

2. The remuneration of the Veterinary Surgeon or a Visiting Inspector will be
2/. 2s. each day as a professional fee, and the charge for personal expenses, when such
have been incurred, which will inno case exceed one guinea per diem. He will also be
allowed to charge the cost of travelling, including railway fare, and one shilling per
mile if by road, to and from the locality where his services may have been required.
The whole or any portion of these charges may, however, in case of serious or extensive
outbreaks of contagious disease, be remitted, so far as the Members of the Society are
concerned, at the discretion of the Council, on such step being recommended to them
by the Veterinary Committee.

3. The Consulting Veterinary Surgeon or Visiting Inspector, on his return, will
report to the Member, and, through the Principal of the Royal Veterinary College, to
the Veterinary Committee, in writing, the result of his observations and proceedings
with reference to the disease ; which Report will be laid before the Council.

4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the duties, the
Principal of the Royal Veterinary College may, subject to the approval of the Vete-
rinary Committee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who
shall be remunerated at the same rate.

II.—CoONSULTATIONS WITHOUT VISIT,

Personal consultation with Veterinary Inspector - . 10s. 6d.
Consultation by letter . = : ° 5 . . 3) 1108. 6d.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon . ~ els 0d:

A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each half-
year is required from the Consulting Veterinary Surgeon.

III.—ADMISsION OF DISEASED ANIMALS TO THE ROYAL VETERINARY
COLLEGE, CAMDEN Town, N.W.; INVESTIGATIONS AND REPORTS.

1, All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs
to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the following terms, viz. by °
paying for the keep and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for
sheep and pigs, 3s. 6d. per week,

2. A detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated in the Infirmary
of the College, or on Farms in the occupation of Members of the Society, will be fur-
nished to the Council quarterly ; and also special reports from time to time on any
matter of unusual interest which may come under the notice of the Officers of the
College.

3. An annual grant of 2002. is made by the Society to the Royal Veterinary College
in aid of the further development of Cattle Pathology. Jn order to assist the authori-
ties of the College in making the necessary investigations, Members of the Society are
particularly requested to send to the College any diseased animals (cattle, sheep, or
swine) which they would otherwise destroy as useless, and also any specimens of dis-
eased parts of an unusual character. In the event of living animals being sent, it
will be necessary to telegraph to the College at Camden Town the time of their arrival
at a London station, so that a van may be sent to meet them, The expense of transit
will be defrayed by the Royal Veterinary College.

IV.—VISITS OF PROVINCIAL VETERINARY SURGEONS.

The following Veterinary Surgeons have been appointed, at different centres in
England and Wales, for the purpose of enabling Members of the Society to consult
them with regard to the diseases of cattle, sheep, and pigs.

County, Name and Address.
Anglesey ‘ ; . . 9 . Mugh Jones, Brynarron, Langefni.
Beaiords. =. « ee . . Henry Crofts, Harper Strect, Bedford.
Berks . . ° . . . . Henry Allnutt, Thames Street, Windsor,
Brecon . ° ° . . John Price, Brecon.

VOL. XXIV.—S. § l

cl Members’ Veterinary Privileges.

County.
Bucks . . . . ° .
Cambridge . : , c
Cardigan ;
Carmarthen
Carnarvon
Chester .
Cornwall
Cumberland
Denbigh.
Derby .
Devon .
Dorset .
Durham .
Essex ,
Flint
Glamorgan
Gloucester .
Hants
Hereford
Herts
Hunts . i s
Kent 5 c ; .
Lancaster :
Leicester 5
Lincoln (South)
Lincoln (Mid)
Lincoln (North) . :
Merioneth . 5 .
Metropolis and Middlesex
Monmouth 4 .
Montgomery . 5 4 : 5
Norfolk . 5 5 .
Northampton
Northumberland and Ww estmorland
Notts . F 5
Oxford ( North) 3
Oxford (South)
Pembroke .

eusa ata Ve) es ia? eke aires

Salop. .
Somerset
Stafford . .
Suffolk .
Surrey

Sussex (East)

Sussex (West)

Warwick °

Wilts . °
Worcester.

York (East Riding)

York (North Riding) 4
York (West Riding) . G

Name and Address.

G. A. Lepper, Aylesbury.
G, A. Banham, Downing Street, Cambridge.
Not yet appointed.

Ditto.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele.
W. Lewis, 1 South Street, Nantwich Road, Crewe.
Thos, Olver, Truro.
John Bell, Lonsdale Street, Carlisle.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele,
Not yet appointed.
W. Penhale, Barnstaple.
W. Vessey, Weymouth.
John E, Peele, 8 New Elvet, Durham.
James Taylor, Vengewell Hall, Wix, Manningtree.
R. Roberts, Market Street, Abergele.
Charles Moir, Cardiff, [Cirencester,
Professor Nicholson Almond, Royal Agricultural College,
J. D. Barford, 57 Above Bar, Southampton,
W. Good, 30 Mill Street, Ludlow.
W. Wilson, Berkhampstead,
A. T. Sprague, Kimbolton,
W.A. Edgar, Westfield House, Dartford.
J. B. Polding, Red Lion Street, Burnley,
John Wiggins, Market Harbro’.
Captain B. H. Russell, Grantham.
Charles Hartley, 4 Norman Place, Lincoln.
J, B. Greswell, Mercer Row, Louth.
Evan Wynne Williams, 1 Queen’s Row, Dolgelly,
Royal Veterinary College, Camden Town,
G. Lewis, Monmouth,
James M‘Cavin, Montgomery.
Frederick Low, Norwich.
T. J. Merrick, Castilian Street, Northampton.
C. Stephenson, Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
Mr. Frank H. Gibbings, Albert Panare, Derby Road,
Chas. N. Page, Banbury. (Nottingham,
J.P. S. Walker, Oxford,
Not yet appointed.
W. E. Litt, Shrewsbury.
T. D. Broad, Broad Street, Bath.
Harry Olver, Trescoe, Tamworth.
J. Worsley, Ipswich.
J. L, Lupton, Richmond.
R. A, Stock, Lewes.
I. H. Callow, Horsham.
Osborn Hills, Leamington,
H. Hussey, Devizes.
H. R. Perrins, Upper Butts, Worcester.
James Jebson, Yapham Grange, Pocklington.
W. Barker, Middlesborough,
Joseph Carter, 28 Great Horton Road, Bradford,

Members may obtain the attendance of a Provincial Veterinary Surgeon in any case
of disease by paying his travelling expenses (which include railway fares, and 1s. per
mile if by road, including the return journey), and the cost of his v visit, which will be

at the following rate, viz. :—

far See
When the whole day is occupied ait! OE RS OS nse cL
When half a day or less is occupied . 3 -! 0 aon ®
Personal consultation with Veterinary Sur eon . = Paras RO BLOT EO
Consultation by letter. . See ee er
Post-mortem examination and report ‘thereon . stoi ORO

A return of the number of applications from Members of the Society during each
half-year, embodying a statement of those eases which may be of public interest, is
required from each Provincial Veterinary Surgeon. These half-yearly reports should
reach the Secretary by the end of May and November respectively.

Members’ Wotanical Privileges.

The Council have fixed the following rates of charge for the examination, by
the Society’s Consulting Botanist, of Plants and Seeds, for the bond fide and in-
dividual information and benefit of Members of the Society (not being seeds-
men).

The charge for examination must be paid at the time of application, and
the carriage of all parcels must be prepaid.

No.
1.—A report on the purity, amount, and nature of foreign materials,
the perfectness and germinating power of a sample of seed : ice
—Determination of the species of any weed or other plant, or of any
epiphyte or vegetable parasite, with a report on its habits, and
the means for its extermination or prevention . 4 - . Is.
3.—Report on any disease affecting farm crops . 1s.
4,-Determination of the species of a collection of natural grasses found
in any district, with a report on their habits and pasture value . 5s.

N.B—The Consulting Botanist’s Reports on Seeds are furnished to enable
Members,—purchasers of seeds and corn for agricultural or horticultural
purposes,—to test the value of what they buy, and are not to be used or made
available for advertising or trade purposes.

PURCHASE OF SEEDS.

The purchaser should obtain from the vendor, by invoice or otherwise, a
proper designation of the seed he buys, with a guarantee that it contains not
more than a specified amount of other seeds, and is free from ergot, or, in the
case of clovers, from dodder, and of the percentage of seeds that will germinate.

The germination of cereals, green crops, clovers, and timothy grass should
be not less than 90 per cent.; of foxtail, not less than 60 per cent.; of other
grasses, not less than 70 per cent.

The Council strongly recommend that the purchase of prepared mixtures
should be avoided, and that the different seeds to be sown should be purchased
separately.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR SELECTING AND SENDING SAMPLES,

I. SEEDS.

In sending seed or corn for examination the utmost care must be taken to
secure a fair and honest sample. In the case of grass-seeds, the sample should
be drawn from the centre of the sack or bag, and in all cases from the bulk
delivered to the purchaser and not from the purchased sample. When bought
by sample the whole or part of that sample should be sent.

When it is considered necessary to secure legal evidence, the sample should
be taken from the bulk and placed ina sealed bag in the presence of a reliable
witness who is acquainted with the identity of the bulk, and care should be
taken that the purchased sample and bulk be not tampered with after delivery,
or mixed or come in contact with any other sample or stock.

One ounce of grass and other small seeds should be sent, and two ounces
of cereals or larger seeds. The exact name under which each sample has been
bought should be sent with it.

Grass-seeds should be sent at least FOUR WEEKS, and clover-seeds TWO
WEEKS before they are required, and they should not be sonn until the report
has been received.

II. PLANTS.

In collecting specimens of plants, the whole plant should be taken up, and
the earth shaken from the roots. If possible, the plants must be in flower or
fruit. They should be packed in a light box, or in a firm paper parcel.

Specimens of diseased plants or of parasites should be forwarded as fresh as
possible. They should be placed in a bottle, or packed in tinfoil or oil-silk.

All specimens should be accompanied with a letter specifying the nature of
the information required, and stating any local circumstances (soii, situation,
&c.) which, in the opinion of the sender, would be likely to throw light on the
inquiry

Parcels or letters containing seeds or plants for examination (carriage or
postage prepaid) must be addressed to Mr. W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S, 44 Central
Hill, Norwood, London, §.E.

( oli )
Menbers’ Entomological Privileges.

The Council have fixed the charge of 2s, 6d. for the determination of the
species of any insect, worm, or other animal which, in any stage of its life,
lajuriously affects farm-crops, with a report on its habits, and suggestions as to
the methods of prevention and remedy.

Portions of the plants injured should accompany the’ specimens of the
insects.

All specimens should be sent in tin or wooden boxes, or in quills, so as to
prevent injury in transmission.

Parcels or letters containing*specimens (carriage or postage paid) must be
addressed to Miss H. A. ORMEROD, F'.R.Met‘Soc., Dorrington House, Holywell
Hill, St. Albans.

General Privileges of Members.

Free admission to the Show-Yard and to the Grand Stands at the Country
Meetings, during the time the Show is open to the public, by tickets issued by
the Secretary; Exhibition of Live Stock and Implements at the Country
Meetings at a reduced charge ; the Journals of the Society which belong to the
year for which their subscription has been paid transmitted by post, free cf
charge, to their address ; analyses of Manures, Feeding Stuffs, &c., made at a
reduced charge by the Consulting Chemist (pp. cxlvi to exlviii), and examination
of Plants and Seeds by the Consulting Botanist (p. cli), and of Insects, &c., by
the Consulting Entomologist (p. clii) ; the liberty of consulting the books in the
Library and to use the Reading Room; leave to report the outbreak of disease
among cattle, sheep, and pigs, and to request the personal attendance of one of
the Society’s Veterinary Inspectors ; power of sending cattle, sheep, and pigs to
the Royal Veterinary College on payment of a small sum for keep and treat-
ment (pp. cxlix and cl),

No member in arrear of his subscription is entitled to any of the privileges
of the Society.

All Members belonging to the Society are bound to pay their annual sub-
scriptions, until they shall withdraw from it by notice in writing to the
Secretary.

JOURNAL.—The Parts of the Society’s Journal are published half-yearly, and
(when the subscription is not in arrear) they are forwarded by post or carrier to
Members, or delivered from the Society’s office to Members or to the bearer of
their written order.

The back numbers of the Journal are kept constantly on sale by the pub-
lisher, JOHN MURRAY, 50A Albemarle Street, W.

*,* All communications intended for the Society should be addressed to
the Secretary, at the House of the Society, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.
Replies by Telegraph cannot be sent unless paid for in advance, and cannot
be guaranteed in any case,

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