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HANEY ESTERS
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—

a

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE TWENTY-FOURTH.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE,

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1863.

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN, HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF

THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS,
Vow Tuer, Principles of Agriculture.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS,

LIBRARY
Yk W Y ORK
BUTANICAL

GARDEN

CONTENTS OF VOL. XXIV.

STATISTICS :— PAGE
Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31,1862 .. U
Public Health ditto ditto a, eee es

Price of Provisions ditto ditto peo me HA
Weekly Average Price of Wheat aa Mic gapetica, MLE
Meteorology, for the six months ending June 30, ‘1863 aay a ze
Public Health ditto ditto seeea? CXL:

_ Price of Provisions ditto ditto Fin BAne POA

ARTICLE PAGE

I.—Land Valuing. By Philip D. Tuckett, F.G.S., Prize Essay.. 1
II.—The Prize Farms of France. By P.H. Frere .. « « 8

III.—Absorption of Soluble Phosphate of Lime by different Soils
of known composition; and Remarks on the Application
of Superphosphate and other Phosphatic Manures to Root-
crops. By Dr. Augustus Vcelcker.. .. .. on 37
TV.—Utilisation of Town Sewage. By J.B. Lawes, F. R. S., F.C. S, 65

V.—Supply of Horses Adapted to the Requirements of the English
“Army; with Notes on the Remount yey: in the French

>» Army. -By J. Wilkinson’ =... ~.. °*.. Ae Gil
VI.—Experiments with’ different Top-Dresings upon Wheat, By
Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. COndien Ewe COR pe Ot teams Hepat C0,

VIl.—Earth versus Water for the aeebout and Utilisation of
- Excrementitious Matter. By the Rev. Henry Moule .. .. 111

VIII.—The Money-Value of Night-Soil and other Manures. By P.
EPH rere) ss es ss DAC Eee Meme Oa ie 5
IX.—Effects of different erent on ‘the Mixed Herbage of Grass-

..land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.8., and J. H. Gilbert,
PERS Beet HG Sent eer!) 96, sasderrsenee yl eieiescites LOL

2 _X.—Co-operative Farms at Assington, Suffolk .. .. .. « 165
— XI.—Review of ‘ Italian Irrigation, by R. Baird Smith, Captain of
o. .. Engineers, Bengal Presidency, F.G.S.’ By P. H. Frere .. 173
ae XII.—Statistics. of Live-Stock for Consumption in the Metropolis.
Be pyeopcith tenbokiateytl .. imasin be Sutbon Re iuienciicayl..: 206
¥ XIII.—Some Account of Brittany Cows. Taken from Notices by
: Mirdamet,of Rennes, By P. H.reres. <<. <s¢ -« +. 213

XIV.—Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages for the Feeding of Stock.
Bye Cap UWEGHCOM <~s.. Ses, ce) os, “ee 00 «- 216

XV.—Experiments on Transplanting Mangold. By W. sect «. 221
XVI.—Growth of Barley after a Grass-layer, By P,H. Frere .. 225

Q@2

lv CONTENTS.
ARTICLE PAGE

XVII.—Breeding of Horses—a Letter addressed to the Right Hon.
John Evelyn Denison. By W. Dickenson .. .. .. ~~. 255

XVIII.—Reclaiming of Waste Lands as instanced in Wichwood Forest.
By C. Belcher. Prize Essay: ..» cob sal) sh, | ane

XIX.—Milk. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker.. ° .. .. .. 286
XX.—Results of Steam Cultivation. By W. 7, Moscrop. Prize Tay 320
XXI.—Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. By J. Gamgee, Senior.

Prize Essay nt Ac os 05) we, eke enn
XXII.—Five Years’ Progress of Steam Tales Be John Alou
Clarke” “i... - toe ae AB. tes 362

XXIT.—Development bir ees of the Roots of ey Plants.
at various stages of their Growth. By the Rev. M. J.
Berkeley, M.A. HHQbuSh Mag al fs Becca es elke

XXIV.—M. J. Reiset’s Acerieata) Repaduiene By P. H. Frere .. 436

XXV.—Statistics of Live-Stock and Dead Meat for Cone ae in
the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert .. .. . 454

XXVI.—Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Sua .. 459
XXVIE.—Judges’ Report on Steam Cultivators at Worcester arm ea taiselO)
XXVIITI.—Report on the Worcester Show-yard .. .. « -. 487

XXIX.—Further Report of Experiments with different oe on
Permanent Meadow Land.: By J. B. Lawes, F.R.5., F.C.8., ;
and J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 0. Anup et ee

MiscELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND Noricgs:

1. Burning of Clay Land. By C. Randell .. 4. (ssusses see uoeu
2. Portable Fencing. By T. Bowick .. .. 20) eaten Oa:
3. Composition of Annatto, By Professor Vouleaes Seunk lee tyne TOO
4. Cheap Material for Farm Buildings. By J. I’. Clarke .. .. 552
5. Dairy Practice. -\ByjEeelardine: «is: ssl ont) eee noeen ase ereS
6

. Homeopathic Treatment of Cattle. By P. H. Frere oa, guetp O04

Axsstract Reporr or AGRICULTURAL Discussions :—

Splenic Apoplexy. By Professor Simonds .& .. .. «. 2
Materials for Construction of Cottages. By J. Taylor .. .. . 5
Effect of Under-drainage on Rivers, &c. By Bailey Denton 5
Adulteration of Oileakes. By Professor Voelcker.. .. .. ~~. 589
Internal Parasites. By Professor Simonds .. .. .. 597
Steam Cultivation. By E.Ruck .. .. .. sett ver OD
Breeding and F'ceding of Sheep. By Professor Coleman ee)
Effect of Manures on Grass Lands. By Professor Voelcker.. .. 639

=1 O1 bo
won

Agricultural Patents for 1862

APPENDIX.

CONTENTS. Vi

APPENDIX.

PAGE
List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1863-64 i, xxxi
Standing Committees for 1863-64 .. 2. «6 6 eo» oF oe _ iil, xxxiii

Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &c. ao ee V, XXXV
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 11,1862 .. vi
ondnre GNA COOUNG) lee Gasnllen || Gey ice <a © ie” ces ee ix

Cash Account and Balance-sheets, ending December 31,1862 .. .. x—xiii
Schedule of Prizes: Worcester Meeting, 1863 .. .. .. « « XiV
' Distribution of Prizes irf Heifer Classes, Battersea Show .. «. «. XXIV
Prizes for Essays, and Rules of Competition .. .. .. «© «. XXvV, Ixx
Members’ Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privilezes .. .. xxix, Ixxili
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, May 22,1863 .. .. xxxvi
Cash Account and Balance-sheets, ending June 30,1863 .. .. xxxviii—xl
List of Stewards, Judges, &c., at the Worcester Meeting .. .. xli
Prize-Awards of the Judges of Live-Stock: Worcester Meeting .. .. = xiii
Special Prizes offered by the Worcester Local Committee .. .. .. lxi
Prize-Awards of the Judges of Implements: Worcester Mecting.. .. Ixvi

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volwme; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted ; the Roman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained,

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CONTENTS OF PART I., VOL. XXIV.

STATISTICS :-— PAGE
Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31,1862 ..
Public Health ditto ditto Se
Price of Provisions ditto ditto palit te BehVE

Weekly Average of Wheat. ...- .. « 2s se ee 0 we) we VIELE

ARTICLE PAGE
I,—Land Valuing. By Philip D. Tuckett, F.G.S., Prize Essay.. 1

II.—The Prize Farms of France. By P. H. Frere tomtens) wn iS

III.—Absorption of Soluble Phosphate of Lime by different Soils
of known composition; and Remarks on the Application
of Superphosphate and other Phosphatic Manures to Root-

crops. By Dr. Augustus Veelcker.. .. .. bs ico CIE
TV.—Utilisation of Town Sewage. By J. B. Lawes, F.R. s.
EC oa Mtoe eee ocr Tats nus so 65

V.—Supply of Horses Adapted to the Rag dist of the English
Army ; with Notes on the KRemount System in the F rench

Parity. “by Je Watkinson: iso8 Os Jos ee Sent
VI.—Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon W. Wheat, By
ie kucusts Voeitker 2 “Sols 3s We. Le ee See

VII.—Earth versus Water for the Removal and Utilisation of
Excrementitious Matter. By the Rev. Henry Moule .. .. 111

VIII.—The Money-Value of Night-Soil and other Manures. By P.
BPEIRETOor cen) (cis a ao .. 124

IX.—BEffects of different Manures on the Mixed Fetes e Grass-
land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.C.S., and J. a0 -Gilbert,
Phe eR ewe ECs, est ve eaten yeate fe Sarah

X.—Co-operative Farms at Assington, Suffolk oo 00, cor cor allay

XI.—Review of ‘ Italian Irrigation, by R. Baird Smith, Captain of
Engineers, Bengal Presidency, F.G.S.’ By P. H. Frere .. 173

XIE.—Statistics of Live-Stock for ee in the pare
By Robert Herbert .. .. . 50 on ANE

XII.—Some Account of Brittany Cows.- Taken from Notices by ~wi
M. Jamet, of Rennes. By P. H. Frere.. so des ARAB?

CONTENTS.
ARTICLE PAGE

XIV.—Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages for the Feeding of Stock.
By CG. Lawrence’ ac. cs) Sch es, oe eat eG

XV.—Experiments on Transplanting Mangold. By W. Gurdon .. 221
XVI.—Growth of Barley after a Grass-layer. By P.H. Frere .. 225

Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions :—
Splenic) Apoplexy, (c. <: iecy ten) ocl Soles unten cs

APPENDIX.

List of Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1863 .. i
Standing Committees for S63) 5... . clauses ilssiinias Nan scnnneennnSE lii
Memoranda of Meetings, Payment of Subscription, &... .. ... .. v
Report of the Council to the General Meeting, December 11,1862 .. vi
MondoniShow Account, 5 | <5. ss se) stl) een eee ix
ash Account and Balance-sheets, ending December 31, 1862 ak X—Xiii
Schedule of Prizes : Worcester Meeting, 1863 ey cor on oe lg
Distribution of Prizes in Heifer Classes, Battersea Show .. .. .. XxXiV
Prizes for Essays ee Tee eel Eee Se ey ee Og
Members’ Chemical Analysis and Veterinary Privileges en IX, xX

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

The Binder is desired to collect together. all the Appendix matter, with Roman numeral folios, and
place it at the end of each volume of the Journal, excepting ‘Titles and Contents, and Statistics
&c., which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Volume: the lettering at the back to
include a statement of the year as well as the volwme; the first volume belonging to 1839-40, the
second to 1841, the third to 1842, the fourth to 1843, and so on.

In Reprints of the Journal all Appendix matter (and in one instance an Article in the body of
the Journal), which at the time had become obsolete, were omitted; the Roman numeral folios,
however (for convenience of reference), being reprinted without alteration in the Appendix matter
retained.

STATISTICS

OF

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &c., &e.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1862.

Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.—
The Corn Returns and Diagram are prepared from Official Documents
‘expressly for this Journal.

VOL, XXIV. A

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1862.

By JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.R.S.,

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Tue cold weather which set in on the 9th of June continued with
trifling exceptions till the 12th of September; the average daily
deficiency of temperature during these 96 days was 24°. From the
13th to the 30th of September the weather was warm, the average
daily excess being 23°.

The mean high day temperature of the air was 2°-9 in defect in
July, 1°-9 in defect in August, and 0°1 in excess in September, as
compared with the averages of the preceding 21 years.

The mean low night temperature of the air was 2°-4 in defect in
July, 2°-0 in defect in August, and 1°-2 in excess in September.

The mean temperature of the air was 2°7 in defect in July, 1°9
in defect in August, and 0°-8 in excess in September.

The mean temperature of the dew-point was 1°-5 in defect in July,
0°-6 in defect in August, and 1°-4 in excess in September. The
degree of humidity was at all times above its average value.

The pressure of the atmosphere in each month was very nearly of
its average value.

The fall of rain in July was 1-7 inch, in August 3-0 inches, ‘and
in September 1-6 inch; the total fall for the quarter was 6°3 inches,
being 1:2 inch below the average of the preceding 43 years.

The temperature of vegetation as shown by a thermometer placed
on grass was between 30° and 40° on 9 nights, and above 40° on the
other 83 nights. :

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
raonths ending August, constituting the three summer months, was
53°°9, being 0°-4 below the average of the preceding 91 years.

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ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1862.

By JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.B.S.,

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY,

From the beginning of the quarter to the 17th the weather was
warm, the excess of temperature amounting to 43° daily; and to
34° for the 35 days ending October 17th. On the 8th a variable
period set in and continued to the 30th, the average deficiency
being 13° daily. After a week of warm weather a cold period set
in on November 6th and continued to December 2nd, with a defi-
ciency of 44° daily ; from December 3rd to 31st there was an excess
of 44° daily.

The mean high day temperature was 1°-9 in excess in October,
8°-4 in defect in November, and 3°:0 in excess in December.

The mean low night temperature was 1°°7 in excess in October,
8°-2 in defect in November, and 3°1 in excess in December.

The mean temperature of the air was 1°4 in excess in October,
4°-4 in defect in November, and 3°-5 in excess in December.

The mean temperature of the dew-point was 2°-4 in excess in
October, 2°°6 in defect in November, and 3°-4 in excess in December ;
the degree of humidity being above its average in October and
November, and below in December. ;

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October, and 0:05 inch in November and December. M

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and 1°6 inch in December. ‘The total fall for the quarter was 6°6
inches, being 4 an inch above the average of the preceding 43 years.
The total fall of rain for the year is 26°2 inches, being 1:2 inch |
above the average.

The temperature of vegetation was below 30° on 26 nights;
between 30° and 40° on 36 nights; and above 40° on 30 nights. .
The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending November, constituting the three autumn months,

was 49°°8, being 0°:4 above the average of the preceding 91 years.

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( VI )

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter—The total number of deaths in the quarter was
92,225. In the same quarter of 1860 it did not much exceed
86,000 ; in that of 1861 it was about 101,000. The cold summer
of this year was less healthy than the still colder summer of 1860;
but it was healthier than the warmer summer of last year. The
annual rate of mortality in the quarter was 1-797 per cent. of the
population, against an average of 2-020 per cent. In the country
districts the mortality was 1-586 (the average being 1-747); whilst
in urban populations it was 2011 (the average being 2-328).

2nd Quarter.—The number of deaths in the three months ending
31st December was 114,542. In the corresponding season of 1860
it was nearly 103,000; in that of 1861 nearly 105,000. Though
the autumn of 1862 was not as a whole colder than those which
preceded it, the sudden invasion of cold in November and the
abrupt succession of heat account for its having been the most
fatal. The death-rate was 2-226 per cent. (against an average of
2-171). In the principal towns the rate of mortality was 2-53 per
cent. (against an average of 2°47); and in the small towns and
country parishes 1-92 per cent. (against an average of 1°90).

PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

1st Quarter—The average price of wheat was 56s. 10d. per quarter ;
in the same period of last year the price was 52s. 1d. The average
of the highest and lowest prices of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate
Markets was 54d. per Ib., and of mutton 63d. Best potatoes were
115s. per ton at the Waterside Market, Southwark; they were
dearer than they had been at the same time last year.

’

2nd Quarter.—The average price of wheat in the three months
was 48s. 2d. per quarter, which is less by 8s. 7d. than in the corre-
sponding period of 1860, and less by 11s. 1d. than in that of 1861.
The price of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets was 54d.
per lb.; the same as in the corresponding quarter of 1861; of
mutton 6d., or one farthing per lb. cheaper than in the same quarter
of the previous years. The average price of the best potatoes was
100s. per ton, which is less by 20s. than it was in the last quarter ©
of the two previous years. ;

Go aihe}

THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes; also the AVERAGE
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending December 31, 1862.

SL ——————————— — ——E—EOE_E_—_______eeeeee

1860
Dec. 31

1861
Mar. 31

June 30
Sept. 30

Dec. 30

1862
Mar. 31

June 30
Sept. 30

* Dec 32

Col.

Average
Price

Average
Price of
Wheat per
Quarter
in
England
and
Wales.

Wheat and
Wheat sold | Wheat Flour

wn
rs
Ne)

in the 290
‘ entered for
pay 7 Home Meat per lb. at Leadenhall
Baeians pie o aeryemarl and Newgate Markets
ales Makin: ms
Returns.* ere (by the Carcase).
Average punter ot | Beet, | Mutton
73,770 | 197,396 | 33d.—61d.| 42d.—63d.
7" ; Mean 4id. Mean sad.
69,588 | 145,880 | 4d.—62d. | 54d.—73d.
Mean 5}d. | Mean 62d,
65,176 | 134,085 | 42d.—63d.| 54d.—72d.
Mean 53d. | Mean 63d.
82,383 | 128,336 | 4!d.—63d.| 47d.—7d.
Mean 52d. | Mean 5d.
112,809 | 121,480 | 4d.—64d. | 48d —63d.
Mean 53d. | Mean 52d.
74,163 | 132,882 | 4d.—64d. | 48d.—63d.
Mean 5}d. | Mean 52d.
58,728 | 136,230 | 4d.—éd. | 5d.—7d.
Mean sd. | Mean 6d.
57,592 | 295,276 |43d.—63d.| 54d.—7d.
Mean 54d.| Mean 63d.
85,522 | 258,095 | 4d.—62d. | 532d.—63d.
Mean 5/d. | Mean 6d.
3 4 5 6

Average Prices of

Best
Potatoes
per Ton

at Waterside
Market,
Southwark,

I15S.—130S.
Mean 122s. 6d,

1408.— 155s.
Mean 147s, 6d,

1208.—I 40s,
Mean 13os.

85s.—II0s,
Mean 97s. 6d.
I10s.—130s.
Mean 120s.

130s.—I5 5s.
Mean 142s.6d.

180s.—200s.
Mean 190s.
100s,—1I 308,
Mean I1I5s.

g0s.—IIos.
Mean Ioos.

7

* Nore.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks
ending December 31st, 1860, was 959,006; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1861,
904,649; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1861, 847,285; for the 13 weeks ending
September 30th, 1861, 1,070,985; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1861, 1,466,525;
for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1862, 964,121; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th,
1862, 763,463 ; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1862, 748,702; and for the 13 weeks

ending December 31st, 1862, 1,111,787.

The total number of quarters entered for Home

Consumption was respectively, 2,566,145; 1,896,435; 1,743,100; 1,668,374; 1,579,241;
1,727,464; 1,770,998 ; *3,838,584 ; and 3,355,239,

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‘SNUNLAY INAWNUTAOD WOU LVAAM dO AoWd IVYTAV ATIAAM— GOST

re Tre frcs

OF

THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF
PROVISIONS, &c., &e.,

FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING JUNE 30, 1863.

Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.—
The Corn Returns are prepared from Official Documents expressly for this
Journal, .

VOL. XXIV. A 2

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING MARCH 31, 1863.

Bry JAMES GLAISHER, Esq. F.R.5S.,

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Wirn the exception of the period between March 9th and 19th,
when the temperature was below the average to the amount of 23°
daily, the weather was warm throughout the quarter, averaging
a daily excess of 43° for the remaining 79 days.

The mean temperature of the 3 months was 42°-6; in 1834 it
was 42°-9 ; in 1846 it was 43°°6; and these are the only instances,
so far as trustworthy records extend, of an excess over the tem-
perature of the first three months of the present year. The mean
temperature of January was 412°; of February, 42°1; of March,
43°-9.

The mean high day temperature was in excess 3°8, 4°°6, and
3°7 respectively in the three months. The mean low night tem-
perature was in excess 3°2, 2°:2, and 0°-2 respectively. Therefore
both days and nights were warm in January and February; in
March the days were warm, and the nights about their average.

The mean temperature of the air in January was 5°2, in February
3°°6, and in March 2°-6, above the average of 43 years.

The temperature of the dew-point in January, February, and
March respectively was 2°-4, 3°°2, and 0°-9, above the averagé of
the preceding 22 years.

The pressure of the atmosphere was in defect in January and
March, and in excess in February.

The fall of rain in the south of England in January was somewhat
in defect, a little over its average about London, and very much in
excess in the north, All over the country February and March
were remarkably fine and mild. "

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending February, constituting the three winter months, was
42°-5, being 4°°7 above the average of the preceding 91 years.

( XI )

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c* xa0ey

ON

THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND

DURING

THE QUARTER ENDING JUNE 30, 1863.

By JAMES GLATSHER, Esq, ERS,

SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Tritt May 17th, except two days at the beginning of April and
five days at the end of April and the beginning of May, the
temperature was in excess 2° daily. Between May 18th and May
26th, the average daily deficiency was 6°; for a like period the
average daily excess was 3¢°; and from June 5th to the end of the
quarter the average deficiency amounted to 23° daily.

The average monthly temperature of the air, from December,
1862, to April, 1863, was 44°°1; in no other similar period, from
1771, has the temperature been so high, so that we may fairly con-
clude that the temperature for the five months ending April of this
year is as high as any on record.

The mean temperature of April was 49°1, being higher than in
any April since 1844.

The mean temperature of May was 52°:0, being 3°-4 lower than
in 1862, and of nearly the same value as in 1861.

The mean temperature of June was 58°'1, being 1°-8 higher than
in 1862, and 1° lower than in 1861.

The mean high day temperature in April was 43° in excess; in
May nearly its average; in June 0°-9 in defect. The mean low
night temperature in April was 14° in excess; in May 13° in defect ;
and of nearly its average in June. Therefore both the days and
nights in April were warm, and the nights in May; and the days
in June were cold.

The mean temperature of the air in April was 23° in excess; in
May 1° in defect; and in June 1° in defect.

The mean temperature of the dew point in April was 23° in
excess; in May 0°5 in defect; and in June 0°7 in defect. t

The degree of humidity and the readings of the barometer differed
but very little from their monthly average values in any of the ~
months,

The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three
months ending May, constituting the three spring months, was
48°°3, being 1°-9 above the average of the preceding 92 years.

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( XIV )

STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH.

1st Quarter.—A winter remarkably ‘‘ mild” was also remarkably
unhealthy. The deaths in England in the three months ending
31st March were 128,524, against 122,192 in the same period of
1862, which supplies an example of average health in winter, and
may be taken as a means of comparison. It will be an approxima-
tion to the truth, to state that people died in the quarter at the rate
of 20,000 in a year, whose lives would have been saved if epidemics
or atmospheric causes of a nature unfavourable to health had not
been in greater force than usual. The rate of mortality was 2°546
per cent., the average being 2-498. The mortality of small towns
and rural districts was 2°343 per cent. (against an average of 2-287).
That of the chief towns was 2°705 per cent. (against an average of
2°688). The country appears to have suffered from the effects of
the winter more than the town.

2nd Quarter.—After a period of two years in which the public
health was better than usual, the mortality rose in the last three
months of 1862, was high in the first three months (the winter
quarter) of the current year, and continued above the average in
the second quarter. In this last period the death-rate was 2:313
per cent. per annum, whilst the average was 27191. With the
present exception, a spring quarter has not occurred since the year
1853 in which the rate of mortality was as high as 2-3.

Both town and country testify to an increase of deaths in their
respective populations; for the rate in the chief towns was,2°478
(against an average of 2°336), and that which prevailed in small
towns and country parts was 2-102 (against 2031). Summer-like
weather in the early year, and cold days or nights striking a sudden
chill into the heart of it, produce effects from which neither city
nor hamlet is exempt.

ee

PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

1st Quarter—Wheat was cheap. The average price was 46s. 7d.
per quarter. In the corresponding period of the year 1861 it was
55s. 1d.; while in that of the year 1862 it was 60s. 1d. Beef was
near its usual price ; the average lowest and highest prices of mutton
at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets were 5d. and 7d. per lb. by the
carcase. Potatoes were cheaper than they have recently been at
this season, the best having been sold at the Waterside Market,
- Southwark, at about 125s. per ton.

2nd Quarter.—Wheat was still remarkably cheap: the average
price fell to 46s. 2d. per quarter, against 56s. 8d. in the same period
of 1862. The lowest and highest prices of beef at Leadenhall and
_ Newgate were 4id. and 64d. per lb. sold by the carcase. In the
same period of 1862 they were 4d. and 6d. During the last twelve
months the average price of the best quality has not varied. The
price of mutton fell. In the June quarter of 1862 the worst and
best qualities were 5d. and 7d. per lb.; and they were near those
prices in the succeeding nine months, till last quarter, when they
were 43d. and 63d. The average price of the best potatoes at the
Waterside Market, Southwark, was 120s. per ton, against 190s. in
the same quarter of 1862. Beef furnishes the only exception to the
comparative cheapness of the principal articles of food.

( x¥E 5

THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS.

The avERAGE Pricss of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes; also the AVERAGE
Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters
ending June 80, 1863.

Wheat sold Wheat and Average Prices of

Average | in the 290 Wheat Flour

Average! Price of | Cities and ee for
Price |Wheat per| Towns in yeahs) Meat per Ib, at Leadenhall

Quarters Consumption Best
: Cease ae Wales ea at Chief Ports) nd Newgate Markets Potatoes
ending (for | England | Returns.* of Great. (by the Carcase), per Ton

Money). and Britain. at Waterside
Wales. : a bcs

Average number of Beef. Matton: jouthwark,

Quarters weekly.

1861 £. he af
June30| 912 | 54 9 | 65,176 | 134,085 | 44d.—63d.| 54d.—71d.| 1208.—140s,
Mean 53d. | Mean 6}d.| Mean 130s,
Sept. 30 | 912 | 52 1] 82,383 | 128,336 | 41d.—63d.| 43d.—7d. | 858,—r10s.

; Mean 53d. | Mean 57d. |Mean 97s, 6d.
Dec. 30 | 932 | 59 3 | 112,809 | 121,480 | 4d,—62d. | 42d.—6$d, | 110s,—130s,
Mean 5}d. | Mean 52d.| Mean 120s,

—_—

1862
Mar. 31 | 934 | 60 1] 74,163 | 132,882 | 4d.—64d. | 4$d.—63d.| 1308.—155s.
Mean 5}d. | Mean 53d. |Mean 142s.6d,

June 30 | 93§ | 56 8] 58,728 | 136,230 | 4d—6d. | 5d.—7d. | 180s.—200s,
: Mean 5d. | Mean 6d. | Mean roos.

Sept. 30 | 933 | 56 10] 57,592 | 295,276 |44d.—62d.| 54d.—7d. | 100s.—1308,
Mean 5id.| Mean 6}d.| Mean 115s.
Dec. 31 | 933 |. 48 2] 85,522 | 258,095 | 4d.—62d. |52d.—6$d.| 90s.—110s.

: Mean 5}d. | Mean 6d. | Mean roos.

1863
Mar. 31 <e 46 71! 75,819 | 139,429 4d.—6d. | 5d.—7d. | 1208,—130s,
Mean 5d. | Mean 6d. | Mean 125s.

June30| . 46 2| 82,458 | 106,633 | 43d.—63d.| 42d.—6$d.|110s.—130s.
Mean 52d.| Mean 5$d.| Mean 120s.

Col. I 2 3 4 5 6 7

* Nore.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks
ending June 30th, 1861, was 847,285; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1861,
1,070,985; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1861, 1,466,525; for the 13 weeks ending
March 31st, 1862, 964,121; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1862, 763,463; for the 13
weeks ending September 30th, 1862, 748,702; for the 13 weeks ending December 3ist,
1862, 1,111,787; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1863, 985,649; and for the 13 weeks
ending June 30th, 1863, 1,073,126. The total number of quarters entered for Home Con-
sumption was respectively, 1,743,100; 1,668,374; 1,579,241; 1,727,464; 1,770,998
3,838,584; 3,355,239; 1,812,585; and 1,386,233, :

Bb Outh Re N okt Ly

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

1.—On Land Valuing. By Puiu D. Tucker, F.GS.,
Land Agent and Surveyor.

Prize Essay.

Sucu striking inequalities are constantly observable in the rentals
at which farms are let throughout the country, that it is by no
means surprising that the Royal Agricultural Society should
desire to obtain some reliable information as to the principles on
which the rental-value of land should be calculated. Yet the art
of land-valuing is one that depends so entirely on the individual
judgment and experience of the valuer, that it is really impossible
to lay down any rules that can materially assist those who do not
possess these requisite qualifications.

It is probable that these pages do not contain so much of
detailed calculation as may be expected by the Society, it being
my conviction that such detailed estimates, although often ex-
tremely interesting, can never be relied on for practical purposes.
The following observations are offered as the result of the expe-
rience of the last twelve years, during which I have been employed
in valuing land in thirty-nine of our English and Welsh counties ;
and it has been my object (neglecting minute details) to enumerate
the main considerations that must influence the practical valuer.

In arriving at the rental value of land, the duty of the valuer
may be considered under three heads :-—

1st. Accurately to ascertain the quality of the soil.

2nd. To take into account the various other circumstances
that affect the value.

3rd, To assess the value in money.

The various indications of the fertility and barrenness of soils
are so ably discussed in Mr. Bravender’s admirable paper in the
dth volume of the Society’s Journal, that it would be superfluous
again to go over the several points there enumerated ; but it
appears to me that, in reading so long and minute a description
of these various indications, there is some danger of forgetting

VOL, XXIV, ‘ B

2 Land Valuing.

how much greater is the importance of some of these considerations
than of others; and I wish, therefore, to draw attention to those
differences which mainly influence the quality of land. The
quality of a soil may be said primarily to depend on its me-
chanical composition and depth. Land must always remain
poor so long as there is but a very shallow surface-soil—the
compact uncultivated subsoil coming nearly to the top, whether
it be a thin-skinned clay, a thin gravel, or a sharp sand. So in
the case of two soils of similar texture, that which has the greatest
depth will be the most fertile. All fertile soils are composed of
a mixture of clay, lime and sand, forming, when mixed in good
proportions, a sandy loam or clay loam, as the case may be;
and when one element is greatly in excess, a sharp gravel or
sand, a stiff clay or a tenacious marl; or where the lime is
almost absent, the weak clay soils, so characteristic of the lower
silurian slate-rocks,

There is no doubt that the other substances contained in a soil
also have their effect, and in a few cases, where a noxious sub-
stance is present, or where vegetable matter largely exists, this
influence is considerable ; but in these cases indirect indications
of the state of the case are not wanting—for in the former the
stunted trees and unhealthy vegetation, and in the latter the dark
colour of the soil, tell their own tale.

Most soils naturally contain a small quantity of phosphate of
lime, or other fertilising agents; but such supplies are liable to
exhaustion, and, as in a country like England, where the land
has been long cultivated, we depend to a great extent upon the air
and upon the ‘manure applied for the food of plants, the great
essential to fertility is a soil of sufficient depth, having such a
mechanical texture as is best adapted for a good seed-bed, resting
ona subsoil which, whilst providing good drainage, does not allow
the manure applied to pass downward too quickly. ‘Thus some of
our primest grazing lands have a stiff (almost a clay) soil, resting
on a bed of gravel. If the gravel came near to the surface, the
land would be poor and hungry; if the subsoil were stiff} the
land would be wet and cold.

A knowledge of the geological formation on which the land is
situate will go far towards enabling the valuer to allow for dif-
ferences in the chemical composition of apparently similar soils ;
for I have observed a marked difference in the fertility of soils of
similar texture, which lay on different formations, maintaining
itself even in distant counties. Thus it will be found that soils
resting on the lower oolite or lias formations are slightly more
fertile than similar ones on the middle oolite (or indeed on
almost any other formation), the difference between the lias and
Oxford clays being particularly observable.

Land Valuing. 3

Considering how rich in fossils are the lias formation, and
also the shaly limestone-beds of the inferior oolite, | cannot but
regard this difference as due to the presence of phosphate of lime.
Some soils resting on the greensand may also be instanced as
especially fertile from this cause.

Again, the Weald clays are less fertile, and the London clays
' rather more so, than. their appearance would indicate.

Dark-coloured soils (unless very weak and porous) have an
advantage, inasmuch as they absorb more of the sun’s heat, in
addition to which the dark colour generally indicates the presence
of organic matter. But some dark-coloured dry sandy soils are
injuriously affected from the same cause, because from excessive
evaporation they more quickly lose the moisture which they
especially need.

Then the climate, aspect, elevation above the sea-level, and
especially the wetness or dryness of the soil, and, if it be wet, the
facilities for drainage, will be most important considerations ;
and any liability to flood should be carefully ascertained and taken
into account. :

Still it is well to bear in mind, as a general rule, however
subject to modification, that the intrinsic or natural quality of a
soil mainly depends on its depth and mechanical composition.

Now, it happens that these qualities may readily be ascertained
by examining the soil and subsoil with a spade or strong walking-
stick, the mechanical texture of the soil being as readily judged
of, by a man of experience, as a sample of any other commodity ;
and there can be no doubt that the surest method of judging of
the quality of the land is by an examination of the soil itself,
rather than of anything that grows upon it.

In valuing grass land, indeed, an examination of the herbage
forms a valuable criterion; and I can but again refer to Mr.
Bravender’s excellent paper, which I have found most useful in
examining the different grasses which make up the sward of a
meadow or pasture, and the weeds which characterise particular
soils,

But it is also well to observe the growth of the same grasses
on different land: thus on dry burning land the ordinary grasses
grow thin and wiry.

The sward of the best grazing land will be found to consist
almost wholly of true grasses, and these chiefly the best meadow
grasses: Alopecurus pratensis (meadow fox-tail grass), Dactylis
glomerata (rough cock’s-foot grass), Festuca pratensis (meadow
fescue grass), Phleum pratense (common cat’s-tail grass), Cyno-
surus cristatus (Crested dog’s-tail grass), Anthoxanthum odo-
ratum (Sweet-scented vernal grass), which gives its odour to hay,
and a few others, Leafy plants, if there be no other objection to

B2

4 Land Valuing.

them, take up too much room. Such land looks green much
later in the year than inferior pasture, and when it at length loses
its bright colour, it acquires a slightly whitish tinge, but never a
brown or reddish hue.

Clover is generally a good sign, and so are buttercups; but
much moss indicates poverty, and often too frequent mowing,
although most grass fields contain some moss.

The strong coarse grasses that indicate wet land are well
known; but I may remark that although rushes thrive on wet
soils, they survive drainiag, and are much too universal on cold
grass land to form 1 sure indication: they should not, therefore,
be relied on as Carnation Grass, Tufted-hair Grass, the Woad-
plant, or Blue-buttons may be.

The appearance of the trees and hedges should also be noted.
Neither elms nor quick-hedges will ever be seen growing strong
and well on very bad land. Oaks indicate a strong soil or sub-
soil, generally clay, and the appearance of the trees will often
indicate the quality.

But even in the case of grass land, it is also desirable to examine
the soil and subsoil. In how many cases do we find that these
are of a much better quality than we anticipated from the nature
of the herbage above them—the result of years of bad manage-
ment, scarcely to be cured without breaking up!

In the case of arable land, an examination of the soil and sub-
soil is the only reliable test ; and I do not hesitate to say that if a
valuer allows himself to be influenced in any degree by the appear-
ance of the crops, he runs the greatest risk of being misled.

This being the case, there need be no difficulty in ‘‘ reducing
lands under different systems of culture to the same standard of
calculation.” That a long-continued system of deep ploughing
and superior culture will eventually alter the apparent quality of
the soil, I do not deny ; for it ought to do so, seeing that it will
also per manently alter its real quality. Butif the soil be carefully
examined, the valuer will not be at all misled by such differences
as that bearer one field in clover ley, trodden down hard, and
an adjoining one ploughed up rough. The season most favourable
for inspection is that in which the land can be best seen, when it
is least encumbered by crops, and not locked up by frost or snow.
I should say that any time from the lst of September to the
middle of May is favourable for land- valuing, excluding only
periods of frost and snow and excessive rain; and on this account
probably the months of September, October, March, and April,
may be the best of all. During the summer months the difficulty
and labour of arriving at a correct estimate are increased, although
from the idea that land looks better with the crops upon it, sad
the circumstance that that is the usual season for the sale of

Land Valuing. 5

estates, a great deal of land-valuing is done at that period of the
year.

I trust I have now pointed out the leading features by which
the qualities of soils can be recognised ; but nothing but extended
observation and experience can enable a valuer to arrive at certain
results. I have often heard the remark made by farmers that no
man can tell the quality of land by only seeing it once. This |
do not wonder at, because those who have expressed this opinion
have been men who were accustomed to judge of land rather by
what was upon it than by the land itself. But if an examination
of the soil itself is relied on, which is the only safe method, I
believe one careful inspection is quite sufficient ; a careful one it
should be, and it is idle to suppose that any man can detect the
numerous, and in some districts very sudden, variations that occur,
by merely riding or driving hastily over the land, as is sometimes
done.

Having ascertained the quality of each field, there are yet a
number of circumstances to be considered affecting the value of
the farm. The extent and arrangement of the agricultural build-
ings very materially affect the value; the situation of the lands
with respect to each other, and to the homestead, and how far
each field is approached by a hard road, are material points, as
affecting the expense of horse-labour; as are also the distance
from a market town, and the quality of the public roads, and the
supply and price of labour in the district.

Where lands are situate so near to a large town as to partake
of anything approaching an accommodation character, of course
this must be a most important point; but in ordinary situations,
where corn and meat are the stable products, the price of these
commodities will not vary so much as greatly to afiect the value
of the land.

To allow for the parochial and other charges upon a farm, is a
mere matter of calculation. I believe the most convenient method
in practice is to value the land as tithe-free, and as subject to
average parochial rates, say 3s. in the pound, on an assessment of
two-thirds of the full value, and afterwards to deduct the tithe
rent-charge, and allow for any excess or otherwise in the averagé
parochial rates.

I now come to “ the estimates which ought to form the basis
of calculation in fixing the rental of land.”

From the wording of the Society’s notice, I presume that a
similar idea was entertained to that expressed by Mr. Robert
Baker, in his edition of ‘ Bayldon on Rents and Tillages,’ page 59,
where he says that the fair rent, “it is presumed, may be obtained
by estimating the expenses incurred and the profits arising during
the whole course of one rotation of crops on different soils,” and

6 Land Valuing.

he gives a table to show the proportion of rent to produce on
different qualities of land. He admits that experienced valuers
do not in practice make use of such calculations, and that their
estimates often agree within ls. per acre; but he seems to think
that less-experienced persons should test their opinions in this
way. But further on he admits that it will require great practical
experience to enter on these needful calculations.

Others have entertained the same idea, and there can be no
doubt that the difference between the produce and the expenses
incurred must, in the end, regulate the rent that a farmer can
afford to pay.

Such calculations are very interesting, and I have often made
them for my own satisfaction; but I am firmly convinced that
they can never be carried out with sufficient accuracy to form a
practical guide to the land-valuer, and I know that this is also
the opinion of several eminent valuers, with whom I have con-
versed on the subject. Indeed, my chief object in submitting
this paper to the Society is to point out the fallacy of expecting
reliable practical results from this source.

The produce of a farm depends very much on the way in which
it is managed, and a slight error in the estimate of the produce
will materially alter the result of the calculation. Many men
can calculate to a nicety the yield of a crop before harvest; but
who can accurately estimate the produce of a farm during a series
of years?

The same remarks, though ina less degree, apply to the esti-
mated expenses; and by such calculations as these almost any
given result may be arrived at. The course of cropping habitually
pursued in a district may in some instances be a valuable general
indication of the quality of the soil; as where a tract of alluvial
land continues to produce large crops under a rotation which
would ordinarily be regarded as ‘‘ scourging,” we may safely infer
that it contains extraordinary supplies of fertilising matter—a
conclusion which will be confirmed on an examination of the soil
itself. P

But, after al], the true value of an article is what it will fetch
in the market ; and I see no reason why this principle should
not apply to the rent of land as to everything else. Not that the
fair rent is the highest sum that some reckless speculator can be
induced to give for it, who will probably get all he can out of it”
for a few years, and then leave it in deteriorated condition, but
that amount of rent which can readily be obtained from a sub-
stantial, respectable tenant during a series of years. Such men-
will not give so high a rent for a farm as will deprive them of
the means of living; on the other hand, competition will induce
them to give as much as they can afford. In this way the rent

Land Valuing. 7

of land is regulated from time to time by actual experience, far
better than it could be by the most elaborate calculations.

Of course, many farms are let privately to the person to whom
the first offer is given, and there is no direct evidence that a full
rent has been obtained; yet every experienced land-valuer can
readily compare in his mind almost any description of land with
farms of similar quality in different localities, which he has previ-
ously valued and let, where there has been sufficient competition
on the one hand, or difficulty in finding a suitable tenant on the
other, to form a test of value. The negociations connected with
such lettings serve from time to time to confirm or correct the judg-
ment, and afford a far more practical test of the value of the various
descriptions of land, than any calculations that can be made.

Such is at present the basis on which the rental value of land
is usually calculated, and I do not see how it is possible to obtain
any better or more practical one, whether or not it exactly cor-
responds to the true standard of value; for I believe that the rent
which can be obtained for poor thin-skinned clays, low as it may
seem, is yet higher in proportion to their true value than that
which can be obtained for really good land, high as that may
appear. But if farmers in general underrate the difference, it is
beyond the power of the land-valuer to alter their views. Still, if
such a discrepancy does exist, it should be his object rather to
correct than to exaggerate it; and there can be no doubt that,
without care, there is great danger of valuing the best soils con-
siderably below, and the inferior ones above, their real value.

In connexion with this subject, I may allude to the gradual
but steady increase in the value of land. Improved modes of
cultivation, which have greatly increased the produce, have done
much in this direction; drainage and steam-cultivation are now
effecting for our clays what turnips and sheep have already done
for our heaths and downs. But, besides this, as long as the popu-
lation increases and manufactures flourish, so long must the value
of land continue to advance. And still more important, in my
opinion, as respects the money value of land and produce, is the
enormous and continued production of gold in British Columbia,
Australia, California, &c. Already do we see a marked dif-
ference in the relative values of gold and silver in France. The
increased value of tithe rent-charge points in the same direction,
and though the effect may not be rapid, yet I believe it is a
consideration which ought to influence the question of long leases,
and that it is not wise in landlords to grant terms of twenty-one
years without protecting themselves by a corn-rent.

76, Old Broad-street, London, April, 1862.

Ca)

Il.— The Prize Farms of France. By P. H. Frere.

MAny circumstances tend to give us a lively and increasing
interest in French agriculture. The same rule applies to the two
empires parted by the British Channel as to all subdivisions,
whether natural or scientific, viz., that in some respects parts of
the bodies which have been severed are more akin than certain
of the members of the same body or group. In ease of access to
either metropolis and its markets, in soil, in climate, and pro-
ducts, perhaps even in race, the two shores of the Channel stand
in nearer relation to each other than the one to Ireland or Scotland,
or the other to Provence, Savoy, and the Pyrenees.

Again, if contrasts teach us only less pointedly than patterns,
we may have much to learn from the South of France, which
seems designed in some measure to play, under different con-
ditions, the same part as our North-Western Provinces ; for
whilst the adjacent parts of the two empires form an almost
continuous cereal zone, the two extremities furnish a northern
and southern pastoral region, in which a resemblance in geology
(and therefore in soil), in physical outline (and therefore in
climate), overrules to some extent the difference of latitude.

The contrasts offered by our social and national institutions, as
influenced by law, custom, or art, likewise furnish many aids for
reflection and incitements toaction. We may, therefore, naturally
hope to learn something from our neighbours. But further, a
very slight survey of the state of France will lead us to expect
that there really 7s much to be learnt there.

Many events have combined to foster French agriculture. The
Empire rests upon the rural franchises, and is not unmindful of its
origin or ungrateful. The Emperor has had almost an English
training, and has as much energy and more power than any farmer
among us; his courtiers naturally follow his steps; the statesman has
felt the inconvenience of “ Paris being France ;” whilst the defeated
of all parties retire to their homes, where, if they cherish resent-
ment, they likewise cherish their dependents and lands, the one
feeling probably waning as the other interest grows upon them.

The French law for the distribution of landed property, though
it has thrown many an obstacle in the way of improvement, seems
now to have received a check, which, however unsatisfactory to.
the moralist, proves on the whole conducive to agricultural
progress, the subdivision of land being practically arrested at a
point which leaves many estates sufficiently large to afford a field _
for the energies of the gentleman or yeoman owner, who is con-
tent with a modest competence unattended with anxieties for the
future. Moreover in France, as among ourselves, men who:
have made large and successful ventures in trade, in railways,

The Prize Farms of France. — 9

or in the money-market, like to cast an anchor on terra-firma,
and carry with them their dash, their enlarged range of view,
and their command of capital.

Thus many agencies tend to the rapid development of French
agriculture. Many motives also induce us to note our neighbours’
progress: free competition, generous emulation (the happier form
of national rivalry), the satisfaction of observing the leaves they
have taken out of our book, the hope of gleaning something
from theirs. Nor is this interest confined to our agricultural
community, for other classes are equally interested in our supplies
and the demands to be set against them.

If, then, we have every reason to look for agricultural progress
in France and to note its steps with care, perhaps a review of
some of the latest awards of the grand prizes (les Primes
d Honneur) given by Government for the best and most improved
farms, may be a good means of gaining an insight into this
subject. The French Government contributes to the encourage-
ment of agriculture by paying a salary to the members of the
Imperial and Central Society of Agriculture, by giving prizes and
medals for stock and implements annually in the twelve districts
into which the country is divided; and by giving a prize of 2002.
in money, and a silver cup worth 1202, to the owner of the best
farm in one of the six or seven departments contained in each of
these twelve districts, besides very considerately assigning medals
and smaller gratuities to the manager and faithful servants on the
prize farm.

The sum total thus expended in 1861 for prizes, &Kc., is as

follows :—
Number of Prizes

Money. and Medals.

Bomcaies —.n0 02s) a) Slo lor, as sa 1274

3, psheeply PA LEP 8i429 cide 403

Po DicswiN Mes idat ene B456 Bear 250

ge POULELY: ican wae) a 212 ee 187

»; Implements .. ... a as 2422

», farm produce .. .. be acces 204
Prizes for farms and their

attendants .. .. .. 4,820 doles 180

£25,584 eae! 4920

The prizes offered for horses are not included in this list, because
they have special shows and prizes assigned to them.
The “ Prime d’Honneur,” or Farm Prize, is thus announced :

“For the best managed farm on which the most useful im-
provements have been introduced.”

* It is worthy of remark that of this sum £2616 is bestowed on pure-bred short-
horns, and £1808 on short-horn crosses.

10 The Prize Farms of France.

It may be said that-such a prize must be a very great attraction ;
but is it a healthy, and is ita general one? Is the prize within the
reach of any but those highly favoured by soil, by wealth, by
early training? To such natural misgivings the awards seem
to afford very satisfactory and conclusive replies ; now crowning
the head of the capitalist who has worked wonders in a short |
time with great éclat, much benefit to his neighbourhood, and no
inconsiderable outlay ; then covering the bald temples of a gentle-
man who has economically and unobtrusively pursued a long
career of gradual advancement; here recognising the skill and
perseverance of an agriculturist who began life with these endow-
ments for his whole stock in trade, there drawing from his retreat
the energetic soldier of the old Empire, who has since been cam-
paigning on a modest scale; now showing how the man whose
free spirit fretted and chafed against the trammels imposed on
thought and action, grappled successfully with the elements ; then
placing in the first rank of agriculturists the sailor, who, in a fit
of enthusiasm at the preaching of a Dombasle or a Royer, turned
—shall we say ?—his anchor into a plough, took to him a wife,
reared eight children for the state, and provided adequately for
them all.

As the mass of materials available for our purpose is greater
than can fairly be reproduced within the limits of a single
article, it will be better to give a selection rather than an abstract ;
some of the more memorable contests, or most characteristic
groups, being chosen for description.

Let us first turn to the department of the Lower Seine—part
of Normandy—giving it the preference not only from its resem-
blance to England, but because the jury (including two Norman
prizemen) report that of the five contests held in that province
this has been the most distinguished. Here, then, we shall see
what our neighbours consider good farming under circumstances
like our own.

For this contest twenty competitors sent in their names, of
whom nine did not satisfactorily fulfil the preliminary conditions.
The pretensions of the tenth did not bear a comparison with
the rest, though he had increased his crop of wheat 75 per cent. ;
that of oats, 50 per cent.; and his yield of rapeseed eightfold.
He was an adherent of the old three-course and bare fallow.
The field as it then stood was nearly equally divided between
proprietors and rentpaying farmers, and of the former one only
appears to be a man of rank.

One farmer, M. Basset, showed that on 144 acres he had
doubled his live stock in ten years; the increase of his green
crop being due to very liberal dressings of marl, lime, gypsum,
nightsoil, and street-scrapings. He received a commendation.

The Lower Seine. 11

Next, M. Burel, also a farmer, holding 284 acres since 1844,
roved that in the interval he had increased his farm capital from
24002. to 60002. ; laid down 32 acres in pasture, which he manures
every third year with 50 cubic yards of compost, 6 cwts. of guano,
and 4 ewts, of gypsum per acre ; that he winters a grazing flock of
520 half-bred merinos, keeps pure and half-bred short-horns, good
milkers, and fattens their produce. He had the same response—
a commendation.

The Count de Malartic, who owns half the old family property
which once surrounded the chateau, claims attention for the bect-
root distillery, which he set up on Le Play’s system, and supplies
from his own farm of 230 acres arable, by the aid of a magni-
ficent root store, holding 2000 tons, his usual crop.* To meet
this demand for beet an eight-course rotation has been adopted,
including of beet, 3 crops; of wheat, 2; oats, 2; clover,‘l.
It appears that the beet, though so often repeated, averages 24
tons per acre. The farm is paid as high as 16s. per ton for all
the beet delivered, and still the distillery makes a good profit.
A splendid double shed has been erected for feeding cattle with
the pulp.

‘The jury, well knowing the services rendered by such dis-
tilleries to the agriculture of the North, by increasing the supply
of butchers’ meat and providing such a stock of manure as much
advances the fertility of the soil, publicly thank this large pro-
prietor for such an application of his fortune, which appears to
have been made with strict regard to economy, and to have pro-
duced pecuniary results which are highly satisfactory. Such an
example deserves to meet with many imitators.”

Let us now look to the achievements of a proprietor of more
moderate means—M. Dubosc—who farms 114 acres near Fe-
camp, which he bought nine years before the contest. We here
meet with the spirited breeder (on a small scale) of choice
animals; stock here occupy the first, not the second place. The
soil is good, the subsoil strong, but not impermeable ; and chalk
and mar] have been raised from a depth of 38 yards.

This spirited agriculturist keeps three short-horn bulls; one
of them, “the Son. of Baltic,” is paid 1/..a cow by his neigh-
bours ; the three earn him 68/. a year. - He keeps 6 good cows;
one of them (7-8ths of short-horn) gives 17 quarts of milk per day.
He has a stallion and some good mares (Norman and Cauchois).
The breeding flock consists of 100 pure merino ewes and 100
possessing much merino blood; 7 pure merino rams are kept.
This practical man has a manure depét, 80 feet long and 24 feet

* The floor of this store is five feet underground; it is traversed by a rail for
a handtruck, and covered with tiles.

12 The Prize Farms of France.

wide, with drainage and pump complete. He has also a spacious
airy sheep-stall (bergerie), in four compartments, with a rack
specially devised to keep the dust out of the animal’s eyes. The
bergerie seems almost universal in France; if only an adjunct of
the merino race, will it hold its own? In 1851, M. Dubosc’s
farm capital was 1440/.; in 1860, 20002; he clears about 2007.
a year above his expenses. A very pleasant picture this of
energy, prosperity, and progress in a quiet way.

The next claimant on our attention is M. Aubry, who, as
tenant, has had a shallow, poor, cold, clay soil to contend with
on 242 acres, of which 200 are arable, 74 acres being in sea-
rush, By aid of composts his crops—wheat, flax, tares, peas
—are reported to be superb, and his rapeseed to promise
a yield of 38 bushels per acre. The flock called forth speciai
praise — 240 ewes (Cauchoises) put to choice rams, and other
sheep to make up 600 head! The cow stock amounted to
30 head, a cross of short-horn. Of the eight dairy cows one gave
23 quarts, another 16 quarts per day.

On the next farm—that of M. Papin (215 acres)—beet, grown
as an industrial crop, again calls for attention. M. Papin claims
to be the originator in those parts of mangold culture on a large
scale, and the use of its pulp for fattening stock.

In 1852, when M. Langlet, a sugar-refiner at Rouen, wished
to start a distillery, and for that end to contract for a supply of
2000 tons of beet, M. Papin (his brothers aiding him) had the
hardihood to take the contract. He then went to “the North”
to study beet-culture, and persuaded his neighbours to be guided
by him, to adopt his views, and grow this root, himself aiding
their efforts by his advice and by a staff of from 150 to 200
workmen employed to cultivate and cart the crop. ‘The notion
that wheat would not do well after beet gradually disappeared,
and the pulp became appreciated as cattle-food. By the use of
lime and of English seed he has doubled his wheat-crops, and
the produce of his meadows has likewise been doubled. , The
status of himself and his predecessor is thus contrasted :—

New Inventory. Old Inventory.
Cow stock + is. |) bee Paws 30 ae 6
iO a a ae 13 tie 8
Howes 5. se) uae ne 220 Pane 150
Samte” ce esa eee ree 200 “pep 140
Wheat crop in sheaves .. 24,000 bee 14,000
Oat cropin sheaves .. 7,000 hth 5,000
Rape-seed,.. . ss) 29. «0s 13} bush. (?) 62 bush.
1. ETC) fs a ee 150 tons 0

M. Papin’s services were held to deserve special recognition,
but we are not yet in the front rank of the race.
The jury’s perplexities only begin with the next aspirant,

Farm of M. Lange. 13

M. Lange, since 1846 owner of 242 acres near Fauville, where
we are again near the sea, and shelter-belts of trees and sea-
rushes are again to be deducted from the farm proper.

This small tenant-farmer has erected a distillery, and supplies
it himself with roots. To accomplish this, his rotation (praised
for being truly “alternate ”’) is as follows :—

. Beet, well manured.

Oats.

. Clover.

. Wheat, manured with rape-cake.

. One-half mangold, the rest trifolium.

. One-half rape-seed, with a strong fold; half mangold.
. Wheat, folded or lightly manured.

The 5th and 6th years are modified for the supply of mangold,
that he may be independent of the market. To bear these crops
1-18th to 1-16th of the farm is marled every year; the clover is
dressed with gypsum to very good effect; compost-heaps with
lime are formed; the manure is carefully and scientifically
made; the cultivation is very good. Howard and Valcourt’s
harrows, Crosskill’s clodcrusher, Smith’s drill, and a weighbridge,
figure among the implements. The crops, which are reported
quite magnificent and thoroughly clean, are set—the wheat at
33 to 38 bushels; oats 55 bushels; rape-seed (1860) nearly 42
bushels ; mangold 20 tons on the average.

The live stock consist of—

ND OUP hoe

Cows (short-horn cross) Seyieteiesn 6
Bullocks ditto Ee
MOTE STOCK 6 es Boe te ey J, cay 84
Horses (picked mares) .. .. .. .. 14
Ewes, Chaulois-Merino.. .. .. .. 220
Hoggetts ee een, cad Eee (0
Wane Gheep) wo slysaq sohyicedy “st t=O
[PSSTe, WEES RE Be eae

M. Lange is shareholder in a company which buys prime
short-horn bulls for joint use, and has won the first prize at
Rouen with a fat ox sold for 56/.

The distillery cost for the buildings (simple but solid) and the
plant together 800/.; “‘much economy must have been shown
not to exceed this moderate sum.” La Play’s system is adopted :
22 gallons of spirit (100° French standard) are commonly ex-
tracted from 2 tons of beet; but in 1860 33 cwts. more were
required.

The rent of this farm, when let, was 280/.; the average net
profit, since the owner took it in hand, has been 336/.; ‘that
is to say, the net produce has been more than doubled.” The
inventory of December 31st, 1859, showed a farm-capital of

14 The Prize Farms of France.

41191, or 177. per acre. The total value of the produce was, in
1848, 18582, or 82. per acre under cultivation; in 1858, 32312,
or 14/. per acre.

These results were clearly set forth in accounts, a model for
accuracy and distinctness of details, kept by Madame Lange.
No wonder that the jury thought that here the prize was well
earned, but they could not here bestow it.

We pass on to a farm, part of the large landed estate of Cany,
held conjointly by Madame Rocquigny, a widow, and her two
sons. This farm appears on the “ Cadastre,” or national register
of land, to comprise 350 acres; but, after deducting some
50 acres for woods, 25 for waste, a large sandpit, roads, &c.,
242 acres only remain for the farm, of which one-half of the
soil, being both light and cold, is rated in the third and fourth
classes. The further end of the farm—a blowing sand on an
impervious clay—was left as a sheep-walk by the former tenant,
It has since been limed and marled, and made into good pasture,
The crops were clean and very surprising when the quality of
the land is considered: wheat (English white-chaff red) 33
bushels on bad land ; oats, tares, clover, beet, all very fine.

Manure and compost had done their work. In one year 335
cubic yards of pertectly-decayed vegetable compost had been
applied to two fields (Nos, 29 and 36).

The present tenants found on entry a stock of manure of
222 tons, In 1859, there was produced upon the farm 1245
tons 17 cwts., exclusive of dressings, such as marl, lime, “sel de
coussin,” ashes, gypsum, soot, on which 517/. was expended in
five years. After contracting to buy all the grains of a brewery
at 5d. per bushel, these spirited tenants, knowing the value of
beet-pulp for stock, determined to set up a distillery, buildings,
stores, and all. It works up 4 tons of beet per day, thus sup-
plying such a quantity of pulp as the stock can easily consume
while it is fresh, so that they like it better and thrive faster. At
the end of the season, when corn is cheap, that too is bought,and
distilled, the refuse being eaten with still greater relish by the
animals. The live stock, of course, increased with the supply
of pulp. The dairy-cows, “Cotentines,’ seem to be very good
milkers, giving 17 to 22 quarts per day. They are put to a
short-horn bull, belonging to an association in which the tenants.
have a share. :

Some of the ewes (Cauchoises) have been put to a Southdown
ram, which the landlord generously imported for the good of his
tenants. The cross is thoroughly successful. The produce are’
much nearer to the ground, and better framed. For early ma-
turity and diminished consumption of food to obtain a given
weight of carcase, the benefit of this cross is very great.

The Farm of Madame Rocquigny. 15

Here again we are told, “The books of these gentlemen are
perfect: not a detail escapes them. They draw up an exact
account of each of the successive operations of their system.
They have first a cash-book and a great ledger very regularly
kept, then a labour-book, and an auxiliary record based upon
plans (¢tabli en tableaux )”.*

To lighten their task they have distributed the arable land
into 36 plots, duly numbered, which follow the natural divisions
of the country; the homestead, grove, &c., have also each their
proper number assigned to them. To each entry in the cash or
labour-book a number is appended which refers that outlay to its
proper object; when the great ledger is made up, the task is thus
much facilitated. Each week the totals are cast and entered in
columns in a special book, from which the totals are easily
obtained at the year’s end. The inventory is then drawn up;
not only is a general account of the crops made out from these
particular records, but the distillery, the flock, the dairy, the
manure-store, have each their separate account, which the jury
examined with the most lively interest.

These books show that ‘‘in the five first years of their
tenancy, Messrs. Rocquigny have made profits amounting to
1943/. or 3882 per annum on 242 acres.” I have quoted the pre-
ceding passage in detail, because it speaks not of the books of
the model-farm or college —not those of the farm-manager,
whose time is his employer’s, and who, if wise, will be anxious
not only to do right, but to show in black and white that he has
managed faithfully and well—but the practice of a tenant-farmer.

Here, as in a previous instance of well-kept books, a lady’s
name figures; not as assistant, but as head of the firm. It
may be questioned whether both in town and country, women
do not now play a more important part in the management
of accounts in France than in England; indeed, the passing
traveller hardly fails to see signs of this in the shop, or the hotel.
Many passages in the records which I quote speak in most flat-
tering terms of the energy with which the modern Frenchwoman,

* Tf I rightly understand this expression, it represents a method similar to
that adopted by Mr. Jonas in Cambridgeshire. That gentleman’ keeps the plan
of each field on a separate page in an interleaved map-book; on the other side the
culture, cropping, and produce for a series of years are neatly and concisely
recorded. Thus, at a glance, a most instructive retrospect can be taken. For
open fields with but few natural divisions this plan has special advantages,
because the same field is often variously subdivided among different kindred
crops; and a measurement, duly recorded on the plan, is the sole abiding record
of the line of demarcation. These are agricultural statistics, the use of which
will not be gainsaid. When, through such farm-accounts, farmers have become
familiar with the use of these records to the individual, they will probably become
sensible of the service which records, resting on a broader basis, render to the
community at large, and so to each member thereof,

16 Lhe Prize Farms of France.

even a Parisian, throws herself into her husband’s rural pursuits.
The satisfaction and enjoyment, even the social consideration to
be derived from being thus associated with pursuits which must
engross much of the husband’s time and thoughts, are well set
forth in those pages. Allusions are also made to town misses,
who come back from school only to hate the farm, and a call is
made for more fitting and serious education, which may mould
the intellect after a higher and more healthy fashion. Such a
demand is in no way at variance with the cultivation of those
lighter tastes and accomplishments of which the standard is ever
varying with increasing civilization and wealth. A word on this
subject is not unseasonable, when so much stir is being made
about the education of young men: if it tend to the adoption of
an improved method of keeping accounts, an important defect
will have been remedied.

But to return to Messrs. Rocquigny,—besides these remarkable
agricultural results, the jury were moved, both by the pleasant
picture of confidence subsisting between landlord and tenant,
and that of family devotion and union—each a necessary pre-
liminary for such success—to let the prize rest here; but a
still stronger claimant remained.

Who then eclipsed all these rivals? —A M. Dargent, of
Reneville, near Saint-Léonard, who, at nine years of age, was
Jeft an orphan, and at twenty determined himself to occupy
the little farm of the family (126 acres), that he might keep
together and maintain his three brothers and sisters, who
had no one but him to look to for support. Of this small
property, 124 acres were in sea-rushes, in roads, and shelter-
belts against strong gales ; of the pasture, if part was good, the
rest was but a sheepwalk on the cliffs; of the arable (77 acres),
only 6} acres were rated in the first class, and 19 acres in the
second (both these had a clay subsoil) ; the rest were third and
fourth-class lands. The events referred to occurred fifty years
ago; since then the buildings, such as survived the revolutionary
period and an uninspected tenancy, have been completely re-
newed; and are now models of simplicity, solidity, and fitness.
The jury state “much as we admired the crops of Messrs. Lange
and Rocquigny, we must admit that those of M. Dargent were
much superior to them, and so luxuriant as fully to justify the
statements entered in the account-books. We estimated the first
cut of the clover-crop, which we saw growing, at 2 tons 7 cwts.
peracre.” The wheat-crop is stated to average 360 sheaves, and
to yield 42 bushels of corn, weighing 1 ton 4 cwts. (nearly 64 Ibs.
per bushel); in 1854, it averaged 50 bushels. The oat-crop
averages 320 sheaves, and 57 bushels of corn, weighing 18 ewts.

3 qrs. per acre, The rape-seed, 44 bushels (2135 cwts.) ‘*The

The Prize Farm of M. Dargent. 17

beet-crop, 2500 hectolitres, weighs 150,000 kilogrammes; in
1857, they weighed 167,000, a fact recorded in a Report to the
Society of Agriculture.” * Until the disease came, M. Dargent
grew 440 bushels of potatoes per acre. After trying many
varieties of seed-wheat, French and English, he keeps to “ the red
wheat, there called Scotch,” finding that the straw, which is short,
but stiff and strong, bést resists the gales which are so formid-
able at Saint-Léonard. In the rainy season of 1816 M. Dargent
had the good fortune to save his crop (fielded till October), by
being the first to set his sheaves in shocks, after the example of
Madame Chevalier, his grandmother,

Since 1815 he has grown beet, swedes, turnips (la rave d’ Auvérgne
et du Portou), carrots; but soon found that beet was best suited
to his farm. To him the department was indebted for its first
factory for beet-sugar set up at Fécamp in 1831, since he under-
took to provide the principal supply of beet; he introduced the
trifolium tncarnatum—the use of lesser and larger cocks in hay-
making—and in 1832, ‘made improvements in the horse-hoe,
similar to those introduced in the most complete modern English
implement. -- tne

M. Dargent has applied the same skill and judgment to his
cider-orchard as to his farm ; discovering varieties of apples which
escape the ravages of insects, he regrafted all his trees with
those sorts. In planting young trees, he applies manure, but.
only to the extremities of the roots.

His dairy-cows, which since 1836 have had a judicious cross.
of short-horn blood, are admirable. ‘‘ It is difficult to find cows.
with better-developed chests and ribs, more deep and more
compact; and yet one of them gives 30 quarts, her daughter-
243 quarts, and two others 23 and 22 quarts apiece; while their-
condition shows how. very easy it would be to fatten them for the-
butcher.” From the first M. Dargent has picketed his cows.
both in the orchard*and on the layer. He sells his milk at
Fécamp for a little more than 1d. per quart, and considers that.
each cow gives him a clear yearly profit of 67.

The flock at Saint-Léonard has long been famous ; in 1835, and
again in 1843, reports on its merits were printed ; and the latter
report gained for M. Dargent the Cross of the Legion of Honour.
The stock—merino—was originally procured by M. Dargent’s
father from the Royal farm at Rambouillet, fell into the hands
of his maternal uncle, and was brought back in 1811; since
which time it has been improved and maintained with the

* This statement respecting the specific gravity of the mangold is one which the
reporter says he would not have ventured to make on a less authority than that
referred to. Its significance depends on the hectolitre being more accurately
measured than is commonly the case with our bushel.

VOL, XXIV. ca}

18 The Prize Farms of France.

utmost pains. The wool is not quite so fine as in some flocks,
but has a long staple. In form this flock surpasses its rivals ;
“no pure merinos are more close to the ground, straight in the
back, or have better loins and quarters.” Their fleeces weigh
41 lbs. (nearly), and have been sold at 2s. 4d. per lb. The flock,
including 80 lambs, consists of 340 head. ‘They show a clear
profit of 85. 10s. a-year, or 6s. Td. per‘head, Five good cart
mares are kept.

A farm managed with so much prudence, intelligence, and
perseverance, could hardly fail to show a good balance-sheet.
The following facts are gathered from the books :—

The farm at Reneville was let in 1794 for .. 56
And again let from 1800 to 1811 (a time of high prices) for 96

Mr. Dargent values the farm when he took itat .. .. 2880
(A liberal allowance, for land was then hardly worth
30 years’ purchase, )

The stock he took was valued at .. 2 «- eo ee 1200

Making atotaliof) 82! we) A SON I Sas a080
There were “charges on the property of .. « .. e- 1760

Which left a clear capital of .. 2. . « e 2020

The jury when examining the books found that, for the
thirteen years from 1846 to 1859, the profits amounted to 31751,
or 2417. on the average. The three last years showed a higher
average of 252/. £.

Mr. Dargent thinks he may fairly value the estate at .. 6800
The stock, as by inwentory,-atl sm semacky fee ieeyades 4aheeee
He had in bank or invested in 1859 .. .. «. « 2495
He had paid for exemption from military service (! ij ) * 17
For dower for his nieces - & S224). 1S ES, aD
Hor-purchase of\lanid) 1.) ia 2. fae!) Seu? oO 160

His capital had therefore increased from e- £2320 to 14,952

Thus after weathering several storms—the destruction of his
buildings by fire—the failure of the sugar-mill with which he
was connected—the conscriptions—M. *Dargent has attained
his aim, never diverted from it but for a while in old times
to serye in the “Cohorts,” and again at the critical period of
1848, when the discrimination of his fellow-citizens constrained
him to exhibit his good sense, modesty, and integrity in
the General Assembly. The jury, when comparing M. Dar-
gent’s performances with those of his competitors, find he has
done more than they, better than they, sooner than they;
his younger rivals may then well make way for this ‘‘ Master of
Practical Agriculture.” The jury, in fine, suggest to the
Emperor’s Government a course which exceeds their own

The Contest in the Loiret. 19

powers, viz.:—* That M. Dargent be promoted to the rank of
Officer in the Legion of Honour, of which he has been for eighteen
years a Companion ; that M. Lange be made a Companion of the
Legion. That the prize and the cup be assigned to Madame
Rocquigny and her sons.” But their award is—the prize to
M. Dargent; and gold medals to Messrs. Rocquigny, for their
accounts and their distillery ; to M. Lange, for his excellent
rotation, which is productive of increasing fertility, and for his
drill husbandry ; to M. Papin, as the introducer of beet-culture
on a large scale; to M. Aubry, for the improvements effected in
his flock by judicious cross-breeding; to M. Dubosc, for his
buildings, and the service rendered to cattle breeders by his
excellent bulls; to Count Malartic, for his good example in
erecting a distillery, his drill husbandry, his Atkin’s reaper, and
good threshing-machines; to -M. Burel, for his improved cow-
houses; to M. Basset, for his zeal in introducing the drill, for
his buildings, and the good management of his manure.

This account has run to some length ; but if more compressed
it would hardly have shown either the working of this mag-
nificent prize under favourable circumstances, or the condition
of agriculture in a thriving but not a pre-eminent district. The
manner in which it brought into notice and rewarded modest,
persevering worth, cannot but be hailed with extreme satisfaction
by all the friends of the genuine farmer.

Tue Lorret.

Let us next take a glance at the contest of the Loiret, where we
shall find the race nearly reduced to a match between two gen-
tlemen of good property and of great distinction as agriculturists.
The improvement of wastes by plantations ona large scale is here
exhibited alongside of the valuable industrial crops which test
and tax the fertility of the rich alluvial lands bordering on the
Loire: yet in the background we have “the Sologne,” a name
suggestive of all the ills attendant on poor, cold, wet, isolated dis-
tricts of sand and clay.

Of the farm of Chenaille, the property of M. Bobee, who ran
a very good second, we have no detailed report. The property is
large, 4500 acres. A completely new face has been put upon that
and adjoining estates by M. Bobee’s example during forty years.
The miserable métayer, or half-holder,* who had to be supplied
with stock is superseded by a tenantry holding leases of eighteen

_ _* The name métayer is hardly familiar to all readers; it applies to an occupier
who is supplied with chief part of the stock, live and dead, on condition of render-
ing to the landlord half the produce. The English word “half-holder ” will sug-
gest its own import.

c 2

20 The Prize Farms of France.

years, renewed at much increased rents; yet this change has been
very quietly effected, and the owner modestly reports, ‘‘ You will
not find anything very new or very remarkable on my farm in the
way either of buildings, stock, or crops.” Indeed, the imple-
ments still in use are in the main such as were adopted and
improved upon in 1826. This farming is evidently no flash in
the pan; there may be much light though little smoke about it.

But we must pass on to the winner, M. de Behaque, and his
farm of Dampierre. The Home-farm of 1042 acres is part of a
considerable estate, the survey of which shows we have entered
a new field of management. It contains of—

Acres.

Old woods, deciduous trees os Ti BS eSp

Young sroods vedas eijce | yelp Gere eee
Fir-plantafions (<5). ¢¢:' te." ¢s-) Ost Mens alle
Arabledands,-% on os) bcey feel gins =p
McadOW UP fan Pte tes nk ps) ee een

Other pastares :t80 85,005.) 22 oe. TR. 53

Ponds and reservoirs(!) .. .. . .. 98830
Wastes, roads, and gardens ww Sw. SC w. «3S 1:90

= ha 4672

Since 1826 M. de Behaque has applied himself with great energy
to the improvement of his property. His career is remarkable,
because in his practice are combined the lessons of two almost
antagonistic schools of modern French agriculture, those of M.
Dombasle of Royville, and of M. Royer. The former proclaimed,
‘* Away with the bare fallow and scourging succession of corn
crops! Practise alternate husbandry, deep culture, and the
growth of roots and forage, with the same yield of corn as
before on half the area. In short, high farming and the maxi-
mum of produce.”

The other had for his motto, “The net produce—the clear
profit ;? and he‘taught, “ No uniformity! Cut your coat to your
cloth; be regulated by soil, climate, markets, command of
capital ; do not force some patches with high farming, and leave
a wilderness around them; do not rob Peter to pay Paul.”
Land has its natural stages of existence, its “périodes,” ac-
cording to the state of civilization and progress around. This
estate is at the forest epoch; another at that of sheep-walks and
cattle-runs (période pacagére); a third at that of alternate hus-
bandry and stall-feeding (période fourragére); a fourth at the
corn-growing point (période céréale), because, without danger of
exhaustion, more than half the land may be devoted to cereal
crops; and finally the Commercial Epoch (période commerciale) is
attained, when industrial crops (such as provide the material for
factories) can be profitably grown to a considerable extent.

The Prize Farm of M. de Behaque. 21

The period of irrigation should perhaps be added to this series,
which will work a greater change in our supply of forage than
alternate husbandry has effected, whenever we can shake off the
trammels of custom, the conflict of private rights, and the obstacles
imposed by legal embarrassments.

It was M. de Behaque’s fortune to be at once the pupil of
M. Dombasle at Roville, and the neighbour and friend of M.
Royer; and thus, while he became popularly known as the ex-
hibitor of high-bred stock and a pattern for high farming, he
chiefly prided himself on being a sound rural economist, and
pointed with especial satisfaction to his woods waving over
Moque-gueule (Baulk-throat), once a dreary tract, where to the
far horizon no sign of vegetation or of man was perceptible. The
estate, then, contains specimens of land of all kinds, worth from
707. per acre on the banks of the Loire, to 3/. in the back
country ; and the management and capital employed vary with
the soil. Here 167. per acre is invested, and a bullock or its
equivalent in live stock * kept on every hectare (23 acres) ; there
the outlay is 15s., and the crop, fir-trees.

In 1826 M. de Behaque found that part of his’ estate which is
called Dampierre, 1440 acres in all, divided into sixteen holdings,
which together paid 362/.a-year. Of these lands the 1040 acres
(arable and grass), now included in the farm, are charged with a
rent of 682/., and the yearly increase in the value of the planta-
tions which he has made, is set at about 8s. per acre, or 150/. a-
year for 380 acres. At that time the corn grown hardly sufficed
for home consumption; the live stock were few and wretched,
fed on the waste, to the injury of the woods, which were maltreated
an every way. The course pursued was to select the best lands
for culture and plant the rest, doing justice to both.

The farm consists of portions varying in extent and quality :—

Acres.

hewHill) Warmicontams .. .. fast a« o2 we 470 arable

RUDE RNIle ye HAWN a arcs Mist » oct clase hon. cae wee ol TOM Ba.

Se HenOVeE ALI yse ce) lege wat cal’ =e) ce LOO) Ihe
— 740

To which must be added—

Sheep-walk, often flooded by the Loire... .. .. .. 150

Pastures, chiefly recently laid down .. .. .. .. 155

Trani wendy Suk adel hme lated Oia Ee Mae aus AMS cali Aad d 50

1095.t

The soil being chiefly a mixture of sand and clay, devoid of
lime, with an impermeable wet subsoil of tufa, these lands were

‘ * In France, 10 sheep or 5 pigs are considered as equivalent to one bullock or
chorse.

+ This total seems to include some small additions to the original purchase.

22 The Prize Farms of France.

scorched in summer and soaked with wet in winter, until drain-
age, marl, lime, and deep ploughing, have changed their aspect.
The rotations introduced are all characteristic of good modern
farming.

The history of the flock presents certain special features.
Merinos were first substituted for the native Sologne race; but
when fine wool fell and meat advanced in price, a cross of
Leicester blood was tried. Finally the Berri breed was intro-
duced and crossed with Southdown rams, At first all the cross-
bred sheep went to the butcher ; but experience soon showed that
it was as easy to keep the half-bred’ ewe as the pure native
race: both are, therefore, now kept, with about fifty choice
Southdowns, which, as well as the cross-breds, have won many
prizes. On the three farms 1900 sheep are kept, of which 900
are folded on the land all the year round—a practice compara-
tively rare in France. The wethers fetch 33s. at thirty months’
old. ‘The ewes bear three lambs and are then fatted.

The stock of cattle consists of 16 short-horns—which have
often received prizes at Poissy, Orleans, &c.—48 others of
Charolais or half-bred, and 40 working oxen. The choice stock
are weighed every month, and a careful register of their progress
is kept, which has thrown much light on their management.

M. de Behaque is a strong advocate for the employment of
bullocks of a hardy sort for draught, and recommends that they
be worked only half a day. He prefers the Limousin breed.

The list of implements includes most of our first-class English
inventions; much pains have been bestowed on the farm-
buildings, which have been rebuilt with equal attention to
economy and convenience: moreoyer it is reported that, “* Of
course a still more lively solicitude has been displayed in the
sanatory arrangements of the dwellings assigned to all the persons
employed on the estate.” The clay hovels with earthen floors,
low, damp, devoid of air or light, which characterized the Sologne,
hare disappeared. A quarry =a was discovered, and larice
which have been erected on the property, have contribated to
this change, and the example is not lost on the neighbourhood.

M. Behaque’s influence has also introduced the culture of
Jerusalem-artichokes, maize, winter tares, trifolium incarnatum,,
sorghum, yellow lupines ; and substituted the growth of wheat
for that of rye; the best test of such improvements being that
the value of land is tripled in the neighbourhood.

The supply of labourers seems to be in a deplorable condition
in this district. Farm-servants generally change their places
twice a year ; various circumstances conducing to this end, such
as the objection of masters to married servants, and the pre-
dilection of the servants for the * Letting,” or Statute Fair; the

The Prize Farm of M. de Behaque. 23

only incident that breaks the monotony of their hard, dull exist-
ence. Such a custom is fatal not only to mutual ‘attachment
between master and man, but also to the acquirement of skill
in the use of improved implements.

M. de Behaque has overcome this unkindly practice, and is
justly proud of haying attached to himself and his farm, foremen
of 33, 13, and 10 years of service ;. carters claiming 21 and 13
years; cowmen 15 and 12 years; shepherds 18 and 10 years,
Circ:

One singular feature in this estate must not be passed over—
the ponds or lakes (Etangs)—the bane of the Sologne. We have
seen that 330 acres of the estate were thus covered with water.

One valley contained a succession of four such pools: the
first, measuring 175 acres, is of service for water supply and
water power, the fourth also acts as reservoir and watercourse for
the chief mill, but the second and third have been abolished.
This has been effected by cutting a canal in the hillside, which not
only delivers the water from the first pool directly into the mill-
head, but draws off the soak from the second and third ponds,
and the drainage waters from the adjoining lands; 30 acres of
good meadow have thus been gained by an outlay of 3004.

In 1857 more than 3000 cubic yards of pond-mud were taken
from a pool which receives.the drains of a village, and were
spread on the adjacent pasture. The effect was such that the
grass crop was lodged, and could not be cut by the mowing
machine, and the mowers could barely cut 3 roods a day.

In this, asin other cases, the Report is concluded by a
financial statement taken from the account-books, which since
1839 have been very exactly kept by double entry.

Since that date the farm has been charged with a rent of 6822.
which could not readily be obtained fare 2 farmer ; the general
expenses are also very large—556/. yearly—an amount which
the style of living and hospitality of a wealthy proprietor alone
explains. Notwithstanding these charges tle balance of the
farm accounts is generally on the right side, but the real profit
of the estate turns mainly on the fertility and wealth that is
being gradually accumulated.

The price paid for the estate a M. de Peart in 1826 Ess
Was) 5.0 Neher 5

The contingent expenses came to . A Ure | 2

Between 1826 and 1839 there was . expended on new 7 pur-
chases of land, on building and furnishing a chateau,
enclosing commons, planting and replanting 1700 acres
of woods, reconstructing farm buildings, draining and

marling, forming embankment to the park, and purchase
of stock RGU as By ni Klndinelal si cleadct Arno?

Makin ad hota OL oss Gtwaspels pest asmneu ke! Denso

24 . Lhe Prize Farms of France.

Since 1839, and up to 1859, the total outlay has reached.. 59,349
Besides capital required for working the farm, &c. .. .. 9,880

Total investment® %. ss" Gs aN eae

In 1859 the inventory of live and dead stock, crops, forage, =.
&c., came to : 10,610
To this we may join for outlay on ‘chateau, park, “and "place 10,000

Together .. .. -» 20,610
Leaving for cost of the productive lands .- 48,619

The net receipts from the estate increase every year, the
return on the average of the three Jast years in the account being
1330/. But this statement takes no notice of the young woods—
2000 acres—which are as yet unproductive. If these are estimated
at 8s. per acre for each year of growth, their annual value is
8001, which, added to 13301, gives 21301, or nearly 44 per
cent. on 48,0002.

“Jt should be remarked that the Dampierre estate pays only
2101. for taxes, a very low figure, consequent on the numerous
plantations exempted from taxation, and on the fact that the last
survey was made before most of the improvements had been
effected.”

M. de Behaque’s merits as an agriculturist have been recognized
by 106 prize medals, and three cups, by his appointment to be
Member of the Imperial Society of Agriculture, Member of the
General Board of Agriculture, and first, Member, then Officer,
of the Legion of Honour ; distinctions now crowned by the award
of this splendid prize.

Tue ARDENNES.

Let us now take a glance at a Northern district still less
favourably circumstanced—that of the Ardennes on the Belgian
frontier, part of the old Province of Champagne.

Of this department M. de Lavergne writes as follows :* ‘The
Department of the Ardennes, which occupies the extreme
north of the province, was once an unbroken forest, famous in
the earliest antiquity and in the Middle Ages, of which many
remains are still visible. It consists almost entirely of a series
of lofty plains bearing the name, now known to fame, of the
‘Chain of the Argonne.’ On this schistoust soil the growth of
every plant and animal is stunted (rabourgrie) ; nothing but the
most skilful and stubborn culture can turn it to any good
account.”

* *Economie Rurale de la France,’ p. 127.

+ “Schistous,” consisting of schist, a°m domatio” rock readily reduced by
atmospheric influences tora clay-earth. -

The Ardennes. 25

He further goes on to show how that province, which early
fell to the Crown, was especially oppressed with taxes, and then,
again, devastated by revolutionary wars; so that, where capital
was most indispensable and most hard to acquire, there the
existing sources of wealth were most cruelly drained.

In the Report given of the competition, a more peculiar in-
terest centres in some of the farms rewarded with the gold
medal than in the large and spirited enterprise of the successful
candidate, M. Gérard de Melcy, whose management turns on a
beet-distillery, as a basis for the production of roots, stock,
manure, and corn on moderately good land, such as might be
met with elsewhere.

A farm of 1000 acres, of which 770 acres are arable, on which
24002. has within the last ten or twelve years been judiciously
expended on improvements—where the rotation is, corn, 360
acres; rape-seed and roots, 180 acres; lucerne, saintfoin, and
clover, 180 acres; beans, 25 acres ; fallow, 25 acres; where the
inventory taken in 1860 exceeds that of 1849 by 4400/.—must
ever command attention, and its well-kept accounts must ad-
vance the science of Rural Economy. From these we gather
that “the erection of the beet-root distillery (on Champon’s
principle) cost 604/.; that, with working expense of 13d. per
day, the juice extracted from 5 tons 16 cwts. of beet (about
2100 gallons) is distilled; that the spirit produced amounts to
from 5} to 5} per cent., or, in other words, that on the average
2 ewts. of beet produce 114 gallons of pure alcohol (alcool
absolu).

When we see what a mighty agent the introduction of beet as
an industrial crop has proved for the regeneration of agriculture
generally in the North of France, we may see reason to note and
ponder such statistics in our minds, even if at present we cannot
advantageously turn them to practical account.

But, as I have said, the distinctive interest here centres,
not in the Winner, but in the Field, who all ran in nearly the
same colours. They are proprietors of rather small farms, who,
as a jast resource, when their tenants were quite farmed out,
took possession of the waste, and by energy rather than by
capital put a new face upon it. These farms had many features
in common, for it is well said in the Report, “the lineaments
of wretchedness are uniform,” and many pictures of their former
condition still exist around. A hungry soil, saturated with wet
or harried and drowned by waters bursting down at random from
the upper grounds till they subsided into pestilential pools; a
subsoil of sticky yellow clay, mixed with stones that the farmer
dare not bring to the surface; “ roads—such roads !”—miserable
hhovels for buildings; fields abandoned in despair to scrub, furze,

26 The Prize Farms of France.

and fern—because, even after grubbing and burning, the promise
of a slender crop of rye was baulked by winter frosts—these
were the leading features of the new take; with a few clumsy
implements, some half-starved cattle, a short supply of the worst
of stover—the bare bones of the outgoing tenant’s substance—for
a stock-in-trade. The best gauge of this penury will be found
in the current price of the land to buy or hire. Mr. Maréchal
Galle, one competitor, bought lands at an average price of
2/7. 12s. per acre; “they are now classed amongst those for
which the general price is 321.” I give this verbatim, because
this classing may imply taring—a searching test of improved
value. Or, again, the farm of M. Gossin, 220 acres, had been
let for 402, and at the termination of the lease the tenant only
offered 24/., which was declined ; in another instance the two
last tenants bolted.

The course to be pursued was generally the same: first,
drainage, arterial or field; then deep cultivation to break the
face, such as “ Talpa,” likewise a proprietor, depicts; then
liming; then the careful collection of vegetable matter of all
kinds for compost; when in time clover and roots followed corn,
some accommodation for stock; and, lastly—to our shame, who
have had so much better a start in a milder climate ! — the
application of the drainage waters from above to irrigation
below.

This was a work specially adapted to proprietors of moderate
means: they were constrained to make the best of that property
which was their sole means of subsistence, whilst the nature
of the work, the state of their finances, the hazardous question,
“will it pay ?”—all pointed to a commencement on a small scale ;
the economy of the process being tested by the growth of the
means for its gradual development. A tenant would have hesi-
tated to saddle himself with a tract of bad land, when he was
only prepared to deal at first somewhat diffidently with a small
part of it. .

But if the position of the competitors was similar, their ante-
cedents were various. In one instance the owner, M. Gossin, a
public functionary, sent his two sons to the Agricultural College at
Grignon, and then turned them loose on the farm, now comprising
350 acres, to bear the grins and gibes of their neighbours; till
unremitting toil, intelligently applied, compensating for lack of
capital and experience, won them their “ footing,” and enrolled
them among the farming celebrities of the country. One son is
now a Professor of Agriculture, and he has been well schooled.
The other holds the land ; cultivates it with the improved imple-
ments which he saw at College; has laid dry the swamps; tile-
drained much of the land, planting some parts that he might

Aveyron. 27

concentrate his farming ; made model roads ; and last—not least
—kept clear accounts, and “accounts are a necessary check,
which never misleads.”

To M. Leroy a gold medal was assigned for improvements
in drainage. He had one special difficulty to deal with, the
choking of his pipes by a crust of oxide of iron, which he has
met successfully by scouring out these drains from time to time
by the agency of a rapid stream that runs down. from above.
He has laid 97,000 pipes on 72 acres, at an average cost of
3/. 15s., all expenses included. He turns all the drainage-water
to account ; drainage and irrigation go hand in hand. After a
tenure of ten years, his live-stock are worth 860/.; his grain,
stover, and roots in hand, 280/.; implements, 180/.; making in
all a capital of 2280/7. on a farm of 225 acres, which the last
tenant abandoned.

The claims of the two last competitors point to a more
advanced stage of agriculture.

M. Therion, near Nanteuil, calls special attention to his farm
buildings, and raises the question whether he is right to erect
two homesteads for 450 acres of land. The award of a gold
medal answers him in the affirmative. To us the most striking
feature in his plans is, that he has sheep-stalls (bergeries) for
700 sheep!

Finally, M. Darodes de Tailly receives the gold medal, not
only for reclaiming 50 acres of swamp, and protecting his hill-
side farm from the ravages of the floods, but specially for his
water-meadows, scientifically laid out on the Southern method,
with dams, reservoirs, carriers, &c. It is remarked with dis-
satisfaction that one-sixth only of the meadows of the Ardennes
is irrigated. What account could we render under this head—
if, indeed, we could render any at all ?

A contrast is drawn between the valuation of M. Darodes’
farm of 141 acres (A.) and that of a neighbour, comprising 149
acres (B.) :—

A. : B.
Live stock, reduced to the standard for large cattle 40 = 30
“ Mobilier Agricole” (query, stock and crop?) .. £622 anton OD
Dead stock co A WEAN Wer RRS ae Pe ems = 2 oByct 56

This contrast, it is pointedly stated, is due to the water-meadows.

AVEYRON.

Let us now plunge into the interior, to the Department of
Aveyron, that we may see what may be accomplished even in
France, and in a corner, by local institutions, without the inter-
vention of the central Government, and also note some of the
bickerings which now and then attend on the best of institutions,

28 The Prize Farms of France.

checking their influence, and casting doubts on theirawards. In
this case the jury, warned by some earlier misadventures, gave
no detailed report of the unsuccessful farms, in the vain hope of
thus silencing objections. As a reward for this chariness, their
award itself was much canvassed ; whilst happily other reporters
have been found to venture on a general survey and critique
of the contest for the benefit of the public.

Aveyron is situated in the east of Guienne, to the south of
Auvergne, and therefore on the southern slopes of those primi-
tive rocks which there form a vast amphitheatre. It consists of
two divisions, the Segala or Ryeland district, next to Auvergne,
where the granitic rocks have crumbled into a clay soil full of mica- »
schist, abounding in silicates, and wanting in lime; and further
south, that of Le Causse, a poor soil abounding in lime. From
the nature of the soil, and from the climate, this region is ill
adapted to corncrops; though by liming and high-farming even
the “ Rye-land ” district may be constrained to grow a fair yield
of wheat ; but when railroads are more developed, it is antici-
pated that grazing will still more extensively take the place of
corn-growing, in which case irrigation rather than the root-crop
will be the key of the system: and already Aveyron has some-
thing to teach us about irrigation.

This region seems to know little of the Farmer proper, but
to be occupied by Half-holders, till the owners, weary of seeing
everything go back while the world at large is advancing,
take the land into their own hands. Population has here made
little or no progress, so that a want of hands is felt as farming
improves—a singular feature in an isolated agricultural district!

In Aveyron, in 1842, a local prize of 60/. was instituted,
under the auspices of M. Guizard, the then prefect, to be annually
awarded “to the proprietor who, at his own cost and risk, has
by a considerable outlay promoted the experience, changes, or
improvements judged to be most conducive to the progress of,
agriculture in the Department.” This institution had prepared
the way for the larger “‘ Prime’ d’Honneur :” the elements for a
good contest were at hand; the entries obviously consisted of the
previous local winners, except where death and change of tenancy
had narrowed the field. Unhappily the chalky district, Le Causse,
thus lost its best representatives, the modesty of the son and
successor preventing him from claiming a reward for work chiefly
done by his father. The farms of the late General Tarare and
M. Giron were thus excluded. It was then an agricultural
Derby-day, with no dark horses; and the public were the more
disappointed at being prevented from “ assisting” more largely
at the award, which, after a somewhat hasty inspection, seems
to have been published with as little explanation as possible.

The Farm of M. Dissez. 29

From M. Dissez’s farm we may get a glimpse of the Half-
holder’s management; it is in “the Rye-lands,” a granitic soil ;
the best fields were always in corn; the worst, after two corn-
crops, lay fallow for four or five years. The small amount of
stock kept did not furnish a’dressing of more than 3 tons of
manure per acre, when applied. (The supply of manure has
been increased sixfold.) ‘The rye-crop never exceeded 7 to 8
bushels per acre! The lJandlord’s share of the proceeds was
never worth more than 64/. Liming (160 to, 200 bushels per
acre) and deep cultivation, ample manuring up to 40 tons per
acre for roots, and irrigation with water charged with lime, have
so changed the farm that the old and new produce may be
contrasted as follows :—

Old Crops. New Crops.
Wheat, per acre*.. .. none. .... 32 bushels.
ByCigictiy scape sete dto.8 bush, «a0, DAS a5
OT Ey See ae aa eb ee ee BON eins
iTHiisoes es eae late discatted anaes BAe ss
piraw (averice) ic... lS ee lton 8 cwts.
Pasnanese® “ove Jet ass Hay es 62) ess 1 ton 12 cwts.
Clover and layers, tares, Stover SE 2 tons.
Green maize SSE ae ee eee WD 5
AREOLA. WSS oe coy ak gle et’ oie A Vina
PeCi tat setr est se ies eer 0 uz? 5
Turnips ae ed a
(Potatoes. ~..) 9s: settee 7 tous 4 cwts.

Stock of Hay .. 40 tons .. ss 200 tons.
The value of the proceeds has risen from 64/. to 3201. or 3602.

for the last five years.

M. Dissez has introduced short-horns into Aveyron, and pos-
sesses two bulls, three pure-bred and four half-bred cows; he
has had New Kent and Southdown rams, and a New Leicester
boar. His rotation, after liming the land, is—I1st, roots heavily
manured ; 2nd, corn; 3rd, half clover, half tares or maize; 4th,
corn: 175 acres are already under this treatment. The jury
awarded him a gold medal for the perfection of his root-crops.

Baron Dufau has produced similar results—has increased the
produce of wool 50 per cent.; grows more produce with less
seed, raising 3000 bushels of potatoes from 137 of seed, instead
of 1900 bushels from 150 bushels; keeps his own accounts by
double entry. A gold medal was awarded to the Baron for his
buildings.

M. Rodat, of Olemps, the third candidate, is the son and suc-
cessor of the most distinguished farmer of Aveyron, the winner
of the first local prize, which was awarded in 1841, who then
based his pretensions on these grounds—l1, the substitution of
alternate husbandry for the three-course; 2, the introduction of
improved implements into the district; 8, accounts kept by

30 The Farm of M. Rodat.

double entry; 4, the improvement of wet lands by covered drains
and deep cultivation ; 5, irrigation and the conversion of dry into
water-meadows; 6, grubbing, paring, and burning, combined
with manuring. He might have added (it is said), the publica-
tion of the ‘Cultivateur Aveyronais,’ a model for agricultural
literature. M. Rodat placed his son under M. Dombasle’s
training, at Roville. The son there learned how to make im-
proved implements, and, on his return, established works which
supplied to the neighbourhood. more than 2000 ploughs, harrows,
&e., at their cost price! The Dombasle plough—as famous in
Frasice as any of our English make—thus at once superseded
the Roman “aratrum,” which had till then held its ground ; a
like zeal for the public good prompted M. Rodat, Sen., to supply
his neighbours gratuitously with the seeds of beet, carrots, Ke.

M. Rodat, Jun., has. introduced the new Kent rams for his
flock; some of his sheep now weigh 2 cwt. when in store con-
dition ; the clip of wool weighs 11 cwt. instead of 8 cwt. He
first fatted beasts on oilcake, “with roots, and sells them as high
as 80/. per pair. His corn is so clean and well dressed that it
is mostly sold for seed. He has nearly doubled his supply of
green food, and therefore doubled his number of large stock.
His growth of corn is 1400 bushels (half wheat), instead of
950 bushels, chiefly rye. The gold medal was awarded to him
for his flock and sheep stalls. .

The next candidate, M. Rodat, of Dustig belongs to the
same family; his property (535 acres) is in the “ Ryeland,”
with the exception of 55 acres of poor calcareous soil. His first
task was to clear the gorse, fern, and rushes from lands some of
which were bought at 1l. per acre in 1806; his next, by stone
drains and irrigation, to conquer and utilise the waters; the
third step, which gave full effect to his previous labour, was to
burn his own lime so as to make his poor calcareous land a mine
of wealth for the farm at large: he now applies water, recently
saturated with quicklime, mi his meadows with great eflect,
thereby destroying the worms (/es vers *).

On this and other farms the chestnut woods, which of old con-
tributed largely to the sustenance of the poor population, have
been carefully set in order on the hill-sides, and modern hedges
have been reared on the plain.

Of large stock, 133 head are now kept instead of 15; and the
yield of oats or rye is ten times the seed ; that of wheat five times
the seed (this is significant). The income derived from the farm

in 1853 was 120/.; it is now from 600/. to 6402. A gold medal

* If grub generally are here meant, the hint may be useful; if worms only, the
benefit is doubtful.

The Farm of M. Durand. 31

was awarded to M. Rodat, of Druelle, for his drainage and
irrigation.

We now come to a veteran of decided character, M. Durand,
a good specimen of the practical man—which commonly means
one who shrewdly adopts and perseveringly carries out certain
views well suited to his position, entirely discarding from his
mind all that does not readily fall in with those designs. Suc-
ceeding, in 1814, to a property which lay piecemeal, M. Durand
shortly sold it to buy a compact farm, to which he has since
added another; so that he now holds about 645 acres of variable
soil. ‘From tbe first he clearly perceived and resolutely applied
the doctrine—then a great novelty, now a popular truth—that
Aveyron, which, from its mountainous surface, and its elevated
position between two seas, has a very rainy climate, should
make its farming hinge, not on corn, but on stock.” His prac-
tice has been to break up his rough pastures, put them through
a course of roots (potatoes, mangold, carrots, turnips, cabbage,
maize) and corn (oats by preference), and then lay them down.
Want of labourers has restricted his root-crops: at present one-
third of the farm is in corn and potatoes; one-third in forage-
crops ; one-third in improved pasture.

M. Durand introduced the practice of liming on a large scale ;
his kilns have been at work these forty years; he has done much
earth-carting to mix his soils. Dissatisfied with the practice of
sending the cows in summer to distant mountains, he abandoned
his dairy. The fear of the rot made him part with his breeding
flock. Itis his custom to give one very deep ploughing (10 to
12 inches), and to cover in the manure when fresh: repeated
ploughing he considers to be exhausting. He grows the same
amount of corn as before, on half the breadth of land; but was
obliged to abandon the seed-drill from the wilfulness of his
workmen.

M. Durand’s great aim is to simplify; to this end he has
cleared away walls and fences—has ceased to breed sheep or
cattle. He has diminished the range of his hoed crops—has left
off rearing horses, or even breeding pigs or poultry, that he might
devote himself to grazing and growing corn, Hemp-growing
and spinning has been abandoned ; the accounts made so plain
that, while he was in exile, his daughter readily managed his
affairs for him; the staff of labourers, whose carelessness and in-
capacity he loudly denounces, reduced to a minimum (fifteen
persons); so that, whilst his net income is lower on a given
area than that of certain of his neighbours, his outgoings are one-
third less. The live-stock of this farm used to be 20 head of
cattle or horses and 300 sheep; now there are 100 cattle, 12
working-bullocks, 4 horses and mares, 300 grazing-sheep. The

32 The Prize Farms of France.

growth of corn was formerly 1400, now 3300 bushels—the
wheat yielding 18 bushels, barley 23 bushels, oats 27 bushels

r acre,

During M. Durand’s exile part of the farm was let for a time,
and thus afforded a practical test of the improved value. Esti-
mated on this basis, the income had increased from 240/. to
7911. per annum.

But I would now invite special attention to the chief work of
this man of concentrated energy. In spite of unheard-of obstacles
raised by proprietors of adjacent lands and milis, and by the
Qfficers of Government, he turned a branch of the Aveyron river,
constructing a stone weir, and forming a canal 3000 yards in
length, which served to irrigate 75 acres with water often charged
with warp: whilst the earth dug out of the canal formed a bank
to protect 50 acres from floods. It took thirty years to master
his opponents, and gain a legal right to use a fall of 13 feet and
30-horse power, by which the canal water is returned to the
river. M. Durand’s personal experience prompted him to take
up the general subject of irrigation by branch streams derived
from rivers, which he has advocated in many publications; one
of these, in 1831, received a prize offered by the Royal and
Central Society of Agriculture for the best Essay on the Law of
Irrigation. If our Society is precluded from offering a similar
prize, we may perhaps glean some useful hints from this
document.

He has received a gold medal for the diversion of the waters
of the Aveyron. If any one should accomplish the same feat in
England, a Victoria Medal or a statue in Trafalgar-square would
hardly be excessive or unsuitable rewards !

M. Barascud next claims our attention as the owner of the
330 acres, of which 200 were, in 1849, entered in the Public
Register (Cadastre) as waste, unsettled lands, and consequently
nearly unproductive: prior to 1852 the farm was rented at 48/.
The owner then found near Aveyron a good practical agricul-
turist, M. Ygrier, and installed him on the farm as Half-holder.
The first object of these partners was to bring the waste under
the plough. The surface furrowed by the torrents had to be
levelled; the Dombasle plough, followed by a subsoiler, was
then set to work, and a Juxuriant crop of lucerne was the result ;
a fine crop of wheat followed; the flakes of schistose rock have
since melted down under the combined influences of fresh
manure, sun, and frost; and the land will now bear comparison
with the best alluvial soils on the plain. This example, which
was at first ridiculed, has since been followed on 50,000 acres
of similar land, which were a blot upon the district of Cameres,
The rest of the farm has been enriched by the diversion (in

Tie Prize Farms of France. 33

concert with other proprietors) of the waters of the Dourdon,
which are charged with good warp. The canal is 3} miles in
length ; after traversing two communes, it reaches this estate,
where irrigation has substituted 5 crops of grass for 2 crops, and
has doubled the bulk of each cutting, besides producing similar
effects on the corn-crops.

Oak and ash have here been planted as a shade for the flock.
The garance is successfully grown for dye; but this cropping is
not taken up by the neighbourhood.

The stock of draught animals once consisted of 2 cows! it
now includes 8 oxen, 2 horses. The other live-stock were for-
merly 80 ewes, 10 pigs; there are now 270 sheep, 4 goats, 2
cows, and 50 pigs. In 1852 the corn grown was 220 bushels;
in 1860, 711 bushels. In 1852, 6 cwt. of cheese was made; in
1860, 127 cwt. The profits of the flock were, in 1850, 32/.; in
1860, 3442.

These two last items must probably be read together, for the
cheese is probably sheep’s-milk cheese (Rochefort). In the
selection of the flock special reference is made in these parts to
the milking properties of the ewes. The limestone grottoes in
the neighbourhood are much prized, | am informed, as natural
cheese-rooms.

The net income was, in 1852, 48/.; in 1860, 3087, besides
a stock of manure worth from 802. to 1007. These results have
been obtained by an outlay of only 2407. The object was,
not dazzling, but steady improvement; it, therefore, finds many
imitators.

A gold medal was awarded to. M. Barascud for turning the
waters of the Dourdon; to his Half-holder, M. Ygrier, for the
perfection of his tillage, wrought to the depth of 23 inches by
the Bonnet plough, which he brought with him from his little
property, of 74 acres, near Avignon.

The prize farm, that of M. de Monseignat du Clusel, still
Temains to be considered, which seems to have been preferred for
its completeness in regard to crops, live-stock, implements, buildings,
and accounts, and the neatness and order which prevail in every
department.

This farm of 390 acres, resting on a granitic subsoil, had been
managed on the principle of extracting all that was to be had with
the least possible outlay, until the owner took it in hand and
soon tripled its produce, besides tripling the market value of much
similar land around him from the influence of his example.

This land of furze, broom, fern, and rushes was once a perfect
sieve for manure ; but composts of lime and mar] have wrought
such a change that fields bought for 3/. per acre were in 1843
valued at 162.

VOL. XXIV. D

34 Lhe Prize Farms of France.

In 1832 M. de Monseignat, then fresh from Royille, took
possession of the farm, in an utterly dilapidated and beggared
state.

The best of the land then grew broom for five or six years,
which was cut and burnt or sold, then stubbed and tilled for rye,
followed by oats, without any manure, and then abandoned
again to the broom. On the inferior lands occupied by gorse
and fern, longer intervals were allowed. The first step was to
clear, manure, and till the best lands, disregarding the objection
that the flock would be starved, and then, as manure accumulated,
to attack a fresh piece, and even devote a few chosen strips to
mangold and carrots. The second and most important step was
liming: about 4 cubic yards were applied to the acre on Pavis’s
plan, 7. e. small heaps of quicklime are formed in the field, and
immediately covered with a bed of earth 6 to 8 inches thick.
When the lime has fallen into powder, both lime and. earth are
spread by the shovel as evenly as possible. The effect was
marvellous ; wheat supplanted rye, leguminous crops took their
turn; the crops of high character were tripled ; and so striking
was the lesson conveyed that the whole districts of Segala
adopted the practice of liming wherever the supply was within
50 miles. The lime carted to Clusel costs about 6s. 8d., of
which 3s. is for cartage. After a while M. de Monseignat
extended his operations by the purchase of 150 acres, at the
average price of 2/. per acre ; anoutlay of about 28s. for grubbing,
paving, and burning, and ———w often produced a crop
which more than repaid for the whole investment—that is before
the land market was spoiled.

The farm buildings have been quite remodelled, but primitive
simplicity still survives in the use of a cow-power for working
some cider and clover mills, &c.

The rotation, as far as possible, is: Ist year, hoed crops
(potatoes, turnips, mangolds, carrots, swede turnips, rape, Ke. ;
2nd year, spring corn; 3rd year, clover; 4th year, winter
corn; 5th year, fallow or an early forage crop. This last is
the year for liming, deep cultivation, removal of rocks and
stones and drainage. Forty acres are manured every year. The
subsoil, here a detestable sand, there an impenetrable gneiss rock,
requires both caution and strength for the work of subsoiling. ‘

The drainage water has been turned to account for water
meadows ; neat reservoirs have been made, and fishbreeding
carried out on a large seale ; indeed, in the garden and grounds,
art has contributed as much to the picturesque as to the more
homely objects of the farm.

Since 12 or 14 working bullocks are kept besides the cows,
which take their part in works of lighter draft, such as rolling,

The Prize Farms of France. 59

harrowing, carriage of straw and fodder, &c., the Aubrac cattle,
a robust and hardy race, are retained. The calves are sold for
veal, at from 3d. to 34d. per |b., live-weight, or from 3/. to 4/.
per calf. 4

Several attempts to improve the flock by new blood have
failed, because purchasers could not see the change in the right light.
The woods have received attention, and the chestnut-trees have
been restricted to the mountain sides, a reaction against certain
ancient edicts which give exemptions and privileges to fields, if
planted in chestnut!

If we leave out of account 30 hectares lately reclaimed, the
standard of high farming, a head of large stock to 24 acres (a
hectare), has here been reached.

As to profits, former reporters of authority have stated, first,
in 1842, that these lands have been tripled in value; and
secondly, that fields bought for 3/. are worth 192. per acre;
still, since M. de Monseignat has undoubted wealth, an impres-
sion exists in the neighbourhood that all these changes have
been wrought by a large expenditure. Regrets have therefore
been expressed that the jury did not fortify their award by a
financial statement.

It is said that “‘ without making an erposé of a man’s private
fortune, which the public neither desires, nor indeed implicitly
trusts, a jury is always bound to obtain, and may easily furnish,
sufficient data, authentic and precise, to guard them against
such flat reyoinders as have greeted this adjudication.”

So much for the record of this contest, which exhibits quiet
but rapid progress in a secluded quarter, and likewise brings out
the difficulties attendant on the award of a prize like that of the
Prime d’Honneur,—difficulties of sufficient magnitude to suggest
mature deliberation in framing the rules, but not the abandon-
ment of the Prize system. The influence of such prizes can
hardly be disputed when, from the simple operation of a local
prize, not only was this secluded district found pre-eminently
well prepared for the larger Imperial contest, but the whole

ent is described as “‘on the full march, under its re-
cognised leaders, to agricultural wealth ; so much so, that, with
other rural prejudices, it has thrown aside the fear of open
markets and open competition.”

If we attempted to prolong our survey to the bleak slopes of
the Alps or Pyrenees, or the sunny plains below, where the olive,
Vine, citron, orange, and fig-tree strive for the possession of the
soil with corn and maize, garance, and other industrial crops,
besides violets and other flowers, cultivated on a large scale for
perfumes, we should find amidst much general supineness some
candidates who richly deserve the crown. Or, again, the sandy

D2

36 The Prize Farms of France.

deserts of the south-east would afford us ample proof of modern
skill and energy.

But it is not desirable further to extend this paper. Enough
has been written to throw some light on the present state of
French agriculture, the prospects of which are rather to be
measured by its rate of progress, than by its actual average
attainments. In estimating those prospects we must pay due
regard to the force of eood example emanating from numerous
centres. The pebble stirring the lake’s gurfadelas hardly a more
fit emblem of tue gradual expansion of intelligent self-love into
universal philanthropy, than of the growth and spread from fence
to fence of the influence of sound agriculture. In this point of
view these splendid prizes may be doing more effectual work than
even their authors can recognise. Their operation must be in
itself an object of interest to us, who, out of our private purses,
expend so large a sum annually on premiums, every one of which
has its weak side.

When we are comparing French agriculture with our own, we
may naturally be anxious to inquire whether the fiscal burdens
imposed upon it are equal to ours; and it may be interesting to
know how they are levied and assessed in a country where the
vigilance of a central power does much to remove local in-
equalities,

As competitors in the same markets, we may, perhaps, regard
our neighbours’ progress with some anxiety, even if it be found
that they have no advantage over us in respect of taxation; but,
in another larger point of view, we cannot but hail it with un-
mixed satisfaction. Agricultural progress is the best guarantee
for peace ; the home farm and its interests are the best antidote
to the thirst for glory; and if this was true when farming
plodded on in one monotonous round, how much stronger must
be its attraction when modern science and enterprise have given
a new zest to every season and every operation! To strike for
the hearth and the altar, no arm is so strong and resolute as
that of the small landholder; no man will so sadly obey the
call to foreign service, made by an imaginary dictate of honour.
It is to be regretted that among ourselves those classes which
once held their land on the condition of doing suit and service
to their lord or their king, now form so small a portion of the
Infantry which bears the motto of ‘* Defence, not Defiance.”

If a more complete survey of the most important farms in
France could be given, it would be a valuable handbook to the
agricultural tourist. In these days all classes find leisure to take
a short trip abroad, and a poor, listless sight-seeing recreation
it is to the majority. But if the idea of a traveller be ever restored
to what it was when the much-enduring Greek Prince knew the

The Prize Farms of France. 37

mind as well as saw the towns of men, and thereby became one
of the most ready-witted of mankind, the farmer, amongst others,
will visit foreign countries with an object, and he will reap both
pleasure and profit from so doing. He will then have a cordial
welcome from French agriculturists; because, to quote the
language of the leading French agricultural journal,* when
recording the death of our late eminent breeder, Mr. Jonas
Webb, “in the ranks of those who labour for the advancement of
agriculture, the divisions and jealousies which part nation from
nation and race from race are unknown.” ‘Topics of common
interest will abound; some deference, some precedence, even,
will be allowed to the English cultivator. He will have but one
regret, viz., that he cannot express himself with ease and fluency,
on technical points at least, in the French language. If he would
remove this disability from himself or his sons, he cannot do
better than become a subscriber to the ‘ Journal d’ Agriculture
Pratique,’ a number of which journal will be delivered to him by
post every fortnight, as easily and regularly as an English news-
paper. He will find it, on the whole, the most readable of all
modern publications which combine agricultural intelligence
with scientific research. ‘To its pages the writer of this paper is
indebted for his materials.

«

111—On the Absorption of Soluble Phosphate of Lime by dif-
ferent Soils of known composition ; and Remarks on the Applica-
tion of Superphosphate and other Phosphatic Manures to Root-
crops. By Dr. Aucustus VoELcKER.

OF all artificial manures none is more largely employed in agri-
culture than superphosphate of lime, which probably constitutes
fully three-quarters of all our chemically-prepared fertilizers.
Its manufacture, commenced and at present carried on in Eng-
land on a gigantic scale, is now rapidly extending on the Con-
tinent. At first, bone-dust was the only phosphatic raw material
which, by means of sulphuric acid, was converted into super-
phosphate ; but the insufficiency of the supply of bone-dust soon
compelled the manufacturer to resort to such other materials as
animal charcoal, South American bone-ash, coprolites, apatite,
Sombrero phosphate, Kooria Mooria guano, and various other
semi-fossilized phosphatic guanos, until, as a rule, bone-dust is
either altogether excluded or but sparingly employed in the
manufacture of superphosphate.

* Journal d’Agriculture Pratique, Dec. 5, 1862.

38 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime ; and

As long as bones only were treated with sulphuric acid, a
large proportion of the insoluble phosphate of lime—the chief con-
stituent of the incombustible part of bones—was left unchanged
in its chemical composition. Such partially dissolved bones,
containing seldom more than 8 or 10 per cent. of soluble phos-
phate of lime, nevertheless produced a more beneficial and rapid
effect upon the crops than is explicable by the action of soluble
phosphate alone, so that the results obtained must be in part attri-
buted to the bone-dust having become softened by this treatment,
and hereby rendered more available for the use of plants. ,

Satisfied with these results, agriculturists were content to
purchase bone-superphosphate, which contained, comparatively
speaking, little soluble, and much insoluble, phosphate. But
when necessity compelled the manufacturer to substitute mineral
phosphates for bone-dust, complaints of a deterioration in
the quality of manure were heard on all sides. In many
Instances these complaints were not without foundation ; for in
reality superphosphate lost much in value when bone-dust was
first replaced by insoluble mineral phosphates. ‘The remedy for
this evil, however, was soon found to consist in rendering the
mineral phosphate as completely soluble as possible. By the
use of a large proportion of acid, our best makers at present
convert nearly the whole of the insoluble phosphates in coprolites,
apatite, &c., into bi- (or soluble) phosphate of lime; for expe-
rience has taught them that mineral phosphates unaltered in
chemical composition, are of little more practical value to root-
crops than sand ; and that, therefore, it is a waste of material to
leave mineral phosphates in a turnip-manure, in an insoluble
condition.

Such samples appear to produce, though not on all soils, as
good a crop of roots as can be desired ; nor have we any reason
to doubt their efficacy on account of their origin. Since soluble
phosphate is a definite chemical compound of one equivalent
of lime and one equivalent of phosphori ic acid, it would be rather
strange if this were not so. As in the case of pure sulphate
of ammonia it matters not whether it be prepared from bones or
from gas-water, why, in like manner, may not a biphosphate of
lime, of the same composition and properties, be obtained indif-
ferently either from bones or from mineral phosphates ?

Soluble phosphate unquestionably is the most valuable con-
stituent of commercial superphosphates; for experience has
shown that with its percentage, the efficacy of this class of
manure generally rises or falls; and though on light land
the use of other fertilizers is desirable for the. turnip-crop, still
in many cases nothing more or less is required than a fair pro-
portion of soluble phosphate of lime.

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 39

In England the application of purely phosphatic manures is
confined almost exclusively to root-crops. It may not be amiss,
therefore, to inquire why it is that these manures, as a rule,
benefit reot-crops more than cereals and other crops? The idea
naturally suggests itself that turnips or swedes require more
phosphoric acid to bring them to perfection than wheat, barley,
or oats; and an examination of the ashes of these several crops
confirms this impression. A given quantity of ash of turnips,
it is true, contains less phosphoric acid than the same quantity
of wheat-ash; but since the total amount of mineral matters or
ash in a crop of turnips is very much larger than that in a crop
of wheat, the amount of phosphoric acid which is removed from
the soil ’by the one is very much more considerable than that
taken up by the other.

Taking the average composition of the ash of turnips, bulbs
and tops, deduced from the recorded results of numerous expe-
rimenters, we have in 100 parts—

, Bulbs. Tops.
ROSE Ot wsgih tsi! vein eae’. cop 42-0 20-0
Soda ME ee a te eee, eae 2:0 3
Magnesia SI a Tee A wk 2:0 1:0
Lime Zaptt bis San ietieud. oft alls 380°0
Phosphoric acid... cee ee ee 9-0 5:0
Sulphuric acid SSE ES RECS 11:0
Silica : 1:0 1:0
Chloride of sodium ese ee 6-0 8:0
Whlloride Of potassium, .. sce ns is 5-0
Wanhanictacidisey s-.+ wi) Feeecss, ans. LkdTO 16°0

100°0 100°0

The average composition of the ash of the grain and straw of
wheat is as iiMows* —

Wheat. Straw.
Phosphoric acid 50-0 5:0
Sulphuric acid > 2:7
Silica 2°5 67:0
Lime . Ss) 5:5
Magnesia 11S 2:0
Potash 380°0 13:0
Soda =e") : ,
Chlorides of potassium aad eodinn aati as 20 £8

; 1000 1000
If we suppose the crop of bulbs of the turnips to weigh 20 tons
er acre and the tops 6 tons, and take the average percentage of

ash in the bulbs at -70 and that in the tops at 1:7, we remove
from each acre, in round numbers—

Tbs.
AC IOIOOS cette) cae vice gongs 314 mineral matter,
ERRORS" veut tct es ant ate 228 A

542

40 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and
The 314 lbs. of mineral matter in the bulbs, and 228 lbs. in the

tops, consist of —

Pulbs, Tops.

Ibs. Ibs.
Potash Seg dal’ ahi Bee iia) | fe aman cher 453
SOGS -.scMre: sce. cae WEEE yc rs ac 6+ i
Macnesia 3 eee ee ee. eee 6+ 24
Fisiie c0tes Jat 0 SOMBRE Reg S58 36 683
Phosphoric acidity qncy acu aes 284 112
Sulphuricacid) cc. {-uussciu eee eas 36 25
resilbtee ye ae Pag i. SB RE 3 22
Chloride of sodium aS Ml te a nn Be LG) 18+
Chloride of potassium .. .. 2. .. % 113
Garboniciacid\ige: teen cones 47+ 361

314 228

An average crop of turnips thus removes from the soil 28} Ibs.
of phosphoric acid in the bulbs and 114 lbs. in the tops,—
39% lbs., or, in round numbers, 40 Ibs. in all.

The grain of wheat, on an average, contains 1:7 per cent. of
ash, ands wheat-straw 5 per cent.

The mean produce of wheat per acre, sllaed at 4 quarters,—
32 bushels at 60 Ibs. the bushel, is 1920 lbs. of wheat ; and
as straw, being generally twice the weight of the grain, would

weigh 3840 lbs.—

' Ibs.
In 1920 lbs. of wheat there are 323 of mineral matter.
In 3840 lbs. of straw there are 192 %

Total mineral matter per acre 2241

According to the preceding analytical results, the mineral
matters in the grain and straw of wheat per acre consist of—

Wheat. Straw.

Ibs Ibs.
Phosphoric acid Terrie 93
SUIPRUMIC ACO set ws tiie etes pee ¢ 5t
SUCH vee ReMi Ra Mo. re emi it 128 °
STIG es) SMM A tree Mee: Mee EE 1 104
Magnesia Beil tive) Sto) tn) <hee eae 33 32
Potash Sot eee” Ee ei, 92 25
Soda .. .* . o- \ 1 ge
Chlorides of potassium and sodium = :

324 192

A fair average crop of wheat thus removes from the soil 16} Ibs,
of phosphoric acid in the grain, and 94 Ibs. in the straw—together
25? lbs., or in round im bers, 26 Ibs. Therefore a turnip-crop
weighing 20 tons per acre takes 14 lbs. more phosphoric acid
out of the soil than 32 bushels of wheat and the straw belonging

to it.

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 41

If we suppose the turnips to have been grown with 3 cwts. of
superphosphate, containing 20 per cent. of soluble and an inappre-
ciable amount of available insoluble phosphate, the manure will
supply 31 lbs. of phosphoric acid, and the remaining 9 Ibs. must
be derived from the soil. Yet although the larger amount of
phosphoric acid contained in a crop of turnips accounts to some
extent for this crop being more benefited by phosphatic manures
than wheat, I believe the principal cause of the more energetic
and striking effect which such manures produce on root-crops
than on cereals, more especially wheat, will be found in the
different mode in which green and white crops take up food from
the soil, and the different duration of their period of growth.
The roots of wheat, as is well known, penetrate the soil to a
much greater depth than the more delicate feeding-fibres of the
roots of a turnip. Wheat, remaining on the ground two to three
months longer than turnips, can avail itself for a longer period
of the resources of the soil; therefore in most cases the phos-
phoric acid disseminated through the soil is amply sufficient to
meet the requirements of the wheat-crop; whilst turnips, de-
pending on a thinner depth of soil during their shorter period
of growth, cannot assimilate sufficient phosphoric acid to come to
perfection. This is, 1 believe, the main reason why the direct
supply of readily-available phosphates is so beneficial to root-
crops and not to wheat.

This view of the matter, if Iam not mistaken, gains strength
by the fact that barley, a crop which in many parts of England
is often sown late in the season, and generally later than any
other white crop, is much more improved by superphosphate
of lime than oats or wheat. On late sown barley this fertilizer
has a strikingly beneficial effect. When the land has not been
well done before, or is naturally poor, and the barley backward,
a top-dressing of 3 cwts. of superphosphate will be found most
useful. In that case a still better manure will be a mixture of
superphosphate and guano in equal proportion, applied at the
rate of 3 to 4 cwts. as a top-dressing. A crop of barley does
not contain more phosphoric acid than a wheat-crop, and yet I
have repeatedly noticed the effects produced on it by the applica-
tion to the preceding crop of 3 to 4 ewts. of superphosphate made
entirely from mineral phosphates, and containing no ammonia
whatever, Although the superphosphate was applied to the
preceding root-crop, and no other manure with it, and the
turnips were carried off the land, it nevertheless produced on the
-succeeding barley an effect as plainly visible as is the case when
barley is top-dressed with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia.

Ammoniacal manures or nitrate of soda, 1 may state in
passing, have never given a satisfactory economical result in my

42 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

barley experiments. It thus appears that phosphatic manures
produce a more beneficial effect on barley than upon wheat,
and ammoniacal manures a more striking effect upon the latter
than upon the former. As both barley and wheat belong to
the same natural family of plants, and barley does not contain
more phosphoric acid than wheat, it may be safely inferred from
this fact, that the cause of the greater efficacy of phosphates
for barley is intimately connected with the shorter period during
which barley remains on the ground, in an actively-growing
state.

The later the barley-crop is put into the soil the more bene-
ficial an application of superphosphate will be found. Such a
dressing moreover has the additional advantage of encouraging
early maturity, and producing a finer sample of grain; whilst
ammioniacal manures, on the contrary, retard the ripening of the
crop.

In a warm climate or a good season, ammoniacai salts may
be used with much greater propriety and more largely, other
circumstances being equal, than in a colder country or in an
ungenial season, For a similar reason, it is more dangerous to
sow barley very late on soils highly manured with nitrogenised
animal fertilisers, than on poor land. In the former case the
barley often does not get sufficiently ripe to be of any use
for malting ; whilst in the latter, very fair malting-barley is
often obtained, contrary to all expectation. It thus appears
that the ash analyses of our cultivated crops, do not by them-
selyes afford a sufficiently trustworthy guide to the practical
farmer in selecting that kind of manure which is best applied to
each crop.

I should much regret to appear to undervalue the merits of
those chemists whose labours have made us acquainted with the
composition of the ashes of plants. The recognition of the fact
that the mineral matters composing the plant-ashes are not
accidental but essential constituents, without which no plant can
grow and come to perfection, has indisputably had a powerful
influence on modern agriculture. The ash-analyses of plants
unquestionably are useful in many respects, although they have
not realised the hopes which many persons entertained at one
time. The composition of the ashes of a plant certainly does
not in itself afford sufficient data to determine with anything like
certainty, or even probability, which fertilising constituents or
manuring mixtures should be applied to the various crops usually
cultivated in this country, in order to produce satisfactory results.
Still a knowledge of the composition of the ashes of plants gives
us a salutary warning that our crops will remain but scanty,
or become unhealthy, if the soil on which they are grown is

-Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 45 —

either wanting altogether or contains an insufficient supply of
one or more of these essential ash-constituents.

Thus we may learn from the composition of the ash of turnips,
and the amount of mineral matters in an average crop, that at
the very least 1774 lbs. of potash, 1044 Ibs. of lime, and 40 lbs. of
phosphoric acid must be present in an available condition in the
soil or the manure, or both together, if we wish to grow 20 tons
of bulbs and 6 tons of tops. If, for instance, the soil be de-
ficient in either lime or potash, and none is applied, the turnips
are likely to become diseased, or the crop deficient in quantity,
though the other mineral and organic substances useful to turnips
are present in abundance.

It has indeed been observed that the exclusive use of super-
phosphate, however beneficial it may be in the majority of in-
stances, has in some soils Jed to a complete or partial failure, or
the presence of disease in the turnip-crop. Again, instances are
on record in which neither superphosphate nor bone-dust have
had any effect on turnips; and good root-crops have been ob-
tained without any phosphatic manures.

It thus appears that the effects of superphosphate of lime
upon the turnip-crop vary according to the soil it is grown
upon ; and it is a subject of considerable practical importance to
investigate the reasons of these variations, and to point out under
what circumstances phosphatic manures may be advantageously
applied, either alone or in conjunction with farmyard-manure,
guano, or other more complex fertilizers.

1. Superphosphate, it appears to me, is efficacious in many
instances as a manure for root-crops, because soils in general
seldom contain more than one to two teaths of a per cent. of
phosphoric acid, which acid is required in a considerable
quantity by turnips, and because the short period of active
growth of the crop necessitates a far more abundant supply of
phosphoric acid than is contained in the portion of the soil
reached by the fibres of the turnip. The direct and exclusive
supply of phosphoric acid, however, is attended with beneficial
results only when the soil, in addition to a fair amount of organic
matter, contains an abundance of available potash, lime, and the
other mineral matters entering into the composition of the ash
of turnips. In that case the only deficiency in the soil is avail-
able phosphoric acid; and the want is best supplied by soluble
phosphate.

2. Soluble phosphate of lime, the most active constituent of
commercial superphosphate, made entirely from mineral phos-
phates, may either be washed out by heavy or long-continued
rains, or undergo changes in some soils which render it in-
effective.

44 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime, and

3. The soil may contain already an abundance of phosphates
in a sufficiently available condition to meet the requirements of
the turnip-crop. In that case it is plain a mineral superphos-
phate cannot produce any effect.

4, Though highly desirable for the growth of turnips, mineral
superphosphate of lime does not provide organic matter, nor
potash or carbonate of lime. Some soils, especially sandy soils,
are greatly deficient in all these elements of fertility; and as
superphosphate, unlike farmyard-manure, does not supply them
all, the turnip-crop, not finding the proper description of food
in the soil which it requires, becomes diseased or fails altogether,
though superphosphate may have been used in large doses.

There are thus at least four essentially different conditions to
which root-crops may be exposed with respect to soil and purely
phosphatic manure.

The first being the most frequent, perhaps, may be called
the normal condition in which we find turnips. On many farms,
where a rational system of rotation is pursued, and no sign
of disease in the root-crops has ever been noticed, superphos-
phate is the only manure which is directly applied to swedes or
turnips. Notwithstanding the absence of organic matter and
ammoniacal salts in the phosphatic manure, good root-crops are
generally obtained when the land, more or less stiff in character,
has been well cultivated in autumn and during the early part of
spring, and a finely-pulverised surface-soil been obtained by
these means. Such land contains an amount of clay which in
most cases provides root-crops with an abundance of all the
necessary soil-constituents. But nevertheless an economical
supply of superphosphate at the first period of growth seems to
be most beneficial.

The acknowledged power which purely phosphatic manures
possess of pushing on the young turnip-plant appears to indicate
that but very few soils contain an amount of phosphoric acid
which renders the direct application of superphosphate altogether
superfluous. A great number of soil analyses made by many
chemists. of note have indeed proved this to be a fact.

It is worth our while to notice also the care which is taken by
Nature to provide plants at their earliest periods of existence
with a constituent which possesses so remarkable an effect in
pushing on the young plant, but is seldom present in soils
in larger proportions than a mere fraction of a per cent. On
examining the ashes of the seeds of all plants, it will be
found that all contain much phosphoric acid, either in combi-
nation with alkalies, or with lime or magnesia, During the
germination of the seeds the phosphates contained in them
appear to be rendered soluble. The most important mineral

Phosphatic Manures for Root- Crops. 45

food-constituent is thus provided by the seed itself, and placed
within easy reach of the infant plant just at a time when the
amount of phosphoric acid in almost all soils would be inade-
quate to induce a vigorous development of the whole vegetable
organism.

Direct experiments, extending over a period of five years,
have shown me that on the moderately tenacious calcareous clay
soils on our farm, as large an increase in the produce of swedish-
turnips may be obtained with bone-ash treated with sulphuric
acid, as by any other of the numerous fertilising mixtures which
I have employed in field-trials. My own experience receives a
confirmation in the practice of many farmers who grow good root-
crops on soils similar in composition ‘to ours, with nothing else
but 3 or 4 cwts. of superphosphate, the composition of which
exhibits neither organic matter nor salts of ammonia.

The soils on our farm, on which such a dressing was applied
with most signal success, resembled much in composition and
general character, the field selected for experimental trials in
1860. The soil in this field contains hardly any sand that can
be separated by the mechanical processes of washing and decan-
tation, and consists of a mechanical mixture of clay, calcareous
gravel, and organic remains. An analysis of it furnished the
following results :—

Moisture (when analysed) .. .. .. 2. a. 3-960
Organic matter and water of combination .... 9-616
Oxide ofiron andalumina .. .. .. ... .. 19°660
Canmmateanlnneal! 9 2" oa.) sk et TS 3°805
peltratelGk Hiney,.2° 1fc5 1 eA ses 2.0! c. “B45
A LTLELT Er) ee ae a 075
_ SUES © egret Opa Ba aa "785
TEC ot te SS eae Spee an eee 1-239
eee eet ino cal a as VISE ayes “090
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay} .. .. 60°525
100 093

It will be seen that this soil contains a notable quantity of avail-
able potash as well as lime and organic remains, and, like most
others, contains but little phosphoric acid.

On clay soils of a similar chemical constitution, I believe the
application of a sufficient quantity of soluble phosphate will be
found to render the direct supply of other fertilising matters
superfluous in growing turnips. At all events the result of
numerous experiments has shown me that on such soils nitro-
genised matters do not increase the efficacy of soluble phos-
phates in a turnip-manure.

It has been stated, in the second place, that the exclusive
employment of mineral superphosphates for root-crops is pro-

46 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

ductive of harm, or at the best does no good, in perhaps not a
few instances; and this may be due to the porosity and light
character of some soils, in consequence of which the soluble
phosphates are washed away by heavy rains, or suffer changes
which render them ineffective.

With a view of ascertaining whether this supposition is likely
to be correct, I have carefully studied the changes which soluble
phosphate undergoes, when brought into contact with various
kinds of soils of known composition.

The soils used in the following experiments were—

A red loamy soil.

. A calcareous soil.
A stiff clay subsoil.

. A stiff clay surface-soil,
A light sandy soil.

. A clay-marl.

me oawh

In the case of the first five soils a superphosphate was em-
ployed, containing 37-20 per cent. of bone-earth rendered soluble
by acid; in the sixth experiment the superphosphate used con-
tained 23°84 per cent. of soluble phosphate. The superphos-
phate was free from organic matter and salts of ammonia.

Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by a Red Loamy Soil.

Experiment A.—In the first set of experiments a deep, red
loamy soil, well suited to turnips, was employed. ‘This soil was
found on analysis to contain in 100 parts :—

Moisture .. 2°95

Organic matter and : Ww water of combination 6°75

Oxides of iron and alumina .. 6°10

Carbonate of lime .. 1-22

Alkalies and magnesia .. 1:20

Insoluble siliceous matter (clay and sand) . 82°22
10044 °

5250 grains, or 120z. of this soil, were mixed with 109-34
grains of superphosphate, containing 37:20 per cent., or 40-67
grains, of bone-earth rendered soluble by acid, and the whole
repeatedly shaken up in a Winchester stoppered bottle with
1} pint, or 13125 grains, of distilled water, After a lapse of
twenty-four hours 3500 grains of the supernatant liquid were
drawn off. ‘The amount of bone-earth in this perfectly clear
solution was next determined, and found to weigh 4°37 grains.

The total amount of liquid (18,125 grains) consequently con-
tained 16°38 grains of bone-earth; and, deducting these 16°38
grains from 40°67—the amount of soluble bone-earth originally

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 47

used—we find that 24:29 grains, or rather less than two-thirds of
the total amount of soluble phosphate were absorbed by 12 oz.
of this red loamy soil after a lapse of twenty-four hours. The
remaining liquid was then left in contact with the same soil for
eight days, and the bottle containing the solution and soil shaken
up at intervals. At the commencement of this second experi-
ment the bottle contained besides the soil 9625 grains of water
and 36:30 grains of soluble phosphate after the removal of 4°37
grains in 3500 grains of water. After eight days 3500 grains
of the remaining solution were again drawn off. ‘The proportion
of bone-earth in this quantity of liquid was now found to weigh
only 2°45, or at the rate of 6°73 grains for the 9625 grains of
water :—

Amount of bone-earth in bottle after 24 hours .. 36°30
5 9625 grains of solution is 6°73
the bottle a

Total amount of bone-earth absorbed by 12 ozs. } 29-57
of somafiterG@days 2 Cle aos wh OP

The remaining 6125 grains of the liquid in the bottle were
finally left in contact with the same soil for twenty-six days,
when 3500 grains of liquid were again drawn off, and they were
found by accurate determination to contain only ‘65 grains of
bone-earth, an amount equivalent to 1:13 grains in the 6125
grains of water.

In the second experiment 2°45 grains of soluble phosphate had
again been removed in 3900 grains of water; so that only 33°85
grains remained, of which 82°72 ‘grains had been absorbed in
twenty-six. days by the soil, only 1°13 grains being then left in
solution. ;

Supposing the whole of the sclution had been dravn off in each of these three
successive Experiments, it would have contained—

} Grains.
After 24 hours .. .. .. .. 16°38 of soluble bone-carth,
PEO GAYS @ ele) hae, gos - ois 9°18 3
REO SVS ek hes soo A =

And the 12 ounces of Soil would have removed from the 40°67 grains of
soluble Bone-earth which were originally used—

Grains.

PAUMeCnns > SONU a5) Yemen Ui eee
PP DERE LP s0G.. 40 toot sg 1h eed, 1.1 BLD
eC ee Seieronte (ome OLS

We thus see that in this case the absorption of soluble phos-.
phates was not complete even after twenty-six days; and that a
heavy shower of rain falling within twenty-four hours of the
application of superphosphates rich in soluble phosphates, would

48 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

wash a good deal of this valuable fertilising substance into the
subsoil, and render it unavailable to the young turnip-plant, if
the amount of soluble phosphate which is usually added to the
soil were as large as in my experiments.

But practically our dressings of superphosphate are applied in
very different proportions. Supposing a heavy dose of 6 or 8
cwts. of a concentrated superphosphate to have been added to
only 2 or 3 inches of surface soil, we shall find on calculation
that the proportion which the earth in the field bears to such
dressings is many hundred times greater than that which the
12 oz. of soil used in my experiments bears to the soluble phos-
phate then supplied; whilst in relation to 3 or 4 inches of
surface soil, the quantity of soluble phosphate contained in 6 or
8 cwts. of a rich superphosphate is so small that we cannot
detect by analysis any difference in the amount of phosphoric
acid present in the soil before and after it has received such a
dressing of superphosphate. Although, therefore, a limited
quantity of this loamy soil left a considerable proportion of
valuable phosphate in solution, I think we may rest assured that
even in the most unfavourable circumstances the complete absorp-
tion of this valuable fertilising constituent is secured in practice
by the large amount of soil through which its solution has to
pass.

Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by Calcareous Soil.

ExpEerIMENT B.—I next selected for experiment a calcareous
soil, which contained in 100 parts—

Moisture: «a 2b sacl ed tpn <ceeeee 3°62
Organic matters ee ee SC es 4:23
Carbonate of lime .. . er en:
Oxides of iron and alumina Sa etek cibi' ae ree 7:54
Magnesia .. «sod g ide poadittie oc stig acct Mane “44
Potash and soda. 4 ow ee “79
Insoluble siliceous matter ‘(fine clay) “os gen ew) aaa
100-00 *

The preponderating constituent, the carbonate of lime, was
here found in a finely divided state, as is frequently the case in
chalky soils.

14 Ub. (or 10,500 grains of this Calcareous Soil, 218+22 grains of Super-
“phosphate (c ontaining 81°17 grains of Soluble Phosphate), and 3 pints (or
26,250 grains) of Distilled Water were mixed, as in Experiment A.

After 24 hours, 7000 grains of the liquid being drawn off, were found to con-
tain 2°23 grains of bone-earth ; so that the whole 3 pints held
in solution 8:36 grains of bone-earth. Hence, since the whole
amount of bone-earth in the mixture was 81°17 grains, the
14 lb. of soil had absorbed 72°81 grains in 24 hours, (‘The

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 49

bone-earth is here absorbed in a much larger ratio than by
the red loam.)

After 8 days (the bottle now containing 19,250 grains of water), 7000 grains of
the liquid being filtered off, were found to contain only
‘23 grains of bone phosphate. Hence the 19,250 grains of
water held in solution only °63 grains. Therefore, after
8 days, the soil had altogether absorbed 78°31 grains of bone
phosphate.

After 26 days the liquid was found to contain no appreciable amount of bone-
earth,

Supposing the whole Solution to have been drawn off in each stage of the
Experiment, it would have contained—

Grains.
After 24 hours -- +. 8°36 of soluble phosphate.
» Sdays i ene at “36 x
eran gays >. sa |S 4 -neme.
And the soil would have absorbed—
Grains.
Ce ea ry 2: 2} E
SE OT i a ents SE OL,
» 26days .. .. .. 81°17 or the whole amount of

soluble phosphate.

Thus the chalky soil absorbed the soluble phosphate much more
rapidly and perfectly than the loam, which contained but little
lime. Yet even in the presence of a great excess of finely-divided
carbonate of lime the absorption of the soluble phosphate is not
instantaneous, nor is it completed in twenty-four hours. In both
sets of experiments the same relative proportions of soil, water, and
soluble phosphate were employed ; the results are therefore strictly
comparnble.

Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by a stiff Clay Subsoil.

Experiment C.—I next selected some very stiff Essex clay,
sent to me some time ago for examination by Mr. Mechi, of
Tiptree Hall, considering that such a choice would afford a
useful contrast and standard of comparison with the preceding
experiments.

100 parts of this subsoil in an air-dry condition contained :—

Moisture .. daittvas ee eae
Water of combination ‘and a little organic matter . 4:37
Oxides ofironandalumina .. .. .. .. «.. 17°38
Vy er ee “06
Carbonate of lime = ee ey ae 1:02
Sulphate of lime SR ee 13
pO ee ae “92
Alkalies and leys ie oh alee “45
Insoluble siliceous matters (clay) ae sheets, Goad

100°00

VOL, XXIV. E

50 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

This soil, it will be noticed, contains but little carbonate of lime,
and much oxide of iron and of alumina in a hydrated condition.
In this state both these oxides unite readily with phosphoric acid
to form combinations insoluble in water. When the acid biphos-
phate of lime is brought into contact with alumina or oxide of iron,
it loses part of its acid, which combines with these oxides, and
becomes converted into basic or insoluble phosphate of lime.

Clay soils invariably contain some, and in many instances a
good deal of these oxides. Theoretically they may therefore be
regarded as good absorbers of soluble phosphate, even if they do
not contain any carbonate of lime; and the following experi-
ments confirm this expectation.

12 oz., or 5250 grains of this Subsoil, 109°33 grains of Superphosphate
(containing 40°67 grains of Soluble Phosphate), and 14 pint, or 13,125
grains of Distilled Water, were mixed, as in Experiments A and B.

After 24 hours, 3500 grains of the liquid being drawn off were found to con-
tain 5°70 grains of soluble phosphate, so that the whole 13 pint
of liquid held in solution 21°37 grains of bone-earth. Hence,
since the whole amount of bone-earth in the mixture was
40°67 grains, the 12 oz. of soil had absorbed 19°36 grains of
bone-earth in 24 hours.

Again, after 8 days (the bottle now containing 9625 grains of water), 2400
grains of the liquid being filtered off perfectly clear, were
found to contain 2°38 grains of bone-earth. Hence the 9625
grains of water held in solution 9°54 grains of boneearth
instead of 15°68, as after 24 hours’ contact with the soil.
Therefore, after 8 days, the soil had altogether absorbed 25°43-
grains of bone-earth.

After 26 days (the bottle now containing 7225 grains of water), 2100 grains of
clear liquid being drawn off, were found to contain 1-44 grains
of bone-earth. Hence the 7225 grains of water held in solu-
tion 5°94 grains of bone-earth. Therefore, after 26 days, the
soil had altogether absorbed 26°65 grains of bone-phosphate.

It may be noticed that, after 24 hours, actually more soluble
phosphate was contained in the liquid than passed into the soil.
During the third stage of the experiment only 1:25 grams of
bone-earth were added to the soil.

The results are subjoined in a tabulated form.

Supposing the whole solution to have been drawn off in each stage of the
Experiment, it would have contained—

Grains.
After 24 hours .. .. .. 21°37 of soluble phosphate
» 8days Bootie oh 1 ba :
» 26 days ch tachueos oe On ‘S
And in that case 12 oz. of this soil would have absorbed—
After24 hours .. .. «.- 19°30 se
» 8 days Pi a i) ES

26 days oo Tht NO %

”

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 51

Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by a stiff Clay Surface Soil.

Exrentvent D.—The surface soil resting on the preceding
clay subsoil, on analysis, was found to consist in 100 parts of—

Water == 3°91
Organic matter and water of combination. Sealer nas 4°80
Oxides nent a eens a ak ns 7°85
Peepers F.20 SLi 04
Migshonate of limes—s.9?) war carr eer (SS ods §bl. FOB
07S CT ee ee ene “15
Magnesia and alkalies... eee “32
Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) ai a ae ene

100-00

5000 grains of this Soil, 110-64 grains of Superphosphate (containing 41-15
grains of Soluble Phosphate), and 21,000 grains of Distilled Water, were
mixed as tn the previous Experiments.

After 24 hours, 7000 grains of liquid being drawn off, were found to con-

tain 6-9 grains of phosphate, so that the whole 21 ,000 grains
“held in solution 20°70 grains. Hence the soil had absorbed
20°45 grains or very nearly half the soluble phosphate.

After 8 days (there being now 14,000 grains in the bottle) 7000 grains were

drawn off, and found to contain 5°40 grains, so that the
14,000 grains held in solution 10-80. Hence the soil had now
absorbed 23°45 grains.

After 17 days, it was found that the 7000 grains of water now left in the bottle

contained 2°14 grains of phosphate, so that the soil had
absorbed in all 26°71 grains.

Had the whole solution been drawn off in. each of these three successive
Experiments, it would have contained—

Grains.

After 24hours .. -. .. .. ~-- 20°70 of bone-earth.
ae WO Magee) ail och nw (SER sy
ee Gate ka acto taal ne ne MA 0

And 12 oz. of soil would ote absorbed —

eed eo heers Sst So a ee BOE 5
PR USIOR YS, i Syicreias, bo csthra 5 PROS. «
gS Sees: ye ee

It thus appears that the aos of soluble phosphate took
place very imperfectly after eight days, and that after seventeen
days an appreciable quantity of soluble phosphate was still left in
the liquid.

Both the surface and clay subsoil, in the proportions in which
they were used, possessed the power of rendering soluble phos-
phates insoluble in a far less degree than the chalky soil.

Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by a light Santly Soil.

Experiment E.—The next three experiments will show whether

the prevailing impression is correct, that on light sandy soils a
E2

52 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

superphosphate soon loses its efficacy ; inasmuch as its valuable
constituent, the soluble phosphate, is readily washed away by
the rainfall. The soil now used was taken from an extremely sandy
field, which apparently contained but little clay and organic
matter, and no limestone gravel whatever. The red colour of
this soil indicated the presence of much oxide of iron, and its
light porous character proved it to be a ferruginous sand. On
analysis it yielded the following results :—

Water 4°, 84> 45 50s, a pee ae Rice i
Organic matter’... °"-.: |... veh) decd enee, eRe REET
Oxides of iron and alumin co” aot Des ace age ee
Carbonate of line <aciice =< yes) eee “1d
Alkalies and macnesig, 1 sos) =e seen 46
Phosphoric acid wel ae) ae TE, Bae ees
Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) .. .. .. «. 82°41

- 100-00

The amount of lime in this soil, it will be seen, is very trifling ;
but there is present a good deal of hydrated oxide of iron and
some alumina, which was determined together with the oxide of
iron,

5000 grains of this Soil, 110°40 grains of Superphosphate (containing
*40°93 grains of soluble Bone-Earth), and 21,000 grains of Distilled
Water, were mixed as in the previous Experiments.

After 24 hours, 7000 grains of the liquid being drawn off, were found to con-
tain 6°49 grains of phosphate, so that the whole 21,000 grains
held in solution 19°47 grains. Hence the soil had absorbed
21°46 grains of the bone-earth. :

After 8 days (there being now 14,000 grains of water in the bottle), 7000
grains were drawn off, and found to contain 5°67 grains of
bone-earth, so that the 14,000 grains held in solution 11°34
grains. Hence the soil had absorbed 28°10 grains of the bone-
earth.

After 17 days, it was found that the 7000 grains of water now left in the bottle
contained 8°90 grains of bone-earth, so that the soil had

absorbed 24°87 grains of bone-earth,

Had the whole Liquid been drawn off in each case, we would have found in the
Solution containing 40°93 of soluble Phosphates—

Grains.
After 24 hours.. .. .. 19°47 of bone-earth.
SOR CLOANS: b-\\sussee ae y CERSUM ay
ay Ulvudaysice Cast ge ALTO ss
and in 5000 grains of soil,
Grains,
After 24 hours.. .. «- 21°46 of insoluble phosphate of lime.
a OUSYS, wt +s ‘an sO ue se
ae L7sdlays: a2wae |) aa 6120128 a

it appears, then, that such soils, when left in contact with

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 53

solutions holding soluble phosphates, do not, after twenty-four
hours, absorb that substance as freely as the soils previously
operated upon.
Absorption of Soluble Phosphate by a Marly Soil.
Experiment F.—The soil employed in the following experi-
ment, on analysis, was found to consist, in 100 parts, of —

ree See eee e. erdaid r-Tcke | waters. « ARR
Organic matier and waicr of combimaition «-. ~ .. 11°08
Alumima .. 6-06
Carbonate of lime 1210
Sulphate oflime .. .. “id
Macnestaandalkalics .. .. . -- -- - IS
Soluble silica (soluble in caustic potash) eae SS
Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly day) - -. 3600

100-00

16,000 grains of this soil were mixed with 213-59 grains of

hate and placed in a bottle, and with 20,000 grains
of distilled water.. During the first three days the bottle-contents
were frequently agitated; 8000 grains more of distilled water
were then added, and thereby the solution made up to 4 deci-
gallons. The liquid was next allowed to stand at rest, and, after
seven days from the commencement of the experiment, 5000
grains of the solution were drawn off, and the perfectly clear
solution evaporated to a small bulk. In the concentrated liquid
the soluble phosphate was determined in the usual way, and
found to amount to ‘38 grains :—

= Gums

The amonni of soluble bone-earth in 4 decigallons 79-43
of solniion, before coniaci with soil, was .. .- } aries
In 7 days, there remained in thesolutim .. .. 213
Bone-earth absorbed by the soil... .. .. 77-30

Thus nearly the whole amount of soluble phosphate became in-
soluble on remaining in contact with this soil for seven days.
The same experiment was repeated in precisely the same manner,
and the solution left in contact with the soil for fourteen days ;
at the end of which time it contained only 1-06 grains, the soil
having absorbed 78-37 grains.

Marly, like chalky soils, it appears from my experiments, have
a much greater power than others of absorbing soluble phosphate
—in other words, of rendering soluble phosphate insoluble.
The lime in soils of that description is unquestionably the sole

54 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

agent which produces this change. The reconversion of soluble
into insoluble phosphate perhaps may appear undesirable, but
in reality it is not only beneficial but absolutely necessary to the
healthy and luxuriant development both of turnips and of
all other crops to which superphosphate is applied. No acid
combination, as such, can enter into plants without doing them
serious damage; even free vegetable acids, such as humic and
ulmic acids, are injurious to all crops cultivated for food for the
use of man or beast; and unless these acids, which are always
present in what practical men call sour humus, are neutralized
by lime, or marl, or earth, none but the roughest and most innu-
tritious herbage can be grown. Earth of almost any description
is a universal neutralizer of acids; and for this reason any kind
of earth may be used with more or less advantage for improving
peaty land. If the earth or soil is rich in lime, or contains an
appreciable quantity of it, so much the better ; but even should
it be destitute of lime, or nearly so, still any earth, except a pure
white sand, will be of considerable use in improving peat-land
of any description by neutralizing injurious acids, apart from its
mechanical tendency to consolidate loose or spongy soil.

Free mineral acids are, I believe, still more injurious to all
farm-crops, and perhaps to all plants, than the free organic acids
which are frequently found in humus. A very dilute solution
of sulphuric acid—say 1 part in 1000 of water—may be used
with advantage for killing grass in gravel-walks made with
flint or quartzose sand ; after one or two applications, the weeds
will be destroyed, and will not reappear for a long time. But
if the walks are made with limestone gravel, the application of a
much stronger acid has little or no effect on the grass or weeds ;
after some time the latter indeed seem to grow all the better for
having had a taste of dilute sulphuric acid. In reality, however,
no acid enters the plant, but on coming in contact with the
limestone gravel unites with the lime to form that useful fertiliser
sulphate of lime or gypsum. Flints and pure quartz-sand, on
the other hand, contain hardly anything else but silica, which,
in a chemical point of view, is an acid, and therefore cannot
neutralise another acid. Dilute sulphuric acid, therefore, re-
mains in a free state in the flint or quartz-gravel; and in the
measure in which it is absorbed by the roots of the grass or
other weeds destroys their vitality. These examples thus prove
unmistakeably that a soil which contains free acids im ever so
small a quantity is unfit to maintain a healthy growth. We.
have, therefore, strong presumptive evidence that soluble phos-
phate, a combination which has a strongly acid character, does not,
as such, enter the roots of plants, for we know that its application

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 55

to the land is invariably beneficial and never hurtful. The pre-
ceding experiments place this beyond doubt; for they prove
that soils of most varied characters—clay or sand, chalk or loam
—render soluble phosphate insoluble. Although some soils
possess this power in a higher degree, and some effect this
change more rapidly than others, it may be safely asserted that
there is no arable soil which does not possess it to a considerable
extent. If there were any such soil, the application to it of acid
soluble phosphate would, we may rest assured, do harm to the
crop; for in water containing ever so little free acid no plant
can exist in a healthy condition for any length of time.

The proportion of soluble phosphate to that of the soil in my
experiments was taken purposely very much larger than it ever
will be found in practice ; and as in every instance quite a
limited quantity of soil rendered a large proportion of the soluble
phosphate insoluble, it cannot be doubted that the whole amount
of soluble phosphate in 4 or 6 ewts. of concentrated superphos-
phate will be retained in a neutral and insoluble condition in
the Jarge bulk of soil to which it is applied. The assumption
that this fertiliser does not sustain the after-growth of turnips,
because the soluble phosphate which it contains is less readily
washed into the subsoil, is thus founded in error, Equally fal-
lacious is the dictum of some agricultural chemists who maintain
that a good turnip-manure should contain one-half of its phos-
phates in a soluble, and the other half in an insoluble condition,
im order that the soluble phosphates may push on the young
plant, and the insoluble phosphates vigorously maintain its after-
growth. In reality soluble phosphate, soon after its application,
is converted in the large mass of soil into insoluble phosphate ;
and the first as well as the sustained invigorated growth of our
root-crops is alike promoted by insoluble phosphatic combina-
tions. If, therefore, it is at all desirable to submit phosphatic
materials to the action of sulphuric acid, which renders the
phosphates soluble, we should aim at perfection, and not be led
astray by fallacious speculations and perform this work by halves.
Practical proofs are not wanting which clearly demonstrate the
efficiency of superphosphate, containing, practically speaking, no
insoluble phosphate of lime. It will suffice to mention only one
that will be found in my Paper on Experiments upon Swedes,
in vol. xxii. part 1, of this Journal.

One of the experimental turnip-plots was manured with
3 ewts. of dissolved bone-ash, prepared by treating 100 Ibs. of
good commercial bone-ash with 70 pints of brown sulphuric
acid, and drying up this mixture with 50 lbs. of gypsum. In
this way an excellent superphosphate was obtained, which on
analysis furnished the following results :—

56 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

Moistate : os. peit-eeiore! a See a
Organic matter .. FO arose ALL
Bi- -phosphate oflime. Pasay Whetadlienot
Equal to bone-earth rendered soluble 1... (80°65)
Insoluble phosphate of lime .. .. 2... "86
Hydrated sulphate of lime (gypsum) oo by wee ap AE
Alkaline salts .. bay,» [ih biheris ame aie
S116 (eee lore tae lr RAG te BPS
100:00

Practically speaking, the manure contained no insoluble phos-
phates, and was free from ammoniacal salts and nitrogenised
organic matter :—

tons. cwts. qrs. Ibs,

The unmanured plot pro- matt =
duced; per'acre s. .. i 14 14 1 4 of Swedish turnips.

The manured plot prov) 20 15 2 24
duced, per acre... .. 7
Thus yielding an increase
of, per acre os . } 6 Ly tO

Scarcely any of the twenty experimental plots, in which al}
kinds of fertilisimg mixtures were ‘tried, yielded so large an
increase as this plot, manured, it will be seen, with a superphos-
phate in which all the phosphates were rendered soluble, and
which contained no ammonia or nitrogenised organic matter,

Again, it may be asked, How is it that the effects of soluble
phosphate are frequently observed, not only in the turnip-crop,
but in the succeeding barley? If soluble phosphate were as
easily washed out of the soil as is supposed by some, it surely
could not exert any influence on the barley-crop.

In the opinion of many farmers superphosphate only benefits
the crop to which it is applied, whilst bone-dust maintains the
fertility of the land for several years. This no doubt is quite
correct if a large dose of half-inch bones is applied to the land
on the one hand, and a scanty dressing of superphosphate on the
other. But if the quantities of phosphate of lime put on in the
one shape and in the other be equal, 1 have no hesitation in
saying that the effects of the latter will be greater, and the prac-
tical result will be a larger produce. If this produce be removed
from the land, the phosphate contained in it, as a matter of
course, will likewise be removed from the soil. On the other
hand, the application of the less efficacious insoluble phosphates
in bone-dust generally produces a smaller crop; and if this is
also removed from the land, less phosphates are removed in it
than in the former instance. A larger amount of phosphate of
lime consequently will be left in the soil ; and thus bone-dust,
as far as its phosphates are concerned, appears to be more per-
manent in its effects than superphosphate. This greater per-

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 57

manency, however, is no recommendation whatever; for the
primary use of all manures is to enable us to grow, not scanty,
but heavy crops—not to deposit on the land fertilisers which
may last for three or four years, but by prompt, efficacious
action to render a quickly remunerative return from a moderate
outlay.

The advantage of bone-dust over superphosphate, as far as the
phosphates in both are concerned, is only apparent, not real ;
for the soluble phosphates in the latter, as has been shown, are
retained in the soil in an insoluble condition, in which they
cannot be washed out so readily as is commonly believed,

The question may be asked: If soluble phosphate is rendered
insoluble in coming into contact with the soil, which is really
the case, why incur all the expense and trouble of treating bone-
dust and similar phosphatic materials with oil of vitriol? In
answering this question, the following explanation may be given.
The treatment of bone-dust, bone-ash, and other phosphatic
materials with oil of vitriol results, in the first place, in the
more or less complete disintegration of their structure, and in the
next, in the production of soluble or acid phosphate, which,
when neutralised, as we have seen, by contact either with lime
or with oxides of iron or alumina in the soil, in either case is
reconverted into an insoluble phosphate in a highly divided
condition; and as this change takes place in the soil itself, a
most intimate and uniform incorporation of the phosphates
with the soil is effected. However finely ground bone-dust
may be, the division, being effected by purely mechanical
means, necessarily must leave the phosphates in a state which
may be called extremely coarse in comparison with that resulting
from their solution in acid.

Precipitated phosphates not only are greatly more bulky than
the finest powder obtained by mechanical means, but are also
more soluble in water than merely powdered phosphate of lime.
Though identical in composition, the fine state of subdivision
of the particles which constitute precipitated phosphate of lime
imbues the latter with properties that do not belong to bone-
powder. Thus, for instance, weak vinegar readily redissolves
precipitated bone-phosphates, but has hardly any effect upon
even fine bone-dust.

The whole secret of the energetic action of superphosphate
thus depends upon the production of most minutely subdivided
or precipitated insoluble phosphates within the soil itself, not,
as is erroneously supposed, on the direct absorption of soluble
phosphates by plants; and it is not desirable to effect the pre-
cipitation before the manure is put on the land, for by so doing

58 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime ; and

we should lose all the advantages resulting from equal distribu-
tion of the phosphates and their incorporation with the soil.

The more rapidly the soluble phosphates in superphosphate
are precipitated or rendered insoluble in the soil, and the more
uniformly these highly-divided insoluble phosphates are distri-
buted in that portion of the surface-soil which is just under the
young turnip-plant, the more energetic their effects. Superphos-
phate acts a great deal more energetically when applied with the
liquid than with the dry drill; according to practical men,
2 ewts. of superphosphate applied with water frequently produce
as good an effect as 3 or 4 cwts. in a dry state.

A little consideration will explain this difference. In the
first place, superphosphate, in the shape of a powder, cannot be
so uniformly distributed on the land as it is ina liquid condi-
tion. In the next place, the acid or soluble phosphate may, and
often does, remain unchanged in the soil. for a long time when
superphosphate is applied in a dry state, and no rain falls for
some time, or the manure is badly prepared. In dry weather
the soluble phosphate remains as such where it has been
deposited ; when rain falls, as is frequently the case, in insuf-
ficient quantity to dissolve the soluble phosphate and to produce
at once a dilute solution, a proper distribution in the soil is
not effected. In other words, there will be too much phosphate
in one place and none in another. And, besides this, more or
less acid phosphate will be left that cannot exert any beneficial
effect on the young turnips. I have frequently picked up on
fields bits of superphosphate a month or six weeks after its
application, and found in them still a considerable proportion of
acid or soluble phosphate of lime, notwithstanding that some
rain had fallen during that time. There cannot, therefore, be
much doubt that in superphosphate applied in a dry state fre-
quently a large proportion of the phosphates remains inactive
in the soil just at the period, when phosphates are most needed by
the young plants.

On the other hand, if superphosphate mixed with a sufficient
quantity of water is put on the land with the liquid-drill, the
whole amount of the acid or soluble phosphate in the manure
is at once brought into contact with a portion of the surface-soil,
and by it rapidly precipitated and changed into insoluble phos-
phate. Applied with water, the manure thus is not only uni-
formly distributed on the land, but its most valuable constituent
is rapidly changed by the soil into the most active condition i in
which it can be presented to the young turnip- -plants.

We can thus readily explain the fact that in many instances
2 ewts. of superphosphate produce as good a crop of swedes when

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 59

applied with the liquid-drill as 4 ewts. or more of the same manure
applied dry.

The application of superphosphate by the liquid manure drill
certainly must be regarded as practically the most economical,
and philosophically as the most rational, mode of incorporating
this turnip-manure with the land.

In the beginning of this paper I expressed the opinion that
superphosphate may occasionally be ineffective as a turnip-
manure, because the soils to which it is applied may contain a
sufficient proportion of phosphates to meet all the requirements
of the turnip-crop.

Several striking instances which have been brought under my
notice have shown me that this is indeed the case. In the
neighbourhood of Swindon, I am informed by Mr. Stratton that
neither superphosphate nor bone-dust has much, if any, effect on
the crops to which it is applied.

Again, in the neighbourhood of IIchester, I met with an
unquestionable instance of a soil on which superphosphate, as
well as other purely phosphatic manures, had no effect whatever
on roots.

I have heard of many other such localities, and have no doubt
that there are soils in other counties besides Wilts and Somerset-
shire on which this class of fertilizers has no effect on root-crops
nor on pasture land.

I have examined the soil from the neighbourhood of IIchester.
It is a soil resting on the lower chalk, or rather the junction of
the lower chalk and greensand formation, and contains a great
deal more phosphoric acid than is usually found in most fertile
soils,

It is likewise an interesting fact that in the neighbourhood of
Swindon, where I am informed phosphatic manures are of no
use, coprolitic nodules have been found. I have in my posses-
sion specimens of phosphatic nodules from the neighbourhood of
Swindon, and highly phosphatic marls from other parts of
Wiltshire. If in other localities phosphatic manures are unavyail-
ing, the intelligent observation of this apparently anomalous fact
may there also lead to the discovery of valuable deposits of
mineral phosphates.

In the fourth place, it has been stated in the beginning of this
paper, that a purely mineral superphosphate may fail to produce
good turnips, because in addition to the phosphoric acid it does
not provide the crop with the requisite amount of potash, lime,
and organic food, which it finds in land of a better description.

This part of our subject deserves a careful examination, inas-
much as it has been stated that the exclusive use of mineral

60 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime ; and

superphosphate is the cause of the diseases to which roots of
late years have become more exposed than formerly.

Whether turnips and swedes are really now more liable
than formerly to contract disease it is not for me to decide ; pro-
bably the more extended growth of green crops has something
to do with this generally received opinion. But there can be
but little doubt that roots are often grown on some soils naturally
most unsuited to green crops, and that on others farmers often put
too much reliance on the use of superphosphate.

Noticing only the final failure in the crop, and not the first
effect which superphosphate did produce, practical men are apt
to ascribe the failure to the superphosphate, and not to the great
poverty of the soil in other mineral and organic constituents not
supplied by superphosphate. This, like other special manures,
should only be used exclusively in special cases, and not on
land in which a general deficiency suggests at once the simul-
taneous application of another more complex and general manure
like farmyard-manure. There are many sandy soils on which
roots cannot be grown with superphosphate alone, for the simple
reason that these soils do not contain the proper amount of potash
and lime or organic matters which is needed by the turnip-
crop.

In a former contribution to this Journal I mentioned an
instance of failure from the use of superphosphate, which is so
much to the point that I may be allowed to refer to it again.

It occurred on a farm at Ashton Keynes, a village about six
miles from Cirencester, On visiting this farm, Mr. Plumbe, the
occupier, directed my attention to a field of considerable extent
on the slope of a hill. Surrounded by a tract of country visibly
abounding in limestone-gravel, the field on the slope and top of
the hill presented a striking contrast, even to a superficial
observer, with the fields at the base of the hill. These were
moderately stiff, full of limestone-gravel, and the root-crops on
them looked healthy, promising a fair average yield. The
elevated field in question, on the contrary, was sandy in the
extreme, apparently contained but little clay, no limestone-gravel
whatever, and the turnips on it were affected by anbury to such
an extent as I never witnessed before.

There was hardly a sound turnip to be seen, except on two
isolated spots. With this exception, the whole of the roots were
so much injured by the disease that it was not considered worth
while to send sheep over the field. 1 was informed that, after
the turnip-seed was drilled in with superphosphate, the young
plants came up well, looked remarkably strong and healthy up
to the time of singling, and promised to be a yery fine crop,

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 61

However, soon after, their growth was checked, and the roots, on
inspection, were foamed to be all more or leas attacked. They
presented a most extraordinary appearance, being forked and
twisted into the most fantastical forms and covered with wart-
like excrescences, exhibiting thus the character of anbury in its
most malignant form. Part of the field was covered with a
brownish-coloured sandy soil, part with a red-coloured ferru-
ginous soil. Both these soils, and the subsoil on which the red-
coloured soil rested, were analyzed, and furnished the following
general results :—

=) Seeks No. 2, No. 3.
Organic matter and water of combination 5°36 482 °.7:64
Oxides ofironandalumina .. .. .. 5°78 12°16 22°77
ClarmeateOL GING ca. ic oe ios "sae 25 “15 at
Alkaline salts and magnesia .. .. .. “41 “46 *69
Phosphoric acid *) PLO Ls 6 322" traces traces traces
Sulphuric acid ‘08 not determined

Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly sand) 88-12 82°41 68°46

100°00 100:00 100°00

No. 1 was taken from the top of the hill, where the turnips
were most affected by anbury.

No. 2 was a red-coloured soil from the slope of the hill, where
the turnips were likewise much diseased.

No. 3 was a deep-red-coloured ferruginous subsoil, on which
No. 2 rested. In this case, the manure evidently carried on the
plant up to a certain point, and then failed to bring the crop to
maturity. Now, if we look at the composition of these sandy
soils, we cannot feel surprised that on such land superphosphate
alone did not produce sound roots.

In the first place, the proportion of lime, especially in the
surface-soils, is totally inadequate to meet the wants of the crop
of turnips. We cannot doubt, therefore, that this deficiency was
one, if not the principal, cause of failure.

In the next place, the amount of available alkalies is very
small, as it often is on sandy soils, and there was an insufficient
amount of organic matter, which appears to be highly beneficial
in such soils to root-crops, and neither of these two deficiencies
did the superphosphate in any way correct. But even here the
superphosphate did not fail to manifest its usual invigorating
effect upon the young plant, showing plainly that it did answer
the purpose for which it is so justly renowned. If through its
instrumentality alone sound roots were not matured, we must not
lay the blame to its charge, but rather blame ourselves for not
also providing with the phosphates the requisite amount of
organic matters, lime, and potash, to the absence of which the

62 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

unhealthy growth and presence of disease at a later stage are
attributable.

The additional potash which is indispensable for roots grown
on sandy soils is most economically supplied in good rotten dung
or in liquid manure; but it is also furnished to a considerable
extent by Peruvian guano, wood-ashes, and burnt clay. To these
resources we must, therefore, look if we wish to avoid the dis-
appointment of losing our root-crops.

When turnips are intended to be grown on light land, we
should, in the first place, ascertain if it wants liming or not, and
treat it accordingly. In the next place, it should receive a fair
dressing of good rotten dung, or, if this cannot be had in suffi-
cient quantity, half a dressing of dung should be given, and
afterwards 2 or 3 cwts. of Peruvian and 2 or 3 ewts. of super-
phosphate should be supplied when the seed is drilled in. Such
an addition of superphosphate to farmyard manure or guano has
a most beneficial effect.

Perhaps the best manure for growing roots on light land is
a mixture of bone-dust and rotten dung. On several farms in
Norfolk this mixture is used, in preference to all other manures,
with most signal benefit.

The best way to make this mixture is to cart into a corner of
the field the yard-manure about three months before turnip-
sowing begins. At the same time the bone-dust—calculating 6
to 8 bushels per acre—is carted next to the place where the
manure is to be put up ina heap. In making the heap, first a
thick layer of dung is placed upon the ground ; a thin sprinkling
of bone-dust is put upon it, then a layer of dung; again a
sprinkling of bone-dust; and so on, until all the bone-dust and
dung are placed in alternate layers in a heap. About a month
before sowing the turnips the heap should be turned over. Pro-
ceeding in this way, we shall find that the fermented dung dis-
integrates and partially dissolves the bone-dust to such an extent
that by the time the manure is ready to be distributed over the
turnip-field nearly the whole of the bone-dust will have become
decomposed and uniformly amalgamated with the dung. This
excellent plan appears to me by ‘far the most economical mode
of dissolving and applying bone-dust on light land, which, as
has been stated, should, if possible, be manured with at least
half a dressing of ordinary yard-manure, in order that the
deficiency of potash and organic matter in the soil aay be
supplied.

In conclusion, the principal points of interest which have been ©
discussed at some length in the preceding pages may be con-
densed into the following Summary.

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 63

SuMMARY.

1. A crop of turnips, weighing per acre 20 tons of roots
and 6 tons of tops, removes from the soil 1774 lbs. of potash,
1044 lbs. of lime, and 40 Ibs. of phosphoric acid.

2. Phosphatic manures appear to hasten on early maturity ;
ammoniacal salts to retard it.

3. Phosphatic manures, especially in cold or wet seasons, pro-
duce more nutritious roots than ammoniacal manures, and a
finer sample of wheat or barley than the latter.

4, Late-sown barley, or barley grown on land out of condition,
is much improved by superphosphate, or, better still, by a mix-
ture of equal parts of superphosphate and guano, applied at the
rate of 3 to 4 ewts. per acre.

5. In a warm climate or a good season, ammoniacal salts may
be used with greater advantage than in a colder country or in an
ungenial season.

6. The ash-analyses of plants,do not afford a sufficiently trust-
worthy guide to the practical farmer in selecting the kind of
manure which is best applied to each crop.

7. The ash-analyses of plants, however, teach the important
practical lesson that certain mineral matters in certain pro-
portions are éssential to the luxuriant growth of all cultivated
plants ; and that our crops must remain scanty or become diseased
if the soil on which they are grown is deficient in one or more of
the essential ash-constituents of plants.

8. Superphosphate of lime, applied to root-crops, has a different
practical effect on different soils.

9. Few soils contain an amount of phosphoric acid which
renders the direct application of phosphatic manures superfluous.

10. On good calcareous clay soils and land that is moderately
stiff and in good heart, heavy crops of swedes and turnips may be
grown with no other manure than superphosphate rich in soluble
phosphate.

11. 3 to 4 ewts. of mineral superphosphate is a sufficient
dressing per acre on such land.

12. The addition of ammoniacal salts to phosphates in many
instances produces no beneficial effect on turnips grown on calca-
reous clay soils.

13. Phosphatic manures are inefficacious on some soils which,
like those in the greensand formation, contain a much larger
proportion of phosphoric acid than is common.

14. Soluble phosphate of lime is the most valuable constituent
of commercial superphosphates.

15. All arable soils have the power of absorbing or rendering

soluble phosphate insoluble.

64 Absorption of Phosphate of Lime; and

16. Chalky and marly soils possess this property in a higher
degree than clay or sandy soils.

17. The absorption of soluble phosphate by soils is never
instantaneous, but requires some time.

18. In practice the large extent of absorbing surface and heavy
weight of the soil through which a solution of soluble phosphate
has to pass before it can escape, secure its perfect absorption.

19. Plants do not take up the acid biphosphate or soluble
phosphate as such.

20. Since the soluble phosphate in superphosphate of lime is
rendered insoluble in all soils, and the first as well as the after-
growth of turnips is alike promoted by insoluble phosphates, it is
erroneous to consider that soluble phosphate feeds the turnip-crop
in its first stages of existence, and insoluble phosphate sustains
its after-growth.

21. The doctrine that, of the phosphates in a turnip-manure
one-half should be soluble, and the other insoluble, is based on
erroneous speculations.

22. Of two turnip-manures containing an equal amount of
phosphates, that which contains the largest amount of soluble
phosphate is more valuable than the other containing the largest
amount of insoluble phosphates, both manures being alike in
other respects.

23. In preparing superphosphate from mineral phosphates,
the latter should be rendered soluble as completely as possible.

24. Superphosphate is not deteriorated by keeping for any
length of time.

25. When incorporated with the soil the fertilising properties
of superphosphate are retained for any reasonable length of time,
and its effects frequently seen in the barley-crop on land on
which turnips were grown in the preceding year with super-
phosphate.

26. The secret of the energetic action of superphosphate
depends on the production of most minutely subdivided or pyeci-
pitated insoluble phosphates within the soil itself, and not on the
supposed, but erroneous, direct assimilation of soluble phosphate
by plants.

27. Precipitated insoluble phosphate of lime is vastly more
bulky and more soluble in pure water than the finest powder.
obtained by mechanical means.

28. The more rapidly and completely the soluble phosphate in
commercial superphosphates and turnip-manures is precipitated _
and rendered insoluble in the soil, the more energetic will be its
effect upon the turnip-crop. This advantage is best secured by
applying the manure with the liquid-drill.

29. The application of superphosphate by the liquid manure

Phosphatic Manures for Root-Crops. 65

drill is the most economical, efficient, and rational mode of incor-
porating turnip-manure with the land.

80. Purely mineral superphosphates fail to produce good
turnip-crops on light sandy soils.

3i. Superphosphate cannot be considered as the cause of the
diseases to which roots are liable.

82. Roots grown on poor sandy soils exclusively with super-
phosphate nevertheless are liable to become diseased, or to fail
altogether.

33. The deficiency of lime, organic matters, and especially
potash in sandy soils, accounts for the difficulty of growing good
roots on such land with purely phosphatic manures.

34, On light soils turnips should always be grown with, at
least, some farmyard manure.

35. Bone-dust, partially dissolved by acid, is a better manure
for turnips on light land than a purely mineral superphosphate.

36. On light land a mixture of equal parts of guano and super-
phosphate is better turnip-manure than either manure applied
alone.

37. Liquid manure is very beneficially applied to root-crops on
light land.

38. An excellent plan of applying bone-dust to the turnip-crop
on light land is to ferment it with dung.

39. This is best done by putting alternate layers of dung and
bone-dust in a heap three or four months before turnip-sowing
begins, and to turn the heap about a month before it is distributed
on the field,

Ttoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, January, 1863.

IV.—On the Utilisation of Town Sewage. By J. B, Lawes,
Pics. £6...

No one can read the evidence given before the Select Committee
“ On Sewage of Towns,” appointed by the House of Commons
last Session, without being struck with the great differences of
opinion elicited during the examination of the witnesses, Whilst
one and all agree that sewage is a most valuable manure, con-
taining every constituent necessary to be applied to the land for
our crops, they differ in a remarkable degree both as to the
commercial value of a given amount of sewage, and as to the
quantity requisite to be applied to a given area of land.

One witness who had been engaged for years in the applica-
tion of sewage, and whose evidence is said in the “ Analysis of
Evidence” to be “entitled to great weight,” gave it as his

VOL, XXIV. F

66 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

opinion that 300 tons of sewage per acre would accomplish the
same results as the 10,000 tons which he had in point of fact
applied! Another witness, just returned from a visit of inspec-
tion of the sewage meadows at Edinburgh and Rugby, considered
the inferiority of the produce at Rugby to be due to the much
smaller quantity of sewage there applied, the amount ranging
from 8000 to 9000 tons per acre ; whilst, in the case of the Edin-
burgh meadows to which he referred, it was estimated by the
same witness at 10,000 to 12,000 tons per acre, and to be as
high as 30,000 to 40,000 tons on some of the meadows in that
locality,

As to the money value of the excrementitious matters of each
person contributing to sewage, it was assumed that the results
recorded by one witness showed it to be about 20s., and those
of another about 1s. 9d. per head per annum, Again, estimates
of the value of a ton of sewage varied from about a halfpenny to
about 9d. And, finally, the evidence showed that in some cases
the sewage of only about two persons, and in others that of 300
or more, had been applied to an acre of land.

The Royal Sewage Commission, appointed some years ago
“to inquire into the best mode of distributing the sewage of
towns, and applying it to beneficial and profitable uses,” in the
prosecution of their inquiry, visited almost every locality where
town sewage was applied in any way to the purposes of agri-
culture, and the evidence they collected was almost as conflicting
as that published by the Committee of the House of Commons
above referred to, Feeling how important it was that the public
should be put in possession of more exact and reliable data on
a subject involving such vast sanitary and economical interests,
the Commission, of which I am a member, decided upon insti-
tuting some careful experiments on the agricultural application
of sewage. The experiments were made at Rugby, upon grass-
land, on which, as above alluded to, the sewage was applied at
the rate of from 3000 to 9000 tons per acre per annum, and the
Report, giving the results obtained in the first season (1861), has
already been presented to both Houses of Parliament.*

It is proposed to lay before the readers of the ‘ Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society’ such portions of this report as bear
more directly upon the interests of agriculture,

As, however, the Committee of the House of Commons, in
their “Analysis of Evidence” above referred to, give it as their
opinion “that sewage is applicable to all crops, and that if
commercial results are sought for, it should be applied in small

* “Second Report of the Commission appointed to inquire into the best mode of

distributing the Sewage of Towns, and applying it to beneficial and profitable
uses,” (1862.)

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 67

dressings,” it may appear to some that it would have been well
had the Commission experimented upon corn and other crops as
well as grass, and applied the sewage in smaller quantities per
acre. It may be advisable, therefore, to mention some of the
circumstances which influenced the Commission in limiting their
experiments in the first instance to grass alone, and in deciding
upon the quantities of sewage to be applied. It will be sufficient
to cite the previous experience obtained at Watford, Rugby, and
Edinburgh on these points.

The chairman of the Commission, the Earl of Essex, who rents
the sewage of the town of Watford, had laid down pipes for its
application over 210 acres of mixed arable and grass-land ; but
had been led by experience to limit the application to but a small
proportion of that area, and almost exclusively to either perma-
nent meadow, or Italian rye-grass. Indeed, in: his evidence
before the Committee of the House of Commons last year, his
Lordship stated that practically he limited the application to
about 10 acres of Italian rye-grass, and 35 acres of meadow-land ;
for the former of which he required about 5000 tons per acre per
annum ; and that for the latter the amount remaining at his dis-
posal was inadequate.

At Rugby about 6700 of the population contribute to the
sewage, and pipes were laid down for its application to about
470 acres of mixed arable and grass-land. The quantity of sewage
pumped daily (which is by no means the total yield of the town)
averages about 750 tons, and, reckoning 300 working days, this
gives a supply of 225,000 tons per annum. If this amount were
equally distributed over the 470 acres piped for its application,
the supply would be something less than 500 tons sewage per
acre per annum. But when the Commission first visited Rugby,
in order to arrange with Mr. Walker, the proprietor of the land
and of the sewage works, and with Mr. Campbell, the tenant of
about 190 acres, for the use of a few acres of the land, anda
supply of sewage, they found that the practical experience of
some years had led to the limitation of the application almost
exclusively to grass, and also, in a great measure, to the aban-
donment of the use of the hose and jet, and the substitution of
open runs. The sewage, instead of being applied to 470 acres
of mixed arable and grass land, was limited to but a fraction of
that area; and Mr. Campbell, who had pipes laid down for
about 190 acres, and was paying rent accordingly, had abandoned
the use on all but about a dozen acres of permanent meadow or
Italian rye-grass.

Neither Mr. Campbell, nor the present or previous tenant of
the other portion of the land laid out for sewage irrigation at
Rugby, was examined before the Committee of the House of

F 2

68 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

Commons last year; but in a pamphlet since published by the
former gentleman, giving the results of his experience for eight
years as a sewage farmer, he states ‘‘ that he should expect a
better paying return from 50 acres with 4500 tons per acre per
annum, than from 100 acres with 2250 tons per acre.”

It seemed impossible to account for the abandonment, at Wat-
ford and at Rugby, of the use of sewage to crops generally, and
in comparatively small amounts per acre, after so large an outlay
had been incurred, entirely with a view to its application in these
very ways, excepting on the supposition that the practice was
not found to be profitable; and, to say nothing of evidence
derived from other sources leading in the same direction in
regard to the points in question, the Commission would hardly
have been deemed justified in instituting experiments at Rugby
in accordance with the plans originally adopted there on a more
extensive scale than anywhere else, and abandoned, as unprofitable,
after the experience of some years. It was, therefore, decided to
confine the experiments, at any rate in the first instance, to grass
land ; to apply as a minimum as small a quantity of sewage as,
having regard to the evidence at command, appeared likely to’
be effective ; and, to apply as a maximum an amount below the
quantities known to be employed at Edinburgh with so much
success.

‘Extracts from the Report of the Royal Sewage Commission.

*¢ At Rugby the whole of the available sewage of the town is
rented by G. H. Walker, Esq.; and, after being collected in a
large tank erected for the purpose, it is distributed, by means of
a steam-engine, through iron pipes laid down for the supply to
about 470 acres of mixed arable and grass land ; hydrants being
fixed at intervals along the lines for surface distribution, either
by hose or open runs, ‘These arrangements were obviously well
adapted for the purposes of the inquiry the Commission lad in
view. Experience, at Rugby as well as elsewhere, seemed clearly
to indicate that, to obtain the largest amount and value of pro-
duce at the least proportionate cost for distribution, dilute liquid
sewage should be applied to the growth of succulent crops ; and
that it is best adapted for grass. It was decided, therefore, to
confine the experiments, at any rate at present, to grass land.
Accordingly, the Commission availed themselves of the kindness
of G. H. Walker and J. A. Campbell, Esqs., to operate upon
about 15 acres of grass land in the neighbourhood of Rugby
supplied with sewage as above described.

“It also appears that produce of the kind in question is better
adapted for the feeding of cows for the production of milk than

* Utilisation of Town Sewage. " 69

for any other purpose. It was decided, therefore, to devote the
produce of one portion of the sewage-irrigated grass land to be
cut green and given to milking.cows. It, nevertheless, seemed
desirable to test the fattening qualities of such produce, when
cut green, and given to stock in the fresh state; and also to
determine how far it is adapted for making into hay. Accord-
ingly, it was proposed that the produce of a second portion of
the experimental land should be given in the green state, to
fattening oxen; and that that of a third should be made into
hay, provided that the season and other circumstances would
allow of it.

“Assuming that the ultimate object of the experiments is
ta provide such information as may be taken as the basis of
arrangements for the application of the sewage of towns in the
manner the most advantageous both to urban and rural interests,
it is sought to determine, as far as possible :—

ft: The ‘amount and composition of the produce, 1 in relation
to the volume of water supplied to the land by irrigation, ‘to the
amount of manurial constituents so applied, and to, the popu-
lation contributing the manurial constituents to the water.

“ 2° The most profitable method of applying the produce ; that
is whether it should be used in the green state or as hay;
whether for the production of milk or of meat; and whether it
should be consumed alone, or in conjunction with other food.

“The 15 acres of grass land consisted of two fields, the one
of five, and the other of ten acres. For the purpose of the expe-
riments i were laid out, by Mr. Bickford, in small surface
drains, or ‘runs,’ according to the plan described in Vol. XIII.
of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ;’
and, at the upper end of each a tank holding 3} tons has been
fixed, by means of which the amount of sewage applied to any
given portion of land is accurately gauged. From these tanks,
too, when full, samples of the sewage-water are taken, at stated
intervals, for the determination of its chemical composition. The
field of 10 acres has been divided, by an iron bullock-fence,
into two equal parts. There were thus at command three por-
tions of land of five acres each; these were respectively set out
into four plots to be treated as follows :-—

* Plot 1. To be unsewaged.

“Plot 2. To be irrigated with sewage at the rate of 3000 tons

er acre per annum,

Plot 3. To be sewaged at the rate of 6000 tons per acre per
annum.

“Plot 4, To be sewaged at the rate of 9000 tons per acre per
annum, :

70 ’ Utilisation of Town Sewage.

“The produce of one set of experiments has been given, in
the green state, to fattening oxen; that of the second set (in the
same condition) to milking cows; and that of the third (though,
as afterwards explained, very little sewage was applied to it) has
been made into hay.

“The results obtained in the first year’s experiments, con-
ducted as above described, are briefly summarised, under separate
heads, in the present short Report. .... It will be obvious,
however, that the results of a first season only must be taken as
little more than initiative on many points; and that their nume-
rical indications cannot be taken as the basis of safe deduction
in regard to the economical questions at issue without much
caution and reservation.

“J. Quantities of Sewage applied, and of Green Produce obtained.”

“Taste I.—Showing the number of Tons of Sewage-water applied on each
Plot, up to the end of October, in each of the two Fields.

: First Szason, 1861.

SEWAGE-WATER PER ACRE.

Five-acre Field. * Ten-acre Field (half).
Plot 2, Plot 3. Plot 4, Plot?2, Plot 3, Plot 4, *
Tons, Tons. Tons, Tons, Tons. Tons.
March «« «+ |» 632°05 | 1045°12 | 1444°16 a =e Ne
APE es pe ee 279°85 666°40 | 1176°98 563°04 | 1145°91 | 1376°91
May 2s ©2: | os 75°82 96°49 97°66 18°32 64°14 118°82

JUNG se! on) Se 78°78 223°32 577°23 od ae 392°26
JULY, cle ifs. 531°67 430°18 654°05 512°01 392°18 905°73
August .. .. 130° 60 580°17 787°28 225°90 316°30 595°11
September... 145°14 703° 32 614°72 33°98 517° 72 38i°S8l
October «.. « 201°69 678°23 800°66 33°98 367° 68 455° 84

Total... .. | 2073°60 | 4425-23 | 6152°74 | 1387°23 | 2803°93 | 4226-48

Rate per annum | 3110°40 | 6634-84 | 9229+11 | 2378-11 | 4806-74 | 7345-39

“In the five-acre field, the produce of which was devoted to
the feeding of oxen, the application of sewage did not commence
until March 6, 1861, none having been applied in 1860. But
the quantities applied on the respective plots up to the end of
October were, upon the whole, pretty nearly at the rates in-
tended ; namely those of 3000, 6000, and 9000 tons per acre
per annum,

“The ten-acre field had been dressed with undetermined
amounts of sewage in 1860, and during February of the year of

the

Utilisation of Town Sewage.

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72 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

the experiments (1861), by the previous tenant; it had been fed
down very close by sheep and other stock, up to nearly the end
of March; and the application of sewage, under the direction of
the Commission, did not commence until April 1. Unfor-
tunately the amount of sewage available in this field was very
much less than was desired, so much so that the plots on the
portion allotted to be cut green for milking cows did not receive
the quantities intended, even though, after a few weeks, the
application on the portion devoted to hay was entirely aban-
doned, in the hope of securing enough for the other.

“In both fields, owing to derangement and repair of the
works, the supply of sewage was very inadequate during portions
of the growing months of May and June.

“The upper portion of the Table (II.) shows the distribution
of the produce of the respective plots throughout the season,
according to the amounts of sewage applied ; and the lower part
shows the amounts of produce yielded in each successive crop
under the same variation of circumstances. The results, as
given in the upper portion, show not only how very much more
total produce was obtained by the application of sewage, but
also over what a much more extended period of the season an
abundance of green food was obtainable when large quantities of
sewage were applied; and it should be observed that, in both
fields, plots 3 and 4, to which the largest amounts of sewage
were applied, might with advantage have been cut earlier, and
they would then have yielded much larger crops during May
than are recorded for that month. On the other hand, in some
cases not inconsiderable amounts of produce were obtained even
as late as November. It is, however, probable that, in practice,
it will not be advantageous to cut later than October ; and it was
only done in this case as a means of better estimating the quan-
tity of the produce yielded. The lower portion of the Table
shows that there is, in almost every case, an increase of produce
at each successive cutting with each increase of sewage applied.
It will be seen further on that the produce of the earlier cuttings
contained a larger proportion of dry substance than that of the
later ones ; and also that the sewaged grass differed considerably
both in the proportion and composition of its dry substance
according to the quantities of sewage applied, and still more
from the unsewaged grass.

“The proportion of produce obtained to sewage applied is
better seen in Table III., where the amounts of sewage intended,.
and actually applied up to the end of October, the amounts of
total produce, and the amounts of increase of produce for each
1000 tons of sewage applied, are given side by side.

Utilisation of Town Sewage. — 73

“Taste III,—Showing the Quantities of Sewage applied up to the end of
October, and the total Amounts of Green Grass obtained per Acre, &c.

First Srason, 1861.

SEwaGr. PRODUCE.
a Q ; ; ;
required, uantities nerease 0
actually Total Green Grass for

applied to Green Grass each 1000 tons of
of end of Sewage applied to
October, | October. end of October.

Per
Annum.

per Acre,

Five-acre Field.—Produce given to Oxen.

tons. tons. tons. tons ewts. qrs. Ibs,| tons cwts. qrs. lbs.

Plot 1 (2 cuttings) .. | None.} None. | None. |]9 5 3 5 oe
Plot 2 (4 cuttings) .. | 3000 1981 1Syo*) (4 1G 8 8s) 2 19) 1

Plot 3 ts cuttings) .. | 6000 | 3962 AdOS 27 e elem LOr) 4 0, by +:9
2

Plot 4 (4 cuttings 9000 5942 6153 [82 16 3 8 | 31

Half of ten-acre Field.—Produce given to Cows.

Plot 1 (2 cuttings) .. |None.| None. | None. | 8 8 O 15 oe

Plot 2 (4 cuttings) .. | 3000 1769 PBSC STG) Sip 62/24 19 38, $28
Plot 3 4 cuttings) .. | 6000 3538 2804 [22 15) OF 12); 4°18 es Ze
Plot 4 (4 cuttings) .. | 9000 5308 4296 126 18 3 12/4 4 0 20

“ The two fields were nearly a mile apart ; the five-acre field was
nearly level, and the ten-acre one considerably sloping. When,
in addition to these facts, the different previous treatment of the
two fields, as already referred to, the different amounts of sewage
actually applied up to the dates ending the experimental season,
and the fact that the dates of the cuttings on the respective plots
differed according to the amounts of sewage, and the consequent
progress of the grass, are taken into consideration, it appears
probable that the amount of produce would, under equal circum-
stances, bear a very close relation to the quantity of sewage
applied, pretty nearly up to the maximum limit contemplated.

“The produce without sewage was, in each field, equal to more
than two and a-half tons of hay per acre. It was rather less in
the ten-acre field than in the other; owing, doubtless, to the
fact that the grass had there been fed down so close in March,
before the commencement of the experiment.

“In the five-acre field the increase of green grass obtained for
each 1000 tons of sewage applied, was scarcely 3 tons, where the
application was at the rate of about 3000 tons per acre per annum ;

* “Tn this case, the last cutting was on October 9, and the produce is, therefore,
calculated against the sewage applied to the end of September only.”

74 Utilisation of Town Sewage. .

fully 4 tons where at the rate of about 6000 tons; and somewhat
under 4 tons where at the rate of about 9000 tons. In the ten-
acre, and more sloping field, where the sewage was better dis-
tributed over the lower and further portions of the plots, and
which had been sewaged the year previously, and even early in
1861, before the commencement of the experiments, the increase
of green grass for each 1000 tons of sewage experimentally ap-
plied was greater, amounting in each case to over 4, and in two
out of the three, to nearly 5tons, As an average of all the results
obtained in the two fields, it may be stated,that the amount of
increase of green grass yielded for 1000 tons of sewage applied
was, in this first year of the experiments, equal to only about
three-fourths of a ton of hay.

“TI. Results of the Experiments with Ozen.

“Ten Hereford oxen were tied up in a shed ; two to be fed
on unsewaged grass, and the remaining eight to receive sewaged
grass, as it was ready to cut, indiscriminately from the three
plots in the five-acre field, to which sewage was to be applied
respectively at the rate of 3000, 6000, and 9000 tons per acre
per annum. The animals had the grass alone for a period of
16 weeks; namely, from May 27 to September 16, ‘They had
then, for a further period of four weeks, in addition to the grass,
4 lbs. of oilcake per head per day.

“« The average results over the whole period during which the
oxen had grass alone, are given in the following Table (1V.), and
to these the few comments that it is necessary to make will be
confined. The points shown are, the quantities of sewage de-
signed to be applied, and the quantities actually applied on each
plot up to the end of October; the average amounts respectively
of unsewaged and of sewaged grass consumed per head daily ;
the number of weeks the produce of each acre would keep one
ox; the pounds of increase in live-weight that the produee of
each acre would yield; the value of the increase in live-weight
from each acre, at 4d. per Ib. ; and the value of the increase in
live-weight obtained from the increase of produce yielded for
1000 tons of sewage applied.

“The oxen weighed more per head than the experimental
cows, but their daily consumption per head both of unsewaged
and of sewaged grass was considerably less. It is quite obvious
from the results given in the Table that grass of the description
in question is not adapted for the fattening of oxen without the
addition of other food. Indeed, one of the animals on the sew-
aged grass weighed 52 lbs, less at the conclusion than at the
commencement of the experiment; and the maximum increase

of

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 75

“Tsnnu 1V.—Showing the Results of the Experiments with Oxen when fed
on Green Grass alone.

SrAson, 186].

ba ag Sewaged Grass,
Plot 1. ‘Plot 2, Plot 8, Plot 4,
Tons of sewage to be applied per acre 3000 6000 9000
perannum
Tons of sewage required to end of 1721* 3962 5942
- October .. «
ons of sewage actually applied to rox 6153
end of October a fe ae ie -
Grass consumed per head daily Ibs. 89°8 105°2
OE
Weeks the produce of each acre would 45°] 82°38 99:9

keep one ox ..
Increase in live-weight that the pro-
duce of each acre would yield lbs.

Ie 87°9 134°4 245°0 297°4
Value of increase in live-weight we, Fu

S. Sess Wuceg Ga Gat nS. Oe

each acre at 4d. per Ib. 9 DA LOMA ES EAT |
Value of increase in live-weight from

O'S) St OVLL 10) O11 4

the increased US of 1000 tons
Sewage: os 2

of any one was 103 lbs. in the 16 weeks, or at the rate of rather
less than 64 Ibs. per week. Taking the average of the two and
of the eight oxen respectively, those upon unsewaged grass gave
scarcely 24 lbs., and those upon sewaged grass scarcely 2} lbs.,
increase per 1000 lbs. live-weight per week ; whereas, feeding
on good fattening food, such oxen should give 9 to 10 lbs, in-
crease per 1000 Ths. live-weight per week. In fact, these very
animals did give increase at this, and even a higher rate, during
the subsequent four weeks, when they had, in addition to the
grass, 4 lbs. of oilcake per head per day. ..... There can be
no doubt, therefore, that with a proper allowance of oilcake, or
some such food, a very different result would have been obtained
throughout. It was, however, desirable that in the first experi-
ments the grass should be tried alone.

“Ill. Results of the Experiments with Cows.

* Twelve cows were selected by Mr. Campbell from his large
herd, and were placed in a house by themselves. Two of these
were to be fed upon unsewaged grass, and the remaining ten
upon sewaged grass, mown as it was ready indiscriminately from
the three acres receiving respectively different quantities of

* “Tn this case to the end of September only ; see note to Table III.”

76 Utilisation of Town Sewage. ,

sewage. Like the oxen, the cows received grass alone for a
period of 16 weeks, after which they had a similar addition of
oilcake for a period of four weeks.

** Attention will here be confined to the average results over
the period of 16 weeks, during which the cows were fed on grass
alone. These are given in the following Table (V.), which
shows the particulars of the sewage applied to each plot; the
average quantity of unsewaged and of sewaged grass consumed
by each cow daily; the average yield of milk per head daily ;
the number of weeks the produce of the respective acres would
keep one cow; the number of gallons of milk the produce of
each acre would yield; the gross value of the milk from each
acre at 8d. per gallon; and the value (at the same rate) of the
milk obtained from the increased produce of each 1000 tons of
sewage applied.

“TabLe V.—Showing the Results of the Experiments with Cows when fed on
Green Grass alone.

SEASON, 1861.

Cavers Sewaged Grass.
Plot J, Plot 2. Plot 3, Plot 4.
Tons of sewage to be applied per} 4 3000 | 6000 9000
acre perannum.. .. «JI |
Tons of sewage required to net 1769 | 3538 5308
of October nose ae aed
Tons of sewage actually applied|) = = 9
toendof October .. .. «.J! A a | de avee
Grass consumed per head daily Ibs. 150°2 124°0
Average yield of milk per head)) 94.99 20°53
GaN. ieee mark ans! . poe ibe}
——<— $$ — $$
Weeks the produce of each acre}| 19°0 40°9 | 58's 68°9
would keep onecow .. .. H |
Gallons of milk the produce oft 391°4 570°7 | §20°4 961°3
each acre would yield .. ..J| “~ ‘ 4 :
Value of milk from the produce|| £. s, d.| £. 8 d | £ £ d.
1014 3319 0° 6) 2

of each acre at 8d. per gallon j
Value of milk from the increased
produce of 1000 tons sewage

|
|

“ As already stated, the produce of the three acres of sewaged
grass was given to the cows indiscriminately, as it was ready ;
as, to have done otherwise, on the assumption that the milk-
yielding quality of the grass obtained from the land receiving
different quantities of sewage was weight for weight different,
would greatly have complicated the experiments without the
probability that the results could be taken as indicating, with

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 77

any certainty, the distinctions supposed. It will be understood,
therefore, that the basis of the above estimates as to the amount
and value of the milk yielded from each acre is the amount
of grass obtained from each acre.

‘“‘The results show that the quantity of milk obtainable from
the produce of each acre of land depended very much upon the
quantity of sewage applied. Deducting the value of the milk
produced from the grass of the unsewaged from that from each
of the sewaged acres, reckoning it at 8d. per gallon, it appears
that where about 1400 tons of sewage were applied during the
seven months, the produce calculated for each 1000 tons of
sewage actually applied gave an increased amount of milk to the
value of 5/. 19s. 10d.; where twice that amount of sewage was
applied, 5/7. 18s. 8d.; and where three times the quantity,
52. Os. 11d.

‘It will be observed that the cows on unsewaged grass both
consumed more and yielded more milk per head per day than
those on sewaged grass; but the proportion of milk to a given
amount of fresh grass consumed is a]most identical in the two
cases. As will be seen further on, however, the unsewaged grass
contained a considerably higher proportion of dry or solid sub-
stance than the sewaged. ‘The question arises whether, or in
what degree, the comparatively limited consumption of sewaged
grass (with the coincident lower actual yield of milk per head),
was due to its very great succulence, the proportion of water to
dry substance in the food practically setting the limit to the con-
sumption. However this may be, the result was that a given
amount of dry substance of the sewaged grass yielded very
much more milk than the same amount of that of the un-
sewaged.

“IV. Composition of the Sewage-Water.

“Samples of the sewage-water, as it was delivered into each
field, were taken as follows:—Whilst the sewage was distri-
buting, samples of about a quart were taken at intervals of two
or three hours, from the full gauge jtank in the field, which
held 3: tons of the fluid. These samples were collected in a
carboy for a period of a week, when, after well agitating, a
sample of the mixture was sent to Professor Way for analysis.
During the first two or three months of the experiments such
samples were taken nearly every week, but afterwards only every
fourth week. There were thus, for the months of April to
October inclusive, 12 samples of sewage-water from each field
submitted to analysis.”

[The results of the 12 analyses of sewage-water from the five-

78 Utilisation of Town Sewage,

acre field are given in Table L., p. 89, and those of the samples
from the ten-acre field in Table I, p. 90, in the Appendix. ]

“ A summary of these, with an additional column, ‘showing
the constituents in 1000 tons of sewage, is given in Table VI.
below ; and the results as there recorded will be sufficient for
consideration on the present occasion. There are there given
the mean composition per gallon of the 12 samples from the five-
acre field, of the 12 from the ten-acre field, and of the 24
samples ; also the amount of each of the several constituents in
1000 tons of the sewage-water according to the mean of the
24 analyses.

“ Tapie VI.~—Showing the mean Composition per gallon, and per 1000 tons,
of the Sewage-water.

Seven Montrus—aApril to October inclusive, 1861.

Mean Grains per Gallon,

Constituents. 12 Samples | 12 Samples The
from the from the 24 Samples
5-acre Field. | 10-acre Field, 5

In solution 10°26 10°30 10°28
Organic matter In suspension 16°75 11°57 14°16
Total .. 27°01 21°87 24°
In solution 36°82 35°85
Tn suspension 16°18 12°55

Inorganic matter

Total .. 53°00 48°40

Total solid matter 80°01

Tn solution
In suspension

Ammonia.. «
Total: ..

Batgss? wy i) TT a! se
Phosphoric acid * say te

“‘ Reference to the Appendix Tables will show that the com-
position of the sewage differed very much indeed, and pretty
equally so in the two fields, at different periods of the season;
depending upon the amount of water reaching the sewers, and
the consequent state of dilution of the sewage. The Table given

. * “The potass and phosphoric acid were determined in two samples only in each
case,”

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 79

above shows, however, as was to be expected, that the average
composition of the sewage collected in the two fields was almost
identical. The only difference of any importance is in the
amount of suspended matter; there being less organic matter,
inorganic matter, and ammonia, in suspension, in the sewage
collected in the 10-acre field than in that from the other,

“‘ Without going into any detail on the point on the present
occasion, attention may be called to the fact that the column
showing the amount of the several constituents in 1000 tons of
the sewage, considered in relation to the amounts of increased
produce obtained by that quantity of sewage, as shown in Table IL,
indicates that the constituents of dilute liquid sewage can by no
means be valued at the same rates as those in portable, artificial
manures, such as guano. In illustration it may be stated that
the quantity of ammonia estimated to be contained, on the
average, in 1000 tons of the sewage, is equal to the nitrogen of
the mixed excrements of about 21 or 22 persons of a mixed
population of both sexes and all ages for a year, and to that in
about 11 ewts. of Peruvian guano; and the total solid matter in
1000 tons of the sewage is seen to be somewhat more than a ton,
The average amount of increase of produce obtained by the
application of this large quantity of manurial matter was, how-
ever, only equal to about three-fourths of a ton of hay; never-
theless, as has been shown, the increase of grass bore a pretty
obvious relation to the amount of sewage employed, until the
latter approached (during the actual period of the experiment)
the rate of about 9000 tons per acre per annum.

_ “tis further worthy of remark that the mean composition of
the Rugby sewage, as given above, differs comparatively little
from that which published analyses indicate for the sewage of
London; and the correspondence is the closer when, having
regard to the relative amounts of sewage to which the different
analyses are applicable, the calculated average instead of the
mere arithmetical mean composition of the sewage is taken in
the two cases. Thus, the average proportion of total solid matter
in the Rugby sewage for seven months, up to the end of October,
1861, was about 774 grains per gallon, whilst the average
amount in London sewage appears to be about 91 grains. The
correspondence in the amount of ammonia, which, more than
any other constituent, indicates the relation of population to the

_ amount of water, is, however, much more striking. Over the

seven months the average amount of ammonia in the Rugby

sewage is estimated to be 6°65 grains per gallon; and, founded
on‘ the rate of flow of sewage and the analyses given by Dr.

Letheby of both the day and night sewage from 10 different

sewers, the average amount of ammonia in the sewage of London

80 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

is calculated to be 6°66 grains per gallon. Taking 10 Ibs. of ©
ammonia to represent the mixed excrements of one individual of

a mixed population of both sexes and all ages for a year, 1000

tons of the sewage of either London or Rugby would, according

to the above estimates, contain the excrements of about 21 or

22 individuals.

“WV. Composition of the Unsewaged and Sewaged Grass.

**It was obviously of great importance to determine the pro-
portion of dry or solid substance contained in the produce cut,
weighed, and given to the animals, in a green and very succulent
condition ; to determine the difference in composition due to the
application of sewage; and also that of the successive crops
taken at different periods of the season. To this end samples of
24 lbs. of the unsewaged, or 5 Ibs. of the sewaged grass, were
taken from every load as soon as it was weighed at the home-
stead, the samples from each plot respectively being mixed
together day by day as taken, until the cutting of the plot was
completed. Each such mixed sample was exposed on sheets of
canvas in the open air until sufficiently dry. It was then stored
in sacks, and finally cut into coarse chaff, well mixed, weighed,
and a weighed portion of the mixture taken for the purposes of
analysis.” *

* “50 ouuces of the coarsely-cut chaff were taken in each case, and each of
these samples was carefully divided into 4 equal parts; two of which were fully
dried at 212° F. to determine the absolute dry substance, and then burnt to deter-
mine the mineral matter, and a third was finely ground, and a portion of it sent
to Professor Way for analysis. :

“Tt should here be remarked that there are many practical difficulties in the way
of getting accurate results in regard to the amount of dry substance in large bulks
of green produce such as those in question. Cutin the morning, as the crops always
were, the grass generally held a good deal of superficial as well as other moisture,
and, with equal conditions of weather, the heavier the crop the greater the amount
of waterso retained. Again, if the weather were dry and hot, the grass would lose
moisture considerably between the time of cutting and that of weighing and sampling
at the farm buildings; or, if rainy, the grass would be more or less saturated with
water. To add to these difficulties, which are almost inseparable from such an
inquiry, the taking of the samples, and their partial drying and preservation, were
necessarily left in the hands of those unpractised in such work.

“‘ It will be obvious from the above considerations, that the exact figures given
which relate to or involve the question of the proportion of dry substance in the
produce must be accepted with some reservation; though it is believed that at any
rate the direction and more general indications of the results on the point may fully
be relied upon. The results given of the analyses of the dry substance itself will,
of course, be much less affected by the irregularities referred to; and the differences
in its composition according to the difference in the conditions of growth are points
well worthy of a careful consideration in a hitherto untrodden field of inquiry.

“ It should be added that, taking advantage of the experience of the past year,
all possible precautions are being taken to eliminate avoidable irregularities in the
conduct of this part of the work during the present season (1862); and to secure
greater uniformity and certainty in the partial drying and preservation of the speci-
mens, 2 small drying-house, heated by a stove, has been erected.”

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 81

“ante VII.—Showing the Amounts of Dry Substance in the Unsewaged
and Sewaged Grass.

First Season, 1861.

Mean per cent. Dry Substance in Fresh Grass.

|
|
|
First Crop. | Second Crop.| Third Crop. | Fourth Crop.

Five-acre Field.

mar TEEN

Plot 1 (Unsewaged) 25°1* 2759 24°4 as os

Plot 2 (Sewaged) .. | “ 30°5 19°8 13°4 ac

Plot 3 (Sewaged a} woos 4= 26°9 14°2 13°7 15°4

Plot 4 (Sewaged) .. | 15°8* | 27°7 13°7 12°9 9°6

|

Ten-acre Field.

be Se eee —

Plot 1 (Unsewaged) | 22°0 | 26°9 a2

Plot 2 (Sewaged) .. } 23°3 | geal 16°9

Plot 3 (Sewaged) .. 21°4 (pel 15°1

Plot 4 (Sewaged} .. 18°4 | 16°1 17°8

“The figures given in the above table show that the proportion
of the dry substance in the grass varied very much indeed
according to circumstances. The first crop contained generally a
higher proportion than the second, particularly in the case of the
sewaged grass ; and the second, a higher proportion than the third
or fourth. It also appears that the unsewaged grass averaged a
‘higher proportion of dry substance than the sewaged. These
results are quite in accordance with what would be expected from
the known yariations in the conditions of growth. The exact
proportions of dry substance found, and recorded in the Table,
depended, however, very much indeed upon the stage of growth
at which the produce of the respective plots or crops was cut,
and upon the condition of the weather at the time of cutting.
Thus, the first crop of sewaged grass, particularly in the 5-acre
field, was, for the most part, too ripe when cut, and hence the
very large relative proportion of dry substance which on the ave-
rage it contained. Again, in both fields, a considerable portion
of the second crop of the unsewaged grass was much riper when
cut than that of the sewaged. On the other hand, some of the
crops, especially portions of the third and fourth, were cut and
sampled in a very wet condition, and to this, in a certain sense,

* “These samples were taken before June 20, and were, by mistake, weighed
with seales not sufficiently accurate for the purpose ; the results are, therefore,
given separately.”

VOL, XXIV, G

82 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

accidental, though unavoidable circumstance, must be attributed
the very fow proportion of dry substance found in some cases.

** The general result was, that the animals which had the un-
‘sewaged grass received considerably more dry or solid substance
in a given weight of the fresh produce than those which had the
sewaged grass. Hence, though the oxen on unsewaged grass
consumed much less of the fresh food in relation to their weight
than those on the sewaged, they nevertheless took into their
stomachs quite as large a proportion of real dry or solid matter as
the others. The cows on the unsewaged grass consumed, how-
ever, even more of their fresh food, with its higher proportion of
dry substance, than did those on the sewaged; and they, at the
same time, gaye a larger quantity of milk, almost exactly in pro-
portion to the increase in the amount of fresh food consumed.
But, as a given weight of the fresh sewaged grass contained con-
siderably less dry or solid substance than an equal amount of
the unsewaged, it resulted that considerably more milk was
obtained from a given quantity of the dry or solid substance of

the sewaged than of the unsewaged grass.

“‘ The question arises, was there any difference in the compo-
sition of the dry or solid matter of the two kinds of grass such as
may be supposed to account for the greater productiveness, at
any rate in milk, of that from the sewaged land? The following
Summary Table relates to this point.

“Taste VIII.—Showing the mean Composition (per cent.) of the Dry Sub-
stance of the Grass “produced without and with Sewage, and in each
successive Crop.

First Srason, 1861.

Without and with Sewage, Hath successive Crop.
.

sewaged, Sewaged. Ast 2nd | 3rd 4th
| Crop. | Crop. | Crop." | Crop.
Plot 1, | Plot 2,| Plot 8, Plot 4, >
Number of ‘Analyses rien j cE | to
giving the means . | (ice 7 9: lee ll 9 | 7 5

\

| |
Hityogenons substance }) 13-08 | 18°67 | 18°92 | 19°78

Fatty matter Pie. ex- ? = se F
ee ext! ger) 3:4) 3:53) 8-44
Woody fibre ea: 28°80 | 29°34 | 30°15; 29°13
Other non-n trogenous ? F a 5 x,
emo. . . 4 45°66 | 37°09 | 35°94 | 35-92

10°33 | 18°07 ; 23°76 | 28°25
|

3°01 3°60 3°65 | 3°84

80°80 | 28°45 | 28°50) 28°60

47°79 | 38°28 | 30°84 | 24°57

Mineral matter (ash). . 9°25) 11°36} 11°46) 11° “73.
100-00 | 100-00 | 100-00 | 200 100°00

8°07 | 11°60 | 13°25} 14°74

————

100-00 100-00 | 100-00 100°00

“ The figures in this table do indeed show a considerable dif-
ference in the composition of the dry substance of the unsewaged

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 83

and the sewaged grass; and those in the Tables of detail. ....
show that the great bulk of the produce varied more than the
mere mean results here given would indicate.

“ The chief point of remark is, that the solid matter of the
much more luxuriant and succulent sewaged grass contained a
considerably higher proportion of nitrogenous substance than that
of the unsewaged. It also contained somewhat more, both of the
impure waxy or fatty matter extracted by ether, and of mineral
matter, which may be taken to indicate a less advanced or ripe
condition at the time of cutting. But, owing to the generally
less ripe and more succulent condition of the sewaged than the
unsewaged grass, it is highly probable that a larger proportion of
its nitrogenous substance was in an immatured condition; and,
so far as it was so; it would be less available for the formation
of the nitrogenous compounds of flesh or milk. It would at any
rate be unsafe, without further evidence on the point, to attribute
the higher milk-yielding quality of the dry substance of the
sewaged grass unconditionally to its higher proportion of nitro-
genous substance ; and, it may be remarked that, according to
such a rule, a given weight of the dry substance of the third and
fourth crops should be very much more productive than an equal
quantity of that of the first; for the Table shows that there: was
twice or thrice as high a proportion of nitrogenous substance in
the solid matter of the crops grown late in the season as in that of
those grown in the earlier and more genial periods of vegetation.
Nor is the evidence at present at command such as to justify the
conclusion that the superior milk-yielding quality of the dry
substance of the sewaged grass is essentially connected either
with its larger proportion of impure fatty, or of mineral matter.
That the greater succulence of sewaged grass conduces at least to
quantity of milk, experience seems to show; and that the con-
stituents of its solid matter are in a readily convertible condition,
the results of this first season’s experiments on the question seem
clearly to indicate.

“It remains to be seen how far the results of a second year’s
series of experiments, conducted with the greater attention to
some points of detail which past experience suggests, will serve
to confirm, modify, or further explain the conclusions to which
the results given in this section seem to point.

“VI. Composition of the Milk yielded from the Unsewaged and
from the Sewaged Grass.

: Once a week, during the greater part of the experimental
period, the morning and evening milk of the two cows fed on
unsewaged grass was mixed together, and a gallon sample of the

G2

84 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

mixture taken, Samples of the milk from the ten cows fed on
sewaged grass were taken in the same way. These samples were
immediately put into bottles filled up to the corks and sealed
down, and sent off the same evening by railway to Professor Way
for analysis.”

[There were in all 13 samples of the milk from the cows fed
on unsewaged grass, and 15 of that from those fed on sewaged
grass, taken as above described, and the results of the analyses of
the 28 samples are given in the Appendix to the Report of the
Commission. *]

‘In the following Summary Table ([X.) are given,—the mean
composition of nine samples of milk taken from the cows fed on
unsewaged grass alone, and of ten taken from those fed on
sewaged grass alone; the mean of four samples from each lot of
cows during the concluding four weeks, when they had oilcake
as well as grass; and also the composition of the milk of the ten
cows taken on one occasion during the experiment, when, owing
to a deficiency of the experimental grass at the time, they had,
for a short time, a mixture of sewaged Italian rye-grass and
clover, and a little oilcake besides.

“TanLe [X.—Mean Composition of the Milk, per Cent.
Season 1861.

Cows fed on Grass alone. * Cows tre and oe 4 a
paps Eolee Ss Eger! -| Rye-grass and
: ‘3 Clover,

Unsewaged; | Sewaged; } Unsewaged;| Sewaged; Ue

Mean of _| Mean of Mean of || Mean of ee 3
9 Samples. | 10 Samples. | 4Samples. | 4 Samples. PAS
Casein fiir iisy ite Shays 3°246 8°241 3°352 3° 423 3°125
Butter cence eee 3604 3°430 3°657 | ~ 8°707 3°473
Sugar of milk, &e. .. 4°405 4218 4°561 4*689 4°700
Mineral matter... 0°753 0°776 0*740 0-771 0-752
Total solid matter 12°008 11°665 12°310 12+590 12°050
Waterss. ae 87°992 88°335 87°690 87° 410 87°950

Sinaia eres eS aes See

100*000 100°000 100*000 100+ 000 100*000

“‘ There is apparently but little difference between the average
composition of the milk yielded from the unsewaged. and the
sewaged grass, whether they be respectively consumed alone, or

* In the Appendix to the Report of the Commission will also be found the
results of the analyses of the individual samples of grass, and the details of the
sewage applied, the produce of grass obtained, and of the food consumed, and
milk and increase yielded by the animals.

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 85

in conjunction with oilcake. That from the sewaged and more
succulent grass is slightly more aqueous, and contains slightly
less of the organic constituents—casein, butter, and sugar of
milk—and slightly more of mineral matter, during the early part
of the season, when the cows had grass alone; but these relations
are reversed during the four weeks when oilcake was given in
addition. The addition of the oilcake, both in the case of the
unsewaged and of the sewaged grass, but particularly in that of
the latter, notably increased the proportion of the three organic
constituents, and of the total solid matter of the milk, but
somewhat diminished that of the mineral matter. Again, com-
paring the figures in the second and the fifth columns, those in
the latter giving the composition of the milk when, for a few
days only during the progress of the experiment, the diet of the
cows was changed from sewaged grass alone to sewaged Italian
rye-grass and clover, with oilcake in addition, the influence of
the oileake is seen to be of the same kind as already alluded to
—increasing generally the proportion of the organic constituents,
and of the total solid matter of the milk, and diminishing
somewhat that of the mineral matter.

‘¢ CONCLUSIONS.

“‘ Subject to the reservations which have been indicated, the
results of the first season’s experiments may be briefly enume-
rated as follows :-—

«1. By the application of large quantities of dilute town
sewage to permanent meadow land during the spring and summer
months, there was obtained an average increase of about 4 tons
of green grass (which, owing to the lower proportion of dry
substance in the sewaged grass, was equal to only about three-
fourths of a ton of hay) for each 1000 tons of sewage applied, until
the amount of the latter approached the rate of about 9000 tons
per acre per annum. The largest produce obtained was about
33 tons of green grass per acre. The period of the year over
which an abundance of green food was available was, with the
largest amount of sewage, between five and six months,

«2. Oxen tied up under cover, and fed on cut green grass
alone, whether sewaged or unsewaged, gave a far lower rate of
increase than the average attained by animals fed on ordinary
good fattening food; but when for a few weeks oilcake was given
in addition to the grass, they yielded a good average rate of
increase.

“3. Cows tied up under cover, and fed on cut green grass
alone, after previously receiving oilcake, fell off considerably in
their yield of milk, and about equally whether the grass were
sewaged or unsewaged. The cows on unsewaged grass consumed

86 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

more food and gave more milk, in relation to their weight, than
those on sewaged grass; but the amount of milk yielded for a
given amount of fresh food consumed was almost. identical in the
two cases; though, in proportion to the dry or solid matter
which the food contained, the sewaged grass yielded considerably
more milk than the unsewaged. Milk to the gross value of 32/.
per acre was obtained where the largest quantity of sewage was
applied. The gross value of the milk from the increased produce
of each 1000 tons of sewage was between 5/. and 6/.

“4. The composition of the Rugby sewage-water varied very
much during the course of the season, being much more concen-
trated during the drier months. On the average, over about
seven months, 1000 tons of sewage contained about 214 cwts.,
or little more than one ton of solid matter; about 212 lbs. of
ammonia, or about as much as is contained in 11 ewts. of
Peruvian guano; and probably represented the excrements of
21 or 22 individuals of a mixed population of both sexes and all
ages for a year. This average composition agrees very closely
with that which published analyses indicate for the sewage of
London.

“5. On the average the sewaged grass contained, as cut, a
considerably lower proportion of dry or solid substance than the
unsewaged ; but the dry substance of the sewaged grass generally
contained a higher proportion of nitrogenous compounds,

“ 6, Analysis shows very little difference in the quality of the
milk yielded respectively from sewaged and unsewaged grass.
The difference in composition, such as it is, is slightly in favour
of the milk from the unsewaged grass when grass was given
alone, and slightly in favour of the sewaged grass when oilcake
was given in addition.”

Nothing has tended more to prevent a proper understanding
between town and country—the producers of sewage and the
consumers of manure—as to the commercial value of sewage,
and the best manner of utilising it, than the very exaggerated
statements which are from time to time put forth on the subject.
Only a few weeks ago an anonymous pamphlet, pretending to be
in the interest of the urban rate-payers, was published, which
quotes an estimate, professedly founded on scientific authority,
that the sewage of London, reckoning the prospective population
at 8,000,000, will be worth something over 10,000,000Z. sterlirig
per annum! It required an expenditure of, I believe, 60,0007, to
satisfy those who some years ago insisted upon the very high agri-
cultural value of solid manure obtained from sewage by lime, that
the value assigned to it by myself, and others, was correct, At

Utilisation of Town Sewage. ° 87

present there are no advocates for the manufacture of a solid
manure from dilute town sewage. The controversy now lies
between those who would distribute it in small quantities over
enormous areas, and apply it to all crops, and those who would
employ it in large quantities over comparatively small areas,
and confine its application almost exclusively to succulent crops.

As already referred to, the ‘Select Committee on the
Sewage of Towns” in their ‘‘ Analysis of Evidence” give it as
their opinion “that sewage is applicable to all crops, and that if
commercial results are sought for, it should be applied in small
dressings.” I have very carefully considered the evidence given
before that Committee, and I must confess that neither can I,
endorse the opinion just quoted, nor do I think there are many
acquainted with agriculture who will think it borne out by the
evidence when they have themselves perused it. FS

I have not the slightest doubt that any attempt to apply the
sewage of London in its present average state of dilution, or that
of any other town similarly diluted, to crops generally, and in
quantities of a few hundred tons per acre, will result either in
great pecuniary loss to those who invest their capital in supplying
the sewage, or in signal failure, and perhaps pecuniary loss also,
to those who, like Mr. Campbell, Mr. Congreve, and Mr. Mullins,
the Rugby tenants, may purchase it for distribution in the manner
proposed.

On the average, one ton of the sewage of London or Rugby
contains only from 2 to 3 lbs. of solid matter, of which only
about half, or less, will consist of the valuable constituents of
human excrements; and with the progress of sanitary arrange-
ments as at present generally carried out, the dilution appears to
be daily increasing. It will be quite obvious, at any rate to
most agriculturists, that the fact of having to bring upon the
land such an enormous quantity of water in order to supply
such a small amount of manurial matter, must materially
affect the applicability of such manure to land under tillage,
the cost at which a given amount of constituents can be brought
on to the land, and their productive value when there. In
fact, it is clearly quite fallacious to assume the general applica-
bility to all crops, of manure so diluted, from any considera-
tions as to the applicability of the same constituents in the undi-
luted form.

The agriculturist would, indeed, only be justified in con-
tracting for a supply of town sewage at a price far below the
estimates of those who propose to deliver it to him; and, taking
into consideration not only the great, but the varying, and
perhaps increasing dilution of sewage, the question of the com-
position as well as the amount of the sewage supplied, must form

88 ; Utilisation of Town Sewage.

the basis of any contract between town and country in the matter.
The amount of nitrogen in sewage, in the forms of ammonia and
nitric acid, affords the best indication of the amount of human
excrements it represents, and hence it is the best guide as to the
probable amount of the other valuable constituents. The relative
value of the sewage might, therefore, be estimated according to
the average number of grains of ammonia per gallon.

The question now at issue, it must be remembered, is not
whether the constituents of human excrements, if presented to us
in a concentrated, dry, and portable form, might not then be
applicable to all crops, to those under tillage designed to ripen
, their seeds, as well as others, but whether those same constituents
distributed through enormous bulks of water, as under the pre-
sent, and rapidly extending system, can be so applied ?

« No one will doubt that if the sanitary requirements of the nation
could be attained by any system which would preserve the excre-
ments of the population free from admixture with water, and pre-
sent them for use, at once undiminished in value by decomposi-
tion, and in a portable and innoxious condition, the land of the
country devoted to the growth of human food might, by their
application to it, be greatly increased in its productiveness.

The question of the sanitary arrangements of our towns was
taken up by engineers” before agricultural chemistry was much
studied, and they have committed us to plans which, though
they effectually remove the noxious matters from our dwellings,
must greatly limit the area, and mode of their agricultural
utilisation ; and which, at the same time, have tended greatly
to the pollution of our streams. To say nothing of the enormous
cost that would be involved in entirely subverting the present
methods of removing the excrements of the inhabitants of our
large cities from their dwellings, it must be admitted, that no
feasible scheme has yet‘been proposed by which this could be
accomplished without the use of water. Such is certainly a great
desideratum ; but perhaps a consummation more to be wished
than expected.

It is, perhaps, more probable, that by a reduction in the water
supply, or by a more effectual separation of the sewage from the
rain-fall, town populations may succeed in producing for the use
of the farmer a less diluted sewage. But, in the mean time, we
must deal with the sewage as we find it ; and the price which the
farmer could afford to pay for it would certainly offer no induce-
ment to capitalists to invest their money in distributing it in
small quantities over extensive areas. The only persons bene-
fited by such a scheme, would be the contractors, and others,
engaged in carrying out the undertaking.

89

Utilisation of Town Sewage.

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( 91)

V.—On the Supply of Horses adapted to the Requirements of
the English Army ; with Notes on the Remount System in the
French Army. By J. WiiKinson.

In the history of the horse, it would be interesting to trace the
changes which time, climate, and the control of man have effected
in the animal’s frame and constitution. To the colossal fossil
remains which have been discovered in America, no exact date
can be assigned ; but they are evidently those of a gigantic race
long since extinct, which differed essentially from that now on
the earth. If we would learn what was the prevailing type of
the horse of the early Asiatic empires, a wonderfully faithful
record has been preserved in the Nineveh marbles; whilst the
sculpture and painting of Greece and Rome will enable us to
form as true a conception of the then existing type, making due
allowance for the exercise of poetical imagination in those works
of art. In the ever-varying and ever-beautiful form and cha-
racter of the figures represented by these artists, a harmony
prevails from which we may fairly conclude that the conforma-
tion is, as a whole, true to nature.

Some important “points” which we recognise in the Elgin
Marbles, and the various antiquities of the Acropolis, have been
successfully and rightly reproduced in modern works, such as
the beautiful bas-relief of the “Passage of the Red Sea” in the
last Great Exhibition, and are still to be traced in one or two
extant breeds of north-western Europe; points especially affect-
ing the head, neck, and body, and exhibiting a configuration
which we in England by no means seek to imitate.

In respect of numbers, although the horses and chariots of the
Egyptian and Asiatic monarchies were numerous, it was reserved
for Tamerlane and Bajazet to assemble the most mighty hosts
on record, when between them they paraded 700,000 horses!
The requirements of modern European armies are dwarfed by
such a comparison, and our own numbers are small even when
compared with those of some continental nations; but the ordi-
nary demands of our peace establishment of 13,000 or 14,000
horses by no means indicate the amount of strain which would
be put on our resources in the event of war.

In ordinary times the proportion drafted from the service is a
little under 13 per cent., or about 1500, a number which bears a
very small proportion to the whole supply bred for the English
market. Of these 13 per cent. a little over 11 per cent. are
cast and sold, the deaths from accidents and incurable diseases
being less than 1 per cent. and those resulting from curable
diseases of a like amount.*

* In the chapter of accidents, the following are noteworthy. A short time ago
& man in a leading eharging squadron had his lance wrested out of his hand, se

92 Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army.

For these favourable results we are indebted, in the first
instance, to the vigilance and practical skill of His Royal
Highness the Field-Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, who expects
every branch of the service to be “always ready,” and at once
detects any defect, whilst he so encourages and supports every
zealous officer as to make the performance of duty a real
pleasure.

In the second place, these results are due to the exertions of all
the officers and men of the various regiments, who constantly vie
with one another in the practical application of the best means
of keeping horses in thealth. ‘These means are so correctly
appreciated in the army, and are so few and so simple, that
they can be easily carried out. Good oats, 10 lbs. per diem;
hay, 12 lbs.; straw, 8 Ibs.; water, ad lib.; exercise; surface
drains; clean stables, dry litter floors, and proper, ventila-
tion. The system of ventilation is threefold :—I1st. Ground
ventilation—for drying the floors; 2ndly, ceiling ventilation—for
the egress of vitiated air; and lastly, but not least, respiratory
ventilation—for the supply of fresh air under the horse’s nose ;
all these ends being accomplished without the creation of strong
currents. It will easily be seen that our principles of stable
management are founded on common sense.

These results contrast very favourably with the comparative
military statistics of our neighbours the French. They muster
an effective force of about 41,793 horses of all arms. of their
service, and the average of deaths is 84 per cent. (instead of
about 14), namely—5 per cent. from glanders and farey, and 34
per cent. from accidents and what we have designated curable
diseases in contradistinction to those which defy all medical
skill.

For many years there has not been any very important change
in the characteristics of the horses required for the army on
home service. They may be appropriately divided into, two
chief classes—those of the Cavalry and the Artillery: the first of
which may be subdivided into Heavy and Light Cavalry; the
second into Horse and Field Artillery ; the requirements of the
Engineers and Military Train being put under the same head as
those of the Field Artillery, although the Engineers use a
rather smaller horse, and the Military Train a slightly heavier
one, than the Field Artillery. Each corps selects its own horses,

that it fell upon its butt, and pointed backwards. A horse in the succeeding
squadron caught the point on his breast, and so completely impaled himself on it,
that it came out close to his tail. Again, the other day two horses whilst at drill,
approaching each other from opposite directions, came into collision, and the
combined force was so great as to fracture the skull of one and break the back
of the other. The horses could not fail to foresee the shock, and, but for their
docility, might have avoided it. And yet we are expected to doubt the power of
sayalry to break a square of infantry !

Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army. 93

The Heavy Cavalry make, in a great degree, successful attempts
to procure the breeding and substance of weight-carrying hunters.
The Light Cavalry attempt with equal success to obtain well-
bred, active, hunting-like horses of less weight.

_ Those chosen for the Horse or Flying Artillery approximate
more to the London carriage horse than to any other class; and
those which belong to the Field Battery class, are of the thick,
active farm or railway-contractor’s kind. The officers’ chargers,
being suitable for the park or hunting-field, and such as they would
use whether in the army or not, need not be further noticed.

This classification may be said to have existed for a good
many years, but the number in each class has not remained
relatively the same; the Royal Artillery having been greatly
augmented in consequence of the increased importance of that
arm of the service.

Although in no one instance, perhaps, is a horse bred
expressly to supply the army, nevertheless horses of all these
four descriptions are reared in abundance in the United Kingdom ;
and we may feel assured, from our experience of the influence
of the short Crimean campaign, that our general capability of
rearing horses admits of very great expansion. Under the
impulse then given, in Ireland alone the increase in one year,
upon a stock of 573,408, amounted to 26,374; as although the
war was then over, the vastness of this increase may be attributed
to its influence. It is very much to be regretted that we have
no means of knowing how many were bred in Great Britain in
the same eventful period ; for we may be allowed to think that
the diminution in the number of cayalry horses bred in Great
Britain, which is a notorious fact, and the increase of the same
produce in Ireland, have arisen in no inconsiderable degree from
the publicity which was given in Ireland and there only, to
the state of the supply. ‘Twenty-five years ago the case was
reversed,

The price paid by Government for the horses of the army,
which on an average amounts to about 36/, may not at first
sight seem to be sufficiently remunerative to induce farmers to
breed purposely for the army, and such, perhaps, never is their
precise purpose. Their aim is to breed a carriage horse or a
hunter; but as their good intentions are not always realised,
they sometimes fall back upon the cavalry or horse artillery,
In breeding for farm or railway purposes, they at the same time
produce horses for the rest of the service ; and we think that 364.
for a green four-year old of this class would pay the farmer, if
he obtained his fair share of the price paid; but we fear that
more dealers live between the breeder and the barrack than is
compatible with the interest of either party, Therefore the

94 Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army.

supposed difference between the real value of the horse supplied
and the 36/. which he costs, affords a base for the arguments in
favour of Government breeding-establishments, and against the
present system of remounting.

This question, which has engaged the attention of military
men and others from time to time, has led to the framing
of many well-considered schemes; but they have failed to carry
with them the conviction that such a course would be better for
the Government or the army than to have, as at present, the
whole agricultural interest in the United Kingdom as an open
market. At the same time we think it not impossible that some
plan might be discovered by which the farmer would be better
remunerated, and the troops as well, if not better, mounted.

The horse, as well as other animals, has been much improved
by judicious crossing ; but as every race has a natural tendency
to return to its primeval type, constant attention is required on
the part of breeders to prevent degeneration. Wonderful im-
provements in conformation, speed, and strength, have been
accomplished in some classes. We may instance as specimens
the statue opposite Apsley House (when seen on the ground)
and that in Pall Mall East. Both these we have reason to believe
were taken from life. But, alas! the majority of breeders pay
very little attention to symmetry and power. Sometimes they
do not appear to have any purpose in breeding beyond the getting
of a foal of any sort. Some are so prejudiced that they will
breed from a mare when old and worn out, simply because she
once carried her owner through a very long journey, or performed
some other unusual feat; entirely disregarding the fact that she
may have a large head, ewe neck, upright shoulders, calf knees,
long crooked pasterns, long slack back, weasel waist, short
drooping’ quarters, short thighs, curby or cow hocks, with dish-
ing speedy cutting, or slouching action.

The selection of the sire will likewise be mainly determined
by the small cost of service or a long pedigree; though ‘to the
intrinsic merits of his race, he may exhibit no personal claim
whatever. A mongrel offspring is the result, and the breeder is
led to the exercise of his British prerogative, and grumbles, not
at his own mismanagement, but at what he calls capricious
nature, which drops a valuable foal in a neighbour’s paddock on
the other side of his boundary fence.

The farmer will not breed expressly for the army, but aim at
getting either a weight-carrying hunter or a carriage-horse, with
the further chance of receiving from 30/. to 362. for his colt at
four years old, for military service—no very bad alternative.

When we take into consideration the wonders achieved of late
years in our improved races of cattle, sheep, and pigs—their

Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army. 95

early maturity, their precocity in breeding—it is surprising that
the same principles have not been generally applied to the
horse, and attended with like results. In breeding for the turf
alone has the new system been in any degree adopted. From
the high and forcing diet afforded to the young thoroughbred
he has often, to all intents and purposes, as much arrived at
maturity at four years old as the colt which has run loose on
wild pastures at five. He is thoroughly furnished, and his
bones are quite consolidated. In one respect only it would seem
that Nature’s course cannot be accelerated, viz., the development
of the teeth. Whatever be the extent to which the young
thoroughbred is forced, the dentition will not be forestalled, but
the mouth will give a correct indication of his age. This cir-
cumstance promotes trickery among the breeders and dealers,
which often produces prejudicial consequences ; but from high-
feeding the young colt will now not only have a more fully deve-
loped frame, but greater fitness to stand work than he would
generally get credit for if his age were honestly indicated by his
teeth. This circumstance may explain, but not excuse, the cruelty
to which young horses are so often exposed from extraction of
milk teeth and cauterising the gums and other such expedients to
hasten the process of teething. It would seem, then, that early
maturity is as attainable in the horse as in other animals, and that,
not in appearance and stature only, but in fitness for bearing the
strain of work. ‘The same means will here be required which have
been found so profitable in the case of cattle, viz., a generous
diet, such as proves remunerative not only in the market but in
the manure-heap. If such a course be adopted, the breeding of
horses need no more be restricted to the pastures of Yorkshire
and similar districts than the breeding of shorthorns to the birth-
place of that tribe; and special advantages from easy and con-
venient access to good sires may counterbalance the possession
of better natural feeding-grounds.

The most prevailing defect among horse-breeders is a want of
sufficient care in procuring good mares to breed from. One
method of securing a satisfactory dam may be safely recom-
mended. Suppose some fairly satisfactory mares have thrown
fillies (which is generally a disappointment), let these be well-
fed, and put to the horse at three years old. Experience will
soon enable you to decide between them which is best adapted
to become a permanent brood-mare. Each one of them will
give you a tolerable foal to pay for her keep, and will herself
have gained in frame and substance; her year of repose will
have much more than compensated for the healthy demand made
upon her constitution by bearing and rearing the foal. The
less satisfactory mares will then be of the right age to be sold

96 Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army.

for the military service, for which more mares than horses are
purchased for the cavalry, though in the artillery a gelding has
more decidedly the preference.

With other stock, that desideratum, an increase in price, seems
to be at once responded to by improved supplies; and we feel at
a loss to account for the exceptional supineness or want of skill
which cannot be tempted even by that bait to the display of
more energy in horse-breeding.

If the farmer were more successful, his better fortune would
be reflected upon the mounted part of our army, for the raising
of the value of his produce would inevitably lead to an advance
in the Government allowance ; and although we do not suppose
for a moment that his produce would ever sell for the facti~
tious prices (ten to fifteen hundred guineas each), which are
realised at one or two of the annual sales of blood stock, yet we
think that by more attention to conformation, action, and age in
the parents, and by the discontinuance of the practice of leaving
the produce, when weaned, to eke out an eleemosynary sub-
sistence on the marsh or moorside, breeding horses for general
purposes might be made a more profitable occupation than it
appears to be at present.

Mistakes sometimes arise because the quality of a horse is
thought to be discovered whilst he is yet very young, and he
is either pampered or half-starved according as he may be
considered prospectively capable of splitting a Leicestershire
“ bullfinch” or an enemy’s squadron. And hence the cavalry
often gets a thin horse, which, when properly nurtured in a regi-
ment, developes qualities that, as the ‘“ best-mannered horse” in
a crack dealer’s hands, would swell the tens he cost into hun-

dreds.
The Remount System in the French Army.

The state of the market for horses in France differs very mate~
rially from our own, the State being there not only a ‘more
important customer, but having entered into, or forestalled com-
petition to some degree as a breeder. Of the Royal Establish-
ments of brood-mares formed some years back, some have of
late been abandoned, and others restricted or threatened with
dissolution—probably from the results produced not answering
expectation; and the Government seems more and more dis-
posed to rely on the general market for a supply, and to encourage
it by a steady system of purchase rather than by direct sub-
sidies.

The following information condensed from an official report on
the Remount System in the French Army may afford some
useful hints for our own consideration. In France, as among our-

Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army. 97

selves, the general insufficiency of the supply is complained of,
and an explanation found in the fact that the price of the horse
has not risen in the same proportion as that of the bullock.

On this point Count Roche Aymon wrote as follows in 1828:
“Before 1791, 400 or 500 francs was paid for a Limousin horse
two and a-half years old, and a pair of oxen were sold for from
300 to 400 francs. Nowadays these oxen are sold at from 700
to 800 frances each, and horses four or five years old sell for 400
or 500 francs,” and it is remarked that if these figures are not
quite correct, yet their proportions are preserved in the returns of
actual commerce, ‘There is, therefore, more advantage in pro-
ducing horned beasts than riding-horses.

The insufficiency of the supply is no new complaint, since in
the time of Colbert one hundred millions of pounds were ex-
ported to pay for horses, and proportionally as much since that
period,

The deficiency is by no means equally distributed between the
different classes required for the use of the army; for, whilst
artillery horses and mules for draught, finding always a steady
market, independent of the Government, for home use or even
for export, are always in fair supply. without any special encou-
ragement (and indeed in spite of the attempts made to foster other
breeds exclusively) of riding-horses,—such as are required for
light cavalry, there never is much choice. The French generally
are not a riding and driving community like ourselves, therefore
the number of saddle-horses there bred will chiefly depend on
the encouragement given by the requirements of the army, and
on the sufficiency of the price there paid to meet the average
cost and risks of the breeder. Much stress is therefore now laid
by some of their authorities on regulating the Government de-
mand, and, if possible, announcing beforehand its probable
extent. It has fluctuated from 20,000, 30,000, 40,000 in a year,
to scarcely more than 2000 or 3000, and it is asked if the
breeders have on hand and wish to sell 12,000 or 15,000 riding-
horses in a year when the State, as we have seen, may only pur-
chase 500 or 1000, what is to become of the others? ‘The
coach-contractor prefers for his work a Percheron horse at 1000
francs to a saddle-horse (Merlonese) at 6000 francs, or a Breton
horse at 500 francs to a Limousin at 10,000. Therefore, horses
designed for the cayalry cannot be sold for other purposes without
loss to the breeder.

The guarantee of a steady rate of purchase—say of 7000, 8000,
or 9000—for the army, is, therefore, essential to the supply being
forthcoming ; and it is suggested that the existing establishments
of horses had better be weeded occasionally, than the rate of pur-

VOL, XXIV. u

98 Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army:

chase made to vary much. Such weeding would remove ineffi-
cient and sickly horses, and be in that respect economical.

It is further urged that the saddle-horse is necessarily an ex-
pensive animal to rear, because its dam does little work, it must
have oats to eat, often meets with accidents, and these accidents
depreciate its value; the successful colt must therefore be got
up in such a form that it may fetch a price which shall cover
the losses incurred in the case of failure. The price, therefore,
cannot be low if it is to be moderately remunerative.

A plan for having “depéts for foals,” which the State is to
purchase when young, and then entrust to farmers to be reared
at the expense of the State, is wisely rejected in the Report in
question.

It would seem, then, that the French Government, dissatisfied
with its attempts at breeding, is disposed to trust for its supply of
riding-horses to the general market, when encouraged by a
regular demand and a fair price.

Assuming, then, that the remount is to be procured in the
general market, the question remains—what is the agency to
be employed in making purchases? We are told that ‘The
employment of large contractors to furnish horses is a most
vicious method, for how can any one foretell the value and the
prospect of an abundant supply of horses? It is an under~
taking which either ruins the contractor or makes his fortune ;
but as the purveyor always knows how to arrange matters so
as not to lose in the transaction—for those charged to receive
the horses will accept very middling or even bad animals
rather than see an unfortunate speculator lose his fortune in the
service of the State—the army is always more or less the suf-
ferer; at all events, it is preferable by direct purchases to allow
the breeders to have a profit rather than these dealers.”

The purchase by regiments is preferable, but each regiment
ought only to buy horses from its own immediate neighbourhood.
The mere presence at a distant fair of strangers bent on pur-
chasing, raises prices, and if the opportunity is not favourable
a long journey will have been incurred to no good purpose.

The establishment, therefore, of permanent remount depots
in the most favoured and central districts is advocated, that the
officers commissioned to purchase, may be in contact with the
breeders without any intervention of commissioners or dealers.
It is contemplated that they would make purchases for each
branch of the service indiscriminately within their district,
although generally each province or department will have its
a stamp of horse, whether suited to the artillery or the
cavalry,

Supply of Horses adapted to the English Army. 99

These depéts would not only purchase, but handle and train
the horses, before sorting and apportioning them among the dif-
ferent corps. It is expected that, in the breeding districts, the
supply of forage will be cheap and ample, and that the young
horse, during his course of training, will be least exposed to sick-
ness in his native country.

It is considered more prudent to appoint a commission than to
employ for purchase a single agent, who might bear a grudge
against some particular breeder.

Purchases might be made at the principal fairs or at the
breeders’ homes, but a complaint is made that certain breeders
are not so frank and are more given to imposition than the
dealers,

Although the services of a contractor be not specially en-

gaged, horses might sometimes be bought through dealers who
have a ready access to secluded districts “and farmers who follow
the old routine of sale.
} In every depét there ought to be a register in which a page
should be assigned to each breeder in the district, wherein to
notify the number of horses furnished by him, and the arm of
the service for which they were intended.

With due provision and encouragement, it is considered that
Normandy and Brittany alone might furnish 4000 or 5000 horses
yearly,—a large portion of the average supply required.

The French prices for 1851, 1852, and 1853 were as fol-
lows :—

Prick anD HetcHT or FreNcH TRoop-HorsEs.

{
|
Mean Purchase-price in
Branches of the Service. Height. — pee Sees a
| 1851. 1852. | 1853.
| ae Oe eee ae
Reserve oe cee 2to 15°3;, 32 al 0. O04 32.0.0) :81 lo oO
Cavalry of the Line .. | 15to 15-2 | 26 | 26 14 0/26 0 0/27 6 0
Light Cavalry . a 14°3 to15 2a} 22 18 OF). 25 2 Ol 22-16 oO
Scie in Africa - 14 |}1413 4] 14 0 0] 14 13 10
anége (Ridin, -school
na tonee mece F 40 42 6 8/5110 0/6013 0
Officers’ chargers... « 386 | 38 0 6] 36 6 0} 41 2 6
Ditto in Africa .. .. oe 20 | 2015 6] 26 0 0}; 2010 0
Artillery
Riding ws: ag sa .- 26 a 1810 Of) 25° 0.0
In Africa ‘aah oe me 12712 0 aa 1213 O
Draught-horses .. | 15 to 15°2 Qe 27 12.0 “ 2115 0
Wes cn te ce 6s | 14°Sf0.15°1| 20 as . 16 2 0
Donkeys .. «. + as 8 & ae
Camels pany eae - 8 a9 :

( 100 )

_ Wi.—L£xperiments with different Top- Dressings upon Wheat.
By Dr. Aueustus VoELCKER.

In Vol. XX., Part IL, and Vol. XXIII. of this Journal, reports
will be found of experiments made by me in 1859-60-61, with
top-dressings upon wheat. I have now the pleasure of laying
before the Society a short account of similar wheat experiments

made in 1862.

WueEAT EXPERIMENTS MADE IN 1862.

The field on which the wheat was grown is well drained,
moderately stiff, and on the whole fair wheat-land. The depth
of the surface-soil varies from 6 to 8 inches.

A large quantity of the soil from the experimental field
(fields Nos. 16 and 17 on the map of the Royal Agricultural
College Farm) was turned over and well mixed, so as to obtain
a fair average sample for analysis, which gave the following
results :—

* Composition of Soil in Field No. 16 and 17, Royal Agricultural College

Farm.
Moisture (when analysed) wih a nee
*Oreanic matter and water of combination oc es LOGU
Oxides of iron andalumina .. .. .. « « 1611
Carbonate.of lime: aon 5 cea.tiee Mtoe, ee cee ee
Sulphate: of lime, asa ss-uee mee eee ae 23
IMaonesia. .- vee lies!) tes, cot ie So aeene Tne 1°75
Phosphoric acid sok) ac heres. + Senne ead SYe een gi lh

C@hionmera’ ts) © Macy eect he. ete ceed cea ened
Potash eis’ pra bt rErwtee™ Relate ie eth Pach ewer ae ce mel “86
Soda .. .. Seldon Gen. Sahil
Insoluble siliceous matter ‘(clay) se Pcs, New *< eemmeeno bass

100°45
“Containing nitrogen {5 2 se «0. o« ss a *38
Equal. tojammonia nave osshask<l nes 452) noel “46

This soil contains hardly any siliceous sand separable by the
mechanical process of washing and decantation, and consists
principally of clay, carbonate of lime, and organic remains. _ It
is a calcareous clay.

The subsoil is a mechanical mixture of stiff alae clay with
limestone rubble resting on forest-marble rock. On analysis it
furnished the following results :—

Experiments with different Top-dressings upon Wheat. 101

Composition of Subsoil in Field No. 16 and 17, Royal Agricultural College

Farm.
Moisture (when analysed) .. Lies cistal » tee
*Organic matter and water of combination’ ooh 222 he O"
Oxides af onmand sinming, .. — .«., .«« .s« 2». 21°68
SRPIRDE OR SING a ee cc, 2c. as) eed prea ace POT O
Rimenmeeereinderiiciwe #se" 20? T2, oc eras es “32
Merrmeee coe tee Paso say Soc ® BoP MeSy Ha Bes 27
Phosphoric acid Sar) georiicn & cach Mata Mawel toa 16
REE coe ahd cs, , cc. . wonte dei t. ca dh aa, AEE
Potash AMD Y's ae Fock ova 9 Sea ech an | NSe BO
Soda .. bi Adee te ae eae “(2

Insoluble siliceous matter ‘(clay) ont lae, Sag tae) SOR

100°45
*Containing nitrogen . .. «2° e2° oe se ewe “34
Equalto ammonia .. . “ 41

This field is perfectly ey Lay the eee as far as could be
ascertained, uniformly deep. Its extent is 16 acres 11 poles. It
was cropped i in preceding years as follows ;—

1857. Cow-grass, mown and fed,

1858. Wheat.

1859. Mangolds, potatoes, cabbages.

1860. Oats.

1861. Vetches, followed by white swedes and grey-top
stone turnips.

1862. Free trade wheat and seeds.

This field generally grows good clover.

Two acres covered with a tolerably equal plant were measured
out, and carefully divided into 8 equal plots of } acreeach. They
were surrounded by a considerable breadth of the general wheat-
crop. These 8 plots, with the exception of plot No. 5, which
was left unmanured, were top-dressed as follows :—

Plot, Top-dressing. Rate of Dressing per Acre. Te yell
ba Sat Ge
I i ewt. of nitrate of soda syed! 1 ewt. of nitrate and) 017 0
Zewt.ofsalt.. . | 2 ewt. of common salt /
I e Ibs. of nitrate of soda and)| 13 ewt. of nitrate an 15 6
- 84 Ibs. of salt |. 3 ewt. of common salt
Ill ? ewt. of nitrate of "soda and 2 ewt. of. nitrate aot Tae
: 1 ewt. of common salt . 4ewt. of salt .
EV. %, ewt. of 2 eaeme ofsoda .. .. | 2cwt. ofnitrate ofsoda} 110 0
iva nmanure - Gaeliee =a
AS 7 Ibs. pA is salt paste oy pocemt. of salt oe 0 3 (0
ewt. of Peruvian = and\| 2 ewt. of guano and
Vil. { Z ewt. of salt... .. . S| Qewt. of salt i} kee
VIII. | 4 cwt. of Peruvian guano. oe 2 ewt.of Peruvian guano} 1 6 0

The cold anid wet spring of 1862 prevented the wheat from

102 Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat.

making a fair start early in the season. Before this takes place,
if I am not mistaken, it is not desirable to top-dress wheat. No
general rule can be laid down for this operation: in some seasons
the end of February or beginning of March is not too early; but in
average seasons it appears to me more desirable to delay the appli-
cation until the middle or end of March, and in wet cold springs
even to the middle of April; or, generally speaking, until warmer
and more settled weather has’given a fair start to the wheat-plant.

In 1862 the top-dressings were delayed until the 15th of
April. Before being sown broadcast with Reeve’s dry manure-
distributor, they were passed through a fine sieve, and, in order
to secure a more uniform distribution over the land, mixed with
fine coal-ashes.

It will be seen that I confined my attention to three fertilizers
only, namely, to nitrate of soda, Peruvian guano, and salt.

In the three preceding seasons nitrate of soda had invariably
produced a beneficial practical result, both applied alone and
in conjunction with salt.

One of the objects of the experiments in 1862 was to ascertain
in what proportions nitrate of soda is most economically applied
as a top-dressing for wheat. For this purpose 1, 24, and 3 ewt. of
nitrate of soda per acre were used in 3 experimental plots, and
in each case the nitrate of soda was mixed with twice its weight
of common salt.

On Plot IV. nitrate of soda alone, at the rate of 2 ewt. per
acre, was employed to afford a comparison with the adjoining
plot, on which the same quantity of nitrate of soda was used
mixed with twice its weight of salt.

In 1860 salt alone gave no appreciable increase of wheat: in
1861 it had a decidedly beneficial effect. A continuation of the
experiment, therefore, seemed desirable, and accordingly salt
alone was tried on Plot VI., applied at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre.

In Plots VII. and VIII. Peruvian guano was applied alone and
together with salt, to test the real advantage of the latter mixture.

Plot 1.—Top-dressed April 15th, 1862, at the rate of 1 ewt. of
nitrate and 2 ewt. of salt, produced :—

cwt. qrs. Ibs, J
Corn, Head Hs, (eee Sein’ ds ae, Nou ee
jy Pail eal. vy) ae) Be yee, gore es + ae Ol Oe
5 0 22
Straw .. She we we eb, es | oe nn
CODA wisp, cone. top, 83) unk? | >>» so) nse eeety nn
WOAVINES | esi de pe WoT oe en se | eS

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 38 bushels 48 lbs., calculating 60 Ibs,
to the bushel.
Straw (including chaff and éavings) 1 ton 7 ewt. 16 Ibs;

Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat. 103

The nitrate of soda was a good commercial sample, as will be
seen by the following analysis :—

Composition of Nitrate of Soda used in these Top-Dressings,

Ree ERE EB se oy A cu) 4 oe.) < ay > oa og teeta
METER SOGTUIA <6 #1 os: 4+ oat ca |b enh ant ee 1:184
Pure nitrate of soda aah tA oa th mgt Penge ORM cae eA LO
Sand and earth Sa tee. av, bea pnb ba AE NS Re

100-000

Plot I1.—Top-dressed April 15th, at the rate of 13 ewt. of
nitrate of soda and 3 ewt. of salt per acre, produced :—

= ewt. qrs. Ibs.
CR eETCAd of Bee Bead is cit ilews -bhawy sly Dd iG
LUI woe oat Pt coe ss jes, aay oc. 0 0 2
52 8
PEC tae | ss, Ge, ak an te, we HS OL AZ
Chaff .. 0 1 113
Cavings OF Cn. 16

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 41 bushels 36 Ibs., at 60 lbs. per bushel.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 9 cwt. 3 qrs. 2 lbs,

In comparison with Plot I., the higher produce here obtained
both in corn and straw more than repaid the additional outlay for
the extra quantity of nitrate of soda and salt.

Plot 111.—Top-dressed, at the rate of 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda
and 4 ewt. of salt per acre, produced :—

= ' ewt. qrs. Ibs,

Corn, Head SS ee ET Re ees eS ly
TAU we cy teoe tes ts. es) cs OO 5 IGE
6 0 O82

Straw .. ents oss we cs al ee ees ce ws ee, Be
DIUMRMCE rss cy ws Ge ee ae os OF 1. O
PEERS a3)? 2S se Fhe sd) ae. 6 Sey Ove O) 28

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 44 bushels 48 Ibs.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 10 ewt. 2 qrs. 16 lbs.

A still more favourable result, then, was produced by adding
again 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 1 cwt. of common salt per
acre to the quantity of the same top-dressing used in the preceding
experiments.

Plot. 1V.—Top-dressed with 4 cwt. of nitrate of soda alone, or
at the rate of 2 ewt, per acre, produced :— - ;

104 Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat.

ewt. qrs. Ibs.

Corn, Head eyez il
jy algal oe 0 0 43
5. IS R25F

Stray ae. Ae (Ast y ce) ee eee Uae 0 2a
Chat ai. oO 1 163
Cavings be O: dae

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 44 bushels 88 Ibs., at GO Ibs. per bushel.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 13 ewt, 1 qr. 10 lbs,

Nitrate of soda alone, in this experiment, gave almost exactly
the same produce in corn and rather more straw than the same
quantity of nitrate mixed with twice its weight of salt.

The wheat on all the plots to which nitrate of soda was applied
looked remarkably well, and for the first three months had a
brighter green colour than the wheat on the guano plots.

Plot V.—Unmanured, produced :—
ewt. qrs. Ibs.
Corn Mend.) eo sels oe | ok” ane cat Ree ene e
i Ete

3 3 15}
Straw .. te ofs) Oe A ee ee e
Oi nn ROU eur ca mts og.) iL I
Cavines E os, O00 sae

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 29 bushels 2 lbs.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 3 qrs. 18 lbs.

The difference in the appearance of the wheat on the un-
manured plot and that on the four preceding plots was very
marked. throughout the whole ‘season. At harvest time the
wheat on the unmanured plot was several inches shorter in straw,
nor were the ears so long or so well filled as in the wheat on the
nitrate of soda and guano experimental plots. ’

Plot VI.—Top-dressed, at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre, pro-
duced :— >

2
2

cw

Corn, Head ..

rs.

5 0
sr alae we 0” OF sate
5 0 224
Straw . 5 le
Chaff . ond AE rth Of Zits
Caving iyiy 80) sere es bits tose Onn ggeO

Produce per Acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 38 bushels 50 Ibs.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 4 ewt. 20 Ibs,

The wheat on this plot looked rather stronger and more

Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat. 105

succulent than that on the unmanured plot, and, as the result
showed, yielded a considerable increase of corn.
Plot VIl—Top-dressed April 15th, at the rate of 2 ewt. of

guano and 2 ewt. of salt per acre, produced :—

cwt. qrs. Ibs.

PONE MHCAC ames MN isel sie ssi | we ewe DO) iO ED
PCS ee eee ts se aa ose ea? veel OF. O} Toe
yb oO Los

SACU cs” fedy lacus veoh bit atte Deesmeeda On Oundle
NCHS AMS. usd sc wch bo cig ne cee WemmiaeD LOW RLF
Cavings Stations VIR On Des

Produce per acre :—

Corn (head and tail) 43 bushels 30 lbs,
Straw (including chaff and cayings) 1 ton 8 ewt. 8 lbs.

The guano used in this and next experiment was genuine
Peruvian of superior quality, as will be seen by the following
analysis :—

WOIRUIGY ag ao RE BA no MERCI ESe mice Gs:
*Organic matter and salts of ammonia .. .. 52°04
Phosphates of lime and magnesia .. .. .. 19°61
Pee SOME 0 a. a ee es 1O4S

Sen Ree Ae Se ee ee 89

100-00
e@ontaining) nitrogen (iy sain dak Ge ties | eet) oar, TAOe
Muusbtorammonia so. soc) (sR ss, ve. foe wee NASI

Plot VIII.—Top-dressed with Peruvian guano, at the rate of
3 ewt. per acre, produced :—

; ewt. qrs. Ibs.
Wornmblendie yice yf ese, esa fees sea, baal) JOD 2A
ere Tall 5. O02. 3
NTS VG

Straw .. See EL Mao oaeteew micuiarose, Pec Ol a2) yo
AOC EAES Eitan wierd pe ean Ate arti alg mannnn gia vagy ay, 0s Dererll
Cini ee Oi UT 22

Produce per acre :—
Corn (head and tail) 42 bushels 52 Ibs.
Straw (including chaff and cavings) 1 ton 10 ewt. 8 qrs. 4 lbs.

The whole produce from each $ acre under experiment was
threshed out separately and carefully weighed. In stating the
produce in bushels a uniform weight of 60 lbs. per bushel has
been assumed; but in reality the corn on all the plots was
lighter, and with little variation on the different plots weighed
58% lbs. per bushel.

To facilitate a comparison, the preceding results are embodied
in the two following tables :—

106 Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat,

TABLE I,—Showing the Produce, in Tbs, and bushels, of Corn on Experi-
mental Plots, calculated per Acre, and the Increase per Acre over
Unmanured Plot (calculating the weight per bushel at 60 lbs.).

Plot. Manure employed per Acre,

I {* ewt. of nitrate of soda and)
2 2 ewt. of common salt ..
Ul 12 ewt. of nitrate of soda and |
; { 3 cwt. ofcommon salt .. ..
Ilr \? ewt. of nitrate of soda |
; 4 cwt. of common salt =
IV. | 2 ewt. of nitrate of a alone ..
V. | Unmanured . os
VI. | 3 ewt. of common ‘salt. ohteld
“VII 2 ewt. of Peruvian guano ant}
2ewt.ofcommon salt .. ..
VIL 2 ewt. of Peruvian guano .. .. |

TABLE II,—Showing the Produce in Straw per Acre, and Increase over
Unmanured Plot.

Plot. | Manure per Acre. | Produce am nmaae sagt —_

ltons cwt. qrs. Ibs.| cwt.qrs. Ibs.
I 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 2 cwt. o: »
: { common salt ;
\{13 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 3 ewt. of

II. || common salt | a eR I te
2 ewt. of nitrate of ee and 4 ewt. oft |
IIL. K idchendaea fia ba 10 2 16] 9 2 96
TV. | 2 ewt. of nitrate of soda alone = 1 18.2. 16) 32s
V. | Unmanured os 1-0 8/36 “_
VI. | 3 ewt. of common salt - 14 0 & ee
: 2 ewt. of Peruvian a and 2 2 ewt. " /
vil common salt .. ees. fi ee gtk .. Pee
1 10.3.7 3 14

Vil. | 2 ewt. of Peruvian guano Paget |

A comparison of the preceding tabulated results suggests the
following observations :—

1. Nitrate of soda, as in previous years, produced a eo oy
able increase both in corn and in straw.

2. The larger application of nitrate of soda produced a corre-
spondingly larger increase in corn.

It will be seen that whilst 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 2 ewt.-
of salt gave an increase of 9? bushels of corn, 14 ewt. of nitrate
and 3 ewt. of salt gave an increase of 124 bushels of corn, and
2 ewt. of nitrate and 4 cwt. of salt an increase of 15} bushels.
Thus for each 4 ewt. more nitrate of soda an additional i increase
of almost exactly 3 bushels of wheat was obtained,

Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat, 107

3. In the third experiment 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda and
4 ewt. of salt gave scarcely a larger increase than in the fourth
experiment, in which 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda was used alone.
This was also the case in my wheat experiments in 1861; whilst
in the preceding years of 1860 and 1859 the addition of salt to
the nitrate of soda had a marked beneficial effect upon the wheat
crop.

£ Salt alone, applied at the rate of 3 cwt. per acre, it will be
seen, produced as large an increase as 1 ewt. of nitrate and
2 cwt. of salt.

This is a curious result, but it stands not solitary, for in 1861
salt alone produced an increase of nearly 7 bushels of corn. But
as salt alone in the years preceding 1860 had hardly any effect
upon the increased production of corn, it appears very desirable
that further experiments with this cheap fertilizer should be
made.

5. Peruvian guano, applied at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre,
produced nearly as good a result as 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda.

6. The addition of salt to the guano, it appears, had little
effect in further increasing the produce in corn, as it had in
conjunction with nitrate of soda.

This is the more remarkable, since salt alone had such a
favourable effect when used by itself.

7. Salt, added both to guano and to nitrate of soda appears to
have checked over-luxuriance in the straw.. Thus it will be seen
that whilst 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda produced an increase of
nearly 124 cwt. of straw, the same quantity of nitrate mixed
with 4 cwt. of salt gave only an increase of 92 cwt. of straw in
round numbers. And again, whilst 2 cwt. of Peruvian guano
gave 92 cwt. of increase in straw, the same quantity of guano
mixed with 2 cwt. of salt produced only an increase of 7 cwt. of
straw. To show the commercial results I have constructed the
following table, p. 108. The wheat is valued at 48s. a quarter,
the price at which it was actually sold, and the straw at 30s. per
ton, as a usual selling price.

As regards economy, there can thus remain no doubt that
nitrate of soda, as well as Peruvian guano, either alone or mixed
with salt, may be used with great benefit as top-dressings for
wheat,—at least, on calcareous soils which, like our soils, contain
an abundance of mineral plant-food.

On light land, guano and salt appear to me preferable to
nitrate of soda or salt, because guano supplies phosphates and
alkalies, as well as nitrogenized matters, whilst nitrate of soda
is efficacious as a manure solely in virtue of its nitrogen.

Caution ought, therefore, to be used in applying this salt as
a top-dressing for wheat on light land. The opinion that nitro-

genous

108 Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat.

TABLE showing the Money Value of the Increase in Corn and Straw per Acre
over the Unmanured Plot in Experimental Field, and the Clear Profit
after deducting the price paid for Manures.

Money Increase in Cost of |
Plot. 9 aa ~~ |Top-dressings. Clear Profit.
Corn. | Straw.
£. 3. Gy) &. ist, £.. 8s «dil goes eds
1 ewt. of nitrate of soda tt ae
I. { and 2 ewt. of salt \ a ae OY 92 eee
\{13 ewt. of nitrate of soda
II. and 3 ewt. of common}| 315 0 |012 2 1S Grive plots
salt’ Tense, coe Ee
2 ewt. of nitrate of soda
III. { a ateotr reat } 4414 6 | ome Bel Sees 315 1
IV. | 2 ewt. of nitrate of soda .| 413 0 |018 9 110" -0 Needs
V. | Unmanured aE si - =p z a
VI, | 3 cwt. of common salt .. | 218 6 | 0 4 10 0-43. 20 135.9074
: 2 ewt. of Peruvian guano
VIT and 2 cwt. of common}| 4 7 0 |010 9 Ly "S250 9 9
salt ba Geet) “INE.
VIII. | 2 ewt. of Peruvian guano| 4 4 0 | 0 14 10 Ly) G90. |, Seas 10

genous top-dressings are beneficially applied to wheat grown on
poor land requires to be accepted with discrimination. If the
poverty, or rather unproductiveness, is caused by a bad mechanical
condition and improper aération of the soil, such top-dressings
frequently produce marvellously beneficial results,—results, how-
ever, which perhaps are not greater than those attending deep-
ploughing, exposure to air, and similar means for improving
naturally unproductive clay soils, But if land is unproductive,
like many sandy soils, simply because it does not contain in
sufficient quantity all the mineral constituents which enter into
the composition of the ash of wheat, top-dressings with nitrate of
soda will tend to its more rapid exhaustion; and though such
a dressing may for a season produce a somewhat larger orn-
crop, it is doubtful whether the injury done to the land is not
greater than the temporary benefit which is realized by the
crop.

On the whole, I am inclined not to recommend nitrate of
soda, as is commonly done, as a top-dressing for wheat on poor
land, if, as explained, the poverty of the land is caused by a
deficiency of mineral food ; but I would fee] little hesitation about
using it liberally on clay soils and all land which good culti-
vation renders productive. Chemically speaking, the better the
land—that is, the more abundant in it the stores of mineral food
—the more largely nitrogenous top-dressings may be used, and
vice versa.

In concluding this report I have again to express my obligations

Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat. 109

to Mr. Coleman, Professor of Agriculture in the Royal Agri--
cultural College, for his valuable services in carrying out the
preceding experiments.

Royd) Agricultural College, Cirencester, Jan. 1863.

Further Experiments by Mr. Strarron and Mr, Frere,’

Mr. Stratton, of Wallscourt, near Bristol, in the following
letter addressed to Professor Voelcker, shows what very remark
able results may be obtained by the application of nitrate to an
inferior clay soil, which, however, is not poor in a chemical
sense, but full of ‘mineral riches, of which the plant cannot
without such aid, readily avail itself :—

‘DEAR Str, “ Wallscourt, 19th December, 1862.

*] take this opportunity of fulfilling my promise to send

you the result of a trial made here of nitrate of soda on wheat.
“The soil on which the experiment was tried is an inferior
and rather a poor clay, about the worst spot on the farm. The
previous crop (vetches and winter oats) had been cut and carried
off. The plant of wheat was good, but it looked weakly in
March. I therefore sowed in April nitrate of soda at the rate of
14 ewt. per acre over the whole piece (38 acres), with the excep-
tion of one land in the middle. At harvest the unmanured
portion was accurately measured, as was the adjoining land ; and
the produce was carefully kept separate and thrashed. The result
was, without nitrate, 16 bushels per acre; with the dressing,

36 bushels 1 peck. The straw was quite doubled in quantity.

‘‘ Believe me, dear Sir, yours very truly,

* RICHARD STRATTON,
“T) Dr. Voelcher.”

Mr. Frere’s Statement.

I also was induced to use nitrate of soda in 1862 as a top-
dressing for some wheat sown rather late on a clayey loam, better
adapted to mangold than turnips. The field had grown barley
and clover since a three-year-old saintfoin layer had been broken
up and sown to mustard with 3 cwt. of guano per acre. The
clover, a moderate crop, had been mown once, and afterwards
furnished but a light folding. The plant being weak and back-
ward, on the 31st of March one end of the field was dressed with
nitrate and salt at the rate of 13 cwt. of nitrate and 3 cwt. of
salt per acre; the other end had 1 cwt. of nitrate and 3 ewt. of

110 Experiments with different Top-Dressings upon Wheat.

salt: one land in the middle had no top-dressing. The nitrate
soon gave a beneficial impulse to the vegetation; but the cold
wet weather in July, and the appearance of the crop at harvest,
made me by no means sanguine as to the result. The three
adjacent lands in the middle were harvested separately, and
thrashed immediately after harvest, with the following results :—

Reside Qeantily of Cost Yield of Corn | Vetne ance Therease in
a Ses of Nitrate. per Acre. | on cine Value.
ae | ia
} !
Cwt. £ s. ad | Bush. DES: — lp sear a> ab AS 5
14 Oy ae LOU 6 a eS eves
2 ° oe | | 2a oe 9 (oe
1 O06 OG.) +340 Ee a)

The early sale enabled me to make 52s. per quarter of the
wheat, though all was about equally light, weighing about 17
stone per sack. Had the season been more propitious, I have
no doubt that the result would have been still more in favour of
the nitrate.

The quality of the land slightly improves towards that end of
the field to which the smaller dressing was applied, but not to
an extent that in itself can account for the difference in favour of
the smaller dressing. ‘The season probably turned the scale,
though my manager considers 1 cwt. per acre enough to apply
under similar circumstances.

- The general and indiscriminate use of nitrate of soda to force
the wheat crop is by no means to be advocated. I fully concur
in Professor Voelcker’s opinion, that it is chiefly serviceable on
soils which, if not heavy, at least have a good staple’; even there,
if the plant is already forward and vigorous, its use may do more
harm than good. The success with which it has been applied
generally to the wheat crop on the light lands of Holkam and
other parts of Norfolk, turns, perhaps, upon the fact that the
occupiers of those soils generally have access to a marl pit—a
mine of wealth which other light-land farmers envy them. Where
you can marl, you may use nitrate of soda freely; and con-
versely, perhaps, where nitrate is in common use, the fear of an
over-dressing of marl is much diminished.

P17 FRERB, —

( ill )

Vil.—Earth versus Water for the Removal and Utilisation of
Excrementitious Matter. By the Rev. Henry Moutg, Vicar
of Fordington, Dorset.

Summary or Contents.—I. Principles of the Earth-system,—II. Facts and
Testimonies as to its Efficiency. — III. The Value of the Manure produced.
—IYV. Application of the System to Cottages and Public Institutions. —
VY. The present condition of our Towns.— VI. The pressure of costly
Improvements on the Working Classes.— VII. The application of the
System, and supply of Earth to Towns, —VIII. Companies to carry out
the System.

My proposal to employ earth instead of water in one branch of
domestic economy was first made in a pamphlet, published in
1858, entitled ‘ National Health and Wealth.’ The force of the
facts and arguments then adduced has been very generally felt
and admitted by scientific and practical men; yet the force of
habit, the objection to radical change, and a natural disinclina-
tion to discuss the details of a subject which is in some respects
offensive, together, perhaps, with the want, only recently sup-
plied, of a simple, certain, and effective apparatus, have hitherto
prevented any large or general adoption of the system proposed.
Every month’s experience, however, proves it capable of pro-
moting, not only the health and wealth, but (what is of equal
value in another point of view) the general comfort of the
nation.

Our fields and gardens urgently demand a larger and cheaper
supply of manure than that which now exists, which, moreover,
is insecure and may be much diminished within a few years:
and, on the other hand, loud complaints are uttered of the worse
than waste of the sewerage of our towns, villages, and private
dwellings. It may, therefore, be of some service, especially to
the agricultural interest, if I give a brief statement of the
principles on which the system of earth sewage rests, some facts
and testimonies explaining and recommending the suggested
mode of working it, and facts and evidence illustrative of the
value of the manure manufactured after the plan proposed :
for, thus, 1 think that it may now most satisfactorily be proved
that the increased demand for fertilising agents may be largely
met ; the health of towns promoted by the entire removal of the
sewage nuisance, instead of the present mere palliation; and the
pollution of our streams and rivers prevented, the evil being no
longer shifted from one quarter to another. Moreover, all this
good may be secured without any of those vast and extravagant
works for public drainage which add so greatly to the burdens
of the country. In one county-town, at least, the public works

112 Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter.

have added 6d. a-week to the rent of the cottage of the mechanic
and labourer; while the earth system, fully and fairly carried out,
would have increased his income. At all events there is a great
national evil to be dealt with which urgently demands remedial
measures.

This remedy i is not restricted to towns, but is equally applic-
able to that great portion of our population which is scattered
abroad in villages and detached houses, under circumstances
which call for special consideration, since such districts often
exhibit a higher rate of mortality than that of the metropolis
and other first-rate towns which have hitherto almost exclusively
occupied the attention of sanitary reformers.

I. Principles of the Earth-system.

I.—The first fact or principle on which this system is based
—viz. the power of dry and sifted earth, especially if it par-
takes of the nature of clay, to absorb and retain ammonia
and other fertilisers,—was first pointed out by Professor Way
in his two papers, printed in this Journal, on ‘ The Power of
Soils to absorb Manure,’ in which reference was made to the
observations of the Rey. A. Huxtable and Mr. H. S. Thompson.
The object of those papers, however, differed considerably from
that now entertained. Then the power of the earth to retain
gaseous soluble fertilisers was the point chiefly dwelt upon;
now, attention is specially directed to its efficient action in the
removal of the effluvia from our animal and vegetable refuse.

It was to this point, but particularly to the repeated action and
consequently the repeated use of the same earth, that I first
directed the attention of the public. I then pointed out—lst.
that a very small portion of dry and sifted earth (13 pint) is
sufficient, by covering the deposit, to arrest effluyium, to pre-
vent fermentation (which so soon sets in wherever water is used),
and the consequent generation and emission of noxious gases.
2ndly. That if within a few hours, or even a few days, the mass
which would be formed by the repeated layers of deposit be
_ intimately mixed by a coarse rake or spade, or by a mixer made
for the purpose, then in five or ten minutes neither to the eye
nor sense of smell is anything perceptible but so much earth.

My first attempts to carry out this principle were extremely
rude. After closing up the vault or cesspool on my premises,
I employed movable buckets, which were emptied from time
to time and mixed with garden earth. Even this mode of
removal, though offensive in idea, in great measure remedied
pre-existing evils. The removal and mixing only occupied a
boy’s time for a quarter of an hour; and after all was com-

Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter. 113

pleted, within ten minutes, neither eye nor nose could perceive
anything offensive. ;

When about three cart-loads of sifted earth had been thus used
for my family, which averaged 15 persons, and left under a shed,
I found that the material first employed was sufficiently dried to
be used again. This process of alternate mixing and drying was
renewed five times, the earth still retaining its absorbent powers
apparently unimpaired. Of the visitors taken to the spot none
could guess the nature of the compost, though in some cases the
heap which they visited in the afternoon had been turned over
that same morning ; and more than this, I have submitted some
compost to strong fire heat, when that which, unmixed with
earth, would have been intolerable, in this mixed state emitted
no offensive smell whatever.

This experience induced me to exert myself to perfect the
system, in which endeavour I have been seconded by Messrs.
White and Co., of 45, High East Street, Dorchester, who have
constructed, under the protection of a patent, several forms of
earth closet, by which the supply, admixture, removal, and drying
of the earth can be satisfactorily and economically performed.

It is only in towns where the delivery, stowage, and removal
of earth is attended with cost and difficulty, that any artificial
aid for drying the compost would be desirable. On premises
not cramped for space the atmosphere, especially with the aid of
a glass roof to the shed, will act sufficiently fast. At all events,
the artificial heat required may readily be applied to a chamber
from any existing flue; the recently patented vapour-fed stove,
or cottage range, by proper arrangement of its flue, would dry
enough for several hundred people with about two pennyworth of
fuel daily. It might be feared that in the drying much of the
ammonia would be lost; this, however, would hardly be the
case, unless the heat employed exceeded 212°; indeed, the
manurial effects produced by this compost lead me _ to doubt
whether there can be any loss.

The apparatus to be used would of course vary with the posi-
tion of the householder. For a cottager, the present vault in
the cottage-garden should be filled up, and a square enclosure of
brick or stone made under the seat, of the same dimensions as
the seat itself. The bottom, which should be water-tight, is
placed three or four inches below the level of the floor of the
place. At the back of this inclosure there should be an opening,
with a door resting on not more than six inches of solid work
above the floor, for the removal of the earth when necessary.
At the back should be a rough shed, capable of containing a
cartload of earth, divided into two compartments, one on either
side of the door; the earth when used may be shifted backwards

VOL. XXIV. I

114 Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter.

and forwards from side to side, each compartment being alter-
nately t he wet and dry store. Thus used, one load of earth will
be sufficient for two or three persons for six, if not for twelve
months. This is the simplest mode of application. For better
houses and larger establishments, closets in one of the two forms
given below may be employed.

A. Earth Box.

B. Hopper Box. A. Hopper Box,

C. Pan. B. Spiral Screw,
D, Shaft or Bucket, C. Shaft or Bucket,

In both closets a box is placed above and behind the seat,
which contains the dried earth, and delivers it through a hopper,

In closet No. 1, the pan C has a moveable bottom, which, by
lifting a handle or by self-action, is made to turn upwards ina
curve outside the back of the closet. When this bottont falls
back into its place, the hopper delivers the earth outside and
beneath the pan, so as to prevent any escape of dust.

The self-acting seat is an important feature in closets designed
for the use of schools, hospitals, asylums, &c.

In closet No, 2 a spiral screw, placed in a semicircular trough,
is worked by a handle and pinion, which also acts on the hopper
in the earth-box. As the handle moves, the “soil” sinks with
the revolution of the screw, and the hopper at the same time
delivers earth to cover it. In passing through the spiral, paper
is torn to pieces, and a thorough mixture effected. A four or six
inch down pipe may be placed under the end of this screw.*

* Ihave, for my own satisfaction, procured the above illustrations from Messrs.

Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter. 115

With regard to the earth to be used, I have found ordinary garden
surface soil quite effectual ; and a subsoil containing a large pro-
portion of clay or silicates of alumina and potash, would furnish a
good material ; but if clay soil be scarce, an admixture of coal-
ashes or street sweepings would not be objectionable. But
nowhere could there be any difficulty in procuring such a supply
as should, by repeated use, be converted into a highly valuable
compost. For consider how towns are supplied with straw by
farmers who undertake all the cartage without payment for the
sake of the manure. If the three or four loads of manure returned
for every ton of straw delivered, is an adequate compensation,
such a compost as would be effected by five or seven-fold use
would (as we shall see from actual experiments) be highly
remunerative, and the farmer can more readily furnish this earth,
which is to be returned to him, than the straw.

Il, Facts and Testimonies as to the Efficiency of the System,

II.—Let me instance cases where this system has been applied
to the satisfaction of those concerned.

Mr. Young, a mason, residing near Dorchester, has for two
years had an earth-closet in a small room within ten feet of that
used by his lodgers, the curate’s family, as a dining-room. He
has removed the earth only once a week, but never has any
offensive smell been perceived in his house.

Major Nugent, R.E., under instructions from the War Office,
tried the system at Portland; and whatever may have been
the judgment of the authorities at the War Office, from the
statement made by that officer to myself after four or five months’
experiment, I cannot doubt that the tenor of his report was
favourable. Before making it, he invited me to judge on the
spot how far I was satisfied with the experiments, which had
fully satisfied himself. I went to Portland, and inspected the
two closets which had been used by sixteen convicts, and
found the place in which these stood was free from offence.
In company with another engineer officer, and the clerk of
the works, I next visited a pug-mill, the use of which I had
recommended for mixing the contents of the boxes. Two
men brought thither a box containing the deposit of two days.
This was emptied on the floor, without causing any offensive
smell; but as it passed through the mill a slight effluvium was
perceptible. Within ten minutes, however, the mass became
simply dark, inoffensive earth. And we agreed that if there

White, and learnt from them that the price of No. 1, with lifting handle, is
2i. 7s. 6d.; with self-action, 2/. 15s.; the machinery alone, if sent to be fixed
to a common closet, costs 1/. 5s. The price of No. 2 is 4/, 10s—P. H. F.

EZ

116 Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter.

should ever be 3000 men in the fortifications of Portland, and this
system should be adopted there, provision might be made for the
whole garrison without any offensive smell or escape of noxious
gas arising, whilst every day there might be manufactured three
tons of valuable manure. What, then, would be the result if
these means were applied to the camp at Aldershot and to the
barracks of the United Kingdom? The cost of the two closets
here used could not have been more than 50s., besides a rough
pug-mill; the labour required was that of two men for twenty
minutes every other day ; the earth was dried by the atmosphere.

The Vice-Chairman of the Board of Guardians at Bradford-on-
Avon, writes to me that from the same earth having been dried
and used repeatedly at the school of the union-house, in which
there are 55 children, the whole compost did not exceed a cart-
load and a half, or 30 ewt., at the end of five months. And with
respect to health, comfort, and cleanliness, this gentleman tells
me that where, previously to the use of earth, all had been
“noxious pungency,” there is now nothing whatever that is
offensive. He adds that the earth was dried by the atmosphere
“under a few pantiles ;” the labour required being that of an old
pauper for about half an hour a day.

Ill. The Value of the Manure Produced,

In the present stage of the working of this system, the diffi-
culty of ascertaining the value of the manure thus manufactured
is very great. The variations in the earth used, and the want
of exactness in observing the relative weights and proportions of
the “soil,” and of the absorbing earth, as well as in obtaining a
thorough mixing of the two, combine to create this difficulty ;
I therefore prefer to give a few instances of the practical appli-
cation of it to the garden and the field, rather than to attempt to
offer a scientific analysis of its composition. In planting cabbages
I have taken a handful or two of that which has passed through
the closets five times, and, putting it into the watering-pot, have
used it in a liquid form, filling the holes in which the plant is
to be set; and I have found that if this liquid manure be made
too strong, it burns the root of the plant, even as guano would,
A new gardener, not believing that there was much virtue in the
heap of inoffensive earth he found lying in the shed, thought if
there was anything in it, his celery plants should have enough
of it. He threw over them little more than a handful, and this
burnt them up. With 6 lbs. weight I planted in a piece of
unmanured ground 40 dozen brocoli and savoy plants. No
plants could be finer than they were. A cottager at Bradford
Abbas commenced the system in his large cottage garden in the

Uiilisation of Excrementitious Matter. 117

spring of 1862, He applied the manure to patehes of man-
gold and swedes; and the land steward who persuaded him
to try it, states that he never saw such fine roots as were then
grown.

In 1860 a farm bailiff received from me one ewt. of mixed
earth from my stock of three cartloads, which had passed five
times through a closet used by fifteen persons, and had subse-
quently lain in the shed full seven months. He applied it to a
quarter of an acre of ground, drilling it in with swedes. To the
remainder of the field of four acres, an equal dressing of super-
phosphate was applied. The crop, though injured by the rapid
growth of weeds in that wet trying season, was good. But the
roots in the quarter of an acre, which received the mixed
earth, when pulled up and weighed, exceeded by one-third
any that could be found in the rest of the field. In 1861 this
same ficld was sown to barley. Throughout the growth of the
crop the appearance of this same quarter of an acre, with
no additional manure, was manifestly superior to that of the
remainder of the field ; and the bailiff estimated the produce to
be in the proportion of four to three.

Again, in the spring of 1862, Mr. R. Hayne, of Fordington,
received from me 4 ewt. of earth which had passed seven times
through the closet, and had afterwards lain for six months in the
shed, This he used, at the rate of 1 cwt. to an acre, instead of
crushed bones on a piece of very poor land to be sown to turnips.
Both he and Mr. R. Damen, of Dorchester, a well-known
agriculturist, consider the crop to have been remarkably good,
and that crushed bones could not have answered better as a
manure, :

According to these experiments, then, whatever the market-
able value of manure thus manufactured may prove, such com-
post used five times over is as effectual as superphosphate in
promoting the growth of turnips, and therefore may be priced
at the same rate per ton, whilst more repeated use might bring
it up to the value of guano.

The value of this manure might also be estimated from the
relation between the bulk of earth used and the number of persons
availing themselves of the closet for a certain time. We have
seen that three cartloads served fifteen persons for half a year,
being used five times over in that time. At that rate 1 ton
would last two and a half persons for a year. Now, if we reckon
that the total excreta of a man have an average value of 12. per
annum (they have often been set much higher), we thus arrive
at a value of 2/. 10s. for each ton of earth used five times, or
of 3/, 10s. for that used seven times.

118 Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter.

IV. Application of the System to Cottages and Public Institutions.

If these principles and plans be correct, their adoption may
be quite experimental at its commencement; progressive in pro-
portion to success, involving, therefore, no great risk; and, if
successful, a source of wealth and comfort to the community.
This is the only plan which can, with any degree of economy and
comfort, be adopted dy all classes in detached houses and villages.
Such spots are, therefore, its most obvious sphere of action.
Public institutions, such as unions, gaols, the dormitories of
public schools, and the wards of hospitals—all afford facilities
for its application, and for a thorough testing of its sanatory and
economical results.

The economy of the system will not depend solely, or even
chiefly, on the money-value of the manure manufactured, but in
a great degree on dispensing with the large outlay which the
water-system involves. I will instance the National schools in
a borough town, which is under the water-system. There are
300 boys and girls attending those schools. It has cost 70J. to
connect them with the sewers: it would not have cost 20/. to
provide them with self-acting earth-closets. In a county gaol it
costs 50/. a-year to keep in order the water-closets by which the
manure of 150 prisoners is wasted. Apply the earth-system
—the repairs of which would not be 5/. a~-year—and thus nearly
2001. a-year will be saved to the country. In confirmation of
this opinion, the intelligent master of the Kingswood Reformatory,
who was sent to me by the Committee to inquire into the system,
expressed his conviction that he should be able to make from
100 boys 2002, a-year, and at the same time prevent abominations
in the way of offensiveness, that can scarcely be told.

If this earth-system, then, be thus conducive to health, comfort,
cleanliness, and wealth, let us consider its application to par-
ticular cases. In general, in the detached, or village cottage, the
only means for the removal of filth is a privy with a deep vault,
either so near to the house as to be noxious and offensive, or so
fat from it as to be inconvenient, and so placed as to be generally
indecent. The sink-water and slop-bucket are emptied either
into a hollow near the door, where perhaps there is a small
manufacture of manure, or into the neighbouring brook or ditch.
There is no provision made for night, nor for upstair accommo-
dation ; and the evils arising from this none can estimate but
those who have visited largely amongst the labouring classes in
time of sickness. Such are the sanitary arrangements—if they
can bear that name—in one small parish in Dorset, in which,
during the eight years ending December, 1861, the average of

Utilisation of Excerementitious’ Matter. 119

deaths was 32} in 1000. Now what improvements in such
cases is the earth-system capable of introducing? In the first
place, you may by means of it have a privy close to the house,
and a closet upstairs, from neither of which shall proceed any
offensive smell or any noxious gas. A projection from the back
of the cottage 8 feet long and 6 feet wide would be amply suf-
ficient for this purpose. The nearer 3 or 4 feet downstairs,
would be occupied by the privy, in which, by the side of the
seat, would be a receptacle for dry earth. The soil and earth
would fall into the further 5 or 4 feet, which would form the
covered and closed shed for mixing and drying. Upstairs the
arrangement would be much the same, the deposit being made
to fall clear of every wall. Tlrough this closet the removal of
noxious and offensive matters in time of sickness, and of slop-
buckets, would be immediate and easy; and if the shed below
be kept well supplied with earth, all effluyium would be almost
immediately checked. As to the trouble which this will cause,
a very little experience will convince the cottager that it is less,
instead of greater than the women generally go through at pre-
sent ; whilst the value of the manure will afford an inducement
to exertion.

V. The present condition of our Towns.

Finally we haye to consider the position of our large towns,
where a national evil is growing up which demands immediate
and serious attention. Without enlarging on the revolting
details set forth in recent Parliamentary Reports respecting
the accumulation of filth connected with the “ middens” of
-Manchester, let us consider, in the case of Birmingham, the
great outlay and the perplexities which have arisen from partial
and unsuccessful attempts to carry out the water-closet system,
according to the evidence furnished to the Select Committee on
the Sewage of Towns, by Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor, and
Mr. Standbridge, the Town Clerk.*

In that town, of 250,000 inhabitants, it appears that about
26,0007. have been already expended in the mere purchase of
land, and the construction of two high-level sewers and two tanks ;
that this fraction of the work involves an annual expenditure of
1500/.; and that it is in contemplation to raise, under an Act of
Parliament, 100,000/. for carrying out this system, which has
inyolved the town in “ endless troubles and litigations,”

On the one hand the authorities are threatened with an action

* First Report, pages 65, &c., and 78, &c.

120 Utilisation of Exerementitious Matter.

for turning the sewage into the river, on the ground that the solid
matter held in suspension in the sewage has filled up a mill-
course; on the other, legal proceedings are pending for dimi-
nishing the supply of water to a mill-stream, by taking sewage
out of the river, although the water mixed with the sewage is ina
great measure not a natural, but an artificial supply, derived
from the town’s waterworks, it being found impossible to distin-
guish natural from artificial supplies of water when they are
mingled together. And yet again attempts to utilise the sewage
are, to a considerable extent, thwarted by the gas-works, which,
“slyly and secretly,” pour into the rivera great deal of matter
which is injurious not only to vegetation, but to animal life; so
that further actions against the town, for the destruction of fish
in the Trent, are also expected.

We also learn that it is still quite an open question what new
sanitary measures should here be adopted, because at present not
more than one-twentieth part of the houses have water-closets.
If the prospects held out by the water system are not promising,
the older arrangements are as objectionable on the score of eco-
nomy as of health. At present the cost of getting rid of the
night-soil, the bulk of which is said to be enormous, comes to
6000/7. a year ; and about seven years ago (when Mr. Standbridge
was appointed Town Clerk) it was 11 0002.

Even at Birmingham, where such strenuous efforts have been
made on behalf of the water system, we find that a measure is
in contemplation which turns upon the admixture of soil and
earth, though after a rude fashion. Itis proposed to lift by steam-
power the solid matter deposited by the sewage in the tanks
(which by itself, unless given away, is in but little request as a
manure), and to mix it with night-soil. The night-soil is to be’
screened from the bulkier matters which are added to it in large
towns, and the remaining cinders and “breezes” (as they are
there called) are to be crushed to powder. :

“It is,” according to Mr. Standbridge’s statement, ‘‘a remark-
able fact that when that carbonaceous matter, either in the shape
of cinder or coal, is crushed, the most filthy night-soil that you
can conceive becomes without smell, comparatively speaking ; so
that the crushing process will be absolutely a means of preventing
the accumulation of night-soil being a nuisance, and it will at the
same time create a very valuable manure indeed. About the
value of it there is not the least doubt.”

Thus while the onward course of water sewage is beset sith
expense and difficulty, a rude modification of the earth system,
using but inferior materials, has forced itself into notice.

Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter. 121

VI. The Pressure of Costly Improvements on the Working
Classes.

In carrying out the drainage system Boards of Health and their
promoters have not sufficiently considered how heavily public
works for sanitary improvements press upon the working classes,
by increasing their rent.

The ordinary allowance for rent out of a man’s income is 10
per cent., but in Dorchester many a working man has to pay
25 per cent., or 2s. 6d. out of 10s. a week; and to this a water-
and drainage-rate may add 3d., 6d., or 9d. a week. And as
wages do not increase in proportion, the necessity is thus ori-
ginated or increased of taking in lodgers, generally without
regard to character, in order to pay the rent. The impure air of
crowded rooms becomes thus another, or an increased source of
physical evil; and the moral evil occasioned by the larger
crowding of persons into sleeping-rooms, without distinction of
sex, age, or character, is far greater than that, the remedy of
which is sought in the drainage system.

VII. Application of the System and Supply of Earth for large
Towns.

On these two points the public has hitherto appeared espe-
cially sceptical; nor, considering the novelty of the proposed
system, is this unbelief to be wondered at. The late Henry
Austin stated to me, that until he actually saw the simplicity
of the mode of application, and the'sma]] quantity of earth
necessary for each use of the closet, he could not believe in the
applicability of earth to this purpose. ‘“ But now,” he said, “I
see that you have solved our great question.” And so satisfied
was he of this, that he obtained from me a statement for which
he wished and endeavoured to obtain insertion in the second
Report of the Sewage Commission. The truth is, that the ma-
chinery is more simple, much less expensive, and far less liable to
injury than that of the water-closet. The supply of earth to the
house is as easy as that of coals, To the closet it may be supplied
more easily than water is supplied by a forcing-pump; and to
the commode it can be conveyed just as coal is carried to the
chamber. After use it can be removed in either case by the
bucket or box placed under the seat, or from the fixed reservoir,
with less offence than that of the ordinary slop-bucket—indeed (I
speak after four years’ experience), with as little offence as is
found in the removal of coal-ashes. So that, while servants,
like others, will shrink from novelty, and at first imagine dif-

122 Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter.

ficulties, yet many, to my knowledge, would now vastly prefer the
daily removal of the bucket or the soil to either the daily work-
ing of a forcing-pump or to being called upon once a-year, or
once in three years, to assist in emptying a vault or cesspool. Ifa
mixer, with its horizontal pug-mill, be placed at the bottom of the
shaft from below a fixed closet, or if it be used instead of the
spade or rake for mixing, the offence to the remover is literally
nothing.

But how for a town of any size would you obtain a sufficient
supply of earth or clay? In reply to this reasonable inquiry,
it may be remarked, that even if a town happen to haye no
available supply of clay in its neighbourhood, the street sweep-
ings may, with a little care and management, be made ayailable
for the purpose; and coal-ashes (though not a good substitute for
clay when used alone) may be combined with these and with
some surface-soil. About a supply of surface-soil there can be
no real difficulty, since, after having been enriched, it is to be
returned to the garden or field from which it was taken, Would
there be anything novel in such a process? Is it not, in fact,
more simple and less expensive than the common practice of
supplying straw to stables for the sake of the manure there
produced? In that case the amount of carting required is
large; for 1 ton of straw makes three or four loads of manure,
all of which has to be carted home ; whereas the ton of earth,
after being removed five times no further than to an adjacent
drying-ground, is converted into a ton of compost, more valuable
than all the manure made by the ton of straw.

If we look to special instances, it would be easy to point out
many more towns which cannot find a good outfall for liquid
sewage or an area suited to lrigation, than neighbourhoods devoid
of clay earth, Weymouth is a case in point, where any system
of water-drainage would, from the position of the town and
the consequent expense, be almost impracticable, whilst dried
mud from the Back-water, or clay from the neighbouring hills,
would form the basis of a most valuable manure for the adjacent
heaths,

To complete these arrangements, instead of the soil-water
used in the kitchen being thrown into a hole at the door, or into
the ditch, a small hollow should be made and filled up with a
barrow-load or two of earth, which, if it be removed and dried
when saturated with such water, will afford a further supply of
valuable compost.

In like manner the earth-system may be advantageously
applied to urinals either in railway-stations and barracks, or in
crowded thoroughfares,

Utilisation of Excrementitious Matter. 123

VIII. Companies to carry out Earth-system.

If then we contrast the prospects of the earth-system as
applicable to towns, with its struggling, halting rival, the water-
system, it appears that in the first place no expense for public
works, such as main and branch sewers and drains, is required.
Secondly, when the merits of the system have been tested and
established in our public establishments, such as unions, &c.,
companies will be formed which will take upon themselves the
working expenses, and find at /east a sufficient profit in the value
of the compost. If this when used five times obtains a value of
27. 10s. per ton, the poor may look for some payment for the soil,
and the servants of the richer classes for some gratuities, since
a much less value than this would pay for supplying, removing,
and drying the earth. The only expense, then, that would fall
upon the town, the owner, or the tenant, would be the fitting up
of the closets, which in general need not be one-fourth of that of a
water-closet.

The actual profits of such a company would of course vary
with each particular district, according to the facilities with
which clay could be procured, and the proximity of heaths or
light lands, for which the compost would have a special value.
The strength given to the manure would also vary according to
circumstances; but without doubt, by the repeated use of the
same earth, or by sifting the products of the closets before mixing
them, its virtues may be so condensed as to render it equal to
guano or any artificial manure. Thus prepared I have found it
also to be equally deodorised. In this state, therefore, it is as
capable of transmission to any part of the country as guano or
superphosphate, being entirely free from the offensive smell of
either. In this power of transmission it stands in striking
contrast to liquid sewage.

In conclusion, I would remark, that let one-fifth of the popu-
lation of Great Britain adopt and thoroughly carry out this system,
and one million tons of manure, equal to guano, will every year
be added to our supply of fertilisers. Let it be adopted in our
towns on the sea-coast, and in our large centres of manufacture,
such as Birmingham or Bradford, and its benefits may rapidly be
conveyed to many a hill now barren, and may change many an
unprofitable heath into fruitful fields. Let our landowners intro-
duce it, with one or two other improvements, into their cottages,
and the comfort, contentment, and prosperity of the working
classes will be much promoted.

124 Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures.

VIIL— The Money-value of Night-Soil and of other Manures.
By PsH. Frere.

Wnuatever be the issue of the struggle between earth and water
(as indicated in the preceding paper) for taking under their pro-
tection that which is called “ night-soil,” it is essential that the
value of the substances with which they propose to deal should
be well investigated and established ; yet on this question ardent
reformers and scientific chemists are at the present moment much
at variance. The former, basing their calculations on the cost of
man’s food and remarking the very high value assigned to the
manurial virtues of some principal cattle-foods, produce esti-
mates which, although apparently framed with great moderation
and due allowance, may be still wide of the mark because they
are built on an unsound hypothesis.

In truth, the cost of an article as food is hardly any criterion
of its value as manure. Indeed, since the refuse of a product is
often in this respect more valuable than the extract, it might
almost as well be asserted that the cheaper article had the higher
manurial value; the relation of wheat-flour to bran and of oil to
oilcakes being cases in point, of which the former is material to
the question before us; since if the value of man’s excreta were
calculated on the supposed number of bushels of wheat required
for the supply of the population, the sum arrived at would be
too high, because that part of the wheat which has the highest
manurial value, viz. the bran, would practically not be consumed
by him. If, again, we look to meat, the other important ele-
ment of his diet, it at once appears how little the price of food
has to do with its manurial value.

In reply to an inquiry, Dr. Voelcker has obligingly furnished
me with the following information as to the probable manurial
value of a ton of cooked meat which has served as food for man :—

“ Cooked meat contains, in round numbers,— .
LONNIE oe oe) ows |. LO PEP CODE
Fat and mineral matter . Ait has bal
Water 2% Malta, asin) tak Wf irene a3
100: 4s

“Fibrin contains 16 per cent, of nitrogen; and consequently
1 ton of meat yields in round numbers about 30 Ibs, of ammonia,
worth 15s. If the meat is all consumed by full-grown men, and
consumed with starchy food, most of the nitrogen is again found
in the excreta, Supposing about } ton to pass off in the exhala-
tions (I am afraid to give you positive data, for the determina-
tions of different experiments vary consider ably), then the ton of
meat made into manure would be worth about 12s.”

Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures. 125

At this rate, the manurial value of cooked meat is about
1-15th of a penny per lb., or 1-100th of its cost, if it be valued
at about 64d. per lb.,—a low price for cooked meat.

But if these great staples of human food fail the “ bulls” of
the sewage question, what shall we say for the odd pennyworths
of vegetables, Kc., bought at a town-market or from the green-
grocer, when the price paid is quite fictitious! The probability,
therefore, is very great that such calculations based on the cost of
man’s food will be wide of the mark; and that this is the case
when a yearly value of 3/. to 4/7. per head is arrived at, is pretty
certain, Even the more moderate estimate of 1/. per head is
contrary to the opinion of our best agricultural chemists, who
seem thoroughly agreed in fixing on a much lower value, viz.
that of 6s. per head, supposing all the constituents contained
both in the liquid and solid excreta to be preserved without any
waste, that valuation being made at the customary rates em-
ployed in connexion with analyses of guano. Both Mr. Lawes
and Dr, Voelcker have favoured me with independent but con-
curring information on this point; whilst Professor Way, when
questicned on the subject by the Sewage Committee, referred to
Mr, Lawes’ calculations with approval ; the teaching of Professor
Anderson also, so far as I have become acquainted with it,
decidedly takes the same direction.

Our leading scientific authorities, then, are agreed on this
point; and why should we gainsay their conclusions ; and what
more trustworthy evidence have we to build upon? Would
they not all have felt much more satisfaction in giving a reply
more favourable to the march of improvements which Science
regards as in some degree her own bantlings? Shall we listen
for a moment to an insinuation that interested motives have
actuated them in consequence of their connexion, more or less
direct, with the market for imported manures which might suffer
from new competition ?

Surely such opinions, based on careful scientific investiga-
tions, must prevail, at least until they are encountered by con-
clusions drawn from a greater amount of accurate and repeated
experiments than we are yet furnished with.

As to the bulk of these excreta, there can be no doubt.

According to Liebig, the annual fluid and solid excrement of
a million inhabitants of large cities (men, women, and children)
weigh in the dry pulverulent state 45,000,000 Ibs., in which are
contained 10,300,000 Ibs. of mineral substances, mostly ash
constituents of bread and meat. ‘These human excrements
alone contain 4,580,000 lbs. of phosphates.” *

* See Liebig’s ‘ Letters on Modern Agriculture,’ 1859, admirably rendered into
English by Dr. Blythe, of Queen’s College, Cork,

126 Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures.
With this estimate of 45 Ibs. per head yearly Mr. Lawes

agrees; and Professor Way gave substantially the same answer
when in round numbers he stated to the Committee on Sewage
of Towns the amount at 1000 grains per head per day, equal
to 1 lb. per week. Liebig’s estimate for the phosphates, of about
44 Ibs. per head, valued at 3d. per lb., would only give a money
value of 14d. for that important item. He does not mention
nitrogen in this passage ; neither can I tell the comparative value
as between this substance and phosphate which would meet
with his sanction and approval; but he can hardly make a
greater, if so great, a distinction between the two as our English
chemists.

The proportion existing between the phosphates and ammonia
in excreta, as found in sewage, is, I believe, considered pretty
constant; so that if the amount of nitrogen is determined, that of
the other element may be safely estimated, the ammonia being
double the phosphates, according to Dr. Hofman’s calculations.*

So, then, as to bulk and relative proportions the authorities of
different schools appear to agree, and the question of price or
valuation only remains.

On this point, speaking as a practical farmer, I am disposed to
complain that all our chemists put on the constituents of manure
a value in some cases too high, in others almost imaginary. In
truth, the question of value does not belong to science but to
commerce ; and all the advice which a scientific man, as such,
can offer will be on the comparative value of different sources
of the same fertilizer.

To the eye of Science all elements of plant-food have an
equal importance—are equally essential; their value only varies
according to the difficulty experienced in securing a supply, and
of this difficulty Commerce is the sole arbiter, the purchaser
limiting the course of trade by refraining from an unremunerative
purchase. Yet from questions of value the philosopher cannot
stand quite aloof; and therefore from time to time, startled, it
may be, by local abuses, he sounds an alarm, in which his want
of familiarity with the marts is as striking as his scientific
knowledge is admitted. But the practical man, not much
moved by general accusations of wasting plant-food or the mineral
constituents of plants, will review his requirements in detail,
when the list will appear to be neither very long nor very
formidable, -

On the nitrogen he will have kept a pretty sharp look-out, as
an element of which the waste is considerable and the difficulty
of supply great. In regard to phosphate, he will probably have
been for some years a greater buyer than seller, and he will thank

* See ‘First Report of the Select Committee on Sewage,’ p. 26,

Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures, 127

God’s providence for the mineral stores now disclosed in England
and France, and no doubt hidden elsewhere. Of the alkalies,
he will husband his store by not selling straw, if his land be
light and the subsoil do not contain stores of wealth in reserve.
For carbon he may in the long run rely on the atmosphere,
which supplies carbonic acid freely enough, however scanty may
be its available supplies of nitrogen. As to lime, if any difficulty
exist, it is one he can easily measure, and probably remedy at no
great cost. In this instance a natural defect in the soil, not any
conceivable waste of man, will generally be the obstacle to be over-
come, Silica and silicates will puzzle him, perhaps, but not him
only ; and he will wait till a special indictment is laid against
him for wasting substances which do not appear to impart much
value to granitic detritus, whether it be in the offscouring of our
granite-paved streets, or the deposits borne by streams from
primeval mountains. And at this point he will have about
exhausted the list of elements, which, spoken of in the abstract,
sounds such a formidable bugbear !

If, however, the scientific man be consulted on a question of
value, his natural course will then be to refer and gauge each
new import or product by an old standard, according to the
rates which trade and commerce indicate.

But if it be true that what is new and of partial application
should be gauged by that which is established and familiar to all, it
seems startling that authorities should assume, or even recognise,
Peruvian guano as the standard of the value of manure for the pur-
pose of comparison. Can this be historically correct? Is it sound
ina commercial point of view? Men of middle age who have
watched the rise and progress of the entire market for artificial
manures, will recollect that, when guano first appeared, bones
and soot were almost the only auxiliaries of farmyard-manure in
common use. The farmer had a good notion of the value of the
latter, but it was a composite body, so the market price of bones
(in which phosphate predominated) and that of soot (chiefly
valued for its ammonia) were of assistance in the difficult task of
assessing the various elements in the straw-manure at their
widely different money-values. ‘The star of nitrogen was then
in the ascendant, and accordingly the chief place was assigned to
it—a pre-eminence not yet reversed, in spite of the overriding of
mineral and atmospheric theories since that time. The Prices
Current appear, on the whole, to justify that award, being as dis-
passionate critics of chemical philosophy as the Funds are of
statesmanship.

If at that time a chemist had told a farmer, “‘ Guano is worth
so and so, and therefore good farmyard-manure must be priced at
12s. or 13s. per ton,” would he not have been told with a smile,

128 Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures.

“ Let me alone to know how much I can make of a ton of straw
manure, and tell me what you think this new fancy article is
worth, supposing I can make (say) 8s. per ton of the old stuff
when it lies handy for use.”

But, whether this view of the course of events be correct or
not, it surely never can be right or expedient to regulate our
prices by that of a material which is the subject of a monopoly,
and can therefore be raised or lowered by an arbitrary fiat at any
moment; nor is it at all necessary to do so when equivalent sup-
plies can be obtained from so many other quarters by various
agencies.

My first objection to the standard adopted is, that it is gene-
rally too high.

To establish this point, I shall first cite as a witness Dr.
Voelcker, who, in his Lecture on Sewage (see vol. xxiii. page
466), has told us that the calculated value of a ton of rotten dung
is 13s. 6d., or of fresh dung 13s.; ‘at the same time that 3s, or,
at the most, 5s. per ton, is the price generally given for farmyard
manure.” ‘To account for this discrepancy, the chemist can only
allege the cost of carting the more bulky substance; but straw
manure is generally disposed of within such a range that each
cart carries at least two loads per day, and a leisure season or a
wet day is selected for doing the work, so that 2s. or 3s. per ton is
gencrally the utmost cost of delivery. When delivered on the field,
this manure supplies fertilizers in the very best shape for plants ;
neither too dilute nor too concentrated, too slow nor too quick
in operation. For stiff soils the bulky straw is mechanically of
use; for light sands, where some artificials are too stimulating,
its power of retaining moisture, and the supply it affords of alka-
lies, are specially serviceable ; so that when delivered, its form is
unimpeachable, and it cannot on that account be subjected to an
abatement. By what plea, then, can this great divarication
between theory and practice be justified ?

My own estimate of the worth of farmyard-manure has ‘prac-
tically been reduced into the following shape :—

Being able to procure good London manure at a neighbouring
railroad-station for 8s, Gd. per ton, I gladly avail myself: of this
supply when there is a prospect of wheat making 7s, per bushel,
and when my field is almost as accessible from the station as
from the homestead, but otherwise | am indifferent about it.*

* This view may be roughly verified, as follows :—Say that the addition of 12
tons of manure to a field raises the crop from 16 to 32 bushels per acre, the manure
at 8s. 6d. per ton will cost a little over 51., é.¢., the value of 2 quarters of wheat at
50s. The increase of straw will pay for extra labour in harvesting and marketing ;
and the virtue still left in the field for the succeeding crop must be looked to for
a profit,

Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures. 129

On the other hand, my advice to a friend who can get London
manure delivered at a wharf abutting on his farm at about 5s. per
ton is, “ Never mind stock-farming, except for choice specimens ;
sell your straw, and buy manure.” This view tallies very well with
Dr. Voelcker’s statements of common practice ; but it cannot be
reconciled with a valuation which assigns 13s. as the price of a
ton of dung delivered, Is there not some ground to ask for its
revision?

If, however, this scale of valuation is unsound, has it not been
practically mischievous? Ifa good sample of genuine Peruvian
guano, or a good superphosphate, was analysed and valued
at this rate, the Report, until lately, often assigned to it a
value considerably above the market price. Is it to be won-
dered, then, that the Peruvian Government was tempted to raise
the price to the estimate, overlooking the fact, that at this, same
theoretic rate straw manure was worth 13s. per ton, or 50 per
<ent. more than its selling price, after due allowance was made
for the expense of carting? The price of guano has been raised,
the market disturbed, the buyer and seller put into antagonism
one to the other, and the issue of a struggle injurious to both
parties will alone decide whether the existing scale of guano-
valuations was practically sound or not. Meanwhile the enhanced
price of meat, the ample supplies of oil-cake drawn from all
quarters, improvements in breeding and feeding cattle, and, it
may be, in treating them under disease, all tend to lower the
price of that costly constituent ammonia.

To come now to some particulars, The received standard
values potash at 2d. per lb., and some authorities have set it as high
as dd. per lb. How is this conclusion arrived at? It may be
that this element is essential for all our crops, that some soils are
deficient in it, that it cannot be bought in any commercial form
at a cheaper rate; but we farmers do not buy it in any such form.
If some of our fields are deficient, we apply it in straw or in
burnt clay ashes brought from other fields, probably at a much
cheaper rate. If all are defective, we husband our resources, as
we readily can do, or if our land has a good staple, we rely on
the stores in the subsoil. No doubt potash has a considerable
value, and an additional supply is often serviceable, and not
always ready at hand; but still the farmer, I may say, never buys
it, by itself and for itself, at commercial rates. Then, is it not
rash to guess at a value of three or four times as high as that of
insoluble phosphate in its best form ? * )

* On this point Liebig (in his. preface to ‘ Letters on Modern Agriculture’)
admits that in the production of corn and flesh, the alkalies in the farmyard-
manure remain in the field, and in the progress of cultivation their quantity rather
increases than diminishes; and Professor Anderson, in 1857, whilst he valued

VOL. XXIV. K

130 Money-value of Night-Soil and other Manures.

Another material point in these valuations is the difference of
the value put on phosphate, according as it is classed as soluble
or insoluble. It may be inferred from Dr, Voelcker’s paper in
this number of the Journal, that our authorities will reconsider
this point, though it may not be easy to readjust it.

It seems to be now recognised that before becoming food for
plants the phosphate resumes an insoluble form,

The value of phosphatic manures depends, then, not on the
transient solubility, but on the fineness of the powder perma-
nently produced, it being easy of assimilation in proportion to
that fineness. If this be so, those particles which have recently
been subjected to the influence of vital action, vegetable or
animal, will be more available than such as have been turned
into stone by Nature’s alchemy; and yet these two classes of
substances have of late been indiscriminately set at a lower value,
as insoluble phosphates.

This mistake, if mistake it be, has also bred some practical
harm, phosphatic guanos, when imported, not having met with
the encouragement which they deserved, or having been treated
with sulphuric acid at much cost, not so much to increase their .
value, as to'adapt them to our market and our defective scale of
valuation.

But if decomposition, not transformation or solution, be hence-
forth our object in dealing with phosphate, the important point
to ascertain will be the origin, be it mineral or organic, of the
material employed, and home manufacture may again be resorted
to as the best guarantee that the materials are organic. The use
of a small proportion of sulphuric acid may revive, in spite of
great difficulty of transport, and even the warning that about the
first 10 lbs. if used with 100 Ibs. of bones only form gypsum,
not superphosphate, may not be heeded, if a violent action can
only be generated which shall result in reducing the mass to
fine powder. The classification and pricing of phosphate ,seems,
therefore, to call for some revision.

I am not disposed to quarrel with the customary valuation for
organic matter, of 1d. per ton. This is so moderate that it may,
perhaps, hardly meet the approval of those who sympathize with
a late influential effort to resuscitate Old King Humus, who had
gradually sunk into oblivion since the younger powers of earth—
the children of Priestly, Cavendish, Davy, &c.—bhad torn the
veil of mystery from that awful brow, and divided his substance.
But it rests with his advocates to plead his cause.

Whatever, then, be the value of the excreta of the average man

potash at 207, per ton, stated that from kelp it could be procured at 15/. per ton,
together with other fertilizers worth 20.

Effects of Manures on Grass-Land. 131

when priced at guano rates, since those rates give to farmyard-
manure a value of 13s. per ton, it remains for the farmer who
does not set so high a figure even on his good bullock-manure,
to make a deduction accordingly, so as to reconcile the valuation
with the prices of the times.

IX.—On the Effects of different Manures on the Mixed Herbage
of Grass-land. By J. B. Lawes, F.RS., F.C.S., and J. H.
Guiuzert, Ph. D., F.R.S., F.CS.

In Vol. XIX., Part Il., and Vol. XX., Parts I. and II. of this
Journal, we gave a Report on Experiments with different manures
on permanent meadow land, in which we treated of the subject
under the following heads :—

Part I. The produce of hay, per acre.

Part II. The produce of constituents, per acre.

Part III. The description of plants developed by different
manures,

Part IV. The chemical composition of the hay,

Perhaps the most striking points brought out in the inquiry,
were those which illustrated the very great difference in the
description and character of the plants developed by the different
manures. The general results arrived at under this head, may
be very briefly re-stated here.

The unmanured crops, and the light ones grown by manure,
were by far the most complex in character; consisting of a com-
paratively large number of species of plants, or descriptions of
herbage, and showing less predominance of a few species than
did the more bulky produce obtained by means of more active
manures, The smaller crops consisted not only of a greater
variety of Graminaceous herbage, or grasses properly so called,
but also contained a greater variety and greater proportion of
miscellaneous or weedy herbage.

As a rule, whatever the description of manure employed, any
considerable increase of crop was accompanied by greater sim-.
plicity of herbage, greater predominance of grasses proper, and
also, generally, a greater predominance of individual species,
both among the Graminaceous or grassy, the Leguminous, and
the miscellaneous herbage,

But different descriptions of manure had very different effects.

Mineral manures alone (salts of potass, soda, magnesia, and
superphosphate of lime) only moderately increased the amount
of crop; rather diminished the proportion of the grasses, and

K 2

132 Effects of different Manures on the

considerably that of the weedy herbage; greatly increased the
amount per acre, and the proportion in the produce, of the
Leguminous herbage, especially the perennial red clover and the
meadow vetchling ; and also enhanced the ripening tendency,
rather than luxuriance of foliage.

Ammonia-salts alone, considerably increased the amount per
acre, and the proportion in the crop, of the grasses, but tended
very remarkably to the development of leaf rather than of stem
and seed ; and they also diminished the proportion of both the
Leguminous and the weedy herbage, the former being almost
excluded.

Miztures of both the mineral manure and ammonia-salts, gave
by far the greatest increase of crop. The produce so obtained
was in a much larger proportion Graminaceous, or grassy, than
that yielded under any other conditions ; clover and other Legu-
minous plants were almost entirely excluded ; and the number of
species and amount of weedy herbage were but small, though
some few plants grew luxuriantly. Lastly, comparatively few
species of grasses contributed to the great bulk of this very
luxuriant and highly Graminaceous produce, and the develop-
ment of stem and seed was very remarkable.

Farm-yard manure alone, with the increase of total produce,
also increased the amount and proportion of the Graminaceous
herbage ; and diminished the variety, and the proportion, of the
Leguminous and the miscellaneous herbage.

Farm-yard manure and ammonia-salts gave considerably more
increase of crop than farm-yard manure alone; and the produce
contained a large proportion of Graminaceous and miscellaneous,
but very little Leguminous herbage.

This great variety in the herbage, both as to the description of
the plants developed, and the character of their growth, according
to the manures employed, and to the consequent amount of crop
obtained, is obviously a point of great practical interest and
importance in its bearing upon the question of the proper
manures to be employed to increase the produce of grass-land.

The results briefly enumerated above are also of great interest
in another point of view.

Thus, exclusively mineral manures, when applied to Gramina-
ceous plants grown separately (as wheat, barley, or oats, under
ordinary circumstances), produce very similar effects to those
upon the allied plants of the mixed herbage; that is to say,
they increase the crop comparatively little, but prominently
develop the seeding tendency; and again, when these manures
are applied to Leguminous crops grown separately, as in the case
of the allied plants of the mixed herbage, they considerably
increase the luxuriance of their growth.

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 133

Ammonia-salts, on the other hand, which produce such
characteristic effects upon the growth of the Graminaceous plants
of the mixed herbage, have also a marked influence upon that of
the Graminaceous plants grown separately in rotation, and but
little on that of the Leguminous ones so grown.

For various reasons, therefore, both practical and scientific, it
seemed very desirable that the subject should be further investi-
gated, both here and elsewhere. The experiments at Rothamsted
have, accordingly, been continued up to the present time, and
they are still in progress.

Our first report, to which we have been referring, gave the
results of the first three seasons (1856, 1857, and 1858), relating
to three divisions of the subject, namely—the produce of hay
per acre, the produce of constituents per acre, and the chemical
composition of the hay—and on these points we have now on
hand the accumulated results of four more seasons. The results
formerly given. on the remaining branch of the subject—the
description of plants developed by the different manures—telated to
the produce of the third season only, 1858 ; and the further details
obtained on this head have reference to the produce of the
seventh season, 1862. It is to these that it is proposed to confine
attention on the present occasion, presenting only such an outline
of the voluminous records as will bring to view the points of
most interest to the readers of an Agricultural Journal,

Method of Experimenting.

Taking advantage of the experience gained-in some attempts
to separate and determine the proportion of the different plants,
in carefully averaged and weighed samples of the produce in the
previous year (1857), the produce of 1858 had been separated
into—(1) Graminaceous herbage, stems bearing flower or seed ;
(2) Graminaceous herbage, detached leaves and indeterminate
stems; (3) Leguminous herbage ; (4) Miscellaneous herbage,
chiefly weeds. The components classified under these heads gave
from 14 to 23 different descriptions of herbage ; and, no doubt, the
results, so far as they went, clearly and truthfully indicated the
characteristic and comparative distribution of plants on the dif-
ferent plots. Butasthere remained, in the separations in question,
an amount equal in several cases to a fourth, and in one to more
than a half of the whole produce, to be set down as Grami-
naceous herbage in “ detached leaves and indeterminate stems,” to
the components of which the specific names could not with any
confidence be given, it seemed desirable, in again taking up the
subject, to follow it out in considerably more of detail. Accord-
ingly, in the separations recently made, of the produce of 1862,

134 Effects of different Manures on the

it was sought to determine the species to which the detached
leaves and “imperfect stems belonged, and so to include in the’
amount given for each grass, as far 23 possible its total yield,
whether in culm bearing flower and seed, or in a less definite
condition. The classification of the Graminaceous herbage will,
therefore, on the present occasion, be somewhat different ; and
hence the present and the former results will not be strictly
comparable.

It will be obvious that to conduct the work on the plan just
indicated, not only involved an immense amount of labour, but
required very considerable technical knowledge and experience
in those superintending the separations. Accordingly, we applied
to several botanical friends for a competent botanical assistant ;
and we have now to express our best thanks to Dr. J. D. Hooker,
of Kew, for recommending to us Mr. W. Sutherland, a young
man who, as foreman of the “ Hardy Herbaceous ground ” in
the Kew Gardens, had had, to use Dr. Hooker’s words, “ the
charge of a most extensive named collection of herbaceous plants
(some 4-5000), including a good collection of grasses.” We
have also much satisfaction in bearing testimony to the com-
petency of Mr. Sutherland for the work he undertook, and to the
conscientious and assiduous manner in which he has performed
his tedious and difficult task.

The mode of taking the samples for the botanical separations
was as follows: eight or ten mowers were put upon the half-acre
experimental plot, and small quantities of grass were taken
immediately after the scythe from each swathe, until nearly the
whole of the plot was down. The quantities so taken, amounting
to very many times more than the required sample, were then
carefully mixed on a cloth, so as to shake out as little seed as
possible, and from the bulk a sample of 10 Ibs. was immediately
weighed, before any material change in the condition of the
grass could take place by evaporation.

The samples taken as above described were spread out to dry
at the ordinary temperature, and afterwards carefully preserved
for future operation.

In all, twenty samples have been submitted to botanical
analysis; occupying Mr. Sutherland for about four months, and
another assistant, and from three to half a dozen boys, for a

riod of nearly six months.

The plan adopted i in the first instance was to work down each
sample to the point of something like equal difficulty of further
separation. The remaining undetermined residue was then put
into a sieve, and the larger. stemmy and leafy portions were thus
separated from the shedded flowers and seeds, and finely broken
leafy matter. The mass of the latter was then separated, by

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 135

means of other sieves of varying fineness, into four or five different
lots, in order to facilitate the examination and identification of
its components ; and notes were made accordingly as to their
apparent character. “But it was found that there still remained,
in some cases, nearly one-fourth of the original sample as unde-
termined stemmy and leafy residue. Hence, all such residues
that amounted to more than 10 per cent. of the original sample
were afterwards submitted toa further separation—a most tedious
labour—which, however, has in very few cases left as much as
10 per cent. of undetermined matter. Still, after these further
separations, the relative proportions of the final stemmy- and
leafy residues will, to some extent indicate the ease or dif-
culty attending the separations and identifications, and at the
same time, be some indication of the character of development
of the herbage. For, it will be readily understood that a very
luxuriant and stemmy Graminaceous produce, would be much
more easily separated into its components, than a mass consisting
almost exclusively of leafy herbage. Indeed, whilst some of the
individual samples required more than a week for the first, and
afterwards some days for the second separation, others were
worked much more easily.

The numerical results of the inquiry, showing the proportion
per cent. in each sample, of each separated portion, are given
in the large folding Table, facing p. 164; in which the indi-
vidual plants, or descriptions of herhage otherwise defined, are
classified into—

1.—Graminaceous herbage :

Determined species ;

Undetermined stem and leaf;

Shedded flowers and seeds, &c. (chiefly Graminaceous).
2.—Leguminous herbage.

3.—Miscellaneous herbage.

And, as will be seen, the different plants composing the Mis-
cellaneous or weedy herbage, are classified into the Natural
Orders to which they respectively belong.

The following isa detailed statement of the manuring of the
different plots; a brief description of which is given under the
corresponding plot-numbers in the Tables. Unless otherwise
stated, the same description and amount of manure has been
applied to the respective plots every year since the beginning of
the experiments in 1856. The quantities are given per acre.

Plot 1.—Unmanured. rae
Plot 2.—Unmanured (duplicate plot at the further end of
the series). : .

136 Effects of different Manures on the

Plot 3 a.—Superphosphate of lime; composed of 200 Ibs.
bone-ash, and 150 Ibs. sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°7. 4th
season, commencing in 1859; sawdust alone the three
previous seasons.

Plot 3 b.—Superphosphate of lime; and 400 ]bs. ammonia-
salts (equal parts sulphate and muriate of commerce, sup-
plying about 82 lbs. nitrogen per acre). 4th season,
commencing in 1859; the three previous seasons sawdust
alone.

Plot 4.—400 lbs, ammonia-salts.

Plot 5.—400 lbs. ammonia-salts ; and 2000 lbs. sawdust.
Plot 6.—275 lbs. nitrate of soda of commerce (containing
about 41 Ibs. nitrogen). 5th season, commencing 1858.
Plot 7.—550 lbs. nitrate of soda (containing about 82 lbs.

nitrogen). 5th season, commencing in 1858.

Plot 8.—-Mixed mineral manure, composed of—

300 Ibs. sulphate of potass.

200 Ibs. sulphate of soda.

100 Ibs. sulphate of magnesia.
Superphosphate of lime, as above.

Plot 9.—Mixed mineral manure; and 2000 Ibs. sawdust.
(The mixed mineral manure as Plot 8 to 1861 inclusive,
and in 1862 the sulphate of potass excluded, and the
amount of sulphate of soda raised to 500 Ibs.)

Plot 10.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 8; and 400 lbs.
ammonia-salts.

Plot 11.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 9: and 400 lbs.
ammonia-salts,

Plot 12 a.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 8; 400 Ibs.
ammonia-salts ; and 2000 lbs. cut wheat-straw.

Plot 12 .—Duplicate of Plot 12 a, but rather sheltered on
the west by trees. y

Plot 13 a.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 8 ; and 800 Ibs.
ammonia-salts, equal about 164 Ibs. nitrogen (only 400 Ibs.
ammonia-salts in 1859, 1860, and 1861).

Plot 13 6.—Mixed minéral manure, as Plot 13 a, to 1861
inclusive; the same with 200 Ibs, silicate of soda and
200 lbs. silicate of lime in addition in 1862 ; 3 and 800 Ibs.
ammonia-salts (only 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts in 1859, 1860,
and 1861).

Plot 14.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 8; and 275 lbs.
nitrate of soda. 5th season, commencing in 1858,

Plot 15.—Mixed mineral manure, as Plot 8; and 550 Ibs.
nitrate of soda, 5th season, commencing in 1898.

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 137

Plot 16.—14 tons farm-yard manure.
Plot 17.—14 tons farm-yard manure ; and 200 lbs. ammonia~-
salts.

With the view of both controlling and adding to the nume-
rical results of the botanical separations, it was decided to have
systematic series of notes taken on the ground. To this end,
between three and four weeks prior to the date of cutting were
devoted to making observations, as under :—

1. On each plot seriatim ; remarking the predominance, and
character of development, of the different plants.

2. On each of the most important plants seriatim ; comparing
its predominance, and character of development, on the different
plots.

3. On the relative conditions of ripeness of the plots generally,
and of individual descriptions of plants just before cutting.

Then, after the crop was cut, and before its removal from the
ground, further notes were taken, with the full view of the pro-
duce of the entire plot then at command, the former ones haying
been made only at either end of the respective plots.

Lastly, notes on the second crop were taken.

In the separations of 1858, the number of species deter-
mined in any one sample in no case amounted to twenty; the
undetermined Graminaceous herbage was, however, subdivided
into four or five different lots, supplying, in addition to the defined
species, so many different descriptions of herbage; but in the
separations of 1862, forty or more defined species were.in some
cases identified. It is not supposed that a greater number of
plants occurred in the produce of 1862 than in that of 1858. The
result is doubtless due to the much greater amount of attention
and labour bestowed upon the more recent separations. There
is, however, no doubt, that, although the more general character-
istics of the herbage on the respective differently-manured plots
remain the same as formerly—that is to say, as to the general
predominance respectively of Graminaceous, Leguminous, and
Miscellaneous herbage, and tendency to stemmy or leafy deve-
Jopment—yet that there is a considerably altered predominance of
particular plants, as a further consideration of the results will
show.

It is not proposed to comment in detail upon the numerical
results given in the large folding Table (facing p. 164), nor to
quote at any length from the voluminous written observations to
which reference has been made, as such a treatment of the
subject is more suitable to the pages of a Botanical than of an
Agricultural Journal.

138 Effects of different Manures on the

The most important. practical points for consideration are
those which illustrate the character of the herbage in relation to
the manures employed, and to the amounts of crop yielded. In
relation to these points, therefore, we shall briefly consider—

1. The general description, and proportion per cent., of the
different kinds of herbage (Graminaceous, Leguminous, or Mis-
cellaneous), and the number of species.

2. The description, and proportion per cent., of the predomi-
nating species.

3. The tendency to the development of leafy or stemmy pro-
duce, and the order of ripeness.

1.—The general description, and proportion per cent., of the
different hinds of herbage (Graminaceous, Leguminous, and Mis-
cellaneous), and the number of species, in relation to the manures
employed, and to the amounts of crop yielded.

In Table II. (pp. 140-141), are given the results relating to this
branch of the subject. On the left hand will be found a short
description of the manures employed, and a column showing the
average annua] yield of hay per acre on each plot, reckoned
from the commencement of the experiments to 1862 inclusive ;
the records for the plot giving the largest amount of produce
standing at the head of the list, and so on, in order, according to
the crop yielded, Side by side with these particulars, on their
right, are given, for each plot, the proportion per cent. in the
produce, of—

1.—Graminaceous herbage :

Determined species ;

Undetermined stem and leaf;

Shedded flowers, seeds, &c., chiefly Graminaceous.
2.—Leguminous herbage.
3.—Miscellaneous or weedy herbage.

Also the number of species, respectively of the Graminaceous,
the Leguminous, and the Miscellaneous herbage.

It will be seen that the average annual amount of produce at
the head of the list is 6877 lbs., and that there is a pretty gradual
diminution down to 2720 lbs., which is the yield without manure_
of any kind. The heaviest produce was obtained where, in con-
junction with the mixed mineral manure, the largest amount of
ammonia-salts (containing about 164 lbs. of nitrogen) was ap-
plied. Leaving out of consideration for the present the com-—
paratively immaterial influence of cut wheat-straw, or sawdust,
the next in order as to amount of crop are the five plots where, ;
with the mixed mineral manure, half the quantity of nitrogen
(about 82 lbs.), either in the form of ammonia-salts or nitrate of

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. | 139

soda, was used. Then come two plots, the one with about 41 Ibs.
nitrogen, supplied in the form of ammonia-salts, and the other with
the same amount in the form of nitrate of soda; the former with
farmyard dung manure in addition, containing, of course, besides
a large amount of mineral constituents and carbonaceous organic
matter, a considerable quantity of nitrogen; the latter with the
mixed mineral manure. Next comes the plot with ammonia-
salts (= 82 lbs. nitrogen) and superphosphate of lime instead of the
mixed mineral manure, showing a deficiency of produce, due to
the exclusion of the alkaline salts, of 1200 lbs. to 1400 lbs, per
acre per annum. Still, this obviously defective combination
gives more produce than an annual dressing of 14 tons of farm-
yard manure per acre, with all its mineral and carbonaceous
organic matter, and a good deal of nitrogen also. Nitrate of
soda alone = 82 lbs. nitrogen, stands next. to. farmyard manure
alone, giving more produce than the mixed mineral manure
alone; which, in its turn, gives slightly more than ammonia-
salts alone = §2 lbs. nitrogen, or nitrate of soda alone = 41 lbs.
nitrogen, and considerably more than superphosphate of lime
alone. But although the mixed mineral manure alone gave
more total produce than the ammonia-salts alone (= 82 lbs.
nitrogen), it in point of fact gave very much less of Graminaceous
herbage, its increase consisting in very large proportion of Legu-
minous plants.

The general result is, then, that the largest amounts of gross
produce were obtained where the largest amounts of nitrogen
were applied in the manure; provided only, that a sufficiency of |
mineral constituents was at the same time supplied. Further,
that much larger crops were obtained by means of artificial
manures supplying nitrogen and mineral constituents, than by a
heavy dressing of farmyard manure, with all its carbonaceous
organic matter in addition to its large amount of nitrogen and
mineral constituents. And again, a complex mineral manure
alone, gave about as much total produce as ammonia-salts alone
or nitrate of soda alone ; but the description of herbage developed
was very different in the two cases.

Let us now consider the varying character of the herbage coin-
cident with the use of such very different descriptions of manure,
and the production of such very varying amounts of crop.

A glance at the Table (II.) shows that with the highest amount
of produce there was the highest: proportion in it of Graminaceous
herbage = about 95 per cent., no Leguminous. herbage whatever,
and the lowest proportion of Miscellaneous herbage = not quite
5 per cent. There was also with the lowest amount of produce
only about 74 per cent. of Graminaceous herbage (which is

almost

140

Effects of different Manures on the

T'abLE II],—Showing the General Description, and Proportion per Cent., of the
employed, and to the amounts of Crop

ORDER OF MOST PRODUCE, PER ACRE.

General Description of Manures.

Ammonia-salts = 164 Ibs. nitrogen, and

mixed mineral manure, including
SUMICALES © caaqn idee tes, accke ve ~

Ammonia-salts = 164 Ibs. nitrogen, and
mixed mineral manure (without
Bilicates) Teast ee ee

Ammonia-salts= 82 lbs. nitrogen, and
mixed mineral manure .. .. «.

Ammonia-salts = 82 Ibs. nitrogen, and
mixed mineral manure (excluding
potass in 1862), and sawdust .. ..

Ammonia-salts = 82 lbs. nitrogen, mixed
mineral manure, and 2000 Ibs. cut
wheat-straw eee SE

Duplicate of plot 12a (half of the cot
rather sheltered by trees)...

Nitrate of soda=82 lbs. nitrogen, and
mixed mineral manure ..

Ammonia-salts=41 lbs. nitrogen, and
farmyard manure .. .. .. «

Nitrate of soda=41 lbs. nitrogen, and
mixed mineral manure ., .. .

Ammonia-salts=82 lbs. nitrogen, and
superphosphate of lime .. oa

Farmyard manure, alone ..
Nitrate of soda, alone = 82 Ibs. nitrogen

Mixed mineral manure (excluding
potass in 1862), and sawdust .. ..

Mixed mineral manure, alone .. ..

Ammonia-salts=82 lbs. nitrogen, and
SAWGUSt ve nee eo. isn eins si

Nitrate of soda, alone = 41 Ibs. nitrogen
Ammonia-salts, alone = 82 lbs, nitrogen
Superphosphate of lime, alone ..

Mnmanured wisiset)0ce ieee Re wale

Dumanured 7. ose

NaS nee aes O02 ae eens aa eee 2 eee ee

Hay, per Acre
per Annum ;
average of
7 Years,
1856-62,

Ibs.
6877

6876

6357

6216

6159

6141
5783*
5468
4939*

4877+
4775
4126*
4100

3919

3839
3805*
3719
31644
2927
2720

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Per Cent.

Graminaceous.

Determined | Undetermined

Species.

81°95

80°91

77°57

12°97

80°61

74°39

67°39

73°48

65°78

69°45

60°33
52° 3%

65°21
56°47

77°43
57°27

78°68 -

62°36
58°13
58°82

* Average of 5 years only, 1858-62 inclusive.
+ Average of 4 years only, 1859-62 inclusive.

Stem and Leaf,

6°31

8-91

or Herbacr,

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land.

Per Cent.

Number of Species.

or

| 4 .

10°
10° 5

Shedded Flowers}
and Seeds, &c.,
chiefly Grami-

naceous,

19

“81

Graminaceous.

Leguminous.

Total.

95°02 0°00
90°41 0°00
89°66 0°12
86°84 0°13
90°38 0°46
92°14 0°02
89°75 0°86
89°58 0°21
79°69 1°92
83°48 Ort
79°07 1°72
80°31 0°17
73°58 18°28
66°40 24°09
$2°27 0:24
84°22 0°32
88°34 0°15
78°72 2°60
73°99 6°16
74°20 7°61

Miscel-
laneous.

Grami-
naceous.

14

15

Leguminous.

to

mem 0 B® © G

Miscel-
laneous,

13

13

141

different kinds of Herbage, and the Number of Species, in relation to the Manures
yielded. SeEvENTH SEason, 1862.

Total.

142 Effects of different Manures.on the

almost the lowest proportion), about 7 per cent. of Leguminous
herbage, and nearly the highest proportion of Miscellaneous or
weedy herbage.

Again, whilst the smallest number, or only 21 species of
plants, was discovered in the sample of the heaviest produce, the
largest number, or 43 species, was found in that of the smallest
produce.

These extreme results prominently bring to view the fact, that
with large produce there was an almost exclusively Graminaceous,
and a comparatively simple herbage; and that with small pro-
duce the herbage was at once much less Graminaceous, and
much more complex. ‘There is, moreover, with some instructive
exceptions to which attention will be directed, something like a
gradual decrease in the proportion of Graminaceous, and increase
in that of the Miscellaneous herbage, and especially in the number
of species, as we proceed from the larger to the smaller crops.

Taking the results given in the Table a little more in detail, it
will be well to bear in mind the general character of the herbage
on the unmanured land, as the standard by which to compare that
on the variously manured plots.

The unmanured produce, taking the mean result of the two plots,
consisted, in round numbers, of about 74 per cent. Graminaceous,
6 to 7 per cent. Leguminous, and about 19 per cent. Miscellaneous
herbage; and it comprised about 40 species of plants.

In contrast with the above composition, that of the six or seven
heaviest crops at the head of the list in the Table (II.) may be
taken, in round numbers, at from about 90 to 95 per cent. Gra-
minaceous, from 0 to 0°86 per cent. Leguminous, and from 5 to
something over 10 per cent. Miscellaneous herbage ; the number
of species varying from 21 to 30.!

Comparing these heavier crops with one another, it is inter-
esting to observe that Plot 13 6, manured with ammonia-
salts and a mineral manure including silicates, gave a higher
percentage of Graminaceous, and a lower percentage of Mis-
cellaneous herbage, than Plot 13 a, with otherwise the same
manure but excluding silicates. Again, Plot 10 with ammonia-
salts and mineral manure including potass, gave rather more
produce, and a rather higher proportion of Graminaceous
herbage, than Plot 11, with the same amount of ammonia-
salts, and otherwise the same mineral manure (and sawdust
in addition), but excluding potass. Plot 10 also gave rather
more produce than either Plot 12 a or Plot 12 6, which had
the same amount of ammonia-salts and mineral manure, with
2000 Ibs. of cut wheat-straw per acre per annum in addition,
though these plots with the cut wheat-straw gave a slightly higher
proportion of Graminaceous herbage.

Plot 15, with the same mineral manure as Plot 10, and with

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 145

about the same amount of nitrogen, but in the form of nitrate of
soda instead of ammonia-salts, gave considerably less produce
but almost exactly the same proportion of Graminaceous herbage,
and more Leguminous herbage (0°86 per cent.), than any of the
plots manured with ammonia-salt.

The better adaptation of nitrate of soda than ammonia salts as

a manure for Leguminous plants, a fact which we have in other

cases observed, is again seen in the results of Plot 14. In that
‘case, with a smaller amount of nitrate of soda and the mixed
mineral manure, the Leguminous herbage amounted to nearly
2 per cent. of the produce. There was, at the same time, a
larger proportion of Miscellaneous or weedy herbage (18°39 per
cent.), and consequently a smaller proportion of the Grami-
naceous, than in any other case with an equally bulky crop.
Ammonia-salts, even in conjunction with farmyard-manure,
increased the proportion of Graminaceous plants at the expense
of the Leguminous and Miscellaneous herbage.

Farmyard-manure alone increased the proportion of the Gra-
minaceous at the expense of the Leguminous herbage, the pro-
portion of Miscellaneous herbage remaining about the same,
though its character was very different, there being much fewer
species and much greater predominance of individual weeds.
In fact, under the influence of farmyard-manure there were fewer
species developed within each division—Graminaceous, Legu-
minous, and Miscellaneous—the manured crop affording only
27 species, against 38 in one case, and 43 in another, without
manure.

Perhaps the most striking of the results recorded in the Table
is that obtained on Plot 8, by means of the mixed mineral
manure alone. Whereas, without manure we have 74 per cent.
Graminaceous, 6 to 7 per cent. Leguminous, and nearly 20 per
cent. Miscellaneous herbage; and with the mixed mineral
manure, and ammonia-salts in addition, 90 to 95 per cent. of
the produce Graminaceous, either no Leguminous herbage at
all, or but a fraction of 1 per cent. of it, and 5 to 10 per cent. of
Miscellaneous herbage; we have, with mixed mineral manure
alone, only about 664 per cent. of Graminaceous herbage, as
much as 24 per cent. Leguminous herbage, and only about 94 per -
cent. Miscellaneous. Thus, two-thirds only of the produce by
the mixed mineral manure alone consisted of grasses, whilst
nearly one-fourth of it consisted of clovers, meadow vetchling,
and trefoil. The number of species was, however, about as high
as without manure, and very much higher than with the same
mineral manure and ammonia-salts in addition.

As already alluded to, when such mineral manures are applied
to crops grown separately as in rotation, instead of together in a

144 Effects of different Manures on the

mixed herbage, they generally increase the produce of Gramina-
ceous ones but little, and that of Leguminous ones very charac-
teristically. It has been found, too, that even in a clayey soil, the
constituent of mineral manures which seems to have the most
influence upon the growth of the Leguminous plants of rotation,
beans and clover for example, was potass; and we have in the
results under consideration a striking instance of the effects pro-
duced on the growth of the allied plants of the mixed herbage
by a liberal supply to the soil of that constituent. Thus, Plot 9
had in every previous year of the experiments received the same
description and amount of mineral manure as Plot 8, but in 1862
the potass was excluded (from Plot 9), and a larger amount of
soda-salt substituted. The result was that the produce of Plot 9,
without the potass, gave only 18 instead of 24 per cent. of Legu-
minous herbage, or only three-fourths as high a proportion as
that of the plot manured otherwise similarly, but with the potass
in addition.

Superphosphate of lime alone, used for a series of years, has
somewhat increased the amount and proportion of the grasses,
at the expense of the Leguminous plants; the proportion of the
Miscellaneous herbage remaining about the same. Still, the
proportion of the Leguminous herbage under the influence of this
manure, though considerably less than without manure, and little
more than one-tenth as great as with the mixed mineral manure
(containing salts of potass, soda, and magnesia, as well as super-
phosphate of lime), was considerably greater than in any case
where either ammonia-salts or nitrates were used, whether they
were employed alone, in combination with mixed mineral, or
with farmyard-manure.

Lastly, ammonia-salts alone (or with only sawdust in addi-
tion), or nitrate of soda alone, considerably increased the propor-
tion of the grasses, almost excluded the Leguminous herbage,
reduced the proportion of Miscellaneous plants, and also the
total number of species.

It will perhaps be remembered that some years ago Baron
Liebig stated he had obtained marked effects by the use of saw-
dust as a manure; a result which he considered due to the
evolution of carbonic acid from the decomposing sawdust, by
means of which the supply of mineral constituents within the
soil was rendered more rapidly available.

We have, therefore, for some years past, applied 2000 Ibs. of
sawdust per acre, per annum, to a few of the experimental plots.
Where, in previous years, the sawdust was used alone, with
mineral manure without ammonia-salts, or with ammonia-salts
without mineral manure, some, but generally a very small increase
of produce, has been the result. But where the sawdust has been

’

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 145

employed with both mineral manure and ammonia-salts, that is
to say with a combination itself yielding a pretty full increase of
produce, no further increase has been obtained by its means.
Nor has the use, annually, of 2000 lbs. of finely-cut wheat-straw,
in addition to the mixture of mineral manure and ammonia-salts,
had as yet any beneficial effect upon the amount of gross produce

_ per acre, notwithstanding the large amount of mineral matter

peculiarly adapted for the growth of Graminaceous plants, which,
in addition to its decomposing carbonaceous substance, it would
in the course of time supply.

Sawdust has, for similar reasons, also been tried on some of the
crops grown on land under tillage, and with equal failure of
beneficial result.

So far as observation goes, the effects of sawdust have been as
immaterial on the character of the mixed herbage as on its
amount; but as in the past season, 1862, in two out of the three
cases where sawdust was employed potass was excluded from the
mixed mineral manure used with it, the results are not, in the
season in question, strictly comparable with those of the plots
with which they had previously been compared, but which now
differ not only in not having sawdust, but in having potass. The
only strictly comparable experiments in 1862 are that of Plot 4
with ammonia-salts alone, and that of Plot 5 with the same
amount of ammonia-salts, and sawdust in addition; and, so far as
the figures go, it would appear that the sawdust somewhat reduced
the proportion of the grasses, and increased that of the Miscel-
laneous or weedy herbage.

We now turn to a consideration of the next branch of the
subject. .

Il.— The description, and proportion per cent., of the predominating
species, in relation to the manures employed, and to the amounts of

crop yielded.
Table ILI. (pp. 146-147) illustrates this branch of the subject.

As in Table I1., the plots are arranged in order according to the
amount of produce, the one yielding the most being at the head
of the list, and so on. The particulars given relating to the .
predominating plants are—

1. The names, and proportion per cent., of the 5 predomi-
nating Graminaceous plants, or genera.

2. The names, and proportion per cent., of the 2 predomi-
nating Leguminous plants, or genera.

3. The same particulars for the 3 predominating Miscella-
neous or weedy plants.

Although it is believed that the figures in the various Tables
VOL, XXIV. L as

146

Lijfects of different Manures on the

TasLE III.—Showing the Description, and Proportion per Cent., of the predominati

SEVENY
OrDER OF MosT Propuce, PER ACRE. DESCRIPTION, AND PER CEN
| Hay, per
Acre per inatir
Plot ~~ pies The Five predominat I
Nos. General Description of Manures. average of
7 Years,
1836-65, . 2 8 4.
| a ; Ibs. :
mmonia-salts = 164 Ibs. nitrogen, and | - =
13b | mixed mineral manure agus 6877 4 Daety es gl. Sear: Poa iy pr Holeus a :
\ | silicates) . 5 : 5 = ai ’
| |
Ammonia-salts = 164 Ibs. BRA and a - *
12a) mixed mineral manure prithang sili- 6876 4), es | ee ie Br | eee sed vb i 8
cates) . 5 ed ee 1} +
{} Ammonia-salts = 82 Ibs, since ai | -~ § | Avena p.&f.| Poatr.& pr. | Lolium per. | Agrostis vu
1¢ 63,
2 | mixed mineral manure . : wht aH Ish 1237 Lie 11°6
| |
| Ammonia-salts = 82 Ibs. nitrogen, and } 3 ‘ ;
1Ll \) mixed mineral manure (excluding 6216 ; pr pong ee a baie cp i
| potass in 1862), and sawdust : ¢ :
| Ammonia-salts = $2 lbs. nitrogen, mixed | 4 :
i204 | mineral manure, and 2ovu lbs. cut ; 6159 5 eras gl. apo a ee pree a 6 = :
wheat-straw . - = 7 ch
-7,5 | Duplicate of Plot 12a (naif of the ‘plot Dactylis gl. | Poa tr. & pr. | Holcus lan, | Festuca p. &
1) | een “peer iy eapaaaolp ga 4] ako “120 63 63
= § Nitrate of soda =82 lbs. nitrogen, and 7 | Poa triv. Dactylis.gl. Lolium per. | Bromus mol.
a, {) mixed mineral manuye . a abel is 5783 f lil 116 : 10-0 9-4
17 §| Ammonia-salts = 41 Ibs. nitrogen, and 5468 5) Poa tr. & pr. | Dactylis’g]. | Bromus mol. | Helcus lan.
(| farmyard manure okies i 29°53 Jovy 12°90 60
| Nitrate of soda =41 Ibs. nitrogen, and Avena f. & Festuca d. &p. —— vul. | Holcus
Aa { | mixed mineral manure . up i 4ggoe $ al Lick 10: 6
sp J | Ammonia-salts = $2 Ibs, nitrogen, and 4877 Agrostis vul. | Holeus lan, | Avena p. & f. Poa triv.
““t| superphosphate of lime Sake tj mit} 13°6 13°3 4 vi
| 4
; 5, ae 6 || -Paatriv. Bromus mol. | Avenap. & f, | Dactytis gl
16 Farmyard manure, alone . | 4773 | | or4 9°6 f 73 +9”
Ti ; es ainten | ny 5 | | Festuca d. & p.| Alopecurus pr. Agrostis vul. .| Avena p. &
7 Nitrate of soda alone = 82 Ibs. nitrogen . aise | 16°0 9 ~ 62 Pot)
Mixed mineral manure eeiuting aren | Avena p. & f, | Festuca d. & p.| Agrostis vul. | Lolium
9 f in 1862), and sawdust . i 4100 § | lig 99 76 st
eee ‘ || Avena p, & f, | Festucad. &p.| Poa tr. & pr. Arrhenath,a
$ | Mixed mineral manure, alone . 3919 {| 16°7 123 o°7 3a
- § Ammonia-salts = 82 Ibs, nitrogen, and | Agrostis vul. | Avena p. & f. | Festucatd. & p.| Holcus
2 5 |” sawdust Ee ‘ mt; 3839 § |e o0-3 16-6 Peri: >
6 Nitrate of soda, alone =41 Ibs. nitrogen 3805* { Alopecurus pr. | eee &p. — vul. Hola
; A 7 A
4 | Ammonia-salts, alone = 82 lbs. nitrogen 3719 } Eeeeies cnet | Agro _ val. Holpos “ascii Pade ne
d ! 23°3 | 13 a7 od
'
2a | Superphosphate of lime, alone sinst§ vay ne Fe et, | | entaens AD act “se — Lo
; | Festuca p. & d. | Av ena p. & f. Agrostis vul. | - Dactylis g
9 | B24
2 | Unmanured 2927 1) | 16°2 le3 55 vind
|
5 Festuea p. & d. "Avena P. & f. | Lolium per. | Agrostis v_
979,
1 Unmanured , 2720 5 . 139 rary 87 36

* Average of 5 years only, 1858-62 inclusive.
+ Average of 4 years only, 1859-62 inclusive.

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 147

cies, in relation to the Manures employed, and to the Amounts of Crop yielded.
son, 1862.

REDOMINATING S?ECIES.

The ‘Two asia Fes Leguminous || phe Three predominating Miscellaneous Plants.
| —|
Total || ‘
i 1 2 per Cent. 1 2 3
| ey ce | | ee —S SC |] —
Rumex acet. | Carum Car. | Achillea mil.
| e*00 0-00 0-00 372 (32 0°39
{|
| Rumex acet. | Achillaa mil. | Carum Car.
| 0°00 0°00 0-00 6°40 | 1-33 1°35
i Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium rep. | Rumex acet. | Carum Car. | Achillea mil.
} oll O-UL 0-12 4°95 2°34 1-96
i
|| Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium rep. Rumex acet. | Carum Car. | Achillxa mil.
| 0°12 0-01 0°13 9°26 1°47 0°90
\|
| Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium pr. Rumex acet. Achillaa mil. | Carum Car.
) 0-41 0-03 0°46 4°33 2-03 1-74
| Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium rep. “Rumex acet, | Carum Car. | Achillawa mil.
| 0-01 O-ul 0°02 3°90 1°33 Urn)
| Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium pr. | Rumex acet. | Carum Car. | Ranun. a. & b.
O°34 0-02 0°86 7u9 1-09 0°32
|, Lathyrus pr. | Trifolium pr. | Rumex acet. | Achillea mil. | Ranun. a, & b.
| uid 0-05 0°19 5°76 1°39 1°39
| Trifol. p. & r. | Lathyrus pr. | Rumex acet. | Ranun. a. & b.| Carum Car.
1°87 U-05 192 |} 53 513 3°75
I Lathyrus pr. | Trifol. p. & r. Rumex acet. | Ranun. a. & b.| Achillea mil,
0°07 Q-ut O-1ll 1L"Uo Li3 1°70
Latbyrus pr. | Trifol p. & r. | Rumex acet. | Ranun. a. & b.| Achillea mil.
0°9u 0°32 1-72 1u°33 2°34 2°34
Trifolium pr. | Lotus cornic. Plantago lane. | Rumex acet. | Achillea mil,
| O16 vr0l OD 6-99 72 2°35
| Trifol. p. & r. | Lathyrus pr. Rumex acet. | Carum Car. | Achillwa mil.
‘| lu-ul 510 18°11 1-70 1°39 Us)
| Latbyrus pr. | Trifolium pr. Rumex acet. | Carum Car, | Achillwa mil.
ag 46-4 || 13°24 7dl 20°73 1°36 149) 169
if
olium per. a | Lathyrus pr. | Trifvlium pr. Rumex acet. | Achillea mil. | Galium ver.
a3 65°4 || 0°22 O-ul 0°23 10°64 3°37 0°95
‘Poa tr. | Trifolium pr. | Lotus cornic. ' Centaurea nig. Plantago lanc. | Rumex acet.
a7 46°9 0°23 0°03 0°31 3°93 3°05 2°34
henath. av, \ Lotus cornic. | Trifolium pr. | Rumex acet. | Achillea mil. | Carum Car.
a3 68°6 0°07 0°07 0-14 || 7°33 1°33 0°36
a tr & pr. Trifol. p. & r. | Lotus cornic. Plantago lane. | Ranun. a. & b.| Rumex acct.
a7 51°8 1°93 0°39 2°32 5°30 4°27 3°17
oleus lan, Trifolium pr. | Lath i :

. yrus pr. Plantago lanc.| Rumex acet. Carum Car.
a3 43°0 2°66 1°88 i" 4°54 72 2°68 . 2°32 _
oleus lan. cs Trifol. Pp. &r. | Lotus comic. Plantago lanc. | Ranun. a. & b.} Luzula camp.

au 47°2 4°73 1°69 6°42 6°37 3°61 154

Tae

148 Effects of different Manures on the

may be fully relied upon as showing the general relation to one
another of the individual species, or different orders of plants, it
is by no means supposed that small numerical differences, or even
in all cases greater ones, are to be taken unconditionally as repre-
senting corresponding differences in the character of the herbage.
It will be readily understood that in any case, and especially in
that of a very heavy and luxuriant crop, there must be great
difficulty in collecting a sample of no more than some ten pounds
weight which will absolutely represent the bulk of the mixed
herbage. ‘Then again, the difficulty of separation and identifica-
tion in the case of a mass of ill-defined and mutilated leafy
produce is extremely great. It was with a full appreciation of
these difficulties that we felt it necessary, if for no other reason
than as a means of control over the numerical results, that the
several series of notes to which reference has been made should
be taken. And although the botanical separations have been
conducted at the cost of an immense amount of care and labour,
we shall, in the few remarks we have to make on the results on
the present occasion, be guided by a careful consideration of the
recorded observations, as well as of the figures given in the tables.

Taking the distribution of plants in the produce of the un-
manured land as the standard by which to compare that of the
other plots, attention will be directed in some detail to its com-
ponents.

The Unmanured produce.

Sixteen Graminaceous species were identified in the un-
manured produce, constituting together about 74 per cent. of
its weight ; and although their distribution was more even than
in most of the cases of the manured land, the species of the five
predominating genera amounted in one case to 43 and in another
to 47 per cent. of the total produce. In the produce of the
heaviest crops, however, generally over 60, and sometimes as
much as 68 or 69 per cent. were referable to the five predomi-
nating species, or at any rate to the species included within the
five predominating genera.

In the unmanured produce, Festuca duriuscula, or I’, pratensis,
which are hardy and good grasses, Avena pubescens and A,
flavescens, sweet and good grasses, adapted to dry and chalky
land, and much liked in hay, were the most prominent ; but they
were by no means in such large proportion as the predominating
grasses on most of the manured plots. Next to these were Lolium
perenne, a very good and free-growing grass; Agrostis vulgaris,
a creeping-rooted plant, said to be not liked by cattle; and
Holcus lanatus, also a bad food-grass, being too soft and woolly.
After these came Arrhenatherum avenaceum, a rather favourite

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 149

grass as early feed, and for its second cut ; Poa trivialis, also a
good grass for early feed and second crop, but from its tufty
growth and strong creeping roots said to be apt to banish other
grasses; Anthoxanthum odoratum, a fragrant grass, but not
relished in large quantity ; and Alopecurus pratensis, better as
green food than as hay. All the above were more evenly dis-
tributed in the small unmanured produce than in any other ; and
it contained besides, insignificant quantities of Dactylis glomerata,
a bulky and free-growing grass under favourable conditions, and
much liked by stock when not too old; Briza media, a plant of
limited growth, and not much relished as food; Cynosurus
cristatus, varying in character considerably, according to circum-
stances of growth, better for pasture than for hay, but upon the
whole of little utility ; and lastly Bromus mollis, a soft and very
bad food-grass.

It is true that on one of the unmanured plots (No. 2) Dactylis
glomerata occurred in notable quantity; but as that plot was
situated between plots 12 a and 13 b, on both of which Dactylis
was very luxuriant, it is more probable that it has, from time to
time, been seeded from them, than that such a grossly-feeding
grass flourished naturally on the unmanured land. Observation,
indeed, led to the conclusion that in some other cases unexpected
differences in the indications of the figures are attributable to
adventitious circumstances of an allied kind.

Of Leguminous herbage, the unmanured produce contained
from 6 to 7 per cent., the larger portion of which consisted of
perennial red clover, with a little white clover. Lathyrus
pratensis (meadow vetchling), and Lotus corniculatus (bird’s-foot
trefoil) occurred in-less quantity, but the two about equally, and
more largely than in any other case excepting where the mixed
mineral manures were employed.

The Miscellaneous or weedy herbage, of which nearly 20 per
cent. of the unmanured produce was composed, also consisted,
like the Graminaceous herbage, of a great variety of species, of
which few specially predominated, excepting the Plantago
lanceolata (ribwort plantain). The next in prominence were the
Ranunculus acris and R. bulbosus (crowfoots), Rumex acetosa
{sorrel dock), Carum Carui (common caraway), Achillaa mille-
folium (milfoil), and Luzula campestris (field wood-rush). In
smaller quantity occurred—of the Order Composite—Centaurea
nigra (black knapweed), Leontodon hispidus (rough hawkbit),
Tragopogon pratense (yellow goat’s beard), Taraxacum Dens-
leonis (dandelion), Hypocheris radicata (cat’s-ear), and Bellis
perennis (daisy) ; of the Order Umbellifere, Pimpinella saxifraga
{burnet saxifrage), and Heracleum sphondylium (hogweed) ; and
of plants of various other natural Orders, occurring still less pre-

150 Effects of different Manures on the

valently, were the Veronica chamedrys (germander speedwell),
Cerastium vulgatum (mouse-ear chickweed), Stellaria graminea
(lesser starwort), Scabiosa arvensis (field scabious), Hypnum
squarrosum (squarrose moss), Primula veris (cowslip), San-
guisorba officinalis (great burnet), Geum urbanum (common
avens), Galium verum (yellow bed-straw), Ajuga reptans (bugle),
and Ophioglossum vulgatum (adder’s tongue). Aud there were
probably others of too unpretending and restricted growth to be
observed on the ground, or to come within reach of the scythe.

Upon the whole the unmanured produce—Graminaceous,
Leguminous, and Miscellaneous—was more complex, and less
characterised by the prevalence of individual species, than that
of any of the manured plots. The most predominating plants
were, of the grasses Festuca duriuscula and F. pratensis, Avena
pubescens and A. flavescens ; and of the Miscellaneous or weedy
plants, Plantago lanceolata.

It is only necessary to add that the meadow yielding the mixed
herbage composed as above described, though giving hay of fair
average quality, and useful after-feed for store stock, or sheep, by
no means partakes of the character of a fattening pasture.

Effects of Mineral Manures alone.

The plots on which the Graminaceous herbage more nearly
approached to that of the unmanured land, both in complexity
and in general prevalence of the same species, were plot 3 a
manured with superphosphate of lime alone, and plots 8 and 9
with the mixed mineral manure. The chief distinctions apparent
are, that by superphosphate of lime alone the inferior grass
Holcus lanatus was brought into somewhat greater prominence,
and that by it, as well as by the mixed mineral manure alone,
the useful grass Poa trivialis was somewhat increased in rela-
tive amount. By the mixed mineral manure, Arrhenatherum
avenaceum also appears to be somewhat encouraged, ‘The free
growing and bulky Dactylis glomerata was in very small quantity
on either of the plots manured with mineral manure alone; nor
are either of the other grasses which occur in predominating
amount on one or other of the plots yielding the heavier crops,
found at all prominently in the comparatively small produce
grown under the influence of mineral manures alone. .

It was on the amount and character of the Leguminous herbage
that the mineral manures alone produced the most striking effects.
Superphosphate of lime alone, considerably, reduced the propor-
tion of such herbage ; but when with it salts of potass, soda, and
magnesia were used, Trifolium pratense perenne, and Lathyrus
pratensis, were developed in an extraordinary degree. When the

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 151

mixed mineral manure contained potass, as well as soda and
magnesia (plot 8), the Lathyrus somewhat predominated ; and
where the potass was excluded (plot 9) it was in a smaller pro-
portion, Lotus, again, was more abundant on plot 8, where
the potass was employed. As already alluded to, however,
the total amount of Leguminous herbage was very much the less
on plot 9,'where the potass was excluded; and as at present it
has only been for one season excluded, it is not improbable that
the proportion of such herbage will in future be greatly reduced.
It is worthy of remark, too, that on plot 8, where the application
of potass is continued, the proportion of Leguminous herbage
was almost exactly the same in the produce of the seventh year
of the experiments, 1862, as it had been found to be in that of
the third season, 1858.

Superphosphate of lime alone, which tended to decrease the
proportion of Leguminous plants, seemed to be generally favour-
able to the development of the Miscellaneous ones, both the
variety and amount of such herbage being considerable. The
proportion of Plantago lanceolata was nearly as great as on the
unmanured plot, and that of Ranunculus (acris and bulbosus),
Rumex, Achillaa, and Carum Carui, was also comparatively
large. On the other hand, the mixed mineral manures, which so ,
much increased the proportion of the Leguminous plants, con-
siderably diminished that of the Miscellaneous ones. The variety
of such herbage was, however, considerable; the reduction in
amount being due to the diminished luxuriance of several
species, and especially the Plantago, which was in very small
amount,

Effects of Ammonia-Salts alone.

Compared with the unmanured produce, ammonia-salts alone,
or with sawdust only in addition, considerably increased the
proportion of total Graminaceous herbage, and also the amount
referable to the species of the five predominating genera, the
latter reaching from 65 to 68 per cent. of the total produce. To
a great extent, however, the same grasses prevailed as in the
small crops without manure, or with mineral manures alone.
The most prominent effect of this relatively excessive nitro-
genous condition, was the encouragement of the Festuca durius-
eula and Avena pubescens, two good elements predominating in
the produce without manure ; to a greater extent still that of
the objectionable creeping-rooted- Agrostis; and in some degree
also that of the inferior Holcus lanatus. Compared with the
effects on the distribution of the Graminaceous herbage,of mineral
manure alone, the most marked result of the ammonia-salts alone
Was the great increase of the Agrostis and the Holcus, at the

152 Effects of different Manures on the

expense, to some extent, of the superior Poa trivialis, but in a
greater degree of the Leguminous herbage. The free growing
and bulky Dactylis, as by mineral manures alone, so also by
ammonia-salts alone (which characteristically favour the growth
of Graminaceous herbage generally), appears to be kept in the
background. In fact, although the increase by ammonia-salts
alone was exclusively Graminaccous (other plants being actually
reduced in amount), it was also almost exclusively composed of
the leafy herbage of the less grossly growing grasses.

Under the influence of ammonia-salts alone the produce did
not contain a quarter of 1 per cent. of Leguminous herbage.

The proportion of total Miscellaneous plants, and the number
of species, were reduced by the use of ammonia-salts alone; but
some few plants were very strikingly encouraged, especially the
Rumex acetosa, which was both abundant and luxuriant. Carum
Carui was also very prevalent, more so than the figures would
indicate; the small weight being probably due to its being ripe,
and having shedded much seed before being cut. Achillea
millefolium was also a very prominent plant; and Luzula cam-
pestris was more so than on most of the manured plots.

Effects of Nitrate of Soda alone.

The effects of nitrate of soda alone, though in many respects
similar to those of ammonia-salts alone, show some peculiarities,
The proportion of the total herbage referable to the five predo-
minating Graminaceous genera is unusually small; whilst a plant
occurring in the produce without manure in very small quantity,
and in fees amount still in that by mineral manure alone, or
ammonia-salts alone, comes here into very great prominence. This
grass, Alopecurus pratensis (fox-tail grass), a good pasture plant,
but not a good element in hay, contributed 19°7 per cent. to the
produce where the smaller amount of nitrate of soda was’ used
alone, and nearly 7 per cent. where the lar ger amount was
employ ed; though, in only one other case, excepting in the pro-
duce without manure, did it exceed 2 per cent. ‘This grass was,
in fact, quite characteristic of the nitrated plots. Otherwise,
there was a pretty equal distribution of the grasses prevailing on
the plots hitherto considered; though, as with ammonia-salts
without, mineral manure, there was here a great tendency to
development of foliage from the base, rather than to the growth
of stem and stem-leaves,

Nitrate of soda alone, like ammonia-salts alone, very much
discouraged the Leguminous herbage. Lathyrus and Lotus were
almost totally excluded ; ; and Trifolium only contributed about a
quarter of 1 per cent, of the produce.

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 153

Unlike ammonia-salts alone, the nitrate of soda seemed to
encourage the Plantago lanceolata ; and under its influence Cen-
taurea nigra and Taraxacum Dens-leonis, though in small
amount, were somewhat more prominent than usual. But next
to Plantago lanceolata, Rumex acetosa; Achillwa millefolium,
Ranunculus (acris and bulbosus), and Carum Carui were the
most abundant of the Miscellaneous plants, though none of them
were very luxuriant. The total amount of Miscellaneous herbage
was comparatively large, but resulted from the great frequency
of some few species, rather than from either great variety, or great
luxuriance of any particular plants,

Effects of Farm- Yard Manure alone.

Farmyard dung alone, the manure upon which dependence
must to a great extent be placed for grass-land devoted to the
production of hay, gave a produce containing 79 per cent. of
total Graminaceous herbage, but a comparatively small propor-
tion (51°9 per cent.) referable to the five predominating genera ;
and this was the case notwithstanding that one grass, Poa trivialis,
which was not at all prominent on any of the plots already con-
sidered, contributed 274 per cent. of the total herbage as sampled.
The notes taken on the ground agree with the figures in showing
this plant to have been very prominent’; and, as will presently be
seen, it also occurred in yery predominating amount on the plot
manured with farmyard-manure -and ammonia-salts. So far
farmyard-manure improves the character as well as increases the
amount of the Graminaceous herbage; but it also brings into
greater prominence than any of the other manures Bromus mollis,
which is reputed to be a very bad food-grass. It, at the same
time, encourages the free-growing, productive, and, upon the
whole, good but somewhat coarse grass Dactylis glomerata more
than any of the manures yielding the smaller crops. The three
grasses Poa trivialis, Bromus mollis, and Dactylis glomerata,
which are thus seen to be increased in their development by
farmyard-manure, are so at the cost chiefly of Festuca duriuscula
and F, pratensis, but partly of Avena pubescens and Agrostis
vulgaris, and in a less degree of some other grasses.

The produce by farmyard-manure contained a much less
amount and proportion of Leguminous herbage than that without
manure ; both Trifolium and Lathyrus being much reduced, and
Lotus excluded, at any rate from the mown sample. This result
is probably due more to the increased luxuriance of the grasses
and certain Miscellaneous plants, by which the Leguminous
ones are displaced, than to any directly injurious effect of the
farmyard-manure ; for the notes taken on the ground show that

154 Effects of different Manures on the

although Trifolium and Lathyrus were less frequent on the
farmyard-manure than on the unmanured plot, they were on the
other hand more luxuriant.

The Miscellaneous or weedy plant most prominently developed
by farmyard-manure was the Rumex acetosa, or sorrel dock,
which amounted to rather more than 10 per cent. of the sample
examined; though, from the notes taken on the ground, it is
concluded that the sample perhaps included a somewhat undue
proportion. According to the notes, Carum Carui was by far the
most frequently occurring weed. Ranunculus (acris and bulbo-
sus), and Achillza millefolium were also each very frequent ;
and Plantago lanceolata was more so than in most of the crops
of equal bulk. Besides those mentioned, scarcely any other
weedy plants occurred ; there being a large total percentage of
Miscellaneous herbage, but referable to comparatively few species,
and it was the frequency rather than the luxuriance of these that
contributed to the large amount.

Effects of Farmyard-manure and Ammonia-Salts.

As already alluded to, the combination of farmyard-manure
and ammonia-salts, like farmyard-manure alone, very strikingly
developed the Poa trivialis, and to a considerable extent the
Bromus mollis also. The chief distinction is, that the ammonia-
salts used in conjunction with a manure supplying a large
amount of mineral matter, strikingly increases the growth of the
Dactylis glomerata, apparently at the expense of the Miscellaneous
herbage, ‘of which there were but very few species, and but a
small amount, whilst the proportion of total Graminaceous herb-
age was considerably increased. In other respects, the produce
was very similar in its Graminaceous components to that by farm-
yard-manure alone ; there being, in the two cases, besides the
grasses which have been specially noticed, pretty equal propor-
tions of most of those occurring on the unmanured plot. Holcus
lanatus was, however, rather more plentiful and luxuriant where
the ammonia-salts were used.

Under the influence of ammonia-salts in conjunction with
farmyard-manure all the elements of Leguminous herbage were-
almost as completely excluded as when ammonia-salts were used
alone.

The number of species of Miscellaneous plants was unusually _
small under the conditions of manuring now in question; and
the proportion in the produce of such ‘herbage was also small,
As in the case of farmyard-manure alone, Rumex acetosa was the
most prominent weed, J udging from the notes and figures together,
Carum was probably next in * order of prevalence ; and after if

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 155

came Ranunculus (acris and bulbosus), and Achillaa millefolium.
But none of the Miscellaneous plants enumerated were so abundant
here as under the influence of farmyard-manure alone; still, the
amounts recorded in the Tables are attributable rather to their
frequency than to great luxuriance.

Effects of Ammonia-Salts and Superphosphate of Lime.

Ammonia-salts in conjunction with superphosphate of lime,
gave considerably more produce, a larger proportion of Gramina-
ceous herbage, and a larger proportion referable to the five pre-
dominating Graminaceous genera than superphosphate of lime
alone: the proportion of the latter being increased from 51 to
564 per cent. of the total produce. The proportions of Poa
trivialis and Lolium perenne are not much affected by the
addition of the ammonia-salts ; but those of Festuca duriuscula,
Avena pubescens, and A. flavescens are considerably reduced ;
whilst the inferior grasses, Agrostis vulgaris and Holcus lanatus
(especially the former), are brought into very considerable pro-
minence. Although, therefore, the amount of produce was much
increased by the addition of the ammonia-salts, the character of
the Graminaceous plants developed was somewhat inferior.
Dactylis glomerata was not encouraged by the combination in
question.

As in other cases where nitrogenous manures were freely
employed, Leguminous herbage of all kinds was almost excluded.

Of Miscellaneous herbage—as under somewhat similar con-
ditions in other cases—Rumex acetosa was by far the most
prominent element, being both very abundant and very luxuriant.
Carum Carui was likewise both abundant and luxuriant, but had
shedded a good deal of its seed ; Ranunculus acris and R. bul-
bosus were frequent rather than ]uxuriant; Achillea millefolium
occurred in notable quantity ; other Miscellaneous species were
somewhat few in number and insignificant in amount.

Effects of Nitrate of Soda and mixed Mineral Manure.

By nitrate of soda and mixed mineral manure together both the
amount of produce and the proportion of it referable to the few
predominating Graminaceous species were greater than by either
nitrate of soda alone or mixed mineral manure alone. Where
the smaller amount of nitrate of soda was used with the mixed
mineral manure, Avena flavescens, Holcus lanatus, and Poa
trivialis were the predominating grasses; and, according to the
figures, Festuca duriuscula and Agrostis vulgaris were also in
large amount, though the notes taken on the ground did not lead

156 Effects of different Manures on the

to the conclusion that they were predominating. All these
grasses occurred in larger amount than where the nitrate of soda
was used alone. But the most remarkable effect of the addition of
the mixed mineral manure was the almost entire exclusion of the
Alopecurus pratensis, which had flourished in such an extraor-
dinary degree under the influence of the nitrate of soda alone,
and the great development in its stead of the Avena flavescens,
which under the latter’ condition had occurred in very insigni-
ficant amount. With twice the amount of nitrate of soda and the
same mixed mineral manure, the distribution of Graminaceous
species was again very strikingly but very differently affected.
Poa trivialis was now the predominating species ; and Dactylis
glomerata, Lolium perenne, and Bromus mollis were also in con-
siderable quantity ; Holcus lanatus coming next in order. Here
again Alopecurus pratensis—the characteristic plant with nitrate
of soda alone—was almost excluded; whilst Festuca duriuscula
was reduced to a very insignificant amount, and Avena flayescens
—so luxuriant with the smaller amount of nitrate and mineral
manure—was here by no means prevalent. With regard to the
great prominence of Poa trivialis and Bromus mollis on the plot
now under consideration, it is, however, worthy of remark that
it adjoined Plot 17, pene with farmyard-manure and am-
monia-salts, where these two grasses were the characteristic
plants. It would seem probable, therefore, that the result was,
at any rate partly, due to seeding from the farmyard-manure
plots, and hence so far accidental.

Of Leguminous plants, there was a somewhat larger propor-
tion than by nitrate of soda alone, or by ammonia-salts either
alone or in combination with the mixed mineral manure, though
much less, especially of Trifolium, where the larger than where
the smaller amount of nitrate of soda (with the mineral manure)
was used, and in both cases very much less than without manure.
The Lathyrus was more frequent than the Lotus: the latter,
indeed, was all but wanting.

The amount and character of development of the Miscellaneous
herbage differed very greatly on the two plots with nitrate of
soda and mineral manure, both the proportion and the luxuriance
being generally much greater with the smaller amount of nitrate.
With the smaller eimbusit of nitrate, Rumex acetosa, Ranunculus
(acris and bulbosus), Carum Carui, and Achillea millefolium
were all both frequent and luxuriant, and Plantago lanceolata-
was somewhat so. With the larger amount of nitrate, Rumex
acetosa was by far the most frequent and abundant weed ; neither
Achillea millefolium nor Plantago lanceolata was at all preva-
lent ; whilst Carum Carui and Ranunculus (acris and bulbosus),
though somewhat frequent, were not luxuriant; and other weeds

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 157

were small both in number and amount. The general result is,
that with the larger amount of nitrate and the mixed mineral
manure—as with the corresponding amount ef ammonia-salts
and mixed mineral manure—both the number of species and the
total amount of Miscellaneous plants were comparatively small.

Effects of Ammonia-Salts and mixed Mineral Manure.

There remain to be noticed, the distribution and predominance
of species, on Plots 10, 11, 12a, 124, 13a, and 18, on which both
ammonia-salts and mixed mineral manure were employed, and
on which by far the largest crops were obtained.

Excepting in the case of Plot 11, where in 1862 potass was
excluded from the mineral manure, the produce contained from
894 to 95 per cent. of Graminaceous herbage; and the five
predominating grasses ranged from about 614 to about 68} per
cent. of the total produce. In four out of the six cases the
free-growing and bulky Dactylis glomerata was the predomi-
nating grass, contributing in one case 31 per cent. and in
the case of the smallest amount of it nearly 22 per cent. of the
total produce. In the two other cases, the Avena pubescens
and A. flavescens in about equal proportions predominated,
amounting together to from 18 to 19 per cent. In two out
of the four cases where Dactylis predominated (Plots 13a
and 135) a very excessive amount of ammonia-salts was em-
ployed; and in the one case the mineral manure contained
silicates, when a considerably larger amount of Agrostis was
found in the produce, but whether the result were really due to
the supply of the silicates may be a question, In fact, it was
in dealing with the very heavy and luxuriant crops that the
difficulty of fairly sampling was the greatest; and we would,
therefore, especially in such cases, rest our conclusions much
more upon the general than upon the exact indications of the
figures, Although Agrostis and Holecus, two bad elements,
occurred in considerable quantity in the bulky produce of all the
highly-manured plots, it is satisfactory to observe that the free-
growing and useful Dactylis, the sweet and much-relished Avena
pubescens and A, flavescens, the useful Poa trivialis, and the
free-growing and nutritive Lolium were all prominent com-
ponents in these luxuriant crops. Of other grasses, Festuca
duriuscula or F, pratensis came next in order of prevalence, the
rest occurring for the most part in very insignificant proportions.

Of Leguminous plants these heavy crops in some cases con-
tained scarcely a trace, and in others only very insignificant
amounts,

Of Miscellaneous herbage, Rumex acetosa, as usual with full

158 Effects of different Manures on the

manuring of any kind, is by far the most predominating plant ;
Carum Carui and Achillea millefolium coming next in order,
All others, Ranunculus and Plantago included, occurred in very
small amounts ; and the total quantity of Miscellaneous herbage,
which was small, was attributable chiefly to the luxuriance of
the Rumex and the Carum, and the frequency of the Achillea

millefolium.

III.— The tendency to the Development of leafy or stemmy Produce,
and the Order of Ripeness.

As already explained, in the separations of 1858, the results of
which were recorded in our former Report, the Graminaceous
herbage was classified into “Stems bearing flower or seed,”
which could be referred to particular species, and into ‘ De-
tached leaf and indeterminate stems ;” and hence the figures
pretty directly indicated the relative tendency to the production
of stem and seed, or of leaf. But since in the recent separations
all the detached leafy matter that could be identified is included,
with the stemmy portion, under the head of “ Determined
species ”—the remainder only being put down as “ Undetermined
stem and leaf,” or ‘“*Shedded flowers and seeds, &c.”—the nu-
merical results of the present inquiry do not serve to illustrate
the subject of the tendency to the development of leafy or
stemmy produce. The figures in the column in Table II.
showing the amounts remaining as “ Undetermined stem and
leaf” do indeed indicate, where the amount is large, that the
separation and identification were unusually difficult, and so far
generally that the produce was leafy and ill-defined rather than
stemmy and matured; but in the few remarks we have to make
on the point in question, as well as on that of the relative ripe-
ness, we shall rely on careful observations made on the ground
just before and at the time of cutting, in which ten conditions or
orders of ripeness of the produce (of the 20 plots) were noted.

The unmanured plots presented a very thin crop of stem, with
a full and uniform development of leaves, which were, however,
very short, affording upon the whole a pretty even and close, but
meagre bottom herbage, which was green and late at the time of
cutting, its order of ripeness being No. 8. Leguminous and
Miscellaneous plants were numerous, but mostly of stunted
growth, :

Superphosphate of lime alone gave a crop very much like the
unmanured one as to general relation of leaf and stem, &c., but
it was rather more luxuriant, and showed more tendency to the
production of fine leaf, chiefly belonging to the smaller and later

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 159

grasses ; it contained much less Leguminous herbage, nearly the
same proportion of Miscellaneous plants, and was somewhat
more matured at the time of cutting, its order of ripeness being
No. 6.

Mixed mineral manures alone gave a very equally maturing
and generally ripe crop, but with only a small proportion
of the more grossly growing grasses; the finer ones, however,
mostly flowering or seeding. Leguminous plants were very
numerous and luxuriant, but few of the Miscellaneous ones were
so. Order of ripeness No, 2.

Ammonia-salts alone gave a very green and unripe crop, the
order of ripeness being No, 10, There was a dense bottom
herbage, with the foliage coming chiefly from the root, and very
little flowering tendency. Upon the whole the grasses, which
were for the most part of the smaller kinds, seemed but partially
developed, apparently exhausted, and not likely to mature. Lo-
lium perenne showed the most tendency to form stem and seed,
but was frequently monstrous or dying.

Nitrate of soda alone gave a crop which at the time of cutting
was very late, dark green, and still growing, without the look of
exhaustion exhibited by the herbage grown by ammonia-salts
alone ; it was much more leafy than stemmy, forming a dense
mass of grassy produce, for the most part referable to the smaller-
leafed species ; and, as the amount of undetermined stem and
leaf will show, the separation and identification of its com-
ponents were unusually difficult. ‘The order of ripeness was
No. 9.

Farmyard-manure alone yielded a produce which was, upon the
whole, comparatively ripe, standing 4th in this respect, but it
was very unequally so, All the grasses gave a fair proportion of
stem, and they were also generally plentiful in both base and
stem-leaves. Poa trivialis and Bromus mollis were the pre-
dominating grasses, but there was a fair proportion of most of
the others found on the unmanured land, the grosser species
being, however, somewhat restricted in development.

Farmyard-manure and ammonia-salts, like farmyard-manure
alone, gave a very unequally ripe crop, which also in order of
ripeness was No, 4, Its characteristics were great luxuriance,
a fair proportion of both stem and leaf, and a considerable variety
of herbage ; but with Poa trivialis, Dactylis glomerata, and
Bromus mollis, by far the most prominent species among the
grasses, giving upon the whole a strong and thick-bottomed, but
rather rough crop.

With superphosphate of lime and ammonia-salts the crop was
much more backward than with superphosphate of lime alone,
coming 10th instead of 6th in order of ripeness, There was,

160 Effects of different Manures on the

relatively, much less development of stem and much more of
leaf, forming a strong and luxuriant bottom-grass, of a dark-
green colour, '

The mixed mineral manure and nitrate of soda gave crops
which were very much riper, especially where the double amount
of nitrate was used, than those by nitrate of soda alone ; the order
of ripeness was with the smaller amount of nitrate (and minerals),
No. 5, and with the larger amount, No. 1; the crops with nitrate
alone standing 9th, and those with the mixed mineral manure
alone 2nd. There was, however, a great tendency to the produc-
tion of leaf, the stems being somewhat thinly distributed.

The mized mineral manure in conjunction with ammonia-salts,
as with nitrates, greatly enhanced the production of stem and
the ripening tendency. The crops grown by this combina-
tion—which were the heaviest in the series—were very luxuriant,
and still vigorously growing at the time of cutting, the grosser
species of grass predominating. There was a very full develop-
ment of both stem and leaf; the foliage, however, coming in
larger proportion than usual from the stem. With the smaller
amount of ammonia-salts the crops were 4th in order of ripe-
ness ; but with the larger amount they were only 7th, being later,
greener, and more vigorously growing, and showing a greater
abundance and luxuriance of Dactylis glomerata.

In connexion with the results brought out in this inquiry into
the action of special manures on the mixed herbage of grass-land,
it will be interesting, at the present time, when the subject of
the utilisation of town sewage is so much discussed, to call
attention to the prominent characters of the herbage developed
when it is applied to permanent meadow land.

In some experiments conducted during the last two years by
the Royal Sewage Commission, and still in progres, on the
application of the town sewage to grass land at ugby, it is
found that effects have resulted very similar to those recorded in
this paper. The prevailing grasses on the unsewaged land were
Dactylis, Holcus, Lolium, Festuca, Agrostis, Poa, and Avena;
a number of others occurring in smaller proportion. Of the
sewaged produce, by far the largest proportion consists of ,
Dactylis, Holcus, and Lolium; whilst Festuca, Agrostis, Avena,
Poa, and other grasses, are far less prominent than in the un-
manured produce. Under the influence of sewage too, the
Leguminous herbage is found to be almost excluded; and the
Miscellaneous weedy plants are very much reduced in variety,
though some few are very much increased in luxuriance, among
which Rumex, Ranunculus repens, and sometimes Taraxacum,
are the most prominent,

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 161

In the well-known Edinburgh sewaged meadows again, the
herbage is for the most part of a very simple character, Of the
grasses, the most prominent, and the most valued for its yield of
green food, is the Poa trivialis; next in prevalence, and perhaps
in general estimation also, is the Triticum repens, or couch
grass; and after these, frequently occur Lolium perenne and
Dactylis g glomerata. Of weedy plants, the Ranunculus seems to
be the most prevalent and luxuriant, especially where the drainage
is imperfect. It should be obser xed however, that many of the
Edinburgh meadows have been laid down specially with a view
to sewage irrigation; though, where old permanent meadows
have been brought under treatment, or a considerable mixture of
grasses has been sown in laying down for irrigation, it is still
found, after a few years, that the great bulk of the herbage is
composed of but a few of the freer growing grasses,

It will be readily understood, however, that the value of the
produce of ordinary permanent meadow land, and of a sewage-
urigated meadow, depends upon very different qualities, and
that a character of growth which may be a disadvantage in the
one case, may be advantageous in the other.

The produce of the ordinary meadow, if designed for hay, is.
allowed to approach nearly to maturity before being cut, and
over luxuriance of growth, tending to the great predominance of
a few very free growing grasses, is likely to be accompanied by
an undue development of woody stem, giving a hard, coarse, and
comparatively indigestible and innutritious food. "There is, in
fact, an obvious limit beyond which it is not advantageous to go
in forcing the hay crop by means of artificial manures; for,
beyond a certain point, which the intelligent practical farmer
will not be slow in discerning, not only is less increase of pro-
duce obtained for a given amount of manure employed, but the
increased quantity is gained at too great a sacrifice of quality.

It is quite otherwise with the sewage-irrigated meadow, the
produce of which is to be cut green. Although it may happen
that only the very free growing (and under some circumstances
objectionable) grasses may be encouraged, yet they are mown
in a young and succulent condition, before their objectionable
qualities have been developed, and. the: faster they grow the
oftener they are cut. Hence, whilst their great luxuriance is
only an advantage, their tendency to yield a hard later growth is
not against them, ;

The most prominent results of the whole inquiry may be briefly
enumerated as follows :—

1. So far as the general distribution of Graminaceous, Legu-

VOL, XXIV. M

162 Effects of different Manures on the

minous, and weedy herbage, and the tendency to the production
of leafy or stemmy produce, and to early or retarded ripening
are concerned, the characters of the produce of the seventh
season of the experiments (1862) are, in the main, similar to
. those before recorded of the produce of the third season, 1858;
but there is considerable change in the relative predominance
of certain species on particular plots. Dactylis glomerata,
Festuca duriuscula or F. pratensis, Avena pubescens or A.
flavescens, Poa trivialis or P. pratensis, and Alopecurus pratensis,
have, respectively, become much more prevalent on one or more
of the plots, according to the description of manure employed.

2. The unmanured produce consisted of 74 per cent. Grami-
naceous, 7 per cent. Leguminous, and 19 per cent. weedy her-
bage. It showed great variety, and comparatively little predo-
minance of individual species. Festuca duriuscula and F. pra-
tensis, and Avena pubescens and A. flavescens, were the most
prominent; whilst the freer growing grasses were in smaller
amount, and a number of others in less proportion still. ‘The
crop was even, but very short, and with little development of
stem: and it was green, and comparatively late, at the time of
cutting.

3. Mixed mineral manures alone gave comparatively little in-
crease of Graminaceous herbage, and reduced the proportion in the
produce, both of it and the weedy herbage; but they greatly in-
creased both the amount per acre, and the proportion, of the Legu-
minous plants, Trifolium, Lathyrus, and Lotus. The description
of the Graminaceous herbage was not very much altered from
that of the unmanured land; there was: no striking predomi-
nance of individual species, but, compared with the produce by
more productive manures, a pretty even mixture of most of the
grasses occurring without manure, and those which did show
any prominence were chiefly of the smaller and less free-growing
kinds. The tendency to form stem and seed, and to earby ripe-
ness, was much greater than without manure,

4. Ammonia-salts alone considerably increased both the
amount and proportion of the Graminaceous herbage, almost
excluded Leguminous plants, and generally reduced the number
and amount of Miscellaneous or weedy species, but much -in-
creased the luxuriance of some, particularly Rumex acetosa,
Carum Carui, and Achillea millefolium. The relation to one
another of the Graminaceous species, as to amount, was much the
same as without manure, excepting that Festuca duriuscula and
Agrostis vulgaris were brought into much greater prominence.
The increased growth was characteristically that of root or base-
leaves, and there was very little tendency to form stem or to
ripen.

Mixed Herbage of Grass-Land. 163

5. Nitrate of soda alone, like ammonia-salts alone, consider-
ably increased the produce of Graminaceous herbage, and tended
chiefly to the production of root-foliage. The nitrate, however,
strikingly brought into prominence the Alopecurus pratensis, at
the expense, compared with the produce by ammonia-salts, chiefly
of Agrostis vulgaris, and partly of Festuca duriuscula. Other-
wise, the distribution of species was not very materially altered,
the more luxuriantly-growing grasses not being much developed.
The crop was much more leafy than stemmy, very dark green,
and late ; contained very little Leguminous herbage, though rather
more than the produce by ammonia-salts alone ; and the weedy
plants were luxuriant rather than numerous—Plantago lanceo-
lata, Centaurea nigra, Rumex acetosa, Achillea millefolium,
Ranunculus, and Taraxacum, all being more or less encouraged.

6. The combinations of nitrogenous manure (ammonia-salts
or nitrates) and mixed mineral manures, gave by far the largest
crops, the largest proportion of Graminaceous herbage, the
largest proportion referable to a few species, scarcely a trace of
Leguminous plants, and a small proportion both in number and
amount of Miscellaneous or weedy ones. The produce was very
luxuriant, with a great development of stem and stem leaves, and
a much greater tendency to ripen than when the ammonia-salts
or nitrates were used without the mineral manure. The pre-
dominating grasses were the most bulky and free-growing ones ;
Dactylis glomerata, and Poa trivialis, being very prominent ; and
Avena pubescens or A. flavescens, Agrostis vulgaris, Lolium
perenne, and Holcus lanatus, somewhat so, Festuca duriuscula,
F. pratensis, Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Alopecurus pratensis,
Bromus mollis, end others, were almost excluded.

7. Farmyard-manure considerably increased the growth of the
grasses, and of some few weeds, particularly Rumex, Ranunculus,
Carum, and Achillea, and reduced that of clover and allied
plants, more especially when used in combination with ammonia-
salts. It greatly encouraged the growth of the good grass Poa
trivialis, and of the bad one Bromus mollis; and when in con-
junction with ammonia-salts the Dactylis glomerata. Under
both conditions Festuca duriuscula and F. pratensis were nearly
excluded, and Avena flavescens, A. pubescens, Agrostis vulgaris,
Lolium perenne, and Arrhenatherum avenaceum, were very
much reduced. The crops were upon the whole bulky, com-
paratively simple as to description of herbage, fairly luxuriant
both in stem and leaf, somewhat rough and coarse, and showing
a tendency to unequal ripeness.

8. Leguminous herbage was almost entirely excluded when-
ever nitrogenous manures were used in any quantity, whether in
the form of ammonia-salts or nitrates, alone or in combination

M 2

164 Effects of Manures on Grass-Land.

with mineral manures; but it was somewhat less so with the
nitrate than with the ammonia-salts. Mineral manure alone,
containing both potass and phosphoric acid, greatly increased
the growth of the Leguminous plants perennial red clover and
meadow vetchling. Farmyard-manure like artificial nitrogenous
manures, also, but in a less degree, much diminished the pro-
portion of the Leguminous herbage.

9. Every description of manure diminished the number of
species, and the frequency of occurrence, of the Miscellaneous or
weedy herbage ; mineral manures alone less so than any other;
nitrogenous ones, especially in combination with mineral con-
stituents, did so very. strikingly, but they at the same time
greatly increased the luxuriance of a few species, especially
Rumex acetosa, and frequently Carum Carui and Achillea
millefolium. Plantago and Ranunculus were generally dis-
couraged by active manures, excepting farmyard-manure and
nitrate of soda. The nitrate also favoured Centaurea nigra and
Taraxacum Dens-leonis.

10. Considerable increase of produce was only obtained by
means of farmyard-manure, or artificial manures containing both
mineral constituents and ammonia-salts or nitrates. The crops
so obtained were much more Graminaceous, and consisted in
much greater proportion of but a few species of plants. The
grasses developed were chiefly of the more bulky and freer
growing kinds, and the produce was generally very stemmy—
being the more so, and the coarser, the more excessive the
manuring.

11. Meadow-land mown for hay should not be manured exclu-
sively with artificial manures, but should receive a cree of
well-rotted farmyard dung every four or five years.

.12. Sewage irrigation, ‘like active manures applied to meadow-
land in the ordinary way, has also a tendency to develop chiefly
the Graminaceous herbage, excluding the Leguminous, and to
a great extent the Miscellaneous or ‘weedy plants. It also, at
the expense of the rest, encourages a few free-growing grasses,
among which, aceord ing to locality and other circumstances, Poa
triv ialis, Triticum repens, Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanatus,
and Lolium perenne have been observed to be very prominent.
The result is an almost exclusively Graminaceous and very
simple herbage. But, as the produce of sewage-irrigated meadows
is generally cut in a very young and succulent condition, the
tendency which the great luxuriance of a few very free-growing

rasses has to give a coarse and stemmy later growth is less
objectionable than in the case of meadows left for hay.

Errects or DirrerENnt MAnurES ON THE Mixrp HERBAGE OF GRASS-LAND.

TaBLe 1.—Desoriprion, AND Proportions PER Crnv., oF THE DirrereNT Kinps or Herpace. SEVENTH SEASON, 1862. To face p. 164

ARTIFICIAL MANURES,
FARM-YARD

MANURE,

NATURAL Superphosphate of fl ae Tien Nitrogen. || Nitrate of Soda atone. i Mixed Alkalles and Superphosphate of Lime,
BOTANICAL NAMES. COMMON NAMES. = with | , With

ep aes And Ammonia With wae And Nitrate of Soda. And

; Ammonia With Ammonia Salts— A ;, | Ammonia mM rate 0: 4

tea Se rane And || (=41 tbs. | (—82 tbs. eS Salts— eine (=832 Ibs. Nitrogen) ; | Salts |, Salts— |f || tone, | ABmonis} COMMON Namtus
5 ee * | Sawdust. |] Nitrogen), | Nitrogen). (= 82 lbs. | Ni; rogen) and Cut Wheat-straw. ||(= 164 tbs, te i ae (=41 tbs. | (= 82 Ibs. (=41 bbs,

itrogen), Nitrogen). | ¢ Sawdust. | Nitrogen). |¢ er Nitrogen). | Nitrogen). Nitrogen),

PlotNos.. . . 3b || 4 5 10 1 | ia | 12b || Men | isa | isp 15 16 1

Grammyaceous Herpace.

Number of Species .

Festuca duriuscula Hard Fescue . , b ¥ i f : * 0 3 o 7 . A “3 : i
>» pratensis . . | Meadow Fescue : 2 : . : : : : : : 3 A : : 0 ree "
AS a escue.

Downy Oat-grass.

Avena pubescens . Downy Oat-grass ,
Yellow Oat-grass.

flavescens . Yellow Oat-grass ,

Oo

Common Bent-grass.
Rye-grass,

Woolly Soft-grass,
Rough Cock's-foot.

Agrostis vulgaris Common Bent-grass_ .
Lolium perenne Rye-grass . . |, «
Holecus lanatus. . Woolly soft-grass . ,
Dactylis glomerata : Rough Cock's-foot). .

t=tow wr
eee

1000S C8 OFFS

Rough Meadow-grass,
Smooth Meadow-grass,

False Oat.

Sweet Vernal-grass.
Fox-tail.
Quaking-grass.
Crested Dog’s-tall,
Soft Brome-grass.
Cat’s-tail.

Tufted Hair-grass,

Poatrivialis . . oa Rough Meadow-ghiss .
>» pratensis . . . = Smooth Meadow-grass

- we

| Arrhenatherum avenaceum FalseOat . . .
Anthoxanthum odoratum =. Sweet Vernal-grass
Alopecurus pratensis . . Fox-tail. . . .
Brivamedia. . . . Quaking-grass . .
Cynosurus cristatus . Crested Dog’s-tail .

| Bromus mollis. . . Soft Brome-grass .

| Phieum pratense . Cat’s-tail . . .
Aira cespitosa. . . Tufted Hair-grass .

Che ID SomMm
SOR NS BGCH

Shartns $A Beas HS

AwB=as
C- connm o

|

mw Nw) o:

~

Graminacee determined. . . 2. 2. oo
” undetermined; stem and leaf . 5

82-97

Shedded flowers and seeds (chiefly graminacea®) -
z ote

oo
aw
oe
rs

Leeuminots Hprsaa@r.

Number of Species . .

Trifolium pratense perenne . | Perennial Red Clover i ert 107 7 7 . 2 Je z a * 5 | . Perennial Red Clover.
oF repens . . . . .| WhiteClover . . : a 0-01 ci fi Hilie rae Bes . White Clover.
Leguminosa

0°01 2 Cc: . f ‘ . Meadow Vetehling.

Lathyrus pratensis . . . | Meadow Vetcbling. : 2 0°01
7 i Bird’s-foot Trefoll.

Lotus corniculatus. . . . | Bird’s-foot Trefoil . 0°03

0°32 017 o i “le : 0°02

Tolmer.

Miscptuannovs Herpace.

Number of Species . «

Ribwort Plantain,

o
1)
a

Plantago lanceohtta Ribwort Plantain .
Milfoil.

Black Knapweed.
Rongh Hawk-bit.
Yellow Goat’s-beard.
Dandelion.

Creeping Thistle,
Cat’s-ear.

Mouse-ear Hawkweed.
Daisy.

Achillea millefolium , Milfoil . . . .
Centaurea nigra. Black Knapweed
Leontodon Hispidus Rough Hawk-bit
‘Tragopogon pratense . Yellow Goat’s-beard
Taraxacum Dens-leonis Dandelion . . .
Cafduus arvensis . . ’ Creeping Thistle .
Hypochceris radicata . 5 Cat'sear . .
Hieracium Pilosella . Mouse-ear Hawk-weed
Bellis perennis. . . Dalsy . .

Bg

a

Composite

SOmMNMGHBwID

~
——)

Caraway.
Burnet Saxifrage.
Hogweed.

11} Carum Carmi ... . Caraway. . .
Umbelliferas 12 | Pimpinella Saxifraga . . . Burnet Saxifrage
13 | Heracleum Sphondylium, . . | Hogweed .

Ic Com Bf

oO

eo ofc: Os oH
en)
Dou

Crowfoot.

Sorrel Dock.

Field Woodrush.
Germander Speedwell.

re

os Ss071

Ranunculacew 14 & 15) Ranunculus acris et bulbosus Crowfoot . «
Polygonacew . 16 | Rumexacetosa. . . Sorrel Dock. . .
Juncacew , , Luzula campestris. . Field Woodrush_ ,
Scrophularlaces Veronica Chamedrys » Germander Speedwell

Caryophylla- Cerastium vulgatum . Mouse-ear Chickweed ,
OBB ‘is, sl es 20 | Stellaria graminea. . Lesser Starwort . .

Hao
Hoan
Hom

Ost

Mouse-ear Chicktveed.
Lesser Starwort.

of WHKw

eco comer coo

oS CoMk
HS StH

mo
o=

4

Kield Scabious.
Squarrose Moss.
Cowslip.

~o ce soyc
S
=

Dipsacace: . Scabiosa arvensis . . Field Scabious .
Bryacem. . . Hypnum squarrosum . . | Squarrose Moss
Primulacee . . Primula veris . . . Cowslip. . +

ess ow
oon -O

Great Burnet,
Cinquefoll.
Common Avens.
Meadow-sweet.

s

Sanguisorbaceze Sanguisorba officinalls . Great Burnet .
5 | Potentillareptans , . Cinquefoil . .

Rosacee , { Geum urbanum . . Common Ayens
Spireaulmaria. . . Meadow-sweet «

rire 222 22 OTe

Galiacew , , Galium verum. .. ,. . | Yellow Bed-straw s ‘ . . . S xs . ao ce é On oie ae ce eS Yellow Bed-straw.
Ophioglossacex , Ophioglossum vulgatum Adder’s Tongue 5 E om as a, é, a 3 5 5 40 a i. % oe é i - Adder'’s Tongue.
Tamiacew . . Ajugareptaps . . . Bugle . . «

Tomlin a 18°19 | 19°85 19°02 | 18°68 isl | 17-49

Bugle.

Total Number of Species
j 100°00 100°00

100-00 100°00 100-00 100°00 A 100° 00 100-00

39 30 29
10000 100°00 |

.
urd
Lou
-
, eH al
-
-
-

he ee pelive oobiigie

% ay

ifs 2. ban ;
gaehiy i
L110 eee
. nN
sea are A

Co-operative Farms. 165

X.— Co-operative Farms at Assington, Suffolk.
'o THe Eprror oF THE JOURNAL OF THE RoyaL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Dear Sir, Tunbridge Wells, January 10, 1863.

Witt you allow me a space in your valuable Journal for a
subject most interesting to the cultivators, as well as to the lords
of the soil? We mustall admit that, owing to the depressed state
of the labour-market, the former are insufficiently remunerated ;
the consequence is that poaching and petty thefts are the crying
evils of the age. About thirty-three years ago I formed a plan to
raise the labourer in /is class, without taking him owt of it, by
giving him a stake in the country, and thus rendering him a
responsible man, not only to his God, but to his neighbours; I
do not add, to be independent of his fellow-creatures, for such a
principle I detest. Dependence upon God in the first instance,
and secondly upon our neighbour, is the mainspring of society,
each forming a link in the human chain. I am for progressing
with the times; I like large farms and extended fields; they
save the landlord many buildings, they give full scope to
machinery, and they meet the requirements of the march of
intellect; still there must be small, isolated, off-hand farms,
and such are generally ill-cultivated or neglected: it is to these I
wish to call your attention. One of this sort, 100 acres more or
less, becoming vacant in 1839, I called together 20 of the better
class of labourers in the parish and offered them the farm with
the loan of the necessary capital (without interest) if they would
undertake to cultivate it conformably to my regulations, each
man paying down 2/. as a guarantee. They gladly accepted my
proposal, and in the course of 10 years or so the capital, 4002,
was paid back, and they were in complete possession as tenants
of a well-cultivated and well-stocked farm. I was so fully satis-
fied with this success, that, upon another isolated farm of 150 acres
becoming vacant in 1852, I put in 30 men upon the same terms,
and of the capital then advanced only 50/. remains unpaid—a
charge which they hope to liquidate during the present year.
Simple and inexpensive as my plan is, after so long an experi-
ence, I can say confidently that it has not one drawback: the
labourer himself has now something to lose; his sympathy is
drawn out towards his master, for, in his calamities, he can feel
as one who might have been in the same predicament ; physically,
he is better fed, and consequently he can do greater justice to
his employer than heretofore ; the farmer can also put more con-
fidence in him, as conviction of theft would deprive him of his
share in the society, which is now worth upwards of 50/. The
landlord has also his advantages—less marauding, less poaching,

166 Co-operative Farms.

and (as in my case) 50 families not only taken off the parish
rates, but interested in keeping them low as being themselves
rate-payers. To give further security to this part of the scheme,
each member is called on to insure in the Stoke and Melford
Benefit Club for 10s. a week during sickness; 5s. a week after
the age of 65, when all payments cease ; and 5/. for funeral ex-
penses. The aforesaid club was established by me in 1828
upon Government principles, and thanks to the energy and
unwearied attention of the local clergy, who act as directors in
their several parishes, their invested capital now amounts to
upwards of 23,0007. The subjoined agreement is that which
was adopted by me and the members of the Assington Associa-
tion; it may be altered to meet the wishes of other parties who
may feel disposed to act on the hint here offered ; indeed, 1 am
aware that it is highly desirable that these rules should be placed
before a person of enlarged legal knowledge and experience in
such matters for revision with a view to registration.

When at Assington I attended the Michaelmas quarterly meet-
ing of the Association, and I have been surprised at the shrewd
and apposite remarks made by these uneducated labourers. As
the services of only 10 or 12 workmen are required on the two
farms, the remaining members serve their old masters as usual.
In passing through the village you would not know that any
such institution existed, unless you met a well-appointed waggon
inscribed “ The Assington Agricultural Co-operative Society,”

or “The Assington Agricultural Association.”

_ I remain, dear Sir, yours truly,
Joun GURDON.

THE ASSINGTON AGRICULTURAL CO-OPERATIVE
‘SOCIETY.

“ “Two are better than one, because they have a good reward for their
labour ; for if they fall, the one will lift up his fellow; but woe to him that is
alone when he falleth, for he hath not another to help him up.”

‘¢ Wealth gotten by vanity shall be diminished; but he that gathereth by
labour shall increase.’

“* Much food is in the tillage of the poor; but there is that is destroyed a3
want of judgment.”

AGREEMENT.

T agree to let from Michaelmas, 1830, for my life, to the under-
mentioned persons, forming themselves into a Co-operative Society, a
farm, containing 114 acres more or less, free of Great Tithes, for the
annual rent of 168/., upon the following conditions: —That the
Society do not diminish their number of 20 members; that the land
be farmed upon the four-course husbandry ; that they conform to

Co-operative Farms. 167

the rules of the Society and pay their rent regularly ; that they
keep the premises in good repair, the landlord finding all rough
materials; that they do 1 day’s carting with 4 horses and 2 men;
that they insure the premises for 500/. against fire, and that every
12 years the farm be revalued.
(Signed) Joun GURDON.
Assington Hall, March 25, 1830.

Names of Members.

T. Burcuer. H. Crises. H. Harper.
W. CRIsELs. W. Criark. T. Hywarp.
W. Hazen. J. CRISELS. J. CRISELS.
J. DEAL. Wipow Gos in. J. DEAL.
W. Deat, Sen. Wivow Burcuer. G. Frost.
W. Dean, Jun. W. Harper. W. Griaes.
J. WARD. Wipow Harper.

RuLES AND REGULATIONS.

1. That this Society be denominated the ‘“‘ Assington Agricul-
tural Co-operative Society,” and consist of 20 members, for the
purpose of cultivating the aforesaid farm for their mutual benefit.

2. That a committee, consisting of three members, be appointed
yearly, .by ballot, at Michaelmas, for keeping the accounts and
superintending the cultivation of the farm.

3. That four meetings be held at the house yearly, viz. the first
Tuesday after every quarter-day, for auditing the accounts and
transacting any business that may be requisite.

4, That the house be let to two members agreed upon by the
Society ; that they have the charge of the live stock; that one be
regularly employed upon the farm; and that whatever extra labour
is required be arranged by the committee.

5. That the following articles be provided by the committee for
the use of the members, viz. household stores of all descriptions,
home-brewed beer, milk, pork, bacon, flour, and whatever else may
be considered desirable.

6. Any member convicted of fraud or any other crime to be ex-
cluded from the Society, with the forfeiture of his share ;* if refusing
to work when called upon, or slighting it, the committee to find a
substitute, and to pay him out of the member’s share of the profits.

7. Any member falling into unforeseen difficulties, may be ad-
vanced a loan upon his share to half its value at 5 per cent. interest,
provided the funds will admit of it, or he may sell his share, sub-
ject to the landlord’s and members’ approval.

8. That the Society be answerable for no debts, except those con-
tracted by the committee for the public advantage.

* A share so forfeited is designed to form a reserve fund to meet contingencies ;
the latter part of this rule is not acted upon.

168 Co-operative Farms.

9. Upon the death of a member, if his share be not disposed of by
will, his widow may enjoy it during her widowhood, and at her
decease or subsequent marriage the share to be vested in his eldest
son living in the parish ; in default of sons to be sold for the benefit
of daughters or next of kin.*

10. If anew member upon the purchase of a share be unable to
advance the whole amount, he must be charged 5 per cent. for such
moneys in arrears, until the whole be paid to those entitled to it.

11. Vacancies to be filled up by ballot upon terms agreed upon
by the members; but those only who are labourers of the parish
and members of the Stoke and Melford Union Association to be
eligible.

12. Any alterations to these rules, or new ones added, may be
effected, if carried by vote at either of the public meetings, with
the sanction of the landlord, and entered into the general minute-
book.

Remarks on Mr. Gurdon’s Letter.

I had much pleasure in visiting Assington, near Sudbury, in
December last, that | might personally inspect the farms to which
the preceding letter refers. As the days were short and I had
come from some distance, I paid more particular attention to
the older farm, the manager of which accompanied me in my
walk. This farm consisted of one large field, varying between a
hazel-loam and clay, and several smaller fields, some of which had
a gravelly soil. At that season but few growing crops were to
be seen, but the young wheats looked well; there was a large
clamp of mangold, drawn from 4 acres, some good swedes and
white turnips, and very promising tares: the fallows were well
done ; the land was very clean, ‘The labour of horse and man
evidently was not stinted,

The swede turnips were very good; hoggetts were eating off
white turnips before folding off the swedes, of which the largest
had been drawn for stock in the yards. The stock of sheep was not
as large as usual, because the 50 breeding ewes commonly kept
on the farm, were being fatted off for a sufficient reason; hence
the supply of turnips was fully adequate to the head of stock—
75 hoggetts and a few ewes, and were therefore being consumed
prithbut any extra dry food, either hay, cake, or corn, which I
consider bad policy. For these turnips no other artificial manure

* Rule No. 9 has been thus modified:—‘ Each member should make his will
before two witnesses in favour of his widow; it should be sealed and deposited
with the committee, The widow should enjoy the share during her widowhood ;
at her decease or subsequent marriage the share should be vested in the eldest son
living in the parish.

“Tn default of sons, it is to be sold (subject to the landlord’s approval) for the
benefit of daughters or next of kin,”

Co-operative Farms. 169

had been applied than lime and ashes from a neighbouring

“ malting.” Some fine swedes had been thus grown, but the
addition of superphosphate or bones seems to me generally
desirable, particularly on a gravelly soil, as in the case before us.

Draining had been executed where it was required, but of this
work I saw more evidence on the adjacent associated farm, which
has a stronger soil. This work had been executed by landlord
and tenant conjointly, as on other farms in the Assington estate.

The stock were in good condition. I saw two or three very
smart Suffolk mares, which would throw valuable foals, and 3
other horses; 5 milch cows; 4 good beasts, half-bred between
the polled Suffolk and short-horn, fatting chiefly on swedes; 4
Highland beasts ; 6 sows and about 40 pigs, of a very good sort,
many of which are fatted for the supply of the members.

The farm had been much improved by the liberal dressings of
lime, which is bought 5 miles off at 1s. per load. A good deal
of timber and other carting is done for Mr. Gurdon’s woods,
&e., which accounts for 6 horses being kept.

In short, though neither as much oilcake and corn or artificial
manure is bought as a tenant of a light-land farm would think
desirable and profitable, still the general appearance of the
farm was such that a superior farmer of the smaller class would
feel a pride and satisfaction in showing it, and the system of
cultivation is one that would neither much advance nor diminish
its fertility.

The rent charged for the farm, 29s. 3d. per acre, appeared to
me fairly to represent the probable value of the land at the time
of hiring in 1829, though if it were now revised it would
doubtless be raised. In this respect I believe this farm stands
quite on a level with the other farms in the parish.

With respect to the management, as much control and respon-
sibility devolves upon the Manager as generally on a gentleman’s
farm-bailiff. Although the committee meet every fortnight to
make up the accounts and give directions, they wisely refrain, for
the most part, from interfering with questions of labour, beyond
authorising such a supply as the Manager thinks necessary.

The labourers receive wages in the usual mamner; and at the
time of my visit, of the 5 men and 1 boy here employed, only one
besides the manager was a member of the association, and he
had no voice in the management or choice of work. If any
member happened to be out of work, the Manager would
probably find him a job; but they are not generally of that
stamp of men who are cast adrift when work is slack.

Thus, if the rules contemplate or admit of any partnership in
labour, the good sense of the community has thus far left them
in abeyance ; wages are paid for work done, and a single officer

170 Co-operative Farms.

has full power to direct what shall be done, and see that it is
properly executed.

One tenement was occupied by the widow of the member who
first occupied it.

The general routine of buying and selling is also commonly
left to the Manager, although for an important purchase of stock
he would, probably confer with a committee-man of judgment
and experience in that department; and to that end a good judge
of stock as weil as a good accountant would generally act on
the committee. The post of manager is, therefore, one of much
responsibility and considerable anxiety, because losses are a
serious matter to such employers as he acts for. The stability
of the enterprise must depend on the confidence reposed in this
officer, and the moderation of the committee and association in
not declaring or claiming an extra dividend after an unusually
prosperous season, but keeping some funds in reserve against a
‘“‘rainy day.” For his services the manager only receives 1s. per
week above the general wages; he does not even live rent free:
his chief benefit being that his wife has 10J. a year for perform-
ing the ordinary duties of a farm housewife.

There can be no doubt that many gentlemen would put a
higher value on the services of so trustworthy a servant; on the
other hand, it might not be easy to replace him if he were
tempted to change his position. This difficulty would not arise
from want of good raw material, but from the time required to
mould it into form. In no walk of life does the old English
stamp of charactergstand out more prominently than in the
intelligent, considerate, upright manliness of the picked labourer
who often acts as bailiff for a large farmer, at a rate of pay which
bears but a small proportion to the trust reposed in him. Such
men are not scarce, but they have no experience in buying and
selling, and therefore are not fit to act independently as bailiffs,
Should such associations as this receive a wider development, and
the merits of their successful managers be recognised, it may
become requisite to have constantly an assistant manager, who
may be capable of carrying on the system if the senior manager
should be removed to a better appointment.

In the regulation of the work and wages this farm, therefore,
wisely avoids peculiarity.

Of the direct profits made and dividends received I am not
qualified to speak, not having been permitted to inspect their
books of accounts. It is acknowledged that the profits are very
good, but Mr. Gurdon himself is ignorant of their amount. If
there were room for complaint or dissatisfaction, this reserve
would not be maintained.

One of the indirect advantages which the rules of the society

Co-operative Farms. 171

appear to contemplate is that its members should be empowered
to buy the chief necessaries of life at a less disadvantage than
generally falls to the poor man’s lot. This intention is carried
out with regard to flour, pork, milk, coals, and wood for fuel.
The association contracts with a miller for the supply of flour to
its members at a rate of 3s. 4d. in the sack below that charged

to the general public. This allowance is but small compared

with the exorbitant extent to which the price of many commodi-
ties is raised to the consumer as they pass through various hands ;
but even this amount is a consideration to a poor man, and repre-
sents a considerable percentage. Pigs are fatted on the farm,
and a certain weight sent to each member—almost as a dividend
in kind. Five good milch cows are kept, and the new milk
is sold at 2d. per quart, skim at $d. Since the supply is con-
siderable, and many members live too far off to avail them-
selves of it, others besides the members profit by this retail
trade, which but few farmers’ wives would be troubled with.
Where there is illness and a young sickly family, can the worth
of such a supply be over-estimated? ‘The poor man has too
commonly lost this comfort, if not necessary, of life in conse-
quence of the disappearance of our commons and small holdings
as our agriculture has advanced. A stock of coals is also pur-
chased economically in summer, and carted in for each member
free of cost to the extent of 1 ton. Wood bought for fuel in
this parish (which retains 300 acres of woods) is also carted
gratuitously.

The wholesale purchase of groceries and the brewing of beer
for the members, have been under consideration, but have not
been put into operation. Since the charges and profits of the
retailer have too often failed to adapt themselves to the modem
facilities of transfer which railroads and other commercial and
social improvements have introduced, society has no reason to look
with jealousy on such attempts, especially a class of society which
is so much victimized by intermediate agents as the farmers.

Since, then, this association (while exhibiting good, but not
advanced farming) does not revolutionize labour, and does not
much affect trade, it remains to be seen wherein its chief influ-
ence and merit consist.

The benefit done to the labourer seems to consist mainly in
this,—that it suggests to the prudent young workman a good mode
of investment commensurate with his means, and sufficiently
attractive to induce him to forego the lesser enjoyments of the
moment, which swallow up savings, if they do not lead to vice.
It is attractive because he can understand, appreciate, and in
some degree control the adventure, which in this respect contrasts
most favourably with the speculations in which many richer men

BT. Co-operative Farms.

risk their fortunes, with little ground to trust the agents they
employ, and no knowledge of the field which they are working.
It offers a trade profit, instead of the modicum of interest given
by the savings’ bank, and still does not remove the workman
from his field of labour. Moreover, its influence is not felt by
the members only, but by all who look forward to availing them-
selves of a vacancy or an extension of the system,

For the parish generally its influence cannot but be beneficial,
especially in reference to the rates, as Mr, Gurdon has pointed
out. Four of the shares in the older farm are now held by
widows, who, as well as the other. shareholders, refrain from
seeking parish relief. ‘The proceeds of their share must in some
instances be their sole maintenance. ‘This consideration alone
speaks well for the profits of an undertaking consisting of 20
shares now valued at 50/. each (or 10002. in all), which com-
menced with a capital of only 4402.

The position of the widows of members requires especial con-
sideration: first, that the reversion of the share may be assured
to them for life, or, if this cannot be made certain, that they may
be put in a fair way for succeeding to it. Secondly, since this
property debars them from receiving parish relief, it is important
that the shares should be sufficiently iarge to insure them a sub-
sistence. This object will have to be balanced against another
consideration, viz. that the share must not be so large as to
represent a greater amount of capital than a prosperous labourer
can command or save within a reasonable period of time.

Let us put the case of a vacancy occurring when a share is
worth 50/. Suppose that the candidate, elected by ballot and
approved by the landlord, can only pay 5/. down—say that their
undertaking pays 10 per cent. on the average: it will then take
the new member 9 years to pay up his full share at the rate of
51. a year, and till he has done this he gets no dividend; if the
share bore a value of 80/. he would have 6 more years of expec-
tation, and yet it can hardly be calculated that a share of less
than 80/. should afford a comfortable provision for a widow.

Mr. Gurdon informs me that a steam thrashing-machine has
also been worked in connection with the association to consider-
able advantage. This I can well believe, for, with skilful
management, the profits of such a calling are larger than those
deriv ed from farming, |

In these days when strikes and other combinations antagonistic
to freedom, to ‘intelligence, and to progress are rife, for the short-
sighted purpose of protecting one calling to the injury of the
community at large, (and especially of the largest and poorest
class, whose right to gain an entrance into a ‘trade or craft is
thwarted), any plan which assists workmen legitimately to unite

Italian Irrigation. 173

in an undertaking on which their sympathies, their experience,
and their intelligence may be brought to bear—an undertaking
which holds out a prospect of considerable, and, on the whole,
steady profits, seems worthy of consideration and of such discus-
sion as the leading features of the scheme naturally suggest.

P. H. Frere.

rat

XI.— Review of ‘ Italian Irrigation, by &. Baird Smith, Captain
of Engineers, Bengal Presidency, F.G.S.* By P. H. Frere. ,

Summary or Contents.—I. Italian Irrigation, its extent and money-value.—
Il. The Climate and Natural advantages of Northern Italy.— III. Its
Lakes. —1V. The History of Italian Irrigation. — V. The Naviglio
Grande. — VI. The cost of constructing a Canal. — VII. The Canal of
Pavia. — VIII. Management of- Irrigated Land. —IX. Comparative state-
ment of expenses of cultivation. — X. The Laying-out of Water-meadows.
—XI, Tenure of Land and the ‘‘Consegna” or Lease. — XII. The
School of Engineers. — XIII. Springs. — XIV. The Price of Water. —
XV. The Measurement of Water.— XVI. The Law, and course of Legis-
lation. — XVII. Conclusion.

Some years have passed since, under instructions from the Court
of Directors of the East India Company, the late Colonel Baird
Smith thoroughly investigated the irrigation system of Northern
Italy, and made-known the results in a Report, “ published by
authority,” which fills two volumes octavo.

‘The size of this work, consequent on the complete manner

* A brief notice of the leading incidents in the life of this distinguished officer
may give additional interest and weight to this record of his researches and
opinions. In 1841 Lieutenant Baird Smith, R.E., became connected with the
Canal Department of our North-West Provinces in India. He had already won
the highest reputation as an hydraulic engineer when the Sikh war gave him
opportunity for doing brilliant service in the field both at Aliwal, as aide-de-
camp to Sir H. Smith, and again as engineer in charge at the passage of the
Chenab under Sir Colin Campbell. Illness, consequent on exposure to wet on
the latter occasion, led to his return to Europe. This paved the way for his
Ttalian investigations, which were followed up by an examination of the canals
of North America, In 1854, at the special request of his predecessor, Sir Proby
Cautley, he was appointed head of his old department, in which capacity, whether
acting as engineer, as revenue officer, or as a magistrate, he gave universal satisfac-
tion. In the mutiny of 1857, as chief engineer, he made out the whole plan of
the successful assault on Delhi, though a wound prevented him from superintend-
ing its execution. In recognition of his services he was then made a Companion
of the Order of the Bath, Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel, and Aide-de-camp to the
Queen. His great merit, together with his impaired health, pointed him out for
the honourable and luerative office of Master of the Mint at Caleutta. But again,
when a national exigence—the last Indian famine—arose, the public voice called
for his appointment as Special Commissioner. He obeyed the call ; and in success-
fully grappling with that great calamity, freely expended all his remaining
energies. Having completed his work, he returned to Calcutta, and died at
Madras on his way home to England,

174 Italian Irrigation.

in which the subject is treated, has been a bar to its coming
generally into the hands of those who have only a general interest
in the employment of water for agricultural purposes. Mean-
while the importance of this subject in its various aspects, with
reference both to England and to India, has been more and more
recognised, so that a work containing such stores of information
might well be epitomised for the benefit of the public.

Any notice then of this work, however imperfect, may in
some degree further the design of this publication, which appears
to have had a public rather than a private aim, and if that
aim pointed to India rather than to England, so intimate are
now the relations between those two countries that any interest
excited, any knowledge circulated at home, cannot but react
favourably on the fortunes of our distant empire. In further-
ance of this purpose, the author’s literary representatives have
most liberally placed at our disposal the blocks from which the
illustrations of the work were originally executed.

In our survey of Italian irrigation let us look to its extent,
and the wealth it has created; briefly trace its history; review
the physical and social advantages which have contributed to
these results; and lastly, Jet us consider how far our position
differs from theirs, and whether existing differences can be
removed or obviated.

1.—Extent and Money-value of the Irrigation.

The valley of the Po is the great scene of this irrigation, in
which Lombardy and Piedmont play the leading parts, whilst
Venetia, as constituted in 1854, had asmall share from including
the district of Verona.

On the banks of the Ticino, the boundary of Piedmont and
Lombardy, the system appears to attain its fullest development.
The supply of water is, however, drawn from the tributaries of
the Po (particularly those on the left bank), not from the river
itself, which would be a task attended with much difficulty,
because the canals must then run parallel with the Po and inter-
sect its feeders at right angles.

In Piedmont, according to official returns, the lower provinces
—Turin, Torea, Vercelli, Novara, Mortara—contain in all
1,335,680 acres, and of this total area about one-third may be
deducted as land lost to cultivation by being occupied as sites
of towns, beds of rivers, lakes, wastes, Sie leaving 890,454
acres fit for culture; of these, 306,613 are actually irrigated,
besides 180,000 acres scattered through the valleys of Upper
Piedmont.

The provinces of Torea and Vercelli, which have an irrigable

Itahian Irrigation. 175

area of 270,000 acres, are actually irrigated to the extent of
121,250 acres. The addition to the rental of land through the
country due to this source of increased production may be esti-
mated approximately at a little more than 290,000J.

Lombardy, together with the provinces of Brescia, Mantua,
and part of Verona, contains a total area of 64 millions of acres ;
of these, 1,061,292 acres are under irrigation in summer, and
12,837 form marcite, special winter water-meadows ; the plain,
therefore, as a whole, is irrigated to the extent of about one-sixth
of its total, and about one-fifth of its productive area. ‘There is
a progressive decrease in the ratio of irrigation to area as we
proceed from west to east. Between the Ticino and the Adda
irigation is applied over nearly nine-tenths of the surface;
between the Adda and Oglio over about two-tenths ; between the
Oglio and the Adige over not more than one-seventh or one-
eighth.”

The great Government canals are 133 miles long; there are
393 branch canals, which, at an assumed average of 10 miles,
amount to 3530 miles. To the eastward of the Adda there are
some 700 or 800 miles of canals, many of which aré private
property. Even to approximate to the length of the minute
arteries of the system is quite impossible.

“* At a very moderate estimate the increased returns from
the land throughout the Milanese alone may be estimated at
270,0007.; in the other irrigated provinces at about 290,000/.
per annum,”

“Throughout the entire valley of the Po, including Piedmont
and Lombardy, the extent of irrigation amounts to 1,547,905,
or in round numbers 1,600,000, acres, being about one-sixth of
its total area. The masé of water utilised,is nearly 24,000 cubic
feet per second, the value of which, in capital, at 250]. per
cubic foot, amounts to 4,000,000/. sterling [should not this be
6,000,000/.?]; and the increased rental due to its employment
is, at a very moderate estimate, 830,000/. per annum.” “To
minds accustomed to the statistics of England these details may
not seem imposing; but regarded in reference to the compara-
tively limited districts to which they apply, they are in truth
large and important,” and their history is “read on the face of
the land and in the material condition of its two-and-a-half
millions of inhabitants.”

If we look to the income derived directly from these canals,
the account will not be equally satisfactory.

In Piedmont the direct water-rents “ may be calculated at
about 25,0002 annually, of which fully four-fifths appertain to
the State and the remainder to private parties. It must not be
overlooked that this amount is far beneath the proper return for

ia

176 Tialian Irrigation.

the waters, but the numerous gratuitous grants which have been
made during the lapse of five centuries have reduced greatly the
income derivable from the canals,”

In Lombardy the actual income of the government canals has
been so reduced by sales and grants, that it often does little
more than pay the current expenses. The income of private
canals is not readily ascertained, but it is believed that these
have not generally yielded a large direct profit.

Let us now take a hasty glance at the history of these works
which have exercised such an influence on the fertility of the
’ soil and the wealth of the people.

(Qe The Climate and Natural Advantages.

Northern Italy certainly possesses great natural advantages
from her climate, rainfall, and range of temperature ;-from the
constancy of her supply of water in summer, from the manner in
which the tributaries of the Po (but not that river itself) traverse
her plain and intersect the line of her slope, from the generally
porous nature of the soil, and from the services rendered by her
splendid lakes.

Of an annual rainfall of 37 inches, about 284 inches come
within the seven months fitted for irrigation, and in that period
fall in about 71 days, the others being fine and generally clear.

The mean temperature for May, June, July, and August is
72° Fahr., and 85° is the ordinary maximum in the shade; but
in the sun the mean is 92°,—an amount of heat which renders 2
supply of water almost indispensable, but adds much to its effec-
tiveness when procured, by raising its temperature.

The soil, in its natural condition, was often poor, passing

from an arid sand to a pestilential marsh resting on clay. The
Lumellina district is a case in point, which now presents a
remarkable contrast to the deplorable aspect it bore before it was
irrigated and thereby rendered one of the most productive and
populous regions in Europe.
_ The main supply of water is drawn from the vast regions of the
Alps, and being derived from snow is constantly furnished by
the unvarying influence of the summer heat. As the more eastern
rivers recede from this great storehouse, their streams become
more capricious,

Iil.— Lakes.

Irrigation brings the famous Italian lakes before us in a
commonplace point of view as great tanks designed to receive
and filter the water dashed down by the mountain-torrents, cold
and charged with sediment, Yet, in travelling through this mag-

Italian Irrigation. NT

nificent scenery, writes Colonel Baird Smith, “the perception
of its exquisite beauty or feeling of its imposing grandeur will
not be deadened by the utilitarian reflection that the whole great
masses of mountain and lake are linked together as the most im-
portant elements of that hydraulic machinery on which the busy
scene of agricultural life and progress in the rich plains below is
essentially dependent.”

Of the Lago Maggiore, both the area, 47,000 acres, and the
maximum depth, 2624 feet, are remarkable. The Lake of Como
reaches a depth of 1900 feet, and has an area of nearly 35,000
acres. The influence of floods is much moderated, though not
obviated, by these large basins.

1V.— The History of Italian Irrigation.

Although we have some indications of the existence of works
for irrigation in Roman times, such as an inscription on an
aqueduct built in the time of Adrian, and “vestiges of dams
attributed in a doubtful way to the emperors from Augustus
down to Theodosius,” these efforts appear to have been applied
rather to springs and rivulets than to works on a grand scale for
the diversion of large supplies from the chief rivers.

From ‘the irruption of the barbarian hordes the same evils
ensued in Northern Italy (though not to the same extent) as those
which gave birth to the Pontine Marshes and the Maremma of
Tuscany. ‘“ A great part of the province” (of Lombardy),
writes Bruschetti, “ was at this time covered with forests. Tracts
now richly cultivated were then stagnant marshes or arid wastes.”
It was not until the dawn of a new civilisation in the 11th cen-
tury that the struggle against the waters which threatened to
submerge the plain was vigorously renewed. The ancient
Roman ditches and defences of Milan were about this time
restored, and an outlet for the waters provided by the construc-
tion of the canal called the Vettabbia.

Again, after the destruction of the city by Frederick Bar-
barossa in 1162, these works were reconstructed on a grander
scale in 1176. Besides other works which secured to the new-
built city a thorough drainage and abundant command of water,
the dam of the Ponte d’ Archetto was then constructed, by which
the entire volume of the Nerone was directed through the city
and conveyed by its sewers to the Vettabbia.

The use of water for irrigation was introduced at this same
time, being due to the superior intelligence and wealth of the
Cistertian monks of the neighbouring monastery of Chiaravalle.
The brethren availed themselves of the neglected waters of the

VOL, XXIV. ° N

178 Italian Irrigation.

Vettabbia for the irrigation of their meadows, and jealously “and
vigorously maintained their claims, until, finally, they secured the
sanction of the government.

From this period the era of canals commences. They are the
works of emancipated Italy ; in many instances the memorials
of special victories, the Canale ‘della Battaglia, in particular,
commemorating the overthrow of Barbarossa at Legnano.

V.—The Naviglio Grande.

It may be instructive briefly to trace the history of some one
canal, and the Naviglio Grande, which conveys the waters of the
Ticino to Milan, may serve us as a specimen. This work, which
now fulfils the double purpose of navigation and irrigation,
appears to have been designed for the latter object as early, if
not earlier, than 1177: a charter of the Abbey of Chiarayalle,
dated 1233, shows that Milan was then connected with the
Ticino by a channel, part of which was navigable; in 1272
Torriano, the Guelphic chief of Milan, made it navigable
throughout ; in 1329 this canal played a prominent part in the
discomfiture of Frederic I1., its waters being diverted so as to
flood his entrenched camp. ‘The history of the Naviglio Grande
for a century after its completion is a continued record of
discontents and disputes regarding the supply of water.” No
regulations had been at first laid down for the distribution
or measurement of the water; the rules afterwards proposed
were arbitrary and unsatisfactory ; practically the law of the
stronger prevailed, whilst the Visconti, then Lords of Milan,
favoured the privileged classes, whether noble or religious, and
made reckless grants to reward private services or purchase
support. |

When, however, in 1376, Jean Galeazzo Visconti made an
attempt to regulate the outlets; and yet more, when, in 1446,
Filippo Maria Visconti published an ordinance annulling at
once all existing water rights, such a fearful tumult arose as
foiled even these despotic rulers. In 1503, when Milan was in
the hands of Louis XII. of France, the magistracy issued a
decree, ordering that all the outlets should be reduced to a
uniform height of 4 inches ; that they should be cut in a single
piece of stone 3 inches thick; that each outlet should be fur-
nished with a chamber about 16 feet in length; and that the sill
of the outlet should be fixed at 1:92 feet above the level of the
bottom of the canal: how far these regulations were acted on is
very doubtful. In the troubled times which saw the defeat of
Francis I, at Pavia, and the transfer of Milan to Spain, the

Italian Irrigation. 179

science of hydraulics was making great advance, whilst the
administration of justice was almost in abeyance.

In 1570, however, an Italian engineer appears on the scene,
whose history deserves record as much as that of any of our own
worthies. *

Giacomo Soldati was employed by the magistracy of Milan
to regulate the water supply, and at once perceived that the
regularity of the discharge turned upon the maintenance of a
constant head of pressure, “battente stabile.”* He gave in a
report which did not profess to remove all existing difficulties,
but to obviate some of the most important. His proposal raised
a tumult; a league was formed by encroaching proprietors ;
Soldati’s life was threatened; rival engineers denounced his
plan’; but his friends were influential and firm, and within three
years reforms had been effected which placed at the disposal of
the State a supply of 750 cubic feet of water per second in
summer, and 150 in winter. In 1576, however, a terrible plague
broke out; many of Soldati’s chief supporters lost their lives ;
the work of reform was suspended, and “to this hour remains
imperfect,” the usurpations of the great proprietors having in
fact now become rights by prescription.

“ The last view we have of Soldati is touching in the extreme.
Reduced to utter poverty, deserted by his clients, persecuted by
his opponents, we find him in 1578 appealing for the means of
subsistence to the magistracy, representing that, as the small
salary granted to him while his work was in progress had now
ceased, he was in danger of starvation. The appeal was favour- -
ably received, and a moderate pension of nine lire per diem
(about 5s.) was settled upon him for life.

“Such is the history of the invention and introduction of that
modulo magistrale, which is admitted at the present day to be
the best means of issuing water for irrigation which we possess.”

“The narrative is not only interesting as a record of inde-
fatigable perseverance amidst great and ultimately overwhelming
difficulties, but it is most instructive. It shows clearly the danger
of allowing a great system of irrigation to develop itself without
well-defined regulations, of permitting interests to grow up
either in ignorance or neglect, which, infringing on the rights of
Government, oppose themselves afterwards with obstinacy and
vigour to improvement of any kind.”

The next feature of interest in the history of this canal is the
flood of 1705, which carried away the whole of the headworks,
changed the course of the river, and threatened to render useless

* His suggestions will be discussed at length further on.
N 2

180 Italian Irrigation.

the whole line of the canal. Vigorous efforts were made by the
magistracy to repair the disaster; and as the State had not the
necessary funds—3800,000 lire, equal to 40,000/.—extraordinary
measures were taken to raise money; the navigation dues were
raised ; the outlets taxed; and all parties benefitirig by other
canals for irrigation were required to contribute.

In 1751 the Ticino having become the frontier line be-
tween Sardinia and Lombardy, the supply of water from it
was guaranteed by treaty, and a priority of right to such
quantity as might be necessary for this canal was secured to
Lombardy.

The length of the Naviglio Grande, from its head at Torna-
vento to the new dock under the walls of Milan, is 31 miles.
It runs many miles in a tortuous and deep channel before it
enters the plain, and there finishes its course, running here in
cuttings, and there on anembankment. The channel is irregular
both in breadth and depth; the slopes are capriciously distri-
buted, ranging in the upper section from 3°75 to 7-75 feet per
mile ; the mean slope is 2°84 feet per mile, ‘‘ very nearly double
what it ought to be in a well-constructed canal.”

The most important work on this, as on most Italian canals, is
the great dam which is carried obliquely across nearly the entire
bed of the Ticino, leaving on the right bank only an opening of
215 feet in width. This dam has a total length of 918°47 feet ;
its breadth varies from 31°10 to 58°33 feet, except at one ex-
tremity where the breadth is only 7:84 feet.

The means of discharge are supplied by six grand weirs and by
twelve escapes comprising 185 sluices, each from 25 to 2} feet
in breadth, which are so managed by an upright iron rachet and
a simple lever, that one man can generally regulate them.

The ordinary repairs are executed under contract, extending
over nine years, They amount to about 17002 per annum, or
nearly 55/. per mile.

The periodical closing of the canal is commonly efistied by
means of a temporary dem of fascines, piles, &c., erected at a
point some little distance below the end dam, wiliehe the breadth
of the channel is limited; but from time to time it is necessary
to raise a dam at the head of the canal—an expensive and
troublesome work.

Colonel Baird Smith naturally suggests that certain measures
which would dispense with the construction of any temporary
dam, would be economical on the whole, though they would
involve a larger outlay in the first instance.

The discharge from the canal is about 1851 cubic feet per
second: of this, 369 feet are furnished to branch canals, leaving

Italian Irrigation, . 181

1512 feet disposable for the supply of 120 outlets on the main
line.

Some materials exist for enabling us to approximate to the loss
of water caused by filtration, evaporation, and waste in general on
this line. Two very careful measurements have recently been
made by adding together the separate discharges of each outlet
from the main canal. According to the first measurement the
total amount of these was 1612-5, and according to the second,
1773; the mean ‘being 1692 cubic feet per second, Now, as
the total discharge is 1851 cubic feet, the loss on the whole
length of the canal is 158-25 cubic feet, or nearly 5 cubic feet
per second for each mile.

The area irrigated, exclusive of the branch canals, is 93,440
acres in summer, or 61°8 acres for each cubic foot of discharge
per second, In winter, 1750 are irrigated as marcite, or winter
meadows. The price paid for water has varied extremely. In
1376 a decree of Government fixed the water-rent per oncia at
1 lira; a decree of 1551 raised it to 36 lire; twenty years later
it had reached 125 lire. By a rapid and continuous advance,
the rate had become, in the beginning of the eighteenth century,
300 lire in the upper section, 400 in the centre, and 450 near
Milan.

The present rates are as follows :—

ce AG eC
Purchase in absolute property of 1 cubic foot per second 29110 0
Annual rent of ditto in perpetuity, summer and winter 13 5 O
Ditto ditto for summeronly .. 1210 0
Annual rent taken from year to year, for summer i Sia,
Ditto ditto for winter .. .. or &
Ditto ditto within 53 miles of
NNER Fo RS eres | Lt hier ke 112 0

From the reckless manner in which grants have been made,
the actual income is so small that it just covers the expenses.
The revenue from all sources, navigation as well as irrigation, is
no more than 1796, though the addition to the annual rental of

the district may be very moderately estimated at 60,000/. per
annum,

VI.—The Cost of Constructing a Canal, and the Chief Works
involved.

No estimate is given of the cost of constructing the Naviglio
Grande ; but in the case of the canal of Caluso, Colonel Baird
Smith, being unable to obtain as accurate accounts of actual cost
as he desired, formed an approximate calculation of the probable
cost of the existing works at present prices. It is as follows :—

182 Italian Irrigation.

Estimated Cost of the Caluso Canal.

£ sd,
1, Value of the land occupied by the canaland banks 1,666 13 0
2. Excavation .. 8,125 0. 0
3. Temporary dam, head channel, banks, ‘and head 1,458 6 0
4, Regulator, escape, divider of Castellamonte and
guard-house A gla 1,666 13 0
5, Tunnels of San Giorgio and connecting ‘aqueduct. 12,500 0 0
6. Bridges and bridge canals in ews ss Sates 3, 564113 4
7. Bridges in wood .. et espelnae 41 18 4
8. Aqueducts of wood across canal . sialy pido a Lag 50 0 O
J... Wanlstaind tell or WaSsOne — ar) 1p anen aiea nee 11613 4
10. Retaining-walls of masonry... .. .. . «. 1,250 0 O
11, Retaining-walls of stone .. <. s,s est) jeegnooldome
12. Planking oh aie. te) e<sa aees aee 50 0 O
13. Paving of the bed... mes eS wae 625 0 0
14. Dividers of Arre, Mandria, ke. pam memmey em Cyne SU). 0) pl
15. Sundry expenses of various kinds .. .. .. 41,075 0 O

Total, |,» f) my seen -weuede ReCgO aD) eo

or rather more than 17002. per mile.

For a large canal this is probably a moderate estimate, though
in several cases the Government bought private canals at the rate
of 1000/. per mile.

On the other hand, where the Government has been induced
to grapple with a task of unusual difficulty, and to execute it
thoroughly or even magnificently, the results have been far more
costly.

The western canal from the Bormida, commenced by a private
company, and completed and opened by Government under the
name of Canal Charles Albert, cost in all 42,0002, or 2800J. per
mile, for a channel 15 miles long, 164 feet broad, and 6 feet deep
below the surface of the soil. The income (1500/. a-year) which
is in great measure derived from mill-rents, after the deduction of
250/. for repairs, barely pays 3 per cent. on the outlay, and is
never likely to exceed 5 per cent. ’

VIL— The Canal of Pavia.
From the time of the capture of Pavia by Milan, in 1359, a

watercourse seems to have been designed to connect these towns,
which was called the New Canal, in 1411. The various masters
of Milan all saw the importance of connecting that city with the
Po by a navigable stream, and most of them, attempted, but all
failed to realise this design. Finally, this the most splendid
work of modern Italy owed, its origin to a stroke of the pen of
Napoleon I., who in June, 1805, as King of Italy, decreed as
follows :—

“The canal from Milan to Pavia shall be made navigable.

Italian Irrigation. 183

The project shall be submitted before the 1st of October, and the
works shall be so distributed as to be terminated within the space
of eight years.”

In 1807 the works were commenced according to a project
furnished by the celebrated engineer Brunacci, and for some
years were carried on with vigour; but, as they were left un-
finished at Napoleon’s downfall, it remained for the Austrian
Government to adopt the enterprise, which it completed in 1819.
‘The works include 12 locks, 14 bridges across the canal, 16
other bridges, 8 aqueducts, 2 tunnels, 88 syphons, and “no less
than 122 works of different hinds required solely for the maintenance
of the pre-existing state of irrigation.” The execution of these
works in first-rate style cost no less a sum than 296,8751, or
14,8007. per mile; whilst the total income does not exceed
3060/., of which sum nearly 14002. are absorbed in repairs and
establishment charges. The channel, however,—and therefore the
water-supply,—is but small; the loss from filtration is large ; the
growth of water weeds and other obstructions have reduced the
current from 225 cubic feet per second to 138; so that we must
view this costly work as designed rather to promote navigation
than irrigation.

VIII.— Management of Irrigated Land.

The characteristic features of Lombard farming are good-sized-
farms, chiefly in meadow, and devoted to the rearing of cattle.
The permanent meadows are chiefly summer meadows, cropped
only between March and September. There are also some
winter meadows, “ marcite,” which are peculiar to Italian agri-
culture, and call for a special notice. Much advantage, however,
has been derived from introducing the temporary meadow in
rotation with other crops; permanent grass is only retained in
localities not well adapted for general cultivation.

From the pérmanent meadow three cuttings of grass are de-
rived in May, July, and September, which on an average furnish
respectively 241, 184, and 14 cwts., or. in all nearly 2 tons
17 ewts, of hay, worth 2s. 6d. per cwt. The after-grass is worth
about 8s. per acre, and the gross value of the produce is therefore
about 72. 10s.

The temporary summer-meadows ( prati a vicenda) are arranged
similarly to the preceding in all that regards irrigation; but in
the one case the land remains continuously under grass, while in
the other it is so only for two or three years. ‘The ordinary
period of rotation is for five years, in the following order :—First
year, wheat, cut about the middle of July, grass-seeds being sown
with the wheat. Second, third, and fourth, meadow under irri-
gation, and abundantly manured. .. Fifth, Indian corn or flax.

184 Italian Irrigation,

After flax, cut at the end of June, millet is immediately sown,
and comes to maturity about the end of October of the same
year. A sixth year is occasionally added to the period, when
another crop of Indian corn is taken, and the rotation again com-
mences in the same order.”

“Tn illustration of several points connected with this subject,”
writes Colonel Baird Smith, “I may give here the following com-
parative statement of expenditure and return from irrigated and
unirrigated lands’ in the Lumellina, which is one of the best
irrigated districts in Piedmont. They were prepared by an
excellent authority—a gentleman in charge of a number of the
canals in the provinces of-Mortara and Novyara—and are the
results of actual experience on a property consisting of 37930 acres,
I believe, therefore, they may be accepted as tolerably correct.
The originals being all in Piedmontese measures, I have reduced
them throughout to their equivalents in our own,

IX.—‘ CoMPaRATIVE STATEMENT of Expenses and Returns from Irrigated and
Unirrigated Land in Piedmont,

Year. Nature of Cultivation. Expenses. Receipts.
First Ist, Culture of one acre of good strong land
Year. in the usual rotation of five years— | £. 8. d.| £ s, d.
Without Irrigation.
Indian
corn. Manuring.—Purchase, carriage, and wa
ing of 135 ewt. of stable manure, at 43d.)| 210 6
Cach +e~ 96 Loe Seine dbs ate) Me keted

| return for the grass and the gleaning of the .
Indian corn after the harvest. Other field-
work is paid for en métayer, with one-fourth

|
}
The ploughing and harrowing are executed in |
of the produce, |

Produce in grain, deducting seed and the
Sen due to the métayer, 21-1 bushels, : is 3 12 0
3s. 4d. each .
Second Matinte! two-thirds of the quantity used = 113 8
Year, first year .. j
——| Three ploughings and harrowings, at 4s. .. | 012 0
Legumes. | Produce in legumes, deducting seed and
—| portion due to the métayer, 18 apie. a : 310 6
3s. 11d. each :
Third | One ploughing and harrowing, atde.. «| oe
Year, Produce in straw .. . 5 08s 0
— Produce in grain, deducting seed and por-
Wheat. tion due to the métayer, 17°16 pera d at 5 ee ee |
5s. 10d. each -
Fourth | Four ploughings and harrowings, at 4s. .. | 016 0
Year, | Manure, as in the first year.. . 210 6
| Produce equal to that of the third year—
Wheat. viz., ;
Say 28 J Me B rs! 08 0
Grainteijea!../' ees Aeneas. vee 5 0 it

Italian Irrigation.

185

Year. Nature of Cultivation,
Fifth Four ploughings and harrowings, at 4s,
Year. Produce in straw...
Produce in grain, deducting seed and por-
Rye. tion due to the in 17°16 bushels, at
BETACH orl soe ah oe (tee Ge I oe

Deduct expenses .. os 4s

Net returns for five years...

| Annual return per acre ©

Means of | 2nd, Culture of the same land as the

three preceding, converted into an irrigable

Years. meadow. The averages.of three years
are given.

Meadow. | Manure.—150 ewt. of stable manure, at 44d.

each... *}

Charges for irrigation channels and spread- et
ing manure e

Watering, cutting, making, and carriage of a
ha

a Re of three cuttings, 72 ewt. of “a
at 2s.4d.each .. ..

Rent received for pasturage ‘after the third|
cutting eee ot lee eb a7

Totals Meare Reet SAY Ces
Deduct expenses
Net annual produce of one acre of irrigated
DCAUOWEE See os ce ssh see oe
Comparative Statement.

Annual produce of one acre of irrigated)
RAT a Occ

Annual produce of one acre of unirrigated
TEER EGS iii Stil ales Rear asa!

Excess per acre in favour of irrigation

Expenses.
0 16 0
3° 38
Dir SZ
216 3
012 6
1 ale? sin
416 5
3.19 11
21:82
LEP Spe

Receipts.
0 8 O
217 2
21-3 10
ST 28
12
8 8 0
0 8 4
816 4
416 5
3S) ESL
.

“The preceding details show results on strong good land in the
Lumellina. It may be interesting to give an example of the same
kind for light and rather inferior soil in the same locality :-—

Year. Nature of Cultivation.

Ist, Culture ofan acre of light and sandy soil
in a rotation of four years—Unirrigated.

First Manure as in No. 1 SESS) eek eon, Mam

Year.
Labour is paid for en métayer, as in No. L.,
Indian | with one-fourth of the produce.

Ne produce, deducting portion due to the
métayer and seed, 16°7 bushels, at 38, 4d.

Expenses.

a Gan Ol
210 6

CACHE ENMEI LE Ge

Receipts.
250) CF
215 §

186

Year.

Second
Year.

Legumes.

Third
Year.

Rye.
Fourth
Year.

Rye.

Italian Irrigation.

Nature of Cultivation. Expenses.
Manure equal to first year .. .. : 210 6
Three ploughings and a at 38. 4d. 0
each .. oo ee Ni
Net produce, 141 bushels, at 3s, each 5 =
Ploughing and harrowing .. .. « « | 0 3 4
Net produce : ws 569 | ves .
Straw an =
Five ploughings and harrowings, ‘at 8s. 4d. 016 8
Net produces.) ies 9 1: uea Ene
Straw. o6) ~s Joe Rah eee Ee
Totals $6. “ody” oy 1888 ae 4 0 6
Deduct expenses .. .. «. +4
Net returns for fouryears .. 4. «s «. ee
Annual return per acre sllgce RS. 1.160
2nd, Culture of an acre of the same land as
the preceding, converted into an irrigated
meadow. Averages of three years.

Manure.—150 ewt. of manure, at 43d. each 2 1658
Cost of irrigated channels and spreading 012 0
manure 4
Cost of watering, cutting, making, &e. | 2a

Produce of three cuttings, 60 ewt. of hake
at 2s. 4d. each ¥
Received for pasturage ‘after third cutting
Totals Arie oc eerie weer yy! peek oll = %)
Deduct expenses .. .. «- mS
Annual net return of one acre of irrigated
MEAdOW Foss |<.) costes enn <
Comparative Statement.
Annual net preduce of one acre of pir agree oD led
land
Annual net produce of one acre of un- “| 116 1
irrigated land ... cer een em eee
Excess per acre in favour of irrigation 017 11

Receipts.

“The preceding details apply to summer irrigation in Pied-
P g pply g

mont ;

the following show the net rent derived from a farm

of about 350 acres thoroughly irrigated, in the province of

Milan :—

Rent in money paid to the landlord per acre ..
Minor items paid in kind 5

Communal (parish) charges paid by the tenant
Government charges paid by tenant .

Proceeds of sale of wood reserved by the landlord

Gross rent per acre

=, 8 ie
Leo

Oi) bs

iad D8
09 4

aa jn'i cio, ML ae
os tape to 6

Ttalian Irrigation. 187

Deduct proportion of expenses paid by the landlord

as follows :— £; s:—d.
Government and communal charges te ae OL O
Repairs of buildings and hydraulic works «= 0, 2 9
Expense of administration, inspections by se 020

(ai, hes a et i eC et hee aC =

—— 015 9

Net tent per acre 55 &s a V1IT-9

“Such land as is referred to in these details sells for from 407.
to 451. per acre; so that the interest on capital thus invested does
not much exceed 4 per cent. The gross returns from irrigated
meadow land in the Milanese have formerly been estimated at
71. 8s, per acre; and, if these data are to be depended upon, it
would appear that the rent is just one-fourth of the total amount
of these returns.”

X.— The Laying-out of Water-Meadows.

A principal feature in preparing a water meadow is the
sloping of the land, that the water may be spread in a thin uni-
form sheet over its surface. In extreme cases this work costs 101.
to 12/. per acre. The slope given varies greatly, according to
the soil and locality, being eight or ten times as great in some
absorptive soils as in those of a retentive clay. ‘“Colombani
mentions that for summer meadows in the province of Lodi, the
breadth in the direction of the slope is 140 metres, or nearly
460 feet; while the length in the direction transverse to the slope
is 180 metres, or 590 feet, which would make each of the great
compartments contain an area of 6 acres English. To each such
compartment a main irrigating channel, of about 3 feet in
breadth, running in a direction transverse to the slope, is
allotted ;’—“‘ in summer meadows it is not usual to have main
channels.” The slope given to the surface of the meadow is,
when practicable, two-tenths per 100; or, in English measure,
about 3 inches in each 100 feet. Practically an interminable
variety of dimensions prevail, as regulated by the instinct of the
eampari, or professional designers of water meadows. To state
an instance of these variations, Signor Berra, in his detailed in-
structions for forming water meadows, recommends that the main
channel having been marked out on the highest level of the
field, minor irrigating channels should be drawn at right angles
to it, so as to divide the field into compartments “ piane,” which
should never be more than 25 to 30 feet in breadth, and eight or
ten times as long as they are broad; the planes should slope from
the minor channel on each side ‘03 in 1; or, when the breadth is

30 feet, the slope would be very nearly 12 inches.

188 Italian Irrigation.

The following illustration is given of the arrangement of a
marcite field. :—

ADAQUATRICE, OR MAIN IRRIGATING CHANNEL

ALA, OR PLANE;

ROGGETTA, Ol 4 MINOR IRRIGATING CHANNEL. |

£COLATORE, OR MINOR DRAINAGE CHANNEL,

> SS 2)
SCOLATORE MAESTRE, OR MAIN DRAINAGE CHANNEL,

SECTION ON ab,

See SS se SG ———s cy Ws
MMMM ede

5S.

Lobel ft

A B, Main Irrigating Channel.

C D, Main Drainage Channel.

E F, Minor Irrigating Channels, generally 12 inches wide, and 6 or 7 deep,
G H, Minor Drainage Channels, about half the above dimensions,

A provision for drainage is of course made at the base of each
slope, in a manner familiar to us all; but the value attached to
the surplus waters, colatori, is more of a novelty. ‘These, “ having
passed over lands richly manured, have a value often considerably
superior to their original one.” Their temperature becomes

higher as they flow, partly from mechanical, and partly from _.

chemical causes; it being customary to apply to the upper
meadows the richest manure, which is supposed to raise the
temperature of the water, a point much insisted on for “winter
meadows. It is therefore calculated that water, before it is
exhausted or dismissed from service, will have enriched double
the area of the meadow which it first supplied ; and the surplus

Italian Irrigation. 189

water may claim the same right of passage through a neighbour-

ing estate for a second or third application, as it originally enjoyed
when issuing from the canal.

X1— The Tenure of Land, and the “* Consegna,” or Lease.

Improved farming has found in Italy its natural, if not neces-
sary attendant, in the improved tenure of the land. On irrigated
farms, requiring tenants of capital and intelligence, a money rent
and a lease for nine to eighteen years has generally superseded
the older affitto a mezzadria, under which the produce was
divided between landlord and tenant.

Under the older tenure the proprietor is bound to deliver over
the farm in a good state for culture, to bear the expense of
breaking up uncultivated lands, and to prune and keep up the
plantations of mulberry, &c. The cultivator does all the labour;
pays for half the wood required for vineyards ; provides half the
silkworm seed; furnishes straw in small quantities; gives his
labour, when required, at a rate fixed in the contract; and pays a
rent for the dwelling. As the cattle are generally his property,
he receives the whole profit derived from them, as well as the
manure; the proceeds of the poultry-yard and kitchen garden
are likewise his. He is bound to deliver the whole of the other
products of the farm into the granaries of the proprietor, receiving
credit for the half of their value, or whatever different proportion
may have been agreed upon.

The complications and disagreements arising out of this tenure
have led to a modification of it, termed affitto a grano, “by
which the cultivator is bound to deliver into the granaries of the
_proprietor a fixed quantity of wheat, varying from 14 to 20
bushels for each acre under cultivation, all the other products of
the soil remaining at his disposal. The produce of the planta-
tions, whether vines or mulberries, belongs to the proprietor, who
gives the cultivator credit for half their value ; the minor arrange-
ments are generally the same as in the affitto a mezzadria.”

This change is attended by the serious drawback that the
tenant is thus constrained to have nearly two-thirds of his farm
in wheat. But the more modern affitto a denaro—money-rent—
with its attendant consegna, or valuation, is now preferred in irri-
gated districts, and on the larger estates belonging to the Church,
the hospitals, or the communes, or to private landowners, espe-
cially minors ; and of this improvement the Lombards are justly
proud. The tenant, besides paying his rent, generally covenants
to add to the plantations, make certain improvements, and furnish
some small supplies, such as rice, poultry, &c., in kind. Of
the consegna, Colonel Baird Smith writes as follows: ‘“ Prepa-

190 Italian Irrigation,

ratory to the entrance of the tenant, the proprietor appoints an
engineer to make a most elaborate statistical survey and valua-
tion of the farm, with all its fixtures and stock. This document,
of which I have seen many examples, is a perfect record of the
condition of the farm when the tenant receives it, and is locally
termed the consegna. ‘The tenant is at perfect liberty to associate
an engineer of his own nomination with the party employed by
the proprietor—a right which is frequently exercised. On my
asking a friend, who had much experience in such matters, how
possible disputes between the engineers were adjusted, his reply
was, that the system had been so long established, and was now
so thoroughly understood, that disputes were very rare indeed ;
but that, when they did occur, the universal feeling in the pro-
fession was to give the tenant the benefit of any doubts that
might arise.” In the consegna the engineer describes every field
separately, indicating its position, form, size, cultivation, en-
closures, living and dead, the canals, sluices, bridges, roads,
paths, buildings, with all their furniture and fittings. The
plantations of mulberry, &c., are numbered tree by tree, and are
divided into separate classes according to their quality and
dimensions, each class having an established value. If at the
termination of the lease, which varies from nine to eighteen
years, the plantations have decreased, the tenant is debited with
the value of the difference ; while, on the other hand, if they
have increased, the value of this increase is placed to his
credit.

“When the period of this lease expires, the engineers are again
summoned to frame another survey, which is termed the recon-
segna. In this the same minute details are entered into as in the
consegna. A comparison is then instituted between these two
documents, and a bilancio, or balance-sheet, showing the differ-
ences between them, is prepared. In this balance-sheet every
deterioration and every amelioration are exibited, with the
money-value placed upon them by the engineer: the tenant
finds himself debited with the first and credited with the second,
and has either to pay to or receive from his landlord certain
sums, according to the results of his own administration of the
farm he has held. The system works admirably. I found all
parties, landlords and tenants, alike contented with it, and indeed
proud of its existence among them. It maintains a very satis-_
factory state of feeling between the two classes; for the tenant is
encouraged to invest any capital he may have in improving the
farm, being sure of receiving a just return for it, while the land-
lord has his property permanently benefited by the labours of an ~
intelligent and interested man, It constantly happens that leases
are renewed term after term for successive generations.”

Italian Irrigation. 191

XIU.— The School of Engineers.

This enviable picture would perhaps but mislead us if it were
unaccompanied by some account of the Italian engineer—his
training and social position. First, the Italian school of en-
gineers is coeval with its irrigation. ‘With the revival of
knowledge in Italy,” writes Colonel Baird Smith, ‘‘the art of
hydraulic engineering was called into existence.” Again he
speaks of “the high character and qualifications of that immense
body of hydraulic-engineers which has been created by the
general development of the system of irrigation, and its intimate
relations with the rights of property and the progress of improve-
ment.” And again: “The judicial authorities base all their
decisions, in all questions of hydraulic art, on their evidence.
And, under the general name of periti, we find them holding
an¢important position in the whole course of the legislation of
lrigation from the earliest times to the present day. The dis-
charge of the duties required at their hands is always delicate
and difficult; but as a class they are universally respected for
general efficiency, good faith, and professional honour.”

Of the engineers of Lombardy Colonel Baird Smith writes :
“It will be readily understood how important a part they are
required to take in the whole agricultural system. Not only do
they design and superintend the construction of various kinds of
works, whether ordinary or hydraulic, which are required, but
the whole of the details of leases, the preparation of the various
documents required on the part of landlord and tenant, and
adyice as to the different improvements of which the land may
be susceptible, are committed to or required of them, ‘The pro-
fession is consequently one of the highest utility. The education
of the young engineers is very carefully attended to, and involves
four years of apprenticeship to an established engineer. Degrees,
as in Piedmont, are given at the University of Pavia; and I
must state that, after having been in personal communication
with a large number of the class, I formed a high estimate of
their professional ability and general intelligence. The require-
ments of the system have called into existence a special division
of the profession, who, under the title of Ingegneri Avvocati, are
employed in all cases involving legal questions in hydraulics.
To illustrate the demand for engineers, I was informed, perhaps
with some exaggeration, that in Milan alone there were not less
than 400; while many more are of course spread abroad oyer the
face of the country.”

The above reference to Piedmont is thus explained :—

““The profession of the civil engineer in Piedmont is divided
into three grades, of which the highest is the hydraulic engineer ;

192 Italian Irrigation.

the second, the civil architect; and the third, the surveyor or
measurer, For the superior degree the course of study extends
over four years. Before entering the university at all, the
engineer student must pass an examination, which embraces
arithmetic, elementary geometry, and algebra, to equations of the
second degree. In the university course the first year is devoted
to the farther study of algebra, of trigonometry, and of analytic
geometry ; the second, to the differential and integral calculus
and descriptive geometry ; the third to the principles of mecha-
nical philosophy and their applications to machines, with
practical geometry—under which term are included surveying,
levelling, plan-drawing, and other professional details of this
order. The last year is devoted to the study of construction in
theory and practice as applied to ordinary and hydraulic work.
During the first three years the student is obliged to attend the
school of architectural design; and at the close of each yeafan
examination in the subjects of that year’s studies has to be passed
before any farther advance is permitted. Before taking the
degree of, hydraulic-engineer, two special examinations have to
be passed—one private, which embraces the range of the last two
years’ studies; the other public, on three theses selected by the
student himself from forty-five propositions prepared by the pro-
fessors of mechanics, of construction and of hydraulics. A fourth
theme is prescribed ‘specially by the professor of hydraulics, and
is designed to test the practical knowledge of the young engineer.
It is in the form of a project for a ‘bridge, or a dam, or a
hydraulic-machine, or a canal; and the student is required to
submit every detail, with regular plans, estimates of probable
cost, and calculations of materials, &c. When these various
tests have been satisfactorily submitted to, the student receives
his diploma, and is entitled to exercise his profession either as
a member of the government corps of civil engineers, or privately,
as may suit his personal views. The names of the most distin-
guished pupils are each year submitted to the Government, and
published in the official gazette.”

In Italy, therefore, the callings of the civil engineer and*the
land valuer are united into one profession, and a thorough pro-
fessional education is an indispensable preliminary to its exer-
cise. We have not yet reached this point of civilisation, and
though in our agricultural difficulties we may have a choice of
very many valuable advisers and referees, in whom practical -
good sense and sterling honesty may compensate for a possibly
defective education, still we have no guarantee that our fate may
not depend on a self-constituted arbiter, in whom some insight -
into the capabilities of land, and shrew dness ‘at driving a bargain,
have to make up for an absence of all professional, and almost all

*

Italian Irrigation. 193

general education. Those who are anxious to copy the Italian
model must consider whether they can dispense with its safe-
guards.

XIT.—Springs.

The springs (fontanili) of Northern Italy are powerful auxilia-
ries to the canals, even if sometimes they borrow before bestowing
the supplies which they profess to furnish, The whole plain
between the Alps and the Po is underlaid by a water-bearing
stratum. The springs which rise from this stratum have a con-
siderable volume and a high temperature, consequent on the
depth of their source, which gives them a special value for
marcite.

A spring-head near Milan is thus described. An excavation
was formed 200 feet long 100 feet wide, and about 8 feet deep.
Over the surface thus laid open 42 separate springs, each enclosed
within its wooden case, were to be seen, the united discharge of
which amounted to nearly 12 cubic feet per second, which at
the ordinary local value of water was worth nearly 40007.

The sinking of some of these wooden tubes had been very
laborious and costly, but they were unusually large—8 feet in
diameter.

The stream which issues forth runs half-a-mile before it tops
the level of the fields; it then supplies a flow of 10 cubie feet
per second for the irrigation of about 30 acres of winter meadow.
It is calculated that the springs of Lombardy furnish in all about
2000 cubic feet per second, those of Piedmont 1000, and that
their united value is 840,060/. ; ,

Besides these recognised supplies, the canals in their passage
are often largely but secretly recruited from this source; the
Naviglio Taverna, in particular, which draws only 15 cubic feet
from the Martesana, affording a discharge of nearly 30.

In prospecting such springs, although the use of the old
divining-rod is not quite abandoned, the flight of gnats and signs
of unusual verdure are more relied on.

All springs are by law the private property of the persons on
whose land they are found, but a curious instance is cited of a pro-
perty watered by the spring which rises oa an adjacent estate,
the proprietor resting his right solely upon usage.

To protect vested interests early Milanese statutes enacted
that no new spring-head should be formed within 68 feet of the
bank of a public river, or within 490 feet of an existing spring ;
whilst within 325 feet of the banks of the Tartaro, it was for-
bidden to use new springs for irrigation, even should they be
exposed by natural movements of the water itself.

Modern legislation has discontinued the prescription of specific

WOU, EXIV.- _ )

194 Italian Irrigation.

distances, leaving these to be’ determined in each case by the
evidence of practical men, according to the peculiarities of the
soil, depth of the springs, &c.

By the law of Lombardy, dated 1804, it is forbidden to excavate
or open springs, or heads of springs, water-courses, and channels,
as also to deepen or increase the dimensions of excavations or
springs actually existing in the vicinity of rivers and canals within
the distances which, according to the judgment of practical men,
would lead to injury to the rivers or canals, or to their banks.
With this reservation it is permitted to every one to excavate
springs on his own land, and to conduct the same, respect being
always had to any rights which other parties may possess.

XIV.— The Price of Witer*

The area of land which a given quantity of water can fertilise
depends both on the soil and the cropping, and likewise on the
care with which the surplus waters are economised—this eco-
nomy being intimately connected with the very varying price
charged for water in each district, which is in itself a striking
feature of this subject. If we begin our inquiries in the east of
Sardinia with an important canal, such as that of Caluso, which
has been wrested from its former proprietors by the State, we
find that the charge for water is 7/. to 8/. for a flow of 1 cubic
foot per second ; that this suffices for 51 acres of land, and there-
fore costs 3s. per acre. But as we go westward, and especially
when we meet with private canals, the water charge rises to from
16. to 211, the charge per acre, to from 8s. to 16s., and the area
irrigated, to from 45 to 56 acres. On the canal Roggia Sartirana
the price for water is the highest in Sardinia, viz., 422. per cubic
foot, or, as it is stated, 20s. (? 13s. 5d.) per acre for 63 acres.
This canal, constructed by Count Sartirana a.p. 1380, is still
owned by his family, to which, in spite of many free grants, it
brings in a net income of 35002, -besides irrigating the family
property. The charge of 42/. per cubic foot on the canal Lan-
gosco, now belonging to a company, has led to its supplying
77; acres at the rate of lls. per acre. On the Castellana the
charge is 20/., and the area irrigated 80 acres; on the Agogna
the charge is 35/., and the area as much as 90 acres.

In Lombardy we find on the Naviglio Grande a low rate of
charge, viz., 7/. to 13/., for an area of 60 to 70 acres, and this
seems the customary rate for the Government canals in that
country, with a curious exception on the Muezza Canal, where
an old tariff has survived, limiting the charge to 16s. 6d. per-

* A flow of 1 cubic foot per second, the basis of these calculations, is taken to
be equivalent to 28°3 litres, or 6°226 English gallons. '

Italian Irrigation. » 195

cubic foot, which is applied to an area of 83 acres at a cost of
about 3d. per acre.

The broad distinction thus lies between districts charged
72. to 137. per cubic foot per second and 3s. or 4s. per acre, and
those which pay up to 40/. and contrive to supply about 80 acres
at the rate of 10s. per acre.

As to the quantity of water to be given to meadow-land,
Colonel Baird Smith tells us that there is a great variety of
opinion. ‘ According to an experiment of De Regi,” he writes,
“the continued discharge of 1 cubic foot per second is sufficient
for the irrigation in 24 hours of 4 acres. Hence, as the total
volume discharged ut that time amounts to 86,400 cubic feet,
and the area watered to 174,240 square feet, it appears that a
stratum of water equal to nearly 6 inches in depth was in this
case spread over the surface of the meadow.” As the general
period of rotation may be taken at 14 days, the cubic foot would
suffice for (12+ 4) 48 acres, there being 12 periods of 14 days
in the summer season. “The above estimate, however, implies
that the whole water is absorbed by the soil, which, in point of
fact, is never the case. Lombard engineers calculate the absorp-
tion in each watering as ranging from one-half to one-third of
the total quantity of water employed.

Effectively, the irrigating power of any given quantity of water
employed in meadow irrigation is twice the area watered on the
first application.

But the Lombard farmer by no means relies exclusively on
the fertilising power of water, but manures freely—especially his
winter meadows ; for these last pig-manure, applied in a liquid
form, has the preference, and it is calculated that 3 pigs kept
throughout the year suffice for 1 acre. Stock-manure is com-
bined with the earth taken out of the carriers, &c:, and applied
at the rate of 12 tons per acre, or linseed oilcake (!), mixed with
one-seventh of its weight of lime, is given at the rate of 15 cwt.
as a dressing. The application of sewage is not as general as
we may imagine; a proper system of sewers having been or-
ganised in a part only of Milan, the rest of Italy retaining the
use of the night-cart.

XV.—On the Measurement of Water. A

The history of irrigation abounds with warnings as to the
“danger of allowing a great system of irrigation to develop itself
without well-defined regulations—of permitting interests to grow
up either in ignorance or neglect, which, infringing the rights of
government, oppose themselves afterwards with obstinacy and
vigour to improvement of any kind.” At the same time it is

o 2

196. * Jialian Irrigation.

better to commence with any measure—any rule, however im-
perfect—than with uncontrolled service. In fixing the mode of
charge for water, the choice clearly lies between looking to the
area irrigated, or to the size and form of the outlet through which
the water flows. The former standard is found in many respects
objectionable :—I1st. The area irrigated will vary from year to
year, and will yearly have to be measured, whereby a door is
opened for fraudulent collusion on the part of subordinate officials.
2ndly. The cultivator will for some crops risk the chances of a
rainy season, and in a gambling spirit defer the proper applica-
tion of water. It is best, then, to regulate the charge by the size
and form of the outlet.

But this regulation of the outlet has been found to be a
more difficult problem than may at first sight be imagined.

Ata very early period it was discovered that: the size of the
aperture was an insufficient test, and that account must be taken
of the water’s velocity. In 1570, when the scientific principles
of hydraulics were scarcely known, Soldati invented his modulo,
constructed on purely empirical data; and in 1643 Torricelli
published his theorem for determining the velocity of fluids ;
‘but, in truth, there is no branch of physics in which the theo-
retical correspond less with the observed results than in hydrau-
lics.” Slight variations in the force of gravity itself; in the
resistance of the air; in that of the water into which the discharge
takes place ; modifications in the form of material or inclination
of the chamber of supply; or in the thickness and perimeter of
the outlet itself; in the freedom of the water’s escape from that
outlet, as well as in the velocity with which it enters the supply-
chamber: all these exercise disturbing influences, even when the
head of water is fixed.

Already in the sixteenth century, in the days of Soldati, the
conditions of perfect success were laid before that engineer by
the magistracy of Milan, and of these conditions Colonel Baird
Smith writes, “it is clear that to satisfy them all perfectly would
be impracticable, even with the increased knowledge of the
present day.” :

The conditions were briefly these :—“ 1st. To establish a just
and exact unity of measure. ‘2nd. To devise a form of apparatus
for the outlets, which would be injurious neither to the state, nor
to the consumers of the water, nor to the navigation of the canal.
3rd. To protect the apparatus from all risk of alteration in its
essential parts by the cultivators. 4th. That precautions should
be taken against infiltration from the main canal into the private
channels. 5th. To regulate the velocity of the stream passing
through the outlet, so as to render it as far as possible independent
of the velocity of ‘the main canal. 6th. To ensure the same dis-

Italian Irrigation. 197

charge from the new form of outlet in summer and in winter.
7th. To establish, in the event of a deficiency of supply in the
main canal, a fair method of decreasing proportionally the dis-
charges of the different outlets. 8th. To provide for the possible
contingency of a permanent increase in the supply of the main
canal, so as to prevent in such case the consumers from getting
more than their fair share of the water. 9th. To make the dis-
charge of the outlets independent of variations in the level of the
bottom or bed of the main canal. 10th. To establish, by some
unalterable mark, the true level of the bed of the main canal at
each outlet, so that it might be at all times recognisable with
facility, uae verified whenever necessary. 11th. To devise such
a system of management of the outlets as to place in the hands of
the Government Officers the power of either closing them alto-
gether, or diminishing their discharge with facility in all periods
of extreme dryness. 12th. To point out in detail the best means
of reconciling the often conflicting interests of navigation and
irrigation, so a in periods of extreme dryness, the quantity of
water peal ae the former might be maintained with the least
possible inconvenience to the latter.”

Of this problem the three fundamental conditions are :—

1. To indicate the best unit for the measurement of water
employed in irrigation, and such a method of distributing it as
shall be injurious neither to the public treasury, to navigation,
nor to the consumers.

2. To discover an apparatus which shall discharge in a given
time, by an outlet of fixed dimensions, a constant volume of
water, whatever may be the variations 1n the level of the sup-
plying canal.

To construct the apparatus so that it should oppose all
possible obstacles to fraud.

The unit of measure, oncia magistrale, fixed on by Soldati, is
that quantity of water which flows freely, or under the sole
influence of pressure, through a rectangular opening, having a
uniform height of 7°4 local Phe (7°86 English inches), a breadth
of 3 (412 English), and a constant pressure of 2 local inches
(3°93 English) above the upper edge of the outlet.

For larger discharges the breadth was doubled, trebled, &c.,
a practice “which leads to irregularities favourable to the larger
epenings. The outlets are cut in a single slab of stone, and fitted
with an iron rim.

The apparatus required was found in Soldati’s Modulo
Milanese, which, with some modifications, is in use at the pre-
sent day.

To explain its present arrangements, Colonel Baird Smith
published a plan and sections, copies of which are given below,

198 Italian Irrigation.

taken from the original blocks, for the use of which we are
indebted to the courtesy of his representatives.

Moputo MacisrraLe or MiLAN.

Plan. Fig. 1.

espe pllys pL ge taal |
10 3 7) 10 Feet
4 Longitudinal Section. Fig. 2.

“The head A B, Fig. 1, is placed on the bank of the canal
of supply with the sill C D, Fig. 2, on the same level as the
bottom of this canal. It is formed of two side-walls or cheeks,
of good masonry, in brick or stone, with a flooring generally of
the latter material. ‘To prevent erosive action, the bed of the
canal, for such distance as the force of the current may render
necessary, is paved with slabs of stone or boulders, both above
and helow the head. The outlet of the head is usually made of
the same breadth as that of the measuring orifice G H, Fig. 2;
while its height is regulated by that of the head itself. The
sluice-gate or paratoja, 1 K, Fig. 2, works in grooves, and is
fitted with a rack and lever, by which it can be readily raised or
depressed at pleasure. As the surface level of the canals of the
Milanese varies comparatively little, the upright of the sluice
has,a small catch in iron or wood attached to it, by which it is
kept at a fixed height corresponding to the requisite pressure on
the orifice G H, Fig. 2. This little catch is locally termed the
gattello ; and as it is provided with a lock and key, the latter of
which is intrusted to the guardian of the canal, the proprietor of
the water-course is supposed to be restricted to his legitimate
supply; and probably is so, within reasonable limits, provided-
always that the guardian is incorruptible.

“In rear of the sluice-gate at the head is placed the first
chamber, L M, Figs. 1 and 2, called in the language of irriga-

Italian Irrigation. 199

tion, the tromba coperta, or covered chamber. It has, in the
established form of the modulo, a fixed length of 10 braccia,
equal to very nearly 20 English feet, and a breadth variable
according to the size of the head-sluice, which it exceeds by the
fixed quantity of 5 local: inches on each side, or 10 on the entire
breadth, being nearly 1-64 English feet. The bottom of the
covered chamber, D H, Fig. 2, is formed with a slope to the
rear, or as a ramp: the height of this slope, H h, is equal to
8 local inches, or 15? English inches very nearly ; and its object
is to diminish the velocity with which the water reaches the
measuring outlet GH, Farther to assist in effecting this object,
the perfect mzdulo is provided with a horizontal top of stone
slabs, or planks, called the czelo morto, the under surface of
which is at precisely the same height as the water ought to have
over the outlet G H, so as to secure the fixed discharge ; that is,
3°93 English inches above the upper edge of GH. The great
purpose of the apparatus being to secure the discharge taking
place under simple pressure, the cielo morto, which may be
roughly rendered the deadening cover, is found to reduce the
irregular motion of the water in passing from the sluice A B to
the measuring outlet G H.

“To admit of ready inspection of the state of the water within
the covered chamber, the following arrangements are made :—
The entrance to the chamber is covered by a stone slab of con-
venient thickness, shown in section at E, Fig. 2, the lower
surface of which is precisely on the same level as the upper edge
of the outlet GH. The height of the ramp H h being 15°72,
and that of the outlet G H being 7°86, the surface of the slab at
E should be just 23°58 English inches above the sill of the head
CD. An open groove, L D, is made in the masonry, large
enough to admit a graduated rod or measure; and when the
water stands at a height of (23:58+-3°:93) 27°51 inches above the
sill at D, it is known that the proper head of pressure exists at
GH. As it is found to be greater or less, the sluice is raised or
depressed, so as to adjust the pressure to the fixed standard.

*“The slab of stone in which the measuring outlet is cut being
fixed at G H, Figs. 1 and 2, immediately in rear of it there is
placed the tromba scoperta, or open chamber. Its breadth at N,
Fig. 1, is two local inches, or 3°93 English inches greater on
each side than that of the measuring outlet; or in all, 7°86 inches...
Its total length, N O, is very nearly 172 English feet. Its side-
walls, which are perpendicular like those of the covered chamber,
have a splay outwards, so that the breadth at O is 11-79 inches
greater than at N, or 15:72 inches in excess of that of the regu-
lating outlet G H, being the same as that of the covered chamber
throughout. To insure the free run of the water from G H, the

200 : Ltalian Irrigation.

flooring of the open chamber has a drop or fall of 1:96 inches at
H, and an equal quantity distributed uniformly between H and
O, Fig. 2. There is, therefore, a total fall from the under edge
or lip of the measuring outlet to the end of the open chamber of
3°93 inches ; or—as the length is 17°72: feet—very nearly 1 inch
in 54. When the water reaches O, it enters the channel of dis-
tribution, and becomes the property either temporarily or per-
manently of the parties to whom the grant of it has been made.
Arrangements at O vary. Sometimes there is a fall from the
end of the modulo to the bed of the channel; but generally the
two are on the same level, the latter being carried forward at the
usual slope for such works.

“From the preceding details, it therefore appears that the
modulo magistrale, in its normal form, has a length of nearly
37}? English feet, and a breadth variable according to the
quantity of water it is designed to measure. If a single ‘ water-
inch,’ for example, be the volume, the breadth of the covered
chamber would be 25°54 inches, and that of the open chamber
13°75 at its upper, and 25°54 at its lower extremity. The floor-
ing of the former rises 15°72 to the rear, while that of the latter
falls 3°93 in the same direction.

“It is essential to the effective operation of the regulating sluice
in the modulo magistrale, that there should be a difference of level
between the water in the canal and in the apparatus of at least
7°86 inches; and as the height of water in the latter must be
27°51 inches, the depth of water in the canal of supply must
necessarily be not less than the sum of these numbers, or 35°37,
being very nearly 3 feet. In this case the relative heights of
different parts of the works are given below, the bottom of the

= : g
canal of supply being the zero line.
Pry English inches.

“Bottom ofthe canal .. en Sat yp oe. 0°00
Level of the water in the canal .. 35°37
Level of the water in the interior of the modulo giving the, or-k

constant pressure. .
Level of under surface of the stone slab at the mouth of the)
covered chamber, and of the hacia edge of the measuring
outlet...
Level of lower edge of measuring apparatus at the end of the 15-72
ramp of the flooring of the covered chamber .. ie :
Level of the flooring at the head of the open chamber = 13°75
Level of the flooring at the termination of the open chamber 11°79.”

——
bo
o
o
wD

In Sardinia a rule for the water measure is prospectively pre-
scribed in the 643rd Article of their Civil Code. For the details
of their plan, I must refer the reader to Colonel Baird Smith’s.
work, remarking that custom there so much overrides the law,
that in the canal of Caluso “there is scarcely an outlet in which
the prescribed limits are observed;” and that a practice of

Ltalian Irrigation. 201

making outlets a fior d’ acqua, or “level with the surface of
the water of the canal or reservoir,” has been an obstacle in

their path.
XVI.— The Law and Course of Legislation respecting Water.

The laws affecting irrigation in Italy, as elsewhere, appear to
have been based on immemorial usage; even the earliest record
—the Statutes of Milan of 1216, preserved in the Ambrosian
Library—so regards them. Before this time, however, the ir-
ruption of the Northern barbarians had given a shock to all pre-
existing rights, which, though rude, may have been in some
respects serviceable. All rights appertaining to the public had
been centred in the feudal lord, who exercised them not merely
for purposes of police, but as his absolute property. As the fiefs
were large and few, in dealing with rivers and watercourses this
state of property was favourable for a mutual understanding being
arrived at.

When the free Lombard League wrung from the Emperor
Frederick [., the Peace of Constance, a.D. 1183, the Italian
towns were not so much restored to their former rights, as en-
dowed with all those lately vested in the feudal superiors, in-
cluding the ownership of the rivers. Except in so far as the
state has by sale or grant transferred its rights to individuals,
corporations, or associations, this rule respecting rivers has been
maintained; and at the present day, “as in Lombardy so in
Piedmont the right of property of all running water is reserved
to the state.”

The free towns invested with full powers soon began to turn
them to account, In 1216 Brunasio Porcha, Podesta of Milan,

ublished a code of laws to regulate the use of water, which
embodies all the leading ideas of modern legislation. The fol-
lowing are its chief regulations :—

“1. Whoever has the right to obtain water from springs or
rivers, or in any other manner whatsoever, can carry it through
the fields and farms of any individual, commune, or public
corporation in this state, and also across the public road.

‘© 2. To this end he can construct the canals or channels, and
other necessary works at the least possible inconvenience and
injury to the proprietors of the farms, paying one-fourth more
than the true value of the land thereby occupied. ‘

«3. In addition he must repair all damages caused by the
water, according to the estimate of two practical men (periti),—
provided, however, that the compensation for damages shall in
no case exceed twice the value of the property damaged.

‘4, He shall be bound to maintain in efficient repair, at his
own expense, the bridges and drains required for the passage of

202 Italian Irrigation.

the water, whether on the farms, or across the roads, so that
these latter shall suffer no injury, especially in rainy weather.

“5, The water may be conducted, or caused to pass, above or
below canals previously existing, new channels of brick or lime
being made for it in such manner as that the water flowing under,
shall not be mixed with that flowing over, or within the pre-
existing canals,

““G. These new channels must be maintained in such condition
as that the proprietor of the water at the upper levels shall suffer
no damage from the reflux of the same. ‘The water shall have a
free and unobstructed course.”

The Visconti, the French, the Spaniards all re-enacted these
laws with some additional details; and the Republic of Venice
applied a similar system to its territory of Verona, After the out-
break of the French Revolution and the wars in Italy, many of the
old laws having been swept away in 1802, it was found necessary,
in 1804, to re-enact the statutes of Charles V. respecting irrigation ;
and it is remarkable that, when the Austrians at their accession
to power removed from their new code, in 1816, the ‘right of
passage” in consequence of the troubles and disputes which arose,
the Aulic Council was constrained to restore it in 1820.

- Piedmont, though it cannot point to records and statutes as
old as those of Lombardy, has followed the same general course ;
and her modern code fully and clearly provides for the protection
of rights connected with irrigation. Under this law, a proprietor
wishing to have the use of water employs an engineer to draw up
a petition to the Intendant of his province, stating the proposed
objects, with explanatory plans and sections. The Intendant then
directs the Government engineer to inspect the spot, and report
on the petition; and later, forwards both the petition and the
report with his own comments, to the Secretary of Finance, whose
duty it is to obtain the Royal sanction.

The chief benefits of this organisation are, that a proprietor
desirous of using water knows distinctly where to apply for a
sanction; and when his application and offer are approved, tan
go fearlessly to work to carry out his plan. The keystone of the
whole fabric is the “right of passage” or transit for your supply
of water across your neighbour's land—an invasion of the general
law of property, which experience has shown to work so much for
the common good, that in the words of Giovannetti at the close of -
his elaborate report, “ it may be frankly stated that in northern
Italy the right of passage has received the most solemn sanction,
popular, political, and legal.” Both old and modern codes, as -
quoted by Colonel Baird Smith, guard carefully against the abuse
of this right. The rate at which land taken for this purpose shall
be paid for, varies considerably ; the price has been as much as

Italian Irrigation. 2038

doubled, but an excess of one-fourth, one-seventh, and one-eighth
have been at different times sanctioned in Lombardy; while the
627th Article of the modern Code of Sardinia assigns “ the
estimated value of the land to be occupied, without deducting
the land-tax or any other burdens which may be inherent in the
soil, together with one-fifth of the said value in excess, and also
compensation for immediate damages including those due to the
division of the estate into two or more parts, or any other dete-
rioration which may follow the intersection of the land.”

From its first origin this right of passage was held to bea
simple servitude on the land, the ownership remaining with the
original landlord, who continued to pay the land-tax and other
burdens. The nature of such servitudes is very clearly stated
in the 7th chapter of the Austrian Civil Code, as quoted by
Colonel Baird Smith.

In Lombardy the control of a great body of water has practi-
cally passed out of the hands of Government, so far as the details
of management are concerned. In early ‘days the municipal
government always resolutely contested with their foreign masters,
French or Spanish, this branch of administration ; and in times
when rulers were poor, wealthy corporations (such as monasteries
or hospitals), or powerful chieftains, by payment or grant secured
to themselves the right to employ len ge volumes of water, and were
thus relieved frem all harassing picadforenc a in applying them to
their own use, or in disposing of them to others.

This has een the origin of very powerful associations, which
at times have set the Govesanent at defiance, and by deem sel-
fishness caused “most serious obstacles to the development of
lrigation.” But of late Government has claimed and exercised a
power of moderating their action, on the principle that such
works were sanctioned’ for the general good of the community,
an end which alone could justify the partial violation of the rights
of private pr operty then permitted. Companies, therefore, are not
allowed to raise their prices, or divert their supplies in an arbitrary
manner. Under a right called the diritto d’ insistenza, acknow-
ledged by legislative tribunals, an irrigator has a legal claim to
the eontataance of a supply of water, Tone enjoyed, on the faith
of which supply expense has been ieeutied: and a change in the
rate of payment must be referred to arbitrators nominated by both
parties.

» One special abuse to which the exercise of the right of passage
is exposed, is, when the excavation of a very trifling spring is
made a pretext for making a channel near to an older channel,
or across irrigated fields with a view of drawing an additional
supply from dee sources. To guard against this, the claimant
must show that his own supply is adequate for the purpose he
contemplates.

Z04 Italian Irrigation.

But further, the 560th Article of the Sardinian Code enacts
that the proprietor of water is not at liberty so to dispose of it as
to cause it to be lost to the injury of lands at lower level. A
curious anecdote in illustration of this point was related by the
jate Count Cayour :—

“In 1832, the Marquis of St. G , farmer of the canals of the
Vercellese, having quarrelled with his neighbour the Marquis
of Pal—, persisted during eight consecutive years on throwing
into the river Po two ruote (about 24 cubic feet per second) of
water, for which the Marquis Pal— offered to pay him 500/.
a-year. To satisfy a personal antipathy, M. de St. G sacri-
ficed 4000/., causing at the same time a loss to the agriculture of
his country see triple this amount at the least.”

The new code put an end to this deplorable state of affairs. It
required, however, a decision of the Senate of Turin based on
Article 560 of the Code to compel the Marquis of St. G—— to
have his revenue increased by 500/. a-year. A like attempt of
the same Marquis to coerce a neighbouring Commune is also
recorded.

Conclusion.

We have now passed i in review a few of the leading features of |
Italian lrigation, omitting many interesting particulars, such as
the history of the growth of rice, its peculiarities and influence
on health; the regulations adopted for distributing a supply of
water for 2 certain number of hours among different proprietors
in rotation ; the long-established system of. local administration
by boards af proprietors interested in canals; the Censimento, or
revenue survey ; and the general influence of irrigation on popu-
lation and climate ; whilst ample stores of information, derived
from a comparison of the state and prospects of India with those
of Italy, have been entirely passed over.

If we attempt to compare the position of Italy with ‘that of
England, and look first to her natural advantages, we may
remark that, although these are undoubtedly great and in some
degree peculiar, still England has received no mean provision,
and for its use, such as it is, we are responsible.

The social advantages by which Italy has profited are more
critical, and therefore less easy to criticise.

The chief point seems to have been that the right to use or -
grant the use of water was there vested in some one authority,
and was not a common right, to be used at each man’s discretion
within the bounds of discretion: and guarded by the mutual _
jealousy of all, As what is every man’s business is nobody’s
business, so it sometimes happens that what all may enjoy in
communi no one practically can turn to the best account.

With common lands we have recognised this as a truth, and

Italian Irrigation. 205

acted on the conviction; yet in a bygone agricultural “ period ”
common lands held their fitting place ; and when that stalwart
yeoman’s son, Bishop Latimer, in preaching before the Court,
vehemently denounced ehelbures he represented a s agenutile
national feeling in favour of the inalienable heritage of the poor ;
and his agricultural dilemma, “ How then will you dung your
Sillows?” bespoke the practical farmer of the day. Yet the
“period” of common lands has rightly been brought to an end;

and that agricultural epoch which may be called & the period Ef
irrigation, wy ill perhaps never dawn upon this land, until common
waters are dealt with in a similar spirit, existing rights and
powers of administration not being destroyed but Tented anew. In
what men, or what body of men, the control of the waters of a dis-
trict is vested, is in itself a matter of perfect indifference to progres-
sive Agriculture so long as that control be efficient, and limited
by certain safeguards. "The chief requirement of an improver is
to know clearly beforehand what he may use, and what he must
pay for its use ; and his worst foe is the dog in the manger, who
will not even give a premonitory snarl or snap till plans have
been matured and expenses incurred. Although the alternative
is not a real one, it may be affirmed that a proprietor might be
better off if stripped of his common-rights, but enabled to buy
water at an easy rate, than he would be when possessed of vested
rights, in the days of jealousy and disorganisation.

One principle of Italian legislation ieee special notice.
The Code of Sardinia, Article 602, directs that “In case of
dispute between proprietors, the tribunals, in deciding, ought to
aim at reconciling the respective interests of the parties in the
manner most just and equitable, having due regard to the rights
of property, to the advantage of agriculture, and to the special uses
to which the water may be destined.” Both in framing and in
interpreting a law an authority may, from laudable motives, take
its stand on different special points of view. For instance, in
providing for education, the legislative body (often composed
chiefly of teachers and examiners) may either select such subjects
as are best adapted for an examination, and form the best cri-
terion for discriminating between the ability of the candidates,
or else it may adopt such a scheme as may best discipline and
inform the mind: the former being the more professional, the
latter the more philosophical, aim.

In like manner the maker or interpreter of law may be either
bent on laying down such a broad rule that it may be easy, under
any circumstances, to distinguish the case of A. from that of B.,
and, indeed, to foresee how the sentence will go ; or else his Chuck
aim may be to secure to each man that which is equitable, and
guard the path of social progress though at the risk of intro-

206 Statistics of Live Stock

ducing some fine-drawn distinctions. In our future course of
action in England, it is to be hoped that ‘‘ the advantage of agri-
culture and the special uses to which water may be destined”
will, at least, not be overlooked when the laws which regulate
our supplies of water are under consideration.

XII.— Statistics of Live-Stock for Consumption in the Metropolis.
By Rosert HERBert.

NOTWITHSTANDING that much distress arising from the cotton
famine has continued to prevail in the manufacturing districts,
and that the metropolitan market has been somewhat heavily
supplied with beasts, the beef-trade, during the last six months
of the past year, has shown signs of activity, and, with some few
exceptions, prices have been well supported. ‘The great abun-
dance of food in the leading grazing districts, compared with
some former seasons, has materially assisted the graziers. The
bullock supplies exhibited in the period indicated have come to
hand in full average condition, and for the most part they have
“died” remarkably well. With respect to the sheep disposed
of, however, we cannot report so favourably. The Downs, half-
Breda, Leicesters, and Kents have, we admit, been quite equal i in
weight ‘and quality to those of most previous corresponding
periods ; but at least a moiety of the aggregate supplies have
appeared in very middling condition, although the total losses
from disease, in 1862, did not exceed an average, excepting in
Wiltshire and the adjoining counties, where the smallpox, which
was evidently introduced into this country either from Germany
or Holland, occasioned serious losses. Lambs, though in good
supply, sold at high rates until quite the close of the season ;
but calves and pigs were not much in demand.

The following return shows the supplies of each kind of stock
exhibited in the last six months of the last ten years :—

Total Supplies of Stock Exhibited.

|
Year. Beasts. Cows. Sheep and Lambs. Calves. Pigs.
TONGS ea, a 149,008 3191 860,800 17,058 15,284 |
$854.5. xe 136,216 3157 853,020 16,490 19,531
BSBD: ss | pe 133,577 3185 751,818 14,810 22,350
W856. 138,309 2864 689 ,444 14,280 18,733
a 137,915 2948 701,414 15,006 14,992
EBSB.. ide sco 147,118 3137 746,839 15,186 19,441
Ci 143,198 3030 803,334 12,277 16,130
1860 .. «. 145,420 3015 | 762,740 15,766 15,470
1861 ewe 149,750 3187 774,260 12,441 20,116

MSHS icissly wins 159,450 3148 | 759,671 12,579 18,220

Sor Consumption in the Metropolis. 207

This comparison shows some remarkable results. Although
the population of London has, according to the last census, in-
creased in ten years from 2,362,236 to 2,803,034, we find that
an increase of only about 10,000 more beasts were exhibited
in the last half of 1862 than in 1853; whilst the number of
sheep has decreased by 101,129 head, even though in 1862 we .
received 87,843 beasts and 178,554 sheep, together with 12,279
lambs, from abroad. The number of calves gradually declined
from 17,058 to 12,579 head; but it may be observed that, in-
cluded in the latter number, were 11,436 from the Continent. It
follows, therefore, that the introduction of foreign calves, duty
free, has almost wholly destroyed the English calf-trade in this
market. Possibly less stock has been purchased in London for
country consumption; but since the arrivals of slaughtered
meat up to Newgate and Leadenhall Markets have evidently
not kept pace with the increased population, the total supply
must have fallen off. No wonder, therefore, that prices have
kept up, and that store animals, especially of a first-class cha-
racter, should have realised very high rates. In order to show
the progressive rise in the quotations, we direct attention to the
annexed table of prices realized for beasts and sheep in the last
six months of the fifteen years ending with 1862 :—

Average Prices of Beef and Mutton.
Per 8 lbs. to sink the Offal.

BEEr.

1848. 1849 1850. 1851. 1852,

st. #@e | eee Ss» d. Sh, ad. ce

HHPERION’ ws) Ss. ee 30) « Bh 0) pe.) Diets, eyes

Widding:. .. .:| 3 8 $78 3 4 3 6 3 4

Prime ae 4 0 4 2 4 0 3 10 3 10

1853. “1854, | 1855. 1856. 1857,

; ae Ss: ids | $. a. Suds Ss. a.

Inferior ara mbt eta 2-8 3 2 3 4 2 10 2 10

Middling.. .. .. 3 8 4 0 4 2 4 0 3 10

Prime “E 4 10 5 0 bo 2 Gy 4 10

1858 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862.

‘ s. d. 8. a. 3.) Gs Sa Gs s.4d.

Inferior dh. oat OO 210 210 2.8 oO 3 2

Middling.. .. .. 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0

Prime as, vel ae 5 @ o 2 5 4 570 4 10
=... = SE EE ee ee ee ee

208 Statistics of Live Stock

MorrTon.
1848. 1849, 1850. 1851. 1852.
S510. s. d. s. fd, s. d. s.
Ruterior oc... es" =< 3 8 3.44 ee C0) 2% 8 210
Middiing... . ge) tae 3 10 3 4 $2 3 10
Primes f 2? <> fe 4 10 4.4 1 4 0 4 8
1853. 1854, | 1855, 1856 1857,
oh 0k S. pa s. d. Sant. Ss. id:
Inferior aT cs, 210 oo 3 6 3.6 5:0
Middling.. .... 4 0 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 2
Prime aiatae Ware BD 2, > 20 Ey AV) 5 4 5 4
1858. | 18 ma 1860. 1861, 1862,
S: gee Sou Gs 7s Seente Sarde side
Inferior’: 56s, es 210 Ss -0 3) 42 CTF} 3 8
Middling.. .. .. 4 0 42 4 6 4 6 4 8
Prime ¢- ase =« i DB ae 5 10 x 6 Beg

In the first five years given above it will be seen that beef was
unusually low in price in this country, and that the rise in the
value of the best Scots since 1852 has been 14d. per lb. In

858, 1859, 1860, and 1861 the advance was even greater,
arising in some measure from the wretchedly poor quality of the
stock brought forward. Nearly the same remarks may be
applied to sheep, the best of which can now scarcely be obtained
under 6s. per 8 lbs. In 1851 the average value of the best
Downs was only 4s. per 8 lbs.

The following tables, which have been compiled to show the
sources of these supplies, clearly indicate the progress made in
breeding and feeding in various districts in England, as well as
in Ireland and Scotland :—

District Bullock Arrivals.

Northern Eastern Other parts of

Year. Districts. Districts. England. Scotland. Ireland.
1853" 5. oe 54,650 8650 15,500 4728 7,412
GGA oe. Nae 55,200 38400 16,500 2817 7,000
TRE s Sep 52.800 38000 11,050 2993 8,200
TapG. ks» \es 60,760 os 20,700 2734 TiFooe” ~
Nae valie. teese 81,600 7000 15,570 1836 12,000
1858, os we 66,260 6970 13,820 2674 13,760
PERO) a ss") ae 64,470 3600 23,220 4640 - 10,544
WS605 3. <i 66,140 9500 20,500 1151 7,852
LEG" Ar vs 71,450 2500 9,700 4586 14,340

1862 .. .. 74,570 5050 19,620 3307 14,820

for Consumption in the Metropolis. 209

Whilst the supplies drawn from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire,
and Northamptonshire, and some other parts of England, as well as
those from Ireland, have gradually increased, those from Norfolk,
Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire, and Scotland have, in the past
year, fallen off. This comparison, however, as regards Norfolk
and the adjacent counties, does not refer to what is termed the
“season.” Our impression is, that quite as large a number of
really prime beasts were fattened in Norfolk in 1862 as in most
previous years. The increase in the receipts from Ireland in
1861 and 1862 may be chiefly attributed to the limited demand
for butcher’s-meat in the manufacturing districts, which led
many of the Irish graziers to forward their stock direct to the
metropolis. A few really good crosses have been received from
Ireland; but the general quality of the stock has certainly not
improved,

The supplies of foreign stock imported in the last six months
of last, year were a fair average. ‘The annexed return shows the
quarters from whence they were derived :—

Imports of Foreign Stock into London.

From Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs.
Amsterdam .. .. 67 #086 zs oe “n
Antwerp ~ Hy Bae or <9 492 2
Boulogne .. .. . “158 oa Bs Se
BBRODICB Ss pie |: ys 1,499 45 a 22 “P
(Sal cot ar er =: AC “ie 61 “-
Garr fe as st 520 4
Corunna = ream 422 oe ie 3 ne
arith. sty, caer y Me's 2,926 15,429 4,519 66 704
Guernsey... .- 4 oe ae - :
Hamburg ore tie 1,061 27,496 2 ic 1,001
Harlingen .. .. 2,568 28,244 1,159 1,231 10,205
PANG ESS sey os 9 ec a : ea
Medemblik .. .. 492 23,810 ne 29 rie
Nien Diep .. .. 136 3,124 3 17
panto. 2) 3. 616 Be v7 e. ve
OSE a aie 41 ag a 174 J
Rotterdam .. .. 5,515 54,146 3,603 9,548 320
Stettaaw ss” vars: 170 900 126 Be 7
Tonning pall ois 20,019 17,254 2,859 3
Vaxel) vena, | oes 682 2 a 1
Ving". tacukee 1,096 1

37,843 178,554 12,279 11,436 12,232

According to the returns issued by the Board of Trade, the
imports of foreign stock into the United Kingdom in the: last
six months of the following years were—

VOL, XXIV. 12

210 Statistics of Live Stock

Beasts. Sheep

ant Panibe, Calves. Pigs.
TSG1. mst teas 59,049 266,249 | 19,715 25,919
S60: weon ae 59,817 243,804 | 19,594 21,510
| 1859 93.9 0.23) CAS eat 192,750 | 14,764 9,965
| 1858 ws... 54,348 163,840 | 19,494 11,315
| TB5z) inte, | acunl guetletees 147,096 | 18,273 10,172
1856. tes acs | DIG4IS 131,472 | 16,179 9,707
| 1855 94. 4. a Sep esuD 142,712 | 14,905 11,762
Shs vhe tase 65,881 145,406 | 16,355 10,440.
|

It will be seen that the largest shipping-ports on the Continent
are Dordt, Hamburg, Harlingen, Medemblik, Rotterdam, and
Tonning, from which latter we received upwards of 20,000 head
of beasts. The exports from Hamburg have consisted of stock
fed in Germany, ‘The sheep have shown some little improve-
ment in quality ; ; but they have been disposed of at very low
prices—viz., from 18s. to 30s. each. The Dutch beasts have
come to hand in middling condition; but some of those from
Tonning—which have been crossed with some of our shorthorns
—have realised fair quotations. On the whole, the weight of
meat imported has rather increased.

Although about 20,000 casks of tallow were held back by
the Russians, at St. Petersburg, at the close of the season, evi-
dently for the purpose of controlling the market here, the tallow-
trade has ruled heavy, and prices have had a drooping tendency.
Rough fat has consequently declined to 2s. 33d. per 8 lbs. ;
nevertheless the present low value of the article has had but
little influence upon the prices of meat. In periods of limited
consumption a depression in rough fat has been generally fol-
lowed by a smart decline in the quotations realised for both
beasts and sheep.

Within the last few months much discussion has prevailed
amongst the agricultural body in reference to the present system
of breeding stock for general consumption. On the one hand,
those gentlemen who have aimed at early maturity and prime
quality have contended that, had it not been for the extension of
the mixing of breeds by means of crossing, stock must have
become unusually scarce and dear; and on the other, that much
danger may be apprehended from a wholesale destruction of
pure animals. It is generally conceded that first crosses have
for the most part turned out remarkably well for the butcher ;
but the degeneracy and loss of stamina ‘which is remarked in
various parts of England and Scotland are often attributed to the
effects of a second and third crossing. In order to understand
how far the system has progressed, we have been at considerable

for Consumption in the Metropolis. _ 211

pains to ascertain the percentage of each breed of beasts exhibited
in the metropolitan market during the past year. The result of
our investigations is as follows :-—

Percentage of Beasts shown in the Metropolitan Market in 1862.

Percentage.
Shorthorns See Set de Bele ae alee OU
Herefords gee Ot PE ie Ee Rao
Mevous |. sl) Oa. a een ie 1) SOOO
Longhorns Ba) tin let gir SSumprcere eeeOO)
Crosses, English and Scotch .. .. «. 19°00
iinelslanders: 0 sews ee ee 1:50
HGURG GCOS) gey. lat y jee ss 3°75
SRMBRTE tists ree aa aes he Gane SEO
Trish crosses 8°25
Welsh runts TS
Trish CA Ea eee Tee arate mee 0,0)
Bremen, Tonning, Dutch, and German .. 8°50
Spanish and Portuguese .. .. « -» 0°25

100°00

A comparison of the percentage given above with that of 1858
will materially assist us in arriving at a correct knowledge of the
progress of each breed in that period. In that year it was as
follows :—

Percentage of Beasts shown in 1858.

, Percentage.
Shorthorns Sg a dey ten ee SHLD
lereiords ... .. » ET tet 9:25
Devons weit aes 3 5:00
Longhorns ata sey) Vatw aereoosy oeZ0O
Crosses sin UNECE Ne) Lose, Maxey ep AllGiG0
PEEP AIGETS) ynoxk . feky, Gor vaee, same ce, ROMEO
MICO SCOURS “cee aw focst. yiccn csise ese 4:00
PeSHInC Mee eek can Mice eas uk Me MORO
Trish crosses So ocd ostce WsdC peek” “ss 8:00
SPI SMG TEES ii ispe ack) sevice vee (ad 1°50
irish 8:00

Bremen, Tonning, Dutch, and German .. 9°50
Spanish and Portuguese .. .. .. «. 1°50

100-00

The above comparative statement shows that, whilst the Here-
fords and Devons have remained about stationary, the shorthorns
and crosses have largely increased. The pure Scotch breeds
have somewhat declined. In 1838 the shorthorns stood at 30-00 ;
the Herefords, 13°00; the Devons, 11:00; English crosses,
13-00 ; Scotch crosses, 1°50; and Welsh runts, 10:00. The
latter breed somewhat recovered themselves in 1862; but*it is
clear that early maturity from extensive crossing has become

very general. Clearly, however, we must have pure blood to fall
Be

212 Statistics of Live Stock for Consumption in the Metropolis.

back upon; and more than ordinary care is now required to
secure this important point, otherwise the country may present
few other than mongrel animals of comparatively little value either
to the butchers or the breeder.

So mixed have become the races of sheep, that it is a matter
of no ordinary difficulty accurately to define the percentage of
each breed exhibited in the past year. The annexed statement,
however, is a fair reflex of each breed :—

Sheep shown in the Metropolitan Market in 1862.

Percentage,
Tieden obit | pis Piehhs | kp bee Sadie ee
Leicesters .. erg 0/59)
South Downs and Hampshire Down NS” ae, eee
Crosses, including foreix n a Pilate dard Ait 0 0)
Gloucesters and Gloucester Downs . i$ 7:00
Kents . oti? tase GEE 0) Rare * RRS Tae 3:00
Scotch “cht gel dash Pere) lei eee
TTS Ie ifee'e pales: ce du e's, Ugh sae 2-00
DUH 5 | ie; peeeve fee Hee cee ae 3°50
German (4). 5 bes Pee eae 2-00
Danish bat UiSho\ “ee, SOL eee Cola 1:00

100°00

In 1858 the percentage was as follows :—

Percentage.
Lincolns. »... s2- 0. ba) abe) (as) SeReReeenURD
Leicesters .. se 250
South Downs and Hampshire Downs .. 10-00
Crosses ae zs. wey bea
Gloucesters and Gloucester Dow NS cn eras 8:00
Kents sss ba) lobes, “chee Bee 5:00
Scotch ase see pees oehD Wegener 1:00
ATish 39 iss oe * oh Oi ee 3°00
Dutch se ccnee ~aiteo bss Perec, Dee 4°50
AGEING yy crox< tes (axa ew hbehis ot Ae SOeLieS 1:00
MIADISNs i Sey) Uselh op, eA opt, tee Min

100°00

Here we find a great falling off in Lincolns and Leicesters, but
‘a very large increase in the crosses. The Kentish sheep have
giv en way before the lattet; and it may be a matter of doubt
in some quarters whether the pure Leicesters have not fallen in
a greater ratio than is shown above. However, one thing is very
clear, viz. that crossing is rapidly becoming ‘general, ‘and that
eventually there may be a great scarcity of pure stodk in the
country. In 1838 the percentage for Lincolns was as high as
31-00, and for Leicesters 29°00, whilst crosses figured for only
13:00. Now, including the foreign imports, they amount to

Brittany Cows. 213
21:00. These statistics will, we trust, tend to remove the doubts
which have existed in the minds of many persons on a question
of so much importance as the production of food for general
consumption.

4, Argyle Square, St. Panzras, London.

XIII.—Some Account of Brittany Cows. Taken from Notices by
M. Jamert, of Rennes. By P. H. Frere,

Srnce this race has been examined with interest in the large
classes exhibited at Battersea, and not only have specimens been
purchased by wealthy proprietors as a matter of curiosity, but
also dairies set up by those who live by the sale of milk in
the environs of London, it may be worth while to inquire into
the estimation in which it is held in its own country.

Two notices, written by M. Jamet for the ‘ Journal d’Agricul-
ture Pratique,’ point out how far that national organ of scientific
agriculture justifies or qualifies provincial predilections. We
will, then, borrow from that source such remarks on tiis subject
as seem most adapted to the English reader.

This race appears to be valued not so much for the quantity
of milk which it yields as for the quantity and quality of the
butter. That it was not highly esteemed in old time is evident
from early efforts made to improve it by a cross; recently it has
been crossed successfully with the shorthorn, and to no good
effect by the Ayrshire bull. It is emphatically the poor man’s
cow, and it may be well to consider what that title implies. As
to colour, the black and white race which prevails in Morbihan
now mostly sets the fashion, and is the common representative of
the breed; but the red and white stock of Cornouaille have the
same origin and type, and: the colour is occasionally interchanged.

The merit chiefly insisted upon is the quality, colour, and
especially the flavour of the butter. M. Jamet asserts that this,
which is a nutty flavour, is quite independent of the herbage or
fodder consumed by the animal, and that it is retained in the
produce of crossbred stock" to the third or fourth cross. The
existence of this peculiar flavour seems to be generally admitted,
but some refer it to a peculiarity in the soil affecting its produce,
even when such keep as clover or cabbages is substituted for the
common pasturage,

The author, travelling with a strong advocate of this latter
theory in the adjacent province’ of La Vendée, espied some
Brittany cows on the lawn of the friend they were about to visit,

214 Brittany Cows.

and haying promised the sceptic some butter of the true Brittany
flavour, was acknowledged to have fulfilled his promise—“* La
question était nettement résolue.”

The butter, then, is much esteemed at home (at Rennes, Ayr-
shire butter aaa not sell), and much of it is exported to Eng-
land. It would, therefore, seem that it is a mistake to sell the
produce of these cows as milk, particularly near London, where
food of choice quality and delicate flavour is so highly prized.

Next as to cross-breeding. Both,the states of Brittany in
old times, and the present provincial administration under- the
Empire, have voted grants of ‘public money for the object of
improving their breed of cattle. So long ago as 1760, on the
suggestion of the Bishop of St. Pol de Leon, 45 bulls were bought
in La Vendée of the Bocage breed. In’ the more remote parts of
the province the influence ‘of this importation was only indirectly
felt, but it has left permanent traces in the grey tint which
encircles the eye and tips the muzzle of many cows. Other
French breeds have been tried for crossing with no great success,
though without diminishing the value of the produce. From
Great Britain, Ayrshire bulls have been imported by the prefét
of the department Ille-et-Vilaine: a mistake, in M. Jamet’s
opinion, because that breed has the same weak points as the
native race,—a narrow chest, defective hind-quarter, and, above
all, because the milk of Ayrshires, though of fair quality for
cheese-making, is deficient in butter. It would seem, however,
that the last importations from Scotland were not favourable
specimens,

The cross with the Ayrshire, then, is not to be recommended.
To a cross with the Jersey breed objections are raised on the
score of their very defective frame (an evil considerably modified
of late) and of the rich food which they require.

On the other hand, crossing with a shorthorn is considered a
decided success. “ After a trial of twenty years at Grand Jouan,
it is found that the half-bred Durham and Brittany has a much
better shape, and gives more milk in proportion to the live weight
and to the food consumed, than the pure native race. eir
earlier maturity and increase in size add to the value of this
cross.”

The dairy of the model farm at Trois Croix has been quite re-
modelled by the use of shorthorn bulls, the yield of butter not
being impaired, since 9+ quarts here produce 1 lb. of butter ;
whilst with the pure breed, on an average, nearly 10 a (9: 84)
are required.

The Breton breed, when pure, may be crossed three or four
times. In the case of the ordinary cows of the country, it will be
well to stop at the second cross, because, having no fixity of

Brittany Cows. 215

type, they more readily receive the impress of the new influence.
In this manner the shape may be improved without prejudice to
the produce of butter. ;

The little Brittany cow has never been highly esteemed at
home. Even now, a leading farmer has been known to be
unwilling to be seen buying one. How far, then, is the prefer-
ence shown to them by some amateurs justifiable? M. Jamet’s
answer is as follows.

“The little Morbihan (Brittany) cow is of tiny size; her
head is charming; her fine legs and slim feet add to the delicacy
of her shape, which at the first glance is very attractive ; but in
the eyes of the real judge of stock this impression is overcome
by the defects of the body. In proportion to her size and weight,
the belly is enormous; the size and. depth of the flank exag-
gerated. If you add to this a narrow chest and a light hind-
quarter, you have a true portrait of a Brittany cow, which may
take with the crowd but cannot satisfy the enlightened breeder.

“Tn fact, the shape of this little creature speaks of itself to the
eye of intelligence; it cannot be an econemical producer. I
know that she has the reputation of living upon little, but she
does not deserve it, because proportionately she eats a great deal.
She grazes all day on the waste; her delicate lips enable her to
crop the short and nutritious herbage which clothes the soil
between the stems of fern and rushes. In one word, if she eats
so little, why is her belly so distended as it is?

“ Remove her to rich land and she will take in much food, but
the yield of milk never increases, and as she fattens her milk
will dry up.

“The Brittany cow has a right to her place on the sandy
wastes (landes). She yields a produce, small though it be, where
other breeds could not live. It would be folly there to introduce
a new breed or to transform the existing one; but it is absurd
to transport her to fields long under cultivation where keep is
good, for her produce does not increase with the value of her
food.

“Be it, however, admitted that rich proprietors are not to
blame for keeping a few Brittany cows for the use of their esta-
blishment, as the butter is delicious.

‘“‘It has been asserted that the Morbihan cow is the poor
man’s cow. A poor family may keep one, after a fashion, on
commons and the roadsides; but, permit me to say that this poor
man’s cow is but a poor cow in a better berth.”

After commenting on the inexpediency of giving prizes for the
pure breed, M. Jamet concludes thus—

“The Morbihan cow gives little milk, but of an agreeable
taste and containing much butter; its taste and quality are

216 Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages.

retained even after the breed has’ been crossed several times,
as may be clearly seen in the district of Rennes. This fixed
character and property of the race arises probably from its
antiquity.

XIV.— Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages for the Feeding
of Stock. By C. Lawrence.

How does it happen that these valuable foods for stock are so
rarely met with on ordinary farms ?

Is it that their feeding qualities, as compared with other roots
in common cultivation, are imperfectly known ?

Is it that the comparative produce of food per acre has been
under-estimated ? or

Is it from misapprehension as to the comparative expense and
trouble of raising them, which may be attributable to defective
preparation and subsequent management ?

{ had contemplated an illustration of our second question by
giving a table of analyses of carrots, cabbage, mangolds, and
swedes, compiled from those of various chemists which have been
published in our Journal, and other works of authority, under
the several heads of “ Nitrogenised organic substances capable
of producing flesh ;” ‘“ Substances fitted for the support of animal
heat and the formation of fat;” “Inorganic matters (ash),”.
&c.; but every year’s experience teaches us, that however valu-
able and useful may be the indications afforded by the chemical
laboratory, there exist occult operations in the animal laboratory
that produce results which tend to discourage too close a reliance
on such analyses. Moreover, all these roots yield very various
analyses at different stages of their growth and maturity, and no
comparative analyses that had not been made of each kind in a
perfect state of maturity can be depended on, There are some
very valuable observations on the first question under our con-
sideration in a pamphlet recently published by Dr. Voelcker,
being a report by him, in the ‘Journal of the Bath and West of
England Society,’ of the result of investigations which he had
been requested to make “fon the scouring lands of central
‘ Somerset.” Feeders of stock, who may be free from the pest -
of scouring land, may pass over this article as inapplicable to
their individual cases; but I commend to the attention of all
stock-masters an attentive perusal of at least the observations _
commencing at page 16 of the pamphlet.

We have hitherto placed, it seems, too much reliance on the
amount of the nitrogen disclosed by analyses in the various roots

Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages. 217

and green crops; while Dr, Voelcker’s recent investigations,
reported in the paper referred to, tend to show that a large pro-
portion of nitrogen in such crops is rather an indication of their
immaturity than of their feeding value. The Doctor observes on
this point :—.

“ Not many years ago a high percentage of nitrogen in hay, turnips, man-
golds, and other kinds of agricultural produce, was regarded as a proof of their
superior nutritive value; but a thorough investigation, which I undertook on
account of the frequent discrepancies in the calculated theoretic nutritive value
of various articles of food, and the value assigned to them by practical men,
has shown me that the higher proportion of nitrogen in one of two samples of
hay, turnips, mangolds, &c., by no means indicates a higher feeding value, but
the very reverse. I have been actively engaged for more than three years with
an inquiry into the changes which roots undergo in their various stages of
growth, and especially when they approach maturity.”

I know that Dr. Voelcker’s opinion is that the practical
feeding value of different foods depends more on the relative
amount of sugar than of nitrogenised matters. In his very
instructive pamphlet ‘ On the Chemistry of Food,’ he thus writes
of cabbage :—

“Indeed, no kind of green"food cultivated on a large scale in the field con-
tains so much nutritious matter as cabbage. Being much more nutritious,
weight for weight, than turnips, and at the same time very succulent, cabbages
form a valuable food for milk cows. Cattle are very fond of cabbage, and
dairy cows fed on itand some hay produce much and rich milk, and the butter
made from the latter is free from the disagreeable flavour which it always
has when cows are fed upon turnips. Cabbages, for this reason, are a
valuable substitute for turnips, and deserve to be more extensively cultivated
in England than they are at present.”

Dr. Voelcker states, in a letter to. me, that “one ton of dry
matter of carrots is worth more than a ton of the dry matter of
cabbages.”

Having disposed of our first inquiry, the second, as to the
comparative produce of food per acre, will receive various esti-
mates in different parts of England. Every farm will, however,
in the course of three or four crops, show what is its average
acreable produce of cabbages, carrots, mangolds, and turnips.
Dr. Voelcker has observed, in reference to the farm attached
to our Agricultural College, which my farm joins, “the cal-
careous soil in the neighbourhood of Cirencester, on the whole,
is not favourable to the growth of these roots (parsneps and
carrots), it being in most instances too stony and shallow.” Yet I
have grown 32 tons of the white Belgian carrot, the roots weighed
without the tops, and the tops, weighed separately, amounted to
7 tons,—about 35 tons of mangolds, exclusive of leaves, and 24
tons of swedes per acre. These crops were on fields in which
we could plough seven or eight inches without meeting any

218 Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages.

obstruction from stones. I have never weighed a crop of cab-
bages; but, from having frequently weighed a given number of
plants at maturity, | am able to estimate about an average yield
per acre as 30 tons. On similar land, under the same treatment,
the average yield of swedes would be about 18 tons; and of
mangolds about 22 tons. We have weighed many heads of
cabbages in a crop weighing 26 lbs. and upwards; and I have
seen specimens grown in the neighbourhood which, I was in-
formed, weighed 36 lbs. ; but under the treatment I have described
I estimate 14 or 15 lbs. each as an average weight throughout
the crop.

Considering the comparative ease with which a cabbage-crop
is kept clean, we do not consider the cost of the cultivation of it
to exceed that of mangolds and swedes. The cost of labour
attending the carrot-crop, when raised, will considerably exceed
that required in maturing those crops; but it must be borne in
mind that the tops of the carrots, when the roots are taken up,
greatly exceed in weight and nutritive value the tops of mangolds
or of swedes at the season at which the latter are usually heaped
or fed off on the ground.

Mode of Cultivation.—First, as to carrots. Under a strong im-
pression of the feeding value of these roots, many years antecedent
to the publications to which I have referred, I have for a long
period given much attention to the treatment of this root as well
as cabbage, and I have devoted to them about one-sixth of my
root-quarter. Assuming the selection of good clean seed, we allow
5 or 6 lbs, per acre. For some years the great difficulty we had to
encounter was the rapid growth of the ordinary annual weeds of
the field, as compared with the slow vegetation of the carrot-
seed ; the consequent continual labour and cost in keeping the
rows parol —an expense which has led many persons to abandon
the crop. Another difficulty was the peculiar adhesive nature
of the seed, in consequence of which the patchy and irregular
plant of carrots in the field is matter of common observation,
We have got over the latter difficulty by mixing a moderate
quantity afi dry ashes with the seed, and rubbing them together
till the seed is well separated. We then put the entire quantity
for the acreage to be sown, thus separated, in a heap, and moisten
it with a watering-pot, turning it over until the whole is damp,
but not wet. This should be done about ten days before sowing
the seed, and the heap should be turned over two or three times ;
during that interval, until the commencement of vegetation” is
perceptible. Before sowing, sufficient dry ashes should be scat-
tered amongst the heap to ‘insure its running freely through the
drill.

Carrot-seed is commonly sown too early: it will not vegetate

Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages. 219

freely under a given temperature of the earth, prior to which the
seeds of the common annual weeds will have made a vigorous
start. We have successfully encountered this difficulty by har-
rowing down the land appropriated for carrots about a fortnight
before we propose to sow the seed: indeed, just before we begin
to prepare the seed. During this time the seeds of the annual
weeds brought to the.surface by the harrowing will generally
have vegetated, and the carrot-seed will have just sprouted. A
second light-harrowing will upset the former, and the carrot-seed,
thus started, will get sufficiently ahead of the weeds to render
the destruction of any aftergrowth of them an easy matter. We
drill the seed in rows 18 inches apart. As soon as the rows are
distinctly visible we flat-hoe between the rows on a dry day, and
use the horse-hoe when the plants are about 3 inches above the
ground.

Carrots are so difficult to single with the hoe that the attempt
does not answer. Our men cut them out 6 inches apart with a
sharp hoe, leaving two or three in a bunch, ‘at the cost of 5s. an
acre ; boys or girls, holding down with one hand the carrot to
be left, drawing the rest with the other hand, at 3s. 6d. per
acre. It must be seen that the men cut the plants off under the
crowns, otherwise they will shoot again, and injure the crop by
over-crowding, The carrots will be left about 7 inches apart,
and when about 6 inches high, will require a second hoeing.
We prepare the land for carrots and cabbages in the same way
as for the other root-crops, viz., by manuring immediately after
harvest, and giving as deep a ploughing as the character of the
soil admits of to lie during the winter. By these means we
never fail in securing a perfectly regular plant, and covering the
ground with a very valuable crop. We consume them mainly
in feeding the horses during the winter and spring months until
vetches are ready and the fatting pigs. About one peck of
pulped or sliced carrots, mixed with the chaff and corn at each
feed, keeps the horses in good health and condition.

The lifting a good crop of carrots without breaking them
requires careful management. We use strong forks made for the
purpose attached to a common spade-handle, having two prongs
10 inches long, the space between them being 24 inches at the
points, and 14 inch at the base, the iron on which they are
formed extending 3 inches to the right of the handle, to enable
the men to press the forks down into the ground with the foot.
Ani iron plate should extend at least a foot up each side of the
handle. The strain on the attachment of the fork to the handle
is great in raising a long carrot. The best mode of raising the
carrots is for each man to be followed by a boy or girl; the man

220 Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages.

raises the roots, and the attendant draws them by the top and
lays them in regular rows. The cost of this varies considerably.
A moderate crop, not running deep, in an open soil, can be raised
at 15s. per acre; while a large crop, having long roots in a deep
tenacious soil, will cost 30s, to raise carefully. When the men
have got considerably in advance, women follow to top the roots.
This requires careful supervision, or they will make a proper
mess of it, and have roots and tops scattered in all directions,
with dirt intermixed, involving much waste. When one row
has been pulled, two rows on either side should be placed on the
site of that row, in order to leave room for the carts without
crushing root or top. The roots should be laid together, the
tops lying right and left of the roots. The cutters will thus drop
the tops in one heap and the roots on another; leaving in line
alternate heaps of roots and tops, which can be carted away
separately. ‘The tops—very nutritious food and relished by all
animals—are thus kept free from dirt. A shilling per ton of
roots is a proximate Cost of raising the roots, topping, and placing
them as described.

Cabbage-—Assuming 4 acres of ground to be set apart for this
crop, I recommend planting 3 acres with cabbage, and 1 acre
with savoys, which do better than cabbage late in the winter.
The seedsmen reckon 1 |b. of seed to produce plants for an
acre. We sow the large drumhead variety ; and taking care to
procure the best of seed, we find practically, that with proper
care in sowing and after management, | lb. produces plants suffi-
cient for 3 acres of ground. We sow $ lb. of the large savoy
seed. Prepare about 20 perches of ground, in July, sheltered
from the north and east, and, while moist, sow the cabbage-seed
in drills 12 inches apart thinly, the last week in the month, or
not later than the first week in August. When the plants are
above ground, keep them clean, By the middle of October draw
the plants, and reset them across the same ground, laid in shallow
,trenches, 3 or 4 inches from each other in the row, the trenches
9 inches apart. This plan forms strong short-stemmed plants,
with good fibrous roots, which grow away as soon as planted out
the next season; whereas, if left in the seedbed, they get drawn
up with long stems and less perfect roots, and are weeks recovering
their removal in the spring. Ridge up the land as for mangolds
or swedes, but let the ridges be 3 feet apart; and about the
middle of April plant out half the cabbage plot, setting the plants -
3 feet apart in the rows. The rest of the ground may be planted
about one month later.

The savoy-seed may be sown in March, and the plants set out
in the field the end of May or early in June,

Cultivation of Carrots and Cabbages. 221

As methodical arrangement in matters of this kind not only
produces results agreeable to the eye, but materially diminishes
the cost of labour, I extract from my ‘ Handy Book for Young
Farmers’ our practice to insure accuracy in setting out the plants
to facilitate hoeing, &c.

“This is accomplished by the use of a line attached to a stick just 3 feet
long, at each end of the line, which is laid across the ridges. As each row of
plants has been set, the workers at each end of the line move it forward just
the Jeneth of the stick to which it is attached. The plants should be loosened
in their seed-bed before drawing by a small hand-fork, to prevent damage to
the young root by pulling them from the firm ground, stowed in baskets by
boys or girls, and carried to the ground, and laid down by them on the ridges
just before the planters. The planting may be done by women, each of whom
should be furnished with a trowel to open the ground freely on setting the
plants. ‘This is material when the land is moist, as it should be for the pur-
pose, as the roots then strike out freely ; the common setting pin being turned
round forms a puddled hole, which obstructs the striking out of the young
roots. The two outside setters may be men to manage the line. We have
set out in this way 10,410 plants on upwards of two acres of ground between
the hours of 8 and 12 in the morning, by four men, 6 women, and 2 boys to
place the plants.”

The purpose to which, more especially, we devote the crop of
cabbage is to feed the wether lambs after removing them from
the young clovers at the end of October, and before they get on
the swedes at mid-winter. We fold the lambs on the cabbages
as they stand, without any cutting; they eat up not only the
cabbage without any waste, but make their way into the stems.
They are most useful for all stock during the autumn months,
when cloyers are being ploughed up and the grass grounds are

dried up.
Cirencester, 1st October, 1862.

XV.— Experiments on Transplanting Mangold. By W. Gurvon.

In the spring of 1858 I was thus led to make an experiment in
transplanting mangold wurtzel. In order to test the goodness of
some yellow globe-seed, before sowing the bulk, I had ordered
some to be placed in a box, with 4 or 5 inches of earth, and
raised in a striking-house. When I offered this boxful of plants
to a small farmer in the parish he declined them, saying that
they were useless, as transplanted mangold were always of bad
quality; to use his own expression, ‘they were rooty and
Sangy.”

It occurred to me, from having some experience of root pruning

222 Experiments on Transplanting Mangold.

in gardening, that the cause of this “rooty and fangy ” condition
was the breaking of the taproot, by drawing the plants. ‘To test
the correctness of my suspicions I ordered a portion of the plants
to be shaken out of the box, by turning it topsy-turvy; giving at
the same time strict orders that, as far as possible, every rootlet
should be carefully preserved.

Under these directions a row was set inthe garden. The plants
were placed at a foot apart in the row, having an onion-bed on
one side, and a row of brocolis on the other. The plants were at
this time about 4 inches long, and were put in with a small
planting-trowel. The ground had been deeply trenched, and
brought within the garden a year or two before, and was a fine
rich brick-earth, The only attention they received was, that
about a month after, ten or twelve plants which had been eaten
off by slugs, were filled up from the same box (probably as late
as the second week in June), and one very moderate hoeing was
given them by myself. ‘The result was as follows :—

Derioth of TOW as es we 0 os we ee,
Number of roots takenup .. .. .. .. 91
Weicht-of roots 1) 55) ,.n., => Ge- ebb pps
Weight of tops 2. we. ben lees! Fony ae EI
Phe'twenty heaviest ... ..' ws) foes oe Se
‘The twenty ‘lightest .. =. ‘O:) Jo) We SRY2NSS
The fifty-one remaining .. ., .. «. d463 ,,

A sample of these roots was taken to the Hadleigh Farmer's
Club for inspection by the members, and was allowed to be of
excellent quality. It must be observed, however, that although
the quantity proved quite as satisfactory as the quality, the object
of the experiment was for quality only, and not for quantity ;
and, as a strong opinion seemed to be entertained that the latter
was to be attributed to the spot where the experiment was tried,
I determined to repeat the experiment in the field in the following
year. Accordingly one ridge was left unsown in a 9-acre field
of yellow globe, and planted about the third week in May, as soon
as the sown plants were well up. The number of plants was
398, and the number of roots taken up on the 5th of November,
1859, was the same, no root missing. They were set at 13
inches from plant to plant, and 30 inches from row to row.
Weight of roots, without tops, 168 stones 13 lbs.—not quite 6 lbs. _
per root; or at the rate of more than 42 tons per acre. These
were inspected, while growing, by several members of the Club,
and allowed to be all that could be wished.

As two acres in the same field were set out to compete for the
Club prize, I had the opportunity of comparing the produce sown
with that transplanted, which was in favour of the latter, the Club

Experiments on Transplanting Mangold. 223

having awarded me the first prize for 40 tons 17 ewts. 16 Ibs, per
acre, without the tops.

In 1860 J planted two acres; the plants, however, were not
properly raised. It happened also that the season was very wet,
and the land undrained ; so that no attempt was made to weigh
the produce separately. Some, however, that were put in before
the great fall of rain, succeeded very well.

The spring and early summer of 1861 were as remarkable here
for dryness as 1860 had been for wetness, scarcely any rain having
fallen here from the middle of April to the middle of June.
The consequence of this was a failure of the general crop of
mangold, there not being moisture sufficient to make the seeds
vegetate. With the transplanted, however, the result was far
otherwise. One row was reserved unsown, as in 1859, and was
not planted, owing to the continued drought, till the very end of
May. On this occasion they were set at 15 inches apart, and
27 inches from row to row. Of 625 plants put in, three were
ploughed out in making water-furrows; and on the 3lst of
October, 620 roots were taken up, Weighing 318 stones 6 lbs ; or,
allowing for the three ploughed out on the average of the rest,
just 50 tons per acre. Owing to the failure of plant from the
drought, the crop in this neighbourhood was generally deficient.

The crop of transplanted last year was comparatively inferior ;
that is, it was not so much better than the sown as in other years.
It was planted by itself, on 30 rods of an old car (or copse), from
which ash-trees and alder-stubs had just been removed, and the
only manure used was a small quantity of artificial. The pro-
duce was 2471 roots, weighing 6 tons 74 cwts., or at the rate of
about 35} éons per acre. This was about 2 tons more than the
best two acres sown on my own farm, and about equal to the
crop that took the first prize of the Hadleigh Club.

Such having been the results of growing mangold by trans-
planting, it may be asked, do I recommend that the whole crop
on the farm should be grown in that way? My answer is ready ;
I do not recommend what I know I should experience great diffi-
culty in carrying out. My own plan, to which transplanting is
a valuable accompaniment, is to dibble the seed with a dibbling-
wheel, invented for the purpose. Of these I have two, one 3 feet
9 inches, the other 4 feet 2 inches, in circumference ; the first
having three dibbles, and the second four. The dibbles, instead
of being cone-shaped, resemble the small ends of so many wedges
3 inches broad, bent lengthways on the iron tire. The children
in dropping are directed to scatter the seeds along the hole, by
which means the plant which is left is not so likely to be dis-
turbed in singling, and the singling is more easily performed.

224 Experiments on Transplanting Mangold.

By this means also the plants are at once set out, no space
between two being less than a foot, or more than 18 inches. It
will easily be perceived that the distances between the plants
being thus regulated, if the filling up be carefully attended to at
the proper time, almost every space may be filled in ordinary
seasons.

As a large expenditure is generally made in preparing for this
valuable crop, to ensure a heavy produce a regular plant is the
chief desideratum. If a man could fill up no more than 500
a day, the produce might be worth from 10s. to 1J.

I ought to add that the dibble takes two rows, and consists of

two wheels, which move on an axle, so as to adjust them to the
width from row to row. It is guided by a T-shaped handle, the
workman pushing it before him. There would be no difficulty
in attaching these dibbling-wheels to the roller, whether the crop
be sown on the flat or the ridge. If on the latter, a couple of
iron ridge-rollers might be used; each roller, in shape like an
hour-glass, covering one ridge, with its dibble to follow. The
mangold used in all these experiments has been the yellow globe.
Our late Chief Justice of Singapore, Sir Christopher Rawlinson,
informed me that he had always raised his garden beet at Singa-
pore by striking the seed, and then planting out.
_ In conclusion, I would observe that the seed-bed, the dibble,
and the filling up by transplanting, are parts of one whole
system. The seed-bed in the hands of a gardener is simple
enough, as a matter of his ordinary calling. With the farmer it
is otherwise. For his information, therefore, | may state that it
is best formed of stable manure, turned over once or twice, so as
to be well heated. It may then be laid about 2 feet deep, and
6 inches of loose striking-earth spread upon it. This should be
formed of rotten turf, or roadside parings; decayed leaves, or
other vegetable manure ; the bottoms of dry ditches, with a good
deal of silt, so as to form a loose compound, in which the seeds
may root freely. The bed should be allowed a few days to settle
and to warm the earth before the seed is sown. When the plants
are removed from the bed, great care should be taken not to
injure their roots. Girls’ fingers are the best for separating the
little plants, and laying them ready for the planter. The planting
with me is done with a garden trowel ; and, if done carefully, not
more than 5 per cent. will require to be set a second time,

Brantham Court, 5th February, 1862.

(225)

XVI.—On the Growth of Barley after a Grass-layer.
By P. H. Frere.

THE unpromising state of the wheat trade encourages me to
report the result of an attempt to substitute the growth of barley
for wheat on light sandy soils in four following seasons of very
varied character. If, on such lands the barley crop can be made
to bring in as large a money value as that of wheat, the farmer
will be benefited by such a change, from his horse labour being
better distributed, from his retaining a valuable autumn run for
his ewe-flock, and, as I believe, from less demand being made
on the soil by the crop. In all cases the land selected for this
trial has been the very weakest portion of my heath land, black
sand on chalk rubble, resembling Newmarket heath. On this
Jand which is too light to carry any other layer than rye-grass,
with an admixture of trefoil and Dutch clover for sheep-food,
the worst part of the field has been left at wheat sowing time,
manured and ploughed at leisure during winter, and sown with
barley on the whole furrow in the spring, part of it having been
folded, the rest having received straw manure—a ton or two less.
per acre than would have been applied to wheat.

I first tried this course in 1859, a very scorching year, with a.
wet harvest. Eight acres 3 roods then produced 36 quarters.
5 bushels, of which 31 quarters were sold at 43s., and the tail was.
valued at 26s. The total value of the crop was 8/. 9s. per acre. _
The yield per acre, 31 bushels 34 pecks. The adjoining 28 acres.
‘ of barley grown after rape reaching up to a man’s middle, which
had been eaten off with sheep, produced 76 quarters 3 bushels,
which besides being more thin had been damaged by rain in
harvest, and was sold for 25s., 26s., and 28s. per quarter, realizing
1027. 7s. in all, or only 37. 12s. per acre. In this season the whole
barley crop from 102 acres amounted to 338 quarters, and realized
$62/.; the highest price made, except on the trial piece, was 40s.
per quarter. The wheat crop on 36 acres of heath land averaged.
26% bushels, and was sold at about two guineas per quarter,
making 247/., or about 7/. per acre; its quality was inferior.

m In the year 1860, 154 acres of similar land treated in like
manner gave 61% quarters of head corn, sold at 40s. and at 38s.,,
and 4% quarters of tail valued at 30s.; 66 quarters in all, or 5
quarters 34 bushels per acre, worth 8/. 4s. In this, a good season,
heath barley after turnips on better land gave 5 quarters 2 bushels
per acre of the same quality and value as the barley sown ona
whole furrow. The entire barley crop, from 126 acres, yielded
644 quarters, and made 11897. The wheat (253 acres) grown
on the better part of the trial field, yielded 29 bushels, sold at
52s. and 54s. per quarter, and made 9/. 10s. per acre. Thus the
VOL, XXIV. Q

226 Growth of Barley.

wheat in this year of fair prices made 1/. 4s. more per acre than
the barley, but much of this difference must be laid to the account
of a somewhat better soil and larger manuring.

In 1861, 11 acres of land of the worst quality similarly treated
yielded 68 quarters, or over 49 bushels per acre, which made
nearly 120/., or nearly 11/. per acre, selling for about 37s. and
36s. per quarter.* The heath turnip shift averaged 31 bushels.
The whole barley shift, consisting of 125 acres, produced 640 .
quarters, sold for 11237. In this year the heath-land wheat, 421
acres, averaged only 24 bushels 3 pecks per acre, the early sown
yielding 12 bushels per acre less than a late sown piece. It was
sold at prices varying from 51s. to 58s. per quarter, and at these
comparatively high rates made nearly 9/. per acre or 2/. less than
the barley.

In 1662 the trial was renewed on 17 acres, which yielded 894
quarters of head corn sold at 37s., and 5 quarters of tail valued
at 30s. The yield was therefore more than 5} quarters, and the
value more than 10. per acre. Of the adjoining wheat, 10
acres only has been threshed ;} this yielded 394 quarters of head
corn, which having been sent early to market made 58s., and
2 quarters 3 bushels of tail-corn. The sum realised was 106/. 10s.,
or 10/. 12s. per acre; but at present prices it would make only
91. per acre, and our early supplies are necessarily limited.

If we combine the results of these four consecutive years, the
value of the respective crops per acre will be as follows :—

Value per acre of Barley Value per acre

(on whole furrow). of Wheat.

ce 8. “ad. Gi tes) sae

BSD9 «wwe hawt a Mee BO K SOG
BSCO) 5 s.4ic swt 5 Bees & Be Wd 910 0
1861 (nearly); ... a dl, © 9 0 0
USOZ OVEl cal, we . er, LO) 1D: 10 1012 O
3713 0 36 2 0

Average Ww ide Cee 10 8 9 0.6

»

But if we base our calculation for 1862, not on the small
portion of the crop sold in harvest time, but on the general range
of prices for the year, the value of that crop will be reduced to
9]., which would pull down the wheat average to 82. 12s.

The advantage derived from manuring and cultivating one-
fifth or one-sixth of the ordinary wheat shifts at leisure on a light
soil in a bleak climate, where backward wheats are in jeopardy,

* In this year, however, a small part received a folding, as well as a light coat
of manure.

+ The remainder, just threshed, has yielded 27 bushels, now only worth 7/. 7s.
per acre.

Growth of Barley. 227

every arable farmer will appreciate; and as a flock-master he
will hardly knew what value to put on a healthy run which
assists him in keeping his ewes out of the turnips, or enables
him to bring them by degrees to their new diet with a dry run,
and bite of grass in the morning, and a fold, probably of rape, in
the afternoon.*

My opinion that the barley crop takes less out of the land will
be disputed by those who, from a knowledge of the analyses and
ash of the various crops, think it a safe conclusion that because
the barley crop, when ripe, contains as much of valuable consti-
tuents as wheat, it therefore takes up as much from the soil.

Our best chemists, however, consider that during the whole
course of their growth, the cereals are parting with nitrogen to a
considerable amount; this waste of the most costly constituent
will therefore vary with the duration of the plant’s growth, that
is to say, will be greater in autumn-sown wheat than in spring-
sown barley. Those who build most upon the supplies of am-
monia to be derived from the air may be expected to look
favourably on this theory of nitrogenous exhalations from plants.
Otherwise (until we have better evidence that the nitrogen as
united with oxygen in the air becomes Jargely available for
plants) how can they account for the supply of ammonia and
nitric acid on which they rely ?

The opinion then that wheat and barley are equally exhausting
crops perhaps arises from imperfect chemical knowledge, which
sometimes misleads agriculturists of the present day, but not
nearly as often as an indiscriminate application of the abstract
dogmas of political economy.

But apart from any scientific speculations, the prospects of the
wheat trade are precarious, those of barley steady ; the new com-
petition from foreign wines being counterbalanced by increased
skill in brewing, and greater facilities for delivering beer within
moderate distances: our growth of barley then may safely be
increased on suitable soils.

I send this as an old member’s contribution to the Journal, to

indicate the sort of communications which are to be desired from
such quarters.

_ * The fields I refer to cannot grow turnips, and, without such precautions, rape
is dangerous for ewes, either before or after lambing, and also for hoggets. A
run for a few hours in the morning over grass is highly conducive to health, if it
be given merely for the sake of exercise.

; ( 228.)

REPORT OF A DISCUSSION ON SPLENIC APOPLEXY
IN CATTLE AND SHEEP.

The last Meeting of Weekly Council, July 9th, 1862. The Earl of
Powls in the Chair.

Professor Srmonps said the remarks he was about to make with
regard to the nature and probable causes of this disease—Splenic
Apoplexy—the name of which he would explain presently—were
to be considered as simply preparatory to the reading of some
reports in relation to an appearance of the malady in Somersetshire.
The attention of the Council was first called to the matter about six
months since by Sir William Miles; and, as the veterinary officer
of the Society, he received instructions to investigate the facts of
the outbreak. On his return from the neighbourhood he prepared
his report, having ascertained that the occupiers of the farms were
no better acquainted with the causes of the malady than they were
at its commencement. As there were good reasons to believe that
certain pastures on two farms in particular gave origin to the
disease, and as he also had found that the water in the district was.
of a peculiar character, he had recommended that a further inves-
tigation should be made by Dr. Voelcker, as chemist to the society,
and by Professor Buckman, botanist, of the Royal Agricultural
College of Cirencester, both of whom had prepared reports, which
would be read to the meeting. The chief business of the day would,
therefore, be the reading of these reports, which, with the discussion
that would follow, might possibly throw some light on the causes
of the outbreak.

This disease, which affects both cattle and sheep, had been
designated splenic apoplexy because, on making a post-mortem
examination, the spleen was found to be enormously engorged with
blood; and there are some persons who regard this engorgement as
the chief cause of the fatality of the affection. He thought, however,
that, on looking a little deeper into the matter, pathologists would
be inclined to regard the sudden filling of the spleen as the effect
of a pre-existing morbid state of the blood, and not the cause of a
change in this fluid, and if so, ‘‘splenic apoplexy” might be con-
sidered a misnomer. The disease was in reality one in which some
of the constituents of the blood, from various causes, underwent
peculiar changes ; and in consequence of the disturbed state of the
organism thereby produced, the blood was brought to a standstill
in the spleen—hence the large increase of its bulk. This being
the case, the chief use of retaining the term “splenic apoplexy ” is
to distinguish one blood disease from another. -

In all parts of the country a large quantity of cattle and sheep,
and even pigs, are lost from affections which clearly belong to
the blood. In some of these cases several of the constituents of the

Splenic Apoplexy. 229

biood are increased in quantity, in others they are diminished,
while in particular instances they have even undergone chemical
changes. He would give some familiar examples.

There is a disease called ‘“‘ black-leg” in cattle, which is the pest
of many a farm in Yorkshire and in some other counties, and par-
ticularly affects the rearer of young short-horn cattle. He had
named this disease Hamato-sepsis, because of the septic condition of
the blood with which it was associated. Again, there is another
malady, the “‘red water” in cattle, a disease to which cows are in
some parts of the country more prone than oxen. This is a disease
in which the blood undergoes peculiar changes, and in which the
albumen and also the colouring matter of the red cells are evacuated
through the medium of the kidneys, constituting the affection now
known as Hemo-albuminuria. There are other maladies in which
tke blood is brought to a sudden standstill, sometimes in one part
of the body and sometimes in another., Cases of the kind occurred
last year in Wales, and they were truly described as examples of
stagnations of the blood—Hemostasia. ‘Thus there are several affec-
tions of a fatal character which primarily manifest themselves in
certain changes of the blood, and he believed that splenic apoplexy
was one of those affections.

The causes which give rise to blood affections are various. For
example, the fluid is likely to become contaminated by the inhala-
tion of noxious materials, and in very many instances life has been
suddenly cut short by such influences. Many persons have supposed
that in splenic apoplexy the changes originally wrought in the
blood are due to the inhalation of ordinary malaria. This opinion
received some degree of support from the circumstance that the
malady often showed itself during the summer months in those
districts where there was a large tract of low-lying land, which, for
want of under-draining, yielded deleterious gases, from the opera-
tion of the sun’s rays upon the decaying vegetable matter. But
opposed to this view was the fact that, in the cases presently to be
considered, the cattle were attacked on pastures which were in
every respect like those on which others remained healthy, and
from which they were separated merely by ordinary ditches. It
was on two pastures in particular, and on two farms, comprising
about 300 acres of land each, that the disease had shown itself, and
in neither instance could sufficient reasons be found to believe that
malaria had anything to do with the malady. Again, a more
extended view, including attacks of the disease in other districts,
would show that these often occurred in the winter, and among
animals which were being prepared for the butcher, fed largely on
mangold, oilcake, &c., and kept under circumstances favourable to
the continuance of health.

Another common source of mischief is the direct conveyance into
the digestive organs of materials, either in the shape of food or
water, detrimental to the making of pure blood. Pathologists are
often enabled to trace blood diseases directly to the food; but on
examination of the cases in question, there was no evidence that

230 Splenic Apoplexy.

materials of a deleterious or poisonous nature had entered into the
organism, and excited a fermentive action in the blood. Professor
Buckman would explain at length the general nature of the herbage
in the fields in question. His own remarks had reference merely
to the fact that in the careful examination which he had originally
made he had failed to detect any poisonous plants in the pastures.

Water enters largely into the composition of the blood. There:
are no less than 784 parts of water in every 1000 parts of blood;
and, as water often holds in solution a variety of materials, and
goes directly, so to express it, into the vessels from the intestinal
canal, by the simple law of endosmosis, it follows that matters.
detrimental to the blood may be thus conveyed into the system,
and induce certain changes in the composition and character of the:
blood which may prove fatal to life. In the district in question
the water was strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
and hence totally unfitted for man or animals.

But water, or rather a want of it, might likewise induce this:
disease. Two years ago he was consulted respecting an extensive
fatality among some cattle in Norfolk, said to arise from splenic
apoplexy. It was during the winter months, and the animals were-
being fed at the time on oil-cake, roots, hay, &e. On investigating
the disease he was led to the conclusion that the water must be:
implicated in its production. He communicated this opinion to the
owner, when he received the quaint reply, ‘‘ You never made a.
greater mistake, for it is my custom not to allow my animals any
water at all while in the sheds.” He (Professor Simonds) hesitated
not to express his belief that it was the want of water which
induced a diseased condition of the blood in this instance. Of
course such a state of things was altogether opposed to nature. To
understand this the better, he would again remind them of the large.
quantity of water that naturally existed in blood, as this would.
show how the blood would necessarily become altered in its fluidity
by an animal being deprived of water. The case would likewise
help to prove that changes were wrought in the blood by causes,
the very opposite of each other.

An interesting question arises as to how far the spleen may be
originally concerned in the production of a morbid state of the-
blood, and whether pathologists are justified in regarding’ the.
affection as depending essentially on changes in the function of the-
spleen. ‘The use of the spleen is, even at the present time, but ill.
understood, and may be said to be almost an enigma in science...
On the one hand, many eminent physiologists are ‘of opinion that
it has to do with the disintegration of the red corpuscles of the
blood, which become broken up in its structure; while, on the
other hand, there are physiologists of equal eminence who declare
that the organ is a preparer of the red cells. The prevalence of
these two opinions shows that the true physiology of the spleen is
not well understood. If he might presume to give an opinion, he-
would say that he considered the spleen to be an organ which.
exerts a disintegrating power upon the red cells of the blood. He-

Splenic Apoplexy. 231

had been led to this conclusion by two or three different reasons.

In the first place, it is found that the total quantity of solid matter
in the blood of the splenic vein is often less by upwards of one-half
than in the other vessels belonging to the so-called chylopoietic
viscera. This anatomical fact, also, that the splenic vein unites

with those of the chylopoietic viscera to form the vena porte, is of
value in rightly determining the question, it being thus made

apparent that the liver exerts its special function of removing

deleterious materials from the blood of the spleen equally with
its so doing from that of the other viscera. If the splenic vein were

carrying blood which was newly manufactured and fitted for general '
circulation, the vessel would not join the vena porte, but proceed in
a more direct course to the heart.

It is easy to understand that the spleen, if it became suddenly
engorged, would have its office as a disintegrator of the blood-cells
“suspended, just as the function of any other organ is arrested when
the blood within it is brought to a standstill. As is well known,
all the functions of life are suddenly cut short by a large quantity
of blood being determined to the brain, constituting what is ordi-
narily known as apoplexy. So likewise if the spleen receives an
undue quantity of blood, and this is suddenly brought to a stand-
still, its function will be arrested. Although engorgement of the
spleen may therefore be only an effect of a changed condition of
the blood originally, yet when that engorgement takes place, and
the functions of the spleen are interrupted, the blood will be
further deteriorated, and the death of the animal facilitated.

A natural provision has, however, been made to enable the
spleen to receive a large amount of blood without injury. Hence
one other use of the organ is that of acting as a dilatable diverti-
culum for the blood, especially when obstructions exist in the vena:
porte. If, therefore, the vena porte be congested, the spleen
will be suddenly increased in size; but when the congestion is
removed, the blood will again flow from the spleen, and go rapidly~
through the vessels of the liver.

It is, therefore, no absolute proof of disease that the spleen is
larger than commonly observed. If in this affection the spleen
were simply enlarged, and no change were wrought in the blood,
we might infer that the organ was chiefly at fault; but when on
post-mortem examination being made, other parts distinct from the
spleen are found to be affected, it is fair to conclude that the term
‘*‘ splenic apoplexy” is a misnomer, and that the enlargement of
the organ is only a symptom of some other affection. In a post-
mortem examination it would be observed that the small intestines,
apart from the spleen altogether, are filled almost to repletion with
blood, which has no power of coagulation, thus showing that it is
changed in its vital properties. The intestines also have a
blackened appearance, owing to an effusion of spoilt blood which
has taken place within them.

On looking to the flesh of animals dying with the malady, extra-
vasations of blood will likewise be frequently met with. Here,

232 Splenic Apoplexy.

again, is an instance of the blood leaving its vessels, and lying, as
it were, in the interstices of the muscles. As with the abdominal
effusions, so with those which take place in other organs of the
body—the blood is always fluid.

It not unfrequently happens, if an animal bears up against the
disease longer than ordinary—the duration of the malady being
seldom more than eighteen hours—that such changes are wrought
in the condition of the flesh as render it poisonous. Cases had
come to his knowledge in which pigs, having eaten such flesh when
thrown into a yard, had died within a few hours. Dogs had also
been affected in a similar manner. These facts still further show
that this disease is truly one that produces chemical changes in the
blood.

The duration of the malady is necessarily short, the animals
attacked seldom surviving more than twenty-four hours; indeed,
the major part of them die in six or eight hours. Death sometimes *
takes place even within two hours after the attack. The percentage
of deaths would often be found as high as ninety.

As to the symptoms, there are, as a rule, no premonitory ones.
The animals usually feed and are apparently doing well up to the
time of the attack. When the symptoms first show themselves they
are also very often not of an alarming character. The animal
stands with its back arched, it has a difficulty of progression, a
staggering gait, and a twitching of the muscles. Paralysis suc-
ceeds. The countenance is dull and dispirited, and the head pendu-
lous; a frothy saliva comes from the mouth; the breathing is
laboured and difficult, and the pulse augmented, becoming tremu-
lous and indistinct as the disease advances. Colicky pains come
on, and when effusion into the intestinal canal takes place these
pains are associated with diarrhoea and blood-coloured evacuations.
The urine also is frequently discoloured with blood. The animal
falls, and generally dies in convulsions, the immediate cause of
death being cerebral disturbance. Some die frantic, others in a
state of coma.

With regard to the treatment of the disease, no confidence can be
placed in any one method in particular. All blood affections are
exceedingly fatal, and generally run their course so quickly that
scarcely anything can be done to arrest them. They may, however,
often be prevented; indeed, prevention is the pathologist’s chief
concern, on which some light might be thrown in the discussion.
His object was not so much to give a complete lecture on splenic
apoplexy as to make a few remarks introductory to the Report,
which he would now proceed to read :—

REPORT.
To the Veterinary Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society.

GeENTLEMEN,—I have to report that, in accordance with your in-
structions, I have investigated the circumstances connected with
the disease which has of late years prevailed among the cattle and

Splenic Apoplexy. 233

sheep in the vicinity of Ilchester, to which your attention was
recently directed by Sir William Miles, Bart. On the day pre-
ceding the one—March 19th—that I received your directions to
visit the district in question, a report reached me from Mr. Blake,
veterinary surgeon, of Yeovil, describing the somewhat sudden re-
appearance of the malady on one of the farms, after several weeks’
cessation, he having been called upon to make a post-mortem examina-
tion of three cows which had died after a very short illness. Mr.
Blake also forwarded the greater part of the viscera of one of the
animals, thereby affording me an opportunity of studying the patho-
logy of the malady prior to my visit.

The lesions observed essentially consisted of an enormous en-
gorgement of the spleen with grumous blood, and effusion of san-
guineous fluid into the small intestines. The vessels of the mesen-
tery, and especially those of the mesenteric glands, were likewise
filled to repletion with black and partially coagulated blood.
These appearances agreed with those which had been observed in
the other cases by Mr. Blake, and clearly indicated that all the
animals had fallen victims to the malady known as splenic apoplexy.

From causes at present not well understood, attacks of splenic
apoplexy have of late years been greatly on the increase, and under
whatever circumstances they may have occurred they almost in-
variably have had a fatal result. The rapidity with which they
progress is remarkable, the affected animals often dying within an
hour or two of being observed to be unwell. Sometimes the animals
will bear up against the disease for six or eight hours, but very
rarely for more than twelve. A long duration is favourable to
recovery, but not a positive proof that such will take place.

The earliest symptoms are often not of an alarming character.
The animal is mostly dull, and disinclined to move. It stands with
its head hanging down, ears lopped, and back arched. In other
cases twitchings of the voluntary muscles are observed, with loss of
power of progression, especially with the hinder limbs. The sur-
face of the body is chilly, the gait staggering, and the mucous mem-
branes injected. Defluxion of tears, increased mucous discharge
from the nostrils, laboured and painful breathing, and a quick,
weak, and wavering pulse, also attend the progress of the malady.
As the disease advances to a fatal termination, colicky pains come
on, which are associated with an irritable state of the bowels and
blood-coloured evacuations. The cerebral functions become more
and more impaired. Rigors show themselves, and the animal drops
and dies, either in a semi-comatose state, or, now and then, in strong
convulsions. ,

From the evidence collected with reference to the cases in ques-
tion, it appears that the disease was entirely unknown in the district
until the summer of 1855. The outbreak, which cannot be ac-
counted for, took place on a farm in the occupation of Mr. Edw
Look, of Ilchester. The farm consists of 300 acres, the greater
part of which is pasture-ground, lying in the valley of the Yeo. I

234 Splenic Apoplexry.

learned from Mr. Look that in the month of August, 1855, he had
thirty barren cows, varying in age from four to eight years, at pas-
ture on a particular field—a piece of old feeding-ground—which
had been going on to his perfect satisfaction up to the time of the
appearance of the disease. These animals had been bought between
Christmas and May-day, about which time they were turned out to
graze. No indications of ill-health preceded the attack; but sud-
denly and within a few days thirteen of them died, some being
found dead a few hours after being believed to be in perfect health.
The remainder of the animals were at once disposed of, and withim
a day or two of the sale several more of them became affected and
died. After their removal the pasture was fed with sheep during
the latter part of the summer and the succeeding autumn, and a
great many losses also occurred among these animals from the same
disease.

The field in question, which, for distinction, I will name No. 1,
is apparently a piece of good grazing ground. It lies on ridges, the
valleys between which act as surface-drains. The greater portion
of it is sufficiently dry, but the lowest parts would be improved by
under draining. It contains twenty-seven acres, and is bounded on
one side by the river Yeo, from which the animals obtain their
drinking-water. It has been regularly fed since 1844. No dif-
ference was detected by me between the grasses it bears and those
growing on the contiguous pastures, which hitherto have been per-
fectly free from the disease,

In the spring of 1856 some more cattle were turned into this field,
and in the course of three weeks one of them died. The others were
immediately removed, and with one exception they all did well.
The animal thus alluded to died within two or three days of its
removal.

The field was then shut up for mowing, and after the hay-making
it was stocked with about a dozen bulls, all of which went on well.
They were turned in almost immediately after the removal of the
hay, and consequently before the growth of much after-grass.

In 1857 the same plan of mowing and stocking the after-grass
with bulls was adopted, and without any loss.

In 1858, and also in 1859, the field was partly mown and partly
fed with sheep. An occasional death took place among these
animals.

In 1859 the disease appeared on another part of Mr. Look’s farm
—field No. 2, situated at a considerable distance from No. 1, It
broke out among eleven feeding oxen, four of which were at once
slaughtered. This also is seemingly a good piece of grazing land, _
and the animals pastured upon it have ready access to a brook of
pure water.

In 1860 No. 1 was fed with sheep entirely, and the deaths being
numerous, the animals were removed; after which the field was -
skimmed over with the scythe, and then fed with bulls, and again
without any loss.

Splenic Apoplexy. 235

Tn this year two feeding cows died on No. 2. No loss occurred
in No. Lin 1861, although it was fed both with cattle and sheep.
Jt was, however, very heavily stocked.

In 1861 many sheep were lost on No. 2. In February of the
present year a horse and three sheep died on No. 2. The horse is
said to have presented the same post-mortem appearances as the
cattle and sheep, but scientific evidence is wanting on this point.

It-is worthy of note that the sheep were only in the field for four
or five hours, and on being put into another pasture, one died twelve:
hours afterwards, and the other two very early the next morning.

Mr. Look buys barren cows for fatting, and has had no cases of
the disease on any other of the pastures, nor while the animals have
been kept in the yards prior to being turned out to graze. The
yards are good, well sheltered, and cleanly kept, and the animals.
have a supply of very good water.

Mr. Waxe’s Farm.

This farm consists of 127 acres, all in one piece of pasture, being
merely divided by some iron hurdles into four, or occasionally three
parts, for the sake of convenience. It is contiguous to Mr. Look’s,
and only separated from field No. 2 by a narrow brook.

It is used as a dairy farm, and was in the occupation of Mr.
Wake’s father previously to Mr. Wake junior coming into possession
at Lady-day, 1861. Mr. Wake’s father kept, on an average, fifty-
two head of cattle, including heifers and bulls. No disease existed
among any of the animals before May, 1859, when the malady in
question suddenly showed itself. Between May 11th and October
6th of this year seventeen died, one of the number being a bull.
Some of the cows were in calf, others were milking, and a few of
them grazing animals.

Immediately after these losses more cows were bought, so as to
bring up the number to 50, and no deaths occurred either among
these or the old stock of the farm throughout the winter.

Besides the seventeen animals which died in 1859 three others:
were attacked, but in a milder form, and these recovered.

In the spring of 1860 six dairy cows and one bull were lost, after
which the disease disappeared until February of the present year.
The bull had been on the farm about two months, and was between.
two and three years of age. As previously stated, Mr. Wake
junior came into possession of the farm at Lady-day, 1861, and
when he entered he brought with him from his previous occupation
at Brougham, fourteen miles distant, thirty cows and heifers, of
vaijious ages. He also purchased twenty of the old stock belonging
to his father. During the year eight of the cows brought from
Brougham died, and two bulls which he had purchased soon after
Lady-day, but one only of the old stock.

Two of the eight cows died ‘in April, while feeding chiefly upom.
hay in the yard, going unto the pasture for a few hours only
every day.

236 Splenic Apoplexy.

Another of the animals was milked in the evening, and yielded a
full supply. She was shortly afterwards attacked, and died about
10 P.M.

The last animal which died on the farm was a cow kept prin-
cipally in the shed on hay. Her death took place about the middle
of February, 1861.

The sheds and yards are wet and dirty, and badly littered. The
drinking-place is paved and walled with stones, and the supply of
fresh water to it is very insufficient. It receives a considerable
amount of the drainage of the yard. The land is liable to flood,
lying rather lower than many fields by which it is bounded. It is,
nevertheless, of fair average quality, and its natural herbage has
been somewhat improved by manuring, which is done at such a
rate as to complete the whole in about every seven or eight years.

The cattle, when grazing, have access to pure water from the
brook previously described.

Mr. Deen? Farm.

The losses here have been only two. The land adjoins Mr.
Wake’s and is of the same description. The two animals died
within a fortnight of each other in the spring of 1861. They were
barren cows, bought for grazing.

Mr. Brapiey’s Farm.

This farm is situated in the parish of Sock, and is distant about a
mile from the others. It is alsoa grazing farm, consisting of 350
acres, a small portion only of which is arable land.

Mr. Bradley has occupied the farm for twenty-nine years, and
until the disease in question made its appearance has only lost
animals now and then from ordinary causes. The parish of Sock
contains only one other farm, which is in the occupation of Mr.
Hussey, and it is a singular circumstance that no disease of the
kind has ever existed here. This farm is precisely of the same
nature and quality, and the system of grazing exactly the same.
Many of the pastures are separated from Bradley’s by ordinary
‘water-courses only, and a good many of them are so situated as to
unite Mr. Look’s and Mr. Wake’s farms with Mr. Bradley’s. ,

It was in consequence of the disease having proved singularly
destructive on Mr. Bradley’s farm, and having continued, with few
interruptions, down to the present time—March 24th—that Sir
William Miles’ attention was called to the subject, with a view to
an inquiry being instituted by the Society.

Mr. Bradley, like Mr. Look, has found that the losses have
occurred when the animals have gone unto two fields in particular,
which are numbered respectively on the plan of the farm 30 and 37.

The malady was first observed in July, 1861, having broken out
among nineteen grazing animals, which were, with a milking cow,
at pasture in the same field. They had been tured into this
field on May 4th, and had continued there until July 3rd, going on

Splenic A poplexy. 237

quite satisfactorily. In consequence of the keep becoming short at
this date, the nineteen grazing animals were taken out of the field—
and put into another—a piece of good feeding ground, locally
designated ‘tart land,” from its causing diarrhoea among the cattle
when first placed upon it. Here they remained until the morning
of the 7th, when they broke out, and were then turned into No. 30
—a suspected field. They continued in No. 30 till the 10th, when
they were returned to the original pasture, and where the cow had
remained during the whole of this time. On the morning of the
11th four were found dead, and in consequence of this the remaining
fifteen were taken into the yards and bled, and had administered to
them some aperient medicine. Notwithstanding these precautionary
measures, another of the animals died on the same day, and four
more on the following day, the 12th. The remaining ten were
again turned out, but into an unsuspected pasture, and of these, four
died during the next day, the 13th.

The six animals which were left were afterwards kept off the
suspected fields, and went on well. Two of them were sold for
slaughtering a few weeks subsequently, being in good condition,
and the other four during the autumn. The cow also, which, it has
been shown, did not go unto the suspected land, has continued well
down to the present time. She was neither bled nor physicked.
The piece of ‘* tart land,” on which the animals were placed on the
3rd of July, and where they remained till the 7th, when they broke
out, is not thought to be injurious, in so far as the production of
splenic apoplexy is concerned, because neither sheep nor cattle have
ever died while upon it.

On the 26th of July the disease showed itself among another lot
of fifteen grazing animals which had been on the farm for about
four months. They were at pasture at the time of No. 37, not until
then a suspected field. Three of the animals died on this day.
The remaining twelve were then taken out, and no more deaths
occurred. The field was then shut up and afterwards mowed.

On August the 27th a beast, which had been kept quite apart
from the other animals, was put into the pasture adjoining No. 37,
and was found dead in a secluded spot, after being missed for.two
or three days. This case is thought, however, to be a doubtful one
of the disease.

During the latter part cf the summer two colts at pasture on No.
30 died, and, as is believed, from the same disease.

On September 12th a beast died on No. 37. Had not been on
No. 30. ;

On October 9th another beast died on No. 37, which also had not
been on No. 30.

On December 22nd a third died in the fold-yard. It was one of
eight, and was being fed at the time chiefly on hay, none of which,
however, came from the field No. 37.

After this time the disease disappeared until the month of March
in the present year.

On the 14th of this month a bullock feeding on hay in the yards

238 Splenic Apople:ry.

died suddenly, a second on the 15th, and a third on the 16th.
These are the three animals previously spoken of as having been
examined post mortem by Mr. Blake, and the viscera of one of which
were forwarded for my inspection. They were part of a lot of ten
bought on February 14th, at Bath fair, of the breeder. On their
arrival at Sock, seven were selected from them and placed in the
yards, and the remaining three were turned into the pastures, the
suspected fields being avoided. These, with the four still in yards,
were well at the time of my visit. The hay supplied to the animals
came from different fields, and only about two loads of it from
No. 30, none of which, it is thought, has yet been consumed.

I come now to the evidence obtained with reference to the deaths
of the sheep on this farm.

In June, 1861, there were 205 shearling wethers grazing on
different parts of the farm, and having free access to No. 30.
Fifteen of these died between a Wednesday and Saturday, in con-
sequence of which ninety were selected from out of the remainder
and sent to the metropolitan market on the Saturday, four of which
died on the journey. On the Monday following—the Ist of July—
thirty more of the sheep were sold to a dealer, three of which died
in a day or two afterwards. On this same day, also, Mr. Bradley
lost two more out of the number remaining in hand. Those left
were now put on vetches, which were rather a poor crop, and they
were kept on them consequently only for a week. After this they
returned to the pasture grounds, but were prevented going into
No. 30. No further deaths took place. Since this time, other
sheep on the farm have died at irregular intervals, down to
February 1st, amounting in all to about thirty.

On the 5th of March last Mr. Bradley, with a view of arresting
the progress of the malady, and to test the preventive properties of
salt in doing this, applied 9 ewt. per acre, of this material to the
field No. 30. He then drew out ten shearling-wethers from 140,
and turned them into the field on March 7th. One of these animals
died on the 15th. After this the nine were removed for five days,
and then turned into the field again, without any additional death,
however, up to the day of my visit. The experience of Mr. Bradley
seems to show that if sheep are allowed to pasture on the suspicious
grounds only for a few hours, they will take a sufficient amount of
deleterious matter to produce their death a day or two afterwards,
He considers the after-grass not to be so dangerous as that first
grown, but he has no experience of bulls being less susceptible of
the affection than other cattle.

Splenic apoplexy is essentially a blood disease, consequently it -
is not difficult for a pathologist to understand that it may arise
from a variety of causes, any one of which is calculated to effect
changes either in the quantity or condition of the several con-
stituents of the fluid. ;

In investigating the causes, I was led to inquire into the water
supply to the cattle when in the yards, especially as the three last
animals had been lost while they had been exclusively confined to

Splenic Apoplexy. 239

these, and while also they were being fed entirely on hay. On
inspecting the yards, I found them badly arranged, and by no
means adapted for the preservation of the health of animals. ‘This
is particularly the case with the yards at the back of the house,
where the animals alluded to had died. The feeding-bins, which
are built of stone, are so placed that the water from the buildings
runs towards them, and accumulates to such an extent that the
cattle have to stand mid-leg deep in liquid manure, notwithstanding
they may be fairly supplied with straw. The drinking-place is
placed at even a lower level, and becomes a receptacle for so large
an amount of the drainage of the yard that, but for a small flow of
water from an adjacent pond conducted through it, the animals
would be unable to obtain little else than their own evacuations
diluted with the ordinary rain-fall. Nothing could be more objec-
tionable than the water they had to drink. The other yards are
somewhat better arranged, but still open to great improvements,
both with regard to the supply of water and the comfort of the
animals while at their feeding-bins. The drinking-place in one—
the inner—yard receives a considerable portion of the drainage of
the other, and it is worthy of note that the bullock which died in
December was placed in this yard. A small stream flows at the
bottom of both these yards, so that the animals in the other one can
get good water, while those in the inner are compelled to drink it
after it has become charged to some extent with drainage matters.
In the absence of any other cause, I cannot but attribute the cases
which occurred in December and also in March to the general want
of comfort afforded to the animals, and their drinking of water
charged with feculent matters—two things necessarily associated
with the bad construction of the yards.

The cases, however, which have occurred during the summer
months must have depended on causes of a totally different kind,
and a further investigation may show that they were probably due
to the general character of the herbage of the pastures on which
the animals were placed. It has been already shown that the
animals, when at pasture, can obtain a supply of good water, either
from the river Yeo or from adjacent brooks, but, nevertheless, the
entire water question requires a strict examination. Like many
parts of Somersetshire, the district abounds in land locally called
“‘tart-land,” the herbage of which produces diarrhcea often to an
alarming extent among the cattle. The real cause of “ tartness”
would appear not to be well understood, and scientific researches
are therefore required for the proper solution of the problem. The
character of the water in some places, apart from the herbage, is
known to produce diarrhea; and it not unfrequently happens that
this condition of the water and “tart land” are combined. It does
not, however, appear that “tart land” exercises any influence in the
production of splenic apoplexy, or, at any rate, it seems not to have
done so in the present instances. Were it otherwise, the disease
would have been far more frequent in its occurrence than it has

240 Splenic Apoplexy.

been, and would also of necessity have persisted where the ‘tart
land”’ exists.

It is a remarkable circumstance that in the parish of Sock, and
also in the adjoining one of Tintinhull, the water, which is obtained
by the sinking of wells on land which rises a few feet above the
level of the valley of the Yeo, is so impregnated with sulphuretted
hydrogen that it can only be used for ordinary cleansing purposes.
On these farms the occupiers are obliged to collect rain-water from
the roofs of the buildings for drinking and culinary uses. The fetor
of the well-water is at times almost unbearable on being drawn by
the pumps belonging to farm-residences.

On the farm in the occupation of Mr. Bradley the surplus of the
house water from the pump mixes with the fetid sewage, and also
partly with the drainage of the cattle-yards, and then finds its way
to the bottom of the meadow No. 30, in which many animals have
died ; but it does not go near to the other meadows where also the
disease has manifested itself. Besides this, No. 30 meadow, which
has a considerable fall from its upper to its lower part, is so situated
as to induce the belief that water, charged with organic matters
which yield sulphuretted hydrogen, may percolate the sides of the
slope and impart some deleterious principles to the herbage. This
is a point which requires further investigation, and should be
undertaken by those who possess a chemical and also a geological
knowledge. To show the singular geological condition of the
locality, [ may state that Mr. Bradley, some years since, with a
view of getting good water for his house, sunk a well on the level
of the valley, and within a hundred and twenty yards of the original
one, which yielded water so impregnated with saline matters that it
also could not be used.

On inquiring into the water supply on Mr. Hussey’s farm, which
up to the present time has been perfectly free from the disease, I
ascertained that about six years since a well, which yielded fetid
water, was covered in, and the water from a brook diverted so as
to supply a tank, from which it is pumped for the use of the cattle.

This was done in consequence of the animals refusing to drink
the fetid water, or when doing so becoming attacked with diarrhcea.
The tank is situated about forty feet from the well, and at times its
water has a slight unpleasant smell, arising, as is supposed, from
leakage, either from the well or from the surrounding soil.

My next visit was to Mr. Taylor’s farm at Tintinhull, and was
made chiefly because I was informied that the cattle here constantly
drank fetid water, and that their health was in no way affected. On
inspecting the premises, however, I found that this was not the
case, and that the term ‘‘ bad water’’ was used synonymously with —
fetid water. The water given to the cattle is drawn from a pump
in the shed, and is conducted by pipes into small drinking-troughs
made of iron, and placed in front of the stalls. It is apparently -
largely impregnated with the salts of lime, has a somewhat chaly-
beate taste, and is not very clear; but, nevertheless, it is not more

Splenic Apoplexy. 241

ebjectionable for animals than most hard waters. The well yielding
the fetid water is situated within fifty yards of this one, and was
originally made with a hope of obtaining water less turbid and
better suited for domestic purposes. It is uncovered, and, on
gauging it, I found it was only twenty-seven feet deep, fifteen of
which were occupied with water, so that it would appear that the
organic matters which produce the sulphuretted hydrogen are super-
ficially placed in the soil. It isa singular fact connected with this
well, that the water was comparatively sweet until a leaden pipe
connected with a pump near the house was placed in it, with a
view to obviate the trouble of going each time to the well for
water. The first water drawn from the pump in the morning is
not only so exceedingly fetid as scarcely to be borne, but is dark
in colour; and although this colour soon passes off, the fetor is
always very much greater than that of the water in the well.

The facts thus reported upon show the necessity of a chemical
examination of the waters of the district, and also the necessity of
a botanical examination of the herbage, and as such my investiga-
tions are to be considered as preliminary rather than otherwise.
Already several samples of water have been sent to Professor
Voelcker, and will doubtless be, in due time, reported upon.
These waters were taken from Mr. Bradley’s farm, and consisted—
Ist, of water from the pump; 2ndly, from the drinking-place in
the cattle-yard behind the house; and 3rdly, from the ditch which
flows directly into the drinking-place from the pond previously
described. In addition to the chemical and botanical investigations,
I would suggest that, to lessen the effects of some of the causes in
a practical manner, the suspected fields be thoroughly underdrained,
and be dressed with lime. That, instead of being fed in the spring,
they be shut up for mowing, and afterwards stocked heavily with
strong-constitutioned animals; and, as further precaution for pre-
serving the health of the cattle in the yards during the winter,
that the hay taken from these fields be well salted when being put
into the stack.

As further preventives in Mr. Bradley’s case, I would suggest
that the cattle-yards be entirely remodelled, so as to prevent the
animals standing up to their knees in wet and filth while at the
feeding-bins: and that means be taken to give them a supply of
pure water to drink, by conducting the streams now passing
through them into stone tanks placed above the level of the
drainage of the yards.

As these things belong rather to the future than the present, I
have recommended Mr. Bradley to supply his animals with an
improved diet, by adding some cake, corn, or bran daily, with good
hay-chaff, to their ordinary allowance of hay, so as to lay the
foundation for a better quality of blood. With a further view also
of keeping their systems in a state better calculated to resist the
disease, I have advised that an occasional dose of aperient medicine,
consisting simply of Epsom salts, with a little ginger, be given, and
after its effects have passed off, that each animal take two drachms

VOL, XXIV. R

QA?, Splenic Apoplexy.

of nitrate of potash, mixed with a bran mash, for two or three days
in succession. It is to be hoped that these means may prove
beneficial; but prevention of the disease during the winter months
must, in Mr. Bradley’s case, be mainly based on sanitary improve-
ments. Subsequently to my inspection I received from Mr. Bradley
the carcass of a sheep which had died very suddenly on the field
No. 30, making the second which had been lost after the application
of the salt. The lesions which were discovered on the examination
distinctly proved that the animal had sunk from the same disease.
The blood was everywhere black in colour and only partially
coagulated, and the spleen was enlarged to about three times its
natural size. In concluding this report I would express a hope
that the causes of this fatal malady may yet be made evident by the
co-operation of the chemist, the botanist, and the animal pathologist,
so as to lead to the adoption of effectual preventive measures.

(Signed) Js, B. Stmonns.

Report of the Examination of the Pastures in the neighbourhood of Iichester,
Somerset. By Proressor Buckman,

The little town of Ilchester is situate on an alluvial plain, through
the centre of which the river Yeo takes its more or less winding
course.

This river flat, which varies in width to as much as five miles,
has a subsoil of alluvial mud and sand, intermixed with more or less
of the southern or flint drift.

The land, which is in grass, is subject to flooding from the Yeo
and its tributaries, and is distinguished by the terms, “useful
meadow,” ‘‘ marsh,” or ‘* moorland,” according as it offers facilities
for preventing the stagnation of the water, and so will pay for
manuring and other cultivative processes. These flat meadows may
further be said to occupy a valley of denudation in the Lower Lias
shales, the spoils of which, mixed with sandy silt and the flint
drifts before mentioned, form the subsoil of the valley, which latter
is bounded by low eminences, whose washed sides present the stiff
intractile soil so characteristic of “ unmitigated blue lias.”

Now these two positions, namely, the river flats on the one hand
and the liassie elevations on the other, are here remarkable as’ being
concerned in the production of two kinds of disease in the animals
that feed upon the pastures. Thus, the lowlands are dotted with
meadows which the farmers point out as having been fatal to the
cattle and sheep which have fed upon them, producing a malady
which has been described as “splenic apoplexy,” whilst the higher
meadows have the name of ‘scouring ” or “ tart lands.”

It should here be mentioned that the well waters which I tasted
were all more or less of a medicinal class, the water from some
wells at Bierly Farm, Tintinhull, and Sock, for example, being
strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst that of
others might be described as mineral or saline waters. In fact, the
waters reminded me very forcibly of those in the vale of Gloucester.

u

Splenic Apoplexy. 243

At Cheltenham and Gloucester, the different waters of the various
“spas” would appear not only to be like those of Somerset in
chemical composition, but to be also derived from the same formation
and under like geological conditions. The facts so far described
were noted on the 20th of J une, on which day, at the request of the
Secretary of your Society, I proceeded in company with Professor
Simonds to the neighbourhood of Ichester. The following day was
devoted to an examination chiefly of the herbage of the district 5
the results of which I now lay before the Society.

On visiting Bierly Farm, I first examined the water of two
wells:

Well 1—Twenty-seven feet deep, had twelve feet of highly fetid
sulphur water.

Well 2—Pronounced to be good water by the farmer, Mr. Taylor.
It is about fifty yards from No. 1, and said to be eighteen feet,
deep. The water, judging from the taste, is impregnated
with iron.

The ditch-water of this farm is considered good.

A large upland meadow on this farm was pointed out as being
“‘ very TART;” in this, the following were the prevailing plants :

Ranunculus bulbosus (bulbous buttercup), Cynosurus cristatus
(crested dogstail), Avena flavescens (yellow oat-like grass), Dactylis
glomerata (cocksfoot).

Here the great mass of the bulbous crowfoot and the dogstail is
highly significant of a poor hungry pasture.

From this farm we proceeded to Sock, where I would first note
that the open farm-yards are bounded by buildings with large roofs
and with no spouts to carry off the water. Under such circum-
stances, the cattle must triturate their manure with the rain that
falls, and with the juices oozing therefrom their drinking-water
becomes contaminated.

-PLANTS IN Fretp 18, Sock Farm.

Botanical Name. Trivial Name. ; | Proportionals.
Ranunculus bulbosus....... | Bulbous buttercup... +. -» + 10
2s BETIS ey yee si. J. Upright ate we 5
Carduus arvensis se e==») |} Creepingitbisile tus5 we met ow 8
Potentilla anserina ..... .. | Silver weed .. 0-2 ow nw os 12
Trifolia Paes baa Clovers, ., Sn ser “oer op 1
Cynosurus cristatus .. .. | Crested dogstail pa | Four’ vies a 20
Aira cespitosa .. °.. °.. | Tussae grass .. ‘x 5
Poa trivialis.. ..... ... |. Rough-stalked meadow grass oe 5
Hordeum pratense... .. Meadow bawley, ot we awe oe 1

Festuca pratense .. ... .... As fescue .. .. «o- .+)| scarcely re-

Lolium perenne .._ .. .... |. Rye grass 3 fee } presented.
Wages bs We shan eeOCHOeS, gar. SRMESE |e oe os 6
SIONS saa’ ‘pe RMGHEStGar tie ds cakes jen Te 3

Herbs of a good kind barely represented.

244 Splenic Apoplexy.

On this farm, field No. 18, described as “‘ tart land,” is much out
of condition from want of drainage. I would here note that most of
these tart lands suffer for want of under drainage; they are poor,
hungry clays, on which manure is found not to exert the influence
that might be expected, and, indeed, that it undoubtedly would do
if preceded by draining. The following is a list of some of the
observed plants to which I have attached numerals expressive of
their quantities. This list and the successive ones, though not
pretending to be complete, is near enough for all practical purposes.

In this field we have bad herbage in the ascendant. All the
plants, including the mass of the grasses, show a mixed condition of
poor land both wet and dry. Anything like good species of grasses
are only just indicated, there being an occasional sprinkling of such,
and little more than this of the clovers.

The next three meadows, namely :

Ist, No. 25 and 24.—‘* Higher Carey’s Mead,” now in hay; is
better than No. 18.

2nd, No. 28.—‘‘ Middle Carey’s Mead,” a low meadow flooded in
winter ; mown for twenty-five years; this year in pasture.

3rd, No. 29.—‘* Lower Carey’s Mead,” much drier than No. 28;
now in pasture.

These three meadows are not tart, or, if so, it is only to a slight
degree in the upper one. They differ much in quality; the last
being much the best, arising partly from its being in a sounder
state.

Puants IN Freitps 28 anp 29.

Proportionals.
Botanical Name. Trivial Name. $<
No. 28. | No. 29,

Ranunculus acris .. «. Upngnt ee oo ieee me 20 10
Trifolium pratense... .. | Redclover.. .. .- «, «- ie 3
oi repens .. .. | Dutch clover Si. angen ll 2
Aira Cesspitosa .. «» -+ | DUSSACK prasS) «. 2. sy les 10 3
Cynosurus cristatus.. .. | Crested dogstail.. 6 5
Holcus lanatus.. .. .. | Woolly soft grass 4 2
Hordeum pratense .. .. | Meadow wild barley .. S 2
Brizamedia .. .. «+ | Quaking grass : x 2 1

Poa trivialis .. .. «. | Rough- -stalked meadow grass 4 6 G:
» pratensis .. .. ~. | Smooth a9 we 3 6
ie int DIO at aoe \ Meadow fescue, varieties .. 4 6

,»» loliacea 2 BS
Bromus commutatus -. | Tumid field brome 3 3
Lolium perenne P Rye grass 3 6
Anthoxanthum odor atum Sweet vernal grass ae 3
Carices .. .. +. « | Sedges in the grips 5 ela
Alfrktst)) pe COM ere ee Ee Rushes ot ec 4

Good herbage .. « + vs Ps 15 21

Splenic Apoplexy. 245

A comparison of the grasses in these meadows will be sufficient
to show the difference, bad plants, poor grasses, and others, pre-
vailing in twenty-eight, whilst in twenty-nine these are much less,
and good grasses more plentiful.

I would now direct attention to Mr. Hussey’s field, which is said
to be very tart. This is quite on the upland or lias elevation, and
was described to me as being exceedingly rich ; so much so, indeed,
that it had been mown for twenty years without any dressing. It
was pronounced to have “looked beautiful in spring.” At the
time of my visit it had been depastured, and I saw the second
growth of fresh grass, which certainly was not deficient in quan-
tity ; however, as regards its quality, I can only pronounce that the
species of grass show a soil with sufficient moisture, but cold and

oor.
‘ The prevailing grasses are as follows, placed somewhat in their
order of frequency :

Arrhenatherum avenaceum (oat-like grass).
Poa trivialis (rough-stalked meadow).
Holeus lanatus (woolly, soft, grass).
Hordeum pratense (meadow wild barley).
Cynosurus cristatus (crested dogstail).
Bromus mollis (soft brome or lop).
Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot).

Festuca duriuscula (hard fescue).

Lolium perenne nearly absent.

Clovers only in very small quantity, and I think the prevailing
species is Trifolium fragiferum (strawberry-headed trefoil) a denizen
of lumpy clays, often mistaken for the Dutch clover. Upon this
point, however, I am not certain, as I could not find a specimen in
flower.

From these observations on the tart lands which came under my
notice, I am induced to conclude that they are poor, cold, ‘‘ hungry
clays.” They want draining as much to let the air into the soil as to get
the water through and out of it ; after which, liberal manuring will be
found to act, though now I am told these lands are not manured, as
they are said “‘ not to be grateful for it.”

Since the above notes were penned, I have seen a paper by
Professor Voelcker on the ‘ Tart Lands of Central Somerset,’ from
which I take the liberty of quoting a concluding note of Lord
Portman :

*‘T am of opinion,” writes his lordship, ‘‘ from what I have tried
and observed on the ‘tart’ lands of Pylle, where, I regret, Pro-
fessor Voelcker has not made an inspection, that the plough is the
true remedy, and all ‘ tart lands’ should be converted into arable
lands. The clover-hay, the pasture on the clover-lea, and the roots.
fed by sheep on such land have no scouring properties; and, after a
fair trial of some bad scouring lands, I have advised my tenant to
break up and cultivate several scouring fields, which will, as I be-

246 Splenic Apoplexy.

lieve, be profitable instead of noxious land.”—Lord Portman in the
‘Bath and West of England Agricultural Journal.’

I would remark that this is an opinion clearly borne out by the
botany of the ‘tart lands” near Lchester. Arable cultivation,
however, would be very imperfect if not preceded by draining, and
these would then be strong yielding lands with the usual manuring
in the different rotations. So thoroughly convinced am I that, if
found desirable to retain them as pasture, they may be made to
yield good herbage of a wholesome kind as the result of cultivation.
The more meadows of this kind are cultivated, the less frequent
will become the poorer grasses, which yield pasturage and hay with
what the farmers call ‘“‘ no proof” in it, while the better kinds at
the same time will gain a complete ascendancy.

The meadows next to be described are those in which have
occurred cases of ‘‘ splenic apoplexy.”

I first notice No. 30 on Mr. Bradley’s farm at Sock. This,
meadow ison a gentle slope, the lower half of which is a poor
swamp, the upper portion sounder and with better herbage ; the
prevailing plants in the lower part are separated from those of the
upper portion. It will be seen that the mass of the herbage in
the flat is composed of the marsh thistle, sedges, and rushes, whilst
the upper portion consists of grasses and clovers.

Piants 1n No. 30, Sock.

Proportionals.

Botanical Name. Trivial Name.
Flat. Upland.
Carduus arvensis .. .. | Creeping thistle Seer He

») palustris .. .. | Marsh plume thistle.. .. .. 10 e
Garieesi ed) ON oe I Gedes) he ee TON OO DN 10 sé
Junely. | Fa) vow. | AReSDed fe ae Roce ae 5 ie
Ranunculus acris «é-\}ydq,| Upright buttercup exer) Ieee 5 oo
mA bulbosus_ .. | Bulbous i 2
Hordeum pratense .. «. | Meadow wild barley .. 3 1
Cynosurus cristatus .- | Crested dogstail.. .. 0... 1 2
Aira cespitosa .. .. Tussae grass bs 5 a
Arrhenatherum avenaceum Oat-like grass. «0, 4.) «0 <a 2
Lolium perenne .. .. | Perennial rye-grass .. « «+. 4 3
Festuca duriuscula .. .. | Hard fescue WF pie 8
>, pratensis .. .. | Meadow fescue . A on 2
Poa trivialis .. .. +» | Rough-stalked meadow gra ass 5 3
>» pratensis .. .. «. | Smooth 5 ay a 3
Dactylis glomerata.. .. | Cocksfoot de 6
Holcus lanatus.. .. .. | Woolly soft grass 3 3
Avena flavescens .. .. | Yellow oat-like grass 1 1
Trifolium pratense .. .. | Red clover .. 1 3
ae" medium .. - | Dutch clover 1 2
G£nanthe pimpinelloides. Water dropwort* 1 om
Good herbage .. 5 24

* The repetition of this and other plants of old salt marshes in this district is
very ivteresting. |

Splenic Apoplexy. 247

Taking this field as a whole, my conclusions are, that under-
drainage and liberal treatment would tend to the removal of disease,
as by such means the poorer sorts of meadow plants, including the
poor grasses, would be discouraged and die out, whilst the better
kinds would increase.

That land of this kind is productive as arable was made manifest
by the appearance of a fine crop of wheat in a field adjoining
No. 30; still the peculiar nature of the stiff soil is even here made
known by the presence of the corn buttercup (Ranunculus arvensis).

I next direct attention to No. 39, which was described as a
meadow which had produced “splenic apoplexy,” but in a minor
degree compared with No. 30. It was remarked as generally free
from-thistles and large weeds, if we except the prevailing plant of
these marsh lands, namely, Ranunculus acris. Among the grasses
will be noticed Anthoranthum odoratum (the sweet vernal grass) to
the spicy character of which I am inclined to attribute its improved
quality when compared with No. 30.

Prants In No. 37.

Botanical Name. Trivial Name. | Proportionals.
Ranunceulusacris.. .. .. | Upright buttercup... .. .. .. | 15
earee erane etl Toe ou oe Tae he URAC SISS Jet a ce pay) “om| 10
Cynosurus cristatus .. .. | Crested dogstail grass .. ... .. 10
Bromus commutatus .. .. | Tumid field brome grass .. .. 3
Poa trivialis.. .. .. .. | Rough-stalked meadow grass .. 3
Holeus lanatus .. .. .. | Woolly soft grass .. .. 1... 5
-Anthoxanthum odoratum .. | Sweet vernal grass mies oO 2
Alopecurus pratensis .. .. | Meadow foxtail 5 ae l
PEnmlinm pratense » ser a | BEA CIOVEE! 265 14s cone 52 oe 3

“Good herbage .. .. « ax) ae 12

The above makes soft hay of the kind, which is said to be
wanting in “proof.” The absence of rye-grass and fescues is very
observable.

This meadow, though under water in winter, was not swampy,
like parts of No. 30, at the time of my visit.

The next field to be described is situate near the Victoria Inn,
Iichester. It is constantly cut for hay, the practice being on this
farm “‘to always mow the same land and manure it, and to let the
feeding land take care of itself,” the principle at the bottom of
this practice apparently being that the better pastures yield more
and better hay, as being sounder and drier, and therefore can be
manured to advantage; while the low meadows do not yield good
hay, and if quite exhausted by frequent haymaking, manures will
mot act by reason of the stagnant condition of the water.

248 Splenic Apopleay.

PLANts IN MEADOW NEAR THE VICTORIA.

Botanical Name. Trivial Name. Proportionals.
Ranunculus acris .. Upright crowfoot .. 10
Aira cespitosa* .. Tussac grass .. 5
Cynosurus cristatus Crested dogstail <n 5
Hordeum pratense Meadow wild barley 3
Holcus Janatus : Woolly soft grass .. 2
Alopecurus pratensis .. Meadow foxtail 3
Lolium perenne -. | Perennial rye grass 3
Anthoxanthum odoratum .. Sweet vernal grass 3
Festuca pratensis .. Meadow fescue 2
Avena flavescens .. Yellow oat grass b
Trifolium Trefoils .. 4
Good herbage 18

This field I should have expected would be free from diseases ;
and I have no hesitation in affirming that, in no case of what was
described as ‘‘diseased ground,” did I find anything like the
quantity of the last six plants in the above list.

Beyond the above field is a large tract of ground, which is flat
and marshy; here occurs a field divided into three parts, in the
occupation of Mr. Wake.

These three parts were described as varying in their power to
produce disease.

The whole hundred acres were tolerably free from good grasses :
these, however, were more plentiful in the higher part, which had.
been more often manured ‘“ because it pays better,” and here there
has not been so much disease.

It should be noted that in one part of the field described as sound,
and certainly dry on the occasion of my visit, I yet observed a
considerable quantity of Alopecurus geniculatus (floating (!) foxtail), a
plant which sufficiently indicates that wet prevails over the greater
part of the year. Here one does not wonder that there should be
disease.

It now remains to notice Mr. Look’s meadows, which I shall first
do in the order in which I saw them, commenting more par tionluely
upon them afterwards.

First we went through some sound pastures, in which good grasses
abounded. In them there had been no disease.

“Middle and home ground.”—Little of good grasses; grips fulk
of Aira cespitosa : disease.

‘‘Pill-Bridge ground.”—Laid down six years;
Dutch clover “prevail : no disease.

‘‘ Beaton’s Leas.”—Improved by cutting up the tussae grass
Considered it at present the best meadow in summer.

rye-grass and

* In this instance the tussac grass wis diffused with the rest of the herbage, not.
in bull pates, as it occurs in wet or stagnant spots.

Splenic Apoplery. 249

“Little Foot’s Mead.”—Good grasses prevail; buttercups few ;
dry: no disease.

“Raymond’s Ground.”—A dry pasture; cutting a fair weight of
grass ; but this consists of inferior species.

‘«Webb’s Ground.”—A dry soil, of the same kind as the last,
only parted by a hedge. This field has been manured six or seven
times in ten years. Some ten years since it did not belong to the
farm; it had been badly treated, but is now improving. There
were cases of disease here in 1859.

The analysis of the herbage of these two fields is given by way of
contrast with that on Mr. Bradley’s farm. From this it will be seen
that plants other than grasses were either absent or so scarce as not
to be worth noticing.

PLaNts IN (1) Raymonp’s Grounp, (2) Wess’s GROUND.

Proportionals.
Botanical Name. Trivial Name. ie AA eas el
L 2.
Bromus mollis.. .. -- | Soft brome, orlop grass .. .. 20 =
Hordeum pratense .._ -- | Meadow barley .. .. .. -- 10 5
Cynosurus cristatus -- | Crested dogstail saetee ore. 5 2
Lolium perenne _ .- -.°| Rye grass .. 5.0.2 we oe 3 3
Dactylis glomerata.. ~.. | Cocksfoot .. .. .. -- + 1 =
Holeus lanatus.. -. -. | Woolly soft grass 3 10
Avena flavescens .. .-. | Oat-like grass . 5
Anthoxanthum odoratum | Sweet vernal grass - ws 1
Trifolium pratense .. .. | Redclover.. .. -. .. “} 3
S> repens -. -. | Dutch clover doerigog |
Good herbage .. -- .. $e Ze | 12 13

These two lists offer some curious distinctions, the quantity of lop
in (1), and its absence in (2). In (2) the rye-grass was remarked
as small in size, and it was found only to have been sown in 1861.
Sowing good grasses with clovers may be mentioned as a plan for
ameliorating these pastures, if united with manuring and less hay-
making.

A general review of the pastures of this farm offers convincing
proof that although drainage has not been overlooked nor cultivation
neglected, yet there is great poverty, not so much inthe quantity as
in the quality of the herbage; and this poverty has not so much
reference to poorly grown good species as in the general absence of
these, and the abundant presence of the more innutritious kinds.
These pastures as a whole appear to me to have undergone in past
years exhaustive treatment, and though now beginning to improve,
they will yet require a long time to get them to what they may
become.

As a summary of the whole subject of my inquiry, I would re-
mark in conclusion :

ist.—That the tart lands of Somerset are situate for the most
part on poor unmitigated lias clays, which from the want of culti-

250 Splenic Apoplexy.

vation yield an abundance of poor species of fodder plants and a
paucity of good kinds.

2nd.—That drainage by letting water and air through the soil
would be of benefit in altering the mechanical texture of the land ;
whilst mowing would have the action of encouraging the growth of
good grasses and discouraging the bad.

3rd.—That though the saline and medicinal waters which abound
in these meadows may aid in the observed effects upon cattle; yet
that the basis of the mischief is probably poor herbage.

4th.—As regards the pastures producing splenic apoplexy—these
are for the most part in low positions, subject to floodings from the
river Yeo and its tributaries. They are more or less marshy and
stagnant. They contain a mass of weeds (e.g. the Ranunculus acris,
carices, rushes, &c.), of no use, and of grasses so rough or so poor as
to be little better than weeds.

5th.—These meadows, where subject to floods, if they cannot be
controlled, may yet be greatly relieved by such drainage as the
circumstances will allow.

6th.—It must be admitted that on Mr. Look’s farm there is a
better appearance of things; the pastures are not so wet, and he is
trying to introduce better grasses and clovers into them; but that
even here the mass of the present herbage ponatte of poor innu-
tritious grasses, I have no doubt. -

7th, and lastly.—I would beg to record the opinion that when as
much sciencé is brought to bear upon the cultivation of pasture as
of arable land, these - pastures will then be greatly improved, and
that ‘such improvement will. be marked by an increase of plants
now as it were struggling for existence, and a corresponding exter-
mination of such as mark either wet, exhaustion, or’natural poverty,
or a combination of these conditions. ‘To this end, I would venture
to suggest that the arterial drainage of the whole district should be
looked to, and that the system of always taking hay from one
meadow and depasturing another, should be inquired into, and, con-
sequent upon this, an attempt should be made to weed, and to
introduce, where absent, some better species of herbage to replace
the poorer kinds.

Professor Vortcker followed, and remarked that he had a very
short report to make. He had analysed four different kinds of
water, and among them there was only one which was not largely
impregnated with enough of both mineral and organic matter to
produce disease. One sample in particular contained no less than 235
grains of solid matter in the imperial gallon, composed of various -
medicinal salts, which must necessarily affect the whole constitution
of animals. He did not feel in the least sur prised that cattle en
with such water had become the subjects of serious disease,

The Cuaimman—What water was it ?

Professor VorLcker said the water was taken from the pump at
Mr. Bradley’s farm. It was clear-looking water, but was never-
theless very foul indeed, as the following analysis would show:

Splenic Apoplexy. 251

.

No. Fr.
Composition of Pump- Water from Mr. Bradley’s Farm, Scck.
An imperial gallon contained : Grains.
Solid matter (dried at 280° Fahr.) .. sa) ww ae 280°20

Consisting of—
Ciroanig mations: << «¢ «aa soneenerieeblieo

Mineral matters .. ., .. « «. 217-27 grains,
Consisting of—
Rellphate of lime .. ‘ss <«. << ial yoaipgenl Se SO
mulphate Of Magnesia... ss wians~ wsmy Livni cwel EOL
Oxide'of iron’and alumina .. * <. se. oe. olan 1 OD
milicate'o: potash *.. . oe oat) |penty slip gow i 2O2
Mitte ak polar ss. fee seaiyiwee, ee rove Joan OFS

DUI PHate. Ob AOUA.. 208 phy on) por. piace! eared tt ada oe OO
GCarbonate.of soda. se <z.. 0) eey ( wettnfrioloney 29°52
SHIOMAS OL SOMTUMY.. siniy ioel Vas ae ws eas, 2OTOD

‘Total per gallon .. «2 «« «. 230°20

Among other things, it contained nitric acid, as much as one
grain to the imperial gallon, and nearly eighteen grains of organic
matter; showing that, somehow or other, refuse materials accu-
mulated near to the surface of the soil, underwent regular nitrifica-
tion, and found their way, in a more or less oxidised state, into the
pump-water. Then, again, there was a large proportion of sulphate
of soda, sulphate of lime, sulphate of. magnesia, and other saline
matters. These salts in their combination had a medicinal effect
very much greater than that which they produced separately. It
was a well-known fact that in certain districts of Somersetshire,
where tart or scouring lands prevailed, medicinal effects frequently
occurred, On referring to the composition of some water in a dis-
trict near Bridgewater, he found that it contained 202 grains to the
imperial gallon, while the water on Mr. Bradley’s farm contained
235 grains. It was, unquestionably, a medicinal water, a single
tumblerful of it taken in the morning being sufficient to produce a
decided effect. There could be no question, then, that in a las dis-
trict there were materials in the waters having a tendency to pro-
duce disease ; whether it were splenic apoplexy, scouring, or some
other affection, he could not say, but that such water could not be
drunk with impunity was certain.

Another sample of water was evidently largely impregnated with
the drainings of the farmyard, and the evacuations of the animals.
It must be undesirable that animals should drink such water, as all
impurities of this kind were highly injurious. Its analysis (No. 2)
is shown overleaf.

The ditch water—a third sample—and apparently foul, proved
on analysis to be the purest of any. It contained only twenty-six
grains of solid matter in the imperial gallon, and in this there were
only four and a-half grains of organic constituents. ‘This will
appear from the subjoined particulars (No. 3).

252 Splenic Apoplezy.

No. 2.
Composition of Yard- Water from Mr. Bradley’s Farm.

An imperial gallon contained : Grains.
Solid'matter .. ss. se cet) Gee ua rane nn
Consisting of— -——
Organic matter \.. 2.0 29 cece een eee
Mineral matters .. .. .. . .. 37°84 grains
Consisting of—

Sulphate.of lime... «0 «i 4ac8 (ce ee eo:
Carbonate,of lime. ... 4: - 2. Sh aan eeeeoson
Carbonate-of magnesia =: %. 2. oe. | seg seeenoe
Chloride of sodium..." 3. 7. Meee 2°49
Other alkaline salts as he. Oop ee Osl
Oxide of iron and alumina .. 2°06

Silica and insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly sus- \
pended'matter) se G32) onus eee ane

Total per gallon we Vee poapeetciche

No. 3.
Composition of Ditch- Water from Mr, Bradley’s Farm.

An imperial gallon contained : Grains.
Solid'matter os- ccs.) se | ey) os eel ers elie ere eagtate
Consisting of— -—
Organic matter») SO Te ee ee prema eee
Mineral matters... .. .. .. «. 21°84 grains,
Consisting of—
Sulphate'of lime, i..:; | ses 8.) Gale eee oeees
Carbonate. of:lime:<- ss), 2s, oreo alee
Carbonate of magnesia .. .. .. «= «&@ «= 9 OS
Chloride of sodium’:.i)—..s. <j 0: | teu | uncle anise

Other alkaline salts Oe Mr ers OH):
Oxides of iron and alumina .. ee ee 1°58
Silica and insoluble siliceous matter os ek ae 2°14

Totalper‘gallon V.0 i. sul) os. P2664

The well water at Tintinhull (No, 4) was a hard water, which he
would not recommend any one to use permanently, although the
animals apparently were uninjured by it. It contained some oxide
of iron, which might tend to counteract its injurious influences.
Another sample of water, taken from a second well at Tintinhull,
near to the one just alluded to, had, when he received it, no fetid
smell, but it soon developed sulphuretted hydrogen in considerable
quantities, which evidently arose, not so much from organic matter.
as from the reduction of sulphate ‘of lime and other sulphates. The
leaden pipe, to which Professor Simonds had referred, would exer-
cise a similar reducing action, adding to the foetor by producing
an increased amount of sulphuretted hydrogen. The black colour
arose from the production of sulphuret of lead. The analysis of
No. 4 was as follows :

Splenic Apoplexy. 253

No, 4.
Composition of a sample of Hard Water from Mr. Taylor’s Farm at
Tintinhull.
An imperial gallon contains— Grains,
reine eas - ck. ce” Coe) eee!) Mae ene tem, oO

Consisting of— -——

Organic matter .. acct de, [mek Beiedeae eeeenxeae § pane:

Mineral matters .. .. .. .. -- 66°24 grains,

Consisting of—

ROU IOL UEC ae frac ney Miter aiieeh Leal Sede eee ek
Carbonate Of lng) cs yee, celui meds Waaty acme heneo
Carbonate of magnesia .. .. .. «. « « 8°80
Chloride of sodium Ret lec ae eh ce) Gee cMet lie OS
Other alkaline salts iat es eae a ae OO
Oxidesiofimron/and alumina ©... 6 aa ee | ATO
Silica eee mE Ra ieey bach as andtd aactentooam a 1S00)
otal per, gallon’ eof .0)<., 10°88

If he understood the matter aright, this disease prevailed in the
lias district in Somersetshire.

On the tart lands prevailing on the lias clays, the herbage fre-
quently remained unripe, and in this condition it produced several
disorders. It might be worth while to examine chemically the
herbage of the meadows where splenic apoplexy occurred, in order
to ascertain whether an unripe condition of the grasses had any-
thing to do with the disease. As regarded the condition of the
herbage, he had found a remarkable difference between sound
pasture and the pasture of scouring lands. Peats always produced
sound herbage. ‘There were clays which were well-drained, but
which nevertheless required to be exposed to the air and culti-
vated, and for which he believed the only remedy was the plough.
They were naturally rich; they were not poor in the sense of a
deficiency of food ; there was plenty of mineral and organic food in
the soil, but it was all locked up, and it was for this reason and
the cold and frequently wet condition of the soil that the herbage
did not get ripe. He had found great differences in the chemical
composition of the perfectly ripe produce of peat and the unripe
herbage of scouring lands, and, he repeated, that it would be inte-
resting to ascertain whether a similar difference existed in the
pasturage of soils where splenic apoplexy occurred.

In conclusion, he would observe that the causes which produced
scouring appeared to have some common origin with those which
produced splenic apoplexy. In that view he*’might be mistaken ;
but it was certainly a fact that, on lias-clays, the produce did not
get ripe, and, being consumed in an unripe state, it produced all
kinds of diseases. It was a curious thing that manuring had an
effect the very reverse of what they would expect on the scouring
land of central Somersetshire ; it made the evil worse. In a wet
season, when one would expect to see the disease, it did not appear ;
while in a dry summer, when there was avery rapid growth of vege-

254 Splenie Apoplexy.

tation, it was most dangerous to put cattle on the land. It was ina
dry summer that the meadows scoured most.

Colonel CuaLtoner said it was an every-day question among
farmers whether the water that cattle drank from a pond, into
which the drainage of the farm-yard ran, was or was not detri-
mental, He would be glad if their chemical and veterinary pro-
fessors could give them some definite information on that point.

Professor VoELCKER said many. samples of water which looked like
the very essence of the manure-heap had on analysis been found to
contain but little deleterious matter. Indeed, such water frequently
contained much less of such matters than clear water. It was a
remarkable fact that some of the clearest, best-tasting, and appa-
rently most wholesome waters were among the most deleterious that
could be taken, being largely impregnated with mineral and saline
substances. Amongst the latter he would mention especially nitrates
as being highly injurious. In the yard-waters the amount of organic
matter was often very small, a very small quantity of drainage being
sufficient to give a brown colour to a large quantity of water.
Water which appeared to be impregnated with a large quantity
of organic matter was often not so in reality. When, however, a
large quantity of refuse material found its way into pond-water it
must be injurious.

Professor Srmonps agreed with Professor Voelcker that the dark
colour of water did not of itself prove that it was deleterious. There
was a great deal of colouring matter in the farm-yard that found
its way into the contiguous pond, and it was an established fact that
cattle drank such water with impunity. Some cattle even preferred
it—he would not say to their benefit—to harder, clearer, and
brighter water. Whether or not such water acted injuriously or
not to health depended, however, on the amount of organic matters
init. It might contain so small an amount as not to be prejudicial
to the health of an animal, or, on the contrary, so much organic
matter and saline substances might be mingled with it as to render
it very deleterious.

Lord Watsineuam then moved a vote of thanks to Professors
Simonds, Buckman, and Voelcker for their able and instructive
lectures.

Colonel CHAaLtoner seconded the motion.

The Cuarrman, before putting it, said he was sure the council and
the members present were much obliged to those gentlemen for the
information with which they had favoured them ; information which
could scarcely fail to direct the attention of the owners and occu-
piers of land in similar districts to that which had been described—
to the question whether, as regarded a great deal of such land, it
might not be well if it were broken up, not necessarily for a perma-
nency, but for a course of tillage ; so that if it were again converted
into pasture the present bad grasses might be superseded by grasses
of improved quality.

The motion was then agreed to, and the proceedings terminated,

»

( 255 )

XVII.—On the Breeding of Horses—a Letter addressed to the Right
Honourable John Evelyn Denison. By W. Dickenson.

My pear Sir,

You have asked me to give you an outline of my expe-
rience in breeding horses, with special reference to my success
with the cart stallion I imported from France, to the intent that
it may be published in the Royal Agricultural Society’s Journal.
If you think anything I can state will be interesting to the
members of the Society, I shall have great pleasure in complying
with your request. I have been engaged with every class of horse
from the winner of the St. Leger to the horse walking in the cart,
and purpose to make mention of them all, except the race-
horse, which I shall merely notice so far as he exerts a general
influence for good or for bad upon our horses at large.

And first permit me to address some general remarks to those
members of the Royal Agricultural Society who have had less
experience than myself, and beg the indulgence of readers who
may think that I enter too much into the detail of a subject with
which they are well acquainted.

It is necessary to consider, before beginning to breed horses,
whether the land designed for it is fit for the purpose of breeding
sound, healthy animals. If it is, the starting-point is right—you
have reason to hope for success; if it is not, it is far wiser not
to make the attempt, but to buy in and sell out as quickly as
is convenient. It is thoroughly well known that sheep bred upon
wet, undrained, boggy soils, have defective constitutions; they
have diseased livers, decayed feet, and inferior wool, and are so
thoroughly unsound in many instances that they die in great
numbers without remedy. Horse-breeding may be attended with
similar risks, which should be steadily kept in view.

Horses should be bred upon a dry subsoil to make them sound
in constitution, sound in wind, and sound in colour, by which
i mean that whatever be the horse’s colour, it should be a deep,
not a faint one. The surface, moreover, should be fertile, abound-
ing in carbonate and phosphate of lime, to grow horses of full
size, with plenty of bone and muscle. Upon this subsoil and
this surface, you may expect sound, full-sized, healthy animals.
A wet, spongy, clay soil produces delicate constitutions, defective
wind, pale colours, and large flat feet. If your land is not dry
naturally, perhaps it can be made so by effective drainage ; if it
cannot, do not attempt to breed horses—every kind of disap-
pointment will follow such a course. Neither are a very dry
subsoil and very dry surface desirable, for these produce small
animals with narrow, contracted feet.

VOL. XXIV. s

256 Breeding Horses.

The next step is to procure good mares to breed from; these
should not be used because you have them, still less because they
are unsaleable, but should be bought for this especial purpose,
and selected with great care. I should advise their being bought
in the autumn of the year, when two years old off, to be put to
the horse in the following spring. I advise this because they
are all brought to market at that time, the choice is greater,
they are purchased at less cost, they are more free from defects,
and also breed much better. They have never been made up,
but are brought direct from the grass fields, which is very im-
portant as to soundness of wind and limb. No one has ever tried
to breed from them, and sold them because they fail to do so; if
they are unsuccessful in your hands, you can part with them at
five or six years old, most likely at a profit.

It is important to have made up your mind fully what kind of
horses you propose to breed before you begin to select the mares.
They must be the very best of their kind, with the best action,
and free from all defects of wind and limb. Such animals as
are roarers, or who have curbs or curby hocks, spavins or splents,
are unfit for the purpose. The toes should point in straight
lines ; they should not turn outwards, and had better not turn
in. The feet should be of moderate size, not round, but of an
oval shape. Convex soles are particularly to be avoided. The
excess of substance should be on the side of the mare, she
should be made useful on the farm; the blood on the side of the
horse. Where elegance of appearance and speed are to be
combined, or either to be had, it must come from the thorough-
bred side. Weight and substance come from the cart, but
elegance and pace from the blood. ‘There is no substitute for
blood where pace and continuance are required,

As I have begun saying something about the stallion, I will
just observe with what care breeders of cattle select their bulls,
not only looking well at every line of their bodies, but at every
feature of their faces; their width, their length, their colour, and
their touch must be approved, and even their ancestors for,ymany
generations are taken into consideration, Rams are just as closely
inspected. In both cases the action must be good; they must
stand straight upon their legs, and be able to move with ease to
themselves, Breeders of horses would do well to use as much care
in selecting stallions for their mares, but I am disposed to think
they do not. It is not unusual to avoid the trouble, and put the
mares to some convenient horse. Economy sometimes suggests
that ‘this horse is only one or two pounds, he is just as good as
the absent one, whose price is perhaps double.” Another very
important feature is to be observed. Breeders of cattle and
sheep keep their best females to breed from—the better they are

Breeding Horses. 257

the longer they are kept; with horses, the better they are the
sooner they are sold, not even the very best young mares being
reserved for the stud. ‘Those that cannot find a customer are
too frequently kept and bred from ; it is not an unusual saying
with disappointed breeders, “If I cannot sell her I will put her
to the horse.”

Great advances have been made in the breeding of cattle, |
sheep, and pigs, in every part of the United Kingdom during
the last 40 years. What is the case with regard to horses?
Have they not retrograded in the same degree? Can the present
race of horses be compared with those bred 40 years since?
The cart-horse, perhaps, is the only class that can bear the
comparison. ‘There isa cause for all this, which | shall mention
hereafter.

Here I close the general remarks, and proceed to mention the
cart-horse I imported from France, with the result of my practice.
I fancy some of my readers saying, What induced you to buy
a French horse? Could you not find one good enough in your
own country? My answer to those persons is, Yes, 1 could, and
did so. I bought what I thought, and others thought too, a
splendid horse ; I bred from him, and so did my neighbours,
very good horses; and I should have continued thinking there
were no better cart-horses in the world than the English ; but
in 1855 I went to the International Exhibition in Paris, where
I had sent some short-horned cattle. There my attention was
attracted to a class of horse I had never seen before. I looked at
them and was astonished, seeing them drawing great long carts,
as long as the English waggons, loaded with immense blocks of
stone (not as ours are loaded in London, with two or three blocks),
walking nimbly away the whole day from the pit to the building.
These immense loads of stone made me think of the three or four
dray-horses drawing at a much slower pace a few butts of beer
through the London streets. These horses, walking so nimbly
with these great loads of stone, were not so fat as our own
favourites, but they seemed to me to be doing twice the work.
Although leaner, they bore the strictest scrutiny ; the more I saw
of them, the more I admired them. Meeting Mr. Jonas Webb,
I called his attention to them. He said he had never seen such
before; he had observed a horse taking into the show-yard an
immense load of provender for the cattle, that astonished him
beyond measure; he had resolved to try to buy him, but he lost
sight of him that day, and never saw him afterwards. I thought
them so superior to ours, that I resolved to buy one to take home.
Very much to my disappointment, I could not find one young
enough and good enough to buy. I saw them every day at their
work, but none for sale. I went through all the dealers’ stables

° s 2

258 Breeding Horses.

without succeeding. I furnished myself with all the information
to be obtained as to fairs in my way home; to some of which
I went, and found, just as at our common small horse fairs,
not a good horse in them. I happened to stay a day at Rouen,
when the pavement of the bridge was up, over which great loads
of goods had to be drawn to the quay; there again I saw these
horses coming with their great loads of goods, which they could
not draw through the mud more than a few yards at once, drag
themselves almost to the ground, and I never saw one refuse to
draw again and again.

hae Coulee my resolution to have one of them; so I made
an arrangement with a principal dealer in Paris, and in 1856
bought the horse I call “ N apoleon,” which Mr. Danie has asked
about. I have never once regretted the purchase. He has been
worked on my farm ever since, almost always with mares. I
have never had so good, quiet, active, and powerful a horse
before. In no one instance has he given us any trouble. He is
unlike our English cart-horses, for with great size (164 hands high)
and immense substance, he shows a dash of blood. He has an
Arabian head, not small, but of fine character, well proportioned.
to his size. The neck is very muscular and well turned, the
shoulders large, very deep, without lumps on the sides, and
oblique, such in shape as would not be objected to for a riding
horse. The bosom open, the fore legs magnificent and very
short, with great bone, hard sinews, and with little hair upon
them. His feet are perfect in shape, and perfectly sound in
work; his back short, rather dipped, round-shaped ribs, large
loins, rather plain drooping hind-quarters, very large thighs, low
down, and tightly joined together with prodigiously powerful
clean hocks, and very short hind legs, well under him. We
never have had a difficulty with the engine or thrasher, or with
anything in the mud that Nap. could not extricate us from. His
stock are as good and kind as possible. It is a saying with the
men, that Nap.’s colts want no breaking. My mares are small
‘and active; the stock are considerably larger than the dams} but
so cleanly, that as foals they look more like carriage horses.

I think the cart mares to work and breed should be of
moderate size, from 154 to 16 hands. ‘They should be long,
low, wide, and handsome, compactly made, with short backs,
arching downwards, and with wide, table-shaped loin. The
legs should be short and clean, the bone large, especially
behind. They should be ‘good walkers, and as I recommend
working the mares on the farm, the high stepping action must
not be overlooked. The mares should not be put to the horse
to produce foals before the grass comes in May, when the
work of the farm is very much abated, the mares can be spared

Breeding Horses. 259

for a short time, the grass will be convenient for the milk, and
the weather warm for the foals. ‘These will do well with the
mares at grass (after being kept in for a few nights) till the
autumn. I work my mares moderately, up to the day of foaling,
and I think it assists the operation; but they should not be put
to snatching, distressing work. When the foals are weaned in
the autumn, they must have shelter, and be well kept. A few
oats, cut roots, cut hay, and a little bran, will do well for them
till they go to grass again in the following summer, during which
time the colts must be castrated. In the winter they may again
be kept in the sheds. They should never be allowed to get poor.
They will be useful at three years old, and do half the. work of
horses, if kept in a cool, well-ventilated stable.

I have just read some observations made by Mr. Ruck, in the
course of his recent lecture upon steam cultivation, delivered
before the Royal Agricultural Society. He describes the incon-
venience he has suffered from the illness of his farm horses, which
appears to me excessive when I compare it with my own expe-
rience. I will therefore detail with some minuteness how I
think such misfortunes may be avoided by gentlemen equally
unfortunate with Mr. Ruck, who are compelled to employ horses
in consequence of their farms being too small to allow of the use
of Mr. Fowler’s steam-tackle.

With the aid of three illustrations I will describe the stable in
which the cart-horse can live healthily, consume his food without
waste, while the liquid manure is economised for the highest
fertilising purposes. (See pp. 260, 261.)

The stable should not be less than 18 feet wide, and of such a
length as will allow a 6-feet standing for each horse. It should be
10 feet high. The horses stand in a single row, and the harness
is hung on pegs in the wall behind them. This width admits of
thorough ventilation to the stable, without subjecting the horses to
draughts. Each standing should be parted off by an upright post
reaching from the ground to the ceiling rafter, placed 3 feet off
from the wall at the horse’s head. These partitions should be
closely boarded up 3 feet above the manger and hay crib, to pre-
vent the horses quarrelling about the food, and kicking each other.
To each of these posts a bale, 8 feet long and 1 foot 8 inches wide,
should be hung by a strong chain, to divide the standings, and
suspended by another strong chain at the hinder end from the
ceiling rafter. Each chain should have a hook and eye within
reach, that may be readily unfastened. This arrangement will leave
a space of 6 feet opposite the head of each horse, available for
feeding purposes. The manger for corn and chaff may be made
2 feet 6 inches long. It should be 2 feet wide at the top; 1 foot

260 Breeding Horses.

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Breeding Horses. 261

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2 inches at the bottom. The hay and straw, which should be
cut into 6-inch lengths, will require a larger receptacle, which
should be 3 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet wide at its upper part, and
half that width below. It should be so constructed, that while
even with the manger above, it should reach to the ground,
2 feet above which should be fixed to the wall a bottom, sloping
to 1 foot above the ground in the front, where some upright
openings should be cut, so as to admit of the escape of the seeds
and dirt.

At the top of this hay and straw crib, an iron rack with bars
6 inches apart should be so hung as to open up and fall back
against the wall to let the fodder be put in, and then be put
down upon it for the horse to eat through. It should be so much
smaller than the opening that it can fall down with the fodder
as it is consumed, by which means not a particle is wasted.
The manger may be constructed of yellow deal 14 inches thick
for the front, back, and ends; the bottom of slate three-quarters
of aninch thick. The top of the front and ends should be covered
with half-round iron, 24 inches wide, screwed on to project over
the front outside a quarter of an inch, and three-quarters of an
inch inside ghe manger. This prevents the food being tossed
out, and the manger being gnawed. A short post must be put
up as near the’ centre of the standing as possible to support the
manger, into which a large screw ring must be put to let the
chain or rope of the headstall pass freely up and down without

262 Breeding Horses.

constant friction. ‘The manger may be 3 feet 6 inches from the
ground to the top; the hay-crib of course the same height.

The paving of the standings 3 feet 6 inches from the head
should be flat, then with a fall from both sides to the centre,
where an angle iron drain of 4 inches wide from out to out, with
a removable flat iron cover fitted to the inside of it, should be
placed straight down the standing, with a fall into another larger
cross main drain 10 feet 6 inches from the head, so placed as
to carry away the urine from all the smaller drains into a tank
outside the stable. This main drain so placed takes the urine
from the mares, and has a loose cover also fitted to it, easily
removed for sweeping out when necessary, perhaps once a week.
This system keeps the stable healthy, economises the urine, and
the straw also, the latter very important where it can be sold, or
consumed as food. The width of 18 feet for the stable gives
room for narrow corn bins 3 feet high, so that each carter may
have his horses’ corn separate.

The ventilation is the most important feature in the construc-
tion of the stable ; upon it depends the health of all the horses,
and consequently their usefulness. No stable should be without
a constant change of air, and no horse in it should feel the
draught. The two ends of the stable may be so contrived as to
effect this object in this manner. Take 12 feet from the head
wall to the opening for the stable-door; allow 8 inches for the
two door-posts, and 4 feet 6 inches for the door, This will leave
10 inches between the door-post farthest from the horses and the
back wall. This space, from the ground to the top of the door,
should be left open, and covered with strong rabbit wirework,
which should be permanently fixed. The door should be 7 fect
high, and cut into two parts, horizontally, at a height of 4 feet.
The lower part may be kept shut while the horses are in; the
upper 3 feet may be open or shut, according to the state of the
atmosphere. Mine are seldom shut, except the wind is blowing
heavily in; we then close that end. There is another commpni-
cation with the outer air between the door and the ceiling. The
opening may be 3 feet long, and so placed that one end is
against the back wall. It should have zinc, perforated with a
quarter-of-an-inch hole, permanently fastened over it. This
arrangement will keep the stable sweet and the horses healthy.
I have no communication from the stable to the loft above for
any purpose, as I have learnt by observation that this promotes
draughts which are highly injurious to the eyes. The stable
should be ceiled, for the convenience of lime-whiting. Plenty
of light should be admitted from the hinder wall, by narrow
fixed windows here and there, made of slabs of strong glass,

Breeding Horses. 263

never to be opened. Windows opening in bad directions, and
open skylights, kill horses by wholesale. The arrangement I
have described is suited for ten horses.

Where 18 feet cannot be had, 17, or even 16, may be made to
do, by taking 6 inches from the width of the door, and the rest
from the space between the door and the head wall.

It is important that the water—of which cart-horses are allowed
to drink about as much as they like—should be exposed to the
atmosphere at least six hours before: they are allowed to have it ;
and they should never be allowed to drink till they have eaten
something. The colic (commonly called gripes) is almost always
occasioned by their taking large quantities of cold water into
empty stomachs,

Cart-horses, more particularly than any others, are subject to
greasy heels and farcy legs, the treatment of which I leave to
the veterinary surgeon; but my experience has taught me that
in almost all cases they may be avoided, by not allowing the
farm-servants to wash them in the pond nor in the stable when
they return from their work. Neither of these operations would
produce the disease if they were rubbed dry immediately, but as
it is impossible to get this done, I have stopped the washing
entirely ; if the dirt cannot be rubbed off, I allow it to remain on
and dry upon their legs. The adoption of this system many
years since has completely prevented the occurrence of those
diseases.

The temperature of the cart-horse stable should be as little above
the external air as may be, to keep the inmates comfortably warm.
You should never feel, nor smell, that you are ina stable. The
working cart-horse, when turned out to grass in the summer, may
have in the stable 8 or 10 lbs. of bruised oats mixed with a
little hay and straw cut together into chaff. In the winter time
he will consume, entirely in the stable, of bruised oats 10 lbs. ;
of hay and straw cut together, 7 lbs. each; of cut roots 28 lbs.,
given with the oats and chaff. This style of feeding will cost
in summer about 11d. per day for each horse, besides the grass,
and 1s. 2d. per day in winter. When roots cannot be had, 1 Ib.
of dry bran to each horse per day may be used instead. When
horses work excessively, a small quantity of split beans may be
given in addition, but I do not advocate this; I do not like
beans for cart-horses, and very seldom indeed give any.

I have now done with the cart-horse, with which I am sure
I have severely taxed the patience of my readers, and proceed to
another kind of draught horse, the like of which I think I may
safely say there is not in Europe, if there be in any part of the
world, the London carriage-horse. I need hardly say how much

264 Breeding Horses.

I admire them; I feel sure everybody everywhere admires them
as much as { do. It is the breeding of them of which I am
to write, not of themselves. My observation and experience in
breeding them induce me to think they are more surely bred,
more easily sold, at an earlier age, with less trouble and more
profit, than any other class, They may be bred, too, from mares
that can do the work of the farm thoroughly well. The Cleve-
land bay, the Scotch gray, and the Clydesdale mare, put to the
good thorough-bred horse, will all breed capital carriage-horses
for the London market. If the mares are well selected, and the
high-stepping action not overlooked, very valuable horses indeed
may be thus produced. Where this is aimed at, more attention
must be paid to fine heads and necks than is necessary for cart
use. Thorough-bred mares breed first-rate horses, put to a good
cleanly three-parts-bred cart-stallion. The young stock intended
to come out early, at three years old off, must not be neglected in
their early keeping ; if they are, force-meat must be had recourse
to, and then follow the strangles, distemper, roaring, lameness,
&c., &c., which I need not parade before my readers, who are
in some instances too well acquainted with them, without,
perhaps, having ascertained the cause.

Before concluding with draught-horses, I must not omit .to
mention what appears to me an important guide in selecting
horses for their different purposes. They all have either to
draw or carry weight—two distinct purposes. The line of the
vertebrae indicates to which of these purposes they can work
with advantage to themselves. If the backbone is arched
downwards, they cannot carry weight. If it is arched upwards,
they cannot draw weight. The horse to carry, should have
the arch upwards; and the horse to draw, should have the
arch gently downwards; in other words, be rather hollow-
backed. It took me a great deal of time and trouble to dis=
cern this, and | am anxious to impress it forcibly on my readers.
I observed that my horses working in harness with low backs were
in good condition ; and those with high backs, poor. I saw the
fact, but for a long while could not ascertain the cause. What is
the cause of this? is a question I put to myself as constantly as I
observed it. At last the answer came, ‘‘ The bridge that was so
strong one way, was equally weak the other.” I wish to illustrate
this more clearly to my readers. ‘The bridge arched upwards,
will carry almost any weight you can place upon it; turn it
upside down, and it can carry scarcely any weight at all. If the
horse has to carry weight, and the backbone is arched upwards,
it is in the position of the greatest strength; on the other hand,
if the horse has to draw, the forces brought into action will tend

Breeding Horses. 265

to press the spine upwards, and therefore a downward curvature
is the most advantageous formation. Horses with high backs
cannot push heavy weights back, for the same reason; the back-
bone, already bent up, is forced upward still more, the arch is
opened, and power is lost. The horse with low back, if willing,
- can push back almost any weight, because the weight is pressed
against the lower side of the arch; which, being bent downwards,
is strengthened by the pressure. Should my explanation not appear
clear to my readers, I advise them to put into the plough, side by
side, a horse with a high back, and one with a low back, and
observe whether the high back does not bend up higher by his
work, and whether the low back does not remain in its fixed
position. That which bends is weak; it cannot bear the pressure
upwards. The horse would say at the end of his day’s work, if
he could speak, ‘* How my back does ache!”

The fixed position of the vertebrae indicates the power of the
brute as wel] as the power of the man; the loose, wabbling back
cannot endure in any animal.

The carriage-horse is expected to make a handsome appear-
ance, carry his head high, his knee well up, and to rely entirely
upon his driver where he is to go to an inch. He is partly
blinded by the winkers, and very much prevented seeing his way
by the bearing-rein. Not so the riding-horse; his eyes are
unmasked, his head at liberty to pick his way for himself and
his master too. While the carriage-horse is looking up to the
drawing-room window to be admired by the ladies, the riding-
horse should be looking where his next fvot is to be placed upon
the ground to give confidence to the rider. His neck should be
lighter, and capable of being easily arched. It is very disagree-
able to me to have a high stand-up harness neck before me. I
prefer a light neck, not very long, and shoulders so long as that,
when I am on his back and he in a trot, I can see his knee at
work before me. This gives the rider a good seat, and places
the weight well back upon the horse where he can carry it. The
hind legs should be well under him, the fore legs short, feet
sound, the hips low and flat: wide, high hips are ugly, and
objectionable in all horses.

It may be accepted as a rule, “that the horse that walks well,
can either trot or gallop well ;” not unfrequently both. The best
hacks I have seen have been bred from good strong pony mares
and thorough-bred horses. You cannot have too much blood in
your riding-horses ; but less can be done with in the hack than in
the hunter, in whom pace and endurance are wanted, besides par-
ticularly good wind, and also round action, to accommodate
himself to ridge and furrow, and carry his master safely home

266 Breeding Horses.

after the sport of the day. The same shape as for the hack is
the perfection of shape for the hunter ; but a little more length, a
little more size, and not less than three parts blood, will be
required to go ina good place with hounds: 15:3 to 16 hands is
the perfection of size, and quite thorough-bred is the perfection
of breeding. The back should be particularly good, the hind
legs short, and well under the weight to be carried.

The drainage of the stable of the cart-horse, carriage-horse,
hack, and hunter, can all be carried out in the same way with
advantage to them all alike: the mangers and hay-cribs should
be constructed as already described.

Instead, however, of dividing the standings with bales, as with
cart-horses, it is better to have boarded partitions, enclosing stalls
six feet or six feet six inches wide, and ten feet long. The
ventilation should be arranged upon the same principle, with a
fixed amount of inlet and outlet, in addition to which another
portion, under the control of the head of the stable, may be made
available according to the variations of the atmosphere. Horses
doing fast work and light of flesh, will bear more warmth than
those working slowly. The stable should never be without a
change of air. The temperature should never be above 60°
Fahr., except when the external atmosphere is above it. Every
hunting establishment should have a hot-water apparatus, a
plentiful supply of water, and a bath-room to wash the horses
in as soon as they return from the field. Loose boxes, sixteen
feet square, are absolutely necessary in every horse establishment ;
some of which should be separated from the others for sick
horses. I have said something about the necessity of blood in
the breeding of horses, but, knowing what I do, I never think I
have said enough. I have hinted at the great difference between
the want of care and attention taken by the breeders of horses in
their selection of stallions as compared with that taken by the
same class of persons breeding cattle, sheep, and pigs, and think
I have not overstated the truth. Every person who has seen the
great change which has taken place in the quality of the animals
produced throughout England, Ireland, and Scotland (horses only
excepted), will admit that the improvement of them is marvel-
lous; while horses alone have become deteriorated almost in the
same degree. Why is this? It is because they have all had .
more care bestowed upon them: the production even of pigs has
been more actively cared for than the breeding of thorough-bred
horses (except by racing men for racing purposes). It is simply
because the breeders of the inferior animals, since the establish-
ment of Agricultural Societies, have been well rewarded with
prizes, while the best thorough-bred horses in England, the most

Breeding Horses. 267

important class to our national welfare, have been very much
neglected. The prizes given to every class of bullock, sheep,
and pig, male and female of every age, have so far exceeded
those given to thorough-bred horses, that the latter have not been
worth competing for. That is not the only reason; there is
another important one. It is that formerly the Royal Plates of
100/. each were given for competition all over England for four-
year-old horses carrying 10 stone 4 lbs., five years old, 11 stone
6 lbs., six and aged, 12 stone, and decided in four-mile heats.
These prizes were a great inducement to breeders to endea-
vour to get horses of size and substance, and to keep them
when got. As long as these Royal Plates were given to horses
carrying these high weights, strong thorough-bred horses were
bred and kept, which in the end broke down, and became the
most valuable acquisition to breeders of horses in all parts of
the country. Having become blemished, they were no longer
desired by foreigners, and continued the remaining portion of
their lives at home, helping to produce a race of horses with
size, substance, blood, and action. From their stock the most
valuable hunters, hacks, and carriage-horses were selected, and
from the less well-favoured the cavalry was especially well
mounted.

Our horses were then the envy of the whole of Europe.
These Royal Plates for high weights and long distances brought
up our horses to this point of excellence: so long as they were
so given, so long we kept our supremacy; but, by some unfor-
tunate influence, the conditions were altered, and lighter weights
and shorter distances allowed. From this point I date, under
my own observation, the commencement of the deterioration
of our thorough-bred horses, and consequently of those of every-
day use. I saw the commencement of the evil; I now see
the consequence. There was no longer any inducement to
breeders to retain their great strong two-year-old colts; they
could not run at that age, neither could they at three years
old struggle with moderate-sized horses. The best horse ever
produced in England could not race at two nor at three years
old; he was not only the fastest and the stoutest of any period,
but he was one of the most powerful—this horse was Eclipse.
If he had been of these days, in all probability his fate would
have been sealed at three years old; he would have been sold
as a great slow brute to some foreigner, coming among us to
make such purchases at a small sum, as most of our large-sized,
unfurnished horses have been, till there is hardly one left. Since
there is nothing further to run for at four years old, they must be
sold, I can speak positively from my own knowledge to this state

268 Breeding Horses.

of things; the alteration of these plates and other Turf arrange-
ments have combined to produce quite another class of race-
horse—a slippery, slender, small horse, that comes quickly to per-
fection, and as quickly passes away.

The adoption of handicaps at all country races is another
evil; nearly all the important races are handicaps, instead of
weight for age. This tends to make all horses equal, and give
to all, good and bad, an equal chance of winning: speed is
substituted for substance; horses are tried at two years old for
speed ; if slow they are cast, and the expense of training stopped.
This promotes sport and produces betting; and _ therefore
answers the purpose of sportsmen, but it is ruinous to the
national supply of horses. Sportsmen are anxious to make
their own game; they do make it by these means, but the
national interest is not served. The nation should take care that
the nation’s horses are not ruined by giving money to produce
that end. The Royal Gifts were bestowed expressly with the
national object of improving our general breed of horses, which
was brought to a high state of perfection by the means used.
The conditions of the plates were altered, we have failed in our
aim, and now have two classes of horses—blood horses without
substance, and strong horses without blood. Both are bad for
common purposes. We want the combination of strong blood
horses with the country mares of all kinds. We shall get it by
retracing our steps and’ returning to the old plan—the Royal
Plates for four-year-olds, 10 stone 4 lbs. for five, 11 stone 6 lbs.,
six and aged, 12 stone, not four-mile heats, as of old, but one
four-mile race. This, I think, must be the starting-point, if we
are ever to recover our lost position for fine strong blood horses.
Nothing can be expected from Turf arrangements; wretched as
the system is, of making good and bad equal, and destructive as
it is to the quality of our horses, it does promote sport, and it
does produce betting—the final object of keeping race-horses.
It would be a great stimulus to the recovery if His Royal High-
ness the Prince of Wales (who well knows the value of blood in
horses ridden across the country) were to add some Royal Plates
for the same high weights, varying the distance to a race of
three miles.

The money given by Lords Lieutenants of Counties, the Mem-
bers of Parliament, and for town-plates, should all be given with
the national interest in view, and this would assist very much to
expedite the improvement. This should be followed up by
Agricultural Societies’ prizes for these horses, as though they
were of equal importance with cattle, sheep, and pigs; prizes
should be given for thorough-bred horses of three, four, five years,

Breeding Horses. 269

and aged horses, such as have served mares during the season
as country stallions, at a country price: blemishes should not
exclude; but only lame feet, unsound wind, spavins, and curbs,
all of which may affect the rising generation. Prizes for geldings
seem to me to be unnecessary, and can have no effect upon the
object required.

When a prize of 100/. was given by the Royal Agricultural
Society at Battersea, the best stallions were brought from all parts
of the country—even a Derby winner, to whom was awarded the
prize. Nevertheless, the object of the Society was not obtained.
It is not a winner of the Derby or St. Leger—a horse that will never
be taken from his own stable door—that should come to an
Agricultural Show, exhibit himself there, and walk off with the
prize; but it is a good strong thorough-bred country stallion that
is available for the use of the ordinary mares of the country.
This prize did, however, indicate a great fact ; a hint suggestive
of what may be done by the 100/. prizes towards restoring our
losses, and bringing us back again to our original position. It
has illustrated the great principle that such rewards are highly
esteemed by the owners of valuable horses, and will induce
them to keep them to show for such prizes; and there surely is
greatneed of them. The country isso ill supplied with thorough-
bred horses that it is almost impossible to find a useful short-legged
thorough-bred horse that can carry 12 stone across the country.
This loss is immense; there is no substitute for blood ; there is
no elegant carriage-horse without it, no good quick-stepping hack
without it, and no fast, enduring hunter without a great deal of it.

The anxious breeder, who knows the value of it, will say,
“ Where am I to find it?” I must admit that this is very difficult
now ; it was not so a few years since. Blood-horses have been
getting worse and worse. Great studs of such animals were
formerly kept; and many of them, too, in my recollection, all
over Yorkshire, as well as in many other counties: they occasion-
ally won a Derby, and not unfrequently a St. Leger. Those
that were not so fortunate carried their masters with hounds;
carried their masters’ huntsmen and whippers, and made valuable
country stallions. Those bred now are light, weedy, powerless
and worthless in every national point of view.

Our cavalry must feel this wonderful falling off. If they should
be again brought to contend with some hostile power, it will be
seen that although we have not lost the steel of our men, we have
lost the energy of our horses. Let it not be overlooked that
blood gives pace ; pace is power. Blood carries weight ; it is said
that a thorough-bred horse carrying 32 stone for four miles beat the
best and strongest horse that could be found, not thorough-bred.

270 Breeding Horses.

Blood gives life; the thorough-bred horse lives longer in work
than any other. Our horses have fallen off wofully since the
battle of Waterloo; and those of our friends now, who were
opposed to us then, have been as much improved as ours have
been deteriorated. The Emperor of Russia also has so improved
the horses of his Imperial Guard that I believe he has 10,000
men better mounted than any 10,000 men in England or any-
where else.

The remedy is in our own hands. Let Her Majesty’s Plates
of 100/. be re-established for high weights and long distances ; let
the Prince of Wales throw his influence into the scale, and the
nation follow the example,—it is a national subject, and worthy
of all the patronage that can be bestowed upon it. The Agricule
tural Societies of the United Kingdom should follow on with the
Royal Agricultural Society, and call for weight-carrying, tho-
rough-bred stallions. We may thus recover what we have lost,
and again possess some, useful animals capable of doing good
service to the country.

Be it ever remembered that, however bad may be the horses
available for the general use, those upon which the cavalry
are mounted will be worse still; whilst, if horses at large are
better bred, the army will be better supplied. I have sent six
mares fifty miles to a thorough-bred stallion that I saw at Batter-
sea. I would advise any anxious breeder to look at those exhibited
at the Royal Agricultural Show, with the view of selecting one
for his purpose for the ensuing year; there are a few left; but
they are very few indeed.

In conclusion, let me remark that most of the observations
and opinions which I have expressed have not been adopted at
random as chance suggested, but have resulted from what may
be called the statistics of the stable. It was my habit early in
life to keep ina book for the year a detailed account of every
horse I bought, his age, pedigree, colour, quality, defects, and
native district, number him, and give him a name significant of
the horse as far as possible, to impress him on my memory.»
These were all entered when he was bought, and the chief inci-
dents of his career were added from time to time afterwards.
At the end of the year all these circumstances were brought
together and formed a summary of the year’s transactions, con-
sisting of—

The horses bought in.

' The horses cast and sold out; why each was cast and sold.
Those killed accidentally ; how killed.
Those that died ; the cause of death, and where.

Breeding Horses. 271

At the commencement of the new year all those horses re-
maining in stock were re-entered by my own hand in a new book,
which stated in whose possession they were to be found, with
every important particular attached to them for further obser-
vation.

As the list always contained several hundred horses, a great
mass of evidence grew out of it, which often forced upon my
notice views which I had by no means anticipated. ‘Such views,
properly grouped and recorded, confirmed by subsequent obser-
vation, may be considered as the legitimate laws for the breed-
ing and management of horses, based upon what our neighbours
call the logic of facts. And here I will mention one case in
particular as to the comparative duration of life of horses.
Apart from accidental circumstances, they live longer in the
same kind of work, in proportion as they are employed at a pace
below what they are capable of going. “ Pace kills,” is an old
proverb, and is equally true as it is old. The cart-horse working
in a cart is old at 16, and dies out generally at about 20 years of
age. ‘The coach-horse, doing the same work, is old at 20, and
finishes his career at about 25. The race-horse working at the
same pace will work till 30 and sometimes till 35 years old.
Each class must be understood to draw weights in proportion to
the weight of the horses. I note these circumstances because f
consider, first, that the value of my opinions depends upon
their origin; next, because I hope that others may be in-
duced to follow up the same system of observation; and lastly,
to give an instance showing how every careful record of facts
becomes a substantial contribution towards the advancement of
knowledge.

If by my advocacy of this cause I should produce such a
change in the system of breeding horses as to recover the size
and substance of the thorough-bred horses of the last century, I
‘shall have the pleasure of feeling I have done my country im-
portant service.

XVIII.— On the Reclaiming of Waste Lands as instanced in Wich-
wood Forest. By C. Beicuer.

. ; Prize Essay.

Tue term ‘‘ Waste” is sufficient to arouse the attention of every

thoughtful person. In manufactures and arts, matter which for

ages had been considered worse than worthless, has, by the

ingenuity of man, been turned to useful purposes, and in many
VOL. XXIV. z

272 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

instances caused a great increase in the comforts and luxuries of
the human race. These facts are of themselves encouraging to
everyone whose thoughts turn towards agricultural improvements.
Did space permit, perhaps it would be interesting to inquire the
reason why, in the present day, we have any waste land in
England, and why it is that some of the surplus capital of this
great country, which appears to flow so freely towards any new
scheme that offers the slightest chance of profit, has not been
applied on a very large scale to the thousands of acres that at
present lie almost barren and uncared for. According to the
best authorities on the subject, there are in the British Islands
some 20,000,000 acres of waste land! Of this number 4,000,000
acres are said to be capable of profitable cultivation by plough
or spade, and 8,000,000 acres, though not likely, in consequence
of their peculiar situation, ever to bear corn with advantage,
might still be rendered fit for the pasturage of cattle and sheep.
Such being the case, perhaps, an account of what has recently
been done in the way of reclaiming a large tract of land belong-
ing to the Crown, may have a general pe and may pos-
sibly stimulate some owner of waste land to commence such a
work of improvement himself, or by a long lease and liberal
covenants, to induce an enterprising tenant to embark the neces-
sary capital on a similar undertaking.

In the year 1853 an Act of Parliament was passed for the
disafforestment of the ancient forest of Wichwood. Under this
Act a considerable tract of land has been reclaimed ; and it is the
object of the following pages to describe the various operations
by which one large portion of this land (the Queen’s allotment)
was brought into cultivation ; to give an account of the expenses
incurred ; to make some remarks on this clearance in particular,
and also some additional observations on the reclamation of land
generally,

Wichwood Forest and the Disafforestment Act.—By referring
to a map of Oxfordshire, the reader will see a large portion of
the S.W. corner marked Wichwood. It was a Royal forest, ahd
comprised an area of 3778 acres. It was stocked with deer
(principally the fallow deer), and was subject to the rights of
the Crown, the hereditary Ranger, and a number of commoners,
in the year 1853, when an Act was passed for its disafforestment.
Three Commissioners were appointed to carry it into effect ;
they were Mr, Serjeant Channell (now one of the Barons of the
Exchequer), Francis Offley Martin, sq., and Nathan Wetherell,
Esq. These gentlemen appointed Mr, Thomas Smith Woolley
as their valuer, and Mr. William Brian Wood, of Chippenham,
Wilts, as their surveyor, John Clutton, Esq., of Whitehall

: Reclaiming of Waste Lands. " 273

Place, London, acted as the surveyor to estimate the rights of
the Crown. :
Survey of Wichwood Forest.—By the survey then made, it

appeared that the forest contained—
Acres. Roods. Poles.

Nineteen coppices Bey. lee, «chun Tepe te ae ee I 20
Open forest, much covered with timber and | 1766 3 12

RUWOO se! foe! oe on! | aes Sea ea
The lodges with their enclosures oy eel oe | AS 3 33
A few small encroachments siping) Shy) een) Li. I 39
PRTAL 75, | letda ape) eseha an nO 2 31

Public Roads.—The Commissioners first made public roads,
and these were well placed for the convenience of all parties
interested. Their whole length amounted to about 10 miles,
and the cost of their construction, with a boundary-wall on each
side, to 6985/.—mnearly 7001. per mile. This may appear a
small sum for such work; but the abundant supply of oolitic
stone in the district rendered it sufficient for the purpose. The
whole cost of these roads and walls was defrayed by the proceeds
of the sale of outlying portions of the forest land, in accordance
with the Act of Parliament.

The roads were laid out 30 feet in width, the centre track
‘15 feet wide, and where necessary the soil from this part was
removed to a depth of nearly 2 feet, and a good foundation of
rough stones put in, on the top of which broken stones were
placed with a proper slope to each side; the price paid for
making these roads, including digging the stones (and cartage
where required), ranged from 3J. to 4/. 8s. per chain. The walls
were also- built by contract; the price for building, digging the
stones, and cartage, was 24s. to 26s. per chain, for the ordinary
height of 4 feet 3 inches. In a few places, such as deep cuttings,
the walls were much higher, and the cost was proportionately
larger.

The Award and the Crown Allotment.—As before stated,
Wichwood Forest was subject to the rights of the Crown, the
hereditary Ranger, and a great many commoners; probably
some of these latter had established themselves through long
custom, and neglect in past ages. Before the award was finally
settled, every claim was carefully and thoroughly examined by
the Commissioners; and though it could not be expected that
every claimant would be satisfied with their decision, yet it is
generally acknowledged that no work of, such magnitude was
ever completed where the parties interested had less cause for
discontent.

On the 13th of July, 1857, the award of the Commissioners

T 2

274 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

was executed; by it the Crown acquired an allotment of 2543
acres; this was subsequently increased by purchase and other-
wise to 2937 acres. Of this portion about 1970 acres were
unreclaimed forest land, dense, dark, and gloomy; its silence
seldom disturbed, except by the axe of the woodman, the gun of
the gamekeeper, or the stealthy tread of the deerstealer. The
clearing of this land was commenced in October, 1856, and
completed in January, 1858, all in the short space of one year
and four months, at a cost of 5815/.* It is to the clearing and
reclaiming of the Crown allotment that this report has reference.
Many other smaller portions of the forest land have been brought
into cultivation with various degrees of success, according to
the different modes of management adopted by the numerous
occupiers.

Herds of Forest Deer.—The first thing to be done was to get
rid of the deer, of which from time immemorial extensive herds
had been kept in Wichwood ; and doubtless England’s monarchs
had often led the chase here, followed by attendant nobles, amid
a chorus of horns and hounds; sweet music to the ear of the
hunter ; but as we have to deal with common matters of fact, we
must leave such scenes and times to be recorded and depicted by
poets and painters.

The Commissioners’ order had gone forth against the deer, ©
“Jet not one remain.” Some few were caught alive in nets, and
taken away to stock distant parks; but by far the greater number
had to be killed, and to effect this purpose, the keepers were
fully employed; to assist in the slaughter, guns and gunners
came from the surrounding: neighbourhood ; and many a sports-
man, whose largest game had hitherto been blackbirds, could
afterwards boast of the number of deer that had fallen to his
fowling-piece !

As a complete clearance was to be made, bucks, does, and
fawns, in season or out of season, shared the same fate, and the
taste of venison was known in cottage as well as hall.

Clearance of Brushwood and Timber.—After all the deer had
been removed, the clearance of timber and brushwood began ;
no man able end willing to work was rejected, Hundreds and
hundreds of men and boys were engaged, some cutting the light
wood and laying it in drift, some tying the firewood into faggots, _
some preparing the larger pieces for posts and fencing, and others
busy felling the timber trees, or stripping off the bark. Gra-
dually and steady was the advance, like that of an invading

* This sum does not include the cost of felling the large trees ; a cash account of
that work will be found in another page.

Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

275

army; such an army, however, as might have been looked on
with pleasure, even by a member of the Peace Society.
was heralded by the rustling sound of the brushwood, and the
crashing noise which echoed through the glades when some
spreading oak, a forest sire, fell prostrate, and intimated that the
sylvan glories of old Wichwood were drawing to a close,

Timber and Tree-throwing Machine.-—Many

It

of the smaller

timber trees and larger bushes were pulled down by Fowler’s
tvee-throwing machine, which did the work quickly and effectually.
This machine consisted of the horse-tackle, windlass, drum and
rope, of a draining or mole plough. The wire rope was run out
to a considerable length, and from it branched out (in different
directions and at various distances) chains which were hooked to

a good many trees and large bushes at once.

The windlass was

turned by two horses, and when they were set in motion the

Account showing the Receipt from, and the EXPENDITURE incurred in,
felling and disposing of the Timber upon the Crown Estate preparatory to
the Land being Grubbed for Cultivation.

RECEIPT.

To amount received for

oak and other timber |

To amount received for
BEMEAt gh te ve

To amount received for
cordwood, faggots, &c.

‘To value of timber and
materials supplied for
fencing on the estate

To miscellaneous re-
ceipts.. oe

- -

To estimated value of |

timber left standing
for shelter, &c... ..

21,823

2,450

24,273 6 5

}

EXPENDITURE.

By cost of felling, hew-
ing, and preparing
timber for sale

By cost of carting tim-
ber, and conveying
to Woolwich the tim-
ber purchased by the
War Department ..

By cost of stripping
bark (including the
felling of the trees
from which it was
taken) ..

By discount allowed to
purchasers

| By cost of making

eordwood, faggots,
rails for fencing, &e.

| By wages of woodmen,

auctioneer’s charges
for selling produce,
dinners to purchasers,
advertisements, and
receiver's poundage
on receipts .. «-

By balance .. ..

2,491

~
re)

276 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

tightest chain worked first, and when that had pulled down its
tree, the chief strain fell upon another chain, and brought it
into full play, and so on till all had chante their weok. It
required three men to assist in this labour. After paying all
the expenses attendant on felling and hewing the trees, stripping
the bark, making the faggots, carting the timber according to
agreement with the purchasers, and several other charges con-
nected with this department, there remained a clear balance of
16,5312., which is shown in the preceding table (page 275), where
also each item of expenditure is clearly set out.

Grubbing the Land.—When the timber and brushwood had
all been cleared away, much heavy work remained to be done ;
in many places a complete network of roots spread through the
soil, and the hard, tough, stumps of trees that had been formerly
felled, also remained in the ground. All these impediments
caused serious hindrances to the men employed in grubbing ;
but stout tools, and the strong arms of Englishmen, are seldom
overcome by difficulties. Ata cost of 6233/. 10s., or rather less
than 3/. 10s. per acre (including superintendence), this part of the
work was accomplished ; some of the roots were carried away to
serve as fuel for 'the cottagers near; but great quantities were
burned on the land, rough firewood in the district having become
so abundant, that it was not considered worth the expense of
cartage. ‘The following table gives the particulars :—

Cost of Grubbing 1903 Acres of Forest-land to render it fit for Cultivation.

; “apt ine
Labonr and materials, including the purchase of) po15 s
5812 8 oO
Fowler’s machine, env of horses to work it 3
Surveyor’s charges, and wages of Local Su perintendent
491 4 i
and loreman tila OR i LA a A

6303 12.6
Gr. Maclimmesand Horses.saldie, a6: eee (ee ede 7 2. 16
Total expenditure in grubbing .. .. .. 6233 10 O 7

Fencing.—The Commissioners had fenced the public roads.
with dry stone walls; the fences required to divide the land into
farms were made with white-thorn quicks; first, lines were
drawn in the required directions, and the ground was trenched ~
about 3 feet wide, two rows of quicks (200 to a chain) were
then planted on the level, and they were protected from injury
by rough posts and rails on each side; the whole of this work,
including materials, cost 28s. per chain. The contractor was
bound by his agreement, to keep the young hedges clean, ‘and
the posts and rails in substantial order, for five years after com-

Reclaiming of Waste Lands. 27

pletion; these young fences have grown vigorously, and where
they have been carefully tended, promise to becorne in a few
years, thoroughly efficient barriers.

Farms.—The whole of the reclaimed land, together with some
old cultivated fields which formed part of the Queen’s allotment,
and some land that was purchased, was divided into seven
farms, as shown on the annexed map, which also points out the
position of the estate south of the West Midland Railway, near
to the ancient market-town of Burford, and about 5 miles north-
west of Witney, a town long celebrated for the manufacture of
blankets. The climate of this part of Oxfordshire is mild and
healthy ; the greater portion of this district in its geological
character belongs to the oolite, and has proved suitable for sheep
farming.

Farms let by Tender.—In 1858 the seven farms were advertised
to be let by tender on leases of thirty-one years, from October
10, 1857. In the -printed circular of information given to
persons wishing to become the tenants, it was stated that
buildings would be erected on the following conditions: 6 per
cent. per annum to be paid by the tenants on all moneys (ex-
pended in the erection of dwelling houses and farm buildings,
and 5 per cent. on cash spent in the erection of labourers’ cottages :
the conditions respecting the course of cropping and other
matters contained in a lease need not here be stated ; suffice it to
say, that the owner’s rights were fully protected, and at the same
time fair opportunity was afforded for enterprising tenants, to
gather the fruits of any extra outlay they may feel inclined to
make. ‘The game was left entirely to the care and control of
the tenants.

Tenders and Tenants.—As great publicity was given by the
newspapers and other means, to the fact that the seven farms
would be let on long leases, nearly two hundred persons, from
different parts of England and Scotland, anxious to rent land,
went to examine the Wichwood Estate; and as various as the
visitors, were the opinions formed respecting the capability of
the soil, and the probable results of its cultivation.

Nearly seventy tenders were sent in, and the following list
shows the names of the new tenants, the acreage of each farm,
and the quantity of forest land attached to each holding :—

MAP

OF AN

ESTATE BELONGING TO THE CROWN,

FORMERLY PART OF

WICHWOOD FOREST, OXFORDSHIRE,

Shy eae

|
|
"
|

Cornbury
Park

Hailey x

| oe:
Minster a.

SJ I= Ic Ff - 2
x“ S q eee wi) “
Asthal beep NSS S
i :
ire a
Scale , |
a7 6s842010 ! 2 Miles p <

eee ee cos

Reclaiming of Waste Lands. 279
Arable (Old Horie:
Name of Farm.| Cultivated | Pasture. nieade Forest Land. Total. Tenants.
Land).
a= MOHAN A, Bo Py as et P|) Aa Ra vBale dee obs Ps
Apeott., . ./j272 38 6/322'0 30;2 2 23 aS 307 1 38 Mr. Yapp.
High Lodge . /152 3 28} 6 3 12/0 3 41/399 0 96/559 2 30] Mr. Buckle.
Fair Spear 156 1 39 | 27 0 39/2 1 39] 444 0 29] 620 1 26] Mr. Buckle.
Langley weno 2 Bo 25, 2 IL | a 2 15 4-1 5} 298! 2-24! Fir Putt.
Potter’s Hill. | 2 0 35] 4 3 22/0 2 34/467 3 271/475 2 38] Mr. Belcher.
South Lawn ./ 2 1 24/51 3 3/1 3 1) 426 3 IL | 482 2 39] Mr. Smith. "
Leafield 38 1 30)18 2 0/2 1 21); 2 2 9} 88 3 20| Mr. Thomas.
890 2 35 |166 2 37/14 0 36/1771 3 27 |2843 2 15

The total expense incurred by the Crown in the reclamation
and increase of the estate, and in furnishing it with suitable

buildings, was as follows :—

General Account of Expenditure on the Crown Estate, Wichwood.

Purchases of additional land, and exchanges, surveyors’

charges, &c., &c.
Building Account—

The erection of two new farmhouses, with suitable
offices, &c. One bailiff’s house and offices. Six new
cottages for labourers. Four new farm homesteads
with stabling at each for fourteen horses, yards,

oe or - o- .- o- o-

cattle-sheds, barns, granaries, feeding-stalls, imple- 14,

ment-houses, nag-stables, and all suitable offices.
Also the erection of a water-wheel with tanks, pumps,
&c., for the supply of water at five homesteads, and
the enlargement of an old farmhouse _...
Grubbing 1903 acres of forest land to render it
cultivation sa
Fencing, superintendence, and suryeyor’s charge
Draining 78 acres 2 roods of old cultivated land
Construction of farm-roads, &c. .. So eee
Superintendent’s salary during the time all the works
were in progress, allowance to tenants, repairs of
roads, fences, &c., value of timber and stone supplied
from the estate, and miscellaneous charges

fit for

o- o-

\ Sas

30

174

Ry ates

Sie
es Oe oil
310 0
ao ¢ 10
OM 2a1k
ee eS
4 6 7%

26,988 14 4

Deduct the net sum received from the sale of timber,

&c., on the estate, including the value of the timber}16,531 4 4

left for shelter, &c.

-- o- ee oe oe - o.

Net outlay upon the estate

oe o-

.. 10,452 10 0

Present and Former Income from Wichwood Forest.—The present
rental of the farms on the Wichwood Estate is 5104J. 7s. 6d. per
annum; and the average net annual income from the Forest
during the five years prior to the disafforestation was 18131. 7s. 1d.

The account will stand thus :—

280 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

Present:annual return, <2 See been eee
Former annudl return 22) >. eee ee) eee

Net annual improved income .. 3291 0 5

The above account of the improved income from Wichwood,
as now under cultivation, must be highly satisfactory to us all
as patriotic Englishmen and loyal subjects; and prove en-
couraging to enterprising agriculturists, and all owners of “* Waste
Land.”

Effects of the Disafforestment of Wichwood.—Let us pause here
awhile and consider what effects have sprung, and are likely to
be produced, from the disafforestment of Wichwood. We have
seen that the annual cash return from this property has been
greatly increased; but however great may be the pecuniary
benefit to the Crown, the effect on the people of the neighbourhood
and the community generall y,is of more consequence. Formerly,
when deer and game abounded in the coverts, deer-stealers and
poachers, idlers and thieves, were numerous around; conflicts
between them and the keepers were frequent ; imprisonment and
transportation caused many families to lose their paternal head,
and where matters did not reach this point, perhaps the abiding
influences were still worse ; a stolen buck could readily be dis-
posed of; the amount paid for such plunder frequently amounted
to 21. or 3/.; but as ill-gotten booty is seldom well spent, the
beer-shops too often absorbed the greater part of the proceeds ;
there was squandered in dissipation, what had been dishonestly
obtained ; a deserted home, a neglected wife, and children left
to their own devices, filled up the background of this sad picture.*
Fortunately the chief incentive to such vicious courses died out
with the death of the last deer; honest employment can now be
obtained on the new farms ; each season brings its appointed work,
and none need be idle who wish to be busy. Poets and painters
may sigh because some fine woodland scenery has been swept
away; but, of what consequence is a magnificent view, when
compared eal that plenty which has taken the place of poverty,
or those habits of industry now firmly established, where dissi-
pation and crime once abounded ?

* The following is an extract from a small topographical description of the
county of Oxford, published many years ago :—* An enclosure of Wichweod Forest
would make a lar ge tract of land productive to the public; the morals of the-
eounty demand it: * this vicinity being filled with poachers, deer-stealers, thieves,
and pilferers of every kind; the poor-rates too are higher in the parishes that sur-
round the Forest than i in others under similar circumstances, except that of being
cut off from the Forest.”

Reclaiming of Waste Lands. 281

Visit to Wichwood by Memters of the Land-Surveyors’ Club.—
When the new farms had been occupied about nine months, the
estate was inspected by a considerable number of the members
of the Land-Surveyors’ Club. Their Report, then published
in the ‘Times’ and ‘other newspapers, speaks in the highest
terms of “the energy, talent, and judgment of the Crown
Surveyor,” adding that, “ From the general and comprehensive
arrangement down to the minutest detail, every part has been
maturely considered and admirably executed, and with as much
regard to economy, as consists with durability. The buildings
are conveniently arranged and constructed without any other
ornament than they derive from excellent proportion, and the
sites are judiciously selected in reference both to the occupation
of the land and the beauty of the prospects.” . . . “‘ For promptitude
of execution and quality of work, this conversion of Wichwood
Forest has hitherto been unequalled in this country; and
whether it is regarded as an undertaking of interest or a lesson
of instruction, it is equally worthy of inspection by the landowner
or the professional surveyor.”

Tenants’ Work.—The land when given into the hands of the
new tenants presented anything but a smooth, inviting appear-~
ance: wide ditches, and long, irregular high banks, that had
formed the boundaries of the different) coppices ; deep pits and
hollows, where stones had been dug for the use of bygone gene-
rations ; small straggling briars that had escaped the notice of
the woodgrubbers; roots of trees and underwood, left a few
inches below the surface, by oversight or intentional neglect on
the part of dishonest workmen; large patches of rough brown
fern-stems, that had afforded covert to the fawns: all these and
many other impediments stood in the way of the “ forest farmers,”
and made “‘ Speed the Plough” an earnest desire with the plough-
men but seldom realised ; for it was with the greatest difficulty
that four strong horses drawing a large iron plough could break
up half an acre a-day ; and many and long were the blacksmith’s
bills for repairs to the “tackle” where the plough was used in
breaking up the soil. Some of the tenants tried digging, at a
cost of 3/. per acre; some used stocking-hoes, and grubbed the
ground 5 inches deep, carefully picking out the large stones that
were beneath the surface; this plan cost 50s. per acre. On
Potter’s Hill farm, breast-ploughing and burning was adopted ;
and this course appeared to answer better than any of the others.

Potter’s Hill Farm.—“ The novel, skilful, and economical
system ” adopted on this farm formed the subject of special re-
mark and commendation in the Report drawn up when the
members of the Land Surveyors’ Club visited Wichwood.

This farm comprises 475 acres, the whole of which, with the

282 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

exception of 8 acres, was rough forest land. - According to the
terms of the agreement, 10 acres were to remain as copsewood,
and about 14 acres to be kept in pasture ; therefore there remained
in round numbers 450 acres to be used as arable land by the
tenant. The whole of this land would have been cropped the
first season had not some of the hewn timber been placed on
certain portions of the farm, and an agreement entered into with
persons who purchased wood for the manufacture of charcoal, that
they should be allowed space and turf for their fires, and road-
ways to draw off the produce during the summer months of
1858.

In the spring of 1858, 320 acres were planted with oats; and
in the summer of the same year 99 acres were sown with swedes
and turnips. The cultivation for these crops was done by hand-
labour : the men worked in gangs of eight, ten, or sixteen to-
gether.

For the oat-crop the ground was breast-ploughed about 14 inches
deep; and as soon as it was sufficiently dry it was dragged and
harrowed by horses. More harrowing was required in the
roughest places than in other parts where less brushwood had
grown, Every opportunity was taken when the weather was dry
to rake together and burn the pieces of turf and rubbish that the
ploughs had pared off, and the harrows scratched out: by this
plan immense quantities of ashes were made; some of them
were carted to large heaps for future use, and the remainder
spread evenly on the surface; the oats were then sown broadcast
{about 4 bushels per acre), then the breast-ploughs with another
furrow buried the seed-corn and ashes together on the firm ground ;
an ordinary roller followed ; and after that a bush-harrow was
drawn over the surface to fill the seams left by the breast-ploughs.
I should mention that men had previously been engaged in grub-
bing up small roots and rough places that were likely to impede
the work,

The ground allotted for the turnip-crop was treated in >the
same manner as the oat-land, except that it had more harrowing,
dragging, and rolling to get it into fine tilth, and was breast-
ploughed a third time; after receiving a dressing of artificial
manure, composed of two-thirds superphosphate, and one-third
Peruvian guano, the turnip-seeds were sown broadcast after-
the third ploughing, and merely bush-harrowed once ; the sur-
face was then made firm with an iron roller.

On this farm there were nearly six miles of the high banks -
and deep ditches, the boundaries of the old coppices. These
were all lowered ; but it was not thought advisable to level them
entirely in the first year. Since then they have been still further
reduced by ploughing deep furrows inwards ; or where the banks

Reclaiming of Waste Lands. 288

were too steep for this work they have been thrown down by
picks and shovels.

As to the produce of the first corn-crops, it may be sufficient
to state that they were at least equal to an average of the returns
from the old cultivated lands of the district. The first crop of
swedes and turnips was undoubtedly far superior to the general
crops of the locality. Up to the present season (1863) this farm
has been cultivated by the breast-ploughs instead of horse-ploughs,
and the crops have been satisfactory to the occupier. Whether
this plan will be continued, or a steam cultivator or horse-
ploughs used, is‘a matter for future consideration.

The following Tables show the prices paid for the different
works performed both by owner and occupier :—

Owner’s Work.

Road-making, including digging stones and 7 On Was.
MEMEO Sal poet fae! ae. \.aalg ose
Building boundary-walls, 4 ft. 3 in. ae,
including digging stones and cartage ..
Draining 4 ft. deep, including the ig

per chain.
We 43h alt. Gs. 3

aud superintendence... x 5. Os. ,, 67. Os. per acre.

Clearing the land of timber and grubbing
the same, including superintendence ..

Fencing with thorn quicks, including
trenching the ground, supplying posts 1. 8
and rails, and keeping all in order for{ ~“* “°
LV Gain er i a as

Price List of Tenant’s Work, Potter’s Hill Farm.
-ploughing ing read-

Brat ponghingmed nine 2 32 oy pers
Breast-ploughing the oats in, or uaaet 18s

ploughing the second time for turnips : 2
Breast-ploughing the third time for turnips 8s., 10s., to 12s,
Grubbing stray roots, &c., before breast-

ploughing the first time .. .. ..
Throwing down old banks, and filling old) 1s. to 3s. per chain, according

Cane re } to the work required.

All the other labour performed on this farm during the first
year was of the ordinary kind, and was executed at the usual
price of the district. The following is a brief sketch of the plan
proposed for cropping this land during the next few years; but
should sainfoin, and some other plants that have not yet been
tried, be found suitable to the soil, then a change in the rotation
will be adopted.

Proposed Course of Cropping for Potter’s Hill Farm.—After
laying down to permanent pasture 25 acres, and deducting
10 acres for homesteads, rickyards, garden ground, and copse-
wood, &c., there will remain as arable land, in round numbers,
450 acres; and allowing 10 acres each year for the growth of

21. 10s. ,, 32..10s. 5

. per chain.

5s. to 6s. ac

284 Reclaiming of Waste Lands.

carrots, cabbages, lucerne, and other green food for horses, pigs,
&e., in yards, there will remain five portions, each of 88 acres.
If we follow one of these plots through the course of five years,
we shall see the rotation, as at present proposed, for the whole
farm.
Swedes, turnips, mangolds, and other green
Ist year, 88 acres crops manured with yard dung, artificial
manure, or both.
tied with this crop clover-seeds to be
vessel <5) 3) nies sown, or on a portion clover may be
| omitted.
rd ,, 88 ,, .. Clover or beans, with dung.
Atfhivg Uno sees wpbret dunged before or after planting.

2 acres late sown white swedes or mangolds,
dunged or dressed with artificial
manure.

»» beans and peas.
» oats to be dressed with guano.

Be | eee

2?

By the above plan it will be seen that every year one-fourth of
the land will be planted with swedes and turnips ; ; and the 22
acres of date-sown white swedes or mangolds, in No. 5, will be in
turnip-crop the following year. All ‘his barley-land may be sown
in good season, although the sheep may be eating swedes and
mangolds long after it is desirable to finish barley sowing. By
the foregoing plan the clover will be grown on the same land not
more often dem once in five .years ; veel it is hoped that the
failure of the clover-crop will thus be avoided. Circumstances -
may probably arise to cause an alteration in the proposed crop-
ping ; for, as the late lamented Philip Pusey, Esq., justly re-
marked, fat “in rural affairs what was sometimes a good practice
on the hills was a bad one in the valleys ;” so may we say that a
course of cropping that is considered good in the year 1863 may
be found in the year 1873 lagging fer behind the best of that
distant day. hi.

General Remarks on Waste Land—No one who has been for
any length of time an observer of rural affairs can fail to re-
member that often at the corners of the streets of our little mar-
ket-towns, and on our village-greens, he has seen groups of hardy,
sturdy men, able and willing to W ork, and yet ‘standing all the
day idle,” Because “no man had hired them”? And can he
not also Gemeuibee that at the same moment, within an easy dis-
tance of these unemployed people, there was land then lying
waste, and producing barely enough to sustain a few miserable
half-starved cattle or sheep—land now cultivated, which then as
well as now would have given honest employment, and borne then
as well as now glorious crops of grain? ‘The days are happily

Reclaiming of Waste Lands. 285

at an end when such unemployed labourers became the easy dupes
of ignorant and designing men, and were urged to acts of violence
and guilt,—the riotous breaking of farm-machinery by day and
incendiary fires by night; but have they left behind the lesson
which they should convey, or do we need the repetition of these
evils to impress on the minds of the rising generation the truth of
the homely English proverb, “ Wilful waste makes woeful want ?”
It surely cannot be argued that all the waste land of England has
been enclosed, and nearly all has been brought into cultivation
that is worth the trouble and cost of ploughing. We grant that
many thousands~ of acres have within the last twenty years been
reclaimed ; and hardly a year passes in which important acts
of enclosure are not effected. Still much remains to be done nearly
everywhere in the way of reclamation ; and it would be for the
profit both of owner and occupier of English soil to look more
closely into this; and though there may not be under the control
of many, heaths and downs on a large scale, giving no more
produce than they did eight hundred years ago, are there not
“wastes” on most of our cultivated farms? pieces that appear
insignificant when looked at separately, but are of great conse-
quence when considered collectively? There are the wide-
spreading hedgerows, causing waste ; there is the sluggish inland
stream, which, by its tortuous course and its half-choked channel,
causes waste on the right hand and on the left ; there is waste by
the river side and by the sea-shore; by the mountain slope and
in the sheltered valley; there is decaying timber, which, by its
roots and shade, causes waste; there is much grass-land little
better than waste. Although we would not wish to see the
plough working close to the windows of the noble mansions that
are scattered over our country, still we say, the “ reclamation’ of
wastes ” isa subject well worth the consideration of all connected
with landed property. Such works suggested and influenced by
the first supreme command to man, “ Replenish the earth and
subdue it,” would produce good effects; give healthy exercise
to the mind ; afford honest employment to the horny hands of
those who toil early and late for their daily bread; afford the
means of adding to the supply of food of our rapidly increasing
population; it would further the coming of that happy time
when ‘‘the wilderness shall be a fruitful field,” and the fruitful
field as a garden.

Litile Coxwell, Faringdon, Berks.

( 286 )

XIX.—On Milk. By Dr. Augustus VoELcKEr.

MILK is a secretion produced from the elements of blood and
chyle by the mammary gland of the female animal of the order
Mammalia, after giving birth to young. It is a whitish opaque
liquid, of an aereeaie sweetish taste, and faint but peculiar
odour. It is slightly denser than water. Cow’s milk of good
quality has a specific gravity of about 1030; woman’s milk,
1020; goat’s and ewe’s milk, 1035 to 1042; ass’s milk, 1019;
that Ae being 1000.

Cow’s milk and ‘the milk of other herbivorous animals is either
neutral, or more generally, when quite fresh, slightly alkaline ;
the milk of carnivorous animals has always an acid reaction,
when tested with blue litmus paper.

Viewed under the microscope, milk appears as a transparent
fluid, in which float innumerable small round or egg-shaped
globules, the so-called milk-globules. The fluid constitutes the
bulk, and the milk-globules but a small fraction, of the milk.

Completely separated from the milk-globules, the fluid is a
perfect solution of the following substances :—

1. Curd, or casein.
2. Albumen.

3. Milk sugar.

4, Mineral matters.

The milk-globules consist of :—

5. Thin shells of curd, or casein, enveloping
6. Fatty matters (the fats of butter).

Composition and Properties of Curd, or Cascin.—When milk is
allowed to turn acid by keeping for some days, or when any acid
or rennet is added to new milk, the curd of milk, contaminated
with more or less butter, separates in the form of a white, flaky
voluminous substance, having a slightly acid reaction.

Dried on a water-table, it shrinks greatly in bulk, and becomes
semi-transparent and horn-like. In this condition it is scarcely
soluble in water, but dissolves with readiness in a weak solution
of caustic potash and soda, and is again re-precipitated from its
alkaline solution by acetic or mineral acids, and restored to its
former gelatinous condition.

Casein exists in milk ina state of solution, and is distinguished
from albumen, which it resembles closely in composition and
general physical properties, by not coagulating on boiling, and
by being precipitated by rennet.

On boiling a solution of casein, it absorbs oxygen, and in con-,
sequence a pellicle, which is insoluble in water, Is gradually
formed upon the surface, A similar pellicle is formed when

Milk. 287

skimmed milk is boiled. New milk gradually heated to nearly
the boiling point of water throws up cream, whilst at the same
time a skin of oxydized casein is formed on the surface. Thus
in “ Devonshire” or “‘ clotted cream” we find more curd than in
cream collected in the ordinary manner.

The solubility of casein in milk is generally ascribed to the
presence of a certain small proportion of free alkali. But though
it is quite true that alkalies are excellent solvents for casein, and
milk is frequently slightly alkaline, it may be questioned whether
the solubility of casein is due to the presence of free alkali; for
even in milk which is slightly acid, and therefore does not con-
tain any free alkali, all the curd occurs in a soluble form, nor
does the addition to new milk of dilute acid in quantities which,
though small, are sufficient in quantity to render it decidedly
sour, cause the separation of casein. This takes place only after
a large quantity of lactic acid has been formed spontaneously, or
an excess of free acid has been put into the milk.

The action of rennet on the soluble form in which casein occurs
in milk is peculiar, and as yet unexplained. It was supposed
for a long time that the rennet coagulated milk by converting the
sugar of milk into lactic acid, and that the lactic acid, by neu-
tralizing the free alkali, was in reality the agent in effecting the
separation of the curd in a coagulated condition,

But this view is no longer tenable, for rennet at once coagu-
lates new milk without turning it acid in the slightest degree. I
have even purposely made milk alkaline, and yet separated the
curd by rennet, and obtained a whey which had an alkaline re-
action. (For detailed experimental evidence on this peculiar
action of rennet on soluble casein the reader is referred to my
paper on the Composition of Cheese, in vol. xxii., part i., of this
Journal.)

Curd exposed to air in a moist condition undergoes partial
decomposition, and becomes a ferment, which rapidly decomposes
a portion of the neutral fats of butter, separating from them
butyric and other volatile fatty acids, which impart the bad flavour
to rancid butter. Casein-ferment also rapidly converts milk-
sugar into lactic acid.

Like all albuminous substances, casein contains a large pro-
portion of nitrogen, and is capable of producing flesh in the
animal economy.

Mulder does not mention phosphorus as a normal constituent
of casein. I find, however, in it a considerable quantity of phos-
phorus, and rather more sulphur than is given in Mulder’s
analysis, The following results were obtained by me on sub-
mitting pure casein to an ultimate or elementary analysis :—

VOIs XXIV. U

288 Milk.

Composition of ‘Casein.

Carbon Miho RANE een 3 SBT.
Hydrogen. |iomernbat eemey bans bewcty. Felt
INitrOgeN:, 193: wyer ll peenueters A menRDRSHI wean ERGO
W)XVOEN ops, sae 5 Soe) eee mT aes RS
Sulghur’ .. SS} PA Bem aetee Meret eee
Phosphorus oto Soh, Ge gee 74

10000

Pure casein of milk has almost precisely the same composition
as vegetable casein, or legumin, and possesses the same physical
and chemical properties.

Vegetable casein, | may observe in passing, is far more abun-
dant in plants than albumen. Since fibrin or muscular fibre,
which contains phosphorus, can as readily be produced from
casein or legumin, as from albumen in which phosphorus is a
recognised constituent, it may be reasonably expected that casein
and legumin should also contain this element.

I find, indeed, that all the members of the group of albuminous
or flesh-forming matters contain phosphorus, as well as sulphur ;
which indicates that there is nothing wanting in the composition of
any of them which might render any one less useful than another
as a flesh-producing material. It is difficult to obtain casein
entirely free from mineral matters, Phosphate of lime especially
clings to casein with great pertinacity,—a circumstance which has
prevented scientific chemists from recognizing the existence of
organic phosphorus in casein. By organic phosphorus we
mean phosphorus chemically united with carbon, nitrogen, and
the other ultimate organic constituents of casein.

In this intimate organic combination the usual properties of
phosphorus remain entirely concealed, and the most delicate
tests fail to trace its existence unless the casein be completely de-
composed by chemical means, or until it has been subjected to
putrefaction. When the latter ‘sets in, phosphoretted hydrogen
appears amongst the gaseous products formed.

In the preceding analysis the ash, amounting to only *317 per
cent., has been deducted previous to calculating the composition
in 100 parts. About one-third of the ash, or in exact numbers
-11 per cent., was phosphate of lime. It will be seen that the
amount of phosphorus which I discovered in casein is greater
than the total amount of ash, showing clearly that phosphorus
occurs in casein in combination with the organic elements, car-
bon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and not exclusively in an
oxydized state as phosphoric acid. It is true, phosphate of lime
cannot be completely removed from casein, but by careful puri-

fication its amount may be reduced to a minimum. Moreover,
a

Mik. 289

the amount of phosphates can be determined separately by a plan
which I communicated some years ago to the British Association
for the Advancement of Science.

2. Albumen.—Rennet separates milk into curd and whey.
When the operation has been properly conducted, a perfectly
clear whey is obtained. On heating the clear and filtered whey
nearly to the boiling point of water, a flaky, curd-like substance
separates itself. This substance is considered to be albumen. It
exhibits all the distinguishing properties of the white of eggs, or
albumen, but has not as yet been subjected to ultimate analysis.

The albumen, or albuminous matter, which is not separated
by rennet, but coagulates on boiling the whey from which the
curd has previously been removed, amounts in cow’s milk to from
4 to ? per cent., or about } or 1 part of the casein.

It is somewhat remarkable that this albuminous matter does
not coagulate when new milk is simply raised to the boiling
point of water. In this case a pellicle of oxydized casein is
formed on the surface, but no albumen separates, and it thus
appears that the curd of milk has first to be removed by rennet
before the albuminous matter can be obtained in a coagulated
form.

3. Sugar of Milk.—This variety of sugar is solely obtained
from the milk of mammalia. It is abundant in the milk of the
herbivora, and only sparingly secreted by the carnivora.

Milk-sugar is contained in the clear whey from which curd
and albumen have been removed by rennet and boiling, and is
prepared in the following simple manner:—The clear whey is
evaporated in shallow vessels until crystals begin to separate,
then poured into the crystallizing pans, in which small pieces of
wood are introduced, or strings are suspended, to act as nuclei
for the deposit of the crystals of sugar of milk. In this way it is
obtained in long round sticks of a thickness of 2 or 24 inches in
diameter, presenting groups of right four-sided prisms, ter-
minated by four-sided pyramids. The whey from which these
crystallized masses have been removed, on further evaporation
furnishes a second, less pure, smaller, yellow-coloured crop of
crystals. The purer variety is largely produced in Switzerland,
where it forms an important article of commerce,

Sugar of milk, or lactose, is less sweet to the taste than grape
or cane sugar. It requires 5 to 6 parts of cold water for solution,
dissolves readily in boiling water, and crystallizes again, on
cooling, in white, semi-transparent, hard, small crystals, which
feel gritty between the teeth. It is insoluble in alcohol and ether.

In a pure state it may be kept unaltered for any length of
time, being then insusceptible of fermentation. But if left in con-
tact with casein and air, it gradually becomes changed either

p2

290

Miik.

into lactic acid or into fruit-sugar, which in its turn enters into
alcoholic fermentation, producing carbonic acid and alcohol.
Under favourable circumstances milk may thus be fermented,

and converted into an intoxicating alcoholic beverage.

It ek

however, under the influence of partially decomposed casein,
which acts as a ferment, a greater tendency to turn acid than to
enter into alcoholic fermentation, especially when the tempera-

ture of the air is high.

Sugar of milk, or lactose, contains, when pure, in 100 parts—

Carbon yes
Hydrogen .. ..
Oxygen se

40:00
6°66
53°34

10000 .

These numbers correspond to the formula C,, H,, O,, which

is assigned to it by chemists.

It will be seen that it is free from

nitrogen, and contains hydrogen and oxygen in the same relative
proportion in which these two elements occur in water.

Sugar of milk may therefore be represented to be a carbon-
hydrate, or compound of carbon with water only.

Lactic acid and fruit-sugar, though widely differing in their
physical and chemical properties, nevertheless contain in 100
parts precisely the same amount of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

as sugar of milk.

Under the influence of casein-ferment lactose is changed into

‘lactic acid in the simplest
losing anything,

possible way. Without gaining or

1 equivalent of lactose, C,, H,. Ojo, splits into

2 equivalents of lactic acid, C; H; O,, + HO; for
C,, Hy, O, = 2 (C, H, O,, HO)

1 equivalent of lactose =

4, Mineral Matters (Ash

2 equivalents of lactic acid.

of Milk).—When milk is boiled

.down, and the dry matter burnt, it leaves from $ to } per cent.
of a whitish ash, which consists mainly of phosphate of lime
and magnesia (bone earth), and the. chlorides of potassiuny and
sodium, besides a small quantity of phosphate of iron and some

free soda.

The relative proportions of these several substances yielded by
1000 lbs. of the milk of two different cows, as given by bisidles,

are as follows :—

Phosphate of lime
Phosphate of magnesia

Phosphate of peroxide of iron

Chloride of potassium
Chloride of sodium
Free soda .

Ibs. Lens
2°31 8°44
42 . 64
‘OT ‘OT
1:44 1:83
24 34
42 “4D
4:90 677

Milk. 291

5. Milk Globules—The milk globules are small round or egg-
shaped bodies, which enclose in a thin shell of casein a mixture
of several fatty matters. They are somewhat lighter than milk,
and consequently rise on the surface when milk is set aside in
skimming-dishes.

In the degree in which the milk globules are thrown up and
removed in the shape of cream, milk gets less opaque, and as-
sumes a more decidedly blue colour.

By churning cream the casein shells are broken, and the con-
tents of the milk-globules made into butter.

Butter consists mainly of a mixture of several fats, amongst
which palmitin, a solid crystallizable substance, is the most im-
portant.

Palmitin, with a little stearine, constitutes about 68 per cent.
of pure butter. Mixed with these solid fats are about 30 per
cent. of olein, a liquid fatty matter, and about 2 per cent. of
odoriferous oils. ‘The peculiar flavour and odour of butter are
owing to the presence of this small proportion of these peculiar
oils, viz., butyrin, caproin, and caprylin.

In butter, as it comes on our table, we find besides these fatty
matters about 16 to 18 per cent. of water; 1 to 2 per cent. of
salt; and variable small quantities of fragments of casein shells.
The more perfectly the latter are removed by kneading under
water, the better butter keeps; for casein on exposure to air in a
moist state, especially in warm weather, becomes rapidly changed
into a ferment, which, acting on the last-named volatile fatty
matters of butter, resolves them into glycerine and butyric acid,
C,H, O,; caproic acid, C,,H,,O,; and caprylic acid, C,, H,, O,.

The occurrence of these volatile, uncombined fatty acids in
rancid butter not only spoils the flavour, but renders it more or
less unwholesome.

On Dairy Arrangements.

Having described the principal properties, and given the com-
position of all the chief constituents of milk, we offer a few
observations on dairy arrangements, more especially on the means
for keeping milk and cream in the best condition. It is hardly
necessary to remind the reader that too much attention cannot be
bestowed upon keeping the dairy itself, as well as the milk-pails,
pans, and other dairy utensils, scrupulously clean. But as some
people have an impression that cleanliness can only be main-
tained in the dairy when almost unlimited quantities of water are
used for washing the floor and cleaning the various utensils, a
few words of caution against the injudicious and wasteful em-
ployment of water, may not be out of place. Of course there

292 Mik.

must be close to the dairy a good supply of clean water; but the
less water is used for washing the floor and benches the better,
for nothing is more injurious to milk than a damp floor and
close, moist atmosphere. That which is used ought to be
scalding hot, and the evaporation should be further accelerated
by a rapid current of air. Proper means of: ventilation, there-
fore, should exist in every well-constructed dairy. The milk-
pails, pans, straining-cloths, and all other utensils when used
should be washed immediately with scalding water, and not set
aside uncleaned until they are again wanted. The dairy-maid
should not show her zeal for keeping the dairy clean by splashing
water about. Above all she should prevent men or women from
entering her domain with dirty shoes, or in any other way bringing
dirt into the dairy. In wet weather the introduction of dirt may
not be altogether avoidable, but it may be reduced to a minimum
by having a good scraper and rough door-mat at the entrance, as
well as a pair of wooden shoes for each man who brings in the
milk, which may be readily slipped on and off on entering
and leaving the dairy. Any one who doubts the efficacy of these
simple means should visit North Brabant, which is justly cele-
brated for its excellent butter. Dairies which are models of
cleanliness can there be seen, not here and there, but almost
universally throughout the district. The best aspect for the
dairy is one facing the north; but after all this is not essential, so
long as the room is. dry, well ventilated, and protected by blinds
or shutters from the direct rays of the sun.

The great defect in many of the dairies in England is the want
of proper ventilation. This is a fertile source of dampness, which
is specially detrimental to the preservation of milk. One of the
most effectual and inexpensive means of providing a renewal of
air is to put up a perforated zinc grating, 3 or 4 inches broad,
which may be run all along the top of the windows, In addi-
tion to this a whole window,: made to open and shut, may be
furnished with perforated galvanised sheet zinc. The walls of
the building should be thick, and, if of stone, lined inside
with brick. If a separate building, the roof of the dairy should
not be covered with black slates, which, being good conductors
of heat, get very hot insummer. A better material for covering
the roof is Stonesfield slates, or similar limestone flag-stones ; or,.
if these cannot be procured, common red tiles should be used in
preference to black roofing-slates. But the best cover is unques-
tionably a straw roof; for straw being a very bad conductor of _
heat, preserves a more uniform temperature in the dairy than any
other kind of roofing material.

The floor should be of stone; large flag-stones, well set in

Milk. 293

cement, appear to us preferable to ornamental or common small
tiles. Tiles being small when laid down leave a much larger
number of joints in which water may lodge, than large-sized flag-
stones: such a floor is therefore less dry.

Benches covered with slate or marble are superior to wooden
benches. But if the latter are in use on account of their greater
cheapness, they should be painted, in order that any milk which
may be accidentally spilled can be readily removed, and not
penetrate the wood. Milk spilled on porous wood penetrates it,
and cannot be removed by cold water. Even with hot water it is
not easy to remove every trace, and that which remains will soon
be converted into an active ferment.

In warm weather everybody knows milk is more apt to turn
sour than in cold. To secure greater coolness many have been
induced to build the dairy at a lower level than the ground
around. Underground dairies, however, are frequently damp ;
so that on a clay soil it is better to choose the lesser evil, and to
build on a level with the ground. In such localities it is well
to put a drain all round the dairy.

Our great aim in constructing dairies should be to erect a.dry
and well ventilated building in which a uniform temperature is
readily maintained all the year round.

In winter it will be necessary to heat the room, and this should
be done by hot-water pipes; since with a stove or open fire it is
next to impossible to maintain an equal temperature. Too low a
temperature in a dairy is unfavourable to the rapid separation of
the cream. Experience has shown that a temperature not lower
than 60°, and not higher than 65°, is most conducive to the
rising of the cream-globules; and the more uniformly the tempe-
rature can be kept at about 60° Fahr. throughout winter and
summer, the more readily the cream will be thrown up; whilst
the milk will be kept sweet, provided the dairy is dry and
properly ventilated. On no account should the temperature be
allowed to fall below 55°. An accurate thermometer ought for
this reason to be hung up in every dairy.

Those milk-pails which are made of bright tin are decidedly
better than wooden ones, Unless great pains are bestowed on
scouring the latter with boiling water they taint the milk; in-
deed, it is always difficult to preserve them from all smell, whilst
tin pails can easily be kept sweet and bright.

Before the milk is put up into pans.it should be run through a
straining cloth. A good contrivance for straining milk has been
devised by Major Gussander, The accompanying sketch repre-
sents a vessel made of tinned iron, with a strainer attached
to it :—

294 Milk.

Before putting the spout-like strainer (6 b) on the bent neck of
the vessel, a piece of coarse calico is put at (a), over the mouth of
the neck of the bottle.

Fig. 1. Fig.'2.

Fig. 2 represents the lid fitting the tin vessel into which the
milk is strained. The lid has a round aperture at (a 6). Instead
of ordinary round earthenware or glass milk-pans, Major Gus-
sander uses very shallow, oblong, large pans made of tinned
iron,

The following figure’ (3) represents a milk-pan shown by
Major Gussander at the London International Exhibition of

1862 :—

This pan is only 24 inches high; the sides bent in an outward
direction, at an angle of 40°; the corners are carefully rounded
off, to facilitate the cleaning. They are made of tinned iron,
and large enough to hold about 2 gallons. In the bottom of the
pan there is a small opening, ciosed by a brass plug (c), when
the milk is set for cream, A small cylindrical tube (a) is sol-
dered over the opening, through which the skimmed milk passes
when the plug (c) is pulled out. The cylindrical tube is pro-
vided with several narrow slits, through which the milk can
readily flow off, but which afford no passage to the thick
cream,

Fig. 4 is a vertical section of the cylindrical tube and brass
plug; and Fig. 5 a horizontal section of the same

Milk. 295

The milkers pour the contents of their pails into the tin vessel
(fig. 1), which may be placed close to the door, so that the men
need not enter the dairy at all. From this vessel it is poured into
the shallow tin pans to a depth of 14 to 2 inches, and left at rest
for 24 hours, after which time the milk is drawn from under the *
cream by pulling out the brass plug, &c.

Pans of that shape and depth are well adapted for keeping the
milk perfectly sweet, even in summer, for at least 30 hours, and
to throw up within 24 hours nearly all the cream that can be
separated at all. The cream thus obtained, being quite sweet,
unquestionably produces a finer-flavoured butter than that which
is made of sour cream, as is commonly the case.

The chief peculiarity of these pans is their shallowness. Major
Gussander’s pans are only 2 inches deep, and they are filled with
milk to a depth of 14 inches. I am inclined to think they might
be made 23 inches deep, and of such dimensions as to hold 4 or
5 gallons of milk, and be put up in dairies as fixtures, resting on
stone slabs or slate. They do not require to be scrubbed, and
keep perfectly bright if they are washed out with a clean sponge,
kept for this purpose and a little boiling water, directly the
contents have been removed. The sponge should be rinsed out,
put for a minute or two in boiling water, and then hung up to
dry in an airy place.

Glass pans are easily kept clean, and are otherwise well adapted
for keeping milk and cream in a sweet condition, Like all round

296 Mitk.

pans, they take up more room than square or oblong vessels.
They are, of course, very brittle, and liable to be broken, and on
this account more expensive in the long run than cisterns made
of lead or tinned iron, Glazed earthenware pans, 20 to 22 inches
* across at top, and 34 to 4 inches deep, and 1 foot to 14 inches
wide at bottom, are very commonly used in England. They
should be well glazed, in order that the milk may not penetrate
the porous earthenware. Unglazed pans or wooden dishes are
decidedly objectionable. Porous materials are generally objec-
tionable for dairy use. Vessels cut out of stone are more porous
and more difficult to keep clean and sweet than glass pans or tin
vessels ; and many limestones are quite unfit for this purpose. A
better material is slate, provided the vessel is cut out of the solid
block. If it be made by joining together several slabs of slate, it
will prove, perhaps, the worst description of milk-vessel that has
ever been constructed, The difficulty of thoroughly removing all
traces of the old milk which penetrates the joints of the slabs, or
is absorbed by the cement with which the slabs are joined to-
gether, accounts for the milk not keeping sweet in them. Zinc
pans are said to throw up more cream than pans made of any
other material. Zinc, however, is readily oxydised, and in an
oxydised state easily attacked by milk. As the zine salts thus
formed are decidedly injurious to health, and, moreover, zinc
pans are difficult to keep untarnished, this material ought not to
be used for milk-pans. Brass and tinned-copper pans, when kept
exceedingly clean, are unobjectionable; but as they are too
expensive, and in the hands of careless dairy-maids may poison
the milk, it is on the whole better not to employ them.

Probably the greatest quantity of milk in this country is set for
cream in leaden cisterns about 4 or 5 inches deep ; yet tinned-
iron cisterns are on the whole preferable, as being more easily
kept clean. It is a great mistake to put up the milk in cisterns
4 or 5 inches deep. Such deep vessels economise space, and
cost less than a number of small pans requiring to be renewed
from time to time; but what is gained on the one hand is lost
on the other, by the smaller quantity and the inferior quality
of the cream which they give, in comparison with shallow
vessels.

The quicker cream can be made to rise the better its quality ;
for cream, like all perishable substances, does not preserve its
original properties for any great length of time. ‘The cream, or.
rather milk-globules, being lighter than the fluid portion of milk,
necessarily rise in a shorter time from a less depth than from a
greater depth, because they have less pressure to overcome than
those in the deeper strata; the action is also more complete, as

Milk. 297

well as more rapid, in shallow vessels. - There is another reason
for preferring shallow vessels. Milk as it comes from the cow
has a temperature of about 90°. If kept in this condition for
any length of time, air being freely admitted, it rapidly turns
sour. Hence it is of consequence to reduce it as rapidly as pos-
sible down to a temperature of at least 60° Fahr. In a shallow
tinned-iron milkpan placed upon stone this change is soon
effected ; and then, in a good dairy, the milk may be kept from
36 to 48 hours, at a season when in deeper vessels it would
soon turn sour. When once begun, the process of acidification
cannot be stopped by any available means. Hence it is of great
importance to cool down the milk as rapidly as possible. As
metals are good conductors of heat, shallow tinned-iron milk-
vessels, resting on stone, are better adapted to keep milk sweet
than glass or earthenware, or slate-pans, placed on a bad con-
ductor like a wooden bench.

It must not be imagined, however, that the lower the tempera-
ture is allowed to sink the more cream will rise; for we must
bear in mind that with the reduction of the temperature the
specific gravity of the liquid is raised, and the rising of the cream
or milk-globules checked accordingly.

When shallow metallic milk-vessels are employed in ‘a
proper dairy, kept at this temperature, all the cream that will
rise at all will have come to the surface in about 24 hours.
Under these circumstances it is therefore no use to set milk aside
for a longer period. Some people let milk get sour before they
skim it ; but although the layer of cream in that case appears
more bulky and of greater consistency, it does not produce so
much nor so good a quality of butter. On this point we possess
an interesting experiment by Sannert, who put aside two equal
quantities of milk, of which the first skimmed after 30 hours
yielded 30 Ibs. of butter ; and the second skimmed after a lapse
of 60 hours, only 27 Ibs. of butter.

In another experiment two equal quantities of milk yielded—
the one when skimmed!’ after 30 hours, 31 Ibs. of butter; and
the other after 60 hours, 29 Ibs. of butter. In both experiments,
in which the milk was skimmed after 30 hours’ standing, the
skimmed milk was still sweet, and the cream not so thick and
less in bulk than that which was thrown up after 60 hours’
standing. ,

Composition of Cream.—As may be expected, the composition
of cream varies greatly, according to the circumstances under
which it is produced. Four different samples analysed in my
laboratory yielded the following results :—

298 Milk.

iT. II. | III. IV.

Water . +: es 74°46 64°80 56°50 61°67
Butter (pure fatty matters) 49 18°18 25°40 31°57 33°43
*@asein’.. 7! '3: as 2°69 ‘ : 2°62
Milk-sugar ... 2h) fs 4°08 {7 61} {8 aa} 1°56
Mineral matters (ash) i ee 0°59 2219 3°49 0-72
100-00 100°00 100-00 100-00

* Containing nitrogen .. "43 Sctar Sei kee *42

Cream is lighter than milk, but slightly denser than pure
water ; consequently it sinks in distilled water. No. 1 was
skimmed off after standing for 15 hours, and was found to have a
specific gravity of 1:0194 at 62° Fahr. The specific gravity of
two other samples of cream which stood 48 hours was 1:0127 at
62° Fahr., and 1:0129 at 62° Fahr. Rich cream, I find, has a
lower specific gravity than thin cream mixed with a good deal of
milk, such as the sample analysed under No. 1.

No. 2 may be taken as representing the composition of cream
of average richness. It then contains about one-fourth its weight
of pure butter.

These differences in’ the composition of cream fully explain
the variable quantities of butter which are produced by a giver
bulk of cream.

On an average, 1 quart of good cream yields from 13 to 15
ounces of commercial butter. Occasionally cream is very rich
in fatty matters, and then yields much more butter. Thus Mr.
Horsfall states that a quart of cream in his dairy yielded 1 1b. of
butter, when the cows were out in grass, and no less than 22 to
24 ounces of butter when the cows were fed in the house on
rape-cake, bran, and other substances rich in oil.

The cream which rises first I find is always richer in butter
than that which is thrown up later. Such differences are always
particularly marked in warm weather. Generally speaking,
cream yields more butter when its bulk, in proportion to that of
the milk from which it is taken, is small, and vice versd. Thus,
in Mr. Horsfall’s dairy, the cream did not.exceed 63 per cent, in
the bulk of the milk; but it was so rich as to yield 25 ounces of
butter per quart.

In an experiment which I published last year only 4 per cent.
of cream was thrown up by the milk. This cream, phe
was so rich that 10 quarts yielded 18 lbs. of butter.

The first portions of cream which rise are always thin, but
rich in fat; a fact which is explained by the circumstance that
during milking and the subsequent agitation to which milk is
exposed a portion of the milk-globules get broken, in conse-

Milk. 299

quence of which their light fatty contents, liberated from the
denser casein-shells, rise to the surface with greater facility, and
there occupy less room than the unbroken milk-globules, which,
on account of their greater specific gravity, are more sluggish i in
rising.

In; my experiments the milk had to be measured out several
times over, in order to secure accuracy ; and this exposure to
extra agitation explains the unusually small bulk of the cream:
since in all instances of careful experiment the milk must be a
good deal agitated, until it becomes a sort of mixture of ordinary
cream and ready-made butter. The large quantity of butter
yielded by cream in Mr. Horsfall’s and my own experiments is
explained by this circumstance. We may learn from this that
on farms where cream is sold the milk should not be shaken
more than is absolutely necessary.

Although no doubt originally all the butter exists in the shape
of butter-globules, a partial separation, however, between the
contents and the envelopes of these take place already in the
udder of the cow; for if ether, an excellent solvent for unencased
fatty matter, is carefully mixed with the milk as it comes from the
cow, and the layer of ether which collects after some time on the
surface of the milk is evaporated to dryness, an appreciable
quantity of fatty matter is left behind. This is not more than
might be expected ; for the milk in the udder of the cow to some
extent becomes agitated by every violent movement of the ani-
mal, For this reason, whether butter or cheese be our object,
we should endeavour to keep milking-cows as quiet as possible.

Composition of Shim Milk.—As cream-globules are lighter than
milk their removal must increase the density of the remaining milk.

Good new milk, on an average, has a specific gravity varying
from 1-030 to1:032. If itis rather poor in cream, but not diluted
with water, its specific gravity rises a little; and Hf: it is very rich
in cream, the gravity of the milk will sink to 1: 029 or 1:028.

Thiave carefully determined the specific gravity of the two
samples of skim-milk, the analysis of which is stated below. At
62° Fahr. the first sample had a specific gravity of 1-037; and
the second sample, at the same temperature, a gravity of
1:0337 :— .

Composition of Skim-milh.

No. 1, ; No. 2,

Water * Tale Wank be =) 5) 89°65 89°40
Butter (pure fat) GUA. shiney ick | se ‘79 “76
Casein “ Pei-ciaeet sy ae). oO 2:94
Milk-sugar ai 5 chi oa ef 4 6:05
Mineral matters (ash) ERM sts ces OO 85
100-00 100:00

*Contdining nitrogen’... frit, ss +48 °47

300 Milk.

If the cream is imperfectly removed, the skim-milk naturally
will be all the better. The following analysis represents the
composition of imperfectly skimmed athe =

Water 35 a OT, MRI Se 08
Butter (pure fat) aethh Erdos! “ier eed weep ee
*Casein o- o> bi ese: abkerey, sal } estes eee
Milk-sugar a ee Se an eS
Mineral matters (ash) oy) ease igetlan ea eer “78
100-00

*Containing nitrogen... as tres: hee “48

On the Circumstances by which the Quality and Quantity of
Milk are modified. —In directing attention to this point, I propose
to refer to experiments lately made by myself, and to several im-
portant and accurate experiments which have been made on the
Continent, but which have not, as far as | am aware, appeared
in print in England, adding a very brief notice of some well
known facts to give completeness to my statement.

Amongst other circumstances, the following affect the quality
or the yield of milk :-—

1. The Period of the milking at which it is ‘tiie have
stated before that a mechanical separation of the cream-globules
from the milk, and a partial disruption of their shells, already
begin in the udder of the cow.

The milk which is first drawn off is thin and poor, and gives
little cream. That which is last drawn—the strippings—is rich
in cream, and yields consequently much butter. The quality of
the cream from the strippings also is richer than the rest. On
this point experiments have been lately made in France by M.
Reiset, who obtained the following results in three different ex-
periments :—

3 First Last First Last First Last
100 parts of Cow’s | Drawn. Drawn. Drawn, Drawn, Drawn. | Drawn.

milk contained :—

Water set Vee (lids 85°63 81°07 90°10 84°15 88°99 | 82°37
*Solid matter .. .. 14°37 18°95 9°90 15°85 11°01 17°63

100°00 | 100-00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100°00 | 100-00

*Containing — et Tt p } f ‘
(pure fat)... 5°90} 10°50] 1°80} 6°60] 2°20] 880

—

—=—! —__— —__—_ |...

Similar results were obtained by Péligot on the examination
of ass’s milk. In 100 pints of ass’s milk Péligot found :—

In the In the —* the
Beginning Middle of ;
© of Milking, Milking. of Milking,
Sutter. et ieee. Oo 1:02 1:52
Sugar; —Sjseebeeen (0°50 6:48 6°45
@Masein .,. di ¥Pis, ene :76 1:95 2:95

9:22 9:45 10°92

Milk. 301

This superior richness of the last-drawn milk has an important
bearing on the question of using milking-machines. Unless
these can finish as well as commence the operation, they will
be but of little service to the large dairy farmer. But, accord-
ing to the united testimony of all who have tried the new Ame-
rican cow-milking machine, one of its greatest defects is that it
does not completely strip the udder of its contents, This appears
to me fatal to its ultimate success in England; and I am told by the
secretary of one of the most influential State Agricultural Societies
that it has almost entirely gone out of use in the United States,

The want of success with which this machine has been tried
by men who I know are most anxious to do away, if possible,
with milking by hand, is no doubt the reason why so little has
been heard of it lately. It has been to my knowledge tried by
several excellent judges ; but as it is at all times a more pleasant
task to praise than to condemn,—and judicious men will not
bestow undeserved praise, and yet do not like to give an adverse
judgment on an implement so much needed as a truly good
milking-machine,—they prefer to remain silent on the subject.

2. Distance from the Time of Calving.—The first milk, or
colostrum, yielded by the animal after the birth of its young, is
thicker and yellower than ordinary milk, coagulates by heating,
and contains an unusually large quantity of casein or curd, as
will be seen by the following analysis by Boussingault :-—

Composition of Colostrum, or First Milk of the Cow.

Water cde ary neie * 75°
Butter (pure fat) 2°6
Casein SUR Sn. | Semi fee a 150)
NE su car —<i— ss eee ee 86
Mineral matters (ash) — 30
100-0

In ten or twelve days from the time of calving, this pecu-
liarity disappears, and the milk assumes its ordinary condition.
The flow of milk then becomes very plentiful ; but after a month,
or thereabouts, the yield gradually diminishes, and gets less and
less as the time advances.

In the first and second months after calving, when the yield of
milk is abundant, it is generally more watery than after the fourth
or fifth month, The, further the diminution in quantity proceeds,
the better the quality of the milk becomes, other circumstances
being equai. Most cows run dry in about ten months, but there
are exceptions to this rule. By feeding them upon brewer's
grains, distillery refuse, succulent grass, mangold-tops, starch-
maker’s waste, and similar watery food, the milksellers near large
towns often keep cows ina profitable milking condition for a
very much longer time,

302 Milk.

3. Season of the Year and Food.—In the spring of the year and
the early part of summer, milk is more abundant and of a finer
flavour. As the season advances, the supply diminishes, but be-
comes richer in butter. Thus two samples from the same dairy
and cows out in grass, analysed by me in August and in Novem-

ber, yielded the following results :—
Milk Analyzed Milk Analyzed

Aug. 7. Noy, 29.
NWistere cu oe aes OL 20 ee Oo ed
Butter (pure fat) .. Pca a cts wha ic
Casem? if. 2.2850 Le SPT Sala aa
Milk-sugar .. lint 522. coi og SOS
Mineral matters (ash) .. a 93. oe8 tle

100°00 .. 100:00
Percentage of dry matters .. 1260 .. 14:80

The same quantity of milk, it will be seen, which in August
searcely yielded 3 per cent. of pure butter and 3 per cent. of curd,
in November produced 14 per cent. more butter, and 4 per cent.
more curd, Cheese-makers are well acquainted with the fact,
that in autumn the quantity of milk diminishes considerably,
but that the weight of cheese which can be made from a given
quantity of milk is much greater than in spring or summer.

Composition of Mornixe’s and Evenrye’s Mixx produced on the
RoyaL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE FARM, CIRENCESTER.

Percentage of
Casein Mineral
Butter <
Water. mer and Milk-sugar.| Matti Nit :
(pure fat). | albumen. mae aie
sidhitue.: 87°70 | 2°60 2:94 5°82 “94 °47
January. <{eventtes. 87°40 | 2:98 | 2:87 | 6°56 “89 "46
- Morning..| 87°50 | 2°58 3°44 5*44 1°04 °55
February - “Arnie 86°40 | 3°53 | 3°37 | 5°56 | 114 “54
March ..{Morning.. | 88-60 | 2°71 2°43 | 5°35 “91 °39
are Evening..| 88°16 | 2°96 | 2°62 | 5°55 77 *42
April Morning... 87°50 | 3°15 2°94 5°60 “81 947
gs *\Evening.. | 89°00 | 2°47 2°69 | 5°08 °76 43
Ma Morning.. | 88°20 | 2°42 3°12 5°49 rif *50
Y°* °*)Evening..| 87°80] 2°71 2°87 5°85 “77 746
¥oule Morning..| 87°30 | 3:05 3°00 5°89 “76 “48
a _ Norm. 87°30 | 2°94 | 2°87 | 6905 84 “46
Jul ae hey 88°70 2 o2 2°94 5°38 76 4
Bis: Evening.. | 87°80 | 3°61 2°81 | 5°10 *68 *45
Morning.. | 89°91 1°99 2°94 4°48 *64 “47
September *tesetog SOR70R 1" 79 2°81 4°04 *66 °45
Goichen Morning..| 87°60 3°90 2°87 4°84 “79 °47
q Evening.. | 90°30 | 2:99 | 237 | 3:76 "58 +38
Woveinber Morning... 87°10 | 3r41 2°94 5-41 1-14 °47
a Evening..| 86°20] 3°78 | 3°19 | 5°68: |] 1°15 “51
Morning.. | 86°70 | 3°74 2°87 5°92 i hf “46
December (Brening.. 6-00 | 4:12 | 3-62 | 5-46 | +80 | +58

Mik. 303

I here introduce a series of milk analyses (p. 302) which I made
with a view of ascertaining what may be the variations in the
quality of the milk on one and the same farm throughout the year,
I took samples of the mixed milk of all our milking-cows, and
analysed the morning’s and evening’s milk of the first or second
day in cach month separately. In August, owing to my absence
from home, the analyses were omitted. They, and a few other
analyses of morning’s and evening’s milk from other farms, set
at rest the question, whether the former or the latter is the richer
of the two.

The milk-cows were out in grass from May till the end of
October; but as the herbage then became so scarce as not
to afford sufficient nourishment, they were fed in the even-
ing in the stall, with roots and hay, &c. It will be seen that
both the morning’s and evening’s milk in September was ex-
tremely poor. The cows were then out in grass, but the pasture
was poor and overstocked, so that the daily growth of grass fur-
nished hardly enough food to meet the daily waste to which the
animal frame is subject, and was thus not calculated to meet an
extra demand of materials for the formation of curd and butter.
‘The poverty of this milk thus was evidently due to an insufficient
supply of food. In the samé month (September) I procured
samples of milk from two other farms, on which the cows were-
out in grass, having an abundant supply of grass of good average:
quality. The morning and evening milk from each farm on
analysis furnished the following results :—

No. I. No. II.

Morning’s Evening’s Morning’s Evening’s

Milk. Milk. Milk. Milk.
a 9 re 87°07 87°20 87°50 87°70
Rae? Ce 3°44 3°76 3°10 3°59
SURRSMI OG -c |55) <3 |e 3°37 3°35 3°45 3°37
VS 5°38 4:98 5°18 4°57
Mineral matters (ash) .. .. “74 “7 SU: viel
24 ‘ 100°00 100°00 100-00 100°00
*Containing nitrogen .. +53 54 “he 54

These analyses do not show any great difference, and prove that
the quality of the September milk was good, and nearly the same
on both farms ; but compared with the September milk of the cows
on the Agricultural College Farm striking differences manifest
themselves, indicative of the influence of food on the quality of
the milk. Thus, on the farms on which the cows were provided

VOL. XXIV. Xx

304 Milk.

with abundance of grass the amount of solid matter, on an ave-
rage, was about 124 per cent.; and in this dry matter we have
34 per cent. of butter, and about the same quantity of curd ;
whereas a scanty supply of grass produced milk containing not
quite 10 per cent. of solid matter, and in this not quite 2 per cent.
of butter.

The influence of food on the quality of the milk is also clearly
visible in the October milk of the cows at the Agricultural
College. On account of the deficiency of the herbage the cows
were in the evening driven into the stall and there supplied with
hay, roots, and meal. The milk became better at once; for the
morning’s milk then contained 12} per cent. of solid matter, and
in this nearly 4 per cent. of butter. The concentrated food with
which the cows were fed at evening was clearly made into good
rich milk during the night. At this time the cows were put on
grass early in the morning, and allowed to pick up what they
could: this was not much, as their anxiety towards evening
to be led into their stalls plainly showed. The influence of a
stinted supply of grass is seen at once in the poverty of the even-
ing’s milk, in which the percentage of solid matter sank to 94 in-
stead of 124, and the butter from 4 to 3 per cent. In November,
December, and the following winter months, the cows were kept
altogether indoors, and fed upon roots, oilcake, straw, and hay-
chaff. In consequence of the better food the milk became more
abundant and richer. In February the food of the cows in-milk,
as Professor Coleman informs me, was as follows :—

At G63 a.m. 12 Ibs. of hay.

» 9 5, 14 lbs. of manyolds cut fine and mixed with 32 lbs. of straw-
chaff and 1 Ib. of hay-chaff.

» 113 ,, 4 lbs. of rape-cake.

3 of P.M. 15 Ibs. of mangolds cut fine and mixed with 33 Ibs. of straw-
chaff and 1 lb. of hay-chaff. -<

» 9 3 12 lbs. of hay.

In November and December the cows had given to them’some
nut-meal in addition to their other food. The influence of the
fatty matter in which this meal is rich is seen at once in the
larger amount of butter in the milk. This nut-meal is the refuse
which is left after pressing the ground kernels of the palm-nut.
When of good quality, that is to say, not too hard pressed, it is
very nutritious, and contains a large proportion of fat, as will be
seen by the following analyses of two samples which were mad
by me some time ago ;— ;

Milk. | 305

Composition of Palm-nut kernel-meal.

No. 1. No. 2.
iWelany tvtndar ji iilelrind ay biswalt8@ TOL
Fatty matters oot. (feknerdte” Aesieeet eee 22°45

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming
RUPUCTEN ntact eo ns om oem gl Oakes 12:90
Gum, sugar and digestible fibre .. .. 26°60 26°61
Woody fibre (cellulose) .. .. .. 19°88 27-70
{Mineral matters (ash)... ... .. .. 3840 3°33
100-00 100-00
*@outaining nitropen 3. 9...) jw. | 26S 2-02
PGontaining sand) 4.5.6 9 je) woe 63 97

The first sample is the better of the two, for it contains more
oil and more flesh-forming matter than the second, in which the
percentage of both is lowered by the larger proportion of the
hard shells in which the palm-nut kernels are encased. These
hard shells, like nut-shells, consist almost entirely of woody fibre,
and of course have no feeding value whatever. The fatty matter
in palm kernels is a white, nicely-tasting fat, of almost the same
consistency as butter.

The time at which the milk is drawn from the cow is said to
have an effect upon its quality. The popular opinion ascribes
to morning’s milk better-quality than to that obtained in the
evening. My results donot fayour this all but generally received
opinion. As far as my experience goes, the result depends on
the quantity and quality of the food which is given to the cows
four or five hours before milking. If the supply of food given
in the daytime be good and plentiful, and that furnished in the
evening be innutritious and scanty, the evening milk is of the
better quality. On the other hand, when the cows get a good
supply of rich food in the evening, and are stinted or fed upon
very watery food during the daytime, the evening milk is the
poorer. Hence it may and does happen that at one time the
evening milk is the best, at another the reverse is the case, or
else there is no perceptible difference. ,

My friend and former colleague, Mr. Coleman, has taken much
interest in these milk-experiments, and I feel indebted to him
for the hearty co-operation and_ practical assistance which he
rendered me at all times during our former connection with the
Royal Agricultural College.

The preceding experiments furnish conclusive evidence of the
influence of food upon the quality of milk, and afford an explanation
of the variations which arise. Without giving additional analyses
bearing on this point, I may state that out of 32 samples taken
in the morning and the evening of the same day, I found in 8
cases the morning milk poorer than that of the evening; in 4
cases richer; whilst in 4 there was no perceptible difference.

ene

306 Milk.

On the influence of food on the quantity and quality of the
milk, we possess valuable practical experiments by the late
Mr. Horsfall, of Burley Hall, Yorkshire, whose paper on Dairy
Management in this Journal should be attentively studied by
every dairy farmer ; experiments by Mr. Cunningham, of Audley
(Cork), and a few others, may also be found recorded in our
Agricultural Journals. For this reason I shall pass them by and
direct attention to a series of valuable experiments, which were
made in 1855, by Mr. Struckmann, of Wartburg, in Germany.
Their object was to determine what quantity of brewers’ grains
are necessary to replace 1 |b. of rape-cake, and also the compara-
tive practical effect of the same amount and quality of food upon
good and bad milking cows.

Accordingly four good and four bad cows, all of which had
calved some weeks before, were put up on the 22nd of February,
and fed as is stated in the subjoined condensed table. The
weight of the animals was ascertained from time to time, the
milk carefully measured each day, and the amount of butter
which it produced noted down. The following were the
results :—

|

G Average Weight| Daily Average an

£2) Duration per head. Yield of Milk, |*TeGuce

£5] ofeach Daily Food per Cow in F Butte

— = Experimental each Period. Miaka). = acts ih iS

om | > j

EB FEXiog Superior) Inferior |Superior) Inferior | Milk of

a Cows. | Cows. | Cows. | Cows. | 8 Cows.
lbs. lbs. Ibs. | Litres.*/ Litres. Ibs.

36 Mangolds .. ., pee spat

18 Brewers’ grains

22 Feb.
Y oem ion? | 1oaey] 486 | 29°b | Sa
5 Oat-straw ..
5°4 Rapecake ..
36 Mangolds ..
25 Oat-straw ..

4°5 Rapecake..

II. | 19 March 1097 | 1072 | 46°5 | 80°5 | 3:8

iI], | 27 March |{36 Mangolds .. 1118 | 1085 | 43°4 | 29°2 | 23°6
25 Oat-straw .. ’
IV. | 5 April |{36 Mangolds .. 1112} 1718 | 40°90) (2eN7aee2sS

[25 Oat-straw .. ..
: 18 Brewers’ grains
14 April .

v. | 45 Mangolds .. .)| 1094 | 1086 | 37°9 | 27°7 | 29
25 Oat-straw ..

12 Brewers’ grains :

VI. | 22 April |(45 Mangolds . 2°7

1116 | 1098 | 33°9 | 26°0 |
25 Oat-straw . :

|

i

18 Brewers’ nee “|
v t

z

|

The brewers’ grains contained 79 per cent. of water,
It appears from these experiments :—

* | Imperial Gallon = 44 Litres.

Mik. 307

1. That most milk was produced by 53 Ibs. of rape-cake, 36
ibs. of mangolds, and 25 Ibs. of oat-straw.

2. That a reduction of ®, lb. of rape-cake in the daily food per
cow diminished a good deal the milk of the superior cows. The
8 cows in the third period yielded 4°4 litres less milk per day,
0°55 litre per cow. According to these results 1 lb. of rape-cake
produced on an average 11 lb. of milk.

3. In the sixth series of experiments, it will be seen, the cows
received 6 lbs. less brewers’ grains per head than in the fifth
series. This diminished the produce in milk to the extent of
0-72 litre. It thus appears that 1 lb. of brewers’ grains produced
about $ lb. of milk.

4, In the first and third series of experiments very nearly the
same amount of milk was produced. In both sets of experiments
the same quantity of mangold-wurzel and oat-straw was given,
and the 18 lbs. of brewers’ grains given in the first series were
replaced in the third by 44 Ibs. of rape-cake. Accordingly 1 |b.
of rape-cake was equivalent to 4 lbs. of grains in its power of
producing milk.

_ 5, Rape-cake produced milk richer in butter than that ob-
tained from cows fed upon brewers’ grains. The butter in the
latter case, however, was more delicate in flavour.

6. The modifications in the daily rations of food had far less
influence on the yield of milk from the inferior than from the
superior cows. Whereas the latter produced decidedly more or
less milk according to the food upon which they were kept, the
yield of the inferior cows was pretty constant.

7. It will be seen that from the lst of March to the 5th of
April the 4 superior cows gained in live-weight 100 Ibs., and
yielded 1558-9 litres of milk; the 4 inferior cows gained in live-
weight 304 lIbs., and yielded 1032-7 litres of milk. Thus in the
course of 36 days the superior cows produced 526:2 litres more
milk, and 204 Ibs. less live-weight than the inferior cows, 24
litres or about 5} lbs. of milk consequently were replaced by 1 1b.
of flesh,

These experiments and practical conclusions are taken from
an interesting account, including many other feeding experi-
ments, published in an important work, entitled ‘Lectures on
Agricultural Chemistry, specially in relation to Animal Physio-
logy, by Dr. Grouyen, Cologne, 1862.’

4. The race or breed and size of the animal.—As a general
rule, small races, or small individuals of the larger races, give
the richest milk from the same kind of food. Whether it is
more profitable to keep small or large sized breeds is another
question of which we shall presently speak. Where good quality
is the main object, Alderneys perhaps will give most satisfaction,

308 Milk.

for they give a richer cream than any other breed in common
use in this country. The small Kerry cow and the miniature
Bretons also produce extremely rich milk, but of course in much
less quantity than the larger breeds. For dairy purposes, in
cheese districts, the Ayrshires are justly celebrated ; indeed they
seem to possess the: power of converting the elements of food
more completely into cheese and butter than any other breed.
The food in their system appears to be made principally into
milk and not into meat; consequently they are good milkers,
but unlike the short-horns, do not fatten well. Remarkably
large quantities of milk have been produced by cows of
this breed. Thus a cow bought by the Duke of Atholl from
Mr. Wallace, Kirklandholm, and probably in his Grace’s dairy
at Dunkeld House at the present time, produced 13,456 Ibs. or
about 1305 gallons of milk from the 11th of April, 1860, to the
11th of April, 1861. If we estimate the value of the new milk
at 8d. a gallon, the year’s produce would be worth 43/. 10s.

With a view of encouraging this useful breed, the Ayrshire
Agricultural Society has an annual milking competition, at
which prizes are given for the Ayrshire cows yielding the
greatest weight of milk at four successive milkings, and also to
cows from whose yield of milk the best return in butter is made.
No restriction whatever is placed upon competitors in regard to
the keeping of the cows. The following is a statement of the
quantities of milk, produced by the cows in the competition of
1861, and of the butter churned from the milk :—

|

. zea Average of Jeight of
No. Cow helongiag'to Mileine: Four Miilitngs ba oie

Ibs, ozs. Ibs. ozs. lbs. — OZS.

17 (TA PWalsont ss. Le Stee 27 12 24 5 2 2
Oat Fekete” wok isi hs PPTL .e 26 0 24 5 2 144

3 | W. Reid hs eal een |e 7 20 82 2 9
4 | W. Reid pee einige aie wae 30 15 27 + 3 63
5+] RitWallaceriae hs, je LY! oe 28 14 28 83 1 95

6] Ra Wadllacetiia: cenvs-¥iecouseulti25 5 23 8h ly oh

The short-horn, though more particularly distinguished for its
precocity and excellence as a meat-producing animal, is never-
theless an excellent milking cow. ‘Some families of even pure-
bred short-horns are, indeed, distinguished in this respect ;
for, when well fed, they will yield much milk, and at the same
time go on improving in condition. On this account they are
preferred by many to Ayrshires, Alderneys, and other breeds of
peculiar or local merit, and are becoming more and more the
principal dairy breed of England.

The Yorkshire cow, essentially a short-horn, is the favourite
breed of cow-keepers in London and other large towns, as it

Milk. 309.

surpasses all others for the quantity of milk it yields. The milk,
however, compared with that of the smaller breeds is more watery
and less rich in butter, and better suited for direct consumption
than for the making of butter or cheese. The statement made
by some that pure-bred short-horns are not good milkers, is
emphatically denied by others. The truth is, there are short-
liorns which are good milkers and others which are not, and it
remains for the dairy farmer to pick out and propagate those
families distinguished rather for milk-producing qualities than for
fattening properties. As a rule, animals remarkable for the
rapidity with which they put on flesh and fatten are not the best
milkers, and vice versé. Short-horns, on the whole, perhaps, are
more useful for general dairy purposes than any other breed.

In 1860 I made some experiments with a view of ascertaining
whether pure-bred short-horns gave more or less, and better or
worse milk, than cross-breds. In the month of September,
1860, 3 cows from the common dairy stock, and 3 pedigree
short-horns belonging to Mr, Thomas Proctor, Wall’s Court,
near Bristol, were kept on the same pasture, and the milk from
each set of cows carefully measured and subsequently analysed.
The pasture was good and the supply of food unlimited.

The daily produce in milk was as follows :—

Three common dairy cows gave: 31 pints in the morning,
21 pints in the evening, making together 52 pints.

Three pedigree cows gave: 28 pints in the morning, 21 pints
in the evening, or together 49 pints.

The common cows thus produced rather more milk, but the
differences were trifling.

Composition of Milk of common Cows (on Grass alone) on Sept. 18, 1860.
On evaporation, the morning’s milk gave :—

SCR MSeeN SS as hae ee ee oie Sn OTE
MMNGEIRLCE Heaye sy eek cs Mek bts) oe ae LIB
100:0

The evening’s milk :—
ee Nasr wes aise te oe esi oe SOS
MMRIRATCENE MS si) cy es ee ee ew, LO
100:0

As there was no appreciable difference in the concentration of
the morning’s and evening’s milk, both were mixed and analysed
together, with the following results :—

Water ees, 1k.) os. 86, thon OOOO
Butter BESS ioe ack) icy ep UO
*Casein 350 low \on wg dtd COMnMiMORmEmOr tamed aT
Milk-sugar A ey Rng ian is nee aeRO
Mineral matiers@a yy sevice hse os, ve “78
100-00

*Containing nitrogen!” 2%.) Ow. ke 56.

310 Mitk.

Composition of Milk of Pedigree Short-horns (on grass alone)
on Sept. 18, 1860.—The morning’s milk of the pedigree cows
contained 87°6 per cent. of water, and 12:4 per cent. of dry
matter, and thus was less concentrated than the morning’s milk
from common cross-bred short-horns,

The evening’s milk contained 86°8 per cent. of water, and
13:2 per cent. of solid matter, and therefore was about as con-
centrated as the evening’s milk of the common cows.

The following numbers show the detailed composition of
this milk in the morning and evening, and the average com-
position of both :—

Morning. Evening. =7 Average.

Water. tics 34 -qucopuepOAnOO 86°80 87-20
Butter (pure fat) pd ee i Its 4:16 3°36
*Casein .. 20 beemeeialy 3°37 3°28
Milk-sugar.. «. | 4°92 4:86 4:89
Mineral matters (ash) a ‘73 81 *7%
100-00 100-00 100-00

*Containing nitrogen .. *5] °54 a)

Whether we regard quantity or quality, the 3 cross-breds in
these experiments gave rather more favourable results.
After some time all the cows, in addition to grass, received
1 lb. of good linseed-cake per head per day, and then yielded :—
8 common cows .. 281 pints of milk in the morning and 18 in the
evening, or together 464% pints.

3 pedigree cows .. 263 pints of milk in the morning and 22 in the
evening, or together 483 pints.

Composition of Mixed Morning and Evening’s Milk on Sept. 24, 1860,
Cows on Pasture and 1 lb. of Linseed-cake each daily.

Common Pedigree

Dairy Cows. Cows.

WVateT. As. ae, is. Be Py AOR 86°50

IBUCE 2. joa fe Se AS OB eee 4:28

~@asenty 5 See GT ele PE Te owe 8°25
Milk-sugar .. AAP et 4:84 30 >

Mineral matters (ash) .. Stipe “72 “O07

100°00 100°00

*Containing nitrogen .. .. «. “49 “52

Percentage of solid matter... .. 12°90 13°50

The addition of oil-cake appears to have slightly increased the”
amount of butter in the milk, but not the yield of milk itself.
After the cows were kept for a week upon 1 Ib. of oileake and
grass ad libitum, 2 lbs. of cake were allowed to each animal. -
The average yield of milk then was as follows :—

3 common cows produced 30 pints in the morning and 19 in the evening,
or together 49 pints.

5 pedigree cows produced 264 pints in the morning and 21 in the evening,
or together 474 pints.

Milk. 311

Composition of the Mixed Morning and Evening’s Milk on October 2
(Cows fed upon Grass and 2 lbs. Linseed-cake each day).

Common Pedigree

Dairy Cows. Cows.

WiALCTaMS. Midy .<2s 4. ode es 2GOUU 86°50
Eup eRe et ee ee oN Cry Fao 4:19
mboReitiemee Per isk: Mee, ae eh Om 319

' NIK SUCR og eclgecey . aauheiny a=eqeise 5°34
Mineral matters (ash) .. .. .. “79 78
100°00 100-00

*Containing nitrogen cael se "54 aii |
Percentage of dry matter .. 13°10 13°50

It will be seen that the milk of the cows when kept on grass
alone was rich in butter, and generally speaking of more than
average concentration. The grass evidently was of good
quality, and as the cows had plenty of it, we can well understand
that the additional supply of linseed neither increased the yield
of milk nor its richness. Indeed the yield of milk slightly
diminished in October, when 2 lbs. of oilcake were given, not, I
believe, in consequence of the oil-cake, but because with the
advancing season, the produce in milk gradually decreases,
whilst its richness perceptibly increases.

In the experiments before us, this tendency towards a dimin-
ished yield and richer condition may be recognised, though not
so distinctly as it no doubt would have been had the trials been
continued for a longer period. It is interesting to observe that
while these cows fed on good rich pasture in September gave
milk containing 13 to 134 per cent. of solid matter, and about 4
per cent. of pure butter, those kept on the College farm at the
same time gave scarcely 10 per cent. of solid matter, and not
quite 2 per cent of pure butter. By pure butter, I mean the
pure fatty matters contained in milk; from 8 to 84 lbs. of which
give on an average 10 lbs. of commercial butter.

Large-sized cows produce more milk from the same hind of food
than small-sized animals of the same breed.—In proof of this I
may mention an interesting experiment made in 1855, by Mr.
Ockel, of Frankenfelde, in Germany, with 4 Dutch milking-
cows. Two of the cows weighed 2112 lbs. together, and the
two others only 1537 Ibs. at the beginning of the experiment.
The two heavier and the two lighter cows were kept separately,
but fed alike with as much green lucerne as they would eat.
The food which was supplied to each was carefully weighed,
and what was not consumed weighed back each day and de-
ducted. ‘The experiment was continued for a period of sixteen
days, and gave the results embodied in the following table :—

312 Mik.
Weight Lucerne
at the Weight Green | Produce} Produce in Milk consumed.
Beginning after Lucerne in from 100 Ibs. from 100
of Experi- | 16 Days. | consumed.} Milk. Green Lucerne. lbs. Live-
ments. weight.
Ibs. Ibs. Tbs. galls. | galls. - pints. ozs. Ibs.
Two heavy Bano ne |
ae be 2112 102 4921 68 | 1 3 6 | 14°6
Two light S =
1537 3959 °
we } 537 | 15387-| ss59-| 48 | 1 © 16 | aaes

It will be seen that the weight of the cows remained unaltered
during the experiment, and that the two heavier cows produced
more milk than the two lighter ones; and also that the former
gave a better return for the amount of food consumed.

These results agree perfectly with ordinary experience. As a
rule, milking-cows of small breeds are not so profitably kept as
large breeds ; and heavy animals generally give more milk than
light or small individuals of the same breed, other circumstances
being equal. This no doubt is one of the reasons why cow-
keepers prefer tall Yorkshire cows and other large crosses of
short-horns to all other breeds.

In the preceding pages attention has been directed to the
principal circumstances which affect the composition or quality
of the milk. Others might, of course, be mentioned, but such
circumstances as the.age of the animal, its state of health, general
constitution, &c., are too obvious to need any special notice.

On the Adulteration of Milk, and means of Detection.

A great deal has been said and written about milk adultera-
tion. In treatises on this subject almost every writer mentions a
number of substances which are said to be used in London and
other large towns for this purpose; and yet, perhaps, not one of
these materials is really so employed for adulterating milk. In
point of fact, sheep’s brains, starch, paste, chalk, and other white
materials which are said—on what authority nobody has ever
decided—to have been found in milk, only exist in the imagina- .
tion of credulous or half-informed scientific men, who in many
cases reproduce faithfully in their writings all the exaggerations
and errors of their predecessors. ‘

In large towns and all places where the demand for milk at
times is greater than the supply, its quality is not so good as it
might be. The inferiority, however, arises simply from a defi--
ciency of cream, and an excess of water. The cow with the iron
tail, indeed, is said to be the best friend of the milkman, perhaps
not without good reason,

When milk-cows are fed upon distillery waste, bran-mashes,

Milk. . 313

grass from irrigated meadows, mangold-tops, and acid _ slops,
obtained by allowing barley-meal, cabbage-leaves, &c., mixed
with a great deal of water, to pass through the so-called lactic
acid fermentation, the milk becomes very watery. Such milk,
though unmixed with water, generally is quite as poor as milk
which has been purposely so diluted.

The whole question of milk adulterations and means of de-
tecting them resolves itself into an inquiry into the characters of
good, bad, and indifferent milk, and the mode of recognising
these with precision. As the result of my own experience,
founded on the examination of many samples of milk, produced
under the most varied circumstances, and purposely adulterated
with known quantities of water, | may state that milk may be
considered rich, when it contains from 12 to 124 per cent. of
solid matters, and from 3 to 34 per cent. of pure fatty substances.
If it contains more than 123 per cent. of dry matter, and 4 per
cent. or more of pure fat, it is of extra rich quality. Such milk
throws up from 11 to 12 per cent. of cream in bulk, on standing
for 24 hours at 62° Fahr.

Good milk of average quality contains from 104 to 11 per cent.
. of dry matter, and about 24 per cent. of pure fat. It yields
from 9 to 10 per cent. of cream. Milk adulterated with water, or
naturally poor, contains more than 90 per cent. of water, and less
than 2 per cent. of pure fat. Such milk yields only 6 to 8 per
cent. of cream, and even less if it be very poor.

A comparison of the results obtained in the milk analyses
embodied in this paper will show that whereas the proportions
of curd, milk-sugar, and ash, do not greatly vary in good, bad, or
indifferent milk, the percentages of butter (pure fat) in different
samples of milk are subject to considerable variations. In other
words, the quality of milk depends more on the amount of butter,
or rather of cream, which it contains, than on that of any other
constituent.

An instrument, therefore, by means of which the percentage of
cream could be determined accurately and readily, would be most
valuable for the purpose of ascertaining the relative qualities of
different samples of milk. Creamometers are instruments which
have been recommended for that purpose. They are made either
in the form of a cylindrical measuring glass, with glass foot, and
divided into 100 equal degrees, or in the form of graduated wide
glass tubes. The graduations proceed downwards, from a point
near the open end, marked zero, and each degree indicates 1 per
cent. of cream. A number of these tubes are conveniently kept in
a vertical position by a frame fitting into a cylindrical tin box,
which, if necessary, may be filled with water of the required
temperature (62° Fahr.), and covered with a lid, having an

314 Milk.

aperture, through which a thermometer may be inserted, and the
temperature of the milk ascertained.

All that is necessary is to fill these graduated tubes up to zero,
and after 24 hours to read off the number of degrees occupied by
the cream. The milk should be kept during the experiment as
nearly as possible at a temperature of 62° Fahr. In using these
instruments for comparative trials, it is necessary to observe in
the first place that the temperature be the same in all trials, for
direct experiments have shown me that somewhat less cream is.
obtained when the temperature rises above 62° Fahr.; or rather I
should say that the cream which is thrown up at a more elevated
temperature than 62° Fahr., occupies somewhat less space than
that which rises at a lower temperature. In the second place, in
all trials the milk should be left standing for the same length of
time, which may be either 18 or 24 hours. If left for a longer
time I find that the bulk of cream slightly diminishes. During
the longer period more cream rises; but as a more complete
separation between the liquid portion of milk and the cream
globules takes place under these circumstances, notwithstanding
the larger amount of cream, its bulk slightly diminishes, as will
be seen in the following titted ---

1. 100 measures of new milk yielded in 1 the creamometer 133
measures of cream after 18 hours; the same quantity after 24
hours, and scarcely 13 measures alter 48 hours.

2. 100 measures of another sample of new milk gave nearly
the same results,

3. 100 measures of a third sample showed 13 measures of
cream after 18 hours; the same quantity after 24 hours, and 12
measures after 48 hours.

There are two circumstances which seriously interfere with the
practical use of the creamometer, and make its indications unre-
liable. The first is that the cream which rises from different
kinds of milk often varies greatly in composition. Proofs of this
have been given already in the experiments cited in a former
part of this communication, by which it was distinctly shown
that the largest amount or the thickest cream does not always
give most butter. The indications of the creamometer, there-
fore, are fallible when samples of milk, produced under very
different circumstances, have to be tested. ?

The second disturbing circumstance in the use of this instru-
ment lies in the fact that milk which has been agitated, as it
necessarily will be, when sent by rail, throws up less cream than -
that which has been less disturbed. A direct experiment shows
this very distinctly :—

100 measures of new milk, after standing for 24 hours at
62° Fahr., gave 12 per cent. of cream by measure, whilst, at the

Mik. 315

same time, a like quantity of the same milk, after having been
gently shaken in a bottle, threw up only 8 per cent. of cream.

This shows that the shaking to which milk is subject when sent
by railway, has the effect of breaking some of the cream
globules; in consequence of which either the fatty matters
remain suspended in the milk, or more probably the cream
thrown up gets richer in fat.

Another instrument for ascertaining the quality of milk is
Tonné’s lactoscope. It consists of a kind of telescopic tube,
through which, when filled with milk, you look at a candle placed
at a distance of 3 feet. The more opaque the milk is, that is,
the richer it is in cream globules, the shorter will be the telescope
tube, through which the candle can be clearly seen, and vice
versa. A graduated index shows the percentage of pure milk in
water. Donné’s lactoscope does not give accurate results, and for
this reason has never come into practical use.

Another instrument for determining the amount of butter in
milk is Marchand’s lacto-butyrometer, which is a graduated tube,
divided into three parts. The first division is marked “ milk,”
the second “ether,” and the third “alcohol.” A marked indicator
slides up and down the tube. This tube works into a wider tin
tube, or casing, which serves as a water-bath when the milk is
tested. The milk is poured into the tube up to the second
division, marked “ ether ;” two or three drops of a solution of
caustic soda are added, and then ordinary ether up to the third
division, marked ‘‘alcohol.” The milk and ether are next
well shaken together, and afterwards the third division is filled up
with spirits of wine, containing from 86 to 90 per cent. of abso-
lute alcohol. When milk is shaken up with ether, its fatty
matters are completely dissolved ; and on the addition of alcohol,
they are again almost entirely precipitated. ‘The quantity of
fatty matter which remains dissolved in the ether is said to be
constant. M, Marchand estimates it at 12°6 grammes per litre of
milk, Finally, the tube is plunged into warm water, of a tempe-
rature of 104° Fahr., and kept in the heated water until the butter
is quite melted, forming a layer, which is readily measured by
the sliding indicator.

Marchand’s lacto-butyrometer requires much dexterity on the
part of the operator, and therefore is not likely to be used by
persons who have no experience in chemical manipulation. In
the hands of a professional chemist this instrument furnishes
tolerably accurate results.

M. Poggiale tests the quality of milk by determining the
amount of thilk-sugar, either by polarization, or by Fehling’s
volumometrical copper test.

316 Milk.

M. Emile Mounier, on the other hand, has lately described a
plan of testing the quality of milk by determining the amount of
albumen and casein in it by a standard solution of hyperman-
ganate of potash.

As both Paggiale’s and Mounier’s methods are based on wrong
principles, the particulars of their processes need not be described
in this place.

M. Quévenne uses two instruments for testing milk; one
of which he calls “lacto-densimeter,” and the other creamo-
meter,

The lacto-densimeter is an instrument similar to a spirit-float.
The narrow tube of this float bears two scales. One is coloured
yellow, and indicates the specific gravity of new milk; and the
other is coloured blue, and is used for ascertaining the specific
gravity of skimmed milk. The degrees on the yellow and blue-
coloured sides give: in a direct way the specific gravity of new
and skimmed milk.

Quévenne’s creamometer is simply a graduated measuring
glass, divided into 100 parts. On both scales the gravity of
both new and skim-milk, when pure, is marked; and also the
specific gravity of milk diluted with 1-10th, 2-10ths, and more
of water.

Chevallier’s galactomctre centésimale consists of a densimeter,
thermometer, and creamometer, and its construction is based on
the same principle as Quévenne’s instrument. Like Quévenne,
M. Chevallier has two scales on his densimeter, one for new,
and the other for skim-milk. Except in the mode in which the
scales are divided, Chevallier’s and Quévenne’s milk-testers do
not differ from each other. In pure milk the densimeter sinks to
a point marked 100; and the number of degrees on the scale
indicate the percentage of pure milk in milk of any quality.
Thus, if the densimeter sinks in two samples of milk to a point
marked on the scale 50 or 76, these numbers indicate that the
samples contain 50 and“76 per cent. of pure milk. 4

Any ordinary hydrometer for liquids heavier than water may
be used for testing milk; but those hydrometers which indicate
the specific gravity at once are preferable to others the use of
which necessitates calculation or reference to tables,

Hydrometers specially adjusted for testing milk, or lactometers,
indicating by the point to which they sink in different samples of
milk, the extent to which they have been mixed with water, are
sold at a cheap rate by Mr. J. F. Griffin, 119, Bunhill-row, and
other manufacturers and dealers in chemical and philosophical
apparatus. These lactometers, or floats, are far more useful than
I was inclined to think they were, before I had thoroughly

Mik. 317

studied how far the specific gravity of milk can be relied upon
as an indication of its quality.

A good many recent experiments have led me to the conclu-
sion that within certain limits the specific gravity is a trustworthy
indicator of quality. It is true that the cream globules are lighter
than milk, and thus milk containing much cream has a lower
specific gravity than skim-milk; but surely no instrument is
required to tell us whether milk is extra rich, or, like skim-milk,
poor in cream. ‘The lactometer was never intended to indicate
the relative richness of extra good samples of milk, but it was
designed to be a simple instrument which should unmistakably
point out whether samples of a fair or doubtful appearance had
been watered, or were of a naturally defective composition ; and
this purpose it satisfactorily fulfils.

Some of the objections to the use of hydrometers for testing
milk, are based on the mistaken opinion that cream is lighter
than water. This is not the case; it is lighter than milk, but
denser than water, in the proportion of 1012, or even 1019 to
1000. The addition of cream, therefore, cannot depress the
specific gravity of the milk in the same degree as the addition of
water. A low specific gravity, therefore, always indicates a large
quantity of water; at all events I find milk rich in butter, of a
gravity that is a good deal higher than milk adulterated with
even little water.

I will conclude with a few experiments, showing the quantity
of cream which is thrown on the surface by pure milk of known
composition, and milk purposely adulterated with fixed quantities
of water, and also the specific gravity of milk adulterated with
variable portions of water.

The milk used on the 4th of March had the following compo-

sition :—

Water Se Beto Maa laca te v0 PP rae” TO OTOD
Renter (bUtten): 2a. ae oe ee OTL
PUaseinjand albumen ss). 8 82. 8. 6 88T
Milk-sugar (Se ee ee Dee) goto L
MieralemaAters).. 2 ce ee ne we ‘81
100-00

*Containing nitrogen .. .. .. «. “54
Percentage of solid matter Fel utesante gel oeO

This milk had a specific gravity of 1:0320 at 62° Fahr. After
standing for 15 hours it threw up 11:5 per cent. of cream by
volume, having a specific gravity of 1:0183 at 62° Fahr.

Portions of milk were mixed with 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 per
cent. of water respectively, and the specific gravity of each sample
thus diluted with water compared with that of pure milk, when
the following results were obtained :—

318 Mith.

P Percentage
Gravity. of Gream
Pure milk at 62° Fahr... .. eo =1°0320..... daz
», and 10 per cent. of w: ater ‘at 620 Fahr. aie OGIO sto.) pate
= 20 = 5! 10305: 4... 08
=e 30 a - 10290". de
Pe 40 i mt 40190" 2H unG
5 50 a 35 10160 5

After removal of the cream from each sample, the specific
gravity of the skim-milk at 62° Fahr. was determined, and found
as follows :—

Pure skim milky i pte siesiepase Jsveuscsy -n0s EpeneetoOn)
Bs and 10 per cent of water .. : -- 10320
= 20 and 30 per cent. of w ater (spoiled by pepe
5 40 per cent. of water Ac 3 OREO
‘ 50 se sii veils tae (ae

In the preceding experiments the specific gravity of the milk
was determined by means of an hydrometer. But as results
obtained in this way are not considered so accurate as determi-
nations made by direct weighings on a delicate balance; and,
moreover, as the second of the series accidentally failed, I made
a new set of experiments on the 25th of March last.

The milk was analysed, and had the following composition :—

Water oe die! ahs iste, aaetgeae
Pure fatty matters (butter) ao) ose gest meee
*Casein ‘and albumen 2°) *.) #22) 7 eae eres
Milk-sugar wt ui) foe Ta eo
Mineral matters (ash). sprenesitetes Wiee ‘71
100-00

*Containing nitrogen... .. «ss *50
Percentage of solid matter .. .. .. 11°90

Its specific gravity at 62°, ascertained by hydrometer, was
10320; and by direct weighing 1:03141. After standing 24
hours it gave 12 per cent. of cream by volume; having been
shaken, and then left to stand for 24 hours, it gave 8 per cent.
of cream by volume.

Percentage
of Cream
by bulk.

This milk and 10 per cent. of water, after 24 hours’ standing at 62°, gave 104
” 20 ” ”? ” 10
” 80 ” ” ” 6
” 40 97 ” ” J 5
” 50 ” ” ”» 4}

The relative proportions of cream in these samples do not agree
with the amount of water that has been purposely added to each.
I account for these variations by the fact that in mixing the milk
and water together, the cream globules have been more or less

Milk. 319

broken, according to the degree of agitation to which the milk
was exposed, in consequence of which the cream in the different
samples had a variable composition.

On comparing the milk of the 25th of March with that of the
4th of March, it will be seen that the latter, notwithstanding its
containing more pure fatty matter, threw up a little less cream in
bulk than the former.

The subjoined table gives the specific gravity of the different
samples of milk of the 25th of March, before and after skimming.
All determinations were made at 62° Fahr. :—

Specific Gravity at 62° F, Specific Gravity

7 ee at 62° F.
before elkiremiings, after skimming.
By Direct By Direct
By Hydrometer. Weighing. Weighing.
a ee eens Mg Cs ”1°03141 1°0337
x + 10 per cent of water .. 1°0285 1°0295 1-0308
a + 20 oA A ia 1°0250 1°0257 1°0265
BS ily, tes vl, A ph: 10235 1:0233 10248
ner ye" et z. 1°0200 10190 170208
i lgps Se: all 1°0170 1°0163 1°0175

This second series of experiments was made with great care,
and the numbers obtained are probably more reliable than those
of the first series.

It will be seen that the hydrometer indications agree very
nearly with the specific gravity determinations by direct weigh-
ings. It follows, further, from the preceding experiments :—

1. That good new milk has a specific gravity of about 1-030.

2. That skim-milk is a little more dense than new milk, its
specific gravity being about 1:034.

3. That milk which has a specific gravity of 1-025, or less, is
either mixed with water, or naturally very poor.

4. That when milk is deprived of about 10 per cent. of cream
by bulk, and the original volume is made up by 10 per cent. of
water, the specific gravity of such skimmed and watered milk is
about the same as that of good new milk.

5. That when unskimmed milk is mixed with only 20 per cent.
of water, the admixture of water is indicated at once by the hydro-
oi oy which gives for such milk a specific gravity of about
1-025.

6. That for these reasons the hydrometer, or “ lactometer,”
which gives the specific gravity of milk, is well adapted for de-
tecting the admixture of water in milk, or to show an unusually
poor condition of undiluted milk.

In conclusion, it may be stated that the facts mentioned under

VOL. XXIV. ¥

320 Steam Cultivation.

No. 4 do not by any means prove that the hydrometer gives unre-
liable results; for although it is quite true that by substituting
10 per cent. of water for 10 per cent. of cream, the original
gravity of the new milk is preserved, it may be observed that
milk skimmed to that extent cannot be mixed with water without
becoming so blue and transparent that adulteration cannot be
practised. At all events if it should occur, no instrument what-
ever is required to detect it.

12, Hanover-square, London, July, 1863.

XX.— The Results of Steam Cultivation. By W. J. Moscrop.
Prize Essay.

It has been remarked, to the disparagement of the farmer, that
while in the course of the last half-century every other industrial
class of the community have found the means to lessen the expense
of producing their articles of commerce, he stands alone a notable
exception, his working expenses not having been sensibly di-
minished.

Perhaps this assertion may be in the main correct, and the
gross outlay incurred in the production of a quarter of wheat
may be as great now as it was fifty years ago; but can this be a
matter of wonder when the great item of expense in its production
is labour, and while, besides the increased cost of manual labour,
the farmer’s choice of traction power was confined to the sluggish
ox or grain-consuming horse ?

If we take as our point of departure the institution of the
Royal Agricultural Society, there can be no doubt that from that
period great advances have been made, and much ingenuity
displayed in the invention of new cultivators, as well as in the
improved construction of our standard implements; yet, what-
ever be the extent of these improvements, it is clear that while
the farmer lacked a cheap traction power, his means of econo-
mising were but slight. After years of experiment, expensive and
laborious, that all-powerful, untiring agent, the steam-engine—
the great abridger of time and ]abour—is now about to prove to
the farmer as tractable and serviceable in the field, when attached
to the plough, as it has hitherto been while setting in motion the
various machinery of the farm-yard.

In the following pages the writer proposes to state in detail the
results of steam cultivation on a clay soil which have come under
his own observation within the last three years; for defects in
style and composition he asks the reader’s indulgence, as he lays
no claim to literary ability, The most valuable part of our

Steam Cultivation. 321

modern agricultural literature probably consists of the recorded
experience of practical men—men who, at a risk of loss to them-
selves, have diverged from the beaten track, acting as pioneers
for their neighbours, and, whether successful or otherwise, have
dared to give in faithful detail the various results of their experi-
mental practice.

PracticaAL DETAILs.

In order to arrive at an approximate estimate of the value of
an act of cultivation, it is essential to have a general idea of the
physical constitution of the soil operated on. This will furnish
a key to many difficulties—a touchstone that will reconcile many
apparent anomalies and contrarieties. Clay, loam, sand, are only
relative terms; a soil, for instance, that cultivators of one district
might term loam, would differ materially from that which would
be so classed in another district. Hence to take the acreage got
over as a test of the economy of cultivation, irrespective of the
nature of the soil, may be delusive, since this is no definite
measure of the amount of resistance overcome. In estimating in
different districts the respective value of steam or any other mode
of cultivation, these premises should be borne in mind.

The soil on which our experience has been gained is derived
from, and in its composition partakes largely of, the Oxford clay.
The subsoil—the clay proper—is extremely stiff, close, and im-
pervious, and is covered by the surface-soil to a depth varying
from 4 to 7 inches. On this geological formation, where the
parent clay predominates in the composition of the surface, the
soil formed is invariably very retentive and tenacious, and there-
fore difficult and expensive to cultivate. Its natural characteristics
have been aptly described by the remark “that in winter, such
soils are like glue, and in summer, cast-iron.”

We had hoped to have given the dynamometrical measure of
the draught for a common plough at a given depth, but circum-
stances prevented this. ‘To practical men, however, the number
of horses usually required in a plough will convey a fair idea of
the nature of a soil; and when we mention that on the class of
soils to which our remarks refer, three, four, five, and occasionally
six horses, may be seen in a plough, it will readily be inferred
that they may properly be classed as strongest among the strong.

In our practice three horses are required for common seed-
furrow ploughing ; while for deep work (9 and 10 inches) it is
found extremely hard work for four horses to get over three-
quarters of an acre per day.

These horses, be it observed, are not specimens of the poor,
badly-fed animals which are so frequently seen as a charactéristic
feature on the small farms in clay districts, but well fed and

y 2

By 47 Steam Cultivation.

powerful, and they are attached two abreast to the best imple-
ments furnished by Messrs. Howard and Hornsby.

If the labour of a horse be set at 3s. 6d., and a four-horse team
be supposed to average three-quarters of an acre per day, the cost
of this deep ploughing will amount to 18s. 8d. per acre. This to
farmers of some districts will seem a fabulous sum, but we feel
certain our assertion will neither merit nor meet with contradic-
tion from our neighbours, when we affirm that the actual average
cost of ploughing 9-inch deep on such soils is considerably over,
rather than under, 20s. per acre.

The foregoing remarks, illustrating the composition and cha-
racter of the soil to which our subsequent statements refer, are
further necessary, as affording data by which ultimately to com-
pare the cost of its cultivation by horse and steam-power.

To enter into the merits of the different rival makers and their
various modes of applying steam to the cultivation of the soil, is
for our present purpose as unnecessary as it would be invidious.
There is ample scope for the employment of all, and, with varying
circumstances and situations, each may possess some special re-
commendation; while the numerous facts already before the public
will enable any intelligent man to choose the implement and mode
of traction best adapted to the peculiarities of his farm.

Our experience has been confined to cultivation with a Fowler’s
12 horse-power engine and balance-power, and consequently our-
remarks and deductions are entirely confined to, and drawn from,
that experience. We do not disparage the success of other makers,
and, however desirable it might be to draw a comparison between
the results of the cost of the different systems in use, it would be
extremely difficult to arrive at any reliable conclusion, But
as to the beneficial results obtained no such difficulties present
themselves; and if with Fowler’s mode of application better crops
are obiatabd, we may safely assume that there would be no ma-
terial differences from the use of an implement on the Smith or
Howard principle. .

Our first essay in steam culture was made in the year 1860,—
an era memorable to occupiers of clay, not only for the excess of
rainfall,* but the absence of sun, when the continuous cloudy
moist weather kept retentive soils in so wet and raw a condition,
that the intervals in which they were in a state suitable for culti-
vation were very brief indeed,

We have heard it advanced as an argument in favour of steam-
ploughing, that it may be carried on whol the soil is too wet for
the employment of horses. Our experience is, however, against
this, for’ we have found it possible to flounder on with horses long

* The av verage rainfall of the county for a series of years previous to 1860 was
22129 inches; in that year the fall was 29°20,

Steam Cultivation. 323

after steam has been obliged to quit the field. We do not adduce
this to the prejudice, but rather as an argument in favour of steam ;
for though horse-ploughing may be dgne at such a season, yet it is
clear, that if the soil is so wet that the steam-cultivator clogs or
cuts into it, however possible it may be to continue horse-work,
yet on clay soils it can only be labour lost, and worse than useless.

In the year mentioned our steam-ploughing commenced early
in April; and although during the summer frequent stoppages
arose through wet, the greater portion of the season’s work was
done then, as the total autumnal ploughing amounted to 45 acres
only.

The number of days in which the tackle was at work cannot
now be stated with certainty; but the average work done per day,
including removals, was certainly under three acres. The total
acreage ploughed was 309 acres, and the impression left on the
mind at the end of our first year’s experience of steam cultivation
was, that it had not proved a remarkable success.

But besides the wet season, there were other extenuating circum-
stances to account for this bad work ; viz., that all the land had
been drained the previous winter, and many stoppages arose from
the plough getting embedded in the drains, sometimes so deeply
as torequire the use of the screwjack to help itout. The frequent
occurrence of such accidents tended to make the engineer reckless
in driving, so that occasionally, on finding the implement fast,
he turned on the whole force of the steam (a pressure of 80 lbs.),
and if the plough or rope did not succumb to the repeated tugs
of a power little short of 20 horses, perhaps the anchor did, and,
tilting over, rendered confusion worse confounded,

Another fertile ‘source of hindrance was from breakages, chiefly
of shares and skyfes, which were fractured by collision with
roots which had been left behind in grubbing up some miles of
hedgerows when steam cultivation was adopted. Moreover this
clay soil, when undrained, had necessarily been ploughed into
high narrow ridges, with deep furrows, which very much hin-
dered the working of the plough, because in crossing them, to
secure cultivation in the furrows, it became necessary to stir the
ridges to a great depth, whereby the working of the engine was
made very irregular, and much wear of the working parts as well
as loss of time involved.

These annoyances, though seemingly small things, will yet in
the aggregate be found of considerable importance, and such
drawbacks will probably be encountered by many in the first
stage of their experience, and more especially by those who select
a clay district as the field of their operations.

Where a hedgerow has been recently grubbed, before crossing
its site with the steam-cultivator we now invariably have it deeply

324 Steam Cultivation.

ploughed with horses, followed by a man with a grub-axe, to
eradicate any root that may have been overlooked in grubbing ;
yet, notwithstanding the utmost care, breakages of some sort
usually occur in the first crossing.

Across the deep-furrowed ridges the smooth working of the
plough will be much facilitated by commencing at the furrows
with a horse-plough and going two or three times round them,
which not only tends to level but also ensures their thorough
cultivation.*

Our second season gave as a result 631 acres ploughed, the
average, including removals, being rather over four acres per
day.

The work of our last season commenced on the 2nd day of May,
and terminated on the 21st day of November, 1862. The number
of days in which steam was got up for work or removal was 129.
On two of those the fire was put out after trial, on account of the
land being too wet for work. On two days a stoppage took place
when about half a day’s work had been done, from a defect in
the pump. We had five broken days from rain, the men making
time for three days out of the five. If from the 129 we deduct
5 for lost time, we have remaining 124 days in which was com-
pleted the work of the season, amounting to 502 acres, averaging
a little over four acres per day.

Of these upwards of 400 acres were worked to a full average
depth of 9 inches, and the remainder about 7 inches. Since we
did not find any difference in the power required to move the
implement, whether it was fitted up with mouldboards asa plough
or with short breasts and used as a scarifier, there is no need to
distinguish the amount of work done by either mode.

To those familiar with the annals of steam-cultivated farms, as
recorded in the columns of our weekly agricultural journals, this
average will seem a very poor one; but acreage alone is no cri-
terion of the extent of the work done, whilst it will be seen, from
figures hereafter detailed, that even with this seemingly small
average the economy of steam-power in comparison with horse-
work has been very-considerable.

BREAKAGES AND STOPPAGES.

If, as subsequent details show, we estimate our daily outgoings
when at work with the steam-plough at 50s., it is clear that when
hindrances or stoppages are of frequent occurrence, the economy
of the system will be endangered.

Any farmer who has studied the labour-question, especially
that of horse-labour, and has felt how results are stealthily im-

* If the drains gue been treated in the same manner, like results would have
followed,—T. O, V

Steam Cultivation. 325

paired and calculations upset by mishaps of all kinds, is likely
to have his patience taxed by the sight of a plough-team losing
time by stoppage. But if the stoppage of one, ruffle his temper,
how will he maintain his equanimity if the stoppage of one,
disables and stops three? Yet in effect, any little breakage in one
part, causing the stoppage of a 12 or 14-horse power steam-
plough, really amounts to this. Reckoning, as before, the daily
expenses of a day of ten hours at 50s., it follows that for every
minute’s stoppage that occurs, the employer loses a penny. In
this matter time is money, and he whose motto is economy must
look ahead and keep his implement moving.

Stoppages are the result of breakages, and the latter may arise
from general wear and tear, accident, or carelessness ; and while
great care should be exercised to confine accidental breakages to
a minimum, yet when they do occur the great thing is to have
the broken parts replaced or repaired with the utmost dispatch
and least possible delay. Every minute is a penny. A large
stone or root, we will suppose in the middle of a 400-yard length
of cultivation, comes in contact with the cultivator, and a broken
share, point, skyfe, or rope-joint, is the result of the collision. If
the ploughman is careful and provident, he is provided with a
small box fitted on to the plough, in which he carries a spare
share, rope-joint, a few nuts and bolts, screw-spanner, &c., so that
in the case of a broken share a new one can readily be fitted on
in two minutes’ time, of which‘the value is twopence ; but if this
box is not provided or the necessary duplicates not kept in it,
and he has to drag his slow length’ along to the engine and back,
the time lost will certainly exceed ten minutes, and the lost
twopence grows into a shilling. Again, perhaps the work has
gone on smoothly for some time and no breakage has occurred :
the men get careless. ‘ Why need we trouble ourselves to carry
these duplicates to the other field? they are never wanted ;’ but,
behold, some part gives way, and instead of the ten minutes’
journey to the engine the last field or the smithy has to be visited,
at the loss of half, nay, more likely a whole hour, that is to say,
of five shillings. :

It is these stoppages that prove the bane of the system, and
yet to a great extent the antidotes are simple and within the
reach of all, viz., caution and vigilance to prevent accidental
breakages, foresight to have in stock the necessary duplicates
to replace those when they occur, and promptitude in repairing
the damage done. Success mainly depends on the capability
and industry of the men working the apparatus, especially if
the farmer does not closely supervise it in person. In many
instances it is so difficult to get the workmen to appreciate the

326 Steam Cultivation.

value of time, that it is generally found that direct pecuniary
interest may well be brought to bear on their minds, as tending
much to their enlightenment. By giving a small sum per acre
in addition to their fixed wages, a healthy stimulus is created ;
the men feel that they are associated in the undertaking, and the
receipt of their extra earnings on a Saturday night demonstrates
that the small as well as the great shareholder has a pecuniary
interest in the welldoing of the enterprise; in short, they feel that
they are working for themselves, and when that is the case, it
requires no necromancy to foretell the result. But the owner
also must do his part; he must anticipate breakages and have in
reserve duplicates of all the parts where there is the least proba-
bility of failure. A good stock of the parts where wear and tear
is great, should always be in hand, such as grubber-points, plough-
shares, skyfes, porter-wheels, rope-joints, &c.

In our case, although the soil generally is free from stones, the
wear of shares per acre is out of all proportion to that which
is usual in horse-ploughing; whilst in soils where stones are
abundant the expense entailed by breakages, together with the
time lost in the repairs, will, with the present form of the tackle,
be so great that, in the writer’s opinion, it is questionable whether
on such soils steam can be economically employed.

With horse-cultivation the traction power being comparatively
weak, the pace slow, and the implement light, an obstruction
which arrests the plough’s progres$ causes a rebound, but seldom
effects much further damage; but with steam the circumstances
are very different—the speed is greater, the implement heavier,
and instead of a shock being spread equally over all the ploughs
or tines, one generally bears the brunt for the whole, so that ina
case of collision, while the implement is travelling at its ordinary
speed, a fracture of some part or other usually takes place. A
break to arrest the motion of the implement when it meets with
an obstruction has already been in practical working ; but though
in some instances this might possibly obviate further disaster,
there is little probability of its preventing that which results im-
mediately from the collision, and, where stones or other obstruc-
tions to the cultivator’s progress exist, it is impossible to effect
a perfect cure. We know of only one infallible remedy, that
is, ‘‘ out with them.”

The number of shares supplied for the ploughing of the afore-
said 502 acres were 14 dozen, or at the rate of about one share to ~
every three acres. They cost 11s. per dozen, consequently the
cost of shares per acre was nearly 4d. The breakage and wear
of shares were most excessive when stubbles were cultivated in

the end of August and beginning of September, the clay-soil at

Steam Cultivation. 327

that time being baked almost to the consistency of bricks, so
that a stone no larger than a man’s fist was sufficient to cause a
fracture,

The number of skyfes broken for the same acreage was 23,
costing 8s. 6d. each, or rather over 43d. per acre; this is a
greater sum than clay soils will, with fair management, generally
cost for this item ; but in this case the excess was caused by the
cultivation of 100 acres lately reclaimed from being a fox-cover,
and the roots overlooked in grubbing told heavily on the wear of
the skyfes. The mould-boards being steel are durable, and not
readily damaged ; but on heavy soils, especially when dry and
hard-baked in autumn,—so that, as in our case, the tearing up
and throwing aside large blocks of baked soil, rather resembles
the operation of quarrying,—great pressure is brought upon the
mould-boards, and the “stays” frequently give way.

Rope-joints are also subject to frequent breakage, especially
where the work is heavy and requires full engine-power.

Stoppages also take place from the anchor being tilted over or
dragged out of place, in consequence of the soft or loose condi-
tion of the soil through which it travels, or from the wheels
meeting with obstructions in the shape of roots or stones which
throw them out and prevent their retaining sufficient hold to
resist the strain of the engine. In the former case we have
found a few turns with a heavy roller along the route to be taken
by the anchor to be 4 perfect cure; but, as prevention is better
than cure, when the field is designed for a second ploughing, as
for roots or fallow, it will be well to leave a space of 8 or 10 feet
wide unploughed by the side of the fence where it is presumed
the anchor will travel.

When the anchor does get so much displaced as to require
readjustment, the time lost in the operation may vary from half-
an-hour to an hour, according as the water-cart horse or any
other may be at hand; and this shows how much necessity there
is, even in matters of detail, for the farmer’s best attention, when
the loss of 2s, 6d. or of 5s. may depend on so seemingly trifling
an incident.

The rope-porters are liable to get broken by not being re-
moved in time for the passage of the cultivator, and where a hill
intervenes between the engine and anchor, the top-sheaves of
those porters which are placed on the summit sustain great fric-
tion, and are soon cut in two.

But the most expensive of all the items is the wear of the
wire-rope. We calculate that this has cost nearly 2s, per acre
ploughed. Such is our experience ; but in ordinary cases the
cost seems to vary from ls. to 1s. 6d. per acre. On our stiff soil
a 12-horse power engine working at 80 Ibs. pressure is not equal

328 Steam Cultivation.

to making more than two furrows 10 inches deep. This accounts
for the more than ordinary wear of rope per acre, as a two-furrow
plough, to accomplish the same work as one working four fur-
rows, will have to make double the number of journeys, and the
wear of the rope will consequently be doubled. This estimate
refers to Fowler’s original tackle with the figure-of-8 arrangement
of drum-pulleys. Experience has proved that with his slack-gear
and improved clip-drum the wear of the rope is much less. The
durability of the rope depends also a good deal on the treatment
and the care that is taken of it. When it is at work a sufficient
number of porters should be used to prevent it from trailing on
the ground, and it is also very essential that they should be kept
in a direct line one with another and with the engine and
anchor ; for if they are placed zigzag, the friction and consequent
wear of both rope and porter sheaves are very much increased.
Another important matter is to prevent the rope from corroding.
At the end of the season, and before it is laid aside for the
winter, a coating of a mixture of tar, pitch, and grease should be
applied immediately on the completion of the work, and before
rust has effected a lodgment. We find that 8 gallons Stockholm
tar, 8 lbs. pitch, and 12 lbs. grease is sufficient for 1200 yards of
rope. The whole is melted, and kept at a boiling heat over a
slow fire of coke, in a cast-iron box having at each end near the
top a hole fitted with a moveable roller, through and under which
the rope is passed and coiled up as it comes out. A box about
24 inches by 12 inches, and 10 inches deep, will be found of a
suitable size. This coating is found completely to prevent rust,
and to add to the durability of the rope.

When a rope breaks, it can be spliced in about 20 to 30
minutes ; therefore when breakages are frequent, the loss sus-
tained by delay becomes important. It is therefore very false
economy to continue to use one so much worn as to be liable to
snap at any little extra strain that may be applied to it.

ANNUAL OUTGOINGS AND REPAIRS.

According to Mr. Fowler’s price-list the nominal cost of his
12-horse power engine and balance-plough, &c., is 825/.; but
with water-cart, extras, and other incidental expenses, we believe
the actual outlay to be nearer 870/., and we enter it accordingly.

From the able report of the Judges of the Steam Cultivators
at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Leeds we gather
that, in estimating the cost per acre of the work done, they con-
sider 5 per cent. sufficient interest for the capital outlay in the
purchase of an engine, &c.; and that 124 on Fowler’s, and
15 per cent. on the apparatus of the other exhibitors, would be
sufficient to cover the expense of wear and tear; but, with the

Steam Cultivation. 329

greatest deference to their valuable opinion, we are warranted by
experience in concluding that in both items their- allowance was
decidedly too low. Any one who works a portable steam-engine
for 12 or 15 years, at the rate of 200 days per year, will find
that if, at the end of that time, its saleable value is not exactly
nil, it will only be a short remove from it, so that 5 per cent. is
sadly too low a percentage.

Some gentlemen, owners of steam-ploughing tackle, with whom
we have discussed this matter, consider that 10 per cent. is not
too much to allow; but, at all events, 74 per cent. is the mini-
mum at which we should put it.

With regard to the 124 per cent. as equivalent to the cost of
repairs, we believe that, taking an average, say of ten years, from
15 to 20 per cent. will be much more likely to be required. At
least, this is the conclusion which three years’ experience obliges
us to come to, and we estimate our outgoings as follows :—

fey sees
Interest on the original outlay, 870/., less 2007. on account of

the engine being quite one-half the year at sowing and} 50 0 0
other mill work, 670/.; at 73 per cent. 2B BOWE

Annual outlay in new rope do ha RASS iteeetsh ae 48 0 0
New materials, including shares, skyfes, porter-wheels, anchor- 50 0 0
wheels, &c., and general repairs to engine and plough }

Annual outgoings .. .. . «.. 148 0 0

For brevity’s sake we do not go into the details of the several
items, but this sum of 98/. for rope and repairs is sufficiently
near to the actual average cost for our purpose, and it comes to
nearly 15 per cent. on 670/.; it must also be borne in mind
that this is with an engine and tackle that has been in use for
three years only.

The sum of 1487. divided by the average number for the year
of our ploughing days, which varies between 130 and 140, gives
us in the rough a fixed daily charge of 22s. From these data,
the total daily cost may be calculated as follows :—

Cost per Day and per Acre.

£.. 3.) d.

Interest on capital, repairs, &c., spread over 185 days 1 2 O
Ploughman and engine-driver per day .. wet ee POLO)
Anchor and porter lads .. "ate iC pdnlayt Somme I eke tab oO 5°70
Boy and water-cart horse ee. oO SASS 0 4 0
Coals a eb oc 012 0
Onl ani Bra a CEO)
Poul daty cot * PEO" "O

Or at the rate of 12s. 6d. per acre ploughed when four acres are
accomplished per day.

330 Steam Cultivation.

To compare this with the cost of horse-ploughing we must go
back to our statement of the amount which four horses are able
to get over per day, which we find to be three-quarters of an acre
at a depth of 9 to 10 inches. But this amount cannot be main-
tained as an average; so that if we assume that an acre costs
20s., we certainly shall not be open to the charge of overstating.

Although our steam cultivation was all deep work, yet as a
portion of it was stirring in the spring the land which had been
previously ploughed in the autumn, and might be classed as three-
horse work, we believe we put it very fairly when we assume
that the average cost of the whole with horses might have been
over, but most certainly would not have been under, 17s. per acre.

This statement shows a difference in favour of steam of 4s. 6d.
per acre, effecting a saving of 1127. on the 500 acres cultivated ;
and allowing, as we believe we have done, a fair interest on
capital invested, with the actual cost of material, repairs, and
labour, we really and truly believe this to be the bond fide result.
At all events, we give the facts on which our conclusions are
based, so that indifferent persons may readily determine whether
they are fairly drawn.

PERCOLATION OF WATER.

The question “ Has a more rapid escape of surface-water
been observed on strong soils?” as put to the competitors
for this prize, is one of the first importance to cultivators of
impervious soils, who are exposed to much loss when water
stagnates or escapes by surface-overflow. Such influences are
highly prejudicial to the crop, not only when the plant is de-
stroyed, but when the temperature of the soil is so lowered as
to retard vegetation. ‘They also frustrate Nature’s beneficent
attempt to restore to the soil by filtration the ammonia contained
in rain-water, and, by sealing the pores, they lock up the mineral
treasures with which clay soils are so richly stored, which, , by
the free access of air, with other atmospheric influences, would
be rendered soluble and available for the food of plants.

The effect produced by the cultivation of clay soils with
horses is in great measure the very opposite of this aim, the
necessary conditions either not having been fulfilled, or else -
rendered inoperative; in fact, if the design was to render the
subsoil as impervious as possible, what better plan could be
devised than to pound it well, when in a soft, waxy condition, _
with the feet of four or five horses traversing in a continuous
line every space of 8 or 10 inches in width? Indeed, the
uninitiated stranger might fancy that the pounding process was
the main object to be accomplished, and the skimming off of
the puny furrow only an accident or means to such an end,

Steam Cultivation. 831

There can be no. doubt but that such cultivation is as irrational
as it is expensive, and that steam is most anxiously looked te as
a power which, in theory at least, offers a satisfactory solution of
the question, With the traction-power stationary, or at least
confined to the headland, the poaching and pounding of the soil
is almost entirely avoided; the ploughs also, instead of sliding
along with their whole weight, forming a sole or pan, hard,
glazed, and impervious, are supported by wheels; while the
consolidation caused by the pressure of those weight-carrying
wheels is erased and obliterated by a grubbing-tine which follows
behind.

What, then, is the result of the combination of these favourable
circumstances? It would be an easy matter summarily to dispose
of this question by expressing a general opinion that the porosity
of the soil is much improved by the process; but with whatever
good faith such a general declaration might be made, still in the
absence of comparative facts, its value practically would be but
small} because men of different temperaments, enthusiastic or
otherwise, might give widely different colouring to the same set
of circumstances,

We have had several opportunities of making side by side com-
parisons of the effects of cultivation by horse and steam power on
the percolating powers of the soil, when other conditions were in
every respect the same, and the result has been that the evidence
in favour of the Jatter was in every instance unmistakeable.

The first remarkable case which came under our notice was in
the autumn of 1860, in a field very stiff and naturally impervious
in soil and subsoil, which, having been deeply drained during the
previous winter, was cultivated and sown with turnips in the
course of the summer.

The field was in a f s
trapezoidal form, as
shown in the margin,
with a road running
along one side of it,
on which the engine
travelled while en-
gaged in the cultiva-
tion. The eastern
boundary fence lay in Ru wa
a line nearly perpen-
dicular to the road, and formed a good starting-point for the
steam-cultivator. When the spot indicated by the dotted line
was reached, we had the alternative of either wasting time by
working the steam-plough in short and decreasing lengths, or, as
was done, leaving the remainder to be ploughed with horses,

332 Steam Cultivation.

The corner, about two acres, was cultivated entirely with horse-
power, and sown at the same time as the rest of the field.

During the autumn months the difference of the absorptive
and transmissive properties of the soil of the two pieces was first
observable. Within twenty-four hours after any amount of rain
fell no stagnant water could be seen on the surface of the steam-
cultivated piece, while on the adjacent corner it remained for more
than twice that time. 1

In January, 1861, the roots were consumed on the land with
sheep, and the field ploughed from the road in the same direction
as before, the corner piece being again cultivated with horses.
Between the time of ploughing and sowing a heavy fall of rain
occurred, followed by dropping weather, which so retarded the
sowing that on the steamed piece a seed-bed could not be obtained
until the first week in April. At this time the contrast between
the two portions was very remarkable, and spoke volumes in
favour of steam. Even then the one part was not so dry as could
have been wished, yet the seed went in in fair order; white the
other was so thoroughly saturated with wet as to be perfectly
untouchable, and, from the month proving wet, it remained in
this state until the beginning of May, when it was sown, being
even then not in a very dry condition.*

In*another piece of 30 acres, adjoining the above, and similar
in quality of soil and subsoil, we had in the spring of 1862
another convincing proof of the efficacy of steam-cultivation in
promoting the escape of surface-water by filtration.

The field was in roots, and fed off with sheep in the course of
the winter months; in February one-half was ploughed by horses
and the other by steam. Oat-sowing was commenced in the
second week of April on one side of the steam-ploughed portion,
the drill working in the line of ploughing until it reached the
beginning of the horsework, which was found to be so wet that
it was necessarily stopped, and a full week elapsed before
that part was as dry and in as good a working condition as the
other.

If necessary, and if space permitted, we could quote other
instances which, by direct comparison, have enabled us to arrive
at a thorough conviction that steam, judiciously handled, will
prove a grand and effective agent in increasing the porosity of
impervious clay soils. To show that our practice accords with
precept, we may mention that in the late season 80 acres of

* To show that this arose from the mode of culture and not from any difference
in the texture of the soil, we may mention that the diagonal hedgerow which
stood in the way, was grubbed in the autumn of 1861, and this and the adjacent
field together ploughed deeply by steam, and that no appreciable difference in the
drainage has since been obseryable.

Steam Cultivation. 333

wheat have been sown under our direction on the aforesaid
impervious soils, after steam-cultivation, and although the high
ridges are now nearly levelled, only 15 acres of the whole area
is water-furrowed, and that at thirty yards apart. In no instance
during the rains of the late winter has there been any apparent
necessity for these furrows nor any appearance of surface-water
stagnating, while the soil is firm and dry under foot, and the
wheat-plants look extremely vigorous and healthy.

TEXTURE OF SOIL.

To the inquiry, “Has a deeper and more perfect tilth been
obtained ?” we have no hesitation in replying in the affirmative ;
for whether the implement used be a plough, digger, grubber, or
*‘ smasher,” or the mode of applying it be roundabout or by direct
traction, if steam be the motive power, a deeper tilth, a better
tilth, and a much more perfect comminution of the soil is obtained
than could possibly be got by the use of horses.

Who will doubt this who has witnessed the action of a Fowler’s
plough, fitted with digging breasts or Cotgreave’s subsoiling
tines, tearing and throwing up the soil loosely and roughly, and
leaving it in the best possible condition for a winter fallow? or
. again, a Smith’s scarifier, smashing up a foul clover-layer when
so dry and hard-baked as utterly to defy the best efforts of man
and his strongest horse-team, but yet leaving the soil, when
so broken up, in such a condition that the first fall of rain
will reduce it to a tilth more beautiful by far than could
ever be obtained by the most assiduous application of artificial
power? By Fowler’s digger, so deep and perfect is the
tilth obtained, and so loose and open does our deep 10-inch
autumn work lie, that to ride a horse over it is a matter of
some difficulty, and to give him his head over one of our 500
yards lengths would exhaust the energy of the most fiery animal.
The foxhunters have found this out, and we have now no fear of
poaching by their horses’ feet, as the most ardent of these gentle-
men will pause before venturing a second time across one of our
60-acre steam-ploughed fields.

When preparing a clover-stubble for wheat, we prefer to
the scarifier the plough with common mouldboards, which
ensures a perfect turning over of the furrow, a matter of
some consequence, unless scarifying can be done while the
sun is powerful enough to destroy vegetation. From the speed
at which the implement travels it so shakes and shatters the
furrow, that we consider land steam-ploughed when dry to be as
good as half-harrowed. Indeed, we estimate the results of one
ploughing to be equal to a ploughing and dragging with horse-

334 Steam Cultivation.

power, so that even were the expense of each operation the same,
the gain would still be much on the side of steam.

INCREASE OF PRODUCE.

‘* Has the produce been increased ?””—In this inquiry centres
the gist and pith of the whole matter.

What the result has been on soils of light and sandy texture,
experience does not enable us to say, but by some it is considered
somewhat doubtful, and at all events this may yet be considered
an open question; but on strong soils, as surely as cultivation by
steam is more economical than by horses,—as surely as its use
increases porosity and promotes percolation,—as surely as it better
comminutes and deepens at will the staple of the soil,—so surely
does the final result tend to the production of better crops, and
consequently to greater profits.

Among the many instances which we could adduce in substan-
tiation of these remarks, we will first notice the difference of the
oat crops in the field before referred to, where the greater portion
was steam cultivated, but two acres were ploughed with horses.
On the first-mentioned piece the crop was a fair one, averaging ~
about 7 qrs. per acre, while on the two acres it was very bad ;
and though we cannot give the exact yield, we may safely
state it to have been under 4 qrs. per acre.

This wide difference can be attributed solely to the different
modes of cultivation. Had the whole piece been horse-ploughed,
the probability is, that the time of sowing would have been in
keeping, and the crop commensurate with that of the two acres,
The difference in money-value, at the most moderate estimate,
was certainly over 3/. per acre, which, multiplied by 17, the num-
ber of acres in the piece, amounts to a sum which would cover a
great many incidental expenses, which in the imaginations of
some are the great bugbear and constant concomitants of the
steam-plough. Of course this occurred under peculiar circum-
stances. Had the spring been dry instead of wet, we should not
have expected so great a difference.

The difference in the yield of the pieces stated to have been
sown with oats in 1861, at a week’s interval, was not so great,
but still sufficiently obvious to be noticed by very casual observers,
about 1 qr, per acre being the estimated difference. Other com-
parative instances in favour of steam we could ‘relate, but per-
haps a brief account of the general results attending its adoption
on the aforesaid impervious soil may be as apropos and
interesting.

The geological formation of this soil has already been men-
tioned ; and the land, previous to the introduction of steam-culti-

Steam Cultivation. 355

vation, was let at an average rental of a little under 12s. per
acre,

A portion had been shallow drained in the furrows, but pre-
vious to the employment of steam, the whole was closely drained
4 feet deep.

Owing to its stiff, tenacious character, the growth of root-crops’
was hardly ever attempted, and a signal failure was very generally
predicted by the local authorities on it becoming known that
under the new régime roots were to be extensively cultivated.

In the district annual prizes are offered through the local
society for the best swede and mangold crops, competition being
restricted to a radius of ten miles round ; and notwithstanding the
many unfavourable anticipations, the first crop of swedes grown
was so superior, that the first prize was awarded to it; and in
weight it exceeded the second prize crop by 8 tons per acre.

In the following year the first prize tor mangold was awarded
to a crop grown on this clay soil, and last year, 1862, the first
prize crops of both swedes and mangolds were grown here.

A corn crop is supposed to take care of itself{—at least no one
ever hears of a prize offered for the encouragement of the growth
of large crops of corn—consequently we are unable to ascertain
how we stand in this respect in comparison with our neighbours.
We will, however, state the result of steam cultivation on a field
in which the former tenant declared himself unable to grow a
satisfactory crop of corn, either blight, mildew, or some other
disaster, always coming between him and his fair hopes. At the
expiration of his tenancy it was very foul, and was summer-
fallowed before sowing of the wheat crop, The cultivation com-
prised a first ploughing with the mould-boards on, while in the
second and third operations of cross cultivation they were removed,
and the soil scarified only, being thoroughly moved but not turned
over. A good dressing of farm-yard dung was applied, and covered
in by a furrow from the steam-plough, and not a single water-
furrow was drawn in the whole field. In September four acres
were planted with Hallett’s ‘‘ pedigree” wheat, at the rate of six
pints per acre, and the remainder drilled with 7 pecks per acre of
the “rough chaff” white wheat. The whole field grew vigorously,
and showed no signs of blight or any other ailment, and the yield
of the Hallett wheat was 5 qrs. 3 bush. per acre, weighing 60 lbs.
per bushel ; and that of the other variety 5 qrs. per acre, weighing
63 lbs. per bushel.

During the late year, 1862, about 130 acres of wheat were
grown here, and enough is now thrashed out to prove that the
average yield of the whole has been quite 4 qrs. of good wheat
per acre. When the poor condition of the soil, shown by the
aforementioned low rent, is taken into account, together with the

VOL. XXIV. Z

336 Steam Cultivation.

circumstance of a considerable proportion being sown in spring
after root crops, we think the fact speaks well for the prospect of
profits from the adoption of steam culture.

We do not, of course, entirely attribute the decided success of
the root culture and the increased produce of grain to this agency.
We believe that without thorough drainage such results would
not have been achieved ; but it is certain that, even with drainage,
minus the steam plough, they would have been equally un-
attainable.

In conclusion, we have no doubt as to the beneficial results
arising from the application of steam to the cultivation of strong
soils. The great object now is to simplify and perfect the appa-
ratus and its mode of working; to reduce the tendency to
breakages, and thereby increase its capacity for work. Con-
fessedly these breakages are the weak point of the system, and
when obstructions exist in the soil, they are difficult to avoid.
But, as has been already pointed out, much of the inconvenience
and loss arising from them may be avoided by keeping in stock
duplicates of all parts subject to breakage, and by a rigid
attention to matters of detail.

The system, however, is yet in its infancy and capable of
further development. The ingenuity of the manufacturer is
still ever on the watch to perfect his machinery, and we will
not form so poor an estimate of the talent and enterprise of our
modern agricultural machinist as to doubt the speedy accom-
plishment of very material improvements.

Yet the foundation has already been so surely laid, that in
the mean time we would say to all engaged in the cultivation of
a sufficient extent of strong impervious soils, who have the option,
invest at once in tried implements already provided, and change
the horse that must eat whether he works or not, for one whose
consumption of food is limited to the hours of labour.

Buscot, near Faringdon. c

XXI.— The Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.
By J. Gamcer, SENIor.

Prize Essay.
Tue subject to be treated of in this Essay is one which will
undoubtedly repay the agriculturist for any amount of attention
and skill which he may devote to it.
In aiming to produce a horse of that stamp which will realise
the highest price for hunting purposes, the breeder is on the
safest way to exclude the chances of failure; because the animal

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 337

which just misses the character of the first-class hunter is of a
quality which is available for the greatest variety of purposes,
either for saddle or harness, or for recruiting the military depots
of the nation with the horses best suited for the service.

The subject requires to be considered in its economical as
well as in its scientific and practical aspects. No amount of fore-
sight will enable the breeder of hunters to obtain his highest aim
with more than a fair proportion of his produce. In order,
therefore, that a profit may be realised, the average horse must
pay its expenses; those of a superior quality will then leave
a good surplus gain, of which part will be required to cover
deficiencies arising in a few inferior lots. This law of compen-
sation applies to the breeding of horses of all classes; but its
range becomes more extended as the stock rises in the scale of
value; so that in breeding for the Turf, where the real prizes,
when secured, run very high, the failures—weeds, as they are
called—are most numerous and most unremunerative. Therefore,
the more generally useful the class of horse is which the breeder
aims to produce, the less will be his risk, and the greater the
probability of profit if proper means are employed. When
breeding is conducted on this principle, the type or model
specially sought after. is that of the noble weight-carrying
hunter.

To define what is understood by the term hunter, it is neces-
sary to go somewhat at large into the character of English horses,
the different breeds or classes into which they are divided, and
also into the history and progress of the race. The hunter has
at no time constituted a distinct breed; in that respect he differs
essentially from the pure blood-horse, whose genealogy has alone
obtained a reliable record. The long-established renown of the
English and Irish hunter has depended and must depend on the
judicious crossing of breeds, with equally judicious management
in their rearing, as well as on the judicious development of the
breeds thus blended together. That some thoroughbred horses
make cleyer, nay, the best, of hunters, does not alter the propo-
sition just laid down, because they form exceptional specimens.

The hunter is required to possess power, speed, and endurance
in combination, to fit him for the stiff country he may have to cross,
and for the high weight he will have to carry ; but few thorough-
bred horses can be found capable of fulfilling these requirements,
and still fewer of these are generally available for the purpose,
since the turf and the stud monopolise such choice specimens. If
there be some gentlemen who, having no predilection for the turf
or for breeding, prize good hunters so highly that they secure a
few thoroughbred colts of the highest stamp for this object, still

Zz 2

338 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

this source of supply is limited, uncertain, very costly, and
prejudicial to the public interests.

lf the whole number of blood-stock bred in England, in any
given year, were looked over when yearlings by good judges,
less than 10 per cent. of them would probably be pronounced
likely to make hunters able to carry 14 stone; and if it were
possible that a few of the most powerful of these could be
secured for the purpose and converted into geldings, as in most
cases would be necessary, our supply of hunters would be but
little extended, whilst the process would sap the very foundation
of our breeding establishments.

If only ten of the best-looking stout yearlings were annually
picked out, amongst them would be comprised those of the
‘ Stockwell’ and ‘ Voltigeur’ class, and thus the standard of the
horses to which breeders must turn for purity and stoutness would
at once be lowered. All such exceptionally good horses as are
here contemplated, whether bred or bought, would cost the owner
probably 1000J. apiece before they reached the age, or had passed
through the changes and ordeals necessary to make the hunter.
Although the training-stable may readily mount the light-weights,
or even furnish brilliant chargers for the army, it is only by
forethought and good management applied to cross-breeding that
men of heavy weight can be adequately supplied with hunters.
Size, substance, and power, with sufficient speed, may thus be
secured, whilst in symmetry nothing, perhaps, may be wanting.

The history of the English hunter goes farther back than that
of fox-hunting. The various accounts given of the Roman con-
quest of Britain inform us, that even then, England furnished good
horses, and that, some 1500 years before we have any authentic
regond, of the importation of Eastern blood for the improvement
of the native breed. We have had, then, an old English race
of horses, the history of which is lost in the distance of time ;
and from ‘that stock, no doubt, the stamina and peculiar character
of the English biter of all times has been in a great measure
derived. Moreover, if we take into account the fact that the natives
of Britain have always been skilled in and pre-eminently fond of
the chase, we may reasonably infer that they cherished and
prized horses suited for that purpose w hen hunting was a national
service no less than a sport and pastime.

It may be true that men in our own time take to themselves
too exclusively the credit of attention to improvements in horse-
breeding. The answers which History, when impartially studied,
gives to our inquiries, often tell two ways, and with a benefit
received, exhibits an attendant drawback. When the land is
placed under cultivation, and the animals that feed on it are

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 339

brought under the control of man, their condition is improved
or made worse, according as the artificial system has been well
carried out,—that is, with the consciousness that every infringe-
ment on Nature’s laws by man calls for compensating art and
labour to devise and supply means which may counteract the
evils arising therefrom,—or the reverse has been the case.

When people, taking a contracted view, contrast the English
horse of the present day with the poor, rough, uncared-for crea-
ture they imagine he must have been in ancient times, they sup-
port their argument by reference to the little animals still found
in some parts of the kingdom, the New Foresters, the ponies of
Wales, and of the Shetland Isles. But in this they totally over-
look the influence which a great change in their destiny has
exerted. Unlike the larger and nobler horse, when he was free,
the modern forester and mountain pony has been driven from
the fertile plain, and doomed to live on sandy and boggy wastes
or to share with the goat, the deer, and little sheep the scanty
vegetation of the mountain. Though such has been their lot for
centuries, yet how perfect the form of many of them! how sound
their constitutions and limbs! and how wonderfully their size
has become adapted to their subsistence on scanty provender,
whilst exposed to all kinds of weather ! 2

The climate, soil, and topography of Britain were, it is reason-
able to believe, as peculiarly congenial to the horse in early as
they are known to be in modern times; hence the superiority of
English horses over those of most other countries. With exten-
sive tracts of natural pasturage, large forests, mountain and dale
alternating, the horses of olden time found abundance of food,
with shelter and shade to afford protection in all seasons. Horses
so situated, we know, migrate in numbers together from moun-
tain to valley, and vice versd, as the seasons change and as the
requirements of food and variations of temperature prompt their
instincts.

The old stock of English horses must have received periodical
additions, at various epochs, in ancient times, from Continental
nations. We are especially informed that some four thousand
cavalry constituted part of the army with which Julius Cesar
invaded Britain; and the Norman and other invaders, besides
the Romans, naturally brought their horses with them. Under
the influences of a soil and climate congenial to his nature, it may
be inferred that the imported horse improved by the change,
and that fresh importations of stock wrought progressive changes
in the whole race, and from these combined influences the cha-
racteristic stoutness and other special qualities of the English
horse were established.

We have, however, to search far down the history of time

340 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

before we find any distinct record of the importations of horses
from the Eastern nations and the south of Europe. Early in
the 17th century, King James I. bought of Mr. Markham an
Arabian horse, imported from the East by the latter. This
horse is reported to have been the first of that breed ever
seen in England; but it would be hard to establish the truth
of this assertion. Since Britain long continued to be a de-~-
pendency of Rome, herself the mistress of the whole civilized
world, so that lines of communication were constantly open
from east to west, and especially traversed by the armies of the
Empire, is it not probable that Roman officers availed themselves
of opportunities of possessing Eastern horses, and that some of
these accompanied them into the far West? To show that the
English horse was of no mean character, when the Arabian
above alluded to was brought over, I will quote the authority of
one who was generally reputed the best judge of horses of that
time. The Duke of Newcastle, speaking from his own know-
ledge, ‘‘describes the Arabian which was imported and sold by
Mr. Markham to the King to have been of a bay colour, a little
horse, and no rarity of shape.” (Beranger.) ‘The value to be
attached to the above quotation is the evidence it affords of the
relative high standard of the English horse of the time.

In devising means to establish the best possible stamp of
hunters, our wisest course is to take systematically mto con-
sideration the prevailing defects in the breeding of the several
distinct classes of horses from which the supply is derived,
more especially those classes whence the most powerful and
active mares should come. Disregard for the equilibrium to be
kept up amongst these several classes has been a potent cause of
the falling-off in the number of good hunters of late years.
During the progress of descent through successive generations
there are always agencies in operation which tend to make horses
become lighter and lose stamina, unless rational management
keeps the stock strong and pure. Simple neglect produces dete-
rioration, especially if it leads to the use of a bad stallion, Bad
blood-horses have been too much used, and mares of their stock.too
often retained to supply the places of their dams and grandams,
while the sale of the latter has often proved a permanent loss
both to the breeder and to the district to which they belong.
With the increased demand for exportation of the finest mares,
the difficulty increases of supplying their places, and even pro-
ducing stallions of their class; indeed, the course of events leads
rather to total dispersion than to mere deterioration or numerical
scarcity. Though I submit that good blood-stallions are alone
reliable for the production of -hunters, and that the mares should
also be closely up to the required standard for speed, and whilst

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 341

power and stamina should form the leading features in their
character, I am in no way inclined to dogmatise on the exact
amount of pure blood which affords the best promise of combining
all the essentials in the clever hunter.

The meaning which the words “half-bred” and ‘three parts
bred” commonly convey, whether used technically or literally,
is most inexact and vague. We may instance ‘‘ The Lawyer,” a
horse still in training, which has proved himself to be one amongst
the very best horses of his year; yet he is called a half-bred horse,
though he has descended from the choicest of blood-sires for six
or more generations, and on the dam’s side to the remotest point
to which the pedigree can be traced. The first ancestress
named is the renowned “Jenny Horner,” considered the best
cocktail of her time, and that some sixty or seventy years ago.
It would seem that Sir Tatton Sykes bred from ‘‘ Jenny Horner’s ”
descendants, and at an earlier period used them as hunters, The
question is thus opened whether some of the most promising
amongst the intermediate line of produce might not have proved
successful racers, as it was only through the accident of his
being: trained that ‘The Lawyer” was found out to be the
speedy animal he is.

I believe that to place horse-breeding on a secure basis the
pedigrees of more than one recognised class should be kept for
public «eference, in the same way as the General Stud-Book
has been for the blood-horse during more than a century and a
half. The word “difficulty” stands in the way of all new mea-
sures; but the way to set about establishing such a register was
never so plain as now. The Royal Agricultural Society of
England, the Royal Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland,
and an analogous Institution in Ireland could together accom-
plish more good in the direction indicated, within a few years,
than could formerly have been effected in a much greater length
of time by a long series of trials.

The example set in the establishing of herd-books, and regis-
trations of the produce of greyhounds and other dogs, encourages
me to think that the difficulty in the more important case of the
horse is more imaginary than real. Indeed, the longer period
during which the horse lives and continues to propagate, and the
relative slowness with which changes are eflected in the race,
render registration in their case more easy as well as more
imperative. If the question be raised, how shall we get a
satisfactory starting-point? our past history will give the best
answer.

_ The important step taken under the auspices of, and by
command of Charles II, in the 17th century, with reference.

342 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.
, to the blood-horse, might have wee deferred indefinitely, had

* not the scruples, which in every similar case present themselves,
been overcome. At that time a commission was issued to select
and collect a number of the purest mares and stallions of oriental
descent that could be found. These formed what was called the
Royal stud, the nucleus from which sprang the far-famed English
blood-horse. The wisdom of this measure has never been
questioned, neither has the way of its execution.

The original blood-horses evidently did not all come from one
particular stock. Damascus and Aleppo supplied some; but,
apart from traditional history, we can still trace in the stock of
the present day some specialities in the character of the different
lines which indicate a distinctive origin. Blacklock and his
progeny stand in remarkable contrast to Whalebone and his,
exhibiting the special characteristics of their ancestors, whether
they be traced back to Highflyer and Herod, as the representa~
tives of the stronger outline, or to Eclipse as the representative
of the finer Arabian cast. Yet the finer shades of difference
which the subsequent intermixture of stock of different qualities
has produced, exceed our powers of discrimination,

The position of our colonies may afford us a useful illustration
of the manner in which a register for any breed of horses may
be started. Such colonies as Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
the Cape, &c., are in many Tespects as well adapted to the horse
as the mother ‘country, It is as important for these States, as for
ourselves, that horse-breeding should go on systematically, and
not be left to chance. They have, therefore, strong inducements
to form a register; but their own peculiar uses, predilections,
and climates, will determine the character of that register, as
well as that of their purchases and general management. It
seems just as easy for any of these to begin with two or more
Clydesdale mares and stallions, certified as of pure caste, by the
Highland Society’s judges, as to begin with blood-mares and
stallions, vouched for by the stud-book ; in both cases a new
register begins ; and if, instead of these two classes, Yorkshiremen
should take their Clevelands, the Norfolk farmer his trotter, the
Suffolk man his punch, and the Irishman his hunter, it is not
apparent why these several classes could not be kept pure, and.
crosses afterwards carried on with a knowledge of what was
being done, and consequently a more correct anticipation of the
result. If this could be done in the colonies, there can be no
valid reason urged why it cannot be effected in this kingdom.

Greater changes have been made in the breeding and manage-
ment of horses in England during the last fifty years than in any
similar period on record ; but these have not rested on any sound

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 343

basis. Horse-dealers’ suggestions, capricious demands which
temporarily influenced the market, have led men to alter their
conduct with as little consideration as they changed their vests.

Few good judges, and especially among those who can re-
member longest, see reason for congratulation on comparing the
present with the past, particularly with reference to the hunter,
and the high class hack, and carriage-horse.

Meanwhile in those animals which propagate and therefore
multiply more rapidly, such as dogs, pigs, fowls, and even sheep,
great changes have been effected by individual enterprise in a
few years; whilst the horse, the favourite of princes and nobles,
appears to require to be specially fostered by the patronage of
the great, or by union and concert among the many.

Hunters have usually been identified with the country in which
they are bred. We pronounce a horse to be of Yorkshire, Shrop-
shire, Norfolk, or Irish breed, from his characteristic form ; but
these have had in the main a common origin, represented in the
blood-horse ; though the influence of soil and culture together, in
great measure, fixes their character and decides their worth.

Too much stress cannot be laid upon the judicious manage-
ment of mares and foals: with care useful horses may be reared
from indifferent stock; whilst without it, the produce, though
well descended, will not be worth their cost. In feeding young
stock, extremes should be guarded against; liberal keep, on
sound grass, with corn and hay in moderation, proves the most
economical in the end. If more food be given than the system
can assimilate, superfluous bulk will be produced at the expense of
strength and stamina, and the digestive system will be deranged.

The same rule applies to exercise, shelter, and warmth ; for
the first, space and liberty are essential, and as regards tempera-
ture, it is neither practicable nor desirable for horses that it
should be constantly equal. Wet and cold, however, are uncon-
genial to horses, which should be provided with means for at
least voluntary shelter,

If horses be properly fed, are protected from rain, and have a
dry surface under foot, with space for voluntary exercise, the
temperature of an ordinary winter is salutary to them. The
horse’s coat, then, with the secretion going on over the surface
of his body, equalises and regulates the bodily heat. Horses in
a roomy paddock do not suffer from a shower in summer any more
than schoolboys in a cricket-field ; but long exposure to rain in
a confined space is injurious to them.

The question of blood versus bone is so often raised without
receiving any satisfactory solution, that I am induced to make a
few remarks on it.

The practice of cross-breeding is constantly resorted to by

344 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

farmers, sporting and amateur breeders of various animals, all of
whom have evidence to show that they can produce certain
desirable qualities in the offspring which neither of the parents
possessed. The mule may be referred to as a case in point:
here we find the produce much superior in size, power, and
action, to the ass; whilst its continuous powers of endurance
under exposure to weather and privations, exceed those of the
class of horse to which his dam belonged ; this superiority is in
part traceable to differences in physical conformation, and in
part to the temperament resulting from a combination of races.
In this case, however, nature has, as is well known, set a boundary
to modifications of race, which protects the noble horse from
becoming an utter mongrel,

Breeders of dogs obtain, even in the first cross, courage and
larger size for hunting and other uses without the sacrifice of
reliable exactness; those breeders, however, who succeed best,
are most careful to select from types of the purest blood on
either side, and without the English bull-dog, the means of pro-
ducing many of the most useful specimens combining high
courage and great strength with other requisites, would be
wanting.

Since different classes of English horses varying in height,
form, and power, are available for breeding hunters, these can
be more readily brought to any standard desired than any par-
ticular race, even the blood-horse ; power, speed, and bottom, are
the first requisites in the hunter, in whom, if the first two qualities
are combined, the last or staying power usually results as a
consequence.

The height best suited for the hunter required to carry a given
weight, is a point on which turf statistics throw but little light.
The Derby is sometimes won by a horse more than 16 hands
high, and a little less frequently by one under 15, but in the
majority of cases by horses which measure between 15 hands
2 inches and 16 hands; so that 15 hands 3 inches may fairly be
laid down as the nearest standard height of the blood-horse ; and
within an inch under or over that standard will be found eight-
tenths of the best race-horses and blood-stallions in England.

An attempt to produce horses of any given class much above
its normal standard, will, with few exceptions, be realised at the
expense of symmetry, action, and power, the latter being de-
pendent on form. Where great power is required, and some of
the speed of the race-horse can be dispensed with, the well-
chosen blood-stallion may be put to a stout, well-formed, well-
bred hunting mare, with a probability of the best result.

One of the greatest errors that has been made in the employ-
ment of thorough-bred stallions for country mares has been the

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 345

preference given to the largest horses exhibited, particularly if
these spurious monsters had a pedigree going back to ‘* Eclipse”
or “ Childers.” As a rule, the overgrown thorough-bred stallion,
z.e., those of about 16 hands 2 inches, have done harm in the
counties where they have travelled.

When the powerful half-bred mare breeds to the blood-horse,
there is always a disposition in the produce to increase in height
and length. Some of the largest, ill-formed, and least useful
horses have been the produce of bad, overgrown blood-horses,
and Yorkshire mares; the stock often exceeding 17 hands in
height. On the other hand, the old Cleveland horse, on short-
looking legs (short because of his deep and wide frame), measures,
when of the best form, about 16 hands; and from mares of that
stamp, and a good blood-horse of 15 hands 2 inches, it is easy to
produce in the second or third generation hunters which could
carry 18 stone over a heavy country, and jump double fences,
despite the ground and weight. Though the present require-
ments of Leicestershire can hardly be met by one or two crosses
of blood, still it is important to know how size with good form
may be had when wanted.

In selecting a mare to breed hunters, form is usually more
regarded than pedigree; not that knowledge of descent is un-
important, but, because with all but blood-horses, it is com-
monly so very hard to go far back—nay it is good policy, when
doubt arises, to stop inquiry, lest more than the truth should be
heard.

Young mares should be selected in preference to aged and
hard-wrought animals; the latter being uncertain till tried.
Exception, however, should be made in favour of a mare of ten
or twelve years, which had produced some good foals; if sound,
she is in her prime. Those destined from the first for breeding,
should be put to the horse at three years old, instead of being
left barren till a year or two later, as is commonly the case; if
they have been well kept, they will be sufficiently developed at
that age.

Mares of the stamp for producing hunters are very scarce now,
as may be inferred from the small number presented at exhibi-
tions of general stock; yet, with our climate, soil, and national
resources, the few good animals still obtainable for breeding
would suffice for laying a foundation, if breeders were encouraged
to produce and keep stock of the right sort.

The real good half-bred stallion—such as we used to see,
with his large clean legs, well-defined knee, hock, and pastern
joints, with good head, shoulders, barrel, and hind quarters
—is now become scarce; these horses when about 16 hands

346 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

high, formed a connecting link between the thorough-bred
and the stronger classes: from such sires, mares fit to breed
hunters used to be obtained, besides many of the most valu-
able horses in England for general purposes; of late years
‘whenever such a stallion has made his appearance, it has only
been to be favoured with a few mares preparatory to his being
exhibited, and then sold to go abroad. To finda really good
half-bred stallion of this old stamp, at five years old, has to
the writer’s knowledge been a rare occurrence during the last ten
or fifteen years, even in the first horse-breeding districts of the
kingdom.

To do justice to this subject it must be regarded both in its
general and particular aspects: individual breeders who seek to
promote their own particular interests, cannot be expected to
take as broad a view of this question as constituted bodies like
the Royal Agricultural Society, which is founded to promote
national improvements; yet the breeder who succeeds in pro-
ducing fine specimens of the class of horses best suited to his
locality and requirements, will promote the general good; whilst
by classifying and bringing them into notice, the Royal and
other Agricultura] Societies will do their part.

The breeders of horses are for the most part either wealthy
amateurs or tenant farmers; to the latter we must turn for the
general supply of every description, the race-horse excepted,
though it must be admitted that English horses of the best
type owe their state of perfection to royal, noble, and gentlemen
amateurs. At the present day the stud belonging to her Majesty
forms a model to all breeders; and to royal patronage was due
the high perfection to which the English blood-horse attained
during the last and previous centuries.

From 1750 to 1764 inclusive, three horses were bred in
England, by his Royal Highness the Duke of Cumberland,
uncle to King George III., which together did more to advance
the value of the English horse, than any set of incidents on
record. The horses alluded to, were Marske, King Herod, and
Eclipse. If we pass over the first-mentioned horse Marske,
because he was the sire of the last—Eclipse—we still have in the
other two the elements of an entire reformation in the character.
of the blood-stock of the kingdom. The sons and daughters of
Herod and Eclipse are unexampled for their character and
numbers ; and through these in parallel lines, we obtained such _
a stock as no other country has possessed. So effectual has been
the patronage of those in a high station, in advancing the im-
provement of our horses, that whenever we search out the origin
of any of our best blood-horses, without which the hunter could

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 347

not have attained his special excellence, we find in almost every
instance some cherished historical name connected with him as
the breeder.

One important point in which the rearing of horses at the
present day differs from the practice of the last century, consists
in the small paddock and artificial forcing management being
substituted for the range of the spacious park, with the neces-
sary adjuncts, until maturity was reached.

Amongst the essential conditions for breeding horses next to
that of selection of stock to breed from, is the choice of the land
as regards its nature and extent; to this point too little attention
has been paid of late, and it has a special importance in the case
of hunters, because they require longer time in pasture than
others, to complete their growth and consolidate the frame.

When the subject of rearing horses on farms which contain
little or no pasture, has been under discussion of late, and the
relative cost of a young horse produced in the farmyard has
incidentally been contrasted with that of one purchased of the
same age, it has been argued that the price of the horse bred on
the farm is not felt like the payment of all the money in a lump.
It is strange that men of the sagacity of farmers should make
any such exception to the broad commercial rule of exchange,
which never applies more forcibly than in this case.

The first question for a man to ask himself, who has a desire
to breed horses, is,—have I the necessary pasture-land for the
purpose? Without this nothing can be done in the matter;
with it and the necessary capital everything can be accom-
plished. Good sound old pasture is that which admits of the
best hunters being produced with the least help by artificial
means; such land as grows the best wheat seems also to suit
horses well—the North Riding of Yorkshire may be cited as a
case in point. Well-drained land is essential, and a dry surface
most favourable,—whilst wet flat lands may grow grasses and feed
horses to a large size, hunters can never be produced on any
other than good firm soil; if the surface be hilly, all the better ;
if some of these natural advantages be wanting, yet horses bred
on sloping ground, where they have variety of exercise, become
finer in form, with better action, than when bred on flat ground.

Many of the best horses known at all times have derived their
high qualities from the physical character of the ground on
which they were bred; the more extensive and diversified this
is, the less risk there is of foals breaking a leg whilst galloping
and playing in a confined paddock. I never knew of a similar
occurrence where the young animals have had space and ine-
quality of ground, to give them strength, with the will to use it.

With a regular supply of good sound food, horses may be

348 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

bred to a very high state of perfection, on dry poor soil; so far
it is a question of expense. I have seen horses bred on inhos-
pitable ground, and there left to nature, which, after care has
been taken to get them into condition, have become serviceable
animals ; but a horse bred on swampy ground, or confined in a
soft, wet, filthy farmyard, or stable, may grow large and heavy,
as they generally do, but can never be good for any purpose.
Fine shape, good action, compact textures, with sound con-
stitutions, and feet, such as will bear exertion, are requisites
pre-eminently required in the hunter, and no class of horse
should be without them, to the highest attainable degree; yet
none of the above qualities can be acquired unless foals and
growing colts have liberty on firm ground: this proposition is
based on some of the fundamental laws of nature which cannot
be violated with impunity.

The experience afforded by other nations confirms this view:
thus France, having few natural advantages, purchases horses for
common use from “Germany, and has recourse to England for
choice specimens of valuable breeding-stock ; Northern and Cen-
tral Italy obtain their horses from the same sources. Even in
England horse-breeding is in great measure confined to some
of the more favoured counties, where the best can be reared at
the least outlay for artificial means.

On some of the extensive tracts of land which belong to the
Roman States, horses may be found under conditions which
approximate to their purely wild state; within certain bounds
they range and breed as free as the deer of the place, stallions
and mares running together, 7.¢., a stallion is selected for the
season and turned loose with a certain number of mares: the
market value of young unbroke horses, when so reared, depends
greatly on the character of the ground ; whilst colts bred on high
land will fetch 300 crowns the pair, those reared at the distance
only of a few miles on low soft marsh land, will realise only’ 50
or 60 crowns apiece. Wherever the matter has been tested,
I have found that the character of the soil. and general manage-
ment influences the wearing powers of horses more than that of
their parentage.

Where attempts have been made on the Continent to breed-

horses in small enclosed paddocks, such as in England are
allotted for blood-stock, without the aid of the English soil,

climate, &c., it has always proved a failure: the stock have_

been high on the leg, narrow, and without form, action, or good
qualities of any kind. Where, however, the English stallion is
used, and the mares have their native freedom on good ground,
relatively good stock has been procured.

Change of ground is good for horses, for the fresh soil and

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 349

herbage- it presents, as well as for the variety of surface it
affords. Land laid down in seeds, though inferior to old pas-
ture, is often serviceable to the farmer as affording an exten-
sive range of fresh ground.

It is not until the second summer that eolts require more
extent of ground than a small enclosed field affords; the young
animals, if they have only an acre of space, will display their
speed, by galloping round their dams in a circle. Colts and
fillies destined to make hunters, require to have their liberty for
three full summers; and it is a question to be settled by the
means at hand, whether four summers should not be given.
Hunting-colts should be taken up, broken, and be gently ridden
at latest during the winter when they are rising four years old:
they may then either be turned out again for two months during
their fourth summer, or be ridden over the farm at that time,
which, with a good rider and proper care, affords the best be-
ginning for a young hunter: such usage is preferable to turning
out, though both these courses may be followed in the same
summer, to some extent, with good effect.

It is riot necessary that the space of ground allotted to mares
and foals should furnish all their sustenance during any con-
siderable part of the year; most breeders of hunters, however,
will be provided with such good grass-land as will make them
independent of much other aid during three or four months of
summer. To a great extent the same system that is adopted for
the racing-stud may be carried on in breeding hunters; but the
practice of running blood-horses at two years old has induced
breeders to stimulate their growth and development by free and,
I may say, excessive feeding.

To insure the best results, there is only one mode of procedure
for different stock as far as the first and second summers, with
the intervening winter, go. Whether the colt be entered to run
for the greatest early stakes, or destined to carry the heaviest
amongst the fastest of riders to hounds, or designed to make a
stallion, ample space on good land, shelter and cleanliness, are
essentials, without too much pampering ; the food to consist of
sound meadow hay and oats, to such an amount as the resources
of the land, and the state of the animal indicate. Growth, form,
and fine fibre, are our requirements in the horse ; and it is by
giving food of a kind and quantity which can be assimilated that
these are produced: any excess in the quantity of food given adds
to bulk and weight, at the expense of quality.

Thoroughbred foals and yearlings, under the present method
of feeding, eat from 1 peck to 14 peck of oats per day; and of
hay, either cut into chaff or in its normal state, about 7 Ibs.
The motive for this, as I believe, excessive feeding, is not alone

850 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

the prospect of the young stock being put into training at
eighteen months old, but especially that of their being previously
offered for sale. The object of primary importance, that of pro-
ducing the most symmetrically formed horse, is thus made sub-
ordinate to the destre of turning out the largest yearling colt.

I am of opinion that if the quantity of corn given to some
of the blood-stock was diminished to three feeds daily (a
change which would induce them to eat a larger propor-
ticn of hay), their condition would be thereby improved, even
for the time, and more obviously so for the future. What is
required in the colt is thorough development of the muscular
aid nervous system, and of those organs which carry on the
fur:ctions of nutrition: a little fat will be stored up, according to
the natural law; but young horses should never be made up
until they are what may well be called “ beastly fat.” To be
liberally fed, so that there is no interruption to growth, their
appetites and condition should be carefully watched, and the
distribution of food regulated with judgment.

I disapprove of green food, such as vetches, clover, and other
grasses, cut when in season, and giv en in large quantities to horses,
of any dass: Green forage so given has few of the properties
which it possesses when horses eat it off the ground as it grows.
In his normal state, the horse selects and mises so that the
process of feeding is slow. Mown grass becomes first welted,
then ferments, is stalky or woody, and when placed before horses
under restraint, it is eaten voraciously ; ; the stomach and bowels
becoming ov ixehargeds digestion isimpaired. All grasses should
be either eaten off the ground, or else, when cut, made into hay,
whereby time is given for the consequent fermentation. When
1 make any exceptions to this rule, | am very careful as to the
kind of grass, and its state when cut—it should be at the point of
flowering ; and the quantity supplied must be small on the whole,
and nicely apportioned between different baits. These statements
are meant rather as cautions than fixed rules. In town, the ill
effects of giving green food are most maiked, because there it is
commonly given in an unfit state, through the causes alluded
to. The same objections do not apply to roots, amongst which
carrots especially form an excellent adjunct to good oats and hay,
during a great part of the year, for mares and young stock of dif-
orre ages. Scientific researches into the chemistry of food
have not done much to modify the sound rules of practice long
established in England on the feeding of horses. In 1860, the
Cleveland Agricultural Society set the example of giving 100/.
to the best thoroughbreds stallion for getting hunters: and
the Royal Agricultural Society, by offering a like prize at its
three last meetings, with similar conditions attached, has afforded

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 301

further scope to the experiment, which has not as yet shown the
promise of much fruit. Indeed, there now appear some signs,
if not conclusive evidence, to show, that not only no good end
is likely to result, but that this large prize tends rather to defeat
the object for which it was so liberally set on foot. Without
some annexed conditions, no guarantee is afforded that the reci-
pient of the money uses his horse so as to make him available
for the breeders of hunters and roadsters. The large prize has
either fallen on a horse of high renown, which was serving mares
at a fee such as none but breeders for the turf can afford to pay ;
or else it has been given to a young horse which should have
won his way to favour gradually by his merits, and thereon
the price for his services is increased to an amount which places
him quite beyond the means of breeders of hunters.

Unconditionally as this prize is given, any one of the re-
nowned stallions which covers at from 10/. to 50/. may be
walked to the yard and obtain the prize, thereby deterring the
owners of more eligible horses from going to the expense and
trouble of bringing them to encounter defeat. The line of dis-
tinction drawn between the first prize-horse and his competitors
is frequently also too broad; and this leads to discontent and
complaint against the decision of the judges. The tendency of
this prize, then, seems on the whole to be rather to deter than
encourage the keepers of really useful country stallions. Indeed,
it may be questioned whether the whole system of awarding
prizes to stallions by the local agricultural societies of England
for some years past has not tended to exhaust the means for
procuring a good horse.

Prizes, when given without restrictive clauses, act as an adver-
tising medium, to such an extent that the prize-horses of one
year have very rarely been found in England the next season ;
and as premiums are usually given at the age of three and
four years, the animal has been of little service prior to exhibi-
tion and sale: prize-mares go abroad as well as stallions; so
there are few good mares to breed stallions from, and still fewer
good stallions to get fillies.

It must be acknowledged that the blood-stallion has not been
so much affected by these measures as the half-bred horse ; whilst
in the cart-horse class the system has worked well, inasmuch as
there is little demand for them on the Continent; and the Scottish
Agricultural Societies, particularly, take care that the horses, ac-
cording as they obtain first, second, and third prizes, shall be
located in such districts as the Society directs; and if the same
course had been followed in Yorkshire and other districts in
England, our beautiful nag-sires would have been retained for at

VOL, XXIV. 2A

352 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

least one season after their excellences had been publicly pro-
claimed.

In judging the classes of hunting and roadster or nag-mares,
some more intelligible definition than has generally prevailed
is wanted. Yet so closely do these blend one with another that it
is difficult to draw a line so as to divide them into even two
classes; there should, however, be a clear distinction between the
hunting and the thoroughbred mare: the latter, if good, is kept
to the paddock, and in a general way never becomes the pro-
ducer of hunters. Moreover, the same objection applies to the
mare as to the high-class blood-stallion ; they can be walked into
the yard simply to receive the prize; the racing-stud would
furnish mares such as the dam of Kettledrum, which would
carry off the prize, thereby deterring farmers from producing their
best, and, moreover, set a wrong example, stamped by authority,
as to the kind of mares which farmers should try to keep.

I may refer to an instance in point as an example; at the
East Riding Agricultural Show, held at Bridlington about 1853,
I saw the first prize for the mare for breeding hunters awarded
to Hygeia, by Physician; that mare had never been out of the
racing-stable or the stud. She had bred runners, but nothing
like a hunter; and has since been remarkable for becoming the
great-grandam of Dundee.

Exhibitions of foals with their dams at local agricultural
shows afford encouragement for breeding, and also the first and
best means of bringing good stallions into early fayourable
notice.

There are objections to awarding prizes to gelding-colts at
various ages, either as hunters, nags, or carriage-horses: in the
first place, the breeder has encouragement enough in the probable
price he will realise for a good colt; but a second and more
positive objection is, that good colts are so pampered by feeding,
and by being kept up in the stable, that they seldom turn out
good for much afterwards; and here, again, the open system
of giving prizes has led to the colt being taken from place to
place; whilst a wise farmer with a really good one would not
enter into competition of fat against form, a pampered horse
against a well-kept and level-formed one, gradually growing into
worth.

Whenever prizes are given for horses, the judges should agree
to take into account the use for which that animal is required ;
and when made as fat as a Christmas ox, horses should be dis-
qualified from competition as much as if they were pronounced
unsound by a veterinary surgeon,

The scarcity of good blood-stallions, available for farmers, at

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 353

reasonable charges, is proverbial; and yet good horses in no
small numbers are produced annually : how these can be obtained
as stallions seems to be the question, subordinate only to that of
a right understanding of the extent to which they should be
employed, and of how to select the good and avoid the bad.

On the rules and regulations of the Jockey Club, from time to
time in force, will depend the extent to which good blood-
stallions can be obtained, since the temporary failure of our
supply is in great measure referable to running our horses at two
years old. 1 distinctly use the word temporary, because I do
not believe that any radical or general deterioration has taken
place. If two-years-old engagements were carried over to the
third year, and the more real tests of power and lasting qualities
left to be decided at four, the character of the blood-horse would
at once greatly improve, and more would be available for stal-
lions without necessarily more being bred. By such reform the
forcing of colts would be checked; indeed, it would be incom-
patible with success, since protracted accumulation of weight
would prove an incumbrance. Under a less hurried management,
young stock would acquire as much good form as under the
present system before being disposed of, besides the larger pro-
portion of them which would be developed into useful horses,
ef which many are now destroyed before they have had a chance
of showing what is in them.

Modern steeple-chasing has drawn heavily on the supply of
blood-horses, adapted for country stallions; that sport, which
formerly was intended to be a test for good riders across country,
and also of the clever hunter, has to a great extent been the means
of calling out the indifferent race-horse to beat the horse really
fit to be ridden to hounds. Many good powerful blood-horses
have consequently been converted into geldings, which, as
stallions, might have begun in the lower ranks and reached the
highest.

The next and most considerable draught from racing stock is
that carried off by exportation; this affects our means of obtain-
ing stallions to get hunters, because the better class of horses are
selected—those that have run, have stood their work, and are
of good size, and sound. Amongst these horses which annually
leave the country, are some equal to the best of those left behind.

_ It may be excusable to point to some inconveniences (though the

remedy is not so readily seen) ; because until the influences in
operation are shown, remedies cannot be instituted. Blood-
horses fit for country stallions are from the above causes much

. higher priced now than formerly, hence the scarcity of them

amongst country stallion keepers. Some of the best blood-stallions
in England formerly travelled in Yorkshire, serving country mares

Jn New

304 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

at two guineas each, and the owners made a good business by the
number of subscriptions obtained ; an attempt should be made
to open up this channel again. What are called tried stallions
are not wanted for this purpose; there are always young blood-
horses in various localities, advertised to serve mares at ten
guineas each, which do not pay their way; yet these, if properly
appreciated in a breeding district, would get plenty of mares.
Horses so employed have full as much chance to obtain some
blood-mares as if they were kept at more important centres,
where those of established repute stay. Brutandorf was serving
mares at two guineas each, in the East Riding, when one of his
sons, ** Physician,” was the first young stallion of his day, and
another, Hetman Platoff, one of the best horses in training.
The owner of Brutandorf did his business well, over a succession
of seasons, in the same district ; and when the horse was about
twenty years old, he was sold to go to Russia, for nearly as many
hundreds of pounds.

The wintering of mares and foals calls for little special notice
in studs which are well provided with shelter, and paddocks for
exercise. Farmers, however, can only adopt such measures as
are essential or least inconvenient; and although individually
they may have only two or three mares, still on them we are
dependent for the greater part of our general supply. In their
case the farmyard is commonly made the receptacle for stock
indiscriminately, when the field affords neither food nor shelter.
There is a commonly prevailing notion that wet about horses’
feet and legs is either good or not injurious. Nothing can be
further from the truth. Without discussing the relative value
of open and covered farmyards, I may state that a wet farm-
yard is most injurious to horses. A small home-field, with
a dry soil, is of the greatest use to turn the young horse-stock
into daily. Shedding can be made temporarily in fields distant
from home by means of upright posts, across which smaller
timber or rough materials may be placed, to be covered with
furze, reeds, haulm, and such-like material, and finished off with
thatch. Such a shed for mares and foals or young growing colts
will be as comfortable and as conducive to their health as the
most elaborate building. Care must, however, be taken that
the site is dry and free from all accumulations of wet, nor
should these animals be allowed to stand upon an accumulation
of dung, but their sheds should be as clean and dry as a well-
kept stable. Those rules are not less applicable to permanent
buildings; firm, clean stone bottoms are the best surfaces for
horses to stand on; these should be thinly covered over with
clean straw, which should be changed and the floor swept daily.

Breeders of hunters require to be, as they mostly are, good

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 359

judges of horses generally, that each animal may be assigned to
his proper use. When a colt is growing large and coarse, more
like a coach-horse than a hunter, it is well that this should be
seen in time, before extra expense is incurred, when perhaps the
proper time for sale would be passed over; though good horses
often run in families, there is nevertheless frequently great
diversity, even in horses that are full brothers.

Hunters of the greatest power, and the best performers under
heavy weights are usually about 16 hands high; and some geld-
ings exceeding that height are very well-formed animals, and
have good action. Most experienced riders, however, who are
in possession of a very good large horse, will be able to tell of
one that could carry them quite as well which measured a hand
less: my own experience is against high horses ; hunters of from
15 to 16 hands high may be equally good for different weights
from 11 stone upwards.

Some of the questions which most perplex men in trying to
understand the relative merits of horses from their sizes, shapes,
and general external appearance, could be reduced to more simple
rules, if action were better understood than it has been. Excellent
judges of both form and action are to be found who yet, from
want of some fundamental rules, are unable to connect the one
with the other. Hence the fine form of a horse is not appre-
ciated until after he has performed some feat ; and, since the value
of the horse turns principally on his locomotive power, the art of
breeding and rearing hinges on a right appreciation of action,
which is the representation and offspring of form.

When horses like Little Wonder and Daniel O’Rourke, that
were sensibly under 15 hands high, are seen to outrun horses
of 16 hands for the Derby, it is generally thought that the little
horse has gained over the larger, through his quicker movements ;
that more strides must be taken in the one case than the other;
or else that the lower horse keeps up the pace the longest, as is
really the case, the larger horse being the weaker. But as regards
the length of stride, the notion of the little horse having the
shorter is very probably wrong ; and when he has beaten the larger
animal, it generally is by his length of stride ; and the same con-
struction which gives that faculty, confers the power to keep it up.

The eye is the best guide to the forms of the horse. Like the
sculptor and painter, we cannot proceed far by measurement;
although, like the artists, we can run our rule over one or two
points, and then take in the details with the eye. .

When making a few remarks on what is understood as good
shape in horses of different classes, I will not so much repeat
ted rules as notice a few exceptions to them.

The head of every horse is an important point to be observed

356 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

and studied. Mechanically considered, the head, by its form
and position in relation to the neck and trunk, regulates the
action and powers of the horse. Functionally, as the seat of the
senses, the head indicates the general character of the horse; and
this is the more important consideration.

Good heads I consider may be found in two forms ; firstly,
we have the Arab type of head, with its broad forehead, taper-
ing muzzle, capacious nasal cavities, small ears, and large free
space for the breathing apparatus to play between the upper
vertebra of the neck, and the broad expanse of the lower jaw.
Everybody agrees in considering such a head as most beau-
tiful when it is in keeping with the rest of the horse. This cha-
racter of head, transmitted down a line of our blood-horses, per-
vades the breed, and is exhibited to a great extent in our mixed
breeds. Nothing tends to stamp the character of cross-bred
horses so much as this head, taken in connection with form. It
is by no means my object to disparage this caste of head, which
is characteristic of the finest Asiatic horses, but simply to remark
that the head which becomes one horse or class is not the best ©
for all.

The Barbs generally present a different type: in these we find
the horse larger, his hind quarters somewhat drooping (not like
the vulgarly-bred horse, but resembling many stout racers), the
chest deep, with large fore-quarters and loin ; the profile is longer
and more flattened, the ear and eye very beautiful, all giving a
placid appearance, whilst the head is fully as easily placed in
relation to the neck and trunk as that of the Arab just noticed ;
moreover, the nasal passages are fully as capacious in this class
of oriental horse as in the other.

The Barbs formed in all probability the parent stock of fine
horses extending over the south of Europe, as their characteristic
qualities have always been exhibited in the Andalusian horse,
the Calabrian, the choice old breeds of Rome, and those of the
island of Sardinia; and their form of head is characteristic of
some of the English lines of blood-stock to the present day.
When the broad square head is found in common breeds or in
the heavier class of horse, it looks dull, as is seen in those of
Central Europe, including those of Switzerland and France.

Artists have fallen into the way of always giving the same
head to all forms of horse; and the Paris prints always show the
uplifted head, with expanded nostril, and out-stretched tail. But
our colossal figures of great horses with these square heads are
quite out of keeping. That I may not be supposed to admire
the large bony head of the horse of Flanders or Normandy, or
of some of the English horses, I will point to Voltigeur as the
representative of the fine type | approve of.

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 307

The point to be looked to in the head of a horse is its con-
nection with the neck so as to admit of its being brought into a
graceful position, when the horse is easily broken, moves grace-
fully, and breathes freely. If a cross-bred horse combines a large
square head with a defective connexion in relation to neck and
trunk, he cannot bring his forehand into a good posture; and
if this be attempted he breathes with difficulty, hence many
roarers are found of this form.

Let us, then, improve heads by careful breeding ; but not try
to obtain on one horse the head which would have better become
another.

Whether looking at stallions, mares, or their produce, breeders
will be more likely to arrive at a correct appreciation of their
worth if they take the whole animal in view at a glance, when, if
nothing offend the critical eye, it is most likely that more strict
and patient examination into details will confirm the first im-
pression. Men, on the other hand, who are always talking of
points, and criticising in detail without knowing what relation
one part bears to another in producing such effects as constitute
good action, are seldom right by chance.

The choice of a stallion with the idea that something in his
shape may correct a defect in the mare is seldom found good in
practice; that a horse has good hocks whilst all the rest is
indifferent, cannot justify his selection: I have never seen good
derived from these compromises; sire and dam should be good
all over.

' Two" measurements may be taken of a horse, which will be
found useful and afford instruction, after which the rest may be
left to the eye and the touch. Every symmetrically formed
horse in good and normal condition will be found to measure
about one-fifth more in girth, viz., round the circumference of
the chest, than he measures in height; he should be of the same
height, when standing on level ground, over the withers and
rump. *- :

By this rule a perfectly-formed stallion of 16 hands in height
will girth 80 inches, whilst the good Clydesdale of 16 hands 3
inches will fully sustain that proportion; and horses of lower
standard show no noticeable difference where we find perfection
in form.

When the above proportion subsists, the form of the horse will
generally be good. Such form ensures a good loin, and, almost
as certainly, the well-placing of the shoulder and the good pro-
portion of the limbs, the form and character of which must be
scrutinized to the ground: light, powerful, and easy movements
result from proportionate construction.

The paces of the horse, the walk, trot, and gallop are all

358 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

brought into use in the hunter and hack, as they are also con-
stantly exercised in turn by the animal when free. Of the two
subordinate and more artificial paces, the amble is seldom seen
in England, nor does the English horse take to it easily ; but the
canter is a common requisite, and is a distinct movement, though
it has been regarded as a slow gallop, to which, however, it has
no real resemblance: the so-called canter in the trainer’s lan-
guage, is a gallop, and no canter at all.

Passing over the important paces of walking and trotting, I
have a few words to say on the faster, the gallop.

Under the conviction that those who have attempted to describe
the gallop in the horse proceeded by chance, with insufficient
knowledge of the laws of progression, I have devoted much time
to experimenting on different animals.

The accompanying diagram, taken from my unpublished col-
lection, shows two representations of the gallop. Figure 1 repre-
sents the impressions left by the feet of a five-year-old well-bred
Irish mare, which measures 15 hands 2 inches high, and is in
other respects of good form and action. The mare was galloped
over the fresh sands on the sea-beach for the experiment on
30th November, 1861, and this figure shows the prints on the
sand and the relative position of the feet when in action.

No. 2 shows a similar measurement, in the instance of a
two-year-old racing-colt in training; it was taken, on the 15th
January, 1862, on Richmond Moor, when the colt was going at
a good gallop.

Before 1 make remarks on the gallop I must say a few words
on the descriptions hitherto published.

By all the writers with whom I am acquainted the gallop is
described as consisting of a succession of leaps; the horse’s feet
and limbs are placed in all sorts of positions but the right ; whilst
the great artists who have understood the subject best, from some
motive or other, have generally represented the horse whilst
standing still. The subject of proportion and progression has
been looked on as settled by Vial de St. Bell, in his Essay on the
Proportions of Eclipse, published 1795, who exhibited a diagram
which is as erroneous as the text which gives the measurements.
Passing over other teachers and writers, we come to the late Mr.
Perceval,* who gives the views which up to the time he wrote
had been published by others. He says (page 150), Mr. Blaine
observes, that “‘as the two fore feet at once beat the ground
together, and then the two hinder, so it is evident that the gallop
of speed is nothing more than a repetition of leaps.”

* “Twelve Lectares on the Form and Action of the Horse,’ by William Per-
ceval, M.R.C.S., Veterinary Surgeon to the Ist Life Guards. Longman and Co.,
London, 1850.

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360 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

Mons. F. Lecog is also referred to by Percival, as calling the
gallop “‘a succession” of leaps. Mons. Lecog, in the later edition
of his elaborate work on ‘ Progression,’ p. 432, * adheres to his
previous description.

Neither have these so long prevalent notions been limited to
writers on the horse. Naturalists and comparative anatomists
have taken for granted, that what was so authoritatively given
with illustrations, amplified by elaborately-written pages, was all
reliable and sound. The action of the horse has puzzled some
of the greatest among human physiologists, the movements of
the quadruped being faced more complex, when attempts were
made to analyse on than those of man: these difficulties,
however, seem all to be based upon a a of cael
locomotion generally.

Dr. Humphry, in his large work on the human skeleton, pub-
lished in 1858, follows in the beaten track on the subject of
progression ; and the professor, in his more recent work, published
in 1861,{ goes still more at length into the supposed action of
the horse, to illustrate that of man, where it is very clear that he
is misled by the teaching on the physiology of the horse, and
consequently the author’s special subject has not profited by the
importation.

My two diagrams represent two animals as galloping, with
what is called ‘‘right leg first ;’ these figures cannot, however,
show movements in thei odes of sequence : I will tects
explain; and then show how the force is distributed over the
four limbs, and how they move in succession.

The horse getting under weigh, which is done with least ex-
pense of power in a walk or trot for a few paces, pitches into his
gallop more or less rapidly; in doing so the near hind foot is
first moved, next tHe near fore, the off hind and off fore following
in sequence, so that the off ia which in the case is said to he
going first, is the last to be pune ; if the horse changes his leg
the cules will be reversed.

It is only in the canter and gallop that the hind foot does
move first. The line of gravity, as Borelli states, is kept perfect
by the first move in the hind foot: that limb being the first to
make a short preparatory move, it next makes the fifth move,
following in sequence to the off fore 128s and this is the true order
of movement afterwards kept up.

The horse’s balance in his pelle is as perfect as when he is

* ‘Traité de ’Extérieur du Cheval et des principaux Animaux Domestiqnes.
Par F. Lecog, Directeur de l’Kcole Impériale Vétérinaire de Lyon, &e. 3™° edi-
tion. Labe, editeur, Place de I’Ecole de Médecin, Paris, 1856.’

+ ‘The Human Foot and the Human Hand,’ by G. M. Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.,
Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the University of Cambridge, pp. 66-67.

Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters. 361

standing or walking; he is so distributing his power, and the
feet moving on the ground are one by one raised, and in the
same way and succession implanted. ‘Two feet of the horse are
always on the ground in varied positions ; whilst of the other
two, one is disengaged in the air and the other in the act of

alighting or rising. But the horse, the observer will say, gallops

by strokes seemingly, using a renewal of efforts, his power is
exerted in diagonal lines, thus the action of the near fore and off
hind leg moves in close sequence, off fore and near hind follow-
ing. The sequence of action between each fore foot and its
diagonal hind on the ground is so blended, as to make the exer-
tion of one continuous leverage. However we may regard his
action, the horse’s equilibrium is perfect; the two lateral limbs
move in sequence, so that the fore is always carried forward
before the hind has passed the centre of gravity. I have hitherto
observed the movements, in diagonal and parallel lines ; the fore
limbs, in each direction, preceding the hind, with the exception
of the first move in the gallop and canter, required as a pre-
paratory and balancing move, not amounting to a full stride.

I cannot admit that either the horse in galloping or any other

uadruped flies through the air by means of a succession of
bounds : all jumpers are slow movers, and the horse loses time by
every jump he takes; the faculty of leaping is reserved for a
particular purpose, and not employed as a means of fast progres-
sion—a little serpent will go twice across a broad road on its
belly before a frog will get once over it by jumps.

If by any device a steam-ship could be so constructed that its
paddles were made to strike the ocean-waves as the horse’s feet
are implanted on the ground, with what speed, steadiness, and
safety would it advance! If we watch a race where the upper
part of the horses and riders are alone in sight, because some
obstacle such as a hedge or wall hides the movement of the
horse’s legs, we shall see directly that the horse does not jump
or oscillate, but moves evenly, as a bird flies, or rather as the
masts of a steam-ship, when the jerking movement of the ma-
chinery is in like manner out of sight. Moreover, the distance
at which each foot is implanted from where it was taken up, is
no way dependent on mere length of limb, but represents the
product of all the motive powers exerted; the velocity at which
the body is moving through the air determines the distance of
stride.

If the physiology of progression in the horse can be made
plain, such knowledge will, by leading to a better appreciation
of symmetry, be of the first importance in practice. It will be
recognised from the tenor of this essay that height and long legs
do not necessarily give long stride; and we may come to under-

362 Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

stand how it was that Daniel O’Rourke and Little Wonder, when
under 15 hands high, beat for the Derby in their respective years
good competitors which were a hand higher than themselves.
We shall further see how it is that a little animal like the fox
is able to run for two hours before animals similarly constituted
and much larger. The same law is in operation in one case as
in the other.

I will conclude with a few remarks about the feet of young
horses of different ages before being put to work. If two pieces
of advice which I have given be carried out, the feet will not
require much art; if the stock can have plenty of space the
friction caused by exercise will keep the hoof in proper form,
and the inner structure will by the same influence be duly
developed. Besides this, if horses when brought under cover,
stand on a dry hard bottom, the feet will acquire form and strength.
Periodical visitations, if to wash and clean the feet, should by
all means be adopted ; though, if the frogs are free from thrushes,
there is no necessity for operating on the feet. Paring the
feet I do not think advisable. Once or twice in the winter if
the colts cannot get room out of doors, a blunt old rasp may be
taken to equalize the plantar surface of the feet, and a little
lowering of the outside may be necessary, especially with narrow-
chested colts. The greater wearing down of the inside is apt to
twist the foot and pastern, and even tends to turn the elbow in.
Whenever mares or foals are deranged in health, a veterinary
surgeon should be called in early, as nothing prescribed by
anticipation is likely to meet the requirement.

New Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

XXII.—Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. By Joun
ALGERNON CLARKE.

In the twentieth volume of this Journal it was my good fortune
to chronicle the successes of the steam-plough to the close of the
year 1858. I have now to present a summary of mechanical
improvements and practical results which since then have made
steam tillage the pre-eminent triumph of modern = agri-
culture.

Not that certain sanguine expectations haye become even ap-
proximately realized. Analogy from the achievements of the
steam-engine in the factory gave but fallacious promise as to its
performances in the field. One pair of hands, with steam-power
and a spinning-machine, might draw out and twist up a thousand
threads at once; but it by no means followed that a labourer,

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 363

with steam-power and a ploughing-machine, should turn over
perhaps scores of acres ina day. Some steam machinery, waiving
all imitation of the long series of old manual processes, might
strike off the required product from a raw material almost at a
blow ; but it did not follow that a steam cultivator ought there-
fore to transform a hard foul staple-soil into a clean crumbled
seed-bed by one magical rasp of its tooth. Theory forgot that
the farmer produces in partnership with Dame Nature (who,
like other elderly females, will take her own time at the pay-box,
no matter how eagerly commercial considerations may be
thronging to press her onward). Prepare your corn land with
the utmost celerity of execution; still, the reaping-machine
will follow some nine months after the drill ; and one seed-bed
a year is (with a few exceptions) the extent of your possible per-
formance, Exhaust chemistry for manures to pamper pedigree
grain and roots: the yield of your one crop per annum is still
confined within narrow limits of increase; and the maximum of
the most valuable produce restricts to comparatively few shillings
per acre the sum you may profitably expend upon a seed-bed.
Certainly, the low value of what you can reap or feed off the slow
soil debars you from any such coup de main operation as grinding
up (by a travelling earth-mill and the power of James Watt’s
great kettle, pump, and fly-wheel) a stone-baked clay into fine
powdered mould—say some 1500 tons’ weight on each acre. And
besides, another consequence of having to conduct tillage out of
doors is that, even if a seed-bed off-hand could be pecuniarily
afforded, it would not answer the purpose for which it was de-
signed. Nature, the farmer’s indispensable partner, claims her
share in his toils, and imposes the conditions under which alone
he can secure a seed-bed preserving a pulverulent matrix for his
plants. And as you cannot shovel the whole staple-soil of a
field into some vast mignonette-box, to water it, warm it, or
shade it at will, the task left for your mechanical tillage is
simply to facilitate that tedious but inexpensive aérial action
which (beyond the wit of man to imitate) fructifies while re-
ducing tough clods into tilth. Operating, then, in conjunction
with uncontrollable natural agents, the husbandman can never
supersede, but only remodel and improve the world-old patient
delving and uprooting and exposure of masses to atmospheric
agency; he can but slice and dig and break up, and then, in
some lighter after-process, crush and shatter and disintegrate
clods replete with softening moisture or burst by ice and thaw;
while, incidentally, he destroys in premature burial myriads of
germinating annual weeds, and parches up by exposure, or combs
out for the ordeal of the furnace, the matted and creeping runners
of ineradicable couch. “I had once to attack a fallow field”

364 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

(says a Buckinghamshire clay-farmer) “in a hot dry summer.
By immense force, and tear and wear of horse-flesh, implements,
and harness, I got it broken into lumps as big as horses’ heads.
These a cross-ploughing reduced one half; another ploughing
got them down to cricket-balls ; Crosskill’s clod-crusher brought
them down to the size of walnuts, and then to sugar-knobs, to
beans, to peas; but they were hard fragments still, as unlike
tilth as possible. But a single ‘smashing up’ (and perhaps a
crossing before winter) kills the weeds in a dry autumn, and
places the land so under the influence of the winter’s frost, that
the soil in spring is as light and loose as the freest loam in the
country. Masses which still retain the form of clods you may
kick into a powder over the ground ; and ‘stiff, adhesive clay’
now barely soils the boots that in other circumstances would
gather 10 to 20 pounds of earth a-piece.” It is clear, then, that
the ‘revolution ” in field practice which everybody expects from
a steam-driven implement must consist, of necessity, in perfect-
ing, expediting, and cheapening essential processes already in
use ; or, if introducing novel modes of manipulation, doing this
the better to carry out the same principles of tillage upon which
the old tool-work was based.

Dismissing, then, all chimerical notions from the subject, I
propose to show that we now possess forms of steam-cultivating
apparatus attaining these three points—1, superior quality in
the work done; 2, greater rapidity, and 3, less cost of execu-
tion, as compared with culture by animal power. And it
follows from the foregoing considerations that future progress
(whether from improvements in mechanism of working imple-
ments of traction, or from the success of a revolving digger),
will merely render somewhat greater the profit already obtain-
able through the services of the rope-drawn tine and share.
Steam tillage is by no means “ in its infancy,” though its results
may be as yet only dimly foreseen and’ scantily realized; as
appears from a very simple but forcible consideration put by
Mr. J. C. Morton, in his report of the trials at York last year.
“ A 4-horse team and plough weigh more than 40 ewts.; and all
this goes trampling and sliding from end to end of the clay field
that is being ploughed over every 10 or 12 inches of its width ;
and thus of course a floor is formed beneath the staple, hindering-
drainage and the entrance of air, impeding the downward pene-
tration of roots, &c., &e. We want a tool weighing not more
that 4 or 5 ewts. for every foot in the width worked by it, carried.
on wheels so as not to close the surface over which it travels,
and driven by a power which shall not press upon the land that
is being worked, All this we have in the steam-driven ploughs
and cultivators that were seen at work yesterday: the ploughs

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 365:

employed weighing not more that 5 to 7 ewts. per furrow, the cul-
tivators from 4 to 5 ewts. per foot of width, and both are carried
on large wheels at wide intervals, thus traversing the field but
once to every 4 or 6 feet width. The engines driving them
either travel along the headland, or they stand in one spot, or
altogether out of the field. In both cases the tools can be drawn
with wonderful effect through sun-baked clay which horses could
not touch ; in both cases (supposing the land to be fit for horse-
work) the mischief done by drawing a heavy tool across the land
that wants loosening and culttvating is reduced to a minimum ;
while for speed of work, in order to the full use of the short times
in a year when clays are fit for cultivation, superior quality of
tillage, and its much lower total cost, as compared with horse-
labour, the advantages of steam-power are in both cases beyond
a question.”

In selecting proofs from the great mass of evidence which is
cumulating every day, I may, first of all, take steam culture as
represented in

Tue TRIAL FIELDS AT WORCESTER.

Without recapitulating the details and descriptions which have
appeared in this Journal—in my ‘ Account of Steam-Cultiva-
tion’ (vol. xx.), in Mr. Frere’s paper ‘ On the Present Aspect of
Steam-Cultivation’ (vol. xxi.), and in the Stewards’ and Judges’
Reports of Chester, Warwick, Canterbury, Leeds, and Battersea
Meetings (see the vols. for the years respectively )—I will very
briefly describe the several forms of apparatus now competing for
public patronage.

Some systems familiar to visitors of our ‘‘ country meetings”
have been abandoned. No such thing as a locomotive engine
travelling over the land, yoked to one or more traction-imple-
ments, appeared at Worcester. And though a _ locomotive-
engine, delving the soil by rotary spades, has been exhibited at
the agricultural exposition of Lille, our English inventors have
at present no real embodiment in wood and metal of the me-
chanical idea so philosophically and pictorially placed before us
in the ‘Chronicles of a Clay Farm.’ Steam-tillage in 1863 con-
sists in dragging a traction-implement with a wire rope (or a
substitute for it), hauled either by a stationary motive-power, or
a motive-power moveable along the headland.

Leaving out of view the so-called “traction” engines, or
highway and farm-road locomotives, we find “entered” in the
Worcester Catalogue the steam-culture machinery of thirteen
different exhibitors.

Mr, Thomas Beards, of Stow, near Buckingham, showed a
plough adapted for any system of haulage. A rectangular iron

366 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

frame upon two furrow-wheels and two land-wheels, carries at
each end a lever-frame with two plough-bodies, for turning over
two furrows at once; and the implement traverses backward and
forward, without turning round at the ends of the field, the two
sets of ploughs being alternately dropped into the ground or held
aloft in the air by chains and a barrel upon the top of the frame.
This is a modification of the “balance” or ‘‘ equipoise ” prin-
ciple exhibited by Messrs. Fisken at Carlisle in 1855.

The implement of Mr. William Steevens, of Hammersmith, is
also designed for any system of’ rope-traction. Two sets of
ploughs pointing towards each other, are so hung within a
main carriage-frame (with steerage-wheels) as to rise or fall
with a parallel motion—the share-points and mould-board heels
together ; the bell-cranks and rods which effect this also balancing
the two sets, in order that they may be easily lifted or lowered.
A scale of inches upon the main frame marks the depth to which
the ploughs are set, and the depth of the furrows can be instanta-
neously altered without stopping the implement. The plough-
bodies can be removed from their respective frames and replaced
by cultivating-tines ; and again, instead of these, a harrow, taking
10 to 15 feet breadth at once, may be affixed below each of the
rising and falling frames. There seems to be no reason why
double-breasted or ridge-ploughs, or, indeed, almost any form of
tillage tool, should not be added at will to the fundamental
framing. Mr. Steevens has also produced an improved rope-
porter, enabling the rope to be readily lifted off the roller while
the plough is passing. The work accomplished by the imple-
ment (worked by Messrs. Howard’s form of tackle manufactured
by Messrs. Garrett) was certainly of good quality, though a
breakage occurred from lack of strength for excessively hard
operations,

Mr. J. A. Williams, of Baydon, Wilts, has directed much
attention to combinations of implements for steam-power. One
of his arrangements consists of a large field-roller, with one heavy
drag-harrow before and another behind it, set in a rectangular
frame, which is pulled backwards and forwards without turning.
Two lighter harrows, hung, one at each end of the frame, are
raised when preceding, but lowered into work when following,
the heavy drags and roller. Another set of light harrows, or a
chain-harrow, is attached at the side; the whole covering a
breadth of 13 feet, but adapting the position of the several imple-
ments to all inequalities of surface. The steerage is eflected by.
simply diverting the rope to one side or the other, more or less
out of the line of draught. For reducing a roughly broken-up
surface, at a large acreage per day, this is a very efficient and
economical machine. Mr. Williams’ cultivator carries its tines

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 367

in lever-bars, which rise and fall of their own accord, like the
coulters of a drill, taking 6 feet width at once. For these tines
may be substituted three “double-tom” or ridge-ploughs, by
which land is ridged for turnips, or laid up for winter exposure
at a wonderfully rapid rate. This implement is turned at the
land’s end by the action of the ropes, passed round the fore part
in bows, which also hold off the tail-rope in its proper place.
The same practical exhibitor has also a land-presser for steam-
power, so constructed that six wheels press as many furrows at
once, each wheel riding independently of the rest.

Mr. C. Clay, of Wakefield, has a cultivator of peculiar action.
The tines are fixed to cross-bars, which are at liberty to rotate
part of a revolution; so that when the implement begins its
journey, one-half the tines enter of their own accord into the
ground, while the other half (pointing in an opposite direction)
simultaneously rise out of work. Hence the workman has only
the steering to manage. The implement runs upon a single pair
of wheels.

The rotary rolling forker, which was a familiar object at the
Society's meetings a few years ago, has reappeared in the
modified form of a digging-machine, invented by Dr. G. Ager,
of Aylsham, and exhibited by the manufacturers, Messrs. E. R.
and F. Turner, of Ipswich. A set of rowels of large diameter,
with curved tines or teeth, being set in motion by the onward
progress of the implement, penetrate and lift up the soil ; while a
second and smaller set of rowels, driven by toothed wheels and
pitch-chains from the former set, clears the teeth of earth, much
as the revolving spurs of a Norwegian harrow clear each other.
The machine is very similar to one which the Rev. S. Smith, of
Lois Weedon, invented and worked with admirable effect a few
years ago. The work produced by the present digger is reported
by employers to be very effective and valuable, and to be per-
formed with a comparatively small expenditure of motive power.
The forked tilling part of the machine is placed im a circular
frame, to which the hauling-ropes are attached, and is turned
half round upon friction-rollers in this frame, for working in the
opposite direction.

Among the articles designed to aid steam-tillage, I must not
omit a clever little contrivance of Mr. W. S. Underhill, of New-
port, Salop. To prevent that serious delay—the breaking of a
rope—and to preclude the risk of great damage from sudden
obstructions, inattention to signals, Kc., the rope is attached to
the implement by a spring hook—that is, a hook so made as to
release itself from its hold when a spiral spring upon its shank
becomes compressed beyond a certain point; and this yielding
strain may be set to any number of cwts. at pleasure. The

VOL, XXIV. 2B

368 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

device is good, and the cost low ; and the hook is adapted to any
apparatus not fitted with “‘taking-up gear” upon the implement.
- Coming now to distinct systems of haulage, I find entered in
the Catalogue, but not present in the Show-yard, the apparatus of
Mr. W. Fisken, of Stamfordham, Northumberland. The pecu-
liarity in the invention (which has undergone great modifications
since its early appearance in Scotland in 1852, and its exhibition
at Carlisle in 1855), consists in conveying the power froth a
stationary engine by means of hemp-rope running at a high
velocity. At first the windlass, with ploughs attached, worked
its way to and fro by coiling or by gripping a fixed and im-
movable wire-rope; then the implement was made to travel by
means of a drum armed with cutting blades that laid hold of the
ground ; and lastly, this has been abandoned for the present plan
of two self-moving anchor-windlasses, one on each headland,
alternately coiling a single wire-rope which pulls the plough,—the
endless hemp cord mounted upon porters, along one headland and
across the field alongside the furrow, transmitting power and
motion to the two windlasses. The price of the apparatus is
marked excessively low; but now that we have learned to carry
wire-rope clear off the land, and thus to take power to almost
unlimited distances with very little waste in friction, 1 do not
perceive what special advantages could be gained by the present
form of this invention. :

The apparatus of Mr. W. Smith, of Woolston, Bletchley,
Bucks, is so well known that a description would be superfluous ;
and only a few minor alterations appeared in the tackle at Wor-
cester. The double-cylinder 10-horse ordinary portable engine
had an additional band-wheel, formed in one piece with the fly-
wheel, giving a choice of two speeds for lighter or harder work.
The stationary four-wheeled windlass, with a couple of coiling
drums; the claw-anchors let into the ground by digging holes ;
and the simple, strong, light, three-tined and five-tined cultivators,
turned round at the ends of the work by the action of the repes,
present no apparent novelty in construction. The pulleys or
snatch-blocks, however (four, five, or even six in number, accord-
ing to the shape of the field), have been made with a deeper and
more durable centre-boss rotating upon a longer pin; and the
rope-porters standing upon curved wood rockers cannot tumble
over, and are easily moved. In addition to the two grubbers of
different sizes, Mr. Smith showed his combined cultivator and
corn-drill (with grubbing tines and seed-coulters on one lever
frame), which has been much lightened, improved, and cheapened
in price since last year. This machine, thoroughly tested in
extensive practice, enables the farmer to make a seed-bed out of
whole ground, and sow it at one operation; with an admirable

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 369

tilth, perfectly straight rows completely finished up on the head-
lands as elsewhere, the seed planted at regular depth, and all
without the trampling of a single hoof. It is also adapted for
haulage by other systems of rope-traction.

Mr. E. Hayes, of Stony Stratford, Bucks, has introduced
various modifications into this system of a stationary engine and
windlass, and rope laid out round the field. Between the two
winding drums upon the same axis are hung three riggers or
band-wheels, any one of which may be driven at pleasure by a
belt from a broad rigger or sheave on the engine fly-wheel. The
middle rigger on the windlass is simply a ‘‘dead rigger ;” each
of the others actuates at a slower speed one of the drums, by
means of spur-wheels inside. To reverse the action of the drums,
then, it is only necessary to slip the belt from one outside rigger
to the other, without taking any toothed wheel out of gear, and
without stopping the engine—which is a source of trouble and
delay when the engine has but a single cylinder. The revolution
of the slack or paying-out drum is arrested, ready for the reverse
motion, by the momentary pressure of a steam-piston brake.
But no attendant is needed at this windlass; for Mr. Hayes leads
out cords from the windlass around the field, by which either of
the anchor-men instantaneously shifts the reversing bar, when the
implement arrives at the end of its furrow. So that no signalling |
is required, except in case of obstruction to the plough while on
its journey ; and this enables the farmer to work in the thickest
fog, or by moonlight in a pressing season, with perfect safety to
the machinery. Any implement adapted for rope-traction may
be employed with this apparatus.

The improvements of Messrs. J. and F. Howard, of Bedford,
embrace all parts of the so-called “‘ round-about * system. Their
10-horse double-cylinder ordinary portable engine, actuated the
stationary windlass by means of a spindle with universal joints,
in place of a driving-strap, which is liable to slip in wet weather.
The two coiling-drums are hung upon eccentric bosses, or hollow
axles, both upon one carriage axletree; and by altering the posi-
tion of these eccentrics either drum is raised or lowered at
pleasure, in order to place its toothed flange in or out of gear
with one of the pinions on the first-motion shaft above. Thus a
very light, though powerful, two-wheeled windlass is secured ;
the stopping and reversing are easy ; the motion of the drums can
be stopped without shutting off steam; the slack or loose drum,
dropping upon a fixed block, becomes its. own brake; and the
amount of frictional pressure in this braking action can be regu-
lated at will. The next point that meets our attention is the
provision made for holding up the rope off the ground ; not only
to save wear, but to economise motive-power. A tight or pulling

B2

370 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

rope will always hold itself clear above the land, even upon low
rope-porters ; but a slack or outgoing rope, even if passed over
porters 3 or 33 feet high, commonly trails by far the major part
of its length along the ground. Now, it appears from the dyna-
mometer experiments of Mr. J. F. Harrison, C.E., and Mr. J. C.
Morton, in May and June last, that a very considerable propor-
tion of motive-power may be sacrificed by imperfectly carrying
the rope. The draught of 440 yards of Mr. Smith’s rope, wholly
dragging upon the ground, and passing round three pulleys, was
3 cwts.—equal to about half the weight of the rope; and the
draught of 700 yards of Mr. Fowler’s rope, wholly dragging on
the ground, and passed round the clip-drum and one pulley, was
44 cwts.—equal to more than one-third the weight of the rope.
When imperfectly carried upon rope-porters, the draught was
diminished nearly one-half ; and when the rope was held clear
from contact with the ground, the draught was only } of a
ewt.—only a sixth of the draught when trailing its full length.
Hence we learn that, in dealing with fields of tolerable size, 3 or
4 ewts. of draught (representing, at a pace of 34 miles per hour,
3 or 4 mechanical horse-power) may be wasted from not carrying
the rope at all; while there may be a difference of 2 or more
horse-power between partially and perfectly supporting the rope
_ above the land. The necessary tightening of the slack rope
might be effected by applying a brake to the paying-out drum,
but it would be very undesirable to do this. It was found in the
aforesaid experiments that, while the draught of a certain length
of the Woolston rope (running over porters at intervals of 20 to
40 yards) was 2? cwts. when the slack drum ran loose, it was
only 2 cwts. with the brake applied as usual: so that partial
braking is an advantage. -When the brake, however, was pressed
so hard as to keep the slack rope entirely off the ground, the
draught rose to 4 cwts. A simple brake, then, while saving a
slight amount of power, as commonly used, would involve a
great loss by friction, if employed to hold up the rope completely.
Accordingly Messrs. Howard adopt a method of returning to the
pulling rope a portion of the strain which retards the slack or
outgoing rope. At a few yards’ distance from the windlass a
compensating pulley, loosely hung between two fixed pulleys,
pinches the hauling rope into the groove of one pulley, while at
the same time pinching the slack rope into the groove of the
other pulley—so that the outgoing slack rope helps to haul the
pulling rope ; and while the pressure in this self-acting apparatus
is proportioned to the strain exerted by the windlass upon the
hauling rope, there is no pressure at all when the rope is doing
no work—thus enabling the portion of spare rope to pass freely
to the windlass as the implement commences its journey. The

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. O71

rope is more effectually carried, owing to this contrivance, than it
is by the brake alone ; but what proportion of power is thus eco-
nomised has not been well ascertained. The back and forward
bending of the ropes between these additional pulleys must

rove a source of considerable wear; and hence it is very de-
sirable that whatever compensating movement is devised should
be applied to the windlass drums, rather than to the ropes. Mr.
Fowler has such a windlass with compensating brake ; but, owing
to the varying speeds of the drums (according as more or fewer
layers of coils are wound upon them at different parts of the
journey of the implement), only a portion of the retarding strain
is returned to the hauling drum. Probably a simpler plan will
be introduced, in which only a single layer of coils will be
wrapped upon either drum.

Messrs. Howard’s rope is laid out round: five or six pulleys
(according to the figure of the field and the position of the wind-
lass), and these are of larger dimensions than the Woolston
pulleys—which Mr. Smith considers large enough to be still
portable (though the rope in passing them is bent round a curve
of but 13 inches’ radius), With improvements in carrying the
rope (without an excessive number of rope-porters), some change
will probably be required in the present system of claw-anchors,
which are already troublesome enough in some situations ; per-
manent posts, or temporary posts and chains, being available in
the absence of self-travelling anchorages. The Bedford rope-
porters are remarkably handy for moying from and replacing
under the rope; and those porters which are out of the track of
the implement are admirable for catching a rope that rides or
rebounds—as when crossing over a hollow. I need not describe
the cultivator with tines that point both ways (for travelling to
and fro without turning), and rock of their own accord,—so that
when the fore point is depressed, the hinder one is slightly raised.
It is remarkably light, and strong too, and shares of various
widths—from 2 up to 13 inches—enable it either to cleanly cut
all the bottom, or break up without cutting when the ground is
suitable. Two sizes of this implement are made, with 3 and 5
tines respectively. For reducing the broken soil a set of double-
action harrows is employed, in a peculiarly light framing, steered
in a similar manner to the cultivator by a lever-movement
altering the lock or set of the forward wheels. Messrs. Howard’s
new plough consists of two sets of plough-bodies pointing towards
each other, upon two lever frames, which cross at their inner ends
within a short main-frame having one large furrow-wheel and a
couple of land-steerage wheels; all three wheels standing very
near together midway of the length of the implement. But the two
sets of ploughs are raised or lowered into work independently of

372 Five Years Progress of Steam Cultivation.

each other ; the weight of each set being counteracted by separate
spiral springs coiled in boxes, instead of either wholly or partially
counterpoised by the weight of the other. And to neutralise the
tendency of the ploughs to rise out of very difficult work (parti-
cularly on hilly land), the action of the springs is so adjusted as
to lift only a portion of the weight when the ploughs are in posi-
tion for work, but sustain the entire weight when the set is
raised into the air. The total length of the 4-furrow implement
is about 9 yards (the same as of Mr. Fowler’s plough). What
little of its work I have seen is first-rate ; and a high opinion of
its performance will be found in the Judges’ Report. Of course
scarifying tines, digging-breasts, or subsoil shares can be substi-
tuted at pleasure for the clean shares and sweeping mould-boards
which the Britannia Works are so well able to turn out.

Before proceeding to notice machinery on the moveable-engine
system, I would add a word of caution respecting the employ-
ment of second-hand thrashing-engines for steam tillage. A 7
or 8-horse engine, working at 45 Ibs. pressure, is quite unable to
perform the work ordinarily expected of a steam cultivator or
plough. On land where 54 inch deep ploughing (with a horse-
plough) gave a fair draught for a pair of horses, Messrs. Morton
and Harrison found the draught of Mr. Smith’s 3-tined grubber,
when taking 30 inches breadthvat-a time, 5 and 6 to 64 inches
deep, to be "12 up to 19 cwts.; and again, the draught of Messrs.
Howard’s 3-tined grubber, when taking 3 feet breadth, 4 and 54
to 6% inches depth, was 12 up to 21 cwts. Ata pace of 3}
niles per hour, these cwts. represent so many horse-power ; far
beyond the nominal horse-power of the aforesaid thrashing-
engine. By driving from say a 34 feet sheave, instead of from
the 5 feet fly-wheel of the engine, the obtainable draught may be
increased—of course at a corresponding sacrifice of pace in the
implement and of the acreage done per day. But if the engine
boiler be sound and strong and the fire-box well strengthened
with extra ‘ stays,” the engine may be safely worked up to 60
lbs. pressure, giving out proportionally more than her nominal
power. Engines expressly made for steam cultivation are extra
strong, capable of working up to double their nominal horse-
power ; and it is with these that expeditious and therefore cheap
cultivating and ploughing are accomplished.

Coming now to moveable-engine forms of apparatus, I will
first refer:to that of Meésrs,'Coleman “and Sons, of Chelmsford.
The engine travels at intervals along one headland, always
opposite the end of the work ; ; and from two coiling drums upon
a longitudinal axis at the side of the boiler (and unavoidably of
too small a diameter for the best usage of the rope), two ropes
are led side by side across the field to two separate and inde-

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 373

pendent implements. These are 5-tined cultivators, with tines
that can be instantly set in or out of the ground. Each imple-
ment in turn is alternately hauled in work toward the engine,
and then pulled backwards out of work to its next starting point ;
but each traverses only half the length of the field, one beginning
where the other finishes its furrow, midway between the engine
and an anchored pulley on the far headland. This arrangement
(proposed by myself before the Society of Arts in 1858) enables
the use of only a very slight anchorage, and a light rope around
it, extending the length of the field, and connecting the two
implements together ; seeing that the working strain is only ex-
erted directly between the implements and the engine. This
thin rope is taken up or let out for varying lengths of furrow, by
a drum upon one of the implements; and a self-acting brake
upon the engine preserves the tightness of all the ropes, necessary
for holding them off the land upon the rope-porters. Owing to
the implements being single instead of double, they occupy less
room and leave narrower headlands ; working up to the engine,
they can dispense with signalling; and there being neither
windlass nor travelling anchorage, the whole tackle is removed
from field to field by the locomotive engine, and set to work in a
very short space of time. The grubbers make good work, and
purchasers of the apparatus speak highly of its performances;
but the system has not at present been adapted to turn-over
ploughing.

Mr. John Fowler, of 28, Cornhill, and of the Steam-Plough
Works, Leeds, has three distinct forms of steam-cultivating
machinery ; all based, however, upon the use of the moveable
engine. In the simplest, an endless wire-rope is distended
between a “ clip-drum ” under the boiler of a locomotive engine
on one headland, and a pulley upon a self-travelling anchorage
upon the other headland. The groove of the drum, being made
of nipping pieces in pairs, pinches the half-turn of rope in exact
proportion to the strain or draught, and may be set at pleasure to
any degree of pressure ; so that the rope is held without slipping
in the grip of a 10, 12, or 14-horse engine, working up to double
its‘nominal power. But though there is considerable wear of
the clipping-pieces (which are very easily and cheaply renewed),
it does not appear from experience that the rope itself suffers any
more than it would from careful coiling upon a winding-drum.
By means of a “taking-up” or “ slack” gear upon the imple-
ment, the pulling rope employs about one-sixth part of its strain
in maintaining a considerable degree of tension in the back or
return rope ; and by this self-acting contrivance, the entire length
of rope is held up clear off the ground, riding over the friction-
rollers of the rope-porters. The economy of motive power thus

374 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

obtained is so great, that only trifling improvements in this
direction remain possible to future inventors. It has been shown
from Messrs. Morton and Harrison’s experiments, that, out of a
total draught of 285 cwts. due to the work (with a 350 yards
furrow), 1. cw is consumed an moving the rope and pulley,
and 4 of a cwt. more in moving the anchorage forward ; leaving
no less than 27} cwts. (or 95 per cent. of the total drauaht at
the clip-drum) engaged in hauling the implement. And,
deducting the average draught of the plough when out of work—
22 cwts.—the result is that 243 ewts. (86 per cent. of the total
draught) are actually applied to the severing and upturning of
the soil. And considering further how largely the peculiar
sources of friction and cohesion in horse-drawn implements are
avoided in the steam plough and steam grubber (so that only
minor improvements can be made either in the implement or the
hauling apparatus), we see that little room can possibly remain
for some novel machine which theorizers are expecting will one
day accomplish two or three times as much tillage by the same
expenditure of power. Saving of labour, too, can hardly be an
important item in any future invention ; seeing that to work this
apparatus of Mr. Fowler requires only an engine-driver and
ploughman, one anchor-lad, and a couple of porter-boys; of
course, with the addition of cartage of fuel and water.”

To accommodate customers who prefer a lower-priced machine,
at the sacrifice of having to remove the engine, separate windlass,
anchorage, &c., by horses, Mr. Fowler places a clip-drum with
the requisite toothed-wheels and a driving-rigger, in a self-
travelling carriage-frame, which has cutting flanges attached to
its wheels to prevent sidelong slipping in the direction of the
ropes, these flanges being removed when shifting from field to
field. A common portable 8 or 10-horse engine, temporarily
attached to this drum-carriage by a sort of iron shafts, follows it
along the headland ; a V-grooved rigger on the crank-shaft driying
a similar rigger on the drum-carriage by means of a peculiar
endless-chain. This chain is composed of hard-wood blocks,
wedge-shaped to fit the V groove, and connected together by
iron link-pieces. It conveys the whole force of a powerful
engine, without slipping, no matter how loosely the chain may
hang, and with large allowance for different angles of position of
the two riggers ; and the wear is probably very ; trifling indeed.

A third set of Mr. Fowler’s machinery consists of twoloco-
motive engines, one on each headland, hauling the implement to
and fro, by means of a single length of rope, alternately wound
and unwound by ordinary coiling drums, one beneath the boiler
of each engine. A beautifully ingenious and very simple con-
trivance (in which is employed a travelling pinion gearing with

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 375

two differential spur-wheels, demanding diagrams for an explana-
tion) regulates the wrapping of the coils; but winding upon a
drum with vertical axis can never be so neatly done as upon a
drum with horizontal axis, in which case the coils are not liable to
drop over one another when loose. As the rope can feed on to
the drums at any angle of direction, and the engines (following
any irregular line of hedgerow) take up or let out rope for varying
lengths of furrow, without any hindrance or any attention on
the part of the men; and, moreover, as there is neither
windlass nor anchorage of any sort to be shifted or set down
(so that after finishing a field, the engines can move off at once
with rope and implement, and, without the assistance of any
horse at all, instantly commence work in another field), this
double-engine arrangement is admirably calculated for districts
of irregular-shaped inclosures, and especially for working on
hire. Of course, the slack half of the rope is only imperfectly
carried ; but then, all the rope out at once is only of the same
length as the furrow. In economy of performance, unless the
number of removals be excessive (as in contract work), the
double-engine system falls behind that of the single-engine and
anchorage ; and it is, at the same time, a far more heavy in-
vestment.

I need not describe Mr. Fowler’s implements. The 3-fur-
row or 4-furrow plough, balanced upon a pair of large-sized
wheels, can be fitted up with cultivating-tines, or the plough-
shares can be used with short prong mouldboards (or “ digging-
breasts”), which perform much more effectual tillage than any
other cultivating-tines whatever. Trench ploughs, subsoilers, or
double-breasted ridge-ploughs, may all be used on this implement.
Another implement is the 5-tined or 7-tined cultivator, similarly
balanced upon a pair of wheels, the tracks of which are obliterated
by the tines following them. Another is a cultivator and sub-
soiler combined, working to a depth of 18 inches. Another is
a set of heavy harrows, hung in a light framing, to which the
steering and slack-rope gear are attached. For working behind
the plough, a 3 or 4 furrow land-presser is provided, with seed-
box attached ; and a corn-drill is also supplied, to be worked
alongside the cultivator, thus making a seed-bed and sowing at
one operation.

The double-engine system is carried out in a novel manner by
Messrs. W. Savory and Son, of Gloucester. The illustration
given in page 376 shows the form of his engine. A shell drum,
of 6 feet diameter, without arms or spokes, incloses the body of
an engine-boiler,—revolving upon three pairs of friction-wheels,
which are supported in brackets upon the boiler. The cylinders

are placed transversely across the end of the smoke-box, over

_Z f a —— Sea \
= —

376 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

1]

Savory’s Engine.

the steerage wheels; and the long crank-shaft passing inside the
drum drives it by pinions and internal gear, and also by means
of a screw or worm gives motion (at pleasure) to the hind car-
riage-wheel axle. The drum will contain 500 yards’ length of
rope in a single layer of coils; and a couple of guide-rollers
traversing the length of the drum by means of a rotating shaft,
threaded like a screw, regulate the coiling so perfectly that the
rope never overlaps itself; thus avoiding any grinding or damage
from acute bending. ‘Two engines thus fitted haul the imple-
ment (a Fowler’s plough or Howard’s grubber, &c.) to and fro
from one headland to the other: the guide-rollers deflecting the
rope when the furrow is not quite at right angles to the direction
of the headland ; while, in case of an acute angle of direction,
the engine can be moved forward and steered so as to present its
broadside always toward the line of work. This setting of the
engine askew may not be very advantageous to a moist headland ;
but there is plenty of time for the operation; one engine having
nothing to do but to take up its position while the other is haul-
ing the implement. To feed the boiler with water while the
engine is at rest, Messrs. Savory employ a small “donkey-
engine,” placed (like the steering mechanism and _ reversing

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

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Savory’s System of Steam Cultivation,

378 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

clutches) close at hand, under the command of the engine-man.
Mr. Fowler’s “ double” engines supply themselves with water by
simply running disconnected with their drum or propelling wheels.
In Messrs. Savory’s arrangement the cylinders are necessarily of
short stroke, giving out their full power only at a high number
of revolutions per minute (unless at an excessive pressure of
steam) ; and, by driving the drum directly without reducing gear,
too great a speed is obtained for any implement to work steadily.
Travelling at a pace of more than 4 miles per hour (5 miles
per hour in light work), the implement not only makes im-
perfect work, but incurs great risk of damage from land-fast
impediments ; and, besides, a broader cultivator, at a pace of
24 to 3 miles per hour, would waste less time, owing to the
few number of bouts, each with its steady commencement and
slackening of speed toward the close of the journey. The faci-
lities of the twin-engine principle are well illustrated by this set
of apparatus, which, without the assistance of any horse,
brought itself along 30 miles of up-and-down-hill road from
Gloucester in one day, and shifted from field to field, losing but
a few minutes in gathering up or leading-out rope and taking up
position ready for work.

One more invention remains for notice. Mr. Collinson Hall,
of Navestock, Romford, Essex, substitutes for wire-rope a chain,
formed of 4 Linch round steel rods, 18 inches long, coupled to-
gether by “pairs of flat plates 4 inches long, with connecting
cs and an endless chain, thus made, passes one (Mees
round a drum beneath a moveable-engine boiler, and similarly
round a pulley upon a self-travelling anchorage at the further end
of the field. But the drum and pulley are poly gonal instead of
circular ; and the link-chain is hauled by means of cog-teeth upon
the eas taking into the apertures provided by ie coupling-
plates of the chain. The breaking strain of the plates (the weak-
est point) has been found to be about 14 up to 22 tons; the chain
being probably stronger than wire-rope of equal weight. The
merit of the invention is in its supposed durability. The rods
and plates of this link-chain (exhibited by Messrs. Turner of Ips-
wich) present but little appearance of attrition after having
ploughed 400 acres; and it is affirmed that not one rivet has yet
been broken, The wear must take place chiefly on the ends of
the rivets and in the eyes in which they work; but if the rivets
be purposely made of softer metal, they alone will wear away,
and the whole of the 2800 rivets in 800 yards’ length of chain
may be replaced for some 30s. As the chain (from its sidelong
rigidity) will not wrap upon a drum, it is unadapted to the sta-
tionary-windlass system, where greater economy of rope is most
of all desirable ; and, moreover, this necessitates a tedious unbolt-

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 379

ing and folding of sections of the link-chain for removal in a
cart, instead of quickly and conveniently coiling it upon the
engine-drum. Again, the chain cannot ride upon porters, owing
to the excessive amount of play or hinge-action so demanded of
the rivet-and-plate joints; hence incurring a very considerable
waste of motive power. The comparative draught of a given
length of this link-chain and of wire-rope trailing upon the
ground has not been ascertained ; but the weight of the present
link-chain is 3ibs. per lineal yard, or from one-half up to twice
more than that of the wire-rope of different sets of apparatus.
Of course, it is a mere sophism to excuse the heavy drag of a
rope or chain along the ground by saying that a cwt. or so more
coal per day will give the extra power required. For when an
engine is already working up to her full power compatibly with
safety, an additional one, two, or three horse-power can be ob-
tained only through a stronger boiler, a larger cylinder, and in
fact, by an entire engine of bigger dimensions and higher prime
cost.

As applied to the twin-engine system, Mr. Hall’s traction-
medium deserves consideration. Instead of two 12 or 14 horse
engines, each idle in turn while the other is hauling a single
length of rope, he employs two 6 or 7 horse engines, both simulta-
neously hauling an endless link-chain, and thus accomplishing
as much work as engines of double the power, weight, and first
cost. The back, or return ply of the chain being always tight,
can be mounted upon low porters; and the other ply along the
track of the plough may be similarly upheld where in advance
of the implement, though left upon the land where running slack.
For varying lengths of furrow, a portion of spare chain is carried
folded upon the implement; a hook that will lay hold of the
chain at any point allowing one or more links to be left out or
taken up at pleasure. I do not know why Mr. Fowler’s twin-
engines should not be of lower power, and work an endless wire-
rope with clip-drums; thereby lightening the apparatus for a
deep and sticky district, as well as sparing the contract proprietor
or company several hundred pounds of purchase-money. The
objection to two engines working at once is the difficulty of
securing simultaneous starting and stopping: it remains to be
seen how far this may be overcome,—perhaps by signal rope
laid out between one engine and the other.

My account of the steam-tilling machinery at Worcester being
intended to touch only upon points not fully elaborated in the
Judges’ Report, I leave all details of the four days’ competitive
field-work, merely drawing certain inferences, either from my own
personal observation or from the official statistics and remarks.
Comparing self-locomotive apparatus with that working a com-

380 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

mon portable engine, it appeared (in the course of the trials) that
the latter (if cultivating at the rate of about an acre per hour in
moderate-sized enclosures) would lose more than two hours every
other day in removing to fresh ground half a mile off, if 4 horses
were employed for the operation; or it would require 8 horses in
order to shift in about one to one-and-a-half hours. On the other
hand, a couple of self-travelling engines would move the same
distance in twenty-five minutes, without any horse at all; while
a single locomotive engine with an anchorage would take a longer
time than this, but equally dispense with the assistance of horse-
flesh. Comparing the amount of labour required, we find the
stationary-engine apparatus to be manned as follows :—Mr.
Smith’s, 6 men; Messrs. Howard’s, 5 men and 2 boys; and
Mr. Hayes’, 4 men and 2 boys. The moveable engine employs
hands as follows:—Mr. Fowler’s separate-drum tackle, 3 men
and 3 bays; Mr. Fowler's other tackle, 2 men and 3 boys;
Messrs. Coleman’s apparatus, 5 men and 2 boys. Mr. Fowler’s,
like Messrs. Savory’s twin-engine plan, is worked by 3 men and
2 boys. In all cases the labour of water-carting is additional.
As regards the relative cost per acre of a given operation, I con-
sider that no accurate test was furnished by indurated ground torn
up into pieces of all sizes, and at average depths which, after the
most careful measuring in a few spots, must remain open to
differing individual opinions. Mr. Fowler’s moveable 10-horse
engine, and Messrs. Howard’s stationary 10-horse engine, com-
pleted their equal plots (of less than 2 acres) in very nearly the
same time, with about equal consumption of fuel; but the
former worked five tines at once, and the latter only three. Mr.
Smith’s stationary 10-horse engine, with a 3-tined cultivator,
working at the same depth as the other two, and making the
most efficient tillage, burned somewhat more coal, and occupied
one-half more time. Messrs. Savory’s two 10-horse engines
finished their plot in rather less time than either Messrs.
Fowler or Howard’s machines, but with nearly two-thirds more
coal. In turn-over ploughing 1} acres each, Messrs. Savory,
Fowler, and Howard, occupied nearly equal times. In culti-
vating a little over 1? acres each at Wadborough, Mr. Smith’s
10-horse tackle consumed the least coal, but took the longest
time ; Mr. Fowler’s 14-horse engine expended both the least time
and smallest quantity of fuel; Messrs. Howard’s 10-horse tackle
consumed a trifle more coal, and was considerably longer in
doing the work; and Messrs. Savory’s two 10-horse engines,
while taking less time than Messrs. Howard’s, burnt considerably
more fuel. But the unavoidable absence of reliable dynamo-
metrical tests, and the impossibility of assigning any exact value
to the several degrees of effectiveness in the different works,

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 381

forbid any minute deduction from these experiments as to the
comparative economy of the competing machines. Mr. Fowler’s
two 12-horse engines, for instance, consumed as much coal as
Messrs. Savory’s, and spent more time than Messrs. Howard’s—
nearly as much as Mr. Smith’s—in tilling about 1# acres ; but then
their work done by the digging-breasts was very superior to any
other in the field. It may be taken as a general conclusion that
a moveable engine,—working with less rope, fewer pulleys, and
consequently less waste of motive power, while employing fewer
workmen,—performs any given process at less cost per acre than a
stationary engine can; and this point, together with the very low
expense of all the steam-tillage done, is illustrated in the Judges’
Report, where the percentage for interest and wear and tear is by
no means too favourably assessed. But the reader should bear in
mind that while Mr. Fowler’s work with a moveable engine cost
less money per acre than the work of either Mr. Smith’s or
Messrs. Howard’s stationary engine, the difference in his favour
would have been greater had the areas in the competitions been,
say, of 20 acres each, instead of only some 2 acres each; seeing
that the additional length of rope required by the round-
about system becomes a serious drawback when surrounding a
large enclosure, and not perfectly carried off the ground.

At the Worcester trials hard stiff loam was cultivated 7 inches
deep by Mr. Fowler’s 10-horse-power machine, at the rate of
94 acres per day, and a total expense (without removals) of
4s. 9d. per acre; and Messrs. Howard’s 10-horse-power machine
worked at the rate of half an acre per day less, and 2d. per
acre more money. Ploughing 64 inches deep, with the same
sets of hauling apparatus, was performed by Mr. Fowler at
the rate of 74 acres per day, and a cost of 6s. 3d. per acre;
and by Messrs. Howard, at the rate of 7 acres per day, and
at 6s. 4d. per acre. But by way of contrasting steam-power
performance with that of horses, | must cite one or two of
the most memorable feats in the moister and more suitable
fields at Leeds and Canterbury. At the latter trial, in 1860,
in ploughing a strong loam (which, from the ascertained draught
of a common plough at 6 cwts., would cost 12s. an acre if
turned over by horses), Mr. Fowler’s 12-horse engine, working
with a pressure of 68 lbs. on the square inch, drove 4 “ 3-horse-
furrows” at once, at the rate of 11 acres in ten hours; and the
total cost was computed at 4s. 6d. per acre, instead of 12s. (the
lowest price by horse-labour), though the excessive allowance of
20 per cent. was put down for interest and wear and tear. At
Leeds, in 1861, Messrs, Howard’s 10-horse engine scarified a
strong and stubborn soil 5 or 6 inches deep, at the rate of 63
acres in ten hours, at a cost of 6s. 8d. per acre. Mr. Fowler’s

382 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

12-horse engine scarified the same soil 7 inches deep, at the rate _
of 6} acres in ten hours, at a total cost of 7s, 2d. per acre. In
land where the ploughing of a single furrow 8 inches deep re-
quired a draught equivalent to the power of 5 horses, the same
engine ploughed at that depth at the rate of 5% acres im ten
hours, for a total cost of 7s. 10d. per acre. Of course in reading
these figures (as well as those of the Worcester Judges’ Report)
it should be borne in mind that, though ordinary wages are
charged for the labour, the trained hands of exhibitors are masters
of a larger daily acreage than could be expected from common
farm workmen,

From the lessons of the trial field I now turn to the encourage-
ments furnished in

Farm Practice.

It may be possible to find more than one farmer who, having
purchased steam-cultivating apparatus when its mechanical
merits were less developed than at present, found only dis-
appointment from the inefficiency of the machine or the scanti-
ness of its valuable results. But we have now such a body of
satisfactory evidence from large and small occupiers, upon every
description of soil, and in all parts of the kingdom, that the
difficulty is how to select examples of success that shall be
more striking than others. I might give detailed descriptions
of scores of farms under the tillage of Mr. Fowler’s, Messrs.
Howard’s, Mr. Smith’s, or some other machinery; but as the
agricultural press has lately teemed with reports of steam farms,
annals of steam culture, lectures, and discussions on the same
great achievements of rural mechanism, perhaps I cannot do
better than cull and condense the main facts that have as yet
been made known, with the opinions of those who have had most
practical experience in the matter. From the Agricultural Ga-
zette, the Mark Lane Express, Bell’s Weekly Messenger, the hun-
dreds of good testimonials received by different inventors and
manufacturers, and from what has been gathered by personal
acquaintance with many cases of steam-farming, I will select
some of the most prominent testimony to the value of the steam-
plough. I disclaim, however, any attempt at “making outa
case,” or puffing steam cultivation by extravagant statements ;
much less am I conscious of being influenced by any bias for or
against one form of apparatus more than another. My tabulated
cases are merely such as chanced to yield the particulars re-
quired ; and are probably average specimens of their class, instead
of being picked and unusual examples,

Take, first, a synopsis of performances and expenditure with
the machinery of our three principal inventors and manufacturers.

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 383

Most of the figures have been calculated from data given in the
gross in printed reports from purchasers and employers. Some
of the items are, of necessity, more or less arbitrary; some few
sums are matters of estimate; and in one or two instances the
cost price of the machinery is incorrectly stated for want of pre-
cise information. Perhaps I have committed some mistakes in
characterizing the soil of particular farms, and in stating the
number of horses there required ina common plough. Other
errors may exist, though unknown; but the general truthfulness
of the details may be relied on, and the final averages may be
taken as fair data of practical steam culture in many different
hands, and under very various circumstances. Removals and lost
time are principally accounted for in the sum for wages, &c. ; but
in some instances a small addition ought perhaps to be made
for horses, reckoning one removal (occupying say one-sixth to
one-fourth of a day on an average of distances) due to about 20
to 24 acres,—as computed from a number of still later reports
recently published.

The sums for rope and repairs are nearly all founded upon the
outlay actually incurred ; or (where the experience has been too
limited) are charged in about .the proportion averaged by the
cases of longer experience. But the amount of ‘ depreciation,”
or, in other words, the sum to be annually laid by for replacing,
or, in other words, maintaining the machinery perpetually in
good condition, has not been so well ascertained as the cost of
rope and other working parts worn out or broken. Steam-ploughs, :
more particularly those with self-travelling or locomotive engines,
haye not been in existence for a sufficient time to show how long
they will really last. The market value of a second-hand engine
and set of tackle is, of course, no guide here, seeing that 25 per
cent. of the cost price may sometimes be sacrificed by only a
day’s work (not from damage incurred, but from becoming
“* second-hand ” instead of “ new”); and while minor improve-
ments are being continually added to each invention, purchasers
will seek the newest form out rather than buy an old machine at
half-price. For the sake of being over rather than under the mark,
I have supposed the engine and apparatus, though every year
repaired as far as wearing-parts and breakages are concerned, to
become good for nothing and not worth a farthing at the end of
ten years. I suppose the metal-work to rust and consume away,
and the wood to decay, so utterly that a completely new “ set”
must be purchased every tenth year. Competent judges agree
with me that this is an extreme supposition, and that I have con-
sequently made the cost of work a shilling an acre, more or less,
greater than a lengthened experience will hereafter prove it to be.

VOL. XXIV. 2c

Still

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

384

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Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 387

Still, I have charged 10 per cent. per annum on the cost price for
depreciation, and also 5 per cent. per annum interest on the capital
invested, or 15 per cent. altogether; spreading this amount over
the number of days’ work, or the number of acres, done in a
year—with a deduction, however, of some 20/. to 40. for the
use of the engine in thrashing and other operations of the farm.
It should also be borne in mind that 1862 was not a favourable
year for steam culture ; so that, on some of the farms referred to,
the nuinber of days’ work done was only about half of those in
1861, and consequently calculations based upon the experience of
the preceding year would have brought out much lighter sums
for interest and depreciation per acre.
I would remind the unfriendly critic of steam-culture that only
a small proportion of my “instances” give results from newly
improved sets of apparatus: lengthened experience being sought
for, I have necessarily founded the calculation for “repairs and
rope,” as weil as the daily and acreage expenses, toa large extent,
upon practice with machinery far inferior in capacity and durability
to that now produced by the several manufacturers in question.
So that, in future, the effect of their mechanical improvements, as
well as of the spread of better management in working, will be
to reduce the item of “ repairs and rope,” and bring out a more
favourable average cost per acre. The “wear” of rope itself has
been a very variable figure on soft and yielding, or on stony and
grinding soils ; depending also upon its careful or careless mount-
ing upon porters, and, again, upon the good or bad quality of its
metal. Mr. Fowler’s rope has cost, with Mr. Neames of
Faversham, nearly 2s. per acre; with Mr. Frampton of Bensing-
ton, Is.; and with Mr. G. Pocock of Bourton, only 8d. an
acre. Messrs. Howard’s rope has cost with Mr. Deane of
Wallingford, 1s. 6d. per acre; with Messrs. Witcomb of Pinton,
over ls. 6d. per acre; with Mr. Cousens of Godalming, 1s. to
1s. 6d.; with the Duke of Marlborough, 1s.; and with Mr.
Kay of Horsham, only 6d. per acre. Mr. Smith’s rope has cost
with Mr. Norfolk of Louth, 3s. per acre; with Mr. Looker of
Wilton, nearly 2s.; with Mr. Pullen of Sutton Courtney, under
ls. per acre. Extravagant sums like some of these have helped
to raise the general average of my tables to 1s. 6d. per acre for
“rope and repairs ;” but hereafter those sets of machinery which
carry their rope completely clear of the earth, without involving
an excessive number of rope-porters, will doubtless lower this
item to about 6d. instead of 1s. 6d. per acre. Let the said
unfriendly critic observe, then, that a shilling an acre saved here,
added to another shilling per acre probably saved (as already
suggested) by a more reasonable valuation of the item of “ depre-
ciation,” will make my “total cost per acre” column 2s. an acre
too

388 |

Five .Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

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389

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‘ive Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

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ive Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

390

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—a Seam

392 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

too high. And further, as the sure effect of improvements in

iperhanical detail and in carrying the rope will be to increase the
acreage of the daily performance, the cost per acre in the future
will be still lower than even this reduction of 2s. would make it.

These tabular statistics will be more instructive as they are,
than if resolved into some crude generalization of sums and
quantities. Taking each synopsis by itself, the reader can com-
pare the horse-power of engine with its acreage of ploughing and
grubbing, and this, again, with the character of the soil and
depth of work. He can see at a glance what great differences in
daily expenditure arise from varying prices of labour and of
fuel ; and what a changeful item “ repairs and rope” become under
different circumstances and management. And he will not fail
to note the wide range of “interest and depreciation” per day
and per acre, as governed by the greater or less number of days’
work in the year.

In comparing one table with another, that is, instituting a
comparison between the performances of different inventions, it
must be observed that Mr. Fowler’s machine is the only one
entering into the account as performing turnover ploughing.
Messrs. Howard’s* apparatus can “plough” as well as “ culti-
vate,” but of its achievements in the open furrow I have gleaned
no regular series of particulars beyond those which appear in the
notice of Worcester trials. Of course had Mr. Fowler’s work
ai all grubbing, as in the tables of Messrs. Howard’s and

. Smith’s performances, (instead of about three-fifths being
a much more tedious operation of “ ploughing”), his average
daily acreage would have exceeded, not fallen short, of dheins.
An average of many cases during this last spring, down to. May
18th, furnished by Mr. Morton to the Central Farmers’ Club,
makes Messrs. Howard’s grubbing 54 acres per day, Mr. Smith’s
grubbing 62 acres per day, and °Mr: Fowler’s work, of which
only about Ra was ploughing, 7} acres per day. But the
endless diversity of soils, the varying depths worked, and the
fact that, either from the form of an implement or its speed of
travelling, the tillage accomplished by one machine may be
worth double that done by another machine, forbid our taking
these tabular epitomes of experience as competitive results esta-
blishing the relative powers and expenses of rival sets of appa-
ratus. Data from which to frame conclusions of this order are
given in the details of the Worcester and other trial grounds. -

From averages extending over wide areas, and influenced by
exceedingly variable circumstances, let us turn to particular
examples of maxima of daily performance, in which manufac-
turers’ feats in the public arena are more nearly realized by the
farmer in ordinary business.

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 393

I think that evidence is now coming up pretty strongly in
support of two of my propositions—namely, that our existing
steam-cultivators far surpass horse-implements both in cheapness
and quickness of execution. Examples given show that, in some
cases at any rate, a twelve-horse power steam-engine will perform
a day’s work equivalent to that of a force of thirty or forty draught
horses ; and what an advantage this must be in a pressing
season—when despatch will often make the difference not simply
between a full equable crop and a patchy thin one, but between
a fair yield and no crop at all—let the farmer himself judge,
who cannot afford to feed throughout the year anything like the
number of teams that he could deal with at certain critical
periods of his tilling and seeding.

The question as to relative economy and the balance-sheet
between steam and animal power, in the long run, or when the
whole year’s work is taken into account, will appear from the next
’ set of tables. And let it be understood that the cases here given
are not picked examples, but those concerning which, whether
favourable or otherwise, I have been able to get approximate
details. Inthe tables of Messrs. Howard’s cultivator (for instance)
it is probable that Mr. Pike of Stevington, having displaced
eight horses upon 370 acres arable, could show a better ba-
lance than appears in some of the cases given. The sums set
down for total annual cost of the steam-machine are either war-
ranted by printed statements of the parties employing it, or else
founded upon estimates of competent reporters of the several
cases in the agricultural press. Exceptions may be taken to my
charges of 45/. per horse and 20/. per ox per annum (that is, for
half the oxen kept, as these were either worked and rested on
alternate days, or worked every day for only part of a year).
One farmer’s teams may cost him about double the expense
of another’s. However, the statistical averages from 21 farms,
comprising 282 horses, described in Mr. Morton’s paper ‘On
the Cost of Horse-power’ (vol. xix. of this Journal), are as
follows :—food, 23/.; blacksmiths’, saddlers’, farriers’ bills, and
depreciation (or maintenance of value unimpaired), 5/. 10s. ;
annual wear of implements, 3/. 2s.; share of wages of team-men,
14/. 8s.; making a total of 467. per horse. Mr. Frere’s valuation, in
his paper on ‘Steam Culture’ (vol. xxi. of this Journal), is 417. per
horse. As to ox-teams, the systems of working and management
are so exceedingly various that a general average is not easily ob-
tained ; but taking every source of expense into calculation, and
allowing (in some cases) for the annual improvement instead of
deterioration of the animal, I do not think my arbitrary estimate
of 20/. per ox much too high. I am not careful to insist upon
exact and proper values in these computations of annual saving

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398 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

in the cost of draught tillage; because the profit of steam-culture
does not consist chiefly in the cheapness of the work. While
some men win a balance of several hundred pounds per annum
by substituting steam for a portion of their farm-teams, other
managers, more especially upon clay soils, find no material dif-
ference in their outlay since adopting the steam-plough or culti-
vator ; and the experience of some, indeed, is that the yearly cost
of their tillage is considerably increased. But even where no
horses have been displaced, and the steam-cultivator has been
purchased as an auxiliary power and facility entirely additional
to the previous tillage force of the farm, the investment is re-
ported as satisfactory—owing to advantages in saving of time,
superior quality of work done, &c., resulting ‘in more and better
crops. Where a direct money-saving is cleared as well, the
steam-plough must be earning a really handsome profit. On
these points testimony shall be adduced presently. The present
tables show, however, that in many cases a large saving is effected
in the yearly expenditure. It will be seen that the earnings of
the steam-apparatus let out on hire have not been taken into
consideration. Had this been done, the pecuniary gain in many
of the cases would present a much larger figure.

Enough having been advanced to prove the cheapness as well
as expedition of steam-tillage, I have now to consider its superior
efficiency in comparison with the work of the team. I need not
discuss all the various elements of this superiority; as greater
depth, more effectual severing and disintegration of the masses
broken up or overturned, the larger extent of superficies exposed
to atmospheric contact and influence, the light, untrampled state
in which the shattered staple is left, the unpressed, unpoached
condition of the furrow-bottom, the absence of the planting of
root-weeds by horses’ feet, the exposure of weeds to destruction
upon the surface, or, at other seasons, their being killed by
premature burial under the furrow-slice. ‘To these numerous
sources of mechanical excellence have to be added such points as
the facility for drag-harrowing, clod-crushing, seam-pressing, or
seed-drilling, by wire-rope traction, without the tread of a hoof,
either simultaneously with the ploughing, digging, or grubbing,
or as distinct and supplementary operations ; ; and the power also
of performing other processes—such as raftering, ridging for
root-crops, and subsoiling or trenching two furrows deep. All
these things, and more, are being practised by various farmers
with the new motive-power.

The superiority of steam tillage arises also from its economy
of time. <A steam-plough may accomplish day by day the work
of 12 to 20, or even 30 horses ; in a long day it may do the work
of 40 horses; so that, on pressing occasions, the farmer possesses

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 399

perhaps double the tillage force that he could afford to keep as
eating-animals all the year round. He can work overtime even
into the night (as some owners of steam-ploughs already do) ; the
steam-horse does not fatigue; moonlight enables the ploughman
and rope-porter boys to see what they are about, and the signals
to the engineman are given by lanterns. The steam-plough ven-
tures upon land before it is dry enough for the trampling of
teams, and sometimes seeds a crop which, under horse-tillage,
would not be sown at all; and what is most important of all, it
sets to work after the harvest-waggon, when horses are taken up
in carriage labour, yet when cleansing tillage under a scorching
sun is worth double or treble what it is at any other season.
Instead of dilating upon these wonderful powers and facilities
which have become the truisms of the present day, I will give
the opinions of some steam-ploughmen of experience. From
about eighty more or less lengthened statements, which I had
copied out for this purpose, I cull, out of charity to the reader,
a few, exhibiting in a striking light some of the merits of steam-
tillage on heayy, medium, and light lands respectively.

TESTIMONY AS TO THE VALUE oF STEAM TILLAGE.
With Mr. Fowler’s Apparatus.

Name and Address,

No. of
Ss Example.

Mr. E. Holland, M.P., | “The work has been accomplished in a
Dumbleton, Evesham, manner in which it would have been im-
possible to have performed it with horses.
Our heavy clays are turned over like
kitchen-garden ground; and what under
horse-ploughing would have taken six weeks
to get over, has, under steam, occupied a
fortnight. Thus we have been independent
of the weather. The changes which take
place in the course of cultivation are curious.
After going over the heavy land two or
was three times, I find that less power is de-
manded. I am now working fields by a
pressure of 55 to 60 lbs. of steam on the
square inch ; whereas, in the first instance,
I worked at from 80 to 85 lbs. per square
inch.”
2 | Mr. E. Ruck, Castle | “I consider one operation with steam-power
Hill, Cricklade. to be equal to two by horse-power. The
work done by the ‘ digging breasts’ is pre-
ferable to any hand-labour I ever saw.
Heavy land drains very much better after
steam cultivation has broken up the team-
made pan. ‘The ground works better and

VOL. XXIV. 2D

‘Name and Adiress.

No, of
Example. ,

Lord JBemers, Key-
thorpe, Leicestershire,

Mr. E. Roberts, Berden
Hall, Bishop’s Stort-
ford,

The Earl of Leicester,
Holkham, Norfolk,

Mr. A. A. Young, Or-
lingbury, Northamp-
shire,

7 | Mr. Cooper, Fen Dray-

ton, St. Ives.

8 | Mr. Marjoribanks, Faw-
ley Court, Henley-on-

Thames.

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

|

quicker after rain: in fact, I have been
drilling on clay land in wet weather when
my neighbours could not get upon their
“gravelly” or brashy land.”

“ The great advantage I find to be that, when
the ground is as hard as a rock, and it is
‘impossible for any number of horses to do
the work, I have with the ‘ diggers’ burst
the land up 9 and 10 inches deep.”

“Though we have no furrows, our very
tenacious heavy land is much drier with-
out them than when it was ploughed by
horses.”

On a strong alluvial soil lately reclaimed from
the sea, ‘‘I find that one ploughing or
smashing up of the stubbles, if done directly
after harvest, when the land is dry, at a
time when no horse-power could be em-
ployed, is quite sufficient for a spring or
summer crop.”

“The ‘digger’ makes a summer or winter
fallow at one operation; the ground is so
thoroughly disintegrated that, after due
exposure to the weather, all that is again
wanted is one crossing with a cultivator or
a heavy harrow-to clean and leave it a per-
fect seed-bed. Compare this with the end+
less working of a summer-fallow under the
old system.”

* Steam-ploughing is so effectual that I con-
sider that all work done by the end of Sep-
tember improves the land three times more
than the cost of ploughing.”

“The soil (light land upon chalk) appears
very much improved in texture by the
deep cultivation; and the deep ploughing
and early sowing are more favourable to the
wheat,”

.
With Messrs. Howard’s Apparatus,

1 | Mr. W. Pike,

ton, Bedford.

Steving-

“My farm (principally poor, strong, hilly,
clay land) was laid up in three-yard ridges,
with water-gutters drawn across the ridges
to take off the water. Since I have steam-
cultivated it (now more than five years) I
have done away with ridges and furrows
entirely ; my fields are all ‘laid on the flat,
and during the wettest season I have never
seen any water stand upon them. I am
always. forward with my work; and the
few horses I now keep cost much less per

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 401

No, of
Wxample,

bo

Mr. Bray, Pyrzgo: Park,
“Romford.

3 | Mr. H. Collins, Dufiyn,
Castleton, Cardiff.

4 | Messrs, Impey and Bott,
Broomfield, Chelms-

Baron Meyer de Roths-
child, M.P. , Mentmore,
Bucks.

oO

head than formerly, as all the hard work is

done by steam. I find that by constant deep
tillage, my land moves easier every year ; con-
sequently it is less expensive to cultivate.”

** There is no part of my farm operations
gives me less trouble. To my mind it is
superior to any other known system of
tillage.”

“The work of this farm was never before so
forward as at this season. The cultivator
is a most valuable adjunct: on any farm of
moderate size, whether the | soil be light, (as
» some of mine is) or hea

i September, 1862, had a large extent of
land already cultivated, cleaned, and banked
up in drills for the manure, ready for
mangel wurzel; a good deal of wheat
stubble tilled and ready for spring sowing
of oats and barley; and one field drilled
with rye for spring keep.

The high-backed lands on the stiff clay
have been levelled (mainly by the steam-
cultivator), and the drains thus made about
5 feet deep; yet the deep steam tillage
without trampling insures a perfect removal
of water from the flat fields.

. With Mr. Smith’s Apparatus.

1 | Mr. C. Randall, Chad-
bury, Evesham.

bo

» near Blis-
W

saat?

The effect of the application of steam to the
cultivation of clay land is, that the work is
better done 3 and of greater importance still,
more of it is done while dry weather lasts.
Instead of the subsoil being compressed, as
formerly, by the action of the horses’ feet,
it is now cracked by the tines of the culti-
vator, and the drainage thereby fendered
more effective: while the autumn cultiva-
tion, which should be commenced in har-
vest as soon as a field is cleared, goes far to
insure a crop of roots upon land where,
without the aid of steam, there would be
difficulty and much uncertainty in obtain-
ing them. On light land the steam culti-
vator is valuable, as by its use such land is
—_ effectually and more economically kept

“This land runs to twitch very much. I
have known it in the turnips above a yard
long ;_and I have now in my office twitch
5 is long, dragged out of the fallow by

Mr, Smith’s grubber, wa ae of

402

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation,

No, of
Wxample,

3

4

5

Name and Address.

performing the work at the proper time can
scarcely be over-estimated on stiff soils.”
Mr. Bradshaw, Knowle, | ‘I am a warm advocate of ‘smashing up’ as
Guildford, against the plough. Indeed, I would never
plough any land, except red clover ley.
The couch upon some of my land measures
13 foot in length ; but there is not a par-
ticle of couch now remaining upon the land
which has been steam-cultivated twice.”
Mr. T. B. Dring, Claxby, | Is of opinion, from much experience, that
Spilsby, Lincolnshire, any farmer of 300 acres and upwards of
deep-soil land will find it to his advantage
to have aset of steam tackle in addition to
his usual horse-power. ‘On light land, as
well as on heavy, I find from experience
that steam-cultivation is a great advantage.
On such land, more liable to run to twitch
than any other, if a blow be made by
i steam-power just after harvest on the wheat-
stubbles that come in turn for turnips, it
will be in a ready and safe state; but if
this be omitted, and a wet spring follow,
the twitch cannot be got out. The result
of the twitch may be that the farmer will
get a quarter of barley per acre less, and
also a quarter of wheat per acre less after
the seed-crop.”
Mr. W. Smith, Wool- | “ My heavy-land barley-field was cultivated
ston, Bletchley, Bucks. | and drilled at one operation, at a cost of
6s. 2d. per acre. More masterly work I
never saw; the rows are as straight as
lines, well connected with headland rows ;
short pikes as well as crooked fences were
done with the greatest ease. Now let us
compare this with horseculture. A field
of heavy-land barley in the neighbotrhood
was ploughed in that fine month February,
and was drilled in an eyeable surface and
raw under-surface caused by the late rains.
The cost was 15s. an acre. Another field,
after dead fallow, was drilled at the same
time, yet the surface was cold; the cost must
have been at least 37. per acre. The next,
after beans, was hand-forked and pel are
twice in the autumn, in which ‘state it lay
high and dry through the winter. It was
hand-forked again this spring, and drilled
with barley on the same day that I culti-
vated and drilled mine, Its cost must
have been at least 45s. per acre. The lands
are all alike in character, except that mine

Ti

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 403

Name and Address,

No. of
ixample.

is most hilly and uneven; yet I am sup-
ported by my last four years’ practice in
expecting the produce of mine to be from
one to two guineas per acre more than from
either of them.”

Of course the fruits of a superior tillage ought to be manifested
in a larger produce, Crops should be taken that horse-culture
would not have given at all, and of all there should be a greater
yield per acre. And, at the same time, there should be a per-
manent amelioration of the soil, at least of strong land. Now,
experiments in agriculture are of.necessity protracted, results
being seldom of yalue.unless deduced from the repeated observa-
tions of years; and the steam-plough is too young as yet to
have furnished very extensive experience through several suc-
cessive harvests. Still some very important and reliable instances
of augmented production and improved condition of the land are
already before the world; and out of fifty good testimonies on
this point, I will adduce a few specimens, premising that these
are by no means more decided and satisfactory than the remainder,
which considerations of type and paper compel me to withhold.

EVIDENCE AS TO INCREASE OF PRODUCE AND ENHANCED VALUE
OF THE LAND,

From Mr, Fouler’s Apparatus.

Name and Address,

No, of |
Example,

1 | Mr. H. Codd, Ashe, | ‘‘ The barley and oats after the steam-plough
Overton. and grubbing are decidedly better than after

the horses—at least 3 sacks per acre; also

the turnips and swedes,”’

Mr. J. King, Chadhurst, | On 300 acres arable, of mixed clay soil,
Runton, Warwick. some parts very tenacious, “I have been ,

able to do away with 50 acres of dead fal-

low, the same being now either in crop or

: seeds.”

3 | Mr. R. Pocock, Minal | “The barley-crop this year, on land steam-

Woodlands, Marlbo- | ploughed last winter and crossed in spring

rough. with the cultivator, is very much better mm

quantity and quality than on land worked

by horses, grown side by side.”

4 | Mr. T. Webb, Small- | “I believe that it increases the value of

wood, Uttoxeter. strong land one-third, when it can be used

properly.”

Mr. Owen Wallis, Over- | “I am now feeding off a piece of very fine

iS

cr

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

6

Eee

Name and Address,

stone Grange, North-
ampton.

Mr. E. Ruck, Castle
Hill, Cricklade.

common turnips, grown upon a stiff clay soil;
the cultivation of which, in a season like
last, I should not have attempted by horse-
power. I have the fullest confidence that
the land will become much lighter and
more pliable, and assume altogether a dif-
ferent and more valuable character, espe-
cially for the production of root-crops.”
“The increase of Crops (after an experience
of 3 years) I place at 8 bushels to the acre.
I have found that the crops under the
steam-plough will come a week or ten days
earlier to harvest; whilst the sample is
“better and heavier. The crops of seeds are
wonderfully better, in consequence. of the
extra depth of the cultivation. The in-
crease of stock also must be very great,
from extra crops of vetches and rye, and
from the root-crops being of much greater
weight and better quality. Iam of opin-
ion that the yalue of the land may be in-
creased one-third.” 4

From Messrs. Howards Apparatus.

Mr. J. W. Pell, Stanion,
Thrapstone, North-
amptonshire,

Baron Meyer de Roths-
child, M.P., Mentmore,
Leighton Buzzard.

Mr. Pike, Stevington,
Bedford.

Mr. Williams, North
Court, Abingdon.

“On 30 acres I have a capital crop of com-
mon turnips, and the remainder was late in
the season sown with coleseed. By horse-
labour I could not have prepared any por-
tion of this for turnips.”

| “ Owing to the parched and sodden state of
the part horse-ploughed most of the grass
and nearly all the clovers perished. On
the steam-cultivated portion, sound land

_ and a full plant of both grass and clover.” _

Twenty years since this farm was’ pur-
chased of Earl Spencer by the Duke of
Bedford for 157. per acre: now it is more
than doubled in value; and it is a fact that
this additional value has been gained mainly
since the advent of the steam-cultivator in
1858.

Ploughed 20 acres by steam alongside 20
acres by horses, on purpose for experiment : :
the produce upon the former far exceeded
that upon the latter.

From Mr. Smith’s Apparatus.

Mr. F. Sowerby, Ayles-
by, Grimsby, Lincoln-
shire,

A field on the Aylesby farm was partly
cultivated by steam and partly in the
ordinary way by horses. The steam-culti-
vated portion produced one-fourth moré
weight of turnips per acre than the part

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 405

Name and Address.

cultivated by horses; all other things being

ual.
Mr. J. Elliot, Tarbert “We had fully 2 quarters per acre of oats
Mains, Park Hill,Ross- | more after the steam-plough than after
shire. horse-ploughing ; all in the same field.”

Kimbolton Park, Beds. | “ Previously to using the steam-cultivator
the quality of our corn was generally 2s.
per quarter below the average of the neigh-
bourhood, and we could not get a plant of
cloverat all. During the last 2 years we
have not only grown splendid crops of
| clover, but the quality of our corn has ad-
vanced 3s. per quarter, with an increase of

4 to 8 bushels per acre.”
4 | Mr. Bradshaw, Knowle, | “ Upon the (light) land smashed up and not
Guildford. ploughed, a quarter and a half more of
barley was grown per acre than where the
plough was used. The triumph of steam-
cultivation on my farm is this: I have a
piece of honest Sussex elay, which had
never within the memory of man produced
a crop. That clay has now produced on
one side a splendid crop of swedes, and on

. the other side a beautiful crop of wheat.”
5 | Mr. Bignell, Loughton, | A heavy soil, which, under ordinary manage-
Bucks. ment by horses, would be incapable of
turnip cultivation. Yet of 220 acres arable,
26 acres (in 1862) were in swedes, turnips,
and mangold wurzel, Part of the wheat-
stubble manured in autumn and smashed
up by steam-power. It was cross-cultivated
by steam, thrown into 30-inch ridges by
horses, farmyard dung put in the drills,
and this covered in by splitting the ridges
by horse-power. The result, a magnificent
7 crop on the cheapest of fallows.

6 | Mr.T.B. Dring, Claxby, | I have cultivated 90 acres for wheat by
Spilsby, Lincolnshire. steam that I should not, or could not, have
done with my ordinary teams; and the re-
sult was that I got three sacks of wheat
more per acre than on other land of the
same quality worked with horses in a wet

season.”
7 | Earl Howe, Gopsall, | “The advantage we have upon heavy-land
Leicestershire, farms is that we can produce one-third

more roots, and of course increase the num-
ber of cattle accordingly.”
8 | Mr. J. S. Evenden, | (With Kentish ploughs worked by Mr.
Meopham, Kent. Smith’s tackle.) “‘The sequel has been
that, last harvest, the crop was doubled to
z ne previously grown on the same field
ore.”

.*

406 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

It must not be concluded that because several or many steam-
farmers are, by their own showing, augmenting their produce
by 4 to 8 bushels of corn per acre, and largely increasing the bulk
of their roots and green food, while at the same time clearing some
hundreds of pounds per annum by the mere difference between
the expenses of steam and animal tillage (see Table of Annual
Saving)—that because enterprising men have wrought stubborn
clays into garden-ground, from which fortunes are being realised
—therefore the steam plough is everywhere to be credited with in-
creased yields of cropping and splendid profits in all cases and
upon any soil. There are numbers of examples of light and other
lands where as yet no marked difference has been perceptible in -
the crops, and the benefits of steam tillage have been confined
to facilitating operations and diminishing the general farm ex-
penditure. The steam plough has, indeed, done wonderful things
upon some—by no means upon all—strong lands that its share
has pierced : on many lighter lands it has proved of signal though
more moderate advantage ; and there remain some sands and thin
weak soils where tillage is so cheap and so comparatively un-
important a part of farm management, that the question is still
open, whether steam can successfully displace there the active,
quick-stepping team. ‘These, however, are very exceptional
cases: a reference to my collated instances of experience shows
that the expedition and facilities of steam culture far outweigh
the mere question of comparative cost per acre by steam and
horses. Where a pair of horses can plough with ease a full acre
per day, the small saving in cost which may be obtained by sub-
stituting steam for horse power, would scarcely warrant the
venture. But having sold off teams that could plough, say 3 or
4 acres a-day, you replace them with a machine that can plough
8 or 10 acres a-day at the same depth, and that can accomplish
autumn tillage more valuable than horses could perform at all.

I am a reporter of performances; not a dogmatic referee con-
cerning the merits of rival machinery, Still, a few words are
indispensable on the competing claims of the stationary engine
and of the engine moveable along the headland of a field. Partisans
of either principle are too ready to make light of serious defi-
ciencies in their favourite apparatus, or to push minor advantages
to an extreme ; and hence great misapprehensions have arisen in
the minds of inquirers anxious to procure that form of steam
plough best suited to their particular circumstances. Neither-
system possesses superiority over its opponent in every point
upon which you can place them in comparison ; and if you deem
one to have a balance of advantages over the other, the decision
will have been governed by the relative importance of certain
facilities or shortcomings when applied to your especial case,

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 407

‘Take expedition and economy in the rate of working. With
the same power of engine and size of fields, the “direct” system
does more work per day, and more for the money, than the
*youndabout ” does. For proof of which, see the facts and sta-
tistics of the Worcester and other trials, ‘The advocates of the
stationary engine admit this point against them; but contend that
it is compensated for by other points in their favour. By cultivating
a field without even going into it, the stationary engine leaves a
moist headland unpoached by the heavy wheels of engine and
water-cart. Ina small inclosure, where the headland may com-
prise one-twentieth, or even one-tenth the area of the field, this
advantage is considerable. Again, though it is not true that the
moveable engine is obliged to leave the headlands unploughed,
or that it is unadapted to fields of irregular figure and tortuous
fences, yet the stationary engine does enjoy greater facilities for
working the headlands up to the very hedges or ditches, and
loses less time in adapting its rope to very varying lengths of
furrow. This may be a point of some moment where a farm is
choked and pestered with innumerable hedgerows; but where
small fields are thrown open as they should be, and the steam
plough finds several days’ work in one inclosure, it is not every-
body that cares to detain a powerful engine over an awkward head-
land, or the finishing of a “ goring ” corner. One Gloucester-
shire farmer, for instance, worked Mr, Fowler’s plough in twenty
fields, averaging about 30 acres each ; but of the 607 acres only
548 acres were tilled, leaving 59 acres (or about one-tenth of the
land) in headlands and angles to be completed by horse-power.
A whole field neatly finished off may look very creditable to the
steam-machine ; but pushing on with work (and steam is only “an
auxiliary,’ not a monopoliser of the tillage-labour of the farm)
is often of much more consequence. However, in preparing
an immediate seed-bed on a wet soil, in any other operation
where horses’ feet would injuriously pound and poach, or in
working a combined corn-drill and cultivator, it is often a great
advantage to finish-up a field completely, even at considerable
delay in shifting anchors, ropes, and implements. The stationary
engine cuts the best figure in these changes of direction of the
work ; but still the moveable engine is also perfectly able to
finish-up irregularly-shaped fields: the anchorage will travel
alongside any tortuous boundary ; the rope accommodates itself
to varying lengths of land, or has pieces added or removed, and
an anchored snatch-block or two will introduce the implement
into any cramp corner,

Take, now, the size of fields, as affecting the capabilities of
the two systems. It is not true that the moveable engine is
adapted only to large inclosures. It probably accomplishes more

408 Five Years’ Progress of Sieam Cultivation.

acres per day, and at a less cost per acre, than the stationary engine
does, whether the trial be made with short or long furrows, upon
asmall or an extensive plot. But it compares with the stationary
engine disadvantageously in this respect: in small and irregu-
larly-shaped fields it wastes more time if you finish-up all the
ground, or else leaves an excessive proportion of the area in
headlands and angles to be tilled by horses. It is not true, again,
that the stationary engine can cope only with small compartments
of land without removal. Mr. Pike, of Stevington, cultivates a
50-acre field, with the engine placed by a pond in one corner,
having no less than 2000 yards of rope at once resting upon his
porters. Mr. Sowerby, of Aylesby, has grubbed a 48-acre field,
with the engine stationed in an adjoining 20-acre field, which
was also cultivated (making 68 acres in all) after simply turning
the engine and windlass round. And Mr. Champney, of Gat-
wick, ‘Surrey, has grubbed and then cross-cultivated a 74-acre
field (150 acres in all) without moving engine or windlass.
Recent improvements, enabling the rope to be carried clear off
the ground, have placed the stationary engine nearer upon a level
with the moveable engine’ in dealing with large plots; but still
(owing to the pulleys as well as the rope) there is a greater waste
of motive power in the roundabout than in the direct system of
hauling ; and this limits the area which it is advisable to em-
brace with a stationary-engine apparatus at one “setting down.”
The length of rope, however, in a moveable-engine apparatus is
limited only by one, not by two dimensions (by the length only, not
by the breadth) of the surface tilled. Instead of encompassing all
or most part of the area (as in the stationary-engine plan) the rope
merely doubles the length of the furrow; and thus 800 or 1000
yards, or any given quantity of rope, might plough, with the
moveable engine and anchorage, any number of acres; that is,
travel with a 400 or 500 yard furrow across any number of miles’
breadth of ground without one-stoppage or removal. Hence the
peculiar advantage of the moveable-engine system in very extensive
inclosures. Mr. Frampton, pf Bensington, has made a road
through an open tract of stiff clay, from which a long furrow’s
work can be done on either side. The engine can travel up this
road, ploughing on one side, and return ploughing on the other
side, accomplishing 150 acres in all, or about four weeks’ work,
without any time lost in shifting apparatus. Mr. Redman, of
Overtown, has a 160-acre field laid out in squares of 40 acres
each, by cross driftways for the engine, which makes neat and
perfect work completely up to the very edge of these roadways.
Messrs. Blyth and Squier, of Stamford-le-Hope, with the permission
of Mr. Cox, the proprietor, have within two years swept away
the 10-acre divisions from their 400 acres arable, and laid the

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 409

entire area in one great field, apportioned into blocks or plots for
steam culture. Main roads cross it at right angles; and these
again are cut at various points by minor roads maintained as
permanent headlands for the traversing engine. The plots are
about 50 acres each; and the engine-ways are so arranged that
the plots do not exceed 400 yards from headland to headland. It
need hardly be said that by this spirited proceeding some-
thing like 10 acres have been added to the available tillage area
of the farm. Mr. Prout, of Sawbridgeworth, on 450 acres of
heavy arable land, is throwing down nearly all except boundary-
hedges, filling up ditches, and dividing the farm into blocks
separated by grass roads for the travelling engine, the length of
furrow varying from 300 to 400 yards. There will be five of
these roads, with one hard road for the main traffic, between the
two homesteads, These changes will throw about 25 additional
acres into cultivation. The roads, too, are supplied with five
wells or reservoirs, sunk to catch the water of drainage or natural
springs. Mr. Ruck of Cricklade has thrown his farm into 70-
acre fields, by grubbing up five miles of hedgerows. * The Earl
of Leicester at Holkham,- Mr. Edwards of East Leach, Mr.
Williams of Baydon, and other direct-action ploughmen, have
similarly provided large rectangular fields and hard headland
roads.

Of course, adopters of the stationary-engine plan also find the
vast importance of large straight-sided inclosures, in saving time
and labour; and Baron Rothschild of Mentmore, Mr. Arm-
strong of Graffham, Mr. Cranfield of Buckden, Mr. Bradshaw
6f Knowle, Mr. Pike of Stevington, and others, might be referred
to as having cleared away hedgerows and field-timber, copses
and spinneys, filled up straggling water-courses, and remodelled
farms and estates, to give free range to the wire-rope and shifted
grappling anchors. For look at the loss occasioned by small
Jields : in the first place, from the excessive number of removals ;
and, in the next place, from the multiplied number of turn-
ings of the implement at the land’s end. The time occupied in
a shift from one field to another may be taken as a quarter of a
day, though when the distance is small the time occupied is often
less than two hours. In ploughing fields of 15 acres—that is,
two days’ work each—a quarter of a day is sacrificed for every
two full days of ploughing. If the fields be of 60 acres each,
this same loss would occur only after eight days of actual work :
that is to say, the loss of time by removals would be only one-
fourth for the same area of work done. Throw the calculation
into time or money, and it appears that it takes you three-quarters
of a day longer to prepare 6() acres of seed-bed in four fields than
to prepare the same area in one field; and assuming the total

410 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

expense to be 60s. a-day (time of removal being charged at the
same sum as when ploughing, seeing that horses are not needed
if you use a locomotive machine), zt costs you 10d. per acre more to
till the same number of acres in four fields than it does if inone. The
loss by diminutive inclosures, owing to undue frequency of ‘turn-
ings,” is equally serious. Suppose the pace of the implement to be
3 miles per hour, or 4 chains per minute, and the time consumed
in turning at the end to be half a minute; if a field be 12 chains
in length, the journey occupies 3 minutes, the further time for
turning amounts toa sixth of this; so that for 6 days of actual
ploughing another whole day is wasted. But if the field be
24 chains in length, the journey (supposing the pace to continue
the same, as a mere fraction of additional power is required for
the extra length ofa rope well carried) will take 6 minutes, and
the half-minute for turning is only one-twelfth of this; so that
for 6 days of actual work only an additional half-day will be
wasted. With the implement travelling at a rate which should
command 6 acres per day, you plough, with the short furrow,
half an acre per day less than with the long furrow. In other
words, you must spend 13 weeks in doing work that would
occupy but 12 weeks, had you the longer instead of the shorter
fields; and your steam culture (at 60s. per day) will conse-
quently cost 9d. per acre more money. It seems, then, that, on
a farm furnishing some hundred fair days’ work ina year, 16 or 17
days more may be needed to do the same tillage, and no less a
sum than 50/. per annum be saddled upon the employer of a
steam plough, solely from the excessive number of turnings and re
movals necessitated by small inclosures.

I need scarcely add that this is nothing like all the loss in-
volved. The risk of breakages of machinery is to a consider-
able extent proportionate to the number of signallings, stoppings,
and startings in a day, and the number of journeys from one
field to another; slowness and delay in the tillage and seéding
become apparent in the crops; and a doubling of the proper
extent of headlands eats off a considerable share from the area
of perfect light tilth on the farm. Add to these considera-
tions the thousand-and-one injuries suffered by any farmer who
is hampered by the miles of weed-collecting, vermin-shelter-
ing, crop-destroying fences with which some estates are honey-
combed, and we see how reasonable it is that the steam
plough, above all other implements, demands “a clear field and
no favour,” either to rabbits outside a warren or trees outside a
wood, Steam culture is truly a valuable assistance to the farmer
of medium and even light land: it is a means of insuring good
profit upon many strong soils; and the consequently improved
position of a tenantry, together with an amelioration of the farms

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 411

they occupy, must indirectly but certainly tend to the benefit of
the landowner. Thus interest and equity alike require the pro-
prietor to assist the tenant by those clearances and provisions
which alone can develope the full advantages of steam husbandry.
What share of these preparatory labours ought to fall respectively
upon owner and occupier,—whether liberal covenants as well as
firm roads and deep drains should be furnished gratis by the
landlord, or an augmented rent be demanded for facilities that
will add to the farmer’s income,—depends very much upon the
position of the parties concerned; seeing that while the steam
plough may be a fund of profit to the tenant who is already
flourishing, it may be barely a means of salvation to the man
struggling for subsistence under the disadvantages of a high rent,
a low corn-market, and a soil difficult to manage.

Returning to our comparison between the moveable and sta-
tionary engine systems, there are various points of advantage in
one which may be considered as fairly counterbalanced by different
advantages in the other. Thus, the stationary engine can fre-
quently dispense with the labour and cost of water-carting.
Mr. Martin, near Boston, always has water in ditches for the
engine suction-pipe to' feed by. Mr. Bradshaw, of Knowle,
has dug pools and drains, supplying every station which the
engine need occupy in his 30 and 40 acre fields. Against
this advantage in certain situations, may be set the fewer
number of removals of engine and windlass, or shiftings of
rope and pulleys, required by the moveable engine plan. Both
systems meet with difficulties and successes. I have seen the
claw-anchors of the roundabout rope-pulleys strip through a
yielding soil, and travel for yards away from the headland,—to
obviate which two anchors were placed one behind the other ;
and the difficulty of placing anchors in some kinds of land by
any reasonable amount of labour, so as to hold against a great
strain, operates in such situations against the perfect tightness
and carrying of the rope, except by an immoderate use of rope-
porters.* Mr. Elliot, of Tarbert Mains, Rossshire, fixes stout
posts in the ground at 40-yard intervals around a field, and shifts
the pulley along a strong chain hung by rings to the rounded
tops of each pair of posts in succession. The holes for the posts,
A feet deep, are so few that they are dug while steam is getting

* Mr. Collinson Hall’s great iron corkscrew, which is driven into the ground,
may on some soils be a good substitute for the anchor. When it is to be fixed, a
shovelful of earth is first taken out, and some water poured into the hole to
facilitate the operation. One man then balances the screw, some 6 feet long,
while another turns a lever of about the same length inserted into a ring at the
serew-head. When driven home, this ring stands about 1} feet above ground.
Though the earth was dry at Worcester, the operation was quickly and easily
effected.—P, H. F,

412 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

up. The Duke of Sutherland, at Trentham, is permanently
inserting strong larch or oak posts in the hedgerows around his
fields ; the posts are 3 to 4 feet in the ground, 1 foot out, and at
distances of 30 feet apart; a moveable chain of this length or
a little more will be easily lifted from one brace of posts to the
next, and the ploughman can hook the snatch-block in a fresh link
of the chain every time the implement arrives at the headland,
thus dispensing with an anchor-man. There are shallow soils
upon rock which the travelling disc-anchor also penetrates and —
lays hold of with difficulty. Mr. Marjoribanks has chalky steep
hill-side fields, where the “self-acting” anchorage has to be
lashed to hedgerow trees to keep it in position.

The steam-plough “in its infancy” was greeted with the
derisive monition, “gently over the stones;’ but these, with
other obstacles, are being skilfully surmounted. Upon the
intractable Weald, with its copsewood, zigzag lanes, and awk-
ward wooded ravines between small arable fields, Mr. Thurlow
of Baysham Park, Mr. Hubbard of Beeding, and Mr. Mergan
of The Thorne, employ the stationary engine with success. Mr.
Morgan has thoroughly overset all the troubles and breakages
occasioned by foul, rough land, filled with tree-roots. Mr,
Alison, on the Hainault Farms, has worked the moveable engine
in spite of breakages from land-fast roots, and with time the roots
of the old forest rot and disappear. Many steam ploughmen
have met with very excessive breakages from flints and other
stony impediments; but the deeply-rooting powerful steam-
grubber itself loosens and dislodges most of them, so that a
. second or third deep stirring: or ploughing will have few stones
to crack skifes and shares. Mr. Fowler supplies an immensely
strong grubber purposely for upturning boulders (just as he
supplies a mole-draining implement that drains 30 inches deep
with fine effect, and will form drains even 4 feet deep, but which
I have not space to describe); and Mr. Williams, of Baydon,
has shown how to tear up hedges and fell trees by aid of the
steam-engine. The Earl of Leicester has encountered difficulties
of another kind. On soft “slob” land newly won from the -
tides, and utterly without roads, his engine pulled -itself along
over rows of faggots, and the anchors had to be weighted and
blocked to prevent them from dragging

As for hilly farms, there are madouacll fields to be found so
steep in every direction, that no side has an inclination sufficiently
moderate for the moveable engine to travel on. Here, of course,
the stationary engine must be resorted to; for the wire rope will
pull an implement safely and effectually not only wherever horses
could draw it, but up and down slopes where no horse can find
a foot-hold. But such extremely precipitous fields are com-

.

Five Years Progress of Steam Cultivation. 413

paratively rare ; inclosures upon a hill-side have generally a top
or bottom headland tolerably level, and the moveable engine is
not afraid to travel and stand to work upon a moderate acclivity.
Mr. Gill, of Beenham, steam-ploughs fields up and down a slope
of 1 in 8, the engine and anchorage being invisible one from the
other. Mr. Marjoribanks has fields varying in inclination of
surface from 1 in 10 to 1 in 5; yet these are steam-ploughed by
the moveable engine both up and down and across the slope,
four furrows being driven at once when coming down, but only
three furrows when going up.

The advantage of two moveable engines (instead of an engine
and anchorage) for despatch in work, and in removing from field
to field, has been referred to in the account of Worcester trials.

After discussing the relative merits of the stationary and
moveable engine, perhaps I ,shall be expected to take up the
controversy between ‘turnover ploughing” and “smashing up
without inversion.” 'The subject demands a whole essay to itself,
and all I can offer here will be one or two general observations.
The evidence already given is sufficient to show that both on
clays and lighter lands, turnover ploughing and grubbing by steam-
power are alike successful, and preferable to either method of
tillage when eflected by horse-power. For cleansing ground of
root-weeds either in autumn or spring, breaking up without

turning over a furrow-slice has thoroughly established itself as

superior to regular ploughing; and on many strong soils (such
as the calcareous clay of Woolston), a single “smashing-up” at
the right season, or this followed by a “crossing” with the culti-
yator, proves sufficient for the destruction of the vegetable vermin.

Nevertheless, there are other strong soils (such as the adhesive

sand-clay of the Weald) which so quickly run together again
after a deep stirring, that a single or double smashing is only the
commencement of a process, and the weak couch with which
the staple is infested has to be combed and combed out, and laid
upon the surface, and probably collected and burned ; and
without these repeated cultivations, the ground would not be
sufficiently aérated and fertilised. Again, there are lighter and
moist loams and sands so filled with minute root-weeds, that
paring and grubbing do but partially cleanse the upper half of
the staple, and the plough is then indispensable to bury this and
bring up the lower half for a similar eradicating ordeal. That
better crops have followed from steam “smashing” (and more
especially from using the combined cultivator and drill) than
from horse ploughing, I could give plenty of evidence; that
steam “ploughing” has furnished like results is equally well
supported by facts. But the superiority of a steam-smashed to
a steam-ploughed seed-bed has not been so satisfactorily deter-

414 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

mined, One thing is certain, that while on many soils a
“‘ scarified ” seed-bed is all that can be wished for, on other soils
a profuse crop of annual weeds upon non-inyerted ground has
plainly intimated the need for a mouldboard deeply and effectu-
ally to bury their myriads of seeds and germs. Let me add
here that the question, What particular processes of tillage should
I perform? is not at all coincident or synonymous with another
question, Which particular set of apparatus should I employ ?
Procure the moveable or stationary engine machinery that will
haul any form of implement with the greatest amount of economy,
all things considered, and which is at the same time best adapted
to the circumstances and requirements of your farm; and then
grubbing, ploughing, ridging, raftering, subsoiling, trenching,
harrowing, pressing, clod-crushing, drilling, are all within your
grasp, whatever system of husbandry or philosophy of clods and
tilth may be adopted or indispensable in your case.

I cannot undertake to pronounce from the evidence hitherto
collected, what is the minimum of acreage that may profitably
maintain a steam plough, or to assign such and such a horse-power
of engine to so many acres of light, medium, or heavy land.
Example cases, however, variable as they are, may guide intending
steam-farmers in their choice.

On some clay lands, the results of steam-culture are so asto-
nishing that a 500/. or 6007. machine has been proved to be an
invaluable piece of capital on quite a small occupation. Take
the Woolston farm—the first whole farm ever tilled by a steam-
engine—now steam-cultivated for more than seven years, with
the most carefully recorded expenses and results. Does Mr.
Smith win or lose by employing an 8-horse common portable
engine upon only 112 acres arable, partly stiff, cold, hilly clay—
partly a gravelly clay? The year’s work is as follows :—Last
autumn 33 acres of wheat and barley stubble were ‘smashed ”
10 inches deep, and 20 acres of bean stubble were cultivated and
drilled with wheat at a stroke by the “ combined machine ;” the
succeeding spring-work consisted of 22 acres cross-cultivated
and drilled with beans at ‘one operation, and 25 acres after roots
‘*fed-on,” cultivated and drilled with barley by the combined
machine; altogether 100 acres worked in 19 days. The wages
paid were 18, 2s. 6d.; the coal burned, 7 tons (at 17s. 6d.),
61. 2s. 6d.; oil, 19s.; the repairs and estimated wear of rope
(Mr. Smith insisting upon it that there has been no perceptible
wear of rope; but still for fear of under-stating the expense,
putting this item at) 6/. 15s.; working expenses thus amounting
to 31/. 19s. Mr. Smith considers that 10 per cent. upon first
cost is a sufficient ‘allowance for both interest and depreciation ;
and that only one-tenth of this ought to be charged upon his

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 415

little farm, seeing that the engine has done tenfold more thrashing
and ploughing by contract for other people than it has done for
Mr. Smith himself. However, he puts these items at 15/., making
a total yearly expenditure of 46/. 19s. for steam cultivation. If
we suppose a farmer of the same area of heavy land as that of
Mr. Smith to earn nothing at all by letting out his machinery,
and calculate interest at 5 per cent., and depreciation at 10 per
cent. (as in the tables already given), the outlay due to so small
a farm will be much greater. The price of the apparatus to
customers is as follows:—Engine, 230/.; windlass, 110/.; 1400
yards of steel rope, 61/.; two cultivators, combined drill and
cultivator, and license, 108/.: total, 5097. Fifteen per cent.
upon this is 767. 7s.; and if we deduct the 6/. 7s. for the use of
the engine in thrashing the farm crops, the remaining 70/., added
to the 467. 19s. working expenses, makes a total yearly outlay of
1167. 19s. for steam cultivation.

What is Mr. Smith’s annual saving by the displacement . of
teams? Six horses used to work hard to “ farm his land 5 inches
deep, and keep it in a rather rough state ;” now he cannot half
employ three horses (they labour, in fact, 43 days upon the land) ;
and the maintenance of the three horses saved, with their imple-
ments, team-men, &c., reckoned at 45/., amounts to 135/. per
annum. The direct money profit, then, of substituting steam for
horse power on 112 acres of strong land, is 88/. 1s., if only a
share of the interest and depreciation of apparatus be charged
to the farm (which, of course, is most reasonable, besides being
the actual fact in Mr. Smith’s case), and it is 18/. 1s. if the whole
burden of these items be saddled upon such a small holding.

What is the gain by increase of produce? The Woolston
farm has been always open to public inspection ; the magnificent
crops produced each year since the commencement of the system
have been viewed and reported upon by good judges, and com-
pared with the crops of neighbouring farms. That the evidently
large augmentation of yield on land now made (by only one til-
lage operation for each crop) as clean as a garden, has been derived

‘from steam culture alone, has never been doubted. Mr. Smith

declares that his manure consists of “straw and water ;” that is,
the straw grown on the farm, trodden down, and returned to the
fields in a partially decomposed state ; that the corn and oilcake
consumed have been trivial in quantity, only two or three cows
and about a dozen pigs of 160 Ibs. each having been fed in the
year, except the sheep eating off roots, and these have had only
“‘a few” oats; while the three horses, being but half employed,
have not required oats for a considerable portion of the year.
Frequent visitors to Woolston confirm these statements in
VOL. XXIV. 25

416 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation.

every particular. No secrecy has been observed with respect to
Mr. Smith’s crops; they have been valued by hundreds of
admiring visitors, and their actual yields published from time
to time. Mr. Smith puts the increase, he says, “ fairly” at 8
bushels of corn per acre on 56 acres, or half of the land; that is,
at say 40s. per quarter, 112/. The increase of roots and clover
he estimates at 30/.: or 142/. altogether. Added to the money
saving by displacement of teams, we have thus a total gain of
230/. 1s. per annum, or, with the extreme charge for the whole
use of the machinery, 1607. 1s. The additional capital invested
in the business to create such proceeds, is as follows:—The
apparatus costs (to Mr. Smith’s customers) 509/. ; and three horses,
with implements, &c., being sold off at 45/. each, or 135/., leave
3741, required to start the steam-cultivator. And hence it appears,
that a 374/. mortgage on the apparatus can be swept off in a year
and a half to a little over two years (according as work is or is
not done for other farms beside), by working only 100 acres in
19 days per year.

The tenant is not the only party benefited (beside the labourers,
who get better pay). The soil is improved, its character per-
manently changed ; I have examined it more than once, and
from the greatly increased depth and porosity of the staple and the
evidences of its fertility manifested in the crops, from Dr.
Voelcker’s high chemical character of the ameliorated soil, and
the judgment of the many practical farmers who have been to see
for themselves, I can readily endorse the opinion of those who
consider the fee-simple of the farm to have been raised by steam
cultivation to the extent of 15/. per acre. Mr, Smith informs me
that in consequence of the improved condition of the farm the
Parochial Assessment Committee (appointed under 25th and
26th Victoria, cap. 103) have “shoved it up 10s. per acre over
a very fair rate made sixteen years ago by a gentleman sent down
by the Tithe Commissioners to value and assess the tithes of the
parish, on which valuation the rate was based.” Out of his
profit of 230/.as occupier, Mr. Smith may well pay 56/. of raised
rent to himself as landlord ; and in his case it may be said that
proprietor and tenant have jointly invested capital im the steam
cultivator. But of course a bond fide tenant cannot be expected
thus to raise the annual value of his landlord’s property 10s. per
acre, without any equivalent; and, indeed, Mr. Smith would
have been utterly unable to improve his farm as he has done, had
he been pestered with an undue proportion of fences and timber,
eaten up with four-footed game, cramped by restrictions as to
management, or without confidence or security in his tenaney.
By no means let increased rental from steam ploughing be

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 417

looked for by proprietors who (like some I heard of at a
Bedfordshire Agricultural Meeting) forbid their tenantry the use
of a reaping-machine, out of tender love for the partridges!

The Woolston farm, though the smallest, is not the only
limited occupation supporting a steam plough. My tables refer
to steam cultivation upon several farms of small or very mode-
rate extent. Among Mr. Smith’s imitators, we have Mr. Tubb,
of Melcomb, with a 10-horse engine, on 165 acres arable of clay
and loam; Mr. Crawley, of Luton, with a 10-horse engine, on
262 acres of clay; a Warwickshire farmer, with an 8-horse
engine, on 300 acres of clay and gravel; a Chichester farmer,
with an 8-horse engine, on 400 acres of strong and light land.
Among Messrs. Howard’s customers, are Mr. Henderson, of
Sandwich, with an 8-horse engine, upon 200 acres of loam;
Mr. Bayley, of Romford, with a 10-horse engine, on 204 acres
of medium or light soil; Mr. Pullen, of Shackerley, with an 8-
horse engine, on 230 acres of loam; Mr. Pike, of Stevington,
with an 8-horse engine, upon 370 acres of clay. And among
Mr. Fowler’s followers, we have Mr. Lawson, of Brayton, with
a 12-horse engine, on 233 acres of medium and heavy land ;
Mr. Holland, of Dumbleton, with a 12-horse engine, on 360
acres of clay and light soil; Mr. Marjoribanks, of Fawley Court,
with a 10-horse engine, on 440 acres of chalk and gravel; and
Mr. Cooper of Fen Drayton, with a 14-horse engine, on 450
acres of light and heavy land.

But partnerships are quite common. A couple of farmers,
being able to sell off double the number of displaced draft-
horses that a single farmer could spare, find the steam plough
an easy purchase, and the annual saving of maintenance of horse-
teams is double what it would be for one farmer alone. Perhaps,
the advantage of combination in such a purchase is greater than
may be commonly imagined. Two farmers, working 16 horses
each, buy say a 600/. apparatus, having to find 300/. each.
The sale of 6 horses at 25/. per horse, produces 150/. for each
farmer, just half his share of the purchase-money ; and so 1501.
is all the hard cash that each farmer has to find; whereas, 4507.
would have been required, had he bought the machine by him-
self. And what is better still, interest and depreciation (that
heavy item of 3s. or 4s. per acre) will be, in effect, only a third
of this sum.

Purchasing windlass, rope, implements, and tackle, and hiring
an engine to work them, is sometimes an economical plan. Mr.
Bignell, of Loughton, hires a common 8-horse thrashing engine
to drive his Woolston apparatus, paying an extra price per day
for the privilege of being first customer when he wants to culti-

2B 2

418 Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. '

vate. Mr. Gascoigne, of Sittingbourne, and others might be
mentioned as hirers of engines to drive their cultivating tackle.

Some private individuals do a great deal of work for neigh-
bours ; several companies also have tried to make a profit by
travelling a steam-plough about for contract work. I have not.
space to discuss their proceedings and results; but the plan was
not recommended by any marked success until the system of two
engines amazingly shortened the time lost between one job and
another, and dispensed with horses for shifting. Mr. Charles
Clay’s Company, at Wakefield, with one of Mr. Fowler’s double-
engine ‘‘sets,” expended in wages, repairs, and all costs, 204/.,
and realised 310/. for work done in the spring of the present year.
The autumn will doubtless yield still larger earnings; and as
farmers generally select their most stubborn pieces for the steam-
plough, to be worked deeper than ever before, the average price
of the work is taken at 10s. per acre. The capital of the Com-
pany, in 1/. shares, is now raised to 30002.

To meet the exigencies of small or already burdened occupiers,
the expected ‘“‘Steam Cultivation Company” will be a great
boon—supplying them with apparatus to be paid for by instal-
ments extending over several years.

On larger holdings, where a considerable number of draught-
animals are displaced, the outlay of 500/. to 900/. on a single piece
of machinery is, after all, no very onerous matter for the farmer ;
no such appalling proposal as the doubling of his rent for a year.
Glancing through my tables of Annual Saving, I see a 500-acre
farm where 10 horses were sold off, say for 300/.; a 410-acre
farm where 2 horses and 13 oxen were sold for 300/.; a 540-
acre farm where 10 horses were sold for, say 300/.; a 600-acre
farm where 12 horses were sold for, say 360/. ; another 600-acre
farm where 10 horses and 14 oxen were sold for, say 500/.; a
760-acre farm where 10 horses and 16 oxen were sold for, say
540/. ; a 780-acre farm where 4 horses and 30 oxen were sold for,
say 570/.; another farm where 10 horses and 24 oxen were sold
at, say 660/.; and another farm where the steam plough banished
56 oxen at, say 8407. In several of these cases, the cash at once
realised for live stock disposed of, amounted to the whole purchase
money for an engine and tackle ; and in the rest, wenta long way
towards making up the sum required,

I find that my paper, lengthy as it may seem, has left un-
touched several important branches of its subject. The amount
of motive power which is best for varied cases should be well consi-
dered. Mr. Smith, of Woolston, and many other steam farmers find
a profit from working common single-cylinder 8-horse thrashing
engines, at 45 to 50 Tbs. pressure ; ‘and even a 7-horse engine (at

Five Years’ Progress of Steam Cultivation. 419

45 lbs. pressure) with a 3 feet driving-sheave will work the
Woolston tackle, at a proportionately slower speed. But Mr.
Smith acknowledges that “10-horse engines are the best.”
The reasoning of other persons also is very sound,—that when
you have a system of anchorage that will stand the strain,
it is much better to plough 8 acres a day than only 4, for the
same number of hands engaged; and though clay farmers in
Kent and elsewhere may be content with a steam apparatus that
will turn over 3 acres a day 8 inches deep, because of the ex-
traordinary value of the tillage on such soil,—yet in a vast many
other cases, cheapness and expedition are of especial importance :
on some light lands, indeed, constituting almost all the advantage
of steam over animal culture. Here the limit of the power of
the engine seems fixed only by considerations of first cost, and the
practicability or inconvenience of an enormous weight in a
country of steep gradients or of soft fields and unsound road-
ways. Some purchasers of apparatus have exchanged their en-
gines for others of higher power; even on a moderate-sized
light-land farm, we have one employer expressing (in a testi-
monial to the manufacturer) his regret that he had not bought a
14-horse engine at first. And some of those who adopted the
steam grubber at first, simply as an autumn-cleansing auxiliary
fitted to the old thrashing-engine, have procured a stronger steam-
horse, extended the wire-rope over the more general tillage of
the land, and proceeded to work the turn-over plough where it
was requisite.

Another point which I cannot dwell upon, but which might
occupy a large space in an essay on new systems of husbandry
introduced by the steam-plough, and on the whole economy of
steam farming, is the management of labour, and the good effect
of variously arranged piecework in quickening that with which
the enraged metropolitan sweep upbraided his ass—the “ agri-
cultural pace.”

Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, July, 1863.

XXII.—On the Development and Action of the Roots of Agricul-
tural Plants at various stages of their Growth. By the Rev.
M. J. Berxetey, M.A., F.L.S.

Since the publication of Sir Humphry Davy’s work on Agricul-
tural Chemistry, in 1813, no treatise has perhaps had so great an
influence on the progress of really scientific agriculture as Baron
Liebig’s Letters on Chemistry and Modern Agriculture. Many
of his conclusions have, indeed, been strongly contested, and his
observations are often fanciful, if not incorrect ; but even in those

420) Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

portions which are most open to criticism, he is always sugges-
tive, and can scarcely be read carefully without profit.

His work on the Natural Laws of Husbandry, which has just
been published, as edited by Dr. Blyth of the Queen’s College,
Cork, gives the author’s mature views on agriculture after sixteen
years of experiment and reflection. The observations made
above apply equally to this as to his former publications. It is
almost impossible to read it without having, at every step, some-
thing of a mental conflict with the author; and it is hard to
receive many of his passing remarks, without some doubtful mis-
givings and wish to test their accuracy. Still the impression on
the whole is one of thankfulness to the author for opening so
many curious and interesting matters of research, accompanied
by a hearty desire for personal confirmation of his statements.

Liebig’s theory that the food of plants consists of inorganic
matters, and that every one of the elements of food must be pre-
sent in a soil for the proper growth of a plant, is, as the editor
remarks in his preface, the basis of the work. ‘The position is
doubtless to a great extent true; but though glutinous or, as they
are sometimes called, colloid matters will not readily enter the
spongelets, if at all, it is far from certain that all organic matters
are rigidly excluded, as it is that everything which goes to the
_ support of a plant enters by the roots exclusively. Still the
editor’s position in the following passage will be generally re-
ceived as incontrovertible :—‘“ The discovery of the remarkable
power of absorption possessed by arable soils has necessarily
led to a modification of the view regarding the mode in which
plants take up their food from the soil. As the food of plants
cannot exist for any length of time in solution in soils, it is
clear that there cannot be a circulation of such solution towards
the roots, but the latter must go in search of food. Hence the
great importance of studying the ramification of the roots of plants
cultivated by man.”

The first chapter of Liebig’s new book is, amongst other

matters, devoted to this subject, to which the following pages are
dedicated, without, however, professing to be an abstract or
review, though availing themselves everywhere of the rich store-
house of facts therein contained.
_ Plants have often been justly described, in general terms, as”
animals turned inside out, the leaves representing the expanded
lungs, and the roots, with all their ramifications, the absorbents
of the intestines. The analogy, of course, is not very complete ;-
but it is partially applicable to two important sets of organs
which in all questions of vegetable physiology must hold a
primary place. It is to the latter almost exclusively that attention
will be drawn in the present memoir.

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.. 421

If we look at the condition in which food is taken up by the
absorbents, at least in the greater portion of the animal kingdom,
it is at once.apparent that in one respect the analogy fails.
Whatever choice the spongelets may exercise in the absorption
of nutritious matter ; whatever be the connection of the soil with
the fluid holding plant-food in solution ; and whatever the possi-
bility of minute, and especially nascent, particles not in solution
being taken up; elaboration is an after process.

The roots of plants may conveniently be considered in three
distinct stages of growth, viz., in their primary development,
their stage of ramification, and their enlargement or differentiation
as receptacles of nutriment for future exigencies.

We have then to consider first, the very earliest stage of their
existence, while still within the seed, or only just bursting through
the envelopes. It is remarkable, that in phenogamous plants the
root-end of the embryo is always in the first instance turned to
the little aperture or micropyle through which the pollen tube
enters and comes in contact with the embryo-sac, and so effects
impregnation, though as the ovule grows it often takes a different
direction. In those cryptogams, as ferns and club-mosses, which
come the nearest to phenogams, exactly the contrary position of
the embryo is maintained. This fact seems to indicate that even
in this very early stage of growth, the radicular extremity has
some important function above that of the cotyledons.

The embryo, consisting of one or more cotyledons, the sponge-
let, and the intermediate portion between that and the plumule,
composed of the neck and true radicle, is either quite free within
the coats of the seed, or is surrounded by a greater or less quantity
of tissue, known by the general name of albumen, though the
word does not bear the same import as it does in chemistry. This
mass abounds in starch, and often in oil globules or other matters
more or less easily convertible, while the coats are sometimes rich
in gluten or other important substances. The spongelet, which is
the active part of the radicle, consists of a mass of naked cells,
more or less intimately connected with each other, and with
more or less definite intercellular passages, which have, however,
no communication with each other except through the walls of
the adjacent cells,

Since the time of Richard, botanists have divided phenogams
into two principal groups, endorhizal and exorhizal; or those
whose primary root is internal, and on germination bursts through
the surrounding tissue, and those whose absorbent surface is abso-
lutely naked. I have, however, long been of opinion that this
distinction is not tenable, and depends more upon the peculiar
structure of the embryo in cereals, than upon that of mono-

422 _ Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

cotyledons in general. If the germination of many plants of this
great tribe is traced from the commencement, it will be found
that the primary root is as truly naked as in any dicotyledon. I
have studied the germination with an especial view to this sub-
ject in the following plants :—Asphodelus luteus, Uropetalum
serotinum, Sisyrinchium iridifolium, Colchicum autumnale, Iris
Sibirica, Allium cepa, Zephyranthes candida, Bulbine annua, Tricho-
nema pudicum, Asphodelus ramosus, Arum maculatum, Iria stellata,
and Babiana plicata ; and in all of these the primary radicle is
most certainly exposed, and does not burst through any part of
the embryo, The embryo of a cocoa-nut is on a considerable
scale; and it will be seen at once, on examination, that the
primary root is naked.

If, however, we examine the germination of cereals, such
as barley, things at first seem to be quite different. The first
root which penetrates the soil, which by the maltsters is called
the acrospire, certainly bursts through the surrounding tissues,
just like the secondary and adventitious roots of phznogams
in general, This root is not however always solitary; but,
like other secondary roots, may be protruded in company with
others. How then are we to explain this? I believe the truth to
be, that the real primary rootlet is the little shield-like body or
scutellum which is in contact with the albumen, and which im-
bibes nutriment from it so long as it is needed, or rather till the
secondary roots have sufficient strength to support the plant.
This was Richard’s view ; but it has not obtained favour with
botanists in general. If, however, this view be correct, the
anomaly ceases except so far as the functions of the primary
rootlet are concerned, which are to derive support from the
albumen and not from the soil. Whether, however, this view be
considered correct or not, it still remains quite certain that, in
a large portion of the plants which pass under the name of
endorhizal, the primary root is not internal, but is prepared at once
to perform its functions, so soon as matters are ready for germi-
nation,—a point apparently of immense consequence to success.
The spongelet is probably the very first part which imbibes nutri-
ment, and thus favours the elongation of the radicle.

It is needless to carry this discussion further, though it is far
from being irrelevant to the subject before us, If what I have
stated is correct, it may be announced as a general rule, that the
absorbent extremity of the radicle is external, and ready at once
to imbibe the needful nutriment when placed i in circumstances ~
favourable to germination.

A certain temperature, air, and water, are absolutely necessary
for this purpose ; and in many cases these are sufficient, at least

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 423

for the infant growth.* In those cases in which there is no albumen
whatever, some little soluble matter may be derived from the in-
teguments which may conduce to the change from a state of perfect
rest to one of active growth; and by means of this, chemical
change may take place in matters stored up in the cotyledons
themselves, which may aid in the primary development of the
embryo.

Supposing, then, moisture, warmth, and air to be ready in their
proper measure, the water is absorbed by the integuments, from
thence by the albumen if present, and finally by the substance of the
embryo. The water converts soluble fibrine into diastase, which
in its turn acts upon the starch, converting it into sugar, which is
also supplied by the oil globules, which are sometimes abundant,
while other portions are converted into dextrine, and the cellulose
itself undergoes chemical changes which in the end tend to the
evolution of the embryo, or to its nourishment during the early
stages of growth ; and sometimes one nitrogenous matter acts upon
another, and so induces change. The oxygen of the air which is
in contact with the seed combines with part of the carbon, and
carbonic acid is evolved, and at the same time a notable quantity
of acetic acid. In fact, the seed is a miniature laboratory, in
which numerous chemical actions are taking place, many of
which would defy our powers of manipulation.

Where these conditions are not combined, either germination
is suspended, or the seed finally rots or withers. Each seed has
its own range of temperature, within which alone germination
can take place, and a limited period beyond which its vitality
cannot be preserved. Carefully conducted experiments do not
confirm the marvellous accounts which are from time to time
brought forward respecting the suspension of germination for
many centuries. Such accurate observers as the late Professor
Henslow, without any proclivity to the marvellous, have effec-
tually dissipated numerous histories in this direction which have
too unguardedly been received as true.

As the radicle is the first to break its bonds, it will be nourished
after a short time directly from matters either traversing the
pores of the soil, or combined with it, and will profit only indi-
rectly by any nutritive matter which may yet remain in the
albumen or cotyledons, its own efforts being now indeed mainly

* Plants grown in pure water without any addition to it of mineral substances
acquire no increase in weight beyond that of the seed from whence they are
derived, and can bring no fruit to perfection, even if they form flowers. It
appears from Boussingault’s experiments, that where mineral substances are ex-
cluded, the organs will absorb water, but neither carbonic acid nor ammonia; or at
least, even though they be introduced into the plant by means of the water, they
exert no influence upon the internal process: they suffer no decomposition, and
no vegetable matter is formed from their element.—Liebig, 1. c. p. 44.

424 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

directed to the development of the plumule, or to the production
of ramifications from itself with the same ultimate view. A
constant interchange indeed is going on between the cells of the
whole plant, so that no part is perfectly independent of the other.
In the case of cereals, where the first rootlet which enters the ©
soil has to force its way through the surrounding integuments,
a very important supply is made through the scutellum, which
remains in contact with the albumen till the whole of the nutri-
tive matter is exhausted.

So important, however, to the welfare of the plant is the acces-
sion of new matter, which can be obtained only from the soil,
even in the earliest stage of growth, that before any secondary
rootlet is produced, the young radicle in many cases pushes out
from its superficial cells a forest of delicate hairs, every one of
which is employed actively in absorption. As far as I have
seen, the radicle is at first perfectly smooth, as, for example, in
the common onion; but in general this condition does not con-
tinue long ; and I have sketches of germinating seeds of several
of the plants above mentioned, in which hairs were abundant
shortly after germination. Sometimes these hairs do not appear
at first upon the true radicle, but form a little coronet at its
junction with the neck,* as in Iris sibirica. In some plants the
connexion between the embryo and the seed is of very long con-
tinuance, as in palms. The onion, however, affords a familiar
example. The tip of the cotyledon is inclosed for a long time
within the albumen, remaining bleached, and doubtless capable
of absorption by its delicate surface. It will be observed, more-
over, that if a speck of paint or ink is placed at the bend of the
loop, which is made by the primary cotyledon on germination,
the two parts increase in length, independently of each other,
except so far as there may be an interchange of nutritious matter,
the position of the speck remaining to the last unaltered.

It is clear from what is stated above, that it must be of great
importance in the cultivation of cereals to have good sound seed.
The first object is to ensure a quick and vigorous germination,
which will scarcely be the case with thin, meagre seed derived
from mildewed plants. No worse economy can be practised
than that of saving a few shillings in the price of seed-corn.
The germination will not only be comparatively slow, espe-
cially in ungenial weather, but the weak plant will fall a sacri-
fice to slugs and other vermin, if it does not assume, which

* It is usual to call the whole of the axis below the plumule “ radicle;” but there
is often a marked difference between the true radicle and the portion of the axis
from whence it is given off, called by authors the neck or collum, This is an im-
portant matter in sugar-beet, as in that plant at least it contains little or no sugar.

+ This curious matter was first observed by Richard, who published a memoir
on it in the Annals of the Museum of Natural History at Paris

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 425

will often be the case, a pale and chlorotic appearance, from
which it will never recover, even if the land itself is in good
heart, which is not likely to be the case where the price of seed-
corn is stinted.

While, however, the first exigencies of the young plant depend
upon the proper supply of nitrogenous and amyloid or starchy
matter contained in the seed, it must never be forgotten that this
supply lasts for a short time only, and that the ultimate vigour
of the plant must depend upon the intrinsic condition of the
soil. Many a crop which looks vigorous enough on its first
appearance soon wears a sorry aspect where the soil is ungenial
and its condition mean. .

An objection, however, has been made to me by a practical
farmer to the following effect. Most of the objects of cultivation
are in a condition which is not natural and is therefore akin
to disease—a condition which constitutes their merit as objects
of cultivation. It is thin, starveling seeds which in wall-
flowers and dahlias produce the best flowers. It is, besides, a
well known fact, that to produce first-rate turnip-seed, which
will yield good roots without running too much to leaf or stem,
the turnips must be transplanted and not allowed to flower
without removal. The size of the grains in our best wheats is
as unnatural as that of the turnip, why then should we object
to the use of thin, meagre seed ?

There is doubtless something in the objection; but though
seed-wheat, if sound and healthy, is better when derived from
a poorer soil than from one which is highly manured, we have
no right to expect good results where the seed is in so mean a
condition that it cannot properly supply the first necessities of
the plant. Seed from well-cultivated soil, where artificial
manure is not too freely used, is far more likely to produce a
good yield than that from highly pampered plants, which, like
those from new melon or cucumber seeds, will be apt to run to leaf.
There is little doubt that much remains to be done for the farmer
in this direction,*

I have hitherto considered only the first stage of the root,
nourished at first by something derived from its envelopes, then

* Diseased conditions are often handed down by seed. A few years since I had
some diseased oats submitted to me, which were taken from a particular part of a
field. I found on inquiry that the seed used in this part of the field was derived
from a different quarter—a matter which I had suspected: from the first. The
seed produced year by year was sown by me several years in succession, and the
peculiar bleached appearance of the bells was constantly reproduced. I have no
doubt that seed from a healthy crop is of great importance; and it is much to be
wished that cultivators of known integrity and intellect should turn their atten-
tion to the production of seed-corn as a special branch of agriculture, a practice
which would prove, I believe, highly remunerative. See ‘Agr. Gaz.’ 1855, pp.
569, 586.

426 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

partly by what is contained in the soil and partly through the
medium of the cotyledons, whether remaining er not in contact
with the albumen, and then in order to produce as extensive an
absorbing surface as possible, giving off in a multitude of instances
numerous delicate absorbent hairs.

The next stage is to produce from the axis, either above or
below the plumule, secondary or adventitious roots, which either
remain simple or ramify in every direction. The tips of these
processes, which consist always of naked spongy tissue, not
covered with cuticle, are certainly in many, if not in most, cases
the only parts capable of+absorbing nutriment from the soil,
always excepting the delicate threads above mentioned, which
are produced also from the surface of the roots at various periods
of growth, sometimes even in the third stage, which will be con-
sidered presently. Even supposing that in the first instance, as
the radicle elongates, the surface has some absorbent power, the
walls of the cells become frequently so hardened and thickened
with corky matter, besides being clogged up with colloid or
gummy substances, that they seem rather destined to protect the
subjacent tissues from injury, than as absorbents; while, on the
contrary, the tissue of the spongelet is constantly renewed,
the old effete cells being rejected backwards so as to invest the
cuticle.

In their earliest stage of growth, whether normal or adven-
titious, roots consist of a little convex body composed of appa-
rently homogeneous cells resting upon the elongated cells -of
which the greater part of the woody tissue is composed, and
more or less converging at the apex. The outer cells at the apex
soon, however, become distinct or separated from the rest of the
mass all round, so as to form a little close-fitting or loose cap
attached only in the centre. The whole gradually forces its way
through the bark or outer coat, either turning aside the tissue
or absorbing it, so as ultimately to become free, the spongy cap
still adhering and forming the principal, or at least the most
permanent, part by which nutritive matter is imbibed. As the
young roots are in immediate connexion with the albumen,
from which their central tissue is directly derived, and the
spongy mass rests on the tip of the cone of elongated cells, it is
evident that the matter imbibed by the roots is at once con-
veyed to the very part of the plant where the upward current is
most active,* :

As the tissue of the spongelet is very delicate, and easily
assumes the form of anything against which it presses, it can

* This paragraph is taken, with slight alteration, from Sections 46 and 50 of my
series of papers on Vegetable Pathology in the ‘Gardener’s Chronicle.’

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 427 ©

come into intimate contact with the soil, and penetrate through
any crevice, however narrow, in a rock or drain-pipe in search
of nutriment. :

We are not to suppose that fluid enters into the spongelet by
mere endosmose,* though from the strong demands for fresh
supplies constantly made by evaporation from the leaves, the
admission is comparatively easy, without any active exosmose.
This agency would be, perhaps, sufficient to account for the rapid
admission of fluid after a season of extreme drought; but in dry
weather, when there is little moisture in the soil, or in extremely
wet weather when there is little or no evaporation, vital energy
must be taken into account in order to have some notion of what
takes place.

The most important question, perhaps, which arises in con-
sidering the relation of the roots to agriculture, is what power
they have in the selection of food. ‘That they have some is
apparent from the fact that different plants in the same soil will
appropriate different proportions of chemical matters, and that
some exhaust more rapidly than others particular constituents.
Wheat and peas appropriate very different proportions of silica ;
Tamarisk and Salsola in the same ground give very different
chemical results, the former containing more magnesia and the
latter more soda; while in Eryngium maritimum, which grows
exclusively on the sand which borders the sea, and is strongly
impregnated with chlorate of soda, there occurs three times as
much potash as soda. Lycopodia, with some other cryptogams,
are remarkable amongst plants for largely appropriating alumina.
But more than this, some plants have the property of appropriating
enormous quantities of some especial element, when it exists in
infinitesimal quantities in the surrounding medium, The quantity
of iodine in sea-water is so small as scarcely to be detected
except from the highly concentrated fluid, and yet several marine
plants contain great quantities. ‘The ash of Viola calaminaria,
according to Alexander Braun, a plant which, in the parts about.
Aix-la-Chapelle, is held so strongly indicative of the presence of
zinc, that the places where it grows are selected for opening new
mines in search of zinc-ore, is found to contain oxide of zinc,” a
substance which few plants could appropriate.t Great, indeed,
as are the powers of vitality in effecting chemical change, we have

* The words endosmose and exosmose are used to express the mutual action
between two fluids of different specific gravities on different sides of a thin
membrane, by means of which the one enters (by endosmose) and the other exudes
(by exosmose). Gaseous bodies enter and are given out in like manner; and
when different gases are mixed together, they have different rates of penetration,
one being admitted more rapidly than another. A familiar instance is afforded
by the process of oxygenating and decarbonizing the blood in animals.

+ Liebig, * Natural Laws of Husbandry,’ p. 57.

* 428 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

no evidence to show that they are capable of generating bodies
which at present defy the power of analysis. If potassium, sodium,
calcium, and other elementary bodies, therefore, exist in plants
in greater quantities than could be contained in a bulk of the sur-
rounding fluid equal to that which traverses the tissue in a given
time, these must have some especial power of abstracting it from
without. One of the most curious instances on record is that
afforded by the ash contents of certain parasites, as misletoe, com-
pared with those of the plants on which they grow, though they
draw their nourishment from sap already partially elaborated.
Where the quantity is less than might be expected, it becomes
a question whether roots have not some power of getting rid of
superfluous matter, a subject which we shall come to presently.

It is well known that soils have great power of absorbing into
their substance, or, at least, of attracting, different matters which
pass through them, as nitrogen by clay, and that in so stable a
form that water passing through the mass, even when strongly im-
pregnated with carbonic acid, will not extract them, though under
certain conditions the various salts are slowly soluble. Schleiden
some years since endeayoured to show that the only use of vege-
table soil was to serve as a storehouse for nutritive matters,—an
extreme view which will not very readily meet with general
acceptance. Some authors regard the spongelets as acting by
mere mechanical or chemical rules, without allowing any especial
power to them as endowed with life. According to this view,
matters enter them precisely in the same manner as if the walls
of the component cells consisted of mere dead membranes, and
their contents were a mere chemical solution. It is clear, however,
that something far removed from any form of capillarity must be
at work, and though something may be attributed to the different
rates of penetration of different substances when mixed together,
and not in chemical combination, it seems impossible to deny the
existence of some higher power, which, for the want of anything
more definite, may well pass under the name of vital energy, or
vitality. Without attaching any mysterious notion to the term
life, we cannot be wrong in using it merely as an expression for
those phenomena which take place in living organisms, but which
would never take place in mere mechanical apparatus, and which”
cannot be imitated by artificial methods at present known. I say
at present known, because jt is impossible to predict what may
be effected by modern chemistry. One step at least has been-
made in the production of a substance like alcohol from inorganic
materials, hitherto supposed to require organic matter for its
formation.

It is, however, time to consider the excrementitious powers of
roots; for if they have the means of getting rid of any excess of

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 429

salts, it might possibly be the case that though one plant appro-
priates less than another, it may really have imbibed as much,
as it has means of getting rid of the excess ; and this would apply
to tree parasites as well as to other plants.

On this, as on most other questions of vegetable physiology,
diametrically opposite opinions have been current, some attri-
buting the deterioration of land for especial crops as much to
the poisoning of it from excretions as from the consumption of its
nutriment.

The matter has lately been studied by Cauvet, an abstract of
whose memoir I have given in the ‘ Gardener’s Chronicle’ for
Feb. 14, 1863. His observations agree very closely with those
contained in a lecture on Agricultural Chemistry by Dr. Daubeny,
which is reproduced in the agricultural portion of the same
journal for Dec. 14, 1861, every sentence of which may be read
with profit.

Most previous experiments had been made with plants more
or less injured, if not by actual division, for the purpose of
inserting different portions of the plant in different fluids, at least
by the destruction of the spongelets, the only active parts, due to
the removal of the plant from the earth, or the mere act of washing
away the adherent soil, which could scarcely be effected without
more or less impairing such delicate organs. To avoid this evil,
M. Cauvet caused seeds to germinate on a wooden frame pierced
with holes, so that after they had germinated, they could readily
be lifted up for inspection, without injury, from any fluid in which
they might be immersed. Now it appeared, first, that fluids in
which colouring matters are merely suspended were wholly unfit
for the purpose, as they would not enter into the tissues. If
matters were employed which were really soluble in water,—
whether active, as solutions of minerals—or inactive, as the juice
of phytolaeca berries,—they were received only partially into the
system, so long as the spongelets were physiologically sound,
though they affected their cells and the more superficial parts.
The former substances at once destroyed the spongelets, and if
admitted at all were admitted by mere capillarity ; while the
colouring matter of those of the second class was deposited in a
glutinous form round the cells, rendering the admission of any
fluid difficult. In the former case the noxious matter entered
by means of the fibro-vascular system, a circumstance of immense
importance as regards those diseased conditions of plants in
which the first symptoms of decay are the deposition of dark
matter, consisting probably of ulmates and humates, in the vas-
cular tissue, as is so frequently the case in turnip rot. The same
appearance is not uncommon in the potato disease; but as we

430 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

have to do there with underground stems and not with true roots,
the evil is of more remote origin.

It is well known that both vegetable and mineral poisons are
destructive to phenogamic plants, How, then, do the poisons
act? Roots physiologically sound do not absorb indifferently all
substances which are soluble in water or which may be incor-
porated with the soil in a minute state of division. The experi-
ment may be easily tried with arsenious acid, and there is the
more reason to repeat the experiment, as published accounts are
very conflicting. The truth seems to be that if the dose is only
small, it is not absorbed ; if large, the spongelets are destroyed,
and a portion enters but only a short way up. The plant is then
destroyed at once, or if some of the upper roots remain sound,
the poison is eliminated partly from the leaves which fade pre-
cisely according to their order of development, and partly together
with the water of evaporation. In such cases the plant in the
end is not affected, and ultimately no poison can be detected by
the closest analysis. Dr. Daubeny made experiments also with
strontian and barytes, which do not normally exist in plants;
and, as in the case of arsenic, he found on analysis no trace of
these substances where plants arrived at perfection: showing
clearly that either the roots had some power of refusing substances
which were not necessary, or might prove injurious, or that if a
portion was admitted, it was somehow or other eliminated. Some
metallic salts, exclusive of such matters as potash and soda,
however, do not seem so difficult of access. Iron, at least, seems
essential to many plants, and it is occasionally found on analysis,
as in beechwood or tree-lichens, where it does not normally form
a constituent.

“ The power of roots,” says Liebig, ‘‘ to preclude the passing
of certain substances from the soil into the plant is not absolute.
Forchhammer (Poggend. Annal., xcy. 90) detected exceedingly
minute traces of lead, zinc, and copper in the wood of the beech,
birch, and fir, and tin, lead, and zinc in that of the oak; but the
fact that the outer rind or bark in particular is found to contain
metals of this kind in perceptibly larger quantities than the
wood, clearly points to the accidental nature of their presence,
and to their taking no essential part in the vital processes of the
plant.” The copper which is often found in wheat on analysis
is ev idently derived from the sulphate of copper with which
seed-wheat is dressed to prevent bunt.

It now becomes a question how far any elimination can take
place by, the roots, a most important matter as regards the theory
of cropping. M. Cauvet accordingly directed especial attention
to this point, and the result of numerous experiments is entirely

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 431

against any excretion from the roots. Foreign matters, whether
actively destructive to the spongelets or not, if once admitted in
quantity, soon produced death; and if in consequence of new
roots being thrown out the plant survived, the peccant matter
was in no case thrown off by them.

Fibrous roots have sometimes enormous power of penetration
in search of nutriment,—a property which becomes a serious evil
if the subsoil does not contain the proper salts which are needful
for the especial exigencies of the plant, or in proper proportions,
or if they meet with matter absolutely noxious. In the orchard
many a fruit-tree thrives so long as the roots are superficial ; but
when they penetrate deeper, nutriment either insufficient or of
an improper character is received, vitality is impaired, and
various forms of canker or chlorosis are the consequence. To
some plants lime is a positive poison, and for this reason rhodo-
dendrons will not succeed in a limestone district.*

Sometimes the evil is of a different character. In such crops
as sugar-beet, which is often grown for several years in succession
on the same ground, where the roots penetrate deeply, a portion
is always left behind when they are lifted, and so soon as the
tap-root of the next year comes in contact with the old decaying
portion, it is contaminated, the leaves in consequence flag, and
the whole plant ultimately becomes unhealthy.

Another evil attendant on the elongation of roots arises from
their penetration into drainage tiles, sometimes completely
blocking them up, and rendering them useless. Willow and elm
roots often act in this way; but herbaceous plants are scarcely
less mischievous. Even grasses will sometimes clog the drain
tiles up, and I have seen an instance where the fibres of mangold
have attained in such a situation a length of some feet. A case
lately occurred in which the common Eguisetum of ploughed
land, or Besom-weed, ¢ was the cause of mischief.

Another evil arising from deep penetration, where there is
stagnant water, is the depression of temperature, which is highly
injurious. Every cultivator is aware of the benefit of bottom-
heat within certain limits, and where the ground is deep and
uniform, as in the best cotton and tobacco grounds, the rootlets
may find exactly that degree of temperature which is most con-
genial to them. In cold countries, where the surface is frozen

* This is singularly evidenced within the space of three or four miles in
Denbighshire. At Coed Coch rhododendrons are a weed, the district being
Silurian. At Gwrwch Castle no pains have succeeded in establishing them,
because the district is one of carboniferous limestone.

+ ‘Des Maladies de la Pomme de Terre de la Betterave, &c. Par A. Payen.
* Bibliothéque des Chemins de Fer.’

¢ In some districts this name is applied to species of Anthemis and Matricaria,
and allied genera of chamomiles,

VOL. XXIV. 2F

432 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

for great part of the year, vitality will be sustained by tempera-
ture derived from the deep-seated rootlets.

In wheat-cultivation the great object is to multiply the lateral
rootlets as much as possible, that they may avail themselves of
the more abundant nutriment towards the surface of the soil..
One great end obtained by pressing the ground in light soils
before the sowing of wheat is the encouragement of laterals. It
is true that wheat will sometimes penetrate to a great depth, but
seldom perhaps with advantage.

We now come to the third stage, in which roots or portions of
them become reservoirs of nutriment for future use. Roots vary
considerably in their character: some penetrate deeply, remain-
ing fibrous and delicate to the end; some throw out numerous
laterals, and affect the surface of the soil; some merely yield the
necessary daily nutriment; while others, under various. guises,
as asparagus, turnips, carrots, &c., devote certain of their parts
or ramifications to the especial office of storing up starch, pectine,
bassorine, and other nutritive matters, sometimes in. enormous
quantities and with*extraordinary rapidity.

We must not, however, suppose that all underground parts
which serve as storehouses belong to the same category. The
bulb of the onion, the corm of the saffron, the tubers of potatoes,
though answering the same end, are either furnished by the base
of the leaves or are underground stems. The trunks of trees
themselves are also in many cases receptacles of nutritive
matter, of which the sago-palm is a well-known example, and
the lime, abounding in mucilage, one nearer at. home. In a
great variety of plants, moreover, the pith supplies a large,
though temporary, supply of nutriment. The cells, however, for
the most part, are soon exhausted, and become mere bags of
air. Sometimes there is a double store of nutriment, as in some
species of crocus, both in the corm and thickened roots.

It would be wrong, however, to-suppose that the proper func-
tion of roots in general is that of storehouses. ‘Their office i is
rather to convey fluids which, either in their course through the
roots themselves, or the stem with its ramifications, or finally
the leaves and bark after various elaboration, deposit various
matters which are either set aside as of no further use, or where
they can do no harm, as the crystals which are so abundant in
many plants, or stored up carefully to serve some ulterior end.

In some plants, like carrots and turnips, the main object-
seems to be the deposit of nutriment for the perfection of the
seed in the ensuing year; while in the case of perennials, either
a special part is devoted to this purpose, as in many orchids,
whose place when it has become effete is supplied by a new
growth, or the supply is generally distributed! and used as occa-

: Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 433

sion requires (pro re natd). In fruit-trees it is quite certain that
the deposit is often made in the bark and branches, and hence
the necessity of rest, and the notorious fact that many trees will
bear a crop only in alternate years.

Liebig considers that the object of the winter rest in wheat is to
give time for storing up nutriment in the roots for the formation of
the stalk and ultimately of the seeds in the fructifying stage.

‘A very mild autumn or winter,” he says, “ operates unfa-
yourably on the future crop, as the higher temperature encourages
the development of the principal stalk before the proper time,
and consumes the food which should have served to form buds
and new roots, or to increase the store of organisable matter in
the roots. Thus stunted in its development, the root supplies
less food to the plant in spring, as it takes up*and gives out less
in proportion to its smaller absorbent surface and more limited
supply stored up in it, and it retains the same feeble character
in the succeeding periods of vegetation. The agriculturist
endeavours to meet the difficulty by grazing down or cutting
these feeble plants; the formation of buds’ and roots hereupon
begins anew, and if the external conditions are favourable, and
the plant has time to fill the root with a fresh store of organisable
matter, the normal conditions of growth are, in the agricultural
sense, restored,”

As regards cereals, the process of vegetation goes on con-
tinuously in most varieties ; but in winter-wheats there is often a
period of rest. ‘The circumstance here, however, is rather acci-
dental than essential, and dependent on their requiring a longer
time to come to maturity. Our author’s reasoning ‘on this
matter seems to partake too much of theory. Excellent crops
are often produced where there has been no winter rest, pro-~
vided the growth is not so rank as to prevent proper ventilation ;
and one object at least of feeding off is to obviate an excessive
deyelopment of tillers, which are sure, in the end, to be com-
paratively unproductive, either from the layering of the crop, or
the want of space for healthy growth, which cannot take place
without due admission of light and air.

There is a circumstance about most leguminous plants which
has not yet been sufficiently studied. From the earliest period
of growth, little tuberiform bodies are formed upon the roots,
which have been described as Fungi. They sometimes ac-
quire a considerable size, as in the common acacia. Like the
secondary roots themselves, of which they appear to be modifica~
tions, they are derived from. within and burst through the outer
coat, soon becoming much inflated, and often corrugated. Their
walls are thick and fleshy. The lower part of the axis consists
of elongated, close-packed cells, while the swollen portion, at
least in the kidney-bean, is filled, especially above, with tissue

22

.

454 Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants.

abounding in starch-grains. In the common bean, three weeks
after sowing, the cells have a delicate salmon-tint; but to what
this is owing I am not able to say, as I have never had time to
follow out the subject. These bodies are doubtless occasionally
important organs in time of drought ; though it is very possible,
as many of them become effete at an early period, they serve
some especial object besides. ‘The late M. Desmazitres, many
years since, pointed out to me some curiously-shaped extremely
minute bodies to which they give rise; but I am not aware that
they have been studied in different stages of development, and at
different periods in the growth of the plant. Something very
analogous occurs in many conifers; but in this case, as before,
further examination is requisite.

An interesting subject still remains for consideration—namely,
the activity of absorption in the spongelets at different periods of
growth. The comparative cliemical result of the produce at
different periods is not a certain indication of this, because this
may depend upon matter already deposited in the roots, and
suddenly brought td bear as occasion requires. Unless some
method could be devised by which the proportion of nutritive
matter ina given quantity of soil at different periods could be
estimated, it is difficult to see how the matter admits of deter-
mination. Even comparative estimates as regards the whole plant
are but few in number, and at present unsatisfactory. It is diffi-
cult, moreover, to estimate the quantity of active absorbing surface
at different periods, as old spongelets are constantly decaying.

It appears, however, from Anderson’s Observations on Turnips,
published in the ‘ Journal of Agriculture and Transactions: of
the Highland Society,’ that, ‘‘in the first half of the time of
vegetation, the organic labour in the turnip-plant is principally
directed to the production and development of the external
organs; during a second period of 39 days, 9 parts of the
food absorbed going to the leaves and 2 parts to the rédots ;
while in a third period of 20 days, 9 parts remained in the
leaves and 16 parts in the roots. During a fourth stage, the
weight of leaves kept constantly decreasing, while that of the
roots increased, the proportion being much larger than in
the third stage. ;

On chemical examination it appeared that the quantity of
phosphoric acid was daily increasing; the potash increased
rapidly during the second and third stages, and then decreased ;
the absorption of sulphuric acid was nearly uniform, while that
of salt gradually increased and then slightly diminished. As
regards lime, magnesia, and iron, the absorption showed every
day a trifling increase, corresponding to the increased absorbing
surface, but otherwise uniform ; and the same may be said, with
slight modifications, such as future analysis might alter, of the

®

Development of Roots of Agricultural Plants. 435

other substances, except potash. As regards nitrogen, Anderson
is himself doubtful whether it has been correctly estimated.

Ahrend has examined the oat-plant in a similar way, but
extended his investigations to the ripening of the seed, and
exclusive of the roots. It appears that the increase of potash was
vapid during the time of flowering up to the formation of the
seed, during the ripening of AL AE i there was no further increase ;

that the ee of phosphoric acid and nitrogen was still more

rapid during the same period, but that there was an accession of
phosphoric eal during ripening, and a still greater accession of
nitrogen. The activity of the leaves, as in the former case,
during the earlier stages, appears to have been directed towards
the production of organisable matter to be stored up for the
shooting stage, and ultimately, as in the turnip, to be employed
in the et of seed. The absorptive power of the roots in
all probability still remains the same, except so far as the increase
of temperature might stimulate it. The matter, however, at
present has been very insufficiently studied, and requires further
and more varied investigation.

The following are the. conclusions which we may gather from
the preceding remarks :—

1. That the first ‘effort of vegetation in the sprouting embryo
is to develope properly the plumule, on which every succeeding
stage depends.

That in order to this there must be a proper quantity of nutri-
ment stored up in the seed, as well as a supply at once available
from the soil, and that a accomplish this profitably a proper
selection of seed is highly requisite.

2. That the second object is to cause such.a devalegeneet of
the roots as may present a sufficiently large absorbing surface to
produce a rapid and healthy growth of the vegetative parts of
the plants; an end which must be formed by a proper texture
of the soil, and the presence in it of such chemical constituents
in their due proportions as are appropriate to the especial crop,
under cultivation.

That for this end roots have a certain power of selection,,
rejecting what is injurious, and absorbing in their proper pro-
portions those elements which the particular nature of the plant
requires,

That meanwhile they have no power of excretion, and there-
fore pauperise the soil merely by comsumption.

3, Finally, that in many cases certain portions of the roots
are differentiated as storehouses of nutriment for the fructifying

stage, while in others the whole mass of roots serves to this:
purpose.

( 436 )

XXIV.—On M. J. Reiset’s Agricultural Experiments.*
By P. H. Frere.

AN interesting contribution to scientific agriculture has lately
been made by M. Reiset, who appears to combine in a high
degree the character of a learned chemist with that of a sensible
farmer. ‘This combination is as valuable as it is rare: for the
mere farmer is often uncommunicative or unable to impart to
others his own conclusions ; whilst if any one speak as the mouth-
piece of pure science, his dicta, when confronted ,with practice
and tested by experience, are pretty sure to require qualification.

The scientific attainments of M. Reiset have been displayed in
various communications to the ‘ Agnales de Chimie et de Phy-
sique, &c. A gold medal, presented to him by the Agricultural
Society of Rouen, is evidence of his reputation as a farmer.
Since 1850 he has farmed some 250 acres of his own land, near
Dieppe, where he planted his laboratory, with the purpose of
bringing his scientific researches to the test of the balance-
sheet. Having the advantage of good markets he was well
situated for trying intensive culture, “or that system of manage-
ment which gives the land no rest, but aims at securing a
maximum crop by a liberal outlay.” Accounts have been kept
and stock taken with the utmost care to make them unimpeach-
able; wear and tear and costs of cultivation have been duly cal-
culated, and from the survey of these details several weak points
in the enterprise struck the mind of the owner, particularly the
heavy expense which arises from wintering stock without a supply
of roots.

After some fourteen years of unremitting attention to these
points M. Reiset writes :—“ Unfortunately there is nothing more
difficult than to explain (mettre en relief) processes adopted in
the cultivation of the soil, to exhibit the reasons for these ,pro-
cesses, and to state in detail the systematic management of the farm,
as can be easily done for any commercial undertaking.” Baron
Liebig, on the other hand, in the preface to his ‘ Natural Laws of
Husbandry,’ says, “I have never yet met with an agriculturist
who kept a ledger, as is done as a matter of course in other
industrial pursuits, in which the debtor and creditor account of
every acre of land is entered.” ¢ .

* ‘Recherches Pratiques et Expérimentales sur L’Agronomie.’ Par J. Reiset,

Correspondent de L’Institut de France. (1863. J. B. Bailliere.)

+ There is certainly a remarkable contrast between these passages. M. Reiset,
having had practical experience in farming, would probably award some praise to
the farmer who could give a clear account of the expenditure and receipts of any
one field on his farm; whereas Baron Liebig, giving as he does to tradesmen an
undue amount of credit for method and accuracy, founds a reproach upon what is
an imperfect analogy.

| Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 437

M. Reiset has prefaced his scientific researches by an abstract
of his proceedings in stocking and managing+his farm, which
is full of good sense. Having no pasture, he wisely turned
his attention to sheep, rather than oxen, selecting an improved
native race (Charmois) and crossing it, first with Leicester blood,
and then, to better effect, with Southdown rams. But for early
fattening, his experiments show that these foreign crosses are
still much inferior to our English sheep.

His first step to the improvement of his land brings out
in striking relief the strong and weak side of the position of a
scientific and liberal reformer. He found that the sewage of
Dieppe ran to waste on the sea-shore; analysed it; found that it
contained more than 1 per cent. of nitrogen; contracted to buy
it at 1s. dd. per ton; carted it some six miles to his land, and, by
applying 20 tons per acre, grew 40 tons of mangold and 50
bushels of rape-seed per acre. The Agricultural Society of
Rouen verified these results, and recognised their importance by
the award of a gold medal. Thus far we have a bright picture.
But when public attention was aroused, farmers close at hand
became competitors; the price rose from 1s. 3d. to 10s. and 12s.
per ton, and M. Reiset was driven out of the market. Some
will think, if not say, when he had got hold of a good thing, why
did not he keep it to himself? But the liberal man stands by
liberal things, because he has, not a nostrum, but a living power,
and he is not at his wits’ end when one device fails him. When
this extraneous source of fertility was cut off, a distillery, built
and supplied .with mangold on the farm, afforded both a high
price for the produce and a home store of food for stock, and so
of manure, from which no fertiliser of material value had been
abstracted by the spirit, which was manufactured and exported.

The great practical question of our day appears to be how we
are to produce economically a greater supply of meat. The cul-
tivation of mangold with a view to distillation, appears thus far
to be the French solution of the question, ‘and as such deserves
some special attention. As a consequence of the new demand
for roots, the four-course was substituted for the scourging three-
course of the district, viz., wheat, oats, and industrial crops,
principally rape (grown for seed), under which system the old-
fashioned farmers around had just kept the wolf from the door.

The supply of mangold pulp led to stall-feeding cow-stock ;
autumn purchases, or crowded houses, as usual introduced pleuro-
pneumonia. M, Reiset grappled resolutely with the malady.
Inoculation was tried on a large scale, under the charge of M.
Delafond. “I cannot affirm,” says M. Reiset, “that this is a
certain means of prevention, but ‘assuredly it is not at all dan-
gerous when carefully executed, and may be recommended to all

438 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

those who are exposed to this scourge.” In the following year, as
sheep—chiefly aged ewes—are abundant and cheap in the dis-
trict, they were substituted for cow-stock; and of late 600 sheep
have been fattened in the winter, producing 600 cwts. live weight
of prime meat.

Experience in dealing in stock has led M. Reiset to make the
following remarks :—‘‘ Marketing plays a prominent part in the
lives of our agriculturists, and has for them a special attraction.
If we inquire into the real means by which some among them have
made fortunes, we shall often find that their prosperity is due to
the skill which they display in repeated purchases and sales,
rather than to their intelligence in the management of their land.”

These hints from practical life will prepare the reader to follow
with livelier interest and more of faith the scientific researches
which form the bulk of the volume.

The subjects treated of are :—

1. Experiments on the composition of milk, taken at the
beginning, middle, and end of the milking.

2. Experiments on grain, in respect of its weight per measure
and its specific gravity at different degrees of dryness and maturity ;
the relation between the weight per measure and the nitrogen,
or gluten, contained in the flour, and consequently its value as
bread ; and the question of sale by weight or by measure.

3. On the fermentation of dung, and on putrefaction.

4, On sheep-feeding with mangold pulp.

5. On the comparative feeding value of mangold given raw,
steamed, or as distillery refuse.

6. Analyses of several varieties of rape during the second year
of growth.

7. Movable sheep-sheds.

8. Farm distilleries, their management, yield of sugar from
mangold of different sizes and varieties—weight of crops.

9. Experiments on the respiration of animals,

Of these investigations some few will interest the practical
man; others concern the foundations on which science is slowly
but surely built. No better evidence can be given of the utility
of some of the points investigated than the fact that these also _
form the bases of Professor Coleman’s estimates, as stated in shhis
paper reported in page 623 of this Journal. The eminently prac-
tical manager of the model farm and the man of science who farms
for himself, come to view things in the same light, though their ~
estimates exhibit slight variations.

On the Weight and Feeding Quality of Wheat.

M. Reiset made many experiments to determine the weight
per bushel, and specific gravity, of the grain of various kinds of

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 439

wheat at different stages of growth and in different states of dry-
ness, with special reference to their feeding value, and to the
question whether sales should be effected by weight or by
measure.

The specific gravity of a grain of wheat is determined by
comparing it with the same bulk of water; if this expression
can be applied at all to the bushel it then refers to an ima-
ginary quantity—the weight which would result if the grains had
no spaces between them. ‘The amount of these spaces evidently
depends upon the form of the grains; so that a long, thin, dry
wheat, of greater specific gravity, may weigh less per bushel than
a plump, round sample, of less density in itself. Careful mea-
surement of 20 kinds of wheat from different countries showed
that the specific gravity or density of wheat varies from 1290 to
1407; that is to say, a measure which, when filled with water,
weighs 1000 grammes, would weigh from 1290 *to 1407 grammes
if it could be so filled with wheat that no intervals were left between
the grains; whilst, if the measure beactually filled as corn is usually
measured for sale, the weight will vary from 739 to 816 grammes
(equivalent to 58? and 65; lbs. per bushel).* A’ practical rule
for measuring corn is given as follows :—Pour the grain from a
shovel held 4 inches above the measure, fairly into its centre,
without shaking it, and strike the surface once. For these expe-
riments, however, a small apparatus made by M. Busche was
a: in which the feeding-pipe can be very exactly regu-
ated.

Of these varieties, that which had the greatest specific gravity
or density (1407) was a very hard” Polish wheat, which only
weighed 593 lbs. per bushel, whilst a white Russian variety,
grown in France, weighing 65 lbs. pet bushel, had the density
1378, and the Albert (grown from English seed, and weighing
633 lbs. per bushel) density 1358. The actual weight of the
bushel of wheat does not therefore tally with its specific gravity.

These trials were followed by researches into the amount of
water found in wheat under different circumstances, and the
effects of its absorption and evaporation on the weight and bulk
of the grain. The most remarkable points of practical interest
brought to light by these inquiries are: 1st, that each variety of
wheat naturally contains a certain quantity of moisture, and if
either wetted or dried, promptly takes occasion to return to its

* The results of such experiments can be far more neatly expressed in modern
French measures adapted to the decimal scale than by our English standards,
which our scientific writers appear to be abandoning even in English treatises.

+ It had been previously ascertained, that by shaking the measure it may be
made to hold as much as from one-thirteenth to one-tenth more than its usual
contents,

440 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

normal condition as to dryness, but when dried after having been
swollen by water, it does not recover its former bulk. The per-
centage of water in the 20 specimens examined varied from
12-20 to 16°51.

The author had supposed that by drying the grain he might
increase the weight per bushel almost at pleasure ; ; the result
showed the contrary. For when Albert wheat, having 16°11 per
cent. of moisture, the density 1398, and weight 815°3 (= 65 lbs.
per bushel), was so dried that the water was reduced to 7:24 per
cent., the density was increased to 1420, but the weight per litre
diminished to 797°8 (= 63°6 lbs. per bushel).

And again, white Russian wheat, having moisture 15 per cent.,
density 1378, weight 816, when reduced to 7°7 per cent. of moisture,
had density 1400, and weight 803. Trials made at different stages
of the process showed that the density constantly increases as the
proportion of water diminishes. The grain undergoes a manifest
contraction, but this is not in proportion to the amount of water
lost; therefore the actual weight of the} measure decreases per-
ceptibly with the loss of the water.

The effects of moistening grain were more remarkable. Some
Spalding wheat, when spread in a thin layer and exposed to air
saturated with moisture at the ordinary temperature, gave the
following results :—

> Apparent 17
Percentage of " 4 Weight
Water. Density. ene per Buchel.
oe —_—)| }
|
Wheat in its natural state.
grs, Ibs.
14°69 | 1382 | 782°3 62°43
“ Wheat after absorbing moisture.
15°82 ws 773°)
16°96 1875 771°1 oe
19°29 1360 739-0 58°96 ¥
31°17 o> 671°9 53°65

After being thus saturated, the wheat, when exposed to the
open air in a thin bed, lost in two days exactly the extra 16°48
per cent. of water whith it had taken up, and so returned to its
normal state of moisture; but its specific gravity remained fixed

at 1361 instead of 1382, and its weight per bushel was 59:1 Ibs.

instead of 62-4 Ibs, Grain, therefore, when accidentally swollen-

by moisture, does not upon drying return to its original bulk,
but remains distended, and loses both in density and in weight
per bushel,

“It is probable that corn much wetted in the course of the
harvest undergoes some such a change as this experiment ex-

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 441

hibited ; the grain is swollen, and, in spite of every attention
being paid to it, will not resume its former natural bulk.”

A further experiment, made on a Neapolitan white wheat
(Richelle), confirmed these results. In this case, 420 grammes
were moistened until they were at the sprouting-point ; they then
weighed 540 grammes, and had therefore absorbed 28 per cent.
of water.

After being dried for 4 days in the open air, the wheat
returned to its original weight, and had therefore given up
all the water it had absorbed. At the first the density of this
wheat was 1381, its weight per litre 801:1 grammes (or 64 Ibs.
(nearly) per bushel); at the last the density was 1327, and the
weight per litre 706-4 (=56 Ibs. per bushel).

In the wet season of 1850 the crop actually grown on the farm
had the specific gravity 1350, and weighed 748 grammes (= 574
ibs. per bushel),

This shows clearly that wheat measures well after it has been
damped, and that it will not lose much of its acquired bulk if
kept till it is fairly dry again.

M. Reiset next approaches the question of nutritive value: he
assumes that this will vary with the amount of gluten and albu-
men, and proceeds (in accordance with M. Boussingault’s teaching)
to ascertain by two methods the nitrogen in the grain, from which
he may then calculate the gluten and albumen contained in it.

He finds that the nitrogen in the grain varies from 1°71 to 2:87
per cent., equivalent to 10°63 and 17-93 per cent. of gluten
respectively, allowing 16 of gluten to 1 of nitrogen; that there is
no apparent connection between the amount of gluten found in
any variety and its weight per bushel, but an evident relation
between the gluten and the density. As a rule, the dry hard
glazed wheats, such as are generally sought for in the manufacture
of maccaroni, &c., have the greater density and the most gluten.
The amount of ash (which is from 1:77 to 2:25 per cent.) generally
varies with the nitrogen.

Estimated by this standard, wheats havea very different feeding
value, which is but ill appreciated in the markets.

To bring out this distinction, a comparison is made between
Barker's stiff-straw wheat, containing 16-51 per cent. of water
with 9°54 per cent. of gluten, and a wheat namied Hérisson (the
Hedgehog), grown near Arpajon, containing 13°48 per cent. of
water and 15°51 of gluten. Merchants would prefer the English
wheat, because the grain is plump and tender, and, if they bought
the other at all, would insist on a lower rate, because its kernels
are small, glazed, and ill-shapen; yet as much nitrogen is con-
tained in 100 Ibs. of the latter as in 1624 of the English wheat.

Suppose, says M. Reiset, that the labourer can buy these two

442 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

wheats at the same price, and that he eats 20 lbs. of bread per
week, or 124 lbs. of dry food, (since bread contains 30 per cent. of
water) then his allowance in bread made from English corn would
contain 108 grammes (3°8 ozs.) of nitrogen, and, in French, 168
grammes (9°9 ozs.), and this difference of 60 grammes represents
the nitrogen in 60 ounces of meat. The inference is, that biscuits
made from dry, hard wheat would give a sort of meaty bread,
which would have a special value in preparing supplies for the
military service; and that tail wheat affords a more nutritious diet,
though not so white a loaf as head corn, for farm labourers.

Now all these conclusions hinge on the law, here assumed
absolutely, that the nutritive value of food varies with the amount
of nitrogen contained in it; yet we have been taught by Dr.
Voelcker that a superabundance of nitrogen is often but a sign
of immaturity. Indeed, M. Reiset recognises the truth of this
view, when, enlarging on the fact that in 1852 the tail corn of
the Victoria wheat contained 15 per cent. of gluten, and the head
corn only 13, he writes:—“ These facts go to prove that at a
certain phase in their growth the grains of wheat contain an equal
proportion of nitrogenous matter; but it would seem that in the
last period of their development the starchy matter is gradually
associated with the nitrogenous element: the greater proportion
.of nitrogen in the tail corn may be thus accounted for.” But
it will be strange if that which is a sign of immaturity be at the
same time indicative of superior nutritive power. Within cer-
tain limits, indeed, wheat cut before it is dead ripe is preferred
as giving a stronger flour, but within these limits M. Reiset did
not find that the nitrogen varied to any extent. Some experi-
ments which he made in 1852, with some Spalding wheat and a
foreign variety, gave these results :—

Date of Cutting. Percentage Percentage

of Water. of Gluten.

July 24. Grains soft .. . eae ory 13°81
July 29. Grains beginning to form flour phe Ws Plone 14°43»
Aug. 11. Grain quite atid) ese. do Laren 13°93

Second experiment. Another wheat grown on sandy soil :—

July 15. Grains. ofp. ..2.. veo ve ns | p aera 18°34
July 20, Grains firmenough ,... . .. 0 ie : 16°94 12°74
When dedd-ripe *. .. .. . c« « JOE 14:50

Within these limits, therefore, for the same sorts similarly
cireumstanced, the small variation of the gluten appears to follow -
no distinct rule.

That such considerations as these are to our purpose, is indi-
cated by the fact that of the wheats analysed, that which stood
next to the Hérisson in respect of gluten, was a spring wheat, the
“ Blé Victoria de Mars ;” whilst the name of Hérisson, or “ Hedge-

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. . 445

hog,” would itself seem to point to a short-eared, bearded
variety, such as is not much in favour with millers. But further ;
Mr. Lawes and other authorities, whilst they recognise the high
importance of a certain portion of the food being rich in nitrogen,
do not consider that any proportional benefit will be detived from
increasing this element beyond very moderate limits.

It would seem that both in the soil, in the plant, and in the
animal, nitrogen may be considered as a stimulant; that is, as an
agent which calls actively into play the services of other bodies,
besides, or instead of, taking a part in the work itself. In the
soil it renders mineral substances assimilable, or, as Liebig terms
it, brings them from a state of chemical, into one of physical
combination. In building up the plant, according to the same
authority, it would seem that nitrogen acts in part as a moulding
power, which, when one cell is completed, transfers its energy to
the formation of a second, leaving but little of its own substance
built in among the particles which it has brought to coalesce
together. So, further, a writer in the Bavarian ‘ Centralblatt,’ of
1861 (p. 224), writes that “the nitrogen in rape-cake renders
assimilable the masses of fodder, which otherwise would be
driven through the animal to no effect:”—-a doctrine which the
striking effects produced by supplementing sewage-grass with a
little oil-cake in the Rugby experiments, tend to confirm.* If,
then, on the one. hand, it may be very bad policy to leave any
animal at any age on any keep without some small quantity of
food rich in nitrogen,—on the other hand, the rule, that nutrition
varies as the nitrogen supplied, may have very definite limits,
and no good may be gained by passing beyond these, since it is
probable that in the last stage of fattening stock the fatty matter
especially is associated little by little with the, nitrogenous ele-
ments, in the same manner as M. Reiset tells us the starch is
accumulated in the final development of the grain.

Opinions such as these appear to be gaining ground among
English ‘agriculturists, and the ready acceptance which these
limitations meet with tends to show that they are not so blindly
prejudiced and obstinate as they have been represented. In
stock-feeding they gladly modify their views as to the requisite
supply of nitrogen; and for manuring their lands, if they could
only meet with ‘satisfactory evidence on practical authority, they
would act in the same manner, and would be only too glad to limit
a costly investment which much interferes with profit.

. But M. Reiset not only employs the nitrogen standard as a
means of contrasting two kinds of wheat, but also for instituting a
comparison between meat and bread as food for man. That we

* See Report, 1862.

444 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

may not overstrain a passage, perhaps used chiefly in illustra-
tion, it will be well to quote it as it stands :—‘* To give to these
results (the distinctions between the English and Heérisson
wheat) their full significance, we will represent these proportions
of nitrogen in the form of meat; and if, in accordance with my
analyses, we allow that beef contains 3°50 per cent. of nitrogen,
and 68:14 of water, we may say that 108 grammes (3°8 ozs.)
of nitrogen represent 3085 grammes (6°78 lbs.) of meat; and
168 grammes (=5'9 ozs.) of nitrogen represent 4800 grammes
(=10°56 lbs.)—a difference of 1715 gramme# (60 ozs.) of meat
per week, or 245 grammes per day, in favour of the wheat which
1s most rich in gluten.”

According to this standard, then, not only the prime wheat in
the market is not really superior to that which is considered in-
ferior, but a meat diet may have little or no advantage over one
that is simply farinaceous, since an allowance of 20 lbs. of bread
per week, made from a wheat of little repute, may be equivalent
to 103 lbs. of meat, or to, say, 1b. of meat and 1 lb. of bread. per
day. Such a result is, perhaps, as startling as the subject is inter-
esting; and here, again, careful research may show that the
more nitrogenous diet is only more beneficial, because it is more
stimulating ; and that such stimulus is only wanted when, from
constitution or habit of life, the natural powers of assimilation
are weak; or when over-taxed nervous energies, rather than the
ordinary play of the limbs and muscles, are to be provided for.
The function of meat, then, the most nitrogenous element in
human diet, seems to present some further analogies to the
action of nitrogenous food, such as beans, given to animals; and
our view of nitrogen as a stimulant may be still further extended.
It will, however, by no means follow from this general recogni-
tion of the virtue of nitrogen, that in all cases and to any
extent, food is valuable in proportion to the nitrogen which it
contains.

To infer the nutritive power of food from this test, is nearly the
same thing as to reckon the available productive power of a field
by the same standard applied by the aid of an analysis of the
soil. How deceptive this latter course would be, both the careful
experiments of Boussingault and the doctrine of Liebig sufficiently
testify. 4

As in the field fertility practically depends, not on the presence
of nitrogen, but on the state of combination in which it exists,—so
in food the nutritive power may well depend on the manner in~
which the structure of the plant has proceeded, and the approach
it has made towards perfection.

No one knows better than the chemist, that in nature the
products of a few simple elements are as varied as the chimes

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 445

rung on a peal of bells; that some slight transposition, which
we cannot detect, alone differences the most useful from the most
noxious substances :—

. “tantum series juncturaque pollet,
Tantum de medio sumptis accedit honoris.”

If in the natural processes something has gone amiss, whereby,
according to prevailing theories, the abortion would seem to be
rendered superior to the perfect creature, surely in the present
state of our knowledge it would be more wise to infer incom-
pleteness in our guesses at science, than to assume on such evi-
dence that practice, supported probably by physiology, is blind
and wilful. ;

As for the question of the sale of corn, M. Reiset states that
in France when corn is nominally sold by measure, they always
require that it be made up to a certain weight, and that the
hectolitre with its makeweight (comble) then represents 110 or
even 115 litres of com; or else, if only 100 litres are delivered,
the price is modified according to their shortcoming in weight.

He concludes that there is no advantage, direct or indirect, in
retaining any reference to measure in the sale of corn, since the
weight per bushel is no indication of nutritive value: whilst his
careful experiments enlighten the uninitiated as to the difficulty
of defining what a measure of corn is, when so much depends on
little expedients employed in the measuring.

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

These experiments are reported in great detail: the amount of
food supplied, and the percentages of nitrogen which it contained ;
the amount of the solid and liquid excrements and their nitrogen ;
the gain in live weight; the weight of each carcase, with its
fleece and tallow, and the percentages of nitrogen contained in
these; the value of the food and of the animals, being all stated
with the utmost precision.

Such details are indispensable for the proper appreciation of
the value of the results. Thus alone can it be shown that each
animal was a fair specimen and its health and comfort con-
tinuously maintained, and therefore that the results are normal.
It is not, perhaps, advisable to dwell upon those features in
sheepfeeding which have held a prominent place in the numerous
experiments already recorded in these volumes; they shall,
therefore, only be briefly noticed in subordination to other points
which have more of novelty, and as they serve to contrast the
English and French breeds of sheep. But it must not be for-
gotten that there is no royal road to knowledge; not a word is
redundant in the eighty pages of this record, written with all the
perspicuity of the best French style ; so that to condense and popu-

446 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

larize this report is a task of no little difficulty, and a thorough
insight can only be obtained by reference to the original work.

The question of the greatest novelty and importance worked
out in these pages is that of the proportion which the ansount of
nitrogen found in the excrement bears to that which has been
supplied in the food. The practical questions whether stock
should be fed on cake or guano bought; what allowance should
be made to an outgoing tenant for nitfonenoms feeding-stuffs
consumed ; the sum to be put to the credit of the cattle account
for manure made—all hinge upon this question; and we can
hardly be said to have any real knowledge on the subject. But
these considerations cannot be severed from those of diet, increase,
health, and, in a lesser degree, breed and age. Again, the
rationale of fattening stock has of late undergone a revolution.
When corn was taxed and and guano unknown, oilcake almost
alone provided the supply of nitrogen for the growth of wheat
which high prices rendered profitable. Times have changed,
but we have hardly yet got out of the ruts of custom, although
economical feeding is now on the increase, aud it finds a most
decided advocate in M. Reiset.

Again, it is interesting to contrast our sheep and their manage-
ment with the flocks of our neighbours; and we have seen that
M. Reiset discreetly took to sheep-farming rather than grazing
cattlé ; so that, with the exception of one lot of eight cows,
sheep are the subjects of his trials.

His flock is the Improved Charmois, and it has been crossed
first with Leicester rams, then with Southdown. A second
cross of Leicester and a first cross of Southdown were subjects
of these experiments. The advantages already gained are that
the animals are fattened at 21 and 24 months, instead of at 4
years of age. Picked specimens, are valued when fat at 32 francs
(AZ. 5s. 7d.). Such sheep, weighed alive when fasting, between
8 and 9 a.M., gave an average of 914]bs. When killed in, this

store condition they gave the. following percentages :-— *

The:fourquarters 0. 4.04 o0c6) «ot! oo AeeDE
DRANG TECCA sae ine goes owl tise eaaw eeteelel
Tallow SGCEE Lec co” o> ,nive errr’

When, at the end of one experiment, the sheep were killed as
fat, two carcases weighed 59:2 Ibs. and 56:3 Ibs. respectively ;
being only 45:5 and 434 per cent. respectively of the live-weight.
Even 12 prize fat sheep (first cross of Leicester), 27 months old,.
gave only these averages :-—

Ibs.
TAVO-WHID ee. os ioe ree ee
The fourquarters * 2. .'..°) (see ee aoe
Tallow: :: semrswr tee’) lL. vacuity poe eee

or, for 100 of live-weight, 51 of carcase, 13°08 of tallow.

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 447

On the other hand, when placed in the stalls, they appear to
eat only from 7 to 11 lbs. of mangold per day, with about 4 lb.
of bran and 4 1b. of straw-chaff. In general, the carcases are
worth 40 francs (or 82s.) apiece, meat being valued at 7d. per lb. ;
and their fleece (54 Ibs.) is put at 5s,

The great bulk of the sheep fatted were aged ewes, bought at
16s. apiece.

Being accustomed to sell sheep of a hardy rather than pre-
cocious race (Blackfaced Downs), the wethers, fat at 16 months,
weighing over 80 lbs., and worth, with the fleece, 3/., and the
ewes for stock 3 months later, so as to realize at least the same
value, I cannot think these French results very satisfactory ;
though | must admit that my sheep would eat twice as much
mangold, in addition to a moderate allowance of corn and cake.

The next point to consider is the food, of which on this farm
the main staple is mangold-pulp, the refuse of the distillery.
The object of one of the most careful experiments is to compare
this pulp with mangolds, raw, and steamed, only such an addition
of straw, chaff, and bran being made as was considered essential
to health. Bran and oats, either crushed or whole, with straw
(long, or cut into chaff); are the only adjuncts in general use; and
on a special trial, the addition of oats to pulp and straw given
in the rack was not found remunerative. The diet, we must
admit, must be suited to the stock that eats it.

The Waste of the Nitrogen in Food.

The first experiment recorded was made for the special pur-
pose of testing the quantity of nitrogen recovered in the manure
and in the carcase, that so the waste by the breath, &c., might
be arrived at. sale

Five sheep were selected and weighed, of which two were
slaughtered at once to determine the proportions of meat, wool,
offal, &c., at the starting-point. The three survivors were put
into a stall so floored that all the excreta could be preserved
together. The food was steamed mangolds, bran, and oats. At
first the animals lost their appetite, so that on the fifth day the
three only ate 3% lbs. of pulp and 12 Ib. of oats, and consequently
lost weight rapidly. Something was clearly amiss. Accident
pointed out a remedy ; for the sheep, when taken, after 41 days,
to the weigh-bridge, rushed forward greedily to devour some long
straw which lay in the way. The hint was taken, but the straw
supplied was cut into chaff and placed in the manger, that the
investigation of the manure might not be impeded. This first
essay under difficulties may be considered useful only as bringing

out the worth of strawasa stay to the stomach (“ lest,” or ballast,
VOL. XXIV. 2G

445 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

as M. Boussingault named it), and the excess of nitrogen in the
secretions (probably in the urine) which any derangement in
health occasions. The whole trial is divided into four periods :
the first, of 41 days, represents failure; the second (32 days)
the rally; the third (72 days) continuous progress; the fourth
(18 days in May) gave a hint toconclude. After the first period
the third sheep was drafted, being sick and maltreated by the
others.

In the third period, the course of events was uniform and
steady ; it therefore offers the surest basis for general conclusions.
The two sheep ate regularly per day of steamed mangolds at
first 9 Ibs., but soon 11 lbs.; bran 2-2 lbs.; oats 2-2 Ibs.;
of straw-chaff a ration, which decreased from 1? Ib. to 1 Ib. as
the weather grew warmer. The average of food taken per head

per day was—

Ibs.
Mangold steamed <o4 jim code Ee
age cad om), wn ge cel ot ee
Brae Fe, 2 Se OS SS Roe ee

DREW Ge) sai) SaBSS
Ha aN og a | dont eee

The increase in live-weight, ascertained every week, was
steady ; they never went back. In some weeks there was an
apparent gain of 4 Ibs. per head; in a few others no apparent
gain; but the varying state of the bowels might account for such
fluctuations consistently with steady improvement. The entire
gain in live-weight amounted—

Ibs.
in dne’ sheap, ‘to! 2.) Jt oe
Tn the olier... .- 2. 0-5. ee
418
ee eee nar es is

or more than 2 lbs. per wee

The amount of the mixed manures collected daily averaged
5-23 lbs. per head, and contained -0332 of a pound of nitrogen. It
was valued at 1d.-87 per day, the nitrogen being set at nearly 6d.
per Ib., and no account taken of other constituents, which probably -
bore nearly a constant ratio to the nitrogen.

We now come to the points to be specially determined in this
trial, which it will be well to state in some detail.

The amount of nitrogen in the food was thus determined.

The nitrogen in the mangold was set at 0-160 per cent. This
was the mean of all the analyses, of which two were taken in
_ December, seven in January, and five in February.

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 449

The nitrogen in oats was (mean of 4 analyses) .. .. 1°660

at bran (mean of 6. analyses) .. .. .. 2°269

a straw (mean of all the analyses) .. .. 1°220
The total of the food consumed was—

Ibs. grammes. Tbs. grammes.

Mangold .. 772°8 351-290 containing nitrogen 1-2364 562-064
Oats 159°5 72°500 = 2°6479 1203°500 +
Bran -- 145-2 70°570 33 3°5222 1601-233
SE o,. an. ...G4-6 38°460 - 10218 469°212

$4283 3836°009

** From the 22nd of February to the 4th of May the two sheep
produced of mixed excrement 342,360 grammes (753:2 lbs.), or
on an average 4755 grammes per day (10°46 lbs.), or 2377
grammes per head (5-23 Ibs.) (The average weight of food was
8:12 Ibs. per head, of which 2¢ lbs. was dry food.)

“If in calculating the nitrogen in the excrement we take the
mean of *635 per cent., deduced from analyses made from Feb-
ruary 15 to February 21, and from May 5 to May 9, we find
that these 342,360 grammes of excrement ought to contain 2174
grammes (4° 78 Ibs.) of nitrogen.

**Each sheep, therefore, ‘Yoided 15-097 grammes (0352 lb.)
in 24 hours as excrement.

“The money value of the excrement produced in 24 hours
(2377 grammes) is 0°039 of a franc (this comes to 2d.-18 per

week), taking as a basis for our valuation the price of guano or
cake.”

; grammes. Ibs.
Since the nitrogen in the food was .. .. 38836°009 84282
And thatin the manure .. .. .. .. 2174-000 4:7828

There remains to be accounted for .. .. 1662-009 3°6454

The cost of the keep was thus estimated :—

& ad

7 ewts. of mangold, at 10s. perton, nearly .. . O 3 6
1583 lbs. of oats, at 51. 12s. per ton .. CS ce ie ee
154 lbs. of bran, at 67. 8s. per ton paneen OF-S'"'6
833 lbs. of straw, at 21. perton.. .. .. + 016
beat

The value of the manure at 4 centimes per head per? aoe ter

day comes to ... a i

Or about 21 per cent. of the cost of the food,

leaving, asachargeagainst the sheep .. .. .- O17 4

Since the increase in live-weight was 41:8 Ibs., the cost of
feeding is 4$d. per Ib. of live-weight gained.
It thus appeared that of the nitrogen contained in the food only
262

450 Experiments on the Feeding of Stoch.
56 per cent. was recovered in the manure, and that the value of the
manure was one-fifth of that of the food.

We will now pass on to the conclusion of the experiment.
May 21, when the two sheep were killed, with these results :—

Sheep No. 60. Sheep No. 67.
Tet Percentage of Fi Percentage of
Weight. Live-Weight. Weekes. Live-Weight.
Ibs. Ibs.
The four quarters 56°3 43°4 59 45°5
Tallow .. ci 12°5 9°6 19 14°7
Skin and fleece 17°6 15°5 14°5 Lier?

At the beginning of the experiment in December, No. 60
weighed 88 lbs., and, at the last, 130 lbs., an increase of nearly
42 Ibs.

No. 67 weighed at first 99 lbs., and at last 130 lbs., showing
an increase of 31 Ibs. live-weight.

If the constitution of these two sheep at the first be calculated
according to the proportions of the two sheep then slaughtered,
we shall come to the following ultimate conclusions as to their
increase,

Sheep No, 60. Sheep No. 67.
Original Original P
Proportions. Cerin Proportions. a
Ibs. lbs. lbs,

The four quarters Al*7 13°57 48°08 10°96
Fleece and skin .. 9:8 7°75 11°07 3°44
Tallow erm e.s+uuiss oo 7e 6°80 6°45 12°48
28°12 26°88

It results from these figures that No. 60 exhibits an increase of
41°8 lbs. live-weight, but only of 28 Ibs. of useful products,
whilst No. 67 gave nearly 27 lbs. of useful products to 30°8 live
increase. ‘These anomalies are probably to be explained by the
varying amount of the contents of the bowels, ,

It being assumed that this account of the increase is correct,
it becomes easy to calculate the nitrogen assimilated by the
sheep. :

Some flesh selected from the cutlet gave, on analysis, a mean
percentage of 3°35 of nitrogen. ‘The wool of No, 60 gave 9°57 per
cent.; that of No, 67, 7°94 per cent. (a remarkable difference) ;
the tallow only 32 per cent, On these data, there had been
assimilated by—

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 451

Sheep 60. Sheep 67.
Sey xd grammes,
BE SIG THOR ce. oe. loom vae~ seo eee 208 1a 9 166964
in ge Wels.) 2.) | so as) we | oe SHUEZSE 124-261
Inthetalow .. .. .. . . 9°900 18-451
Undigested contents of the stomach .. 627120 16°851
616-028 326°526

or in all 942°554 grammes of nitrogen (1-97 lbs.).

The amount of nitrogen contained in the wool deserves special
attention, not only on account of its absolute quantity, but of its
varying proportions. In the one sheep we see that half as much
again of nitrogen was assimilated in the wool as in the flesh,
while in the other and inferior animal there was less in the wool
than in the meat.

Thus, of 3072 grammes, the excess of nitrogen in the food
over that recovered in the manure, only 942°55 grammes appear
to have been assimilated, and the remainder must necessarily
have passed away by respiration and transpiration. E

M. Reiset remarks: ‘* This amount of nitrogen exhaled appears
at first sight to be large, and one might feel disposed to question
the result, but we must remember that the experiment had lasted
168 days, and that in the first period the two sheep had expe-
rienced a remarkable loss of substance, amounting to more than
13 lbs. To recover this loss, the organism had to fix a certain
amount of nitrogen, of which no account could be taken: and it
will be near the mark to assume that of these 13 lbs., 64 were
muscular tissue, containing about 105 grammes of nitrogen.
This will leave us 20:25 grammes exhaled by two sheep in 168
days, or 6 grammes per head per day for sheep fed on rich nitro-
genous food, v

““] may remind the reader that in a paper on Respiration,
published in 1849 (in the ‘ Annales de Chimie,’ &c., 3rd Series,
yol. xxyi.) by M. Regnault and myself, we show that different
animals on store keep constantly exhale nitrogen. The amount
of the gas then found to be exhaled was as considerable as that
now arrived at by the indirect process.”

The following table (see p. 452) gives the amount of food in
ibs., and the nitrogen in that food stated in French grammes, for
the four periods. The amount of the excrements is also given
below in lbs., and its nitrogen in grammes; the difference stated.

The sum of the differences throughout, calculated for two sheep,
amounts to 3072 grammes. The amount of the nitrogen reco-
vered in the food was, for the four periods, 72, 57-7, 56°67, and
A9 per cent. respectively, ©

452 Experiments on the Feeding of Stockh.

1st Period. 2nd Period. 8rd Period. 4th Period.

Food. |Nitrogen.| Food. | Nitrogen .| Food. | Nitrogen.| Food. | Nitrogen.

lbs. |grammes.} lbs. | grammes,| lbs. | grammes.| Ibs. | grammes.
Mangold ae oe | 190 aon? 290 237°5 | 772 562 1738 126
Oats bene we ee. | Lewis 59 426°5 | 159 | 12038 53 411°5
Bran E te: | Telere Etats ae ie 65 701°5 | 145 | 1601 35 376
Straw ten aes “de ap 60 346°3 85 470 2 11-5

e- | 1161 oo 1711°8 | oe 3826

Total .. o 925

Excrements .. .«. ae 835 7 986°3 | . 2174 iia 457°6

Difference (3 sheep)| .. 826 oc ae Fe 25 a3
Differencefor2sheep| -.. | 218 a 72555) | oe 1662 Ee 467°4

To leave no doubt on this point, M. Reiset renewed his direct
experiments, and found that a stock ewe expired daily 5-4
grammes of nitrogen, and a store wether 4°3 grammes.

M. Boussingault* has put on record that a horse exhaled 23
grammes, a cow 27 grammes per day, and a pig of 9 months
4-4 grammes.

M. Barral,} pursuing Boussingault’s method with three’ different
sheep for 4 or 5 days, found that they severally exhaled 2°89
grammes, 9°38 grammes, and 6:19 grammes of nitrogen in 24
hours.

M. Reiset thus sums up his experiments :—

“* Of 100 parts of nitrogen put into circulation by the food—

58°3 is recovered in the excreta.
13:7 is recovered in the meat, tallow, and skin.
28:0 is lost by respiration,

100°0”

The money value of the manure per head per day was—

’

Centimes.
AsbaRaiGdy bleeds!) deli URE BB
2nd. Rexiad., ewfadecs wei hae cowl oe
Pico eaten ee ee eee ore eee Tc)
4th Period .. . cet ushy LONG

or, on the average of the three last periods, 3°6 centimes (nearly
2d. ) per week.

The excrements contained from 67 to 85 per cent. of water.

M. Reiset does not pretend to be able to combine a scientific
experiment with the greatest possible economy of production ;,

* ‘Economie Rurale,’ 2nd edition, vol. ii. p. 883.
+ ‘Statique Chémique des Animaux’ (1850), p. 311.

Experiments on the Feeding of Stock. 453

but since he does not share the general mistrust entertained for
scientific results, he did not hesitate to apply the principles de-
duced from these trials to his general system of stall-feeding.
He rejects a forcing system of feeding which is irrespective of
the animal’s powers of assimilation. He condemns as useless
and costly the employment of corn and cake from the beginning
of the fattening process, because, before this is done,.the stock
should be well “ dallasted” with an abundance of staying cheap
food. Mangold, he says, or, better still, mangold-pulp, will
always bring on both cattle and sheep, so that a very little corn
will complete the fattening process. He points to the fact that
the animal should be ripe before it is sold, because the value of
prime meat per pound is often double that of lean inferior meat,
so that in feeding, the chief profit is often derived from the extra
value attached to the superior quality of the produce.

Value of Mangold, Steamed, Raw, or as Pulp.

To test the feeding-value of mangold-pulp, and correct the
exaggerated impression entertained by some persons of the unim-
portance of saccharine matter for feeding purposes, 3 lots, each of
9° sheep; 23 months old, the first cross of Southdown, were fed,
from November 28, 1858, to May 5, 166 days, the Ist lot on
raw mangold ; 2nd, on pulp; 3rd, on mangold steamed, with the
addition to each sheep of nearly 3 lb. of bran and $1b. of straw-
chaff. The result showed that, if mangold is valued at 10s. per
ton, pulp is worth 6s. 8d. per ton; or since a ton of mangold gives
about # of a ton of pulp, the refuse from 1 ton of mangold is
worth 5s.

In this experiment steamed mangold showed a decided advan-
tage oyer that given raw, since 59 lbs. steamed were found equi-
valent to 70 lbs. raw. i

In addition to the straw-chaff, the sheep picked a little straw
out of the rack, but the amount was insignificant.

The following table gives—

A. The total increase in live weight.

B. The total cost of the food: mangold being valued at 10s.

per ton, pulp at 6s. 8d., straw at 2/., bran at 61.

C. An estimate of the total value of the manure, arrived at by
the confinement of one sheep of each lot for 24 hours in the
cell arranged for this purpose.

D. The amount of roots or pulp consumed for the increase of
1 kilogramme of live weight.

E. The cost of that same increase.

F. The nitrogen in the food for that increase.

G. The percentage of nitrogen found in the meat.

454 Experiments on the Feeding of Stock.

| 1 Via bia Alek bind, Segrs ire E. F. G.
i | Worth of For Gain of 1] Kil. Live Weight. Per-
Lot.| Mangold. EO a centage of

Roots Cost of

Nitrogen in| Nitrogen.
Eaten. Food. ‘ood.

kil. fr. fr. kil. fr. grammes,
1 | Raw wat | 45 7Sel 72 20 70 Wee 235 | 3°61
2|Pulp.. .. | 39°9 | 61°3 29 101 80 327 3°17
3 | Steamed .. | 58°7 | 75°5 | 23 59* 89 1ST |3°%6

* 59 kilogrammes of roots took up 11 of steam,

The economical results are given in the columns D, E, F, of
which column E shows that mangold steamed, at 10s. per ton,
is nearly equal to pulp at 6s. 8d., and much superior to raw
mangold.

Column G may in some degree indicate the superior quality
of the meat made in lot 1, but the variation is chiefly due to the
greater fatness of lot 3; nevertheless, we are here reminded of
Mr. Lawes’s remarks on the degree in which meat produced by
steamed food ‘‘ boils away” when dressed.

At equal intervals in the course of the trials 10 analyses were
made both of the mangold and the pulp; the following table gives
the average results, together with the total of the nitrogen, sup-
plied in these two forms :—

Nitrogen in Percentage of | Percentage of Percentage of

Roots Consumed. Water. Dry Substance. ry boars
Kilogramme.
Mangold Rat r) ese oe 47°79 85°26 14°74 1°02

FUlps We vee tees vee 8°36 89°06 10°94 1°89

XXV.—Statistics of Live-Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption
in the Metropolis. By Ropert HERBERT. ;

Dunrina the first six months of the present year, the various
cattle markets in England were well supplied with English and
Scotch beasts in full average ‘condition ; indeed, the supplies sent
to the metropolis have scarcely been equalled since 1850, Prices,
however, have continued remarkably firm under the influence of
a steady consumption ; the stock has, with some few exceptions,
appeared tolerably free from disease, although it is understood

Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, c. 455

that numerous losses—though not above the average—have been
sustained in some of our leading grazing countries.

The extreme firmness in the value of fat stock has, of course,
had considerable influence upon the rates demanded for store
animals, which have continued unusually high—in many instances
too high to admit of profitable grazing. Taken as a whole, the
Norfolk “season” for beasts has been profitable, and, judging
from the weight and quality of the stock already sent from Lin-
colnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire, it is pretty
evident that we shall be freely, perhaps largely, supplied with
beasts during the remainder of the year, It may, however, be
doubted whether even increased supplies will much affect exist-
ing prices. Sheep have, for the most part, come to hand in
fine condition, especially from Sussex, Norfolk, and Leicester-
shire. Nearly all breeds have been in steady demand, at very
full prices—the average value of the best Downs out of the wool
having been 5s. 2d. per 8 lbs. Lambs have come forward some-
what freely, and met with a tolerably active demand at steady
rates. Calves have sold freely, considering the extent of the
supplies ; but pigs have been less in request than in the previous
season,

The following return shows the stock exhibited in the great
Metropolitan Cattle Market in the first six months :—

Total Supplies of Stock Exhibited.

Year. Beasts. Cows. peace and Lambs.| Calves. Pigs.
iChy 112,309 2682 536,790 8,420 13,240
TDR sg) oe 111,592 2917 588,758 8,878 13,096
OL 113,373 2977 668 ,702 7,272 14,869
nae) | am 114,702 2904 662,030 9,515 14,201
WS6E wwe 109,812 3005 604,650 6,560 15,952
Uy 116,735 3054 631,672 8,259 17,407
TEGC aw) oa 120,045 3005 628,072 10,449 16,435

This table shows that rather more beasts, sheep, and calves
have been disposed of during the last six months than in the two
previous years ; but if we take into account the greatly improved
condition in which they have come to hand, we shall find a very
large increase in the consumptive demand for meat. In the
numbers of stock given above, are included the supplies derived
from abroad,

The following table shows from what districts our home sup-
plies have been derived :-—

456 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat

Supply of Bullocks from various Districts.

Northern Eastern Other parts of

Year. Districts. Districts. England. Scotland. | Ireland.
DHE ras. es wg 60,500 14,490 8,860 2700
NESS 5. |, te 4,000 66,890 14,560 8,456 4820
1859... a. 4,000 7.460 19,090 10,030 2217
IED, o<- Lids 4,000 68,520 21,420 5,033 1477
rar fs. 47,000 64,060 17,700 8,712 256
aaGdVEL! 2p 400 68, 420 29,290 9,794 2545
3064 2: ie 470 66,940 16,330 9,610 1664

It appears that both Ireland and Scotland have forwarded
about average numbers of stock. The Irish beasts, however,
have come to hand in but middling condition. During the past
fifteen years the average prices have ruled as follows :—

Average Prices of Beef and Mhiton.
Per 8 lbs. to sink the Offal.

BEEF.
1849, 1850. 1851. | 1852. io
s. d. s. d. 2 Ge te wee s. d.
Inferior .2) --.* & 3 2 2 10 STO eo 2 8
Middling.. .. .. 3 10 3 6 3. 6» 1 2Se6 So 8
Brame , yale ace 4 4 4 2 4 Oo} 4.0 4 6
| 4954. | 19565, 1856. | 1857, 1858.
o:, ee So os ae Ss. Fie s. d.
Jnteriar ts | ie he 3.4 3.44 3 UW ., ee 3 0
Middlme.. .. ..| 4 0 4 4 4 0 4 0 3 10
Primew*.. | £7"... 4 10 5 0 5 0 | 5 0 4 6
1859 1860. 1861. | 1862 | 1863,
ar 8 & a %. ide Se & a
Enferior fa) © swf" as 3° 2 3 6 are 8 0 3.4
Middling.. .. .. 4 0 A 6 44 4 0 44
Prac *. = eee 5 0 5 6 5 0 48 5 0
MutTtTox
]
| 1949. | 1850 1851. | 1852 1853.
ls. & s. a. Ss, ae i ae: S: it
lnferion Alu g- as 1 Be 8 3 0 | “aye eae 3 0
Middling.. .. .. 4 0 ay 6 8 2 8 8 4 0
Prime: ase: 4 4 4 2 4 0 4 6 5 2

for Consumption in the Metropolis. 457

Mourron—continued.
1854. 1855. 1856. | 1857. 1858.
LUMA Spewiie San athe | oa yd.
Inferior: caue. 5c Sy 4 3 6 38 6 3 10 B62
Middling .. meh we 4 0 4 4 4 4 5.0 a 2
IPTG icaibecds 0c 5 0 5 0 5 4 6 0 D 2
1859 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863
is a a. Si a ie Sed. Sas
WATCTION catego ve 8 4 3 10 38 8 3.46 3 10
Middling.. .. .. 4 8 5 2 5 0 4 6 4 8
Prime Se ae 5 10 6 2 5 10 5 4 5 6

The total imports of foreign stock into London have amounted
to 120,581 head, shipped from the following ports :—

Imports of Foreign Stock.

From | Beasts. | Sheep. Lambs. Calves, Pigs.
Amsterdam .. .. wis 78 =5 x ie
Antwerp Saab oan we ae 250 ee 1,167 .
Boulogne .. .. = 27 2 34
Bremen... .. .. 589 2,118 . kia
Of See . 38 “s = a3
Calais ae . 25 = 59 _ 64
Carril G9 te 279 a ae = xe
Corunna... .. 542 “ * #3 o.
Cuxhaven .. .. se 470 a ws c
DlOrmG Ss gsc fae 568 3,805 2,192 36 ;
Dunkirk Sa, fee 6 Ac Ac Se an
Guernsey .. .«. 4 a ve a =
Hamburg .. .. 1,021 53,093 os 29 859
Harlingen .. .. 5, 864 9,812 304 683 207
LSS eeepiaee 32 os oe 8 ed
Operas iL. ok 488 re we bc
5 ori 328 43 54 352 oe
Rotterdam .. .. 6,333 14,389 4,541 9,077 99
WEP tag ine) ss 633 ws BE 44

DIAG, caase-sag TGF OL 84,113 7,093 11,445 1,229

Of the 53,000 sheep imported from Hamburg, a few have
appeared in fair condition; but at least nine-tenths have shown
very little improvement either in weight or quality. They have
made from 17s. to 29s. each. Several cargoes of stock reported
from Spain, &c., have reached the outports, and some have been
. forwarded to the London market. The comparative statement of
imports into the metropolis runs thus :—

458 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat, §c.

Imports in the First Six Months.

|
| Year. | Beasts. _| Pe Calves. |
1862 =F 11,462 49,332 9,459
1861 se” loo 22,045 46,674 6,187
1860 ee hi 17,193 76,415 7,965
1859 nae 14,453 57,830 7,619
1858 per ae 7,670 20,642 7,489
1857 i on 14,4938 30,111 9,042
1856 Sees 10,444 13,587 5,265
1855 ae Bee 18,526 19,930 8,872
1854 aaP at 22,327 38,030 9,775
1853 a iad 23 ,647 64,978 11,671

This comparison shows some remarkable results. Notwith-
standing the important rise which has taken place in the value
of meat in this country, it appears that the importations of stock
from abroad have gradually declined. For instance, in the first
six months of 1853, 23,647 beasts, and 64,978 sheep were
reported. Last year in the same period, only 11,462 beasts, and
49,332 sheep came tohand. This year we have received 16,701
of the former, and 84,113 of the latter. Thus for the present we
are rather increasing the supply, but not to an extent which is
likely to have much “influence upon prices.!

The abundance of rough fat has produced a decline in the
value of that article to 2s. 1d. per 8 lbs. This change, which
has wholly arisen from the improved condition in which the
stock has come to hand, has failed to have any depressing effect
upon the value of meat, The dead markets have been well
supplied, and a fair business has been doing, at steady rates.
In Newgate and Leadenhall, beef has sold at from 2s. 8d. to
4s. 4d.; mutton, 3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d.; lamb, 5s. to 6s. 4d.; veal,
3s. 8d. to 4s, 10d. ; ; and pork, 3s. Ad, to 5s. per 8 lbs. ss the
carcase.

The rapid increase in the foreign and colonial trade of the
country, and the great activity which an abundance of capital has
communicated to commercial enterprise, Jead to the inference
that the cattle trade will continue ina healthy state. The aggre-
gate supplies of stock in the hands of the graziers may be fully ~
equal to those of last season, and the arrivals from abroad may
be extensive; nevertheless, the enormous consumptive demand
must have the effect of keeping prices nearly or quite up to -
their present level.

4, Argyle Square, St. Pancras, London.

( 459 )

XXVI.— Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

In order to arrive at a fair estimate of the comparative number
of the Worcester entries, it has been necessary to take Leeds in
1861 as our trial year; and the result is, that we can report
progress in three out of the four departments of stock. The
sheep entries are 91 and the pig 41 in advance, and the Hereford
breeders bore up so manfully for their great white and mottle-face
interest as to more than wipe off the Yorkshire majority in the
horse classes,

Setting aside the purely Scottish and foreign entries at
Battersea, we have 1219 at Worcester (which were contributed
by 369 exhibitors) against 1595. Pursuing this comparison with
“the exceptional year,” we have 166 entries (14 of which com-
prise 11. pairs and 8 trios) against 250; 113 Hereford (including
8 pairs and 2 trios) against 97; and 50 Devon against 66. If
we then disregard, and fairly enough, the somewhat wholesale
and strictly speculative consignment of 23 Shetland ponies to
Battersea, we have 201 horses and ponies against 233,—a dimi-
nution which is more especially due to the great paucity of
Suffolk Punch entries. The very slender Ryeland reinforce-
ment did not compensate for the absence of the Kent and the
Dorset sheep, which had no special classes to tempt them ; but
it is also owing to the falling off in the Southdown, Hampshire,
Mountain, “ Lincoln, and other Long-Wools,” that we find the
sheep entries only 450, or 125 behind last year. The pig
entries were much stronger in Berkshires; but still there was a
balance against them of 38, when compared with the 194 at
Battersea, where the sows were considerably more numerous.

The experience of public judging which was then gained, and
the additional space available for the purpose, were turned to
ample account. Instead of judging them between the rows, the
cattle and the Leicester sheep were brought out into rings, and
the proceedings of the Short-horn Judges were keenly watched by
a large crowd for upwards of six hours! In order to make the
system as perfect as possible, it might be well if the “ Highly
Commended” and “Commended” cards were handed out by
Judges along with the prize ones, and fixed up at once by the
attendant. It might also be suggested that boards should be put
up to the height of 6 feet along the head of the bull-sheds, so as
effectually to prevent the spectators from teazing the bulls,—a
thoughtless practice, which is stated to have utterly ruined the
tempers of not a few for life. Placing the cattle in double rows
with such a boarded partition between them, would also tend
considerably to economise space,

460 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

Professor Simonds thus reports on the general condition of
the stock :—

“‘ The whole of the cattle were free from hereditary disease, with the excep-
tion of one in the Shorthorn and another in the Devon classes, which showed
a tendency to scrofula. I detected no congenital disease, except in one Short-
horn, which had a malformation of the testicles, but not sufficient to disqualify
him. A few had enlarged hocks, and there were a great many cases of indi-
gestion ; but the health, as a whole, was very satisfactory, and there were no
disqualifications on the ground of excessive fatness.

“ The sheep were very healthy, and there were only two cases (among the
Cotswolds) of hereditary disease. The excessive over-feeding of sheep is, how-
ever, leading to gravel deposits; and a Leicester shearling tup had to be killed
in consequence. Many of the cases of illness arose from the over use of tares
by the shepherds in attendance.

‘«* Among the pigs (which were perfectly free from hereditary disease) more
cases of false description occurred than for some years past. ‘These came
chiefly from Leeds and its neighbourhood. Some of the ten disqualifications
have evidently arisen from lack of due care on the part of the large pig-owners
in not keeping their litters sufficiently separate, and neglecting the system of
ear-marks. The substitution of entries has been so reckless, that a sow of 10
months was sent in the place of one of 26 months; and there is reason to
believe, from information received and laid before the Council, that several
frandulent entries have been made. Some of the pig-owners tore down the
Disqualification-cards ; and it was only on the threat of expulsion from the
Yard, that they were restored to their places.”

CATTLE.

The Shorthorns.—In the Shorthorn classes we missed the
familiar names of Ambler, Atherton, Dickinson, Douglas,
Gunter, Majoribanks, Stirling, and of the lamented Jonas
Webb. Still the ranks were recruited by several new exhibitors,
including the present owner of the ‘ Bolden Duchesses ;” and
Sir Antony de Rothschild, Mr. Jacob Wilson, Mr. M‘Intosh,
and Mr. R. E. Oliver took maiden honours, viz., three firsts,
a second, and two reserve numbers. The whole of the five
entries from Warlaby (four of which were shown in pairs)
were prize takers ; and Colonel Towneley had a first in the local
classes; and two seconds, three thirds, and two reserve numbers
in the far severer contests for the Society’s prizes. Some few of
the animals showed in their hair and handling that absence of
pure breeding which we should now have hardly expected to
find in a Royal Show-yard. There was also a strong and rather
universal tendency to “cushion,” which this year seemed to
extend itself to quite young calves ; but still, on the whole, there
seemed to have been less “high-pressure forcing” than usual.
“General Murat” and “Marquis Cornwallis” were the only
bulls, out of the 53 aged and two-year-old ones at Battersea, which
put in a second appearance; and those three first prize winners,
“Forth,” “ Whipper-in,” and “ First-Fruits,” did not return to
try conclusions once more. ‘“ Lord of the Harem,” the second

Report of the Stewards of Stoch at the Worcester Show. 461

prize aged bull of last year and the reserve number at Leeds,
was only shown in a “ Bull, Cow, and Offspring Class.” This
is a very popular mode of competition in Herefordshire, and
caleulated, like the gold medium medals of the Highland
Society, to give the public another sight of old favourites which
may be disqualified by having taken the first Aged Bull and
Cow prizes from again appearing in a Royal Show-yard. Thus,
Colonel Towneley at one time contemplated sending “ Royal
Butterfly ” to bear his part in one of these trios; and, as it was,
another species of local committee prize brought out Mr, Richard
Booth’s “ Queen of the Ocean,” the gold medal cow of last year.
“Pride of Southwicke,” which stood second to her in her class
at Battersea, was now the first prize cow with “ Maid of Athens”
(who there took the first heifer-in-calf prize, when ‘“ May
Morn” was disqualified) next in order. Lady Pigot has thus,
for five years in succession, taken a prize in this class,— to
wit, a third with “ Empress of Hindostan,” a third and a first
(owing to the two cows above her not qualifying) with “Second
Duchess of Gloucester,” and a second and a first with the ‘“‘ Pride
of Southwicke.” Her ladyship’s heifer-in-calf ‘‘ Rosedale,” which
was not noticed last year, turned the tables on to Mr. Booth’s
“Second Queen of the May.” ; “ Rose of Bushey,” the first prize
calf at Leeds, was uncommended in this very fine class; and
Colonel Towneley’s yearling “ Frederick’s Farewell” made such
good use of the thirteen months as to take precedence of “ Lady,”
“Claret Cup,” and “Castianira.” Two of the Judges have sent
in this Report :—

‘* We have seen a much finer class as a whole at The Royal, than the aged
bulls in Class I. ; but still there were some very creditable ones, not overloaded
with flesh, and fit for service—a remark which applies generally to the three
first classes. Mr. J. Wilson’s ‘Duke of Tyne,’ and Mr, Charlesworth’s
“General Murat’ were bulls with good quality and hair, and there was a
ee of opinion between the three Judges as to which should have first

onours,

“Class II. for two-year-old bulls was nothing very great. It was'a very
near thing, indeed, between the first. prize bull, Viscount Hill’s ‘ Hetman,’ a
very fair level bull, and Mr. Peel’s ‘Hengist.’ But for the protuberance about
‘ Hengist’s’ rumps, their relative places might have been reversed. The third-
prize bull, Mr. J. Brown’s ‘Young Radford,’ is deficient in his handling,
quarters, and thighs; and uses his hind-legs badly. The reserve-number,
Lord Feversham’s ‘ Vice-Chancellor,’ was a very useful bull, and there was
much discussion as to whether he or ‘Young Radford’ should have the third

T1Ze,
me The Yearling Bull Class II. was not good as a whole. Mr. Eastwood’s
“ Hero,’ the winner of the first prize, was a very even-made one throughout ;
and if his touch had been quite in keeping with his shape, he would have
been a very superior one. There was, however, a difference of opinion between.
the Judges as to the relative merits of him and the second-prize bull, Colonel
Towneley’s ‘ Royal Butterfly 11th,’ a stylish animal with an advantage of 10
months. The third prize, Mr. Woodward's ‘French Butterfly’s Coeur de

462 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

Lion,’ was a large growthy bull, not very even, but with great substance and
better hair and quality than any of them, besides being quite the most active
on his legs, which was a great point in his favour.

“ The first prize in Class TV. was awarded to Sir Antony de Rothschild’s
‘Captain Cherry,’ a well-grown 10-months-old calf with very good hair and
quality, but slightly weak in his back. 'Uhere was great difiiculty in deciding
on a second and third out of a lot of very small promise. ‘he second prize
was eventually given to Mr. Garne’s ‘ Pizarro,’ and the third to Mr. Robinson’s
‘Pretor, while Sir Anthony de Rothschild’s ‘ Officer’ was made the reserye-
number. ‘

“The female first-prize winners were very superior to the bulls, and the
four along with ‘ Queen of the Ocean,’ ‘ Second Queen of the May,’ ‘ Frederick’s
Farewell,’ and ‘ Lalage the 2nd,’ make’ up eight, such as we have seldom seen
together in a Show-yard. With the exception of the first-prize winner, Lady
Pigot’s ‘Pride of Southwicke,’ Class V. for cows was a very indifferent one ;
and the winner, a very stylish good cow, was fit to meet far better company.
It was, in short, ‘one first and the rest nowhere, ‘The second-prize cow,
Mr. Lane’s ‘ Maid of Athens,’ was large and patchy ; and the reserve-number,
Lord Spencer’s ‘ Veil,’ very hard and “with bad hair. ‘ Pride of Southwicke’
was shown in very beautiful condition ; but‘ Maid of Athens’ and ‘ Veil’ were
overdone.

“ In the Two-year-old Heifer Class VI., the Judges were divided in opinion
between Lady Pigot’s ‘ Rosedale’ and Mr. Booth’s ‘ Second Queen of the May ;
but the ultimate decision was in favour of ‘ Rosedale,’ a heifer of very great
substance, and, although five weeks younger, much the heaviest of the two,
but a little patchy on the back. ‘Queen of the May 2nd’ was not so well up
to the mark. Several in this class, including the first-prize winner, were very
much oyerfed. After the first two places had been awarded, there was con-
siderable difficulty in settling on a third and a reserve-number. ‘The decision
was eventually in favour of Colonel Towneley’s ‘Roan Knight’s Butterfly’ and
‘Royal Butterfly’s Duchess.’ The former, a heifer of great substance, won her
third prize at a disadvantage, as she had calved only seven days previously.
Her companion was more stylish, but too high on the leg, and rather light
beneath. Four other heifers, Mr. R. Taylor’s ‘Trinket, Mr. E. Bowley’s
‘Musical, Mr. Butler’s rich roan heifer, and Mr. Lane’s ‘ Kiss the 8rd,’ were
all highly commended, and most deservedly.

“ The first-prize yearling heifer in Class VII. was the Duke of Montrose’s
‘ Flower Girl, a very fine one in every way with large size, quality, and style,
and a very awkward one to meet. ‘The second-prize one, Colonel Towneley’s
‘ Frederick’s Farewell,’ was very good, and the pair were a long way ahead of
the third-prize one, Lady Pigot’s ‘ Castfanira.’? Colonel Towneley’s ‘ Bampton
Butterfly ’ was the reserve-number, and four others were commended. It was
like the class above it, a decidedly good one on the whole.

“In Class VIII., Mr. Macintosh’s ‘Lady Oxford 5th,’ a heifer-calf of most
undeniable symmetry and still more remarkable quality, distanced every-
thing. The second-prize winner, Mr. Oliver’s ‘ Lalage 2nd,’ was an even
clever calf, but wanting the grandeur of:the first. Colonel Towneley’s ‘ Royal
Butterfly’s Pageant,’ which was placed third, is a neat one of an objec-
tionable colour, not very growthy, and rather weak on its legs. It was a very
near thing between it and the reserve-number, Mr. Hegan’s ‘Grand Duchess
12th,’ which was, however, not so sy mmetrically made.

«The first prize for a ‘pair of cows in-milk was won very easily by Mr.
Richard Booth’s. ‘Queen of the Ocean’ and ‘Soldier’s Bride.’ ‘The Queen”
had very decidedly bettered her Battersea gold-medal form, and ‘Soldier’s
Bride’ is very drooping in her rumps, but improved in her touch, For the
three-year-old heifer-pairs, in which the first prize was won by Mr. Middle-

6

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 463

borough’s, not much can be said. The first three-year-old pair-of-heifers prize
~ was adjudged to Mr. Richard Booth for his ‘ Gracetul’ and ‘ Lady Joyful,’ two
very good heifers and not overdone. It was a good class, but won easily, and
the three pairs of roans made a most effective appearance in the ring. The
prize for the pair of yearling-heifers was as easily won by Colonel Towneley’s
‘Double Butterfly’ and ‘Perfume.’ In the bull, cow, and offspring compe-
tition, Mr. Langston’s bull ‘ Lord of the Harem’ was decidediy superior to
Mr. Stratton’s ‘Knight of Lagan,’ but the goodness of ‘ Lady Hinda’ and her
* Knight of Lagan’ calf turned the scale.”

The third Judge, who was obliged to leave Worcester before
he could meet his colleagues and draw out his Report, writes
thus:— ,

“ Butts—Class I.—‘ Duke of Tyne’ had a fine frame, with good flesh; but
did not cover well along his back and loins. ‘General Murat,’ when out, did
not carry himself well, and was also too high on the leg.

“ Class Il.—‘ Hemlock,’ a very level useful bull, not in condition, and would
have been better if his frame had been larger. ‘Hengist,” a bull of large
frame and great substance,—a very useful animal. ‘Royal Butterfly 10th,’ a
good bull, but uses his hind legs badly.

“ Class I1I.—‘ The Hero,’ a very level nice young bull, of good size for his
age, which is only 1 year, 1 month, and 3 weeks, being 9 months younger
than ‘ Royal Butterfly 11th,’ who is also a good bull.

“ Class IV.—A large and generally good class. ‘ Captain Cherry,’ a good
young bull with excellent hair and flesh; walks and carries himself well. He
is decidedly the best bull in his class, but I much doubt whether he will train
on or show so well another year, as his back already shows signs of giving
way. ‘Pizarro’ has flat sides. ‘ Pretor’ is a young bull of considerable pro-
mise, with excellent hair and flesh. This I consider to be the best class
amongst the bulls. There were several animals of considerable promise in it,
but none sufficiently good to induce me to hope that they will eventually
‘become first-rate old bulls.

“ Cows—Class V.—‘ Pride of Southwicke,’ a well-known and very excellent
cow. ‘Maid of Athens, an indifferently good cow, which would have been
beaten by ‘ Veil,’ had the latter been better in hand, a point in which she was
yery deficient. With the exception of ‘ Pride of Southwicke,’ they were a very
bad class.

“ Class VI.—‘ Rosedale, a very excellent heifer with fine frame and good
flesh. ‘Second Queen of the May’ is also an excellent heifer, inferior to ‘ Rose-
dale,’ but far superior to the rest of her class. ‘ Roan Knight's Butterfly’ is a
heifer with fine level fore-quarters, but narrow in the twist. A good class.

“Class VII.—‘ Flower Girl,’ a very fine level heifer of good quality.
* Frederick’s Farewell’ also a fine and good heifer. ‘Castianira’ inferior to
the above, and rather deficient in quality. A good class.

“ Class VIII.—‘ Lady Oxford 5th,” a very excellent heifer, and of great
promise, quality first-rate, with very good hair. ‘ Lalage the 2nd,’ a good
level heifer. ‘Royal Butterfly’s Pageant? a good heifer. ‘Grand Duchess
12th’ is at present, perhaps, a little inferior to the above, but of great
prontise.

* Locan Prizes.—Two good cows, but very fat; one of them a well-known
and very superior cow.

“J may remark that the heifers generally were very good ; probably few
better animals have éver been exhibited than those which gained the first prize
in each class. I regret that the cow-class was not better filled ; but there are
few better cows than ‘ Pride of Southwicke’ or ‘ Queen of the Ocean.’ ”

VOL. XXIV. 2

464 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

Herefords.—It is worthy of note, in the Hereford classes, that
the late Lord Berwick’s blood, which was so highly successful
last year, only won a second in the Bull-Calf class. ‘The Mon-
aughty herd blood of Sir Benjamin had, on the contrary, a great
run of luck, with four firsts and three seconds. It is also rather
a curious coincidence that the first and second winners in the
Aged Bull class should have been both by “Sir Benjamin,” and
both bred by Mr. Thomas Rea, of Westonbury ; and those in the
two-year-old class both by ‘ Carlisle,” and both bred by Lord
Bateman. Mr. Richard Hill did not send ‘ Milton,” his gold
medal bull of last year; and “ Theora,” the first heifer-in-calf at
Battersea, was entered, but did not compete in the Cow class.
Mr. W. Perry’s first prize cow “ Beauty” was the first yearling
heifer at Leeds. ‘‘ Adela,” the first prize calf at Leeds, as well
as the first prize yearling heifer at Battersea, was only a reserve
number ; while “ Adelina,” her half-sister, and the first prize calf
at the latter Meeting, was not even mentioned. ‘‘ Battersea” had
also to succumb to “* Adforton,” who was third to him in the Bull-
Calf class of last year. The victory of the octogenarian blind
breeder Mr. John Monkhouse, of The Stow, near Hereford, with
his first prize yearling heifer ‘ Clementine,” deserves more than
a bare mention in the list of awards, as he is nearly if not the
oldest living exhibitor at the Society's Meetings.

One of the Judges reports as follows on behalf of himself and

his colleagues :—

““ The Old Bulls (Class TX.) were short in number, but a good class. The
first prize was awarded to Mr. J. H. Arkwright for his ‘Sir Oliver the Second,’
with firm flesh, great size, and very fair form; and the second to Mr. T. Davies,
for ‘ Plato,’ a bull of better quality than the first prize, but with one or two
points about him a little deficient. Both these were bred in the herd of Mr.
Rea of Westonbury, which has long been noted for combining great size with
good quality.

“ Class X. contained avery good lot indeed of bulls, and we had some trouble
to select the winners from them. ‘he first prize went to Mr. W. Taylor, for
‘Tambarine, bred by Lord Bateman, an animal of size, substance, and quality ;
and the second to Mr. W. C. Morris, for his ‘Moderator, also bred by Lord
Bateman, a bull with a good back and fine length, but not the style and quality
of the first-prize one. The third prize was awarded to Mr. H. R. Evans’s
‘Rodney,’ a compact bull whose colour was good, but whose hair prevented
him from being placed any higher. ‘ Victory,’ shown by Mr. Duckham, had
rare hind-quarters, but was deficient forward, which prevented his being
noticed. ‘I'his was indeed a good class.

“* Class XI. contained 15 yearling bulls, and among them many of the cracks
of the last season. ‘The first prize was given to ‘ Adforton,’ bred by Mr. Tudge
and shown by Mr. Edwards. He was of fair size, great substance, and a credit
to the herd, ‘The second-prize bull was Mr. Baldwin’s ‘ Battersea,’ the prize-
calf of last season, and expected by many to be at the head of the class ; but
he has trained off, and is certainly not so good a bull as We hoped to have seen
him. The third prize was given to Mr. li. Tanner, junior’s, nice hind-quartered
bull ‘ Ballarat,’ whose shoulders were far from what they ought to have been,

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 465

or he would have been better liked. A very good class indeed, and with the
most merit of any.

“ Class XII.—Bull calves, and a rare lot too. First prize to Mr. Roberts,
for a very nice one, with plenty of hair and quality, but perhaps not quite so
good a back as the second-prize one: but such thighs for a young one as are
not often seen, with just the style and character which a Hereford calf ought
to have. The second prize went to a nice young bull, Mr. R. H. Capper’s
‘ Worcester) with a rare back, but not the quality of the first prize. Mr. E.
Wright’s ‘ David’ and ‘ Lion’ got the third prize and the highly commended
card. They were a nice pair, and could hardly be parted. ,

“The Cows (Class XIII.) were a grand lot. The first prize was given to
Mr. Perry of Cholstrey, for a ‘ Beauty,’ and a type of what a Hereford ought
to be, with a calf of a few days old by her side. She went to the fore, and soon
distanced all competitors. Still, she was well supported by ‘ Kate,’ another
good one of Mr. Rea’s, for second prize ; and Mr. Duckham’s 83-year-old cow,
* Delight,’ of famous size, excellent quality, and not loaded with flesh, showed
in good form and breeding condition. I must commend the owners of these
animals for resisting the temptation to make them any fatter. ‘There were
some more good animals in this class, but those placed and named were quite
ahead of the rest.

“ Class XIV.—The first prize was awarded to Mr. W. Tudge for a thick,
small heifer, ‘ Lady Ashford,’ with not a nice forehand, but the most per-
fect in her class; and the second to Mr. Pitt, for a nice heifer of her sort,
but not good in her colour, and her touch hardly what it should be. General
Wood's highly-commended heifer, ‘ Adela,’ has splendid hind-quarters, and is
likely to do some good in a herd, if put to the right sort of bull. Mr. T.
Thomas's ‘ Laura’ and Mr. J. Williams’s ‘ Duchess’ were passed over, princi-
pally on account of being too fat for breeding, and more fit for the shambles.
One of them, a prize-heifer last year, was completely spoiled by overfeeding ;
and it is to be hoped that her owner will give up this practice.

“Class XV. were a nice lot of yearling-heifers; old Mr. Monkhouse going
ahead of all the rest with his ‘ Clementine,’ a heifer of good size, substance, and
quality of the right sort. She was backed up by a thick one of Mr. Roberts’s,
‘Second Duchess of Bedford ;’ perhaps the most complete of the two, but never
likely to make so good a cow. Mr. William Perry got the third prize for ‘ Lady
Duppa,’ as true in form as anything in the classes, but not quite right in her
hair, and too small to be placed higher. The Hon. T. H. Noel Hill's good
heifer, ‘ Petunia,’ was highly*commended.

“Class XVI—Mr. Roberts had the first prize for ‘Miss Hastings the
Second,’ a useful calfand no more. The second was awarded to Mr. Knight’s
grey calf, ‘Lady Jane Grey,’ a very nice little thing. This was the weakest
class in the lot.”

The Devons.—These classes fell off sadly in point of numbers.
The names of Davy, Halse, and Quartly did not appear once
among the entries, and Merson only once. The classes were
indebted for just a tenth of their numbers to the Royal Norfolk
Farm, where the yearling bull-calf ‘« Prince Alfred ” (the solitary
instance in the three leading cattle classes of a first prize
winner of last year holding its position) and “Rose of Den-
mark,” the first prize heifer calf, were both bred. The first
prize cow, “ Rachel,” bred by Lord Portman, stood third at
Battersea. Mr. George Turner made eight entries, and his blood
won two firsts and two seconds. “ Viscount,’ who now girths

2H 2

466 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

7 feet 10 inches, and took first prizes both at Leeds and Battersea;
just failed to complete his honours. ;
One of the Judges thus reviews the classes :—

** Class XVII. (Aged bulls.)—There was not one first-class animal in this
class. The first-prize one, Mr. 8. Newbery’s ‘Prince Jerome,’ was rather a
nice bull, with very good quality, but not a good head. The second-prize bull,
Mr. W. Farthing’s ‘ Viscount,’ was a very deep-fleshed bull, but had not the
character of a true North Devon, although a very useful one to get steers.

“* Class XVIII.—Only two entries, and although we did not like to with-
hold the prizes, we considered both the young bulls, Mr. J. S. Surman’s ‘ Van
Tromp’ and Mr. J. Merson’s ‘ Fusilier,’ very inferior animals.

“ Class XIX. a better class, and containing several yearling-bulls of con-
siderable merit, especially General Hood’s ‘ ‘Prince Alfred” He’ is a most
promising young bull, and won the first calf-prize at Battersea last year.

“ Class XX.—Nothing very choice among these bull-calves; but it is a
difficult age tojudge. The class, which was headed by Mr. George Turner’s
‘The Drone,’ was by no means so good as at Battersea.

“‘ Class XXI. a remarkably good class, with many cows of great merit, and
not one bad one among them. The first prize was awarded to Mr. J. A.
Smith’s ‘Rachel, one of the best specimens of the true North Devon that I
ever saw, and in my opinion the best animal in the Show-yard. The second-
prize cow, Mr. W. Fartbing’s ‘Cheerful,’ was a very heavy deep-fleshed cow,
and a very good one indeed. There were 4 high commendations, and the class
was generally commended.

“ Class XX1I.—There was only one good heifer in this class, Mr. C. Ham-
bro’s ‘ Lina,’ which took the first prize. She was a remarkably good specimen,
but all the others were below mediocrity.

“Class XXIII.— Nothing very choice, but the first and second prize
yearlings, Mr. J. W. Buller’s heifer and Mr. G. Turner’s ‘ Devoniensis, were
rather promising.

* Class XXIV. was a good class; the first and second prize calves, General
Hood’s ‘ Rose of Denmark’ and Mr. George Turner’s ‘ Lady Audley,’ were very
good, and it was a very near race between them. Several others were very
promising, and two were highly commended.

“To sum up. It was a very good show of Devons, considering that three
of the most important breeders, viz. the two Quartlys and James Davy, did
not exhibit a single animal. The bull-classes were decidedly inferior to the
female ones.”

Sussex and other Established Breeds—Last year 30 Sussex
cattle were sent by 11 owners to compete for the 802, whereas
now only 14 came to Worcester from 5 different herds. In fact,
so scanty were the entries that two second prizes were not claimed
at all. The Messrs, J. and A. Heasman, who have consistently
supported these classes, took three firsts and two seconds. The
aged bulls in the *‘ other Established Breeds ” were placed thus :—

«“ Melcombe ” (the first prize long-horn yearling at Battersea), a

Welsh bull, a Jersey, and a Suffolk. In the Yearling Bull
classes, the first prize was given to a Suffolk over a Jersey ; and
in the three female classes, with the exception of a third toa
Jersey, all the prizes and the reserve numbers went to Norfolks
and Suffolks, the property of Lord Sondes, Sir Edward Kerrison,
and Sir Willoughby Jones. Although the Suffolks this year had

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 467

no special 80/. in prizes, the entries of them amounted to 22, or
only 5 less than at Battersea. Hence their claim to form a
separate class is quite equal to that of Sussex. One of the Judges
thus reports on these classes :—

“The Sussex cattle were badly represented ; for although the Society offered
ten prizes, amounting to 75/., in five classes, there were only 13 animals, viz.,
5 bulls, 4 cows, and 4 heifers exhibited. The bulls were deficient in form and
quality ; but the cows and heifers indicated that more care had been shown in
the selection and management of them, and their milking points were very
apparent. It is much to be regretted that more attention is not paid to form
and quality dn the selection of Sussex bulls; but the coarse shoulders and the
hard thick skin of the working ox seem to be the chief merits in the eyes of
many. Some of the animals exhibited showed decided indications of the use
of Devon blood. This may do good, if properly managed; but great care
should be taken that in attempting to obtain more flesh at an early age, this
breed, so useful for its own district, be not deprived of its milking qualities
and its hardy constitution.

“ Other Established Breeds:x—Under this head the Society offered 14 prizes,
amounting to 75/., and 4 silver medals.. The Judges had great difficulty in
making their award in some of the classes, in consequence of the various breeds
entered for competition being not only dissimilar in character, but specially
adapted to different climates and soils. I annex a tabular statement of the
number of the several breeds exhibited in each class in this department :—

30 31 32 33. | 34, | Total
Norfolks .. 2 1 4 2 4 13
Suffolks .. 2 0 1 2 4 9
Longhorns .. 2 0 0 0 0 2
Welsh .. 1 0 3 I 0. ys
Jersey .. 2 2 5 4 by 14
Guernsey 1 1 3 4 0 9
Breton... .. 1 2 7 7 1 18
Ayrshire Oi 8 0 3 0 3*

11 6 23 23 10 73

«The two Longhorns were moderate specimens of that almost extinct breed.
The Pembrokes were the only Welsh cattle exhibited, and the cows possessed
size, constitution, and good milking points. The Polled Norfolks were ex-
hibited in good form and condition, evidently showing that more attention is
now being paid to their feeding properties and early maturity ; but some of
them appeared deficient in milking points, and there are traces of this breed
having been crossed with the Poll Angus at no very distant period. The
Suffolks were generally good; their milking characteristics were very con-
spicuous, and No. 334, the nine-year-old ‘ Duchess of Suffolk,’ belonging to
Sir Edward Kerrison, was a grand specimen of what a cow should be. The
three Ayrshire cows were not fair types of that useful breed for dairy purposes.
The Jerseys (commonly called Alderneys) were not generally good specimens
of that valuable breed for the production of butter, most of them having been

* There were also a bull and cow of each of these breeds in the extra classes.

468 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

sent there for sale. There were, however, a few exceptions. No. 322, a grey
bull, ‘St. Helier,’ exhibited by Mr. Dumbrell, of Ditchling, Sussex, was of beau-
tiful form and character ; and so was No. 352, the cow ‘ Lav ender,’ belonging to
the same gentleman. Nos. 368 and 369, Mons. Albert le Gallais’ heifers in-
calf, ‘ Jersey Lass’ and ‘ Daisy,’ possessed most of the points which are con-
sidered requisite for the production of butter. The Guernseys were few in
number, and require no particular remark; but No. 389, Mr. Richard Cowan’s
cow, ‘ Annie,’ was a good specimen of the breed. The Bretons are very small
and so unfit for general use, that they can only be looked upon as ‘ pets’ for
small enclosures. There was, however, one exception, No. 347, the Rev.
J. H. Gandy’s ‘ Battersea,’ a cow in miniature, possessing great milking points,
with superior form and quality of flesh.

“Tt will in my judgment be very desirable for this Society to have separate
classes for milk-producing breeds of cattle, and especially for the breeds of the
Channel Islands, which are becoming much sought after and appreciated.”

Horses.

The horse-ring parades were again an immense attraction at
11 and 3 each day, and the boxes were remarkably complete
and good. Fourteen blood sires were entered for the 1002.
prize, and, for the first time, the whole class was highly com-
mended. The Judges acted on the sound principle that “ action
carries weight,” when they added “ Neville” to the list of the
Society’s thoroughbred winners, which contains, within the last
ten years, the names of “ Loutherberg,” ‘Royal Ravenhill,”
“British Yeoman,” “Hobbie Noble,” “Spencer,” “ Hunting
Horn,” “ Dagobert,” “ Nutbourne,” and « Ellington.” There were
no less than 21 entries for the hunting sire prize, but many of
them were so crossbred and unsuitable for the purpose that it
might be well to consider whether any horse should be eligible
to compete which has not at least three thoroughbred crossés in
his pedigree. A more stringent rule might exclude some very
valuable hunter-getters. If a thoroughbred qualification had
been insisted on in this class, it would have barred “ Elcott”
(who is within an ace of being thoroughbred), and “ Safeguard,”
the very clever third prize horse as well. ‘Sir Peter Laurie,” the
first in this class, was a great winner over the Worcester, Chel-
tenham, and other steeple-chase countries in his day, and second
to “Hunting Horn” for the original thoroughbred prize at
Warwick. Some of the class appeared to be orthodox coachers,
and others between a coacher and a Norfolk cob.

The generally commended Hunters’ class was a very great
improvement upon Battersea, and was won by Mr. John Booth’s
five-year-old “ Beechwood” (by a son of “ Launcelot”), who
was then the reserved number. He has “gone on” wonderfully
since, and has become a most successful winner at Hunter
shows. The mare which took the second prize was by “ Ted-
dington ;” and her half-brother by “ Charles XII.,” and a chesnut

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 469

gelding by “Hereford,” from a Steamer mare, were highly com-
mended. ‘Equal to 15 stone with hounds” was rather a high
standard, and a few of the candidates looked as if they would
have not got very near the hounds under it with an afternoon
fox. The 14 entries of hunter brood mares were 4 in advance of
last year, but not so good as we hoped to find them ; and ‘‘ Tom
Sayers” was nearly as great a feature of the pony sires under 14
hands as his sire “ Highland Laddie” was at Chester, or old
“ Bobby ” at Battersea.
The Judges for thoroughbred sires have reported thus :—

“Class XXXV., for Thorough-bred Sires, may be considered the best that
the Society have had. The first and second prizes were awarded to ‘ Neville’
and ‘ Cavendish, animals well calculated to answer the purpose for which the
prize is offered.

“Tn Class XXXVI, for Hunter Sires, the Judges experienced some difficulty,
owing to the mixture of hunters and hacks, and they consider that the former
plan of dividing these horses into two classes is preferable. The first and second
prize horses in this class, ‘ Sir Peter Laurie’ and ‘ Elcott,’ were well calculated
to get hunters, and the third prize, ‘Safeguard,’ was a good specimen of a
hunter himself.

“Tn Class XX XVII., for Hunter Brood Mares, no animal, with the exception
of the first prize, Mr. John Watson’s ‘ Lalage,’ was quite well enough bred to
merit any high encomium.

“ In Class XX XVIII., for Hackney Brood Mares, the first prize was awarded
to Mr. H. Percy’s ‘ Crafty,’ a very clever hack, and a true type of her class.
Mr. Samuel Walker’s ‘ Polly’ was next; but the class was very short.

“Class CII., for ‘Hunters exceeding Four Years-old, and equal to Fifteen
Stone with Hounds,’ was very strong in numbers, and contained many animals
ef considerable merit. The first prize, ‘ Beechwood,’ was equal to great weight ;
the second and the highly commended were animals possessing much quality
and style. The whole class was very satisfactory, and much better than we
have ever seen, except at Leeds.”

One of the Judges further observes :—

“ “Neville’ is the best mover I almost ever saw in my life; he has the
greatest freedom of action, and steps the truest. With this he combines really
good hind-leg action, and withal his body is quite still—no rolling about, and
his every movement is graceful and easy. He has had an enlargement under
the jowl and at the side of his neck, unluckily on the near side, which makes
his head and neck look coarse at first sight to a casual observer, but by ajudge
the defect is at once seen and forgiven. He only wants rather bigger fore-legs
to be all you require in a horse to get hunters, being long and low, with big
girth, action, quality, and size enough for anything. ‘Cavendish’ was a nice
fresh wholesome-looking horse, but with neither the action or well-formed
fore-legs of ‘ Neville ;’ but still he is a very useful horse and likely to get

stock. ‘Cambondo’ had better formed and bigger limbs than either,
but he is light in his back ribs and irritable in his temper. Altogether the
blood stallions exhibited were an improvement on former years.

“The Hunters were more numerous and better-looking than] ever saw them
at any previous meeting: the only thing wanting was a little more power. The
quality and shape of most in this class was very good. The brood mares, on
the whole, were not good.

“‘HACKNEYS AND PontEes.—The Judges are of opinion that Class CIII.
(Three Year-old Geldings or Fillies for Hunters or Carriage Horses) is a very

470 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

good one, the horses in it combining size and quality. Class CIV. (for Two
Year-old ditto) is also good, and Class CV. (for Cobs not exceeding 15 hands
or six years-old) decidedly below the average. Class XX XIX. “(for Pony
Stallions not exceeding 14 hands), though small in number, is decidedly good ;
the winner, Mr. J. Moffat’s ‘ Tom Sayers, being an excellent specimen of the
pony cob. Class XL. (for Pony Mares not exceeding 14 a is on the
whole a satisfactory one.’

Agricultural and Dray-Horses.— These classes were very
nearly equal in point of entries to those of last year, but there
were no claimants for 35/. out of the 120/. offered for the latter,
as only one mare and ‘foal came, and no two-year-old fillies.
The flower of this part of the Show was the grey “ Young John
Bull ;’ and the Judges, after trying him im every way, were
quite unable to endorse the opinion of Professor Varnell that
he was a roarer. In the Agricultural classes, the majority of
the prizes stayed in Worcestershire and the adjacent counties,
which had hardly value received for their very liberal 407. and
201. prizes for the “ best stallion (Suffolk breed only excluded) to
travel in the district.”

» The Judges report thus on the two classes :—

“ Dray Horses—Class XLV. (Stallions).—Mr. T. Johnson’s ‘ Young John
Bull’ is a very first-class animal, and we consider him well worthy of the first
prize, notwithstanding the remarks of the Veterinary Surgeon. The second-
prize taker, Mr. W. H. Neale’s ‘Prince of London,’ isa useful colt, but the
remainder are bad.

“ Class XLVI. (Two-year-old Stallions).—The first prize, Mr. C. Morrison’s
* Basildin,’ is also a useful colt.

“ Class XLVI. (Mare and Foal) only one very wwindoraterasntenil enteréd. “

“ Class XLVIII. for Two-year-old Fillies liad no entry.

** AGRICULTURAL Horses (NoT SurFoLKS).—Class XLI. a moderate class.

** Class XLII.—The first-prize colt (Mr. W. Coney’s), good; but the class
generally very moderate.

“ Class XLIII. (Mares and Foals) a poor class.

“ Class XLIV.—The first and second prize two-year-old fillies, Mr. Charles
Priday’s ‘ Flower’ and the Hon. Colonel Pennant’s ‘ Matchless Grey,’ are useful
animals, and the remainder bad.

“ Class CV. for the best Agricultural Stallion to travel in the district, only
two animals shown, and those bad.”

Suffolks.—It may have been that the owners of Suffolks did
not care to seek a county which had declared so openly against
their breed, or had taken their best specimens to Hamburg; but,
at all events, the entries féll from 62 to 20, The dispersion of the
stud of Mr. Barthropp (who acted as one of the Judges) had
its share in weakening the ranks, and we might well look-
back to the “cherry-red” treat of last year, when “ the 13 two-
year-old fillies and the 26 sires, with only one white face
amongst them, were on their parade.” Sir Edward Kerrison’s
brood mare “ Bragg” was the queen of the lot, and will be
remembered as the first prize two-year-old filly at Warwick,
The Judges thus review their labours :—

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 471

“ Class XLIX. (Stallions).—One entry and that not first-class.

“ Class L. (‘T'wo-year-old Stallions).—A fair class, but we have seen much
better.

“Class LI. (Mare and Foal)—But one shown, Sir Edward Kerrison’s
‘Bragg ; she was very good.

“ Class LIT. (Two-year-old Filly).—The first and second prize takers, Mr.
J. Ward’s ‘ Briton filly’ and Mr. W. Biddell’s ‘ May Bird,’ very good ; but the
remainder very moderate.”

Professor Varnell thus reports upon the soundness of the Horse
classes :—

“T cannot refrain from congratulating the Royal Agricultural Society of
England on the success of its efforts to exhibit horses free from diseases, and
more especially those of an hereditary nature. I find from a comparison
with the reports of the state of soundness of horses in previous years, that the
percentage of disease of this character is very much reduced. Taking the
horses as a whole, I have not been able to detect more than 6 per cent. that
are affected with diseases of a serious nature, or such as in my opinion are
liable to be transmitted to their offspring. These affections consist chiefly of
‘roaring,’ ‘ whistling,’ ophthalmia,’‘ ossified lateral cartilages,’ ‘ ringbones,’ and
‘spavins.’ Osseous deposits upon the legs, termed ‘ splints,’ are, as most likely
they always will be, much more numerous than the other affections alluded
to; but, nevertheless, they are of minor importance. A tendency to certain
affections, such as ‘curbs,’ thickened tendons and ligaments, arising from
defective conformation, exist in a few instances; while lesions of an analogous
kind, together with bursal diseases of the joint (chiefly in aged horses) are
more numerous. —

“ Among the Thoroughbreds, only 2 cases of roaring were observed, and
there were only 2 horses whose limbs were affected with spavin and curb,
sufficient to disqualify them from competition. In the Hunter and Hackney
Classes, I found only 2 roarers; but diseases such as splints, spavins, and
bursal affections, were prevalent. * It is gratifying to observe that the hunters
are remarkably free from disease. No case of defective respiration was noticed,
and their legs and feet, as a rule, were very sound. In the Agricultural Stallion
Classes, I detected only 1 roarer ; and although cases of ossified lateral carti-
lages, flat fore-feet, and bursal diseases of the hock-joints existed, still they
seem not very numerous. Among the Dray Stallions there was only 1 case of
roaring, and with the exception of 2 or 8 cases of flat feet (a tendency which
it is highly desirable to get rid of by careful selection both of sire and dam),
these horses are free from disease of an hereditary nature. The Suffolk
stallions are also very free from disease, and their feet, to which objections
have been rajsed on former occasions, are very good. I would, however, direct
the attention of breeders to the smallness of the fore-legs of these horses below
the knee. With reference to the Ponies, their exemption generally from disease
of an hereditary nature renders it unnecessary that I should further allude to
them. I may be permitted, howevem to express my opinion that the absence
of disease as affecting the horses exhibited at the Society’s Meeting, during the
last year or two, and this’year in particular, is in a great measure to be attri-
buted to the examinations instituted bya local Veterinary Surgeon previous to
their being admitted into the Show-yard; and I feel persuaded that if this
system is encouraged, still greater improvements will be effected. Several
cases of colic took place among the Cart-horses, owing, I have no doubt, to
the large amount of tares that are given to them. I would suggest to the
Society, that the quantity allowed to each horse daily should be reduced on
future occasions.”

s

472 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

SHEEP AND Pics.
Mr. Dent, the Steward for this department, reports as follows:—

“ Worcester may be fairly congratulated on having had not only
a very numerous but a very excellent show of sheep. I expected
to see the Shropshires, the Cotswolds, and the Oxford Downs in
force so near their special] localities ; but we had also both Lei-
cester and Southdown classes very numerously filled, and of more
than average excellence. And first, a few words as to public
judging. Several rings, of good size and easy access, were pro-
vided, into which it had been intended that every sheep should
be brought to the Judges, who would thus have been quite
separated from the public; but the numerous entries in several
classes—as, for instance, 53 Cotswold, 61 Shropshire, 44 Lei-
cester, and 88 Oxford Down shearling rams—rendered . this
almost impossible, unless a very much greater staff of labourers
were employed; and in most cases the Judges preferred exa-
mining the sheep in the pens, and then selecting certain animals
for the ring. There were, however, owners of. sheep whose
eagerness could not be repressed, and it is quite impossible for
the Steward of Stock and his assistant to be present with each set
of Judges. Could the plan be pursued of bringing out every
sheep into the ring, and keeping the Judges there until their
decision has been made, I should like it better ; but this would
require a very great staff.of labourers, for there were at one time
177 shearling sheep being judged by four different sets of Judges.
To bring the pigs into a ring would be impossible, for some of
them could not even walk from their crates to their pens; and
their state of fatness, and consequent immobility, would have
been ludicrous, were it not distressing to the animal and a positive
injury to its breeding capacity. It was certainly absurd to see a
man sitting beside his pig, and holding up its head to enable it
to take its supper. d

“The more I saw of the Show, the more I felt that the
Society should try to grapple with the shearing question. It was
suggested to me that the Judges should have power to order any
particular sheep, whose shape might puzzle them, to be shorn, in
order to see whether the carcase corresponded with the symmetri-
cal outside ; but this would, I fear, very much lengthen the pro-
ceedings. This year was the first in which I was admitted to
the mysteries of the toilette of the sheep, and certainly no young
lady going to a Drawing-Room could have more pains bestowed
on her than had some of the rams. The clipping and trim-
ming during Friday and Saturday was incessant, and resulted
in some charming models of symmetry. How far the carcase

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 473

would correspond with its outer garment better judges than my-
self can decide; but, whilst fat overloads and injures our short-
horns and other horned stock on the one hand, on the other the
sheep has not only fat but wool of an indefinite age to disguise
his deficiencies and to heighten his graces. I should think that
many of the sheep had never been truly and fairly shorn, and
this was more especially the case, as it seemed to me, in the
Oxfordshire Down classes: and I could not help regretting that
the close-shorn, well-framed sheep of Mr. Charles Howard were
not thought good enough for a prize. This delusive shearing
belongs more or less to every class, many of the Cotswolds and
Shropshires being glaringly conspicuous. The Shropshire and
Oxfordshire Downs, though thoroughly useful sheep, have not
got that degree of uniformity which makes judging easy, and
until there is more fixity of type complaints are sure to arise
as to judging. The Judges, on the present occasion, seem to
have gone mainly for size, and, I was assured by some Shrop-
shire breeders, had mistaken the type. Among the Oxfordshire
Downs there was still more variety of appearance.

“In the Leicester Aged class, I could not help rejoicing to
see the blood of the late Sir Tatton Sykes holding its own, as the
first prize sheep was by a ram bred by him. ‘The local prizes
did not produce much competition, although some of the moun-
tain sheep were very good. Mr. Peel’s pen of Lonk shearlings
was especially so. Looking to the great extent of mountain-
ranges fitted for sheep, I think the Society should do more
towards the improvement of this breed; and I trust that New-
castle may show us what the Cheviots can do in competition
with other mountain sheep. But certainly, if the Lonks be as
hardy as they are good, they must be the most valuable sheep for
the hills that we have at present. Sheep which at 14 months
old will clip 10 Ibs. of wool, and which are also full of good
mutton when fat, are dangerous competitors for the Southdowns
and other lowland breeds. The above clip only applies to sheep
like the Show sheep. The average clip of Mr. Peel’s flock this
year was 6 lbs., sold at 50s. the tod, and the breeding ewes and
shearling rams ran on the hill-side pastures as they liked. His
prize shearlings at Battersea clipped over 10 lbs. of wool each.
The wether lambs of this year made 15s. each in the middle of
June. In the prize pen are twin sisters, and perhaps the finest
of the lot, to usé the shepherd’s phrase, is “a twin of three,” the
two brothers having been sold as tups. No doubt the mountain
sheep in the Show-yard have had their share of the good things
of this life, and probably done as well as the successful sheep of
a noble lord, who told me that his sheep had ‘everything they
wanted—mutton-chops, if they liked.’ But, however well kept,
Lonks are, I think, a class of sheep which may very much im-

474 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Shon.
prove both the Scotch and Welsh breeds, and considerably

increase the value of the mountain-ranges or sheep-walks.

“In the Pig classes, I regret to say that the Veterinary Pro-
fessor had good reason to believe that attempts were made to
obtain the prizes of the Society by illegitimate means, and that
the state of dentition of many animals but little corresponded
with their professed age. The conduct of certain disappointed
exhibitors in removing the notices of disqualification which had
been affixed to their pens, may render it necessary for the Council
to adopt severe measures to prevent their Stewards being set at
defiance. There is too good reason to suppose that the men who
rendered themselves conspicuous by their impertinence in these
cases were well aware of the erroneous description of their pigs,
and only anxious to secure a market for their animals.”

Leicesters—The 72 entries of Leicesters were 1 short of last
year, but decidedly superior both in wool and substance. Mr,
Borton was in great force with his rams, and his third prize one
was Mr, Sanday’s third prize shearling at Battersea, where Mr,
Borton did not exhibit. Lieat.-Colonel Inge took the other two
firsts with the blood of Mr. Sanday, who was second and third
to him in both instances. With the Worcester Meeting Mr,
Sanday’s career closes as a breeder and exhibitor in this class of
sheep. He commenced at Northampton in 1847, and took a
first for shearling ewes. In 1856 and 1858 he did not exhibit at
all, and in 1854 there were no prizes. Although he has not
always exhibited in every class, he has won during those fourteen
years 8 firsts, 9 seconds, and 6 thirds for shearlings ; 7 firsts,
8 seconds, and 4 thirds for old rams; and 11 rath 10 seconds,
and 1 third for shearling ewes ; besides 18 “highly commended”
and 15 “ commended. »” In five of these years he gained all the
first prizes.

The Judges have sent in this Report on the classes :—

* Class LIIT. (Shearling Rams).—A very good class.

“Class LIV. (Rams of any other age). —An average class, with some very
superior sheep.

“ Class LV. (Shearling Ewes).—A very superior class, and some of the
pens the best we have seen for some years.’

The Cotswolds numbered 82, or 8 fewer than last year. Mr.
Robert Garne, who won nothing at Battersea, had all the three
shearling honours to himself in a-class of 53 (in which nothing
but the. prize takers were mentioned), as well as the third prize
for ewes and the first prize for rams in a class which was “ gene=
rally highly commended.” Mr, William Garne, who was first
with his shearling in 1862, got no prize; and Mr. William
Lane, who had 2 firsts, a second, and 2 thirds on the same occa-
sion, took only a second prize. Such are the uncertainties of
the Show-yard! The first prize shearling was rather better in

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 475

his girth than the second, which had, perhaps, as good a fleece
and more of the old Cotswold blue face, with ears nicely set and
a very characteristic eye. Mr. Beale Browne was second in the
splendid class of 18 rams; and Mr. E. Handy (who was second
in the Shearling Ram class of last year) took third honours again,
The shearling ewes were like the shearling rams, not so large as
we have seenthem. Mr. Fletcher’s first pen were very ‘‘ mouldy,”
but hardly big enough; and the second (Mr. W. Lane’s) larger,
but less correct in form.

Lincolns and other Long Wools-—This class, which was divided
into two at Battersea, with separate prizes, was now united again,
and sank, owing, in a measure, to the absence of the West Dere-
hams of Mr. Hugh Aylmer (who officiated as one of the Judges)
from 50 to 33. Two firsts and a second in the Ram classes
went to Mr. Lynn (who won all three shearling prizes last year)
with his Lincoln-Leicesters: ‘“ Battersea Royal,” his first, prizé
shearling being his first prize ram at Worcester. ‘These sheep
were not too fine, and had been very carefully bred, so as to
unite the form and quality of the Leicester with the size of the
Lincoln, The winning pens of shearling ewes were all Lincolns ;
but they were, not very remarkable, as this breed leaves its great
value on the clipping-boards, and cannot be got up well before
September. The 33 entries were made up of 19 Lincolns (pre-
cisely the same number as at Battersea), 13 Lincoln-Leicester,
and 1 Cotswold-Leicester. :

The Oxfordshire Downs entries (60) were only 2 below last
year. Mr. Charles Gillett, who then won all the first prizes as
well as the second and third for shearling rams, was now first for
the shearling ewes and second for the shearling rams. Mr. John
Bryan, who did not show at Battersea, was head in a class of
38 shearling rams; while Mr. George Wallis, who had no
Battersea mention whatever, won all the prizes for rams. The
Judges report on them as follows :—

“ Oxfordshire Downs. Classes LXII.-IV.—This very useful and paying
kind of sheep was well represented in every class. They were all good
animals, combining great size with heavy wool, good symmetry, and that
naturally thick flesh which indicates hardihood of constitution, and which the
butchers rejoice in. At present they do not as a class show that uniformity
of character which we expect to find in breeds of older date, but if the flocks of
different breeders vary in this respect, still more do the owners vary in their
treatment of the animals exhibited. While many have been fairly shorn,
others have lost only just so much wool as was necessary to cut them into
correct form. Let us hint to these exhibitors that the practice carried to such
an extent defeats its object, and has a tendency rather to prejudice the judges
against those animals which have been so preposterously treated. The sheep
are good ; they may be safely left to make their way, both with the judges and
the public, if trusted by their owners to do so on their merits.”

Southdowns,—The number of entries in this very favourite
class fell from 96 to 70: a deficiency which was principally seen

476 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

in the Shearling Ram class, which was 17 short of its last year’s
mark, Lord Walsingham, who had two seconds and a third
at Battersea, came out and swept the board, with the exception
of the second and third Shearling Ewe prizes, besides getting three
“highly commended.” In fact, nothing but the Merton flock had
any mention at all in the Shearling Ram class, The second prize
for shearling ewes went to Messrs. J. and A. Heasman. The
Throckmorton flock, which furnished the first prize pen last year,
has been sold off, and the Hove and Coleshill flocks were both
singularly unfortunate, when we remember their achievements at
Battersea. Subjoined is the Report of the Judges :—

“ Class LXV. (Shearling Rams).—The first, second, and third prizes were
won by Lord Walsingham. The first prize sheep was a very fine sheep, and
so was the second, but his head was not quite correct. The third was also a
good sheep, but not quite right in his back and shoulders. The reserve sheep
wwas also Lord Walsingham’s. It was generally a very good class, but 3
sheep were disgraceful.

“ Class LX VI. (Rams of any other age).—This was also a very good class,
and the three first prizes were awarded to his Lordship, as well as thé reserve,
and a high commendation.

“ Class LX VII. (Shearling Ewes).—This was a remarkably good class.
Lord Walsingham’s first prize pen was very uniform, aud remarkably good.
The second pen (Messrs. J. and A. Heasman’s) had very good character, and
the third pen (Mr. J. J. Farquharson’s) were of fine quality, but too delicate.
The reserve pen (Lord Radnor’s) had not quite a good touch, and the Duke of
Richmond’s, which were also highly commended, were a little lacking in
chayacter.”

The Shropshires were at the head of the poll, but still 3 below
the 95 of last year. There were 65 in the Shearling Ram class.
Here again we had a proof of the chances of war, as Mr. J. Stubbs,
who was not even commended at Battersea, now took the first
prize, beating the 1862 winner, Mr. Horton, in a class which
comprised 1 highly commended (special), 5 highly commendeds,
and 2 commendeds. Mr. Pryce W. Bowen, who was second in the
Aged Ram class last year with ‘ Patentee 4th” to Mr. T. Horley
junior’s ‘ Havelock,” was first this year with a younger sheep;
and the first shearling ewe prize awards were exactly the
counterpart of last year. Messrs. J. and E. Crane, in the first
two places, and Mr. H. Matthews in the third. The Judges
write of them thus :—

“ Suropsuires. Classes LXVIII.-LXX.—The energy which characterizes
the breeders of this valuable sort of sheep was signally manifested on this
occasion. The largest entry of all the breeds exhibited, and the closest com-
petition combine to prove how strenuously the Shropshire men are endeavour-
ing to improve their favourites, and they are proceeding in the right direction,
The sheep shown on this occasion proved, with very few exceptions, that the
owners are keeping in view the qualities which have brought them into
favour, viz. the capability of producing a great weight of good mutton when
heavily stocked upon good land. Probably no breed of sheep of equal size
will bear to lie as thickly on the ground, and the increased size which the
Shropshires on’ this occasion possessed will add to their value in public

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 477

estimation, will not diminish their power of bearing hardship, but increase
their marketable value. Without particularising the winners, we may point
- to the prize sheet as indicating the animals which, among a very good lot,
were specially distinguished.” ‘

HAmPsHIRE AND OTHER SHorT Woots.—Quality was needed
to make up for numbers in this class, in which the previous
winners found a very formidable rival in Mr. James Raw-
lence, who never showed in these classes except at Salisbury.
Mr. Humfrey took a first and second for shearling rams, and the
second ram prize; Mr. Rawlence getting the first in that class,
and the first, second, and highly commended (special) for his
pen of shearling ewes. The latter was a very remarkable class,
as there were only eight entries, and the four other high com-
mendations fell to those eminent prize-winning breeders, Messrs.
Shittler, S. King, W. B. Canning, and W. Humfrey. The last-
named gentleman and Mr, Rawlence were the first who set to
work in good earnest to improve the old Hampshire breed,
which originally was celebrated only for its big head, long ears,
and thin-fleshed back. The success attending their efforts has
been shown in the high prices which rams of this breed have
realised at auctions in their district for ten or twelve years back.
The judges report thus :-—

“ Classes LXXI-IIT. numerically were not strongly represented, but in
point of quality they may safely be said to be the best lot ever seen together.
The shearling rams were good, but eclipsed by the older sheep, and the
shearling ewes were most extraordinary. In neither class weré those enormous
heads and upright shoulders to be found, which formerly prevailed so much
among the Hampshire sheep. All were level in their character, form, and
wool, and in fact with such general uniformity, that they might have all come
from the same flock. Each of the non-winners in the class of shearling ewes
received, as they deserved, a high commendation.”

They then add, speaking generally of the classes which came
under their inspection :—

“ We are strongly of opinion that all these classes of sheep are in their
‘right places” The Oxfordshire Downs, bred upon land of the same character
as the Cotswold Hills, are, like the sheep from that district, of great size, and
having been thickened both in flesh and wool, and strengthened in constitution
by the mixture of Hampshire blood (which originally founded the Oxfordshire

+Down), will produce as much wool and mutton per acre as such land can be

made to grow. The Shropshires upon the rich and heavy land of the Vales
have this peculiar merit: they will stock thickly, and bear the somewhat
severe treatment which the occupiers of the strong arable lands must subject
them to, in order to produce the greatest quantity of wheat. For be it
remembered, that wheat equally with mutton and wool is kept in view.in the
treatment of animals, and no breed of sheep will bear pinching for the purpose
of preparing the land for wheat, or recover more quickly from it than the
Shropshires. ‘They are very prolific, good mothers, and soon fit for the market.
The Hampshires are also at home on their native downs, and whether their
produce are slaughtered as lambs, or sold to be wintered on better land
elsewhere, there are none in greater favour both with the butcher and con-
sumer.”

478 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show.

RYELAND AND WELSH, OR OTHER Mountain Breeps.—Only
five shearling rams and two pens of theaves were entered from
three flocks, and the two prizes were won by Mr. J. B. Downing
of Holme Lacey. His ram had very nice character and sub-
stance, good ribs and shoulders, and quite that Cotswold top-
knot which is calculated to save many a sore head from being
patched over with rag and tar. Its touch was as firm as wax,
and it stood on “two pair of fore-legs.” The breed has proved
itself hardy, and well calculated to cross with the Welsh sheep of
the district. The entries in the Mountain Breeds included six
Lancashire Lonks (to whose tap-root some of the Welshmen laid
claim), and only two Exmoors; but Mr. Jonathan Peel, with his
celebrated “ Mountain King” tribe, took everything before him.
The judges thus remark on these local classes :—

“ Class CVIL.-X.—The Ryeland sheep shown on this occasion were a very
good specimen of a breed now almost extinct, but which were formerly in
great favour in Hereford. Some of the Welsh sheep bear evidence of having
been transplanted to a better soil than that from which the veritable Welsh
mutton is supposed to come. ‘The winning Lonks were of great size, with
heavy, strong wool, and consequently vanquished the more orthodox-looking
little mountaineers opposed to them. Still we could not help thinking that
over a haunch of the latter, at the proper season, the decisions might have
been reversed, although in the show-yards they could not be so.”

Pias.—The principal feature of this part of the show was the
great advance made by the Berkshires, whose entries increased
from 39 to 51. , The head prize both in the boar and sow classes was
won last year by the late Sir R. G. Throckmorton ; and Mr. W.
Hewer and Mr. W. J. Sadler, who then took seconds in these classes
respectively, stood first this year. In the Boar Class there were
three “‘ highly commended” and three “ commended.” The Sow
Class was commended as a whole, and the third place was again
awarded to the Royal Agricultural College. The first prize for
the pen of three sows went to a new exhibitor, Mr, Joyce, of
County Waterford, whose entries were also third, and highly
commended in the boar class. Mr. Wainman showed in ten clases,
and bettered his five firsts and two seconds at Battersea, with
seven firsts, a second, and a third. His ‘ Worcester Duke, late
Albert,” ‘“ King Cube,” “The Nabob,” * Lord of the Wassail,” |
“Fresh Hope,” and a pen of young sows, entitled ‘* Advance
Symmetry,” “ Advance Quality,” and “No Surrender,” were
first prize winners. Mr. Crisp had four firsts for his sow and
boar of the small black breed, and his small white and middle
white sows. In the last-named class he beat Mr. Wainman’s-
** Lucky Link” and ‘‘ Happy Link,” which were not so fortunate
as “ Missing Link” in 1862. Suffolk’s small black boar contest
again lay between Mr, Sexton and Mr. Crisp, and with the
opposite result to last year. One of the Pig Judges thus

writes :-—

Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Worcester Show. 479

“Class LX XIV. (Boars of Large Breed) was represented by two pens only,
and neither of special merit.

. “Class LXXV. (Boars of Small White Breed)—a good class, and well re-
presented by eighteen animals, and several of merit. ‘These are a very useful
and profitable sort of pig, combining quantity with quality.

“Class LX XVI. (ditto Black Breed) was good, but nothing extraordinary.

“Class LX XVII. (Berkshire Boars).—This class was very superior to any-
thing of its kind which has been exhibited at the Royal for these three years.
A very great improvement is visible this year as to numbers, symmetry, and
quality, &c.

“Class LXXVIII. (Boar not eligible for preceding classes).—There was no-
thing to comment on. :

“Class LXXIX. (Breeding Sow of Large Breed).—The first prize sow in
this class was a very superior animal of her kind, and the class was good in
general,

“ Class LXXX. (Sow of Small White Breed)—This was an extensive one,
19 pens being shown, and the judges had great difficulty in arriving at a
satisfactory conclusion, as the competition was very close ; a capital class.

“Class LXXXI. (Sow of Small Black Breed).—A good class, but nothing
of extraordinary merit.

“Class LX XXII. (Berkshire Sows).—The best class of its kind that I ever
judged. In this class, as well as in Class 77, there is more manifest improve-
ment than in any other breed.

“Class LX XXIII. (Sow not eligible for preceding Classes).—There were
some very useful animals for general purposes in this class; but, coming as
they do between the large and small breeds, I do not think that anything
special can be said of them. i

“Class LXXXIV. (Pen of Three Breeding Sow Pigs of Large Breed be-
tween Four and Eight Months)—There were only two pens in the competi-
tion. A third was shown, but it consisted of two sows and one boar, which
could not constitute a ‘pen of three breeding sows.’

“Class LXXXY. (ditto Small White Breed).—This class was represented
by four pens ; the first and second pens were very good.

“Class LXXXVI. (ditto Small Black Breed).—This class was not repre-
cae by anything beyond (to use the common expression) ‘ good and useful
animals.

“Class LXXXVII. (ditto Berkshire Breed) again bore out the character of
their seniors, as mentioned in their respective classes.

“Class LXX XVIII. (ditto not eligible for Preceding Classes) was nothing
extraordinary.”

He then adds :—

~ “T cannot close my Report without alluding to the six pens of Berkshire
boars exhibited in Class LXXVII. by Mr. William Joyce, of the Abbey Farm,
Waterford, as being six of the best (and all from the same litter), that I ever
saw of the kind; and I understand that the same exhibitor also showed a pen
of three sows, sisters to the six above alluded to, and very good although not
taking a prize. ‘Take the exhibition of pigs as a whole, it was a good one;
but the absence of Lord Wenlock, with his breed of Small Whites, was a draw-
back to it, In my Report of the last two years | have alluded to their supe~
riority. I would also recommend a more strict observance of ‘ the Registration
Act,’ in order to avoid any mark so unpleasant in a public Show-yard as we
occasionally see placed over an unfortunate pen.”

ee eee
ieeieiatslindditetetametamieeeemntiemememneetl

VOL. XXIV. Zt

( 480 )

XXVII.—Report of the Judges of Steam Cultivators at Worcester.

Tue description of the Trial Fields at Worcester, and of the
Steam Cultivators there set in motion, having been embodied in
Mr. Clarke’s Essay (see p. 365), the Report of the Judges, which
follows, stands alone, though it will doubtless be read in con-
nection with Mr. Clarke’s comment.

Report of the Judges of Steam Cultivators.

Tue Prizes offered by the Royal Agricnltural Society for Steam-Cultivators
were divided into two distinct classes, viz.: To Class I., “for the general
application of Steam-power to the Cultivation of the Soil,” was assigned the
Gold Medal and 50/.; and to Class II., “for the best application of Steam-
power which may be efficiently and safely adapted for small Occupations,”
502. was also appropriated.

A preliminary trial took place on Wednesday July 15th, at the Nunnery
Farm, near Worcester, to afford an opportunity to the competitors for properly
arranging and adjusting their respective machines and tackle. This arrange-
ment seemed to give general satisfaction to the exhibitors, many of whom
found it necessary to make various alterations in their appliances; but, beyond
a superficial inspection, no official notice was taken of this trial. The soil,
which was of a fair depth, with a slight admixture of gravel, lay in flat ridges ;
part of the land was wheat-stubble, and on the other part vetches had just been
eaten off. Eight plots, of 13 acres each, were measured off and assigned by
lot. As some of these machines did not again come under our notice, we will
at once offer a few words in explanation of their most prominent characteristics,
reserving the description of the rest for our account of the subsequent trials.

Mr. Hayes, of Stony Stratford, employs a stationary engine and self-acting
windlass ; the peculiarity of his system being that the anchor-men at the
headlands can instantly stop the action of the plough without stopping the
engine; no signals are required, and the work may be performed in foggy
weather. One man superintends the engine and windlass, and no wheels are
required to be put in or out of gear, owing to the winding-drums being driven
by band-wheels, and the engine-strap being shifted from one to the other as
required ; whilst by the simple movement of a handle the pulling-drum is
instantly stopped, the rotation of the. paying-out drum arrested by a steam-
pressure break, and the motion of both drums reversed. With this apparatus
Fowler’s cultivator was set to work, which, however, did not accomplish its
allotted portion, owing to an accidental fracture of the drum from some irregu-
larity in the coil of the rope.

Messrs.’ Turner, of Ipswich, also exhibited a steam-cultivating apparatus, in
which the chief characteristic was a chain of a novel form, invented by Mr.
Collinson Hall, of Navestock. Unlike the ordinary wire-rope of Messrs.
Fowler and Howard, this chain consists of a number of round steel rods,
18 inches in length, with open circular ends, which are connected by a pair of flat
plates 4 inches long, riveted together through the open ends of the two bars,
so as to form joints. These plates have an aperture in their centre, which
enables them to fit closely round certain projections on the*drum, which is
polygonal instead of circular, the length of the principal faces corresponding
with that of the steel rods, This is evidently an ingenious invention, though
it yet remains to be proved to what extent it will withstand the immense
amount of friction which must necessarily arise from a continuous drag over

=e <r -

Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester. 481

flinty soils in the absence of porters, which are not professedly a part of the
system. ‘The wear and tear falls principally upon the round rivet-heads
which project. ‘These, however, are not costly, and can be quickly repaired.
The steel bars themselves, unless there be a flaw in the open circular end,
would be extremely durable. he time occupied in uncoiling and riveting
the chain preparatory to work, and in packing it up at the end of the task, is
_ necessarily a considerable drawback from the professed advantages of this rope-
economy. *

On the following morning (July 16th) lots were again drawn, and the various
machines were set to work in an adjoining field, the time occupied in the
removal and setting down having been carefully noted. And now commenced
the actual trials for Class I]. The field operated on contained about 14 acres
of a stiff loam, of which part was in second year’s clover, and the rest a bean-
stubble which had not been ploughed since last harvest. The land was dry,
and rendered hard by the treading of sheep, a certain portion of it being laid
in narrow ridges, which were difficult to work across ; the rest, however, pre-
sented a fair trial for steam-cultivation, exhibiting, like the rest of the farm,
marks of clean farming and high cultivation, on which we beg to congratulate
the venerable tenant, Mr. Pitcher. ‘To each competitor about 2 acres were
assigned, with the direction to cwltivate at a depth of 7 inches, equal quan-
tities of coal being allowed. Mr. Coleman’s scarifier unfortunately broke down
at the commencement of the trial, but the rest finished their respective plots.
The subjoined Table (1., p. 482) explains the results obtained,

Plot No. 1 was drawn by Mr. Fowler, who went to work with his 5-tined
balance cultivator, drawn by his 10-horse single-cylinder engine, with clip-
drum and travelling anchor, making excellent work where the ground was
level, though, owing to the depth of the furrows, here and there a small space
was missed. The method now adopted differs from that pursued at Leeds
with the same power (10-horse), inasmuch as there is now a rigid connection
between the engine and windlass. It appears from the above ‘lable that this
engine consumed a somewhat extravagant amount of fuel, which we, in some
degree, attributed to leakage in the tubes. His work was executed at about
the rate of 3 miles per hour, there being no stoppage worthy of note, whilst
his staff consisted of 8 men and 3 boys. ‘The steerage, however, did not work
with its usual precision, owing to a slight defect in its mechanism.

Plot No. 2 fell to the lot of Messrs. Howard, who used their 3-tined culti-
vator, fitted with 13-inch shares, and an ordinary 10-horse double-cylinder
engine, with double compensating snatch-block. On the upper and lighter
portion of the field the land was well cut, though not sufficiently moved from
its original position ; whilst on the lower and stronger part much of the ground
was missed in the furrows, the implement, from its non-yielding form, being
unable to adapt itself to the irregularities of ridge and furrow. Since the
more extended application of steam-power to land cultivation will necessarily
abolish the existence of ridge and furrow, this cannot be looked upon as a
very serious imperfection in the machine, Another slight objection to it may
be found in the fact that the wheels traverse the ground already cultivated,
thereby to a certain extent reconsolidating it. Their staff consisted of 5 men
and 2 boys.

Plot No. 3 was apportioned to Messrs. Savory and Son, who worked their
two double-cylinder 10-horse engines, pulling Howard’s cultivator to and fro
between them at the rate of about 5 miles per hour,—a pace that prevented
the implement settling properly to its work, whilst the engines were driven at
a great speed, and with a pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch. ‘The propriety
of allowing this apparatus to compete in this class was very questionable,
inasmuch as the very fact that it requires ¢wo engines at once places it beyond

DS ye the

Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester.

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Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester. 483

the requirements of a “small occupation.” A more detailed description of it
will therefore be found under Class I,

Plot No. 4 fell into the hands of Mr. Smith, with his 10-horse double-
cylinder engine, driving his windlass and 3-tined grubber, with 4-inch spud
points, in the usual way. Throughout the whole of this trial he preserved
a uniform and steady pace, making by far the best work over ridge and furrow,
and stirring the soil most effectually. The only drawback seemed to be the
very narrow width of land taken, and the consequent length of time (8 hrs.
1 m.) required to complete his work, whilst the manual labour—that of 6 men
in attendance—seemed proportionally expensive. ‘

At intervals during this trial portions of land in each plot were carefully
cleared of all the moved soil, so as to expose to view that which remained
unmoved, which, without an exception, presented to the eye a corrugated and
uneven surface, in itself evidence enough of the incompleteness of the single
operation of cultivating or grubbing land which has not been previously broken
up; whilst the double process with a supplementary cross-cultivation is neces-
sarily much more costly. This portion of the trial being over, such competitors
as could furnish ploughing-tackle were then requested to plough a small
portion (14 acre) each, at a depth of about 63 inches. This brought out three
competitors, viz. Fowler, Howard, and Savory, whose performances are re-
corded above. (See Table II., p. 482.)

(a) Fowler, using his 4-furrow plough, made somewhat rough and uneven
work, the soil apparently varying much at the different ends of the field. His
staff consisted of 4 men and 3 boys, or 1 man more than he required for
cultivating. 4

(6) Howard worked his new 3-furrow plough, the frames of which are raised
and lowered in such a manner that the set of ploughs out of work is inde-
pendent of, and has no tendency to weigh, or raise out of the ground, the set in
action, which, of course, has the effect of steadying it in hard work. As
ploughing, this implement made decidedly the best work of the three, though
not quite so deep as Fowler’s, inverting the soil regularly, and leaving it in a
neatly-formed furrow, which was evidently due to the peculiar shape of mould-
board for which the Bedford firm has been so long famous. The frame of the
plough, which vibrated considerably, appeared, however, to be too light in
make, and consequently liable to be strained.

(c) Savory, in connexion with his two engines, used a Fowler’s 4-furrow
plough, which was driven much too fast to make neat work, and broke a body
of one plough in consequence. He was ordered to drag to the gate the whole
of his tackle, with rope coiled and plough attached to the engine, as soon as he
had done, which operation he performed in 33 minutes from the time he
finished his ploughing.

At this stage Mr, Fowler was ordered to move to an adjoining plot, on
which to work his digging-breasts, and it was in this instance that we had
presented to our notice the most successful attempt at steam-cultivation.
This implement, by the action of semi-inversion, so thoroughly moved and
mixed every particle of soil as really to leave little or nothing to be desired
further. Indeed, this may fairly be described as the perfection of autumn
cultivation on clean land. The result of this operation does not appear in the
tabulated form.

The trials for Class II. were now concluded, but we must not omit to
mention that we had the privilege of witnessing in actual operation Mr. Smith’s
combined cultivator and drill, which was not entered for competition. The
ground was evidently too hard and rough to break up satisfactorily into a
seed-bed ; at the same time it is evidently a clever implement, and likely to
suit the'lighter soils of this country for spring-seeding, for which its ingenious

and indefatigable inventor undoubtedly intended it,

484 Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester.

Cuass I.

On Friday, July 17th, the competition for the Gold Medal and 507. com-
menced at Wadborough, about eight miles from Worcester, on the farm of
Mr. Smithin. The field selected was a clover lea, evidently in a clean and
high state of cultivation, having a gentle incline to the south-west. The quality
of the soil varied exceedingly: the top portion being quite of a light character,
mixed with small pebbles, whilst the bottom part was an extremely tough and
retentive clay, considerably baked and cracked by the action of the sun.

Lots having again been drawn, the various competitors took up their
position in the prescribed order. Steevens having unfortunately broken the
connecting-rod of his engine at the outset was necessarily unable to proceed in
competition during the rest of the day, whilst Coleman was equally unfor-
ee ; both, however, while in action, made satisfactory work. (See Table III.,
p. 485.

Plot I. fell to Fowler’s lot, who started his digger with 3 breasts, driven by
a PAIR of 12-horse self-moving engines, with winding drums and coiling gear
attached. The engines, placed one on each headland, work alternately, the
implement being pulled backwards and forwards between them. The work
accomplished by this set of tackle was truly marvellous (though on the
lighter portion of the field the pace was too quick). Nearly 2 acres were
finished in 2 hours 33 minutes. His staff was 3 men and 2 boys.

Plot 2 was assigned to Howard, who worked his ordinary 3-tined cultivator
with his 10-horse engine,—in fact, the same tackle as in Class II. On the
lighter portion of the land his depth of ‘work was 7 inches: it was cleanly
cut, though not sufficiently stirred; in fact, a shower of rain would again
have made it an excellent pasture in a very short time. On the lower and
heavier portion of the field a depth of 9 inches was attained and well moved,
though the work was a gvod deal overlapped, which caused it to present a
satisfactory appearance to the eye; but we noticed that the cultivator did not
take more than two-thirds of its width of fresh ground, which at once explains
the cause of the length of time occupied and the excessive amount of fuel
consumed. His staff consisted of 5 men and 2 boys.

Plot 8 was drawn by Fowler for his 14-horse engine and 5-tined cultivator.
The depth attained on the light portion was about 6 inches ; the soil being
well mixed, but the unmoved surface as ridged and irregular as in Class Il.
On the stronger division the soil was splendidly moved to a depth of from 94
to 10 inches. His staff of attendants included only 2 men and 3 boys, and it
is an interesting fact that his large tackle requires fewer hands than the
smaller one. On reference to Table No. 3, it will be seen that the work done
on this lot was at a less cost than any of the rest, and the time occupied also
shorter. ;

Plot 4 was allotted to Savory, who, without any assistance, quickly steamed
into position, and commenced work with one of Howard’s grubbers. In his
system two engines are employed, one on each headland. Around the boiler
of each a drum is hung on friction-rollers, which is capable of coiling wpwards
of 500 yards of wire rope in a single layer. A pair of small guide-rollers are
ingeniously guided by the action of a screw along the front of the drum, for
the purpose of regulating the coiling of the rope. The field is traversed by
only one length of rope, since one engine is letting out while the other is
taking up and coiling its rope, the cultivator, of course, moving to and fro
accordingly. The advantages of this method seem to be, first, the size of the
drum—nearly 6 feet in diameter—around which the rope is wound; secondly,
the traction being direct from the cultivator to engine, and not round anchors
or blocks, whereby the liability to breakage is diminished, and the wear and

tear considerably reduced, We have here a minimum of rope required,

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486 Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester.

well as of friction. By this means any implement can be used, as no gearing
is required, and any shaped field can be readily cultivated. The staff of hands
required is 3 rhen and 1 boy. The work performed in this instance was done,
as usual, at racing speed; but it does not appear advisable to exceed three miles
per hour where steady and difficult work is to be done. This, like Fowler’s
double-engine system, seems peculiarly adapted for Continental use, and for
working for hire in this country where removals from place to place are
constantly made.

Plot 5 was taken by Smith, who, though taking a very narrow width, did
steady, careful, and effective work.’ His tackle was similar in every respect to
that entered in Class II. On the lighter land his depth registered 6 inches,
the work being well cut and not much ridged, and on the stronger portion the
depth was much the same. (See Table III., p. 485.)

On the following day Savory attached his engines to Steevens’s plough,
which is evidently a well-devised implement for steam-cultivation, though
some of its parts were not sufficiently strong for the work on which it was
engaged. It consists of two frames; the upper one fixed, and the under one
divided into two portions, each being independent. The cutting parts are
attached to the under frames, and are raised or lowered by means of a rack and
pinion. This plough was only intended for an 8-horse engine, and was in
this case consequently over-tasked. Savory also used Fowler’s digger, to show
the capabilities of his engines for working a variety of implements.

The concluding trials took place on Saturday, July 18th, in an adjoining
field of old sward, on the heaviest and most obdurately-hardened of clays. It
was, in fact, a test of the utmost power and endurance of the apparatus in
most difficult and trying operations. .

1. Fowler started with his 3-furrow digger and 14-horse engine, producing
wonderful work by digging all the soil to a depth of from 8 to 10 inches, and
tearing up immense and unwieldly blocks of unyielding earth, which were
thrown several feet away. The land was left in a much rougher state than
could have been desired except for autumn cultivation.

2. Smith took the next lot with his grubber, which smashed the soil up to
the depth of 5 to 6 inches, but was very subject to choking, and often, during
the early part of the work, did not overlap sufficiently, but left a strip of
unmoved ground between each bout. It had the advantage, however, of
getting into the furrows in a most satisfactory manner.

3. Howard followed in his turn; but did not make the work that could
have been desired, passing over a large portion of work already done by overlap,
and in many places not. moving the soil sufficiently from its original position.

4, Fowler completed the quartett with his digger, drawn backwards and
forwards by his double-engine system, making good work to the depth of 11
to 14 inches ; but, before proceeding far, he unfortunately broke his winding-
drum. (See Table IV., p. 485.)

In conclusion, we would remark that there does not seem to be any marked im-
provement in the steam cultivators exhibited at Worcester over those exhibited
at Leeds in 1861. The apparatus of Messrs. Fowler and Howard, with the
exception of some increase in simplicity, appear identically the same as then.
Mr. Smith’s cultivator, however, was not tried at Leeds, and was, therefore, a
comparative novelty in competition, though it is extensively employed through-
out the country. The systems of Messrs. Steevens and Coleman yet require
further development, whilst the implements themselves need strengthening in
some of their parts, so as to adapt them for general use: whilst despite of
“the economical application of steam-power to the cultivation of the soil,” in
the case of Messrs. Savory’s system there is great room for improvement in
the manufacture and finish of their engines. Steam-power has now been

Report on the Steam Cultivators at Worcester. 487

‘fairly launched as part of the system of the agriculture of this country, and
that it can be economically and satisfactorily applied in the thorough culti-
vation of our soil must be fairly established to the satisfaction of the most
fastidious by a reference to the above Tables.

We cannot conclude this Report without tendering our thanks to the
Stewards of our Department for their unfailing kindness and courtesy, as well
as for the prompt manner in which all our directions were carried out. We
would also remark, that the short time allowed for the preparation of this
Report has led to its being brought out in a hurried manner ; and thus we have
been prevented from embodying in it much that otherwise we could have
wished to make public. Lastly, we would suggest, for the benefit and con-
sideration of the Council, that a much more lengthened and extensive trial of
steam-cultivators should in future be instituted, on which such conclusions
may be based as may be of service to the public.

Our Awards were as follow :—

Steam CuLtivatTors.—Class 1.

Gold Medal and 307. to John Fowler for his 14-horse Set of Steam Ploughing
Machines, complete.—1st Prize.

201. to William Savory and Son for their two 10-horse Self-propelling
Winding Engines.—2nd Prize.

Silver Medal to William Steevens for his 4-furrow Steam Plough and
Cultivator combined.—38rd Prize.

Commended, Coleman and Sons’ set of Steam Cultivating Apparatus.

STEAM CULTIVATORS FoR SMALL OccupaTions.—Class 2.

25/. to John Fowler for his 10-horse Set of Steam Ploughing Machinery,
complete.—Ist Prize.
loi. to William Smith for his 10-horse Set of Steam Ploughing Machinery,
complete.—2nd Prize.
- 10/. to J. and F. Howard for their 10-horse Set of Steam Ploughing Machi-
nery, complete,—ard Prize,
Wm. Owen, Engineer.
H. B. Catpwett.
CLARE SEWELL READ.
JacoB WILSON.

XXVIII.— Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

Tanks to the unwearied efforts of the local and central authori-
ties, the Worcester Meeting has been brought to a generally
successful issue, although, while it was in progress, variations of
temperature and weather as wide as often characterize an English
summer, checked the influx of visitors, and threatened more
serious interruption, The relation of this Meeting to its pre-
decessors is clearly exhibited in the following tabular statement,

drawn up for the Stewards by Mr. Wainwright.

488 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

Statement of Recerpts and Apsissions of the Country Meetines of
the Royan AcRicuLTuRAL Society of Enezann, from 1852 to 1863

inclusive.
LEWES, 1852.
| |
Prices of Admission. | Days of Admission. | Persons | mount tone
& s d/h = @
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. Wednesday, July 14 835 104 7 6}
Cattle Yard, 5s. Wednesday, ,, I4 431 107 15 0
Implement and ee Thursday, ,, 15
Yards, 2s. 6d. 972 7 10
Implement and Cottle Frida 16 ho
Yards, 1s. - y ce |
ng
| | 1184 10 4 17019 0
ToraL : Number of Persons,
Amount received for Admissons, 1184/. 10s, 4d.
GLOUCESTER, 1853,
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. | _——_ ao
£.° ‘eS ese a
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Wednesday, July 13 | 2,571} 321 7 O
Implement and Cattle - 5
Yards, 2s. 6d. .. * Thursday, ,, 14 9,720 | 1214 19 7
Implement and Cattle
Yards, Is. Friday, 59, Lo | 23,915 1195 15 4
Implement and Cattle
oars 7; Saturday, ,, 16) 39 1,19 0
-—————_ —————“—“
| | 36,245 | 2734 0 11 ia77 7 6
|
Toranu: Number of Persons, 36,245.
Amount received for Admissions, 2734/. Os. 11d,
LINCOLN, 1854.
Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. er | Rearve fo
ES a
| £ = ieee
Thursday, July 13 9 | 410 0
Friday, 2» 14] ll 510 0
Trial Yard, 10s. .. ..{ Saturday, ag 20'|" 10° 0°o
Monday, aren, 20 10 0 0
Tuesday, »» 18 21 1010 O -
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Wednesday, ,, 19 | 2,201 | 278 8 2
Cattle Yard, 10s. -. | Wednesday, ,, 19 752 | 876 0 0
Implement and ‘Cattle |
. 0 ip ih *} Thursday, ,, 20 | 12,501/| 1566 4 8
Implement and Cattle) I ae
Yards, ls. . i ill Friday, »> 21 a agsrt! 1109 16 7
37,635 | 3370 19 5 ee 0 6

Torat: Number of Persons, 37,635.
Amount received for Admissions, 3370/. 19s. 5d,

Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 489

CARLISLE, 1855.

. a Amount Received for
Prices of Admission. | Days of Admission. Persons. | Haceivat | Catalogues.

Thursday, July %
Friday, a
. Trial Yard, 5s. .. ..¢| Saturday, a a 88 15 0

Monday, ees
Tuesday, Ger eel |

Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. Wednesday, ,, 25
Cattle Yard, 10s. .. | Wednesday, ,, 25 | 2190 510
Implement and Cattle
Yards, 2s. Gd. .. Thursday, ,, 26 |
Iagencst and Gwe Friday, ys 27 982 18 8

| acon 19 6 ‘aa 6-2
| | :

Tora: Number of Persons,
Amount received for Admissions, 32617. 19s. 6d.

CHELMSFORD, 1856.

Prices of Admission. | Days of —aaerEA | Persons. | Received. | Catalogues,
ee is a ee
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. Tuesday, July15| 947) 11713 6}
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. |Wednesday,',, 16 | 2,357 | 29410 0
Cattle Yard, 5s. .. .. | Wednesday, ,, 16 | 1,215 303 15 0
eee tl
Implement and Cattle) ps4, 18 sci fami | inl eA
Yards, 1s. : =e ”

Se
| | 32,982 | 2988 8 5 33413 0

Torat: Number ef Persons, 32,982.
Amount received for Admissions, 2988/. 8s. 5d.

SALISBURY, 1857.

Prices of Admission, Days of Admission. Persons. Cet | Catalog =

pe Ay eee
Implement Yard, 2s.6d. Tuesday, July 21 969 321 56
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Wednesday, ,, 22 | 2,623 | 327 6 2
Cattle Yard,5s. .. .. | Wednesday, ,, 22 1,319 | 32918 2
a = hiss Thursday, ,, 23 | 14,004 | 1748 7 8

4 /

~~. om nai Friday, ,, 24) 18,427} 92018 8

wo

| 37,342 | 3447 15 |324 17 0

Torat: Number of Persons, 37,342.
Amount received for Admissions, 3447/, 15s. 9d,

490 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

CHESTER, 1858.

Prices of Admission. Days of Admission, Persons, ie ae pec
| &.. 8, a]
Thursday, aay 8 53 | 13: 5.0 ee
; Friday, 9 144 36 0 0 es
Trial Yard, 5s. -- --)| Saturday, ,, 7 270| 3110 0 is
Monday, a9. 9) 238 59 9 8
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Tuesday, xs 20.) 0thORl! J56..5 6 |.386 18-0
Implement Yard, 2s,6d. | Wednesday, ,, 21 4,887 610 910 15212 0
Cattle Yard, 5s. .. Wednesday, ,, 21 8,180 | 79416 0
Implement and Cattle ; :
Vagcar en °|) Thursday, », 22| 24,790 | 3101 3 6 262 1 6
Implement and Cattle . .
vende ML oe Friday, »» 23 | 27,726 | 1387 4 6|71 6 8
62,539 | 6190 4 O 52213 2

Tora: Number of Persons, 62,539.
Amount received for Admissions, 6190/. 4s. Od.

WARWICK, 1859,

Prices of Admission. | Days of Admission. Persons, Amount | Recetvea for

Received. Catalogues.
Somes eee
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Tuesday, ~July12} 1,689 | 21017 6/| 36 1 0
Implement Yard, 2s. 6d. | Wednesday, ,, 13| 5,154| 644 4 2 14412 0
Cattle Yard, 5s. Wednesday, ,, 13] 3,386 | 84418 6 >
Implement and Cattle
ade Stee: | Thursday, ,, 14| 19,902 | 248717 6 274 8 0
Implement and Cattle =
ees, ae ie} Friday, +» 15 | 25,446|1274 0 3/49 5 2
55,577 | 5461 17 11 [504 6 2

Torat: Number of Persons, 55,577.
Amount received for Admissions, 5461/, 17s. 11.

CANTERBURY, 1860.

Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. peat ‘Catalogues.
£. 8.0 0k Baraat,
Wednesday, July 4 19 415 0 ee
2 | Thursday, aa 52 13 0 0 oa
Trial Yard, 5s, .. .. | Friday, vi 6 49 12 5 6 be
Saturday, ey bi 41 10 5 0 oo
Implement Yard, 2s, 6d. | Monday, at. 9 813 | 10118" 0 |} 66" 20.
Cattle Yard, 5s. .. .. | Monday, as 2 459 11415 0 Je
ee ts a hee Tuesday, ,, 10| 5,866] 73218 3811513 0
Implement and Cattle\) Wednesday, ,, 11 | 20,881 | 104810 3] 70 4 0
; :
My Sa, and Caste) Thursday, ,, 12| 14,124| 706°510| 3114 0
42,304 | 27389 7 10 |273 12 0

ToraL: Number of Persons, 42,304.
Amount received for Admissions, 2739/, 7s. 10d.

Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 491

LEEDS, 1861

Prices of Admission, Days of Admission. | Persons. | gem Ree ee
roa ae

ee a. — on) Monday, July15| 2,027| 50519 0 |ll6é 5 0
ee x 4 hit Tuesday, , 16 | 10,287| 1285 8 4235 1 0
—— 4 aa Wednesday, ,, 17 | 18,823 | 2351 4 2|229 4 0
2 ae om bigget Thursday, ,, 18 | 73,824 | 3695 9 3|81 9 0
eh beak Friday, ,, 19 | 40,777 | 2051 15 5/1819 0
145,738 | 9889 16 2 |680 18 0

ToraL: Number of Persons, 145,738.
Amount received for Admissions, 9889/, 16s. 2d,

BATTERSEA, 1862,

_ Prices of Admission. | Days of Admission. Persons. reed fected
Silased: | 8x wlal

Implement Yard, 2s, 6d. | Monday, June23 363 46 0 0} 20 10
Implement Yard, 2s.6d.| Tuesday, ,, 24 806} 102 5 2} 20 20
eo ah si Wednesday, ,, 25| 1,146] 69715 5| 148 180
Bh pt eae} Thursday, ,, 26| 5,873 | 1467 1 7/178 70
rt ney oe Friday, ,, 27 | 10,056 | 1261 0 3/| 182 00
rw ad aay Saturday, ,, 28| 8,644 | 1082 4 2|120 10
Tupac = Bi: Monday, ,, 30 | 28,092 | 140415 6) 175 90
cad mt oat Tuesday, July 1] 38,131 | 1911 6 8| 192 80
me EH = Repro. Wednesday, ,, 2| 31,217/ 156615 7| 87 23
124,328 | 9539 4 4/1124 83

Tora: Number of Persons, 124,328.
Amount received for Admissions, 9539/, 4s, 4d,

492 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

WORCESTER, 1863.

Prices of Admission. Days of Admission. Persons. saat a
pa MM A fas SR
Wednesday, ln 63 1515-0 se
. eee f 97 24 5 0 +.
Trial Yard, 58. «. Friday, - 7 60} 15 0 0 a
ner fe Saturday, ,, 18 49 1B! 5 '® Pr
mplement an attle) ;
Yards, 10s. “ ee Monday, 95 20 811 40419 6| 96 9 0
Implement and Cattle er
2 ec | Tuesday, ,, 21| 7,683 | 96012 116212 0
Implement and ‘Cattle P
eo ae ‘ji Wednesday, ,, 22} 9,293] 1162 2 0/104 7 0
Implement and Cattle)
Yards, tb "}) Thursday, »» 23 | 38,282 | 1915 18 5 |107 7 0
Implement and Cattle : = at
Yards, 40. si Friday, ») 24] 19,469 | 97413 9] 2813 0

75,807 | 5485 10 9 99 8 0

Torat: Number of Persons, 75,807.
Amount received for Admissions, 5485/. 10s, 9d.

Cartes WAINWRIGHT, Superintendent of Admissions.
4th August, 1863.

It thus appears that there was a larger gathering at Worcester
than on most former occasions,

The district, indeed, was in many respects happily chosen, being
sufficiently rural, and removed from the chief centres of English
life and bustle, for its inhabitants to enter with zest into this
agricultural festival, sufficiently connected with the great arteries
of commerce to afford the necessary facilities for locomotion, and
not inexperienced in the conveyance of holiday folk to places of
amusement. On the other hand, we must remark that this lesson
had been but imperfectly learned, and that, either from defect

of “rolling stock” or of organization, long intervals and delays
occurred in the despatch of trains, during which throngs of
passengers were allowed to accumulate, which, from the inade-
quacy of the railway staff, soon seethed into a mobs

This remark is made not as a reproach, but as a hint, that, i in
fixing the site of meetings dependent for success upon a large
influx of visitors, not only the existence of railroads should be
ascertained, but the extent of their experience and connexions.

With respect to the Show-yard, the site, a sloping airy down,
was at a convenient distance from the city, and afforded a pros-
pect of the Malvern Hills, which are so striking a feature in our
western scenery. Grumblers were hard pressed to find a defect,
when they complained that the area was too spacious, Their

Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 493

criticism would have been more telling if pointed at the want of

-a good hard road of approach, which, however, it is a physical
impossibility to extemporize. The display of Agricultural
Machinery was as extensive as usual ; and if there be good reason
‘for subdividing it into classes for the purpose of judicial trials,
there is also good ground for not attempting to describe this
complex whole in a general report, somewhat hastily drawn up.
Illustrations are, indeed, almost indispensable for the explanation
of the action of implements; and it would cost the reader as
much pains to master any verbal statement as the writer to frame
it—that is to say, more than will be taken, except upon com-
pulsion: any detailed description of machinery will therefore be
best reserved for a special illustrated notice.

Again, a very slight survey, with an experienced guide, will
satisfy the inquirer that exhibitions of implements, apart from
trials, would be of doubtful service to the agricultural com-
munity ; ingenious adjustments may be seen and appreciated as
such, but the question arises, Will they work? The doubt is
best illustrated by the following incident :—Pains were taken to
give a slight trial to one of the most promising novelties at the
Worcester Show: the assistance of an engine was required, but
to ask the aid of the rival makers was a delicate matter. As
soon, however, as a turn or two had been given to the implement
in question, volunteer offers of assistance were showered down on
all sides,—it being clear that the new device was at least not in
fit trim for displaying superior work. Generally speaking, there-
fore, novelties in each class had better await their ordeal in due
season, when both the pushing and the scrupulous exhibitor will
find their natural level. It is therefore expedient in the main
‘to confine the few remarks for which we have space to that class
of machinery which was this year under trial, viz., the imple-
ments used in preparing corn for market.

The Judges of steam-engines report as follows :—

To the Stewards of Implements of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

GENTLEMEN, July 20th, 1863,

We have the honour to report to you the result of the Examination and
Trials made by us of Fixed and Portable Steam-engines at the Meeting of the
Society now being held at Worcester.
The following Tables apply to these Trials (see p. 494) :—

Portable Steam-Engines above 8 Horse~power—Table No. 1.

In this Class we have awarded a portion ‘of the money placed at our dis-
posal by the Society to four of the engines tried, in the proportions shown.

We have given a rather larger sum to Messrs. Hornsby and Sons, because
their engine attained the greatest economy of fuel, and without the use of any
appliances for reducing the area of fire-grate surface. The firebox of this

494 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.
engine was without “lagging” on either front or sides, in the condition in,
which it is ordinarily sold.

PorTABLE STEAM ENGINES.
TABLE No. 1,

‘S | 55
5 Getting up Steam. | Be <
o be Soi Bd TS A ke S
i) o q Be 3 2 w
2 (8 |Seg|FuclBurntm g [ES | §
Name of Exhibitor. q [es ie 3S] gettingup | § 5 ial i Remarks,
3 loGo8n| Steam |Au | Bu]
6 |BSlfa a 1 SS Sion |
mw wie! Coal. Wood. 82/854] &
Minutes} lbs. | lbs. | Ibs. Ibs. £.
Hornsby and Sons . .» | 1946 | 12 62°0 | 12 | 45°5 | £3°79 | 325 | Prize of 102
ClaytonandCo.. . . 142 | 12 99 | 47°0 | 12 | 46°3| 3°86 | 343 ae il.
Tuxford and Sons . . | 5004 | 12 69 | 60°5 | 12 | 53°2 | 4°60 | 355 > 41.
Barrett, Exall, and Co. . | 2539 | 12] 123 | 67°0 | 12 | 55:8] 4°65 | 31 ae 41,
Brown and May. . . | 5774 | 10 78 | 47°3| 10 | 54-5 | 5°45 | 265 | Commended.
TABLE No, 2,
Tuxford and Sons . . | 5003 | 8 81 | 32°5 8 | 28°7 | 3°59 | 250 | Prize of 92.
Barrett, Exall, and Co, 2538 | 8 99 | 50°2 8 | 30°3] 3°79 | 230 bs 1.
ClaytonandCo.. . . 143 | 8 100 | 38-3 8 | 32-4] 4:05 | 238 2 il.
Holmesand Sons . . | 1824] 8 41 | 39°0 8 | 46°53 | 5°81 | 240 “5
Haywood, junr. . . .| 349] 8 76 | 41°0 8 | 44:1 | 5°51 | 240 | Commended,

TABLE No, 3.

os ~ ~ ws ” ; : Commended asa good

Ellisand Sons. . . | 4053/ 7] 76/40-5| 7 | 57-5 | 8-21 | 220 |} Cote encine,

rm ~ Commended as a good
. . . |

Parsons . « « « «| 5246] 8 63 | 34°0 8 | 70°6 | 8:82} 225 serviceable engine.
Warren (Ruston & Co.). | 3653 | 8 95 | 41°5 8 | 75°6 | 9°45 | 230
GiDDONAKT. cleh ia: fare ee) BLS) |e: 49 | 30°3 7 | 76°5 | 10°92 | 215
Robey andCo. . . «| 4827 | 8 47 | 39°5 8 | 95°7 | 11°96 | 230
Childs (Riches & Watts) | 5779 | 8 69 | 44°0 8 | 96°0 | 12°00 | 200
Ashby andCo, . . .| 5176 | 44 73 | 36°5 44 | 57°0 | 12°66 | 138
GilGeré 5 3, a eo. « || 1858 5 95 | 31°5 5 | 66°4 | 13°28 | 160

Brownand May. . .| 5773 | 8 55 | 34°0 8 | 51°2| 6°40 | 220 | Highly commended.

The quality of the work and finish of all these four engines were extremely
good.

We commend the engine of Messrs. Brown and May, because it attained a
fair amount of economy without the advantage of so much skill in the stgking
as the others enjoyed.

Portable Steam-Engines not exceeding 8 Horse~power.

We have thought it desirable, in our consideration of this Class, to separate
the engines into two divisions, which may be best described as including—

1st. hose engines worked on the expansive principle, which, by the use of.
heaters and other special arrangements, appear to aim more particularly at
low consumption of fuel.

2nd. Those engines, without these arrangements, which appear in our
judgment to represent the average description of engine generally purchased -
by farmers, and in use throughout the country.

We have distributed the amount placed at our disposal amongst the engines
of Messrs. Tuxford and Sons, Barrett and Co., Clayton and Co., and Holmes
and Sons, as shown on Table No. 2, in the proportions which, taking all
points into consideration, they, in our opinion, respectively merit.

Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 495

We commend the engine of Mr. Haywood, Junr., of Derby.

The quality of work and finish of all these engines are very high.

In the second division of this Class we commend Messrs. Ellis and Sons and
Parsons for good and serviceable engines, showing a fair result as to consump-
tion of fuel. See Table No. 3.

We have highly commended Messrs. Brown and May’s engine for its per-
formance and general construction, as being a fair representative of those most
in use. It was discovered after the trial that, the fire-tubes being 23 inches
outside instead of inside diameter, this engine did not conform to the conditions
of the Society at this Meeting, and was not entitled to any of the money
devoted to the Class. We regret this circumstance, because the performance
was highly satisfactory ; especially when it is considered that the engine was,
with others, selected by the Judges for trial without consulting the exhibitors,
and was left for trial after an objection was raised by the exhibitors of other
engines to their being tried.

The Table below refers to the Fixed Steam-engines.

Frxep STEAM ENGINES.
TABLE No, 4,

Sass Gree Basle Coal Burnt
= ae 0. 0 ‘oal Burn er :
» Name of Exhibitor. | 4 iticte, mes c per Hour. aie power Price. Remarks.
Bee per Hour.
: Ibs. Ibs. £.

Barrett, Exall, and Co. . 2537 10 48°8 4°83 230 | Prize of 151.
ClaytonandCo. . . . 141 10 50°4 5°04 240 Ar .
Hornsby andSons . .| 1945 10 53°1 5°51 245 nee AE

= : ~. 4 Commended as a plain
Ferrabeo . . . . .| 3373 | 10 71:0 7-10 230 f pope eg
Tuxfordand Sons, . .| 5014 8 56°5 7°06 200
Haywood, junr. . . . 548 10 87°7 8°77 240
Johnson and Whittaker . | 2867 4 613 15°32 85

The engine shown by Messrs. Hornsby and Sons was a very good one, equal
in workmanship to those of Messrs. Clayton and Co., and Barrett and Uo.,
but it consumed rather more fuel.

We commend Mr. Ferrabee for a plain, serviceable engine, which attained
good results, without the application of the expansive use of the steam.

. aaa was but one boiler exhibited, and we have not awarded any prize for
oilers.

We observe that Traction Engines, useful for agricultural purposes, are now
beginning to take an important position; and we recommend that the Class be
recognised by the Society by the offering of a sum of money for competition,
either at the next Show or at some convenient previous date.

We have the honour to be, Gentlemen,
Your most obedient servants,
Joun J. Goocn,
D. K, Crarx.

The high results to which the Judges’ Report testifies are pro-
duced by extreme care in manufacturing detail ; friction is reduced
to a minimum ; heat is economized by carefully clothing the heated
surfaces, and the demand for steam is diminished by cutting off
the supply before the stroke is completed, or, as it is termed,

“working expansively.” The power so obtained involves no
VOL. XXIV. 2K

496 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

necessary want of durability in the engine, because the rules pre-
scribed by the Society sufficiently regulate the size both of the
boiler-tubes and of the spaces between them: in fact success in
the race depends on superior finish, rather than refinements in con-
struction which would be of questionable service. The purchaser,
then, of any one of the competing engines might well be con-
gratulated on his acquisition, and the question would rather arise
whether engines so got up can be supplied in sufficient numbers
at the prices affixed. If there be any doubt on this point, the
farmer may content himself with a ‘good serviceable engine,”
such as, no doubt, any of the leading makers would furnish in
the regular course of business.

With respect to the consumption of fuel, some may think that
it matters very little whether one or two cwts. more or less of coal
be consumed in a day, and may be under the impression that
the grosser feeder may probably be the more simple and durable

machine: but it will generally be found that the engine which.

requires most fuel, also requires most repair to its boiler and
tubes; indeed it is but natural to expect that ill-regulated heat
should be a destructive agent.

With respect to thrashing-machines, it should not be forgotten
that at Canterbury those alone were under trial which do not pro-
fess to finish the sample for market, whilst this year none but
finishing machines were tested; the inference, nevertheless,
should not be drawn that the simpler machine is considered to
be superseded, for in the judgment of many practical men it
deserves the preference, and perhaps on some future occasion we
may see both classes put upon their trial at the same Meeting.

All points connected with thrashing no doubt came under the
notice of the Judges in that department, and it is to be regretted
that they did not record more fully the mass of information to
the acquisition of which they applied themselves with unwearied
assiduity. Y
Report of the Judges of Portable Thrashing-Machines and Fixed

Barn- Works,

PortTasLE THRASHING-MACHINEs.

The number of entries being considerable, we judged it expedient to select
only one machine from each exhibitor for trial, except in cases where two
machines essentially differing in principle were exhibited. As we proceeded
with the trials the policy of this step became evident, where the performance
of some of these machines became in every way superior to others constructed
by the same makers or exhibitors. :

We commenced by according a preliminary trial to each of the machines
selected, by setting them to thrash 100 sheaves of wheat, satisfying ourselves
at the same time that they were equally capable of producing a good sample
of barley, ‘he results of this trial are given in the following Table :—

Report on the Worcester Show-yara.

Taste I.—Comprsep Fruisainc THRraSHinc-MACcHINES.

Name of Exhibitor. =

Goucher &
Bruckshaw ..
OTTUW 2. 56
Barrett and Co.

Tuxford ee
Turner ..
Clayton and Co.
Wallis and Co.
Barrows we
Hornsby wv
Clayton and Co,

Marshall” os
Naldee.s. <s

Gilbert ....
Gibbons e
Underhill ..
.? “
Parsons os
asker .. +
Humphries .
FenDCy cL...
Navory .. «.
Holmes ..

|

| gener

—

|
|

All

497
hg / Horse-power
Time in which | Ave that would be
ee Horse-power sg noe to
100 sie es of | each Maskine. 100 Sheaves
heat. ie ee in 1 Minute.
Min. Sec. |
6 55 10°11 61°95
4 59 6°56 32°82
4 30 7°76 34°94 ~
5 95 | 6-44 34°92
3 65 8°85 34°68
& 5S 4°52 26°746
a a 6°94 37°623
3 50 8-52 32°651
4 25 6:03 26°65
4 25 6°88 30°38
4 0 7°73 30°95
3S 55 5°71 22°37
4 10 6:0 25°02
3 10 9°79 oL° Gtr
4 ;0 6°95 27°83
ae ne y fey i 39°16
em 6°83 38°17
Machine choked | Experiment
twice. discontinued.
ee ae 8°9 36°78
4 30 | 8-05 36°25
S 235 | 11°28 38° 547
4 40 | 8-18 38°175
5 tS 8°87 52°488
A 8°79 35°88
6-3 8°03 52°22

TasiLE IJ.—Comernep Fruisuine THRASHING-MACHINES.
Selected and Frictional Trials.

Clayton Land ( Vn
Hornsby...
Barrett and Co, -

Number
in
Catalogue.

8057
1071

1829

4826

144
1955
2540

Time in Average
which each Horse-
Machine power
thrashed required
500 Sheaves | by each
of Wheat. | Machine.
Min. Sec. Wz
23 30 9°99
15 50 9°6
22 O 10°235
18 35 8:7
22 10 7°78
17 36 9°66
20 55 8°49

Horse-power
that would
be required

to thrash

500 Sheaves
in 1 Minute.

234°34
152°66

225°187
161°797 |
172°35
170°05

177°44 |

Horse-
power
required |
to drive | Prizes
|
Machine |
empty. |
| £.
5°778 =
5°535 10
sary {J Silver
en i Medal
6°1542 as
| 3°911 15
4°8 25
4°089 o-

N.B.—Each machine was run empty for 5 minutes, and the result recorded a

_ per last column,

2K 2

498 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

The preliminary trial enabled us to select seven of the best performing
machines, with 500 sheaves of wheat, for a longer test: several of the others,
although commendable in many respects, not being sufficiently effective to
justify us in giving them a prolonged trial.

The results obtained from the seven machines so selected are given in
Table II. (p. 497), and the division of the money marks the degree of merit
we attach to each machine.

In the machine, Article No. 1829, exhibited by Holmes and Son, of Nor-
wich, we noticed a contrivance for “bagging” the chaff in a simple and
effective manner. We consider the invention to be a novelty, and of essential
service to the farmer, more particularly when thrashing out of doors. We
bring it before your notice, and recommend that a Silver Medal be given to
them for their invention.

Frxep Barn-WORKS.

In this class only four machines were exhibited; these were tried, and the
essay enabled us to select two of them, which satisfied us as doing best. These
two machines were again tried, when that exhibited by Hornsby and Sons
did its work in such an excellent manner in every respect as entitled it to the
whole of the money devoted to this Class, The power required to drive the
machines is given in Table III.

Taste II].—Frxep Barn-WoRKS.

Time in Average | Horse-power

power
Name Number | which each ae bey requi

of in Machine ; to drive Prizes,
Exhibitor. Catalogue. my pene pas Ps el —_
250 leaves, * ne
Machine. | per Minute, empty.
Min. Sec. | Pa
Humphries .. .. | 1008 16 40 5°59 93°29 *. ee
Clayton and Co... 145 12a fp 5°83 75°39 es Bs
Hornsby +5 55 1958 9 30 8°34 79°26 = -_
Barrett eae 2541 10 35 8°53 99°3 ae ss
Renewed Trial.
Time with
500 Sheaves. } >
Min. Sec.
Hornsby .. 1958 LG eS 9°25 | 148°837 3°58 20.
Clay fea and Co. 145 | Strap having come off, trialwas| 3-93 a
discontinued.

N.B.—The machines were run empty during a period of 5 minutes.
In these J'ables 1 horse-power is taken as being equal to 33,000 Ibs. lifted 1 foot
high per minute.

As several machines approached each other in excellence very closely, we
considered it advisable to apply a further test to them by running each empty
for five minutes, that we might the better judge whether any essential
difference in the power required to drive them arose from variations in con-
struction ; and the power required under this test is shown in one column of
the Tables.

We have to thank the Society for the kind assistance rendered by its

Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 499

Stewards and officers. To Mr. James Amos our best thanks are also due for
his indefatigable exertions and the services he rendered in ascertaining the
power required, and recording dynamometrical results, besides the general
assistance he gave us during the trials.

Wm. Cuatcrart, Bramshill House, Liphook, Hants,
Joun Hicxen, Bourton, Rugby.
Gitson Martin, Thorney, near Peterborough.

Worcester, July 21st, 1863,

Among the recognised, if not the essential, adjuncts of the
thrashing-machine, whether it be employed in the field ‘or in the
barn, is the Straw-elevator, of which several new and cheaper
forms were exhibited at Battersea, but of course without autho-
rized trial; the Worcester Show was therefore a fitting occasion
for the Society to take such cognisance of this machine as cir-
cumstances warrant.

Those first in use are attended with this drawback—that, having
a tall frame mounted on a separate four-wheeled carriage, they
were not easy of transport or of stowage. Moreover, their cost
—from 950i. to 60/—was disproportionate to the requirements
of the case, or even to the materials actually employed.

The endeavours of Messrs. Wright and Campaign to diminish
the cost and simplify the apparatus, are deserving of special
notice and trial. Wright of Boston’s Stalking-machine, when
self-contained, as he sends it out, packs up into a very compact
form, and, when modified according to Messrs. Ransome’s patent,
is but an appendage to the thrashing-machine when travelling.
A long net, strained and raised by shears composed either of
telescopic iron tubes or of wooden poles, which slide out to a
length of 30 feet, supersedes the cumbrous wooden frame which
is so commonly seen standing exposed to the summer sun.

Campaign’s Elevator, as exhibited by Messrs. Clayton and
Shuttleworth, is preferable where the straw has to be delivered
at a considerable distance and height; but this very ingenious
arrangement requires the labour of one man, with probably a
boy in attendance, to tie up the straw in bundles.

In the internal fittings of the thrashing-machine the most
important novelty is the Corn-elevator, invented by J. W. Bruck-
shaw and exhibited by W. S. Underhill. This apparatus was
first brought out at Battersea, but it has never until this year
come under the notice of Judges, whose opinion of its merits
would have been the more acceptable, since some of our first
implement-makers have adopted its use.

Its action may be thus briefly explained :—The Elevator con-
sists of an ordinary fan-spindle with blades upon it, which is
driven at considerable speed. The corn from the riddles falls

500 - Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

into the cave containing these fan-blades, which, like a series of
cricket-bats, strike the grain so as to raise it to the required
height. These smart blows also separate the chaff from the corn
in the “white heads” or “coshes,” and carry it clear away. It
professes to act also as a barley-horner, but whether a blow is as
effectual as a cut for performing this operation is a point to be
established only by trial.

Report of the Judges for Winnowing Machines, Corn Screens, Corn and Seed
Separators, Barley Hummellers, and Miscellaneous Articles.
Wrssowrse Macaryes.

The machines exhibited in this Class were numerous, and after two pre-
liminary trials, seven were selected for further trial; and the quality of work
done was the ehief consideration.

Quantity of |
Name of Exhibitor. | Article. Corn Time. Price.
} Winnowed.
ae
Bushels. | Min. Seo] £ & |
Smith = wd aa oe! pM | 2 i 8 eole Sa
R. bes ate! and Sons =. Vallineel aoe il k. 25 8 0
wney arene ne ai 1 12 | 1110
Trustees of W. Crosskill <a ~ send) NORGE as 0 48 8 10
Boby a) afl. Saag >? See @ 15 0
Cooch a ike tla ee en eee 14 10
Baker =e 244 | ae . 1 45 9 10

The Prize of 15/. was awarded to Mr. Cooch.
The Prize of 10/. was awarded to Mr. Sawney.
The Prize of 5/. was awarded to R. Hornsby and Sons.

Corn ScREENS.

Three only of these machines were tried, 2 bushels of wheat and 1 of barley
being given to each. Both the quality ae the work done and the time
occupied were taken into account in the decision.

Name of Exhibitor. Article. | Time. | Price. Remarks, *
| Min. Sec | So
Nalder and Nalder 5384 | 1 45 | Wheat 8 O
5 oe Fume: ' 3 Barley
Roby «. ~ (.. | 4121 |. 1 53 | Wheat.9 8
a“ ee i 1 50 | Barley
Penny and Co. .. | 5255 2 5 | Wheat 14 14| An expanding screen,
oe J5 ate +9 1 8 | Barley well adapted for any

description of corn,

The Prize of 6/. was awarded to Penny and Co.
The Prize of 4/. was awarded to Mr, Boby,

The corn and seed separators being nearly the same kind of implements as
the above, the Prize was withheld.

Report on the Worcester Show-yard 50}

- Banter Howerrers.

lh this Class seven machines were tested, and the following awards made :-—

To Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, the Prize of 3/7.
To Mr. Boby, the Prize of 2/.

MiscELLANEOts ARTICLES.
Silver Medals were awarded as follows :—

‘Name of Exhibitor. | Articie.
BR. Hornsby and Sons -- | 1963 | Root pulper.
Aimesand Barford .. .. 4065 | Wrought-iron ballasting roller.
ML Machinder .. .. .. | 1584 Potato separator.
E.Houmpbris -- .. ..; 1013 | paeees elover thrashing-machine.
CoMMENDED.
= Name of Exhibitor. Article.
Wallis, Haslam, and Steevens 1104 Patent steerage attached to drill.
@iarkandSon .. . 4059 Adjustable scythe.
A. W. Gower and Semosix3 4416 Combined corn distributor.
W.S.Underbill .. .. .- | 5126 Cheese press.
Seaman and Dipping .. .. 4029 | Excelsior steel whippletrees.
: ’
(Signed) G. M. Hiewett.
AnTauer Rice.

* With respect to the machines for dressing corn it may be
remarked that, whilst the Penney’s Prize Corn-screen was ‘a new
and ingenious device, Cooch’s Prize Hand-dressing Machine was
still pretty much in the same form as when it superseded the
— fan fifty years ago.

Penrléy’s Prize "Expanding Corn-separator has been a good
deal taken up by the makers of thrashing-machines, which is
an indication that they have faith in this ingenious novelty, and
the more so because any little accidental derangement is of more
importance when it takes place in a combination of complicated
machinery than when the machine is working by itself.

This Corn-screen is composed of a continuous coil of elastic
wire, wound round the iron bars of a skeleton drum. Near the
upper end of the screen these bars are inserted, like a telescope,
into hollow tubes, and are, therefore, capable of elongation,
whereby the distance between each wire of the coil (in all but
the head of the screen) can be increased. The screen can there-
fore be made coarser or finer at pleasure. The idea is ingenious.
The intervals between the wires were very regular in the machine
examined ; but it is possible that if a large grain of corn gets
fixed in any part of the coil, the harmony of the spaces may be
disturbed, and the action rendered defective.

502 Report on the Worcester Show-yard.

Child’s Patent Grain Separator was again seen at work, per-
fectly separating and sorting the grain, by its.twofold blast and
the exhausts. This machine is very largely used by the millers
in this country to improve the samples of corn as purchased from
the farmer, and since the latter can turn inferior grain to better
account than any one else, it might be serviceable on any farm
provided with fixed steam-power.

Among the Agricultural articles exhibited which belong to no
definite class, none have more of a growing interest than the port-
able farm-railway. As steam-cultivation advances in clay-dis-
tricts (in which materials for road-making are so often wanting),
and superfluous horses are sold off, horse-labour will have to be
economized even at a slack time of year. Moreover, the steam-
cultivator will here help you to grow, but not to remove, large
crops of roots. With the ordinary farm-track, as the traffic
increases the difficulty of transport is augmented in a very much
higher degree, until it becomes insuperable: whenever, therefore,
the common cart and waggon are again under review, such a
substitute as the tramway-truck and its movable road may deserve
special attention.

Mr. Grant has made praiseworthy efforts to reduce the movable
railway to its most simple elements : his continuous bearing upon
the ground, his simple joint from the insertion of a projecting iron
tongue on one rail into the iron mouth of the next; and lastly,
his plain iron tie instead of a sleeper, are points which enable
him to perform with much ease and despatch the removals which
the branch-line of a farm-railway must be constantly undergoing.
But it is questionable whether his system is not rather a sub-
stitute for the barrow than the cart; whether horse-traction can be
well applied to it (and this is essential to economy), and also
generally whether it is on a sufficiently large scale to be suited
to the farm, It is satisfactory to know that its merits will be.
tested by an active agriculturist, who is prepared to make the
venture, which involves an outlay of about 70/. for a quarter
of a mile, or 110/. for half a mile of rail, with trucks, tum-
table, &c.

For works on a larger scale in connexion with an iron tram-
way, the well known portable railway of the two Crosskill firms
will probably hold its ground, or become as much in use in
England as on large estates on the Continent, where roads are
wanting and timber abundant,

Among the Miscellaneous articles which received medals or
commendations, the wrought-iron ballasting Roller of Messrs,
Aimes and Barford has the advantage that it travels light when
empty, and, from its large diameter, easily overcomes an obstacle,
The opening left for pouring in water is closed by a brass nut. |

4
Report on the Worcester Show-yard. 503

Maunder’s Potato Separator may be thus described :—It consists
of a riddle on an inclined plane, divided into two compartments
floored with wooden laths (resting on rollers), which are placed at

smaller intervals in the upper than in the lower portion. The
smallest potatoes and the dirt fall through the first set of laths,
and the dirt again drops through a screen-bottom in the lower
chamber; the seed-potatoes fall through the floor in the second
chamber ; the large ones are carried to the end. Motion is given
by a crank to the rollers, which make the laths vibrate sufficiently
to keep the potatoes in motion ; a wooden floor is necessary, that
the potatoes may not be braised: If this kind of screen were
used for sorting stones for roads, iron-bars would probably be
substituted for the wooden laths.

The novelty in the Patent Steerage exhibited by Wallis and
Co, consists in its having but one wheel, so that a long lever-
power is applied to but one fulcrum: the drill consequently
answers the helm more quickly and easily.

Clarke and Sons’ adjustable Scythe is neat and strong. A gar-
dener will probably appreciate its merits, and so perhaps would
a farm-labourer, if he were well-educated and careful.

Gower and Son in their combined Corn-distributor endeavour
to dispense with the wheels and cups to regulate the feed. In
their drill an eccentric gives a lateral motion to a bar placed
in a trough (in which the corn is placed), having apertures at
regular intervals in the bottom. The eccentric can be so adjusted

- as to vary the stroke of the bar, and therefore the amount of the

feed. If grains were equal and symmetrical, we might anticipate
uniformity of action; as it is, we must await a trial before
arriving at any conclusion.

The* merit of Bruckshaw’s Cheese-press, as exhibited by
Underhill, turns on its simplicity, whereby it occupies little
room, sail dispenses with weights, wheels, and levers.

The Excelsior Steel Whipple-trees carry their recommendation
in the “steel,” which is everywhere displacing wood, though,
perhaps, with more marked adv antage in other instances than
in this.

Hornsby’s Root-pulper will commend itself to the practical
farmer by the character of its knives, or rather grinders, which
are easily drawn (being stopped with wooden pegs), easily sharp-
ened and reset, cheap and durable. Would that man’s ‘ denti-
tion” was as effectual and accommodating! The root is well
cleansed from dirt, and the last slice effectually disposed of.

z
( 504. )

XXIX.— Further Report of Experiments with different Manures on
Permanent Meadow Land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.S., F.CS.,
and J. H. Gitpert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.

Tue object of the present Report is to give an account of the pro-
duce of hay per acre, the chemical composition of the hay, and
the amount of certain constituents removed from the land, in the
fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh seasons of experiments on the
application of different descriptions of manure, each applied
(with some few exceptions or modifications) year after year on
the same of a series of plots of permanent meadow land. The
results obtained on the above points in the first, second, and
third years, and on the variation in the description of plants
developed in the third year, were given in vols, xix. and xx. of this
Journal ; and in the last Number (vol. xxiy., part 1) a detailed
account of the description of plants developed by the different
manures in the last or seventh season (1862), was given.

It is proposed to give the numerical results obtained during
the last four years in regard to the points in question in some
detail, but to comment on them much more briefly than it was
found desirable to do when treating of the subject for the first
time, in the Report above alluded to, to which we would refer the
reader for a more detailed consideration of some of the points now
discussed more briefly, “We shall, however, give in the Tables a
condensed summary of the results obtained over the whole seven
years of the experiments, side by side with those of the later
years, and in the course of our comments frequently compare the
earlier and the later results.

The following is a detailed statement of the manuring of each
plot; and, unless otherwise stated, it has been the same ever
_ year since the commencement of the experiments in 1856. The
quantities per acre are given. ’

Plot 1. Unmanured.

Plot 2. Unmanured (duplicate plot at the further end of the
series

Plot 3a. Reins Pe of lime ; composed of 200 lbs. of bone
ash, and 150 lbs, sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1-7. 4th
season (commencing in 1859); sivas alone the
three previous years.

Plot 3b. Superphosphate of lime; and 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts
(equal parts sulphate and muriate of commerce, sup-
plying about 82 Ibs. nitrogen per acre). 4th season
(commencing in 1859); the three previous seasons
sawdust alone.

Plot 4. 400 lbs. ammonia-salts.

Report of Experiments with different Manures, Se. 505

Plot 5. 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts, and 2000 lbs. sawdust.

Plot 6, 275 Ibs. nitrate of soda of commerce (containing about
41 lbs. nitrogen). 5th season (commencing 1858).

Plot 7. 550 Ibs. nitrate of soda (containing about 82 lbs, nitrogen).
5th season (commencing in 1858).

~ Plot 8. Mixed mineral manure, composed of—

300 lbs. sulphate of potass,

200 Ibs. sulphate of soda,

100 Ibs. sulphate of magnesia.
Superphosphate of lime, as above.

Plot 9. Mixed mineral manure, and 2000 Ibs. sawdust. (The
mixed mineral manure as plot 8 to 1861 inclusive,
and in 1862 the sulphate of potass excluded, and the
amount of sulphate of soda raised to 500 Ibs.).

Plot 10, Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8, and 400 lbs. ammonia-
salts,

Plot 11, Mixed mineral manure, as plot 9, 400 Ibs. ammonia-
salts, and 2000 lbs. sawdust.

Plot 12. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8, 400 Ibs. ammonia-
salts, and 2000 lbs. cut wheat-straw.

Plot 13a. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8, and 800 Ibs.
ammonia-salts, equal about 164 Ibs. nitrogen (only
400 Ibs. ammonia-salts in 1859, 1860, and 1861).

Plot 13. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 13a, to 1861 inclusive ;
the same, with 200 Ibs: silicate of soda and 200 Ibs.
silicate of lime in addition, in 1862, and 800 lbs,
ammonia-salts (only 400 lbs. ammonia-salts in 1809,
1860, and 1861).

Plot 14. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8, and 275 lbs. nitrate

' of soda. 5th season (commencing in 1858). :

Plot 15. Mixed mineral manure, as plot 8, and 550 lbs. nitrate
of soda, 5th season (commencing in 1858).

Plot 16. 14 tons farmyard manure.

Plot 17. 14 tons farmyard manure, and 200 Tbs. ammonia salts.

The first crop each year has always been mown for hay, and
the after-grass eaten off by sheep, once or twice as might be
required, a certain number, according to the amount of grass,
being folded on each plot, and the number of days occupied in
its consumption noted.

Produce of Hay per acre (First Crop).

In Table I. (p. 530) are given the quantities of hay obtained
r acre (first crop) from each plot in each of the four years, 1859,
1860, 1561, and 1862; also the average annual produce, and
average annual increase by manure, over the four and over the

506 Report of Experiments with different Manures
whole seven years of the experiments (1856-1862 inclusive).

It is, of course, a matter of much interest to consider, not
only the actual amounts of produce, or of increase, obtained from
each of the differently manured plots, but also, whether the
amounts increase or diminish year by year as the experiments
proceed.

The duplicate unmanured plot, which was somewhat shaded
from the afternoon sun, gave each year rather more produce
than the other. Taking the mean of the two, the average
annual yield of hay per acre, without manure, was, over the
whole seven years, nearly 254 cwts., and over the last four
years rather more than 26 ecwts., showing that there is as yet
no indication of progressive deterioration where only the natural
produce of the soil and season is taken from the land. Nor is
there as yet evidence of material falling off in gross produce in any
case where artificial mineral manures were employed, notwith-
standing that none of those used supplied every mineral or inor-
ganic * constituent taken off in the increased crop. The details

* The terms “mineral” or “inorganic,” as applied to the constituents of
manures or crops, are, for convenience, employed throughout this paper to
designate the incombustible or “ash constituents,” they having been generally
employed in this restricted sense by Liebig and most other writers on agricultural
chemistry during the last twenty years or more. Yet, in his recent work (Ein-
leitung in die Naturgesetze des Feldbaues, p. 32 e seg.) Baron Liebig repudiates
and ridicules such a classification as unscientific, claims ammonia and its salts
as mineral manures, and accuses Mr. Lawes of setting up, in opposition to his
own, a theory according to which mineral or inorganic manures should contain
only incombustible or ash constituents. To support this allegation, he gives, in
@ Separate paragraph, and in italics (Sperrschrift), the following sentence as a
quotation from Mr. Lawes’s paper on ‘ Agricultural Chemistry,’ vol. viii. p. 240, of
this Journal :—

“Manures are generally divided into two classes, organic and indrganic:
organic manures are those which are capable of yielding to the plant, by decom-
position or otherwise, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Inorganic manures are
those substances which contain the mineral ingredients of which the ash of plants
is found to consist.”—[ Translation. ]

But the following is the passage as it really stands at the page referred to by
Baron Liebig, and the portions given in capitals are those which are omitted by
Baron Liebig in his professed quotation :—

“I Now COME To THE ACTION OF manures, WHICH are generally divided into
two classes—organic and inorganic, ALTHOUGH THIS DISTINCTION IS BY NO
MEANS SATISFACTORY, I SHALL ADOPT IT AS BEING GENERALLY UNDERSTOOD.
Organic manures are those which are capable of yielding to the plant, by decom-
position or otherwise, ORGANIC MATTER—carbon, hydrogen, OXYGEN, and nitrogen
—CONSTITUENTS WHICH UNCULTIVATED PLANTS DERIVE ORIGINALLY FROM THE
ATMOSPHERE. Inorganic manures are those substances which contain the mineral
ingredients, of which the ash of plants is found to consist.”

Here, then, in this which was Mr. Lawes'’s first paper, the classification which
Baron Liebig accuses him of originating is only adopted as being already at that
time “ generally understood,” and with a distinct protest that it is “‘ by no means
satisfactory.” Yet, in order to fix the origination of the distinction upon Mr.
Lawes, Baron Liebig joins together disconnected ty of a passage, and gives
them, in a separate paragraph, in italics (Sperrschrift), and between unbroken
inverted commas, omitting (besides less material portions) an entire sentence

on Permanent Meadow Land. 507

given in our paper in the last Number of the Journal do show,
however, that the description of plants developed has, in most
cases, been much changed, and in some deteriorated, under the

which distinctly disproves the truth of the allegation in support of which the
professed quotation is brought forward! Having thus moulded Mr, Lawes’s sen-
tence to suit the requirements of his argument, he goes on to say :—

«“ From this doctrine of the practical man it necessarily followed that a mineral
manure must be one which contained only the ash-constituents of vegetable pro-
ducts, and from the composition of which ammonia-salts, as belonging to organic
manures, are excluded. To be sure, in every chemical manual ammonia and its
salts are treated of among inorganic substances, since they are objects of chemical
manufacture, whilst organic matters cannot be produced by man; and this fact
might well have led to the suspicion that ammonia was not necessarily excluded
from an inorganic manure. The agricultural chemistry of the practical man was
evidently a peculiar chemistry, which had no connexion with ordinary chemistry,
and thus his theory might well find some justification, but according to my theory
I obviously took another point of view. Mr. Lawes, indeed, mentions in his paper
(p. 21), that my manures smelt of ammonia, and hence contained an ammonia-
salt; but he implied that this might be a little artifice, in order to give to my
manures an efficacy which, according to his interpretation of my theory, they
should not possess.”—[T'ranslation. ] :

The following quotations, taken from several of Baron Liebig’s works, will
show whether he has not been accustomed to use the terms “ mineral” or
“ jnorganic ” to designate the incombustible or ash-constituents, and to distinguish
these from “ammonia,” “ ammoniacal salts,” ‘‘ atmospheric constituents,’ &c.
The italicising is our own :—

“The mineral constituents act, as is shown by the produce of the unmanured
land, without any artificial supply of ammonia.”

«“ The ammonia increases the produce only if the mineral constituents be present
in the soil in due quantity, and in an available form. P

“ Ammonia is without effect if the mineral constituents are wanting. Conse
quently, the action of ammonia is limited to the acceleration of the action of the
anineral constituents in a given time.”—Principles, pp. 86-7 (1855).

“.....4.. the other is the action of sulphate of ammonia as a solvent for
certain important mineral constituents of the soil.”—Ib., p. 99 (1855).

“ Ammonia, when used as a manure alone, and when there is a want of mineral
constituents in the soil, is like the spirits which the labourer takes in order to
increase his available labour, power, or imagination; and, like that stimulant, its
action, in this case, is followed by a corresponding exhaustion.”—Ib., p. 106 (1855).

“Hence it is quite certain that in our fields the amount of nitrogen in the
crops is not at all in proportion to the quantity supplied in the manure, and that
the soil cannot be exhausted by the exportation of products containing nitrogen
(unless these products contain at the same time a large amount of mineral ingre-
dients), because the nitrogen of vegetation is furnished by the atmosphere, and not
by the soil. Hence also we cannot augment the fertility of our fields, or their
powers of production, by supplying them with manures rich in nitrogen, or with
ammonia salts alone. The crops on a field diminish or increase in exact proportion
to the diminution or increase of the mineral substances conveyed to it in manure.”
—4th Edition, p. 210 (1847?).

“ But, at the same time, it is of great importance for agriculture to know with
certainty that the supply of ammonia is unnecessary for most of our cultivated
plants, and that it may be even superfluous, if only the soil contain a sufficient
supply of the mineral food of plants, when the ammonia required for their develop-
ment will be furnished by the atmosphere.”—4th Edition, p. 212 (213).

“A fertile soil must contain in sufficient quantity, and in a form adapted for
assimilation, all the inorganic materials indispensable for the growth of-plants.

“A field artificially prepared for culture contains a certain amount of these
ingredients, and also of ammoniacal salts and decaying vegetable matter.”—
Ath Edition, p. 169.

“ The meaning of these sentences in my work is this: ‘ that ammoniacal salis

508 Report of Experiments with different Manures

influence of the different manures; and those given further on
relating to the chemical composition of the hay, and to the

amount of constituents removed from the land, will lead to the

conclusion that some of the manures have so forced the crop as
materially to reduce the available store within the soil of some
constituents which the manures themselves did not supply. On
the other hand, even with 14tons of farmyard manure per acre
per annum, doubtless supplying annually much more of every
mineral constituent than would be removed in the crop, the rate
of increase is very little higher during the last four than during
the whole seven years of the experiments.

With ammonia-salts alone (Plot 4) there has been an average
increase over the seven years of about 8 cwts., and with ammonia
salts and sawdust (Plot 5) of about 9 cwts. of hay per acre per
annum ; but over the last four years, of only about 53 ewts. with
ammonia salts alone, and about 74 cwts. with the sawdust in
addition. It is obvious, therefore, that, when ammonia salts
were used year after year without mineral manure, there was an
undue exhaustion of the mineral constituents of the soil. That
this was so is confirmed, not only by the fact of the deteriorated
character of the herbage, as shown by the results of the botanical
examinations recorded in the last Number of the Journal, but
also by the evidence relating to the chemical composition of the
produce. «

alone’ have no effect; that, in order to be-efficacious, they must be accompanied
by the mineral constituents, and that the effect is then proportional to the supply
—not of ammonia, but of the mineral substances.” —Principles, p. 55 (1855).

‘“‘ These two paragraphs are altogether irreconcilable; for if Mr. Lawes admit
that the mineral constituents are indispensable to plants, how can he maintain that
these very mineral constituents are replaceable by ammonia, that is to say, that by
re of ammonia we can altogether dispense with them? ”—Principles, p. 89

1855).

. Te has been mentioned in the preceding part of the chapter, that animal excre-
ments may be replaced in agriculture, by other materials containing their consti-
tuents. Now, as the principal action of the former depends upon their amount of
mineral food so necessary for the growth of cultivated plants, it follows, that we
might manure with the mineral food of wild plants, or, in other words, wrrH
THEIR ASHES [the capitals are Baron Liebig’s own]; for, these plants are governed
by the same laws, in their nutrition and growth, as cultivated plants themselves.”
—3rd Edition, p. 183 (1843).

** But the weight or amount of the crops is in proportion to the quantity of food
of both kinds, atmospheric and mineral, which is present in the soil, or conveyed to
it in the same time. By manuring with ammoniacal salts a soil rich in available
mineral constituents, the crops are augmented in the same way as they would have
been if we had increased the proportion of ammonia in the air.”—Principles,
p. 77-8 (1855). :

These sentences will be sufficient to show whether or not Liebig is justified in
now attempting to fall back, in agricultural discussions, upon the more strictly
scientific meaning of the terms “ mineral” and “ inorganic,” so as to include
within them “ ammonia,” “ ammoniacal salts,” “ atmospheric constituents,” &c.,
and thus to give a new definition to his mineral theory, or rather substitute at this
date for his own theory, which has proved to be erroneous, another not his own.

on Permanent Meadow Land. 509

The experiments with nitrate of soda (Plots 6 and 7) were
commenced two years later than those with the other manures, so
that we have the results of only five instead of seven years to record.
Unlike those with ammonia-salts alone, however, we have, so far,
indication rather of progressive increase than decrease of annual
effect. There is also, as yet, rather more of produce and increase
from a given amount of nitrogen applied in the form of nitrate
of soda (Plot 7), than from an equal amount in the form of
ammonia salts (Plot 4). The description of plants developed
was, moreover, very different in the two cases. These results
may be partly due to the fact that the soil having less power to
absorb and retain the nitric acid of the nitrate than the ammonia of
the ammonia-salts, the former would probably be more rapidly
diffused in the soil, and hence minister to the wants of plants
whose roots take a wider range than those of the plants most
benefited by ammonia salts.

The experiments with superphosphate of lime alone (Plot 3a),
and with superphosphate of lime and ammonia-salts (Plot 3d),
were commenced three years later than most of the others, so that
the results recorded refer to the produce of four years only.

The average annual increase with the superphosphate of lime
alone was little more than 2 cwts. of hay per acre ; and the produce
has fluctuated, from year to year, much in the same degree as
that without manure, excepting that in the fourth season (1862)
the produce scarcely exceeded the average without manure.

The addition of ammonia-salts to superphosphate of lime,
raised the average annual produce from 28} cwts. to 434 cwts.,
and the average annual increase beyond the produce without
manure from a little more than 2 cwts. to nearly 174 cwts.

When to superphosphate of lime, salts of potass, soda, and
magnesia were added (Plot 8), the average annual produce was
raised from 28} cwts. to 364 cwts. of hay per acre; but the in-
crease under these circumstances consisted almost wholly, if not
exclusively, of Leguminous plants—clovers, meadow vetchling,
and bird’s-foot trefoil. Both the average produce and average in-
crease were rather higher during the last four years than over the
whole seven years of the experiments, and there is as yet no sign of
diminution. In fact, this “mixed mineral manure” supplied
annually more of all the mineral constituents otherwise most
likely to be exhausted than would be taken off in the increased
produce of Leguminous plants.

The addition of sawdust to the mixed mineral manure (Plot 9)
scarcely added at all to the produce. It should be observed, in
regard to the manuring of this plot, that in 1862 the potass-salt
was omitted, and a larger quantity of soda-salt substituted, and
the result was (as shown in the last Number of the Journal)

510 Report of Experiments with different Manures

a notable diminution in the proportion of Leguminous herbage,
though the total yield of hay per acre was not diminished.

The addition of 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts (equal parts sulphate
and muriate) to the mixed mineral manure of Plot 8 (Plot 10)
increased the average annual produce over the last four years
from 36} cwts. to 53? cwts. of hay, that is, by about 184 cwts;
and the average annual increase obtained by this mixture, above
the produce without manure, was nearly 28? cwts. over the last
four, and rather more than 314 cwts. over the whole seven years.
There is, therefore, when this large amount of ammonia-salt is
used in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure, an indica-
tion of a slight falling off in the annual yield. In reference to
this point it should be particularly borne in mind, that whilst
the produce by the mixed mineral manure alone contained Legu-
minous herbage in amount equal to nearly one-fourth of its
total weight, that grown by the mixed mineral manure and
ammonia-salts contained scarcely a trace of such herbage. ‘The
produce in the latter case consisted (with the exception of a few
luxuriant weeds), almost entirely of Graminaceous plants, or

_grasses, properly so called, which require a large amount of
silica for their development ; and as the manure employed con-
tained none, the large amount of increase must have caused a
considerable drain of the available silica of the soil, the limita-
tion of the supply of which probably set a limit to the amount
of increase obtained by this otherwise heavy manuring.

The addition of 2000 Ibs. of sawdust per acre per annum to
the mixed mineral manure and ammonia-salts |(Plot 11) very
little affected either the amount or the character of the produce,
which was, however, rather less than without the sawdust. On
this Plot 11, as on Plot 9, the potass-salt was omitted from the
manure in 1862, but the amount of soda-salt increased, and
about 2 cwts. less hay were obtained than on Plot 10 with the
potass and without the sawdust. This difference is, however, but
small; and although (not having at present at command either
the analytical details relating to the first crop, or the results
relating to the after-grass) we do not record the amounts of the
first crop of the present season (1863), it may be mentioned in
passing that Plot 11, without potass, has this year given a some-
what larger amount of Graminaceous hay than Plot 10 with it.-

The general result in regard to the effects of these mixtures
of mineral constituents and ammonia-salts (Plots 10 and 11) is,
that, by their means, we have obtained for seven or eight years
consecutively, an average produce of about 2} tons of hay per
acre, and an average increase of about 1} ton.

Adding to the same mixture of mineral constituents and
ammonia-salts 2000 Ibs. of cut wheat-straw annually, scarcely

on Permanent Meadow Land. BY ig

increased the average produce of hay, notwithstanding that
the straw was calculated to furnish, by gradual decompo-
sition, besides other mineral constituents, the silicates in
which the artificial mixture was deficient, and to contribute a
supply of carbonic acid for the solution of the mineral consti-
tuents of the soil, and a small! amount of available nitrogen also.
The after-grass has, however, generally been slightly more
luxuriant; and, as shown in the last number of the Journal,
the description of herbage developed was somewhat different,
and, perhaps, rather superior.

On Plot 13 (divided in 1862 into 13a and 130), in addition
to the mixed mineral manure, there was applied a double or
very excessive amount of ammonia-salts (800 lbs.) in the first,
second, third, and seventh years of the experiments, but only
400 Ibs. in each of the three intermediate years, 1859, 1860,
and 1861. The result of this very heavy dressing was an
average over the seven years of above 3 tons of hay per acre
per annum. It was somewhat less during the last four years,
in three of which the single amount only of ammonia-salts was
used; but in 1862 (and in the present year also) the produce
was again increased with the increased supply of ammonia-salts,
though by no means in proportion to that increased supply. As
shown in the last number of the Journal, the heavy crops grown
on this plot contained not a trace of Leguminous plants ; but,
with the exception of a few very luxuriant weeds, they consisted
almost entirely of comparatively few species of very free-growing
gTasses, in an over-luxuriant and very stemmy condition.

As just alluded to, in 1862, that is, after the experiments had
been continued for six seasons, this Plot 13 was divided into
two equal portions ; and to one of these (130) 200 lbs. of a silicate
of soda, and 200 lbs. of a silicate of lime, were applied per acre,
in addition to the manures of Plot 13a. This led to scarcely
any appreciable increase in the first year of the application, but
the results of the present or second season show an increased
produce of about 6 cwts. of hay per acre where, the silicates
were used; and it was obvious to the eye that some of the
grasses were more luxuriant. It remains to be seen what will
be the effects of this addition in future years. There is no doubt
that the heavy dressing of 13a, without silicates, forcing, as it
does to such a degree, the luxuriant growth of Graminaceous
plants, which require more silica than herbage of any other
description, must tax very severely the store of available
silicates within the soil. Additional evidence will be given
on the point further on; but it may be here remarked in
passing, that the forcing of very heavy crops of hay by the
use of artificial manures alone is by no means recommended,

VOL. XXIV. 21

512 - Report of Experiments with different Manures

It would be far too expensive to supply in this way all the-
constituents that are requisite for the production of such
crops without undue exhaustion of the soil, or deterioration —
in the character of the herbage. Artificial manures cam,
as a rule, only be used with advantage and economy for the
hay crop, when the land receives periodically a dressing of
stable or farmyard manure. Such manure restores the mineral
constituents taken from the land in the crop more completely,
and some of them more economically, than any other; it at the
same time supplies a large amount of available nitrogen, and of
organic matter yielding by its decomposition carbonic acid, and
is caleulated to favour a more complex and generally a superior
description of herbage.

Plot 14 received the same description and amount of mineral
manure as Plots 8, 10, 12, and 13a, and, in addition, nitrate of
soda containing ‘about. half the amount of nitrogen supplied in the
ammonia-salts of Plot 10; and Plot 15, with the same mineral
manure, had, in addition, double the amount of nitrate—that is,
about the same amount of nitrogen as that in the ammonia-salts
of Plot 10. These experiments, like those with nitrate of soda
alone, were commenced only in 1858, two’years later than most of
the series. The figures show an average oyer the five years of
44 cwts. of hay per acre per annum with the smaller amount
of nitrate, and the mineral manure, and of 513 cwts. with the
larger amount, against 562 cwts. with the same mineral manure,
and ammonia-salts equal in nitrogen to this larger amount of
nitrate.

Ammonia-salts, in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure,
haye, therefore, given a larger amount of produce than an equal
amount of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda. The descrip-
tion of herbage developed was, however, strikingly different in
the two cases, and very different also with the smaller and the
larger amounts of nitrate, as will be found by reference to the
last number of the Journal. It should be added, that there is as
yet no evidence of diminution of produce from year to year where
the nitrate (either in the larger or the smaller quantity) was used
in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure.

The plots manured with farmyard manure remain to be con-
sidered. The amount annually supplied (14 tons) would contain
more of every mineral constituent, and considerably more nitrogen,
than the produce obtained by its use, besides a large quantity of
organic matter yielding by its decomposition carbonic acid and
other products. When the farmyard manure was used without
the addition of ammonia-salts, the average annual produce
amounted to only about 42} cwts. of hay, or to less than 1 ton
above that without manure, and to eonsiderably less than was

on Permanent Meadow Land. 513

obtained by the most active artificial manures. The descrip-
tion of herbage was, however, very different—that grown by
the farmyard manure being very much more complex and, upon
the whole, superior in quality to that grown by the very active
artificial Manures.

The addition of 200 lbs. of ammonia-salts to the comprehen-
"sive, but not very rapidly active, farmyard manure increased the
average annual produce by only about 6 cwts. of hay; still,
therefore, giving a produce considerably less than that obtained
by the most active artificial manures. Nor did the addition of
ammonia-salts improve the character of the herbage, which was
more Graminaceous, consisted in larger proportion of compara-
tively few species, and was much more stemmy, than when the
farmyard manure was used alone. The number, and proportion
in the produce, of miscellaneous or weedy plants was, however,
considerably reduced under the influence of the ammonia-salts.

Reviewing the results of the whole series, it is observed that
the average produce without manure is slightly higher over the
last four than over the whole seven years of the experiments ;
indicating, therefore, that the conjoint resources of soil and
season were at least equal, if not more favourable, during the
later years. A similar result is observed in the case of the farm-
yard manure plot, and of the plots where there was a liberal
supply of mineral constituents without ammonia in the artificial
manures ; but where ammonia-salts were used in large quantity,
either alone or in conjunction with the mineral manures, there
was a tendency to a rather diminished rate of increase as
the experiments proceed. The indication, so far as the gross
amount of hay obtained is concerned, is, however, as yet but
slight ; and in the present season (1863) the produce on Plot 13a,
where the very excessive amount of ammonia-salts was used,
and where the mineral manure contained no silicates, is heavier
than in any previous season. The chief indication of exhaustion
of certain constituents, or of deterioration of the produce, is
afforded by a consideration of the description and composition
of the herbage developed. Where nitrate of soda is used, whether
alone or in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure, there
is as yet no evidence of progressive falling off in the annual

yield. ,
Produce of After-Grass.

Table Il. (p. 531) shows the amounts of hay per acre to which
the after-grass of each of the last four seasons is estimated to be
equivalent, and also the annual average over the four and over the
seven years of theexperiments. As already mentioned, the after-
grass was always consumed by sheep (once or twice, as might be

212

514 Report of Experiments with different Manures

required), so that the estimation of the quantity of hay to which i

corresponded is necessarily a matter of calculation merely. The
plan adopted was—to fold sheep on each plot, the number depend-
ing upon the amount of grass; to moye the hurdles day by day as
required ; to note the time taken to consume the produce; and
then to estimate, approximately, the amount of hay to which the
consumed grass was equivalent, on the assumption that each
sheep would, on the average, consume grass equal to 16 lbs. of
hay per head per week. Such an estimate, though only approxi-
mative, still affords a very useful indication of the relative, if not
the actual, amounts of after-grass of the respective plots. In
1860 and 1862 it was so eaten off twice, but in each of the other
years only once.

It will be obvious that, as the animals would return to the
land by far the larger proportion of both the mineral constituents
and the nitrogen of the produce, to serye as manure for the first
crop of the succeeding season, and so on each year, the amounts
of hay estimated as above described cannot be added to the
actual amounts of the first crop, and the sum reckoned as the
annual yield on the respective plots. The latter would, however,
it is true, be somewhat higher than the amount of first crop hay
alone.

Judging from the relative amounts of first-crop hay where
the mineral constituents would probably: be in relatively large
amount (without manure, with purely mineral manure, or with
farmyard manure, for example), and where, therefore, the produce
would be the more directly limited by the conditions of season,
it would be concluded that these were the least favourable in 1859,
more so in 1860, and still more favourable, and about equally so,
in 1861 and 1862. Judging, in the same way, from the esti-
mated amounts of hay corresponding to the after-grass, it would
appear that the period of its grow th was the most favourable in
1860, and nearly equally so in 1862 (these being the two years
in which the produce was eaten off twice), that it was somewhat
less favourable in 1861, and less so still in 1859. But it is
obvious that the influence of accumulation, or of non-exhaustion
of previous manuring, as well as that of season, has to be taken
into account as affecting the produce in one year compared with
another. The less the exhaustion of the’ more active manurial
constituents by the growth of the first crop, the greater will be
the accumulation for the after-growth, though their activity will
greatly depend on the climatic conditions. And, again, varia-
tions in the amount of after-grass will affect the amount of
manure left by the animals on the surface of the land, to be
washed in and serve for the first crop of the succeeding year ;
though it will be obvious that any effects of such variation will

on Permanent Meadow Land. 515

be due to the condition and distribution of the constituents
rather than to any actual loss or gain of them.

The produce of after-grass was, upon the whole, the largest
in 1860, when it was eaten off twice—the first time early in
September. In accordance with this, the records show that
in the months of July and August the maximum tempe-
rature was comparatively low, the minimum temperature
moderate, the mean temperature and the range of temperature
both low, and the fall of rain and the number of days on which
it fell above the average. In 1862, also, the grass was fed off
twice, commencing the first time soon after the middle of
August; and the characters of the July and August of that
season more nearly approached those of 1860, as above quoted,
than did those of either of the other years.. In 1859 the after-
growth was both the smallest in amount and the latest, the
sheep not being put upon the land at all until November 14;
and coincidently with this there was comparatively high tem-
perature, and somewhat below the average amount and distri-
bution of rain—especially during the first few weeks after the
removal of the hay-crop. In 1861 the amounts of after-grass
were more than in 1859, but less than in either 1860 or 1862,
and the produce was eaten off only once—namely, early in
October. The characters of the season in regard both to tem-
perature and amount of rain were less favourable for succulent
growth than in either 1860 or 18€2, and as to amount of rain
less favourable than in 1859 also. In regard, however, to the
distribution of rain, or the number of days on which it fell, the
month of July (1861) was far above, and that of September
about, the average.

From these few observations it will be obvious that the varia-
tions in the amounts of after-grass in one year compared with
another were very directly dependent on the characters of the
seasons; they were, in fact, much more so than on the
greater or less amounts of hay removed in the first crop. It
is, indeed, remarkable how little was the fluctuation in the pro-
duce of first-crop hay from season to season, with one and the
same manure, compared with that of the after-grass. The cha-
racter of the herbage of the first crop was, however, remarkably
affected by the character of the season of its growth; one and
the same amount. of produce representing a very different
description ef hay in the different years. The variation mani-
fested itself not only in a difference in the prevalence of par-
ticular plants, but more strikingly in the character of their
development—the relative tendency to give a leafy or stemmy,
base-leafed or stem-leafed, early or late, ripe or unripe produce.
But the gross amounts of after-grass varied exceedingly from

516 Report of Experiments with different Manures

year to year. In 1860 they amounted on the average to twice as
much as in 1859 ; in 1861 to considerably less than in 1860, but
generally to at least 15 time as much as in 1859; and in 1862
in most cases to nearly as much and in some to considerably

more than 1860.

Without manure, the after-grass of 1859 was estimated as equal

to something less than 8 ecwts., that of 1860 about 19 cwts., that -

of 1861 nearly 14 ewts., and that of 1862 about 152 cwts..of hay.
With farmyard manure the amounts were scarcely 10 cwts. in
1859, more than 213 cwts. in 1860, nearly 16 ewts. in 1861, and
over 21 cwts. in 1862. With the heavy dressings of mixed
mineral manure and ammonia-salts they ranged from about 11 to
nearly 15 cwts. in 1859, from over 21 to over 22 cwts. in 1860,
from about 16 to about 18 cwts. in 1861, and from about 17 to
about 24 ewts. in 1862.

Comparing more directly the effects of the different manures
on the amounts of after-grass, it is seen that the quantities varied,
in 1859 from under 8 cwts. without manure to about 14} ewts.
with the heaviest artificial manuring; in 1860 from about
19 cwts., to about 22 cwts.; in 1861 from about 13% ewts. to
over 18 cwts.; and in 1862 from about 153 ecwts. to about
241 ewts.

The facts relating to the after-grass show, then, that the
amounts varied very much both according to season and
manuring, and that, when both were favourable, they were fre-
quently equivalent to more than one ton of hay. Taking the
average of the seven years, the after-grass without manure was
estimated as equivalent to about 123-cwts. of hay per acre per
annum, and that with the heaviest artificial manuring at nearly
193 cwts.

Chemical Composition of the Hay.

In our former report on the composition of the hay grawn by
the different manures in the earlier years of the experiments
(vol. xx., part 2), we treated of the proportions of—nitrogenous
substance, fatty matter, woody fibre, other non-nitrogenous vege-
table compounds, mineral matter (ash), total dry substance, and
water; and to that more complete consideration of the subject
we refer the reader. In treating, on the present occasion, of ‘the
composition of the hay grown in the fourth, fifth, sixth, and
seventh seasons, attention will be confined to the proportions of
dry matter, of mineral matter (ash), and of nitrogen; and a few
general observations on the circumstances affecting the compo-
sition may here be made, thereby rendering the indications of
the results themselves the more readily understood.

Comparing the hay of one season with that of another, a high

i
!

on Permanent Meadow Land. 517

‘percentage of dry matter may simply indicate dry weather at the
‘time of cutting and during the making; or, it may also indicate
a relatively high degree of maturity or ripeness. ‘Comparing
the produce of one plot with that of another differently manured,
but grown in the same season, and cut and made under the
same conditions of weather, a relatively high percentage of dry
substance indicates a comparatively high degree of ripeness or
maturity, and most probably a stemmy rather than a leafy con-
dition of development.

As the percentage of mineral matter or mcombustible consti-
tuents, even though the same im the fresh hay, may be very
different in its dry substance, according to the proportion of the
latter, and as the percentage in the dry substance indicates much
more clearly the probable condition of the hay, it is important
that it, as well as that im the fresh hay, should be considered.
Other things being equal, a high percentage of mineral matter
im the dry substance indicates a leafy rather than a stemmy
“development, and an immature rather than a ripe condition.
The percentage of mineral matter in the produce is also more or
less, though comparatively slightly, affected by the liberality
or deficiency of available mineral constituents within the soil ;
but as the tendency of the development is very much affected
by these circumstances, the effects are, in part at least, indirect ;
that is to say, the relative supply of mineral constituents, affect-
“Ing as it does the relative development of leafand stem, and
the tendency to ripen, the percentage of mineral matter in the
produce is in its turn affected accordinghy, as above referred to.

The percentage of nitrogen in the dry substance of the hay
may depend on several different conditions. The condition of
manuring being the same, a high percentage in the produce of
one year compared with that of another will most probably in-
dicate a high proportion of leaf to stem, or a green and succulent
ratherthan a ripened condition. ‘Comparing the produce by one
manure with that of another in one and the same season, the
percentage may again depend on various circumstances. Legu-
minous plants, and some weeds, are much richer in nitrogen
than Graminaceous plants in an equal condition of ripeness ;
leafy matter generally contains a higher percentage than stemmy ;
succulent and unripe produce a higher one than that which is
ripe (all of which "eos are much influenced by the cha-
tacter of the manure); and further, when in the succulent and
unripe condition, as produce cut for hay to a certain extent is,
the percentage of nitrogen is generally pretty directly affected
by the relative available supply of it within the soil. That
is to say, an excessively nitrogenous manure will—other things
being equal—give a gene: high percentage of nitrogen at an

518 Report of Experiments with different Manures

equal stage of growth or maturity; but as, within limits, and
under favourable conditions of soil and season, a moderate
supply of nitrogen favours the ripening tendency, the crop more
liberally dressed with nitrogenous manure may, at the same period
of time, be at a more advanced stage of growth,’and it might not
then, as it otherwise would, show a higher percentage of nitrogen
in its dry substance.

Percentage of Diy Matter in the Hay.
Table III. (p. 532), gives, for each plot, the percentage of dry

matter in the hay as carted from the land, in each of the last
four years, also the average percentages over the four, and the
whole seven years of the experiments.

Comparing the produce of one year with that of another, the
order of highest percentage of dry matter was—1859, 1861,
1860, and 1862; and it may be observed that this result is
quite consistent with the characters of the respective seasons
for some time before cutting, and during the making the hay.
The percentages of mineral matter in the dry substance will,
however, show, that there was a real difference in the ripeness
of the produce, as well as in its mere condition of dryness or
dampness according to the weather immediately ‘before the
cutting and during the making. Thus, the produce of 1859 and
1861, with higher percentages * of dry matter than in that of 1860
or 1862, contained lower average proportions of mineral matter
in the dry substance, indicating a greater degree of maturity.

The percentage of .dry matter in the produce varied very
much less comparing that grown by different manures in
the same season, than comparing season with season. In
fact, when it is borne in mind how many circumstances
affect the condition of such complex and indefinitely ripened
produce as hay according to the manure employed, it is only
what we should expect, to find that the difference in the,con-
dition of the produce of two comparable plots may vary, or
even be reversed, according to the characters of the season ; for,
not only will the proportions of Leguminous, Graminaceous, or
other herbage (which are each somewhat differently affected in
development according to season) be very different according to
the manure employed, but the prevalence of one Graminaceous
plant over another, the tendency to leafy or stemmy growth, and
the relative condition of ripeness, will also’ greatly vary. Thus,
with a hot and ripening season, the addition of nitrogenous to
mineral manure may so increase the fixation of carbonaceous
substance as to give a produce containing a higher proportion of
dry substance; whilst in a wetter and colder season the effect
would probably be to give a relatively leafy and succulent

EEE

on Permanent Meadow Land. 519

growth; containing a lower percentage of dry matter. Accord- °
ingly, the relative proportions of dry matter in the produce of
one plot compared with that of another are seen to vary more or
less from season to season. Still the general, though not the in-
variable, result is found to be that, in comparable cases, the larger
the relative supply of available mineral constituents, the higher
will be the percentage of dry matter in the produce at the time
of cutting, due mainly to the greater tendency to ripen under
such conditions. The columns showing the average percentage
of dry matter in the produce of each plot over the four and over
the seven years afford sufficient illustration on this point.

The general result in regard to the proportion of dry matter
in the hay is, that variation of season has very much more in-
fluence than variation in manure in one and the same season;
that, so far as manures have an influence, those which tend
most to stemmy produce, and to ripeness, generally give the
highest proportion of dry substance; that a relatively liberal
supply of mineral manure fayours this tendency; and, that the
greater the excess of nitrogenous manure (provided the supply
of mineral constituents be not insufficient for luxuriant growth),
the lower, other things being equal, will be the proportion of
dry matter in the produce.

Percentage of Mineral Matter (Ash) in the Hay.

Table IV. (p. 533) shows the percentages of mineral residue
obtained on burning the dry substance to ash, and the results
approximately represent the relative proportions of mineral
constituents. The left division gives the percentages in the hay
as taken from the land, and the right those in the dry substance
of the hay. The latter of course give the best view of the
relations of the mineral to the other solid constituents of the
produce, —

Comparing season with season, there were much lower propor-
tions of mineral matter in the dry substance of the riper and
drier produce of 1859 and 1861, than in that of the more
backward and moister produce of 1860 and 1862; and, of the
four seasons, the produce of 1862, which yielded the lowest pro-
portion of dry substance, shows generally, but not invariably,
the highest proportion of mineral matter in that dry substance.

Comparing plot with plot, the percentage of mineral matter
in the dry substance of the hay has a very obvious connexion
with the conditions and characters of growth.

The general result in regard to the proportion of mineral
matter in the dry substance of the hay may be stated to be, that
it was the higher the more liberal the relative supply of mineral
constituents in the manure, the less Graminaceous, or the less

520 Report of Experiments with different Manures

ripe, the produce, and that it was lower in the opposite conditions.
Combinations of these several conditions (the two latter of which
are each much influenced both by season and manure) determine
the actual -character of the produce in regard to the point in
question.

Percentages of Nitrogen in the Hay.

Table V. (p. 534) shows the percentages of nitrogen in the
produce of each plot in each of the four-years under considera-
tion, also the average over the four years, and the average over
the seven years ; the left hand columns give the proportions in
the hay as taken from the land, and the right hand ones those
in the dry substance of the hay.

It has been already stated—that Leguminous produce, in an
equal condition of ripeness, gives a higher percentage of nitrogen
than Graminaceous produce ; that, other things bemg equal, the
more leafy or more unripe the crop, the higher will he the per-
centage of nitrogen in the dry substance ; and that, in suceulent
and unripe produce more especially, the proportion may be
much increased ‘by a liberal or an excessive supply of nitrogen
in manure. Keeping in view these few facts, the variations
exhibited in the Table become intelligible; and it will ‘be
observed that they are less directly traceable to the characters
of the seasons, and much more dependent on variation in ma-
nuring, than are those of either the dry ‘substance or the mineral
matter.

In fact, the general result may be stated tobe, that there was
much less difference from year to year depending upon season,
than between the produce of different plots in one and the
same season depending on difference in manuring ; that, other
things being equal, the more complex and the less Grami-
naceous the herbage (conditions favoured by mineral manures),
the more leafy, the less ripe, and the more excessive thé nitro-
genous manuring, the higher was the percentage of nitrogen 3
that the more Graminaceous, the more stemmy, and the more
ripe (conditions favoured by farmyard-manure, and by artificial
combinations of both mineral and nitrogenous manure), the
lower was the percentage of nitrogen.

It was fully explained in our ‘elaine paper on this ‘subject,
that a percentage of nitrogen in meadow-hay much ‘beyond
that found in the produce grown without manure, or by farm-
yard-manure, is by no means a sure indication of a propor-
tionally increased amount of matured and digestible or assimi-
lable nitrogenous substance. When the increased percentage of ,
nitrogen is due to a large proportion of Leguminous herbage, it
will probably indicate a large proportion of nutritive nitrogenous.

on Permanent Meadow Land. 521

‘compounds; but when it is the result of excessive nitrogenous
manuring, the produce is then almost exclusively Graminaceous
and comparatively immatured ; and, under such circumstances, a
certain portion of the nitrogen may exist in a low condition of
elaboration, and a high proportion may, in fact, represent a
deficient accumulation of other matters rather than a favourable
development of nutritive nitrogenous substance. A ‘percentage
of nitrogen in meadow-hay beyond that obtaimed without manure
or by means of farmyard-manure is, therefore, under ‘such con-
ditions, not to be taken as evidence of higher feeding value.
The value of the manure voided by the animals feeding on the
hay, will, however, be the higher the higher the proportion of
nitrogen it contains—especially as it so happens that there is
generally with a high percentage of nitrogen a high percentage
of mineral matter also.

Produce of Constituents per Acre.

As pointed out in our former report, ‘particular interest
attaches to the question of the amount of constituents taken from
an acre of land in the hay-crop, because very frequently the
system of restoration adopted in the case of the meadow-land
of a farm is even less satisfactory than in that of the land under
rotation; hence it becomes necessary to impress upon the farmer
how great is the exhaustion to which his meadow-land may be
subject.

Tables VI., VIL, and VIII. (pp. 535-6-7) show, respectively,
the amounts of dry substance, of mineral matter, and of nitrogen,
removed per acre from each of the experimental plots, in each
of the last four years ; also the average amounts per annum, both
in the produce and ‘in the increase by:manure, over the four years,
and oyer the whole seven years of the experiments.

Over the seven years, there:has been removed per acre annually
from the unmanured Jand an ‘average of 2358 lbs. (about
21 ewts.) of dry substance, containing 1674 lbs. (14 ewts.) of
mineral matter, and mearly 40 lbs. of nitrogen. This amount
of dry substance is somewhat higher than the average of the first
three years of the experiments; but it agrees very closely with,
though it somewhat exceeds, the amounts annually taken ‘from
the land im wheat or barley grown year after year without
manure. Ihe above amounts of mineral matter and nitrogen
are, however, each ‘fully one-half more than are removed in
wheat or barley grown under-such circumstances.

The unmanured produce of hay would contain between 900
‘and 1000 lbs. of carbon. ‘By ithe use of ammonia-salts alone, or

522 Report of Experiments with different Manures

nitrate of soda alone, the amount of carbon annually removed in
the crop was increased to something under or over 1300 lbs.,
and by means of the mixed mineral manure alone to about the
same amount; but by the mixtures of both ammonia-salts and
mineral manure it was increased to over 2000 lbs. per acre—that
is, without any supply of carbon in the manure. The addition
to the latter manures of 2000 lbs. of sawdust, or 2000 Ibs. of cut
wheat-straw, each containing in round numbers about 700 lbs. of
carbon, gaye no increased yield of it in the produce. Nor did
farmyard-manure, in amount containing at least twice as much
carbon as the crop yielded by its use, give a produce containing
more than about three-fourths as much as the mixtures of
mineral manure and ammonia-salts which supplied none. It
may be concluded, therefore, that, even admitting that the car-
bonaceous manures did supply carbon to the growing plants, the
supply from that source was at any rate unnecessary, provided
only that mineral or incombustible constituents, and nitrogenous
manures were liberally supplied.

As mentioned above, the average amount of mineral or in-
combustible constituents taken from the land without manure
was, over the seven years, 1673 lbs., or about 14 cwts. per acre
per annum, The amount removed in the crop grown by means
of ammonia-salts alone was increased to something under, and
that by nitrate of soda alone to something over, 2 ewts.; there
being, therefore, by such manuring, a further drain upon the
resources of the soil.

By means of the mixed mineral .manure alone, the amount of
incombustible constituents taken away in the crop was raised to
about 2} ewts.; but the manure itself supplied more of almost
every such constituent, except silica, than the entire produce
would contain ; so that, excepting in the item of available silica,
the soil was, compared with the unmanured land, annually accu-
mulating most of the important mineral constituents. By the
addition of ammonia-salts to the mixed mineral manure, the
amount of mineral constituents taken from the land was raised
from about 2} to nearly 32 cwts. when the smaller amount
(Plot 9), and to nearly 4 cwts. when the larger amount of
ammonia-salts (Plot 13a) was employed ; and, as the produce
was in these cases almost entirely Graminaceous, the drain upon
the available silica of the soil would be very considerable ; though,
here again, all the other incombustible constituents were supplied
in far larger quantity than they were taken off in the crops. By
the addition of nitrate of soda to the mixed mineral manure,
whether in the smaller amount (Plot 14), or in the larger amount

on Permanent Meadow Land. 523

equal in nitrogen to the ammonia-salts of Plot 9 (Plot 15), the
quantity of mineral constituents taken from the land was some-
what less. ; .

Lastly on this point: by means of an annual dressing of farm-
yard-manure, doubtless supplying much more of every mineral
constituent than was contained in the crop yielded, rather under
3 cwts. of incombustible constituents were annually taken from
the land ; and, when to the farmyard-manure ammonia-salts were
added, the amount was raised by only 433 lbs.—that is, from
3282 to 372k lbs., or to less than when the artificial mixtures of
mineral manure and ammonia-salts were employed.

The result is, then, that without manure the land yielded,
over seven years, about 14 cwt. of mineral constituents per acre
per annum, the amount increasing rather than diminishing in the
later years; that farmyard-manure supplying, besides other
matters, more of every mineral constituent than the produce
obtained by its use, gave a crop containing about twice as much ;
and that artificial mixtures containing both mineral constituents
and ammonia-salts gave a still larger yield, even when no sili-
cates were supplied in the manure.

It is obvious, that when purchased nitrogenous and phosphatic
manures, such as Peruvian guano, or mixtures of ammonia-salts
or nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime, are alone relied
upon for the increased crop of hay, the drain of potass and avail-
able silica from the soil must be very great. This was illustrated
in some detail in our former report, by reference to the analyses of
the ashes of the hay grown by the different manures; and con-
firmatory evidence of the injurious effects of such exhaustion will
be found on comparing the average annual amounts of mineral
matter taken from each plot over the seven with that over the last
four years. ‘Thus, whilst without manure, with mixed mineral
manure, and with farmyard-manure, the average amount of
mineral constituents annually taken from the land was greater
during the later years than during the whole period of the experi-
ments, it was (with one exception) less in the later years wherever
large quantities of ammonia-salts were employed. A _ similar
result is not as yet observable when nitrate of soda has been
used ; but, as already explained, it is probable that some of the
plants then developed would draw their nutriment from a more
extended range within the soil ; and, if so, a diminution in the
annual yield may be only a little postponed.

These results in regard to the mineral constituents taken from
the land in the hay crop, clearly show how important it is that
due restoration should be made, if the character of the herbage
and the amount of crop are to be maintained. This is best
accomplished in practice by an occasional dressing of well rotted

524 Report of Experiments: with: different DTanures

stable or farmyard-manure. Taking into: account the other con-
stituents at the same time thus supplied, silica and potass are
more advantageously and economically provided in this form
than in any other ; and, as the results: with the farmyard-manure
show,, the increase which a given quantity annually yields,
removes. but a small amount of mineral constituents compared
with that which it supplies, so that the effects extend over several
years, causing, unless specially nitrogenous manures be also
applied, an accumulation within, rather than an exhaustion of
the soil. When farmyard-manure is so employed, a further
increase of crop may, without detriment to the land, be annually
obtained. by the moderate application of the current artificial
manures. containing nitrogen and phosphoric acid; but to this
point we shall recur presently.

Produce of Nitrogen per Acre.

Table VIII. (p. 537) shows the acreage amounts of nitrogen
taken off in the crop of each plot, in each of the last four years,
also the average annual yield, and the average annual, increase of
it, over the last four, and over the whole seven years. A compari-
son of the two columns, giving the annual average yield, shows
that, in the majority of cases, it was almost identical over the
last four, and the whole seven years. The agreement was the
less close where the large amounts of ammonia were used in
conjunction with mineral manure, by which very large crops
were obtained. It is, however, only im the case of Plot 13a,
where the very excessive amount of ammonia-salts was applied
in the first, second, third, and seventh years, that the average
yield of nitrogen is at all materially reduced. during the last four,
as compared with the seven years (98-3 lbs. to 85°8 lbs.). But,
as the supply of nitrogen in the manure was reduced by one-
half in three years out of the four, this is only what might be
expected ; and it is seen that, in the seventh year, whemthe larger
amount of ammonia-salt was again employed, the yield of nitrdgen
per acre in the crop was considerably increased.

Taking the average over the seven years, the result is—that the
yield of nitrogen per acre without manure was within a fraction
of 40 lbs., or about 14 time as much as has been annually taken
from an at of unmanured land in either wheat or barley; that
mineral manures-alone increased the yield by nearly one-half, the
increase being then due to the large amount per acre, and propor-
tion in the produce, of the highly nitrogenized Leguminous -
herbage; that ammonia-salts alone (or nitrate of soda con-
taining about an equal amount of nitrogen) increased it more
than. mineral manures alone, though Leguminous:plants were then
almost excluded, and the produce was almost wholly Grami-

on Permanent Meadow Land. 525

naceous:;, and that the mixtures of mineral manure and ammonia-
salts (or nitrate supplying an equal amount of nitrogen), which
gave a very much increased, and also an almost exclusively
Graminaceous produce, gave also the highest yield of nitrogen
in the series—even more than a mixture of farmyard-manure and
ammonia-salts, together supplying much more nitrogen.

The important question arises—What proportion of the nitro»
gen supplied in the manure is recovered as: increased yield of
it in the crop?

Proportion of the Nitrogen supplied in the Manure which ts
recovered as increased yield of it in the Crop.

In our former Report, with the average results over only three
years before us,, we showed that, under the most favourable con-
ditions, the increased yield of nitrogen in the hay--crop scarcely
reached, and in the average’ of cases fell short of, 50 per cent. of
that supplied in the manure. But it was admitted: that three
years was too short an experience upon which to form a satis-
factory estimate gn the point. The calculations have now been
made for the whole seven years of the experiments.

In Table IX. (p. 538), are recorded the actual amounts of
nitrogen per acre (lbs.), and in Table X. (p. 539) the amounts
for 100 in manure, which were recovéred as increased yield of it,
when known quantities were supplied, each being reckoned
both over the yield without manure, and over that by mixed
mineral manure alone; and, for comparison, the average results
over both the last four and the whole seven years are given.

It is obvious that, in a. practical or economical sense, the only
direct. gain to the farmer of nitrogen in the produce by the use
of mineral and nitrogenous manures together, is' so much as is
over and above the amount yielded by the same mineral manures
when used alone. But, for reasons explained in our former Re-
port, we deem it, upon the whole, the most consistent with what
we know of the facts, to reckon at least so much of the nitrogen
of the produce grown by nitrogenous. manure as is over and
above that yielded without manure, to have’ its source in the
nitrogen supplied, whether the nitrogenous manure be employed
alone, or in conjunction with mineral manure.

Reeckoned in this way, Table X. shows that, when am-
monia-salts were used alone (Plot 4), 27-4 per cent. only of the
nitrogen so supplied was. recovered as increased yield over the
seven years, and very nearly the:same proportion, 27:1 per cent.,
over the last four years. With salts of ammonia and sawdust
(Plot 5), reckoning of course the nitrogen in the sawdust, the
proportion recovered was rather less, but again about equal over
the seven and the last four years. With the smaller amount of

526 Report of Experiments with different Manures

nitrate of soda (Plot 6), the estimated return of nitrogen was
37-7 per cent., and with the larger amount (Plot 7) only 29-9
per cent, taking the average of the five years of its use; but
over the last four years the figures show rather more recovered
than when the first year is included. It is worthy of remark, that
the proportion recovered with the larger amount of nitrate
(Plot 7), is higher than with the corresponding amount of nitro-
gen in the form of ammonia-salts (Plot 4).

With the same amount of ammonia-salts as was applied to
Plot 4 (400 Ibs.), and the mixed mineral manure in addition
(Plot 10), the increased yield of nitrogen estimated as attribut-
able to that supplied was 46°5 per cent. reckoning over the
seven, but only 43°4 per cent. over the last four years ; indicating,
therefore, that, even under these comparatively favourable con-
ditions, the proportion recovered is diminishing rather than
increasing from year to year. It is to be borne in mind, however,
not only that the silica so specially required by Graminaceous
crops was not supplied in the mineral manure in question, but
also that the amount of ammonia-salts annually used (400 Ibs.,
containing about 82 lbs. nitrogen) was very large. It is remark-
able, too, that although when used alone (Plot 4), the ammonia-
salts gave a less return of nitrogen than nitrate of soda containing
an equal amount of it (Plot 7), yet, when used in conjunction
with the mixed mineral manure, the proportion estimated as
recovered was) less -with she™anitrate (Plot 15) than with the
ammonia-salts (Plot 10). However, when the smaller amount
of nitrate of soda was used with the mineral manure (Plot 14),
the nitrogen estimated as recovered amounted to about 62 per
cent. of that supplied ; that is, to more than in any of the experi-
ments where the larger amounts of nitrogen were supplied,
which gave larger, though not proportionally larger, amounts
of produce.

When to the mixed mineral manure and ammonia-salts, saw-
dust or cut wheat-straw (Plots 11 or 12) was added, and’ their
nitrogen reckoned in the supply, the proportions estimated as
recovered are less than when they are not employed.

Where the double or very excessive amount of ammonia-salts
was applied in the first, second, third, and seventh years
(Plot 13a), the proportion of nitrogen recovered was exactly
the same over the seven years (and even more over the last
four) as where the less amount of ammonia-salts with the same
mineral manures was used (Plot 10). The increase of gross
produce or hay was, however, not in proportion either to the
increased supply or increased yield of nitrogen; the large yield
of it being due to a very high—perhaps an objectionably | high—
percentage in the produce in the years in which the large amount

ee eS |

oe

on Permanent Meadow Land. 527

of ammonia-salts was used; in fact, it was then higher than in
any other case where mineral manures were used in conjunction
With ammonia-salts. The Table records the results of only one
year (1862) in which, to this mixture of 800 lbs. of ammonia-
salts and the “mixed mineral manure,” silicates (so much exliausted
by the hay crop) were added (180), and the figures show almost

exactly the same proportion of nitrogen recovered as in the same

year without the silicates (13a).

Lastly, when ammonia-salts were added, in comparatively
small or moderate amount, to a quantity of farmyard-manure
itself containing a very large amount of nitrogen, the increased
yield of nitrogen beyond that in the produce by farmyard-manure
alone amounted, over the seven years, to only 21-9 per cent., and
over the last four years to only 13°8 per cent. of that supplied
in the ammonia-salts. It may be further remarked that, if the
farmyard-manure employed be assumed to have been of fair
average composition, the proportion of its nitrogen reckoned as
recovered in the increased yield (beyond that without manure),
reaches to even a still lower amount.

To sum up on this point, the average results taken over the
seven years are, that, when the nitrogenous manures (ammonia-
salts or nitrate) were used alone 29-9, and when in conjunction
with the mixed mineral manure 45:1 per cent. of the supplied
nitrogen were reckoned as recovered as increased yield of it in
the crop. In our former Report, then taking the results of
three years only, the amounts were 26:1 per cent. without,
and 46:6 per cent. with the mineral manure. ‘The result
over the more extended period is, therefore, somewhat higher
without, and somewhat lower with, the mineral manure. When
ammonia-salts were superadded to an amount of farmyard-
manure doubtless containing nitrogen, carbon, and every mineral
constituent, in larger quantity than the crop it yielded (though in
comparatively slowly available condition), the increased yield of
nitrogen due to the ammonia-salts was then less than in any of the
other conditions of their use; and it was considerably less over
the later than over the earlier years. It may be remarked that
nitrate of soda containing the same amount of nitrogen as that
in the ammonia-salts added to the farmyard-manure, but used in
conjunction with the mixed mineral manure, was reckoned
to return nearly three times as much of the supplied nitrogen.

Before leaving the question of the amount of nitrogen esti-
mated as recovered in the increase for a given amount sup-
plied in manure, it should be observed that, inasmuch as
the whole of the nitrogen of the after-grass is not returned
to the land by the animals fed upon it, the amount will be

VOL. XXIV. 2M

528 ‘ Report of Experiments with different Manures

somewhat higher than that represented by the increase in the
hay crop merely. But were it attempted to make allowance for
this, the results would not differ very widely from those recordéd
in the Tables. For, not only would by far the larger proportion
of the nitrogen of the after-grass be returned to the land, but
it would be only so much of the remainder as was due to
increase by manure, that would have to be taken into the cal- .
culation, Nor are the data requisite for such a mode of
estimation sufficiently established to render any such supposed
correction at all desirable. It is, however, well to make this
reservation in regard to the figures recorded in the Tables.

It may be interesting here to observe that, in experiments with
wheat conducted over six years, 43 per cent., and in others with
barley, also over six years, 42°5 per cent. of the nitrogen sup-
plied in the manure was estimated to be recovered as increased .
yield. Against these amounts the average result obtained with
the meadow-hay over seven years was, in parallel cases, 45-1,
which, raised by the small amount due to the after-grass, as
above explained, would show that the mixed herbage of meadow-
land probably gathers up within the season of application a
somewhat larger proportion of the nitrogen supplied as manure
than either wheat or barley.

In our former. report we directed attention to the probable
explanations of the real or apparent loss of nitrogen here indi-
cated; and we would refer the reader to a discussion of the
subject in a paper ‘On the Sources of the Nitrogen of Vege-
tation; with special reference to the question whether plants
assimilate free or uncombined nitrogen,” in the ‘ Journal of the

Chemical Society of London,’ Ser. 2, Vol. 1, 1863.

Upon the whole, the evidence goes to show, that stable or
farmyard-manure is a much more perfect restorer of the con-
stituents removed in the hay-crop than those purchased or so-called
artificial manures which, in a practical or economical point of
view, can be advantageously employed. Farmyard-dung is,
however, comparatively slow in its action. ‘These characters
point to the peculiar fitness of such manure for meadow-land
mown for hay; and it was shown in our Report in the last
number of the Journal, that the description of herbage developed
by it was much more complex, and upon the whole superior
in quality, to that developed by the more active artificial ma-
nures. On the other hand, provided the restoration of the potass
and silica of the hay-crop be duly accomplished by means of
farmyard-manure occasionally applied, its slowness of action may

SS

on Permanent Meadow Land. 529

be advantageously compensated by a judicious use of some of
the more active artificial or purchased manures.

“In the experiments which form the subject of this paper,
the amount of farmyard-manure annually employed was 14 tons
per acre, which would doubtless contain very much more of every

constituent of the hay-crop than the produce yielded. Under

these circumstances, although the superaddition of ammonia-salts
considerably increased the crop, they gave a less result than under
any of the other conditions of experiment. If the same amount
of farmyard-manure, or even less of well-rotted dung, were
employed once in four or five years, this would supply sufficient
of most of the mineral constituents for a larger amount of in-
crease than would be obtained in several years by its use alone ;
and, under such circumstances, the additional application of
moderate quantities of the more rapidly active manures, such as
Peruvian-guano, or ammonia-salts or nitrate of soda and super-
phosphate of lime, would not only serve to bring into more rapid
use the constituents of the dung, but the increase of crop would be
obtained without injury to the permanent condition of the land,
and with little detriment to the character of the herbage deve-
loped.

ts some circumstances ammonia-salts, and under others
nitrates, seem to be the more active in proportion to the nitro-
gen they contain. But, as the mixed herbage of grass-land
includes plants of very different habits of growth, seeking their
nutriment at very different ranges within the soil, and as the
nitrogen of nitrate of soda becomes distributed much more
rapidly than that of ammonia-salts, it is desirable to employ a
mixture of these two manures. By this means the growth of
a greater variety of plants is favoured, and very probably a
greater amount of increase will be obtained within a given time
for a given amount of nitrogen applied.

Assuming the dung to be employed in quantity sufficient for
the due restoration of the alkalies, alkaline earths, and silica, it
would, of course, at the same time supply a considerable amount

-of phosphoric acid also. But experience shows that, even when

this is done, activity of growth is frequently considerably in-
creased if direct phosphatic manures be also employed. The
phosphoric acid may be advantageously and economically applied
either in the form of Peruvian guano, which at the same time
supplies a large quantity of ammonia or ammonia-yielding matter

and a little potass also, or as superphosphate of lime.

2m 2,

Report of Experiments with different Manures

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( 540 )

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND
NOTICES.

1.— Burning of Clay Land. By C. Ranpetu,
To H. S. THompson, Eso., M.P.

Chadbury near Evesham
Dear Sir, May 26th, 1863.

You ask me for any information I may have to give on the
subject of burning clay and the mode of effecting that operation,
in continuation of a letter which was inserted in our Society’s
Journal some years since, and you inquire especially as to my
experience of the results hitherto obtained,

The duration of the beneficial effect of land-burning, that is,
of burning the surface of clay soils, is very remarkable. I can
point to several fields which were burned twenty years since,
in which the improvement thereby effected still continues ; and
more particularly to one remarkable instance, where, in a field of
29 acres of very poor land, 12 acres were well burned, the
remaining 17 acres, owing to less favourable weather, not so
well, It is a steep hill-side, and for that reason has never had a
cart-load of farmyard manure in the memory of man. Wheat
has been grown every alternate year since the burning, the
average produce of the whole field being not less than 44 quarters
per acre. The intermediate crops have been either vetches or
seeds fed off by sheep, the condition of the land being main-
tained by oilcake given to the sheep while consuming those crops,
and by guano applied to the wheat at the time of sowing. ,The
whole field has been treated alike since the burning; but every
crop has testified to the more efficient way in which that opera-
tion was effected upon the 12 acres. This field shows both the
permanence of the effect of this process, and the comparative
advantages dependent on more or less skilful management.

Twenty-two years’ experience of the effects of burning clay-land
have confirmed my first impression of the benefit to be derived
from it ; and I may say with confidence, that, on such soils, apart.
from draining, I know of nothing by which so much good can
be effected; and there is nothing which I would so strongly
recommend a new tenant to adopt on entering upon a farm of
this description, more especially if, as is often the case, he finds

Burning of Clay Land. 541

his farm a foul one. Couch-grass is thus very effectually dealt
with ; and the more of it there is, the better will be the ashes, and
the more satisfactory in every way the result of the operation.

I have nothing to add to what I before said as to the mode of
proceeding, except that I prefer faggots to coal for Jand-burning,
not only as being more economical, but because the soil is not
burned so hard as is frequently the case where coal is used. In
burning large heaps coal is essential ; but it is well to let the
burner provide it himself. He will use less, which is not only
a saying of cost, but of more importance still as preventing the
soil from being over-burned. He will make a ton of coal serve
for 50 cubic yards; whereas otherwise it is not unusual to con-
sume double that quantity.

After a field has been once moderately well burned, very little
good appears to result from repeating the work; therefore my
operations in this way are now almost entirely confined to burning
large heaps, to be drawn into the yards and sheds wherein a
large portion of the roots are consumed by sheep. They there
absorb the urine, and are mixed with the dung made in the
yards ; the portion under cover is mixed with artificial manure,
and drilled with the root-crops.

And this leads me to the consideration of a subject affected to
a considerable extent by this burning question, viz., the additional
capability of carrying a flock of sheep which clay-land acquires
by the change of texture brought about by this process. I do not
mean that clay-land can by this, or by any means, be made to
produce food for sheep as beneficially or as certainly as that
which is by nature turnip-land; but its capabilities in this
respect may be enlarged, which is a matter of some importance
at a time when the price of wool and mutton is relatively much
higher than that of wheat (the more natural product of strong
land) is, or is likely to be, whilst importations pour in from
every quarter. Not that I would displace any portion of the
wheat-crop by the substitution of fodder-crops for sheep; one-
half of the arable portion of a clay-farm should always grow
wheat. It is the mainstay of the occupiers of such soil ; and
whatever may be the price, it must be grown; and it is not, only
for the production of mutton and wool, but as a means of increas-
ing the wheat-crop, that the increase of the sheep-stock becomes
so important. .

Under any circumstances, whether recourse is had to burning
or not, I hold that there is no preparation for a wheat-crop upon
any land so unprofitable as a bare fallow; and that if half of the
arable portion of a clay-farm be, as | recommend, under wheat,
the other half, with the exception of a portion manured for

542 Burning of Clay Land.

beans, must be producing food for sheep. It is in facilitating
the increased growth of this, food for sheep that the burning of
clay-soil adds so materially to the land’s capability of producing
wool and mutton, and consequently wheat.

I am strongly tempted by the result of six years’ experience \ lof oe
the value of steam-cultivation in working out the system of crop-
ping clay-land, which is intended to be most productive of these
rent-paying commodities, to say a few words upon the subject; -
but as it has only facilitated, not changed, the system, and as
those who are employing steam in the cultivation of the soil are
not the men whose attention need be called to the advantages of
growing green crops, I will withstand the temptation, and rather
hope that my suggestions may receive consideration from those
who occupy farms not of sufficient extent to justify the heavy out-
lay at present involved in the adoption of steam-cultivation.

The question of details as to the mode of carrying out this
system of cropping when the land has been -burned must still
depend in some degree upon the nature of the farm. Few
clay-land farms are, and none should be, without some por-
tion'of grass-land, on which to winter the breeding ewes, summer
some beasts, and provide hay to assist in making the straw into
manure; if they have the additional advantage of including
some light land, no difficulty will exist in making the clay-land
share equally with this light land the production of food for sheep,
and the conversion by them of the larger portion of the straw into
manure.

Assuming, then, that a farm consists of 20 acres pasture, 40
acres light or medium land, and 160 clay-land, and that 100
breeding ewes are kept, and their produce reared and fattened,
there will then be annually—

Acres,
Wikeate cs ce? eee) ie Me comeeemnelaune
Clover—mown .. 3. « «o « 20
Mixed seeds—grazed .. .. « « 20
Ie oV}) (Ae ak ee oe Menem i. 0) M
Fallow crops ae, hse ee cee ee

viz., 10 acres upon light land, of which 5 acres are to be Italian
ryegrass, succeeded by swedes ; 5 acres vetches, followed by tur-
nips, both having been manured after harvest, not only to foree
early and abundant crops of food for the ewes and lambs, but
also to save time, by having the land ready manured for swedes
and turnips. The Italian rye-grass upon this light land, forced
on by the manure applied after harvest, will be fed off by the middle
of May. The roots should then be worked to the surface by
Coleman’s cultivator, by harrowing, rolling, and again harrow-

Burning of Clay Land. 543

ing, then buried by one deep ploughing, and the land planted
with swedes before the middle of June. The fallow crops upon
40 acres of clay-land will be,—mangolds, 12 acres ; cabbages (of
two varieties, to be planted in October), 8 acres; and vetches,
20 acres.

The green crops will be reversed every four years. Thus,
where red clover was grown in 1860, there would be mixed seeds
and beans in 1864; where ryegrass and swedes in 1860, vetches
and turnips in 1864; and where mangolds and cabbages in 1860,
vetches in 1864. It should also be borne in mind that on the
clay-land, clover should be the next green crop after the mangold
and cabbages ; mixed seeds after the vetches.

The breeding ewes must be kept as long as possible upon the
seeds; and while they are eating down those upon the clay to
prepare the way for the plough, those on the lightest land—that
which may be planted as soon as ploughed—must be saved.
Upon this, when the clay-land seeds are finished, the ewes must
be fed, with the addition of some chaff, if necessary, and so
kept off the grass until the end of November, by which time all
the land after seeds should be sown with wheat. The ewes
then go into the strawyard, to be kept upon a mixture of hay
and wheat-chaff, with malt-dust. They should be turned out
four or five hours every day upon a fresh portion of the grass-
land, a very small one; but the hurdles must be moved every
day, and the allowance of grass increased, and the dry food
improved, by the addition of oats or oilcake, as the yeaning time
approaches. After lambing, they go to the Italian ryegrass, of”
which they must have a fresh portion every day; for be it re-
membered that all the green food is supposed to be hurdled off
not only because it is economised thereby, but because the sheep
will do better, and the land will be more equally manured than»
by giving the whole field at once. If all this Italian ryegrass is.
eaten before it is necessary that the land should be prepared for-
swedes, it will still be useful to remove the sheep to that field at
night from off the other seeds, where their feet in the frosty
mornings would be destructive. I need not point out how, with
the provision of food for the summer months above indicated, the
flock may be maintained—this, I hope, is sufficiently obvious ;
they are to be kept upon the land until the cabbages, turnips, and
swedes are eaten, and then go into yards. The wether and draft-
ewe lambs (tegs, as they are here called ; hogs, in other counties)
will then be fattened upon mangolds, with a liberal allowance
of clover-chaff and malt-dust, and 4b. oilcake, daily ; the ewe-
lambs intended to be kept for stock, will have mangolds, with a

mixture of clover and wheat-chaff, Both will do better with
= VOL. XXTv, 2N

O44 Portable Fencing for Sheep.

10 Ibs. of roots each per day, from December to the end of
February, than they would do with an unlimited quantity,
provided they have as much dry food as they will eat. After
February the allowance of mangolds should be increased, if the
store will allow of this ; and by the end of March the fattening tegs
will be fit to go, shorn, to the butcher. If they can be kept a
month longer so much the better. I have thus been supposing
thevaase of a clay-land farm which is assisted by a small portion ~
of a lighter character, Where there is only clay there will often
be greater difficulty ; and it may be necessary sometimes to sell
off all or a portion of the lambs? before September, instead of
wintering them. In that case, as the whole of the straw cannot
properly” be made into manure, it is better that part should be
sold off, the money arising from such sale being expended, half in
guano and half in oileake ; ; the former to be applied to the wheat
crop, the latter given to the: ewes:amd dlathis upon the seeds and
vetches. I have conclusive proof in the field I named at the
commencement of this letter, that farmyard manure is not essential
to the fertility of clay-land, but that after draining and burning,
the poorest of it may be maintained in productive condition, and
grow wheat every other year by the aid of sheep, oilcake, and
guano,
Believe me, dear Sir, faithfully yours,

C. RanpELu,

2.—Portable Fencing for Sheep. By THomas Bowrcx.

FoRFARSHIRE SYSTEM.

fw the vale of Strathmore it is not so customary as with us in
Warwickshire for every farmer to keep a flock of his own, all the
year round. There are several reasons for this. Dry stone walls,
although a sufficient fence for horses or cattle, do not form a safe
enclosure for the Blackfaced sheep, which is the prevailing
breed. Hedges are not abundant, and, from the increasing
scarcity of larch-trees, “ paling” is a very costly article. Again,
the great range of the Grampians—wel! styled the Alps of Scot-
land —stretching from Dumbarton on the west coast, to Stone-
haven on the German Ocean, is a breeding district which
furnishes many thousands of sheep ; ; but the. Highland glens,
fertile as they often are, and abounding in the siobedh natural
grasses, do not afford enough keep to sustain their flocks more
than eight or nine months of the year. Hence the flock-master
requires to look out for winter grazing in the low country, and

Portable Fencing for Sheep. © 545

the lowland farmer, who may have no flock of his own, finds his
advantage in providing.such accommodation, The sheep thus
sent out probably range over the old lea pastures or adjacent
moors during the day, and at night are folded on any convenient
spot which requires to be so manured, The use of nets as a
portable fence, easily set up and readily removable, is almost
essential to this system of management.

Again, an annual draft of the two or three-year-old wedders is
disposed of in autumn to the lowland graziers or dealers, to be
fattened upon turnips, and then sent either to the local markets
or to the larger centres of consumption—Edinburgh, Glasgow, or
Newcastle. <A flock of about three hundred and fifty sheep is
placed for the season under the care of one shepherd, who
is expected to attend and feed them, set the nets, shift the flock
from field to field,—or farm to farm, when needful,—to stock
up the bottoms of the turnips, &c. &c.

Hence arises the desirability of having a really portable tem-
porary fence, suitable for distant removals, and not very costly in
the original outlay.

_ The Rev. Mr. Headrick, a well known local writer, remarks,
in his Survey of Forfarshire, that the feeding of sheep on turnips,
by means of nets, had then (1813) been recently introduced.
Since that time the practice has extended, but has not greatly
varied in its nature. Let me briefly describe it from the recol-
lection of youthful days. This 1 can the more readily do, be-
cause that period was spent with a farming friend who fattened
sheep extensively in the winter, and had also a breeding flock of
three ‘or four hundred ewes. As he approved of young men
being actively employed, I was sent off for a couple of winters,
when aged sixteen and seventeen respectively, in charge of a
lot of more than three hundred. This phase of life, with its
wanderings from farm to farm as the exigencies of food-supplies
demanded, was a pleasant one—having plenty of variety, a few
hardships, but a larger amount of enjoyment, and abundance of
time for reading or other occupation. If you are going with a
grazing lot of sheep—hoggets or ewes—little tackling is required,
just sufficient for folding room over night, and if you give them
about half an acre of fresh ground every few nights, from two to
three hundred yards of netting will suffice; but if out with fat-
ting sheep for the season, then a thousand yards or so will be
required,

The material is either hemp or cotton—the latter article
having been introduced, to a limited extent, during the past few
years; but the rate for which it is at present sold may justly
be regarded as prohibitive. Mr. Welsh, a large flockmaster in

2n 2

546 Portable Fencing for Sheep. °

the Mearns, thus writes to me :—“If cotton could be again got
at the price it was some years ago, I should prefer it, as the nets
made of it are considerably lighter, and consequently more
manageable. Neither are they very easily broken.” ‘The length
of each net, when set, may average fifty yards; though this of
course varies a few yards according to the state of weather and
the skill of the hand who sets them.

In weight, an untarred hemp net, with a pair of ropes running
the full length of the net, and a dozen yards to spare, will be
about a quarter of a hundredweight. A man can thus carry
with comfort at least a couple of hundred yards of the needful
fencing, besides stakes, of which more anon. When neatly set
they should stand taut, like a skeleton wall about three feet high,
no part of the net touching the ground, and the lower rope raised
two or three inches therefrom. The meshes run four inches
square, set angularly in the net—upright or ‘‘ window-frame”
meshes being rather an unsightly rarity. If tarred (and a net of
the full length named will take up about 10 lbs. of tar) they cost
from 15s. to 20s., according to the price of raw material. A
clever hand should set such a net, driving the stakes as well, in
from fifteen to twenty minutes for each length.

In estimating how many seasons nets will last, various matters
have to be taken into consideration ; much naturally depends on
the usage. Can the shepherd mend his own nets? (‘‘ A stitch in
time.”) Does he always pack them up and keep them dry when
not in use? Is the district overrun with hares? This last
question is an important one. All things considered, half-a-
dozen winters must be regarded as a full average.

The following extracts from the letter of a Scotch friend, Mr.
Goodlet, discuss in a practical manner some of the objections
made to nets :—

“ T see in some discussions at Hanover Square objection taken
to the use of nets for sheep, at least in game districts. First, that
the hares cut them to make runs; and undoubtedly they. do.
The only way to meet this is to leave the opening they make
unrepaired for them to run through, and they will prefer going
to it again to making new ones. ‘Their openings are always too
low for the sheep to get entangled in them, and too small to let
them escape, .

“ Another objection is that sheep get entangled in the nets
and sometimes hang themselves, It is true that at first sheep
will sometimes get themselves fixed in the nets, especially if they
are carelessly put up; but they very soon learn to avoid this, so
that we hear no complaint on this score in districts where the
use of nets is established. It is one of those objections likely to

~

._ Portable Fencing for Sheep. 547

impress itself only on those who have not much experience of
net-fencing, and who are frightened when they find a struggling
sheep for the first day or two caught in the net; a little experi-
ence will overcome all this.”

When a field has no available boundary-fence twenty nets will
be required as a full allowance. But if any of these outside
fences answer the purpose a proportionate deduction may be
made. Let us take as an instance a twenty-acre field in the form
of a parallelogram, say 20 chains long, by 10 chains wide. Then
if all the fences are secure for sheep, with only 330 yards of net-
ting the roots can be consumed to advantage. In this case the
sheep will have the run of all the cleared ground, but as most of
us like to keep the ploughing pretty close up, to afford a back
fence another 220 yards will be required, or eleven nets in
all. Therefore much depends upon the state of the external
divisions.

The stakes are pitched at an average distance of three yards,
or a shade less in front when guarding the turnips, and a
little more apart when facing the open ground. They are chiefly
made from the thinnings of larch plantations, and may consist
either of whole or sawn timber. If the latter, the size will be
1? inches square, and the cost about 1$d. each: but when hooped
with a stout iron ring at top (a good investment) an additional
1d. must be reckoned.

Hence we get at the fact that the average cost of nets and
stakes together will be about 5d. per lineal yard. Now we can
here purchase light ash sheep-hurdles 6 feet 6 inches long at 1s.
each, stakes and irons included; so that there is only about 3d.
per yard of difference in cost. With fair wear and caretul
mending these last just as long as nets, or with a heavier outlay
in mending, you may reckon on even eight or nine years. A
good man will manage nearly the same number of sheep—if
stocking and not slicing the turnips is practised—with the one
fence as with the other. Therefore for general use in the
English Midland Counties, nets do not appear to offer any special
advantage, even if they are equally desirable. But when you
have to look to removals for any considerable distance, the case
is greatly altered. Two single-horse carts will readily shift all
the nets, stakes, racks, and other baggage, belonging to the Scot-
tish shepherd. In our own case, even for removals from field to
field, a similar length of fencing would make at least four two-
horse waggon-loads, When racks are made to move upon
wheels, the Angus man, if he has but to shift to an adjacent
field, can place his nets and stakes in the racks, and then a horse
with a pair of traces will complete the removal.

548 Portable Fencing for Sheep.

For Warwickshire use, the light hurdles are undoubtedly best,
because hares cannot gnaw the bars through, and because the
hands are better up to the setting of them. Each farmer has his
own flock; the fields are staalles and if the hounds come in
sight, and the sheep get up into a corner, there is less danger of
any being caught” and strangled. Still I cannot call to mind any
one case of death arising from strangulation,

According to the requirements of the Scottish flockmaster, the
system of netting as above described is undoubtedly the best
which could be adopted. It is for the English farmer, in any
given case, to decide for himself which will answer his purpose
best.

Mr. Swan, of Inverpeffer, near Arbroath, has favoured me with
a letter calling attention to a fence for sheep of a more per-
manent character, which, however, admits of being occasionally
removed,

He writes:—“ To a tenant holding a nineteen years’ lease,
permanent sheep-fencing constructed with posts and top-rail of

wood, and wire of the requisite size underneath, is the most con-
venient, and in the end the cheapest.”

He recommends’ that the fence be set upon a " soil-bank
(14 feet high), with a trench, to prevent the animals from rub-
bing against it. Such a bank may be cheaply and rapidly
formed, by the aid of the plough, in a level field. He estimates
the cost of gates or straining posts of larch (74 feet long, and not
Jess than 6 inches in diameter at top) at ls. each; of the smaller
larch posts (4 to 5 feet) at 3d. to 34d. apiece ; the top rail (43 by
14) at 12s. or 13s. per 100 yards; the wire (Nos. 6 and 7) at 14s.
per cwt. Two active men, armed with a set of wire fencing
tools, which cost 25s. per set, and a bag of staples, may set up
such fences, having two or three wires beside the top rail, round
a twenty-acre field in a week.

To steady the fence the straining posts should be sunk at least
3 feet into the ground, and an angle rail of the size of the top
rail should be firmly nailed on to the top of the principal post,
across the centre of the first common post, and built against the
bottom of the second. I believe that fences of this description
are coming pretty extensively into use in the North.

The following Report has also been received as to the use of Nets
in the East Riding of Yorkshire.
In the East Riding of Yorkshire sheep are invariably folded

on turnips and rape by nets. This is considered the readiest and
most economical way ; indeed it would be next to impossible to

Portable Fencing for Sheep. — 549,

procure hurdles to fold the large flocks (from 700 to 1500 sheep)
kept by the farmers in this district on turnips. Sheep are rarely
if ever folded in the summer, but are depastured on clover-seeds
or grass.

The nets in use are 50 yards long, made of tarred rope, with a
mesh 64 inches wide, and when set are from 34 to 4 feet high.
Stakes 5 feet long, sharpened at the bottom and bound at the top
with a piece of hooping iron, are used for setting the nets, which
have both at the top and bottom a strong line, which is wound
round each stake. The price of a net is 15s., and of the stakes
about 2d. each. A stake is driven in every 5 yards, and an
experienced man can drive the stakes and set a net within ten
minutes. F

A net will last four years, provided ground game is not very
abundant, but hares and rabbits cut them very much; and if an
estate is overrun with these, of course the nets will not last so
long. In ordinary cases the shepherd is able to repair the nets,
having a supply of rope, which is rather smaller than what the
net is originally made of. The expense of removing the nets,
&e., is trifling. In usual winter weather a one-horse cart will
take ten nets and the requisite number of stakes from one field
to another.

Careless farmers occasionally put a piece of old net in the gap
of a fence, and at other times protect a weak fence by setting a net
at the distance of two or three feet from it. In these cases I have
known very serious, indeed fatal accidents, happen to horsemen
in the hunting field; and this is the only serious objection I am
aware of to the use of nets. Cocoa-nut fibre has been recom-
mended for this purpose, but I am not aware that it has been
tried in this locality, and I fancy the nets would be heavier aad
not so portable as the ordinary hempen ones.

3.— On the Composition of Annatto.

By Dr. Aveustus VoELCKER.

ANNATTO is a preparation, containing a colouring matter, de-
rived from the Orlean tree (Biza orellana). This tree, or shrub,
grows with an upright stem to the height of from 7 to 9 feet,
sending out many branches with elm-shaped pointed leaves,
having long foot-stalks. The flowers are produced in loose pan-
icles at the end of the branches, and are of a pale peach colour.
, The oblong seed-pods are covered outwardly with bristles, and

550 . Composition of Annatto.

enclose generally from 30 to 40 irregularly-formed seeds, of a
reddish colour. The seeds and the bright red pulp in which
they are enveloped are the raw materials from which the colour- *
ing matter is prepared.

This tree is a native of the warmest parts of South America,
the East and West Indies, and Africa. It bears leaves all the
year, and fruit which is gathered in spring.

Dr. Ure describes the preparation of annatto in the following
words :—‘“* The pods of the tree being gathered, their seeds are
taken out and bruised ; they are then transferred to a vat, which
is called a steeper, where they are mixed with as much water as
covers them.

‘‘ Here the substance is left for several weeks, or even months ;
it is now squeezed through sieves placed above the steeper, that
the water containing the colouring matter in suspension may
return into the vat. The residuum is preserved under the leaves
of the pine-apple shrub till it becomes hot by fermentation. It
is again subjected to the same operation, and this treatment is
continued till no more colour remains,

“The substance thus extracted is passed through sieves, in
order to separate the remainder of the seeds, and the colour is
allowed to subside. The precipitate is boiled in coppers till it
be reduced to a consistent paste; it is then suffered to cool, and
dried in the shade.”

There are two sorts of commercial annatto, viz. :—

1. Flag or cake annatto, which is furnished almost wholly by
Cayenne. It is imported in square cakes, weighing 2 to 3 |b.
each, wrapped in banana leaves, packed in casks.

2. Roll annatto, which is principally imported from Brazil.
The rolls are small, not exceeding 2 or 3 ounces in weight. It
is hard, dry, brownish on the outside, and beautifully red in the
interior.

Annatto contains two colouring matters; one, in a pure state,
is orange-red, and is called ‘‘ bixin ;” the other is yellow,,and
called “orellin.” Bixin is a resinous substance, sparingly
soluble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and also
in fixed oils. On account of its solubility in fatty matters, to
which it imparts a beautiful golden tint, it is preferred to tur-
meric, which it closely resembles, for colouring cheese and
butter.

The alkalies readily dissolve bixin,. producing a deep reddish
colour, Advantage is taken of this property by the manufac- .
turers of annatto, who, by means of potash or soda, prepare from
commercial annatto a fluid extract or solid cakes, requiring no
further preparation on the part of the dairy-maid.

Composition of Annatto. 551

Prepared annatto cakes are generally stamped with the name
of the maker, and sold at various prices, according to quality.

Besides the alkalies used for dissolving the pure colouring
matter (bixin), chalk, lime, clay, fine brick-dust, and other
bulky materials are generally employed by manufacturers of
solid annatto. Soft-soap, train-oil, and other disagreeable
smelling and tasting matters are also said to be largely used in
the manufacture of inferior annatto cakes. Good annatto cake
should readily dissolve in water with a bright orange-red colour,
and deposit little sediment on standing.

Inferior cakes dissolve with difficulty in water, forming a
dark-brown muddy liquid, which on standing deposits a large
amount of insoluble earthy matter.

A sample of superior annatto cake analysed in my laboratory
gave the following results :-—

Water BEM nse Vee hdd SESE
Organic matters.. .. we LISk dea. be eer) CuOS
Oxides of iron and alumina RAY Poeess SAY Siok:
Carbonate of lime (chalk) Aaa Séphbes acHIeC lS
Magnesia .. Fe aD aed. AMS: 1 Bf

Sulphate of lime ‘(ypsum) 2
Carbonate of potash .. saubwis)
Carbonate of soda and a little chlor ide of ‘sodium x 6
Insoluble siliceous matter Reuse. ot tee. an wk

10000

It will be seen that this cake contained a great deal of chalk,
added for no other purpose than to increase its weight, and give
it consistency. In inferior annatto the proportion of mineral
matter is always large, and that of organic matters correspondingly
smal],

A second and superior sample of annatto cake on analysis gave
the following results :—

MGIsttinemed ane reuens FeL Sug Vv lrove) ad.c)odeh s LOOF
Organic matters 58 1 Choe, Legcich Pcich a ee) a em Mme Le 010)
Wanbonatelot potasly <5.) wr ce wey ee) ew | 2892S
ROIGETOCICHRROCIUTN we) ew x wie weve 1°58
Magnesia .. 0 <r S aera i 2 “92
Oxides of iron and alumina =o, Mate LE Orn ate 311,
ehospaAbe Dllime misses UE Pie...) 8%). oe) 76 foe 44
Sulphate of lime jc Let OD eRe an mer ies 745)
Canbonsterommmereee rane 0. 6. | LAB
eulkGt ee AE ce) sn a “36

100:00

In this cake the proportion of organic matter, including pure
colouring constituents, is much larger than in the preceding

. 552 Composition of Annatto.

samples, and on the other hand it does not contain nearly so
much carbonate of lime. Altogether, this sample fairly repre-
sents the composition of the best cake annatto,

Annatto cake, even the best, has always a disagreeable smell ;
and it is much to be regretted that a substance which at the best
is useless, and frequently is nasty, should find its way into our
dairies. But so long as a good many people prefer coloured to
uncoloured cheese, and show a predilection for deep-yellow-
coloured butter at all times of the year, the use of annatto will
continue.

If it cannot be altogether banished from the dairy, it is de-
sirable that annatto should be employed in the best possible con-
dition, Far superior to annatto cake, and more ready in its
application, is the fluid extract, which is mainly an alkaline
solution of the purified colouring matter of the Bixa orellana.

A sample of fluid extract of annatto, analysed by me, contained

in 1000 parts :—

Water alo eke ielhy cad. CUMS DAS SEE DSi
Organic matters wo) tet ae, WIEST, OTE Tee
Potash ha OR ae a as as a
Soda .. ar ak od SAEED ERS, a Peet
Chloride of sodium th ge ge ag. Pend OUR EOS)
Oxides of iron and alumina A PE LI SOP a “72
hime es ob eet AA Oi os SORRBOE SO ORate ee 44
Magnesia .. eR RSet ace oe eee enn "16
Phosphoric acid; | (air it had Gon 53
Swlphuricacid vigh ced) deo "king 2 Selerige el Oni ieee
Carbonic ‘acidsand Toss") ")5? 27), REAM, Sa Res Eee eS oes

1000:00

Liquid annatto is now manufactured in England by several
makers, amongst others, by Mr. Nichols, of Chippenham. His
fluid extract of annatto is perfectly clear, has a bright orange
colour, and is free from any of the obnoxious and disagreeable
substances which frequently occur in annatto cake,

"

12, Hanover Square, London, July, 1863.

4,—Letter to the Editor, from Mr. J. FRANCIS CLARK, on a Cheap
Material for Farm Bula
My DEAR Sir,
ACCORDING to promise, I send you a abet account of the.

homestead which I have lately erected for my own farm at
Abbots Roding.

My plan included the usual buildings sufficient for a farm of

Dairy Practice. 553

200 acres—barn, stables, cart-lodge, granary, cowhouse, sheds,
piggeries, &c. ; and its only peculiarity was that the walls were
all formed of concrete blocks. These blocks were composed of
flint-stones, sand, and lime, in the proportion of 6. parts stones,
3 parts sand, and 1} part pulverized lime, each block being
12 in. x 6 in. x Gin. The cost of making a sufficient number
to complete a superficial rod, 272 ft., including materials and
cartage, was 3/. 17s.

There were 40 rods of work ‘in the walls, which, made with
concrete blocks, cost 180/.; and if built with ardeley: would cost
from 4002. to 4801., according to situation. By these means,
therefore, a saving of more than 2001. was effected, and a con-
venient hankeqad of a very durable character capac at an
outlay not exceeding 70O0/. in all.

In localities ae sand and stones abound, but bricks are
expensive, the substitution of concrete blocks for brickwork may
be of service.

I am,.dear Sir, yours very truly,
J. F. Carn.

Newmarket.

5.—Dairy Practice.

Mr. Ec=rton Harpine, of Old Springs, Market Drayton, has
furnished the following statistical account of the produce from a
stock of milking cows kept upon a dairy farm, of which he was
both landlord and tenant for 11 years.

The farm contains 133 acres, of which 67 are pasture and
meadow. ‘The rent, tithe free, was 200/. ‘The cows were cross-
bred, but of a short-horn character. .

Propucr or Mitxixne Cows.

| Balances Amounts
Amounts Amounts Amounts Amounts | from Sales received for
received for received for | received for | received for | and Cheese, Butter,
Cheese. Butter, Milk. Calves. | Valuation of | Milk, Calves,
: | Stock. and Beef.
a Sees? ane
7 Sie Ss te ey Sine di. “Sy, he Gs, NE Ee i ee oe eg Dae sa, as
1852 261 14 14 68 6 &t 1 SG 144110 4 4311 6 404 8 11
1853 334 11 9+ 94 310 IVb 7H T20SO\ = 9 eh)80 445 11 9
1854 272 8 8} 89 12 104 13 14 43 3015 6 + 6 5 6 412 12 11+
1855 329.19 44 92 6-6 lz 14 4 14412 0 + 1617 0 466 9 2%
1856 330 15 63 92 6 8% 1216 4 3311 0 + .26 8 0 495 17 7
1857 205 2 0 8l1l 43 17 19 103 3010 6 + 4 4 6 338 18.3
1858 236 10 0 91 0 8t nie NY ya pl 7 [ol Ge ee aa OF og 452 8 5%
1859 279 18.10 Oleh 2 20 12 2 2613 4 + 57 9 5 475 14 lo
1860 239 5 8 7713 4 Pet Mi aiee -— Dia'dl & 4l4 3 1
1861 160 4 7 6SVIL Sie 1905.3 1 60 + 54#13 0 318 0 3
1862 173 13 0 64 7 6 Se a | 6 6 G6 + 10016 8 36418 9
TT Yeus| $265.16 82 | 8217 0} | i619 10b | 2112 6 | 2913 28] 417 4 3

554 Homeopathic Treatment of Cattle for Lung Disease

Propuce oF Minxine Cows—continued.

9 4 2a a= $s oo
Amounts O51 1S te Amounts | Amounts | 25 | 55/2 2
received for | “25 aa received |. received |R&|O& |S ==)
Cheese, Butter] 25 | &= . | per head of | per Milking] o 2 S28 )/ss iss
Milk,and | ES’ | BAe |” Cattle, Cow. g3|ege|an] se
Calves. Zo 230 SO |EC|Ea| Ee
Ss ode Se 1S: Gs ee Oe d. d, d, d.
1852 35317 5 25 24 16 3 6 14 14 10 53 3 lo 6
1853 454 8 94 27 26 1610 0 17 9 63] 6 3% 10 BY
1854 406 7 5% 27 at 15 3a 78 15 care 63 3 103 | 6¢
185d 449 12 24 263 25 17 12 0 1719 8 62 3 ll 63
1356 469 9 7 27 26 ig 73 1S ae 63 35 12 63
1857 334.13 9 28 26 11 1411 12 1532 43 3 12 5
1858 424 7 83 292 26 15 6 8 16 6 5 53 33 12 64
1859 418 5 8 30 27 EST. 1 15 9 9t] 52 33 14 6}
1860 419 6 3 27 26 15 4 0 16 2 63 | 6% 3 14 6}
1861 263 7 3 28 27 ey 915 OF] 4 3 14 6
1862 264 2 1 28 25 13 0 8 10 11 33] 42 0 14 63
ee 387 10 9 a7 | 2592 | 152 52) 14.19 3° | oe are io meer
2 4 \q is
= a =
2 he "to a =o Si en) mo
3 | & iC} g 5 | 2 |3/)8&.|% | Total Weightsofail | &
ASlod = ASlos| & alos! Cheeses. =
—~Z/43 55 -2/o2 7 & 143) =e
Shigeo 2) 22 Se ai) Suey a 23
2) 5D Con
ZO\Po| &. tS lES| & 1B (ESl Ss cS
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. T. cwts. qrs. lbs, | lbs.
1852 | 238 | 474 | 11,336 | 62 143 | 900 | 0 0 0 | 12,230 5 9 1.0 158
1853 | 222 | 534 | 12,305 64 16% {1035 | 0 0 0 | 13,400 519 216 | 515
1854 | 224 | 44 9,893 | 54 | 14 | 798 | 0 0 0 | 10,661 415 321 | 395
1855 | 240 | 504 | 12,136 | 50 133 | 695 | 4 | 11 44 | 12,875 513 3°9 4516
4856 | 247 | 49 12,110 | 38 13 | 497 | 8 | 102 | 86 | 12,693 513 1.9 | 488
1857 | 242 | 412 | 10,006 | 30 123 | 370 | 4 11 }/44 | 10,420 413 0 4 | 400
1858 | 273 | 40 11,965 17 | 23 |. 425 14 103 |»41 | 12,431 510 327 | 4838
1859 =| 243 | 452 | 11,170 26 133 | 449 | 4 | 12 | 48} 11,567 5 3 1 3 | 463
1860 | 227 | 46; | 10,541 18 | 10 184 | 4 | 113] 47 | 10,771 416 019 | 414
1861 213 | 414 8,833 9 13} | 120 4 10¢ | 43 9,046 40 3 2 | 333
1862 | 194 | 422] 87296 | 0 | 0 o |4 | 103] 43] 8,339 | 314 1 23 | 333
ae \o33 4571] 10,785%;| 33¢;| 144 | 4887; afr 11 | 36] 11,31232] 5 1 0 1 | 4414;

In addition to grass, straw, hay, and roots, the produce of the
farm, each cow had, night and morning, a small feed of
purchased corn, which cost about 4/. per head per annum.

.

6.—Homeopathic Treatment of Cattle for Lung Disease and other
Inflammatory Attachs. By P. H. Frere.

Av arecent monthly council the Duke of Marlborough called
the attention of the Society to the treatment of diseases in cattle
by homeeopathic remedies ; the occasion was not adapted for a
prolonged discussion of the subject, and further opportunities
will probably occur for its full consideration. Meanwhile, since

*

and other Inflammatory Attacks. 50d

another autumn season will have passed before our discussions
are renewed, I will give a short account of my own experience,
which may be some guide to those who are already hesitating
what course to pursue in dealing with cases of lung disease. I
was induced to try homeopathic treatment two years ago—Ist,
Because it is my wish to test everything which may possibly be
of service to agriculture; 2ndly, Because I believe that all
medical treatment rests, and must rest, on an empirical and
shifting basis rather than on the mature conclusions of reason ;
drdly, Because the trial of medical agents, one at a time, is the
only means of attaining distinct knowledge of their properties ;
and lastly, Because, in dealing with fattening stock exposed to
lung disease, the. question lay practically between this treatment

‘and none, the knife being preferable to the prospect of a tainted

carcase, or of an impaired constitution and a long doctor’s
bill.

My experience at first was far from encouraging. Of @
supplementary lot of 8 polled Scots, bought late in the autumn.
of 1861, 4 were attacked, and of these, 2 died under homeo-
pathic treatment, and 1 was sold for 5/. A well-known prac-
titioner came down from London to see them for a day, and
on the whole they were treated according to his rules. When
in the autumn of 1862 disease of the same nature broke out
apparently with the same malignity in 4 cases among some 25
bullocks, I agreed with my manager that he should, at his dis-
cretion, employ the same remedies as before; but instead of
allowing 2 or 3 hours to elapse between the doses, as our books
direct, should repeat them every half hour or hour, at the first, until
he appeared to make some impression on the animal. ‘This direc-
tion was specially applicable to the feverish symptoms which
aconite has to cope with, and the sluggish inertness for which
bryonia may be given. To special skill in the treatment we of
course make no pretensions; in this respect any farmer who has
watched the symptoms of lung disease with care may exercise
as good a judgment as ourselves. I shall only wish to show that
in 2 cases especially the attack while it lasted was very acute,
that it was of the nature of lung disease, and that the animals
not only recovered, but throve and fattened, and were sold at
good prices. :

The first case of illness occurred in a 2-year-old bullock on
December 12, 1862. Our memoranda show that first aconite,
then aconite and bryonia alternately, were given every hour;
“4th day, no better, ammonium causticum, 12 drops every hour

and half; 5th day, phosphorus every hour; 7th day, bryonia and

®
556 Homeopathic Treatment of Cattle for Lung Disease

phosphorus every 2 hours; 11th day, better.”. The bullock was
sold the 3lst of March for 16/. 16s., weight 42 stone 9 Ibs.

This young bullock weighed :—

Cwts. qrs. Ibs.
October 23, 1862 eee ee Y
November 14, ach see ee eT
March 6, 1863 (after ill ness) Th eat SUD
March 31, 39 URINE. Wise ie. DER eerie

After death an eminent anatomist in Cambridge looked at
the lungs with me; we found that about one-sixth of the right
lung (the anterior part) was congested; a gathering had also
been formed, emphysema existed, and by adhesion of the lung
to the rib several pounds of meat were blackened and spoilt;
the rest of the carcase was of excellent quality, and part of it was
served at my own table.

I consider that the loss occasioned by this attack was little
more than the cost of one month’s keep; this bullock when re-
covering had learned to take gruel and fattening drinks, and,
continuing to do so, gained ground fully as fast as any beast
I had. I Wish they would all take kindly to drinking water
thickened with wheat or linseed-meal, &c.

The second severe case was that.of a young bullock taken ill
January 5, 1863. I shall state memoranda of his treatment
simply to show the acuteness and duration of his attack, which
resisted all our first remedies :—

“ Jan 5th. Aconite every half hour.

“6th. Bryonia every hour.

“7th. Much worse; no appetite ; phosphorus every hour.

“9th. No better; breathing bad; pain in chest ; nux and antimony.

“12th. Much trembling ; skin hot and dry ; ammonium causticum every
half hour.

“15. Expected to die every hour ; it lay down 3 days and nights, and was
fed with gruel; arsenicum and mercurius vivus 4 grains, in turns, for 2 or 3
days ; aconite at night.

“18th and 19th. A little better; phosphorus every hour,

“ 21st. Better; ate a little. ‘

“ 25th. Much better.

“29th. Ate a little mangold.”

The live-weights of this young bullock were :—
Cwts. qrs. Ibs. ]
8

Noveninerm aie Ge ks da) Spee 2 0
December 12 . a») seo ee See ae
htc 27 (after illness) TPM et
aE yig sea ee Gene re
ie ee ek.
June Wt ee, ee RR,
daly (Oi RE LOG. a em) OD

and other Inflammatory Atiacks. 5d7

It was sold on the 22nd of July for 211.; weight, 50 stone.
The lungs of this bullock were sent to Professor Simonds, who
has reported to me, chiefly by word of mouth, to the following
effect :—

“ There was evidence in the lungs of your bullock, of lung-
disease, though of a slight nature. A small portion of the lung
had become separated from the healthy lung structure, as is the
case in the majority of instances of recovery from pleuro-pneu-
monia.” [There was an adhesion of both lungs to the pleura,
but no meat was damaged. |

I do not anticipate that in young and previously healthy animals
a single attack promptly met will permanently destroy a con-
siderable part of the structure of the Jung; if it would, the
animal would hardly be expected to fatten afterwards.

Our own memoranda show that the attack was long and acute ;
men of experience on the spot offered almost any odds that the
animal would die in 48 hours ; it was reduced to a mere bag of
bones, yet its rallying powers were such that the result of the
attack was merely a delay of six or eight weeks in the time, not
in the conditions, of the sale, with a charge for a few shilling
bottles of medicine.

Lastly, I will refer briefly to a case which was never attended
with danger, because the weighing of the animal was conse-
quently not interrupted ; yet even here the loss of weight shows
that the attack was in some degree serious. This bullock was
taken ill January 5, 1863; he had aconite and bryonia for four
or five days; phosphorus and sulphur completed his treatment.
It will be observed that he was weighed on the 4th day of the
attack, and had then lost 14 ecwt. instead of gaining about
56 Ibs. since the fast monthly weighing :—

Cwts. qrs. Ibs,

Weight, December 12,1862 .. .. .. 10 38 O
PE anAry (ol CGo led. sow. fs 9 L. 0
PREPLLCDIDSEVIGs. “450 veo aad cy occ 20 0.28

7 a March 6, Meas cs) LO 2 2

i April 2, Peo e Wile ss, LL, OLE

> | May, -< | eye bebe agg 8 Oi als

Ne dilate Py ot! ss AA 26

Sold for 23/., July 23rd. Carcase, 55 stone.

Thus in every case we had to deal with, the animal was sold
fat, whilst several of my neighbours suffered from like attacks,
and sacrificed their bullocks. One farmer near me lost by death
or forced sale more than half of a lot of 30 bullocks which he
bought in the same fair from which mine came.

358 Homeopathic Treatment of Cattle for Lung Disease, Se.

In short, I think it is worth a farmer’s while to have by him
some homeopathic remedies and a book for his guide, and in
using them, to keep up a brisk fire, but not increase “the charge.”
The Duke of Marlborough recommends a treatise by ‘ A London
Cowman,’ which he found useful for very malignant lung disease,
and also for foot and mouth disease, and for milk fever in calves.
I hope that in 1864 this subject will be treated on a larger

scale. ;

( 559 )

ABSTRACT REPORT OF AGRICULTURAL
DISCUSSIONS.

Meeting of Weekly Council, February 25, 1863. Mr. Raymonp
Barker in the Chair. Lecture by Mr. Joun Taytor, junr., of 53,
Parliament-street,

On MartertAts FOR THE ConsTRUCTION OF CoTTAGES.

Mr. Taytor said he felt honoured by the request which was made
to him to attend there to explain his various improvements in con-
struction, and to show how far they are applicable to cottages for
agricultural labourers, and to agricultural buildings. He need not
say anything to show the great necessity there was for improved
cottages ; neither did he propose to exhibit any particular plan for
cottages, except for the purpose of showing how his materials were
introduced. Any attempt to draw a perfect model of a cottage must
fail, because families are so differently constituted that no one plan can
be universally applicable. He wished to speak of the general defects
in cottage building, and more particularly of damp—the principal source
of the diseases from which the dwellers in cottages suffer. Now, the
description of cottage to which he wished first to allude was a cottage
with three bedrooms, a kitchen or living-room on the ground floor, and
a washhouse or scullery. In the plan exhibited there is in the centre
a party-wall; a gable in front, and a gable at the back, that is to
say, 2 common lean-to roof. The timbers lean from the centre of the
roof down on to the side-wall. Thus were avoided all intricacies of roof,
and a great deal of expense. There were no valleys or gutters, but
along the side-wall was a single rain-water trough, and all the water
ran down through one pipe into a water-butt. The framing of the roof
was the simplest, and it was a perfectly square building, presenting
the smallest external surface—a great object in our very damp climate.
Another plan of cottages was one which he designed only last week,
and was going to erect at Bishop’s Waltham for the use of workmen
there. This was a modification of the former plan. It would, he
thought, be a mistake to build all cottages with three bedrooms. In
some cases it was necessary to have three rooms, in others it was not.
He had made a design for a pair of cottages in accordance with a sug-
gestion of Mr. Frere, that it might be a very convenient arrangement
to have a sleeping-room for boys on the ground-floor, midway between
the two dwellings. He thought that when the cottage was erected
there should be two doorways in the brickwork, and that one of them
should be bricked up ; that door being open which communicated with
the cottage in which a third bedroom was required; the other house
would suffice for a man and his wife who had only small children. Up
above was the girls’ room, and in front the parents’ room. The eleva-
tion and construction of the roof were mainly the same as before. The
next was a plan for some almshouses which he was about to erect for
Colonel Harcourt, in Sussex.

Vol. XXIV. 20

560 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Now, in proceeding to speak.of the defects of cottages generally, he
would commence with the foundations. They must, he thought, all
be aware of the evils of damp, drawn upwards by capillary attraction ;
this damp had frequently been observed to rise to a height of five or
six feet. Rain absorbed as it falls upon a building is bad enough ; but
they must consider all the impurities that accompany the moisture
that is brought up from the earth to estimate the full extent of the evil
of damp rising by capillary attraction. The poor, living in cottages,
generally endeavoured to keep up the temperature by keeping out the

‘ air, and so made the interior of the cottage warm ; and the warmer it
was, the greater, of course, was the amount of evaporation.

Two or three things were generally used, though not so often as they
should be, on account of the expense, to keep down damp. There
were slates laid in cement, and asphalte. With slates in cement the
work is frequently very imperfectly done ; and where that is the case the
damp rises up quicker in some parts. To meet this case he had provided
a damp-proof course, made of brown stoneware—a material which was
often used, on account of its hardness, imperviousness, and durability,
for drainage purposes. It was made by earth being expressed through
a die, and perforated. These materials would be useless if they were
obliged to be put together by means of a mortar or cement joint, be-
cause the water would rise up; but the joint was a section of one of
the perforations. The two joints being brought together, that is to
say, the two slabs being laid alongside each other, there is an open-air
space right through the joint; and if the house is built over a pond
of water, nothing could rise above that. These materials are as ready
to the bricklayer’s hands as an ordinary brick, and as easily laid.
They also answer a further purpose besides keeping down damp.
Air-bricks are generally used for giving a current offair and pre-
venting dry-rot under a wooden floor. But air-bricks are generally
insufficient for the purpose; the air which they introduce is small in
amount and limited in range; and they are frequently put in the
wrong place. Here, however, is a perforated course of bricks all
round the building, producing a thorough circulation of air.

Another requirement in a foundation is bonding, or strength. ‘The
best thing for that purpose is a layer of York stone ; but it is too ex-
pensive to be generally used. The material which he had mentioned
is as strong as York stone ; for it bore 600 feet of brickwork upon it.
By its use damp is kept down, and all the air that is necessary intro-
duced into the building.*

He would next speak of the construction of the walls. They often
saw the walls of cottages constructed of 9-inch brickwork. Now, he-
considered that a brick wall only 9 inches thick was unfit to form the
habitation of any human being. The through mortar-joint in the
brickwork is a constant source of wet, which is conveyed from the ex-_
terior to the interior. They all knew that good bricks were always
absorbent. Suppose there were a continuous rain, causing the bricks
to absorb as much water as they could; the first drying wind would

* See Illustration No. 1 at the iff of this Report.

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 561

dry the outside ; the next rain would complete the absorption, and the
bricks would scarcely ever be dried through, unless by the warmth of
the interior. Again, a nine-inch wall, though strong enough for the
purpose, was not stiff enough. It was so yielding that, as the wall
was being built, it would oscillate when a man goes up a ladder, owing
to the yielding nature of the mortar joints. Now, he thought that, in
order to construct cottages economically, they must always obtain the
bulk of the materials near the spot, the expense of conveying them
being prohibitory ; therefore, he proposed to send a small quantity of
materials to the place, to be used with the local materials. Accor-
dingly, he made a perforated block, expressed through dies in an ordinary
brick-machine ; these facing-blocks are made in pairs, to give facilities
in drying and burning. Such a brick, if not made in pairs, would
never dry straight, but would warp and twist in various ways, and
thus cause much trouble. Or again, the bricks would be liable to be
broken in railway transit. When the bricklayer touched a block at a
certain point with the chisel, it immediately became two bricks.* He
then commenced by laying a course of common bricks which were called
headers, after which he took one of these blocks and laid it upon the
headers. Then he took the ordinary bricks, and laid a course inside
the wall—all stretchers; then another of these facing-blocks; and.
then he repeated the headers. The facing-block rendered the wall
perfectly stiff. It had no more bulk than the ordinary 9-inch wall,
because the cubical contents of the 9-inch were spread, making it.
il inches, and naturally producing a perfectly dry area everywhere
within the internal face, leaving that face dry. The inside of the
brickwork was perfectly true. Itwas a well-known fact that no 9-inch
wall could ever be true outside and inside; the different sizes of the
bricks always presented unevenness on the inside. With his system
there was, except for appearance and comfort, no necessity for interior
plastering, because the wall could be made perfectly fair inside. Thus,
he had shown the improvement which*he proposed to make in brick
construction.

One material which abounds in every locality, even where bricks
were expensive, is concrete. Concrete, or materials for concrete, are
everywhere to be found; but hitherto it has not been available for the
construction of walls. Concrete in a foundation would bear any weight
which may be put upon it, because it was retained in the trench, that
is, it was prevented from spreading; but when it is used in building
walls, the usual course is to put up some temporary boards on the out-
side and inside face; the concrete is then poured into those boards;
when it is sufficiently hardened the boards are removed, and placed a
little higher up ; and so the process goes on. But as the removal of
the boards exposes it to the action of the external air, the concrete im-
mediately begins to decay, not being adapted to bear such exposure.
Then, it will not bear cross strain, because it depends wholly on
the cementitious qualities of the mortar. It soon begins to resolve
itself into its original formation, and settlements take place, showing

* See Illustration No. 2.
2 a2

rd

562 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

defective construction. The truth is, that concrete requires to be
used, as it were, ina trench. Now, here* are two facing-blocks con-
structed on the same principle as those already shown to be applicable
for brickwork, but of a different form. Suppose the wall to be faced
on two sides, the bricklayer lays a course of these bricks on the out-
side and on the inside, to form the thickness; the labourer follows,
pouring concrete into the trench thus formed. It would be observed
that the pressure of the concrete on the flange counteracts the outward
thrust given by the concrete. and thus the conercte is retained just in
the same way as in the foundation of a building. He had built houses
costing four or five thousand pounds a-piece, where economy was no
object, upon that plan of construction. Instead of the board being
removed, the blocks, which are a substitute for the board, remain to
protect the concrete from the external atmosphere ; and such a wall is
as hard and stronger than the very best brick construction ; or again
the brick face in the interior might be dispensed with.

He would now show how it happens that blocks of this particular
form are cheap enough to be used for cottage building. It is entirely
owing to the contrivance by which they are burnt in blocks of six
together. The blocks are all exactly alike in form, and when passing
through the die they are held together by clay which had been left
between the knives or cutters. The block which he now produced repre-
sented six bricks 12 inches long. Hitherto it had been almost an impos-
sibility, even when persons went to the greatest expense, to manufac-
ture a brick true enough to be used 12 inches in length. With this
plan of moulding, the joints are found to be straighter and truer than
they had been in the very best descriptions of work previously. Then
again, there is the great economy of conveying to the building such a
very small weight of materials. When it was considered that these
blocks represented twelve bricks on the external face of the wall, it
would be readily understood that very few such blocks would be ne-
cessary to construct concrete falls for a cottage.

The next point to be considered is the flooring. They all knew the
advantages in warmth and comfort of a wooden floor over a brick or
dile floor. Yet a wooden floor has some drawbacks; for example, if a
‘house is left uninhabited for a short time, a quantity of fleas and other
insects immediately find a habitation there. But a paved floor was |
generally considered, and with good reason, to be cold and liable to
.damp. Now, the paving tile which he exhibited ¢ had a flange on one
side. This flange extends beyond the face of the tile, so that the
tile rests on the flange of its neighbour. Longitudinally some open-
ings are formed, by leaving out a small portion of that flange, so that
‘the air circulates not only longitudinally, from one end to the other

encath the paving, but also transversely. There is, in short, a per-
fect current of air everywhere beneath the paving. They must often-
have observed that floor-paving got slightly out of the level. It is
generally supposed that this arises from one tile being softer than

* See Illustration No. 3. + See Illustration No. 4.
t See Illustration No, 5,

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 563

another ; but that is not always the case; the cause is frequently to be
found in the surface on which the tile rested, causing it to sink
slightly, leaving another more exposed, in consequence, to wear. Now,
the tiles exhibited rested one. upon another on thin flanges representing
a level platform, and the paving kept its level much better than when
it rested solely on the soil. ‘These tiles were made of Staffordshire
clay, and were kiln-burnt; they were all made in pairs, on the same
principle as the blocks which he had before described. The com-
mencing and the finishing tiles were produced from the same die ; and
it was because of these facilities in manufacture these materials are
cheaply produced.

He now came to roofing. Tiling is better for that purpose
than slating; but in and around London it is much more costly,
the difference being 35 per cent., at least. The great advantage
of slating is that it requires less strength of timber. Ordinary
plain tiling is nearly three times the weight of slating, because
it has to be doubled in order to keep out water. A tiled roof is
much warmer in winter and cooler in summer than a slated roof.
Now, he had invented a roof which was only half the weight of plain
tiling, and very little heavier than slating, as it does not require to be
doubled.* This tile is made with two side flanges, there being notches
in the flanges. ‘These notches allowed the tile when turned topsy-
turvy to go down and take a level bearing upon the two side-tiles
beneath. They also presented a level bed everywhere for the tile to
rest upon. On the face of the tile there is a nib, which gives the
gauge, secures the upper tile against the lower one, and when turned
up is of equal use in keeping one down upon the other. The ridging,
which is generally the most defective part of slate roofing, is adequately
provided for in the same manner as the tiling, the ridge being merely
a continuation of the tile. The upper ridge-tile rests upon the under
ridge-tile, and the under ridge-tile upon the tiling, capping the whole.
Thus, without any other aid, perfect drfness is secured in the most
exposed part of the ridge. The ridge is mortared down and bedded in
the usual way.

There are many more points of construction to which atten-
tion is necessary for the prevention of damp in cottages. They
must have often observed how much window-sills, chimney-cappings,
and other exposed parts require what is termed weathering. Now,
for that purpose he had formed what he called a drip-band, which is
suitable in its formation for cottages. ‘This kind of band is used at
all the stations of the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway Company,
and therefore it has been sufficiently tried. The band has a throat
beneath it, which projects just far enough to allow any moisture to
drip from one band on to another, and thus wet is prevented from
running down the face of the wall..

Mr, ‘Taytor said, in reply to an inquiry, that the depth beneath the
ground-floor of the cottages described varied from six to ten inches,
which is all that is necessary, The heavy expense required for

* See Illustration No. 6,

564 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

sleepers, timbers, and so on, is avoided. He believed that in most
instances it would be found better to build on the surface of the
soil than to go down 18 inches. In this case there is no necessity to
go to an extra depth for the foundation, as is done where there are
wood floors.

Having now shown generally the application of these different ma-
terials, he would next call attention to artificial warming by means
of open fire-places.* He proposed merely to explain the prin-
ciple of his invention, not the exact stove applicable for a cottage,
because at present he had been unable to get one sufficiently cheap
for that purpose. He had put these stoves in some new cottages for
the Queen, at a price not less than 24 guineas; but he mentioned the
subject now, because he expected shortly to supply a stove with many
—if not quite all—the advantages of the one which he had mentioned,
at a price suited to a labourer’s cottage. In an ordinary fire-place,
when a fire was burning, it fed itself with the cold air which came in
through the door or window; the greater the warmth received by a
person standing before the fire, the greater was the draught. ‘The se-
cond defect is that 75 per cent. of the heat from the fuel rushes up the
chimney, and is of no advantage for warming the room ; the third is
the evil arising from smoke—that i is, from the soot or carbon that is
in smoke.

They all Imew, from looking at the public buildings, how much
they were disfigured and injured by the action of smoke. Hence,
there have been many attempts made to consume smoke in open
fire-places. The most successful of these was that of Dr. Arnott
—an exceedingly clever contrivance, fully answering its purpose
when a gentleman can attend to it himself in his library; but, if
left to the care of a domestic servant, as is very apt to be the case,
it soon comes to be used as a common fire-place, and then it is a
very bad description of common fire-place. Now, he must ask them
to bear in mind that smoke was the effect of imperfect combustion.
There is no smoke in the lower part of the fire, where the greatest
heat is; but in the upper part smoke is thrown off and ascends. He
allowed it to ascend, but instead of ascending up the chimney, it meets
with the closed register; the smoke, thus checked, passes down, and
comes through the fire; there the carbon which it contains is ton-
sumed as fuel, and the residue continues its course, and goes up the
chimney. The heated air charged with smoke which would have gone
up the chimney now passes round to heat the hollow parts around the
fire-place. These are, as it were, between two fires—the fire on their
inside, and the smoke on their outside ; and they communicate with
the cold external air, or the cold air of the room, at pleasure, Thus
there is in the room a large quantity of moderately warm air, not air
heated by coming in contact with over-heated surfaces. Thus, all the
three defects which he had pointed out as existing in the ordinary fire--
places are remedied by his stove. ‘The carbon in the smoke is con-
sumed without any trouble ; the heat which would have escaped up

* See Illustration No. 7.

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 565

the chimney is-made use of, and the room, instead of being filled with
cold air through the door or window, is supplied with moderately
warm air. This stove is, moreover, a remedy for that very great evil,

asmoky chimney. The only reason why smoke does not as readily
go out of the door or window-as up the chimney, is, that the
air in the chimney is rarified; the more it is rarified, the
better smoke-flue, or smoke-shaft, it becomes. But in an ordinary
fire-place the air rushes up and makes the chimney cool; and
thus it becomes such a bad smoke-shaft that the least opposition—
fire burning in another part of the house, and a hundred other causes
—cause smoke to appear in the room. No air could pass up his
chimney but what had become heated; and thus the common smoke-
flue is made not only a perfect smoke-draught, but also a valuable
shaft for the purpose of ventilation. The clever contrivance of Dr.
Arnoit had the effect of preventing any down draught; that is to say,
the moment the flue becomes unpleasant as a ventilating shaft, as is
frequently the case, Dr. Arnott’s valve operates as a check. He would
not then enter into the question how far that valve is sufficient for the
purpose. Stains of smoke are often produced by it; and it is not
every one who can bear the noise and flapping which the valve pro-
duces. In his own flue there is no necessity for any contrivance of
that description. He merely made an ordinary opening into the
smoke-flue, being quite certain that as long as the smoke was burning
it could be used as a powerful extracting shaft for ventilation. These
fire-places have perforated tiles and iron work, which stand in front
of the fire-lumps, and present an ornamental appearance in the room.
He thought he had now occupied the time and attention of the meeting
long enough; but he should be happy to answer any questions which
might be put to him.

In answer to an inquiry how these chimneys were swept, Mr.
Taytor said that about every six weeks or two months a broom was
used, which was made like a ball, with a string and bullet. A clerk
in his office swept his chimney without soiling his hands. He put his
hand up, and a bullet dropped on to the bottom hearth, where the cinders
generally dropped. The bullet deposited the soot on the hearth, and
it was taken away with the cinders. This plan had been in operation
for two or three years, and he had never been troubled with a particle
of soot. Sometimes the register was left open, in order to cool the
room. He thought that a sweep would not be required more than
once in five or six years.

Mr. Barmy Denton believed that no lecture was ever prepared with
greater care than this; that Mr. Taylor’s inventions were exceedingly
ingenious, and would come into extensive use; but still the question
recurred, what would be the expense of building these cottages? His
own experience in cottage-building was not small, and, taking advan-
tage of every improvement that had been made, he did not see how
cottages were to be built for less than 1201. each, supposing that they
were built in pairs, with three bed-rooms, that sanitar y requirements
were respected, and that the requirements of the Enclosure Commis-

566 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

sioners for cottages built on entailed estates were also fulfilled. It
would be well, he thought, for all landowners to consider whether it is
not desirable ‘that, when cottages are built on their estates, the rules
laid down by the Enclosure Commissioners to secure substantiality,
should be observed. If cottages require constant repairs, they are a
curse, rather than a benefit, to an estate. Assuming that cottages
were built in pairs, and in accordance with the views of modern philo-
sophers as regarded sanitary arrangements, and that the cost per pair
would be 250/.—and, notwithstanding the greatest regard to economy,
the expense had run up to 300/.—the question arose, who was to pay
for them? It resolved itself into a question of interest. Nobody
built houses without looking for a return of six, seven, or cight per
cent. ; and no landowner would, whatever might be the extent of his
philanthropy, build cottages without regard to cost. A return of six
per cent. would require a rent of at least 7/. 10s. for each cottage.
Again, he asked, who was to pay? The cottager could not afford to
pay such a rent. The utmost proportion of his earnings which he
could afford for rent was a seventh. A man who was earning 9s. or
10s. a week—and there were a great many men with families who did
not earn more—could not pay more than 1s. 6d.; a man who earned
14s., could not pay more than 2s.; and the highest-paid agricultural
labourers could not afford more than 2s. 6d. or 2s. 9d. Assuming that.
2s. per week was the mean payment for cottage-rent, that made 51. a
year, or only two-thirds of what was required to pay interest on
capital. Who, then, was to pay the remainder? He knew no question
which was more deserving of the consideration of this Society. That
was the point on which he desired to lay stress, and which had, in fact,
brought him there that day. He thought that if good cottages were
built on the farms, the tenants, who had the advantage of having the
labourer living upon the spot, instead of the disadvantage of his losing
his strength in walking a long distance to it, could afford to pay
something; and it was a point well worthy of the consideration of
tenants whether, under such circumstances, they should not contribute
a portion of the rent. Then there was a third party—the owner of
the estate—of whose farms were improved by the building of cottages,
and whose property generally derived a corresponding advantage.
Whether the owners and the farmers were prepared to contribute the
difference between Is. 6d. a week, which was about 4l/.a year, and
7l. 10s. was another question; but certain it was that the building of
improved cottages could not be expected to increase very largely
unless that question was well considered and practically answered.
It was not to be expected that all owners would imitate the Duke of
Bedford, and Mr. Turner of Lincolnshire, who had built such beautiful
cottages, but so costly, that he was sure no labourer could pay an

adequate rent, E

The Cuarrman thought the ee before the meeting related to

the materials for building cottages: he hoped that some day or other

they would have a discussion on the economical view of the matter.

He could not help remarking that he knew two or three landlords who

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 567

had the strongest objection to there being a third bedroom in a
labourer’s cottage, because it often led the cottager to receive that pest
and nuisance—a lodger. Mr. Taylor had not given the dimensions of
the rooms.

Mr. Taytor explained that he prefaced his remarks by saying that
he had not come there to show any particular plan of cottage-buildings.
Had he done so, his statement would have been most incomplete unless
it included an estimate of what the cottage might be built for; and
estimates were generally so fallacious that he was quite sure that would
have done no good, and no one would have given him credit for accu-
racy. His object was, therefore, simply to show improved and cheap
modes of constructing cottages; and with that view he mentioned four
special points for consideration—the foundation, the walls, the roofing,
and the paying. Any gentleman who wanted to build a cottage might
ascertain for himself how much a yard he would have to pay for con-
ercte on the spot, and what would be the cost of bricks. lt was calcu-
lated that a rod of ordinary brickwork would require 4352 bricks,
which, at 32s. per thousand, would cost 7/. On the other hand, a rod
of the patent walling would require 1450 bricks, which, at 20s. per
thousand—that being the price for labourers’ cottages only, in which
ease he charged no royalty—would cost 1l. 16s. 3d. Add to this the
cubical contents of the concrete required, namely, 92 yards, at 16s. 8d.
(taking the gravel at 2s., and the lime at 10s.), there was 1l..12s. 8d.,
making a total of 3/. 8s. 11d. per rod of 14-inch work, as against 71.
per rod of brickwork. In this calculation it was assumed that there
would not be more than the ordinary amount of expense for convey-
ance. The materials might be made on any estate where there was
plenty of good clay. :

He had spoken of the cost of materials only, assuming that the
cost of scaffolding, labour, &c., would be about the same as with
ordinary brickwork—neither more nor less.

As to the weight of patent brickwork, the materials are, in fact,
so light that almost enough to build a cottage might be sent in a
railway truck; 4350 common bricks would weigh 9 tons 14 cwts.,
while 1450 of his patent bricks would weigh only 1 ton 9 cwts. Thus
it would be seen that the cost of carriage in the case of his
materials was exceedingly low. His patent roof tiles weighed
about 656 lbs. per square; plain tiling weighed about 1624 Ibs. per
square. Pantiles would generally weigh about one-half. A roof
so constructed might possibly be colder than an ordinary roof; but
an air-tight roof he considered unhealthy. One great object is
ventilation. The clay of which tiles are made is frequently so porous
that water would filter through it; and it is well known in tile-making
districts that a porous tile would withstand the action of frost better
than one which is non-porous. If they wished to have a perfect tile-
roof, they should take care that the tiles were porous.

He had shown that paving on his principle would be drier, and
therefore warmer than ordinary paving; and with that paving there
was no necessity for the sleepers and brickwork required under a
wooden floor. The gentleman who thought that cottages must cost

568 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

about 125]. a-piece, ought to take all these savings into account. He
would give them the result of his calculations with respect to the cot-
tages which he was going to build at Bishop's Waltham. Those
cottages were to be erected near some brickworks, for men who were
employed at those works. These men—many of whom were earning
30s. a week—thought it very hard that they should have to pay 6s. a
week for a cottage ; and consequently economy was an object in that
case, as well as in the case of cottages intended for persons earning
only 10s. a week. He estimated that these cottages would cost 90/. a
piece, exclusive of a well and the oven. The cottage with three bed-
rooms, of which he had spoken, would, he believed, cost 100/. In this
plan the living-room was 12 feet square, with a height of 8 feet. The
height of the bedrooms averaged 8 feet 6 inches.

Dr. Crisp wished to say a few words with respect to Mr. Taylor’s
opinion, that the badness of the materials of cottages of the old kind,
and especially the damp which arose from them, had been a great
source of illness in the rural districts. In his younger days he had a
good deal to do with the treatment of disease amongst the peasantry,
and he did not remember a single case in which illness was occasioned
by a damp cottage. The sources of illness were unfortunately very
abundant—an unhealthy locality, the holes in which cottages are
always placed, and the badness of the water obtained from wells and
ponds, are frightful causes of disease. If the cottages of the rural
population be compared with the dwellings of the poor in London,
although some moral defects in the former exist, and the oceu-
pants are generally too much crowded and huddled together, still the
comparison is in their favour. Statistics certainly did not show that
much disease arose from the ill-construction of the cottages; they
rather tended to show that it arose from malaria and such like in-
fluences. <A roof like that recommended by by Mr. Taylor would, he
imagined, be extremely hot in summer, and cold in winter. <A thatch
roof had a great advantage, in point of warmth, over both tile and
slate.

Mr. Taylor's grate could never be used generally in cnieeee where
wood was continually burnt, and his aaprecsion was that it would be
constantly out of order.

He might just state that an Exmoor cottage could be built for 60/.,
the materials being obtained on the spot. In the Bath and West of
England Society's Journal several plans are given for building cheap
cottages. After all everything hinges on the question of cost; and he
hoped that that part of the question would be entertained more fully
on some future occasion.

The Cuarrman thought it was useless to talk about building thatched
cottages now, as the straw was wanted for other purposes.

Mr. Tayxor said, The opinion which had been expressed that the
grate would be constantly getting out of order, should he tested by
facts. It was used at all the stations of the London, Chatham, and
Dover Railway Company, and did not get out of order there. There
are not more unmerciful men with fireplaces than railway porters. At
any station you may see a handsome grate, and alongside it a crowbar,

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 569

and an immense piece of coal lying ready to be put on the fire. The
porter puts this mass of coal on the top, reaching much higher than
the bars, and then gives it sundry heavy blows with the crowbar. He
‘neyer thiuks of opening the register when he lights the fire, but only
removes the cinders from beneath, knowing that otherwise there
would be smoke on the following day. There could surely be no
rougher usage than that, and yet the grate continued to act properly.
_ His grate was not designed for burning wood.

The cost of his patent tiles for roofs was, in the case of cottages,
4]. 10s. per 1000, and the number used in a square was 185. For all
other kinds of buildings—and buildings round London were being
covered with them every day—the charge was 51. 5s. per 1000. He
had made a careful caleulation of the cost of the materials required to
build a pair of double cottages, with three bedrooms, every facing-
block, every tile, every roof-course, being carefully reckoned, and he
found that the total would be 40/. for the pair—assuming, that is, that
the materials were made within a reasonable distance. If these are not
near the spot the cost of the carriage by rail must be added, which is
easily ascertained when the weight of the materials is known. The
sum of 40/7. did not include the concrete. He could not give an
estimate of the cost of the flooring-tiles, as they had not been invented
more than six months. They would, however, come to more than
ordinary flooring-tiles, because they were more troublesome to make.
They were made in Staffordshire, Lincolnshire, and Suffolk, and also
near Southampton. Although he would supply the materials for
labourers’ cottages without charging any royalty, he should at the
same time be benefiting himself; for when a cottage had been built
with his materials, the landlord would feel that the labourer was better
of than he was, and would probably give him an order for some ma-
terials for his own house.

Mr. Woop, of Chichester, said, Understanding that the discussion was
limited to the cheapness of materials, it had occurred to him that the
subject of mud walls might be introduced. .He happened to know that
there were excellent cottages, dry and warm, built with mud walls, in
Wiltshire and Suffolk. A gentleman had recently built a house near
Salisbury in that way, and it was as comfortable a dwelling as
any one could occupy. This had a close bearing on the cost of
materials.

Mr. Frerz said, On the estate with which he had been connected it
had been the practice to build houses with what were termed clay-bats,
that is, large bricks of clay and straw sun-baked. The drawback was
that, in a few years, the clay-bats subsided a little; they were also
more liable to injury from mice and rats than other materials.

Mr. Taytor thought that the remarks which had just been made with
respect to mud walls, had a tendency to mislead. Such walls must
necessarily be of nearly twice the substance of ordinary brick walls:
they required brick foundations of twice the usual width, involving
great additional expense, and every flue, every fireplace, and every
chimney, must also be of brick. When they had taken into account

570 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

the comparatively small quantity of brickwork which would be
avoided by the use of mud walls, had reckoned the expense of
roofing the cottage 2 feet wider, and had further considered the
question of durability, they would find the construction of mud
cottages was most expensive.

The Carman then moved, and Col. M‘Dovatt seconded, a vote
of thanks to Mr. Taylor, for the useful information which he had
conveyed.

Taylor's Bricks as moulded in pairs,

Materials for the Construction of Cottages. 571

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572 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

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Taylor’s Smoke-consuming Fireplace.

Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, March 18th. Mr. Raywoyp
BaRkKER in the Chair. rhtg

THe Errect or Unper DRAINAGE ON OUR RIVERS AND ARTERIAL
CHANNELS.

Mr. Battery Deyton said: I approach this subject with consider-
able distrust in my powers of doing it justice, but determined to avoid
everything that may partake of a controversial and doubtful character,
and to confine myself to those facts which experience and observation
assure me are sound and deserving the attention of this Society. At
the risk of repeating details which may be known to many, I feel it
necessary for the elucidation of the matter to trace historically, in the
fewest words possible, the progress of under-drainage up to the
present time; and I will endeavour to do so in a manner rather to
popularize than to confuse the matter by a multiplication of figures.
It is necessary, however, to start with a knowledge of the magnitude
of the subject ; and I should state that the result of close investigation
has been to show that of the total extent of Great Britain, which is

574 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

56,352,000 acres, there is believed to be 22,890,000 acres of wet land
capable of improvement by drainage, including such proportion as
has already been drained, and that these wet lands are nearly equally
divided between those characterised as “clays” and those called
“free soils.’ The extent of land already permanently drained does.
not exceed 1,700,000 acres, and of these much the larger part are
clays, so that there remain upwards of 21,000,000 of acres yet to be
drained, besides lands incapable of improvement. There is a very
general belief that much more under-draining has been done than a
careful consideration of facts corroborates. There has been so much
said and written on drainage of late years, and the red colour of the
pipes as they appear in the fields, like the scarlet petticoat and scarlet
cloak that have become so fashionable, make such a display as we
travel along, that we can readily understand how the erroneous im-
pression has become general. Very few words will satisfy all doubt
upon the point. The utmost extent of land drained under the Public
and Private Moneys’ Acts, and under the several Drainage Companies’
Acts, cannot exceed 1,100,000 acres, as the total outlay up to the
present time does not reach 6,000,000/. -The drainage of a permanent
character executed by landowners with private funds, though very
largely increasing, is still much less than the extent done with
borrowed capital, and at the present rate of progress it may fairly be
assumed that it will take at least a century to complete the under-
drainage of the country. To illustrate our present capability to
proceed with under-drainage, it may be mentioned that the number of
pipe-yards, or brick-yards making pipes, in Great Britain, is estimated
at 2800; and if we assume the number of pipes made at each yard to
be on the average 150,000 a-year, the total number made in the year
may be taken at 420,000,000. The number of pipes now used in
under-draining may be taken at an average of 1250 pipes per acre,
and dividing the quantity made by this average we see that 336,000
acres might be drained per annum; but as a large portion of the
pipes made are applied to temporary, shallow, and unconnected works,
it is not possible to ascertain from such data the extent of permanent
drainage executed. Assuming, however, that a quarter of a million of
acres will, in future, be permanently drained per annum, we may see
that a century will pass ere the work is completed. If such is our
statistical position with respect to execution, what has beén the
progress and what our present state of knowledge in the science of
under-drainage itself? These questions will be best answered as we
proceed, and their importance will be recognised in their bearing upon
the great national object of our water economy.

The first effort in the way of agricultural drainage was the raising
of the surface of wet land into the form of “ridge and furrow.” This
may be called the aboriginal mode. The second step was the placing
of bush drains under the furrows, at a depth just sufficient to conduct
the water under ground, rather than along the surface of the furrow.
The third step was the substitution of horse-shoe drains and pipes for
bushes, still following the aboriginal furrows. The fourth step was
that taken by Smith of Deanston, upon his farm near Stirling, in a

Under-Drainage. 575

country where high-backed lands are unknown, when he adopied a
uniform system of parallel under-drains, and called it “ thorough
drainage.” To Smith must be accredited the origination of systematic
drainage, but the principles upon which he advocated its adoption have
been proved to be erroneous in many particulars. His object, to use
his own words, was to drain “ the whole of the fields without par-
ticular reference to wet and dry portions, in order to provide frequent
. opportunities for the water rising up from below, as well as that
falling on the surface, to pass freely and completely off.’ In fact,
Smith drained both clays and free soils alike, and was the first to lead
the country wrong in this particular. He would vary the interval
between the drains in accordance with the porosity of the soil; but
the same depth and the same parallel arrangement would pervade
every description of soil.

The next step was that of Parkes, who adhered to the parallel
system of drainage advocated by Smith, but, on philosophical grounds,
recommended increased depth. There can be no doubi that, by his
able scientific papers, by which he traced the action of water, and
explained the influence of the atmosphere on the subsoil, Mr. Parkes
effected a great national benefit, and an apposite correction of the
system recommended by Smith; but the parallel arrangement of
drains, which, it will be seen, has been, and continues to be the cause
of loss and derangement in many instances, was still advocated as
suitable to all lands suffering from wetness. However irregular, and
whatever the inclination of the surface of fields, and however free and
mixed the subsoils, a parallel arrangement of drains was the principle
advocated.

It was at this juncture, when Parkess improvement upon Smith’s
system had taken hold of the agricultural mind, that the Public
Moneys’ Drainage Act passed. The Inclosure Commissioners, who
were the authorised medium for dispensing the public money, issued
the best, in fact the only rules, that a limited experience suggested as
consonant with the accepted views of “ Parkes upon Smith.” Tabu-
lated forms, became the order of the day, and the parallel arrangement of
drains, seldom varying from 4 feet deep, the type of systematic under-
drainage in all descriptions of soil. ‘“ The Public Moneys’ Drainage
Act” passed in the year 1845; since which time five different com-
panies have obtained special Acts of Parliament to supply funds to
landowners as the public money became exhausted ; and we now find
landowners still draining their wet lands under the rules laid down
seventeen years back, with all the advantage of increased experience
where they are rightly applied, as in homcgeneous soils and even
surfaces, but with equal disadvantage where the soils are of a free and
mixed character, and the surfaces irregular, corrugated, or broken.
In the mean time the result has been to affect our river system pre-
judicially ; and this evil, which is to a very considerable extent
unavoidable, has been unfortunately greatly increased by the mis-
application of the parallel and frequent-drain system to the free soils.
To this point I propose now to address myself, premising that, as
under-drainage extends to the immense area yet undrained, the

VOL. XXIV. 2 P

576 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

consequences will swell into large dimensions, and will render the
object one of the most difficult and important engineering problems.
. ever presented for’ solution.

Although the soils of Great Britain alternate so frequently, and are
so much intermixed, it is still possible to classify them, so as to
render intelligible the statement that the frequent parallel system
applicable to one description of land is inapplicable to the other. All
soils having a proportion of alumina greater than 15 per cent. may -
be termed clay soils, and require frequent parallel drains to overcome
their peculiar retentive character. These soils cannot be aérated too
much, as it is only by aération that their retentive nature can be
overcome, and their bulk rendered permeable. Soils with a less pro-
portion than 15 per cent. of alumina admit of percolation, more rapid
as the proportion becomes less, and the retentiveness, which arrests
the water in the clay, is diminished. Aération is not necessary for —
drainage in wet soils altogether devoid of clay, and they are therefore
called “ free soils.” Whereas, in dense clays, you cannot put in too
many drains, it is the ne plus ultra of drainage of free soils to reduce
to a minimum the number of under-conduits by which to relieve the
land of stagnant water. Test-holes decide the number with accuracy ;
and, wherever test-holes are the guide of operations, parallelism is the
exception, and not the rule. ;

It is found practically, that the clay lands cannot be drained by .
means of test-holes. The expansive character of the soil, and the
action of the atmosphere upon the sides of the test-hole, do not admit
of the water passing from the test-holes to the drains with that ready
response to the rainfall which is to be observed in free and mixed
soils; and the recognition of this fact will confirm the classification
of wet soils, by distinguishing the soils that can be drained by test-
holes, and which reject unifurmity of design, from those which cannot
be drained by test-holes, and which require that complete aération
which is only to be gained by the reciprocal influence of one drain.
upon another. It is a common observation with the cultivators of
heavy lands, that it is not possible to get rid of water too fast; and,
in clays, this is found to be true, if the convenience of cultivation, as:
at present conducted, is alone considered; but, since to get rid of
water with rapidity from high ground is to cause injury to the valleys
below, there is some consolation to be derived from the g?adual
progress of steam and deep cultivation, inasmuch as the effect of deep
stirring is to render fewer drains necessary to produce the required
effect.

This observation, however, is altogether erroneous when applied to
the free soils, All that is there necessary, under any conditions,
is to set the water in motion; and the fewer the number of drains that
will effect this object, the more perfect the drainage, and the better
the natural powers of the soil are developed. The effect on the
arterial system is explained by the fact that, in proportion to the
number of drains in all soils, but‘in free soils particularly, will be
the rapidity of the discharge, and, necessarily, the augmentation of
floods below. The fact is distinctly shown by the Hinxworth experi-

Under- Drainage. 577

ments, of which details were published in the Journal of your Society,
vol. xx., part 2. Numerous subsequent experiments corroborate
those details. By referring to the Hinkworth experiments, it will be
seen that, on the occasion of a fall of rain of half-an-inch (January
10, 1857), the flow of water from the under-drains was increased from
910 gallons per acre (which was the flow on the 9th) to 2420 gallons ;
while in the clay lands, which had been considered to be impermeable,
the discharge was increased from 125 gallons per acre to 5150 gallons
on the same dates. This difference is to be accounted for by the fact
that the distance between the occasional drains in the free soil had
been increased, by the guide of test-holes, to 58 yards, while the
distance between the parallel drains of the clay soils was only 84
yards. In each case, the land had been equally wet, and was
equally well-drained. To realise the effect of close parallel drainage
of the clay lands on the arterial channels of the country, we must
remember that the extent of clay lands not drained, and yet to be
drained, is 9,000,000 of acres. These 9,000,000 of acres are dis-
persed all over the country ; and the quantity of land that might be
placed under water, by default of outfall (say 10 inches deep), were
the full extent drained, would be upwards of 200,000 acres. Before
draining, it is possible that the same quantity of water might have
found its way over the saturated surface, and have been lodged in the
hollows and ditches for gradual passage to the outfalls; now it is no.
sooner discharged than it is delivered by improved tributary water-
courses into the main valleys to collect there for want of sufficient
outfall to the sea.

The free soils form a proportion of more than half of the lands
still requiring drainage ; they are estimated at 12,000,000 of acres.
They consist of a very large proportion of the wet land of the West
of England, of Wales, and of the North of England and Scotland.
The Devonian, the Silurian, and Cumbrian distriets are of this cha-
racter, and the saturated beds of the old red sandstone, the new red
sandstone, the Bagshot sand, and the various drift superficial deposits,
may also be so classified. If critically examined it will be found
that the wet soils of these formations consist either of the débris from
higher land, saturated with the water of pressure sinking from the
heights into the lower valleys, or from the water having travelled
through a wide region of a free stratum to the surface where that:
stratum outcrops. To appreciate the advantage of draining the free
soils by the fewest number of drains (indicated by test holes), that
will set the water in motion, and lower the water level beyond the
reach of active evaporation, we should have regard to the important
fact that they suffer by reason of their formation and position from an
excess of water beyond that which falls in the shape of rain upon
them, and they are therefore immense stores from which we should
draw with care and economy. It seems unnecessary to say that
whatever passes through the drains into the rivers cannot escape into
the air by evaporation ; and that whatever the amount of water may
be so arrested from the atmosphere, is a gain to the rivers in one
shape or another. But it does not follow that this discharge augments

2P2

578 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

the flocds; on the contrary if free soils are properly drained—with
no more drains than are necessary, as has been explained—their
surfaces instead of being saturated are in an absorbent condition, and
capable of taking in and storing the rain that falls upon it. This
they will gradually discharge by the few appropriate drains adopted ;
and by such means floods may be reduced, instead of being increased,
as is the case by the tco gencrally adopted treatment of frequent
parallel drainage. It has been stated that drainage does not diminish
evaporation; but reflection and the observation of facts must dispel
such a notion. It is undeniable that the water discharged from the
drains must be removed from the action of evaporation on the surface
of the land ; and inasmuch as the drains commence to run, and only
can run continuously, when the water level in the ground has risen to
the height of the drains, it is clear that those drains are always
arresting, in some degree, the upward action of the water toward the
surface of the land from which it would be evaporated. Numerous
experiments clearly demonstrate that directly the water on the soil
rises to the level of the drains, the drains begin to discharge, and that
were it not for those drains, the water which finds vent at the drains
would gradually rise to the surface, and from thence pass off as vapour
into the air. This fact, while it goes far to show that evaporation
from free soils must be diminished by the drainage, at once disproves
the statement, so often repeated, that the extent or period of drought
is increased. These latter remarks apply merely to free soils.

We know that the drains in clay soils do not discharge until the
body of soil from drain to surface has in its grasp sufficient water to
fill it to the extent of its retentive powers; and it can be well under-
stood that evaporation, fed by capillary attraction, will be as great as
before, so long as the soil is in that state of repletion, although the
land be drained. In free soils there is no retentive quality to
maintain, nor is capillary attraction sufficiently active after drainage
to raise the water from the level of the drains and uphold it at the
surface of the ground.* Thus we sce that not only in the action of
water through the land, but in the hygrometric influence of the
atmosphere, the two descriptions of soils are differently affected, and
it becomes manifest that to apply the same principles of drainage to
both is 2 compound fallacy ; a fallacy gud ‘under-drainage in its effect
upon land-owners individually, and a fallacy qud arterial drainage in
the effect upon the water economy of the country generally.

It is not long since I had the pleasure of reading a paper before
the Institution of Civil Enginecrs, having the same object as the

* The amount of evaporation from a constantly saturated surface, like some of
our stagnant valleys or pent-up bogs, has never been ascertained ; but some inter-
esting’ experiments were made by the late Mr, Charnock of Ferrybridge, and
printed in the Society’s Journal (vol. x. p. 516). They were confined, however,
to the limited surface of a gauge filled with soil, and showed that whereas thé
evaporation from a constantly-saturated surface, maintained in that condition, was
8 in, more than the rainfall, that from a drained soil was 5 in. less than the
rainfall. These experiments are not sufficiently confirmed to be taken as a guide
for the evaporation from a natural surface.

!
1

Under- Drainage. 57)

present paper, in order that I might attract the attention of the
highest practical authorities to the subject; and there was only one
opinion expressed upon the effect of under-drainage on the arterial
system : which was, that the floods were more quickly precipitated into
the valleys, in proportion to the extent of under-drainage in the
various river basins, and that the continuance of flood depended upon
the capability of the main outfall. Reference was particularly made
to valleys into which the tributary water-courses had been opened for
the outlet of upland drainage water, and it was stated that heavy
rainfalls now produce a flood in two days, whereas it formerly took a
week or more to do the same thing. The question whether under-
drainage increases the volume of flood waters was not discussed,
though the prevailing impression was, that—contrary to the theory of
drainage, which would lead to the expectation that the rain would
pass through the drained soil less rapidly than it had hitherto passed
off the saturated surface—the quantity discharged at flood times was
not diminished. In a paper now under discussion at the same Insti-
tution, by the Rey. J. C. Clutterbuck, it is stated as the result of a
general inquiry into the peculiarities of the Thames basin, that the
floods are advanced twenty-four hours in seventy-two hours within
the last twenty years. That the hastening of floods, not so much
from any positive increase in the quantity of water, but from its con-
centration, is the general effect of under-drainage, I do not think any
one will deny, nor that in proportion to the number of under-drains
will be the suddenness with which the discharge is effected from the
land into the tributary channels. Doubt was expressed by several
eminent engineers whether the effect of under-drainage of the free
soils could possibly increase the perennial supply of water to the
rivers ; but as the subject was new to the Institution in the light in
which it was introduced (viz., by separating the retentive soils from
the percolative, water-bearing soils, and showing that the two are
susceptible of distinctly different treatment and results), I was not
surprised to find an indisposition to confirm the deductions to which

' my experience had brought me ; and I attributed this to the circum-

stance that the free soils have hitherto for the most part been drained
in the same way as the clays, and have rather increased the evil of
sudden fiood than been made the means of regulating and of improving
the supply in summer. So important do I deem it that this view of
the question should be well understood, that I venture to exhibit the
plans of two works of free-soil drainage which have been carried out.
One is in Wales, in the Silurian district, and the other is in the South
of England, on the Bagshot sand formation. In both cases parallel
drainage was originally intended by the owners, though their inten-
tions gave way to occasional or test-hole drainage. In the first
instance a contract was entered into in accordance with the plan A,
and fortunately abandoned, by which a parallel system of one uniform
depth and interval was to be carried out, and the number of rods per
acre would have been 132, and the cost 111. 10s. per acre. If that
drainage had been adopied, there is little doubt but that some benefit
would have been derived. The numerous drains would have pre-

580 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

vented wetness showing itself at the surface; but it is doubtful, as the
land is generally mown, whether the herbage would have been so
profitable as that produced from less frequent drains, while the river
would have suffered from flood on every occasion of heavy rainfall.
This mode of drainage was not, however, carried out; but the system
exhibited on plan B was adopted. In lieu of 132 rods of drains only
34 rods were put in, and instead of being of uniform depth, they
varied in depth from 5 to 8 feet, and were more expensive in cha-
racter per rod. The result of this drainage has most decidedly been
a considerable saving in cost, the creation of a constant supply of
water to the river in summer, the lessening of sudden floods in winter
and spring, and the maintenance of a greater amount of moisture in
the ground itself, without stagnation within it. The second case is
very similar in the circumstances attending it as exhibited in Plan C.
Both were drained by test-holes; and in order to explain the modus
operandi, one of the monthly returns of the foremen conducting the
works accompanies each plan, from which it will be observed how
closely the water in the test-holes rises and falls in accordance with
the rainfall. So fully saturated was the soil, that while the test-holes
were open, before the drainage began, the -cattle in the fields used to
drink from them.
' The same mode of drainage has been adopted on the Ribstone Hstate
in Yorkshire, where a gentleman here present has watched with great
care the progress of the work, and can speak to its effect. I refer to
Mr. Dent Dent, M.P., who will, I have no doubt, corroborate the
statement that a very different mode of operating had been designed
from that adopted of a wide and occasional system of drainage, based
upon good outfalls, and carried out as deep as those outfalls would
admit. At the present moment this drainage is being carried out by
test-holes, which regulate the number of drains to be put in. A
monthly return of the rainfall and heights of water in the test-holes
(of the same month, February, as in the previous cases, but in the
present year, instead of 1862) is shown on the walls. It is not ex-
aggerating the case to say that less than one-third the number of
drains are now adopted than would formerly have been used, and with
better effect, and necessarily at less cost. Were this illustration only
made to advance a particular engineer's practice, it would be unworthy
of your consideration ; but when it is shown that the adoption of the
test-hole system not only secures an effective and economical drainage
of the saturated free soils, of which Ribston is the type, but necessa-
rily leads to less suddenness of floods, and sometimes to a constant
flow of water when it is wanted, I think you will consider that it is
the duty of any one interested in this subject to place it prominently
before the country. Previously to the adoption of this system at
Ribston, the parallel system was in vogue; and on an adjoining estate
with similar soil, it is now in operation with a far different effect upon
the question of our water economy.

It will be asked, “'To what practical end do these observations
lead?” The reply is soon given. It is admitted (as proved by expe-
rience) that the drainage of wet lands is the basis of good cultivation,

Under- Drainage. 581

and a means of individual and national wealth, and that it will
proceed, let the consequences be what they may. It is admitted, too,
that, as under-draining extends, it must be concentrated in the valleys
for discharge by the main outfalls to the sea. The reply, then, is
made manifest. It becomes the duty of the country to provide for
sudden floods by improving the outfalls and dealing with the rivers
systematically from the seaboard to their source. The Land Drainage
Act of 1861 is a good basis upon which to form districts for the im-
provements of valleys and outfalls, and for the conservation of drainage-
waters discharged in the spring for use during periods of drought, in
those districts which suffer in the summer season. But there is the
other point to which I have made particular reference, and which I
consider of equal importance to the landed interest—I mean the proper
mode of under-draining the different descriptions of wet lands. The
mode and results of draining the clay soils are fully understood, and
but little advantage is to be gained by discussion. It is the drainage
of the free soils to which attention is due, and which cannot be too
much discussed, for with them it is possible to moderate the evil of
sudden discharge, and, instead of committing injury, to improve, by
their appropriate drainage, the water supply of the country. Itisa
custom to designate systematic drainage a scientific operation ; and, of
all misapplications of terms, it is impossible to conceive anything so
inappropriate as to call the drainage of free soils by a parallel system
a scientific work. So directly is it the reverse of science, that, fifty
years hence, our children will look upon it as an absurdity as great as
the adoption of under-drains 18 inches deep is now regarded by those
who are draining 4 feet, and more, deep. In truth, up to this time
the engineering element has been entirely absent from the under-
drainage of land. Equidistant parallel drainage is not science, though
it required the scientific writing of Parkes to render adequate depth
acceptable.

But, while care and diligence alone are requisite in the clay soils,
the best judgment and skill are required in the drainage of free soils.
Frequently the source of evil is far from the land we are about to
drain, and the quantity of water to be removed many times the quantity
that falls on its surface. It will be received, perhaps, as an indication
of a want of knowledge on my part if I say that, in the drainage of
free soils, the criterion of sufficiency applicable to the clays does in no
way apply. If water stands above the pipes after draining the clays,
it is quite certain the drainage is not right; but, if the water stands
above the pipes in free soils, and the quantity of water discharged from
the outlet is in excess of that which falls on the surface, the drainage
is doing its work, whether the water be above the pipes or not.

Careful observations upon the rise and fall of water in a free soil
have exhibited some extraordinary phenomena, which, in the majority
of works, as now conducted, are disregarded. In several districts in
which I am now operating, and in which I am keeping a record of the
rainfall on the surface, the discharge of water from the drains, and the
rise and fall of water in the test-holes, I am gathering information of
the most valuable character. I may mention, as an instance, a case ip

582 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

which the outlets have been for some months discharging from a few
drains adapted for the drainage of a large area, as much as 3 inches of
water over the whole superficies per diem, although but little rain has
fallen on the surface for a considerable period. In this case the water
stands above the pipes. In the month of June this water will decline
to their level. A superficial observer would declare the: land. not
drained, though the effect of the drainage has been to discharge in the
last month (February) more than twice the average quantity of water
that falls annually on the surface. Again, such is the porosity of
certain districts, that 1/. well spent in securing a deep and efiective
outfall, is equal to many pounds spent in shallow and frequent under-
drains, although the outfall is not sufficient of itself to effect a cure
without subordinate under-drains, few and far between. A curious
instance, illustrative of the peculiar character of free soils, occurred
upon the Ribstone Estate. On the occasion of a recent flood the open
outfall cuts were filled with water, and one field was observed to be in
a very wet and quaggy state; so rotten, in fact, that it was hardly
possible to walk across the field. The drainage was for the moment
considered defective, although the test-holes had responded satis-
factorily to the drains that were put in. When the outlet was visited
the water was found many feet above it, on a level with the land
itself, and an index well within the field was found to be full of water
up to the brim. Within a week of this observation the waters in the
outfalls had receded, the outlet and well became clear, and the soil
became as firm as ever. Thus we see that the whole of the field had
been re-saturated by water from the outfall permeating its whole
mass; and that as quickly as it penetrated, so it receded When the
outfalls were clear. This field ten years ago would have been drained
on the parallel system! Numberless instances could I give to show
that more comprehensive views are suited to free and mixed soils, if
we are to drain them consistently with their properties, and with due
regard to the water economy of the country; but I abstain from mul-
tiplying them. It is not long since successful efforts were made to
regulate the salmon fishing of our streams, and legislative powers were:
sought and obtained ; but then private interests were at stake. Here
the matter is a general one, and I fear few will be found to take any
prominent lead in initiating measures which shall lead to river reform.
‘The more numerous the evils, and more difficult the means of over-
coming them, the less likely are we to have immediate remedies. In
the matter of our rivers, the injury we are suffering is progressive and
accumulative; they are not limited to the increase of floods, but
extend to the contamination of the water, for many towns are dis-
charging their sewage into streams previously pure. But until the -
floods have increased, so as to involve the loss of life; until the waste
that has been occasioned by the inappropriate drainage of free soils has
told its own story ; and until our rivers are made insufferably foul, we _
shall find no remedy. As one who has been interested from its
infancy in drajnage as a system, and who from active employment up
to the present time has become acquainted practically with existing
defects, I shall not be reproached with placing myself unduly promi~

Under- Drainage. 583

nent in forewarning this Society of approaching evils, and leaving the
matter there. I feel I cannot do better than close this paper with a
passage I wrote more than twenty years ago, when struggling to
obtain the first Act which founded the Drainage Commission. It is
this : “ If it is thought fit that each owner and occupier of land should
add their proportionate quota to our wealth as an agricultural nation
by the application of science to their calling, then itis not only equi-
table, but it is imperatively necessary, that a general law should be
laid down for the clearing and maintenance of outfalls, and that a
systematic order should be adopted with a due regard to the water of
drainage as discharged. We have seen the evil of disorganisation in
the sewerage of towns, and we are about to apply a remedy. No
better result will follow the operation of any partial system for
draining land: apathy will prevail in some cases, prejudice in others ;
and as each district, when drained, will be independent of surrounding
ones, a medley of works, as specific in themselves as dissimilar in
construction, will start, in defiance of order and contempt of system,
into inefficient existence.” This is precisely our present position.
Mr. Dent, M.P., said allusion having been made by Mr. Denton to
the works which were being carried on upon his father’s estate, he
wished to say a few words respecting them. Those works had only
been in progress since this time last year, and therefore there had
scarcely been time to judge what was likely to be the effect. The
district was a very wet one, and a very unpleasant district to ride
over. It consisted of an immense variety of soils. There were under
drainage about 35 acres of grass land, of a strong, tenacious character.
In other fields there were soils running from quicksands into clays,
with a considerable quantity of stone. Since his father bought the
estate he had drained to a considerable extent, and found in the soil a
number of stone drains of older date at good depth, which were
always full of water, having no proper outlets. During the last ten
years he had himself drained a great deal, generally on the parallel
system; but he was unable to go as deep as he should like to have
done, because the outfalls of the natural brook running into the river
Nidd were not adequate. The first work of the Drainage Company
was to enlarge these outfalls, and this enlargement had had a con-
siderable effect on the neighbouring soil, drying test-holes at a distance
of 40 or 50 yards. The particular field to which Mr. Denton alluded
he had just taken into his own hands. Part of it had been for two
years fallow, because the tenant thought it hardly worth while to grow
a crop. It was drained upon Mr. Denton’s system, with test-holes.
He watched the drains, which were placed at various depths, very
carefully. At first they seemed to work satisfactorily; but when
heavy rains came in January, in walking over the field he found it as
bad as ever. Mr. Denton came down to inspect the works at a time
when there was a very heavy flood; and when he saw the state of the
field, he did not seem at all comfortable. That gentleman’s statement
as to the rapidity with which the river rose and fell was quite correct.
One day the water in the outfall would be 6 feet deep, and a few hours
after not 6 inches. This field was sown with wheat, and on the 3rd of

584 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

February, soon after a heavy rainfall, hounds ran across it; and in
riding over it himself he was delighted to find that it was quite sound.
The other day he received a letter from his bailiff, who stated that he
had not found the wheat at all damaged.

He wished now to put a question to Mr. Denton. During the last
fortnight he had been staying in a part of Middlesex where he was
very much struck with the ‘state of the grass lands. He had always
supposed that there was no county where more or better hay was
grown than in the neighbourhood of London; but he now considered
it perfectly marvellous how anything at all could be grown, so satu-
rated was the land with water. He was told that all the farmers who
were great hay-growers said that it was of no use to drain the land
deep ; that, if they drained deep, the land baked, or caked, so much in ,
the dry season, that all its grass-bearing powers were completely
destroyed. He should like to hear what Mr. Denton had to say on
that point.

As regarded the constant supply of water to be obtained from the
system of drainage which had been described, he would say that his
own experience did not support that view. Some of his drains cut
last year, which yielded a great deal of water at first, had since very
nearly run themselves dry. Mr. Denton’s idea seemed to be that there
was a kind of perennial supply from drains of that nature. Whether
that was so or not in other cases than his own he could not say. In
his own case they were now putting in not more than a third of the
number of drains that they did before; and, considering the way in
which the drains dried the test-holes, he was inclined to think that
even now they were put too closely, especially for grass land. Their
depth was not less than 4 fect. In the clay land none of the drains
were more than 4 feet deep, and they were 8 or 9 yards apart. As to
the drainage of porous or free soils, Mr. Denton was undoubtedly
right in principle. What would be the effect of deep drainage in the
ase of strong clay soils, was a matter on which he felt some doubt.

Mr. Houuanp said he had a most difficult clay to deal with. It was
what Mr. Denton called a corrugated soil, and draining could only be
dine by a very slow process indeed, the subsoil itself being more or
less corrugated. In draining they were compelled to follow the
direction of the furrows, which, as the result of continual ploughing
for ages, were very frequently in the shape of the letter 8; still they
did drain, and drain deeply. The furrows were in some cases 40 or
50 feet apart, and drainage at such an interval on clay soils is neces-
sarily imperfect. Fortunately, however, deep cultivation, and more
particularly steam ploughing, enabled them to bring down the eleva-
tions in the land more rapidly than it could possibly be done by horse-
power, and by degrees they were making the land perfectly flat. When
the cultivators of the soil had thus been enabled to level all that their
ancestors were so careful in raising, the drainage might be perfected
by the introduction of an intervening drain. He had tried, for the
sake of experiment, the effect of draining about 6 acres in straight
lines, without regard to the ridge or furrow: it was a complete
failure. He did it with great care, going deeper than he should

Under- Drainage. 585

otherwise have done, from the inequalities of the surface; but with
all this the result was a failure, and he was obliged to drain the whole
over again. The depth of his drains was generally 4 feet, and there
re many furrows where you can only see the head of a man in the
next furrow.

Mr. B. Denroy, in reply to Mr. Dent’s remarks respecting the state
of Middlesex, stated that last week he went—not for the first time—
over a large estate in the neighbourhood of Harrow, belonging to Lord
Northwick. He was accompanied by his Lordship, and the question
which Mr. Dent had raised was discussed. They inquired of the
occupiers why there was a disinclination to drain. The answer given
was that it would lessen the quantity of grass—the very thing which
they most wished to avoid. They had a good customer, they said, in
the London market, for any hay, let it be ever so bad, which they sent
there, and therefore quantity was what they aimed at, and not quality
(Hear, hear). Now, he really thought that this was a complete answer
to Mr. Dent’s question with respect to the drainage of Middlesex. He
should add, however, that on Lord Northwick’s estate there were two
or three very intelligent tenants, who declared that the present system
was a bad one, which they were altering, and intended to alter still
further. For the future the land would not be devoted to hay-growing
only, but fed in part, and mowed in part; that the moment the cattle’s
mouth reached the ground, draining was found to be very beneficial in
the sweetening of the herbage ; but that draining did not increase the
quantity of grass, and therefore if they were dependent on the sale of
hay, it would not answer their purpose.

He was very anxious that his views with respect to the draining of
porous land should not be misunderstood ; and he wished particularly
to tell Mr. Dent that as regarded fiat districts he did not anticipate
that there would be a perennial supply of water, though it would not
‘surprise him if that should be the case. But in those hilly, moun-
tainous districts of the West and North, when the major portions were
high, with valleys interposing, the low grounds were filled with the
débris of the high lands, and were maintained in a constant state of
saturation during summer by pressure; in such cases under-drainings
would create and maintain a constant flow. It should be borne in mind
that every inch of rain falling on the surface gave 100 tons per acre;
and if the discharge of the under-drains was equal to 40 inches of water
over the whole area under-drained—which is not at all uncommon in
draining the low grounds of hilly districts—the quantity discharged
would be 4000 tons per acre.

Considering the quantity of water which under-draining removes
from the reach of evaporation, and the quantity which must be con-
. tantly filtering through the soil from the higher to the lower level in
hilly districts, it is clear that draining must frequently originate a
supply, by affording a vent for the water of pressure.

The Cuarrman said, living as he did on the banks of the Thames,
he was in hopes that they would hear more about the influence of
drainage on rivers. He well remembered the floods of 1809, and
other great inundations to the west of London. In the neighbourhood

586 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

of Reading and Henley the water had remained on the ground for s
fortnight, and even three weeks; the case was still worse at Oxford ;
but this winter there had been scarcely three days’ flood lying on any
portion of the flat.

Mr. B. Denton said, the subject to which the Chairman alluded
was under discussion the previous night at the Institution of Civil
Engineers, It was introduced by Mr. Clutterbuck, and underwent a
good deal of consideration. It seemed to be the general opinion,
that in the alternation of soils from the close clays tu the open beds
of oolite and other strata, the water which travelled over the clay was
lost in the porous beds, and that it was not possible, from any data
now existing, to give in volume the result of what soaked in, and of
what travelled over the different beds.

Professor Srmonps said, as he happened to be himself the occupier
of a tolerably large hay-farm near London, and contiguous to the land
to which Mr. Denton had referred, he should perhaps be able to throw
some light on the prejudice which prevailed, as he thought very
unjustly, against under-draining in that neighbourhood. It is well
known that from the Harrow district London obtains a large portion
of its hay ; and many suppose that Middlesex farming is carried on
under very favourable circumstances for deriving a large return for
the capital employed. All Jie could say on that point was, that he
believed that a man who occupied a hay-farm exclusively near London
would very soon find himself in the ‘ Gazette.’ There was no profit
to be obtained from hay-farming in the neighbourhood of London.
This was evident from the quantity of hay which the farms yielded
on the average of a number of years, and the expenses attending the
making and sending it to market. It might, he thought, be assumed
that the average rent in the Harrow district was 50s. per acre; and
haymaking, even in a fine season, with all the appliances of machinery,
mowing-machines, tedding-machines, hay-collectors, horse-rakes, &c.,
had never cost him less than 22s. or 23s. per acre. In addition to
these two items, there was at least a shilling per load for thatching.
Thus, if a stack contained 60 loads, it would cost 3l. for straw and
labour to have it thatched. Again, there was 2s. 6d. a load for truss-
ing for market, and 4s, a load commission for selling. There was,
further, the cost of the man’s labour in carting the hay to the London
market. He was gone a whole day, with a cart and two hoxses,
which also involved additional expense. The result of all this was,
that a load of hay could not be sent to market at an outlay of less
than 4/.; so that, if the farmer got no more than 4l. back from the
salesman, he would have nothing in pocket. The only advantage
that could be looked for was in drawing more than a load of hay per _
acre; and hence, as Mr. Bailey Denton remarked, it was the supposed
iuportance of getting quantity rather than quality that made hay-
farmers opposed to draining. Another thing which militated against
the growth of good grasses in the district in question was, that the -
present system of making hay had been in operation for so many years,
that it thoroughly impoverished the farms. Suppose a man mowed
200 acres of land, and got from it on an average—which he certainly

Under- Drainage. 587

did not—a load and a half per acre for the London market, thet would
of course give him 300 loads of hay. It would occupy just a year to
take the hay to market, reckoning the cartage at aload per day. If two
loads per market-day were carted that would make no difference in the
result. Suppose further that a load of manure per day were taken
back from London, that would be 300 loads in the course of the year ;
and, assuming that the manure is put on the land directly it arrived
(which every practical farmer knew could not be done) at the rate of
i0 loads per acre, 30 acres of land would be manured in the year.
Thus it would require seven times the quantity that was taken away
to manure the whole 200 acres; and though a particular field near
the road might look very well, much of the land near it must be in a
sad condition. Such was the result of growing water-grasses. Let
the water, however, be got out of the soil, and artificial manure applied
to the grass, and a great improvement would soon be visible. He was
speaking from experience, having under-drained some of his meadow-
land, and dressed it first with farmyard manure, and afterwards with
artificial manure. He could affirm, that not only was the quality of
the hay considerably improved, but that he got not a pound less than
he did previously. The Middlesex farmers admitted the advantage of
under-draining in reference to feeding. They said that if they fed
stock they would benefit by draining, in the quality of the beef and
mutton made on the farm. But many of them could not purchase a
sufficient number of cattle and sheep, and hence they persisted in the
impoverishing system of producing hay almost solely for the London
market. If they would use one half of the land for hay-making and
the other half for feeding, they would, he believed, soon be in a much
better position. What was the consequence of the undrained con-
dition of the land in relation to stock: Why, that they saw there the
worst possible cattle to be found in England and the worst possible
kind of sheep. This arose from the circumstance that the occupiers
had a large quantity of grasses which they wanted to clear off in the
autumn. Many of them could not afford to buy sheep to feed off the
jand. What did they fall back upon? The breeding of lambs from
Welsh ewes. They put a number of these ewes in winter to Leicester
tups; they lost many of the animals during the winter months, and
in the end they did not find the amount of profit which they had
expected. He believed that if the Harrow district were thoroughly
under-drained, not only would the farmers have a better quality of
hay, but the quantity would not be at all diminished, provided the land
were under good management (Hear, hear).

Mr. Frere said the names of Mr. Parkes and Mr. Smith of
Deanston, to whom the public were so much indebted for the parallel
system, had been very properly mentioned by Mr. Denton; but there
was another name which certainly ought not to be forgotten in a
discussion relating to the draining of porous soils; that of Mr.
Elkington. He had arrived at one conclusion from recent inquiries
into the drainage of other countries, especially of Italy, namely, that
partial and incomplete works for the removal of water very much

588 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

embarrassed the execution, and added to the expense, of later works
undertaken in a more comprehensive spirit. Anxious as he was,,
therefore, that this great subject should be taken up everywhere in
England, he thought nothing could ultimately be more prejudicial
than that partial and ineffectual attempts should be made, rather than
the day waited for when comprehensive plans might be wisely
undertaken.

Sir Jonn Jounstonz, M.P., in moving a vote of thanks to Mr.
Bailey Denton, expressed his concurrence with most of his views on
draining free soils, and his satisfaction that that gentleman’s valuable
services had been extended to Yorkshire. He had ridden over Mr.
Dent’s property ; he knew perfectly well what had been the condition
of some of the fields, and he hoped that when he next rode over the
estate the horses would not labour somuch, Everybody in Yorkshire
was disposed to do justice to Mr. Parkes in connection with the
parallel draining of clay soils; but Mr. Parkes, like many other
gentlemen, thought that parallel drains might be placed in the Vale
of York 30 or 40 feet apart, and the consequence had been that many
persons had been compelled to put intermediate drains in order to
make the drainage effectual, What was said by Mr. Denton with
respect to the effect of drainage on rivers was well worthy of attention.
In Yorkshire, mills had in many cases been taken down and steam-
power substituted for them. He agreed with Mr. Denton that
England could never be effectually drained unless some great public
works were undertaken for the purpose of improving the outfalls of
the rivers towards the sea. The loops in the streams were in some
places so complicated that the water could not get away, and hence he
believed in some cases the land was in a worse state under deep
drainage than it ever was before.

Mr. Fisuer Hosss said, As a director of a land drainage company
which had the able assistance of his friend Mr. Denton, he had pur-
posely abstained from following that gentleman in his remarks, in
most of which he agreed, especially those with regard to porous soils.
He thought that the report of that meeting would be of great service
as regarded drainage generally. The landlords generally did not.
appear to be aware how desirable it was to adopt different systems of
drainage according to the varying character of the soil. Upon his.
own property he had adopted the system which was so well carnied
out many years back by the late Mr. Elkington, and was glad that
name had been mentioned, because he thought that if they were to
carry out the Elkington system more than they did in tapping springs,
adding the test-holes to which Mr. Denton alluded, porous soils.
would be drained more effectually and at less expense. ;

Mr. Wetts, of Redleaf, Kent, said he wished to ask Mr, Bailey
Denton whether the Government Inspectors, who now inspected so
much of the drainage of the country, allowed persons discretion as to
draining as they were advised, or whether they did not, on the -
contrary, impose stringent regulations ?

Mr. Bairzy Denton said, As he acted very much under inspection,

Adulteration of Oilcahes. 589

that was perhaps the most delicate question that could be put to him ;
and if he abstained from touching that matter, it was from no want of
respect for the gentleman who put the question, but from some little

_ respect for his own position.

' Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, April 15. Mr, Raymonp
BarkEr in the Chair.
Tur ADULTERATION OF OILCAKES.

Professor Vortorer said: The subject on which it is my privilege
to-day to address the members of the Society is one of especial im-
portance at the present time, when not only oil-cakes, but all kinds
of feeding mixtures are more and more employed by the British
farmer for the fattening of his cattle. This great increase in the
demand for feeding materials has led to adulteration with matter
sometimes downright injurious to health, at other times with those
that possess no feeding properties, or with substances which, at the
best, are of a doubtful character. The great demand for all kinds of
oileake, more especially the great demand for linseed-cake, has led to
an amount of adulteration of which the practical farmer is hardly
aware. Anyone who takes a survey of the stalls in our large markets,
and looks at the various kinds of cakes, cannot fail to be struck with
the very great variations which their appearance presents, whereas
in the seed no such difference is manifested.

I have here before me samples of linseed which comes from
various parts of the world; but they do not differ much in
colour. When, then, we find one cake nearly as white as a poppy-
cake, another very dark, and another, like the American barrel-cake,
possessing the nice colour of linseed itself, we have here good
prima facie evidence that the light cake is probably mixed with
white-poppy cake,.the dark-coloured with rapecake, and that the
third is in all probability the pure linseed-cake. The very ap-
pearance of the cakes, then, as they are sold in our markets, affords
sufficient evidence that something or other is done with the linseed
besides pressing it for oil, which must have some influence on the
quality of the cake. Now, if oil-crushers would merely confine
themselves to such admixtures, perhaps the injury which is done by
inferior descriptions of cake would not be so great as it is in reality.
The farmer would simply pay for an inferior cake like rapecake the
proper price for cake of the best description. But in many instances
in which the farmer buys cakes he buys in reality mixtures which are
more or less injurious. ee

I shall first direct your attention to those admixtures which are in
themselves injurious, and secondly to those which become injurious
during the time of keeping the cake. There are also matters added to
oilcakes which deteriorate the quality of the meat produced, by impart-
ing to it a bad flavour, so as to lower its market value. Let me first point
out what are the characters of genuine or pure linseed-cake. A good

590 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

pure linseed-cake ought to be made of nothing but pure linseed—
practically-speaking pure, not absolutely pure ; for such seed is not to
be found in the market. The condition of linseed as imported varies
in reality to an enormous extent. Many oileake dealers guarantee
' their cake as genuine, made from genuine seed as imported; but this
is really no guarantee whatever. I have here a sample of linseed
in which there is a large amount of impurity in the shape of various
kinds of other seeds. Here is another not very pure; and a third
that is extremely impure. This is considered of middling quality,
containing as it does not less than 344 per cent. of foreign seeds—
that is, seeds that are not linseed. Well, a cake made of this seed
may be genuine, or made of seed “ genuine as imported,” but it is
certainly not a pure cake, and the manufacturer who stamps such a
cake as pure does not deal honestly with his customers. True, he
might find a loophole in terming it genuine linseed; because the
question might be raised what is genuine linseed; but when cake is
termed “ pure,” it ought to be made of seed which, like many samples
of linseed, more especially the Bombay linseed, some of the Alex-
andrian, or the better descriptions of Petersburgh linseed, contains,
comparatively speaking, a trifling quantity of foreign seeds; and
when a cake is made of very dirty linseed, it certainly cannot be
called pure linseed.

A mere inspection of this sample will show that it is in reality a
good pure linseed : it bears not its stamp in vain; whereas, this other,
which is likewise stamped “ pure,” exhibits such a large proportion
of other seeds, that you will find at once it cannot be a pure cake. I
have taken the trouble to procure specimens of linseed from various
quarters, more especially from Hull, for examination ; and as it may be
interesting to the members of the Society to have some idea of the
proportions of impurities which they contain, I will read the list.
Bombay linseed, in one sample, gives 44 per cent. ; the finest Bombay
that ever came under my notice contained 1} or barely 2 per cent.
Black, Sea linseed, 20 per cent.; a second sample, 12 per cent.
Odessa linseed, 124 per cent.; medium Riga seed, 35 per cent. ;
Morshanski linseed, 7 per cent. Fine Black Sea, imported December,
1861, and sold as fine Black Sea, 19 per cent. Another sample,
landed in 1862, and considered of good average quality, also con-
tained 19 per cent. Fine Petersburgh,.3 per cent:; Petersburgh
Rijeff (common), 41 per cent. ; a second quality 433 per cent. Riga
crushing, consisting of average quality, and shipped from that port,
494 per cent.; another sample, imported 1862, 42 per cent. Peters-
burgh Rijeff (common), of which a large quantity finds its way to Hull
and other ports, 70 per cent. So that there are actually samples of -
linseed sold which contain only 30 per cent. of pure linseed and 70
per cent. of impurities. Now no one who looks over this list, and
these are samples taken indiscriminately, can help being astonished at _
the amount of impurities which are contained in seed “ genuine as
imported.” The fact is, that the seed frequently gets adulterated
before it is landed in England. As soon as it reaches the hands of
the Greek merchants it undergoes the adulterating process. Fine

Adulteration of Oilcakes. ' 591

samples are made and sold to a few firms that make pure linseed-cake,
and have good customers who can afford to pay a proper price. The
impurities are sifted out and made into second, third, and fourth
qualities, which then are sold under various names.

Now, if the seeds that occur in linseed were all of an indifferent
quality, that is to say of a character not injurious to life, the injury
would not be so great, but some of them are poisonous. From several
samples of linseed I have separated the seeds and ascertained their
botanical characters. In one particular sample I counted not less than
29 different kinds of weed-seeds, and among them the following which
are more or less injurious: The common darnel, which is frequently
present in considerable quantities in the inferior samples of Peters-
burg seed ; corn-cockle, which often produces very serious effects on
the animal system; wild radish, which occurs in some samples of
Alexandrian seeds, and is very pungent ; wild rape, which is not, pro-
perly speaking, a rape, but rather a mustard ; charlock, or the common
wild mustard. All these are seeds whith it is positively known are
injurious to the health of animals. But there are others which, as I
stated at the beginning, impart a disagreeable taste to the meat of
cattle fed upon inferior cakes. The Gold of Pleasure, or Camelina
sativa, is such a seed, giving a disagreeable taste and also a deep
yellow colour to the fat of animals. From the appearance of Camelina
cake, you would think it ought to be nutritious; but it is an inferior
description of cake, because it deteriorates the quality of the meat.
Another seed of an injurious character is the purging flax.

Now, a good and genuine linseed-cake ought to have a bright
colour, and when mixed with water ought to form a thick, agreeable-
tasting, and pléasant-smelling jelly ; but a very disagreeable smell is
developed, if you mix with water an inferior cake, like that of a cage
in which you keep canary-birds. ‘This is due to the impurities of the
seeds. Among others, the common spurry and hempseed, which
occur in very inferior cake, impart a very disagreeable taste. You
may readily test this by the taste and the smell. When linseed-cake
has been kept for a length of time, its mucilaginous properties more
or less disappear. Mucilage is a substance that is very apt to spoil
when kept in a damp place. Ifa cake does not become gelatinous on
being mixed with water, it is not one of the best descriptions; but
then the reverse does not follow as a matter of course. A cake may
become gelatinous, and yet be inferior. Wild mustard and rapeseed
very commonly occur in inferior linseed ; when such cakes are mixed
with water a more or less pungent smell of mustard is developed. I
may observe, in passing, that rapecake ought always to be tested in
this manner; for rapecake, especially that which is sold as Indian
seed, very generally contains a large amount of mustard seeds, and
becomes so pungent that it is extremely injurious to cattle. I have
here a sample of a cake sent to me for examination not long ago,
which had killed three oxen. It is a rapecake of the description just
named—Indian rapecake containing a good deal of wild mustard.

Good cake, when examined by an ordinary pocket lens, ought to
exhibit nothing but the husk of the linseed. When it is made into a

VOL, XXIV. 2Q

592 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

jelly, and the jelly is examined through a pocket lens, you can single
out mechanically other descriptions of seed ; for their husks are left.

I have here a sample of cake branded “ pure;” but it contains
cotton husks. I have placed on the table a sample of cotton-seed
and a sample of cotton-cake ; and these husks of the cotton seed have
such a distinctive character that any one who examines the cake will
recognise by the peculiar character of the husk the adulteration of the
cake. Among the common materials used in adulteration is bran, a
material which possesses some feeding properties, and may with
advantage be given with linseed-cake; but it is much more desirable
to buy bran and pure oilcake separately ; for it is impossible to ascer-.
tain in what proportions they are mixed. The mere analysis of the
cake cannot determine this point. Bran is often contained in cakes
to such an extent that you can separate it mechanically ; but even then
their composition cannot be estimated exactly. We have certain seeds
which are particularly rich in albuminous, that is, nitrogenous sub-
stances. Other seeds and meals, mill-refuse, and matter like bran, are
rather deficient in this respect. By mixing linseed with bran, and
adding at the same time rapeseed, you make up for the deficiency of
nitrogenous matter by the rapeseed. Thus a clever oilcake-mixer may
readily produce such a mixed cake as will exhibit upon analysis the
same amounts of oil, flesh-forming, and albuminous matters and the
other constituents as are usually found in genuine pure linseed-cakes,
The mere analysis, therefore, does not give any idea of the purity of
the cake.

Allow me now to direct your attention to cotton-cake. Cotton-
cake of the best character is now hardly ever met with in the market ;
the horrible American war has cut off our supply. Cotton-seed has a
hard shell, which, in some varieties, amounts to one-half the weight.
The best cake is made from the kernel only; but itis not made in this
country, because we have not the proper machinery for shelling seed.
This sample is a very good common cotton-cake, made of the whole
seed; this other, made from the kernel alone, is of a very superior
quality. Here is a third and very inferior sample; and yet another,
which, in a particular instance, has done very serious damage to the
stock to which it was given,

In the whole seed cotton-cake there is sometimes such an excess of
husk or indigestible cotton-fibre present, that the animal which is fed
upon it has not the power to deject it: a mechanical stoppage takes
place in the lower intestines, inflammation of the whole intestinal
canal ensues, and the animal dies. In these cases the death is fre-
quently mistaken for.a case of real poisoning; but there is nothing
either poisonous or deleterious in cotton-seed ; nevertheless, it acts
injuriously, by causing a mechanical obstruction, and the result is the
same as that sometimes produced by a strong irritant or a metallic
poison, There is, indeed, great danger in giving the whole cake
made of the seed indiscriminately, that is to say, in too large a pro- ~
portion ; it ought always to be given in the form of meal, together
with roots or other succulent food which have a tendency to keep the
bowels open. During the last year or two I must have had a dozen

Adulteration of Oilcakes. 593

or two of so-called poisoning cases arising from the use of cotton-
seedcake referred to me; but in no instance could I detect any poison.
In one particular case, I found a large mass formed, as hard as a
ericket-ball, in the lower intestines, evidently causing a mechanical
stoppage that resulted in inflammation of the stomach.

Earthnut-cake is a useful and very nutritious cake when made of
the kernel; but if the husk is ground up with it, it partakes of the
same disagreeable properties which characterise the whole seed cotton-
cake. The earthnut is an almond-like food; it is to some extent
indigestible. The cake must not be confounded with nut-cake, which,
as now sold in the market, is nothing more or less than the refuse
kernel of the palm-nut. The American or earthnut-cake seldom passes
as such into the hands of the consumer, because it is ground up with
other materials and made into linseed-cake. There is another kind of
nut-cake which is only fit for manure. It is made of a bean grown in
the Cape de Verd Islands. Three or four beans are sufficient to
produce a very powerful affection of the bowels, and in doses of an
ounce this seed becomes a rank poison. Several cases of poisoning
from the use of cakes which contained this bean have been brought
under my notice at various times.

Poppy-cake is a good cake when it can be had in a fresh condition.
It is remarkably swéet to the taste, and is nutritious; but in England,
there is not a sufficient demand for it, and it is frequently a drug in
the market. If stored it becomes mouldy and acrid to the taste, and
is then more or less injurious to cattle.

This leads me to notice the injury which cakes of every description
sustain from bad keeping. All cakes, as well as other feeding mate-
rials, get spoiled by being kept in damp places. When cake becomes
mouldy, and the mould penetrates into the mass of the cake, it often
produces serious injury to the animals. Now the mixture of bran is
very apt to produce mouldiness in cake, because it keeps the cake light,
and admits the damp air more readily, and this is one great objection
to its use. I would recommend those who have not an extremely dry
storehouse not to buy any bran-cake, because it will spoil in a very short
time. Only yesterday, when selecting samples of cake to be exhibited
here to-day, I was particularly struck with three which I took from the
same parcel, sent me for analysis. One of them is a pure cake, and .
has kept perfectly well ; the others are of the worst description ; they
contain a great deal of bran and other impurities, and have become
very mouldy. And I have no hesitation in saying that both the latter,
whatever they have been originally, are now injurious, if not down-
right poisonous. During the last year I have had many cases brought
under my consideration, and could find no other explanation of the
undoubted injury which the cakes have done to the cattle, than their
being of this mouldy kind. Some cakes, which were evidently at one
time most excellent and wholesome, have nevertheless done great mis-
chief. I could not make it out for a long time, but now I think that
it is the production of a certain fungus that has done the mischief.
Invariably when the cake has done mischief, and no injurious seed
could be detected with the microscope, I have found that fungi or

2Q2

594 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

mould were the most likely cause of it. Inferior—that is, mouldy—
oats have also in several cases done mischief. The experiments
which were tried at the Veterinary College were so conclusive to my
mind that I was induced to inquire into similar cases, and I have
learnt since that mouldy cakes often produce serious injury to
cattle.

This is another argument which I adduce in order to impress upon
you that you should not rely merely upon analytical results. A
knowledge of the percentage composition of the cakes may be useful,
but it does not tell youeverything. If you have three or four different
kinds of cake, of equally good condition and equally fresh, then the
analysis will bring out some useful results. It will point out, for
example, which cake is the most fattening, which contains most oil, or
most albuminous matter. We have then comparative results from
which some useful information may be collected. But the mere
analysis does not tell whether a cake is even wholesome or not. Of
what use, indeed, would it be to analyzea cake such as I have referred
to? Its mouldy condition is quite sufficient evidence to condemn it
to the dung-heap. The numerous cases of poisoning with cakes that
have become mouldy, brought under my notice, leave no doubt as to
the serious mischief which they may produce. All refuse matters
which have a tendency to become mouldy, or which contain fungi, are
for the same reason injurious.

Ihave here a very strange mixture which has been imported at a
low price by a gentleman who thought of giving it to his cattle. It
is composed of the sweepings of an oil-mill and the warehouse of a
general provision dealer. Having carefully separated its various con-
stituents, seeds, and bits of oileake, I could not find anything inju-
rious; but under the microscope I discovered at first the germs of
fungi, which have since developed so plainly as to be seen by the
naked eye. The sample I now produce has killed not less than
fourteen sheep, three horses, and a pony, belonging to this gentleman,
who gave them only in a small quantity. The whole of the animals
were killed within two days.

There is, therefore, very great danger in buying any description of
food that is in a bad condition; and since chemical analysis does
not express the condition or quality, we must not draw from analytical
results conclusions which they were never intended to convey ; and it
is perfectly absurd for any chemist to say that you should rely more
upon tabulated analyses than on any other examination.

With regard to other feeding materials, I will merely mention, in
conclusion, that sometimes the consumer is not safe even when he sends
his own barley to the mill to be ground; he may get barley-meal back, ©
it is true, but with something else in addition. I have here two saraples
of barley-meal: one of them was returned from the mill mixed with
suwdust—chips of sawdust, which you can pick out mechanically ; the -
other was mixed with a considerable quantity of sand, in the proportion
of nearly 10 per cent.! These admixtures gave to the barley-meal
such a disagreeable taste that the animals would not eat it, and this
led to the examination of the meal. The farmer may learn from

Adulteration of Oilcakes. 595

this the importance to him of dealing only with strictly honest
men, But another safeguard in buying feeding materials is, not to be
led away by a low-priced article. The finest description of linseed-
cake is not to be bought at a low price. ‘Low-priced cakes are gene-
rally mixed with other kinds of feeding materials that have a lower
feeding value, and consequently a lower commercial value. Thus in
the low-priced oileakes—linseed-cakes—you have rape-seed, the whole
seed of cotton, and other materials which reduce the value. A fair and
reasonable price must be paid to secure a good article. Ihave thrown
these different matters somewhat incoherently together, purposely with
a view of eliciting discussion, I have not attempted to give a sys-
tematic lecture, in order to dwell more particularly upon matters
which appear to me to have been overlooked to some extent, but which,
nevertheless, have an important practical bearing.

Lord Frversnam, when moving a vote of thanks, said, Allow me to
ask if the Professor has had any experience of an article which has
been attracting considerable public attention of late in the feeding of
stock: I allude to the article of malt, This is a subject certainly of
very great importance, and it has recently been stated that the duties
upon malt operate powerfully as an impediment to farmers in feeding
their cattle. Probably you will be aware that a numerous deputation
waited upon the Chancellor of the Exchequer yesterday upon this
subject ; and without going at all into the political state of the question,
I may state that the right hon. gentleman, in replying to the deputa-
tion, observed that he should be very glad to hear the opinion of any
gentleman of experience as to the advantage and policy of feeding
upon malt, The Professor, in his very excellent lecture, has touched
upon the subject of barley, but not on the question of malt. He has
clearly and ably pointed out the evils of adulteration, and the extent to
which it is practised. He has told us of the admixture of foreign seeds
and impurities to the extent of 30 and 35, or even 70 per cent. This
shows how farmers are subject to imposition in purchasing these things.
If they were permitted to use the produce of their own farms in a par-
ticular form for the feeding of cattle, it would be a great boon to them.
They would thereby be relieved from the necessity of buying these
adulterated articles of food, and there would be the pleasing prospect
opened up of a less quantity of land passing out of cultivation, as
regards cereal crops, than we have witnessed of late years. I find it
stated that both in England and Ireland, but especially in Ireland,
large tracts of land have ceased altogether to be cultivated for corn.
Perhaps, in the ease of Ireland, this may be in some degree owing to
the humidity of the climate, or to the effect of its being ascertained
that both soil and climate there are better adapted to the production
of meat. But, of course, the more meat is produced, the greater is the
importance of ascertaining what is really the best kind of food to give
our live stock, with a view to avoiding the use of those articles which
the Professor has described as containing so large an amount of adul-
teration—of absolutely poisonous and injurious substances,

Mr. Fisner Hoss, in seconding the motion, said, lam glad the
noble lord has referred to the question of malt. Although the discus-

596 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

sion has more to do, perhaps, with the adulteration of oilcake and other
feeding materials, still, I think, we should not be travelling out of our
proper sphere if, after the exposure which the Professor has made with
respect to the great extent to which adulteration is carried by the manu-
facturers of oilcake in this country, the question of malt as a feeding
element be considered. The question introduced by the Professor was
considered and discussed in this room a few years ago; and we then
came to the conclusion that the English crushers of cake were more
dishonest than the foreign; and that if we would have a genuine
article, we could depend more upon the foreigner than upon the Eng-
lishman. Now, it must be very evident to all of us, from what the
Professor has stated, as well as from our own experience, that there is
the greatest imaginable difficulty in getting a cake that we can rely
upon ; and I know that many persons who have animals of very great
value, with which they desire to compete with the noble lord’s short-
horns, or with the great exhibitors of sheep, find it necessary to feed
those animals—aye, and horses too—with malt. I happened to be one
of the deputation that waited upon the Chancellor of the Exchequer
yesterday. We went rather fully into these matters, and Mr. Booth,
the eminent breeder of shorthorns, and a successful exhibitor, stated
plainly that for years past he and his family had been in the constant
habit of feeding their animals with malt. I can only say for myself
that, during the last thirty years, whenever I made up my mind to
exhibit and to win a prize, malt has invariably been the article upon
which I fed my animals. That I did successfully for a very long
period ; and I believe that farmers, one and all, join in the hope that
the Legislature will in some way get rid of the dreadful adulteration
that is going on in the manufacture of oileake. With regard to the
conversion of barley into malt, I shall only add that, as far as my
experience goes, I am so satisfied of the value of malt, that if its use
were unrestrained, I should not spend a single penny more in the
purchase of oilcake.

Professor VorLcKER, in answer to the question of Lord Feversham,
said, At present our practical experience of the feeding properties of
malt is very inconclusive. I therefore feel considerable hesitation in
replying positively to the question either one way or the other. Ihave
myself no experience on the subject, and can only quote the very imper-
fect and limited experience of those who have tried comparative experi-.
ments with malt and barley. As far as I know, the only experiments:
with which I am acquainted are those made by Mr. Hudson, of Castle-
acre, Mr. Lawes, and a few desultory experiments by Mr. Thompson..
These, moreover, especially the latter, were made upon a very limited _
scale, and added little to our stock of knowledge. Still there is, no
doubt, much of floating experience from which useful hints might be-
gathered. The feeders of stock that I am acquainted with speak very
highly of malt. When an animal has to be got into fine condition, and -
supplied with a large amount of food in order to its rapid development,
the addition of malt, from all I can learn, is most useful. It seems to
help the digestion remarkably—I may say wonderfully. Now, we can.
easily understand this, For in malt not only the ready-formed sugar

Adulteration of Orlcakes. 597

acts usefully, but there is also a peculiar power of changing the starch
in barley-meal rapidly into sugar. This accounts for the efficacy of
malt in certain circumstances. When cattle are highly fed, I believe
the addition of malted*barley may prove of great utility.

Another question which strikes me as being of great practical im-
portance is, whether by the addition of malt other food which is
objectionable to a certain extent, on account of its indigestibility, may
not be rendered more available for feeding purposes. On the whole,
as far as I can see into the matter, I think the fattener of stock might
find some valuable ends answered by the use of malt; and although I
cannot, from our present stock of knowledge on the subject, say
whether it would be desirable to replace barley-meal by malt, I have
no hesitation in saying that in certain instances the liberty of manu-
facturing barley into malt would be a great boon to the agricultural
community.

The vote of thanks was then put, and carried unanimously.

Mr. Hornayp, M.P., wished to put a question as to the comparative
feeding powers of a pure linseed-cake—that is, as pure a cake as could
be got—when used alone, in contrast with the action of that cake
when mixed with a certain proportion of bran and some other feeding
materials. If the proper proportions are given, would not an animal
feed quicker upon such a mixture than upon the pure cake alone,
weight for weight?

Professor Vortckxer: The mixture of a certain proportion of bran
would be very useful indeed. The animal would fatten better. It is
also desirable to mix bran with cake when it is given to milking-cows.
You get better milk and a larger supply. This is due partly to the
better mechanical division which you get when the cake is mixed with
bran, whereby the feeding properties of the cake are much increased.
Some of the best and finest descriptions of cake are very hard, and
when given in large pieces, do not readily fall into powder; whereas,
when mixed with bran, they are more easily moistened, and readily
digested. When cake is ground to powder, and mixed with bran, it
becomes much more nutritious, and goes a great deal farther. There
is in all descriptions of ordinary oilcakes a very large proportion of
albuminous matter, and the addition of bran renders a considerable
portion of this available which otherwise would go to dung. Upon
the whole. the addition of bran to oileake can be recommended ; but it
ought tobe practised by the farmer himself, and not by the oilcake
manufacturer.

Meeting of Weekly Council, April 29th. Professor Witson in the Chair.

On rue Narurat History or Parasites AFFECTING THE INTERNAL
Parts or THE Bopirs or Animaus, with THE Nature, Symptoms,
AND TREATMENT OF THE DisEASES TO WHICH THEY GIVE RISE.

Professor Stmonps said: The subject selected by the Journal
Committee is so comprehensive that it is impossible to do anything

598 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

like justice to it in a single lecture, or, indeed, in a course of twenty
lectures. The difficulty therefore is to epitomise the matter. Under
these circumstances, he proposed to select one or two prominent aftec-
tions to which domesticated animals are subject, and explain some-
what of the natural history of the parasites which are their superin-
ducing cause. Parasites are met with in all structures of the body
—not only in the internal organs, but also upon the external parts of
the frame ; and whether in the one situation or the other, they are
more or less productive of mischief, provided they exist in sufficient
numbers. lt is not an uncommon observation that a few worms can do
no great harm ; there are, however, affections very destructive of the
health and the lives of animals, which really depend upon the existence
of worms, and often not in large numbers,

Parasites are thus classified :—First, the Epizoa, which live on the
skin of animals ; secondly, Entozoa, which inhabit the internal struc-
tures, without reference to location in any particlar organ; and
thirdly, Ectozoa, which occupy either the internal or external portions
of the body for a certain time, whilst undergoing some of the iransmu-
tations through which they pass.

As familiar examples of the first of these classes, he would point to
lice, ticks, mites, and so forth, well known as having their habitat on
the skins of animals, and being productive of mischief in proportion
to the numbers in which they exist. The acarus ovis, met with upon
the skin of the sheep, is the direct cause of the affection called scab,
and also of mange in the horse ; in fact, the true mange of the horse
and the scab of sheep are identical, and depend upon the presence of
this parasite.

Of the ectozoa, the most familiar example is the bot in horses.
Here a fly (cstrus equi) deposits its ova on the hair, which, by the
licking of the horse’s tongue, are carried into the mouth, and conveyed
with the food into the stomach. The ova are quickly developed into
larve or grubs when exposed to the heat of the mouth and the saliva.
When they reach the stomach they attach themselves to its mem-
branous lining by their hooklets, and there feed, not upon the stomach
itself, but upon its contents, from the latter part of the summer, through
the autumn and winter, until about midsummer in the following year,
when they attain maturity. They then lose their power of hanging on,
drop from their stations, mingle with the contents of the stomach, and,
passing through the alimentary canal, are expelled from the body.
Upon expulsion the chrysalis is formed from the larva, and in a few
days the fly bursts forth. These creatures therefore exist for a con-
siderable time altogether independent of their host.

Tuer Entozoa.

The class, truly termed entozoa, inhabit the internal structures of
the body, dwelling, some of them apparently their entire lives, in that -
situation, and multiplying in the organ in which they are found,
Many so-called parasitic-worms exist as ova, and, in other forms, in ~
pools and in sewage, and being accidentally conveyed into the bodies

The Natural History of Parasites. 599

of animals, find a proper habitat there, become fully developed, and de-
posit in turn their ova, which are subsequently carried out of the body
through the ordinary excretions. Entozoa are so numerous that it is
necessary to classify them in order to understand anything about
them. Some years ago he made such a classification, which, although
it might not meet all the wants of the naturalist, may claim the
character of simplicity, and of meeting the requirements of the pa-
thologist ; it is with this that we have chiefly to do to-day. Those
creatures come, first, under the head of the protelmintha ; secondly, of
sterelmintha ; and, thirdly, of ccelelmintha. Under the first of these
heads we have the lowest forms of worm-life, hydatids. One speci-
men before us has been removed from the brain of a sheep during life,
and the animal is doing well. The class includes the acephalocyst,
the hydatid designated by the late John Hunter the pill-box hy-
datid. Then there is the hydatis tenut-collis, or long-necked hydatid,
which is always found attached to the external parts of organs,
and is apparently the most harmless of all the hydatids that affect
an animal. Next comes the hydatis cellulose, so called because it lies
in the cellular tissue which connects the muscles together in different
parts of the body. It is this hydatid which produces that peculiar
condition in the flesh of a pig known as measly-pork, an affection to
which the attention not only of naturalists, physiologists, and pa-
thologists, but of the Government, was called during the Crimean war,
because it was found that large quantities of measly-pork were being
exported to supply our troops, the use of which must have resulted in
producing tape-worms in the intestines of those who ate it. This
term, “measly-pork,” is an unfortunate one, inasmuch as it does not
indicate the nature of the malady, and indeed is apt to lead to a
wrong impression. No two things can differ more widely than a measly
condition of the flesh of an animal and the eruption on the skin of the
human subject, properly termed measles. In many respects our no-
menclature is defective, and this is one special instance. The canurus
cerebralis, already referred to as being found in the brain of the sheep,
received its name from the circumstance that the creature possesses a
large number of sucking discs, or heads; and the word cerebralis in-
dicates that it locates itself within the brain. It is this creature
which produces giddiness in the sheep. Lastly, there is the hydatid
to which is given the name echinococcus, which also exists very exten-
sively in domesticated animals, and when inhabiting the internal parts
produces serious diseases in the organs.

Sotip Worms.

Among the sterelmintha, or solid worms, are included all the tape-
worms. One specimen of this class now before him was found in the
sheep, and another in the horse. The latter is an interesting variety,
termed the tenia megalocephalus from the circumstance of its having a
Jarge head. Another, called the tenia serrata, from the serrated or
saw-like margins of its body, is probably identical with the tenia
solium in the human subject. And another most interesting and very

600 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

rare specimen is the bothriocephalus, so termed from its having
peculiarly formed head. The example produced was obtained some
years ago from a dog. It is a variety of tape-worm not common in
this country, but which exists among the inhabitants of Sweden,
Norway, and the North of Europe. It measures seven feet long;
and the dog from which he took it had been the subject of cutaneous
disease, which probably depended upon the presence of this worm in
the intestinal canal, where it kept up a perpetual irritation. The
cause of rot in sheep is to be found in the existence of the sterel-
minthal variety of entozoa—the distoma hepaticum.

Hottow Worms.

The third class—the ccelelmintha, or hollow worms—are those with
which we are most familiar. It includes the filariw, or thread-worms,
and among these are the filaria oculi, existing in the eye of the horse
inIndia. Another worm, existing in sheep, and producing symptoms.
analogous to rot, inhabits the stomach, and draws largely upon the
nutriment of the animal. It inserts its head, which is armed with
barbs, into the mucous membrane, where the barbs enable it to hold
on, or, by closing them, to withdraw its head at pleasure. To this I
have given a name—filaria hamata—the hooked or barbed thread-worm.
There is likewise the filaria bronchialis, found within the bronchial
tubes of calves and sheep in particular, which produces that form of
disease designated “husk.” This is the most common of the lot, and
is to be met with in the bronchial tubes of every domesticated animal
—in colts, in calves, in sheep, in pigs, and even in dogs. But it is in
the herbivorous animals that the worm produces the greatest amount.
of mischief, and particularly with ruminating animals, calves and lambs;
for all young animals are far more predisposed to the attacks of parasites.
than the old. I exhibit one example taken from a calf; another from a
pig, in which the worms are crowded together in countless numbers in
the ramifications of the bronchial tubes. Of late years this worm has.
excited a great deal of notice on the part not only of the pathologist,
but of the practical farmer, in consequence of the sad losses which have
resulted from its presence amongst flocks of lambs. At the present.
time a considerable number of lambs are affected with it, and within the
last ten or twelve years the losses have been really very serious. Jt is.
very difficult to say why there has been of late an increase of entozoie
diseases. Whether it has arisen from any particular condition of the
atmosphere which was favourable to their propagation, he could not.
say ; nevertheless, the fact is well established.

The natural history of these filarie is by no means difficult to under-
stand. They existin the form of perfect males and perfect females ; the:
sexes, however, are by no means equal, the females being as 50 or 60 to
one. This worm is one of those creatures which may be called ovo-
viviparous ; for occasionally it will happen that the young worm is s0 -
perfected while the ovum is within the body of the female that it.
escapes from the egg, and exists as a living worm before passing:
through the so-called ova-duct.

The Natural History of Parasites. 601

One and the chief reason why the worm is so destructive to sheep
and other animals, is the fact that the young worms are perfected
within the part where the ova are deposited. Now, little harm, as a
rule, will arise unless the worms are present in large numbers ; but
supposing one impregnated female only to inhabit a bronchial tube of
an animal, that female would in process of time produce such myriads
of worms that the animal must inevitably fall a sacrifice.

The questions how the animals receive these worms, and how they
’ come to occupy the ramifications of the bronchial tube, are difficult to
answer. Although the worms are ovo-viviparous, and find their proper
habitat within the bronchial tubes, nevertheless, ova ejected with any
mucus that may be coughed up—and cough is a leading symptom of
this disease—might remain as ova for an indefinite length of time
upon pasture-land without losing their vital properties or power of de-
velopment, and animals feeding upon the ground may receive the eggs in
the process of gathering their food, from which the young worms would
be quickly produced. If an animal takes anything into its mouth with
which there are a certain number of ova, imperceptible to the naked
eye, these ova may be retained about the mouth with the mucus, or
saliva, long enough for some of them to be hatched. Such worms.
would then find their way, not into the stomach, but into the bronchial
tubes: the females would soon eject eggs, and the result would be a
considerable brood of these creatures. Take the minutest portion of
the ova-sac of a parent-worm, examine it through a good microscope,
and such myriads of eggs will be seen on the field of vision that no
one would think of attempting to count them. So that one worm
literally brings forth thousands of others. These, getting into the ra-
mifications of the bronchial tubes, pass even to the air-cells of the lungs,
where, by the irritation they create, they lead to condensation of the
lung structure, and destroy the lung in these parts as an aérifying organ.
The affected lambs fall off in condition, have a constant cough, and,
gradually wasting away, ultimately become affected by diarrhea,
which usually carries them off. Many persons, upon observing their
animals attacked with diarrhea, attribute it to ordinary causes;
whereas, it is in reality a general break-up of the system, depending,
not upon a disease in the digestive organs, but upon the presence of
these worms within the ramifications of the bronchial tubes. It is not
at all an uncommon thing for 50, 60, or 70 per cent. of a flock of
lambs to be destroyed from this cause.

REMEDIES.

The means at our disposal for getting rid of these entozoa consist
of resistance to their attacks, and an endeavour, if possible, to destroy
them where they are, and thus effect their expulsion. These must be
the principles to guide us whether we deal with worms as existing in
the bronchial tubes, or any other part of the organism. When, how-
ever, they exist in such numbers as to produce an organic change of
the lungs, no kind of treatment can possibly avail; early treatment
before a change of the lung structure has come on, or the animal has

602. . Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

wasted much, can alone be successful. Our object then is to impart
strength and energy to the constitution of the animal, or to make the
habitat of the parasites unpleasant to them, and if possible destroy
them in the situations in which they are, so that as dead matter they
may be expelled in the act of coughing, or with the ordinary secre-
tions. To strengthen the constitution, the animals should be supplied
with the most generous food in a concentrated form. Instead of
keeping them simply upon grass, artificial or natural, during the
summer months—for it is in the summer, or on the approach of
autumn, that they are generally affected—or feeding them upon tur-
nips alone in winter, it is necessary to throw into their systems as
much nitrogenous food as possible. Cake, corn, and so on, should be
used unsparingly in every case of the kind. Such food should be
given early, because when diarrhoea has once set in, the system is in
such a weakened condition that it will then be of little or no use. The
cause of diarrhcea is rather an important question in adopting medical
treatment in cases of this description. It appears to depend not so
much upon the mere prostration of the vital powers of the animal as a
whole, as upon the weakened condition of the powers of digestion and
assimilation, Everybody knows that even when our digestive powers
are strong, if we take anything into the system which is not very
digestible, it irritates the stomach and intestinal canal, and is fre-
quently ejected from the system with diarrhea. Nothing, indeed, is
so common as to have an ordinary attack of diarrhcea just simply
depending upon indigestible matter taken into the system, from
which nature frees herself as quickly as she can. Apply the same
reasoning to the organisation of the sheep. When its powers of di-
gestion and of assimilation have become exceedingly weak, the food,
instead of being digested and appropriated to the requirements of
the system, acts as an irritant to the stomach and bowels, and passes off
undigested and unappropriated through the intestinal canal. What,
then, under such circumstances, would be the use of giving cake, corn,
&c,? Why, it would be no more digested than ordinary herbage ; for,
if grass could not be digested, surely cake and corn could not, But
while the digestive organs are not affected to any considerable extent,
we may strengthen the constitution of the animal by giving it highly-
nutritious food,

Of the anthelmintic agents given as remedies, some are good and
powerful, and some of no use at all. Practice has shown that tur-
pentine, in conjunction with a little oil, and tincture of assa-
feetida, is about as nice a compound as can be given. Turpentine is
a very old remedy in diseases of this description, and it is particularly
serviceable and valuable, because it is eliminated from the system
through the medium of the respiratory organs. We want to bring
something to bear as directly as possible upon the parasites in the
situation which they occupy in the ramifications of the bronchial
tubes. But, if any medicinal agent directly descends the windpipe, it
would only produce.more mischief, and be the means of carrying off
the animals whose lives we desired to preserve, The alternative is to

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The Natural History of Parasites. 603

impregnate the system with an agent which may be afterwards carried
off through the medium of the respiratory organs, and thus assail the
habitat of the worm. Turpentine, which, when given to an animal, is
eliminated from the system partly by respiration, partly by the urinary
secretions, and partly by the intestinal canal, is such an agent as we
require. If proof of this be wanted, let turpentine be given—say to
a number of calves; walk into the field where they are, a day or two
after ; stand near the animals and catch their breath, and you will
detect the smell of turpentine as plainly as possible. Assafctida is
also an excellent anthelmintic, and an old remedy, but not so generally
given for these affections as it ought to be. In the form of the tinc-
ture it is a stimulating agent, and would also be eliminated through
the system by the respiratory organs.

From half an ounce to an ounce of turpentine would be the proper
dose for a calf, according to its age. Or you may take 3 ounces of oil,
add to it 2 ounces of tincture of assafcetida, and 1 of turpentine, and
administer this compound daily for three or four days in succession,
when it should be discontinued for the same space of time, and then
given again. You must not expect to get rid of the disease with one
or two, or even three doses; but the system of the animal would be
impregnated by occasional and repeated administrations of the agents.

There are other means besides these of strengthening the system,
viz., by alternating, with the anthelmintic, ordinary tonic agents, such
as sulphate of iron and ginger in combination, to give tone and vigour
to the digestive organs. Sulphate of iron is an agent which keeps the
blood in a state of purity, because it enters into chemical combination
with one main constituent of the blood—the red cells. There is yet
another course at our command which may be brought to bear directly
upon the worms themselves— that of making the affected animals
breathe a medicated air. This is a mode of treatment far too much
neglected by the farmer. When consulted by persons who had derived
little benefit from the exhibition of the anthelmintic compound just
referred to, he had recommended them in addition to get the animals
to breathe a medicated air. It will readily be seen that if the
atmosphere can be impregnated with anything that is either detri-
mental to the lives of these entozoa, or calculated to render their
habitat unpleasant to them, this will prove an effectual means of
getting rid of them. One simple method of dealing with sheep in a
mass, is to drive them into a close shed, or some other convenient
place, and there to burn something which will disengage gaseous matter
which the animals will be compelled to inhale. The most efficient
agent for this purpose is chlorine gas; but then it is very destructive
of life, and in the hands of an ignorant person might destroy
the lives of the animals which it was intended to save. The
modus operandi is to decompose common salt or oxide of manganese
with sulphuric acid, by the application of a little heat. The per-
son who does this must hold the apparatus in the shed until the
air is sufficiently impregnated to render it unpleasant to himself.
He should then retire with the apparatus, close the door, and leave
the animals to inhale the medicated air. If carried beyond this, great

604 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

mischief might result. Another simpler and safer plan is to impreg-
nate the atmosphere with the fumes of sulphur, which may be done
by igniting a little pitch, tar, resin, or anything of that kind, and
then throwing upon the burning mass a small quantity of sulphur from
time to time. The fumes of sulphur so thrown off will pervade the
place in which the sheep are, and consequently be inhaled by them.
No harm ever ensues from this where only ordinary care is used.
Such, then, are the means we possess of giving relief in cases of this
particular entozoic disease.

He would next notice another parasite which does great mischief to
lambs and sheep especially, owing to its producing diarrhea. There
is one form of “scour” that is absolutely and directly due to the pre-
sence of entozoa. These entozoa, however, are totally different from
those we have been considering, and, strictly speaking, they are not
filarie. ‘The technical name it bears is Trichocephalus affinis, which
signities a hair-headed worm, allied to the one met with in man. The
worm as a rule, inhabits the larger intestines of the sheep, and is
oviparous. The young are hatched directly from the ova, and con-
sequently there are no transformations through which the worm passes.
Like the worms before alluded to they exist as perfect males and
perfect females, and there is about the same proportion between the
sexes. The young trichocephali may be hatched within the intestinal
canal, or the ova may be cast out with the fculent matter, and lie
in the pastures, where, fortunately, thousands upon thousands of them
perish; but if only two eggs enter the organism and attain perfection
as male and female, a great deal of injury will be sure to follow. The
ova are, indeed, frequently received into the digestive system of sheep
through their food and drink, and there, finding warmth and moisture
in their semi-perfect condition, the young worms quickly escape, and
begin to develope within the intestinal canal. The trichocephali are
so productive of mischief, from the circumstance that they insert their
heads into the mucous membrane, and draw their nutriment, if not
directly from the blood, yet from its immediate pabulum. When worms
like these exist in large numbers, they must be productive of an im-
mense amount of irritation, which leads to diarrhcea; and as this form
of diarrhoea will not yield to ordinary treatment,a great number of
sheep are necessarily lost. These trichocephali appear to be as common
as they are mischievous. Everybody knows that vicissitudes in the
weather, a luxuriant growth of grass, too large a quantity of green food,
turnips, and so on, will produce “scour;” but if no such causes as
these are in operation, we may begin to suspect that any existing
diarrhcea is attributable to trichocephali. Again, if upon a post-mortem
examination of these wasted animals no filarie are detected in the
bronchial tubes, it may readily be inferred that the cause may be found
in the presence of these worms in the intestinal canal.

The means of getting rid of them are in principle, though not_
exactly in detail, the same as those already mentioned. A fair and
free use of common salt will be effectual, and the more so because
these worms are in the intestinal canal, where salt can be brought to
bear directly upon them. Sulphate of iron can also be brought to

The Natural History of Parasites. 605

bear immediately upon the worms. Some persons attribute the effi-
cacy of sulphate of iron to the circumstance that these creatures
haye no iron in their blood or circulating fluid. Whether this be
the correct explanation he could not say; but he mentioned it simply
as a notion that is floating in the brains of some persons on the sub-
ject. Sulphate of iron, however, should not be administered to the
animals on the same day as the salt. The salt may be given to the
extent of a quarter or half an ounce at a time, but the farmer should
not go beyond a quarter of an ounce per day in its continuous use.
Salt and sulphate of iron may be given with the food on alternate
days. Halfa drachm of the latter is a full dose even for a large
sheep. The daily and long-continued use in this manner of sulphate
of iron and salt will be found to be a most efficient means of getting
rid of the trichocephali. The efficacy of the agents will be observed
if the feculent matter of the sheep is watched; these worms will
then be seen to come away rolled up in litile masses. As soon as
they get notice to quit they congregate together, twist themselves up
into balls, and in that form are expelled from the system.

A New Worm.

He would next make a few remarks upon a worm only recently brought
under his observation, which if not new to us in this country, is at any
rate an undescribed variety of the filaria. The filaria hamata. His
attention was first directed to it in the year 1858. A gentleman who
was accustomed to breed some of the finest quality of Southdown sheep,
and to rear his ram lambs for the purposes of stock, found in that
year that, although he took every possible care of the lambs, they
nevertheless wasted away in condition until they died. Various
changes were made in their feeding, but all without avail; and at
length he was asked to go down and investigate the cause of this state
of things. The lambs had given no evidence of any particular disease,
but were continuously wasting away ; their appetites were good, their
secretions and excretions natural, and they had no cough nor any
symptoms of disease of any particular organ of the body. The owner,
an intelligent man, had opened some of them, yet could find nothing
amiss; the intestines, the heart, and the lungs were apparently—so
far as he could discern—healthy, and quite free from disease.

On his arrival at the farm he saw among 25 or 30 of these lambs, some
6 or 7 which were evidently in the last stage of the affection; but on the
most careful examination he could then give them he failed to detect
the existence of any kind of disease. It was suggested that one of
them should be killed, and a post-mortem examination made. This was
done; still there were no traces of an organic disease to be seen.
At first he was somewhat puzzled, when, as he had long held the
opinion that a good many diseases are exclusively and entirely due to
entozoa, the thought struck him that it was not improbable that para-
sites might be found in the intestines, These were accordingly opened,
in the expectation that trichocephali might be found there, but not one
could be seen. He then opened the stomachs, of which ruminating
animals have four, though one only is the true digestive organ, and

606 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

found that the three anterior ones were not at all affected. No
entozoa were to be met with. ‘There was then only the true digestive
stomach left, and upon cutting into it he must say that he was hardly
prepared for what was observed. The instant it was slit open, his eye
being somewhat quick in catching sight of entozoa, he at once ex-
claimed, “ Here is the cause?” ‘The stomach was literally as thickly
covered in places with these worms as the head of a man with hair.
There they hung, their heads being burrowed in the mucous membrane
of the stomach in myriads. He first thought the case must be as
exceptional as it was remarkable. He had since examined the worm
microscopically, and observed that although there was a great deal
in its natural history which he would have to work out hereafter,
he had still satisfied himself as to its anatomical peculiarities, which
justifies the name that has been given to it. Immediately behind
its head are four barbs, like those of a fish-hook; so that when
the head is inserted into the mucous membrane, these barbs hold
the worm fixed, and from that situation the attrition of the food
fails to dislodge it. This proved not to be an isolated case; for in
the course of a short space of time he was consulted in other instances
where these worms existed in sheep of all ages, and placed under every
variety of circumstances in regard to food and management. No breed
of sheep appears to be exempt from—no particular system of manage-
ment gives security against—the attacks of these parasites ; and he had
subsequently met with instances of the presence of this worm in the most
remote western, as well as the most remote eastern, counties of England.
It evidently is greatly on the increase; but where it came from he
could not say. Various means were resorted to for the purpose of
getting rid of these parasites; but at first they all proved ineffective
for good. Turpentine was tried—it was of no use; sulphate of iron,
and several other agents, but all were of little 'avail. He thereupon
determined to try what would be the effect of a large dose of salt admi-
nistered as a draught, and it turned out to be a most efficient agent.
The sheep he tried it upon were some ewes belonging to the brother of
the late lamented Jonas Webb, which were thought to be affected with
rot. But then, as everybody knows, rot is never seen on the open -
heath-lands of Cambridgeshire, and these ewes had been nowhere else.
Mr. Webb was naturally puzzled to know why they should be wasting
away, and dying with all the outward appearances of suffering from rot.
In that instance a large dose of common salt—as much as three-
quarters of an ounce, and in one case a whole ounce of salt, dissolved
in a half-pint of water, was given to a sheep. By this means hundreds
of these creatures were removed; and from that moment might be
dated the recovery of the animals. He had since experimented fre-
quently in the same way, and always with the like success. These
doses of salt, however, must not be repeated often, for they be-
come very dangerous, and are really poisonous to the system. But
there is no reason for apprehending danger or mischief in any way-
from the exhibition of one or two such doses as he had mentioned,
administered at proper intervals.

He had nowa practical suggestion to make, which might be worthy of

The Natural History of Parasites. 607

the attention of agriculturists whose sheep are affected in this manner.
Some farmers—particularly in the county of Suffolk—have found that
when their lambs are affected with this description of worm they got
rid of them after a certain time when fed upon green rape, or coleseed,
which is an excellent food for sheep. He made this statement on the
authority of observant and trustworthy men in Suffolk, and he could
well understand that this may be so, because many vegetable agents,
when taken in their crude and natural condition, are known to be
good anthelmintics.

He would gladly have extended these remarks further, and treated
on other entozoa, but as he had stated at the outset, the subject is of
too comprehensive a character to be dealt with in the limits of a single
lecture. He had, therefore, been able to do little more than allude to
some of the more prominent of these destructive creatures, so as to
lay the basis for a paper on the subject in a future number of the
Society’s Journal,

Lord Brryers, in proposing a vote of thanks to the Professor for
his able and interesting lecture, wished to ask the learned gentleman
how, in the case of the tape-worm which promotes a cutaneous disease
in a dog, the existence of the worm is to be ascertained, and what are
the best means of destroying it? And also whether there is an
affinity between the filaria bronchialis,which is so destructive to lambs,
and the worm which causes the gapes in fowls and young pheasants ?
_ For the destruction of the latter worms he had recommended,
and had occasionally used, a little turpentine, which he applied on
the tip of a feather, with some success; but this remedy was not to
be trusted in the hands of the persons who reared his fowls, and had
accordingly been discontinued.

Professor Smionps replied that the worm which produced the
cutaneous eruption in a dog was often the tape-worm. Now tape-
worms might exist in the intestines of all animals; and the best evi-
dence of their presence perhaps was to be found in their detaching the
posterior segments of their bodies and these being voided with the
feculent matter of the animal. It is an interesting fact that these
segments contain the perfected ova of the creature, and these ova, if
they are accidentally conveyed, with the food or otherwise, into the
system of sheep, especially young sheep, are very speedily developed
into hydatids. In fact hydatids in the brain of the sheep may be
produced ad libitum by simply giving these segments with the animal’s
food. To show the powers of endurance of the tape-worm against the
agents which are administered for their expulsion, he would mention the
particulars relating to one of the worms he had had by him for the
last thirty years. Being desirous of killing a dog for the purposes of
science he tried to poison it by prussic acid; but the prussic acid
which he purchased in a country town was not very good, and the first
dose failed to destroy the poor creature. He then gave him a larger
dose with the like result, and at last he had to kill him by other
means. When opened it was found that the prussic acid had com-
pletely denuded the intestines ; nevertheless, there was the tape-worm
still alive and crawling about !

VOL. XXIV. 2R

608 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

The arica nut, when given to dogs and other animals suffering
from the existence of tape-worms, is found to be a most powerful
remedy. It should be administered in the form of powder to the
extent of a drachm: but generally a teaspoonful mixed with a little
water is given to the dog fasting, and if there be a tape-worm in the
intestines it will almost certainly be expelled in the course of a few
hours. The arica nut is a remarkable anthelmintic, and it is not less
remarkable that it had never, that he was aware of, been given to the
human subject.

Lord Brrners observed that he had used the nut with great success
as a remedy for common worms.

Professor Smtonps.—With regard to fowls and the existence of
worms in their windpipes, the worm is not the filaria bronchialis
—nor is it allied to that description of worm. It is termed syn-
gamus trachealis, and is believed to be the connecting link between
the bi-sexual worm and those in which the sexes are separate and
distinct. The worm very rarely exists in larger numbers than about
two or three, though he had met with as many as seven in the
windpipe of a chicken. It was a true bloodsucker. It fixes its
head in the mucous membrane, and exhausts the power of the chicken
by sucking its blood. This worm is met with in all the gallina-~
ceous tribes of birds, whether wild or domesticated. Hence it is often
the cause of great loss in the rearing of pheasants and partridges.
Great numbers of rooks are also killed by it; but, singularly enough,
aquatic birds, such as ducks and geese, may march about with perfect -
impunity amongst other birds affected with the syngamus. One
means of getting rid of the worm is entirely mechanical; that is, to
pass a feather into the trachea and give it a sweep round. The worm
attaches itself to the barbs of the feather, and is thus brought away..
There is no occasion for dipping the feather into turpentine; it is
indeed only the more likely to kill the chicken. Under this treat-
ment, however, many chickens are destroyed, and the best way of
getting rid of the worm is by making the birds inhale a medicated air,
and inducing them to take up little pellets of food mixed with assa-
foetida and turpentine. Let a few grains of barley, for example, be
steeped in turpentine and thrown down with others to the poultry.
The birds will then pick up the grains indiscriminately, and if they
pick up the steeped grain with the others, the worm is got rid of.
The fumes of tobacco are also an excellent remedy. Let the chickens
be placed under a tub, propped up a little on one side; then burn the
tobacco on the outside, and let the draught carry the smoke under the
tub. Do this, and, with the assistance of assafcctida pills, you —
soon destroy the syngamus trachealis.

In connexion with this discussion the following extracts from the_
Journal of the Bavarian Society of Agriculture (1861) may be read
with some interest.—P. H. F.

The Trichina Spiralis—A remarkable case of death arising from
the effects of this entozoon occurred in January, 1860, in the hospital
of Dresden, in the person of a female farm servant belonging to the

The Natural History of Parasites. 609

neighbourhood. The case excited much attention, both from the
extraordinary symptoms—the excruciating pains and cramp—which
accompanied the malady, and also from the results of the post-mortem
examination, when both in the bowels and in all the muscles (even
those of the heart) worms were found not only impregnated, but
teeming with young.

Professor Zeuter, who had attended the patient, on inquiring at the
farm of her master, ascertained that a pig had been killed on the 21st
of December, and shortly after the maid had begun to be ailing; and
that on the 12th of January she was taken into the hospital, where,
on the 27th, she died.

“ A direct statement as to how much raw meat she might have
appropriated, could not be got at.”

There were still remains of this pig in the house, and on the first
experiment made on the ham, very many Trichine were discovered
in their usual form. Sausages made from the brain and the blood
exhibited the same results ; it was evident that the girl had died from
eating this meat.

The farmer, his wife, and other members of the family had all been
affected with more or less violent symptoms of diarrhcea after this pig
was killede; the butcher had suffered most, haying had a violent pain
in his limbs, besides the other symptoms.

1. The Trichina in man is thus traced to the flesh of swine, and does
not originate in the dog, as Leukhart supposed. It is further evident
that the Trichina completes the whole circle of its existence in one
habitat, though further experiments are required to show whether this
is always the case. Leukhart reared Trichine in the bowels of a dog
and developed them in swine, which in consequence became diseased.
The pig may very well pick up impregnated worms from the dog’s ex-
creta. Thus the mischief may easily be propagated through the whole
stock, and may slowly and steadily increase, the danger augmenting
with the number of the worms. The Trichina is no offshoot of another
worm (of the Tricocephalus as it was once supposed).

2. The Trichine contained in the flesh or the dung leave the stomach
of another mammal, and grow in the bowels to the size of 4 lines. They
have been found in the stomach of the dog, the pig, and the rabbit.

3. Meanwhile numerous embryos are formed in the body of the
Trichine, which leave their parent by the sexual opening at its anterior
extremity.

4, Many Trichine proceed from the bowel, pass into the mesenteric
glands, and so into the flesh: this migration is accompanied with the
risk of a severe or even fatal illness.

This worm was discovered twenty years ago by Professor Owen,
and it was called Trichina spiralis, from its thinness, and from
the manner in which they were found in human flesh in a twisted
form as thin-coated larve.

Leukhart found them at large in the muscles before they became
larve ; he also made known that they become impregnated during
their abode in the stomach and bowels, and are viviparous.

Feeding experiments with the flesh of animals which held them in

2R2

610 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

the form of larve further showed them in the bowels of their new
host; the capsules soon open, the young worms set at liberty soon are
impregnated, and the brood then passes from the bowels into the
flesh. They here come to maturity in three or four weeks, to then
await, in a capsuled form, either liberty in a new body, or death in
their old habitat.

Meeting of Weekly Council, May 15th. Lord Brrnezrs in the chair.

Paper on Stream Couxtivation, by Mr. E.. Rucx, of Castle-hill,
Cricklade. ‘

Mr. Ruck said: Having been requested by Mr. Holland, on behalf
of the Journal Committee, to give my experience of steam culture, I
have readily consented to do so; but you must allow me to observe
that I have never appeared thus publicly before, and that I am no
learned professor, to keep your attention engaged for two or three
hours on a stretch, but shall in all probability run out all the wind I
have in less than thirty minutes. I particularly wish to guard myself
against being considered to be an advertising medium, or én any way
desirous of supporting one system of steam cultivation to the detriment
of another. Jt is my intention to speak “the truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth,” so far as Lam able; and if I am misunder-
stood, I shall be happy to give any explanation in my power.

You are, of course, all well acquainted with the names of the makers
of steam cultivators—Fowler, Smith, Fiskens, Howard, Stevens, Cole-
man, Hali, Halkett, Boydell, and others. Thirty years ago, I find
Baxter writing thus: “The injudicious agriculturist goes blundering
on in the footsteps of his forefathers; in some of his operations being
perfectly right without knowing why he is so, and in others egregiously
wrong, yet not able to detect the cause of his error.” This remark
will, I hope, stimulate the farmers of the present day to turn their
minds to the study of steam culture. Science has done much for
agriculture during the last ten years. Superphosphate, I consider, has
been a wonderful thing for light lands; and I believe that steam-power
is destined to do quite as much. }

I look upon farmers like a flock of sheep running through a gap:
it is very difficult to get one to start; but when once he does start,
they all run in a body.

Allow me here to say a word respecting myself, and to state that I
am a farmer living upon the same farm that was occupied by my father
and grandfather for upwards of seventy years. I used to work fifty- -
six oxen, making seven teams in the morning, and seven teams in the
afternoon. At that time I had an opinion that we could do work with
oxen free of cost, and that, as I had 150 aeres of grass-land, the oxen
would generally by their improvement pay the rent, though they would ~
not give a profit upon that grass-land. I am entirely dependent on
the profits of farming, and consider no system of culture worth notice
if the balance-sheet does not show that it is profitable. I haye had

Steam Cultivation. 611

considerable experience in steam cultivation, and am now growing
upwards of 400 acres of wheat, all planted after the steam-plough
with Fowler’s tackle.

This remark brings me to the question, What must be the size of a
farm to which the tenant may properly apply the use of steam-
tackle ? I should reply, 800 acres of arable land for such a
14-horse set as I have been in the habit of using. After all, a tenant
cannot be expected to embark in steam ploughing unless he has a
proper holding. It would not be fair to require him to make a
great outlay if he has only a yearly tenancy, with the chance of
being turned out of his occupation on a six-months’ notice to quit.
There are roads to be made, and it is of the greatest importance in
steam culture that you should have good roads ; in fact, I think the
day will come when the engine will work on the roads, and not have
to enter the field at all. Two-thirds of my occupation I can farm in
that way. Then the fences must be made straight, and the fields must
be made larger. The expense of moving the tackle from one field to
another is considerable, and that would be avoided by putting the
fields in a proper form for the steam-plough. I am pleased to tell
you that I find nearly all my neighbours engaged in preparing their
farms for steam culture.

My order to Mr. Fowler was given at the Chester meeting of this
Society in 1859. I then sold my oxen, and continued the use of steam
in 1860, 1861, 1862, and up to the present time; and the whole of the
cultivation of my land has been done by that means, that is, so far as
ploughing and heavy dragging are concerned.

I should be sorry to give offence to any one, but I consider that the
reason why steam cultivation has not been more generally adopted is,
that the landlords as a body have not put their shoulders properly to
the wheel. I am happy to say, however, that there are honourable
exceptions to this rule. One of these is my own landlord, the Earl of
St. Germans, who, when I began operations, gave me liberty to throw
my occupation into a steam-plough farm. I may also mention the
name of his Grace the Duke of Bedford, who has presented a tenant of
his with a piece of plate for the energy and enterprise he has displayed
in the application of steam. And lastly, there is Major Calley, near
Swindon, where I believe the first set of Fowler’s tackle was used by
Mr. Redman. Speaking of the removal of hedgerows, I have some-
where seen a calculation made by Mr. Mechi, according to which
every tree upon arable land costs the tenant 13s. 4d. annually. With
regard to dairy farms, I do not think it necessary that they should be
peg as the farmer, his wife, and family may then do most of the
work,

The next thing to which I would direct your attention, is that by
the use of steam we get the land into such a state as to constitute it
what I should call good land. You must have a deep surface soil with
a porous subsoil, so that the water will in no way do it an injury, nor
the sun burn it up. This is done on all lands when under spade-
husbandry, and you will always find that land greatly improved.
Allotments, for instance, are a great deal better to look at (and they

612 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

are better) than lands alongside of them which have been under the
plough for years.

With respect to drainage, I used Fowler’s draining plough without
pipes by horse-power in the year 1851, and the drains are good now,
and the line of the drain can at the present moment be seen in the
growing wheat, which is there much better and of a darker colour.
This I attribute in a large measure to the aération of the soil.

During the last season I have used one of Fowler’s steam draining-
ploughs on the Manor Farm, and it has worked very successfully.
The mode in which we use it without pipes is this: we start the mole-
plough at the bottom of the field in the main drain or ditch, and work
it up-hill, so that no water ever lies in the drain at all, but the moment
it gets into the drain it runs into the outfall and is gone. I only put
three pipes to the mouth of each drain. This is when you have open
main drains, which I consider preferable to close mains upon clay
lands, on which the water runs off so hastily that it is difficult to
drain any large extent on the other system. I have found that clay
lands, drained by the draining-plough, have answered better than
when manual labour has been employed, the land on each side being
well shaken for at least a yard as the mole-plough passes on ; the land
is thus raised, and the water percolates much more quickly through.

It is not my intention to trouble the meeting with a long array of
figures. I prefer confining my remarks to one day’s work, of which I
give you the cost. I think you will thus be enabled to arrive at a
better conclusion than by my giving a lot of figures, because different
farms imply different land, different labourers, and different manage-
ment altogether. Now, the prime cost of Fowler’s 14-horse set is, I
believe, about 9457. My daily outlay is, for

s. d.
Mngimesmean: ise! dan!’ wel / oe Ole s, ¥Gne lise ikea Meee oe
Ploughman ; . 8 4
2 porter-men at 2s. dv, SD
Anchor-man .. ue eee fer,
1 man to supply water and coals . 2 0
1 horse Anheas 2 2 4
Oil 1B)

0 0

Q
fo}
i)
i
na .
ee |

For wear and tear, breakages, and otherexpenses .. 12 0

Total cost per day £2 0 0

Some gentlemen may think the allowance for a horse too low, but I
have always been of opinion that a horse ought to be put at the,same
price per day as a man, because the cost of his keep is about equal to —
the wages paid for a man’s labour. The quantity of coals used is
12 ewt.

You will observe, by what I have stated, that I have no boys. I -
prefer employing men only, believing it to be work hard enough to
require men. With this power you will be enabled to plough an acre
of land in one hour, or 8 acres per day. You will also have sufficient

Steam Cultivation. 613

power to attach the drag to the plough, and thus do the work twice
over in a place, This work of 8 acres a day will cost 5s. per acre,
Scarifying we can do at the rate of 16 acres a day with a drag attached,
This would cost 2s. 6d. per acre.

The first work I have mentioned, with plough and drag, I should
estimate to cost 15s. per acre if done with horse-power. The second
work, with scarifier and drag attached, if done with horse-power, I
should put at 7s. 6d. per acre. The ploughing would be done 6
inches deep, and the scarifying 10 inches deep; and the cultivation
by steam would be far superior, for I consider one operation with
steam to be equal to two by horse-power. I think that when steam
comes to be more generally used, and you pay the men for the work
done by the acre, instead of, as at present, by the day, it will be a
great boon to the farmer.

I consider that a crop of beans affords the best means of getting
the soil into proper condition immediately after it has been turned up
deep by steam cultivation.

The advantage which steam-culture offers to the landlord, I am
inclined to place very high, since I am of opinion that the value of
land may be increased one-third by its use.

I take it that a 14-horse set will do as much work in a day as 30
horses. You can use it whenever the weather is fine, and it eats
nothing when not at work; the steam-horse never tires. You can get
forward with your work by making longer days, and it might perhaps
be advisable to use two sets of men; the work done is far superior to
any done by horse-power.

The land, after steam-culture, drains very much better. I know the
case of a piece of land which had been drained 14 years, yet it lay
quite wet under horse and oxen culture ;. but since it has been culti-
vated by steam I have never seen a drop of water on its surface,
though no alteration has been made in the drains, which are now just
what they were 14 years ago. The soil is a particularly tenacious
clay, of the Oxford kind; and this land you can drain without using
pipes.

I believe that all land would be greatly improved by the application
of steam-power, but I particularly wish to draw your attention to its
use on light lands; for it is upon the light lands of England that I
consider there would be the quickest return, inasmuch as by one
operation you would entirely change the nature of the soil. You
prevent its burning or frying up, and you could thus render a great
quantity of land capable of growing beans which is now altogether
unsuited to that crop. I put the cost of ploughing by steam, with a
drag attached, at 5s. an acre; the cost of scarifying, with drag
attached, at 2s. 6d. an acre; and the cost of digging, that is, working
Fowler’s digging-breasts, at 5s. an acre. The cost of draining, with a
mole as large as a quart decanter, at the depth of a yard, without
pipes, I put at 3d. per chain, or 10s. an acre, at 40 chains to the acre,
one pole, or 164 feet apart.

One great advantage of steam cultivation is that, when the day’s
work is finished, and the fire is put out, there is no baiting, and no

614 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

harness to take off. The labourer therefore makes the most of his time ;
he has not to walk, in the morning, first to the stable and then to the
field ; but he goes direct from his home to the field, and returns direct
to his home as soon as the day’s work is done. The land works
better and quicker after rain when steam-ploughed than when horse-
ploughed. In fact, I have been drilling on clay land in wet weather,
when my neighbours could not get upon their gravel or brashy land.
I find the soil, when under steam cultivation, is much improved by
atmospheric influences; and if (as has been stated) the rainfall is
26 inches, it will seldom do any damage to land so managed. The
same effects may be noticed in the case of garden allotments, which do
not often require draining in consequence of their superior cultiva-
tion.

Again, I find that superphosphate will act much better upon strong
land after being cultivated by steam than after horse-power. This I
attribute to the finer tilth produced. Superphosphate upon clay land
in a rough state will do no good; but it will accomplish wonders
upon such soils if worked down fine.

Further, under steam culture you increase the size of the worms;
and there is no better criterion than this of the state of land and its
fitness to grow a crop: where you have no worms you will have no
corn, It is rather strange that nitrate of soda kills the worms in
half-an-hour from the time it is sown. I do not know how to account
for that; but doubtless the Royal Agricultural Society, with the great
amount of science which it has at its command, can explain why,
where there are the largest worms and the greatest quantity of them,
there you will have the largest crop; and why nitrate of soda kills the
worms within half-an-hour of its being sown. Whilst referring to
worms, I would observe that no grass-land which is subject to worm-
cast can be of a good quality; this is the result of the observations
which I have made for the last five-and-twenty years.

With regard to the outlay which steam-cultivation requires, if you
can do as much work per day by the steam-power I have mentioned as
with 30 horses, the prime cost for the power I should put as equal,
allowing that 30 horses with harness cost 900/., and the implements
they work 1001., together 1000/., whilst the prime cost of a 14-horse
set cultivator is 9451, There is yet another reason in favour of steam-
cultivation, namely, that farmers now generally use thrashing machines,
and upon a rough calculation the outside cost for thrashing on a farm
of 800 acres would be about 80/. a year, and on the same farm the
horse-cultivation would come to 8001. There is a greater margin, then,
for saving where you have an outlay of 800/., than where you have one
of only 80.

The plough, from its wedge-like form, will turn over a greater ~
weight of soil with less cost than any implement that has yet been
brought out, but with the cultivator you go an extra depth, and you
break the pan without bringing up the subsoil to the surface. The _
pace of the plough, too, is of very great importance. With the horse-
system, to plough for a show-field you must go extremely slow, that the
furrow may be tuzned over without being broken ; but with steam-power,

Steam Cultivation. 615

by driving the plough—say at the rate of three and a-half miles an
hour—it is thoroughly broken, and the cultivation much forwarded.

- I am inclined to think there is very little land in England that
cannot be cultivated by steam. If the land is in ridges, I would
recommend that it should be ploughed lengthways, and not levelled
too quickly. I have a neighbour in Gloucestershire, Mr. Reed of
Elkstone, who has an extremely hilly farm, some of which he says is
as steep as: the roof of a house; it is also bad to cultivate, from the
many large stones in the field: yet he has worked it with steam very
successfully.

The wear and tear of the steam apparatus would be principally on
the clip-drum, the anchor, the rope, and the porters; and comparing
it with horses, for harness, blacksmith’s bills, shoeing, farriery, &c., I
consider the wear and tear in the two cases to be so nearly the same
in amount that I could scarcely say which cost most. But then, in
addition to the other advantages which I have enumerated, the risk
with the steam-engine is not so great as the risk with horses; horses
are subject to all sorts of illness; they are often attacked with in-
fluenza, and frequently in the harvest time of the year I have known
one-half my horses disabled and rendered unfit for work: not so with
the steam-engine, which is always ready. You can also turn the steam-
engine to account by thrashing, grinding, and doing other things
during the winter, when your horses are standing idle and living
expensively.

Now, I would by all manner of means recommend any gentleman
who is inclined to embark in steam culture, at the first onset to buy
sufficient power; for no more manual labour is required when you
have 30, than when you have only 5 or 6 horse-power. Whatever
be the working power of your engine, upon a rough calculation the
power of four horses is consumed in the draught of the rope and
friction, and this amount will have to be deducted from the force
applied to the soil.

The question, then, in my opinion, resolves itself simply into one
of 12 ewts. of coals versus the keep of 30 horses. You get your work
done at the proper time. You have no ridge or furrow; for no water
furrow is required. Drilling can be done in the same direction in
which the land is ploughed ; and this is a matter of very great im-
portance, for I have seen one-third more of wheat grown in the same
field, when it has been drilled the same way in which it was ploughed,
that when it was drilled across the furrow. There is, moreover, a
saving of seed, and you have no difficulty with the horse-hoe. I have
been in the habit of having all my crops horse-hoed for years past.
We use a Smith of Kettering’s horse-hoe at the rate of ten acres a
day with one horse: a most serviceable implement I have found it,
deserving more notice than it has received. Having no furrows, we
have no difficulty with the reaping machine; the one I use is
Cuthbert’s. Neither have we any difficulty with the mowing-machine
(Burgess and Key’s), whilst the carting can of course be done much
better. Youhave yet this further advantage, no sheep die from being
cast on their backs in furrows. By the use of steam, I believe summer

616 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

fallow will be entirely extinguished. Digging by the steam plough I
regard as equal to digging by manual labour, the cost of the one being
5s. as against 21. for the other. Again, rolling will not be required
any more than it is required under spade husbandry ; and the increase
of crops I place at one quarter to the acre. The increase of stock
kept must also be very great. In autumn you plough your land, and
plant it with vetches or rye at one operation, which in the spring of
the year you feed off in time for a root crop to follow; consequently
your flock of sheep will be greatly enlarged, your root crop will
be of much greater weight, and of better quality, and the land in
a much better state for the sheep to lie on, being drier and more
healthy for the animals than when it has been horse-ploughed. During
the last three or four years I have found that the crop grown after the
steam plough would come a week or ten days earlier to harvest, whilst
the sample was in my judgment better and heavier. I have brought
a sample with me from 400 sacks of red nursery wheat, which I have
at this moment in my barn. And as to malting barley, whenever I
have sold any I have always had the maltster sending to me again for
more, finding that steam-ploughed barley was superior for malting
purposes. The crops of secds you will find to be wonderfully better,
in consequence of the extra depth of cultivation. Clover that will
hardly stand more than once in five or six years with horse eulture,
you have no difficulty in growing every three or four years.

Upon my farm I havea field of five acres that has been under grass
for the last sixty years, and it has been valued at 10s. an acre. I
have left it in the middle of my large steam-ploughed fields to show
the difference between land under steam culture and that which is
under the old system. In the two adjoining fields now under the
plough we have the promise of five quarters of wheat to the acre at
least. English farmers must in my opinion resort to the use of
steam to maintain their position, for the foreigner will be sure to do
so. If by the use of steam I can grow 600 quarters more annually,
say at 33s. 4d. per quarter, that will amount to 1000/.

But the benefits accruing from steam culture do not end here; the
improvement resulting to the labouring man is also very considerable ;
extra wages encourage emulation, and a desire is awakened to rise in
the ranks; there is more time given for educating the boys, who are
not required to come at so tender an age into the field. ’

With reference to the men in my own employ, my ploughman was
formerly the. ox-man; and the engine-driver formerly drove the
thrashing-machine. During four years they have not lost a single
day ; I have had to make no change all that time; and the prejudice
amongst the labourers against the steam-plough (for there was a great
deal of prejudice amongst them at first) is now quite overcome. In
fact they now take quite as much interest in its successful working as
I do myself; it is my custom to allow them to knock off. work on
Saturday afternoon at four o’clock.

Some persons entertain mistaken notions with regard to the effect of
along rope. I find that the plough travels a few, seconds faster from
the engine to the anchor, say 400 yards, than from the anchor to

Steam Cultivation. 617

the plough. The extra power required, as tested by a dynamometer,
to move the anchor was only half a horse-power, as the rope was
running around the anchor 66 feet, and moving the anchor only one
foot forward. Consequently it acted as a greatly reduced multiplier.
The time required to move the engine forward and to turn the plough
is only fifteen seconds, which is quicker than any pair of Scotch
horses could turn.

The process of travelling the engine from field to field, or along
the road, is extremely simple. We have never had any difficulty
whatever; and [ would as soon trust my men to take an engine from
field to field as I would trust them with a one-horse cart. One argu-
ment which has been urged against the use of steam is, that if you do
away with horses, you will not have sufficient to do your harvesting.
Now, in the North it is the custom, the moment they begin harvest,
to turn out half their horses, and use very-few of them with carts ;
and if you make your ricks in the field, you easily get over that
difficulty. I myself have had but eight horses on a fine harvest, and
by making the ricks in the field they have been enough to cart the
corn upon a farm of 800 acres. When ricks are made on the ground
in the field during the summer months, the mice do them much less
damage than when they are placed on staddles.

I would strongly recommend any gentleman who determined upon
adopting steam-culture, not to cultivate too deeply or suddenly at
first

The Boydell system of travelling over the land is altogether out of
the question, because of the large amount of power consumed to
propel the engine, ploughs, &c., and the damage which is done by
pressing the land. I would advise you to have ample power, for I
find that sometimes in the same field I come upon a piece of clay,
which requires double the power necessary to go through the adjacent
gravel or stone-brash. Double power is also required where couch
exists—a very good reason, I think, why couch should be eradicated.

Since I haye mentioned Mr. Fowler’s tackle, it is no more than
justice to that gentleman for me to state in conclusion that I consider
he is deserving of the very best thanks of the country for the skill
and energy, as well as the large amount of capital, which he has
brought to bear in carrying out steam cultivation to a successful issue.
For my own part, I could not consent to return to the old system of
culture upon any consideration. In fact, I would as soon pay rent
for a farm, and use steam, as have a farm of my own for life under the
old system. I look forward with confidence to the period when steam
will completely finish all the operations upon the land at one time,
and thus entirely abolish summer fallow. Seeing is believing; and
although my farm is not the Land of Goshen, nor yet the Garden of
Eden, if any gentleman in this room is inclined to embark in steam
culture, and would like to see what changes I have made in my occu-
pation, I shall be most happy to show them to him.

— |
Mr. Dent, M.P.: As on Monday last I saw Howard’s cultivator in
operation at Bedford, and was pleased with the results, 1 should like

618 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

to make a few remarks in the hope that others will followme. I
should like to hear the opinion of practical men on the question,
whether land should be ploughed or cultivated by steam. It strikes
me that you will get more by the latter process than by the inversion”
of the soil. The difficulty of cultivating by horse-power is, that you
cannot break up the land at a sufficient depth, nor shatter the rough
clods in such a manner as to eradicate the weeds; steam gives us the
pace and the power to do all this, You have then a better chance
of cleaning your land, and rendering it available for the benefits to be
derived from aération and the water that falls upon it. Without in any
way disparaging Mr. Fowler’s system, which I have always regarded
as most superior, I may say that at Bedford, the other day, Howard’s
cultivator, when working on a piece of strong clay land in wheat
stubble that had not been disturbed since the harvest, and contained a
good deal of twitch, thistles, docks, coltsfoot, and other weeds in
xbundance—went nine inches deep, travelled at a great pace, and
turned up and broke the clods in a wonderful manner. Instead of
cutting the weeds, as is done by the ploughshare, it turned them up
completely. The only weed it did not shake out satisfactorily was
the coltsfoot, which it is very hard to deal with at all on clay lands.
Now, I should like to know whether, in the opinion of practical men,
the cultivating system is not likely to a great extent to take the place
of the system of inversion. '

From what I saw of the crops in the neighbourhood of Bedford, I
can quite believe that steam cultivation must largely increase the
produce of corn, the wheat crops cultivated by steam appearing to be
in a highly satisfactory state. With regard to the growth of clover, I -
should like to know whether other persons’ experience agrees with my
own. I find that there is no crop so difficult to grow as clover.
This year, in one of my fields, there was a very nice plant all over it
after harvest, but now except upon two acres it is entirely gone. The
clover upon Messrs. Howard’s clay land was exceedingly good; I
never saw the plant better set, or thicker. Whether that arises from
the land being better cultivated, or whether they have not grown it
so frequently there, I am not prepared to say.

Mr. Frere: Liebig, in his last work, the ‘Laws of Husbandry,’
appears to regard clover as a deep-feeding plant, and to attribute its
failure generally to the exhaustion of the available constituents of ,the
undersoil. The statement of Mr. Ruck was therefore distinctly in
accordance with Liebig’s teaching, which was probably founded in
truth, though it did not account for the going off the plant at an early
stage of its growth.

The Cuarrman: I feel greatly obliged to Mr. Ruck for the infor- _
mation he has given us to-day on this most interesting subject. At
the same time I would repeat the observation which I made some years
ago, when Mr. Parkes’s system of drainage was first introduced, that we
must look to the different soils and situations, and the different state of -
the land, before we can lay down any rule for the adoption of one system
or another, In the early part of his lecture Mr. Ruck stated that he
put every drain into an open ditch, and I think I understood him to

Steam Cultivation. 619

say that his was a very tenacious soil. Now, some years ago, I
myself adopted that system, for the sake of letting as much air into
the drains as possible. Since that, however, 1 have had as few
openings as possible; for I invariably found that if there was not
sufficient water in a pasture field, the cattle would come down and
trample the ditch, and so break up the drains: when these opened
into a ditch the ground crumbled away. I understand from Mr. Ruck
that he employs the same number of horses as before—that is 12, and
has sold otf 56 oxen, which is certainly a very great gain. The system
of 14-horse power and heavy tackle is not perhaps suited to very
hilly farms, especially where there are angles in the field. I quite
agree that one of the first things that ought to be done is to enlarge
your fields to the size of 20 to 30 acres. The subject of breakage
Mr. Ruck has not mentioned. That which I experienced at the
outset with Fowler’s implement was very great, so much so, indeed,
as to render its use most uneconomical. Since that, Mr. Fowler has
sent me another set of implements, and I have had scarcely any
breakages, excepting the eyes of the ropes, which are constantly
coming out. Now Howard’s ropes have no eyes. I have one of
their cultivators also, and nothing can possibly do the work better.
When steam cultivation. first came in, I felt that Fowler’s system of
traction was the best, and that it ought to be engrafted upon Smith’s
mode of cultivation as it was then, which is now improved by Messrs.
Howard, so that nothing can do better. The great advantage I find
to be this, that when the ground is as hard as a rock, and it is im-
possible for any number of horses to do the work, I have with
Fowler’s diggers burst the land up 9 and 10 inches deep.

Mine is a 12-horse engine, but I cannot do anything approaching
the quantity of work which Mr. Ruck mentions. From 2 to 23 acres
a-day with the diggers is as much as I have ever been able to accom-
plish, and about 5 acres with the cultivator, Mr. Ruck has also
alluded to the drag, but he did not tell us what sort of drag he uses.
I haye recently employed a rotating harrow, which was sent me by
Messrs. Ashby Smith and Co. of Stamford, and it is one of the best
implements, when attached to a steam cultivator, that I know of. As
I understand Mr. Ruck, his land does not require any rolling; but so
far is this from being the case on my strong land, that I have never
required so much clod-crushing and rolling to make my land a proper
seed-bed for mangold as during this year. First of all I use Fowler’s
digger and then his plough; and, afterwards, I crush and recrush it
with Howard’s cultivator, using it at different times according to the
state of the land.*

Colonel Kiyescorz, M.P.: Being a light-land farmer in Mr. Ruck’s
neighbourhood, I feel an interest in the opinion he has expressed
that upon light lands the steam cultivation would pay better than

* Lord Berners explains that his cultivator (Howard’s) draws in its wake on
either side, a drag and a rotatory harrow, which are made fast by a chain to a
long iron bar placed across the centre of the cultivator. When the land’s end is
reached, both drag and harrow are detached, and moved one or two feet aside.
The cultivator returns between them, and they are again made fast and drawn
nearly across the field.

620 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

upon heavy lands. In our district there is a large tract of hilly
country called the Cotswolds, the soil of which is very light and very
poor, and not more than 5 inches deep. Does he not think that the cost
of steam culture on such land would very far exceed the cost of horse
culture? You will remember that you cannot plough deeper with the
steam engine there than with horse-power, on account of the character
of the subsoil. At the farm connected with the College of Cirencester,
the steam plough is used; but the soil there is deeper, and you can
hardly call it the same soil as that of the Cotswolds, upon which light
soil I have never yet seen a steam-plough in operation.

Mr. BrapsHaw (Chairman of the Central Farmers’ Club) said, that
he commenced the work of steam cultivation on the 15th of February,
1861, upon an occupation of 400 acres of ‘arable land, in the county
of Surrey, on the borders of Sussex, and he calculated that at the end
of the present year his steam engine and tackle would all be paid
for. The price per acre of smashing-up came to 4s. 11d. for the
first operation; 4s. 33d. for the second, and 4s. ld. for the third.
But the same work could not have been performed by horse-power
without the aid of 12 horses, besides manual labour at the cost, as
he calculated, of 12s. an acre. He formerly employed 16 horses;
he now used 10, had his land under perfect control, and at the end of
this year his steam machinery would be free. He was a warm adyo-
cate of smashing up rather than ploughing; indeed, he would never
plough any land except red clover ley. He made this exception
that he might have the full benefit of the under-growth of roots, which
contained a large portion of carbon, and when decomposed fur-
nished the best description of manure for wheat. He had this
season made a comparative trial between land which had been
merely smashed up and made fallow, and land which had been
similarly treated and in addition ploughed for wheat. The wheat
growing on the unploughed land looked much better than that
whereon the plough had been used. The couch upon some of his
land formerly measured a foot and a-half in length; yet not a
particle of if was now remaining in the field which had been
steam-cultivated twice. Yet he must venture to limit the use of
smashing up, though he knew he stood in opposition to Mr. Smith,
who was, in fact, an enthusiast. He would not advise any man to
smash-up his land with steam tines in the autumn, unless he did it
early enough to eradicate perfectly and destroy the weeds. He would
rather plough 8 inches deep, and smash-up in the spring with a steam-
cultivator ; then he should obtain the finest preparation for swedes or
mangolds that he could desire, and that he had done this year. His
land was of various descriptions; some very heavy (much heavier than
the land about Bedford referred to by Mr. Dent) ; some very good light
friable land : where there was heavy land they had had to go slower, the
resisting power being greater ; and where there was light land they
might employ steam-culture with equally beneficial effect, because all
they had to do was to extend their implements, and thus they would
break up more land. :

Mr. Dent: What was the effect upon light-land crops ? .

Mr. Brapsnaw had lately visited the light-land farm of a neighbour,

Steam Cultivation. 621

to see how he succeeded with Howard’s new implement, when he was
informed that last year, upon the land smashed up and not ploughed,
a quarter and a-half more of barley was grown per acre than when the
plough was used. He inferred that by the use of the steam cultivator
crops of every description would yield something like twenty-five per
cent. more than where the plough had been employed, and to that
extent increase the produce of the land. He had begun with Smith’s
tackle, and was now using Howard’s by way of experiment. He had
been perfectly satisfied with Smith’s, but should be glad to get better
if he could do so,

Mr. Srpney had visited Mr. Ruck’s farm more than once, and
observed that he had the advantage of having a liberal landlord, and
a fine road ran through the estate; whilst Mr. Ruck himself was a
man of an enterprising spirit, which enabled him to make the best use
of these advantages. It would be universally agreed that we had now
arrived at that pointin the history of steam cultivation when it was
no longer a matter of theory but of practice, and there was no intelli-
gent farmer occupying a sufficient tract of a retentive soil but would
be happy to avail himself of its use if he had it in his power. Mr.
Ruck had remarked that it was necessary that those who entered upon
steam-culture should have something more solid than a six months’
tenure to depend upon ; but it was not in the power of every landlord
to give security of tenure, or to embark in such a large expenditure as
the construction of roads required. Good roads would now become of
the same importance to a farm as good drains; but, in the mean time,
those who had not good roads must avail themselves of that description
of machinery for cultivation which did not require them, and at the
present moment it seemed as if the advantages were pretty evenly
balanced between Fowler’s and Howard’s implements; the former
having more power, whilst the latter dispensed with the necessity for
good roads by cultivating from one corner. Landlords and tenants
have both availed themselves of Government loans and the assistance
of Land Drainage Companies: without this resource the improvement
of systematic drainage would never have made the progress it had.
If farmers were to adopt steam cultivation generally, they must have
Steam Cultivation Companies ready to lend this valuable but expensive
machinery for long terms.

Mr. Hortanp, M.P., in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Ruck,
observed that steam cultivation was still so much of a novelty that it
could not be expected that any very general rule could be laid down
for its application to any particular soil. In common life a well-
educated medical man never dreams of applying his professional skill
until he has felt the patient’s pulse. Just in the same way steam
cultivation must not be applied to any particular field or farm until
its peculiarities have been ascertained. He could not on his farm
do without turning over the land, because his land was very heavy,
with a high ridge and a furrow that must be brought down con--
siderably before he could cultivate properly. To getall the advantage
of climate and rainfall, the land ought to be comparatively flat; and
it took many years, and great patience, before that could be accom-
plished; much care being required not to turn over too rapidly, or

622 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

until the subsoil brought up to the surface had been thoroughly
aérated and chemically changed. But the day might come when
some one else after him would continue steam cultivation ; and then,
after the land had been made comparatively flat, would arise the ques-
tion whether, seeing there was a large amount of soil aérated to a great
depth, the plough should not give place to the cultivator. Upon the
land at the College of Cirencester, spoken of by Colonel Kingscote,
there was a large body of clay, but the adjoining land was originally
stonebrash, no doubt more or less blended with its neighbour. All
beyond that, however, was stonebrash; and as Mr. Bradshaw had
remarked, although they could not go deep there, it was a great
advantage to be able to take a large area with the machinery in the
course of a day. The changes which took place in the course of
cultivation were curious. Although he had been obliged, in the first
instance, to supply himself with a large amount of steam power—say
from 12 to 14-horse power, yet, after the heavy land had been gone
over two or three times, the engine could be worked with less power,
but a power that would still suffice for all other operations on the
farm. One of the objections, indeed, to employing the large 14-horse
power engine in thrashing and other operations in connection with
‘the farmyard, was that they consumed more coal and used more power
than they needed. After they had got their fields into deep cultiva-
tion, therefore, a less powerful engine than they required at first
would answer their purpose, and he himself was now working fields at
a pressure of from 55 to 60 Ibs. the square inch, whereas in the first
instance he had worked at from 80 to 85 Ibs. There is great
economy in the employment of steam even now, and if in the course
of time an engine such as can economically do the thrashing and
other work in the farmyard becomes sufficient for cultivation also, the
gain will be very great. Much good may result from the formation
of Companies, because it was the want of money that has hitherto
prevented steam power from being generally applied by the tenant
farmers to the land. Mr. Ruck had led the way—and as he said it
was the habit of farmers to follow one another like sheep through a
gap—he did not think they could have a better bell-wether than his
friend. He would only add, in repeating his thanks to Mr. Ruck for
his able lecture, that the Royal Agricultural Society was moving in
the right direction when such a question as this was introduced by
a tenant farmer, and followed by a discussion in which other tenant
farmers had borne a part.

Colonel Kiyescors seconded the vote of thanks.

Mr. Rvox, in acknowledging the vote of thanks, remarked that the

cost of steam culture with drag attached upon strong land was only

5s. an acre, and that fact he wished to stick in the gizzards of the
light-land Gloucester farmers. He owned he was surprised to hear

the noble Chairman say that he could only do 2% acres of digging per

day. Now, the digging and the ploughing were of the same width ;

and unless something very extraordinary took place, he could not see
but that the noble lord had sufficient power to do six or eight acres
upon any land. With regard to breakages, he could only say that his
bailiff had that morning “put an account into his hand of 222 acres

Steam Cultivation. 623

ploughed, 437 acres dragged, and 247 acres scarified; and all that
work has been done this year with one engine without breakage to
the extent of a single sixpence. As to the remarks of Mr. Bradshaw
about the comparative merits of smashing-up and ploughing, according
to his (Mr. Ruck’s) experience this year, the land that was tilled with
the digger for wheat was beating the land that was ploughed, [If it
was intended to go an extra depth, he thought the land.should be
ploughed and left exposed for the frost of winter. He had no doubt,
however, that smashing-up for barley was better than ploughing.

Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, June 10th. Lord Brryers,
Vice-President, in the Chair.

Tue BREEDING AND FEEDING OF SHEEP.

Professor Coteman, of Cirencester, introduced as the subject for
consideration, ‘“‘ The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep, with a view to
increasing the sheep-stock per acre.”

Mr. Coteman said: The subject I have the honour of introducing
for discussion this morning is one of, perhaps, equal importance with
that which so lately occupied your attention, viz., “Steam Cultiva-
tion ;” for the successful development of either must tend to the same
result, viz., the more economical, because more abundant, production
of corn. It is hardly necessary to point out that the history of prices
during the last few years leads us to anticipate that corn must
range at very moderate rates,—rates which would formerly have been
considered ruinous, but which, thanks to our increased resources—
thanks to the great stimulus which competition has produced—we can
now look forward to without despair. One great lesson taught us by
our experience is, that we need not henceforth look only or principally
to our cereal produce, but must endeavour to draw our returns from
an increased growth of meat. It would be interesting and useful to
haye statistics as to the number of sheep, horned stock, &c., bred in
the United Kingdom; in the absence of these, we can only draw
general conclusions from the prices that are realised. The scarcity
of meat during the last few years, and the very high prices obtained,
would lead us to infer that production does not keep pace with the in-
crease of population. It also shows that in this branch of our produce
we have little to fear from foreign competition. That live stock, and
especially mutton, cannot be imported to any considerable extent, the
following figures, taken from the accounts relating to trade and navi-
gation for the last three years will amply testify :—

Monts of DeceMBER.

. 1860.) 1861. 1862.
Sheep and lambs .. .. .. .. os 76,726 89,294 56,276
Oxen, bulls, and cows.. .. .. «- 16,785 15,076 14,555
Calves we se? at St) SG 5,938 4,005 4,782
Swine .. .. és 4,417 8,293 1,277

VOL. XXIV. 28

624 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

YEAR ending 31st DEcEMBER.

1860. 1861, 1862.
Sheep and lambs... is .. «6 oe 320,219 312,923 299,472.
Qxen, bulls, and 'caws..” ss sce, +e 77,010 81,194 68,818
Calves: .3i “Saal Fae Se as é 27 ,559 25,902 29,069
Swine {teat’ nee, HO Rage a 24,452 30,308 18,162

Supposing that the live weight of each beast is equal to that of ten
sheep, and that of each calf to two sheep, the weight of horned stock
imported is double that of sheep; and we have the importations
steadily declining from 1860 to 1862, notwithstanding that prices of
meat ranged high during those years—mutton by the carcase making
from 5d. to 63d. per lb. It would be equally easy to show that the
British Isles are naturally adapted, beyond most other countries, for
the production of meat, when we consider the effects of our moist and
changeable climate in rendering all the strongest land along our
western shores suitable for pasture, and enabling our dry uplands to
carry forage crops. It is for us to consider how we can best make
use of these natural advantages, and adapt our system to the altered
conditions that surround us. On the one hand, we are told to lay
down our land to grass; on the other, to give up corn-growing, and
substitute crops that afford sheep food. Where land, owing to soil
and climate, is especially adapted for grass, it may be profitable to lay
it down, though there is very little grass land that pays without a con-
siderable proportion of arable land to work with it; and we should
often act wisely if we adopted a more generous treatment of the exist-
ing grass land rather than added to its extent, No portion of our
acreage is more grateful for judicious outlay.

It may be well here to state that in laying down land to permanent
pasture much evil has resulted from injudicious grazing with sheep.
Close feeding by heavy or old sheep will destroy the clovers and finer
description of grasses, and with a cropped surface root-growth is im-
possible. As well might the forester expect to grow timber if he
closely pruned off all the branches from his trees. Manuring with
composts of well-decomposed manure and soil, mowing the grass when
young, and afterwards grazing with lambs and calves, will produce a
finer and thicker sward in a shorter time than by any other plan.

Those who would have us abandon corn-growing have never accu-
rately considered how far live stock can be made to pay for the crop
they consume. Finding, for instance, that sheep produce a large
gross return, they are apt to consider that this is all profit; whereas
it is not difficult to show that sheep alone, apart from their influence
on the corn crops, will not pay a living profit after all the expenses of
growing the crop which they consume are considered. Thus, a teg
in good condition, of the long-wool’ breed, ‘will be worth 40s, on”
October 1st. From this to the 1st of April—183 days—it will con-
sume about 4 lb. of oilcake a day, at a cost of about.8s., and 14 tons
of swedes, at 8s. a ton, 12s, Add to this, attendance 2s., interest of

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 625

money ls., 5 per cent. of loss, about 2s., and we have a total of 65s,
which represents a full value for carcase and wool. If we made a
similar calculation for breeding sheep, the return would apparently be
much greater ; but if the greater risk which attends it be taken into
consideration, it is very doubtful whether, apart from the growth of
corn, even breeding sheep would return a living profit. Moreover, we
know that there is a limit to the extent to which we can stock and
crop land; therefore, if we regard the subject in all its bearings, it is
clear that on arable land we cannot profitably abandon the growth of
cereals. We may possibly so alter ‘our ‘system .as to have corn less
frequently on the same grotind; but such alteration must be made
with a view to an increased produce per acre. The point, then, to
which I would draw your attention, is to a more economical system of
feeding sheep, especially breeding-sheep, so as to increase the returns,
and at the same time leave the land in better condition for corn. This
result would, I believe, be effected by reducing the quantity of roots,
and using more dry food, such as straw,’in combination with a small
quantity of artificial food, which will act as a stimulus to digestion.
By these means we Shall have thé land in a much richer condition for
corn, because the sheep will take a much longer time to consume a
certain weight of roots, and the animals will be in a better condition.
It is calculated by Morton and others that a breeding ewe will con-
sume one-fourth of its live weight of turnips, or 20 lbs. to 30 Ibs. a-
day, of which nine-tenths is water. This food during winter is often
very little above freezing point, and it follows that much heat will be
absorbed, and consequently food wasted, in raising this volume of
water to the temperature of the animal’s body. By water within, and
often water without, the temperature of the body must be greatly re-
duced, and we are not surprised that with such an unscientific mode of
feeding the animal cannot maintain its condition, and is unable to
minister to the wants of the fetus. The latter is often chilled, and
born dead, especially from young ewes in a wet season. Now, if we

«an reduce the quantity of roots one-half, and substitute an equivalent

in the form of straw and condimental food, at the same time attending
to the external comfort of the animal, we shall have achieved a great
point. The land will be doubly manured, straw will be made more of
than when trodden solely into manure, and a greatly increased number
of sheep can be kept upon a given weight of roots. It is only of late
years that the feeding value of straw has’ been ascertained or believed
in, and eyen now there are many who consider it only fit to be trodden
into manure, That the quality of straw varies much according to the
nature and condition of the soil, and more according to the way in
which it is harvested, no.one will dispute; but there is abundance of
evidence to show that when cut comparatively green, and carefully
managed, many kinds of -straw are exceedingly nutritious. This is a
truth which the tables before you sufficiently illustrate ; but further,
from personal experience, I am fully convinced that good straw may be
economically substituted for hay in the winter feeding of sheep, even
without any artificial food, though the cost of the latter,as I trust
to be able to show, is so slight that it can be economically employed.

2 & 2

626 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

The following calculations will show the effects, both on the land
and the animal, resulting from this system :—
An acre of turnips = 15 tons,
Amount of nitrogen left in manure made from turnips, 74 lbs.
Amount of mineral matter, 300 lbs.

The analysis of the mineral matter gives :—

Per Acre,
_ Ibs,
110:94 Potash, cs ..es <6. bb) Seba Eee Oe
ZO20 15002. een ne Cae te MDs Men On TI

I-77 Chloride Potassium! “ts Ye) ce “59
23'50° Common ‘salto S.A eee
10:83 ‘Magnesia iii. sets: bear seen oil:
83°42) Limes) 56. ke ee 6 ease
29:22 (Phosphoric\acid\\ ce1n ean weenl ae MenOMie
87-29 Sulphuric acid .. .. . . 12°43
10°29: Silica ss “sera sve Beameremeneies 3°43

3:27 Iron oe: .1 Gt! up -ba% Ieee tes hannes 1:09
19°14 Carbonic acid eas ise. ky, BO ELS

800:00 100-00

Such would be the manuring value of an acre of turnips consumed by
sheep eating 20 Ibs. of roots daily, with no dry food. If we substitute
13 Ib. of straw for 10 Ibs. of turnips, it follows that with every acre
of turnips 2 tons 4 cwts. of straw will be eaten. Straw on an average
yields 4 per cent. of nitrogen; therefore 2 tons 4 ewts. = 24-6 Ibs. ni-
trogen, of which 21°6 lbs. is left as dung, probably about one-eighth
part being consumed in exhalation from the animal’s skin, &e. The
same quantity of straw will yield 221-1 Ibs. of mineral matter as
manure. Of this a considerable portion, about 48 per cent., is silica ;
but the remainder contains minerals which are very valuable as plant
food. The addition to the soil of this large amount of silica, in
round numbers about 107 Ibs., in a condition available for plant food,
would act beneficially on the following barley crop, which requires, for
grain and straw, more silica than any of the other cereals.

Quantity returned
Analysis of Ash of Oat-straw. per Acre as Manure,
lbs.

Potash ee ee 29S eee
SOdaig ies gieeaites. co O'OO! asl eemmmenene
IMaoiesIde Sse ee be | OO) ek ee 8°35
Time weetee ee oe” SOT, US menos
Phosphoriewcid 4." 6.) 256.045 Re 5°65
Sulphunicacid 4. «. 326) c.1)2: 7:20

Silica ety Wake ite se. 48°42 copes Rem lOmGo

Peroxideiotaton ... »» . L'B3). wy ee 4-04

Commonisslizs ts -es - O20. ba ke 7-18
100:00 220°95 lbs.

We may fairly calculate that by giving ewes 14 Ib. of straw per day
we increase the value of the manure by more than one-half. Many of

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 627

the root crops grown for breeding sheep do not reach to 15 tons per
acre, in which case, according to the common plan of feeding off, the
sheep run over the ground so rapidly that a good dressing of manure
cannot be left behind, and hence we fail, comparatively, in one of the
most important objects for which we keep sheep. The use of dry food
remedies this defect.

Let us next consider how far straw compensates the animal for the
loss of half the turnips. Fifteen tons of turnips will yield nearly
3024 Ibs. of dry matter; 2 tons 4 ewts. of straw will yield 4233 Ibs.
The proportion of this latter that’ would be digested is a point on
which, unfortunately, we have no very precise data. A series of
carefully-conducted experiments to settle this question would be very
valuable. Much depends upon the condition of the straw, as the fol-
lowing tables will show :—

Awatysis of OaT-StRAw, calculated dry.

I. I. Ii.

". Green. Fairly Ripe. Over Ripe.

(OL SRGe CON ue Re 1°68 1°25 Lag) -
Soluble protein compounds 6°56 3°13 1°54
Insoluble'protein compounds 3°54 1°74 2°79
Sugar, gum, mucilage, &c. sel ae 19°07 12°59 3°78
Digestible fibre 2...) a. 31°36 =|. 35°92 33°04
Indigestible woody fibre 29°70 37°84 49°80
Soluble mineral matter «1. w 4s 6°86 4°31 2°70
Insoluble mineral matter .. .. 1°23 3°22 4°86
100°00 .. 100:00 . 100°00

You will observe by reference to the analysis that the proportion of

sugar, &c., differs immensely, and that of soluble and insoluble woody
fibre differs considerably, according to the condition of ripeness.
The chemist infers that what he calls digestible woody fibre (as
being soluble in dilute acids and alkalies—similar re-agents, as far
as he can judge, to the gastric juice and biliary secretions) would
be converted by the digestive process into food, and that all that
resists such tests will pass through the system, being insoluble.
It is highly probable that this is so, and that the digestive system
of the animal is even more powerful than these chemical reagents.
From my own experience of the effects of using good straw, I
should consider that from half to three-quarters of the dry matter
would be available as food. Supposing, however, for the sake of
argument, that only one-half this dry matter of the straw is available,
whilst the whole of the dry matter in the turnips can be made use
of (which is never absolutely correct, since in full-grown turnips
there is about 3 per cent. of woody fibre, and when the plant is over-
ripe, especially towards spring, when the flower-stem is shooting, a
much larger proportion of insoluble matter), we have the straw yield-
ing 21163 lbs. of available food, against 3024 lbs. in the turnips;
and it follows that sheep eating turnips and straw, and thereby econo-

628 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

mising the consumption of the root crop one-half, consume in a
given time 5140 lbs. of dry matter, against 6048 Ibs. when feeding
solely on turnips. Surely this difference will be partly compensated
by the healthier condition of the sheep, and by the lesser amount of
fuel required to maintain the heat of the body when less cold water is
taken into the system. Scouring, which in bad weather is common to
ewes eating only turnips, is rarely seen where straw is consumed. L
am satisfied that on the Cotswold Hills breeding sheep may be kept
up to or near lambing time in a healthy, thriving state, by the use of
straw. The addition of a very smali quantity of artificial food would
doubtless prove a good investment, both as regards the land and the
animal, enriching the manure to some extent, but acting principally
as a stimulus to the digestive powers of the animal. The cost per
head would be very small. Thus, 100 sheep would take 33 days to
eat off 15 tons of turnips, as proposed, and if supplied with } Ib. a-
day of artificial food, would eat 825 lbs. The food would cost pro-
bably about 87. a ton, and might be thus composed—

Sse eh

4 of rapecake or nutmeal, at aera rimenerrs weaiive ier, 0)

’ ‘¥of beans, peas, or lentils,at .. is % ‘s. 810 0
3 of Indian corn, at so. pose tae sey fee canta me

per ton.
”?
»

——__ —_—-

_8)22 10 0

‘ Cost per ton .e oo we 110 0
To which might be added— et
Fenugreek 6 +» 9 -bs.

Aniseed.. 5°14. 6 Ibs.

15 Ibs. at 8d. perlb. . O10 O

Cost of compound .« .« 8 O Oper ton

Nutmeal is a comparatively new feeding article, which is valuable
chiefly on account of the large proportion of oil it contains, which
varies from 16 to 25 per cent. It is the meal produced from the
manufacture of oil from the palm-nut-kernel, and is principally sold by
A. Smith and Co., Liverpool. The present price is 6/. a ton. Beans,
peas, or lentils, all closely analogous in composition, contain 24 to 26
per cent. of nitrogenous compounds, and hence are very suitable-for
growing stock when given in small quantities ; and crushed Indian
corn contains much fattening matter, so that a meal composed of these
ingredients is both cheap and nourishing. The addition of the com-
paratively small proportion of fenugreek and aniseed gives a flavour
to the whole, and acts as a tonic to the digestive system. The cost _
per acre of the artificial food is 2/.19s., of which outlay a considerable
portion is repaid in the manure. The total quantity of artificial food
consumed by 100 sheep during six months amounted to 2 tons 2 qrs.
14 Ibs., or 3s. 3d. per head. Of this, one-third will be returned in the -
increase of wool, especially in long-woolled sheep, one-third left as
manure, and one-third will be paid for in the improved condition of
the ewesand lambs. Two years since, wishing to economise the roots,

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 629

we supplied our young ewes with a quarter of a pound a-day of
nutmeal, with chaff, and a very small quantity of roots, and they
throve wonderfully,

Mernop or usine Straw.

Having, then, endeavoured to show that straw may be economically
used with roots for sheep, I will next point out how it can be best
supplied. It is customary either to give straw long, in racks, or to
cut it all into chaff. The latter plan does not answer, as bad and
good straw are so mixed that the animal refuses all, and the expense
of cutting is not paid for. The former plan is by far the best, when
the straw can be thrashed and stacked in the same field where the
roots are being consumed. Nothing can answer better, unless it can
be shown that a system of pulping roots and cutting chaff can be
economically carried out. I have the experience of .a very good flock-
master in support of this plan. Three hundred ewe tegs go first, and
are supplied with hay ; 600 ewes follow, eating the remains of turnips
and some straw ; these lie back at night on a foldyard, kept well lit-
tered by the refuse straw removed from the racks. It is surprising
what a large quantity of straw may thus be consumed, with what a
small quantity of turnips the ewes will thrive, and what a rare manure-
heap results, which is close at hand to be spread on the young seeds
the following autumn, with the minimum amount of labour. A system
of this sort is well suited to large breeding-farms, where the land
often lies remote from the buildings, and the consumption of straw in
the homestead would greatly increase the labour. Straw should be used
in the following order :—Good sweet barley-straw first; this may be
commenced when ewes are eating mangold-tops, &c., and will last till
November. Then oat or bean straw, the latter being most valuable in
cold weather ; and lastly, pea-straw, which, when well made, is equal to
much of the seed hay grown on light land; with this may be given a
portion of hay when ewes are lambing. Our practice is to build a
good stack of freshly-thrashed pea-straw in the ewe-pen, often so as
form a wall of division, and to fodder once a day with this, and once
with hay. Sheep thus fed will be most conveniently managed with
nets, instead of hurdles, as less work is required in setting a fold; and
the turnips should be first picked up, at a cost of 1s. 6d. an acre.
Where ewes are allowed a full quantity of turnips, and the crop is a
fair average one—say 13 to 14 tons per acre—the common rule is to
allow one hurdle to each sheep. Thus 100 sheep require daily 10
hurdles square. This applies to large-framed sheep.

Purine Straw anp Roors.

We have now to consider whether any system can be economically
arranged for pulping the roots and mixing them with straw and chaff.
We all know what a great improvement has taken place in the feeding
of horned stock by the use of the pulper—how animals that formerly
consumed from 14 to 2 ewts. of roots daily, when sliced, are now better
fed on 70 Ibs. to 80 Ibs., with 15 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. of straw. Shorthorn
cows dried off previous to calving, being in an identical condition with

630 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

the breeding ewe, are kept in a good store state upon from 25 Ibs. to
30 lbs. of roots with straw. The digestive apparatus of sheep is very
similar; and yet, though only one-tenth the weight of the cow, we find
ewes still eating 20 Ibs. to 30 lbs. of turnips almost without dry food.
Surely we have here evidence of an extravagant system. The diffi-
culty lies in carrying out the plan economically. Many will say that
the labour is too great, and that breeding sheep so treated will not pay
for attendance. In reply, I would ask, what proportion does the cost
of consuming bear to the cost of growing? An acre of swedes can
seldom be produced for less than 5/. To clean and cut up the same,
according to our present system, would not exceed 1/. If by doubling
the expenses of feeding you can double the number of sheep kept, as
many sheep can be fed for 3/. 10s. as under the old system for 61.
That breeding-sheep will readily eat food so prepared I have proved
by experiment, and that they must thrive much better on such a mix-
ture than on roots alone is also certain. I would sketch out for your
consideration the following plan:—The crop should be stacked in a
convenient position, and when it has been thrashed, the straw, &c.,
should be again carefully stacked and thatched ; roots should be cleared
and laid in large heaps and at such distances apart as will allow of
sheep lying two days on the same ground; use a combined pulper
and chaff-cutter on wheels, worked by horse-gear; a light roomy house
on wheels, with canvas sides, to store mixture for second day’s use ;
four days a-week one horse and a lad will be employed extra; a load
of straw, first carted from stack to heap of roots, then the two cut up,
the produce of morning’s work being used for the day’s food, that
cut later in the day stored away in house for the following day.
Messrs. Samuelson and Co., of Banbury, inform me that they make
machines of the kind referred to, which, worked by two men, will turn
out 100 bushels of the mixture per hour. I merely advance this idea
in the hope that it may lead some competent judges to state their
opinions. I think it would do best on dry healthy land; but where
a considerable percentage of clay exists, the land is at times so sticky
and wet that a good lodging at night is of the utmost importance ; in
that case the sheep thrive best when lying back on a well-littered fold,
supplied with straw in racks. Whichever system may be found most
paying, whether pulping or gnawing, the health of the animals will be
maintained and food economized by supplying them with dry lodgings.

Before the ewes go to the lambing-pen they should be dressed with a
solution to destroy lice and ticks, and prevent all rubbing. The best
plan is to have a double line of eight to ten hurdles set up, four feet
apart, at each end more hurdles at right angles, so as to form places
for entrance and exit. The ewes draw in and stand so close together
that they are easily handled by the attendants—three in number;—one ~
holds the sheep, another attends to the liquid, and hands it to the
third, who, with an old tea-pot or similar vessel, with a spout, pours
the solution along the back from head to rump, three times backwards
and forwards, one pint of liquid to each sheep.. The more quiet ewes
can be kept during all stages of pregnancy the better. Instances have
occurred of abortion at three weeks from fright caused by a dog,

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 631

Later on, the necessity for quiet is increased. Only last lambing we

had an instance of this. The ewes, when within a few days of lamb-
_ing, were disturbed by some students, who tried to catch them, and

numerous dead lambs and cases of false presentation resulted.

In breeding it is always desirable to use: first-class rams. The
males should be of higher quality than the females ; but more espe-
cially is it important to select the very best animals to put on young
ewes, for the character given to the first produce will often come out
again. About this there cannot be the least doubt. With regard to
the proportion of male and female lambs, and the fall of double or
single lambs, it has been supposed that the condition of the parents at
tupping influences the result. Young vigorous rams will get the
larger part of their stock male; doubles depend very much upon the
condition of the ewes. If ewes are poor and doing badly, doubles will
be scarce ; if in good, hard condition, and rather improving, we may
expect more doubles. The nature of the farm as affecting the quality
of the food has also a good deal to do with this.

Marxine Rams—tur WASsHrPoou.

The plan of marking the breast of the ram with ruddle is conve-
nient, as enabling us, by alteration of the mark, after three weeks, to
draw out the forwardest ewes for the pen. The ram remains for six
er eight weeks; after which the barren ewes may be withdrawn, being -
proved by a teazer marked a different colour.

Where a convenient washpool exists on a farm, it will be found very
desirable to swim the ewes occasionally, though of course, unless great
eare is exercised, this might be attended with risk when they are in
lamb. Their skin is apt to become dry and harsh ; the water cleanses
the pores, and encourages circulation through the skin, and conse-
quently relieves the central organs, which are always more or less
taxed in sheep. In the case of fevers, especially when these result
from hard keeping, swimming will prove most advantageous. From
eight to ten days should always elapse between washing and shearing,
in order that the yolk may rise.

Foop ArreR LAmMBING,

The ewes after lambing continue on turnips and swedes. Good
crops of the former may be obtained after early vetches. At this time
the proportion of dry food must be lessened, and a few mangolds in-
troduced. Lambs soon learn to run through lamb hurdles ‘and may
have a fold ahead supplied with a small quantity of artificial food,
consisting of pounded linseed-cake, bruised oats, pot bran, and malt
combs, in equal proportions. The. quantity consumed will be very
small, as the great object isto teach them to eat, so that when owing to
a change of food the lambs require better treatment, no time may be lost.
The management of the young lambs for the first five or six months is
the most difficult. They are very susceptible of unfavourable influences,
and bad food for two or three days only will often permanently check
their growth. As soon as the root crop is cleared off, couples go on

632 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions:

to seeds, which are folded off. Two plans may be followed, either to
keep the ewes in close quarters, having a lamb-pen a-head, and shift-
ing often twice a day, or else to let them lie back on the ground they
have already cleared. The first plan is best for the keep in dry
weather, but does not do so well for the ewes which have a better
lodging when allowed more range. Still, by the first plan, land is
evenly fed off and manured. Lambs must never lie back, as the young
shoot of clover and ryegrass is sure to produce scour from its unripe
state. Mangolds cut up in troughs for the ewes at this time will be
very good food. The seeds should be mown, if possible, after being
fed, even should the crop be light. This is more especially desirable
when we have mixed seeds, clover, ryegrass, and hop trefoil. The sheep
do not thrive nearly so well when feeding a second time over. The
clover often disappears to a great extent, especially if it has been fed
very hard. Mowing sweetens the surface, and the next time, if it bere- ~
served for the lambs, the bite is good, and they do well. There is a
difficulty with the seeds on much land. Clover will not grow every
fourth year. Too much ryegrass, especially Italian, is injurious to
the wheat crop, and is not always good food, being inclined to rank-
ness on good soils.

Mr. Riwiey’s System.

The system practised by Mr. J. Ridley, of Damersham, Salisbury,
on his light-land farm situated on the upper chalk, is worthy of notice.
He farms strictly on the four-course shift, and sows broad clover
alone only once in 12 years ; for the other layers he substitutes 16 Ibs.
of hop trefoil and 8 lbs. of white Dutch. The latter are principally,
if not entirely, fed; the very different habit of growth of the two
plants is favourable, as the trefoil affords an early feed, and the white ©
Dutch is just in flower for feeding the second time. I am informed
that his lambs are very superior to any in the neighbourhood. The
cost of such a crop, about 10s. an acre, contrasts favourably with that
of winter vetches, although the latter is an extra crop, which may be
followed by good roots. I should have feared that such a large quan-
tity of white clover would have scoured the lambs. A careful system
of close feeding would be the best thing to prevent this. In our own
case we have found lambs thrive better on vetches than on seeds,
and I have for some years weaned on vetches, leaving the ewes on
seeds, though some would think this objectionable. The customary
. practice is to leave the lambs where they-are, and remove the ewes,
or, as in Wiltshire, leave both, merely separated by a double line of
hurdles. ° .

If by the use of straw, cither pulped or long, we can increase our
winter keep in anything like the proportion I have named, we shall
want both seeds and vetches to carry us along through the spring and
summer,

WEANING AND Drrpina,

Early weaning will be found generally desirable, say in the second
or third week of May. Lambs that drop in February will then do

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 633

best without their mothers. As soon as possible after weaning they
should be carefully dipped. Biggs’s dipping-trough and composition
are both excellent. We should dip twice or thrice during the season ;
the outlay (under 2d. a head) will be well repaid in improved health,
freedom from irritation, and so forth.

Change of food is desirable for lambs; hence vetches and clover
ean be alternately fed; next rape and vetches mixed ; then rape, which

_may be got ready for August ; early turnips and rape in September.

Sainfoin is also very valuable as a change. On regular breeding-
farms, especially when the climate is against winter-feeding, lambs
should be sold in the autumn. They will often make a comparatively
higher price than if kept through the winter and fattened. There
will always be plenty of buyers, because so many farms are unsuited
for breeding.

It is probable also that fatting sheep in yards will be a more
common practice when the profitable character of the system, as com-
pared with feeding cattle, has been more fully demonstrated. Some
time ago, a paper was read at the Central Farmers’ Club by Mr. Ruston,
in which that gentleman stated that 6 lambs tread as much straw into
manure as a beast; that one acre of mangold kept 25 sheep from
December 1st to April 15th; and that he made his mangolds pay
121. 11s. 23d. per acre, and the hay and straw 3s. ahead. Hence we
may look for an increased demand for good stock tegs, such as ought
to be produced by the kind of feeding we have sketched out. With
regard to the proportions of food for say 200 fatting and 100 store
tegs, the summer keep would consist of clover, vetches, and sainfoin ;*
and they should be always folded, and the sheep changed as frequently
as possible. For August we must provide 8 to 10 acres of rape and
vetches. A most excellent mixture is 1 bushel of vetches and 2 lbs.
of rape ; a feed of clover-hay should be given in the morning, and a
feed of rape in the afternoon, when their bellies are full, with a little
hay and + lb. of corn. From September 1st to October 15th, 10 to 12
acres of rape planted at two or three times will be required. From the
middle of October to December Ist, 10 acres of turnip cut for fatting
sheep. From December Ist, swedes: a good crop will last the 300
sheep one week. By Christmas increase the corn to 4 lb., and later
on from }1b.to 1 Ib. Lambs, when first fed on the roots, are sometimes
affected with scour of a peculiar character, and die off very suddenly,
though at first they may appear to be doing remarkably well. In these
cases the roots are generally fleshy and growing. The sheep have
abundance, and were probably poor when put on. The cause of death is
apoplexy, or making blood too fast. The blood becomes thick and
unhealthy, and the animal dies. Corn, given injudiciously, will pro-
duce the same result. If the sheep is supplied with corn undiluted
with chaff early in the morning, when the belly is empty, it will eat
ravenously, and suffer accordingly. Chaff is so valuable a diluter of
corn that some old shepherds, though doubtless with some exaggera-
tion, say that a pint of corn with a pint of chaff is equal to one quart
of corn given alone. Chaff, with roots, if the application could be
economically carried out, would undoubtedly be far better food, espe-

634 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

cially during the depth of winter, than a very large quantity of
roots.

In the very brief sketch which the time allotted enables me to make,
you will observe that I have not touched upon several matters of
interest and importance, such as the value of the different breeds of
sheep—in itself a most comprehensive topic. I will say no more,
however, than to thank you for the attention with which you have
listened to my observations.

Lord Brryers (the Chairman)—I am sure the meeting will be
of opinion that most of the suggestions that we have heard from
the Professor are of the highest value and importance. I can
state that I have for many years carried out what he has recom-
mended with respect to dry food both for cattle and sheep, and
have found that when I reduced the quantity of turnips given to
bullocks and sheep, and supplied them with a certain proportion of
cut straw, they have done a great deal better than they did before.
An ignorant common labourer will often give his bullocks as much
turnips as they will eat, whatever be their condition at the time. One
day, I found in a yard twenty or thirty bullocks tied up and shiver-
ing dreadfully. I asked the man in attendance what was the cause
of this? and he replied, “Oh, yes ; they always be so after eating so
many turnips.” I at once ordered the quantity of turnips to be re-
duced, and gave the animals dry food, and there was no more shiver-
ing afterwards. With regard to cutting hay and straw, I do it entirely
by steam. I pulp the roots at the same time, and experience the
greatest advantage from it.

Mr. Coleman has alluded to the couples depending very much
on condition; this I found to be the case a great many years ago.
When residing in Norfolk, I had about a thousand ewes on the
high lands, and we were short of food; but, happening to have some
coleseed on the land which I had brought into cultivation, I sent the
thousand ewes to feed upon it, and we had not only a greater number
of lambs than before, but the ewes, as the shepherd said, came quickly
into use. My lambs acquire the habit of eating artificial food before
they are weaned, otherwise there is a difficulty in inducing them to
eat it at the time of weaning. Though the quantity given is» but
small, yet it is a means of keeping them in good condition until the
cold weather comes. In my neighbourhood it is not the practice to
give lambs artificial food until cold weather arrives, and I have seen
them at that season half-dead and hardly able to move; but the
instant you give them this stimulating food they die off more rapidly _
than before. I think, then, it is of the greatest consequence to keep
all stock going on with such a supply of food as prevents their being
enfeebled and chilled.

Mr. Coleman’s observations upon the different kinds of straw -
are also very valuable; and here I may mention a fact which
some of the gentlemen now present may remember. Some of you
may recollect how successful Mr. Grantham was at the Smithfield

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. 635

Show thirty years ago with his Southdowns. I visited him on several
occasions before this Society was established, and I found his ewes in
the yard in the winter, supplied with nothing but pea-straw; and he
assured me that they were thus kept healthier than they would be in
any other way. Well, I tried the system, on a small scale it is true,
because I grew very little peas; but it proved to be so beneficial, that
I have almost invariably kept a stack of pea-straw since, and given it
to the ewes when they were lambing. The Professor has also referred
to bean-straw. I had never used bean-straw, from having been in-
formed that it was likely to cause gripes, until two or three years ago,
when there was a great deficiency of fodder. I was told, moreover,
that it was not good for cows, because it would dry up their milk. I
then had the bean-straw cut and steamed, and I certainly never found
my horses, cows, and other cattle do so well on any mixture of straw
and hay as they did on bean-straw so cut and steamed. I lay great
stress upon it being steamed, because it is otherwise so hard. I do
not think that during the short time it remains in the animal’s stomach
much nutriment can be abstracted from it, unless it is half-digested by
steam. I would now beg to offer the Professor the best thanks of the
Society for his excellent lecture.

Mr. Hottanp, M.P., had tried a mixture of chaff and cut hay with
roots, and had found the economy in the consumption of food very
great. He preferred a mixture of chaff and a little corn to corn alone,
believing it as necessary for the digestion of sheep as for that of a
cow that the stomach of the animal should be filled, though not
entirely with highly nutritious food, to promote the mechanical
process of digestion. Rich food, given in excess of the animal’s
requirements, is but a waste of money; since a bulky material of less
value would more effectually promote digestion. At the time of
weaning, his lambs were so managed that they hardly knew when they
were weaned. The ewes and lambs were at that season fed on clover,
or on artificial grasses in two pens partly separated by gates, through
which the lambs could pass. The lambs running through the gate had
the first cropping of that which the ewes would have to eat up, and
were here supplied with the dust of cake, or something else which
they took to kindly. When weaned they had no objection to leave
off their mothers, and resort to the food to which they had thus
by degrees become accustomed.

He should like to know a little more with regard to the use of nets,
by way of saving hurdles. This practice was more or less applicable
according to the breed of sheep kept. But with his own breed nets
were continually giving him trouble; for the animals were caught in
them and sometimes injured; his being in a game country, the nets
were so bitten by hares that the sheep could get their heads in, and
were consequently more liable to accident. On the whole, therefore,
he was inclined to prefer hurdles.

Sir W. Mizzs, M.P., had very great pleasure in joining in the
expression of thanks to the Professor for his admirable lecture, which
gave them not only the theory but the practice that was followed at
Cirencester; it was a history both of breeding and feeding, and

636 Abstract Report of Agricultural Diseussions.

conducted the lamb through every stage, from the period of its birth
till it became a full-grown teg.

Mr. Dent, M.P., observed that, as the Professor’s observations had
treated almost exclusively of sheep in the southern and south-western
counties, he would take the liberty of making a few remarks with
regard to the system of rearing them in Yorkshire. In the north,
they did not get their lambs dropped until the latter part of March or
the beginning of April; therefore the weaning time this year was yet
to come, and it was usually in July and August. Upon nearly all
farms where there was old grass-land it was a rare, and, according to
his experience, not a good thing, to run the ewes in lamb upon turnip-
land. In fact, the winter before last, his ewes had no turnips until
after lambing, ayainst the wishes of his shepherd; yet, when lambing
time came, he was compelled to acknowledge that he had never known
a healthier season. There was great difficulty in managing a flock of
ewes upon strong land. One or two years he had suffered severely
from scour in lambs, when he had been tempted to put them back in
the clover-field. During the two last seasons he had found the best
plan was to place them upon old grass-land, which had not been
stocked with sheep through the previous part of the year. From
thence he put them upon white mustard, either sown by itself or
mixed with rape, a remarkably healthy crop for young lambs, which
would eat the young mustard upon its coming into flower before they
would touch the rape. He thought the system of folding mentioned
by the Professor must be a good one; but it was not carried out that
he was aware of anywhere in the north. Some time ago he read with
much satisfaction a paper by Mr. Bond, of Suffolk, upon the manage-
ment of breeding-flocks of ewes upon strong land.

The practice of folding in summer was not known in Yorkshire.
There, too, a hurdle was scarcely ever seen, and they suffered much
from game. When nets were used, they were bitten in holes by the
hares, and took a good deal of mending. The sheep were, therefore,
left to run over the seed-field. He recollected some endeavour being
made to fold ewes and lambs in meshes: but that year two lambs
got hung in the nets, and he had known a case or two of tegs or full-
grown sheep hanging themselves in the same manner: that, however,
was not frequently the result.

It was important to know what could be substituted for “clover
in the case of a flock of breeding ewes. In the north, great difficulty
was experienced in growing clover once in four or even five or six
years, and he should be glad to see his way to the adoption of some
rotation. The idea of yetches and rape together for feeding off seemed
to be a very good one. In the East Riding it was a common practice
to take a portion of land that ought to be in clover and sow it with _
vetches, to be eaten off early, and followed by rape. As to ewes pro-
ducing pairs of lambs, he might mention an interesting fact. Last
year he wanted some additional sheep, and purchased 45 Leicester
ewes of capital quality and in excellent condition. After he had them ~
he put them with his other ewes upon rape and white turnips, with
the same rams; but out of the whole 45 nearly 30 were barren,

The Breeding and Feeding of Sheep. — 637

and he attributed this to the fact that he did not keep them so well
as they had been kept by their former owner, and that consequently
they had fallen off in condition when put to the ram. In this opinion
he was confirmed by the fact that the great proportion of the remaining
80 or 90 ewes bore double and treble lambs from the same rams.
That appeared to corroborate the view of Professor Coleman, that the
ewes should be in an improving condition when put to the rams,

Mr. P. Frere believed that malt chives given to the ewe flock
would induce them to eat much more straw in mild seasons than they

- would otherwise be inclined to take. His practice was, to give his
lambs some artificial food from the first moment when they could
be coaxed to eat it. When the rapid growth of the lamb compared
with that of other animals, and the speed with which it obtained the
stature of its parent, were observed, it would be seen that it was
particularly adapted to be fed well from the outset. It was his
practice to pen his ewes and lambs in the manner described by Mr.
Holland. When the weaning time was come, he substituted common
hurdles for the lamb-gates. Thus the lamb and its dam were parted,
but not far removed or distressed, and greeted one another night
and morning for a while through the fence. The only objection he
had heard made to such lamb-gates was, that by curving a big lamb’s
back they spoilt its symmetry.

Lord Brerners had himself tried cocoanut matting, but found it
eaten through by the sheep in innumerable holes in the morning.

Mr. Fisner Hosss said that the system which Professor Coleman
had propounded that day so much coincided with his own practice in
the management of a Southdown flock, that he would trouble the
meeting with a very few remarks. This system would be found very
profitable upon the light lands in an open country, since it enabled
the farmer to produce mutton and lamb of early maturity. The
flock might be managed under it in a manner very superior to the
system adopted in the northern and midland counties. Indeed, a
flockmaster might keep from two to four sheep per acre, besides a
certain number of beasts, if his grass-land were good, and thereby
make a better return than in any other way. He should like to know,
however, in what way the washpool was to be used? Of course, it
could only be at a period of the year when the ewes were not ina
state of gestation, and could only be required during the summer
months.

Swedes had been recommended after lambing time. Some years
since a friend of his, Mr. Edwards, of Sutton, Suffolk, who kept a large
flock of sheep, having lost 100 lambs before they came to maturity,
wrote to him for his advice in the matter. The first question he
then put to Mr. Edwards was, “Did you feed your ewes on swedes
before lambing time ?” and this proved to be the case. The use of
rape for lambs in the summer months was very important. Within the
last fortnight he had lost 10 or 12 acres of coleseed entirely through
the drought. The field had grown winter oats and vetches, and sheep
and lambs had been feeding upon it with abundance of oilcake ; it was
well ploughed, but when the seed came up the recent excessive drought
destroyed the whole piece. In his neighbourhood, especially on such

638 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

land as he occupied, they depended much during July and August
upon the early dwarf-rape,—a variety which, he believed, was not
commonly used. He had had his from Dorsetshire, and it had turned
out to be of very great value. He sowed it 18 inches apart, and har-
rowed it frequently, and in eight or ten weeks it made the best and
most fattening food for sheep that he had ever met with at that par-
ticular time of the year. It was unfortunate that in the course of the
last three years, as Mr. Coleman had shown, the supply of sheep in
this country had ‘greatly diminished, whilst the population had gone
on increasing. This pointed out the special necessity for increasing
the breed of sheep.

Mr. Houianp drew attention to the great mortality amongst the
sheep in Lincolnshire, owing to the attempts which had been made to
cure the scab in particular by means of mercurial preparations, which
were generally used as an ointment. This ointment had the effect of
shutting up all the pores of the skin, but not until the mercurial pro-
perties had had an injurious influence upon the health of the animal.
Scores of sheep had died from this cause ; and after death it had been
discovered that where the mercury had entered into the system the
meat was bad for human food. It stood to reason that, if the pores of
the skin were stopped over the whole surface of the animal, those
particles which ought to escape from the body—such as carbonic acid
gas—would be driven into the system and become mixed with blood,
and so the whole system be deranged. Now, this ought to be guarded
against by farmers; and he was glad to hear from the Professor that
the proper dressing ought to be given in a liquid form, and not as au
ointment. Analogous to the filling up the pores of the skin of the
grown-up animal with ointment was, that practice of covering the
jamb which had lost its dam with the skin of another lamb, which
caused many deaths every year. In the same way this practice
stopped up the pores of the skin, and at best produced a diseased and
unhealthy animal.

Professor CoLEmAN stated, in reply, that nets were not used on the
College farm, because the land there was so exceedingly shallow—
the soil being only 3 or 4 inches in depth—that they could not keep
up the nets with stakes. Nets, however, where they could be used,
offered the great advantage of easy removal. Of course, the existence
of game in large quantities would constitute a fatal objection to their
use; but that, he believed, was an exception rather than the Mie.
The size of the mesh might be easily altered, so that the sheep could
not get their heads through the opening. The sheep on the College
farm were principally Cotswold, and they answered exceedingly well.
There was some trouble at first, and care and patience were. necessary ;
for the labourers—and farmers, too, for that matter—were sometimes.
so prejudiced against any alteration, that they would not give a new
food or a new system a fair trial. With regard to the washpool, he
did not think its use need be restricted in all cases to the summer ; on
the contrary, he was. of opinion that ewes, up to the period when they
were half-gone in lamb, might be washed in winter.

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 639

Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, June 24th. The Earl of
Powis in the Chair.

Tur CompaRraTIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT Manvures oN Grass LANDS.

Professor Vorncker (having placed on the table specimens of
grasses collected by himself on the previous day on Messrs. Lawes
and Gilbert’s experimental plots at Rothamsted, to which he frequently
alluded in the course of his lecture), said: My Lord and Gentlemen :
That grass land is capable of improvement as much as arable land, I
think few people will deny; that there is pasture land which is more
difficult to improve than other pasture land, I believe: most people
will admit ; and that, taking a wide view of the pastures of England,
there is much grass land in very bad condition, which is capable of
extensive improvement, I likewise think very few persons will ques-
tion. The question then arises, How is grass land to be improved ?
—by what means, whether mechanical or chemical, can we increase
our herbage, both as regards quality and quantity ?

Before proceeding further, it may, perhaps, be well to look briefly
at the question, What is to be considered bad and what gocd
pasture? ‘To which it will be no sufficient answer to say that good
pasture is land which gives us good herbage and an abundant crop
of hay. Pasture, then, or grass land in general, may be bad for
three reasons. First, the soil may be good enough, but unfortunately
there may be too little of it. Secondly, the physical texture of the
land may be bad; there may be plenty of materials, but the grass
may rest on a stiff, impervious clay soil 3 feet deep, or on a sub-
soil which cannot be readily drained, in which cases the herbage
will never be very abundant, and will often come imperfecily to
maturity. Thirdly, the soil may be bad, because something or other
is defective in the land,—some ingredient wanting which is necessary
to the luxuriant growth and full development of the plants. Ii is
evident that, according to the nature of the defect in the soil, we must
order our plans of improvement. If pasture is bad or indifferent on
account of any mechanical or physical deficiency, it is vain to apply
to it manuring constituents, which, however useful they may be on
land which is porous and well drained, though naturally poor, produce
little or no effect on undrained cold clays. On pasture land, how-
ever, which has been drained and otherwise deprived of its super-
abundant moisture, manuring is, no doubt, one of the most important
means of improvement.

The proper selection of fertilizers for grass land cannot be well
understood, if we disregard the special effect which certain manuring
constituents, such as nitrogen, or mineral matters—phosphatic manures,
alkalies, or lime, produce on the quality as well as the quantity of
the herbage. I do not know of any series of experiments calculated
to bring more forcibly before an observer's view the remarkable
effects which such manures produce on certain grasses than the very
carefully conducted experiments at Rothamsted. These experiments
have been carried on now for a scries of years with an amount

VOL. XXIV. 2T

640 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

of skill, care, and deliberation, involving great expense, which
renders them extremely valuable. I speak strongly on this subject,
because I think the merits of the researches of Messrs. Lawes and
Gilbert have scarcely met with the amount of recognition from the
great body of agriculturists and from scientific men to which they are
entitled. The longer I live, the more deeply am I convinced of the
necessity of carrying out in our fields experimental researches, similar
to those which have been conducted for so many years at Rothamsted.
The grass experiments which have been carried on in the home park
are especially valuable; and I only wish I could take my audience
down to the field, and give them a field lecture there, instead of having
to direct their attention to diagrams and to a few specimens which L
was so fortunate as to secure yesterday evening, and have brought
with me this morning. I hope, however, to be enabled to show the
meeting how a certain description of manure fosters certain species
of plants, and how it likewise increases the total quantity of produce.
The most valuable manuring substances are the following :— First,
nitrogen, either in the shape of ammoniacal salts, or in that of nitrates,
and organic matters capable of producing on decomposition cither
nitrates or ammonia: secondly, the phosphates; and, thirdly, the
alkalies. These are the most important; but we have also to con-
sider the eftects of lime and silica. What, then, are the effects of
ammonia upon grass land? These, in the first place, vary according
to the presence or absence of available minerals,—that is to say, with
the quality of the soil. If there is an abundance of valuable mineral
matter, and if this be present in an available condition—that is to
say, in such a state of combination that it can be taken up by the
roots of the plants—then ammoniacal manures are very valuable indeed,
for they promote a very luxuriant development of the herbage. But
if the mineral constituents—the phosphates, the salts of lime, the
alkalies, and the soluble silica—are deficient, by the application of
ammoniacal manures alone we should deteriorate the quality of the
herbage, and within a very few seasons there would be no very large
impression visible in its quantity. The diagram before you states
that the produce of the unmanured portion of the land at Rotham-
sted has amounted to about 1 ton 6ecwts. The ammoniacal salts
alone have not increased the produce nearly so much as when given in
conjunction with minerals. The produce in the latter case is nearly
treble that in the former. The addition of ammonia even to farmyard
manure produces a striking effect. The latter contains but little
ammonia in comparison with the amount of mineral matter and
carbonaceous matter there present. To dispose at once of the car-
bonaceous substances—organic matters free from nitrogen, and con-
taining chiefly carbon and hydrogen with some oxygen,—I would say _
that in Mr. Lawes’s experiments I have found scarcely any effect from
them either on the quality or the quantity of the produce. In
farmyard-manure it is not so much the carbonaceous element which
tends to increase produce as the nitrogenous and mineral portion.
But the specimens which I have brought here this morning are
better calculated than these remarks to give you an idea of the

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 641

special effects of ammoniacal salts. Here [pointing to specimens|
we have the produce of unmanured land, and here again we have
some of the herbage of the land to which ammoniacal salts have
been applied. You will notice in the latter a difference in the
colour: the grass is a deeper green; it is also somewhat higher, and
there is more of it. There is also this remarkable difference, that
whereas in the unmanured portion we have great variety, a large
mixture of plants, through the application of ammoniacal salts the
herbage becomes more simple. When ammoniacal salts have been
applied in conjunction with mixed minerals, the effect is very striking ;
indeed the quantity of produce is double that derived from ammonia
alone. An extra quantity of ammonia increases the produce to a very
remarkable extent, and it further reduces the number of species of
plants, pushing forward certain grasses to the exclusion of almost every
other. Among the first to disappear are the leguminous plants, espe-
cially if large quantities of ammonia are applied, even though a supply
of mineral matter may be present, and these are among the more
nutritive of our herbs. On the whole acre plot thus treated, which
I saw yesterday, it would, I think, be difficult to find any clover; and
moreover, it is almost amusing to observe how certain grasses take the
place of others. Thus, when a large dose of ammoniacal matter is
used in conjunction with minerals, cocksfoot especially and tufted
hair-grass supersede many other grasses. The specimens placed in
bunches on the table were selected to give a general idea of the con-
ae of the herbage and the height which it attains on the several
plots.

The effects produced by nitrates seem in some degree to differ from
those of ammonia. Nitrate of soda does not so materially affect the
leguminous tribe of plants as do ammoniacal salts. As to mineral
matters, phosphatic and alkaline substances may be fairly taken
together; for those plants which are stimulated by phosphates are
also benefited by alkaline manures, and more especially salts of potash.
The action of mixed mineral manures, composed of phosphate of lime
in a soluble condition and salts of potash, on the whole clover tribe
of plants is very remarkable. Under its influence you can sce clover
not merely here and there, but all over the plot; while the rougher
grasses are less luxuriant. The cocksfoot here appears to be almost a
different plant from that which received an excess of ammonia ; it is
much lower, and not so luxuriant; while the red and white clover
and the wild vetch are seen all over the field. In other words, alka-
lies and phosphates promote a good quality of herbage ; but they have
not as great an effect upon the amount of produce.

Returning now to the subject of the improvement of pastures, let
us suppose that the land has been well draincd, that it is moderately
porous, and that there is a fair depth of soil; but that the produce is
scanty, and the herbage not very good. How are these defects to be
remedied ? can both be dealt with at once? In most cases we ought,
I think, to endeavour to improve to some extent at least the quality of
our herbage, and at the same time try to get not an excessive but a
remunerative amount of produce. If we look too much to quality,

2 ED,

642 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

perhaps the means of effecting improvement may be considered by
practical men too expensive ; on the other hand, if we look entirely
to quantity, the quality of the herbage may be much deteriorated :
and the result will be remuneratiye only to the men who sell hay in
the neighbourhood of large towns, but not to the consuming tenant or
to the landlord.

But, first of all, we ought to ascertain whether a pasture requires
liming or not. As this is frequently the case, and as lime or
marl is a cheap manure, before we go to any great expense we
ought to settle this point. Lime, which has done marvels on some
description of grass land, on others has produced little or no effect.
The geological formation of the rocks of a district is not always a
good guide in deciding the question whether land requires liming or
not. I have met with many cases in which lime has done an immense
amount of good, although the land was situated on the oolite forma-
tion, abounding in limestone rock. In such regions fields are often
to be found in permanent pasture composed of clays of transporta-
tion, which have not arisen from the rocks on which they are placed.
Such soils, though deposited on limestone rocks, may have been.
formed from other rocks deficient in lime. Such may be the case
even though the limestone may crop out upon the surface; and any-
one who was not acquainted with the special character of the land
might say that no lime could be wanted, seeing that it came up to
the surface; yet the actual soil may, notwithstanding these appear-
ances, be very materially benefited by liming.

Fortunately, this is a question which may be readily settled. Let
a little of the soil be put in a small cup or saucer, and be mixed with
spirits of salt (muriatic acid). If it effervesce strongly, an abundance
of lime is present; and in that case the land requires no liming. The
absence of effervescence, however, is not always an indication that the
land is deficient in lime. Soil may be in a condition in which it is
not easily attacked by common spirits of salt. In that case no effer-
vescence would take place, and yet sufficient lime may be present;
but simple analysis will then very readily clear up the doubt. If land
be of a light description, clay marl may be the best dressing; for then
we not only apply lime, but we also add to the land a material which
generally is rich in potash and soda. Marl, moreover, is valuable as
an absorber of fertilisers, whether derived from the atmosphere, or
from the manure applied to the land. To encourage the growth of
_ good herbage, as well as increase the quantity of the produce, a liberal
manuring should be given. Land which is so porous that an excess
of water will not remain on it in wet seasons for any great length
of time, and which in dry weather can by capillary attraction bring
up moisture from below, pays exceedingly well for a judicious outlay ~
on manure. Indeed, all grass land should receive an occasional
application of farmyard-manure ; for this alone can supply alkalies,
more especially potash, in an economical manner. If we look at the
composition of the ashes of our grasses and our hay, taking the mixed
grasses and leguminous plants together, we shall find that those
ashes abound in potash. If we constantly mow down our grasses, we

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 648

thereby remove a very large proportion of the alkalies; and the result
is that the herbage becomes poor, and the produce falls off. It is
difficult to conceive why the farmer is so anxious to apply nearly all
his farmyard-manure to his arable land, and deals it out in such a
niggardly manner to his pasture.

But, in addition to farmyard-manure, there are other fettitiiets
which may be used with very great effect. Guano, judiciously used
—that is to say, used on land like many of the clay soils, which
constitute, perhaps, most of our pasture soils—produces a very ex-
cellent effect upon the produce. Better, perhaps, than guano alone,
or bones alone, is a mixture of the two. Indeed, I should like for
an average description of land the following mixture: partially-
dissolved bones, or bone-dust, dissolved with a sufficient quantity
of sulphuric acid to render a portion of the phosphates soluble.
We obtain partially-dissolved bones by applying to bone-dust one-
third of its weight of sulphuric acid; 4 ewts. of partially-dissolved
bones, 2 ewts. of Peruvian guano, and 1 ewt. of salt, perhaps, will
produce a manure for pasture which, whilst it will materially increase
the produce, will not to any great extent deteriorate the quality
of the grass, as might be the case if we used guano alone in the rate
of 4 ewts. per acre. This mixture contains the chief mineral. con-
stituents required by our grasses and leguminous crops, and adds a
fair amount of ammoniacal matter to give us a good yield. The
addition of salt is of use, particularly on light land, by keeping it in
a moist condition.

An excess of salt ought, however, to be carefully avoided. I re-
member that some years ago Mr. Sotheron-Estcourt tried some expe-
riments on his own farm with nitrate of soda and salt. He used on
one plot a mixture of 14 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 103 ewts. of salt,
that by the addition of the salt he might make the money value of
the mixture equal to that allowed on his other similar experiments.
Here the addition of salt to the nitrate of soda destroyed the peculiar
effect of the nitrate almost entirely, and the increase of produce was
very small indeed. The same mixture when tried on another farm of
Mr. Estcourt’s, on very wet land, had the same effect: it actually
reduced the herbage. Salt in excessive quantity checks vegetation ;
and hence, on wet land, it ought to be used with great judgment.

The effects produced by the application of bone-dust to pastures
are very variable. On the porous land of Cheshire, and similar soils
on the red sandstone formation, the result is very striking. Not only
do bones there bring out white and red~cloyer, but promote an
abundance of the growth of succulent grasses. The clover itself
becomes very luxuriant and thus helps to increase the produce. On
land which is wet and cold, and rests on a poor undrained subsoil,
bones often produce no effect. A great many pastures in the West
of England, in Somerset, and Devon, a considerable portion of the
grass land in Gloucestershire, and, I may add, some of the heavy
land which I have seen in Shropshire, cannot be improved by bones.
Before, therefore, much money is spent on bone manure, I would
recommend that a trial should be made on a small scale.

644 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Let me add, that care should be taken by purchasers of bone-dust
to obtain a genuine article; for bone-dust, particularly of the finer
kind, is frequently mixed with cheap materials. Bone-filings, the
refuse of button-manufacturers and bone-turners, has of late years
become very much deteriorated in quality by the admixture of vege-
table ivory, now very largely used, as well as bone, for the turning of
buttons; the combination is so complete that it is very difficult to
distinguish the bone-filings from the vegetable ivory dust, a sub-
stance which has no more manuring value than common sawdust,
being of the same nature. Boiled bones, the refuse of the glue-
manufacturers, when obtained in a dry condition, are extremely valu-
able. They have then been deprived of all? their fat, and of about
half their nitrogenous matter. It is surprising that they should
still contain one-half the quantity of nitrogen which is to be
found in fresh bones. Therefore glue-makers’ refuse, when dry, is
very useful in improving the pastures of dairy districts like those of
Cheshire.

The next question which we have briefly to consider, is, What are we
to do with cold wet land, on which farmyard manure and artificial
manures make no great impression? Doubtless it is not easy to improve
such pastures. Some of the dairy farmers, when blamed for not im-
proving their pastures, will tell you that they have tried farmyard
manure very largely, and also various artificial manures, but have not
succeeded in getting a return for their outlay of money. It would
seem that on grass-land of this description, which rests on a subsoil,
wet, undrained, and difficult to drain, the manure passes away, some-
how or other, without producing much effgct. In such instances, until
the question of drainage has been solved, the application of manures
would but lead to waste; that, however, is a point for the con-
sideration of the engineer. Let us now suppose the worst case—
that experience has pointed out to us that the land is not grateful
for draining, and therefore cannot be much improved by the addition
of manure, and also that it cannot be broken up. The question of the
desirableness or otherwise of breaking up such land is one far too
wide to be discussed here ; and therefore I will not touch upon it;
there may be good reasons for either alternative. In this, the worst
of all cases, I would recommend, from my own experience, the addition
to the surface of bulky manures. I would scrape together whatever I
could of what is commonly considered valueless material; I would
collect the sweepings of the yard; I would scrape the roads well, and
collect the scrapings: I would employ a man to collect the droppings
of the grazing stock by means of a donkey-cart, and I would keep him
constantly at work in raking up the droppings, mixing them with the
road-scrapings, and adding a little lime to this material, if the land is
deficient in lime. It is astonishing what a quantity of manure may
be collected in this way; and by applying such an earth-compost just
at the growin’g season of the year, when the grasses are making a
start, we can often improve them very materially, if we have the
compost ready. Such compost for grass land ought to be kept for at
least six months, and be turned over once or twice before it is put on —

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 645

the land; when this is done, the air finds free access through the
organic refuse matter, and converts the nitrogenous portion of it into
nitric acid, which is fixed by the earthy matter. We thus obtain
in a compost-heap which has been kept some six or eight months a
considerable portion of nitre; and this has an excellent effect on the
herbage, particularly on plants of the cereal tribe. By such means
we may make the best of the worst description of pasture.

Very briefly recapitulating the main points which I have endea-
voured to bring out in this lecture, I would remind my audience, first,
that ammoniacal manures have a special effect in producing a luxuriant
development of the cereal tribe of plants; and that if the necessary
amount of mineral matter is present, they largely increase the general
produce. We have seen, further, that mixed mineral manures com-
posed of phosphoric and alkaline salts increase the leguminous produce;
that the sole application of ammoniacal salts ought to be avoided ;
and that it is best to have a fair mixture of both mineral and ammo-
niacal matters. Again, we have seen that there are soils which are
very grateful for a liberal expenditure of money, this being the con-
dition of a great deal of the grass land of England at the present time.
Though an indolent farmer may find an excuse in the fact that there
are here and there soils which cannot be improved, nevertheless
pastures may be improved by a judicious outlay on manuring substances
to an extent, and with a profit, of which few people have any idea.
Lastly, we have seen that on the poorest description of grass land,
waste matters, the droppings of cattle, earthy substances, and such
like, may be "conveniently made into a compost manure, which on
such soils will produce a very excellent effect.

Sir Gzorcz Jenkinson asked whether the different samples exhibited
were each pulled up in one handful from one particular spot in the
trial field, or whether the bundles were made up of selected grasses
culled from various parts of the field.

Professor VoricKer replied that the specimens represented as nearly
as possible the general character of the experimental plots.

Mr. Tuomrson said, having had an opportunity of secing the expe-
rimental plots on the previous day, he could corroborate that statement.
The plots consisted of an acre each, and if there was one thing more
striking than another, it was the uniform character of the herbage
over each of the plots. There might be some differences arising from
the movements of the sheep by which the after-crop is always eaten off,
but the exceptions owing to that cause were confined to a very small
proportion of the plots. On the whole, the herbage of the several plots
presented a very distinct outline. When revisiting these plots (which
he had frequently examined before), after an interval of two years he
had been particularly struck with the development of the particular
characters of herbage on the different plots which had been treated in
a particular manner, for a succession of years. It showed how much
they had at their command the growth of the herbage on land which,
at all events, was not what they would naturally call good grass land.

646 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

The crop on other parts of the farm showed that such was the natural
character of the land at Rothamsted. The soil was a strong clay, much
better suited for the growth of wheat and beans than for the pro-
duction of grass ; yet it was clear that they could grow on such land
almost any herbage they pleased. The question was rather one of
money, and of the particular kind of herbage required, than anything
else. Considering the kindness of Mr. Lawes in showing the plots to
any one who visited him, it was strange that a much greater number of
persons did not go to Rothamsted. The land there afforded the
most extraordinary illustration of the effects of manuring that any one
can conceive. Besides the experiments with the grasses, there were
similar ones with wheat and barley, all carried on with such care and
accuracy that they might be thoroughly depended upon. They had,
in fact, been continued so long that each plot had now developed its
own peculiar character. He ventured to say that in a single morning,
farmers, by walking up and down these plots, and making proper
inquiries, might obtain more knowledge of experimental farming, and
of what might be done for the improvement of various kinds of land,
than they would acquire in a lifetime on their own farm or that of a
neighbour.

Sir Grorce JENKINSON inquired under what head Professor
Voelcker would class liquid manure which flowed from a eesspool-
tank. He had lately conducted the sewage of his house by pipes on
to his pasture, and found that wherever it was allowed to run, there
was a marked line of thick, rank, dark-green grass; it was, in fact,
twice or three times as thick as the grass in other parts.

Professor Voricxer said the liquid manure alluded to must be
chiefly ammoniacal manure; but, inasmuch as it contained also mineral
matters, it was a mixed ammoniacal and mineral manure, and that
admixture was, no doubt, the cause of the abundant development of
herbage which had taken place.

Mr. Dent, M.P., wished to ask the Professor one or two practical
questions. First, as regarded soils which required liming—In what
condition is it best to apply lime to the grass? What time of the
year is best for the application of lime, and also of artificial manures
to grass land? When the Professor and those who make scientific
experiments use the expressions mixed manures and ammoniacal
manures, of course they know what is meant by such terms; but

many farmers would like to be informed what they should apply as a
mixed mineral manure. The dressing proposed by the Professor
seems to be a rather more expensive one than many tenant-farmers
would like to apply. Four ewts. of dissolyed bones would probably
cost 7s. per cwt., making 28s.; 2 cwts. of guano would cost 26s.; and

1 ewt. of salt, 1s. That would give a total of 55s. per acre; but -

tenant farmers generally would not bé disposed to expend more than
2/. per acre in manuring their grass lands. He would therefore
venture to suggest as a suitable dressing 3 ewts. of superphosphate,

+ ewt. of sulphate of ammonia, and 3 cwt. of guano, which together q

would come to about 35s. per acre.
Mr. Ler: Did the Professor intend to recommend the application

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 647
of so large a quantity as 7 ewts. of artificial manure per acre for grass
land ?

Professor Vortcker: I have no doubt that on some land that
quantity might be used with advantage.

Mr. Lex suggested that 2 or 3 ewts. of artificial manure would be
enough, and inquired whether Professor Voelcker’s recommendation,
and Mr. Lawes’s experiments went up to 7 ewts.

Sir Joun Jounstone, M.P., said, Mr. Lawes’s experiments went up to
8 ewts. per acre; but where that dressing had been applied, the coarser
feeders amongst the plants, especially the enormous cocksfoot, grew
so strongly that Mr. Lawes expected that within two or three years it
would drive out almost every other grass; in fact, that the plot would
become a bed of cocksfoot. That showed what was the effect of an
excess of ammoniacal manure. The cocksfoot was getting ahead of
everything; if was even driving out another common grass, the
Holcus lanatus, which was a very coarse feeder.

Professor VoELcKer said that autumn was the proper time for the
application of lime to the land. As regarded the mode of applying
it, he liked that of Devonshire best. In that county it was put on the
land in small heaps, and covered over with earth, it thus got spon-
taneously slaked: early in the spring it was spread in lumps over the
land, and the lime washed in by degrees. Soil could be obtained
from the ditches of the road-sides, which would do: it was not neces-
sary to make a regular compost heap where earth was available.
Lime so slaked falls into a fine powder, and could be more easily
distributed on the land, Farmyard manure might be well laid on
about Christmas ; for artificials—the end of January or the beginning
of February would be a good period. As regarded the quantity of
artificials which might be used with advantage, he purposely gave a
liberal application. Knowing that most tenant-farmers were not
inclined to make such outlays, with the view of pushing them a
little further than they were likely to go, he recommended a larger
dose than perhaps he might use himself (laughter). Butthey had only
to divide by two to get very good manure. 2 cwts. of dissolved bones
and 1 ewt. of guano, constitute a very good dressing; and if the dose
should still be found too expensive, it might be divided by three. He
had been more anxious to point out the relative properties of dissolved
bones, guano, and salt, than to fix upon any particular quantity of
manure for grass-land. There was another manure, namely soot,
which when obtained in the neighbourhood of large towns at a mode-
rate price, 6d. to 8d. per bushel, produced very good results on pastures.

Mr. Frere.—What do you call a moderate price ?

Professor VorLCKER.—Sixpence a bushel, if it is pure.

Lord Watsrycuam.—But soot was always adulterated, and could
rarely be had pure.

Professor VortcKEr.—Hyen at 8d. a bushel soot was a cheap
manure ; and it owed its efficacy chiefly to the sulphate of ammonia
which had produced such a marked effect upon the grass lands on
which Mr. Lawes carried on his experiments.

Professor Bucxmann said, In going over Messrs. Lawes and

648 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

Gilbert’s plots on the previous day, he was much struck with the
manner in which the experiments were being carried out, and also
with the scale on which they were conducted. The meadow was
divided into two parts; one part being left in its natural state, and
the other staked off with a view to the experiments. Among the
natural grasses he saw almost every species of grass which was usually
met with, and that too on land not of extraordinary quality. This
was a very striking fact. If a man went from one end of England to
the other, say from Mr. Lawes’s farm to the Land’s End in Cornwall,
he would find that almost every ordinary meadow contained the same
species of grasses. Occasionally one met with grasses of a peculiar
character, but real grasses were nearly always alike. There was this
important fact to be observed with regard to the proportion of the
different species.. In one part of England they would find that one
kind of grass had almost taken possession of the land, other kinds
being barely represented. That fact was interesting in connection
with these experiments; if he took two species of grass, one being,
say, the Festuca pratensis, a very rich grass indeed, and if he examined
a plot and found that grass prevailing, and compared it with land
which was not manured, he would see on the unmanured land that
grass largely represented. So, again, with regard to the Festuca durius-
cula ; in the part which had been so highly manured and which had
the mixture of phosphate with alkalies, he found that the Festuca
duriuscula was not present in such large quantities as the Festuca
pratensis. Where the Festuca pratensis prevailed, there was a distinct
kind of manuring from that which was adopted where the Festuca
duriuscula prevailed. Had he been at all aware that he should be
called upon to speak, he might have entered into the subject more
fully. He must say that he entirely agreed with Professor Voelcker
as to the advantage of visiting the plots, and that what he saw on the
previous day convinced him of the very great advantage of field
lectures on agricultural subjects in comparison with lectures in a
room. One thing which struck him in examining the plots was,
that in the case of impoverished pastures there was a great variety
of species mixed together, not yielding any very large quantity, and
probably the quality not being very good; whereas, as soon as the
land has been dressed with certain manures a sort of war of ex-
termination commenced. Not that the poorer grasses could ever:be
entirely eradicated ; but when good grasses had begun to spring up
in any quantity the poorer species declined. How far chemistry
would account for it he did not know, but it would be easy to make a
list of grasses and give to each its positive status with regard to
nutritive power, and from what he saw the previous day he came to
the conclusion that the use of good mixed manures elmost completely
drives out some species of grass and encourages the growth of others
to avery extraordinary extent. It was an important fact that on
these experimental plots the grasses had actually been mown ey

year. In mowing grasses every year it would be found that almost
all the good and more important species would be, if not driven out
altogether, brought into a state of pauperism; they became so small

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 649

and poor that it would require the piercing eye of an experienced
botanist to. distinguish them; but let the land have been manured
with different manures, and it would be found that, according to the
manure employed, whether it. was a manure that would produce
muscle, or a manure that would produce mineral, or whatever might
be its nature, they would have the grasses which would produce those
different ingredients to the fullest possible extent. This had struck
him in the case of an estate, with respect to which he had recently
been consulted, called Buscot Park, where there were several
thousand acres which were either being converted from areble into
grass lands; or, being grass lands, were being, as far as possible,
improved. On that estate some of the grasses were excessively poor.
The question came before him, whether there would in that case be
any adyantage in taking off the turf, digging the land underneath, and
returning the turf again. Another question which he had to consider,
and it was an important practical point, was whether, when the turf
was bad, showing a preponderance of poor material, it would be the
quickest method of making good grasses to plough up the land alto-
gether, and resow it with grasses. To these questions he was obliged
to give this answer : that digging the soil and returning the turf would
perhaps cause some little appearance of freshness for the first year,
but that it would do a great deal of injury to the turf. For with all
the appliances of manure, there was one thing which ought to be
particularly attended to in relation to the improvement of grasses, and
that was mechanical action. Without sufficient mechanical pressure,
grass would grow up very much in the form of jungle. There should,
therefore, be an endeavour to make the different parts of the soil
adhere as closely as wool in making a piece of cloth. Then, with
regard to the operation of merely digging the land, he could only
reassert what he thought had, been clearly proved by Dr. Voelcker,
that that would add nothing to the staple of the soil. Something was
of course wanted where the grasses were poor, but the process of
ploughing would add nothing to the quality of the soil, while on the
other hand the compact nature of the turf would be destroyed.
Moreover, while the land lay fallow a great deal of mechanical
pressure would be necessary to get it into a state of improvement.
With regard to the second point, he saw quite sufficient in the expe-
rimental plots on the previous day to throw great light upon it. The
application of certain manures appeared to have turned the grasses
topsy-turvy ; that was to say, taking the same space for a comparison,
there was 50 per cent. in parts of the field which were not manured at
all; that in other parts of the same extent there was 70 or 80 per cent.,
with only one or two years’ manuring. In that way it had been
proved that inasmuch as in almost all turf, however poor it might be,
some of the better grasses were represented along with the poorer,
whenever they began trying to ameliorate those grasses they would |
see evidence that an amelioration was taking place, in the circumstance
that the poorer grasses were gradually dying out, and that in dying
out they not only afforded spaces for the better grasses to grow but
their substance afforded a manure on which the better grasses throve.

650 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

These experiments of Mr. Lawes’s appeared therefore, to him fully
to bear out the fact that in order to ameliorate poor grasses and place
the richer grasses in a majority, the best and cheapest course was to
apply to the land different kinds of manure.

He left it to the chemist to say what kinds of manure were re-
quired in each particular case; but he would assume it to be a posi-
tive fact that, aided by a combination of chemical with botanical
knowledge, they would be enabled within a very short time to predi-
cate from the appearance of pastures not only in what grass lands
were deficient, but also what kinds of substances were required in
order to remedy that deficiency. He had some floating notions in his
mind that such would be the case before the preceding day, but what
he then saw had completely convinced him. Perhaps the whole ot
the land unmanured would yield a ton per acre; but on some of
manured plots, and: they were placed side by side, so that there
was no difficulty in judging, the produce was as much as three tons
per acre. The change which had taken place as the result of the
manuring, both in the quantity and the quality of the herbage, was
enormous during his visit.

The question arose in his mind whether such an enormous amount
of produce could be got for the hay-rick, the feeding qualities of the
grass being undoubted. From what he saw of the plots which were
so highly manured, he concluded that they afforded what he should call
an exceedingly strong hay; hay which had, to use an expression.
common to ‘farmers, a very great amount of proof in it—hay which,
while it would support growing stock and assist them to grow, would
add rapidly to the muscle, and so forth. Heshould state, however, that
there appeared to be an absence in these grasses of what would be
termed fattening materials. It was possible, he thought, so to manage
manures as to make a great change, not only in the species and quality
of grasses, but also in the quantity of the produce. So also they might
be enabled to decide the question whether it were well to employ
grass land always for grazing or always for making hay. Probably Pro-
fessor Voelcker would some day be enabled to show that the plan
which would yield the greatest amount of produce was sometimes to
take hay, but not to take it so constantly as had been done in the
experimental meadow. He could almost wish that for the purpose of
the experiments part of the meadow had been mown, and the, rest.
depastured occasionally, in order that they might see what change
would take place through the depasturing, and what difference of
quality resulted from a mixed course of hay and pasture.

Mr. Wren Hosryns said, That with regard to grass it should be
always borne in mind that it was a crop which was perpetually
growing in the same soil; that there was only one layer of earth
below it; and that that had to furnish every year, either for the
scythe or for the pasturing of cattle, a crop which never received any
change like that which arable crops received from the use of the
plough, the inversion of the soil, or the addition of fresh soil from
below. Consequently, in applying manure to grass land, he had
always derived the greatest benefit from mixing manure with a large

Comparative Effects of different Manures on Grass Lands. 651

quantity of soil from road ditches, and every quarter whence it could
be collected. However inferior this might be in quality, it contained
an enormous amount of that mineral element which was continually
going away from the soil. The quantity of waste soil which grass
would grow through, if such soil were applied in the winter, was very
great; hence a dressing might be given which in a few years would
almost give the grass an additional bed to that in which it originally
grew. If something of that kind were not done, and manure was con-
stantly being applied in a stimulative or ammoniactl form, they were
to a certain extent increasing an evil which was always in operation.
He observed that Professor Voelcker supported that view in speaking
of the effect of ammoniacal manures in certain cases on the character
of the soil. This point was well worthy of attention.

Mr. Tompson, in looking at the experimental plots at Rotham-
sted the previous day, particularly noticed that although this was
only the seventh year in which the grass experiments had been made,
the plot which had been manured with ammoniacal dressings without
mineral manures had clearly failed; whereas on land which had been
cultivated every year with wheat, the application of ammonia without
mineral manures had produced a good crop, even after twenty years.
That showed what a great difference there was between the manage-
ment of grass land and the management of arable land.

As Mr. Dent had inquired as to the best mode of applying lime to
grass land, he might mention the practice in that respect which
was followed in Yorkshire, where lime was the principal manure.
The part of the country to which he especially alluded was the district
of Craven. It was well known that, although on the mineral carboni-
ferous limestone the grass grew in such quantities that they could
fatten large beasts upon it, and was sufficient to keep milch cows
and fatten beasts and oxen in winter, merely on account of the
quality of the hay, yet hardly any manure was used there except lime.
The general practice was to put on the land a large dressing of lime-
stone, in a hot state, just as it came from the kiln, and to spread it so
thickly as to make the surface appear quite white. This practice was
found to answer very well, though the district was a lime one, and in
many places the soil was not much above the limestone itself.

Mr. Drenr.-—When is the lime put on the land ?

Mr. Txomrson said it was applied at all periods; sometimes after
mowing, in which case the after grass was given up on account of the
application of lime. With regard to the quantity and value of the
manure to be applied tg grass land, Mr. Dent had objected to Pro-
fessor Voelcker’s estimate as being too high, or beyond the means of
tenant farmers generally ; and the Professor, in noticing that objection,
said, the quantities which he had mentioned might be divided by two,
oreven three. Now he (Mr. Thompson) must protest against the last-
mentioned process of division. A rather large experience in experi-
mental manuring had convinced him that if they wanted to improve
grass land it would not do to trifle with the matter, and that the
outlay of money on a very small application would probably be thrown
away. If they wished to improve their grass land, they had better by

652 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions.

far manure a small quantity of it one year well, and another small
quantity the next, than spread the manure in limited quantities over
the whole surface at one application; imasmuch as a very light
dressing was almost sure to be lost, whilst one heavy dressing pro-
duced a change in the quality of the grass which would be visible for
ears.

4 Mr. Frere thought that when lime was under consideration, it
might be well to examine into the different qualities of lime derived
from various sources.

Mr. Wren Hosxyns wished to add one word with regard to the time
for applying farmyard manure. The practice which prevailed among
farmers in this country was to apply it just at the time when the young
grass was shooting. Although the Professor recommended its applica-
tion in the rainy month of February, yet, if the ammonia was to act
on the leaf of the growing plant, that did not appear to be the best
period; and he should be inclined to say that the best period for the
application of farmyard manure was during the months of July and
August, when the young grass was growing after the mowing; and
that was, he thought, almost the universal practice.

The Chairman said, After the discussion which had taken place,
nothing now remained for them to do but to thank Professor Voelcker
for the lecture which he had been good enough to give them that
day.

SELECT CLASSIFIED LIST OF AGRICULTURAL

PATENTS FOR THE YEAR 1862.

[Compiled from the Commissioners of Patents’ Journal.]

Ty this list such patents as originated in the year 1861, and were noticed in
Vol. XXIII. of this Journal, are distinguished by having an asterisk (*) pre-

fixed.
of the

The fisures at the commencement of each item indicate the number
patent on the official register.

The patents under each head are arranged alphabetically according to the
name of the Inventor.

i

*2155

1799

3377

IMPLEMENTS USED IN THE VARIOUS PROCESSES OF
CULTIVATION,

PLovucus.

. John Carter, of Tipton, Staffordshire, An invention of a new or

improved draining Plough. Application dated 10th January; pro-
visional protection, 31st January ; notice, 29th April; patent sealed
27th June, 1862.

. William Clark, of 53, Chancery Lane, patent agent, Improvements in

Ploughs. Application dated 25th June; provisional protection, 4th
July; notice, 21st October; patent sealed 16th December, 1862.

. William Goulding, of Leicester, Jmprovements in Ploughs. Application

dated 11th December; provisional protection, 26th December, 1862.

. Thomas Harrison, of Barmingham, Yorkshire, foreman on the Glebe

Farm, and J. G. Harrison, Kirby Ravensworth, blacksmith, Jmprove-
ments in Ploughs. Application dated 14th January ; provisional pro-
tection, 14th February ; notice, 27th May ; patent sealed 11th July,
1862. fi

. J. H. Hastings and James Freezer, of Holkham, and John Woods, junr.,
of Wells, Norfolk, Improvementsin Ploughs. Application dated 18th
February ; provisional protection, 7th March; notice, 11th March ;
specification published 27th September, 1862.

76. Leonard Latter, of Leigh, near Tunbridge, Kent, farmer, Improvements

én Ploughs. Application dated 17th December.

. Lemuel Dow Owen, of 481, New Oxford-street, Improvements in Ploughs.
(A communication from the United States.) Application dated 30th
August; provisional protection, 18th October, 1861; notice, 7th
January, 1862.

. Joseph Warren, of Maldon, Essex, implement manufacturer, Jmprove-
ments in Ploughs. Application dated 18th June; _ provisional
protection, 18th July; notice, 21st October; patent sealed, 16th
December, 1862.

- Robert Wheeler, of High Wycomb, Bucks, brewer, Improvements in
Ploughs. Application dated 17th December ; provisional protection,
26th December.

654 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

Curtivators, Diacers, &c.

2699. Thomas Beards, of Stowe, Buckinghamshire, Improvements in machi-
nery for cultivating land. Application dated 6th October ; provi-
sional protection, 17th October, 1862.

707. G. T. Bousfield, of Loughborough Park, Surrey, Jmprovements in
machinery for digging und disintegrating the earth for agricultural
purposes, (A communication from Elias Howe, jun., of New York,
U.S.) Application dated 14th March ; provisional protection, 4th
April; notice, 15th July; patent sealed 12th September, 1862.

2501. R. A. Brooman, of 166, Fleet-street, patent agent, Improvements in
implements for cultivating the soil. (A French communication).
Application dated 11th September; provisional protection, 8rd
October, 1862.

*3019. John Cooper, of Ipswich, and Charles Garrood, of Penge, Surrey, Jin-
provements in cultivators, horse-hoes, horse-rakes, and harrows. Ap-
plication dated 30th of November, 1861; provisional protection, 17th
June, 1861; patent sealed 27th May, 1862.

8201. James Crompton, of Bolton, Lancashire, machinist, Jmprovements in.
machinery or apparatus for ploughing, harrowing, clearing, and
drilling land. Application dated 29th November ; provisional pro-
tection, 19th December, 1862.

1634. William Eddington, junr., of Chelmsford, engineer, Improvements in
apparatus for draining and tilling land. Application dated 80th
May ; provisional protection, 13th June; notice, 7th October; patent
sealed 25th November, 1862.

“2078. Nicholas Fisher, of Milton, near Blisworth, Northamptonshire, Jmprove-
ments in implements for grubbing and cultivating land. Application
dated 20th August; provisional protection, 18th September; notice,
22nd October, 1861; patent sealed 4th February, 1862.

434. William Frith, of Burley, Leeds, merchant, Improvements in machi-
nery for digging or turning up the soil. Application dated 18th
February ; provisional protection, 28th February; notice, 24th
June; patent sealed 15th August, 1862.

612. John Fowler, junr., D. Greig, and R. Noddings, of Leeds, Jmprove-
ments in apparatus for cultivating or tilling land. Application dated
7th March ; provisional protection, 21st March ; notice, 22nd July ;°
patent sealed 5th September, 1862.!

1802, James W. Gill, of Woolfardisworthy, Crediton, Devonshire, Improved
apparatus for turning up and pulverising the soil. Application dated
2nd May; provisional protection, 16th May, 1862.

1578. J. E. Holmes, of New York City, U. S., mechanical engineer, Jm-
provements in machinery for digging or cultivating land, (A cov-
munication from G. Ramsay, of New York). Application dated
26th May ; provisional protection, 13th June, 1862.

1577. J. E. Holmes, of New York City, U. 5., mechanical engineer, Jmprove-~
ments in machinery for digging or cultivating land. Application
dated 26th May ; provisional protection, 20th June, 1862.

1744. J. E. Holmes, of South Parade, Trafalgar-square, Chelsea,’ engineer, -
Improvements in machinery for cultivating or harrowing land. (A
communication from the United States of America). Application
dated 11th June; provisional protection, 20th June, 1862,

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 6595

1784. J. E. Holmes, of South Parade, Trafalgar-square, Chelsea, engineer,
Improvements in machinery for digging or cultivating land. (A
communication from the United States of America). Application
dated 17th June; provisional protection, 27th June, 1862.

8216. John Irwin, Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, An improved
machine for cultivating land, Application dated 1st December ;
provisional protection, 12th December, 1862.

*2487, John Lansley, of Brown Candover, Hants, Improvements in the con-

; struction of ploughs, drills, scarifiers, and such like implements; the
said improvements relating to the mode of guiding or steering the
same. Application dated 5th October; provisional protection, 8th
November, 1861; patent sealed 28th March, 1862.

3090. Charles Littleboy, of Straffan, county Kildare, land steward, Improve-
“ments in implements for cultivating land. Application dated, 17th
November ; provisional protection, 5th December, 1862.

875. Israel Morris, of Essington, near Wolverhampton, An improved
machine for breaking up or cultivating land. Application dated
29th March ; provisional protection, 18th April; notice, 5th August ;
patent sealed, 19th September.

2354. Charles Perman, of Salisbury, Wilts, Zmprovements in machinery or
apparatus for cultivating land. Application dated 20th September ;
provisional protection, 18th October; notice, 22nd October, 1861;
patent sealed 11th February, 1862.

2639. Michael Puddefoot, of Greenwich, hat manufacturer, Improvements in
apparatus for tilling land. Application dated 29th September 3.
provisional protection, 10th October, 1862.

565. Samuel Godfrey Reynolds, of Bristol, United States of America,
Improvements in power spading machines. Application dated Ist .
March; provisional protection, 14th March; notice, 10th June;
patent sealed 5th August, 1862.

201. Frederick Roberts, of Maiden Newton, Dorset, and Alexander Roberts, , ~
of Frome Vauchurch, Dorset, Improvements in apparatus for
ploughing or cultivating land. Application dated 25th January :..
provisional protection, 7th February ; notice, 3rd June, 1862.

APPARATUS FOR STEAM CULTIVATION.

191, John Alison, of Brightland, Reigate, Surrey, Improvements in apparatus”
Jor tilling land by steam power. Application dated 24th January ;
provisional protection, 7th February ; notice, 18th February ; patent
sealed 4th April, 1862.

1369. G. T. Bousfield, of Loughborough Park, Brixton, Improvements in
applying steam power to tilling land by means of « digging locomotive.
(A communication from Elias Howe, jun., of New York, U.S.) Ap-
plication dated 7th May ; provisional protection, 30th May ; notice,

: 9th September; patent sealed 31st October, 1862.

1221. William Fisken, of Stamfordham, Northumberland, presbyterian
minister, Improvements in apparatus for cultivating land by steam
power. Application dated 25th April; provisional protection, 16th

; May ; notice, 26th August ; patent sealed 24th October, 1862.

1879, John Fowler, of Leeds, aid John King, of Chadshunt, Warwickshire,

farmer, Jinprovements in apparatus for tilling land by steam power.
VOL. XXIV, 2U

656 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

Application dated 8th May ; provisional protection, 30th May ; notice,
3rd June; patent sealed 29th August, 1862.

1818. John Fowler, of Leeds, Improvements in engines for hauling agricul-
tural implements. Application dated 3rd May; provisional protec-
tion, 16th May ; notice, 9th September; patent seri 24th October,
1862,

416. John Green, of Newtown, St. Martin, Worcestershire, Improvements
in apparatus for signalling applicable to steam ploughs or cultivators.
Application dated 15th February; provisional protection, 28th Feb-
ruary, 1862.

2030. John Green, of Newtown, St. Martin, Worcestershire, agriculturist,
Improvements in the method and means of producing signals, and in
the application of the same, particularly to steam ploughs or culti-
vators, Application dated 15th July ; provisional protection, 25th
July; notice, 26th November, 1862.

658. Collinson Hall, of Navestock, Essex, agriculturist, Improvements in
implements for breaking up the soil, and in ropes and drums to be
employed in the cultivation of the soil, by steam. Application dated
11th March; provisional protection, 31st March ; notice, 22nd July ;
patent sealed 5th September, 1862.

15. James Howard and E. T. Bousfield, of Bedford, Improvements in
apparatus applicable to steam cultivation. Application dated 1st
January ; provisional protection, 21st January ; notice, 4th February ;
patent sealed 14th March, 1862.

1052. James Howard. E. T. Bousfield, and Thomas Phillips, of Bedford,
Improvements in apparatus applicable to steam cultivation. Appli-
cation dated 11th April; provisional protection, 9th May; notice, 5th
August; patent sealed 10th October, 1862.

2920. Jeremiah Head, of Swindon, Wilts, engineer, Improvements in ma-
chinery employed in cultivating the land by steam power, Application
dated 29th October ; provisional protection, 7th November, 1862.

*2169. William Hensman, of Woburn, Beds, and William Hensman, jun., of
Linslade, Bucks, Improvements in apparatus for tilling land by steam.
Application dated 31st August ; provisional protection, 18th October ;
notice, 22nd October, 1861 ; patent sealed 14th February, 1862.

598, William Hensman, of Woburn, Beds, and William Hensman, jun., of
Linslade, Bucks, agricultural engineers, Jmprovements in apparatus
for tilling land by steam power. Application dated 5th March ;
provisional protection, 21st March; notice, 25th March; patent
sealed 13th May, 1862.

2082. Alexander Leslie, of Turriff, Aberdeenshire, farmer, Improvements in
apparatus for applying steam or other motive power to cultivate the
soil and to actuate wheeled carriages. Application dated 15th July ;
provisional protection, 25th July; notice, 18th November, 1862.

129. Robert Romaine, of Devizes, Wilts, agricultural engineer, Jmprove--
ments in apparatus to be used in cultivating g land by steam power, and
in steam boilers used for agricultural and traction purposes. Appli-
cation dated 17th January ; provisional protection, 7th Febiuary 5
patent sealed 20th June, is62.

8456. William Henry Samson, of Underhill, Wittersham, Kent, Improve-
ments in machinery for cult ivating land by steam power, Application
dated 27th December, 1862.

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 657

*1821. William Savory and Paul Haines Savory, both of Gloucester, An ém-
proved winding apparatus particularly adapted for steam ploughing,
winding at pits, quarries, and other like purposes. Application
dated 19th July ; patent sealed 17th January, 1862.

*2264. William Stevens, of Hammersmith, Improvements in mechanism or
apparatus for ploughing and cultivating land by steam and other
power, . Application dated 12th September; provisional protection,
27th September, 1861; notice, 4th February, 1862; patent sealed
11th March.

2614. Frederick Tolhausen, of Paris, patent agent, An improved steam culti-
vator. (A communication from the Marquis Emmanuel de Poucins).
Application dated 25th September ; provisional protection, 17th Oc-
tober, 1862.

*2758. A. F. Yarrow, of Arundel-square, Barnsbury, and J. B. Hilditch, of

Barnsbury Villas, both in Middlesex, Improvements in machinery

, used when ploughing, tilling, or cultivating land by steam-power.

Application dated. 2nd November; provisional protection, 15th
November, 1861; patent sealed 29th April, 1862.

384. Thomas Davison, of Belfast, engineer, Improved means of preventing
the corroding of steam boilers. Application dated 13th February ;
patent sealed 5th August, 1862.

*2961. Alfred Vincent Newton, patent agent, Chancery-lane, 4n improved
method of removing and preventing the formation of calcareous and
saline deposits in steam-boilers, (A communication by Lewis Baird,
of Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.) Application dated 25th Novem-
ber; provisional protection; 18th December, 1861 ; patent sealed 14th
February, 1862.

876. C. H. Townsend, J. Young, and J. Hankins, of Bristol, An ¢mproved
method of removing and preventing incrustation in steam-boilers.
Application dated 29th March; patent sealed 12th September, 1862.

$14. John Tofsham, of Manchester, mechanist, Improvements in apparatus
used for cleansing out the scum and removing the sediment from the
water in steam-boilers, and preventing incrustation therein. Appli-
cation dated 24th March; provisional protection, 18th April ; notice,
5th August; patent sealed 19th September, 1862.

*2948, William Bray, of Deptford, engineer, An improved locomotive apparatus
particularly adapted to agricultural purposes. Application dated
23rd November ; provisional protection, 6th December, 1861 ; patent
sealed 20th May, 1862.

1705. Ephraim Death, of Leicester, engineer, Improvements in road locoro-
tives or traction engines. Application dated 6th June; provisional
protection, 27th June, 1862.

1638. J. H. Holland, of Lorrimore Road, Surrey, An iniprovement in traction
engines. Application dated 31st May ; provisional protection, 13th
June, 1862,

*2321. Joseph Lee and B.D, Taplin, of Lincoln, Jmprovements in traction=
engines. Application dated 17th September ; provisional protection,
27th September, 18615; patent sealed 14th March, 1862.

2u2

658

307.

1514.

3045.

1731.

1355.

1681.

1211.

#2411,

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

Jesse Lee, of Church Gate, Leicester, engineer, Improvements iz
traction engines. Application dated 5th February; provisional
protection, 14th February, 1862.

Jesse Lee, of Leicester, engineer, Improvements in the construction of
traction engines. Application dated 19th May ; provisional protec-
tion, 30th May, 1862.

Abraham Pullan, of New Cross, Surrey, and William Lake, of the same
place, Improvements in traction and other engines, and in wheels for
ditto and other carriages, and in giving motion to ploughs. Applica-
tion dated 4th December; provisional protection, 27th December,
1861; notice, 8th April, 1862.

Harrows.

John Alison, of Brightlands, Reigate, Surrey, Improvements in harrows
and in the apparatus for the steering or guiding of such and other
agricultural implements. Application dated 10th June; provisional
protection, 27th June; notice, 8th July; patent sealed 3rd October,
1862.

. Mark Amos, of Westbury-on-Trym, Gloucestershire, Improvements in

harrows. Application dated 8rd Avril; provisional protection, 25th
April, 1862.

. George W. Belding, of No. 7, King-street, Cheapside, London, Jm-

provements in harrows and cultivators. (Acommunication.) Appli-
cation dated 24th April; provisional protection, 2nd May ; notice,
2nd September, 1862.

J. E. Ransome, W. Copping, and L. Lansdale, all of Ipswich, Improve-
ments in harrows. Application dated 6th May; provisional pro-
tection, 30th May; notice, 16th September; patent sealed 31st
October, 1862.

. Bernard Samuelson, of Banbury, agricultural engineer, Jmprovements

in chain harrows. Application dated 20th March ; provisional pro-
tection, 11th April; notice, 17th June; patent sealed 12th Septem-
ber, 1862.

. Benjamin Sharpe, of Hanwell Park, Middlesex, Improvements in har-

rows and‘rakes. Application dated 8th April; provisional protection,
18th April; notice, 12th August; patent sealed 3rd October, 1862,

. John Summerton, of Smethwick, Staffordshire, machinist, Jmprove-

ments in harrows for harrowing land. Application dated 17th
October ; provisional protection, 19th December, 1862. Sey

Horse Rakes, &c,

Thomas Allcock, of Ratcliffe-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, machinist,
Improvements in the construction of horse-rakes. Application dated
4th June; provisional protection, 27th June; notice, 14th October ;_
patent sealed 2nd December, 1862.

Peter Robert Drummond, of Perth, An invention of a revolving rake.
Application dated 25th April; provisional protection, 30th May ;
notice, 9th September ; patent sealed 24th October, 1862. — :

Thomas Rowsell, of Buckland St. Mary, Somersetshire, carpenter,

Improvements in horse-rakes. Application dated 27th September,
1861; patent sealed 4th March, 1862.

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 659

“1767, Thomas Smith and George Taylor, of Ipswich, Improvements in horse-
i, rakes and cultivators, and in wheels for the same and other carriages.
Application dated 13th July; provisional protection, 2nd August;

notice, 12th November, 1861; patent sealed 11th January, 1862.

2888. William J. Williams, of No. 51, Dorset-street, Salisbury-square, Mid-
dlesex, Improvements in construction of field-rakes for agricultwrat
purposes. (An American communication.) Application dated 27th
October ; provisional protection, 14th November, 1862.

457. Charles Wood, of Bramford, Suffolk, engineer, Improvements in horse-
rakes, Application dated 20th February ; provisional protection, 14th
March ; notice, 24th June; patent sealed 15th August, 1862.

2646, Joseph Bucknall, of Boston, mechanic, Improvements in the construction
of horse-hoes. Application dated 29th September ; provisional pro-
tection, 10th October, 1862.

*2802. Thomas Churchman Darby, of Little Waltham, Essex, farmer, Inven-
tion of hoeing growing crops and ploughing. Application dated 8th
November ; patent sealed 18th March, 1862,

1747. Isaac Spight, of Glandford Briggs, Lincolnshire, agricultural implement
maker, Jmprovements in horse-hoes. Application dated 12th June;
provisional protection, 11th July; notice, 14th October, 1862.

3318. Isaac Spight, of Glandford Briggs, Lincolnshire, agricultural machine
maker, Jmprovements in horse-hoes, Application dated 11th Decem-
ber, 1862. t

RoLLeRs AND CLop CRUSHERS.

736, William Barford (Amies and Barford), of Peterborough, agricultural
implement makers, Jmprovements in rollers for rolling land. Appli-
cation dated 17th March ; provisional protection, ee March ; patent
sealed 8th July, 1862.

1174. Robert Boby, of Bury St. Edmunds, agricultural eaieuces maker,
Improvements in the construction of apparatus for rolling or crushing
land. Application dated 22nd April; provisional protection, 2nd
May ; notice, 26th August; patent sealed 10th October, 1862.

2364. J. and B. Harrison, of Otley, Yorkshire, farmers, Improvements in clod
crushers. Application dated 26th August; provisional protection,
19th September, 1862.

1205. T. W. Ashby, of Stamford, agricultural implement maker, Improved
apparatus for obtaining motive power from the wind. (A communi-
cation from Russia.) Application dated 24th April; provisional
protection, 20th June, 1862.

920. John Platt, of Oldham, and William Richardson, of the same place,
engineers, Improvements in machinery or apparatus used for apply-
ing motive power derived from bullocks, horses, or other animals.
Application dated 1st April; provisional protection, 11th April; notice,
12th August ; patent sealed 25th September, 1862.

2259. James Langran, of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, millwright, Jmprove-
ments in apparatus for driving agricultural machinery. Application
dated 12th August; provisional protection, 29th August, 1862.

925. Samuel Warren, of Ledbury, Herefordshire, agricultural engineer, Jm-
provements in machinery for transmitting motion obtained by animal
power to agricultural and other machines. Application dated 2nd

660 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

April; provisional protection, 18th April; notice, 5th August; patent
sealed 25th September, 1862,

il. HARVESTING MACHINES, &c.

Mowine anp Reapine MacuHINEs,

*1898. Wiiliam Henry Ash, of London, Canada West, Improvements in reaping
and mowing machines. ‘Application dated 80th July; provisional
protection, 9th ‘August ; _ notice, 13th August, 1861; patent sealed
24th January, 1862.

311. Adam C. Bamlett, of Middleton Tyas, near Richmond, Yorkshire, farmer,
Improvements in reaping and mowing machines. Application dated
6th February ; provisional protection, 11th April; notice, 15th April ;
patent sealed 29th July, 1862.

*2957, William Burgess, of Newgate-street, City of London, Improvements in
reaping and mowing machines. Application dated 25th November;
provisional protection, 138th December, 1861; patent sealed 20th
May, 1862.

2896. R. A. Brooman, of 166, Fleet-street, London, patent agent, Jmprove-
ments in reaping machines. Application dated 18th November, 1861 ;
notice, 4th March, 1862.

496. R. A. Brooman, of 166, Fleet-street, London, patent agent, Jmprove-
ments in reaping and mowing machines. (.A communication.) Ap-
plication dated 24th February ; provisional protection, 14th March;
notice, 24th June, 1862.

1073. Archibald Brooman, of 166, Fleet-street, London, patent agent; Jm-
provements in reaping and mowing machines. (A communication
From France.) Application dated 14th April; provisional protection,
25th April, 1862.

160. William Burgess (Burgess and Key), Newgate-street, agricultural
implement maker, Jmprovements im reaping and mowing machines.
Application dated 21st January ; provisional protection, 81st January ;
notice, 27th May ; patent sealed 18th July, 1862.

2312. George Chapman, of Edinburgh, gentleman, Jmprovements in reaping
machines. Application cated 1&th August; provisional protection,
5th September, 1862,

1258. D. M. Childs, of No. 481, New Oxford-street, Jmprovements in
reaping and mowing * machines. (A communication from the
United States of America.) Application dated 29th April; pro-
visional protection, 13th June; notice, Ith September; patent sealed
24th October, 1862.

1136, Robert Dennison, of Lancaster, Jmprovements in reaping and mowing
machines. Application dated 19th April; provisional protection, -
2nd May ; notice, 26th August ; patent sealed 17th October, 1862.

*2060, William Firth, of Leeds, Improvements in machinery for digging or
turning wp sotl, mowing, reaping, and other agricultural purposes. »
Application dated 19th August ; provisional protection, 80th August ;

‘ notice, 24th December, 1861 ; patent sealed 14th February, 1862,

*2884, Matthew Gibson, of St. Andrew’s Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Jmprove-
ments in reaping and mowing machines. Application dated 16th

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 661

November; provisional protection, 29th November, 1861; patent
sealed 29th April, 1862.

1845. George Haseltine, of 100, Fleet-street, London, patent agents, Jm-
provements in machinery for mowing and reaping, the driving gear
employed being applicable to machines for other purposes. (A com-
munication from the United States of America.) Application dated
23rd June ; protection on complete specification, 27th June ; notice,
1st July ; patent sealed 5th September, 1862.

718. James Hunter and Robert Scott, of Coltness Tron-works, Cambusnethan,
Improvements in reaping machines, _ Application dated 15th March ;
provisional protection, 11th April; notice, 22nd July ; patent sealed
5th September, 1862.

1878. James Martin, of Perigueux, France, engineer, Improvements in reaping
and mowing machines. Application dated 26th June; provisional
protection, 19th September; notice, 4th November, 1862.

2521. William Harkes, of Lorlock Gralam, Cheshire, agricultural implement
maker, Improvements in machinery for mowing and reaping. Ap-
plication dated 13th September ; provisional protection, 3rd October,
1862.

1782. J. B. Ingle, of 87, King William-street, London, gentleman, Jmprove-
ments in reaping and mowing machines. (A communication from
America.) Application dated 10th June; provisional protection,,
27th June; notice, 21st October ; patent sealed 28th November, 1862..

2589. William McIntyre Cranston, of 58, King William-street, City of London,.
Improvements in machinery for reaping and mowing corn and other
crops. Application dated 22nd September; provisional protection,
10th October, 1862.

*2576, Alfred Vincent Newton, patent agent, Chancery-lane, Improvements in
construction of grain and grass harvesters. (A communication from
U.S. America.) Application dated 16th October ; provisional protec-
tion, 25th October, 1861; patent sealed 11th February, 1862.

*2989. Alfred Vincent Newton, patent agent, Chancery-lane, Improvements in
mowing and reaping machinery. (A communication by William Van
Anden, of New York, U.S.) Application dated 27th November ;
provisional protection, 13th December, 1861; patent sealed 6th May,
1862.

1262. William E. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, Improvements in the construc-
tion of mowing and. reaping machines. (A communication from
France.) Application dated 29th April; provisional protection, 9th
May ; notice, 26th August; patent sealed 3rd October, 1862.

1690. A. V. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, patent office, Improvements in the
construction of grain and grass harvesters. (An American commu-
nication.) Application dated 4th June; provisional protection, 20th
June; notice, 24th June; patent sealed 1st August, 1862.

2218. R. W. Ralph, of Honnington-Grange, near Newport, Salop, Improve-

ments in reaping machines. Application dated 7th August: notice,
9th December, 1862,

*2314. Bernhard Samuelson, of Banbury, engineer, Jmprovements in harvesting
machines. Application dated 17th September ; provisional protection,
4th October; notice, 10th December, 1861; patent sealed 21st
January, 1862.

662 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

8031. James Shanks, of Arbroath, county of Forfar, machinist, Improvements
in mowing machines. Application dated 10th November ; provisional
protection, 28th November, 1862.

*2320. Joseph Statham, of Salford, and William Statham, of Openshaw, Lan-
cashire, Improvements in machinery or apparatus for mowing and
reaping. Application dated 17th September ; provisional protection,
4th October, 1861; patent sealed 14th March, 1862.

1793. Samuel Varley, of Sleaford, Lincolnshire, engineer, Improvements in
reaping machines. Application dated 17th June; provisional protec-
tion, 18th July, 1862.

172. John Wallace, Haldane’s Mill, Dunbartonshire, agricultural implement
maker, Improvements in reaping machines, Application dated 23rd
January ; provisional protection, 7th February ; notice, 27th May ;
patent sealed 15th July, 1862.

2327. Henry Wickens, of Token-House-yard, City of London, solicitor, Jm-
provements in reaping and mowing machines. (A communication
from Canada.) Application dated 18th September ; - provisional
protection, 4th October, 1861; notice, 21st January, 1862.

1573. William Worley, of Ipswich, engineer, Improvements in reaping
machines. Application dated 26th May; provisional protection,
20th June; notice, 7th October ; patent sealed 14th November, 1862.

904. William McIntyre Cranston, of 58, King William-street, London, Jm-
provements in machinery for cutting corn and other crops. (A com-
munication from James Smith Thayer, of New York City, U.S.)
Application dated 31st March; provisional protection, 11th April ;
notice, 3rd June; patent sealed 7th August, 1862.

511. W. McIntyre Cranston, of 58, King William-street, London, Jmprove-
ments in machinery for reaping and mowing. (The result partly
of a communication from W. A. Wood, of New York.) Application
dated 25th February ; provisional protection, 14th March; notice,
ord June ; patent sealed 5th August, 1862,

836. Robert Boby, of Bury St. Edmunds, agricultural implement maker, Jm-
provements in hay-making machines. Application dated 25th March ;
provisional protection, 4th April; notice, 22nd July; patent sealed
5th September, 1862.

4819, William Malins, of Pershore, Worcestershire, An improved protective
covering for agricultural or other similar purposes. Application
dated 20th June; provisional protection, 11th July. ©

*2854, Thomas Procter, of Boston, millwright, Jmprovements in carriers or
stackers, or apparatus for facilitating the stacking of straw, hay, or
agricultural produce. Application dated 13th November ; provisional
protection, 22nd November, 1861; patent sealed 2nd May, 1862.

THRASHING MACHINES. ; s

*23538, Joseph Christian Davidson, of Yalding, Kent, farmer, Jmprovements in
thrashing-machines. Application dated 20th September ; provisional
protection, 4th October, 1861; patent sealed 18th March, 1862.

. Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 663

3212. H. L. Emery, of Albany, State of New York, U.S. America, Jinprove-
ments in thrashing-machines. Application dated 1st December;
provisional protection, 12th December, 1862.

326. William E. Gedge (John Gedge and Son), of Wellington-street, Strand,
patent agent, An improved portable thrashing and winnowing-machine
and apparatus for working the same by horse-power. (A communica-
tion.) Application dated 7th February ; provisional protection, 21st
February, 1862. .

387. Richard Hornsby, jun., of Grantham, Lincolnshire, Improvements in
apparatus for thrashing, elevating, cleansing, and separating grain,
and in apparatus for elevating straw. Application dated 13th leb-
ruary; provisional protection, 4th April; notice, 8th April; patent
sealed 13th June, 1862.

858. J. H. Johnson, of 47, Lincoln’s-inn Fields, gentleman, Improvements
in thrashing-machines. (A communication.) Application dated 27th
March ; provisional protection, 4th April, 1862.

897. Robert C. Ransome, of Ipswich, Improvements in thrashing and other
machinery where corn or grain is required to be raised from one level
to another. Application dated 31st March; provisional protection,
18th April; notice, 12th August; patent sealed 25th September,
1862.

*3188. John Smith, jun., and J. B. Higgs, both of Coven, Staffordshire, Jin-
provements in thrashing-machines, and in mills for grinding, and in
raising or moving grain. Application dated 20th December, 1861 ;
een protection, 17th January, 1862; patent sealed 7th

arch.

1459, John Smith, sen., of Coven, near Wolverhampton, Improvements in
thrashing-machines, Application dated 14th May; provisional pro-
tection, 30th May ; notice, 28rd September; patent sealed 11th No-
vember, 1862.

*2313. Weston Tuxford, of Boston, engineer, Improvements in thrashing-
machines and in raising and stacking straw and other agricultural
produce, Application dated 16th September; provisional protection,
Po November, 1861 ; notice, 21st January, 1862 ; patent sealed 11th

arch,

190, Arthur Wallis and Charles Haslam, Basingstoke, Hants, engineers,
Improvements in thrashing-machines. Application dated 24th Janu-
ary ; provisional protection, 7th February, 1862.

2563. Thomas Watts, of Carisbrooke, Isle of Wight, Improvements in com-
bined thrashing-machines. Application dated 19th September ; pro-
visional protection, 10th October, 1862.

*2505. J. C. Willsher, of Pelches, county of Essex, farmer, Improvements in
the construction of combined thrashing and dressing-machines,. Appli-
cation dated 7th October; provisional protection, 1st November,
1861; patent sealed 4th April, 1862.

Straw anp Grain ELEVAToRs,

475 G. T. Bousfield, of Loughborough-park, Brixton, Surrey, Improvements
tn apparatus for elevating hay, straw, and earth. (A communica-
tion.) Application dated 22nd February; provisional protection,
4th April; notice, 8th April; patent sealed 28rd May, 1862.

664 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

*2373. Henry Brinsmead, of Ipswich, Improvements in apparatus for raising
and stacking straw and other agricultural produce. Application dated
23rd September ; provisional protection, 4th October, 1861; patent
sealed 18th March, 1862.

1921. T. Fellowes and H. Hemfrey, of Spalding, Lincolnshire, Zmprovements _
in apparatus for elevating straw and other agricultural produce. Ap-
plication dated Ist July; provisional prgtection, 18th July.

3035. G. F. Leyster, of Liverpool, engineer, Jiprovements in apparatus for
elevating or otherwise transmitting grain and other granular sub-
stances. Application dated 10th November; provisional protection,
28th November.

850. James Lock, of Nassington, Soa ibaraton date! Improvements in appa-
ratus for raising or elevating straw and cr ape on to stacks. Applica-
tion dated 27th March, ;

u

APPARATUS FOR CLEANING AND Dryineé GRAIN.

3178. James Bannehr, of Exeter, Improvements in apparatus for desiccating
grain, seeds, &c. Application dated 18th December, 1861; provi-
sional protection, 8rd January, 1862; patent sealed 13th June.

3831. Henry Brinsmead, of Ipswich, Suffolk, machinist, Improvements in
apparatus for moving, elevating, cleaning, and dressing grain. Appli-
cation dated 7th February; provisional protection, 28th February,
1862.

1378. John McCann, of Dublin, gentleman, Lmprovements in the mode of, and
apparatus for, drying, cooling, and cleaning grain. Application dated
7th May, 1862.

2138. John Ellis, of Witham, Kineston-upon-Hull, corn-factor, Limprove-
ments in wpparatus for washing corn and other grain. Application —
dated 28th July; provisional protection, 8th August, 1862.

. W. E. Gedge (Gedge and Son), patent agent, London, Improvements
im apparatus for dressing, cleaning, or sifting grain. (A comnuunica=
tion.) Application dated 3rd January; provisional protection, 31st.
January ; notice, 6th May; patent sealed 27th June, 1862.

*2302, William Edward Gedge (Gedge and Son, patent agents), Zmproved ap-
paratus for drying grain. (A communication from France.) Applica-
tion dated 16th September, 1861 ; notice, 21st January, 1862 ; patent:
sealed 14th March.

*2798. Henry Gould Gibson, of Mark-lane, City of London, Improvements in
apparatus for drying hops, malt, grain, &c., part of which is appli-
cable as a fan or blower. Application dated 7th November ; provi-
sional protection, 22nd November, 1861; patent sealed 6th May,
1862.

*3214, John H.Johnson, of 47, Lincoln’s-inn-Fields, Improvements in appa-
ratus for cleaning wheat and other grain. (A communication by J.
P. ili, of Paris.) Application dated 24th December, 1861 ; provi--
sional protection, 10th January, 1862; patent sealed 27th May.
2701. A. V. Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, patent agent, Improvements in
apparatus for drying grain. (An American communication. ) Appli- _
cation dated 6th October ; provisional protection, 17th October, 1862. ~

2959, W. E. Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, patent agent, Jmprovements im

apparatus for drying grain and other substances. ’ Application dated
1st November, 1862.

2

=I

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 665

502. John Piddington, of 52, Gracechurch-street, London, patent agent,
An improved machine for shelling or thrashing all sorts of grain. (A
communication.) Application dated 25th February; provisional
protection, 7th March, 1862,

*1937. Francis Richmond and Henry Chandler, of Salford, and William
B. Richie, of Belfast, An improved sackholder. Application dated
5th August; provisional protection, 4th October; notice, 10th
December, 1861; patent sealed 17th January, 1862.

531. John Smith, sen., of Coven, near Wolverhampton, Improvements tn
drying wheat and other grain. Application dated 26th February ;
provisional protection, 14th March; notice, 24th June; patent sealed
22nd August, 1862.

*3118. Augustus Tonnar, of Eupen, Rhenish Prussia, Apparatus for drying
and cleansing malt and other grain and seed intended for brewing, dis-
tilling, and agricultural purposes. Application dated 12th December,
1861; provisional protection, 3rd January, 1862; patent sealed 6th
June.

889. Robert Young, of Glasgow, millwright, Improvements in apparatus for
cleansing, separating, washing, and drying grain. Application dated
31st March; provisional protection, 18th April; notice, 29th July;
patent sealed 25th September, 1862.

Measurine Apparatus, &c.

1426. Charles James Neale, of High Oakham, Nottinghamshire, gentleman,
Improvements in apparatus for measuring and registering corn and
other grain. Application dated 12th May; provisional protection,
19th September ; notice, 23rd September, 1862.

2088. Thomas King, of Truman’s brewery, Spitalfields, Improvements in
apparatus for measuring malt, grain, and other granular substances.
Application dated 22nd July; provisional protection, Ist August ;
notice, 25th November.

CARTS AND OTHER VEHICLES.

2141, Edmund Burnett, of Ashford, Kent, An improved combined cart and
sleigh. Application dated 28th July; provisional protection, 22nd
August; notice, 2nd December, 1862.

2278. J. H. Johnson, of 47, Lincoln’s-inn Fields, Middlesex, gentleman,
Improvements in carts and other vehicles. (A communication from
France.) Application dated 13th August; provisional protection,
22nd August.

186. James Rock, jun., Hastings, carriage builder, Improvements in common
road carriages. Ayplication dated 24th January.

2704. Joseph Smith, of Egdon, near Worcester, blacksmith, An improved
screw linch-pin for carriages and agricultural implements. Ajplica-
tion dated 7th October; provisional protection 17th October.

Il. FARM, STABLE, DAIRY, GARDEN, AND OTHER
IMPLEMENTS, PROCESSES, &c.

CHAFF-cuTTERS, &C.

2160, Benjamin Bailey, of Leicester, machinist, Improvements in apparatus
Sor cutting chaff and other vegetable matters, which improvements are

2374.

431.

3026.

1987.

2661.

1480.

#3139,

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

also applicable to cutting or mowing short or lawn grass. Application
dated 30th July; provisional protection, 8th August; notice, 2nd
December, 1862.

. William Eddington, jun., of Chelmsford, engineer, Improvements in

portable grinding, chaff-cutting, and corn-crushing machinery. Ap-
plication dated 9th May ; provisional protection, 6th June, 1862.

50. H. 8S. Firman and W. J. Williams, of 73, Great Suffolk-street, South-

wark, Improvements in apparatus for cutting up and preparing as
Sood or chaff for animals, or for any other purpose, straw, hay, corn-
stalks, roots, and all other similar substances. (A communication
from the United States of America.) Application dated 12th June ;
provisionai protection, 20th June, 1862.

. J. H. Johnson, of 47, Lincoln’s-inn Fields, gentleman, Improvements in

chaff-cutters. Application dated 28th March ; Rie protection,
11th April, 1862.

CuTTING AND PuLprinc MacuHIveEs.

. Richard Hornsby, jun., of Grantham, Lincolnshire, Jmprovements iin

apparatus for cutting and pulping turnips and other vegetables. Ap-
plication dated 4th December ; provisional protection, 26th December ;
notice, 80th December, 1862.

Reuben Sims (Picksley, Sims, and Co.), Leigh,. Lancashire, Jm-
provements in machinery or apparatus for pulping, stripping, or
slicing turnips and other vegetable substances. Application dated
27th August; provisional protection, 5th September; notice, 23rd
September, 1862.

John Whittaker, of Leigh, Lancashire, agricultural implement maker,
Improvements in machinery or apparatus for pulping roots. ~ Appli-
cation dated 17th February; provisional protection, 7th March,
1862.

John Whittaker, of Leigh, Lancashire, agricultural implement maker,
Improvements in machinery or apparatus for pulping, stripping, and
slicing edible roots for cattle. Application dated 10th November ;
provisional protection, 21st November, 1862.

Dairy UTENSIL, &c.

Ann Bonnell, of Maida-hill, Middlesex, Improvements in churns.
Application dated 10th July; provisional protection, 25th July,
1

——

W. C. Cambridge, of Bristol, agricultural implement maker, Jmprove-
ments in apparatus for washing clothes, applicable also as a churn.
Application dated 1st October; provisional protection, 17th October,
1862.

George Haseltine, of 100, Fleet-street, patent agent, Improvements in —
churns. (A communication from New York, U. S.) Application
dated 16th May; provisional protection, 30th May ; notice, 9th
July ; patent sealed 4th November, 1862.

John Kelly, of Brook Lodge, County Roscommon, Improvements in the
treatment of milk for the manufacture of butter, and in apparatus for
the same. Application dated 13th December, 1861 ; ; providonss pro-
tection, 3rd January, 1862.

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 667

1093. Rupert Rains, of No. 4, Crescent, Bridge-street, Blackfriars, Improve-
ments in apparatus for freezing, cooling, and churning. (A communi-
cation.) Application dated 15th April, 1862.

2686. Francis Watkins, of Smethwick, near Birmingham, Improvements in
apparatus for milking cows. Application dated 4th October ; provi-
sional protection, 17th October, 1862.

1768. Thomas Williams, of 14, Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, and H. Cox, of
22, Lower-street, Islington, Improvements in churns, partly appli~
cable to washing-machines. Application dated 14th June; provi-
sional protection, 27th June; notice, 25th October, 1862.

Curinc PROCESSES.

1441. R. A. Boyd, of 11, Duke-street, Southwark, Improvements in the ma-
nufacture of bacon, Application dated 13th May ; provisional pro-
tection, 30th May ; notice, 16th September, 1862.

*2666. Robert Andrew Boyd, of Southwark, Jmprovements in apparatus for
singeing pigs. Application dated 24th October; provisional protec--
tion, Sth November, 1861; notice, 18th February, 1862.

2194. Abraham Denny and E. M. Denny, of Waterford, merchants, Improve-
ments in the manufacture of bacon. *Application dated 4th August .
provisional protection, 22nd August; notice, 16th December, 1862.

2320. T. Wilkinson, of Rathmines, Dublin county, Improvements in appa-
ratus for singeing pigs. Application dated 19th August ; provisional.
protection, 5th September, 1862.

SrasBLe Firrines, APPLIANCES FoR Hors—E MANAGEMENT, &c.

*2771. John Ashley, of Bath, LL.D., Improvements in apparatus for attaching
horses to carriages. Application dated 4th November; provisional
protection, 22nd November, 1861; patent sealed 16th April, 1862.

2539. John Golding Bunting, of Trafalgar-square, Charing Cross, patent
agent, An invention of a mechanical horse-break. Application’ dated
16th September ; provisional protection, 3rd October, 1862.

3047. Allen Thomas Carr, of Soho, Middlesex, Invention of the addition of
a material to the shoes on horses’ feet for the purpose of preventing
them slipping. Application dated 5th December, 1861; provisional
protection, 3rd January, 1862; patent, 4th February, 1862.

989. James Carrington, of Kensington, groom, Improvements in paving
stables and stable-yards. Application dated 7th April; provisional
protection, 28rd May ; notice, 19th April, 1862.

82. Henry Charlton, Birmingham, Improvements in certain kinds of shoes
for mules and horses. Application dated 11th January ; provisional

protection, 24th January; notice, 2nd May; patent sealed 13th
June, 1862.

337. John Carrington, of Kensington, groom, Improvements in the construc-
tion and fitting-up of stalls and horse-boxes. Application dated 8th
February ; provisional protection, 28th February ; notice, 17th June ;.
patent sealed 5th August, 1862.

3218. John Coppard, of Hoxton, Middlesex, Improvements in horse-shoes, to
produce the effect of what is termed ‘roughing.’ Application dated
1st December ; provisional protection, 26th December, 1862.

ey

668 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

*3219, Edward Ede, of St. John’s-wood, Middlesex, Improvements in the con-
struction of horse-shoes. Application dated 24th December, 1861 ;
provisional protection, 10th January, 1862. :

*2539. Abraham English, of Hatfield, Herts, Invention of reins or apparatus
Sor preventing horses falling. Application dated 10th October ; pro-
visional protection, 1st November, 1861; patent sealed 25th March,
1862.

*3035. Wm. E. Gedge (Gedge and Son, patent agents), Improvements in the
manufacture of nosebags, &c., in apparatus connected with such manu-
facture. Application dated 4th December; provisional protection,
27th December, 1861; patent sealed 27th May, 1862.

567. J. B. Kendail, of Boston, U.S., An improved horse-shoe. Application
dated 1st March; patent sealed 6th May, 1862.

466. Joseph Krasuski, of Paris, professor, An apparatus for mastering fiery
horses. Application dated 21st February ; provisional protection,
14th March, 1862.

894, W. B. Lord of Plymouth, veterinary-surgeon, Royal Artillery, and F.
H. Gilbert, of Brixton, Surrey, gentleman, An improved hame-slip
for suddenly releasing horses and other cattle from their harness, and
for other purposes, Application dated 31st March ; provisional pro-
tection, 11th April; notice, 12th August; patent sealed 25th Sep-
tember, 1862.

745. M. A. F. Mennons, of Paris, patent agent, Improvements in means of
arresting headstrong or runaway horses. (A communication.) Appli-
cation dated 18th March ; provisional protection, 21st March ; notice,
1st July; patent sealed 7th August, 1862.

1894. M. A. I’. Mennons, of Paris, patent agent, Improved apparatus for the
prevention and reduction of synovial and other swellings or tumours
in the limbs of horses. (A communication.) Application dated 28th
June; protection on complete specification, 4th July ; notice, 16th
September; patent sealed 24th October, 1862.

928. A. V. Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, patent agent, Improvements in
bits for taming or subduing vicious horses and breaking colts. (A
communication from America.) Application dated 2nd April; pro-
visional protection, 11th April; notice, 10th June; patent sealed
15th July, 1862.

2089. George Payne, of Grantham, shoeing-smith, Jmprovements in horse-
shoes. Application dated 22nd July; provisional protection, 15th
August, 1862. ‘

2794. H. A. Remiére, of Paris, harness maker, An improved horse-collar.
Application dated 16th October; provisional protection, 31st Oc-
tober; notice, 11th November, 1862.

2456. William Wills, of Ryder’s-court, Leicester-square, Middlesex, Zmprove-
ments in horse-shoes and in the method of fastening the same. Appli-
cation dated 5th September; provisional protection, 19th September,
1862. :

Brick AND Tre Macuines.

2973. R. A. Brooman, of 166, Fleet-street, patent agent, Improvements in

: machinery for moulding and compressing artificial fuel, peat, bricks,
tiles, and other substances. (A French communication.) _Applica-
tion dated 3rd November; provisional protection, 21st November,
1862. ; :

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 669

8308. Peter Effertz, of Manchester, engineer, Improvements in machinery or

_ apparatus for making bricks, tiles, drain pipes, and other similar

° articles. Application dated 9th December; provisional protection,
26th December, 1862.

.1835. Henry Gonnon, of Saint Nazaire, France, Improvements in machinery
for making bricks. Application dated 21st June ; provisional pro-
tection, 19th September, 1862.

96, George Hewitt, Ipswich, Improvements in apparatus used in the
manufacture of drain tiles. Application dated 13th January ; pro-
visional protection, 24th January, 1862.

°2696. Samuel Holland, of Oldbury, Worcestershire, machinist, Improve-
ments in machinery for the manufacture of bricks, drain, sanitary,
and other pipes, tiles, &c., from clay, marl, and other plastic sub-
stances. Application dated 6th October; provisional protection,
17th October, 1862.

2450. John Platt and William Richardson, of Oldham, Lancashire, engineers,

. Improvements in the preparation of clay for the manufacture of
bricks, tiles, &c. Application dated 4th September: provisional
protection, 26th December, 1862.

1322. Charles Schlickeysen, of Berlin, Prussia, machinist, Improvements in
machinery for moulding bricks, tiles, pipes, and turf. Application
dated 3rd May; provisional protection, 16th May; notice, 9th
September ; patent sealed 24th October, 1862.

_ 269. William Smith, of Bury, Lancashire, Improvements in machinery for
the manufacture of bricks, tiles, or other articles of a similar cha-
racter. Application dated 1st February provisional protection,
28th February ; notice, 3rd June, 1862.

3116. Charles Stevens (Stevens and Henderson), of 31, Charing Cross,

j patent agent, An improved brick-making machine. (A French
communication.) Application dated 20th November; provisional
protection, 28th November, 1862.

1878. William Thomson, of Thorney, near Peterborough, Improvements in
machinery for making bricks, tiles, and other articles. Application
dated 19th June ; provisional protection, 11th July, 1862.

‘1121, Frederick Tolhausen, of Paris, patent agent, Improved machine for
making bricks, tiles, &c. (A communication from Victor Duprat.)
Application dated 17th April; provisional protection, 2nd May,
1862.

MANUFACTURE OF PEAT.

*2412. William Clark, of 53, Chancery Lane, patent agent, Improvements in
the manufacture of peat. (A French communication.) Application
dated 26th September, 1861; patent sealed 21st March, 1862.

*2058. William H. Smith, M.D., of Philadelphia, U.S. (now of London),
Improvements in the preparation, application, and manufacture of
peat. Application dated 19th August, 1861; patent sealed 14th
February, 1862.

Wire Fencrne.

1854, William Bayliss (W. and M. Bayliss and Co.), of Wolverhampton,
manufacturers, An improved strainer for straining and tightening
wire for fencing, &c. Application dated 24th June; provisional
protection, 4th July, 1862.

670 Agricultural Patents for the year 1862.

241. George Bedson, of Manchester, manager, Improvements in wire fences
Application dated 29th January ; provisional protection, Ses
February, 1862.

292. Paul Gardilanne, of Dax, Department of the Landes, France, gentle-
man, Improvements in the manufacture of metallic wire fencing.
Application dated 4th February; provisional protection, 21st
February, 1862.

2516. John Rowell, of Aberdeen, manufacturer, Improvements in pillars
. and apparatus for straining wire. Application dated 12th Sep-
tember; notice, 21st October, 1862.

HorvricuLTurRAL APPLIANCES,

1627. R. Nicholson, of Copt Hewick, Ripon, Yorkshire, machine-maker, Jm-
provements in the construction of lawn mowing machines. Applica-
tion dated 30th May ; provisional protection, 27th June, 1862.

3244, Alexander Morton, of Arbroath, county of Forfar, engineer, Jmprove-
ments in lawn mowing machines. Application dated 3rd December ;
provisional protection, 19th December, 1862.

*3201. T. and W. Green and R. Mathers, all of Leeds, Improvements in lawn
mowing, rolling, and collecting machines. Avpplication dated 31st
December, 1861; provisional protection, 10th January, 1862; patent
sealed 18th March.

2644, The Rey. H. Moule, of Fordington, Dorset, Improvements in heating
Frames and the beds of hothouses, also in heating hothouses and other
buildings used for growing plants, &c. Application dated 29th
September ; provisional protection, 10th October, 1862.

482. Robert Foster, jun., of Beeston, Nottinghamshire, Improvements in the
construction of buildings or erections for horticultural or other pur-
poses. Application dated 22nd February; provisional protection,
21st March ; notice, 1st July, 1862.

592. G. H. and H. R.'Cottam, of the St. Pancras Iron Works, Old St. Pancras-
road, Middlesex, Improvements in horticultural buildings and other
glazed structures. Application dated 4th March ; provisional protec-
tion, 28th March; notice, 8th July; patent sealed 29th August,
1862,

MANAGEMENT OF ROADS AND STREAMS, &c.

1676. John Fincham, of Mildenhall, Suffolk, machinist, An arrangement of
mechanism useful for facilitating the repatring of roads and also ap-
plicable to the tilling of the land. Application dated 3rd June ; pro-
visional protection, 15th August, 1862.

4, Thomas Hall, Odiham, Hants, An invention proposed to be termed a
weed dredging machine. Application dated 1st January; provi-
sional protection, 24th January ; notice, 22nd April, 1862.

1714. James Lovegrove, of Hackney, Middlesex, surveyor, Jmprovements in
apparatus ° for inspecting small sewers and drains, and. removing
obstructions therein. Application dated 9th June ; ‘provisional pro-

; tection, 20th June, 1862.

1659, C. H. Roeckner, of Bristol, An improved method of constructing coffer-
dams and other similar structures for cacluding or keeping back the
flow of water and preventing inundations, Application dated 2nd

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 671

June; provisional protection, 27th June; notice, 14th October,
1862,

2359. C. H. Roeckner, of Bristol, Improvements in syphons for discharging
or drawing off large bodies of water, and in the mode of charging,
fixing, and constructing the same, whereby they are rendered perfectly
self-acting. Application dated 23rd August ; provisional protection,
5th September, 1862.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, TREATMENT OF SEWAGE, &C.

2097. William Clarke, of 53, Chancery-lane, patent agent, Improvements in
the manufacture of manure. (A communication from the Manager
of the Western Lime-burning Company, Paris.) Application dated
23rd July; provisional protection, 22nd August; notice 26th,
August; patent sealed 17th October, 1862.

— John Beale, of Maidstone, Kent, and Mary Ann Beale, of a ee
Middlesex, Improvements in the preparation or manufacture of

manure. Application dated 7th October; provisional protection,
24th October, 1862.

908. William Clark, of 53, Chancery-lane, engineer and patent agent, Im-
provements in the manufacture of manure. (A communication from
L. E. Lavigne, of Paris.) Application dated Ist April ; provisional
protection, 11th April; notice, 22nd July; patent sealed 19th Sep-
tember, 1862.
2082. Joseph Daniels, of Leigh, Lancashire, Improvements in artificial_
manure. Application dated 22nd July ;: provisional protection, 1st.
August; notice, 25th November, 1862.

2073. A. M. Fell, of Anchanard, in the county of Linlithgow, chemist, Jm-
provements in uvbtaining or manufacturing sulphate of ammonia and
manure. Application dated 21st July; provisional protection, 15th
August, 1862.

1623, William Footman, of No. 5, Great Queen-street, Westminster, Jm-
provements in the treatment and use of sewage and liquid manures,
and in reservoirs and pipes to be used therein. Application dated”
30th May ; provisional protection, 27th June, 1862.

1244, William Ty Glidden, of Massachusetts, U.S.,..4 new and useful
method of restoring phosphatic guano. (A communication. ) Appli-
cation dated 29th April; protection on complete specification, end
May ; notice, 6th May; patent sealed 19th September.

2669, John Harross, of Manchester, chemist, and James Wadsworth, of
Salford, near Manchester, machinist, Improvements in deodorising
refuse, organic, fecal, and wrinous matters ; and in a method of uti-

lising coal and other ashes; and in machinery or apparatus connected ©
therewith for producing a portable manure therefrom. Application
dated 3rd October ; provisional protection, 17th October, 1862.

*2229. Charles Fenton Kirkman, of Lambeth, Improvements in obtaining
' manure from sewerage and in apparatus employed therein. Applica-
tion dated 6th September; provisional protection, 20th September,

1861; notice, 14th January, 1862.

338, M. A. F. Mennons, of 39, Rue de l’Echiquier, Paris, patent agent, Im-

y provements in the treatment of coprolites and other fossil phosphates of?
lime. (A communication.) Application dated 10th February ; pro-
visional protection, 21st February ; notice, 20th May ; patent sealed
18th July, 1862.

VOL. XXIV. PADS

672

378.

1189,

2201.

*3265.

“3449,

587.

*2159,

3361,

*2525,

1811.

891,

3273.

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862..

M. A. F. Mennons, of Paris, patent agent, Improvements in the dis-
infection of animal excretions, and in the extraction therefrom of
fertilising elements. (A communication.) Application dated 13th
February; patent sealed 29th July, 1862.

William E. Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, civil engineer, An im-
proved fertilising composition. (An American communication.) Ap-
plication dated 28rd April; provisional protection, 2nd May ; notice,
26th August; patent sealed 3rd October, 1862.

John R. Nicholl, of Streatham, Surrey, clerk, Improvements in the
means of, and apparatus for, utilising and disposing of the sewage of
towns and villages. Application dated 5th August; provisional pro-
tection, 22nd August, 1862.

Thomas Pickford, Fenchurch-street, merchant, Improvements in the
manufacture of manure. Application dated 31st December, 1861.

John Platt and William Richardson, both of Oldham, Lancashire,
engineers, Improvements in machinery or apparatus for disinte-
grating or pulverising artificial manures, chemical salts, and other
substances. Application dated 24th December, 1862.

Bridge Standen, of Salford, near Manchester, chemist, Jmprovements in
the manufacture of portable manure, and in machinery or apparatus
to be employed therein. Application dated 4th March; provisional
protection, 14th March ; notice, 18th March ; patent sealed 6th May,
1862.

Alexander Taille, of Agen, France, An improved manufacture of
manure, Application dated 30th August; provisional protection,
13th September, 1861; notice, 7th January, 1862; patent sealed
18th February.

John Louis William Thudichum, of Kensington, doctor of medicine,
Improvements in collecting human excreta and in the apparatus or
means envployed therein. Application dated 16th December ; provi-
sional protection, 26th December, 1862.

Thomas Tidmarsh, of Dorking, Surrey, agriculturist, An improved arti-
ficial manure. Application dated 9th October ; provisional protection,
25th October, 1861; patent sealed 1st April, 1862,

CoNnpDIMENTAL Foon.

E. J. Davis, of West Smithfield, in the City of London, Jmprovements
in treating and preparing food for horses and other animals. Appli-
cation dated 19th June; provisional protection, 11th July ; notice,
21st October; patent sealed 5th December, 1862,

. James Spratt, of Camden Town, Jmprovements in the preparation of

food for hogs, dogs, cats, and poultry, and in apparatus for the same.
Application dated 15th November; provisional protection, 29th
November, 1861; patent sealed 13th May, 1862. =

William Tyler, of Birmingham, corn dealer, A new or improved mix-
ture or composition for feeding dogs and other animals and poultry.
Application dated 31st March; provisional protection, 18th April;
notice, 12th August; patent sealed 25th September, 1862, ;

George Wright, of Peckham Rye, Surrey, Zmprovements in the prepa-
ration and manufacture of food for cattle. Application dated 6th
December ; provisional protection, 26th December, 1862,

*3242,

2106.

1895.

1435.

*1982.

1664.

1928.

350.

Agricultural Patents for the year 1862. 673

MIscELLANEOUS.

Thomas Bright, of Carmarthen, Improvements im machinery for
cutting hay, straw, &c, Application dated 27th December, 1861;
provisional protection, 10th January, 1862; patent sealed 17th
June.

J. G. Clarke, of Brackley, Northamptonshire, Improvements in scythes,
Application dated 24th July; provisional protection, Ist August ;
notice, 2nd December, 1862.

Thomas King, of Grafton, Warwickshire, farmer, and John King, of
Chadshunt, farmer, Improvements in agricultural implements. Ap-
plication dated 28th June; provisional protection, 18th July, 1862.

P. M. Lopez, of Paris, gentleman. Improvements in apparatus for
sowing wheat or other grain or seeds. Application dated 13th May ;
provisional protection, 30th May ; patent sealed 7th November, 1862.

Charles Peters Moody, of Corton Denham, Somerset, Improvements in
construction of gates. Application dated 9th August ; provisional
protection, 23rd August ; notice, 17th December, 1861 ; patent sealed
4th February, 1862.

W. E. Newton, of 66, Chancery-lane, civil engineer, Improvements in
handles of shovels, spades, dung-forks, and other analogous articles,
(A communication from the United States of America.) Application
dated 2nd June; provisional protection, 20th June; notice, 24th
June ; patent sealed 1st August, 1862.

W. E. Newton, of the Patent Office, 66, Chancery-lane, Improvements
in machinery for washing wool. (A communication from the United
States of America.) Application dated 1st July ; provisional pro-
tection, 18th July ; notice, 11th November; patent sealed 16th De-
cember, 1862,

W. H. Weaver, of Edington, Salop, agricultural engineer, and Charles
Gall, of Bridgnorth, Salop, engineer, Improved machinery for agri-
cultural purposes, "Application dated 11th February ; provisional
protection, 14th March, 1862. ~

END OF VOL. XXIV.

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
AND CHARING CROSS,

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Ropal Aqricultural Society of England.
1863.

Presivent.
VISCOUNT EVERSLEY.

Trustees.

ACLAND, Sir Tuomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.
Bervers, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, Tuomas Witi1am, M.P., Shreens, Chelmsford, Essex.
CuAtioner, Colonel, Portnall Park, Staines, Mididlesex.
Feversuam, Lord, Helmsley, York.

Marwporoven, Duke of, Blenheim Park, Oxford.

Portman, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

Powis, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
Rutpanp, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Granthan, Lincolnshire.
SHELLEY, Sir Joun Vittters, Bart, M.P., Maresfield Park, Sussex.
Speaker, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.
Tsomrson, Harry Srereuen, M.P., Kirby Hall, York.

Pice-Prestvents.

AsHBURTON, Lord, The Grange, Alresford, Hampshire.

Barker, Tuomas Raymonp, Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames, Oxfordshire.
CurcueEster, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Sussex.

Downsuire, Marquis of, Last Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.
Hemont, Earl of, Cowdray Park, Petworth, Sussex.

Kiverstey, Viscount, Hecl:field Place, Winchfield, Hants.

Exeter, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hitt, Viscount, Hawkstone Park, Salop.

Hosss, W. Fisurer, Boxted Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

JOHNSTONE, Sir Joun V. B., Bart., M.P., Hackness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.
Mites, Sir Witi1Am, Bart., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.
WatsineHam, Lord, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

@ther Plembers of Council.

AcLAND, Tuomas Dyke, Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.

Amos, CuArLes Epwarps, Greenfield House, Sutton, Surrey.
ARKWRIGHT, J. HUNGERrorD, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire.
BARNETT, Cuarwes, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshive.
Barrarorp, Naruantet Georce, Hacheston, Wickham Market, Suffolk.
Branpretn, Hompurey, Houghton Hall, Dunstable, Bedfordshire.
Boer, James Wentworth, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devonshire.
CANTRELL, Cuarves S., Riding Court, Datchet, Bucks.

Catucart, Earl, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

Cavenpisu, Hon. Wiittam, M.P., Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

Corton, Colonel the Hon, W. H. S., Cherry Hill, Malpas, Cheshire.

VOL. XXIV. b

ul List of Officers.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire,

Druce, Joseeu, Lynsham, Oxford.

Exat, WitiraM, Reading, Berlshire.

Gises, B, T. Branpretu, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Hamonp, Anruony, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Norfolk.

Ho.uanp, Epwarp, M.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Hoop, Major-Gen. the Hon. A. Netson, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.
Hoskyns, Cuanpos WrREN, Harewood, Ross, Herefordshire.

Hopson, Joun, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfolk,

Homperston, Puitip Srapyiton, M.P., Mollington, Chester, Cheshire.
Horton, Witi1am, Gate Burton, Gainsboro’, Yorkshire.

Jonas, SAMUEL, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Kerrison, Sir Epwarp CLareENcer, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Norfolk.
Lawes, JouN Bennet, Lothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

LAWRENCE, CHARLES, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Lerten, Lord, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire,

Macponatp, Sir ARcuIBALD Kerpet, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hunts.
Minwarp, Ricuarp, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts.

Pain, Tuomas, Laverstock Hall, Salisbury, Wilts.

Porr, Epwarp, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.

RANDELL, CHaRrves, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.

RigpEN, Wiui1AM, Hove, Brighton, Sussex.

Sanpay, Witi1aM, Holmepierrepont, Notts.

SuaurrLewortu, Josppu, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

Sairn, Ropert, Emmett’s Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

Sranuope, James Banks, M.P., Revesby Abbey, Boston, Lincolnshire.
STRADBROKE, Earl of, Henham Park, Wangford, Suffolk.

Torr, Witir1Am, Aylesby Manor, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

Towne Ley, Lieut.-Colonel Cuaries, Towneley Park, Blackburn, Lancashire.
TrepeEGaR, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire.

TuRNER, GuorGE, Beacon Downes, Exeter, Devonshire.

Vernon, Hon, Auaustus H., Orgreave Hall, Lichfield, Staffordshire.

WALLIS, OWEN, Overstone Grange, Northampton,

WELLSs, WiLL1AM, Redleaf, Penshurst, Kent.

Western, Tuomas Burcu, Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

Wuson, Henry, Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury-St.-Edmunds, Suffolk.

Wuson, Professor, Iver, Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wynn, Sir Warkrn Witiiams, Bart, M.P., Rhuabon, Denbighshire.

Secretary.
H. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Consulting-Chemist—Dr. Aucustus VOELCKER, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
Veterinary-Inspector—JAMES BEART Simonps, Royal Veterinary College, N.W.
Consulting Engineer—JaMES Easton, or C. E. Amos, Grove, Southwark, 8.E.
Seedsmen—Tuomas Gibps and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, W.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers—Tur LONDON AND WESTMINSTER Bank, St. James's Square Branch, S. w.

( iii)

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1863.

Finance Committee.

Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELson, Bramston, T. W., M.P.

Chairman. Hosss, WM. PISHER.
BARNETT, CHARLES. Torr, WILLIAM,

Bouse Committee.
THE PRESIDENT. BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY.
CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee. CHALLONER, Colonel.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W., M.P. Gipps, B. T. BRANDRETH.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hogss, WM. FISHER,
Pournal Committee.

THompson, H. S., M.P., Chairman. MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt.
CATHCART, Earl. ACLAND, T. DYKE.
SPEAKER, The Rt. Hon. THE. HOuLAND, Ep., M.P.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hoskyns, C. WREN.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. MILWARD, RICHARD.
KERRISON, Sir E. C., Bt. WALLIs, OWEN.

Chemical Committee.

VERNON, Hon. A. H. Hoskyns, C. WREN,
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Hupson, JOHN.

Mites, Sir W., Bt., M.P. Humeerston, P. S., M.P.
ACLAND, T. DYKE. HUXTABLE, Ven. Archdeacon.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H. Lawes, J. B.

DavuBeny, Dr. Tuompson, H. S., M.P.
Dewr, Je D., M.P: WELLS, WILLIAM.

HOLLAND, Ep., M.P.

Veterinary Committee.

SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hosns, WM. FISHER.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P. Paty, THOs.

MILEs, Sir WoM., Bt., M.P. Srmonps, Proféssor.
BARKER, THOs. RAYMOND. SPOONER, Professor.
CHALLONER, Colonel. Tuompson, H. S., M.P.
Gusss, B. T. BRANDRETH. WELLs, WILLIAM.

HAMMOND, ANTHONY.

Stock-Prises Committec.

WALSINGHAM, Lord. JONAS, SAMUEL.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Mitwarp, RICHARD.
Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON. Paty, THOMAS.
BARNETT, CHARLES. Pore, EDWARD.
BARTHROPP, NATHANIEL G. RANDELL, CHAS,
Druce, JOSEPH. RIGDEN, Wo.
Gress, B. T. BRANDRETH. Situ, ROBERT.
Hosts, WM. FisHErR. Sronps, Professor.
HOLLAND, Ep., M.P. Torr, WILLIAM.
Hupson, Joun. TURNER, GEORGE.

b 2-

iv Standing Committees for 1863.

Emplement Conmittee.

CAVENDISH, Hon. W., M.P. EXALL, WILLIAM.

Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON. Grpss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
VERNON, Hon. A. H. HAMOND, ANTHONY.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hosss, WM. FIsHER.
MAcDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt. Hoskyns, C. WREN.
Mitts, Sir Wm., Bt., M.P. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
Amos, C. E. THompson, H. S., M.P.
BARNETT, CHARLES. Torr, WILLIAM.
CANTRELL, CHas. 8. WALLIS, OWEN.
CHALLONER, Colonel. Wixson, Professor.

General Worcestey Committee.

PorTMAN, Lord, Chairman, CHALLONER, Colonel.
Powis, Earl of. DEnT, J. D., M.P.
LeiGH, Lord. ‘ FENTON, WILLIAM.
NorrHwick, Lord. Gripes, B. T. BRANDRETH.
TREDEGAR, Lord. Hosss, WM. FIsHER.
WALSINGHAM, Lord. HOuuanD, E., M.P.
CavenpisH, Hon. W., M.P. ~ Hoskyns, C. WREN.
Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON. Lakin, HENRY.

LyGon, Hon. F., M.P. MILWARD, RICHARD.
VERNON, Hon. A. H. Parn, THOMAS.
PAKINGTON, Sir John, Bart., M.P. RANDELL, CHARLES.
Wynn, Sir WATKIN W., Bart., M.P. Royops, A. H.
ARKWRIGHT, J. HUNGERFORD. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
BARNETT, CHARLES. Torr, WILLIAM.
Bramston, T. W., M.P. WORCESTER, Mayor of.

CANTRELL, CHARLES 8.

*,* The PRESIDENT, ‘TRUSTEES, and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members ex officio of all
Committees.

MEMORANDA.

Appress or Lerrers.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter WW, members, in their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address.

GENERAL MEETING in London, May 22, 1863, at Twelve o’clock.
MEETING at Worcester, commencing July 20, 1863.
GENERAL MEETING in London, in December, 1863,

Montuty Counctxt (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Weexkty Counci (for practical communications), at 12 o’clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, July, November, and December, ex-
cepting the first Wednesday in each of those months; and during adjournment:
open to all Members of the Society, who are particularly invited by the
Council to avail themselves of this privilege.

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when
those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month; from the first
Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the first
Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.

Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to the
College.—(A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

CuemicaL ANALYsIs.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Locat CHEques.—Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London; but London Cheques, or Post-office
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hatt Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society’s Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.

New Mempers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets BY Post.—Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but nof containing letters sealed or
open), if sent withont envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates :—

For a packet not exceeding 4 ounces (or quarter ofapound) . . . 1 penny

» ” ” 8 , (or half a pound) . - 2 pence,
” ” *” 16 , #(oronepound) ...-. « 4 w»
» ” ” 24 +, (oronepoundandahalf) . . 6 ,

2 32 , (ortwopounds) . .-...- 8 »

» »
{And so on in the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2d.]

~,* Members may obtain on application tothe Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments of the Society’s business,

Ropal Agricultural Society of England.

GENERAL MEETING,

12, Hanover Square, THurspay, DEcEmBER 11, 1862.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Durrinc the last seven months 23 Governors and Members have
died ; while 5 Governors and 372 Members have been elected ;

_ so that the list now comprises—

80 Life Governors,
94 Annual Governors,
1239 Life Members,
3747 Annual Members, and
17 Honorary Members,

making a total of 5177, being an increase of 3054 since the last
Report. —

The finances are in a satisfactory condition,:as is shown by
the balance sheet to 30th of June last ; since which time the
Finance Committee have recommended the sale of LO00/. Stock,
and have discharged all the claims against the Society submitted
to them up to the last Meeting. The funded property now
stands at 16,4887. 17s., in the New Three per Cents.

The chemical investigations instituted by the Society are in
a state of favourable progress in the Laboratory of Professor
Voelcker, the consulting Chemist to the Society, who is occupied
in experiments as to the most efficacious means of applying -
guano to the land, and also on the action of superphosphate of
lime on different soils of known composition. During the past
season he has been engaged in making field experiments on the
wheat and mangold crops, the results of which will appear in a
future volume of the ‘ Journal.’

During the past summer a threatening disease known as the

Report to the General Meeting. vii

Smallpox in Sheep made its appearance in Wiltshire. The
origin still remains in some doubt. Professor Simonds, the
Veterinary Professor of the Society, proceeded to the spot, and
deemed it prudent at once to order the isolation of the infected,
and inoculation of the unaffected animals; thus preventing the
extension of the disease in its ordinary or natural manner. The
disease is now completely exterminated in Wilts, and exists in
one flock only in Berkshire. The Professor delivered Lectures
on the subject at large Meetings in Warminster and Salisbury,
and attended several Fairs in the County, with the view of
preventing any diseased sheep being exposed for sale. This
precautionary measure appears to have been wholly efficacious.

The Council have taken measures for obtaining a greater
number of nominations from which to select the Judges for the
Country Meetings, and will esteem it a favour if the Members
of the Society at large will from time to time transmit to the
Secretary the names of men, not only disinterested in themselves,
but fully qualified by their abilities and experience for the arduous

-task confided to them.

The Metropolitan Meeting in Battersea Park has proved
eminently successful in carrying out the objects of the Society,
although the expenses incurred have entailed a heavy charge on
its general funds. The interest attached to ‘the Exhibition of
Live Stock on that occasion was increased by the numerous
specimens of Foreign Stock sent over at great expense by the
Dutch, French, Saxon, and Swiss Governments, as a token of
friendly regard to the Society, and the international character of
the Meeting.

The Members were honoured by the gracious presence of His
Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, with numerous other royal
and distinguished personages, who all expressed themselves
highly gratified at the number of the Stock, the variety of the
breeds, and the high character which so large a proportion of
the animals exhibited.. The Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland also held its Annual Show of Stock within this
Society’s enclosure, and by their numerous entries greatly in-
creased the magnificence of the display.

The attendance of Governors and Members of both Societies
was unusually large, and this proves to the Council that the
privilege of free admission to the Showyard is highly valued,

Vili Report to the General Meeting.

and, though tending to diminish the receipts at the gate, is
nevertheless largely conducive to its prosperity in an accession
of Members. The Exhibition of the Horses in the ring twice
each day proved a most attractive feature, and means will be
adopted in future to continue this portion of the Show.

The Exhibition of Steam Cultivators at Farningham proved a
source of great attraction; and though an item of considerable
expense to the Society, the Council think they could not do
otherwise than show to all the foreign nations assembled this
year in Londoa the results hitherto attained in the application of
steam to the cultivation of the soil.

On the Sunday during which the Stock was in the Yard,
Divine Service for the servants and men employed was per-
formed by the Lord Bishop of Bath and Wells, assisted by a
Choir from the Training College at Battersea.

The collection of Wool in the International Exhibition at
South Kensington has been an object of great interest to all
connected with this branch of animal products, and has been the
means of making foreigners more intimately acquainted with the
various descriptions which our country produces. Seventeen
medals and eighteen honourable mentions were awarded to
various Exhibitors in the Society’s stand ; and the Council feel
they have been justified in incurring the expense of exhibition
by the notice and encouragement afforded to the Exhibitors.

The Implements for which prizes will be given in the ensuing
year consist of fixed and portable steam-engines, fixed and
portable finishing machines, hand-dressing machines, and barley
hummellers; and as a period of five years will have elapsed
since the trial of these classes of Implements, it is to be antici-
pated that many improvements will be exhibited at Worcester.

The Country Meeting next year will be held in the week com-
mencing Monday the 20th July, and the authorities at Worcester
have already placed the land for the Showyard under a due
course of preparation by drainage and levelling.

By Order of the Council,

H. Hatt Dane,
Secretary.

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‘ : Dem te Fy 6 See 8 eer yD ‘eppeTT toy sdurug ested “109 0 0 6F hose ee ee 8 8 8 gyuotmaydury Jo £170 IOJ SOIT S.LOQUTETY-UON
6 6h 1 sachs ot) 10JV OVID Buproysoyy fpG ‘sy "70% ‘punorH-Moyg Jo osvuywaq || 0 f OOB * * sf 5 fF fet Buyppoyg toy guowmAvg S407 1G) q <q] WuotMedury
£ Il 99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vuv oO sayudoyy £ aI OPt'L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *sondopeyp jo olyg
T User * * * * * * SOTASUINT, puv soypanzy JO o1]q ‘spre x ay, Poo akan Be 0 TENG “5 * =) ceo ts AS ee: ‘ 5 + © PIU A AOS og} 07 SuOTssTUpy
‘p's 'F ‘p's 'F 1

“MUALIGNid XT “SLA THOMA

alc aia he ee ee

‘298f “SENQODOV MOHS NOCNO'T

ne

Lal
|

im ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. Hatr-yEarty Caso Account
To Balance in hand, 1st January, 1862 :— £.. $a. Be. Gs, eke ;
Bankers (a> 3 “5.7 “oc © Sok . Gaca sped oem Meeps
Secret eT Meee Time ke Se Oy Oo 615 6
vee ‘ 1,834 15 1
To Income, viz. :—
DividendontStock: i= «see wee sat cae!) (semaine 252 9 11
Subscriptions — ‘ £8 d.
Governors’ Life-Composition .. 50°.0.20
Governors’ Annual .. # 94302 050
Members’ Life- -Compositions = 28> Go" 0
Members’ Annual a eee 258TH O
4,461 9 0
Journal :—
Advertisemenis@iey | ig. a, 6G gece) soe oly 1e6 |
Establishment :— |
Sale. of Booképoeia.4 Ata: toate Geek ea ee 4416 0
——_——_————| 4,789 16 5
To Country Meetings :—
Leeds eee eee hee eee eee at | OF QO
Tondon ‘Show#.m aides eine Ga os. poeta 1,474 8 0
| on] SLO" ©
i
£8,108 1 6)
a
BaLancr-SHEET,
‘To Capital :— ee Be + 8 AE Sets, il
Surplus, 31st December, 1861 .. ., oe oeqyres 16,081 9 6
Surplus of Income over the Expenditure during
the Half-year, viz:— fs aus.) a »
UDCOME, ioe ss peepee) 64,7 50R1 6 7D
Expenditure .. «. “se .. 2,280 3° 4
2,509 13 1
To Leeds Meeting :—
Difference between Receipts and mee te
the former exceeding the latter by . es Gt 4,449 14 2 3
——————__| 6,959 7 3 -

.|£28,040 16 9

(Signed) A. N. HOOD, Chairman of Finance Committee.
QUILTER, BALL, JAY, & Co., Accountants.

| SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. xi

From Ist JANUARY TO 30TH JUNE, 1862. Cr.

| By Expenditure :-— £.~ oe: Gh fi t08. Lids Eun a a
Establishment—
Official Salaries and Wages See ey eG ato
House Expenses, Rent, ‘I'axes,&c. 379 0 3
——_— 716 6 8
. Journal :—
Printing See citue'. ell agg) calg (OOOM AO
: | Stitching .. ae 60 10 0 |
i | Delivery, Adver tising, Se... Sa. a LAG AO
1 | Literary Contributions .. .. 37 0 0
| Hiditorsisalary jo «. “ss: “s. 250 0 0
———| 862 18 0
~ Chemical :—
Consulting Chemist's Salary .. 150 0 0
, | Grant for Investigations, 1862 .. 200. 0 0
1 | ==), a50) a) a
| Veterinary :—
i | Grant to Royal Veterinary College 100 0 0
, | Illustrations for Paper on Rot in
4 Sheep RT ce mex ows foe 9G
Postiecdand-@arringe-—=2- 1. wwe kee 34 1
Advertisements Ses aa ae ot day ne 18
Sundries .. .. 5c 6
Subscriptions returned (paid it in error) ease 3
Memorial to late Prince Consort .. .. .. « 100

Wool at International Exhibition... .. .. .. 76

By Country Meetings—

Leeds Sete RAKIM so wu-we! ght cies Wea och FLOM ASEAG
La 2 SU 7a ie a or a rr 2 eon 8) VL
2,892 18 5
Total Payments .. .. is oyna aylior B'S

| . By Balance in hand :—

BPR Ta (Ss cs, ce) ws sonmman, vee |) 12,9L6r19' 10
SEMEL, eM a) oat acc, We 1a) a ofa,'y Monash aoe maid pI Wm
;
J
:

—
_
to
ROC MN 10
= CONMND AID

2,934 19 9

£8,108 1 6

——*

307rH JUNE, 1862.

By New 3 per cent. "Stock 17, 4881. Lis. lod. cost fe ae 1
By Books and Furniture, Society’ s House, Hanover

| Square = Bey. re :

| By Account at debit of London Show eapbrss *vas eo asa 1,308 0 11

Mem.—The above Assets are exclusive of the
amount recoverable in respect of Subscriptions

| in arrear 30th June, 1862, which at that date
: amounted to 8071.

£23,040 16 9

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 5th day of December, 1862.

(Signed) WILLIAM ASTBURY.
HENRY CORBET.

) Fag Bs 2| ee

_ By Cashinhand .. .. ae rage 2,984 19 9
6.57

WILLIAM COHEN.

xu

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. HALF-YEARLY Caso Account
To Balance in hand, Ist ae 1862 :— hes 18 hs S. 8. Wap
Bankers oe we 2,916 19 10
Secretary .. : LAL
——-——_——_ 2,934 19 9
To Sale of Stock :—
For 1000 New 8 Per Cents sold out 9161 5 @
To Income, viz.:—
Dividends on Stock . oe 252 911
Subscriptions : — 3
Governors’ Life-Composition 50 0 O
Governors’ Annual a 20 0 0
Members’ Life-Compositions 567 0 0
Members’ Annual.. 370 1 0
=| 1,007 eee
Journal :—
Sales DilSLiAS
Advertisements 37 16 8
149 8 0
Sundries LARS 0
1,420 611
To London Show aS 10,701 2 72

BALANCE-SHEET,
= | F
To Capital: LIABILITIES. 2. See &. . (8s
Surplus, 30th June, 1862 5 23,040 16 9
Less Surplus of Expenditure over Income during h
the Half-year to 31st mais onal al viz :— 4
Expenditure : 2,908 5° 6
' Income 1,420 611
————| 1,482 18 7

(Signed)

or

£15,972 13 10

ee

£21,557 18

WILLIAM FISHER HOBBS, on behalf of Finance Committee.
QUILTER, BALL, JAY, & Co., Accountants, |

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. sili

From Ist JuLy To 31st December, 1862.

By Expenditure :— Bop RENNER “Soak at de
Establishment— |
Official Salariesand Wages... 327 6 07
House Expenses, Rent, Taxes,&e. 509 15 9 |
Journal :— et. 3 |
CUE Oeics vec sa se, ee SAO nko 10 |
Stitching ae Pe LF 85 7 8 |
Delivery, Advertising, ket. ten-3 6
SE OS ae aoe 70 0 6]
Other Contributions .. .. .. 90 2 0
Manon H SAIary 2..'" 2. ee oe AO ONO
= 2 2]
Chemical :— Lge TE
Consulting Chemist’s Salary .. .. .. « 159 0 0
Veterinary :— ?
Grant to Royal eee ee ge 150 0 O
Investigations .. 4017 6 |
Expenses of Pamphlet ¢ on Rot in |
Sheep cece os FaSeeo. © |
——— 3840 15 6
Wipareiand Carriase 4. se ce oe we fon) LG
Advertisements Po Mt, ae swemtads tax} Ps 412 6
Sundries .. Sele tied a Lepsitas 20
Subscriptions returned (paid i in error) Spee) ps Des 1G
Power of Attorney for Saleof Stock .. .. .. Or a
Wool at International Exhibition... .. .. .. 78 10 9
-
By London Show :— | wae ee ke
RC RMEMIZCNY Seer yes cel Sa) od Sa Wi eS 38,390 0 O
Medals... ae Meaites, res. yaa oe 579) 15; 10.
Other Payments See Sige ea ass is oe oR4 ie Gell
| ——| 12,397 1 1]
By, Worcester Meeting. 6... oe see we Joke 290 0 O
Total Payments .. .. Ser Paes 15,590 7 5
By Balance in hand :—
Pe CIS As ewes 4 se" iva’ \ oe apatos-atyo me belo 349 2 8 |
SOCLPLALU Reet tens Pit wed Ewe Use h Me 33 3 9
———— 382 6 5
£15,972 13 10
31st DECEMBER, 1862.
; |
sages Dea tS seme dnl Dense
By Cash in hand . ae Be Pe 382 6 5
By New 3 per cent. " Stock, 16,4881. 178. 10d. cost .. Sle 4 | 25,881 11 1
eee ie ange a ee nag ia . 2,000 0 0
By Worcester Meeting.. .. “2 cee anaiPcc SO) te 290 0 0
By London Show, being HOSS! WIZe «0 55 Aen tec 8,004 0 8
(In addition to which there are liabilities unpaid :
amounting to about 600/.).
Mem.—The above assets are exclusive of the amount recover- |
able in respect of Subscriptions in arrear 31st December,
1862, which at that date amounted to 7111. ei

tw

21,557 18 2

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 6th Day of February, 1863,
(Signed) WILLIAM COPELAND ASTBURY.
HENRY CORBET.
WILLIAM COHEN.

( xiv)
GHorcesier sFeeting, 1863:
IN THE WEEK COMMENCING MONDAY, THE 20TH OF JULY.

SCHEDULES OF PRIZES.

I.—Live-Srock Prizes OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY.

Reference

obe: = CATTLE.

Certificates. |

Suort-Hornep.

Class 4
1 Bull, above three and not exceeding six years old —
2 Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old -
3 Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
4 Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve
months Olds Le) ely se eee ot
5 Cow, above three years old

6 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding ‘three

JRAESONE™ 5 uy) ct< Sin Shoe Pace
7 Yearling Heifer
8 Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old

HEREFORD.

9 | Bull, above three and not exceeding six years old
10 | Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old
li Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
12 Bull-Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve

months old .. .. 5 eer eee eee
13 | Cow, above three years old .
BA at Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, ‘not exceeding ‘three

VOaTS Old EN Key iawy ce. pone, + “Nap emiees
15 Yearling Heifer ..
16 Heifer-Calf, above six and under twelve months old

Devon.
~ AE Bull, above three and not exceeding six years old

18 Bull, above two and not exceeding three years old 7
15 I Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old
20 Bull- Calf, above six and not exceeding twelve

months old... .. oo ae er SSE
21 Cow, above three years old .. 2
22 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding "three

ears Old © {05 Wer) esl). eno ele
23 Yearling Heifer ..

24 Heifer-Calf, above six and under tw elve: months old

Prizes for Live Stock, XV

Number i CATTLE—continued i lly
Certificates. . Prize. Prize.
eg SUSSEX. £ £.
25 Bull, above two and not exceeding six years old.. | 10 5
26 Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old 10 5
27 Cow, above three years old .. .. 10 5

28 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding "three
years old Se cece Ses, ae ott -pocee Ban aingeee) 5
29 Yearling Heifer... .. .. tales ines man 10 5

Orner EstTaBLisHED BReeEps.
Not including the Short-horn, Hereford, Devon, or
Sussex Breeds.

30 Bull, above two and not exceeding six years old 10 5
3l Bull, above one and not exceeding two years old 10 5
32 Cow, above three years old .. 10 Q

33 Heifer, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding “three
RpeMIO Se soy eso Spavoeys anaes Sal ne 9. 5
34 Yearling Heifer .. .. 10 5

HORSES.

35 For the THoroucH-Brep Srup-Horse, having

served Mares during the season 1863, which, in

the opinion of the Judges, is best calculated to

improve and perpetuate the breed of the sound

and stout Thorough-Bred Horse for General
hand Purposes). "o.: a eetyeey ve . | 100 25

Hunter AND HackNEY.

36 Stallion, suitable for getting hunters 25 15

37 Brood Mare, with foal at foot, or in-foal, for
breeding hunters.. ., 15 10

38 Brood Mare, with foal at foot, ‘or in-foal, for
breeding hackney S Bee we 15 | 10

Pontks.

39 Stallion, not exceeding 14 hands .. 15 5
40 Mare, not exceeding 14 hands... 1. o

xvl Prizes for Live Stock.

|

Reference , AGRICULTURAL AND DRAY HORSES.

i Fi Second
Certificates. es Prize. | Prize
AGRICULTURAL.

Class, Not qualified to compete as Suffolk. £. £.
41 Stallion, foaled before the 1st of J soa bd 1861 . 25 10
42 Stallion, foaled in the year 1861 . Pi ir) 10
43 Mare and Foal Ad lok Sos wou see mEOD 10
44 ‘Twogytars/6ld Billy“: SSE"e ie. 5, eee 10 .

Dray.
45 Stallion, foaled before the 1st of Tt 1861. 25 10
46 Stallion, foaled in the zee S610 cece By | 0) 10
47 Mare and foal... Samat ia hotest Reba osx |- (0 10
48 Two years old F ||} aa seer baeientat iets elt Siy eon ce oS 10
SUFFOLK. -

49 | Stallion, foaled before the 1st of January, 1861. 20 10
50 Stallion, foaled in the year 1861 .. .. .. .. | 16 10

51 | Mare and Foal apie <4 we. eee ey el Meee 10
52 Two years old Filly. warpeenees at. --) 1 ee 10
SHEEP.
| LEICESTER.
53 Shearling Ram ee em me 20 10
54 Ram of any other age .. a 20 10
55 Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock Me 15 10
| CoTswoLp. ,
56 Shearling Ram ett. iS dt Oe 20 10
57 Ram of any other age .. x) all mee 10
58 Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock 2 15 10

LincoLn AND OTHER LonGc-WooLLED.

Not qualified to compete as Leicesters or Cotswolds, 4 4

59 Shearling Ram Pipi Ss... Adib, eRe aS 20 iy) 5 10
60 Ram of any other age .. 20 10
61 Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock .. 15 | 10

Prizes for Live Stock. xvii

SHEEP—continued. pee

OxrorDsHIRE Downs. £
Shearling Ram He Ae ppb eee hee ce 20
Ram of any other age .. = 20
Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock = 15

SouTHDOWN. «

Shearling Ram 2 ~ eeeee e 20
Ram of any otherage .. Bs 20

Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same flock 33 15

SHROPSHIRE.
SUE isha LAE oan Me ioe a eae 20
Ram of any otherage .. % 20
Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, ‘of the same flock . 15

HAMPSHIRE AND OTHER SHORT-WOOLLED.

Not qualified to compete as Southdowns
or Shropshires.
Shearling Ram BN VSS | rte este cee Micke 20
Ram of any other age .. sc 20
Pen of Five Shearling Ewes, of the same e flock 4. a5)

If Ten Animals or Pens be Exhibited in any Class,
a Silver Medal shall be awarded to the Third best.

PIGS.

Boar of a large breed, of any colour .. .. .. 10 5
Boar of asmall white breed .. .. «2 «ee 10 5
Boar of a small black breed .. .. .. « «+. | 10 5
Boar of the Berkshire breed .. 10 5
Boar of a breed not eligible for the preceding classes | 10 5
Breeding Sow of a large breed, of any colour .. | 10 5
Breeding Sow of a small white breed .. .. .. 10 5
Breeding Sow of a small black breed .. .. .. 10 5
Breeding Sow of the Berkshire breed .. | 10 5
Breeding Sow of a breed not eligible for the pre-

ceding classes... 10 5
Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of a large "breed,

of any colour, of the same litter, above four and | 10 5

under eight months Olde we. 10 5

Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of a small white
breed, of the same > litter, above four and under
eight ‘months old = eae ie

VOL, XXIV. c

or

XViii Prizes for Implements and Machinery.

Reference :
re po oe
eerincates PIGS—continued. oo
Class. £. £.

86 Pen of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of a small black

breed, of the same litter, above four and under

eight ‘months Olde = SF eS 10 5
87 Pen ‘of three Breeding Sow-Pigs of ‘the Berkshire

breed, of the same ‘litter, above four and under

Aeht ‘months old se 10 2)
88 Pen “of three Breeding Sow- ‘Pigs of a “breed not

eligible for the preceding classes, of the same

litter, above four and under eight months old... | 10 5

Il.—IMpLEMENT AND MACHINERY PRIZES OFFERED BY THE
Society.

‘

Sream CULTIVATORS. gS

For the Class of—1. The best application of Steam Power for the eulti-
vation of the soil.. .. .. .. Gold medal and 50

Ditto 2. The best application of Steam Power which may

be effectively and safely adapted for small occu-
pations .:) «5, bem Cc) von Pea meee ee

Sream-ENGINES—F'IxED.
For the Class of Fixed Steam-Engines .. ‘40
Ditto Boilers for Fixed Steam-Engines, not exceeding 12
horse-power .. ce, 34 tes > scl nee 0
Srram-HnorinEs—POoRTABLE.

Tor the Class of Portable Steam-Engines, above 8 horse-power .. .. 25
Ditto ditto not exceeding 8 horse-power 25

Hanv-Dressinc Macuinegs,

For the Class of Corn-Dressing Machines... .. .. « oF « « 90
Ditto Corn and Seed Separators... .. oe Tod es. 1D
Ditto (Corm-Soreens' .2) .- See!) sc) eee

Finisuinac Macuiners.
For the Class of Portable Combined Steam-Thrashing and Finishing
Machines... Ei : . - "be
Ditto Fixed ditto ca 5S? ES eee
Bariey HumMMEeELLers.
For the Class of Barley Hummellers.. .., «. «© es a2 «+ os

or

MisceELLANEOUS.

Awards to Agricultural articles, and essential improvements therein
(10 silver medals)

Special Prizes. xix

TII.—Sprctau Prizes.

Special Prizes amounting to 560/.; namely, 405]. offered by the
Local Committee, 105/. by the Directors of the Worcester City
and County Bank, per Richard Padmore, Esq., M.P., Chairman,
and 50/. by the Salt Chamber of Commerce.

Reference

. First | Second
P= see CATTLE. _,|. Exize. | Prize.
ee Suort-Hornep. £ z
89 Pair of Cows, in-milk, exceeding four years old .. 15 5
90 Pair of Heifers, in-milk and in-calf, not exceed-
ing four years old ; 15 5
91 Pair ‘of Heifers, in-calf, not exceeding threo yearsol old 15 5
92 Pair of yearling Heifers... 10 ne

93 Bull, Cow, and their Offspring, the latter not ex-
ceeding twelve months old on the 1st July,
1863 ; “the Cow bred by the exhibitor .. .. | 20 10

HEREFORD,
94 Pair of Cows, in-milk, exceeding four years old .. 15 5
95 Pair of Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding
four years old ig 15 5
96 Pair of Heifers, in-calf, not exceeding three years old 15 5
97 Pair of yearling Heifers .. Be 10 é

938 Bull, Cow, and their Offspring, the latter not ex-
ceeding twelve months old on the 1st July, 1863 ;
the Cow bred bythe exhibitor )).., < cau) ime. 20 10

PEMBROKE.
99 Bull, and a Cow in-milk 10 5
100 Bull, and a Cow in-milk, of any other Welsh breed | 10 5

Scorcu.
101 Bull, and a Cow in-milk, of any pure Scotch breed | 10 5

HORSES.

Hunter anp Hackney.

102 Mare or Gelding, exceeding four years old, in the
opinion of the ai equal to 15 stone with
hounds . 20 10
103 Filly or Gelding, , three years old, likely | to make a
hunter or carriage-horse : 10
104 Filly or Gelding, two years old, likely to make a :
hunter or carriage-horse = 10
105 Cob, not excceding - 15 hands in heicht, or exceeding
six years old So on, SS gee ne ent 10 5

“or

or

xx Special Prizes.

|
Reference 5 i
Number in HORSES—continued. prise, | ‘Prize.
aor AGRICULTURAL.

106 Stallion (Suffolk breed only excluded), exceeding
three years old and not exceeding seven yearsold | 40 20

NotTe.—The winners of these premiums must be
guaranteed by their owners to serve mares during
the season 1864, commencing April Ist and ter-
minating July 1st, in the county of Worcester
only, at a charge not exceeding two guineas per
mare, to make Worcester head-quarters, and attend
there every Saturday.

The premiums will be withheld until these conditions
are complied with.

SHEEP.

RYELAND.

107 Yearling Ram ..

e 3, 10 a
108 Pen of Five Theaves, of the same flock ieee ‘ase

10 se

WELSH, OR ANY OTHER Mountain Breep, |
|

109 Two shear Ram .. <x ae <2
110 Pen of Five Theaves, of the same flock .. .. 10 -

Nore.—aAll sheep entered for competition for the
above prizes must be close shorn in the month of
May, 1863.

PIGS.

LARGE BREED.

iad Boar, Sow, and their litter of pigs, not exceeding six
MODtHSiOlUWes ue) ts: op | pee 10 5

SMALL Breep.

112 Boar, Sow, and their litter of pigs, not exceeding
SiX MOMUHSTOMGN vee oe un ep ene ae 5

Special Prizes. Xx1

FRUIT. Prize. Prize.

Best practical Essay adapted to the counties of Worcester,
Hereford, and Gloucester, on Planting, Raising, and After-
Management of Orchards, and their various kinds of Fruits
for Culinary and other uses, considered as Marketable Pro-
ductions of a Farm ee ee cn eh tose eet sc, 20 oo

CIDER AND PERRY.

Best Essay on the Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and
Perry, including the time and manner of Gathering the Fruit,
the different modes of Grinding and Pressing contrasted; also
the Fermentation and After-Management .. .. . « 20

HOPS.

Best practical Essay on Situation, Soil, Varieties, Planting, and
the General Cultivation and After-Management of Hops, in-
cluding Picking, Drying, and Preparing for Market, as
adapted to the counties of Worcester and Hereford .. .. 20

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

GIVEN BY THE SALT CHAMBER OF COMMERCE.

Best Essay upon the Use of Salt for agricultural purposes. The
essay must give plain directions for its use, based on authori-
tative precedent ; it must show its chemical value as a Food
for Plants and Animals, and define its effects as a Manure.. | 50

All Essays must be addressed to H. Hatt Darn, Esq., Secretary, Royal
Agricultural Society of England, 12, Hanover Square, W., on or before the
Ast of June, 1863. In all other respects the rules of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England as to Prize Essays apply.

xxii Conditions relating to Prizes.

CONDITIONS RELATING TO LIVE-STOCK PRIZES.

1. No bull above two years old will be eligible for a prize unless certified to
have served not less than three different cows (or heifers) within the three
months preceding the 1st of June in the year of the Show.

2. No cow will be eligible for a prize unless certified to have had a live calf,
either between the date of entry and that of the Show, or Within the twelve
months preceding the date of the Show.

3. No heifer, except yearlings, entered as in-calf, will be eligible for a prize
unless she is certified to have been bulled before the 31st of March in the year
of Show, nor will her owner afterwards receive the prize until he shall have
furnished the Secretary with a further certificate that she produced a live calf
before the 31st of January in the subsequent year.

4, All foals must be the offspring of the mare along with which they are
exhibited for the prize.

5. The ewes in each pen must be of the same flock.
6. The three sow-pigs in each pen must be of the same litter.

7. The breeding sows in Classes 79, 80, 81, 82, and 838, shall be certified to
have had a litter of pigs within the six months preceding the Show, or to be
in-pig at the time of entry, so as to produce a litter before the 1st of September
following. In the case of in-pig sows, the prize will be withheld until the
Exhibitor shall have furnished the asiec'd with a certificate of farrowing, as
above.

8. The Judges of pigs will be instructed, with the sanction of the Stewards,
to withhold prizes from any animals which shall appear to them to have been

entered in a wrong class; and to affix a placard of disqualification to the pens
of those animals.

9, All pigs exhibited at the country meetings of the Society shall be sub-
jected to an examination of their mouths by the Veterinary Inspector of the
Society ; and should the state of dentition in any pig indicate that the age of
the animal has not been correctly returned in the Certificate of Entry, the
Stewards shall have power to disqualify such pig, and shall report the circum-
stance to the Council at its ensuing monthly meeting.

10. If a litter of pigs be sent with a breeding sow, the young pigs ac a be:
the produce of the sow, and must not exceed three months old.

11. No horse shall be exhibited without a certificate from a Member of the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, as to the state of the animal with refer-
ence to her ‘editary diseases, particularly those of the respiratory and visual
organs; which certificate shall accompany the Certificate of Entry; but that
the above shall not supersede the usual examination by the Society’s Veterinary
ao

. A form of certificate will be sent to every Fxhibitor of horses, to be
filled up by a Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, certifying
to the soundness of every horse exhibited, without which such horse shall not
be admitted into the Yard.

Conditions relating to Machinery. XXiil

RULES OF ADJUDICATION.

1, As the object of the Society in giving prizes for neat cattle, sheep, and
pigs, is to promote improvement in breeding stock, the Judges in making their
awards will be instructed not to take into their consideration the present value
to the butcher of animals exhibited, but to decide according to their relative
merits for the purpose of breeding.

2. If, in the opinion of the Judges, there should be equality of merit, they
will be instructed to make a special report to the Council, who will decide on
the award.

3. The Judges will be instructed to withhold any prize if they are of opinion
that there is not sufficient merit in any of the stock exhibited for such prize
to justify an award ; should, however, the question of disqualifying a whole
class arise, the Judges shall consult the Stewards of the yard, and their joint
decision shall be final.

4, The Judges will be instructed to give in a reserved number in each class
of live stock; viz., which animal would, in their opinion, possess sufficient
merit for the prize in case the animal to which the prize is awarded should
subsequently become disqualified.

5. In the classes for stallions, mares, and fillies, the Judges in awarding the
prizes will be instructed, in addition to symmetry, to take activity and
strength into their consideration.

6. The Judges will be instructed to deliver to the Director their award,
signed, and stating the numbers to which the prizes are adjudged before they
leave the yard.

CONDITIONS RELATING TO MACHINERY. '

SreAM- ENGINES.

All engines must be fitted with a steam-indicator, in addition to the ordinary
spring-balance. The actual power used during the respective trials will be
correctly ascertained.

*..* Forms of Certificate for entry, as well as Prize-Sheets for the Worcester
Meeting, containing the whole of the conditions and regulations, may be
obtained at the Office of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square, London.

DATES OF ENTRY.

Certiricates for the entry of Implements for the Worcester Meeting must
be forwarded to the Secretary of the Society, No. 12, Hanover Square,
London (W.), by the Ist of May, and Certificates for the entry of Live
Stock by the Ist of June. Certificates received after those respective dates
will not be accepted, but returned to the persons by whom they have been
sent.

The Prizes of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and all Prizes
offered by the Worcester Local Committee, are open to general competition.

XXIV Prizes at Battersea Show.

Tue following is the distribution of the Prizes awarded in the
Heifer Classes at the Battersea Show, the Prizes in which
were reserved till Certificates were received of their having
respectively produced a live-calf before the 3lst January,
1863.

Suort-Horns.

TsE Dux oF Montrosz’s First Prize Heifer, “ May Morn,” failed.
Joun LAne’s Second Prize Heifer, ‘“‘ Maid of Athens,” takes First Prize.
Lorp Frversuam’s Third Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Cecilia,” takes Second Prize.
James Doueuas’s “ Reserved Number” Heifer, ‘‘ Queen of Athelstane,” not
yet calved,
Devons.
James Merson’s Second Prize Heifer, ‘* Profit,” not in calf.
JAMES Merson’s Third Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Favourite,” no information, as she was
‘sold to go to France at the time of the Show.
Witi1am Pavit’s “Reserved Number” Heifer, ‘‘ Young Goldcup,” takes
Prize.
SUSSEX.
Messrs. Heasman’s First Prize Heifer, “ Lily,” produced a dead full-grown calf.
GEORGE JENNER’s Second Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Bishopp,” takes First Prize.
GEORGE JENNER’s “ Reserved Number” Heifer, ‘‘ Crumple Horn,” failed.

NorFotkK AND Surrotk PoLuen.

Lorp SonpeEs’s First Prize Heifer, “ Coral,” not yet calved.

Lorp Sonpes’s Second Prize Heifer, “‘ Ruby,” takes First Prize.

SamMuEL Wo.utTon’s ‘ Reserved Number” Heifer, ‘‘ Favourite,” takes Second
Prize.

SoutH WaALEs.
Ciare SEWELL ReAv’s Second Prize and his ‘ Reserved Number” Heifers
took epidemic at Battersea and were killed.
Kerry.
R. §. Cusacx’s First Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Sappho,” not yet calved.
JAMES SmiTH’s Second Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Mountain Maid,” takes First Prize,
JERSEY OR ALDERNEY.

Aubert Le Gauuais’ First Prize Heifer, disqualified.
C. P. Le Cornv’s Second Prize Heifer takes First Prize.

Tue Rey. W. Lemprizre’s “ Reserved Number” Heifer, “ Rozella,” not yet

calved,
GUERNSEY.
Joun ALLNUTT’s Second Prize Heifer, ‘‘ Blossom,” not yet calved.

‘The remainder of the In-calf Heifers to which Prizes were awarded at

Battersea have produced calves in accordance with the conditions.

January 31st, 1863.

( xxv)

Essaps and Reports—PRIZES FOR 1863.—All Prizes of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England are open to general com-
petition. Competitors will be expected to consider and discuss the
heads enumerated.

.I. AGRICULTURE OF STAFFORDSHIRE.

Firty Sovereigns will be given for the best Report on the
Agriculture of Staffordshire.

The principal geological and physical features of the county should be
described ; the nature of the Soil and character of the Farming in its
different districts or natural divisions ; its Live Stock; Implements ;
recent changes of Farm Management; Improvements lately intro-
duced and still required ; remarkable or characteristic Farms; the
influences exercised by neighbouring mines and factories on the
cropping of the soil, the value of land, the rate of prices and wages,
and on the demand for timber, and consequently on the profitable
management of woods and plantations.

’ tI. BREEDING OF HUNTERS AND ROADSTERS.

TWENTY-FIVE SovEREIGNS will be given for an approved Essay on
the Breeding of Hunters and Roadsters.

Il. RESULTS OF STEAM CULTIVATION.

‘TWENTY-FIVE SovEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the
Results of Steam Cultivation.

The following points must be considered :—
1. The Percolation of Water:
Whether a more rapid escape of surface water on strong soils has
been observed.
2. Texture of the soil:
Whether a deeper and more perfect tilth has been obtained.
3. Crops:

XXVi Prizes for Essays and Reports.

3. Crops:

Whether the produce has been increased.

The total amount of work done in a season; the number of
days in which the tackle has been in use, the nature of the
accidents and stoppages which have occurred, and the cost of
ordinary repairs, breakages and improvements in the tackle
should be stated.

IV. RECLAIMING OF WASTE LANDS.

TWENTY-FIVE SOVEREIGNS will be given for the best Report on
the Reclaiming of Waste Lands,

The works described must have been executed in England or Wales
within the last ten years. The nature of the soil and climate, the
plan and cost of drainage, clearing or grubbing, mazling, fencing,
roadmaking; the crops grown, and the course of culture and
management to be pursued, should be stated.

Vv. MOVEABLE FENCING FOR!) SHEEP.

Ten Soverrians will be given for the best Essay on Moveable
Fencing for Sheep.

The cost, durability, and convenience of hurdles of various kinds; of
portable fencing, wood or iron; and of nets of various materials
and meshes, painted or not, should be contrasted.

VI. DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS INJURIOUS TO AGRICULTURE.

Twenty Sovereicns will be given for the best Essay on the
Destruction of Insects Injurious to Agriculture.

The Essay may specially apply either to the insects which injure the
Cereals, or to those which destroy the Root Crops. References to
former treatises describing the nature of these insects should he,
brief, with special regard to the course of action to be pursued,

VII. TREATMENT OF LAND DAMAGED BY SALT WATER.

Firreen Sovereiens will be given for an approved Essay on the
Treatment of Land Damaged by the overflow of Salt-
Water.

Prizes for Essays and Reports. xxvii

VIII. ANY OTHER AGRICULTURAL SUBJECT.

Ten Sovererens will be given for an approved Essay on any other
Agricultural Subject.

7

Reports or Essays competing for the Prizes must be sent to the Secretary
of the Society, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before March 1,
1863. Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their
Communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their return.

RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS,

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experience
or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources. Com-
petitors are requested to use foolscap or large letter paper, and not to write on
both sides of the leaf.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated scale,
shall accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a sealed cover,
on which only their motto, the subject of their Essay, and the number of that
subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*

4, The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall open
the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize has
been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal: Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of any Essay not obtaining the Prize, that he may think
likely to be useful for the Society’s objects; with a view of consulting the
writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such Essay at tne disposal
of the Journal Committee.

* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the enclosed paper on which
their names are written, as well as on the outside of the envelope.

XXViil Prizes for Essays and Reports.

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining Prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of such
Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of
the Essays deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calculations
are to be made.

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society, on or before the Ist of March, 1863.

————

( xxix )
Members’ Pribtleqes of Chemical Analpsis.

Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bond-fide use of Members
of the Society; who (to avoid all unnecessary correspondence) are
particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens,
must be paid to him by members at the time of their application.

No. 1.—An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian guano, bone-
dust, or oil-cake (each sample) .. 5s.
» 2—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture,
organic matter, sand, phosphate of lime, alkaline salts,
and ammonia ae 10s.
», 3-—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-
monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. 10s.
» 4.—An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-
phates only 10s.
» D.—An analysis of superphosphate of Time, showing the pro-
portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia .. £1.
», 6.—An analysis (sufficient for the determination of its agricul-
tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. 3 EAE
»» 7.—Limestone :—the proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor-
tion of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and mag-
nesia 15s.
» 8.—Limestone or “inarls, “including carbonate, "phosphate, and
sulphate of lime, and magnesia with sand and Cliver=-.. 251.
» 9.—Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of Ty,
sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime + St.
», L0.—Complete analysis ofa ‘soil . £3.
», 11.—An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance used for feeding
purposes; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre ;
as well as of starch, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate £1.

», 12.—Analyses of any vegetable product .. = 1 Fs
» 18 Fier ie of animal products, refuse substances ‘used for
e, &e. = from 10s. to 30s.
» 14 = eitadakies of the ce hardness z ‘of a sample of water
before and after boiling 10s,
gid .-—Analysis of water of land drainage, and of water used for
irrigation .. £2.
>, 16.—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water . ao ee:

N.B.—The above Scale of Charges is not applicable to the case of persons
commercially engaged in the Manufacture or Sale of any Substance sent for
Analysis,

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. Aucustus
Vortcker, Cirencester, Gloucestershire, to which he requests that all letters
and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed: for the convenience,
nig of persons residing: in London, parcels sent to the Society’s Office, No.

2, Hanover Square, W., will be forwarded to Cirencester once or twice a week.

( =x )
SMembers’ Weterinary Privileges.

I.—Senrious or Extensive D1skaszs.

No. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance
and special advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Secretary, will, by return of
post, receive a reply stating whether it be considered necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society’s Veterinary Inspector, should visit the place where the
disease prevails.

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 27. 2s, each day as a
professional fee, and 1/. 1s. each day for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required, The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the Council,
on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
veceive the same rates of remuneration.

I7.—Orprmvary on OrHer Cases oF DISEASE.

Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Inspector on any
case of disease by paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 27. 2s. per diem, and travelling expenses.

III.—Consvxirations WITHOUT VISIT.
Personal consultation with Veterinary Pere = “a es

Consultation by letter .. as. ee
Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more letters. 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon .. “ - 10s.

A return of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.

TVY.—Apmission oF DiseasED ANIMALS TO THE VETERINARY COLLEGE};
Investications, Lecrures, anpD Reports,

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending cattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of the Royal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week each animal, and for sheep and
pigs “a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances.”

No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.

No. 3. In addition to the increased number of lectures now given by
Professor Simonds—the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology—to the pupils in the
Royal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4. The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to the
Council a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, -and pigs treated in the
Infirmary.

(7m)

Ropal Agricultural Society of England,
q 1863-64. .

PrestVent.
LORD FEVERSHAM,

Trustees.

AcLAND, Sir Tuomas Dyke, Bart., Killerton Park, Exeter, Devonshire.
Bzrners, Lord, Keythorpe Hall, Leicester.

Bramston, THomas Wiiitam, M.P., Shreens, Chelmsford, Essex.
CHALLONER, Colonel, Portnall Park, Staines, Middlesex.
Ferversuam, Lord, Helmsley, York.

Manrweoroucn, Duke of, Blenheim Parl, Oxford.

Portman, Lord, Bryanston, Blandford, Dorset.

Powls, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
RoutLanD, Duke of, Belvoir Castle, Grantham, Lincolnshire.
SHeELtey, Sir Joun Vittiers, Bart, M.P., Maresfield Park, Sussex.
Srreaxer, The Rt. Hon. the, Ossington, Newark-on-Trent, Notts.
Tuomeson, Harry SrePHen, M.P., Kirby Hall, York.

Pice-PBrestvents.

AsuBurRTon, Lord, The Grange, Alresford, Hampshire.

Barker, Tuomas Raymonp, Hambledon, Henley-on-Thames, Ozfordshire.
CuicHEster, Earl of, Stanmer Park, Lewes, Suseex.

Downsutre, Marquis of, Hast Hampstead Park, Bracknell, Berkshire.
Eemont, Earl of, Cowdray Park, Petworth, Sussex.

Everstey, Viscount, Hecl:field Place, Winchfield, Hants.

Exerer, Marquis of, Burleigh House, Stamford, Lincolnshire.

Hut, Viscount, Hawkstone Park, Salop.

Hosss, W. Fisuer, Boxted Lodge, Colchester, Essex.

JOHNSTONE, Sir Joun V. B., Bart., M.P., Hacleness Hall, Scarborough, Yorkshire.
Mies, Sir Witt1ay, Bart., M.P., Leigh Court, Bristol, Somersetshire.
WALSINGHAM, Lord, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

Other Members of Council.

ACLAND, THoMAS DyKe, Sprydoncote, Exeter, Devonshire.

Amos, CiuarLes Epwarps, Greenfield House, Sutton, Surrey.

Arkwricu?, J. Honcerrorp, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire,

Barnett, Cuar.es, Stratton Park, Biggleswade, Bedfordshire.

Barrurorp, NATHANIEL Goren, Hacheston, Wickham Market, Suffolk.

Butter, JAMES WeNnTWoRTH, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devonshire.

CANTRELL, Cuarues S., Riding Court, Datchet, Buchs.

Carucart, Earl, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

CaAveNpisH, Hon, Wit11AM, M.P., Latimer, Chesham, Bucks.

CLAYDEN, Joun, Littlebury, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Corron, Colonel the Hon, W. H. 8., Cherry Hill, Malpas, Cheshire.
VOL. XXIV. d

XxXxil List of Officers.

Dent, J. D., M.P., Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire.

Druce, JosEpH, Hynsham, Oxford.

Exatt, Wu1am, Reading, Berkshire.

Gisss, B. T. Branprets, Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, London, W.
Hamonpd, ANTHONY, Westacre Hall, Brandon, Nov folk.

Ho.ianp, Epwarp, M.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Worcestershire.

Hoop, Major-Gen. the Hon. A. Netson, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.
Hoskyns, Cuanpos WREN, Harewood, Ross, Herefordshire.

Hopson, Joun, Castleacre Lodge, Brandon, Norfoli:.

Houmperston, Puitie Stapyyton, M.P., Mollington, Chester, Cheshire.
Hotton, Wiu1aM, Gate Burton, Gainsboro’, Yorishire.

Jonas, SamueE, Chrishall Grange, Saffron Walden, Essex.

Kerrison, Sir Epwarp CLarence, Bart., M-P., Brome Hall, Scole, Norfolk.
Krvcscore, Colonel, M.P., Kingscote, Wootton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
Lawes, JoHN BENNET, Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts,

LAWRENCE, CHARLES, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

Letcu, Lord, Stoneleigh Abbey, Warwickshire.

Macponatp, Sir ARcHIBALD KepPeEL, Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants.
Minwarp, Ricuarp, Thurgarton Priory, Southwell, Notts. .

Paty, Tuomas, Laverstock Hall, Salisbury, Wilts.

Porre, Epwarp, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset.

RANDELL, Cuartes, Chadbury, Evesham, Worcestershire.

RigDEN, WiLt1AM, Hove, Brighton, Sussex.

Rw ey, Sir MatrHew Wuite, Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Morpeth, Northumberland.
Sanpay, Witir1am, Holmepierrepont, Notts.

SsuTTLEWoRTH, JosErH, Hartsholme Hall, Lincoln.

Sonrn, Rosert, Emmett’s Grange, Southmolton, Devon.

Torr, Wii11aM, Aylesby Manor, Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire.

TowNeELeEY, Lieut.-Colonel Cuar.es, Towneley Park, Blackburn, ——
TrepDecaR, Lord, Tredegar, Newport, Monmouthshire.

TURNER, GEORGE, Beacon Downes, Exeter, Devonshire.

Vernon, Hon. Aveustus H., Orgreave Hall, Lichfield, Staffordshire.
Watts, OWEN, Overstone Grange, Northampton.

WE ts, Witt1amM, Redleaf, Penshurst, Kent.

WEstTeERN, Tuomas Burcs, Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.

Wuson, Henry, Stowlangtoft Hall, Bury-St.-Edmunds, Suffoll:.

Wuson, Professor, Iver, Uxbridge, Bucks.

Wyn, Sir Watery Witiisms, Bart, M.P., Rhuabon, Denbighshire.

Secretary. ss
H. HALL DARE, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.

Consulting-Chemist— Dr, Aucustus VoELcKER, 101, Leadenhall Strect, E.C,
Veterinary-Inspector—JAMES BEART Simonps, Royal Veterinary College, N.W. s
Consulting Engineer—JameEs Easton, or C. E. Amos, Grove, Southwark, $.E.
Scedsmen—Tuomas Grbzs and Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly, Ws
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, hemaris Street, W.

Bankers—Tue LoNpoN AND WESTMINSTER Bank, St. James’s Square Branch, S.w.-

(| xxiii)

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1863-64.

Finance Committee.

Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON,
Chairman.
BARNETT, CHARLES.

Branston, T. W., M.P.
Hosss, WM. FISHER.
Torr, WILLIAM.

Bouse Committee.

THE PRESIDENT.

CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W., M.P.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.

BRANDRETH, HUMPHREY.
CHALLONER, Colonel.
Grpss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Hoss, WM. FISHER.

Journal Committee.

Tuompson, H. S., M.P., Chairman.
CaTHcakt, Earl.

SPEAKER, The Rt. Hon. THE.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., MP.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.-P.
Kerrison, Sir E. C., Bt.

MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt.
ACLAND, T. DYKE.
HOotianpb, Ep., M.P.
Hoskyns, C. WREN.
MILWARD, RICHARD.
WALLIs, OWEN.

Chemical Committee.

Hoskyys, C. WREN, Chairman.
VERNON, Hon. A. H.

JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
Mites, Sir Wu., Bt., M.P.
ACLAND, T. DYKE.

ARKWRIGHT, J. H.

DavuBeny, Dr. -

Dent, J. D., M.P.

HOLLAND, Ep., M.P.
Hupson, JOHN.
Humerston, P. S., M.P.
HUxXTABLE, Ven. Archdeacon.
LAwEs, J. B.

THompson, H. S., M.P.
WELLs, WILLIAM.

Veterinary Committee.

Barker, THos. RAyMonpD, Chairman,
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.
JOHNSTONE, Sir J. V. B., Bt., M.P.
MILEs, Sir W., Bt., M.P.
CHALLONER, Colonel.

Gusss, B. T. BRANDRETH.

HamonD, ANTHONY.

Hoss, WM. FISHER.
Party, THOs.

Srwonps, Professor.
SPooNER, Professor.
THomeson, H. S., M.P.
WELLs, WILLIAM.

Stock-Brises Committee.

WALsINGHAM, Lord.

SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P.
Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON.
BARNETT, CHARLES.

BARTHROPP, NATHANIEL G.
Druce, JOSEPH.

Grsss, B. T. BRANDRETH,

Hoss, WM. FISHER.

HOLiLanD, Ep., M.P.

Hupson, JOnN.

JONAS, SAMUEL.
MiLwarpb, RICHARD.
Party, THOMAS.
Pope, EDWARD.
RANDELL, CHAS.
RIGDEN, WM.
Sant, RoBERT.
Smronps, Professor.
Torr, WILLIAM.
TURNER, GEORGE.

XXXIV Standing Committees for 1863-64.

Emplement Committee.

CHALLONER, Colonel, Chairman, EXALL, WILLIAM.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W., M.P. Grpss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A, NELSON. HAMOND, ANTHONY.
VERNON, Hon. A. H. : Hosss, WM. FisHEer.
SHELLEY, Sir J. V., Bt., M.P. Hoskyns, C. WREN.
MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
MILEs, Sir WM., Bt., M.P. THomeson, H. S., M.P.
Amos, C. E. Torr, WILLIAM.
BARNETT, CHARLES. WALLIS, OWEN.
CANTRELL, CHAS. S. Wison, Professor.

General Pelvcastle Committee.

EVERSLEY, Viscount, Chairman, DENT, J. D., M.P.
Powis, Earl of. Grsss, B. T. BRANDRETH.
PorTMAN, Lord. Hopss, WM. FIsHEer.
TREDEGAR, Lord. HOLLAND, E., M.P.
CAVENDISH, Hon. W., M.P. Hoskywns, C. WREN.
‘Hoop, Hon. Maj.-Gen. A. NELSON. . Kiyescore, Col., M.P.
LIDDELL, Hon. H. G., M.P. MILWARD, RICHARD.
“HeEADLAM, Rt.-Hon, T. E., M.P. NEWCASTLE, Mayor of,
MacDONALD, Sir A. K., Bart. Pain, THOMAS.

RIDLEY, Sir MATTHEW WuiTE, Bart.,M.P. Port, EDwARD.

“Wynn, Sir WATKIN W., Bart., M.P. Ramsay, G. H.
ARKWRIGHT, J. HUNGERFORD. RANDELL, CHARLES.
BARNETT, CHARLES. SHUTTLEWORTH, JOSEPH.
Beaumont, S. A., M.P. Tuompson, H. S., M.P.
BramstTon, T. W., M.P. Torr, WILLIAM.
CANTRELL, CHARLES S. WILSON, JACOB.

.CHALLONER, Colonel.

-*,* The PRESIDENT, TRUSTEES, and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members ex officio of all
Committees.

MEMORANDA.

Appress or Lerrers.—The Society’s office being situated in the postal district
designated by the letter WW, members, in their correspondence with the
Secretary, are requested to subjoin that letter to the usual address,

GENERAL MEETING in London, in December, 1863.
GenerRAL Meerine in London, May 22, 1864, at Twelve o'clock.
MeeETING at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in 1864,

Montuty Councit (for transaction of business), at 12 o’clock on the first Wed-
nesday in every month, excepting January, September, and October: open
only to Members of Council and Governors of the Society.

Werxxy Councit (for practical communications), at 12 o’clock on all Wednesdays
in February, March, April, May, June, July, November, and December, ex-
cepting the first Wednesday in each of those months, and during adjournment:
open to all Members of the Society, who are particularly invited by the
Council to avail themselves of this privilege.

ADJOURNMENTS.—The Council adjourn over Passion and Easter weeks, when
those weeks do not include the first Wednesday of the month ; from the first
Wednesday in August to the first Wednesday in November; and from the first
Wednesday in December to the first Wednesday in February.

DrseaseEs of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs.—-Members have the privilege of applying to
the Veterinary Committee of the Society ; and of sending animals to the Royal
Veterinary College, on the same terms as if they were subscribers to the
College.—(A statement of these privileges will be found in the present
Appendix.)

Curmican Anatysts.—The privileges of Chemical Analysis enjoyed by Members
of the Society will be found stated in the Appendix of the present volume.

Locat CHEQues.—Members are particularly requested not to forward Country
Cheques for payment in London; but London Cheques, or Post-office
Orders on Vere-street (payable to H. Hatt Dare), in lieu of them. All
Cheques are required to bear upon them a penny draft or receipt stamp,
which must be cancelled in each case by the initials of the drawer. They
may also conveniently transmit their Subscriptions to the Society, by re-
questing their Country Bankers to pay (through their London Agents) the
amount at the Society’s Office (No. 12, Hanover Square, London), between
the hours of ten and four, when official receipts, signed by the Secretary,
will be given for such payments.

New Memebers.—Every candidate for admission into the Society must be pro-
posed by a Member; the proposer to specify in writing the full name, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council meet-
ing, or by letter addressed to the Secretary.

Packets By Post.—Packets not exceeding two feet in length, width, or depth,
consisting of written or printed matter (but not containing letters sealed or
open), if sent without envelopes, or enclosed in envelopes open at each end,
may be forwarded by the inland post, if stamped, at the following rates:—

For a packet not exceeding 4 ounces (or quarter of apound) ,. . . 1 penny
» os . 8 , (or half a pound) + etree ie e2pences
ae Pe Fr Gua sCOnone pound)» « ‘« « 1» 40 5,
yy ds 5 24 4, (oronepoundandahalf) . . 6 ,
» ” a $2. , (ortwopounds) . .... 8 »
(And so on in the proportion of 8 ounces for each additional 2d.]

*,* Members may obtain on application tothe Secretary copies of an Abstract of the Charter
and Bye-Laws, of a Statement of the General Objects, &c., of the Society, of Chemical
and Veterinary Privileges, and of other printed papers connected with special depart-
ments ol the Society’s business,

( =x )

Ropal Agricultural Societp of England.

GENERAL MEETING,

12, Hanover Square, Fripay, May 22, 1863.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Council have the satisfaction of reporting favourably of
the progress made by the Society in the attainment of its prac-
tical and useful objects.

The number of its members at the present time differs only
by 6 from the numbers at the date of the last general meeting,
-205 names having been removed by death or otherwise from the
list, while 211 new members have within the last 5 months been
elected into the Society, which now consists of—

80 Life Governors,
88 Annual Governors,
1,263 Life Members,
3,735 Annual Members, and
17 Honorary Members,

making a total of 5,183.

Mr. Bowly,: of Siddington House, Cirencester, has been
elected a Member of Council in the place of the late Mr, Jonas
Webb.

The funds of the Society are in a highly satisfactory state ;
every claim against it has been regularly discharged as it has
become due ; and while 16,488/. 17s. 10d. remains invested in
the New Three per Cents., an ample cash balance is available
for current purposes in the hands of the bankers, A deposit
account having been opened with the bankers, the Society will
receive interest on the funds which accumulate in the early part —
of the year, and will not be required till the show-yard is
erected,

()Sexvii —)

The Council have to report the favourable progress of the
preparations for the country meeting of the Society, to be held
this year in the city of Worcester, in the week commencing on
Monday, the 20th of July, which will be the day on which the
judges will award the prizes in the classes of live stock. The
show and trial-yards will be open as follows :-—

Wednesday, July io. —The trial-y ard open from noon till
6 P.M.

Thursday, Friday, and Saturday; July 16, 17, and 18.—The
trial-yard open from 9 a.m. till 6 P.M.

Monday, July 20.—Cattle-yard open from 8 a.M., when the
judges will commence inspecting the live-stock and making
their awards; the implement-yard open from 8 a.M.; the show-
yards will close at 6 P.M.

Tuesday, Wednesday, ‘Thursday, and Friday; July 21, 22,
23, and 24.—The general show open from 6 a.M. to 6 P.M.

Mr. Dent, M.P., has accepted’ the office of steward of stock ;
and Sir Archibald Macdonald that of steward of implements, in
the place of the Hon. A. Vernon, resigned. The entries for
implements are more numerous than in any previous year in all
the three departments of shedding, seed and model oe and
machinery in motion.

Papers have been read at the weekly meetings by Mr. Taylor,
of 88, Parliament Street, on Materials for Ciiteaé Building ; by
Mr. Bailey Denton, on the Effect of Biider drainare on the
Rivers and Arterial [Sica of the Country ; on the "WiAvilinea
tion of Oilcakes, by Professor Voélcker ; on Animal Parasites,
by Professor Simonds; and by Mr. Ruck, on Steam Cultiva-
tion.

The Council have decided, subject to the usual conditions, to
hold the Society’s country meeting next year at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

The country meeting in the year 1865 will be held in the dis-
trict comprising the counties of Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, and
Somerset.

By Order of the Council,
H. Hatt Dang,

Secretary.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

Dr. HALF-YEARLY Caso Account
To Balance in hand, 1st ree a 1863 :— C0 SROs 2. 9. 8

Bankers ui) 4. Bean oe) hh celta CRN BET ces 3849 2 8
Secretary ice): lea Senki ante woh elas pete 33 3 9 ;
—_—_—_ 382 6 5

To Income, viz. :—
Dividends on Stock Ari tems. OS

Subscriptions : — peek oa
Governors’ Annual .. .. .. 890 0 O
Members’ Life-Compositions .. 450 0 0
Members’ Annual.. .. .. -. 2994 5 0
—)| 3,834 5 0
Journal :—
Sales Lc, s utc Mibei. Gehl mine mmets 116 19 6
Advertisements’ 2. =... ak 9316 4
— 140 15 10
Veterinary :—
Sale'of Pamphiets= “cs We. -o- (neu Weeuite ain
Sale of Wool <a debbeey Wo) anol meee Gip8-.0
——— 4,224 6 8
To London'Show, 22) 4 eset iss) wee Weenies Miee ah ae * 2° 6m
To, Worcester Meeting 2. <-05 <5 lee) co sem Mee wan eels 3,618 0 0

_—

£ 8,226 18 By

BALANCE-SHEET,

LIABILITIES.

To Capital: cae Kok £. 3m
Surplus, 3lst December, 1862 se 21,557 182
Surplus of Income over Expenditure ‘during the
Half-year, viz :— | .

Income” .2°0 aarp teeree et 4294 6 3
Expenditure; sceecmeees.| 1960\18 aay
———— | 2,257 7 8

To London: Show :— . 23,815 5 10
Difference between Receipts and Expenditure,

the latter exceeding the former by .. .. .. Pn 8,584 10 9

—_—_—

£20,230 15 1

ee

(Signed) A. N. HOOD, on behalf of Finance Committee.

SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

FROM Ist JANUARY TO 30TH JUNE, 1863.

By Expenditure :—

Establishment—
Official Salaries and Wages
House Expenses, Taxes, “ke.

Journal :—
Printing
Stitching
Delivery, Advertising, &e.
Prize Essays ..

Other Contributions
Editor’s Salary

Chemical :—
Consulting Chemist’s Salary
Grant for Investigations, 1863 .

- -

Veterinary :—

| Grant to Royal Veterinary College ..
Stock :—Brokerage, &e. 3
Postage and Carriage
Advertisements
Sundries
Subscriptions returned (paid i in error) ..
Wool at International Exhibition

--
- o-

By London Show aa
By Worcester Meeting...

o-

Total Payments ..

By Deposit with London and Westminster Bank
By Balance in hand :—

Barkers ..

Secretary ..

d.

wo

585

1o

841

1,966 18 7
582 16 1

; 1,090 18 4

3,640 8

2,000 0

9

,386 10 8

618 8

£8, 22

: 30TH JUNE, 1863.

ASSETS.
By Cashin hand .. .
By Deposit Account, London and Westminster Bank

By New 3 per cent. Stock, 16,4881. 17s. 10d. cost .
By Books and Furniture, Society’ s House, Hanover

Square ..

By Account at Credit of Worcester Meeting

* - o-

|

Ee aes, LG.
2,586 10 8
2,000 0 0

V5,8Sle Lie

2,000 0 0

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 11th Day of August, 1863,

(Signed)
HENRY CORBET.
WILLIAM COHEN,

WILLIAM COPELAND ASTBURY.

Auditors on. behalf

of the Society,

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SHOW AT WORCESTER,

JULY, 1863.

STEWARDS OF THE YARD.

Stewards of Stock.
Tuomas Par.

RicHarp Miiwarp.
Jouyx D. Dent, M.P.

Stewards of Implements..
Sm A. K. Macponatp, Bart.
Wattiam Torr.
Sm E. Keretson, Bart., M.P.

Steward of Forage.
CuaRrwes 8. CaAnTRELL.

Honorary Director of the Show.
B. T. BranpretH Gress.

JUDGES.

Short-horns,
GerorcE Drewry,
W. H. Beatrorp,
JoHN UNTHANKE.

. Herefords.
E. L. FRankuin,
JOHN CoLEMAN,

J. E. Jones.

Devons.
Samvet Users,
R. B. Wanreex,
H. W. Keary.

Sussex and other Breeds.
SamveL BLoxsipce,
Tomas Harris,

W. Fisner Hosss.

Thorough-breds aud Hunters.
CHARLES BARNETT,

Hesry THURNALL,

Hoy. Cotoxet Corrox.

Hackneys and Ponies.
J. Eaete WELsy,
J. E. BENNETT,
JOHN PaRRINGTON.

Steam-Cultivators.
HE. B. CaLtpwett,
CLARE SEWELL Reap,
Jacos WiLson,
Wi11am OWEN.

Steam-Engines.

J. V. Goocs,
D. K. CiarkeE,
J. STEWART.

Veterinary-Inspectors.
Proressor SrMonps,
PROFESSOR VARNELL.

(Royal Veterinary College.)

Stock.
Agriculturals, Drays, and Suffolks.

N. G. Barrurorr,
T. Brooxs,
R. P. NisBet.

Leicesters.
F. Jorpay,
J. B. THompson,
RicHarp Woops.

Cotswolds and Lincolzs.

HucH AYLMER,

Tuomas GREETHAM,

H. Baresan.
Southdowas.

Peter PuRVEs,

Hexzy OVERMAN,

Henry Foores.

Shropshires and all others.

CHARLES RANDELL,

F. Bopp,

T. H. SaunpErs.

J. S. TURNER.
J. Moo,
H. P. Joxzs.

Thrashing-Machines.
JOHN HICKEN,
Wii1iam Cuacrart,
Giison Martin.
Dressing-Machines, &c., and

Miscellaneous.

G. M. Hirwett,
The Rev. A. Rice.

Consulting-Engineer.
CHARLES Epwarps Amos.
(Firm of Eastox and Anos.)

xlii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

AWARD OF PRIZES.

a

Notr.—The Judges were instructed to give in a Reserved Number to
one animal in each Class, viz., the animal which would in their
opinion possess sufficient merit for the Prize, in case an animal to
which a Prize was awarded should subsequently become disqualified.

If ten animals or pens were exhibited in any Class, a Silver Medal
was awarded to the Third best.

CATTLE.

Short-horn Bulls.

Jacop Witson, Manor House, Woodhorn, Morpeth, Northumberland: Firsr
Prizz, 251., for “ Duke of Tyne” (17,751), roan, 4 years 7 months 3 —
weeks- old; bred by M. Spraggon, Nafferton, Stocksfield, Northumberland ;
sire, “Richard Cceur de Lion” (13,590); dam, “ Welcome.”

JOHN CHARLESWORTH, Headfield, Dewsbury, Vorkshirok Srconp Prize, 151,
for “ General Murat” alze 955), roan, 3 years 2 months 8 week-old ; bred
by himself; sire, ‘‘ Prince Tallyrand” (16,765); dam, “ Village Belle.”

JoHN Brawn, Shelfield, Walsall, Staffordshire: Tairp Prizn, Silver Medal,
for ‘ Young Radford,” roan, 3 years 1 month 3 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by
J. H. Bradburne, Pipe-place, Lichfield, Staffordshire; sire, “Sir Colin”
(16,955) ; dam, ‘“* Miss Chance.”

Lorp Frvrersuam, Duncombe Park, Heimsley, Yorkshire: the eserved
Number, to “ Vice-Chancellor,” red roan, 5 years 5 months 2 weeks jt
day-old; bred by himself; sire, “5th Duke of Oxford ;” dam, ‘ Varna.”

Viscount Hitt, Hawkstone, Shrewsbury: Frrsr Prizm, 25/., for “ Hemlock,”
roan, 2 years, 4 months 3 weeks 3 days-old; bred by himself; sire,
“ Hetman ” (14,702) ; dam, “ Destiny.”

JONATHAN PEEL, Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe: Seconp Prizx, 15/., for
“ Hengist,” white, 2 years 1 month 1 week 4 days-old; bred by himself ;
site, War Eagle ” (15,483) ; dam, ‘‘ Princess Maud.” ie

CoroneL Cuartes TowNnELry, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: Tarrp
Prize, Silver Medal, for « Royal Butterfly 10th” (18,761), red and
white, 2 years 8 months 3 weeks 4 days-old; bred by himself; sire,
“ Royal Butterfly ” (16,862); dam, ‘‘ Parade.”

Sim AntHoyy DE Roruscuixp, Bart., Aston Clinton, Tring, Buckinghamshire :
the Jteserved Number, to “ Sheriff,’ red with white marks, 2 years 10
months 1 week 6 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Lord Mayor”
(14,828); dam, “ Floret.”

Ricuarp Hasrwoop, Thorney Holme, Clitheroe, Lancashire: First Prize, 251,
for “The Hero, ” white, 1 year 1 month 3 weeks 1 day-old ; bred by
himself; sire, ‘“ Priam ” (16, 710) ; dam, ‘‘ Heroine.”

Cononrn Cuartrs Towneury, Towneley Pak, Burnley, Lancashire: SEconD
Prizz, 15/., for “ Royal- -Butterfly 11th,” roan, 1 year 11 months 3 weeks

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. xiii

6 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Royal Butterfly ” (16,862); dam,
“ Pageant.”

Wiutr1am Woopwarp, Northway House, Ashchurch, Tewkesbury: Tuirp
Prize, Silver Medal, for “ French Butterfly’s Coeur de Lion,” roan,
1 year 11 months 2 weeks 6 days-old; bred by Messrs. Atkinson, By well:
Hall Farm, Newcastle-on-Tyue ; sire, "« Richard Cceur de Lion” (13, 590); ;
dam, “ Vestris’s French Butterfly.”

THe Hox. Cotonen E. G. D. Pennant, M.P., of Penrhyn Castle, Bangor
Carnarvonshire: the Reserved Number, to “Earl of Darlington,” roan,
1 year 5 months 4 weeks 2 days-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Mar-

. maduke ” (14,897) ; dam, “ Darlington the 8th.”

Sir AnrHony bE Roruscuixp, Bart., Aston Clinton, Tring, Bucks: First
Prize, 10/., for ‘‘ Captain Cherry,” red and white, 10 months 1 day-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “‘ Fortunatus;” dam, ‘“ Cherry Ripe.”

GrorcE GaRrNE, Churchill Heath, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire: SEconp
Prize, 5/., for “ Pizarro,” white, 10 months 1 week 5 days-old; bred by
himself; sire, “ Gondomar” (17,985) ; dam, “ Patent.”

JosEPH Rostnson, Clifton Pastures, Newport Pagnell, Bucks: Tutrp Prize,
Silver Medal, for ‘“ Pretor,” rich roan, 7 months, 2 days-old; bred by
himself ; sire, “2nd Duke of Thorndale ;” dam, “ Prude.”

Sm AntTHoxy pe RorHscHILp, Bart., Aston Clinton, Tring, Bucks: the
Reserved Number, to “ Officer,” roan, 10 months 2 weeks 5 days-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “ Sheriff . (1s, 822) : dam, “ Samphire.”

Short-Horn Cows and Heifers.

Emuny, Lapy Picor, Branches Park, Newmarket, Cambridgeshire : First Prize,
201., for “‘ Pride of Southwicke,”’ roan, 4 years 5 months 3 weeks 4 days-
old, in-milk; bred by Mr. Stewart, Southwicke, Dumfries, Scotland ;

ire, “ Mac Turk” (14,872); dam, “ Vanity.”

Joun Lane, Barton Mills, Cirencester, Gloucestershire : SEconD,PrIzE, 10/7.,
for “ Maid of Athens,” white, 3 years 4 months 1 week-old, in-milk and
in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “Sir Richard (15,298); dam, “ Miss
Bloomer.”

Eart Spencer, Althorpe, Northampton: the Reserved Number, to “ Veil,”
white, 5 years 3 weeks 2 day s-old, in-calf; bred by himself ; 3 Sire,
“ Vaulter® (15,451).

Emtty, Lapy Picor, Branches Park, Newmarket, Cambridgeshire: First
Prize, 15/., for é Rosedale,” roan, 2 years 4 months 2 weeks 3 days-old,
in-calf; bred by herself; sire, “ Valasco ” (15,443) ; dam, “ Rosy.”

RicHarp Boors, Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire: Seconp Prize, 10/., for
“ Queen of ‘the May 2nd,” roan, 2 years 5 months 3 weeks-old, in- -calf ;
bred by himself; sire, “ Windsor ” (14,018) or “ Sir Samuel ” (15, 302) ; =
dam, ‘‘ Queen of the Vale.”

CotosEL CaarLes TowNELEY, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: Tuirp
Prize, Silver Medal, for ‘* Roan Knight’s Butterfly,” red and white,
2 years 10 months 3 weeks 4 days-old, in-calf; bred by himself; sire,
“Roan Knight” (15,067) ; dam, “ Paris Butterfly. e

CotoxeL CHartes TowNELey, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: the
Reserved Number, to “ Royal Butterfly ’s Duchess,” roan, 2 years 4 months-
old, in-calt ; bred by himself; sire, “ Royal Butterfly (16,862) ; dam,
«Roan Duchess 2nd.”

Tue Duke oF Montrose, Buchanan Castle, Glasgow: First Prize, 151., for

xliv Award of Live-Stoch Prizes at Woreester.

“Flower Girl,” red roan, 1 year 11 months 3 weeks 4 days-old; bred by
himself; sire, “‘ Baron Killerby ;” dam, “‘ Flora.”

CoLoxEL CHartes TowneLey, Towneley Park, Burnley, Laneashire: Srconp
Prize, 10/., for “ Frederick’s Farewell,” roan, 1 year 8 months 3 weeks
1 day-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Frederick” (11,489); dam,
“ Vestris 3rd.”

Emity, Lapy Pieor, Branches Park, Newmarket, Cambridgeshire: Tarrp
Prize, Silver Medal, for ‘Castianira,” roan, 1 year 10 months 1 day-
old; bred by herself; sire, “Lord of the Valley” (14,837); dam,
“ Castanet.”

CoLonEL CHARLES TowNELEY, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: the -
Reserved Number, to “Bampton Butterfly,” roan, 1 year 7 months 3
weeks 3 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “Royal Butterfly” (16,862) ;
dam, “ Young Bampton Rose.”

Davin M‘TIytosp, Havering Park, Romford, Essex: First Prize, 10/., for
“Tady Oxford 5th,” roan, 11 months 2 days-old ; bred by himself; sire,
‘¢ Third Duke of Thorndale ” (17,749) ;, dam, “‘ Lady Oxford 4th.”

Rosert E. Orrver, Sholebroke Lodge, Towcester, Northamptonshire: Szconp
Prize, d/., for “‘ Lalage the Second,” red, 11 months 2 weeks 5 days-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “ Romulus Butterfly ” (18,741); dam, “ Lalage,”

CoLoneEL Cuarites TowNELey, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: Tarrp
Prize, Silver Medal, for “Royal Butterfly’s Pageant,” red and white,
10 months 3 weeks 4 days-old ; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Royal Butterfly ”
(16,862); dam, “‘ Pageant.”

JosEPH Hreean, Dawpool, Neston, Chester: the Reserved Number, to “ Grand
Duchess 12th,” roan, 11 months 3 weeks 2 days-old; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Imperial Oxford ” (18,084) ; dam, “ Grand Duchess 9th.”

Hereford Bulls.

Joun Huncerrorp ArKwricHt, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefordshire :
Finst Prize, 251., for “ Sir Oliver the Second,” red with white face, 4 years
8. months 1 week 4 days-old; bred by T, Rea, Westonbury, Leominster ;
sire, “Sir Benjamin ;” dam, “ Eva.”

Tuomas Davies, Lady Meadow, Leominster, Herefordshire : Szrconp Prize,
15l., for “‘ Plato” (2160), red with white face and mane, 4 years 3 months
3 weeks 2 days-old; bred by T. Rea, Westonbury, Pembridge, Leomin-
ster; sire, “Sir Benjamin” (1387); dam, “ Isabella.”

Lorp Bateman, Shobden Court, Shobden, Herefordshire; the eserved
Number, to “Golden Horn,” red with white face, 4 years 11 months
1 week 4 days-old; bred by W. Perry, Cholstrey, Leominster, Hereford-
shire ; sire, “ Monkland ;” dam, “ Bury the 3rd.”

Wu1am Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, Herefordshire: Firsr Prize, 25/.,
for “'Tambarine ” (2254), red with white face, 2 years 10 months 2 weeks
1 day-old; bred by Lord Bateman, Shobdon, Herefordshire; sire,
“ Carlisle” (923); dam, “Little Beauty,”

Witi1am Cooxn Morris, Whitwick, Ledbury, Herefordshire: Srcoxp Prizz,
151., for “ Moderator,” red with white face, 2 years 10 months-old ; bred
by Lord Bateman, Shobdon, Herefordshire; sire, “Carlisle;’ dam,
i iil ste

Hexry Rawsiixes Evays, jun., Swanston Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Here-
fordshire: Turrp Prize, Silver Medal, for “‘ Rodney,” red with white
face, 2 years 11 months 2 weeks 4 days-old; bred by himself; sire,
“* Chadnor ” (1531); dam, “ Young Lovely.”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. xly

Joux Atsert Hoxiines, How Caple, Ross, Herefordshire: the Reserved
Number, to “ Chieftain the Second” (1917), red with white face, 2 years
11 months 3 weeks-old; bred by the late James Rea, Monaughty,
Knighton ; sire, ‘“‘ Wellington” (1112); dam, “ Gertrude.”

THomas Epwarps, Wintercot, Leominster, Herefordshire: Frrst Prize, 25/.,
for “ Adforton” (1839), red with white face, 1 year 10 months 1 week
3 days-old ; bred by W. Tudge, Adforton, Leintwardine, Salop; sire,
“The Grove” (1764) ; dam, “ Dainty.”

JoHN Baupwiy, Luddington, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire: Szconp
Prize, 15/., for “ Battersea,” red and white, 1 year 11 months 2 weeks-
old; bred by Charles Vevers, Ivington Park, Leominster; sire, “Corn
Exchange ;” dam, “ Pigeon.”

Epwarp Tanner, jun., Hopton Castle, Aston-on-Clun, Salop: Tarp Prize,
Silver Medal, for “ Ballarat” (1857), red with white face, 1 year
S months-old ; bred by himself; sire, Buckton (1891); dam, “ Ruby.”

Gzorce Prrt, Chadnor Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Herefordshire: the
Reserved Number, to “San Jacinto,” red with white face, 1 year 10
months 1 week 3 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Hatfield;” dam,
“ Duchess.”

Tuomas Rozerts, Ivington Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire: First Prize,
10/., for his red with white face, 11 months 4 days-old ; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Sir Thomas ” (2228); dam, ‘“‘ Duchess.”

R. Harcourt Capper, The Northgate, St. Weonard’s, Ross, Herefordshire :
SeconD Prize, 5/., for “‘ Worcester,” red with white face, 10 months
2 weeks-old; bred by himself; sire, “Lord Wellington” (2094); dam,
“e Ada.” .

Epmcxp Wricxt, Halston Hall, Oswestry, Salop: Tamp Prize, Silver
Medal, for “ David,” red with white face, 11 months 2 weeks 2 days-old;
bred by himself; sire, “ Magnet 2nd” (989) ; dam, “ We-we.”

Epuuxp Wriext, Halston Hall, Oswestry, Salop: the Reserved Number, to
“Lion,” red with white face, 11 months 3 weeks 4 days-old; bred by
himself; sire, “‘ Magnet 2nd” (989); dam, “Lioness.”

Hereford Cows and Heifers,

Witram Perry, St. Oswald, Cholstrey, Leominster, Herefordshire: First
Prize, 201., for “ Beauty,” red and white, 3 years 11 months 3 weeks-old,
in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Noble Boy” (1337); dam, “ Bury 3rd.”

Txomas Rea, Westonbury, Pembridge, Herefordshire: Szconp Prize, 107., for
“Kate the Second,” red with white face and mane, 4 years 8 months
4 weeks old, in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “Sir Benjamin;” dam,
“ Kate.”

Txomas DuckHam, Baysham Court, Ross, Herefordshire: Tarrp Prize, Silver
Medal, for “ Delight,” red with white face, 8 years 6 months-old, in-
milk and in-calf; bred by himself ; sire, “Pope” (527); dam, “‘ Eywood.”

Pair Tourer, The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordshire : the Reserved Number,
to “ Ursula,” red with white face, 6 years 2 months 1 week-old, in-milk
and in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “ Sir David” (849); dam, “ Gaudy.”

Wittram Tupecr, Adforton, Leintwardine, Herefordshire; First Prize, 152.
for “ Lady Ashford,” red with white face, 2 years 6 months 5 days-old,
in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “ Carbonel ” (1525); dam, “ Lady.”

Grorce Prrr, Chadnor Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Herefordshire: Szconp
Prizz, 10/., for his red with white face, 2 years 6 months 2 weeks

xlyi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

2 days-old, in-calf; bred by himself; sire, “ Luck’s Ace ;” dam, “ Hand-
some.”

Masor-GENERAL THE Hon. A. Netson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor,
Berks: the Reserved Number, to “ Adela,” red with white face, 2 years
6 months 2 weeks 5 days-old, in-milk; bred by the late Lord Berwick ;
sire, “ Will-o’-the-Wisp ” (1454) ; dam, “ Agnes.”

JoHN Monxuouse, The Stow, Hereford: First Prize, 15/., for “ Clementine,”
red with white face, 1 year 11 months 3 weeks 3 days-old’; bred by
himself; sire, ‘‘ Chieftain ;’? dam, “‘ Columbine.”

Tuomas Roserts, Ivington Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire : Szecoxp Prize,
10/., for “‘ Duchess of Bedford 2nd,” red with white face, 1 year 9 months
1 week-old ; bred by himself; sire, “ Sir Thomas ” (2228) ; dam, “‘ Duchess
of Bedford.” ;

Witi1am Perry, St. Oswald, Cholstrey, Leominster, Herefordshire: THirp
Prize, Silver Medal, for ‘“ Lady Duppa,” red with white face, 1 year
5 months 3 weeks 3 days-old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Lord Wellington ”
(2094) ; dam, “ Flower of Worcester.”

Tur Hon. Tuomas Henry Noren Hr, Berrington, Shrewsbury: the Reserved
Number, for “ Petunia,” red with white face, 1 year 9 months 2 weeks-
old; bred by the late Lord Berwick; sire, “ Will-o’-the-Wisp ” (1454) ;
dam, “‘ Polyanthus.”

Tuomas Roserts, Ivingion Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire: First Prize,
107., for “Miss. Hastings Second,” red with white face, 11 months
2 weeks 4 days-old; bred by himself; site, “Sir Thomas” (2228); dam,
“Lady Hastings.”

A. J. Rouss BoucutoX Kxicut, Downton Castle, Ludlow, Herefordshire :
Seconp Prize, 5/., for “ Lady Jane Grey,” grey, 7 months 3 weeks 2 days-
old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Lord Grey ” (2085); dam, “ Snowdrop.”

Wittiam Perry, St. Oswald, Leominster, Herefordshire: the Reserved
Number, to “Young Lady Wellington,” red and white, 11 months
2 weeks 4 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Lord Wellington ;” dam,
“ Princely.”

Devon Bulls.

SamveE. P. Newsery, Scruel Barton, Honiton, Devon: First Prize, 25/., for
«Prince Jerome,” red, 3 years 2 days-old; bred by Jobn Mildon,
Witheridge, Tiverton, Devon; sire, “ Quartly’s Napoleon” (259); dam,
“ Beauty.”

Watrter Farrnrse, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: Szconp Prize, 15/.,
for “ Viscount,” red, 3 years 7 months 2 weeks-old; bred by himself;
sire, “ Sir Peregrine ;’ dam, “ Molly.”

Witu1am Trerrry, Penhesken, Grampound, Cornwall: the Reserved Number,
to “ Sir Colin” (728), red, 4 years 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by him-
self; sire, “‘ Viscount” (544); dam, ‘‘ Red Rose” (1604).

J. S. Surman, Swindon Hall, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: First Prize, 25/.,
for “Van Tromp,” red, 2 years 9 months 1 week-old; bred by George —
Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter; sire, “Prince Frederick ;” dam,
“ Vaudine.” ’

James Merson, Brinsworthy, North Molton, Devon: Secon Prize, 15/., for
“ Fusileer,” red, 2 years 7 months 2 weeks 4 days-old; bred by W. Hole,
Hannaford, Barnstaple ; sire, ‘‘ Comet ;” dam, ‘* Laura ” (256).

Masor-GENERAL THE Hoy, A. Netson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor :
First Prize, 25/., for “Prince Alfred,” red, 1 year 10 months 4 weeks-

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. xlvit

old; bred by H.R.H. The Prince Consort; sire, “Colonel” (887); dam,
“ Fancy ” (703).

Joux Azartan Smiru, Bradford Peverell, es Dorset: SzcoxD Prize,
15/., for “ Constitution,” red, 1 year 3 months 3 weeks 1 day-old; bred
by himself ; sire, “ Exchange” (627) : dam, “ Rachael.”

CHanLes Freperick Perxriys, The Grange, Kingston, Taunton, Somersetshire :
the Reserved Number, to “ Corporal,” red, 1 year 2 months 3 days-old;
bred by Walter Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset ; sire,
= CGhanpion > dam, “ Cheerful.”

Grorce Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter, Devon: Frest ee 10/., for “ The
Drone,” red, § months 4 weeks 1 day-old ; bred by himself ; sire, “ The
Little Known ;” dam, “ Beeswing.”

\V ALTER Fartaine, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: SEcoxp Prize, 51.
for his red, 6 months i day-old ; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Sir Peregrine ;”
dam, “ Molly.”

James WeNtTworTH Burien, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devon: the Reserved
Number, to his red, 10 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Devon Cows and Heifers.

JouN Azanran Sura, Bradford Peverell, Dorchester, Dorset: First Prize,
201., for “‘ Rachel,” red, + years 7 months 4 days-old, in-milk; bred by
Lord Portman, Bryanston House, Blandford, Dorset ; sire, “ Palmerston ”
(476); dam, “ Rachel.”

Waurer Farraie, Stowey Court, Bridgwater, Somerset: Szconp Prize, 10/.,
for “ Cheerful,” red, 7 years 1 month 1 week-old, in-milk ; bred by Mr.
Morrish, Stobrook, Crediton, Devon.

Mason-GENERAL THE Hox. A. Netson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor,
the Reserved Number, to “ Hyacinth,’ red, 5 years 10 months 6 days-old,
in-calf; bred by H.R.H. The Prince Consort; sire, “Zouave” (556);
dam, “ Crocus ” (1238).

Cuaries Hawsro, Milton Abbey, Blandford, Dorset: First Prize, 15/., for
“Lina,” red, 2 years 10 months 3 weeks 3 days-old, in-calf; bred by
himself; sire, “Sir Colin ;” dam, “‘ Young Daisy.”

Water Fartarse, Stowey eens Bridgwater, Somerset : Secoxp Prize, 107.,
fox Jenny,” red, 2 years | 5 months 2 weeks-old, in-calf; bred by him-
self; sire, “Sir Peregrine ;” dam, “ Lovely.”

Cartes Freperick Perxiss, The Grange, Kingston, Taunton, Somerset :
the Reserved Number, to “ Alice,” red, 2 years 4 months 2 weeks 2 days-
old, in-calf; bred by Walter Farthing, Stowey Court, Bridgwater; sire,
“Sir Peregrine ;? dam, “ Flora ” (1346).

James WENTWoRTH BULLER, M.P., Downes, Crediton, Devon: First
151., for his red, 1 year 9 months 3 weeks 2 days-old: bred by himself.

Grorce Turner, Beacon Downes, Exeter, Devon: Secoxp Prize, 10/., for
“ Devoniensis,” red, 1 year 3 months-old; bred by himself; sire, “The
Little Known ;” dam, “ Maydew.”

Epwanrp Pore, Great Toller, Maiden Newton, Dorset: the Reserved Number,
to “Fancy 6th,” red, 1 year 8 months-old; bred by himself; sire,
“ Goldfinder;” dam, “‘ Fancy 4th.”

Mason-GENERAL THE Hoy. A. Newtson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor :
First Prize, 10/., for ‘‘ Rose of Denmark,” red, 11 months-old ; bred by
himself, at H.R.H. the Prince Consort’s Norfolk Farm, Windsor; sire,
“Colonel” (387) ; dam, “ Fancy ” (703).

VOL, XXIV. e

xviii Award of Live-Siock Prizes at Worcester.

Grorce TurNER, Beacon Downes, Exeter, Devon: Szconp Prize, 5/., for
“Tady Audley,” red, 10 months-old; bred by himself; sire, “The
Little Known ;” dam, “ Fanny Fern.”

Masgor-GENERAL THE Hon. A. Netson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor :
the Jeserved Number, to “Princess Helena,” red, 9 months 1 week
1 day-old; bred by himself, at H.R.H. the Prince Consort’s Norfolk
Farm, Windsor ; sire, “Saracen” (5204); dam, ‘‘ Sweetbriar” (1665).

Sussex Bulls.

Witt1AmM MarsHAtu, Bolney Place, Cuckfield, Sussex: First Prizu, 10/., for
“Prince Alfred,” red, 3 years 6 months-old; bred by W. Jollands,
Buxshall, Lindfield, Sussex ; dam, ‘‘ Waxey.”’

Joun and ALFRED Hreasman, Angmering, Arundel, Sussex: Seconp Prize,
dl., for “ Viscount” (77), red, 3 years 3 months 1 week-old; bred by
themselves ; sire, ‘‘ Marquis” (16); dam, ‘“‘ Countess ” (80).

Epwarp Cane, Berwick Court, Lewes, Sussex: the Leserved Number, to
“* Prince,” red, 4 years 6 months-old ; bred by Josiah Pitcher, Hailsham,
Hurst Green, Sussex.

Joun and ALFRED Heasman, Angmering, Arundel, Sussex : First Prize, 10/.,
for “First Fruit,” red, 1 year 5 months 1 week 3 days-old; bred by
themselves ; sire, “ Viscount” (77) ; dam, “Maid of Ham ” (590).

Sussex Cows and Heifers.

TitpEN Surry, Knell, Beckley, Staplehurst, Sussex: First Prizz, 10/7., for
“Canterbury,” red, 5 years 2 months 2 weeks-old, in-milk and in-calf ;
bred by himself; sire, “‘ Gorringe ;” dam, “ Butler.”

Joux and Atrrep Hrasman, Angmering, Arundel, Sussex : Szconp Prize,
51, for “ Lily” (684), red, 3 years 6 months 2 weeks-old, in-milk and
in-calf; bred by themselves; sire, “ Marquis” (16); dam, “ Snow-
drop” (265).

Epwarp Cane, Berwick Court, Lewes, Sussex: the Reserved Number, to
“Simla,” red, 7 years 5 months-old, in-calf; bred by I’. Child, Southover,
Lewes, Sussex.

Jouw and Atrrep HeasMan, Angmering, Arundel, Sussex: First Prrzx, 107.,
for “‘ Battersea” (739), red, 2 years 6 months-old, in-calf ; bred by them-
selves ; sire, “ Marquis” (16); dam, “ Hopeful” (180),

Joux and Atrrep Heasman, Ancmering, Arundel, Sussex: First Prize, 107.,
for “ Preceptress,” red, 1 year 5 months 2 weeks 3 days-old; bred by
themselves ; sire, “ Marquis” (16); dam, “Governess ” (185). i

GrEORGE JENNER, Parsonage House, Udimore, Rye, Sussex: Seconp Prize, 5/.,
for “Twin Mayflower No. 1,” red, 1 year 3 months 2 weeks 1 day-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “‘ Challenger ” (33); dam, ‘‘ Mayflower ” (74).

Bulls of other Established Breeds, -

James Davis, Mecleombe Horsey, Dorchester, Dorset : Furst Prizm, 10/., for
“Melcombe,” white and grey, 2 years 2 months 8 weeks-old (long horn) ;
bred by J. H. Burbery, the Chase Farm, Kenilworth, Warwickshire.

Trt Hon. Coroner, E. G. D. Pennant, M.P., Penrhyn Castle, Bangor,
Carnatvonshire: Srconp Prrze, 5/., for his black, 3 years 4 months 1 day-
old (Welsh); bred by Richard Williams, Bodafon, Llanerchymedd,
Anglesey. ;

_ Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. xlix

James Dumsret, Ditchling, Hurstperpoint, Sussex: Tmmp Prize, Silver
“Medal, fer “St. Helier,” grey, abont 2 years 2 months-old (Channel
Islands); breeder unknown.

Sm Epwarp Kenetsoy, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk: the Reserved
‘Number, to “ Rifleman,” blood red, 4 years 10 months 4 days-old
(Suffolk) ; bred by Arthur Crisp, Chillesford, Wickham Market, Suffolk;
sire, “ Yeoman ;” dam, “ Red Rose.”

Sm Wuttovessy Jones, Bart., M.P., Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, Norfolk:
First Prize, 100., for “‘ Rufus,” dark red, 1 year 4 months 1 week 1 day-
old (Norfolk Polled); bred by himself.

Hesey Le Fevvre, Les Nitmes, St. Peter's, Jersey: Seconp Prize, 5/., for
“* Hero,” grey and white, 1 year 5 months i week 4 days-old ; bred by
himself ; sire, “ Buiterfly 7’ dam, “Cowslip.

Exprep Becs, Grand Quivilette, St. Martin’s, Guernsey: the Reserved
Number, to “Albert IL,” yellow and white, 1 year 8 months-ald
(Guemsey) ; bred by himself: sire, “ Albert L dam, “Fancy.”

Cows and Heifers of other Established Breeds. -

Sm Epwarp Kerrtos, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk : eee
101, for “ Duchess af Suffolk,” xed, 9 years-old (Suffolk Polled), in-milk
and "in~calf ; breeder not known.

Sm Wuovesex JoxeEs, Bari, M.P.. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, Norfolk :
Seconp Paize, 5l., for “ Hetty,” red, + years 6 months 2 weeks 3 days-old
(Norfolk Polled), in-milk and im-calf; bred by Lord Sondes, Elmham
Hall, Thetford, Norfolk.

Lorp SONDES, Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: Tump Prize, Silver Medal,
for “Crocus,” red, 6 years 1 month-old (Norfolk Polled), in-milk and
in-calf ; bred by himself.

Lorp Soxpes, Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk; the Reserved Number, to
“Daisy,” red, 4 years 3 months-old (Norfolk Polied), in-milk and in-calf ;
bred by himself.

‘Siz Enwarp Kenetcoy, Bart., M-P., Brome Hall, ‘Scole, Suffolk : Fst Pare,
1@7., for “ Isabella,” blood red, 2 2 years 10 months 3 weeks 5 days-old
(Polled Suffolk), in-calf; bred by himself.

orp Soxpes, Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: Secoxp Prams, 5/., for

“Rosette,” red, 2 years 4 months-old (Norfolk Polled), m-calf; bred by

Auseet Le G La Moie House, St. Abas Jersey: Tamp Pre,
Silver Medal, “Daisy,” srey and white, 2 years 3 monthsold
(Jersey, commonly called Alderney), in-calf ; breeder unknown.

Sim Epwasp Keretsos, Bart., M-P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk : ‘the Reserved
Number to “ Arabella,” red, with white spois, 2 years 2 months 3 weeks
1 day-old (Suffolk Polled), in-calf; bred ‘by H. M. Day, Langham,
Suffolk ; sire, “ Lord Nelson.”

Loup ‘Soxprs, Elmham Hail, Thetford, Norfolk : Fmsr Pave, 102., for

“ Cherry,” dark red, 1 year 7 months-old (Norfolk Polled); bred by

orp Soxpzs, Elmham Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: Szconp Prize, 5J., for
“ Pink,” red, 1 year 6 months-old (Nerfolk Polled); bred by himeelf.
Sm Wasoccnsy Joxss, Bart., M-P., Cranmer Hall, Fakenham, Norfolk :
Temp Silver Medal, for his dark red, 1 year 5 months 1 week
6 days-old (Norfolk Polled) ; ‘bred by himself. Ls
e2

] Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

Siz Epwarp Kerrison, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk: the Reserved
Number, to “ Plover the 3rd, » blood red, 1 year 10 months 3 weeks
il day-old (Suffolk) ; bred by himself; sire, “ Young Oakley ;” dam
“ Plover.”

HORSES.

Thorough-bred Stud Horses.

WiIL1iamM GULLIVER, Swalcliffe, Banbury, Oxfordshire}: First Prize, 100/.,
for ‘ Neville,” bay, 12 years-old ; bred by Mr, Singleton ; sire, ‘ Napier
by Gladiator ‘y? dam, “ Sally Snobs.”

EpwarbD GEORGE Srpson, Levent Bridge, Yarm, Yorkshire : Seconp Parnell
251., for ‘‘ Cavendish, » brown, 7 years-old; bred by William Robinson,
piiciaoone, Yorkshire ; sire, " Voltigeur 3’ dam, “Countess of Bur-
ington.’

Henry Ricnarp Purirs, Willesden Paddocks, Kilburn, Middlesex: Tamp
Prize, Silver Medal, for ‘‘ Cambondo,” chesnut, 6 years-old ; bred by
Sir George Strickland, Bart., Boynton Hall, Bridlington, Yorkshire ;
sire, ‘Orpheus ;” dam, ‘‘ Camellia.”

JonHN Witt1am Mirus, King’s Weston, Bristol, Gloucestershire : the Reserved
Number, to ‘‘ Rouble,” bay, 7 years-old ; bred by J. Cookson, Neasham
Hall, Darlington, Durham ; sire, ‘‘ Cossack ;” dam, “‘ Dividend.”

Hunter Stallions.

Witt1am Baryerr, Bay’s Hill Lawn, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: First
Prize, 25/., for “Sir Peter Laurie,” brown, 19 years-old ; bred by the
late Hon. R. Watson, Rockingham Castle, Market Harboro’, Leicester-
shire ; sire, “‘ The Saddler # dam, “* Well-a-day.”

Joun Barry, Mains Farm, Ripon, Yorkshire : Seconp Prize, 15/., for “‘ Ellcott,”
bay, 12 years-old; bred by Mr. Clark, Marlborough, Wilts; sire, ‘* Veni-
son ;”? dam, ‘ Defend.”

Witttam Watson, The Beauthorns, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: TarrD
Prize, Silver Medal, for “Safeguard,” chesnut, about 12 years-old;
bred by Mr. Ferrier, Huntingdon Farm, Kington, Hereford ; sire, “ Safe-
guard.”

GrorceE Manper ALLENDER, Lee Grange, Winslow, Bucks: the Reserved
Number, to “ Bromley,” ’ chesnut, 3 “years-old ; bred by W. 8S. Shuttle-
worth, Bromley, Kent ; sire, “ Marsyas :” < dam, “ Deception.”

Hunter Mares and Foals.

JoHN WATSON, Waresley, Kidderminster, Worcestershire : First Prizr, 15/.,
for “Talage,” bay, with black legs, 14 years-old (with foal at foot); a
bred by Mr, Holmes ; 3 sire, ‘f Epirus ;”? dam, “ Mulligatawney.”

Epwarp Nicnouas Hryeatr, Buckland, Leominster, Herefordshire: Srcoxp
Prizx, 101., for * Whisky,” dark brown, 10 years-old (with foal .at foot) ;
breeder unknown ; sire, * Windhound. ” -

Anprew Rouse Boventron Kyiaur, Downton Castle, Ludlow, Herefordshire :
Tatrp Prizy, Silver Medal, for “ Salt Fish,” dark brown, 14 years-old
(with foal at foot) ; breeder ‘unknown; sire, ‘ Leander.”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. hi

JAMES GREGG, Fencote, Docklow, Leominster, Herefordshire: the Reserved
Number, to “The Madley,”’ chesnut, about 11 years-old (with foal at
foot) 5 bred by the late John Walker, Madley, Hereford ; sire, “Safe-
guar ”

Hackney Mares and Foals.

Hueu Percy, Eskrigg, Wigton, Cumberland: First Prize, 15/., for “ Crafty,”
brown, 5 years-old ; bred by Mrs. A. Dalziel, Stamburn Hall, Workington,
Cumberland ; sire, “ The Judge ;” dam, ‘‘ Old Crafty.”

SamueLt WaLKer Urwick, Leinthall, Ludlow, Herefordshire : Seconp Prize,
10/., for “ Polly,” bay, 14 years-old (with foal at foot); bred by Mrs.
Roberts, Trippleton, Leintwardine, Herefordshire ; sire, ‘‘ The Steamer.”

Groree M‘Kewnzre Ker te, Dallicott House, Bridgnorth, Salop: the Reserved
Number, to “ Cygnet,” bay, aged (with foal at foot) ; breeder unknown.

Pony Stallions.

James Morrtt, Kirklinton Park, Carlisle, Cumberland : First Prize, 15/., for
“Tom Sayers,” dark brown, 6 years 4 months-old; bred by Mr. Helme,
Caldbeck, Carlisle, Cumberland ; sire, ‘“‘ Highland Laddie.”

Sitvanus Epwarps, Middleton Priors, Bridgnorth, Salop: Szcoxp Prize, 5/.,
for “ Dick,” brown, 9 years 2 months-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Match-
less by Muley ;” dam, “ Jenny.” .

Wit1am Norman, Aspatria, Carlisle, Cumberland: the Reserved Number,
to “‘ Jack,” chesnut, 3 years 3 weeks 2 days-old; bred by himself; sire,
“ Potentate;” dam, “ Jessie.”

Pony Mares,

FREDERICK BRANWHITE, Chapel House, Long Melford, Sudbury, Suffolk :
First Prize, 10/., for “ Pretty Lass,” roan, 7 years-old; bred by Mrs.
Coe, Long Melford, Sudbury, Suffolk; sire, “Phenomenon ;’ dam,
“ Beauty.”

Tuomas Futcuer, Elmham, Thetford, Norfolk : Seconp Prize, 51., for “ Enid,”
black, 4 years-old; bred by Paul Bell, Stiffkey, Wells, Norfolk; sire,
“ Robin Hood.”

JoxN Kxteut, Marlborough House, Newbury, Berkshire : Torrp Prize, Silver
Medal, for his dark chesnut, 5 years old ; bred by himself.

FREDERICK BRANWHITE, Chapel House, Long Melford, Sudbury, Suffolk:
the Reserved Number, to “ Princess,” bay, 6. years-old; bred by Mr.
Bear, Acton, Sudbury, Suffolk ; sire, “ Brier ;” dam, “‘ Polly.”

Agricultural Stallions (not Suffolks).

. JOSEPH YEOMANS, Pennymore Hay, Shareshill, Staffordshire : First Prize, 257.,
for “ Black Prince,” black, 8 years-old; bred by Mr. Wheeler, Evesham,
Worcestershire; sire, “ Merryman.”

Witt1am Rare, Morton Tinmouth, Darlington, County Durham: Szconp
Prize, 10/., for “ Young Clyde,” bay, 5 years 1 month 2 weeks-old ; bred
by Thomas Marshall, of Howes, Annan, Dumfriesshire.

Tus Duke or Maruisoroucs, Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxford: Tarrp
Prize, Silver Medal, for “Culloden,” brown, 5 years 1 week-old
(Clydesdale) : bred by himself; sire, “‘ Glengary ;” dam, “ Blossom.”

JAMES Oram, Shellingford, Faringdon, Berks: the Reserved Number, to
“Young Champion,” chesnut, 3 years 3 weeks 5 days-old ; bred by him-
self; sire, ‘* Bishopstone ;” dam, “ Diamond.”

li Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

Wrtti1am Conny, Battenhall, Worcester: First Prizz, 20/., for his chesnut,
2 years 1 month 1 week 2 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “Duke of
Wellington ;” dam, ‘‘ Whitefoot.”

Witi1am Conrey: Seconp Prizx, 10/., for his bay, 2 years 2 months 1 week
6 days-old; bred by himself ; sire, ‘‘ Duke of Wellington ;” dam, “* White
Flower.”

Epwarp: Hotianp, M.P., Dumbleton Hall, Evesham, Gloucestershire : Tarrp
Prizz, Silver Medal, for his bay; 2 years 2 months 3 weeks-old; bred
by himself; sire, “ Noble;” dam, ‘‘ Scott.”

Tuomas Mitxs, Harmston, Lincoln: the Reserved Number, to his ‘ Young
Lincoln,” black, 2 years 4 months-old ; bred by J. Jackson, Flawborough,
Newark, Notts; sire, “ Young Champion ;” dam, “ Bonny.”

Agriculiural Mares and Foals (not Suffolks).

ELmaperE Butt, Weobley, Hereford: First Prizn, 20/., for ‘ Jolly,” grey;
8 years-old ; bred by the late Samuel Bull, Weobley. ,

James Corbett, Coventry Arms, Croome, Kempsey, Worcestershire: Sxconp
Prize, 10/., for his roan, 4 years 1 month 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Epuunp Hersert, Powick, Worcester: Turrp Prrzp, Silver Medal, for his
orey, 8 years-old; bred by himself.

Joun Brett, Ryme North, Sleaford, Lincolnshire : the Reserved Number, to
“Gipsey,” black, 8 years-old ; bred by William Green, Dorrington,
Sleaford.

Agriculiural Fillies (not Suffolks).

CuArLes Pripay, Longford, Gloucester : First Prize, 150., for “Flower,”
chesnut, 2 years 1 month-old; bred by himself; sire, “* Noble;” dam,
“¢ Plower.” :

How. Coronet E. G. D. Pennant, M.P., Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Caernar-
vonshire; Seconp Prizz, 10/., for his grey, 2 years 3 weeks 5 days-old ;,
bred by himself; sire, “ Matchless ;’ dam, ‘‘ Flower.”

Tsaac Many, Frampton, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire’: the Reserved Number,
to ‘* Darling,” red roan, 2 years 1 month 3 weeks 4 days-old ; bred by
himself; sire, “ Noble;” dam, “ Smiler.”

Dray Stallions.

Tuomas Jounson, Hatfield, Doncaster, Yorkshire : Firs Prize, 251., for
“Young John Bull,” grey, 8 years-old; bred by W. Wynder, Sand
Bramwith, Doncaster ; sire, “* Warwick.”

Wurm Henry Nears, Old Eclipse Inn, Mansfield, Notts: Sxconp Prize,
10/., for “Prince of London,” black roan, 3 years-old; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Waterloo ;” dam, “ Bonnie.”

Prrer Leatuer, Stretton, Warrington, Cheshire: the Reserved Number, to
“Prince William,” brown, 6 years-old; breeder unknown; sire,
“ Coburg.”

Cuartes Morrison, Basildin Park, Reading, Berks: First Prize, 207., for
‘« Basildin,” roan, 2 years 1 month 2 wecks 3 days-old ; bred by himself ;
dam, “ Smiler.”

James Avett, Leopard Grange, Worcester : Srconp Prize, 10/., for “ Crichton,”
dark brown, 2 years 1 month 1 week-old; bred by himself; sire, “King
of the Valley ;” dam, ‘ Pert.”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. litt

Epwarp Sumpter, Billinghay Dales, Sleaford, Lincolnshire; the Reserved
Number to ‘‘ Champion,” dark brown, 2 years 3 months-old; bred by
himself ; sire, “‘ England’s Glory ;” dam, “‘ Trip,”

Dray Mares and Foals.

GrorcEe Hasett, Barton Hill, Bristol, Gloucestershire: First Prize, 200., for
“Black Bess,” black, aged; breeder unknown.

Suffolk’ Stallions.

Watter Garrett Roors, East Stockwell, Street, Colchester, Essex: First
Prize, 20/., for “ Duke,” chesnut, 8 years-old ; bred by the late S. Wrinch,
Great Holland, Colchester, Essex ; sire, ‘‘ Catlin’s Duke.”

Morris Mumrorp, Creeting St. Peter, Needham Market, Suffolk: First Prizr,
15l., for “‘ Young Duke,” chesnut, 2 years-old; bred by the late W.
Crosse ; sire, “ Royal Duke ;” dam, “‘ Diamond.”

Isaac Rist, Tattingstone, Ipswich, Suffolk: Srconp Prizu, 10/., for “Young
Emperor,” chesnut, 2 years 2 months 3 weeks 6 days-old ; bred by
himself; sire, “‘ Chester Emperor ;” dam, “Scott.”

Wi11am Wuson, Baylham Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: the Reserved Number, to
his chesnut, 2 years 3 months- old; bred by 8. Plowman, Earls Stonham,
Suffolk ; sire, “Duke.”

Suffolk Mares and Foals.

Sir Epwarp Kerrison, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk: First Prize,
20/., for “ Bragg,” chesnut, 6 years-old ; bred by Mr. Wrinch, Alwarton,
Ipswich, Suffolk; sire, “ Royal Duke;” dam, “ Nell.”

Suffolk Fillies.

JoHN Warp, East Mersea, Colchester, Essex: First Prizz, 15/., for his
chesnut, 2 years 3 months-old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘ Briton ;” dam,
by Gloster Colonel.

Manrrep Biwvett, Playford, Ipswich, Suffolk :, Seconp Prize, 10/., for “ May
Bird,” chesnut, 2 years 2 months-old ; bred by himself ; sire, ‘ Con-
fidence ; <7, dam,, “ ‘Degpa:”

Epwarp Gowrine Hopesoy, Charsfield Hall, Wickham Market, Suffolk :
the Reserved Number, to his chesnut, 2 years 3 months-old; sire, ‘‘ Hero ;”
dam, ‘* Scott.”

SHEEP.

Leicester Rams.

LinuTenant-CotoyeL Wiiiram Incr, Thorpe Constantine, ‘Tamworth, Staf-
fordshire ; First Prize, 20/., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by himself ;
mine, “C. W.”

Witiram Sanpay, Holme Pierrepont, Nottingham: Sxconp Prizx, 10/., for
his about 1 year 4 months-old; bred by himself; sire, “ X.”

Witiam Sanpay: Tuirp Prizz, Silver Medal, for his about 1 year 4
months-old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘““M. Y.”

liv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

Joun Borton, of Barton House, Barton-le-street, Malton: the Reserved
Number, to his 1 year 38 months-old ; bred by himself.

Joun Borton: First Prize, 20/., for his 2 years 3 months-old; bred by
himself.

Joun Borton: Sxconp Prizx, 10/., for his 5 years 3 months-old ; bred by
himself.

Joux Borton, Tump Prizz, Silver Medal, for his 2 years 4 months-old;
bred by Mr. Sanday, Holme Pierrepont, Notts,

Ropert WarD CRESWELL, Ravenstone, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Leicestershire :
the Reserved Number, to his 2 years 4 months-old ; bred by himself.

Leicester Ewes—Pens of Five.
LIEUTENANT-CoLONEL WiLt1AM Incr, Thorpe Constantine, Tamworth, Staffs. :
First Prize, 15/., for his 1 year 4 months-old ; bred by himself.

WrttraM Sanpay, Holme Pierrepont, Notts: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for his about
1 year 4 months-old ; bred by himself.

Wit11am Sanpay: the Reserved Number, to his about 1 year 4 months-old ;
bred by himself.

Cotswold Rams. .
Ropert Garne, Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestershire: First Prize, 202.,
for his 1 year 4 months-old; bred by himself.

Ropert GarNe: Second Prize, 10/., for his 1 year 4 months-old; bred by
himself.

RopertT GARNE: Turrp Prizx, Silver Medal, for his 1 year 4 months-old ;
bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy, Sierford, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: the Reserved Number,
to his 1 year 3 months 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Rosert Garne, Aldsworth, Northleach: First Prizx, 20/., for his 3 years
4 months-old ; bred by himself.

THomas BraLE Browne, Salperton Park, Andoversford, Gloucestershire :
Sreconp Prizx, 10/., for his 2 years 4 months-old ; bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy, Sierford, Cheltenham : the Ree Number, to his 3 years
8 months 2 w eeks-old ; bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy: the Reserved Number, to his 4 years 3 months and 2 weeks-
old; bred by himself.

Cotswold Ewes—Pens of Five.

GzorGE Fietcuer, Shipton Sollars, Cheltenham: Firsr Prize, 152. for bis
1 year 38 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by himself.

Wuu1am Lane, Broadfield Farm, Northleach, Gloucestershire: Szconp Prizr,
10/., for his 1 year 8 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by himself.

Rosert Garve, Aldsworth, Northleach : Tuirp Prizz, Silver Medal, for his
1 year 3 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by himself.

GrorGE Ftrrcuer, Shipton Sollars, Cheltenham: the Reserved Number, to his
1 year 3 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by himself.

Lincoln and other Long-woolled Rams.

Joux Lynx, Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham, Lincolnshire: First Prizx,
201., for his 1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln and Leicester); bred by
himself; sire, ‘‘ Royal Leeds.”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. lv

Tuomas Cartwricut, Dunston Pillar, Lincoln: Szconp Prize, 10/., for his
1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln) ; bred by himself.

JosEPH Srupson, Spofforth Park, Wetherby, Yorkshire: Turrp Prizz, Silver
Medal, for his 1 year and 3 months-old ; bred by himself.
CuarkE Hates, Bassingbourne, Royston, Cambridgeshire: the Reserved Num-
ber, to his 1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln); bred by himself.
Joun Lynn, Church Farm, Stroxton, Grantham: First Prizz, 20/., for “ Bat-
ven gs 2 years and 4 months-old (Lincoln and Leicester); bred by
mself.

Joun Lyxw: Seconp Prizz, 10/., for his 2 years and 4 months-old (Lincoln
and Leicester); bred by himself.

Tuomas BumpstEaD MarsHatt, Branston, Lincoln: Turrp Prizz, Silver
Medal, for his 2 years and 4 months-old (Lincoln) ; bred by himself.

JosEPH Supson, Spofforth Park, Wetherby: the Reserved Number, to his
2 years 2 months and 1 day-old; bred by himself.

Lincoln and other Long-woolled Ewes—Pens of Five.

Rosert GEorGE FREDERICK Howarp, Temple Bruer, Lincoln: First Prize,
15/., for his 1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln) ; bred by himself.

Tuomas BumpsTEAD MarsHatt, Branston, Lincoln: Szconp Prizx, 10/., for
his 1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln); bred by himself.

Rogpert GrorGE FREDERICK Howarp, Temple Bruer, Lincoln; the Reserved
Number, to his 1 year and 4 months-old (Lincoln) ; bred by himself.

Oxfordshire Down Rams.
JouN Bryan, Southleigh, Witney, Oxon: First Prizz, 20/., for his 1 year
4 months and 1 week-old ; bred by himself.

CHARLES GILLETT, Cote House, Bampton, Faringdon; Seconp Prize, 10/., for
his 1 year 4 months 3 weeks and 4 days-old; bred by himself.

JosErH Jrucr, Eynsham, Oxford: Turrp Prize, Silver Medal, for his 1 year
4 months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

CHARLES GILLETT, Cote House, Bampton, Faringdon: the Reserved Number,
to his 1 year 4 months and 3 weeks-old; bred by himself.

Grorce Wa Lis, Old Shifford, Bampton, Faringdon: First Prize, 201., for his
3 years 5 months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Grorce Waris: Srconp Prize, 10/., for his 2 years 5 months and 2 weeks-
old; bred by himself.

Georce Watuis: Turrp Prize, Silver Medal, for his 2 years 5 months and
2 weeks-old; bred by himself.

Grorce Henry Barnett, Glympton Park, Woodstock, Oxon: the Reserved
Number, to his 2 years 3 months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Oxfordshire Down Ewes—Pens of Five.
Cures GILLETT, Cote House, Bampton, Faringdon: Finsr Prize, 15/., for
his about 1 year 4 months and 3 weeks-old ; bred by himself.
Tue Doxe or Mar.soroveH, Blenheim Palace, Woodstock : Szconp PrizE,
10/., for his 1 year 3 months and 3 weeks-old ; bred by himself.
Caartes Gittert, Cote House, Bampton, Faringdon: the Reserved Number
' to his about 1 year 4 months 1 week and 1 day-cld; bred by himself.

lyi Award of Live-Siock Prizes at Worcester.

South Doum Rams.

Lorp: Watstscuam, Merton Hall, Thetford, Norfolk: suet ate forhis-
1 year 3 months and 2 weelts-old; bred by himself.

Lorp Watstyenax: Seconp Pres; 10/., for hin ¥ yoni: Seasakiinesadieiieiiee)
old; bred by himself.

Lorp WatsiyeHam: Tamp Prize, Silver Medal, for his 1 year 3’ months and’
2 weeks-old; bred by himself:

Lorp WatstyeHam: the Reserved Number, to his 1 year 3 months and 2
weeks-old ; bred by himself ,

Lorp WarsrxGHam: First Prize, 20/., for his £ years 3 months and 2’ weeks-
old ; bred by himself.

Lorp Watstyceam: Secoxp Phize, IOP, for his ?'years J months and 2 weeks—
old ; bred by himself.

Lorp WatstxcHam: Tuirp Prize, Silver Medal, for his 2 years 3 months.
and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself. —

Lorp Watstxeuam ; the Reserved Number, to-his 2 years 3) months and 2
weeks-old ; bred by himself.

South-Down Ewes—Pens of Five.

Lozp Watsixcasu: Fisr Pre, 15l., for his 1 year 3 months:and 2 weeks-
old; bred by himself..

JouN and Aurrep Hesswan, of Anomering, Arundel, Sussex: Suconp Prize,
10/., for their 1 year and 4 months-old ; bred by themselves.

JamEs JoHN Fanqusarson, Langton House, Blandford, Dorset: Tamp Prize,
Silver Medal, for his 1 year and 4 months-old ; bred by himself.

Tue Eart or Rapyog, Coleshill, Highworth, Wilts: the Reserved Number,
to his 1 year and 4 monihs-old ; bred by himself.

Shropshire Rams.

JouN Stupss, Weston Hall, Stafford: Finsv Prize, 20/.,.for “ Earl of Shrews-
bury,” 1 year £ months3 weeks and 6 days-old ; bred by himself. '

Tuomas Hortos, Harnage Grange, Shrewsbury: Secoxp Prize, 102, for
Ps ae 1 year and 4 months-old ; bred: by himself; sire, Duke of
Kent

THomas Faecal Tep Prize, Silver Medal, for “ Captain Semmes,” 1 year
3 months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself; sire, “ Sir Henry.” e

Wim Orme Foster, Kinver Hill Farm, Stourbridge, Worcestershire: the:
Reserved Number, to his 1 year and 4 months-old; bred by himself.

Pryce Wiiu1aM Bowex, Shrawardine Castle, Shrewsbury : Fiesr Sr oie
for his 2 2 years 3.months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself; sire, “* -
Patron.”

Cotoxe Dyort, Freeford Hall, Lichfield, Staffordshire, Seconp Prizz, 101., for
his 2 years 3 months and 3 week-old ; bred by himself; sire, “ Patent.”

Jos Coxox, Freeford, Lichfidld, Staffordshire: Tmmp Prize, Silver Medal,
for “ Nobleman,” 3 years 3 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by: himself ;._
sire, “ Patent.” 7

Rovert ‘Hiewuiee Masrex, Pendeford, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire: the-
Reserved. Number, to his “ ‘ Macic,” 3 years and 3 months-old; bred. by
himself; sire, “ Old Cross.” :

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at VWoreester. lvii

Shropshire Ewes—Pens of Five.

James and Epwarp Crane, Shrawardine, Shrewsbury: First Prize, 15/7., for
their 1 year 2 months and 1 week-old; bred by themselves ; sire, “ Cara-
doc.”

James and Epwarp Crane: Seconp Prize, 10/., for their 1 year and 3
months-old ; bred by themselves; sire, ‘* Caradoc.”

-Heyry Martuews, Montford, Shrewsbury: Tarrp Prize, Silver Medal, for
his 1 year and 3 months-old; bred by himself.

Joun Haxsuny Buacksurye, Pipe-place, Lichfield, Staffordshire: the Reserved
Number, to his 1 year 3 months and 3 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

Hampshire and other Short-woolled Rams.

Wuu114m Humwrerey, Oak Ash, Chaddleworth, Wantage, Berks : Frest Prize,
20/., for his 1 year and 5 months-old (West Country Down); bred by
himself.

Wauam Hemwrrer: Secoxp Prize, 10/., for his 1 year and 4 months-old
(West Country Down) ; bred by himself.

Wiurt1am Browxe Canxntxe, Elston Hill, Devizes, Wilts: Tarp Prize, Silver
Menat, for his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old (West Country Down):
bred by himself.

James RAWLENCE, Bulbridze, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts: the Reserved Number,
to his “Tim Whiffler,” 1 year and 5 months-old (West Country Down) ;
bred by himself.

JAMES RAWLENCE: Fimsr Prize, 201, for his “ Maccaroni,” 3 years 3. months
and 1 week-old (West Country Down); bred by himself.

Wuitiam Humrrey, Oak Ash, Chaddleworth, Wantage, Berks : Szconp Prize,
10/., for his S years and 4 months-old (West Country Down); bred by
himself.

Wi1am Humrrey : the Reserved Number, to his 4 years 4 months and | week-
old (West Country Down); bred by himself.

Hampshire and other Long-woolled Ewes—Pens of Five.

James Raw ence, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts: First Prize, 15/., for
his 1 year 4 months and 2 weeks-old (West Country Down); bred by

JaMES RAWLENCE: SEconD Prize, 10V., for his 1 year and 4 months-old (West
Country Down) ; bred by himself.

James Rawience: the Reserved Number, to his 1 year and 4 months-old
(West Countty Down); bred by himself.

PIGS.

Boars of a Large Breed, of any colour.

Wuatam Braptry Warsmay, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: Frrsr Prize,
10/., for “ Worcester Duke” (late “ Albert”), white, 3 years and 10
months-old (Improved Lancashire and Yorkshire) ; bred by John Goodwin,
Norbury, Stockport.

lviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

Ricwarp Dicky, 161, Old Road, Stockport, Lancashire: Seconp Prizx, 57., for
“John,” white, 2 years and 1 month-old; bred by John Harrison,
Heaton Norris, Stockport; sire, “ Young Albert ;” dam, “ Betsy.”

Boars of a Small White Breed.

Writ1am Brapiey Warymay, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: Fimsr Prizz,
10/., for “ King Cube,” 2 years 8 months 1 week and 3 days-old (Car-
head); bred by himself.

Rosert BErKeLey, Spetchley Park, Worcester: Sreconp Prize, 5/., for his
9 months and 5 days-old (Improved Yorkshire) ; bred by himself.

GrorcEe Maneuzs, Givendale, Ripon, Yorkshire: Txirp Prizx, Silver Medal,
for “ Cupid,” 1 year 6 months 3 weeks and 2 days-old (Yorkshire
and Cumberland); bred by himself; sire, “King of Diamonds ;” dam,
“ Princess.”

Gzorce Maneies: the Reserved Number, to “Brutus,” 1 year 6 months
3 weeks and 2 days-old (Yorkshire and Cumberland) ; bred by himself ;
sire, ‘‘ King of Diamonds ;” dam, “Princess.”

Boars of a Small Black Breed.

THomAs Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: Firsr Prize, 10/.,
for his 11 months 1 week and 5 days-old (Improved Suffolk); bred by
himself.

GxrorcE Mumrorp Sexton, Wherstead Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: Szconp Prizk,
51., for “‘Go-a-head,” 7 months 2 weeks and 1 day-old (Suffolk) ; bred by
himself ; sire, “ Terror ;” dam, ‘‘ Canterbury: Lass 3rd.”

GrorcE Mumrorp Sexton: the Reserved Number, to “Lord Clifden,”
7 months 2 weeks and 3 days-old (Suffolk); bred by himself; sire,
“ The Earl ;” dam, “ Shortnose.”

Boars of the Berkshire Breed.

Wutt14Mm Hewer, Sevenhampton, Highworth, Wilts :-Firsr Prize, 10/., for his
black and white 9 months-old ; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Warwick ;” dam,
“Miss Wells.”

Wui11am Hewer: Seconp Prize, 51., for his black and white 9 months and
8 weeks-old ; bred by himself; sire, “ Warwick ;” dam, “ Jenny.”

Wit1am Joyce, Abbey Farm, Waterford, Ireland: Turrp Prizr, Silver
Medal, for his 5 months 1 week and 1 day-old; bred by himself; sire,
“Sir Robert ;” dam, ‘Gipsy 2nd.” "

Wu14M Joyce: the Reserved Number, to his 5 months 1 week and 1 day-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “ Sir Robert ;” dam, ‘‘ Gipsy 2nd.”

Boars of a Breed not eligible for the preceding Classes.

Wiu11aAm Brapitey Warman, Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire: First Prizx,
10/., for ‘The Nabob,” white, 1 year 10 months 3 weeks and 4 days-old
(Carhead middle); bred by himself.

JAMES GRAHAM, 1, Blackburn’s Buildings, York Road, Leeds: Seconp Prize,
51., for ‘* Pride of Leeds,” white, 2 years 2 months and 8 days-old (middle) ;

* bred by Mr. Rinder, Sheepscar, Leeds ; sire, “‘ Cupid ;” dam, “ Julia.”

Wiiiiam Braptey Watnman, Carhead, Cross Hills, Yorkshire ; the Reserved
Number, to “British Workman,” white, 10 months 3 weeks and 1 day-
old (Carhead middle); bred by himself.

’

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. lix

Breeding Sows of a Large Breed, of any colour.

Winiram Braptey WatyMay, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: First Prize,
10/., for “Fresh Hope,” white, about 2 years-old (Yorkshire); bred by
Messrs. Hey, Beamsley, Skipton-in-Craven, Yorkshire; sire, “ Flag of
Truce.”

Ricwarp Dicky, 161, Old Road, Stockport, Lancashire : Second Prize, 5/., for
“Miss Watts,” white, 2 years 1 month 2 weeks and-5 days-old: bred by
Sir James Watts, Bart, Abney Hall, Cheadle, Cheshire ; sire, ‘‘ Victory ;”
dam, ‘‘ Elizabeth.”

Witi1am Eanrpiry, Larkton Hall, Malpas, Cheshire: the Reserved Number,
to “ Mary Frances,” white, 1 year 5 months and 2 days-old (Cheshire) ;
bred by himself; dam, ‘‘ Cheshire Lass.”

Breeding Sows of a Small White Breed.

Tuomas Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: First Prize, 10/.,
for his 2 years 3 months and 3 weeks-old (Suffolk) ; bred by himself.

Sm Epwarp Kerrisoy, Bart., M.P., Brome Hall, Scole, Suffolk : Seconp Prize,
5l., for “ Annie Laurie,” 2 years and 10 months-old ; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Brome Prince ;” dam, “ Miss Ritter.”

SamuEL GEATER Sreary, Brandeston, Wickham Market, Suffolk : Turrp
Prize, Silver Medal, for “ Victoria 2nd,” 1 year 2 months 3 weeks and
2 days-old (Suffolk); bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Marquis ;” dam, “ Vic-
toria.”

Micuarni Gavins, Fox Inn, Leeds, Yorkshire:-the Reserved Nuziber, to
“ Hugénie,” 2 years 1 month 3 weeks and 2 days-old; bred by himself ;
sire, Lord Wenlock’s ‘‘ Cato;” dam, Prince Consort's ‘* Windsor Lass.”

Breeding Sows of a Small Black Breed.

Tuomas Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk : First Prize, 10(.,
for his 11 months 1 week and 5 days-old (Improved Suffolk); bred by
himself,

Grorce Mumrorp SEXTON, Wherstead Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: Srconp Prize,
5U., for “‘ Marigold,” 1 year and 2 months-old (Suffolk); bred by himself ;
sire, “ Pug ;” dam, sc Pet,”

Wi11am Hemmrnc, Coldicott, Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestefshire : Turrp
PrizE, Silver Medal, for “The Bride of Elmwood,” 1 year 1 month
1 week and 3 days-old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘ Sherborne Prince 2nd ;”
dam, “ Tillesley 2nd.”

Tuomas Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: the Reserved Num-

ber, for his 11 months 1 week and 5 days-old (improved es bred
by himself.

Breeding Sows of the Berkshire Breed,

WILLIAM JAMES SADLER, Bentham, Calcutt, Cricklade, Wilts: Fimsr Prize,
10/., for “ Alexandra,” dark, 2 years 2 weeks and 1 day-old; bred by
himself; sire, “ King of Warwick :” dam, ‘‘ Bracebridge 8rd.”

Joux Hrrcnman, M.D., Mickleover, Derby : Srconp Prize, 5/., for * Lady
Bowly,” black, with white feet, 3 years 11 months 3 weeks and 1 day-old ;
bred by Edward Bowly, Siddington House, Cirencester, Gloucestershire.

RoyaL AGRICULTURAL CoLLEGE, Cirencester, Gloucestershire: Turrp Prize,
Silver Medal, for ‘‘ Polly, 8 black, 1 year 5 months and 4 weeks-old ;
bred by himself ; sire, “‘ Duke of Glo’ster ;’ dam, “ Mrs, Joshua.”

Ix Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

GEorGE. MaNDER ALLENDER, Lee Grange, Winslow, Bucks: the Reserved
Number, for “ Topsy, ’ black, 10 months and 5 days-cld ; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Glos’ ter ;” dam, ‘‘ Darkie.’

Breeding Sows of a Breed not eligible for the preceding Classes,

Tuomas Crisp, Butley Abbey, Wickham Market, Suffolk: First Prize, 10/.,
for his white 2 years 1 month and 4 days-old (middle); bred by himself.

Witt1am BrapLey WAINMAN, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: Srconp Prize,
51., for “ The Happy Link,” white, 1 year 7 months 1 week and 6 days-old
(Carhead Middle) ; eel by himself.

Wrt1am Braptey Wainman: Tuirp Perms, Silver Medal, for “‘ The Luck
Link,” white, 1 year 7 months 1 week and 6 days-old (Carhead Middle) ;
bred by himself.

JAMES GRAHAM, 1, Blackburn’s Buildings, York Road, Leeds, Yorkshire: the

: Reserved Number, for “ Dew Drop,” white, 1 year ’8 months and 2 weeks-
old (middle) ; bred by Mz. Myers, Sheepscar, Leeds, Yorkshire; sire,
“Young Sir Colin 2 dam, “‘ Lily of the Valley.”

Sow Pigs of a Large Breed—Pens of Three.

Wititam Braptey Warxman, Carhead, Crossbills, Yorkshire: First Prize,
10/., for ** Advance Symmetry,” “‘ Advance Quality,” and “ No Surrender,”
white, 7 7 months and 5 days-old (Carhead); bred by himself.

Ricuarp Evmavurst DuckerrNe, Northorpe Station, Kirton Lindsey, Lincoln-
shire: Seconp Prize, 5/., for his white, 7 months and 2 weeks-old (Lin-
colnshire) ; bred by himself ; sire, “* Victor ;” dam, “ Victoria.”

Breeding Sow Pigs of a Small White Breed—Pens of Three.

Joux Waters, Motcombe, Eastbourne, ‘Sussex: First Prize, 10/., for his
7 months and 8 weeks-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘“‘ Windsor Prince ;”
dam, “‘ The Watson Sow.”

Tue Hon. Couonet E.'G. D. Pennant, M-P., Penrhyn Castle, Bangor, Car-
narvonshire : SEcoND Prizm, 5/., for his 7 months 3 weeks and 4. days-old ;
bred ‘by*himself; ‘sire, “ Wiley’ § ’ Boar ;” dam, ‘‘ Mary.”

Masor-GENERAL THE Hon. A. Netson Hoop, Cumberland Lodge, Windsor,
Berkshire: the Reserved Number, to his 7 months 8 weeks and 8 days-
old (Prince Albert's Windsor); bred by himself; sire, “ Duke ;” —
“ Windsor.”

Breeding Sow Pigs of a Small Black Breed—Pens of Three.

GEORGE Mumrorp Sexvon, Whorstead Hall, Ipswich, Suffolk: First Prize,
10/., for “ Confidence bestows Success,” 7 ‘months and 3 days-old (Suffolk) ; i
bred by himself; sire, “Battersea Prince:” dam, “Splendour.”

Wiu1Am Hemuine, Caldicott, Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire: Srconp
Prize, 51., for“ N eatness,” “ Nicety,” and “ Notable,” 7 months 1 week and
3 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “Mr, Windham ;” dam, “ Miss Hold-
way 4th.”

Joux Azarian Smrrn, Bradford Peverell, Dorchester, Dorset»: the Reserved
Number, to his. 3 months «and 3 weeks-old (Improved Dorset); bred by
himself,

: Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. lxi

Breeding Sow Pigs of the Berkshire Breed—Pens of Three.

Wuuaiam Joycr, Abbey Farm, Waterford, Ireland: Firsr Prize, 10/., for his
7 months and 1 week-old.:: bred by himself; sire, “ Emperor;”_ dam,
“ Nelly.”

JosEpH Situ, Henley-in-Arden, Warwickshire: Srconp Prizz, 5/., for his
black, with a little white, 7 months .3 weeks and 3 days-old; bred by
himself: sire, “ Gannaway ;” dam, “ Favourite.”

‘Wiu114am James Sapien, Bentham, Calcutt, Cricklade, Wilts: TxHirrp Prize,
Silver Medal, for his dark, 7 months and 4 days-old ; bred by himsell! ;
sire, “Garibaldi ;” dam, “ Daughter of Heavysides.”

Wit11am Joyer, Abbey Farm, Waterford, Ireland: the Reserved Number, for
his 5 months 1 week and 1 day-old ; ‘bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Sir Robert ;”
dam, “*-Gipsy 2nd.”

Breeding Sow Pigs of a Breed noi eligible for the preceding Classes—
Pens of Three.

Wim Braptey Waray, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: First Prize,
10/., for his 6 months 3 weeks and 1 day old (Carhead Middle); bred by
himself.

Henry Keyworts, Woodhouse Moor, Leeds, Yorkshire: Seconp Prize, dl., for
his white, 5 months and 3 weeks-old (middle); bred by himself; sire,
“Pride of Leeds ;” dam, “ Lily of the Valley.”

JOSEPH GLEDHILL, High-street, Heckmondwicke, Yorkshire: the Reserved
Number, for “‘ The Three Lilies,” white, 7 months 1 week and 4 days-old
(Yorkshire Middle); bred by himself; dam, “‘ Fair Flora.”

SPECIAL PRIZES OFFERED BY THE WORCESTER
- LOCAL COMMITTEE.

SHORTHORNS.

Pairs of Cows In-mill:.

RicHarD Boorn, Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire: First Prizx, 151., for
“Queen of the Ocean,” red and white, 4 years 7 months 3 weeks and
4 days-old ; bred by himself; sire, “ Crown Prince” (10087) ; dam, “Red
Rose :” “‘Soldier’s Bride,” white, 4 years 5 months 3 weeks and 1 day-
old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Windsor ” (14013) ; dam, “ Campfollower.”

James Haucuton Lanasron, M.P., Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxford-
shire: Srconp Pruzz, 5/., for “‘ Dandelion,” white, 4 years 6 months and
3 days-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘Glo’ster’s Grand Duke” (12949);
dam, “ Daisy :” “ Merrytrix,” red and white, 4 years 3 months and 5
days-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Glo’ster’s Grand Duke” (12949); dam,
“ Merrytrix.”

Pairs of Heifers In-milk and In-calf.

Joun R. MippiesrovuGy, South Milford, Milford Junction, Yorkshire: First
Prize, 15/., for his red and white, 3 years and 11 months old; bred by
himself; sire, “ The Squire;” dam, “Red Rose :” roan, 3 years old; bred
by himself; sire, ‘‘ The Squire ;” dam, “‘ Red Rose.”

lxii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

Wi11aM Brapsury, Hilton, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire : Seconp Prize, 5/.,
for “ Flora,” light roan, 3 years 11 months and 3 weeks old; bred by
the late Joshua Price, Featherstone, Wolverhampton; sire, “ Sultan ”
(15355) ; dam, “Oak Apple: ‘‘Snowdrop,” roan, 3 years and 3 months-
old; bred by the late Joshua Price; sire, “Sultan” (15355); dam,
‘* Snowball.”

Pairs of Heifers In-calf.

RicHarD Bootu, Warlaby, Northallerton, Yorkshire: First Prize, 15/., for
“Graceful,” roan, 2 years 10 months and 1 week-old; bred by himself ;
sire, “ Prince Alfred” (13494); dam, ‘‘ Lady Grace :” “‘ Lady Joyful,” -
roan, 2 years and 4 months old; bred by himself; sire, “ Lord of the
Valley ” (14837); dam, “ Lady Blithe.”

Eart Beaucuamp, of Madresfield Court, Great Malvern, Worcestershire:
SeconD Prize, 5/., for “ Princess Royal,” roan, 2 years and 4 months-old;
bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Ortolan” (18496); dam, “ Pollyhorton :” “ Sun-
shine,” roan, bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Ortolan” (18496) ; dam, “ Gaylass.”

Pairs of Yearling Heifers.

CoLoNEL CHARLES ToWNELEY, Towneley Park, Burnley, Lancashire: First
Prize, 10/., for “ Double Butterfly,” roan, 1 year 5 months 1 week and
2 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “ Royal Butterfly” (16862); dam,
“ Alice Butterfly :” “ Perfume,” white, 1 year 2 months and 1 week-old;
bred by himself; sire, ‘ Baron Hopewell” (14134); dam, “ Pride.”

Bull, Cow, and their Offspring.

Ricuarp Stratton, Walls Court, Stapleton, Bristol : First Prize, 10/., for his
bull, “Knight of the Lagan,” roan, 4 years and 2 months-old; bred by
Mr. Richardson, Glenmore, Ireland: cow, ‘‘ Lady Hinda,” roan, 4 years
1 month and 1 week-old; bred by himself: offspring, 1 month and
2 days-old ; bred by himself.

James Haucuton Laneston, Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire :
Srconp Prize, 10/., for his bull, “ Lord of the Harem” (16430), roan,
4 years 7 months 3 weeks and 1 day-old; bred by Mr. Housman, Lane
Bank, Lancaster; sire, “ Duke of Buckingham” (14428); dam, “Gul-
nare :” cow, “Sally,” red, 7 years 3 months and 2 days-old; bred by
himself; sire, “Grand Duke” (12949); dam, “Silky :” offspring, “ Ha-
rems Select,” roan, 8 months and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself.

HEREFORDS. ’
Pairs of Cows In-milk.

Joun WALKER, Westfield House, Holmer, Hereford: First Prize, 15/., for
“ Alice Grey,” red with white face, 6 years 3 weeks and 3 days-old; bred
by John Hewer, Marden, Hereford; sire, “ Garrick;” dam, “ Silver
Beauty :” “ Nell Gwynne,” red with white face, 5 years 5 months 2 weeks
and 2 days-old; bred by John Hewer; sire, ‘‘ Darling 2nd;” dam,
“ Platina.”

Puiri Turner, The Leen, Pembridge, Herefordshire : Szconp Prizx, 5/., for
‘* Jewel,” red with white face, 4 years 11 months 2 weeks and 3 days-old ;
bred by himself; sire, “ Felix” (953); dam, “ Brilliant” (619): “ Juliet,”
red with white face, 4 years 10 months 2 weeks and 2 days-old ; bred by
himself; sire, ‘‘ Felix” (953); dam, “ Bellona,”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. Ixili

Georce Pirr, Chadnor Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Herefordshire: the Je-
served Number, to ‘‘ Perfection,’”’ red with white face, 7 years 4 months
1 week and 4. days-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘Plunder;’ dam,
«Brandy :” “Stately,” red, with white face, 5 years 7 months and 2 days-
old; bred by himself ; sire, ‘‘ Riff Raff;” dam, “ Duchess.”

Pairs of Heifers In-milk or In-calf.

Toe EXECUTORS OF THE LATE JAMES RueA, Monaughty, Knighton, Radnor-
shire: First Prize, 15/., for ‘‘ Diana the Second,” red with white face
and mane, 3 years 10. months 2 weeks and 3 days-old; bred by the late
J. Rea; sire, ‘‘ Wellington ;” dam, “‘ Diana:” “Spangle the 2nd,” red
with white face and mane, 3 years 9 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by
the late J. Rea; sire, “ Wellington ;” dam, “ Spangle.”
Heyry Rawtixs Evans, jun., Swanstone Court, Dilwyn, Leominster, Here-
fordshire: Suconn Prize, 5/., for * Nelly,” red with white face, 3 years
9 months and 1 week-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Rambler” (1046);
dam, “ Silver 2nd :” “‘ Stately 2nd,” red, with white face, 3 years 3 months
2 weeks and 1 day-old; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Rambler” (1046); dam,
“ Stately.”

Bull, Cow, and their Offspring.

Tuomas Roserts, Ivington Bury, Leominster, Herefordshire : First Prizz, 20/.,
for his bull, “‘ Sir Thomas” (2228), red with white face, 3 years 5 months
3 weeks and 5 days-old; bred by himself; sire, “Sir Benjamin ;” dam,
“Lady Ann Page” (213): cow, “‘ Prize Flower Page” (263), red, with
white face, 5 years 10 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by himself; sire,
* Arthur Napoleon” (910); dam, ‘“ Longhorns” (145): offspring, heifer,
red with white face, 8 months and 3 weeks-old ; bred by himself,

Henry Giszons, Hampton Bishop, Hereford: Szconp Prizz, 10/., for his
bull, “Shamrock the Setond,” red with white face, 3 years 9 months
3 weeks and 6 days-old; bred by E. Prive, Court House, Pembridge, Here-
fordshire; sire, “Shamrock ;” dam, “ Creeping Jenny :” cow, “ Pretty-
maid,” red with white face, 7 years 8 months 1 week and 6 days-old;
bred by himself; sire, “The Admiral ;” dam, “ Hoop:” offspring, red
with white face, 6 months 1 week and 2 days-old; bred by himself,

Tuomas Davis, Burlton Court, Hereford: the Reserved Number, to his bull
“ Courtier,” red with white face, 6 years 9 months and 3 weeks-old ; bred
by Mr. Price, Court House, Pembridge; sire, “‘Goldfinder the Second :”
cow, “ Miss Knight,” red with white face, 5 years-old ; bred by himself;
sire, “ Darling :” offspring, ‘‘ Burlton,” red, with white face, 1 month and
4 weeks-old; bred by himself,

Bull, and a Cow In-milk, of the Welsh Breed.

Ricnarp Harr Harvey, Harroldstone, Haverfordwest: First Prize, 101., for
his bull (Anglesey) “Ap Shenkin,” black, 3 years and 11 months-old;
bred by Hugh Hughes, Aber Ogwen, Bangor: cow (Anglesey), “ Annie
Laurie,” black, 4 years and 3 months-old; bred by Humphrey Ellis,
Cefnfaes, Bangor.

Bull, and a Cow In-milk, of any pure Scotch Breed.

THE Earu or Powrs, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire : First Prizr,
10/., for his bull (Ayrshire) “Irvine,” dark red and white, 2 years and
11 months-old ; bred by John Parker, Broomlands, Irvine, Ayrshire: cow,
(Ayrshire), “Bonny Jean,” red and white spotted, 6 years 3 months
and 3 days-old; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Duke,”
VOL. XXIV. i

Ixiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester.

HORSES.

Hunter and Hackney—Mares or Geldings.

Joun B. Bootn, Killerby, Catterick, Yorkshire : First Prize, 201., for his half
bred hunter-gelding, ff Beechwood,” bay, 5 years-old : bred by Smart
Atkinson, Beaumont Hill, Darlington ; sire, ‘‘ Lancewood.”

JouN GrEGory WatTKIns, Woodfield, Decitwieks Worcestershire : Sxrconp-
Prizx, 10/., for his half-bred mare, “ Elastic,” bay, 5 years-old; bred by
himself ; sire, “ Teddington ;” dam, “Crasher.”

Epwarp Vincent WHEELER, Kyrewood House, Tenbury, Worcestershire: the
Reserved Number, to his half-bred gelding, chesnut, 9 years-old; bred by
himself; sire, ‘‘ Young Colwick ;” dam, “ Panny.”

Hunter and Hackney—Fillies or Geldings.

Hexry James SHELDON, Brailes House, Shipston-on-Stour, Warwickshire :
First Prizz, 10/., for his gelding, ‘‘ Harold,” brown, 3 years and 1 month-
old; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Barnton ;” dam, ‘* Black Bess.”

James WuirE, Lindoes, Coleford, Gloucestershire: Szconp Prizs, 5/., for his
half-bred filly, ‘‘ Brunette,” brown, 3 years-old; bred by himself; sire,
“Sir Peter Laurie; dam, “ Jessie.”

Jonx Pare Smiru, Lower Wick, Worcester: the Reserved Number, to
his chesnut filly, 3 years and 2 months-old ; cs by himself; sire,
“Canobie ;” dam, ‘‘ Bessy.”

WiitaM Baker, Brailes, Shipston-on-Stour, Wate First Prize, 10/.,
for his half-bred gelding, ‘‘ Grafton,” light chesnut, 2 years and 1 month-
old; bred by himself; sire, “ Ethelbert.”

Henry Arusopp, Hindlip Hall, Worcester: Suconp Prize, 5/., for his nearly
thorough- bred gelding, ‘ Parvenue,” black, 2 years 2 months and 2 weeks-
old ; bred by himself’; sire, ‘‘ Great Unknown : ” dam, “ Patchwork.”

JouN Henry Ewes, Colson Cheltenham: the Reserved Number, to his
gelding, “‘ Gold-dust,” chesnut, 2 years-old; bred by himself; sire, ck Lough
Bawn.”

Cobs.

FREDERICK BRANWHITE, Chapel House, Long’ Melford, Sudbury : First Prize,
10/., for his Norfolk gelding, ‘‘'Tam o’ Shanter,” brown, 6 years-old ; bred
by Mr. Wibrew, Shumpling, Sudbury ; sire, ‘‘ Patten’s horse.”

FREDERICK BRANWHITE: SeconD Prize, 57., for his Norfolk gelding, * en
silver,” chesnut, 5 years-old; bred by Mr. Manby, Sudbury ; sire, “‘ Young
Fire King ;” dam, ‘ Beeswing.”

Agricultural Stallions.

JosEpH Mites, Astwood Claines, Worcester: First Prizm, 40/., for ‘‘ Iron
Duke,” dark brown, 4 years-old; bred by himself; sire, “Iron Duke;”
dam, Invincible.”

Joun Crump, Grafton, Beckford, Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire : Seconp. PRIzE,
201., for “6 Young W. axwork,” light red roan, 3 years 1 month and 2 weeks-
old; bred by Mr. Attwood, Bromham, Wiltshire ; sire, “ Waxwork ;”
dam, “ Frolic,”

Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Worcester. a ay

SHEEP.

Ryeland Ram.

Joux Bearcrort Dowxtse, Holme Lacey, Hereford : First Prize, 10/., for his
about 1 year and 3 months-old; bred by himself.

Joun Bearcrorrt Downing: the Reserved Number, to his about 1 year and
3 months-old ; bred by himself.

Ryeland Theaves—Pens of Five.

Joun Bearcrorr Downie, Holme Lacey, Hereford : First Prize, 10/., for his
about 1 year and 3 months-old; bred by himself.

Welsh or any other Mountain Breed Ram.

JONATHAN PEEL, Knowlmere Manor, Clitheroe: Fimst Prize, 10/., for “ Grand-
son of the Mountain King” (pure Lonk), 2 years 3 monthsand 2 days-old ;
bred by John Midgeley, Knowl Top, Clitheroe; sire, “‘ Prince of Pendle.”

JaMEs Merson, Brinsworthy, North Molton, Devon: the Reserved Number, to
his (pure Exmoor), white, 2 years and 4 months-old ; bred by himself,

Welsh or any other Mountain Breed Theaves—Pens of Five.

JoxaTHAN PEEL, Knowlniere Manor, Clitheroe: First Prize, 10/., for “ Moun-
tain Queens” (Nos. 75, 76, 78, 81, 98), (pure Lonk), 1 year 2 months
and 2 weeks-old ; bred by himself; sire, ‘‘ Mountain King.”

JONATHAN PEEL: the Reserved Number, to “Mountain Queens” (Nos. 62, 63,
64, 67, 69), (pure Lonk), 1 year 2 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by him-
self ; sire, “ Mountain King.”

PIGS.
Large Breed Boar, Sow, and their Litter of Pigs.

Witi1am Brapiey Warman, Carhead, Crosshills, Yorkshire: First Prize,
101., for his (Carhead breed) boar, “ Lord of the*Wassail,” white, 2 years
and 3 months-old; bred by himself: sow, “Bright Hope,” white, about
4 years-old: litter of pigs, white, 11 weeks and 2 days-old; bred by
himself.

Small Breed Boar, Sow, and their Litter of Pigs.

Titus Bennett Steap, 20, Upperhead Row, Leeds, Yorkshire: Frrst Prize,
10/., for his boar, ‘‘ Maccaroni,” white, 1 year 1 week and 3 days-old; bred
by W. Newby, Leathley, Otley, Yorkshire; sire, ‘“‘ Wenlock ;” dam,
“Teathley Lass:” sow, “Fairy,” white, 1 year 5 months 2 weeks and
5 days-old ; bred by himself; sire, “‘ Sir Colin ;” dam, “ Dewdrop :” litter
of pigs, white, 2 months and 1 week-old; bred by himself.

Joux Azarian Stn, Bradford Peverell, Dorchester, Dorset: Srconp Prize,
51., for his (Improved Dorset) boar, black, 1 year and 6 months-old; bred
by himself: sow, black, 3 years 3 months and 2 weeks-old; bred by him-
self: litter of pigs, black, 2 months and 1 week-old; bred by himself.

f2

Ixvi Award of Implement Prizes at Worcester.

Samuet GEATER Stearn, Brandeston, Wickham Market, Suffolk: the Re-
served Number, to his (Suffolk) boar “ His Highness,” white, 6 years and
2 months old; bred by J. Catchpole, Letheringham, Wickham Market :
sow, “ Princess,” white, 3 years-old; bred by himself : litter of pigs,
2 months 3 weeks and 1 stra bred by himself.

IMPLEMENTS.

STreAM-CULTIVATORS.

JoHN Fowter, 28, Cornhill, London: the Prize of Tarrry SovEREIeNs and
a GoLp Mepat, for his 14-Horse Set of Steam- per Machinery,
complete ; manufactured by himself.

Savory anv Soy, High Orchard Iron Works, Gloucester : the Prize of TWENTY
Sovereicns, for their 10-Horse Patent Double-cylinder Self-propelling
Winding Engine. It consists in applying a drum to revolve on friction
wheels placed around the body of the boiler, and is capable of taking on
at one lap 470 yards of wire rope; invented and manufactured by them-
selves.

‘Wu. STEEvENs, No. 6, Godolphin-road, New-road, Hammersmith, Middlesex :
a SILVER Mepat, for his complete Set of New and Improved Apparatus
for Cultivating the Land by Steam-power ; invented and improved by
himself, and manufactured by Garrett and Son, F

CoLemMAN AND Sons, Chelmsford, Essex: Cosmmenben for their Set of Steam
Cultivating Apparatus ; invented by Yarrow and Hilditch, of London,
improved and manufactured by themselves.

Sream-Cottivators For Smatz~ Occupations.

Joun Fowier: the Prize of Twenty-Five SovEREIens, for his 10-Horse Set
of Steam-ploughing Machinery, complete ; manufactured by himself.

Wi11amM Suitrx, Woolston, near Bletchley Station, Bucks: the Prize of
FIFTEEN SoveEretens, for his 10-Horse Power Engine, Double Cylinder ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by Mr. Butlin, of Northampton.
Windlass, &c., complete, for Steam-ploughing.

JAMES AND FREDERICK Howagp, the Britannia Iron Works, Bedford: the
Prize of Ten SovEREIGNs, for their Set of Patent Apparatus for Culti-
vating Land by Steam-power. This apparatus is adapted to every variety
of soil, and for irregularly-shaped as well as square fields ; invented and

manufactured by themselves.

Sream-Encines—Fized.

BARRETT, EXALL, AND ANDREWES, Reading, Berks: the Prize of FIrrEEn _
SoVEREIGSS, for their 10-Horse Power Horizontal Fixed Steam-Engine ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves,

CiayTox, SHUTTLEWoRTH, AND Co., Lincoln: the Prize of Firreen Sove-
REIGNS, for their 10-Horse Power Horizontal Fixed Steam- -Engine ; im-_
proved ‘and manufactured by themselves.

Horyspy AND Soxs, Spittlegate, Grantham, Lincolnshire: the Prize of TEN
Soveretays, for their 10-Horse Power Fixed Steam-Engine ; invented,
improved, and manufactured by themselves.

| Award of Implement Prizes at Worcester. lxvii

James Frerarece, Brimscombe, near Stroud, Gloucestershire: Hicunyr
Commexpen for his 10-Horse Power Horizontal Fixed Steam-Engine ;
improved and manufactured by himself.

Sreamu-ENeixes—Portable.

Hoxzsssx asp Sows: the Prize of Tes Soverztens, for their 12-Horse Power
Patent Portable Steam-Engine, with Single Cylinder ; invented, improved,
and manufactured by themselves.

Cuartos, SuurrieworTH, asp Co.: the Prize of Szvex Soveeziess, for
their 12-Horse Power Patent Double Cylinder Portable Steam-Engine ;
improved and manufactured by themselves. ‘

Touxrorp asp Soss, Boston, Lincolnshire: the Prize of Four Sovereiess,
for their 12-Horse Power Patent Portable Steam-Engine, with Two In-
verted Vertical Cylinders ; invented and manufactured by themselves.

Barrett, Exatt, anp ANDREWES: the Prize of Four Sovenztens, for their
12-Horse Power Double Cylinder Portable Steam-Engine ; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by themselves.

TuxrorD axp Soss: the Prize of Nose Soveezicss, for their $ Horse Power
Patent Portable Steam-Enczine, with Inverted Vertical Cylinder ; invented
and manufactured by themselves.

Bazrerr, EXath, AND ANDREWES: the Prize of Eicur Soversiens, for their
$-Horse Power Portable Steam-Encine; invented, improved, and manu-
factured by themselves.

Cuayros, SRUTTLEWoRTH, AND Co.: ihe Prize of SEVEN SovEREIGSS, for
their 8-Horse Power Patent Single Cylinder Portable Steam-Ensgine ;
improved and manufactured by themselves.

Hotmes asp Soys, Prospeci-place Works, Norwich, Norfolk: the Prize of
Oxse Soverztcy, for their Improved 8-Horse Power Portable Steam-
Engine ; improved and manufactured by themselves.

Bzows axp May, North Wilts Foundry, Devizes, Wilts: Hicuiy Com-
MENDED for their 8-Horse Power Portable Steam-Engine ; manufactured
by themselves.

Brows asp May: Comuenpep for their 10-Horse Power Portable Steam-
Engine; manufactured by themselves.

James Haywoop, Jus., Phenix Foundry, Derby : ComwenneD for his
&Horse Power Portable Steam-Engine, with Horizontal Cylinder; in-
vented and manufactured by himself.

Etiis axp Sos, Oswestry, Shropshire : Commennen for their 7-Horse Power

. Portable Steam-Engine; invented, improved, and manufactured by them-
selves.

Gezorce Parsoss, Parrett Works, Martock, Somersetshire: CommeNDED for
his 8-Horse Power Portable Steam-Engine ; improved and manufactured
by himself.

Hanp-Dresstne Macutxes.

JOSHUA sod Loan _ Northampton: the Prize of Firreex Sove-
REIGNS, atent Corn-dressing Machine; invented, improved, and
manufactured by himself.

Wiruiam Sawner, Beverley, Yorkshire: the Prize of Tex Sxiixiscs, for his
Combined Corn-dressing, Blowing, and Screening g Machine ; invented and
manufactured by himself.

Ixviil Award of Implement Prizes at Worcester.

Hornsspy AND Sons: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for their Patent Corn-
dressing Machine ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

JOHN PENNEY AND Co., City Iron ‘and Wire Works, Broadgate, Lincoln: the
Prize of Srx Sovererrens, for their Patent Corn Screen ; invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by themselves,

Resert Bosy, St. Andrew’s Works, Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk: the Prize of
Four Sovereiexs, for his Improved Patent Corn-screening Machine
(No. 1 8); invented, improved, and manufactured by himself.

Finispine MAcuHINEs.

Horwspy anp Sons: the Prize of Twenty-rive Soveretens, for their Im-
proved Patent Portable Combined Thrashing, Shaking, and Finishing
Dressing Machine, for Preparing Corn for Market; invented, improved,
and manufactured by themselves.

CLAYTON, SHUTTLEWORTH, AND Co.: the Prize of Firreen Soveretexs, for
their Combined Portable Treble-Blast Finishing Thrashing Machine ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves, ‘

Wautis, Hastam, AND STEEVENS, Basingstoke, Hants: the Prize of TEN
Soveretens, for their Portable Combined Treble-Blast Finishing Thrash-
ing Machine ; invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Hornsby AND Sons: the Prize of Twexty Sovereiens, for their Improved
Patent Fixture Combined Thrashing, Shaking, and Finishing Dressing
Machine, for Preparing Corn for Market; invented, improved, and manu-
factured by themselves.

Hoimes anp Sons: a Suuver Mepat for their method of Bagging Chaff ina
Portable Combined Thrashing Machine.

Rosey Aanp Co., Engineers, Lincoln: CommenbDED for their No. 1 Portable
Combined Double-Blast Thrashing, Shaking, and Dressing Machine, 4 feet
6 inches wide, for Finishing the Corn for Market; invented, improved,
and manufactured by themselves.

Hommes AND Sons: ComMENDED for their Portable Combined Steam-Thrashing

and Finishing Machine; invented, improved, and manufactured by
themselves,

Baritey HuMMELLERS,

BarreTtT, EXALL, AND ANDREWEs: the Prize of TureE SovEreiens, for their
Barley Horner or Aveller for Horse Power; invented, improved, and
mauufactured by themselves.

Rosert Bony: the Prize of Two Sovertrens for his Patent Barley Hum-
meller or Aveller; invented, improved, and manufactured by himself. »

' MIscELLANEOUS.

Amies AND Barrorp, Peterborough, Northamptonshire: a Smiver MEDAL,
for their Patent Wrought-Iron Water Ballasting Land Roller ; invented,
improved, and manufactured by themselves.

Herbert Mackinver, Mere Hall, Lincoln: a Saver Mepat, for his- Potato
Separator; invented and manufactured by himself.

Epwarp Humpnries, Pershore, Worcestershire: a Sitver Mepat, for his
Portable Clover Machine; invented, improved, and manutactured by
himself,

Award of Implement Prizes at Worcester. lxix

Horyssy anp Sons: a Smver Mepau for their Patent Root Pulper
(marked P); invented, improved, and manufactured by themselves.
Wauuis, Hasntam, And Stervens: CommMenveD for their Six-row Seed and
Manure Drill, with Patent Steerage; invented, improved, and manu-

factured by themselves.

CLARKE AND Son, Brackley, Northamptonshire: Commernprp for their
Adjustable Scythe, for Heavy Crops of grass, corn, &c.; invented and
manufactured by themselves.

A, W. Gower, AnD Son, Market Drayton, Shropshire: CommEennen for their
Patent Combined Corn Distributor, or Broadcast Sowing and Harrowing
Machine ; invented by Andrew and Benjamin Gower, of Market Drayton ;
and manufactured by themselves.

W. S. Unpnerum1, Newport, Salop: Commernprep for his Cheese Press ;
invented and manufactured by H. Bruckshaw, of Market Drayton.

SEAMAN AND Trpprnc, Lowesmoor Iron Works, near Worcester : CoMMENDED
for their Set of 3 Patent Excelsior Steel Plough Whippletrees ; invented
by Joseph Seaman, and manufactured by themselves,

( bx )

Lssaps and RWeports—PRIZES FOR 1864.—All Prizes of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England are open to general com-
petition. Competitors will be expected to consider and discuss the
heads enumerated.

I. AGRICULTURE. OF HERTFORDSHIRE.

Firty Sovereiens will be given for the best Report on the
Agriculture of Hertfordshire.

The principal geological and physical features of the county should be
described ; the nature of the Soil and character of the Farming in its
different districts; recent changes of Farm Management; Improve-
ments lately introduced and still required ; remarkable and charac-
teristic Farms. The various influences exerted by the proximity
of London call for special consideration.

Il. A SUBURBAN FARM.
A Sprecran Prize orrerED By Sim C. Domvinir, Barr.

TWENTY-FIVE SovEREIGNS will be given for the best Essay on the
Special Description of Farming most suitable for the
vicinity of Large Towns, with reference to the require-
ments of such towns.

Elevations of the buildings best suited for the peculiarities of such

management should accompany the Paper.
,

III. BREAKING-UP PASTURES.

Twenty Soverziens will be given for an approved Essay on the
best mode of breaking-up Grass, and its subsequent treat-
ment as Arable Land.

IV. CONSTRUCTION OF CHEESE-ROOMS. , af

Ten Soverrians will be given for an approved Essay on the
Construction of Cheese-rooms.

Prizes for Essays and Reports. -1xxi

vV. THE PECULIAR QUALITIES OF PASTURES.

Ten Sovererens will be given for an approved Essay on the Pecu-
liar Qualities which render Pastures especially adapted
for the production of Butter and Cheese respectively,

VI. COTTON, LINSEED, AND RAPE CAKE,’

Ten Sovereiens will be given for the best Essay on the Com-
parative Value of Linseed, Rape, and Cotton Cakes for
feeding purposes.

VII. STORING ROOTS.

Ten SoverrrcNs will be given for the best Essay on Storing
Turnips, Mangold, Potatoes, and Carrots.

VIII. ANY OTHER AGRICULTURAL SUBJECT.

Ten Sovererens will be given for an approved Essay on any other
Agricultural Subject.

Reports or Essays competing for the Prizes must be sent to the Secretary

of the Society, at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before March 1,
1864. Contributors of Papers are requested to retain Copies of their
Communications, as the Society cannot be responsible for their return.

Ixxii Prizes for Essays and Reports.

RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.

1, All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on experience
or observation, and not on simple reference to books or other sources. Com-
petitors are requested to use foolscap or large letter paper, and not to write on
both sides of the leaf.

. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated scale,
ae accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors shall enclose their names and ada in a sealed cover,
on which only their motto, the subject of their Essay, and the number of that
subject in the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.*

4, The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being shall open
the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize has
been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of any Essay not obtaining the Prize, that he may think
likely to be useful for the Society’s objects; with a view of consulting the
writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such Essay at tne disposal
of the Journal Committee.

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining Prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of such
Essays ; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one of
the Essays deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.
bi ,

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calculations
are to be made. *

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society, on or before the Ist of March, 1864.

* Competitors are requested to write their motto on the enclosed paper on which
their names are written, as well as on the outside of the envelope.

( Ixxii )
Members’ Pribtileges of Chemical Analysis.

Tue Council have fixed the following rates of Charge for Analyses to
be made by the Consulting Chemist for the bond-jide use of Members
of the Society; who (to avoid all unnecessary correspondence) are
particularly requested, when applying to him, to mention the kind of
analysis they require, and to quote its number in the subjoined schedule.
The charge for analysis, together with the carriage of the specimens,
must be paid to him by members’at the time of their application.

No. 1.—An opinion of the genuineness of Peruvian guano, bone-
dust, or oil-cake (each sample) .. 5s.
» 2—An analysis of guano; showing the proportion of moisture,
organic matter, sand, phosphate. of lime, alkaline salts,
and ammonia a 10s.
>, &—An estimate of the value (relatively to the average of
samples in the market) of sulphate and muriate of am-
monia, and of the nitrates of potash and soda .. 10s.
» 4.—An analysis of superphosphate of lime for soluble phos-
phates only oa) ALOR:
»» 5.—An analysis of superphosphate of Time, showing the pro-
portions of moisture, organic matter, sand, soluble and
insoluble phosphates, sulphate of lime, and ammonia .. £1;
», 6.—An analysis (sufficient for the determination of its agricul-
tural value) of any ordinary artificial manure .. ar aesile
» 7.—Limestone :—the proportion of lime, 7s. 6d.; the propor-
tion of magnesia, 10s. ; the proportion of lime and mag-
nesia oe * se oe on VLEs
5, &.—Limestone or "marls, i including carbonate, phosphate, and
sulphate of lime, and magnesia with sand and clayss ss.) £1.
» 9.—Partial analysis of a soil, including determinations of clay,
sand, organic matter, and carbonate of lime a i wee IE
3 10. —Complete analysis of asoil . Ed;
», L1.—An analysis of oil-cake, or other substance used for feeding
purposes; showing the proportion of moisture, oil,
mineral matter, albuminous matter, and woody fibre ;

as well as of starch, gum, and sugar, in the aggregate 25ils
» 12,—Analyses of any vegetable product .. 7 - qemeceike
» 13.—Analyses of animal products, refuse substances used. for
manure, &c, -- from 10s. to 30s,
», 14.—Determination of the “ hardness > of a sample of water
before and after boiling .. 10s.
ay Lo .—Analysis of water of land drainage, and of water used for
irrigation .. os Ae Eee
ra _—Determination of nitric acid in a sample of water . say boeils

N.B.—The above Scale of Charges is not wpplicable to ‘he case of persons
commercially engaged in the Manufacture or Sale of any Substance sent for
Analysis.

The Address of the Consulting Chemist of the Society is, Dr. Aucustus
VorELcKER, 101, Leadenhall Street, London, E.C., to which he requests that all
letters and parcels (postage and carriage paid) should be directed.

By Order of the Council,
H. Hatt Darz, Secretary.

( lxxiv_) :

Members’ Weterinary PBridtleges.

I.—Seriovus on ExtTenstvE DIsEAsEs.

No. 1. Any Member of the Society who may desire professional attendance
and special advice in cases of serious or extensive disease among his cattle,
sheep, or pigs, and will address a letter to the Secretary, will, by retum of
post, receive a reply stating whether it be considered necessary that Professor
Simonds, the Society’s Veterinary Inspector, should visit the place where the
disease prevails,

No. 2. The remuneration of the Inspector will be 27. 2s. each day as a
professional fee, and 17. 1s. each day for personal expenses ; and he will also
be allowed to charge the cost-of travelling to and from the locality where his
services may have been required. The fees will be paid by the Society, but
the travelling expenses will be a charge against the applicant. This charge
may, however, be reduced or remitted altogether at the discretion of the Council,
on such step being recommended to them by the Veterinary Committee.

No. 3. The Inspector, on his return from visiting the diseased stock, will
report to the Committee, in writing, the results of his observations and pro-
ceedings, which Report will be laid before the Council.

No. 4. When contingencies arise to prevent a personal discharge of the
duties confided to the Inspector, he may, subject to the approval of the Com-
mittee, name some competent professional person to act in his stead, who shall
receive the same rates of remuneration.

TI.—Orprinary or Oruer Cases oF DISEASE.

Members may obtain the attendance of the Veterinary Inspector on any
case of disease by: paying the cost of his visit, which will be at the following
rate, viz., 27. 2s. per diem, and. travelling expenses.

ITT.—ConsvLTaTIONS WITHOUT VISIT.

Personal consultation with Veterinary i ip =: os D8.
Consultation by letter .. oi, gene
Consultation necessitating the writing of three or more > letters, 10s.
Post-mortem examination, and report thereon .. LF ow ALDg,

A return of the number of applications during each half-year being required
from the Veterinary Inspector.

TV.—Apmission or. DisEAsED ANIMALS TO THE VETERINARY CotLEcs ; :
Investigations, LeorurEs, AND Reports.

No. 1. All Members of the Society have the privilege of sending eattle,
sheep, and pigs to the Infirmary of*the Royal Veterinary College, on the same
terms as if they were Members of the College ; viz., by paying for the keep
and treatment of cattle 10s. 6d. per week “each animal, and for sheep and
pigs ‘‘a small proportionate charge to be fixed by the Principal according to
circumstances.”

No. 2. The College has also undertaken to investigate such particular classes
of disease, or special subjects connected with the application of the Veterinary
art to cattle, sheep, and pigs, as may be directed by the Council.

No. 8. In addition to the increased number of lectures now. given by
Professor Simonds—the Lecturer on Cattle Pathology—to the pupils in the
Royal Veterinary College, he will also deliver such lectures before the Members
of the Society, at their house in Hanover Square, as the Council shall decide.

No. 4. The Royal Veterinary College will from time to time furnish to
the Council a detailed Report of the cases of cattle, sheep, and pigs treated
in the Infirmary,