. Ps 4 : . . >» 7 7 ' 7 = ,. & { 1 rv * } y ; } : ‘ ’ f) { a i] oS ie ~ ‘{ 2 ; ‘ ay * s . ’ ’ a Ir JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. VOLUME THE TWENTY-FIFTH. PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1864. ‘ 6a 3. vo(2S THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY THINKING HUSBANDMAN, HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE AMONG THEIR MEMBERS. Von Tuarr, Principles of Agriculture. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING CROSS, CONTENTS OF VOL. XXV. GARDE! STATISTICS :— PAGE Meteorology, for the six months ending December 31,1863 .. wu Public Health ditto ditto siteas ser aN Price of Provisions ditto ditto Peg ae, ty VE Weekly Average Price of Wheat “rc AES Nn: Meteorology, for the six months ending Marck 31, 1864 Sombie x Public Health ditto ditto hw REY Price of Provisions ditto ditto sans Oey ARTICLE ' PAGE I.—Agricultural Progress and the eae Agricultural Society. By H.8. Thompson, WL eeely aa leige sai naa, ice II.—Hop Cultivation. By John P. Smith. Prize ae eles WZ IlI.—On Education as connected with Agriculture. By the Rev. J. L. Brereton, Rector of West Buckland, ibis and Pre- bendary of Exeter ‘Cathedral .. .. 59 IV.—Essay upon the Manufacture coe P eemmatien of Cider ata Perry. By Clement Cadle. Prize Essay .. -- «- + 16 V.—Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat for 20 Years in succession on the same Land. By J. B. Lawes, F.RB.S., F.C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, Ph. D., F.R.S., F.C.S. So) ron GE! VI—On Parvin Guano and the Means of Increasing its Efficacy asa Manure. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. -- +. +» 186 VII.—Report on International Agricultural Meeting at Tilley coe tk 209 VIII.—Report on International Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg. By Iohn Wilson, Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, Aes aati .. 216 IX.—Professor Voelcker’s Annual ‘Rapart. if Adela as of Oilcake ; 2. Of Artificial Manures; 3. Analysis of Egyptian Guano; 4. Of Nile-water; 5. Causes of Barrenness in rea 6. Subjects recently under Investigation .. =. «. 234 X.—Salt Experiments and Mangolds. By Dr. Augustus Voultker 240 XI.—Statistics of Live-Stock for Pe dapey in the beet By Robert Herbert .. .. Rolawee veil 243 XII.—Agriculture of Hertfordshire. By H. Bvershed. Prize Essay .. pl «% el .. 269 XIII.—Agricultural Notes on sineritondstited By Rev. 1h Clutterbuck 302 XIV.—Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1861. ByJ.D. Dent,M.P. 318 XV.—The Management of a Suburban Farm. By J. pe Monck. Prize Essay .. . 827 XVI.—On the Absorption of Pate = Soils of ae Composition. By Dr. Augustus Voelcker .. .. Se lest 333 iv CONTENTS. PAGE XVII.—Accidents through Te By Frederick Arthur Paget, O.E. .. Sie Te ier Hues b=) 183% XVIII.—On Storing Turnips, Manel Potatoes and Carrots. By George Jonas. Prize Hssayies, ee PM esc 2121>) XIX.—The Improved Construction of Stables. By P. H. Frere .. 364 XX.—A. Description of the Works for Reclaiming and Marling parts of the late Forest of Delamere, in the County of Cheshire. By Richard B. Grantham, Civil Engineer and F.G.S. .. .. 869 XXI.—Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat for Consumption in the Metropolis. By Robert Herbert .. -- 382 XXIL—Experiments with Salt es Mangolds. By Dr. Angustus Voelcker .. .. . 3885 XXIII.—General Report on oy ewoastld Mebting. By J. ‘Cae 391 XXIV.—Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. By J. Dent Dent, M.P.; together with the suppleness Report of the Stewards of Stock .. 1. . 425 XXV.—Report of Experiments on the Growth of ‘Wheat for 20 ee in succession on the same Land. By J. B. Lawes, F.R.5., E.C.S., and J. H. Gilbert, Ph.D., F-RS., F.C.8. .. .. 2. 449 MiscELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NoTIcEs: 1. Swedes, Mangold, and the Steam-Plough. By Charles Lawrence 248 2. Method of converting old Barns into Cattle Boxes. BY pe Blundelliy- <> ene seme kouface DEeabo PlanotWelamerePorest <5 60a. eee ws we » 369 Sections of Railway shown on the Plan .. .. .. .. » 369 Experiments at Rothamsted—Coloured Diagrams .. .- “5 461 an CARA. in Wi44 iy | ob ete eh car ae oer dont +) 0 Bis hel he ae ie bh OL td Sh aeYTE. neh AP Tee SPE aye y ’ oe “s o* met A aA eld ‘a ’ : ot am Le rvpAt op! dg ahs fan, na ; RE MM arate i) aoa ; Val oe My, jaa (pang A Lone | Cy, TOP heel wi WR Aes ia ie i ‘ hed OL) wie F Y ie nia iad ea A: ¥ 7 wy, ae, lar. a ge hy el” eta vive hk shuns Alene M + PEEE Albati + WAY «ty orn Seg 1 feo, 28 eoitiot Le Aye ig Pee val ype” al ele Tr meee (s " iE ot en .< % ae huh ide of as ray ns ‘2 oe’ Snr: ART) 9120 hey! tony ay | Verte batt Celina \ Cen Dah ee hh, aaa 7 i ; oe. Ta " 2d : on Pica Ae i“ et ten Petty : is ate ‘i ri eon hare Lathe i’ 1) shat ret 7 A ty her iye a¢ ’ id A ter@dlnm iis « ‘ pete tq » ee Rad ators fee | Pe fi As Fa Oo aieiMg wi oe > 4¢ 12 “led ' © as iwile@ in oH ores i » aay ol oe a (1 UR th SPA tie Je ohh , vi hid ore Ie aah Vie , W week ad posi h ‘ K ‘my v4 lel Mey j pik sable were |i te j iim pe ol itl +, i * f ys ‘ . ; ty , , ve be ai ' hy nde sR eo WT ng ) i Se TE eye we Fey pe RUE ahpee aie coils he tudes hath wredietd 8 ales need and Tah STATISTICS OF THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF PROVISIONS, &c., &e., FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING JUNE 30, 1864. Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.— The Corn Returns are prepared from Official Docwments expressly for this Journal, ya ON THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING MARCH 31, 1864. By JAMES GLAISHER, Eso Pebeee SEC. OF THE ERITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. Tue year 1863 closed with very fine weather for the season all over the country, which had continued for several weeks. At the beginning of January 1864 the weather changed, and till the 9th it was exceedingly cold, averaging a daily deficiency of 82°. On the 10th a period of warm, damp, and foggy weather set in, and till February 3 there was an average daily excess of 34° of temperature. On February 4 a cold period set in, lasting till the 11th; five days warm weather followed, ending the 16th; the daily excess, 67° nearly. From February 17th the weather was altogether wintry, and the average daily deficiency for 16 days, ending March 3, was 43° From March 4 to 15 the weather was warm, with an ~ excess of 22° daily; from March 16 to the end of the quarter the deficiency was 2°. During the quarter there was an unusual number of alternations in temperature. The mean high day temperature was below the average to the amount of 1°9, 3°°6, and 0°4 respectively in these three months. The mean low night temperature was below the ‘average to the amount of 1°-9, 2°-4, and 1°3 respectively. Therefore both the days and nights were cold in these three months. - The mean temperature of the air in January was 1°8, in Feb- ruary 2°:9, and in March 0°:7 below the respective averages of the preceding 23 years. The mean temperature of the dew-point was 4°-0, 3°5, and 0°6 below the averages of the preceding 23 years. The degree of humidity was less than its average in January and February, and a little above in March. The pressure of the atmosphere was alittle more than 7 in. in excess in January, somewhat in defect in February, and about ¢ in. in March, The fall of rain was in defect in January and February to the amount of 0-9 in. and 0°8 in. respectively, and in excess to the amount of 1:2 in. in March. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three months ending February, constituting the three winter months, was 38°'6, being 0°7 above the average of the preceding 93 years. a) “aBRIOAV oT} OAOG sogtuss snyd (++) usis on} oT} puv ‘eBvi9Av oy} Aojoq Sogrus|s snuyu (—) ud\s oq yeq} payor ur an10q oq ]ITAL 4] O]qv} SIG} Emproa UT —aLoN 1. oh 0.9 4 €€ $$ v.ov | $.0- t.b t+ 600-.0-| 69L.6z €- fg |°* uray ysaqsiyT | 4ysomory ung tng tung uv ung ung €.1b 9.61 I tI QI O.&v “ji Gr ine v- gvS | 99%.0-| £0$.6z I+ €g [ett youryy £.LE Teen ° 11 gt S.g& | g.0- 8+0 E+ LS$ | ¥ro.o-}| 09.62 w- gg jt Aaenaqay 1.€¥ 0.9 te or gi L.6€ | 6.0- 6.0 L+ 19$ | ¥gz.o+) v0.08 L- zg [°° Avenues fo} ° : ° “ul “ul "sd ‘sud “ul “Ul c ex * ‘sana ¢z Jo ‘sapak £7 ‘suvok ¢z ‘sivak ¢7% Wee TAIN 3 ron ae gs edie *soUaRILT, asvisav | ‘yuNOULY| JooSvioav} ‘uvayy | Joosvioav *uvelT Jo osvioan | *uvayy "SHLNO|| Bulpeay | Surpeayy uoomjog | 107 ayy yo | Wolds BIC tody “BIC Woy “Hd woody HI ; qsoysiy | ysoaoT ley PIST SAL 4] S}USIN JO Joquin yy pte ek iy “Urey "IVY JO 400.7 OJqND & *IajamM0.INg JO -Aypram yy jo = JO WSO A Bulpveyy aaidaq *"SSbIN UO JaJIMIOMMIOY,T, JO Surpvayy == == -- = — = = = a a — = =s = = £.0- ZT Oz0. - 6gI. I.O— | QeII L.t- 6.72£ a A 6.5€ Q.I- g.o- 6.LE |** ueopy 0.0 Sc 400. - Sit. g.o+ Srenl 9:0- Z.9€ L.o- 1.6€ L.o- €.0-+- £27 |e yore t.o- 0.7% QZO6.- glt. (a £.01 $.£- £.1€ I.£- Teaae 6.7- £.t- 0.9€ Jes Arenaqay +.0- One gto. = gt. 0.0 L.6 o.v- €.1€ L.t- V.vE Q-I- £.0-+ $.9€ * Arenuee 13 "313 "Ur ‘ul ° ° °o ° ° ° ° ° °o *sivak 97 ‘sivak 97 “sivok 6% *sinak €% *sivak ¢% *swok ez | *suvak ¢6 jooseieae| ‘uveyg | jooZuiaae | cuvayy | joosvioae| ‘uveyY | joosvioaw| ‘uvoyg | joodvioav| ‘uvayy | Joadvsoan | Joosvioaw| ‘*uvayy “SHLNOJ mols “Hid mols “YI | WOl} “Hid mols “HI Woy “HIG Toss “JIC | WoL HIT ‘ ‘P98L “ITV JO Joo,y o1qnD “qodwy yo ‘osury ATreq—ATVy “quyog Ma “uoyw10dvag “Vv v UL inode, Jo yWTI0 A, O0L0\f OSB jo oinjeredmay, “POST ‘Tg HOUV]Y ONIGNG YALUVNY AHL ONTUNG YAHLVAAA AH, a. ¢ Xit ) ON: THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING JUNE 30, 1864, Bry JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.EB.S., SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, Tue quarter ending March closed with cold and changeable weather, which continued to the 8th of April; the average daily deficiency from March 16, to April 8, was 1°°8. A warm period set in on the 9th, and continued to May 22; the excess for these 44 days was 3¢° nearly. From May 23 to the end of the quarter the weather was cold, with the exception of June 6 to 10; the deficiency for the 39 days, ending June 30, amounted to 23° nearly daily. The mean temperature of April was 48°:2, being 1°-7 above the average of the preceding 23 years. The mean temperature of May was 58°°8, being 0°°9 above the average of 23 years. The mean temperature of June was 57°-4, being 1°7 below the average of 23 years. The mean high day temperatures for the months of April, May, and June were 58°:3, 64°°8, and 69°5, being 1°°3 above, 0°3 below, -and 1°-4 below their respective averages. The mean low night temperatures for these three months were 40°, 44°-9, and 49°1, being 1°°3 above, 0°7 below, and 1°1 below their averages respectively. Therefore both the days and nights were warm in April, and cold in May and June. The mean temperature of the dew-point was 0°:2 below its average in April, was its average in May, and 2°-1 below it in June. The degree of humidity was very uniform, and always its. average. The pressure of the atmosphere was in excess in the months of April and May ; in the former to less than 0:2 in., and in the latter to less than 01 in.; in June it scarcely differed from its average. The fall of rain was in defect in each month. It was 0°7 in. in April, being 1°1 in. too small; 1-9 in. in May, being 0-2 in. in defect ; and 0°9 in. in June, or 1 in. below the average. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three months ending May, constituting the three spring months, was 47°-8, being 1°°3 above the average of the preceding 93 years. ¢ Sr) *aSVIVAB 94} GAOL SagTugis snid (+) Us{s oT} yy} puv ‘ase1DA¥ 9} MOJog Saylusis snurat (—) udys oy} yeq} PULA UT UI0q aq TTA 4F O1Ge7 SIT} Surpvar uT—*aLON 2.95 6.72 oF Ir 9-95 | £.t— 6£5 | ogo+ grg.6z uvoyy qsoqaiyT | ysaaoT wing tug uvoy ung 25 ° v.19 | O.I— G6 9m || sLOor= 761.6% ODD OGEGsict( 6 € 9.89 | t.0o— gf5 | tg0-++ L£g.6z tees Le 6.% 61 8 b.0§ | I.I— Lys | ¥or-+ $16.62 se eein* Trady uy ° ° “ul ‘S13 “ul ~ P *o0F pus} ‘ole *savok 1p ‘sana ez “sivak 9% aN 2 - , = off AO[aq | ‘SomuTy, | Jo osvioae jo aBvioar | ‘uvayy | JO edvi0ae JO aBvr9ae | “UROL Supeoy | Supe | | MEME! JOgy | om so” | Mos MIE Woy “WIC Woy “YI WON “NIC ‘SHINO]L qsoqsry | ysenoT aoyUAL. jo ain} a f SUA JI S}YSIN JO Joquinyy -viadwoy, “URI “ITY JO 400,q o1qno B *JojoMIOIeg JO *Ayrprum yy Jo vost JO FQBIOAL SuIpvoy ao13a(] “SSUIDN UO JO]OMLOMLIOT,T, Jo Surproyy 600.— | 66z. - | g.by Z.0— : | €.0+ | o.r+ uvayy 6z0.— bVE. L.gr 6.I- L.o- RS UY foo.+ gof. 9-SV $.0+ care eee LOT ZOO. — grz. 0.04 g.o+ v.t+ foe ey “13 “ul “ul ° ° *sivak £7 “sivak ¢% *sivak oz *sivak ez *"savak €% ‘svat ¢z | ‘savak 6 jo oSeviaav| ‘uvayg | jo aBvioae ‘uve]{ j|jJoeseioar| ‘uvay | Jo oder0av jJooseiaav| ‘uvopy | Jo oSvroav | Jo edvicav mol “BIC wWolg “HIT wmoay “BIC Wodly “HIT WHOS “YI | WOry “HIT ‘SHLNO]T “apy Jo 1007 o1qng Sgt Azo “oduny Atreq—srry “WMog Mad “uonviodvag | “IV ; ‘PI8T v Ul mode, jo 14310 A, 900g OH SPIT jo oinjesodmay, ‘POST ‘OG ANOE DNIGNA YALUVNH AHL PNIUNG YAHLVAAA AHL, ¢ x) STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 1st Quarter—The deaths greatly exceeded the average number. Seldom has a winter been more fatal; for 143,030 deaths—1572 a day—were registered in ninety-one days, including the additional day of leap year, for which due correction is made. The mortality was at the rate of 2°773 per cent.; whereas the average of the season in the preceding ten years was 2°490 per cent.; thus the rate was nearly 28 instead of 25 in 1000. 14,698 persons died in excess of the average number. Since 1842 it is only in the two winters (1847-48) after the potato failure, and in the winter of the Crimean war (1855), that the country has experienced any higher rates of mortality. The winter death-rate per 1000 was 2850, and 2°794 in the former years, 2°910 in 1855, and 2-773 in 1864. London suffered to an extraordinary extent, and is accountable for a large share of the increase. The average annual rate of the winter quarter in London is 2°577 per cent., but in the last winter quarter the rate becomes 3:088, or °511 above the average. ‘The funerals increased in the proportion of five to six. 2nd Quarter.—The deaths which were registered in the quarter that ended on June 30 amounted to 116,899. The number is above the average of the deaths in the months of April, May, and June; but it is less than the number of deaths which were registered in the corresponding quanter of the previous year, and less by 26,131 than the deaths in the three first fatal winter months of this year. Then 1572 deaths were registered daily ; in the present quarter the daily deaths have been 1284. The mortality has been at the rate of 2:260 in 100 living, or -073 above the average of the spring quarters of the previous ten years. The mortality of the town populations has been at the rate of 2:369, and of the country popu- lations 2°110 per cent.: thus the towns lost 18,392 lives, and the country 10,000 lives, in excess of the deaths which would have been registered had the mortality been at the rate prevailing in the least unhealthy districts of England and Wales. As a general rule the three spring months, April, May, June, are healthier than winter, and somewhat Jess healthy than the summer in ordinary years. They express very closely the average mortality of the year. ‘Thus the average annual mortality per cent. in ten years (1854-63) was 2:214, and in the ten springs of those years, 2:187; it was less in the spring quarters by 027. PRICE OF PROVISIONS. 1st Quarter.—Meat more than maintained its price, but both wheat and potatoes were unusually cheap. The mean of the lowest and highest prices of beef as sold at Leadenhall and Newgate was 52d. against 51d. in the same quarter of the two previous years; and of mutton the mean price was 6}d., which is also higher than in either of the two corresponding periods. Wheat declined to 40s, 4d. per quarter, each period of three months since September 1862 having witnessed more or less fall in the price. From the date just specified the fall has caused a difference of 16s. 6d. per quarter. Best potatoes have fallen to a mean price of 62s. 6d. per ton at Southwark against double that price in the first three months of last year. 2nd Quarter.—Wheat was unusually cheap. Its average price in the three months was 39s. 7d. per quarter. In the corresponding period of 1862 it was 56s. 8d.; in that of 1863 it was 46s. 2d. The mean of the highest and lowest prices of beef as sold by the carcase in Leadenhall and Newgate was 51d. per lb., and the same as in the June quarter of last year. Of mutton the mean price was 6d., being higher than in the same season of 1862-63. The best potatoes were sold from 2/. to 37. per ton in Southwark. The price was less than half of that for which they had been obtained in the spring of last year, and still lower in proportion to the price of 1862. The working classes enjoyed cheap markets for supplying themselves with the chief necessaries of life. C Gera) > THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS. The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes; also the AVERAGE Quantity of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters ending June 80, 1864. Wheat sold Wheat and Average Prices of Average | in the 290 Wheat pie averene|e Price of Gas and ae aa OG Arcata ae Eee Price |Wheat per ‘owns in eat per lb, at Leadenha uarters ” Consumpti Best 4 ai Gocauld ae Wales sped at Chief Ports and Newgate Marois Potatoes endin 0 rea e Mey) Magid. Bekins" +), Briain ic aeatc at Waterside aloud: : Market, ro 1862 oe wh June 30 | 938 | 56 8| 58,728 | 136,230 | 4d.—6d. | 5d.—7d. | 180s.—200s. Mean 5d. | Mean 6d. | Mean 190s. Sept. 30 | 933 56 10} 57,592 | 295,276 | 44d.—62d.| 54d.—7d. | 100s,—r130s. Mean 54d.) Mean 6}d.| Mean 115s. Dec. 31 933 48 2] 85,522 | 258,095 | 4d.—64d. | 5+d.—62d.| 90s.—11I0s. . Mean 5}d. | Mean 6d. | Mean Ioos. 1863 Mar. 31 | 92$ 46 71} 75,819 | 139,429 | 4d.—64d.| 5d.—7d. | 120s.—130s. Mean 5/d. | Mean 6d. | Mean 125s. June 30 | 93! 46 2} 82,458 | 106,633 | 44d.—62d.| 42d.—63d.|110s.—130s. Mean 54d.| Mean 5$d.| Mean 120s. Sept. 30 | 93 45 71 73,920 | 157,582 |4d.—62d.| 42d.—63d.| 70s.—1Io5s. Mean 53d. | Mean 53d. |Mean 87s. 6d. Dec. 31 | 92 40 6 | 113,397 IA5 ,823 4d.—6id.| 5d.—7d. | 60s.—80s. Mean 51d. | Mean 6d. | Mean 7os. 1864 Mar. 31 | 91 40 4] 99,013 138,523 |43d.—64d.| 54d.—7d. | 55s.—7os. Mean 54d. | Mean 64d. |Mean 62s. 6d. June 30 | 914 | 39 7] 92,569 | 100,102 | 44d.—623d.) 53d.—7d. | 40s.—6os. Mean 54d.| Mean 6}d.| Mean 50s, Col. T 2 3 4 5 6 7 * Note.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1862, was 763,463; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1862, 748,702; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1862, 1,111,787; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1863, 985,649; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1863, 1,073,126; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1863, 960,956; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1863, 1,474,160; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1864, 1,287,171; and for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1864, 1,203,406. The total number of quarters entered for Home Con- sumption in the same period was respectively, 1,770,998 ; 3,838,584; 3,355,239; 1,812,585 ; 1,386,233 ; 2,048,568; 1,895,705; 1,800,806; and 1,301,323. STATISTICS OF THE WEATHER, PUBLIC HEALTH, PRICE OF PROVISIONS, &c., &e., FOR THE SIX MONTHS ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1863. Chiefly extracted from the Quarterly Report of the Registrar-General.— The Corn Returns and Diagram are prepared from Official Documents expressly for this Journal, VOL. XXV. A Co ‘ ON THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING SEPTEMBER 30, 1863. Br JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.RB.S., SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. . From July 1st to 15th, excepting two days, the temperature of the air exceeded the average by 24°. This was followed by a cold period extending to August Ist, during which the daily deficiency averaged 3$°, On July 19th the temperature fell to 32° in the air, and much lower on the ground, at most places north of London. A warm period succeeded, and continued till August 16th, the excess of temperature amounting to 33°. From the 17th August to the end of September it was cold, the average daily deficiency being 27°. The mean high day temperature of the air was 3° in excess in July, 1° in excess in August, and 4° in defect in September, as com- pared with the averages of the preceding 22 years. The mean low night temperature of the air was 32° in defect in July, +° in excess in August, and 3° in defect in September. The mean temperature of the air was #° in defect in July, 2° in excess in August, and 31° in defect in September. The mean temperature of the dew-point was 2° in defect in July, 0°-5 in defect in August, and 4°°3 in defect in September. The degree of humidity was below its average value. The pressure of the atmosphere in each month was slightly in excess in July, and a little below the average in August and Sep- tember. The fall of rain in July was 0-9 inch, in August 1°8 inch, and in September 3-2 inches; the total fall for the quarter was 5-9 inches, being 1°6 inch below the average of the preceding 47 years. The temperature of vegetation as shown by a thermometer placed on grass was below 30° on 4 nights, between 30° and 40° on 26 nights, and above 40° on the other 62 nights. The mean temperature of the air at,Greenwich in the three months ending August, constituting the three summer months, was 60°-3, being 0°2 above the average of the preceding 92 years. ‘aSR19a¥ OY} 2AOgB sagrusys snd (++) uss oy} eq} pue SBvtgav oy} AOL SeyTUTIS snuyA (—) UD|s ot} eq} payvA UL etLLO Eq UAL 4} 818} S}q} SUuIpver UT —ALON at righ bale 79 gz 1 +.¥9 | 9-I=- 6.5 I+ 1£§ | Yoo.o-| 662.62 v- tL \** weal ysayqsiyy qSoAorT ung wng mug uve ung uns Z+0$ big ol Lr ¢€ L.19 g.o+ (and I+ SES z£1.0-| £69.62 v= LL |\++ aequraydag $.L8 c.Lé of I fo) $59 | 9.0= gsI to LzS | Lrow-| vl.6z €- pL |e: ysnsuy TES 4.97 a4 8 I Pegg | Gar= 6.0 b+ z£§ | Lor-o+|. 196.62 v= lh | ee at ° ° 4 ° “uy “Ul “sad "S13 “uy “ul 7 ; 3 : “s0P puv | ‘oO ‘sauak 17,50 *savak ZZ *sivak 2% *savak 2% | + " Wat qa3IN 007 | ° one aria ‘sormwyy, | 2842s" | ‘qUMoUTY] Jo advieav | “uvey{ | JO aSvieas| ‘uveyy | Joasvieav | *uvoyy SHINO] Be cd PA0CV | ugaaqog | s07y | ong qo | Wo HIG Woy “HI Woy “BIC wody JIC urpeayy | Surpeayy a4 F ; ; qsoqstq | yseaoT rm Seo = : x : S981 Sea 4 SHUBEN JO JOQUINN | er oday, “uyeY, “ITV JO JOT o1qng ® *xojULOIvG, JO “Apron 30 ae JO FqTIOM. Surpyoy gaida(y *SSvIN UO IoJOMIOULIOYT, JO Sulpvay vio- | 1 | v€o.- | hE. | beI-b | 6.02 Figa| LebSos| ent=. | Bo eo a) aden -2| 2-672) =p .Br aS Guay eS — — as | ear ae | ———— es ————y ———— — 9.0- Hue. | 190. — IZE.- | Qso- Loki £.- Q.9V L.E- z.0§ | £.£- L.t- L.€5 |**aaquiaydog Z.0- S.v O10. - zit. 9-0-4 1.07 Go | 90698) ~t60 = Viet geO+ zeit | 6.19 |°° gsusny f.0=. | sev zfo.- | gf. p+ | 6.2 deme |) oaks ¢-|-26.85 | -£.0-a| “9:0=91 09 a % AIOE “13 "sad ‘ut “ul | ° ° ° ° ° ° | ° ° ° . . | | “sivok ZZ *sivak 7% *‘sivok 2% *sivak ZZ | *sivok 7% *sivak zz | ‘savak 76 joasviaan| ‘uveayg | jooseioae | ‘uvayy | jooseioaw | ‘uvayy | joosvieav| “uvay~ joosvioav| ‘uvoy{ | 50 aSvioav | Joosvioas | “uve “SHINOJ HOE “WIC Wody “HI | MoI “BIC Woy “HI | Woly “BIC | mow Bid | wou Hd | : ‘E981 “ATV Jo 3004 9109 «mode, Jo | a =e : aes: | 3 a edo10,q FSU ———— x imodvA jo 34310 A\ a fe : jo oanyeroduey, | al | ee 8 eee COST ‘OG UMANALdIg ONIGNA YILUVNH AHL ONTUNd UAHLVA A FHL ATMEL) ON THE METEOROLOGY OF ENGLAND DURING THE QUARTER ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1863, By JAMES GLAISHER, Esq, F.RB.S., SEC. OF THE BRITISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY. Titi October 9th the weather was alternately warm and cold; on the 10th a warm period set in, continuing to the 22nd, the average daily excess being nearly 5°; thence to November 13th the tem- perature was variable, the average daily deficiency being rather more than 1°. For the remaining 48 days of the quarter the temperature was greatly above the average, the excess amounting to z° daily. The period from October 30th till December 4th was unusually stormy. The mean high day temperature was about the average in October, 2° in excess in November, and 3°-4 in excess in December. The mean low night temperature was 2°-1 in excess in October, 2°-9 in excess in November, and 1°1 in excess in December. The mean temperature of the air was 1° in excess in October, 1°75 in excess in November, and nearly 3° in excess in December. The mean temperature of the dew-point was 1°25 in excess in October, 2°°5 in excess in November, and 1°-5 in excess in December ; the degree of humidity being about its average in October and November, and below in December. ; The pressure of the atmosphere was a little below its average in October, and a little above in November and December. The fall of rain was 1-7 inch in October, 1:8 inch in November, and 1-1 inch in December. The total fall for the quarter was 4:6 inches, being 2% inches below the average of the preceding 46 years. The temperature of vegetation was below 30° on 28 nights; between 30° and 40° on 36 nights; and above 40° on 28 nights. The mean temperature of the air at Greenwich in the three months ending November, constituting the three autumn months, was 50°'3, being 0°-9 above the average of the preceding 92 years. *aBUAIAV OY} BAOG¥ SaytuSis snd (+) uss oy} yy} pur ‘edevJoav oq} AO[oq Soytusis snutu ( ) udjs ay} vq) purw Uy ous0q oq 1! AM. FY 81GB} SIqy Surpwor ut—"aLoN } | ! | | g-0$ J BosGL. wie socom ee gz 1.64 $.t— 9-+ I—" | S¥§ | zg90.0-+, L1g.6z t= gg- |** weayy eqs | 4ySanoT wng | wing ung uvoyt tung ng | ‘ OeVs- | SeOn $ or gI O.PV | GeO | ned ° z§$ | gzr-0o+) %h6.6z 9- €g | ** aaquiaoag Q.gr Pott L zI IIL $.gb | 9.o— Q.I I— Lys I7IeO+) 019.62 I- 8g | ** daquaaoy g.0$ 0.£% gI +I I g.v9 | I.I— iar t= LES Ig0.0o—| gf9.6z fo) fg |** 19q0799 ° ° ° “ur “ul ‘3 0] “ga “ul ‘ul —_ ah | a | ——— | | | | : : sc *o0F pur} “0g *sivak 97 ‘sural cz | *savak 7% *svak cz MIN TIN } oe Us ; oie AoToq ‘soumvqy, | JO eBviaav | *yuNnoULy | so aSivsaae ‘uvayy | Jo adtioav ‘uvoyT jo afivioat *uLoyy zits basen” AW | usasjog | soyy | ompyo | wouy “aq WHOLE “BIC | | Woay WIC | Woy “Yd “SHINO = = 3}8 | qsoqaiy qSOMo'[ - : sein ‘298T 2 SUAN JT S}USIN 7° SUnN -wradutoy, uyey “IY 30 yoo 14ND v ‘weyouoxeg jo “Apa Jo < Se __ ae ee | Hs “SSUIN UO loJaMOULIEyY, Jo Suipvay JO NAIM | IPvod a > — — —— —— — _ an eT 3 SS — — = NS ES Pa ee — a5 1.0 | 72.€ $10.4 | 6lz. | Z+0- | Q+II Q-I+ | 6.77 O.c-+ | 0.S¢ 6.1-+ | z.E+ | Qegh jes uvaqy I.o+ Lie OlO.-+ | Et | €.c-+ | gmt birt $.9€ €.c7+ remy | 6.c+ | zipt | z.fh |°* raquiaoaq £.0-+- Feet 610.+ TLE. 6.0- Q.O1 Q-t+ V.tp g.t7+ z.bP L.1+ €.€+ L.$b | ** Jaquaaony 0.0 lve gIo.+ | £££. O.t- [Meyer beI+ g.ly toI+ | L.64 I.I+ I.t+ | 9-1S |** 29qGQ0}09 “13 “sid “ul ee i ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° *sivak Zz ‘sivak zz | *sivok 77 *sivak 2% *savak 77 *suvad gz | ‘suvak 76 jooSeioav| ‘uvayg | jo aSviaav ‘uvoWl =| joosutoav| ‘uvayy |joodeseav, cuvayy | jooSereae| ‘uvayy | yo odvs0av | Jo aBvsoav “ually (Mody “YI WOIy IC Woy “BIC moa “WIC WOE “BI j HOLE MIC | Woy WC ‘SHLNO] as U Eg “ary JO Joo,g o1qND smodw4yo ‘oduvy Aleq—ary “Wog Mog *uorywrcduagy uv ‘S98T Eur 0010.9 ONSET * Anode A Jo 7q 319A, jo oinjeiodmay, “SO8LT ‘TE TAINAOACT, DNIGNT UALUV NY GTHL ONTYNG UTHLVAAA AH, FE) STATE OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH. 1st Quarter.—The total number of deaths in the quarter was 112,384 against 101,232 and 92,225 in the two previous summer quarters. In the same quarter of 1860 it was only 86,312; and if last summer had been as healthy, at least 23,000 persons would have beem living when autumn came whose deaths had then been registered. The annual rate of mortality in the quarter was 2:166 per cent. of the population, against the summer average of 1:982 per cent. In the — country districts the mortality was 1-864 (the average being 1°694) ; whilst in urban populations it was 2°404 (the average being 2°329). 2nd Quarter.—The number of deaths in the three months ending 31st December was 116,299. The death-rate was 2°226 per cent. (against an average of 2°178).° In the principal towns the rate of mortality was 2°46 per cent. (about the average); and in the small towns and country parishes 1:94 per cent. (or rather above the average). 475,582 deaths were registered in the year, the mortality being at the rate of 2:314 per cent. against 2°211, the average of the previous ten years. PRICE OF PROVISIONS. Ist Quarter—The average price of wheat was 45s. 7d. per quarter, which is less than at any other time since March, 1860; in the Sep- tember quarter of last year the price was 56s. 10d. ‘The average of the highest and lowest prices of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets was 54d. per lb., and of mutton 5¢d. Best potatoes ranged from 70s. to 105s. per ton at the Waterside Market, Southwark ; they were cheaper than they had been at the same place at any previous time since the same quarter of 1859. 2nd Quarter—The average price of wheat in the three months was 40s. 6d. per quarter, which is less by 18s. 9d. than in the corre- sponding period of 1861, and less by 7s. 8d. than in that of 1862. The average price of beef at Leadenhall and Newgate Markets was 51d. per lb., mutton 6d.; both being the same as in the correspond- ing quarter of 1862. The average price of the best potatoes at the Waterside Market was 70s, per ton, which is less by 30s. than it was in the last quarter of the previous year. ( VI ) THE PRICE OF PROVISIONS. The AVERAGE Prices of Consols, of Wheat, Meat, and Potatoes; also the AVERAGE Quantrry of Wheat sold and imported weekly, in each of the Nine Quarters ending December 31, 1863. LE SK Wheat and Average Prices of hs Wheat gold, Wheat Flour Average a = a eaterediior Aver: Price of ities an te Price. Wheat per| Towns in Heer Meat per lb, at Leadenhall Best Lik ng ES bece Walswating! at Chief Ports} and Newgate Markets Potatoes i of Great | er ‘on —— (for | England | Returns.* Britain (by the Carcase) wn opatetetis Money). wae 8 ae Market, na Average number of Beef. Mutton. Southwark. Quarters weekly. 1861 £. Foe dad SER FET 9 aa Dec. 31 = 9 3 | 112,809 121,480 4d.-—6i3d. | 43d.— 62d. | r10s.— 1308. eT ta ; : Mean gid. Mean 5¢d.| Mean 120s. 1862 Mar. 31 | 93 60 x | 74,163 | 132,882 | 4d.—64d. | 4$d.—63d.| 130s.—155s. i 3 é d Mean sid. Mean 53d. |Mean 142s.6d, June 30 | 93 56 8| 58,728 | 136,230 | 4d.—6d. | 5d.—7d. | 180s.—200s. é 7. ‘ Mean 5d. | Mean 6d. | Mean roos. Sept. 30} 932 | 56 10] 57,592 | 295,276 | 43d.—62d.| 53d.—7d. | 100s.—13C08. % : 4 Mean sid, Mean 6id.| Mean 115s. Dec. 31 | 93% | 48 2) 85,522 | 258,095 | 4d.—63d. |52d—6$d.) 90s.—11IO0s, Mean 5!d. | Mean 6d. | Mean roos. 1863 Mar. 31 | 924 | 46 71 75,819 | 139,429 | 4d.—63d. | 5d.—7d. | 120s,—130s, Mean 5!d. | Mean 6d. | Mean 125s. June 30 | 93) | 46 21) 82,458 | 106,633 | 44d.—63d.| 48d.—63d.|110s.—13Ccs, Mean 54d.| Mean 5$d.| Mean 120s. Sept. 30 | 93 45 71 73,920 | 157,582 |43¢d.—63d.| 43d.—6$d.| 70s.—105s. Mean 53d.) Mean 52d. |Mean 87s. 6d. Dec. 31 | 92% | 40 6 | 113,397 | 145,823 4d.—6td.| 5d.—7d. | 60s.—80s, i Mean 5!d.| Mean 6d. | Mean 7os. — | es ee Col. T 2 3 4 a 6 7 { * NotE.—The total number of quarters of wheat sold in England and Wales for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1861, was 1,466,525; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1862, 964,121; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1862, 763,463; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1862, 748,702; for the 13 weeks ending December 31st, 1862, 1,111,787; for the 13 weeks ending March 31st, 1863, 985,649; for the 13 weeks ending June 30th, 1863, 1,073,126 ; for the 13 weeks ending September 30th, 1863, 960,956; and for the 13 weeks ending December 3lst, 1863, 1,474,160. The total number of quarters entered for Home Con- sumption was respectively, 1,579,241; 1,727,464; 1,770,998; 3,838,584; 3,355,239; 1,812,585 ; 1,386,233 ; 2,048,568; and 1,895,705, Je Os Ue Ne Ae ts OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. 1.—Agricultural Progress and the Royal Agricultural Society. By H. 8. Tuomrson, M.P. Tue Royal Agricultural Society was formed in 1838, and inscribed on the title-page of its Journal the significant motto “ Practice with Science.’ The present volume will end the first series of that publication, and the occasion seems a fitting one for review- ing and registering the results which Practice, aided by Science, has been able to accomplish during the intervening quarter of a century, The period in question has been remarkable for several events, each of which has left its distinctive mark upon British agricul- ture, and any attempt to chronicle the progress of agricultural improvement since 1838 would be incomplete and even deceptive if it did not point out the important consequences resulting from the adoption of free trade, the rise and progress of the railway system, and the application of steam power to the operations of husbandry. Before entering on these and other important questions con- nected with the subject before us, it will be proper to give a brief account of the progress and present position of the Royal Agri- cultural Society itself. . Commencement and Progress of the Royal Agricultural Society.— The commencement of the Society took place during one of those recurring fits of associative activity to which Englishmen are periodically prone. The Yorkshire Agricultural Society (for many years our largest provincial Agricultural Society, with a prize-list of 8002. to 10007. per annum) was formed in 1837; the Royal Agricultural Society in 1838; the Royal Irish Improve- ment Society in1841. The formation of these and numerous other local societies within a very brief period, and on an unusually extended scale both as to numbers and resources, was, in fact, the application to agriculture of the same tendency to organise com- panies which was so strongly developed about that time, and VOL. XXV. B 2 Agricultural Progress and culminated in the railway mania of 1845-46. Fortunately for agriculture, there were no premiums to be realized by joining these societies, so that they were not pushed beyond their legiti- mate limits, and have been productive of unmixed benefit. Agricultural societies had been tried at a much earlier date. “The Bath Society for the encouragement of Agriculture, Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce within the Counties of Somerset, _ Wilts, Gloucester, and Dorset, and the City and County of Bristol,” was formed in 1777. This society claims to be the earliest agricultural society founded in Great Britain. The High- land Society (Scotland) was constituted in 1784, and received a Royal Charter in 1787. The Charter of the English Board of Agriculture is dated August 23, 1798. These and other minor societies have doubtless been productive of much benefit in their respective localities, and can boast of the names of many patriotic and eminent men who enlisted in their ranks ; but the times were not favourable for the development of such institutions, and all of them fell far short of the dimensions and wide-spread usefulness attained by the later societies, and by some of the older institu- tions themselves when reorganised at a later date. The cause of this is obvious. So long as agricultural societies had fixed places of meeting, and the stock and implements in- tended for exhibition were conveyed over the ordinary roads, they drew their supplies from such limited areas, that their showyards were very indifferently furnished, and were only attractive to the residents in their immediate neighbourhood. From the paucity of their visitors the receipts were small, and their funds consequently insufficient to admit of their offering such prizes as would tempt more distant owners of stock to face the cost and risk of lengthened travel. The societies were thus compelled to trust more to donations and subscriptions than to the popularity of their shows as their chief source of revenue. Energetic managers and liberal patrons may for a time supply the place of more general support ; but when the zeal or the strength of a few public-spirited individuals fails, societies, so sup- ported, are either given up or fall into a state of chronic inaction, and it would be easy to prove from the annals of these early days that in order to be permanently useful all such societies must be self-supporting. Even the Board of Agriculture, with its perpetual Charter and Parliamentary grant, formed no excep- tion to this rule; and notwithstanding the talent and energy with. which for a time its operations were conducted, and the prestige attaching to the honoured names of its president, Sir J. Sinclair, and its secretary, Arthur Young, on the extinction of its Parlia- mentary grant in 1819, the Board was reduced to the last stage of exhaustion, and died a natural death shortly after. Q the Royal Agricultural Society. 3 At the time of the renaissance of these societies the migratory principle was generally adopted. The’Highland Society, which was reor punized in 1834 under the more extended title of “ The Hig hland and Agricultural Society of Scotland,” was probably the first to adopt this system, which was followed by the Yorkshire Society in 1837, by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1838, and subsequently by. the Royal Irish Improvement Society, and some few of the leading provincial associations. The importance of not visiting the same district twice, except at an interval of some years, can scarcely be overrated, as by this means new exhibitors, new visitors, and new contributors to the expenses of the meetings are annually secured, and it is notorious that a life and activity have thus been infintd into these meetings, of which previously they were in great need, Second only in importance to the migratory principle has been the rapid extension of the railway system, by which stock, imple- ments, and visitors have been conveyed to these shows in much less time and at much smaller cost, and therefore from much greater distances and in much larger numbers. The increased receipts thus obtained for admission to the showyards have fur- nished means for the offer of larger prizes, and thus increased the attractions of subsequent exhibitions, so that the improved mode of conveyance afforded by railways, and the improved policy of changing the places of meeting, have during the last twenty- five years fostered and developed these associations to an unpre- cedented extent, the published list for the present year containing the names of no less than 358 agricultural societies in Great Britain and Ireland. The circumstances which favoured the formation of the Royal Agricultural Society having been thus briefly described, its pro- gress will be best perceived by inspecting the accompanying statistical tables, which give the leading facts of its history in a compendious form. Statistics of the Royal Agricultural Society.—Table (A.) shows the number of its members and its annual income and expendi- ture (irrespective of the country meetings), commencing with 1841, the first year in which the Society’s balance-sheet and list of members were sufficiently complete to be of any value in a comparative point of view. Some explanatory remarks are, how- ever, required to prevent misconceptions. In column 2 will be found the number of members on the Society’s books in each year at the time of the annual meeting in May. These figures give an average of 5522 for the whole period. A considerable deduction must, however, be made on account of those members who allowed their names to remain on B 2 4 4 Agricultural Progress and the books, but who refused to pay their subscriptions when in arrear, on the ground that they had ceased to be members of the society. During the earlier portion of the period under con- sideration the necessity for prompt measures in such cases was not fully recognised ; but in December, 1845, the arrears having reached the large amount of 6726/., it became necessary to take decisive steps, and in the following year the names of 789 mem- bers were struck out of the Society’s books. The necessity that had thus arisen for purging the list of the names of those whose membership was only nominal, will explain the apparently large falling off in the Society’s numbers which took place in 1847 and on one or two subsequent occasions. After making these deduc- tions, it will be found that the Society’s list of subscribers has varied but little during this long period, and that the average number has been about 5000. Column 3 shows the receipts from annual subscriptions and the compositions paid by life members. The explanation given of the figures in column 2 will also account for great fluctuation in the amounts received under this head. In 1860, for example, no less than 21651. of arrears were paid up. Without this explana- tion it would be strange indeed to find that the subscriptions received this year more than doubled those of 1859, though the number of members had varied but little. In order, there- fore, to form a fair estimate of the Society’s income, it becomes necessary to take an average of the whole period, which shows an annual revenue from this source of 54910. The only other source of permanent income consists of the divi- dends on the investments which the Society has been able to make from time to time in government securities. These dividends appear in column 4, and, adding the figures in this to those in the preceding column, we arrive at the totals in column 5, which show that the society has possessed an average gross income of 5800/. per annum. Turning now to the expenditure side, we find in column 6 that the whole cost of management has been defrayed for 17351. per annum, including the repair and maintenance of the house in Hanover-square, “also rates, taxes, salaries, office char ges, and sundries. The net cost of the Journal is given in column 7. This is made up of the charges for paper, printing, and advertising, payments for prize essays and literary contributions, in- cluding the editor’s salary, but deducting the proceeds of the sale of the Journal. It is satisfactory to “find that the average charge on account of the Journal for the last ten years has been less than the average annual cost during the preceding ten, notwithstanding the additional payments for editorship during Year. Number of Members. the Royal Agricultural Society. Tapie A, RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURE. Subscriptions. | Che- | — Divi- mical of Life Stock. nary Members. Grants, j 3. Wiig tt F 5. 6. iil q. 7 8. Sh £. oar AED oo £. rk ea 5,818 | 200 | 6,018 | 1,882 | 1,611 | 3,493 5,884 | 214 | 6,098 | 2,087 | 1,548 3,630 6,628 | 245 | 6,873 | 2,742 | 1,242 3,984 7,117 | 320 | 7,487 | 1,826 | 2,095 3,921 6,342 | 251 | 6,593 | 1,791 | 1,611} .. | 3,402 7,040 | 221 | 7,261 | 2,052 | 2,891 | 120 | 5,063 6,365 | 271 | 6,636 | 1,676 | 2,126 | 310 | 4,112 5,211 | 312 | 5,593 | 1,635 | 1,765 | 430 | 3,880 6,372 | 280 | 6,652 | 1,622 | 2,059 | 450 | 4,131 6,083 | 321 | 6,404 | 1,605 | 1,976 | 413 | 3,994 5,953 | 821 | 6,274 | 1,349 | 1,715 | 600 | 8,664 5,244 | 334 | 5,578 | 1,482 | 1,710 | 700 | 3,892 4,801 | 327 | 5,128 | 1,402 | 1,794 | 826 | 4,022 5,053 | 885 | 5,388 | 1,429 | 1,827 | 606 | 3,362 3,449 | 261 | 3,710 | 1,763 | 1,224 | 691 | 3,678 5,156 | 259 | 5,415] 1,962 | 976 | 600 | 3,538 3,728 | 965 | 3,993 | 2,115 | 1,119 | 817 4,051 5,339 | 282 | 5,621 | 1,699 | 1,563 | 472 | 3,734 8,027 | 289 | 3,816 | 1,255 | 1,586 | 625 | 3,466 6,398 | 319 | 6,717 | 1,592 | 1,610 | 675 | 3,877 4,789 | 425 | 5,214 | 1,587 | 1,728 | 921 | 4,181 5,463 | 505 | 5,968 | 1,949 | 2,139 | 958 | 5,041 5,050 | 478 | 5,528 | 1,459 | 1,806 | 695 | 3,960 0 Agricultural Progress and the last four years, and the extra cost (400/.) of a double number in 1862. Column 8 shows the amount annually voted for chemical and veterinary investigations and lectures. These amounts were exceptionally large in 1861 and 1862, in consequence of special investigations ordered by the Council on Cheesemaking and the Rot in Sheep. ‘The average amount devoted to these departments of science during the last fourteen years has been 685/. per annum. Country Meetings.—Table (B.) gives the financial statistics of the Society’s Country Meetings. In column 3, we find the amount annually awarded in prizes. For the first seven years (1841-47) the variation is but slight, the average amount being 1320/1. During the next ten years (1848-57) the prize-list was increased fully 25 per cent., the average being 1678/7. At the Chester Meeting a further increase of 25 per cent. was made; and, excluding Battersea on account of the anomalous character of a metropolitan Meeting, the average of the five years 1858-63 was 2130/. These addi- tions to the Society’s prize-list have been‘easily provided for out of the increased receipts whenever the Meetings have been held in populous districts; and although it would be foreign to the policy and objects of the Society to confine its Country Meetings to those districts where large receipts may be expected, it is yet satisfactory to feel that whenever its funds may be somewhat heavily taxed in order to stimulate a backward and thinly- peopled district, the Society can always make up its leeway by holding a Meeting 3 in the heart of our manufacturing or mining population. The general result of the 23 Country Meetings here tabulated cannot be considered otherwise than satisfactory; for, though their whole cost, exclusive of prizes, has been 134,6162. (column 4), the receipts, on the other hand, have exceeded that amount by 75772; so that the Society, has not drawn on its funds to defray any part of the cost of the Annual Shows except the amount awarded by them in prizes; and towards meeting this charge the above-mentioned balance of 7577/. has been received, leaving the net sum to be provided by the Society 33,0781. or 14337. per annum. This table also gives conclusive evidence of the increasing attendance at the Society’s Annual Shows. The average receipts at the Country Meetings ee For the 7 years 1841 to 1847 having been .. .. 4140 » 1848 ,, 1854 a ? 3, +8009 For the last 7 years (excluding Battersea) .. .. 8565 the Royal Agricultural Society. Tastz B.—Country Meretines. * Year. Liverpool Bristol Derby .. Southampton Shrewsbury Newcastle Northampton York .. Norwich .. Exeter Windsor .. Lewes Gloucester Lincoln Carlisle Chelmsford Salisbury .. Chester Warwick .. Canterbury Leeds .. Battersea .. Worcester Prizes, Expenditure exclusive of Prizes. 4, £. 5,052 4,775 5,091 5,736 | 5,406 4,866 4,863 5,957 4,352 4,845 5,032 5,066 5,910 5,856 5,363 5,728 4,893 6,975 5,779 5,943 6,754 11,814 Total Expenditure. 5. £. 6,272 6,008 6,554 7,071 6,665 6,257 6,201 7,657 6,303 6,570 6,902 6,703 7,576 7,366 6,889 7,328 6,488 9,131 7,468 7,885 9,071 15,794 8,560 | 11,112 Total Receipts. 4,106 4,202 3,390 4.929 3,670 4,119 4,565 4,831 4,345 4,941 5,608 3,485 5,493 6,364 6,029 5,346 6,142 10,312 8,902 5,879 13,542 12,160 9,833 134,616 [175,271 [142,193 A Receipts in excess of Expen- diture. % &. Expen- diture in excess of Receipts. 1,181 | 1,434 4,471 2,006 3,634 1,279 40,164 8 Agricultural Progress and ‘The foregoing account of the Society’s affairs shows that during the last twenty-three years it has received the steady personal support of 5000 of the leading agriculturists of the kingdom, and that, including the Country Meetings, the total receipts have been 12,0002. and the total expenditure 11,5000. per annum, the balance having been invested as a guarantee fund to meet any temporary emergency. On a review of the whole period, the Council may, therefore, fairly claim—1st, That the result of their management has been to place the finances Of the Society on a sound and satisfactory basis; and 2ndly, That when tested by the results of their annual Exhibitions of Stock and Implements, the course pursued by the Society is shown to have secured increasing popularity and steady progress. Improvement of Agricultural Machinery—Having thus far confined our attention to the position of the Royal Agricul- tural Society itself, we proceed to trace its connexion with the rapid development of British agriculture, which is so evident to everyone connected with rural pursuits, and yet is so diffi- cult to measure or state in definite terms. The first branch of this inquiry which claims our attention is that of Agri- cultural Mechanics. It is this department which has made the most rapid advance since 1838; and many of the most striking of the recent improvements in British husbandry would have been impossible without the number of new inventions and the more skilled manufacture of all farming implements which have characterized the period in question. In order properly to appreciate the extent of the change which has taken place in farm machinery, it will be necessary to recall the position occupied by this department twenty-five years ago. In 1837, the writer of this article took an active share in ihe meetings which were held with a view to the formation of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society. These meetings were attended by the late Lord Spencer and a number of the leading agriculturists of Yorkshire from all the three Ridings. The principles on which the Society should be conducted underwent the most thorough consideration and discussion, and the first prize-sheet may be taken to represent the deliberate estimate formed by the best Yorkshire farmers of that day of the relative importance of Stock and Implements. The following were the amounts offered as prizes at that Society’s first Meeting at York in 1838 :—Stock, 424/.; Speci- mens of Wool, Roots, and Seeds, 651.; Essays and Reports, 801. ; Implements, 301. So that out of a total of GOOL, 301, or 5 per cent., was thought sufficient to give “For the invention and the Royal Agricultural Society. 9 improvement of such Agricultural Implements as may appear to the Committee to deserve reward.” * In the following year (1839), the Royal Agricultural Society held its first Meeting at Oxford. The prizes offered were appor- tioned as follows :—Stock, 740/.; Seed-wheat, 100/.; Essays, 1351.; whilst the amount offered for Implements (with the excep- tion of special prizes for a draining-plough and a gorse-crusher, neither of which were competed for) was confined to the announce- ment, “For any new Agricultural Implement such sum as the Society may think proper to award ;” and a contingent interest in the sum of 50l. offered for Extra Stock, Implements, Roots, and Seeds. The value of these rather problematical offers was ascer- tained at the time of the Show, when the Judges awarded Five pounds to the prize implements, with one Gold and three Silver Medals. Estimating these medals at their cost to the Society, about one and a half per cent. of the money given away at Oxford was awarded to the Implement Department ! At the Society’s Cambridge Meeting in 1840, above 10004. was offered in prizes, but the Implements rather lost than gained ground, the special prize of 50/ for a draining-plough having been withdrawn, whilst the other prizes for Implements remained as in the Oxford prize-sheet. Mo money and only seven medals were awarded to the Implements at the Cambridge Meeting! The subordinate position occupied by Agricultural Machinery at the time of these Meetings is thus sufficiently evident; but a striking corroboration of the fact is to be found in the first Essay read before the Society (March 13th, 1839) by that accomplished writer the late Mr. Pusey. The title of the paper was, ‘On the Present State of the Science of Agriculture in England,’ and no one was more capable than Mr. Pusey of justly estimating the relative importance (according to the ideas of the day) of the numerous subjects discussed in that valuable and exhaustive article.* It is curious to find that the only implements there - alluded to were the plough and the harrow, the turnip-slicer and the thrashing-machine, with the exception of the following para- graph on the drill, which sounds so strange in the ears of a farmer of the present day that it seems barely credible that it should have been penned by one so thoroughly conversant with his subject at so late a date as 1839. ‘ The use of another instrument, the drill-machine, a more complicated one, by which the seed is laid in regular rows, has lately become frequent in Southern as well as in Northern England; though it has esta- blished itself so slowly, that for a long time travelling machines of this kind have made yearly journeys from Suffolk as far as * Journal,’ vol. i. p. 1. 10 Agricultural Progress atd Oxfordshire, for the use of those distant farmers by whom their aservices are required.” Volumes of proof of the complete revo- lution which has taken place in farming implements since 1839 would not be more convincing than the simple announcement that Mr. Pusey, in his inaugural address to the members of the Royal Agricultural Society, thought it necessary to inform them that the drill was a machine by which the seed was laid in regular rows ; or than the surprising fact which he records that Suffolk drills have actually perambulated the half of England since the accession, not of good Queen Bess, but of her Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria ! The insignificant position allotted to farming implements little more than twenty years ago having now been sufficiently shown, a few short extracts from the records of the Society will prove the extent of the advance which has subsequently taken place. At the Ozford meeting the portion of the catalogue devoted to implements contained the names of twenty cahibitors, and occupied less than one page octavo ! At Cambridge there were thirty-two exhibitors, and the descrip- tion of the implements occupied a page and a half of the cata- logue. Yet the Cambridge show of implements was in 1840 considered a great success, and the report (which bore the signa~ ture of three most competent judges and expressed the general opinion of those present), stated that ‘ beyond controversy, such a selection of implements was never before collected in one showyard.” The Society’s last show was held at *Worcester, and there were assembled 282 exhibitors of implements, who showed 5839 articles (excluding duplicates), and the catalogue describing them formed a thick octavo volume of 457 pages. There were 135 steam-engines, 11 traction ditto, 12 steam-ploughs, 29 steam- cultivators, 57 steam thrashing-machines, and 40 reaping and mowing-machines. These articles have been selected as most illustrative of progress, and their bare enumeration would have been sufficient if the object of the writer had been simply to furnish some statistical proof of the recent development of agricul- tural mechanics in this country. Unfortunately, however, there exists a fundamental difference of opinion between the managers of the Society and several of the leading implement-makers respecting the proper mode of conducting shows of implements ; and, when recording the great success of the Worcester Exhi- bition, the occasion seems a suitable one for considering this ques- tion. The benefits conferred upon agriculture by the talent and enterprise of the makers of implements have been so great that no pains should be spared in the attempt to reconcile these con- flicting views; or, should that prove impossible, it is at all events desirable to devote a brief space to a careful statement of the the Royal Agricultural Society. 1] reasons which have always been considered conclusive against adopting the change of system which they advocate. _ ‘The controversy is not new. Several years have elapsed since a few of the leading firms first objected to the prize system, and a sort of crisis took place at the Canterbury meeting in 1860 ; but as the object of the present remarks is not to put any one in the wrong for what is past, but for the sake of the future clearly to ascertain which view is right, no note of triumph shall be sounded on account of the result of that trial of strength, and the arguments pro and con shall be as fairly considered as if no differences had ever arisen on the subject. The Prize System—The fullest and best statement that has yet been made of the views of the implement-makers is contained in a paper by Mr. J. C. Morton, on the Helps and Hindrances to Agricultural Progress, read at the Society of Arts on the 9th of December last. That gentleman has brought to the considera- tion of this question the extensive information and thorough impartiality for which he is distinguished, and throughout his remarks it is apparent that he is actuated by no carping or fault- finding spirit, but by a bond fide wish that these important exhibitions should attain their maximum of efficiency. His arguments are therefore entitled to the most careful consideration, and in dealing with them it is satisfactory to feel that we have the whole case before us. It must be premised that the prize system which is called in question is the system of subjecting all implements exhibited to actual trial, in order to award prizes to those which acquit them- selves the best ; the alternative being that the implements should be inspected but not brought into competition with others of their own class in such a way as to enable the judges to pronounce any opinion on their comparative merit. Mr. Morton contends that the trials are inadequate, partly because the land in July is not in a fit state for the purpose, partly because sufficient time is not allowed the judges for forming their decisions. He further argues that ‘“‘the award of a prize confers too great 7. e. too abrupt a distinction” between the winning implement and others whose performances are alinost equally good. The argument founded on the state of the land is not entitled to much weight. Having attended seventeen of the Society’s country meetings, we have sufficient experience of the weather on such occasions to assert that though the trials are sometimes interrupted by wet, and sometimes rendered difficult by drought, —yet that, taking into account temperature and length of day, as well as the state of the land, no month is, on the average, so well fitted as July for carrying out these trials; and that, unless the 12 Agricultural Progress and drought or the wet be excessive, it is desirable to have a variety of weather, as it gives the opportunity at one time of rewarding an implement which makes good work on hard dry land, and on another occasion one which is not stopped by a few showers of rain. Decisions arrived at under alternations of drought and wet can be commended with all the more confidence to practical farmers, with whom weather difficulties are the ordinary conditions of every-day life. The second objection, founded on the shortness of the time, is a more grave one. It may be readily conceded that when a class is under trial in which the entries are numerous and where several possess nearly equal merit, it is difficult to test each one so thoroughly as to give the judges perfect confidence in the cor- rectness of their awards, It will also occasionally happen in bad weather or at the close of a hard day’s work that trials are more hurried than is desirable. But whilst freely admitting that trials of implements are not perfect or infallible, we entirely deny that this is sufficient reason for giving them up. ‘The question is not, Do the judges ever make a mistake? but, Are they not right in a large majority of instances? and that this is the case is sufficiently proven by the constantly increasing number of those who are guided in their purchases by the judges’ de- cisions. The third objection is of a totally different character: it is grounded on what Mr. Morton calls the ‘“ excessive character of the prize system.” ‘To use his own. words, “ the prizeman wins, the rest are nowhere.” Here again it must be admitted that it not unfrequently happens that two implements are so equal in their performances as to make it difficult to decide between them ; yet one only receives the prize for that season. This is an un- doubted hardship to the maker of the losing implement, though frequently much mitigated by the award of a medal or special _ commendation by the judges. It is also true that when imple- ments are nearly equal, the maker who has the cleverest ploughman or drillman will probably win. The state of the ground, too, may on some particular occasion give the preference to an implement which in an average season “would have been beaten by one or more of its now distanced competitors, These are the inevitable drawbacks to any competitive system. Precisely the same diffi- culties occur in horse-racing. Two horses run neck and neck for the Derby’; but, on passing the judge’s stand, one jockey i is strong enough or clever enough to lift his horse bodily and wins by a nose. ‘No one rerienibers that the second horse ran the race in precisely the same time as the first; but the three inches won by the jockey bring thousands to the fortunate owner, and hand down the horse’s name to posterity as a Derby winner, Again, 9 the Royal Agricultural Society. 13 the course is unusually hard or deep, and the best horse is passed by one which he has beaten before and will beat again under any ordinary circumstances. Yet, notwithstanding these extreme cases, no one denies that, as a general rule, the best horse wins the race, and, above all, no one suggests that exami- nation by competent judges would be a satisfactory mode of ascertaining the speed and bottom of a race-horse, The mistake, as it appears to us, which is committed by the opponents of the prize system, is that they fix their attention too exclusively on the defects and shortcomings from which no system is free, and thus lose sight of the sterling advantages which belong to it, and which have been so long enjoyed that they are taken as a matter of course. For instance, Mr. Morton quotes an instance from the Warwick meeting, where a new man appeared as plough- wright and took many of the principal prizes. This he considers unjust to other makers, whose ploughs made nearly as good work. He adds, that it would not make a difference of one penny an acre whether the prize plough (Messrs. Hornsby’s) or Messrs. Howard’s or Ransome’s were adopted as the implement of the farm, This is probably true; but if there had been no com- petitive trials, how would it have been known that a few of the leading makers’ ploughs were so equal that they might be used indifferently ? Would not buyers of implements, instead of con- fining their attention to those which at Warwick and other shows had won the Society’s prizes, have been just as likely to have bought the rubbish which year after year has been steadily elimi- nated from the sterling implements? Had there been no dis- tinctive marks of ascertained merit, many a worthless implement would by the help of red and blue paint have madea brave show, and, if puffed by a plausible salesman, would for a season or two have sold as well as the best, until disappointed buyers found that they could place no dependence on the machines exhibited, and the Society's’ shows would have justly forfeited their prestige, because they had previously lost their usefulness. What was the case at the Cambridge meeting which was held before the prize system could be said to have commenced? The great feature of the implement-yard was what would be termed in Kensington English Messrs. Ransome’s Trophy. How was it de- scribed in the report of that meeting? ‘ A bank of their ploughs (eighty-six varieties) were arranged and elevated on planks to the height of at least 20 feet, and struck the eye of the beholder as he entered the yard.” We can give the actual experience of a would-be buyer on this occasion, who was at once attracted to Messrs. Ran- some’s stand, but found himself utterly puzzled by the eighty-six varieties above named, ‘There were no prize-cards or medals of 14 Agricultural Progress and the. Society to guide his judgment, and he felt himself so entirely in the hands of the salesman in attendance, that he made no purchase at all. In this case he would no doubt have been quite safe in Messrs. Ransome’s hands; but had the Society adopted the ** Trophy” instead of the “ Trial” system, the competition between rival makers, which has caused such persevering efforts to be made for the production of winning implements, would have been equally active in getting up imposing displays of well- grouped machines ; and it requires no great effort of imagination to realize the utter bewilderment of a practical farmer attending the Leeds or Worcester show to select and order implements, walking down mile after mile of the sheds (as they would have been), all filled with equally imposing-looking wares, and hearing each in succession described by stentorian lungs as the best, the newest, the only implements worthy of a moment's notice. We shall be told that in some few instances (the Bath and West of England Society is quoted by Mr. Morton) the com- petitive system has been abandoned without any injurious conse- quences. ‘The management of that Society is in very able hands, and if they continue their present system it will be because they find it answer; but if not only the Bath and West of England, but all the local societies in Great Britain, abandoned the com- petitive system, it would not affect the argument in the smallest degree. As long as the National Agricultural Society continues periodically to devote its funds and its energies to an efficient trial of all agricultural machines which seek distinction, so long will the failures find it as impossible to obtain purchasers in the showyard of the Bath and West of England Society as in that of the Royal Agricultural Society itself, and so long also will the prize-winners be regarded with attention at every agricultural meeting in the kingdom. Mr. Morton mentions that there have been instances where the bestowal of prizes or the suggestions of the Royal Agricultural Society’s judges have been positively injurious to the efficiency of certain implements, and consequently to the trade of their makers. We shall not for a moment question the accuracy of this statement, nor is there any antecedent improbability in the supposition that out of the many thousand decisions and opinions which have been given by judges at the Society’s various meet- ings, some may have been erroneous, and some useful suggestions may have been so badly carried out in practice as to have resulted in failure; but the general tenor of the communications made by implement-makers to the stewards and judges has been so com- pletely of an opposite character—so many exhibitors have been grateful for hints, and have attributed more or less of their com- the Royal Agricultural Society. 15 mercial success to the instruction and corrections received in the Society’s showyard—that we cannot but consider the cases men- tioned by Mr. Morton as altogether exceptional. Many of the leading manufacturers are undoubtedly opposed to the continuance of competitive trials, and their view of the subject is, we believe, somewhat of the following kind. 'They have devoted their time, talents, and capital to the improve- ment of agricultural machinery, They have been eminently successful, and they think that havdng arrived at this pitch of excellence, they might be trusted to furnish sterling articles in future without being put to the trouble and expense of con- stantly fighting to maintain their position, with the additional mortification of being occasionally beaten by an implement which they honestly believe to be inferior to their own. With these feelings they are naturally disposed to be hypercritical with regard to the Society’s trials, and to magnify unduly every little error or mistake. Taking a broad view of the question as it affects the imple- ment-makers : what do we find to be the result of three-and-twenty years’ experience? Are the firms of old standing continually driven out of the trade by new men? Quite the reverse. No doubt many new men have taken up the business, and some few, like Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth and Messrs. Fowler, have in a comparatively short time taken their place among the very first. But it is equally true that the repeated decisions of so many different judges have made more and more clear the indisputable fact that amongst the most improved and best-manufactured im- plements in the various classes are always to be found those of the original leaders in this department, Messrs. Garrett, Hornsby, Howard, Ransome, &c. &c. Can these gentlemen then be serious in maintaining that the trials are so hurried and inadequate as to be unworthy of the confidence of the public? We feel persuaded that on reconsideration they will lean rather to the more general opinion ‘that on the whole these decisions are not far wrong. But though the old-established firms have been able to hold their own against all legitimate competition, it is by no means equally clear that in the absence of trials they would be suc- cessful in protecting their business from the inroads of plau- sible charlatans, who are only kept in the background at present by the impossibility of their winning prizes. By abolishing com- petitive trials the outsiders would have a clear course, and the usual results would probably follow the tempting announcement of the best quality of work and materials at half the usual prices. It thus appears that the prize system is not without compensa- tion to the implement-makers for some unavoidable annoyances, but if the question be treated solely with a view to the interests 16 Agricultural Progress and of the farmer the case is still more clear. The advocates for the abolition of the trials of the Royal Agricultural Society, mean of course that the precedent should be followed by all local agricultural societies, otherwise it would simply amount to a proposal that the National Society should abdicate its functions in favour of lesser local societies, who would with inferior means have to grapple with a difficulty which by the hypothesis is beyond the strength of the strongest. We will suppose therefore that competitive ‘trials were generally abandoned, For a year or two, perhaps, more, the want would not be greatly felt. The marks of the prize system would not have worn out, but after a time, new wants and new inventions would have brought into the field a new generation of implements, and as there would be no opportunity of comparing the efficiency of the productions of the whole country and conferring on the winners a national reputa- tion, the natural tendency to patronise neighbouring and local makers would resume its sway. Certain implements would become famous in particular districts, and if the intelligence of the age would allow of so long a suspension of what would soon be perceived to be a national requirement, we should at length relapse into a similar state to that which existed in 1839, when the plough of Yorkshire was a totally different implement from the plough of Kent, and the Suffolk drill was only a visitor in the counties of Berkdittre and Oxfordshire. It is important when considering this question to keep promi- nently before us the main object of Implement Shows, and the following sentences extracted from the Reports of the ‘Society’ s pe iivitions of Implements in 1848 and 1849 are quite in point : —_ “The principal advantages to be derived from Shows of Implements may be classed under three heads, of which the first and most important is, that the awards of prizes should point out to every farmer who enters the Show-yard the best imple- ments in their respective classes which the kingdom produces. Farmers, as a.body, have neither the means nor the leisure required for travelling about to visit the manufactories of the various implement- Ceres nor, if this were practicable, could they safely decide on the comparative efficiency of their respective productions by merely seeing them in the makers’ yards, It is, therefore, a great advantage to the farmers of any district to have a tance show of implements brought into their neighbourhood, especially when the best of each class are pointed out to them by competent judges after a fair trial.” * . . “The attention of some of the leading members of the Society * ¢ Journal,’ vol. ix. p. 378. the Royal Agricultural Society. 17 (especially of the late lamented Mr. Handley) was earnestly directed to the improvement of this department, and they soon perceived that little was gained by coliecting implements in a Show-yard for people to gaze at, unless an adequate trial could be made of their respective merits. To attain this end great exertions were made, and every improvement in the mode of trial was followed by so marked an increase in the number and merit of the implements brought forward at subsequent shows, as to prove the strongest incentive to further effort... .. The additional amount offered in prizes at the later meetings has undoubtedly assisted in creating this great increase of competi- tion, but it cannot be considered the principal cause, since the implement-makers are unanimous in declaring that, even when most successful, the prizes they receive do not reimburse them for their expenses and loss of time. How, then, are the increased exertions of the machine-makers to be accounted for? Simply by the fact that the trials of implements have gradually won the confidence of the farmer, so that, when selecting implements for purchase, he gives the preference to those which have received the Society’s mark of approval. .... *‘It thus’ appears that concurrently with the extension and improvement of the trials a corresponding increase and improve- ‘ment has taken place in the exhibitions of implements; and though it is difficult to prove that the one has been the cause of the other, still the probability that such is the case almost amounts to certainty, when it is found that classes of iunplements which are so faulty in construction as to be strongly animadverted on by the Judges at one meeting, are at the next nearly free from those defects which had been previously pointed out... .. If the foregoing reasoning be correct (and the facts on which it is founded will, not admit’ of question), the Society may fairly claim to have been, in great measure, the authors of the very rapid improvement made ‘of late in almost ever y kind of agricul- tural implement.’’ * If this could be said in 1849, it may be affirmed with much more confidence in 1864. The general diffusion of the best implements at the present time makes the proof much more complete, and much more easy to obtain. Should any one be sceptical, let him visit the premises of some improving farmer, Without doubt he patronises steam, and thus economises horse labour—thrashes his grain in less time—dresses it better for market—leaves less in the straw. He also chaffs his fodder, slices or pulps his roots, and crushes his horse and cattle corn ; * « Journal,’ vol. x. p. 528. . VOL. XXV. C 18 Agricultural Progress and the result being economy of feeding material, saving of manual labour, and improvement in the condition of his live-stock. Is it seed-time? His drills are so accurate in their work that the horse-hoe can follow when the weeds are yet so young that they are exterminated by the passage of the knives, yet without risk to the young corn. ‘The iron harrows, before and after sow- ing (zigzag, diagonal, or chain), do more work at one turn than the old country blacksmith’s implements did at two or three. If the land be too light, there are the smooth-roller, the fluted-roller, and the clod-crusher, Should it be hay-time or harvest, there are the mowing and reaping machines, the hayspreaders, the horse- rakes, the ae forks, the improved harvest-carts, the Dutch barn, and the rick-stands, This reswmé might be extra to a tedious length, but it is unnecessary. We have one question, and but one, to ask when the inspection is completed. In this farmer’s whole set of machines and implements, 7s there one which has not received a prize or medal of the Royal Agricultural Society? If not, or if, as we believe to be a common case, the exceptions are only such as to prove the rule, then are we in a position to point out not only what an important influence has been exer- cised by improved machinery in bringing about the agricultural progress which has been realised of late, but also what a large share the Royal Agricultural Society’s Shows have had in pro- . ducing this gratifying result. Steam.-—The influence of steam as applied to agricultural ma- chinery still remains to be noticed. Nothing could have been more antecedently improbable than that the costly steam-engine, with its delicate valves, its niceties of adjustment, and its tremen- dous power for good or for evil, could safely have been entrusted to the care and control of any one but a trained engineer. So thought and so reasoned most thinking men twenty years ago; and of all the working-classes the agricultural labourer would have been thought the least likely to be either able or willing to lend a helping hand. How did he receive the introduction of the first piece of machinery which became common on the farm ? All who have attained the age of fifty can recollect the quasi- rebellion which, under the name of ‘ Swing riots,” raged in the southern counties of England when thrashing-machines began to make their way there. The labourers rose in full force to resist this aggression on their rights with fire and flail. Yet in twenty short years the horse thrashing-machines may be said to have come and gone, and the intelligence of the labourer has so advanced meanwhile, that the most labour-saving invention is no longer followed with threats and sullen looks; and of all the obstacles to the introduction of steam-machinery, the least has the Royal Agricultural Society. 19 been the want of an intelligent workman to take charge of the engine. The rapidity of the change has been quite unexampled in agricultural history. At the Newcastle Show, in 1846, only one steam-engine was exhibited, which went unrewarded because it had been previously shown and had received a prize; and at a subsequent Meeting the writer can recollect a grave discussion between the Stewards as to the safety of allowing steam-engines to get up their steam in the Society's show-yard. Yet at Wor- cester there were 135 steam-engines ; and one of the successful exhibitors on that occasion has informed us, that though in 1845 he made only one steam-engine, and not one steam thrashing- machine, he has, in the four years 1859-1862, turned out an average of 488 engines and 373 steam thrashing-machines per annum! Since 1852 he has sold enough steam-engines to supply each member of the Royal Agricultural Society with one. He adds, that in the last ten years the average horse-power of the engines made by him has risen from 5:52 ‘to 7°87, an increase of 42 per cent. If the engines furnished by all the makers in the same time could be summed up into a grand total, it would be seen that already many thousands of steam-engines have been purchased for agricultural work; showing clearly that on the farm as well as in the factory the reign of steam has commenced. The truth of this assertion is every day becoming more ap- parent. In the barn and in the stack-yard the steam-engine is already without a rival. It would be sheer waste of time to give any detailed proof of the superiority of steam to any other avail- able power for barn-work, or any calculation of the exact number of pence per quarter thus saved by the farmer in pre- paring his grain for market. The feats performed by steam in the way of thrashing, grinding, chaffing, pulping, slicing, have been already chronicled so fully and so frequently of late years as to convince all those who will allow themselves to be con- vineed by argument. To those who will not, we commend the stubborn fact already mentioned—that jive thousand steam-engines have been sold by one maker since 1852! One of the main obstacles to the general introduction of steam- machines was their heavy cost, which was quite disproportionate to the means of a small farmer or the quantity of work to be done on his farm. This difficulty has been surmounted by the inter- vention of the village capitalist, who has made a comfortable livelihood by purchasing a machine or two, and letting them out for hire to the small farmers in his neighbourhood. In our own district the farms are chiefly small, but thrashing by steam is all but universal, whilst the farmers’ own horse-machines are standing idle and fast rusting into oblivion. c2 20 Agricultural Progress and Seeing then that steam has ensconced itself in our homesteads, and after ejecting most of their previous occupants, is now waging war with their most ancient denizens, the ploughs and the harrows of **long, long ago,” it is surely not premature to inquire the why and the Gyberetore of this great disturbance. No common motive can have induced men of solid character and fixed habits suddenly to buy hundreds and thousands of ‘costly machines, whose construction they don’t understand, and whose adoption forces them to change many of their former plans, and renders useless much of their former expenditure. The answer is at hand. One moving cause, and only one, is powerful enough for the purpose, and that cause is competition. The Reicha corn- grower is competing with the corn-growers of all nations, and this competition is co ntinually i increasing in intensity. The whole world is, in fact, running a race to secure the best market for their surplus produc tions ; and the repute of our wealth and the universality of our commerce are year by year. turning the current more and more towards our shores. The cost of transport to the place of shipment, added to freight and ‘port-dues, once formed a fair set-off against the cheapness of land and the superiority of climate enjoyed by the foreign corn-grower ; but the construc- tion of railways abroad and the substitution of steamers for sailing vessels are continually diminishing this margin, and the conditions of the problem which presents itself to the British corn-grower are these: The increased area from which supplies are now drawn to the British market, and the diminished cost of transport, have so lowered the average price of grain as to make it necessary for the English farmer ito reduce his outgoings, in order still to grow corn with profit. These outgoings principally consist of three classes of payments: rent, wages, and farming expenses. Has he any prospect of a reduction of rent? Is it not notorious that the competition for farms is such that the constant tendency is towards a rise rather than a fall in rents? Can wages be lowered? Is it not equally notorious that wages have in- creased considerably in the last ten years, and that they also have a tendency still to rise? The only available expedient, then, appears to be, to reduce the cost of cultivation; and this, quarter appears the alti hopeful when it is borne in ouiadl that there are two great advantages available in this country of which until of late the farmer has made little use, viz., the superiority of British machinery and the abundance of British capital. These have been freely drawn upon by his rivals for the construction of foreign railways, and for the improvement of both British and foreign shipping; but on the other hand, the implement- makers, the joint-stock banks, and the loan-societies have come the Royal Agricultural Society. 21 to the aid of British agriculture, and have rendered possiblé the unusual expenditure now being incurred for the purchase of improved machinery, so that this outlay, though appa- rently rash and hazardous, is really a work of necessity, an indispensable condition of the British corn-grower’s holding his own. Few farmers probably have reasoned the matter out in this way; but with characteristic sagacity and pluck they have rightly read the signs of the times, snail resolutely adopted the remedy. Steam-Cultivation.—The advantages of steam-cultivation, when applied in suitable situations, were well described by Mr. Ruck, of Castle Hill, Cricklade, in a clear and instructive statement, made last May at the opening of a discussian: on the subject at the Society’s rooms, Hanover-square.* If all farms were as well adapted for the steam-plough as that of Castle Hill, and if all farmers possessed as much capital and ‘energy as Mr. Ruck, little more need be said on tlfe subject than to wish them every success in their new career, A large portion of England is, however, let in small holdings, and mapped out in fields of every imaginable size and shape ; and it is evidently impracticable in such cases to introduce steam-cultivation as practised by Mr. Ruck, and other large occupiers, whose farms have been duly prepared for the new system. It therefore becomes a question of great interest whether steam-cultivation can only become general when the existing large number of small farms shall have been consolidated into a small number of large ones. In the first place, it is necessary to consider what is implied by the consolidation of farms. It seems but a simple matter for a landowner to issue the fiat. Let _half-a-dozen small farms be consolidated into one large one; the first idea realised being that some miles of old crooked fences and some scores of hedgerow trees would disappear, and be replaced by a few straight fences, laid out with special reference to the requirements of AS Se So far all would be serene: land would be gained by the removal of the fences ; and ,the fewer the trees Pian are tolerated on arable land the better for the tenant, the proprietor, and the public. ‘The next step is not such plain sailing. Pulling down six homesteads, ill-arranged and incomplete though they may be, and building a good house and set of farm-offices, are expensive opera- tions, and it is neither agreeable nor convenient to repeat them too often in these prosaic days, s, when Aladdin’s Jamp is no longer avail- able even to the most devans worshipper of the Prophet. But the * ¢ Journal,’ vol. xxiv. p. 610. 22 Agricultural Progress and worst remains to be told. Five tenants are turned out ; one only is promoted, if, indeed, any one of the six be found fitted by capital and capacity for doing credit to the new arrangements. What are these men’s offences ? and what are they to do for a livelihood? The landlords of England will require satisfactory answers to these questions before they will pass any sweeping sentence of expatriation wpon hard-working, deserving tenants, even to make room for the steam-plough. No doubt opportunities frequently occur when, without harsh measures, farms may be consolidated, and this process is quietly progressing in a natural and satisfactory way ; but 7f small farms are never to be cultivated by steam, it will be long, indeed, before steam-cultivation becomes general. We are by no means disposed to take a desponding view of the obstacles to be surmounted in the introduction of steam-worked implements on small occupations. Doubtless they are greater than the difficulties which stood in the way of steam-thrashing on such farms, but these were consideréd insurmountable a few years ago; and there is no want of inducement to make the attempt, as it is rapidly becoming apparent that even on light land steam-cultivation will pay, and that clay cannot be thoroughly worked by any other means. \t was at one time believed that subsoiling clay by horse-power would effect the deep and per- fect tilth which is so great a desideratum and so difficult a task on such land, and when this was the current belief, im- proving clay-land farmers did not hesitate to incur the heavy expense of 20s. to 30s. per acre to stir and break up the land to the desired depth. The result was neither permanent nor pro- fitable ; but it was not the heavy cost per acre which caused subsoiling clay to be discontinued. That was known when the subsoil-plough was purchased. It was the slowness of the progress, and the injury caused by the trampling of so many horses, which prevented the operation from succeeding. Steam- cultivation is free from these objections; and even on small farms it can be done at much less cost than subsoiling by horses or oxen, The only real difficulty is the amount of force required to cul- tivate strong land to a sufficient depth. The best authorities recommend an engine of 12 or 14 horse-power for this work. With such a command of power the strongest clay may be broken up to a sufficient depth steadily and uniformly, or it may be well stirred, sown, and the seed covered, at one operation. ‘There can be little doubt that in this way the work can be done in the most perieets and perhaps also in the most economical way ; and large farmers with sufficient capital will probably never regret having made the outlay requisite to give them full command of the Royal Agricultural Society. 23 their work. But the desideratum of the present day is to ascer- tain the best mode of utilizing, for the purposes of cultivation, the many thousand engines which have been already sent out to farmers or small capitalists, and whose average nominal strength is probably about seven horse-power. Two ways of accomplishing this may be mentioned. The first is, to reduce the work to be performed. Instead of using a plough turning three or four furrows, it is perfectly practicable to use one turning two only, and all the other implements may be reduced in proportion. The reduction in the amount of work done in a given time would not be important on small farms ; and ‘though the owner of the engine would have to charge a highér rate per acre, it would still answer to the farmer to pay for the use of a steam-plough at particular seasons, in order to break up some unusually stubborn fields, which were quite beyond the strength of his team. The other plan would be, to combine two engines of moderate calibre, and thus obtain power sufficient to get through the heaviest kind of work. ‘This method has been introduced by several makers, and their respective modes of applying the power of the twin-engines, either alternately or jointly, has been clearly described in Mr. Algernon Clarke’s very able and valuable article on the Progress of Steam-cultivation, in the last number of the Journal.* "Hitherto the men who let out steam- thrashing machines have feared to take up steam-ploughing, partly because the demand has not yet become sufficiently general, and partly because a 12-horse engine is too costly, and unnecessarily powerful for the work on which they would be engaged for the greater portion of their time. Steam-ploughing, even when it became general, would not be sufficiently con- tinuous to pay, unless the engine could go to some other work when the land was soft; but if at particular times of year one engine could be sent with a two-furrow plough to a small farm, and two engines with a larger cultivating apparatus for a heavier job, the business of steam-cultivation might be profitably com- bined with that of steam-thrashing. These two methods would be equally available to the occupier of a small farm as to the owner of engines who lets them for hire. An engine of 7 or 8 horse-power would pay well on a farm of 250 or 300 acres of arable land, if in addition to its ser- vices in the barn it could also, when required, plough effectually 3 or 4 acres of strong clay per diem ; and for any work of especial urgency or difficulty, two neighbours might unite their forces, and thus obtain sufficient command of power. * « Journal,’ vol. xxiv. p. 362. > P 24 Agricultural Progress and A Steam-plough Company was formed in Gloucestershire, in 1860, under very good auspices, but did not succeed, in conse quence of the long periods of enforced idleness which occurred whenever the weather was unfavourable. Another company has been formed at Wakefield, in Yorkshire, which hopes to sur- mount this difficulty, by undertaking steam-thrashing, sawing, . grinding, &c., whenever the engines Eannoe go on the land. Te results, so far, are highly encouraging. The present position of the question seems to be, that on large arable farms steam-cultivation is a decided success, especially where the land is so laid out that the apparatus can be worked in the most effectual and economical manner. That on farms of moderate size it can also be applied with advantage, by employing ploughs or cultivators which do not require an engine of higher power than can be usefully employed on ordinary barn- -work. Lastly, that even small farms may derive considerable benefit from steam-cultivation, as soon as companies or private capitalists will undertake this kind of work, which they may do with advantage, either by the employment of small cultivators with one engine of moderate power, or by combining two such on the twin-engine principle. Effect of Free Trade.—The influence of the competition arising from free trade on the demand for improved agricultural ma-° chinery has already been pointed out. By the courtesy of the authorities of the Board of Trade, we are now enabled to furnish tables showing the full extent of the competition which British farmers have to meet in their two staple products of corn and meat. Table (C.) shows the quarters of wheat, barley, oats, maize, peas and beans, and the hundredweights of flour imported in each of the years 1839-1862. Large as these quantities undoubtedly are, we are satisfied that they do not warrant the opinion generally entertained that, since the adoption of free- trade, the importation of foreign wheat and four has been increasing faster than the consumption—or in other words, that the production of wheat in this country is declining, and puat its place is being supplied by importation. It is much to be regretted that on a question of so much interest to the agriculturist, the capitalist, and the statesman, we should have no reliable statistics by which to test the correctness of this opinion. Indirect proof is all that can be adduced. We trust that it will be considered con- clusive. The most superficial examination of the accompanying table will show that a very large increase in the importation of wheat Tasty C.—Grain Imvortep into tHe Untrep Kinepom. Wheat. Quarters. 2,638,593 | 2,409,754 2,722,305 932,866 1,097,963 844,533 1,437,336 2,650,058 | 2,477,366 8,845,378 3,738, 995 3,812,008 3,060,268 | 4,915,430 3,431,227 | 2,667,702 4,072,833 8,487,957 4 241,719 4,000,922 5,880,958 | 6,912,815 | 9,469,270 i { u —————————SS * Import duty Is. per quarter from 1 Feb, 1849, + Import duty 43d. per ewt. from 1 Feb. 1849. | | | 1,995,453 | the Royal Agricultural Society. Barley. Quarters. 579 ,405 625 ,437 264 , 654 73,550 179 ,414 025,416 367 , 854 1, 371,187 772,840 977 , 208 1,381,008 1,035,903 829 ,564 625,540 824,068 552,972 349,110 731,412 1,701,470 1,661,392 1,727,855 2,112,861 1,400,401 1,854,944 | | Oats. Quarters. 674,554 587 , 805 122,297 302,852 84,718 308, 126 586,860 794,863 1,706,780 930 ,265 1,267,106 1,154,473 1,198,529 989 ,287 1,028,409 1,014,949 1,033,727 1,146,848 1,710,299 1,856,281 1,677,585 2,290,951 1,859,781 1,609,816 | | Maize. Quarters. 9,565 22,021 4,187 219,830 35,866 516 39,218 55, 984 694,184 3,614,637 1,577,023 2,224 459 1,277,071 1,807,636 1,471,277 1,544,483 1,349,698 1,215,333 1777; 813 1,150,783 1,750, 825 1,314,303 1,851,762 3,090,352 2,728,791 Peas and Jeans, Quarters. 249 , 822 _ 287,904 442, 253 97,051 261,780 265,621 468,050 600,964 668,160 692,299 619,720 417 , 628 477 ,306 450,655 494,843 458,427 | 439,300 | 465,674 570,006 500,502 754,035 960,330 703,048 bn Or Wheat-meal. Cwts. 793,606 1,552,697 1,275,656 1,151,827 440,955 987,774 924,256 3,363,810 8,637,377 1,731,974 +3349, 839 3,819,440 5,314,414 3,865,173 4,621,506 3,646,505 1,904,224 3,970,100 2,178,148 8,856,127 3,328,324 5,086, 220 6,152,938 7,207,118 26 Agricultural Progress and and flour took place in the three last years. The quarters of wheat imported in the first ten years of free-trade ranged for the most part between three and four millions of quarters per annum, averaging 3,737,906 quarters. The flour imported averaged 3,650,396 ewts; but in 1860, 1861, 1862 the average imports of wheat rose to 7,421,014 quarters per annum, or double the average of the previous ten years; whilst the imported flour reached 6,148,757 cwts., an increase of 68 per cent. This sudden rise is easily explained. The three years in question were years of unusually deficient crops in these islands. An interesting return given by Mr. Morton, in his valuable paper on Agricultural Progress, already alluded to, furnishes the means of testing the extent of the deficiency in one of our largest corn- growing districts. It is an account of the produce of wheat per acre on a large Fen farm in Lincolnshire for the last twenty-four years; and shows that, whilst the average produce of the whole period was between 38 and 39 bushels per acre, the produce of the three years 1859, 1860, 1861 was 26, 24, and 27 bushels respectively—i. e., the produce of these three successive years was 33 per cent. below the average produce of the farm. These were the three harvests which would influence the importations of the years 1860, 1861, and 1862, and sufficiently account for their unusual amount. In endeavouring to strike a balance be- tween the ordinary increase of importation, consumption, and home production, the calculation would be vitiated by including these very exceptional seasons, unless it could be extended over a long succession of years, which, as Free trade commenced in 1849, is evidently impossible. We shall therefore confine our comparison to the ten years immediately preceding, and the ten immediately succeeding 1849, leaving out that year as not belonging entirely to either the Free-trade or ante-Free-trade epoch. We shall calculate the wheat-meal as wheat at the rate of 21 bushels for each hundredweight of flotr, and we find that the comparison stands as follows :— Qrs. Quantity of wheat and flour (calculated as EY 2.870.061 imported in 1839 .. eer omc eco ST Ditto im 1B59 Kobe bi tie lee RE ee oa! os phe RGR Tncrease in 1859 over 1889 .. Qrs. 2,101,622 Average quantity of wheat and flour (calculated as oe 2.443.987 imported i in each of the five we 1839-1848 4 Ditto 1855-1859 # ony pee) 4,070,047 ———— Average increase .. .. «. Qrs. 2,129,060 the Royal Agricultural Society. 27 Qrs. Average quantity of wheat and flour (calculated as jake. 2.599.037 imported in each of ten years, 1839-1548 dey Wee Ditto, 1850-1259 SA eh Pee RN Rac) ven eer OU a, 000 Average increase .. .. .. Qrs. 2,270,568 The results obtained by comparing the first and ast, or the first five and last five, or the first ten and last ten, of the twenty-one years under consideration, are thus so nearly the same, that no material error can in this case arise from basing our calculation on the comparison between the single years 1839 and 1859, the first and last of the series ; the difference in the quantity of wheat imported in those years being 2,101,622 quarters. The next step is to ascertain the increase of the population in the period under consideration; and this we find, from the Census Tables for England and Wales, to have been 4,127,819. The ordinary estimate of the consumption of bread-corn by a wheat-eating people is one-quarter (of 8 bushels) per head per annum. We have satisfied ourselves by careful inquiry that this is as near an approximation to the truth as can be expected from a rough-and-ready rule of the kind. The population of England and Wales would therefore require 4,127,819 more quarters of wheat in 1859 than would have sufficed in 1839. The increase of importation of wheat and flour (calculated as wheat) in 1859 over 1839 was 2,101,622 quarters. The balance therefore of 2,026,197 quarters of annual supply must have been provided by the increase of our home- grown wheat, or our population must have been much worse fed than heretofore, the very reverse of which we know to be the fact. We do not pretend that this is an accurate estimate, or even a close approximation ; but we feel little doubt that it may be taken as the minimum increase of our home-grown supply, and that it is, in fact, much below the actual increase if that could in any way be ascertained. That this is so the following considerations will show :—In the first place, the increase of the population is an ascertained fact, and the estimate of eight bushels of wheat per head of annual consumption in England and Wales, which has been verified by the accounts of many different families and taken as a basis of calculation by various writers, is in all pro- bability not far wrong. If these data be granted, the amount of increased consumption is proved, and that portion of it which has not been imported must have been grown at home. But durmg the twenty-one years in question the ordinary wages of da.ity labour have risen at least 20 per cent., and barley-scones aud oat-cakes have almost disappeared as articles of regular diet. 28 Agricultural Progress and The construction of railways, docks, and other large public works, has created a numerous ae of navvies, plate-layers, and well- paid officials, whilst the great extension A our staple industries has provided more constant and more profitable employment for our artizans and labourers than heretofore ; so that both on account of our labourers having the means of supplying their families more liberally with food, aril of wheat becoming more and more the staple diet of the sills we are pannaeel that a much larger addition is required to our present supply of wheat than ‘aul be necessary merely to feed the additional mouths according to the old standard rate per head. It follows then, as a matter of course, that the increase in the home-production of wheat between 1839 and 1859 was considerably in excess of the two million quarters, which we have endeavoured to prove to have been the minimum. It is satisfactory to feel that our large importations are not displacing home-grown corn, but that the skill of our farmers has been no less effective than the enterprise of our mer- chants in obtaining the large additional supply of food required by an increasing population. The immense resources of our capitalists and our shipping have never been more strikingly exemplified than in the facts which this Table places prominently before us. The deficiency caused by a succession of three unusually bad harvests has been supplied from other countries to the extent of 4,410,546 quarters of wheat annually over and above what may ie called the cus- tomary amount, viz. the average of the previous ten years, without any Fo of the money arene, and almost without any one being aware of what was going on,—except the importers, who Sach year provided the requisite ten or twelve millions sterling, and the farmers, who received that much less for their crops. Doubtless the loge has fallen heavily upon them, and had it not been for the help afforded by the remunerative prices of stock, wool, and dairy produce, many must have succumbed. To the decrees of Providence, however, al] must bow, and had it not been for Free-trade, what would have been the result ? Restricted supplies—high prices—a suffering and discontented population—and last, but not least, the consciousness that their sufferings might have been prevented. Free Trade in Cattle-—Table (D.) shows the total importa- tions of cattle, sheep, and swine, from July 9, 1842, the date of the removal of the prohibition, to December 31, 1862. It will be seen that so long as an import-duty of even 1/, per head was levied on cattle, and 3s, per head on sheep, the numbers im- ported were trifling; but that a considerable increase took place immediately after 1846, when the trade was made entirely free. the Royal Agricultural Society. 29 Taste D.—Carris, Sauxr, and Swinz Imported into the United Years. #1849 #1843 1844 1845 +1846 1847 1848 1849 , 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 (1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 Oxen and Bulls. Number. 3,156 1,114 3,682 9,743 17,191 27 ,831 24590 21,884 28,951 87 , 624 40,533 56,220 62,937 63,687 52,019 58,277 47,912 55,960 70,023 71,288 64,461 Kingdom, Cows. Calves, Number. Number. 1,038 70 368 39 1,154 53 6,503 587 25 ,349 2,503 35,480 12,406 22,506 15,642 17,920 13,645 17,757 19,754 24 ,026 24 870 25 ,038 27 ,490 38 ,328 30,705 25,271 26,130 10,068 23,777 9,843 21,444 12,371 27,315 14,106 26,983 7,304 22,383 6,987 27,559 9,906 25 ,902 4,357 29 ,069 Sheep and Lambs. Number. 644. 217 2,817 15,957 94°, 624 142,720 130,583 129,266 143,498 201, 859 230,037 259 ,420 183,436 162,642 145,059 177 ,207 184,482 250,580 320,219 312,923 299 ,472 Swine. Number. 410 361 265 1,590 3,856 1,242 2,119 2,653 7,287 15,599" 10,524 12,757 11,077 12,171 9,916 10,678 11,565 11,084 24,452 30,308 18,162 * July 9, 1842.—Prohibition to import Live Stock removed. Duty imposed on Cattle of 20s. ; on Sheep of 3s.; and on Swine of 5s. per head. + From March 19, 1846.—Free of Import Duty. 30 Agricultural Progress and If the sixteen years succeeding 1846 be divided into four equal periods of four years each, as in Table (E.), it will be found that the trade in cows, which was considerable for a few years after the ports were opened, soon declined, and has been pretty nearly abandoned ; but that the number of prime animals (the bulls forming a very inconsiderable portion of the numbers in the Ist column) has increased steadily, though not rapidly. The sheep, though with considerable fluctuations, have also increased. Taste E.—Cartix, Sueur, and Swine Imported into the United Kingdom. —_ OO Oxen and eta s Sheep and . Bulls. Cows. Calves. Raenbel Swine. Number. Number. Number. Number. Number, Average of 4 years— 1847 to 1850, inc. | 25,814 | 23,415 | 15,361 | 136,516 | 3,325 1851 to 1854, ine. | 49,328 | 28,165 | 27,298 | 218,688 | 12,489 1855 to 1858, ine. | 54,223 | 11,595 | 24,879 | 167,347 | 11,082 1859 to 1862, inc. | 65,483 | 7,146 | 26,228 | 295,798 | 21,001 We have unfortunately failed in our attempts to obtain any reliable statement of the number of live stock brought to market in the principal cities and towns of the United Kingdom, so that we are unable to ascertain the proportion which the live stock imported bears to the whole consumption of the country. That itis but a small fraction of the entire supply is however evident by comparing the accompanying Tables (E.) and (F.),* from which it appears that the average number of cattle imported in the four years 1859-1862, were barely 25 per cent., and the sheep only 19 per cent. of the average numbers brought to market in those years in the metropolis alone. Table (F.) embraces a period of thirty years, and dividing it into three equal periods of ten years each, Table (G.), we find, by comparing the 2nd decennial period with the Ist, that there has been an increase in the annual supply of cattle of 27 per cent.; and similarly comparing the 8rd period with the 2nd, that there has been a further increase of 224 per cent. In the case of sheep, however, the increase in the 2nd period was only 11} per cent.; and in the 3rd period, there has been a falling-off of 116,642 head annually, or 7 per cent. of the whole number of sheep * This Table has beenkindly furnished by the authorities of the City of London. For the continuation, subsequently to 1854, we are indebted to the oilicers of the Board of Trade. » the Royal Agricultural Society. 31 Tasty F.—Cartin, Saumur, Catves and Pies brought into Smithfield Market in each Year from 1833 to 1854; and into the Metropolitan Cattle Market, from 1855 to 1862. Beasts. | Sheep. | Calves. Pigs. OS ra Weider er ae , Number. Nuibber: /18383 | 154,948 | 1,206,730 | 18,361 | 25,070 1984 | 174,887 | 1,364,470 | 19,647 | 48,350 1835 | 183,101 | 1,563,500 | 20,807 | 60,085 | 1836 | 177,384 | 1,348,770 | 19,922 | 56,110 ) 1887 | 186,336 | 1,460,160 | 17,659 | 57,300 : 1838 | 199,369 | 1,540,280 | 18,651 | 44,905 1839 | 193,322 | 1,481,920 | 18,321 | 45,690 : = | 1840 | 186,955 | 1,527,550 | 17,186 | 46,275 Z E 1841 | 176,658 | 1,482,040 | 17,134 | 42,020 : = | 1842 | 191,075 | 1,655,370 | 19,447 | 49,955 : 5 1843 | 187,547 | 1,817,460 | 19,131 | 52,650 | am ) 1844 | 197,887 | 1,804,850 | 19,117 | 52,785 5 1845 | 204,055 + 1,539,660 | 18,512 | 48,635 | PB | 1846 | 213,525 | 1,527,220 | 19,875 | 38,495 | | 1847 | 240,668 | 1,548,350 | 25,506 | 36,225 1848 | 240,293 | 1,450,350 | 28,842 | 37,335 1849 | 243,761 | 1,624,230 | 26,301 | 21,085 1850 | 951,187 | 1,658,330 | 30,145 | 18,325 1851 | 261,672 | 1,660,850 | 33,237 | 20,220 1852 | 278,616 | 1,630,480 | 36,188 | 17,180 1853 | 292,329 | 1,530,550 | 36,316 | 13,530_ 1854 | 282,828 | 1,616,560 | 30,808 | 15,205 . (1855 | 272,916 | 1,552,920 | 27,370 | 37,705 a 1856 | 268,996 | 1,422,950 | 24,718 | 28,325 £.; | 1857 | 272,848 | 1,391,960 | 29,706 | 25,080 fe | 1858 | 289,504 | 1,463,285 | 26,260 | 31,465 gg | 1859 | 274,489 | 1,552,440 | 24,020 | 29,810 ao 1860 | 295,018 | 1,570,090 | 27,309 | 26,840 z 1861 | 289,380 | 1,496,860 | 26,399 | 30,730 1862 | 304,741 | 1,498,500 | 27,951 | 29,470 a 32 Agricultural Progress and brought to market! This diminution in the supply has occurred, too, when, in consequence of the high prices of both wool and mutton, there has been a strong inducement to flockmasters to increase their production to the utmost extent. The deficiency may to some extent be accounted for by the largely increased quantity of meat sent to Newgate and Leadenhall markets. The supplies sent to these markets consist partly of meat killed in the metropolis, the live stock having been purchased in the Metropolitan Cattle Market: this has already been taken into account. The remainder consists chiefly of meat conveyed by railway. Taste G.—Carrie and Surze brought into Smithfield and the Metropolitan Cattle Market. Sheep Cattle | | | Average of the | Average of the Increase. || Increase Average of the Tnerease 10 Years, 10 Years, | Nirpabers\iil Per Gent 10 Years, Numbers 1853-1843, | 1843-1859, | (Numbers). [PerCent) 1455 vago, | (Numbers). | 182,393 231,911 49,518 | 27 284 ,304 52,393 | | | Decrease. | 1,457,579 | 1,626,178 168,599 | 1145 | 1,509,536 | 116,642 Comparing a return lately obtained from the principal Railway Companies which convey meat to the metropolis with a return furnished by the same Companies 10 years ago, it appears that the quantity of meat so carried has increased during the intervening period about 37 per cent. Supposing this to consist of beef and mutton in equal proportions, the additional 13,400 tons carried would give 6,700 tons of mutton, representing—if 80 Ibs. be the average dead weight of a sheep—a goodly flock of 187,600 head.* If mutton form the larger portion of the consignments, as appears probable (say as 5 to 3), the number of sheep conveyed by rail to the metropolis as dead meat now would be 234,500 more than were similarly carried ten years ago. The falling off in the number shown at Smithfield during the same period was 116,642, leaving a balance of increase of 117,858. This increase in the number of live and dead sheep brought to market in the metropolis is not, however, derived from our own country; as it will be seen in Table (D.) that the average importations of sheep in the 4 years ending 1862 had increased by 119,658 over the average impor- * No accounts are kept of the relative proportions of beef and mutton forwarded by railway. Increase Per Cent, a 204 Decrease Per Cent, 7 99 the Royal Agricultural Society. 33 tations in the 4 years ending 1852; so that, judging by the sup- plies sent to the metropolis (no bad test), it is pretty certain that the number of British sheep sent to market has been for the last ten years stationary, if not retrograde. The supply of meat sent by railway consists, to a great extent, of prime joints, and consequently represents a greater number of head of live-stock than an equal weight of meat sent to market in the ordinary way (by the carcase). This consideration, how- ever, cannot affect our calculation to any appreciable extent. Take the case of 100 sheep slaughtered at Norwich, where this trade is largely carried on, The fore-quarters of the whole 100 sheep are now consumed at Norwich, and the same con-- suming power would formerly have been supplied by 50 sheep slaughtered and wholly disposed of there. The other 50 would have been sent to London alive; whereas now the inhabitants of Norwich are willing to purchase the inferior joints at a lower price, and the consumers of the metropolis are also willing to pay for the privilege of having the hind-quarters of the whole 100 sheep without the inferior joints. It is, therefore, a mere transfer of the best parts of the animal to the best market, and does not of itself give any indication either of increase or decrease in the number slaughtered. The slow rate of increase of our home-grown supplies of sheep becomes still more striking if we compare the number sent to the Metropolitan Market now with the number sold in Smith- field Market 40 years ago. In 1822 the number of cattle sold in Smithfield Market was 142,043, and of sheep 1,340,160. In 1862 the number of cattle brought into the Metropolitan Market was 304,741, and of sheep 1,498,500; so that whilst the cattle have increased 114 per cent., the sheep have increased not quite 12 per cent ! Strong corroborative evidence of the increasing scarcity of sheep is afforded by the great rise which has occurred in the price of mutton within the last ten years. This has also to some extent affected the price of beef, notwithstanding good supplies of fat cattle. The following comparative statement shows that between 1852 and 1862 the price of mutton has advanced 1s. 4d. per stone of. 8 lbs., and that the stone of beef has advanced 10d. in the same time. This statement applies only to the “prime” or best quality of meat. Inferior mutton has in the same ten years only advanced 7d., and inferior beef 53d. per 8 lbs. It is common when comparing the prices of meat at different periods to take the average of different qualities. We prefer confining the com- parison to the prime qualities, as the price of inferior meat is regulated much more by the proportion of inferior animals to VOL. XXY. D 34 _ Agricultural Progress and the whole number shown, and by the more or less injured state, from disease or travel, in which they come to market, than by the general supplies of live-stock brought forward for consump- tion. In other words, the price of inferior meat is dependent not only on the quantity at market, but upon its degree of infe- riority ; whereas prime meat is subject to but little variation in quality, and its price is therefore the safest measure of the comparative plenty or scarcity of live-stock at different times. Average Price of prime Murron and Bur by the carcase in the Metropolitan Markets.* Average of Average of 5 Years, ending | 5 Years, ending Increase Increase 1853. 1863. in 10 Years, Per Cent, (Per Stone of 8 lbs.)|(Per Stone of 8 lbs.) . Sir) hs 8. d. e, 0, 513; 2) ipa eon 4 Qb 5B 0F 0 10 20 Mutton... .. ao og Lee 30 This great advance in the price of meat offers a strong induce- ment to farmers to add to the numbers of their live-stock of all kinds ; but in the case of sheep, the long period during which their rate of increase has failed to keep up with the increase of consumption, makes the augmentation of our sheep-stock one of the most important farming questions of the day. Having thus passed in review our supplies of corn and meat for some years past, especially marking the effect of Free Trade upon both, we unavoidably arrive at the following conclu- sions :— Ist. That, except on those rare occasions when deficient har- vests may occur simultaneously over a large proportion of the corn-growing regions of the world, the supplies of grain sent to this country are likely to be so considerable as to keep prices at a lower level than would be remunerating if corn-growing were considered (as it too often has been) a department of farming which is complete in itself. 2nd. That the enormous quantity of foreign corn imported of late years has maintained in strength and comfort a much larger labouring population than could otherwise have been supported in Great Britain,’and has enabled our manufacturers and com- mercial men largely to extend both their home and foreign trade, * The figures on which these calculations are founded are taken from Herbert’s paper, ‘Journal,’ vol. xxiv. p. 456, the Royal Agricultural Society. 35 The wealth of this country has thus been so rapidly augmented as to create a consuming power which has increased the demand for meat more rapidly than either our own or foreign producers have been able to supply it. 3rd. That the breeding and feeding of live-stock have thus become such profitable operations that the growth of corn, as a sequence to stock-farming, has also become profitable even at present prices. Paradoxical, therefore, and unsound as it would have been thought twenty years ago, it is no less true, that though Free Trade has discouraged bad furming in the shape of simple corn-growing, it has, on the other hand, given a powerful stimulus to good farming by making it possible still to grow corn with profit through the intervention of green-crops and live- stock. Tenure of Land.—The comparattve advantages of leases and agreements terminable at short notice, have been much discussed of late, though little progress has hitherto been made towards a settlement of the question, or in making converts from one side to the other. The advocates of leases contend that under their system there are: 1st, Fewer instances of bad farming, which is important to the public ; 2ndly, greater security for capital invested, which is tmportant to the tenant ; and, d3rdly, higher rent paid for the land, which is important to the landlord. On the other hand, it is argued, with reference to the first point, that there are numerous instances of properties, especially large properties, where the land is in quite as high a state of cultivation without leases as if held for a long fixed term, and consequently that when a property is badly farmed it is not the fault of the tenure, but of the agents or managers. There is considerable truth in this remark ; but it is not entirely conclusive, as there are undoubtedly many poor and ignorant farmers who are allowed to hold on, as tenants at will, but to whom leases would never be granted, and who therefore on a general adoption of that system would have to make way for men of greater capital and energy. The second and third points cannot be denied. If, therefore, the case be argued on commercial principles alone, the advocates of leases have the best of the argument, and doubtless in the long run this view of the matter will prevail; but there are important social questions connected with it, which have hitherto prevented the general adoption of leases, and will continue to exercise a power- ful retarding influence. ost landlords who let their land to tenants-at-will are aware that they could increase their rents by granting long leases; but before realising this additional income tenants must be changed, farms consolidated, and farm-buildings augmented and improved. D2 36 Agricultural Progress and* Of these obstacles the least are those connected with providing the requisite capital. Many landlords have funds at their dis- posal which they would be happy to invest on such undeniable security as their own land, especially to obtain such a liberal return as a moderate increase of rent would supply, and which, if the outlay were judiciously made, would be cheerfully paid. The owners of encumbered or settled estates have also such facilities of obtaining advances either from Government or private companies that some more influential reasons than the want of funds must be found before the very slight progress made by the lease-system can be explained. One of the most general of these causes is dislike on the part of landowners to dispossess deserving tenants, many of whom have held the same farms from father to son for generations, and between whom and their landlord there exist personal ties, which, if rudely severed, would be most inadequately replaced by a few shillings an acre additional rent. Another equally in- fluential cause is the repugnance of the proprietors to give up so much of the control over their estates as is implied by a lease for any long term of years. They let their land below its market value, for the sake of retaining the power of resuming possession, at short notice, of any farm on which the tenant causes annoyance to his landlord, or sets a bad example to his neighbours. The knowledge that such a power exists makes it rarely necessary to exercise it. It must not, however, be supposed that objections to leases are only to be met with amongst landowners. Many tenants dislike the idea of being bound down for a term of years “for better for worse, for richer for poorer,” and if coupled with a moderate increase of rent, leases would, we are persuaded, be declined by a majority of tenants at will. On a property in the north of England, entirely held under agreements terminable at six months’ notice, the writer once offered nineteen-year leases, on the Scotch principle, to the whole of the tenants. They took time for con- sideration, but eventually declined them to a man. On being asked their reasons, they said “‘ they considered that under their existing tenure the advantage was all on their side, for if farming prospered, they were sure they should not be disturbed, and if bad times should come, their hands would not be tied.” As these causes will probably long continue to operate, it is worth considering whether there are any practicable means of at once mitigating the evils arising front the very prevalent custom of letting farms at will, or on agreements terminable at six months’ notice. These evils, though apparently of very different kinds, such as injury to the public by the inadequate cultivation of the land, and injury to the tenant, who, without sufficient cause, is suddenly # the Royal Agricultural Socicty. 37 dispossessed of his holding, are all referable to the same cause, viz., want of sufficient security for the capital of an improving tenant. The ingenuity of practical men has long been concen- trated on this weak point in the present system, in the hope of devising such conditions as shall secure to an outgoing tenant repayment of the bulk of the capital laid out by him in recent improvements, An almost innumerable variety of covenants has thus been introduced into agreements in different parts of the country. Some of these are of a very complicated kind, and require from an entering tenant a large advance of money which is said to have been disbursed by the previous occupier, but which his successor has little power of verifying. Many a first-rate tenant has been deterred from taking farms hampered by agreements of this kind, as, instead of leaving him the master of his own capital, they oblige him to pay the cost of operations which, if honestly carried out, he would probably only partially approve, and if “‘scamped ” would amount to a direct robbery. ‘Doubtless the great majority of tenant-farmers would scorn to take advantage of the opportunity thus afforded for roguery, but out-going tenants are frequently needy men, and the temptation ought not to be thrown in their way. The principal object of these covenants is té reimburse to the outgoing tenant as large a portion of his out- lay as is consistent with justice to his successor, which would probably be best attained by somewhat lengthening the requi- site notice to quit. If 18 imstead of 6 months were required in order to terminate a tenancy, the occupier would have the opportunity before he left of taking one crop of corn from the whole of his arable land, which would much simplify the con- ditions required for the protection of the outgoing tenant, and much diminish the amount to be paid by the incoming one. Where land is in high condition, the power of taking one crop of corn all round is of such obvious justice that it is unnecessary to support it by argument ; and even where the land is poor and ill- farmed the tenure for one year longer would not enable the occu- pier unfairly to prejudice his successor, if his agreement restricted him (as all agreements should do) from taking two white crops in succession.* When the principles of cultivation, manuring, and the nutri- tion of plants were much less understood, both by landlords and tenants, than they are at present, the greatest care and considera- tion were bestowed upon agreements, with a view to enforcing a particular course of cropping, and even in some cases of fixing the quantity and quality of lime, manure, &c., to be applied. * This is quite compatible with special arrangements whereby safe tenants may be permitted to crop as they please, except when under notice to quit. 2 38 Agricultural Progress and Any considerable deviation from the four-course system of hus- bandry was then believed to inflict such injury upon the land that letting a farm so treated would be like selling a lame horse, and would require a heavy sacrifice on the part of the owner. Now, however, no one disputes that “ condition” can be restored to the land by a certain amount of exposure to the atmosphere and a certain amount of manuring, the materials for which can be purchased at most market-towns. In short, it is a mere question of a moderate amount of money applied with ordinary discretion, and not, as was formerly thought, the happy result of much money applied with great shill through an indefinite period of years, and which, when realized, ought to be guarded like the golden apples of famous memory, The evident tendency of the present day is to make agreements extremely simple, to allow an in-coming tenant to be as little hampered as possible by the operations of his predecessor, but to devote the capital, whose possession ought to be a sine qua non, to a thorough stocking and manuring of his farm, instead of battling about tillages and half tillages, and expending his capital on “unexhausted improvements,” the existence of which is in many cases highly problematical, In order to combine freedom to the in-coming with justice to the outgoing tenant, the sugges- tion already made is thrown out with some confidence, viz., to give to all tenants-at-will an additional year’s notice, and thus enable them to reimburse themselves instead of hampering their successors, Improvements in Cultivation and Farm Management.—To a bond fide agriculturist the most interesting part of agricultural progress is that connected with cultivation and farm management ; and the improvements to be noticed under this head are neither few nor unimportant. But though numerous and of various kinds, they chiefly spring from one source, which in itself is the most characteristic feature of the period in question, and may be de- scribed as the substitution of sound reasoning and arithmetical calculation for the empirical knowledge so much relied upon by our ancestors. That mixture of tradition and guess-work was certainly valuable in the absence of any sounder system, but was never to be relied upon when the circumstances under which it was acquired, whether of soil, season, or situation, were mate- rially altered. In the first book of Euclid there is a proposition near the commencement which is familiarly known as the ‘ Asses’ Bridge ;’ and undoubtedly any student who makes himself thoroughly acquainted with that theorem has made an im- portant step towards mastering the Elements of Geometry. In the past twenty-five years agriculturists have similarly bridged the Royal Agricultural Society. 39 over and successfully passed the great gulf which separates the rule of thumb from the rule of three. ‘The man who paved the way for their advance, and manfully led the van through year after year of costly, intricate, and ill-appreciated labour, was Mr. Lawes, of Rothamsted. He it was who taught us that the soil has a natural standard of ferttlity, which enables it without the aid of manure to produce year after year a certain number of bushels of wheat or other grain. On his own farm at Roth- ampsted, though the land is by no means of first-rate quality, this average is about 16 bushels of wheat per acre, and has not diminished, though twenty-four crops of corn have been taken suc- cessively, of which the last twenty have been wheat. This has been done not only without the application of any kind of manure, but also without the intervention of any fallow or fallow crop. It must be borne in mind that this average produce varies, within certain limits, according to the character of the season, and that it may be reduced by bad management, such as improper seed- ing or foulness of the land. But, with fair play, all land has a certain standard of natural produce. Such is the important pro- position which Mr. Lawes has worked out under the eyes of the nation, and which must in future form the basis of all rational farming. In order to appreciate the full importance of this dis- covery it is only necessary to look at the new light thus thrown on the nature and capabilities of the soil. Twenty years ago, what could be more unintelligible than the terms used to de- scribe the comparative fertility of different farms? Such a one was said to be in “ high condition ;” such another was “out of condition.” Who could define “condition”? It was considered a kind of mystery, of the real nature of which the experienced practical man was favoured with occasional glimpses, but which it was hopeless to attempt to explain to the uninitiated, Now that we know that land has a natural store of the mate- rials required for the production of grain, which confers upon it a certain moderate standard of fertility, we have the key to the solution of this mystery. Land that is thoroughly run out means land that is reduced to its original standard of productiveness, Any “condition” that it possesses in addition to this, be it more, or be it less, consists simply of the remains of previous crops and previous manurings. We are designedly leaving out of conside- ration all questions of tidy or slovenly management, such as those connected with draining, fencing, weeding, &e. If wet land be undrained, its standard of fertility will clearly be lower than if drained: if drained land be neglected, and the outfalls allowed to choke up, it will revert more and more towards the naturally lower standard of the undrained land; if land be divided into small fields, and high overgrown fences or hedgerow-trees be 40 : Agricultural Progress and allowed to overshadow the crop, or the corn be smothered with weeds, even the small natural produce may not be reaped from the land. But all these faults are visible on the surface, and with respect to the unseen capabilities of the soil itself we now know, that nothing short of the most wilful and long-continued cropping without any return whatever—something worse even than Mr. Lawes’s twenty-four successive crops without’ manure or fallow—can materially injure the staple of the soil. It fol- lows that, after any ordinary amount of bad farming, sufficient | manure of the right kind will quickly restore to the soil, not its natural productiveness, which it is scarcely possible to destroy, but that acquired fertility which we may now describe as “ good condition,” without fear of being misunderstood. But this is far from being all that we have learnt at Rotham- sted. When a farm has been reduced by bad management to a low state of productiveness, what is the right manure to apply ? In 1864 the merest tyro in farming can answer this question. Nitrogen for corn—phosphorus for turnips—are household words. Twenty years ago what would have been the stereotyped answer ? “The midden is the mither of the meal-kist.” This is a maxim of much practical sagacity ; but unfortunately for the owner and occupier of an impoverished farm in old days, the midden could not be extended ad libitum when it was wanted over the whole farm at once ; and accordingly years were expended and patience sorely tried before the traces of hard cropping and scanty ma- nuring could be effaced. The great benefits conferred upon agriculture by Mr. Lawes have been stated in strong terms. It must not, therefore, be sup- posed that there is any wish to ignore or depreciate the labours and discoveries of Boussingault, Liebig, and other eminent men of science. Their analytical investigations, by showing us of what materials our crops were composed, formed a sound basis and an indispensable starting-point for Lawes’s experiments. In an agricultural article it is not necessary to do more than offer a cordial tribute of acknowledgment to men whose reputation in the annals of science is world-wide. The great difference in value to agriculturists between the labours of Lawes and those of the scientific men who had preceded him may be illustrated by the familiar toy known as the “Chinese puzzle.” The puzzle had been taken to pieces by previous investigators. Lawes set to work to put it together again. They said (for instance) wheat is ‘composed of certain chemical substances, in stated proportions. Lawes tried if, by restoring these materials to the soil, he could get back the wheat, or (which amounted to the same thing) get an additional quantity of wheat from the land; and he followed up the Royal Agricultural Society. 41 this first idea by the no less important inquiry: If these mate- rials will not do, what will? It would far exceed the limits of this article to attempt any description of Lawes’s extensive series of experiments. It would also be a work of supererogation, as they have been described by himself and Dr. Gilbert in this Journal, from time to time. But whilst endeavouring to describe the agricultural progress realised during the last twenty-five years we wish to record our deliberate conviction that there has not during that time been any addition made to our knowledge which approaches in importance to the insight obtained into the true principles of cropping and manuring on the experimental farm at Rothamsted. It will probably not be considered unpardonable egotism in the writer to place next in importance to the Rothamsted results the discovery which he first had the pleasure of announcing to agri- culturists, viz., the absorbent power of soils, or the power possessed by the soil of decomposing and retaining for the sustenance of plants the ammoniacal and other salts which form the most valuable constituents of manure.* ‘This principle, which was further investigated and much extended by Professor Way, formed the subject of several valuable papers in the Journal, from his pen. The true principles of land drainage have been keenly dis- cussed during the period under consideration, and have to a great extent been settled by common consent, the exceptions being chiefly due to peculiar geological combinations or irre- ‘gularities confined to particular localities. Our increased know- ledge of the art of draining will be best appreciated by again referring to Mr. Pusey’s Address of March, 1839. Speaking of Smith of Deanston’s system, he says, “ it is impossible to pass it over, although, of course, its introduction is too new to be placed already altogether beyond the reach of disappointment. Mr. Smith’s mode of dealing with a clayey subsoil which holds up in the soil the water that has fallen in rain, and thus exerts some unexplained evil influence on plants fitted for the food of man or of cattle, isas follows.” . . . After describing the plough and its mode of action, he continues : “‘ The share of the subsoil- plough following, passes through and splits the whole of the sub- soil to the depth of 18 or 20 inches, and the rain-water sinks, of course, so much lower. Mr. Smith, however, does not allow the rain to lodge here ; he has previously dug covered drains about 3 feet deep, made thus deep in order that his underground plough may have room to pass over the covered channel.” . . . It thus ap- * © Journal,’ vol. xi. p. 68. } Ibid. vol. xi. p, 313; vol. xiii. p. 123; vol. xv. p, 491. 42 Agricultural Progress and pears that twenty-five years ago the best-informed man of his day on agricultural topics considered that furrow draining was “ too new to be altogether beyond the risk of disappointment ;” that the mis- chief caused to vegetation by stagnant water was “ wnexplained ;” and that, in his opinion, Smith of Deanston’s only motive for making his drains 3 feet deep was to put them out of the way of his subsoil-plough. The great addition made to the resources of the agriculturist, by the extensive supplies of what are termed artificial manures, cannot be left unnoticed, though the annual importation of some hundreds of thousands of tons of guano, nitrate of soda, Kc. &c., has become of late .years so much a matter of course that it is difficult to realise the fact, that twenty years ago this trade had barely commenced, During the Liverpool Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, in 1841, the writer, in company with the late Mr. Pusey, visited the well-known establishment of the Messrs. Skirving, where a sample of the first cargo of Peruvian guano was shown them as a great novelty.* At that time the supply of artificial manures consisted of very moderate importa- tions of bones and rapecake; and, with these exceptions, the British farmer’s command of fertilizers was confined to the sweepings of his chimneys and the contents of his own farmyard. This seems almost as incredible at the present day as would have been the announcement, in 1839, that a score of years would not pass before a numerous fleet of vessels would be permanently engaged in the artificial-manure trade, and when the mountain ranges of Europe, the plains of America, and the islands of the’ tropical seas would all be ransacked for materials to enrich our turnip-fields, and thus enable us to increase our flocks and our herds. Yet those who looked somewhat incredulously on the brown, effete-looking substance then known by the Spanish name of “ huano,” have lived to see it become one of the principal means by which British agriculture has succeeded in producing the quantity of savoury chops and much-loved roast-beef required to satisfy the cravings of John Bull and his numerous family. The proper management of manure, whether liquid or solid, has since 1839, been removed from the region of guesswork, and is now regulated by simple maxims founded on the ascer- tained processes of chemical decomposition. ‘The mode in which the foregoing and other fundamental principles recently incor- porated in the agricultural code act as guides to the practical farmer, will probably be placed before the reader in the most in- telligible and connected form by describing in general terms the * The first consignment of guano to this country consisted of thirty bags, sent July, 1839, to Messrs. Myers and Co. of Liverpool. the Royal Agricultural Society. 43 management of an imaginary farm, taken in hand by an advanced and improving agriculturist in 186-. We will suppose it to be thoroughly unimproved and out of condition ; and as the clays present the most difficulties, we will commence with a clay farm wet, foul, and poor. It may be well to premise that the entire description of this imaginary farm is derived from the writer’s own observation and farming experience, though of course not all collected at one time or in one place. The first object is to make the Jand dry; and our entering tenant is informed that “this farm cannot be drained; that all methods have been tried, but that it is as wet as ever; and that it’s of no use wasting any more money upon it,” He examines the drained fields, which are of three kinds, One is on a hill- side, and the drains are carried across the slope. He finds that in consequence of the deadness of the fall in the drains, and the sharpness of the slope of the land itself, the water not only makes its way into the drains but out of them again, and that the adjoining land is, as represented, wet as ever. He resolves to drain this land sufficiently up and down the hill to ensure the fall in the drain being more than a match for the fall of the land. The second drained field is a strong loam, though in its present sodden state it has all the appearance and most of the attributes of the stiffest clay. Here the drains have been placed in the furrows, as the lands were high and beautifully rounded, and the previous tenant considered himself deeply in their debt for preserving a portion of his crop from the baleful influence of the stagnant water which remained all the winter in the intervening furrows. He therefore, in his care to preserve their form, rather added to than diminished their rotundity, On examination it is found that the reason why this land won’t drain is solely its defective form. When land is flat each square foot of surface has only to dispose of the rain which falls upon it, but if laid in high-backed ridges, a large portion of the rain runs into the furrows, and carries with it the finer par- ticles of soil and manure, thus effectually choking the natural pores and interstices of that portion of the land where the bulk of the water is accumulated. After a few heavy rains these furrows hold water like a dish, and the vegetation for some feet on each side of them is starved and stunted. On digging into this land it is found to have thin veins of sand which contain much water, and it is of importance to tap these Lilliputian springs as low as possible without incurring too much expense. Our novus homo consequently resolves to put in his drains 4 feet deep, and the mains 6 inches deeper. The curvilinear shape and * 44 Agricultural Progress and irregular width of the lands make it necessary to neglect them altogether, and he lays out his drains 10 yards apart, haying regard to the best obtainable fall, mentally resolving gradually to reduce the height of the lands until the whole can be brought to a level surface. The third and last attempt at drainage that had been made on the farm was ina field of pure unsophisticated clay. Both tenant and agent were convinced it would not answer, but some meddlesome friend of the owner had insisted on digging a hole in the field, which, though covered with a flag on which a sub- stantial coating of clay had been well trodden down, was unac- countably found after a time to contain water; and it was dif- ficult to say why water shouldn’t find its way into a drain as well as into a hole. So a few acres were to be tried, as the cost would not be great, for everybody knew that it was of no use to drain clay deep, and inch pipes would be quite sufficient to carry off all the water there would be. In order, however, effectually to stop the mouths of all objectors, a small portion was to be done 4 feet deep. The lands were 18 feet wide, so a few drains were put in at a depth of 4 feet up every alternate furrow, and the remainder up each furrow at 2 feet deep. Both did good at first, but where the drains were in alternate furrows, and therefore 12 yards apart, the intermediate furrows held water all the winter. The shallow drains were the first to show symptoms of failure, and after a year or two deteriorated rapidly. In a few more years even the deep drains became less efficient, and the triumph of the anti-drainers was complete. But the farm was now in possession of a man who was never satisfied until. he could ascertain the cause of failure, and he saw at a glance that the deep drains were too wide apart. The slow- ness with which water percolates through really strong clay is such that wide drains cannot in ordinary seasons remove the sur- plus water of one rainfall before another comes. He therefore resolved to drain this land at six yards’ interval, and as the cost of deep drains at this width would be heavy, he determined. to put his tiles 3 feet deep, considering a bed of dry soil of that depth sufficient for any of our ordinary crops. On examining the old drains to ascertain the cause of their deterioration and ineffi- ciency, he found that though in general well laid, there were places where the ends of adjoining tiles were not exactly on the same level or in the same line of direction, either in consequence of a little carelessness in the filling in, the occurrence of a large stone which it would have been laborious to remove or work round, or the removal of a smaller stone whose bed had not been sufficiently solidly filled up. In these cases the narrow channel afforded by inch pipes was sufficiently interrupted to check the t the Royal Agricultural Society. 45 flow of the water, and cause a deposit of silt, which eventually became cemented by a ferruginous deposit, and permanently reduced the effective width of the pipe. In the shallow drains these results were much aggravated by their nearness to the sur- face. A short drought was sufficient to open wide fissures down to the tiles, and the first heavy shower washed so much fine soil into the drains between the joints of the tiles that the run of water was unable to remove the deposit, and the action of the drains from that time became more and more feeble and ineffective. There were two modes of avoiding these evils, viz., the use of collars or of larger pipes. He found that 2-inch pipes could be obtained at little more cost than inch pipes and collars, and after duly balancing their respective merits, the tendency of drainage-water on clay land to form a hard ochreous deposit, de- cided him in favour of the wider conduit, using collars only where a piece of boggy ground or running sand made it necessary to take additional precautions against silting-up. In such places it was found to be desirable to use long collars, making them overlap more or less, according to the urgency of the case. Whilst planning his drainage operations, our farmer was not content to have his ideas bounded by what he saw on the surface, but followed with his mental vision the great ramification of roots upon which all plants depend for their stability and nourishment. He considered the description of materials collected in Nature’s great laboratory, the decaying vegetation, the decomposing manure, and the various combinations of mineral elements. He knew that if a supply of water were long withheld, all the elaborate subterranean machinery would be brought to a stand ; and on the other hand, that if water were always present, new and injurious combinations would take the place of the natural and healthy cookery for which the apparatus was designed. But when once the stagnant water was removed from below, then each successive shower would distribute to the greedy rootlets their ready-formed food, at the same time that it prepared more by bringing together the elements of nutrition which lay around, only waiting for this connecting link in order to work afresh at the task of elaborating the supply of materials for the growth of the leaves and stems above. Nor was this all—stagnant air is as bad as stagnant water, and the frequent descent of rain through the soil is required to displace from its pores the vitiated air, to be quickly renewed by a supply fresh from the atmosphere, which is as necessary for the healthy under- ground growth of vegetation as for the proper action of the lungs of animals, Arrangements were therefore made for the thorough drainage of the farm, on the principle that it was an object worthy of the utmost skill of the husbandman to secure as much 4} Agricultural Progress and as possible the sinking of the rain into the land as it fell and where it fell. The next step was to form some plan for stocking and cropping the land. Previous experience as an occupier of strong land enabled the tenant to lay down certain maxims or axioms which he proposed to take as his guides. He had con- vinced himself, 1st, that corn-growing alone would not pay at present prices. 2nd. That the breeding and fattening of sheep had for many years been more profitable than any other branch of farming ; and that although this was clearly not a sheep-farm, still, with proper arrangements, it might be made to carry a moderate number of sheep with advantage both to the pocket of the occupier and the condition of the land. 38rd. That horse- keep is the item which it is most difficult to keep down on clay farms, and which, if not resolutely dealt with, will effectually keep down the farmer’s profits. The plan now adopted was to buy in a sufficient number of ewes in the autumn to run on the old grass land through the winter, at the rate of about one to the acre. In ordinary seasons, _ they maintained themselves without extra keep until Christmas, from which time they received a small feed of oats daily until lambing time. After lambing, turnips or mangold, previously stored on the grass, were given them, with corn or cake, until the winter tares or clover were ready to commence. By the time these were consumed rape was ready, and by selling off the lambs fat from time to time, and continuing the allowance of corn or cake to the ewes, all the lambs and most of the ewes were sold fat to the butcher by the time the rape was done and the land had to be ploughed for wheat. This plan had the advantage not only of realizing in a short time a handsome profit from the sheep, but of leaving the clover, tare, and rape land in first-rate condition for a crop of wheat. It also promoted the great object of spreading the horse-labour more uniformly over the year, as the land was broken up as the green crop was consumed, and the press of work avoided which usually occurs at the time of wheat- sowing. It thus became practicable to employ the whole team immediately after harvest in preparing the land for swedes and mangold-wurzel, the acreage under root-crop being reduced to a minimum by the growth of green crops for summer consumption, The following was the method followed :—As soon as the corn was out of the field, the stubble was scarified or breast-ploughed so lightly as to make sure of being able to burn in small heaps all that was pared off. After spreading the ashes, 12 loads per acre of manure fresh from the yards were distributed evenly over the sur- face, and ploughed in with a good deep furrow, of such a width as to stand nearly or quite on edge. Thus it remained fully exposed ; the Royal Agricultural Society. 47 to the weather during the whole winter ; and as soon as dry weather set in in spring, a turn or two of the harrows, followed by a light grubber, destroyed the annual weeds, and the land was ready for sowing. Four ewt. of guano per acre sown broadcast and harrowed in with the seed, which was drilled on the flat at three feet’ between the rows, completed the operation. ‘The tilth thus produced was superior to that obtained in any other way on strong clay ; and though the land had only been winter-fallowed, any want of mellowness was made good during the early summer by frequent and thorough horse-hoeing, first shallow and then deeper, as more and more mould was formed. ‘The advan- tages obtained by this system of growing roots were numerous ;— Ist. By securing an early seed-time, so that the crop was sul- ciently mature to be removed from the land in October for storage at the homestead or on the grass for ewes and lambs in the spring. 2nd. By carting the manure on the land early in autumn, before the solidity produced by the drought of summer had been lost. 3rd. By the great economy of horse-labour in growing a fallow crop with only one ploughing, leaving the rest of the rough work to be done by the powerful though ‘wayward team, ‘frost, snow, wind, and rain. f Good crops of both swedes and mangold wurzel were grown in this way, at moderate cost; the only difference in cultiva- tion being that the swedes were sown a month later, and that instead of 4 cwt. of guano per acre 2 ecwt. of guano and 2 cwt. of superphosphate were sown broadcast at the time of sow- ing. But the heavy expense of carting a whole root-crop from the land prevented the tenant from growing any considerable acreage of either ; his great object being to introduce as much as possible into the management of clay-land that characteristic feature of light-land farming which constitutes the great difference between them in point of profit, viz., manuring the land by sheep instead of the dungcart. The management of the corn on this farm soon became the topic ‘of conversation. From an average yield of two to three quarters per acre the wheat-crop soon rose to four and even five, and the spring- corn improved in proportion. Yet, when asked what he did to his corn, the farmer said, “ Nothing ! l but hoe it ;’ and when pressed on the subject of manure his invariable answer was, ‘“ If you take care of your land, the corn will take care of itself.” These seemed but simple answers, but they meant much. The consumption of green crops on the land in summer has already been described ; the improvements he introduced into the making and keeping of his manure have yet to be told. The two together evinced that care for his land, of which he spoke so oracularly, and which pro- duced him such a bountiful return at the time of harvest. But 48 Agricultural Progress and he set great store by his hoeing. In a dry spring, when wheat carried a splendid colour on good land, it used to turn yellow and sickly on this strong clay, even where well drained ; and our farmer said it was all from want of hoeing. He explained it thus: if land is in good condition, and free from stagnant water, the roots of the wheat-plant will grow all through winter, and will extend over a considerable surface by the time when dry weather usually sets in. As soon as clay begins to dry it begins to crack, and the fissures are wide enough entirely to break off the small roots and sever the plant from a large portion of its supply of food. Hence its change of colour and loss of vigour during the dry weather, which is on all other grounds favourable to its healthy development. This can only be prevented by horse-hoeing, not a single shallow hoeing, or rather sliding over the surface, which only shaves off a few annual weeds, but hoe- ings repeated until a good covering of mould can be obtained. When he had accomplished this, he used to boast that his clay would carry the wheat up to harvest better than any light land in the country. . The arrangements for stocking and managing the grass-land on this farm were worthy of attention. It contained a good deal of inferior pasture, but no grass good enough to fatten a bullock ; and the previous plan had been to buy in young cattle in the spring, when most other graziers were doing the same, and when consequently in nine years out of ten they were bought dear. They had to be sold out again in the autumn, when many other farmers were selling too; so that the tenant generally returned from the fair grumbling that he had scarcely got more than he gave for his stock, and that his summer’s grass was all but thrown away. The difficulty on this land was that cattle could not be fattened at grass; and, if made up in winter, they either re- quired more turnips than it was profitable to grow on such a farm, or, if fed solely on corn and cake, it was difficult to make them pay their way. The new tenant’s first attempt was to give his bullocks cake at grass, but some of them would not eat it; and even with this assistance the grass was not good enough for the purpose, and the cost was Ponadeanle He therefore tried another plan, which turned out a complete success. He bought yearling heifers in May, and a young bull to run with them at grass. The bull was taken from them in August, so that none should calve later than May. The heifers remained in these pastures until severe weather set in, when they were taken into the strawyard, and received once a day a feed of roots, if there were any to spare; if not, 2 lbs. of linseed-cake daily, which, at 12/. per ton, cost 1s. 6d. per week. If in-calf heifers were very dear in the spring, he occasionally sold a few just before calving, the Royal Agricultural Society. 49 for as much money as if they were prime fat; but his usual course was to let the calves run with their dams al] the summer. When taken up in October they were so fat and their points so well developed that they looked like prize beasts in miniature; and by keeping them well through the winter and spring they were eagerly bought by the butchers in June, when the winter-fed cattle had been nearly all slaughtered and the grass-fed had not yet come in. The heifers were disposed of as follows: a few that promised to be first-rate milkers were taken into the dairy ; the greater part were sold for winter-feeding, and from their age and growth were worth about 2/. more than when bought in a year and a half before. The value of two summers’ grass for a young heifer on pasture of this quality was rated at 4/.; lin- seed-cake for twenty weeks, at 1s. 6d. — 1. 10s; so that the heifer when sold had cost about 5/. 10s., from which, if her in- creased value be deducted, 3/. 10s. would be left as the-cost of the calf. These calves received as much ‘cake as they would eat, which did not exceed 1 1b. per day at first, and 3 lbs. at the latter end of the time, averaging 2 lbs. per day, at a cost of 1s. 6d. per week, or for the thirty-four weeks 2/. 11s. per head. Taking an average consumption of 2 stone of roots per day, for thirty- four weeks, each calf would consume 38 tons of roots, which, at 7s. per ton = lJ. ls. These items, added to the keep of the heifer, made a total cost of 7]. 2s.each. The straw and attendance were considered to be well paid for by the manure. The price at which these yearlings sold varied of course with the markets ; but in consequence of their first-rate quality, and their light weights, which exactly suited the butchers during the hot weather, they were always worth ls. per stone more than the average price of fat beef; and they generally fetched 1. per month of their age, varying from 12/. to 16/. per head: one year the whole lot averaged 16/. each, their age being fourteen months. In all cases they left a handsome profit. The peculiar advantages of this system were thus described by the tenant. He said that when he took his half-fat cattle to market, he had to run after his customers ; now they ran after him. Besides, it suited him better to feed cattle that ate 2 lbs. of cake per day than those that ate six: he always fancied that the big beasts ate not only their share of the cake, but his too. As to the meadow-land, the present occupier made a point of mowing as small a number of acres as possible ; but in order to keep the acreage down, he said it was necessary to keep the condition up ; and as the field of clover which had formerly been mown for winter fodder for the horses was now given up to the sheep, it was necessary either to mow more of the grass, or to put up with a smaller stack of hay, unless the land could be made to produce more per acre. This VOL. XXY. E 50 Agricultural Progress and the tenant did not think a very difficult task, when he was told that the usual yield from 20 acres of meadow was about 15 tons of hay. He saw that the land required liberal treatment for some years; and he therefore dressed it the first season with 2 ewt. of guano and 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda per acre, following it up the next year by a heavy dressing of well-made manure. He also took care that the land should be cleared by the Ist of March, as he had often seen a crop of hay ruined from the meadow being eaten bare in April. If drought sets in in May, land so treated becomes parched for want of its natural covering, and the grass receives so severe a check that it recovers very slowly ; and if the season continues dry, the ultimate result is half a crop of hay, stacked some weeks later than usual, and no after-grass. After two years of the treatment above mentioned, the clovers and finer grasses sprang up so as completely to change the cha- racter of the herbage in these meadows. They also produced half a ton more hay per acre. The last point to be noticed in the management of this farm is the treatment of the manure. In consideration of the spirited exertions of the new tenant, his landlord consented to roof over a small fold-yard as an experiment; and the manure thus made was tested against an equal quantity made in the ordinary way. The result was so decidedly in favour of the former, that after some years’ experience the tenant declared that he would rather pay for covering the yard himself than be deprived of the benefit derived from it. The cost of the roof was about 5s. per superficial yard of the space covered ; and the increased value of the manure was found to be from 25 to 30 per cent. The advantage, however, did not end there, as there was considerable saving of expense by not carting the manure into heaps, or turning it once or twice in the heap, as had been the previous custom, It remained in the yard undisturbed until wanted, and was then in first-rate order for carting on to the land, whether applied tothe grass or for a fallow crop. The time of publication has arrived, and the writer greatly regrets that he is unable to complete his programme. There are subjects of great interest, intimately connected with agricultural progress, which have been wholly untouched. Amongst others may be named—the latest improvements in the management of light land, especially by claying or marling—farm-buildings— labourers’ cottages, and the connection of railways with agricul- tural development. ‘To all these subjects he has devoted a good deal of attention, and on each of them he was desirous of writing a few pages in this Journal. The great difficulty, however, of collecting any authentic statistics relating to agriculture, has caused months to be spent where apparently weeks should have the Royal Agricultural Society. 51 sufficed ; and all that is now possible is to “report progress,” and ask leave to write again in order to complete the plan originally chalked out. He would fain hope, however, that suf- ficient has been done to show that the improvements introduced into farming practice within the last twenty-five years are greater than in any similar period on record. It is true that direct proof is rarely to be had; there are no data in existence which make it possible to state the ultimate result of these improvements in bushels of corn or tons of meat; but the chain of circumstantial evidence is so complete’ that no reasonable doubt can be enter- tained of the fact that, since 1839, a very large addition has been made to the food of both man and beast in these islands. The most striking feature, however, of the period on which we have been engaged, which both gives a satisfactory aspect to the past, and warrants the most cheering anticipations for the future, is the improvement which has been effected in the position of the agriculturist, whether measured by the extent of his material resources or by the soundness and variety of the knowledge at his command. What was his position at the commencement of the period? It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the thorough- bred British farmer of that day despised science as much as he feared Free-trade, and that the only things which commanded his entire confidence were his father’s experience and his own skill. Mr. Pusey was undoubtedly far in advance of his genera- tion when he adopted the motto, “ Practice with Science,” and even he considered it rather as an expression of what was desirable than of what was probable. ‘The first attempts of the farmer and the philosopher to run in couples were certainly not encouraging. They conversed with one another in unknown tongues, and many of the early specimens of scientific practice, such as irrigation with the drainage from farmyards, artificial silicates to stiffen straw, &c. &c., were decided failures. The Schoolmaster, however, was abroad ; and farmers’ sons, in common with those of all other classes, received a better educa- tion, It was considered necessary to teach them, at any rate, the alphabet of science. Scientific men were also found, who were willing to devote their time to agricultural investigations, and they saw the necessity for making themselves acquainted with the rudiments of practice, so that the votaries of science and of practice began to understand each other better, and their mutual distrust gradually wore off. The difficulties attendant on the introduction of Free-trade have also been happily surmounted. That great change in our fiscal policy caused such a sudden influx of the agricultural pro- ducts of other countries that prices were ruinously depressed, until the natural, but more tardy, effects of the change were shown iva 52 Hop Cultivation. in an unparalle}ed expansion of trade and consequent increase of wealth and of efiective demand for farm-produce. Hence the quarter century just ending has seen agriculture relieved of its greatest cause of uncertainty and alarm, and re- stored to its natural and unassailable position. It leaves the agriculturist better educated, and therefore more willing to be taught and more able to learn. It leaves him in possession of resources whether of machinery, manures, or means of loco- motion, far in advance of the wildest dreams of his forefathers. It can, therefore, close its career with a satisfactory account of its stewardship; seeing that it hands over agriculture to its suc- cessor free from all restrictions, with a demand for its products which has never been equalled, with the gigantic power of steam entirely under its control, and with the growing intelligence of the agriculturist just awakening to the consciousness of the boundless region of scientific improvement which lies invitingly within reach. Kirby Hall, 1863-4. 11.— Hop Cultivation. By Joun P. Siva. A WorcrESTER PRIZE Hssay. Tue hop thrives best in moderately warm climates, and this may account for Kent and Sussex, two of the most southerly counties, being selected for its cultivation, and producing a very large proportion of the annual yield of the kingdom. Worcester and Hereford stand next in importance, and yield about one-eleventh of the yearly average growth. Farnham and its neighbourhood stand next as to quantity. The district known as the North Clays, in Nottinghamshire, formerly grew a fair quantity of good hops, but of late years the plantations have been much reduced ; the same remark applies to the district around Stow Market in Suffolk, and also to the county of Essex. A south-eastern aspect affords, in my opinion, the best situation for a hop garden, and if it be well protected from the west winds that prevail during the autumn, so much the better, as great mischief is often done by wind, Due care must be taken to adapt the planting to the peculiarities of the soil. The Golding hop will be found to succeed best on dry friable soil, with a gravelly or rocky subsoil, such as we find in the hilly districts of Middle and East Kent, whilst Mathon White, and Grapes, prefer a stronger soil, approaching to clay; the former variety flourishes on the deep land in the vale of the Teme, and the latter in the Weald of Kent and Sussex, which is . Hop Cultivation. 53 mostly strong clay soil. Another variety, Cooper’s White, a good sort, but delicate, is best suited for good strong loam. There are besides several kinds of red hops that are not Approved by the brewer, and, in my opinion, cannot too soon become extinct; they are mostly grown on the poor lands of Herefordshire. Many other kinds are grown in Kent and Sussex, viz, Golden Tips, Pheasants, Golden Grapes, White Bines, Grapes, Jones’s, &c., and a sort introduced some few years since by Mr. Colegate, and known by his name. This is a hardy variety and heavy cropper, but subject to blight, and repudiated by the brewer as a rank bad hop, yielding a most unpleasant flavour to the beer. A young planter should avoid this variety if he wishes to obtain a good character for his growth. We will now assume that a suitable field—one that has been thoroughly drained—has been selected, and the preference given to an old piece of turf; in that case I would recom- mend that the land be trenched two spits deep, the top spit being kept uppermost, with the turf downwards. When the digging is finished, the surface should be harrowed, and rolled down as fine and level as possible, ready for setting out. The planter must next determine on the arrangement of the rows, whether on the angle or the square, and the distance from plant to plant. The usual method in Worcestershire and Here- fordshire is to lay out the rows 7 or 8 feet apart, and set the plants 24 to 3 feet distant in the rows. If your land be good, and likely to be highly farmed, an uniform distance of 7 feet square may be recommended; good cultivation will ensure a large quantity of bine, and a sufficient quantity of sun to bring the fruit to perfection, whilst at this distance you have more room to cultivate without injuring the bines. If this plan is adopted, you must prepare 889 small sticks, a foot to 18 inches long, for every aere, that being the number of hills which an acre will take at 7 feet square. First square your field, and then commence in the centre, working right and left ; you will thus be more likely to be correct than if you begin on one side. Your field being truly set out, you may prepare for planting ; if you plant bedded or yearling sets (which are far preferable to cuttings), a man should take a spade, and. remove the soil from two sides of the stick, the opening being 2 inches wide at the top, and 4 to 5 inches at the bottom, which should be deep enough to let the roots lie straight. Two strong-bedded roots are sufficient for a hill, but if not strong, 8 may be better. Care should be taken to bring the head of each root as close to the stick as possible, some good fine soil should then be put to the roots, and made firm with 54 Hop Cultivation. the foot. For a plantation of 20 acres, with suitable oasts and cooling rooms to dry and cool the crop in one month, for a first- class growth, the following varieties are recommended :—8 acres of Cooper’s White, or 8 Coopers and 2 Jones’s ; 6 acres Mathons ; 6 or 7 acres of Goldings, and 2 or 3 Grapes ; but this distribution of sorts must, in a measure, be governed by the quality of the land, that variety being most largely planted which is best suited to the soil. The crop ought to be secured in three weeks, or cer- tainly not more than a month; and it is most important to have an early sort, such as Cooper’s White or Jones’s, to commence with, then will follow your Mathons, then the Goldings, and lastly, the Grapes, a hardy sort, which will hang well for the last picking. Jones’s are serviceable to use up old poles. The writer has seen a ton an acre on 7-feet poles. If, as is mostly the case in Sussex, one variety only be planted, you must begin to pick before your hops are ripe, or have a considerable propor- tion brown before you can finish. If the planter should determine on a piece of old tillage, I recommend him to plough 10 inches, and subsoil as deep as he can; the ploughing completed, he will proceed the same as if it had been a meadow, with this exception, that after the sticks are truly set, he should dig holes 2 feet in diameter, and 2 feet deep, placing the top or best soil on one side, and the bottom soil on the other side of the hole obliquely, so that the heaps may not interfere with replacing the sticks when the holes are refilled. Good dung or rather a rich compost should be wheeled on, and a fork or shovelful mixed with the best soil after the hole has been half filled with good soil from the surface; this being finished, you must readjust your sticks, and when your soil has had time to settle, you may proceed to plant in the manner before described. On no account bury your manure. Should the weather be favour- able, and your roots get a start, they will require two poles to each hill 6 to 7 feet long, and if the season be good, a crop of 2 or 3 cwt. an acre may be grown; if cuttings are planted you lose a year. Potatoes and mangold are frequently planted between the rows, and an ox-cabbage between each hill; this will, by many, be condemned, but much depends on the condition of the land and the disposition of the planter to make compensation to the soil for what has been taken out by the green crops by a dressing of manure, which must be applied in the winter and dug in. Turnips may be planted if the land admits of their being fed off; and this plan, if oil-cake or corn be given, will manure the land at a cheap rate, greatly to the benefit of the hops. February and March are the months best suited for throwing down and cutting, the land being first ploughed or dug. If the Hop Cultivation. 55 plough is used, a slip from 12 to 15 inches wide is left. Your men will commence digging these slips, cleaning the hills, and cutting the roots: this finished, your poles must be spread, and your pile | rows ploughed, dug, and cut the same as the rest. In the course of a fortnight or three weeks the bines will begin to appear, when no time shoud be lost in pitching the poles, which should be set by line to ensure regularity: the poles for this season, if the roots are strong, may be from 10 to 12 feet. The next operation is tying, but the tyer should first go over and take out the rank hollow bina these should, on no account, be put up the poles, since they have a tendency to grow to an extra- vagant quantity of bine, without bearing a proportionate quantity of fruit—the next and less vigorous bines will be found far more fruitful. Some planters put three bines up each pole: if four poles are put to a hill, which is the custom at 7 feet square, two bines will be found sufficient; if three poles, put two twos and a three. The writer has often seen a heavy produce from a single bine. The tyers are paid by the acre, and go over the hills three or four times until the poles are furnished, when all superfluous bines and weeds are pulled out. This completes the tying, except by ladder, which is paid for extra. The men now follow, dig round the hills, and put a shovelful of soil into each hill—this prevents new bines from springing up. , Different varieties require different sized poles. On no account overpole, as much injury has resulted from it; 14-feet poles are long enough for any variety except Goldings, and for them I would not, as a rule, exceed 15 feet. Jones’s will do well with 8 feet; Grapes 10 to 12; Coopers 12, and Mathons 12 to 14 feet, according to cultivation and quality of land. When your hops are tied, no time should be lost in working them with the nidget or scuffle, followed by the harrow—this should be done both ways. All working should be finished by the 1st of July, certainly by the 10th; considerable mischief is often done by working too late, unless in years of blight. When you have vermin on your pines do nothing to your land—leave them until the vermin disappears—then go in with all your strength, nidgett both ways, and do all you can to put fresh vigour into the plant. Some planters manure in the winter, and some both winter and summer; but this may be carried too far for quality, and produce mould. The plan adopted in summer is to wheel in good dung or compost, take the soil from round the hills, put in the manure, and dig it in; or spread the compost (which I prefer) round the hills on the surface and dig in. All that is necessary after is to use your nidget, and harrow both ways, taking care not to pull up the dung. This should complete the work, unless hoeing is required to keep down annuals. 56 Hop Cultivation. Picking commences in early seasons from the Ist to the 8th September ; in late ones, from the 15th to the 20th. Before it begins due provision should be made, and everything got in readiness: cokes may be sent for in July and August, and a sufficient number of pickers engaged to keep your kilns or oasts properly at work. In this you must be governed by the size of the hops. Different plans are adopted in picking and measuring ; some measure by tally, others by book and cards representing the number of each crib or bin. I have found it best to put two cribs into the centre of 100 hills; this is called a ‘* house,” and the cribs remain until the work is finished. The poles will be in two heaps at either end of the cribs, and in the proper place for stripping and piling. If this is strictly carried out, much trouble is saved in piling the poles. When a sufficient number of sacks are picked to load one kiln (and this should be done before breakfast), they should be taken and put on the oast, and so on until all your kilns or oasts are loaded; and it should be so managed that hops enough be picked to reload the kilns at night. Hop-drying requires great attention, and the slower, in reason, they are dried, the better. They should be dried by a current of hot air being continuously passed through them, and not by combustion. Many say they can dry hops in seven or eight hours; rely on it, it is better to take twelve, and let your heat not exceed 112 to 115 degrees. When the hops are sufficiently dried, the fire should be raked or allowed to go down, the hops remaining on the kiln until they become soft, which will prevent their breaking on being removed to the cooling-room. These hops will be fit to be bagged the next day, and with a proper staff this should be carried out through the picking. Poles are a heavy item in the cost of hop-cultivation, and should be carefully husbanded. Their wearing value may be doubled by pickling 24 feet at the sharpened end with creosote. A tank for the purpose must be erected of size in proportion to the plantation. By the application of creosote, soft wood, such as that of the willow, &c., becomes hardened, and equal*to ash or other more durable sorts. The writer has a plantation of 75 acres, and a tank 12 feet long by 5 wide, and 3% feet deep. This tank will hold 1000 best poles put to standup. The tank must be filled with creosote within 8 inches of the top when the poles are in, when water fully 2 inches deep must be added to prevent evaporation. The tank should boil slowly twenty-four hours, when the poles may be removed and the tank refilled. Care must be taken that the tank does not boil over, as creosote is most inflammable and may take fire. lam so satisfied as to the value of creosoting poles K Hop Cultivation. 57 that I never intend to put a new pole into my ground without its aid. If poles were pickled one year under another, and stored in a stack till dry, they would be found to last far longer than if used in a green state. The hop-plant has a variety of enemies: on the first appear. ance of the bine it is frequently attacked by flea, which checks its growth, and makes it look scrubby and unhealthy, but never destroys the crop. Wireworms are a great pest; the best plan to get rid of them is to cut a potato in half, and place it close on either side the root an inch below the surface; the potato lures the worm, and, if taken up every other morning for a fortnight, enables you to take a great quantity ; I have known ofa dozen being taken from one root. The greatest enemy is the aphis, and I regret to say that on the most important subject of its history we are as ignorant as our forefathers ; we go to bed leaving our garden free, and next morning we find aphis—from one to ten or twenty—on a small leaf, which in the course of a week have increased to count- less myriads. ‘These pests are followed by nits and lice, which some seasons multiply so rapidly as to destroy the bine and the planter’s prospects. I would here repeat the recommendation which I have already given to the planter, not to work his hops when in a state of blight. When closely watching the blights of 1860, 61, and ’62, I have observed that in all cases where the land _ was best tilled, manured, and cared for, the blight remained until too late in the season for the chance of a crop ; on the other hand, where nothing was done, but weeds were suffered to grow nearly half-way up the poles, the bine became yellow and clean, and the result was a fair sprinkling of hops; in such ground, the vermin had left the hop for want of sap and taken to the weeds. Of late years a machine has been used to pack the hops, which is very useful when there is a large crop, as it enables you to pack your hops much sooner. Treading up is preferable, if care be taken to have the hops in a fit state not to break under the foot ; if allowed to become too cool they are hard and lumpy in the sample, and are termed cold. A master’s attention to the state of his hops before bagging is most necessary to good management. Hops are picked in Worcestershire and Hereford- shire far more free from leaves than in Kent or Sussex. They should be sent, if possible, to the oast without a leaf, dried slowly, taken off the kiln in a soft, not a brittle state, and trod into the pocket as soon as sufficiently cool; they do not then break under the foot. In Kent and Sussex hops are dried in a variety of ways, and with several kinds of fuel. In oasts on the Cockle principle anything may be used, and a considerable quantity of sulphur is required ;, but on the open fire principle Welsh coal and coke is used, and a small quantity of sulphur. 58 Hop Cultivation. The cokes we get from Abberley and Pensax, in Worcester- shire, are highly charged with sulphur, which will account for so little being added in these counties. Its only value is to give brilliancy to the sample, and, if used in excess, brewers object to it as affecting the fermentation of their worts. It has been the practice in Worcestershire and Herefordshire to make eight sacks out of one piece of cloth of 386 yards, and the weight of the pockets when filled run from 1 ewt. 1 qr. to lewt. 2 qrs. Itis my practice to make seven sacks from a piece, and I am thereby enabled to get 1 ewt. 2 qrs. to 1 ewt. 3 qrs. into a pocket, and I would respectfully reeommend my brother- planters to do the same. A heavy pocket has many advantages over a light one; you pay less for weighing, porterage, and warehouse rent, and you get your hops more quickly into con- sumption. It was formerly the practice to roll, riddle, and otherwise break and spoil good hops; this silly practice is in a great measure exploded. Plant the best sorts, such as Coopers, Mathons, and Goldings ; pick them clean, dry them properly, and put them into the pockets as whole as possible. By breaking the hop you lose a large quantity of the pollen, which contains the most valuable brewing properties. The cost of hop cultivation per acre may be estimated as follows :— . Yearly charge for poles Plouchinoydowni as meant Digging slips (or portion not ploughed) Cutting, picking up, and burying roots Spreading poles oc Pitching or setting poles Tying ed cies lie tcramee eae Nidgetting or scuffling 4 times .. Harrowing 4 times oe mise Forking round hills and hilling up Stripping and piling poles .. Resharpening broken poles .. Ploughing up before winter api 6000 0 0 ‘The permanent school,” it is there stated, ‘ will, when com- pleted, have cost 3000/7, and have ample convenience for at least 100 boarders ;” some temporary wooden buildings with other incidental expenses had cost 10007. The tentative process adopted in the formation of this school, though wise and prudent, was not conducive to ultimate economy. ‘The excess of the actual expenditure over this estimate being mainly due to the expedient of ‘‘ temporary buildings.” The board of the boys, including food, washing, and attend- ance, is estimated at 8s. per week, that of the masters at 10s., for 40 weeks in the year. An additional sum of 1, per head is added to cover casual expenses, The Educational Staff consisted of a head master and three assistants. The head master cost, including board and washing, 1202, he had besides a comfortable house in the buildings. The undermaster’s salaries and board amounted to 150/.; including extra masters, the cost of tuition made altogether 300/. Annual repairs were estimated at 100/.; a liberal allowance. It was calculated on this basis that if the school were full, a dividend of 5007. on a capital of 60007. would accrue. Some of these items call for special consideration from those who would copy this model; a very little consideration and knowledge of the world is required to see that a great deal of labour of love is here performed, which is not and cannot be charged in the account. The sum of 300/. is but a poor pro- 74 Education as connected with Agriculture. vision for the instructors, if all the responsibility, the discretion, and the ruling power required, is to be provided from this fund. Apart from endowments, which are in contemplation, or gra- tuitous service, the payment of 5/. per boy, to provide a fund of d00L., is probably the lowest that can ensure efficiency ; and this is a lower rate per head than Mr. Brereton contemplated in 1858, when he included the cost of supervision on an extended scale in the account. If we would make a separate estimate of the cost of lodging, we may reckon that to provide 5 per cent. interest on 60007. (300/.), with 1402. for repairs and taxes, 440/. in all, a payment would be required of 4 guineas per head from each boarder, besides a 1 guinea fee from, say. 20, day-boys. The board, as we have: seen, is set at'17/.; any estimate, therefore, for general application peu probably allow— iG igh: For bodrdy, samen a3 1 SY a For'lodging 2.05. s+ 2.87 so tf a tiyes.'* os MeO) rr For tuition .. ‘ pyeeuy 0) 26 9 Or, say, 282. for the senior class, and 25/7. for juniors. This review would be very incomplete without some mention of the endowment of the chaplaincy with 1000. by the late Earl Fortescue, as well as of the scholarships or peads already presented or in contemplation. Prebendary Brereton now gives annually two cohalateeaae: one of 15/., the other of 10/., and it has been so provided that his benefactions will be made permanent. The present Earl Fortescue has offered 5002, and the late Hon. J. Fortescue left 2001. for the endowment of scholarships connected with this institution. The Bishop of Exeter gives a scholarship of 5/. for knowledge of Holy Scripture. W. H. Hooper, Esq., the Rey. H. 8. Pinder, Lord Poltimore, and the Rev. W. Thorold have likewise given smaller bene- factions. A residence of thirty years in the University of Cambridge gives me some confidence in avowing my belief that in no other way could benefactions of this kind and extent have been made so telling in our present social and intellectual position. At Cambridge a scholarship of 10/. or 152. a year is almost valueless, so little does it contribute to the sum of a poor scholar’s necessary expenditure, while as badges of proficiency we have enough and almost to spare of such rewards. In a county school, a scholarship ‘in the usual sense, tenable for two or three years, Education as connected with Agriculture. 75 not merely an annual prize, would give continuity, as well as life to the course of study. The bare mention of such scholarships is very suggestive to those who are familiar with the fate of such endowments at Cambridge and elsewhere. Here in many instances the unfore- seen change in the value of money, in some, want of equity in the interpretation of Statutes, has converted that provision, which in primitive times was a fair maintenance for a scholar, into a trifling honorafium. Hence Exhibitions to the Universities, which once served to leaven the grammar schools to which they were attached, now go a-begging, or are not filled up. These institutions once gave an adequate impulse to the education of the whole class of yeomen, when it occupied (relatively to the learned professions, to com- merce, and to trade) a more important position than at present. We have, therefore, not so much to deal with a new want, as to meet the defects which decay, social changes, and abuses have wrought in a once sufficient provision. ; It may be asked, Why not, as of old, connect such provision with the Universities? Various considerations, however, lead to the conclusion that it is easier, if not better, to create new machinery than to attempt to resuscitate the old. Rightly or wrongly our ancient Universities seem hardly to desire to attract to themselves really poor scholars, unless they be of remarkable ability. Without a revolution in the social habits of the students, they could hardly there find a place; and such habits, if not beyond control, yield but slowly, and then to example or religious principle rather than to prudential motives ; and, lastly, on such large and rich bodies any new influence must be exerted on a large scale if it is to be effectual. If, then, we turn to such new institutions as that which “the genius of Mr, Brereton has planned, and his liberality, energy, and judgment has established,”* we may yet gather for them some useful warnings from the history of our old foundations. The importance of endowments in real property will be one such lesson, If all our old benefactions had assumed this form instead of being often money-charges on real property, and if the proceeds had been equitably administered, in all probability the constitution of our body of students at the old Universities would have rested on a far broader basis than at present. On such benefactions, however, the Statute of Mortmain imposes a salutary check. A special charter might remove such difficulty, but then it would further swell the list of preliminary * Taken, nearly verbatim, from the late Lord Fortescue’s inscription on Mr. Brereton’s bust, presented by him to the Devon County School. 76 Education as connected with Agriculture. expenses, and it is a significant feature of the times that the estimate of 500/. ‘‘for preliminary expenses and advertisements” (on a total outlay of 6000/.) was even in the case of the Devon County School considerably exceeded. In conclusion, let me express a conviction that, as practical men, our leading farmers will recognise the importance of a public school education for their sons; not so much for its promise of book-learning (comparatively a weak point) as for the presence of mind and stedfastness in difficulties, the power of coping with men, the promptitude of thought, word, and action, which such a course of training imparts and fosters. P. H. Frere. Cambridge. IV.— Essay upon the Manufacture and Preservation of Cider - and Perry. By Ciementr Cavite. Worcester Prizk Essay. Tue differences that are met with in cider and perry, even when made at the same time, by the same maker, and under the same system of management, must strike the merest tyro in the art as. something strange, showing how very little is known of the scien- tific principles which regulate the conversion of the juice of, apples either into a sweet, pleasant beverage, or into a hard, sour drink, palatable only to persons long accustomed to its use. Having paid considerable attention to this subject, I shall endeavour, in the following Essay, so to combine “ science with practice” as to render it acceptable to the most matter-of-fact farmer or maker, whilst, by drawing attention to the scientific aspect of the subject, I hope to induce others to put their shoulders to the wheel, with the conviction that such light may be thrown in various ways on the manufacture of cider and perry, as may render them, in their improved character, nearly equal to the wines of warmer climates, The subject, according to the directions given in the announce- ment of the Prize, may be subdivided as follows :— 1. Time and mode of gathering the fruit. 2. Different modes of grinding and pressing. 3. The fermentation and after-management. 4, General remarks on the subject. 1.— Time and Mode of Gathering the Fruit. Practice in these respects varies considerably at present, the most usual way being to let about one-half or two-thirds of the j Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. 77 fruit fall, and to shake and knock the rest off the trees ; but by this plan the trees are much injured for the next crop. The windfall should be kept apart from the riper fruit ; and that this may be the better done, the ground should be carefully picked over once every second week, and the fruit kept separate in the apple-yard. Any experienced person will be able to decide when the crop is ripe enough for being gathered ; the mellowness of the fruit, and the ease with which it can be shaken from the trees, readily show this; and it is impossible to lay down any rule as to time, owing to the differences of climate, soil, and season, rt When the fruit is ripe, and the day fine and dry, a careful man should be selected to go over the trees, armed with a light pole having a hook at the smaller end, with which he gently shakes each limb or branch in succession, The fruit should then be carefully picked up, free from leaves or twigs, the small apples being put into separate baskets, to be taken to the apple-yard, for second-class cider ; the best fruit may then be carted to the apple-loft. They should at first be spread in the loft about 12 to 18 inches thick, but after a week or nine days, may be thrown up to a depth of 24 to 80 inches. When | the apples are moved for this purpose any rotten ones had better _ ‘be removed to the mill, and any small or unripe fruit, which escaped notice at picking, should be taken to the apple-yard. - This process of shaking and storing should be repeated in about a fortnight; but where’ the orchards are large, when they are all once gone over, the men can commence again a second round. During the second process of shaking it is important that none of the fruit should be knocked off, as such, not being fully ripe, will not do for the apple-loft. When the trees are gone over again for the third time, the re- mainder of the crop may be shaken off, no more violence being used than is absolutely necessary. ‘This third gathering must not be taken to the loft, but should be put in the apple-yard with the sortings of the first and second gatherings, unless you happen to have plenty of room under cover. As this portion of the fruit did not ripen so early nor so fully as the rest, it is best mixed with the windfalls and sortings for making second-class cider. The general practice is to leave all the apples in the apple-yard exposed to the weather until ready for grinding, few persons having proper accommodation for housing them. When such a course is pursued, it is important to separate all rotten ones before making, for even if, as some persons consider, the black rot in fruit is alone injurious to the cider, still, it is always best to err on the safe side. The fruit should not lie more than 2 feet thick in the heap, or 78 Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. it is liable to become heated; and a depth of 1 foot would be preferable. In frosty weather it is essential to have the heap covered with a good coating of sweet wheaten straw, which should be removed when the frost is gone ; but hay must not be used, as it gives a taste to the cider. Fruit is much injured by frost on account of its breaking up the structure of the apple. The juice becomes solid when frozen, and increases in size ; the cells are then burst, and any rain which afterwards falls upon the heap washes out the saccharine matter from the damaged portions, and this encourages decay in the . other fruit. To the management of pears the same remarks apply with equal, if not greater, force, more especially as regards the remoyal of windfall and rotten fruits. If the perry is required for bottling or long keeping, careful selection of the fruit is imperatively necessary; but if for early drinking, the same care need not be taken. When it is desirable to preserve a portion of the fruit for eating or culinary purposes, it should not be allowed to get too ripe on the trees; and generally, the longer it is intended that an apple shall be kept, the greener should be its state when picked. The best mode is to take a ladder, and with a small basket hand-pick the trees over a fortnight or three weeks before the general crop would be ripe enough to collect for cider, choosing a dry day, and not commencing till after the dew is off. The store-room should be dry and, if possible, on the ground- floor, as the frost affects the fruit more in lofts, especially if not ceiled inside. The fruit should be placed between good thick layers of sweet wheaten straw, and left until required for use. 2.—The Different Modes of Grinding and Pressing. Within the last few years a great alteration has taken place in the way of grinding in the counties of Hereford, Worcester, and Gloucester, by the adoption of a system which has long been the custom in Devonshire. Our old plan was to place 8 or 10 bushels of fruit in a circular trough (a No, 2), round which a. stone runner of about a ton weight was propelled by a horse (see Plan No. 1) until all or nearly all the kernels and the apples were ground to a fine pulp. To accomplish this the sooner, the boy attending to the horse had to move the partially-ground pulp from the sides of the circular trough to the bottom, This grinding was usually continued for about two hours more or less, according to the mill and the fruit, The pulp was then put up into horse- hair sheets and pressed, and the liquor running from it received into a stone cistern or vat. The cumbrous old-fashioned press, with its wooden screw and Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. 79 * capstan, has long been superseded, although the capstan is still in use in Devonshire, Sea Lf. ANS Section of Cider Mill, — — Plan of Cider Mill. Scale 8 feet to an inch, About 26 years ago Mr. Coleman, of Chaxhill, Westbury-on- Severn, commenced making an improved cider-mill and press, which could act either as a fixture or a portable mill. (See No. 3.) It was found that the cider thus made fined better, and the process was also more expeditious. These advantages, together with the cost of keeping the old kind of mills in repair, which landlords were unwilling to undertake, led to their being superseded, as they wore out, by Coleman’s or a similar mill, 80 Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. * No. 3. Mr. Coleman's Cider Mill. N SSS, Wn. QAAAAIAA AIL A LAAAAAA ff fiffili$|[| Coleman’s mill consists of two pairs of rollers fixed in a strong wooden frame; it is fed from a hopper, the apples passing through the first pair of rollers, which are made of hard wood, with iron teeth, so as to break the apples, which fall next between a pair of stone rollers set close enough to break the kernels, and from these the pulp drops into a trough placed beneath to receive it. Mr, Latchem, of Hereford, has also paid considerable attention to the construction of these mills, and has taken out a patent for doing away with the iron in the feed-rollers, and substituting steel teeth fitted into one roller, and working through other steel teeth on a fixed plate, partly on the same principle as a curd-mill, The fruit, after passing this ‘‘ chewer,” is ground between a pair of stone rollers, as before described. The pulp is removed from this trough to the press, which con- sists of a very strong wooden frame made of four pieces of oak morticed together, having a platform made of strong planks wide enough for the ‘‘ cheese ” to be built upon it. Between the uprights ’ of this frame a moveable cross-piece is placed, which is grooved Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. 81 Cider Machine—P. Latcham’s Patent. SS______A—=—=—=—-_ \ ——_eeEeES SS SSS = = () LSE QQ WY 'dtlaay Scale 1 foot to an inch. at each end so as to work up and down a tongue on each upright of the frame. To the upper side of this cross-piece two screws are fixed which work into the top of the frame. The pressing the pulp is usually carried out in this manner :—A small box- frame is prepared by nailing together 4 pieces of board 8 inches deep, and of such length as “the “platform will conveniently allow. On such a box a piece of hair-cloth is laid, and this is filled with pulp; the comers of the cloth are then turned in, the box gently raised, and another cloth laid upon it, which, in its turn, is filled with pulp ; ; and this is continued until the cheese is built up to the required height. We then place upon the cheese a square piece of plank which overlaps 6 or 8 inches on each side, and the screws being turned alternately, the pressure causes the liquor gradually to run on to the platform, which has grooves cut in it to convey the cider into a vat or tub, from which it is removed to the cask. In Devonshire the system differs from this ; their plan being to have an apple-loft over the mill, or pound-house as it is there called. A raised driving-way is provided at the back, so that a VOL. XXV. G - $2 Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. cart can be driven up and tilted. The apples are thus easily got into the loft. Under this loft is the mill, which is fixed high, and fed through a hole opened in the loft; there is little other difference except that in their mill the pair of upper rollers are of fluted cast iron, From this mill the pulp is placed in the press, as before described. Formerly, the cheese was built in straw, but this has now given way to “ cider-hairs ;’ and I am informed that the use of straw is now very rare. The capstan seems to be still used there, and also the single iron screw, but this has a catch at the bottom to prevent the screw running back on great pressure being applied. Until the portable apple-mills became general, we had a mill to almost every farm, and even to many of the cottages; but in Devonshire one mill or pound-house serves for a number of makers, and sometimes for a parish, each person paying so much per hogshead for the making. Most of the travelling portable machines in Herefordshire have two presses with each mill, and are worked by two horses, making 1000 to 1500 gallons in a day; sometimes they are worked by a small portable steam-engine. ‘They are very expe- ditious, and do very well for second-class cider, but if you would have the best, they are very objectionable, because the different sorts of fruit very rarely get ripe at once in sufficient quantities to enable you to make much at atime. Much cider is therefore spoiled, the fruit being ground when too green, by those who are impatient to finish the process. I think that each farm or holding should have a mill of its own, even if it be only a small hand-mill. There are several other rude plans of grinding, such as nut- mills, graters, scratchers, &c., but they are so objectionable that they hardly deserve notice. All metallic substances should be kept from contact with the pulp, as chemical combinations immediately take place on contact; for instance, if you take a clean knife and cut an apple through, the knife quickly becomes black, as well as the apple. For this reason I think the iron teeth and cast-iron in the rollers are objectionable, as also the steel ones, although perhaps not to the same extent. I should recommend that this iron be removed, and fluted rollers of larger diameter be made of some hard wood, such as yew-tree, or American iron-wood. No doubt more power would then be required to work the mills, but this would be of little consequence if the produce was first-class cider. When this new mode of grinding was first tried, there was great complaint amongst the labourers that the cider did not | agree with them, and this was generally attributed to the iron; but in my opinion, the green state of the fruit when ground made the juice harsh, and caused irritation in the system, Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. 83 The use of mangolds before they get ripened either by the action of the frost or by storing, appears to exert a similar un- favourable influence on stock, One of the great errors in our present system of cider-making is that the pulp is pressed too soon after the fruit is crushed, Under the old system the grinding took several hours, and this delay was beneficial. Even now, most judges of cider will tell whether the cider is made on the old system or on the new: the latter creates such a peculiar harsh taste that many of the very best makers even now prefer the old mill. Much of the flavour and richness of cider depends upon the fermentation commencing before the pulp is pressed, for by this means the essential oils in the kernels are extracted, and the juice becomes more perfectly prepared for producing a full-bodied cider. It has long been the custom in Devonshire not to press out the juice till the day after the apples are ground into pulp; and several makers have assured me that the best cider was that which was ground on Saturday and not pressed out till Monday. In our own district many makers under the old system, when they want to make some very prime cider, prefer letting the pulp remain all night before it is pressed. ‘The adoption of this alteration may be strongly recommended; it only requires an extra vat or two to hold the pulp, whilst the improved result will, I am fully convinced, amply repay the little extra trouble involved, In pressing the cider it is very important to take plenty of time, and do it gradually, for if the liquor rushes through the hair it takes with it much more sediment than is desirable: the clearer it is the better. We may well take a lesson from the manner in which wines are fermented, as much as three or four days being allowed to elapse between the crushing of the grapes and the removal of the clear liquor, which is then allowed to run off as bright as possible, When pressed for time many makers of wines crush and_ press their wines at once, making a white wine; but this is of inferior quality, since the colour, flavour, and aroma of the fruit can only be extracted by the slower process. 3.—The Fermentation and After Management. In making cider it is very essential to have the fruit as ripe as possible, not only for the sake of the saccharine matter, but also of the essential oils derived from the ripe kernels, which influence the keeping qualities as well as the flavour of the cider. Dr. Voelcker has kindly furnished me with the following analysis of some common Somersetshire cider, such as is used by agricultural labourers :— G2 84 Manufacture and Preservation of Cider and Perry. Quantity per Imperial Pint. - Grains. Water)! lo chal tec a? hipaa, SauhOOe eat Alcohol, ss, 3. vaeb-0 estas! fos), ae eoOWOS GTape-SUPat) piv Mee) Etec ER CRETE Eset fae 31°67 Gum and extractive matters .. .. .. .. 45°05 Al buminousicompoundss see marten ete ines 1:94 Malic acid Saute, Geatete ar ’s «UIs gh loos ge ar teen eo Mineral. matter (ash)) ci) 5 0) o2h> 2.99.) eee 8802:00 The above analysis shows that a large quantity of malic acid is present in the cider, as well as in the apple in its natural state, and it is this acid which gives the rough taste so much relished by cider drinkers, although in many writings upon this subject it is mistaken for either lactic or acetic acid. The first point to be secured is by the proper exposure of the fruit to the sun to get the starch and pectin, which is largely con- tained in unripe fruits, converted into grape-sugar as much as possible, and this change is further assisted by keeping the fruit some time after it is picked. After breaking or grinding the fruit, the first change results from the combination of the oxygen of the air with some of the materials of the fruit, upon which, no doubt, the colour depends, for, according to Liebig, “we are able, to produce from malic acid and ammonia aspartic acid,* which is colourless and crystallized, produces, when oxygen is present, by absorbing ammonia, the splendid red dye orcein.” When a ripe apple is cut or broken through and exposed to the air, it becomes of a beautiful red colour ina short time, probably from the same action. Should this theory be right, it affords another inducement to gather the fruit as ripe as possible, for we know that cider made of unripe fruit is of a pale colour. From the albuminous substances in the fruit a vegetable fer- ment is formed, which, after the vinous fermentation is over, it is very essential to get rid of as completely as possible. This ferment acts by changing the grape-sugar into alcohol and car- bonic acid, thus: 1 equivalent of alcohol consists of 4 equiva- lents of carbon, 6 of hydrogen, and 2 of oxygen; 1 ditto of carbonic acid of 1 equivalent of carbon, and 2 of oxygen; 1 ditto of grape-sugar of 12 equivalents of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 12 of oxygen; and the change would be that each equivalent of grape-sugar produces 2 equivalents of alcohol and 4 of carbonic acid, thus :— Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. . 2 equivalents of alcohol (C,, H,,0,x 2) .. = 8 12 4 4 equivalents of carbonic acid (C, O,x 4)... = 4 0 8 eq.tof @rape-stgar " 1757 2393 2076 | 20 years—1844-1863. 3 | Unmanured, every year . . 9 i 963 965 964 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year P * 7 1171 1144 1157 10a | Ammonia-salts alone, every year 4 1463 1408 |) 1435 12 years—1852-1863, 7 | Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, every year 2195 2356 2275 14 tons Farmyard Manure, every year 5 4 A 2102 2362 |} 2232 Total Straw (and Chaff), p per cee; in Ths. 3 | Unmanured, every year. . 3 . . . 1693 1693 || 1693. | 20 years—1844-1863, 10a | Ammonia-salts alone, every year . Py * . 2846 2640 || 2737 | 19 years—1845-1863, 2 | 14 tons Farmyard Manure, every year ° ° 5 3071 3960 | 3515 | 20 years—1844-1863. 3 | Unmanured, every year . . . . 1678 1645 1662 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year e e Pi 2012 1783 || 1898 10a | Ammonia-salts alone, every year 2693 2513 2603 12 years—1852-1863 7 | Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, every year 4233 4190 4212 2 | 14 tons Farmyard Manure, every year . P 794 3944 3869 Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre, in Ibs. 3 | Unmanured, every year . ' + e . ° 2711 2728 2719 | 20 years—1844-1863. lla | Ammonia-salts alone, every year ¢ ‘ = F 4474 4166 4312 | 19 years—1845-1863, 2 | 14 tons Farmyard Manure, every year *° , 4 4828 6335 5591 | 20 years—1844-1863. 3 | Unmanured, every year . Cae ° 2641 2610 2626 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year . ° 2 3183 2927 3053 10a | Ammonia-salts alone, every year A - || 4156 3921 4038 12 years—1 852-1863. 7 | Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, every year 6428 6346 6487 /2 | 14 tons Farmyard Manure, every year ° . . 5896 6306 || 6101 144 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. though a diminution in the produce of straw, still some in- crease of total produce, during the later years. Finally, with farmyard-manure there is an increase of both corn and straw in the latter as compared with the former half of the twelve years, but in a much less degree than over the last ten as compared with the first ten years of the whole period of the experiments. The general result over the final twelve years is, then, that the average annual yield was, without manure, much the same over the whole period; that, notwithstanding the exhausting effects of applying ammonia-salts every year, the annual diminu- tion of produce under their influence was proportionally less during the latter half of the last twelve, than of the whole nine- teen years of their use ; that where ammonia-salts and all mine- ral constituents, except silica, were liberally supplied every year, the produce of corn increased, and that of the straw somewhat dimi- nished ; lastly, that where an excess of every constituent required by the crop was annually applied, as in the farmyard manure, the rate of increase from year to year was not so great during the later as during some of the earlier years. That the unmanured produce should keep up its yield during the later years, and that the produce by the exhaustive process of applying ammonia-salts every year should diminish less during the latter half of the twelve than of the whole nineteen years, seems sufficient indication that the later seasons of the experiments were, upon the whole, more favourable than the earlier ones. But to this evidence may be added that derivable from the fact, that although the average weight per bushel of dressed corn without manure, and with ammonia-salts alone, was considerably less during the latter than during the earlier half of the whole period, it was, nevertheless, without manure considerably higher, and with ammonia-salts alone about as high, during the latter as dur- ing the earlier half of the last twelve years. It is, therefore, clear, that even under the most defective soil conditions the crop has either not deteriorated, or has done so in a less degree, in the later years. Upon the whole, then, it must be concluded, that the later years of the experimental period were, on the average, slightly more favourable to the crop than the earlier ones. Assuming this to have been the case, it must be admitted, that the fact of the un- manured plot maintaining its produce throughout the whole twenty years is probably in some degree due to the better average of the seasons themselves in the later years; and, consequently, that had it been otherwise, the unmanured produce would have shown some slight decline in the later years, or rather, some slight Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 145 excess in the earlier ones, due to the accumulation of many previous courses of manuring and cropping. These few illustrations will serve to indicate the degree, or limit, of the influence of any slight progressive improvement in the character of the seasons of the experimental period, and thus prepare the way for considering the effects of accumulation, or exhaustion, of constituents, from the manuring and cropping of preceding, on the produce of succeeding years. (To be continued.) APPENDIX.—TABLES. VOL.- XXV. L 146 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ App. EXprriments At RorHaAMsTED ON THE GROWTH OF APPENDIX.—T'AaBLE I.—Manures and Propucr; Isr Smason, 1843-4. Plots. il 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ne SE Un nynn nnn SSl 1 The farmyard dung was burnt slowly in a heap in the open air to an imperfect or coaly ash, and 32 cwts, MAnures per ACRE, edt al aco saed Silicate | Phosphate M . Manure of of aes Ashes, Potass.2 | Potass.3 Tons, Cwts. lbs. Tbs. Mixture of the residue of most of the 14 AS 5p 5c Unmanured A és 39 321 oe 43 es ef we 875 ao a3 220 59 | | 3 ats i 1873 <5 ots 275 0 0 35 110 150 0 An 110 75 50 Sie 110 7(8) ; ae 110 75 50 BA 110 aie Unmanured oe se Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures of ash represent 14 tons of dung. 2 The silicate of potass was manufactured at a glass-house by fusing equal parts of pearl-ash and sand, ‘The product was a transparent glass, slightly deliquescent in the air, which was ground to powder under edge-stones, 3 The manures termed superphosphate of lime, phosphate of potass, phosphate of soda, and phosphate of magnesia, were made by acting upon bone-ash by means of sulphuric acid in the first instance, and in the cases of the alkali salts and the magnesian one neutralizing the compound thus obtained by means of cheap preparations — of the respective bases. For the superphosphate of lime the proportions were 5 parts bone-ash, 3 parts water, and 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°84; and for the phosphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, they were 4 parts bone-ash, water as needed, 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°84, and equivalent amounts, respectively, of pearl-ash, Phosphate of Soda. Ibs. other manures Phosphate of Magnesia.? lbs. 168 Super- phosphate of Lime. Ibs. o- Sulphate of Ammonia. Rape Cake, App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 147 Wuear YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Manvres and Seep (Old Red Lammas) sown Autumn 1843. INCREASE PER ACRE Propuce PER ACRE, &c, BY MANURE. Offal Corn ey Plots. Dressed Corn. : otal : 3 to. Offal | Total | Straw uce traw | Total || 100 Quantity.5 ie corns Corn. fae om Corn. a I Peadnon, Dressed.| S*7@¥: Bushel. Straw). Bush, Pecks.| lbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs, Ibs. Tbs. 0 19 3€ | 58°5 61 1228 | 1436 | 2664 305 316 621 o 85°5 1 16. ..S 59°0 52 1040 | 1203 | 2243 117 |, 88 |, 200 ‘a 86°4 2 20 .1$ | 59°38 64 1276 | 1476 | 2752 353 356 709 a 86°4 3 4 15 ..0 58°5 46 923 | 1120 | 2043 Ss es oe oe 82°4 14 2%) 58°0 44 888 | 1104 | 1992 || —35 | —16 | —51 es 80°4 5 15) 23'| 58*3 | 48 956 | 1116 | 2072 33 | — 4 29 oe 85°6 6 Ip -,1 60°0 | 48 964 | 1100 | 2064 -41 | —20 21 * 87°6 ix 15 2 60°3 49 984 | 1172 | 2156 61 52 113 ee 84-0 8 9 15 Of | 61°3 | 49 980 | 1160 | 2140 57 40 97 ee 84°5 19, 23 | 62:3 64 1280 | 1368 | 2648 357 248 605 oe 93° 5. 10 15 .12 | 62°0 50 1008 | 1112 | 2120 85 |; — 8 77 on 90°6.- ll 17 ,.02 | 61°8 56 1116 | 1200 | 2316 193 80 | 273 +e 93°0 12 | er 61°5 50 1004 | 1116 | 2120 81|— 4 77 o 90-0 13 16 . 14 | 62°5 54 1072 | 1204 | 2276 149 84 | 233 oe 89°0 14 15 3 | 61°3 | 51° | 1016 | 1176 | 2192 938 56 149 on 86°4 15 16 3 62°0 | 55 1096 | 1240 | 2336 173 126 | 293 ay 88°4 z 16 19 32 | 62°5 65 1304 | 1480 | 2784 381 360 | 741 ae 88-1 7 18 32 | 62°3 | 62 | 1240 | 1422 | 2662 817 | 302] 619 oe 87°2 18 20 3% /| 62:0] 68 1368 | 1768 | 3136 445 | 648 | 1098 56 77°4 19 24 12] 61°8 79 1580 | 1772 | 3352 657 652 | 1309 oe 89°2. soda-ash, or a mixture of 1 part medicinal carbonate of magnesia and 4 parts magnesian limestone. The mixtures, of course, all lost weight considerably by the eyolution.of water and carbonic acid, 4 Made with unburnt bones. | * In this first season neither the weight nor the measure of the offal corn was recorded separately; and in former papers the bushels and pecks of total corn (including offal) have erroneously been given as dressed corn. To bring the records more in conformity with those relating to the other years, 5 per cent., by weight, has been deducted from the total corn previously stated as dressed corn, and is recorded as offal corn; this being about the probable proportion, judging from the character of the season, the bulk of the crop, and the weight per bushel of the dressed corn. Although not strictly correct, the statements of dressed corn as amended in this somewhat : arbitrary way will approximate more nearly to the truth, and be more comparable with those relating to other __ seasons, than those hitherto recorded, ) ‘ L2 148 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. EXPERIMENTS AT RoOTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF APpPENDIX.—TaABLE IJ.—Manures and Propucr; 2np Sxason, 1845. | MaAnures PER ACRE. Plots. | Farm- | Silicate | PB0S: |_Super- Sulphate] Muriate pase ‘ phate |phosphate| Bone- |Muriatic of of Rape | Tapi- | M, Saal eS acs 38 Es << an ; ash. | Acid. | Guano. es 7 Aas Anime Cake. | oca, a. | Tons. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. lbs, Ibs. | lbs, 0 || Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures ae vis Re 3 1 112 o» nts om o0 m2 224 oe oe 560 ds Bh 14® | use “ 3 pe ss wi! || opel) pale eee 3 || Unmanured 50 ia ms oe as a ae os Be ae 4 Ar ee oe 112 112 oe 112 oe 5: ie ste 1) Unmanured a3 fe hs A 5 or os = és s 5 4 a ie ; sual | 7 ‘ i yoshi 202 | sues tte 6 37 we 112 oe . se 112 ‘ oe 560 or 7 " 112 s ee ee 112 . oe . 560 8 : oe . a e 112 oe pis 560 oe 9 40 oo . . 7 168° | 168° oe j oe 10 ee . c on ch 168° | 168° oe Ge ale il 3 5/1 ° 280 oe ‘ ae 224* He os 560 2 12 280 ae 224 ae oe 560 ile 13 5 be , 3367 : . ee ws o 14 30 eo < 4 6728 oe oe oe oe Za 15 us bi mi -. | 224} 224) a | 224.) g. p Sr 16 ° a oe 224 ‘ ee 56 56 aa 560 ee 17 ° oe 224 ae sie 112 112 oe 280 ae 18 a na oe 336 os ee 112 112 re : . 19 PA ere he sa Pana | raed! se] (22> || cecal ee ae 20 Unmanured Sic oa a 3 ot ap oF 5 be ea 21) || _.. : a | Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures ue es Peas | 1 The silicate of potass was manufactured at a glass-house by fusing equal parts of pearl-ash and sand, The product was a transparent glass, slightly deliquescent in the air; ; it was ground to powder under edge-stones. 2 The manures termed superphosphate of lime and phosphate of potass were made by acting upon bone-ash by means of sulphuric acid, and in the case of the potass salt neutralizing the compound thus obtained by means of pearl-ash, For the superphosphate of lime the proportions were 5 parts bone-ash, 3 parts water, and 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1°84; and for the phosphate of potass 4 parts bone-ash, water as needed, 3 parts sulphuric acid of sp, gr. 1°84, and an equivalent amount of pearl-ash. The mixtures, of course, lost weight considerably by the evolution of water and earbonie acid. Arr. ] Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 149 _ Waeat Year Arrer YEAR ON THE SAME LAnp. Manores and Srep (Old Red Lammas) sown March 1845. PropucE PER ACRE, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE BY MANURE. Offal gia" = 2S ee | ee ce Corn - Dressed Corn. Total | to a \.... iii = Straw | Produce) Straw | Total 100 Weight one Total and (Corn || Corn. and Prodites | Dressed.| Straw. Quantity. per Chaff. and | Chaff. Bushel. Straw). | Bush. Pecks. | lbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs, Ibs. Ibs. 0 $2 O | 56°5 159 | 1967 | 3977 | 5944 526 | 1265} 1791 || 10°9 | 49°5 1 26 1} | 54°8 | 248 | 1689 | 3699 | 5388 248 | 987 | 1255 || 17°3 | 45°7 2 32 O | 56°8 151.| 1967 | 3915 | 5882 526 | 1203 | 1729 8°9 | 50°2 3 4 23 02 | 56°5 | 131 | 1441 | 2712 | 4153 || .. of ie 8°7 | 53°1 29 21 | 58°0 | 161 | 1879 | 3663 | 5542 | 438 | 951 | 1389 || 9°4 | 51°3 or a : o I co rss _ cs Ce a pw for) oo > »~ _ _ or I _ o I w to) | co @ ~ o - or co wo spi) 22 28 i. 26 33/|57°3| 190 | 1732 | 3599 | 5331 || 291] 887 | 1178 || 14-2 | 48-1 6 || 28 22/57-8| 214] 1871 | 3644 | 5515 || 430] 932 | 1362 } 14-1 | 57 3 7 || 26 22 | 57-0 | 161 | 8 || 27 OL] 56°3| 194 | 1716 | 3663 | 5379 | 0 9 || 33 12] 58-3 | 187 | 2131 | 4058 | 6189 || 690 | 1346 | 2036 || 10°2 | 52°5 10 || 31 32 | 56°3 | 191 | 1980 | 4266 | 6246 || 539 | 1554 | 2093 || 12-3 _ for) @ ~w (J) to ~ co cS wo iw] or no sg _ o co - ~I ~I to _ = cs ao — © HT. 30. 8 | 56:0 158 | 1880 | 4104 | 5984 439 | 1392 | 1831 || 11°3 | 45°8 12 28 23 | 55°3 | 264 | 1842 | 4134 | 5976 401 | 1422 | 1823 || 17°8 | 44°5e 13 25 O | 56°3 152 | 1558 | 3355 | 4913 117 643 | 760 || 12°0 | 46°4 14 a 57°5 176 | 1743 | 3696 | 5439 802 | 984 | 1286 |) 16°2'| 47°1. 15 || 32 33 | 57°5| 209 | 2103 | 4044 | 6147 | 662 | 1332 | 1994 | 11°8 | 52°0 16 || 32 32] 56°3| 182 | 2028 | 4191 | 6219 | | 17 || 32 02 | 558 | 299 | 2093 | 3826 | 5919 | 652 | 1114 | 1766 || 15°2 | 54°7 18 || 33 02 |'56-5| 18u | 2048 | ssi9 | 5867 || 607 | 1107 | 1714 | 19 || 34 3 | 57-0| 133 | 2114 | 4215 | 6329 || 673 | 1503 | 2176 || 9-1 | 50°2 20 || 24 9221| 56-0] 113 | 1495 | 3104 | 4599 || 54] 392 | 446 || 9-7 | 48-2 ) = | 29 + se oe : | 3 The medicinal carbonate of ammonia; it was dissolved in water and top-dressed, * Plot 5 was 2 lands wide (in after years, respectively, 5a and 5b); 5! consisting of 2 alternate _ one-fourth lengths across both lands, and 5? of the 2 remaining one-fourth lengths. ® Top-dressed at once. ' ® Top-dressed at 4 intervals, 7 Peruvian, 8 Ichaboe. or @ “I - cs ~~ 2) Ls) oO a lor) i - . _ rs ao ° ~ ~ - bo or ie) . for) 150 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ App. EXPERIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF AppENDIxX.—T ase JIJ.—Manoures and Propuce; 3rp Srason, 1845-6. MAnuRES PER ACRE. Ask Superphosphate of | | from Lime. | Plots. || Farm- | 3 loads | Liebig’s| Peru- |Silicate Mag- Sulphate} Muriate | yard | (3888 |Wheat-| vian | of Pearl- | Soda-| nesian Sul- “ of of Rape Manure.| ibs.) | manure.|Guano.| Potass. ash. | ash.} Lime- | poy¢.| phuric | Muri- | Ammo- | Ammo-| Cake. | | Wheat- stone. | acn, | Acid | atic nia. nia. , straw. (Sp. gr. | Acid. | 17.) | Tons. lbs. Ibs. lbs. | Ibs. | Ibs,| Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. Tbs. 0 - . He See oy ee PRA Sy Co ae ye ¢ “e | 1 Si) te vs “ yy eee care ae ake) meer Og ae va ch | 3 Unmanured a “ 53 wai (ae ay Ser || Be ot ie Ac os 4 a ¥ of’ . 224 . 224 224 oe oe Ba{ Straw-| . : ; 2041] we |. | spd} ash. aE Bn | ae Bt od te “ + - | 448 | 2 A oa, || "Ree = ee oe a g04N 448 6a te 448 4 Sc A eX 3 of aft Be rr) ol 6b . 448 ‘ 6 : oe oa oo 112 112 ox | 7a 448 | . oie (Oe ; Sal ees a Wee 4s Te alpa4e | 7b as 448 : . ‘ ob a 112 112 | 448 | 8a - : vd ‘ go | ODM] oa yey 448 . 8b ; 5 te a ver | 22a) 11} WRBOR og | 9a Ay} 35 6 : oe, oe ee 40 a 448 9b ae 36 5 : < 53 « P2245 Bae iba | 10a 56 iS “se i A 4 ae 3 4 224 5 10d GWnmanured ie fe ; “A ue a ed ; et lla ; AR oe : : 2904 | 204] . 448 | 115 3 ; : ‘i bh ig 224 | 224 V12\) WB), se 12a || ’ ie 180 924 | 224 448 | 12) ° 3 oa) 80 224 224 5 112 112 ia | 13¢ ‘ 200 994 | 224 448 | 13) . - A es ere ee ee 14a o 3d 54 she ts Sc ve 84 224 224 oe ae oe 448 | 145 ae ° 84 224 224 . 112 112 o- | 15a $ 5 224 o- 224 224 5c 448 15) ° . 224 < 224 ° 224 224 3 448 l6a 67 | 60| 84 224 224 3 ue 448 ‘ 16) ° 67 | 60} 84 224 224 5 224 448 17a 67 | 60| 84 224 224 112 112 | 448 17 . ° ; 67 | 60). 84 224 224 224 Aa ee 18a a0 67 | 60} 84 224 224 4 112 112 vie 18) os " 67 | 60) 84 224 224 . | . re 19 vs 2 ae vie TE ee es oh os 112 wee | 2 112 ee 448 20 21 Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures 50 ve at ot on 22 1 Top-dressed in the Spring. | App.| Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 151 Waueat Yrar Arrer YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Manoures and Seep (Old Red Lammas) sown Autumn 1845. ae 8 IncREASE PER ACRE Propuce per Acre, &c, ny Manure: | | | Dressed Corn. aoa Corn | + ili Straw ception Straw my oo Offal | Total Total 1 7 : . Weight Gu: Corn. ae 4 Ag é 150 A as oo 5 150 . . oe se Bc 150 34 - 100 100 150 : 44 100 100 x 150 ae ee 100 100 - 150 oe 100 100 = 150 ei . 100 100 5 150 AQ 5 100 100 A 150 ov - 100 100 2 150 A 35 100 100 5 150 a 5 200 o. 200 800 ae AA 200 ate 200 300 3S 100 100 - 150 A < 100 100 50 150 - 50 100 100 o» 150 A 3 100 100 A 200 we a9 100 100 150 aS 56 100 100 150 oo 200 150 ee 200 200 ¥ a 200 150 a 150 150 500 : 200 150 ee 200 200 a 200 150 * 150 150 500 . 200 150 a 200 200 on 200 200 300 ee ee 200 . 200 300 o* ee . 200 150 150 150 500 . 200 150 . 150 150 500 ° 200 150 200 200 ee ° 200 150 200 200 Se : 200 150 be 150 150 ow ° 200 150 ae 150 150 A S 200 200 300 . 500 App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 155 Wueat Yar arrer YHAR ON THE SAME LAND. Manvres and Srep (Old Red Lammas) sown Autumn 1847, INCREASE PER ACRE Propuce PER ACRE, &c, By MAGEE, Offal Dressed Corn. Total Corn be ees enna Ona | Totat Straw Produce a eer Total ven Paced Weight 4 and Corn orn. an ‘ aw. Quantity. | _ per orn. | Corn. | Chaff. Cnt Chaff. |Produce.|| Dressed. Bushel. Straw). Bush. Pks. Ibs, lbs, lbs. Ibs. lbs, lbs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 19 OF | 58°4 188 | 1259 | 2074 | 5333 307 362 669 13°4 | 60°7 1 16 Of | 59°6 160 | 1124 | 1735 | 2859 172 23 195 || 16°38 | 64°7 a 25 23 | 582 210 | 1705 | 3041 | 4746 753 | 1329 | 2082 18°8 | 56°0 3 ya 3 57°S 106 952 | 1712 | 2664 ee Ze we 12° | 55°6 4 24 0% | 58°5 172 | 1583 | 2713 4296 631 1001 1632 12°0 | 58°3 5a || 29 384] 59°2 144 | 1911 | 3266 | 5177 959 | 1554 | 2513 7°0 | 58°5 56 || 30 83 | 59°1 107 | 1932 | 3533 | 5465 980 | 1821 | 2801 5°8. | oir 6a || 24 3h | 58°8 214 | 1672 | 2878 | 4550 720 | 1166 | 1886 14°6 | 58°0 6b || 26 8 56°9 216 | 1737 | 2968 | 4705 785 | 1256 | 2041 14:0 | 58°5 7a || 30 8} | 59°4 106 | 1936 | 3088 | 5024 984 | 13876 | 2360 5°77. | 62°6 7b || 29° 32 | 59°6 187 | 1963 | 3413 | 5376 |} 1011 | 1701 | 2712 || 10°38 } 57°5 8a || 19 38 56°2 154 | 1263 | 2317 | 3580 311 605 916 13°6 | 54°5 8b 19 OF | 59°4 127 | 1267 | 2148 | 3415 315 436 751 11-1 | 58°8 9a || 18 23 | 56°7 125 | 1181 | 1945 | 3126 229 233 462 || 11°6 | 60°7 9b || 25 OF | 58°3 208 | 1669 | 2918 | 4587 717 | 1206 | 1923 || 13°9 | 57°1 10a |} 19 1 58°1 215 | 1334 | 2367 | 3701 382 655 | 1037 || 19°0 | 56°3 10d || 25 O2 | 57°8 155 | 1604 | 2926 | 4530 652 | 1214 | 1866 || 10°6 | 54°8 lla 29 14] 59°6 233 | 1984 | 3274 | 5258 || 1032 | 1562 | 2594 |] 13°1 | 60°6 110 |) 24 8 57°9 207 | 1641 | 2898 | 4539 689 | 1186 | 1875 14-1 | 56°4 12a || 29 38 59°3 174 | 1938 | 3390 | 5328 986 | 1678 | 2664 9°3 | 57-2 126 || 26 O2 | 59°2 167 | 1717 | 2880 | 4597 765 | 1168 | 1938 |} 10°7 | 59°6 13a\|| 29 14 | 57°9 253 | 1955 | 3290 | 5245 || 1003 | 1578 | 2581 || 14°7 | 59°4 135 || 25 32 | 58°4 224 | 17380 | 3072 | 4802 778 | 13860 | 2138 14°6 | 56°38 14a || 28 OF | 58°8 184 | 1834 | 3257 | 5091 882 | 1545 | 2427 11°1 | 56°3 14D || 25 23 | 58°5 ,227 | 1726 | 2897 | 4623 774 | 1185 | 1959 |} 15°1 | 59°5 l5a || 22 3% | 58°1 242 | 1571 | 2937 | 4508 619 | 1225 | 1844 || 18°] |} 53°4 15d 24 22 | 56°9 202 | 1607 | 3016 | 4623 655 | 1304 | 1959 14] | 538°2 16a |} 29 32 | 60°0 184 | 1973 |} 3115 | 5088 1021 | 1403 | 2424 || 10°2 | 63°3 16d 30 12 | 58+4 171 | 1948 | 3380 | 53828 996 | 1668 | 2664 9:4 | 57°6 17a || 27 22 | 59°7 285 | 1933 | 3296 | 5229 981 | 1584 | 2565 17°0 | 58°6 17) 28 34 | 59°7 222 | 1946 | 3324 | 5270 994 | 1612 | 2606 12°6 | 58°5 18a || 26 8 59°2 150 | 1734 | 2935 | 4669 782 | 1223 | 2005 9°2 | 59°0 18) 26 22 | 59°6 215 | 1804 | 3056 | 4860 852 | 1344 | 2196 13°38 | 58°7 19 || 29 12 | 56-2| 185 | 1838 | 3295 | 5133 || 886 | 1583 | 2469 || 10°4 | 55-7 20 16 02% | 58°3 VEL | FO5O 1722 | 2771 98 9 107 || 11°3 | 61°0 21 ; 156 Plots. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF APPENDIX.—TaBLE VI.—Manovrges and PropucE; 61H Season, 1848-9. Farm- yard '/Manure, Tons, 14 « Pearl- ash, Ibs. 600 Unmanured ee oe 300 300 3800 300 300 300 || Unmanured Unmanured 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 Unmanured Soda-ash, Ibs. Sulphate : A of ulphuric «ati v4 Magnesia. | Bone-ash.| Acid Ey eis Aamo (Sp. gr. 1°7). Ibs, lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs, 600 450 Bo ot 200 a. On oe 200 we 200 300 100 200 150 . 250 100 200 150 oe 200 100 200 150 se 200 100 200 150 ae 200 100 200 150 Be 200 100 200 150 5 200 ot: . 5 . 200 A oe as 200 200 150 iS 200 200 150 ° 200 200 150 5 200 200 150 . 200 200 150 »'s 200 200 150 200 200 150 200 200 150 200 100 200 . 200 300 100 200 7 200 300 100 200 150 oo 200 100 200 150 . 200 100 200 150 ° 200 100 200 150 e 200 100 200 150 oe 200 100 200 150 oe 200 200 oc 200 300 MANURES PER ACRE. Superphosphate of Lime. | Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures - Sulphate | Muriate of Ammo- nia, lbs. App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Wuear YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Manores and Seep (Red Cluster) sown Autumn 1848. Plots. Propuce Per Acrz, Xe. Dressed Corn. Quantity. Bush. Pks. 31 0 19 1 50. 6—O 37 13 39-384 36 14 37 — 3 38 22 373g ZAR Ie 31 2k 30 0-28 22 14 32 ot 32 13 385 02 32 1i 85 382 34 14 34 3$ 34 23 34 14 31 13 31 3h 30 «02 a 33. 38 ot J 33 14 32 14 33-22 nw oO no ee Weight one per: Bushel. Ibs. Ibs. 63°8 107 61°4 47 65°0 110 63°1 89 63°4 97 63°0 abe 63°0 9+ 63°1 137 62°9 141 61°7 76 63°0 85 62°8 lll 62°3 80 62°3 112 63°3 110 62°6 121 63°0 112 64°3 93 64°3 71 64°1 101 64°1 129 64°3 56 64°3 112 64°2 65 64°1 68 64°5 101 64°6 75 64°3 lll 64°4 112 64°0 93 64°0 95 Straw | Produce and Chaff. Ibs. 3029 1614 2645 3589 8824 38072 3516 3584 3396 1815 3166 2683 1810 2851 2960 2892 2942 3371 3300 3236 3246 3211 3218 3038 3262 3384 3559 3891 3858 8592 3779 3270 INCREASE PER ACRE ‘by Manure. Total 7 Straw orn Corn. d o 4 orn Chaff, Produce Straw). Ibs. lbs. Ibs. 5097 || 839 | 1415 | 2254 2843 oe es . 4708 834 | 1031 6035 || 1217 | 1975 | 3192 6475 || 1422 | 2210 | 3632 5482 || 1181 | 1458 | 2639 6000 || 1255 | 1902 | 3157 6160 || 1347 | 1970 | 3317 5927 || 1302 | 1782 | 3084 3296 252 201 i 5246 851 |-1552 | 2403 4718 806 |: 1069 | 1875 3285 246 196 y 4992 912°} 1237 | 2149 5117 928 | 1346 | 2274 5209 ||. 1088 | 1278 | 2366 5091 920 | 1328 | 2248 5767 1167 |°1757 | 2924 5577 || 1048 | 1687 | 2735 5576 |} 1111 | 1622 | 2733 5592 || 1117 | 1632 | 2749 5477 |} 1037 | 1597 | 2634 5341 894 | 1604 | 2498 5147 880 | 1424 | 2304 5267 776 | 1648 | 2424 5638 || 1025 | 1770 | 2795 5827 || 1039 | 1945 | 2984 6207 || 1087 | 2277 | 3364 6117 || 1030 | 2244 | 3274 5755 934 | 1978 | 2912 6022 || 1014 | 2165 | 3179 5264 765 | 1656 | 2421 CAoHO~ Or Or Go Gr Or Oo . oe Te . wa or Oro Bor Co Ot ~1 @ Co Go PRON OO UNAhObOe Se TE ihe Nahe h IAS em Or bo — pp «aT orb oOo@mune Ug . Oo aS 15 158 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ App. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF Appenpix.—Tasite VII.—Manvres and Propucr ; 71H Swason, 1849-50. After the Manores and SzEp (Red Cluster) MANvRES PER ACRE. Superphosphate of Lime. 3 Plots. aed, Sulphate PErphoEp, Sulphate Upiste nae yard | Pearl-ash.| Soda-ash. of © Sulphuric | yuriatic | Ammo- | Ammo- | Cake. Manure. Magnesia. | Bone-ash.| Acid ‘Acid. nia. nia. ‘ (Sp. gr. 1:7). Tons. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs, Tbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 we “43 46 a 600 450 ale ats ool, eb 1 a 600 400 200s & sz a" ale 36 fe se 2 14 55 bie oe rn 7 eis ae or ae ah 3 Unmanured sd # 110 oe cE 200 150 5 200 200 ob 12a 3800 : : 200 150 ° 200 200 oe 120 300 | . 200 150 6 200 200 > 13a 300 200 150 200 200 a 13) 300 . . 200 150 200 200 => 14a ae 300 bs AG 200 150 “5 200 200 5) 14b On 3800 - AA 200 150 ae 200 200 os 15a on 300 200 100 200 éé 200 300 Ar +e 15) oe 300 200 100 200 ee 200 300 os 500 l6a ig 300 200 100 200 150 de 200 200 ae 16b ae 300 200 100 200 150 £5 200 200 te 17a af 3800 200 100 200 150 15 200 200 ole 176 x 3800 200 100 200 150 te 200 200 oh 18a oe 360 200 100 200 150 os 200 200 ats 18) AG 300 200 100 200 150 ge 200 200 ole 19 ap a5 45 we 200 4a 200 300 Ac 500 20 Unmanured se ae Bh Br wo ee Se as =n Mixture of the residue of most of the other manures 3 se als App. | Wuear YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 159 Harvest of 1849 the Field was Tile-drained in every alternate Furrow, 2 to 3 feet deep. sown Autumn 1849. Plots. Propuce Per Acre, &c. Weight per Bushel. Ibs, 60°8 Dressed Corn. Quantity. Bush. Pks. 19° 13 28, 2 15 8} 27 3 29 «3h 30 «3 30 9048 29 «3h 32 AL 32 0% 28 8: 30. 1 30 14 27g 26 =«33¢ 17 38 30 3h 29. 13 29-33% 30 =3¢ 31 3Z 30 14 31 1g 31 14 26 02 30 = 3h 33 2h 3303 31 1 29 24 29 3h 28 23 29 0 14 O INCREASE PER ACRE BY MANURE. Total Corn. Ibs. 1220 1861 1002 1785 1974 2018 1960 1980 2134 2112 1856 1948 1951 1762 1721 1171 2001 1940 1935 2013 2027 1964 2023 1995 1693 1942 2134 2159 1985 1961 1934 1845 1850 868 Straw and Chaff, Ibs, 2037 38245 1719: 3312 4504 4379 3927 3959 4485 4280 3407 3591 3550 3165 3089 1949 3806 3741 3921 3905 4026 4008 4052 4015 3321 3926 51038 4615 4126 4034 3927 3844 3527 1639 Straw). Ibs, 3257 5106 2721 5097 6478 6397 5887 5939 6619 ! 63892 5263 5539 5501 4927 4810 3120 5807 5681 5856 5918 6053 5972 6075 6010 5014 5868 7237 6774 6111 5995 5861 5689 5377 2507 Corn. lbs. 218 859 783 972 1016 958 978 11382 1110 854 946 949 760 719 169 999 938 933 1011 1025 962 1021 993 691 940 1132 1157 983 959 932 843 848 —134 Cum orci aan wNowororc co or Omar Do octal ghe One rere 100 on 100 160 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ App. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF AppENDIX.—T'aBLE VIII.—Manounes and PropucE; 81H SEAson, MANURES PER ACRE. | ‘Superphosphate of Lime. ntl Cut | Plots.) Farm- | Wheat |ggmmon'SUphate| goaa- Sulphate sul- | Saipame striate mis yard | straw It. of ash. | Mag- | Bone- | Phuric |yfurjatic) Ammo-| Ammo-| Cake. Manure.| and Potass. nesia.| ash. | Acid | Acia nia. nia, | Chaff. (Sp. gr. af 7 1°7). Tons. lbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs, lbs. lbs. Ibs. Tbs. Ibs, O || On 59 30 a So 600 450 6 ae ee Se Ieal) po: vwi| 600} 'A00 ch BOOUe ts ae. 3 F = 4 eH ae ss : é 5 : : A 4 ‘ # 25 3 Unmanured 5 0 ee ne oe BC ae 46 ae ‘ ~ ate os ea 200 5 200 400 oo BC 5a 30 ale 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 as 300 300 Ge 5D SF, 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 ae 300 300 we 6a || ais 300 | 200 | 100 | 200 | 150 200"! 200 ||| . 6D \t Be 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 ve 200 200 oe 7a | > § 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 55 200 200 | 1000 7 i ee 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 ae 200 200 | 1000 8a 5000 Z es St 55 AS a oe 8) I) date be 300 | 200 100 | 200 150 a4 100 100 oo 9a || begelll foee Badly 20H leet be [2001 200 | 9b || ela 39 35 ls gc: ( 2 as 200 200 5 10a BA oe 5 Ac Gc 5 55 200 200 we 106 > 60 . ac S 3 ata 200 200 ea lla , . | de feeds} 2004) 150); .. /\a00 SOG ie 11) A ie 0 Ac 200 150 5 200 200 a 12a ; : 200 | 100 2 S200 g | GONE 200] 200] .. 12) 5 Bea. 200 | 100 or 200 150 44 200 200 sla 13a 5 - 5 300 se a 200 150 - 200 200 z 13) 1) ie 5 3800 ee 30 200 150 35 200 200 ea 14a < : 200 ac 100 | 200 150 A 200 200 ma 14) 55 A | 200 - 100 | 200 150 4 200 200 o 15a ce aS 200 | 100 100 | 200 S 200 400 ate sid 15) 200 | 100 100 | 200 200 300 A 500 l6a || : 3361 200 | 100 100 | 200 150 a0 300 300 oe 16) | © eh 200 | 100 100 | 200 150 Oe 300 500 oe l7a | 4 5 200 | 100 100 | 200 150 4 200 200 oo 17) 50 200 | 100 100 | 200 150 200 200 is 18a || ; c 4 200 200 es 18D | . amelie Bas : - | 800) 2000ham 19 oee.| i (> Lape 2OOMtE te 200 | 300] .. 500 20) | | | is ao te 38 ae ar 21> || Unmanured ¢} 51 : . 22) || | 50 oe ate os 1 Top-dressed in March, 1851. App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 161 Warat Yrar Arrer YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. 1850-51. Mawnures and Seep (Red Cluster) sown Autumn 1850, IncrEAse PER ACRE Propuce rer Acre, &c, Seat Kari Dressed Corn, ~y oo Corn Plots. a peas ro ll to fa Offal Total raw | Produce | : traw | Total 100 Weight and Corn || Corn. and || Dressed,| Straw. Quantity. |" per Corn. | Corn, Chaff. e 4 Chaff, Produce. | ress Bushel, Straw). | | —- ' ——— TD) i} oo Bush. Pks.| Ibs, | Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. |} Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. | 0 18 34 | 61°9 125 | 1296 | 1862 | 3158 213 235 448 || 10°7 | 69°6 1 18 13] 61°7 124 | 1251 | 1845 | 3096 || 168 218 386 || 11°0 | 67°8 2 29 24 | 63°6 166 | 2049 | 3094 | 5143 966 | 1467 | 2433 8°8 | 66°2 3 15 34] 61°1 114 | 1083 | 1627 | 2710 oe oo oe 11°8 | 66°6 4 || 28 0% | 62°6 | 159 | 1919 | 2949 | 4868 836 | 1322 | 2158 9°0 | 65°1 5a || 36 0 63°3 194 | 2473 | 4131 | 6604 || 1390 | 2504 | 3894 || 8°6 | 59*9 5b | 37 82 | 63°38 213 | 2611 | 4294 | 6905 || 1528 | 2667 | 4195 || 8°9 | 60°8 6a || 338 1? | 63°3 154 | 2271 | 3624 | 5895 | 1188 | 1997 | 3185 | 7°2 | 62°60 6b || 831 02 | 62°3 189 | 2119 | 35077) 5626 || 1036 | 1880 | 2916 || 9°8 | 6074 7a || 36 34 | 63°0 201 | 2524 | 4587 | 7111 || 1441 | 2960 | 4401 8°7 | 55°0 7b 37 14 | 63:0 178 | 2532 | 4302 | 6834 || 1449 | 2675 | 4124 || 7°6 | 58°8 8a || 26 02 | 62°8 141 | 1785 | 2769 | 4554 || 702 | 1142 | 1844 8°6 | 64°5 8b || 27 .2} | 62°6 137 | 1863 | 2830 | 4693 || 780 | 1203 | 1983 || 7:9 65°8 Qa |} 31 13 | 62°4 182 | 2142 | 3252 | 5394 || 1059 | 1625 | 2684 || 9°3 | 65°9 9b | 29 0} | 62°0 170 | 1970 | 2942 | 4912 |} 887 | 1315 | 2202 I 9°5 | 67°0 la || 28 3% | 61°9 179 | 1966 | 3070 | 5036 883 | 1443 | 2326 || 10°0 | 64°0 106 || 28 2% | 62°5 149 | 1937 | 3048 | 4985 || 854 | 1421 | 2275 8°3 | 63°5 lla |} 32 23 | 62°3 181 | 2216 | 3386 | 5602 || 11383 | 1759 | 2892 || 8:9 | 65:4 11d || 31 22 | 62°5 181 | 2163 | 3302 | 5465 | 1080 | 1675 | 2755 I 9°1 | 65° 12a || 32 3 | 63°1 165 | 2234 | 3600 | 5834 || 1151 | 1973 | 3124 || &8°0 | 62°0 12) || 32 23 | 62°5 166 | 2203 | 3581 | 5784 || 1120 | 1954 | 3074 8°2 | 61°5 13a 30 2% | 62°6 180 | 2102 | 3544 | 5646 |) 1019 | 1917 | 2936 || 9°4] 59°38 13b | 30 3} | 62°3 160 | 2083 | 8440 | 5523 | 1000 | 1813 | 2813 8°3 | 60°5 l4a 31 Of} | 62°9 168 | 2120 | 3605 | 5725 || 1037 | 1978 | 3015 8°6 | 58°8 14) || 831 0% | 62°8 165 | 2121 | 3537 | 5658 || 1038 | 1910 | 2948 8°4 | 59°9 15a || 27 0% | 62°7 138 | 1839 | 3041 | 4880 756 | 1414 | 2170 || 8:1 | 60°5 *15b || 30 24 €9 148 | 2077 | 3432 | 5509 ||, 994 | 1805 | 2799 7°6 | 60°5 16a || 36 3} | 68°5 161 | 2499 | 4234 | 6733 || 1416 | 2607 | 4023 6°9 | 59°0 16b || 36 22 | 63°4 176 | 2501 | 4332 | 6833 || 1418 | 2705 | 4128 7°6 | 57°7 l7a || 81 34 | 63°3 131 | 2149 | 3597 | 5746 |) 1066 | 1970 | 5036 6°5 | 59°7 176 || 80 22 | 63°1 152 | 2079 | 3406-| 5485 996 | 1779 | 2775 7°9 | 61:0 18a || 30 34 | 63°0 189 | 2083 | 3390 | 5478 || 1000 | 1763 | 2763 7°2 | 64°1 185 || 31 OF | 62°4 143 | 2090 | 3586 | 5676 || 1007 | 1959 | 2966 7°3 | 58°3 19 30 1 62°4 144 | 2031 | 3348 | 5379 948 | 1721 2669 7°7 | 60°7 20 14 1 60°8 89 956 | 1609 | 2565 |}—127 |— 18 |—145 || 10°2 | 59°4 oy 17 38} | 61°9 127 | 1232 | 1763 | 2995 149 136 285 || 11°5 | 69°9 . 8 VOL. XXV. M 162 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [Apr. EXPERIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GRowTH OF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND, AppEnDIx.—TanLE I[X.—Manures per Acre per Annum (with the exceptions explained in the Notes on p. 163), for 12 Years in succession—namely, for the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, and 20th Seasons; that is, for the crops of Harvests 1852-53-54-55-56-57-58 -59-60-61-62 and 1863.* the Notes on p. 163, | Manures per Acre per Annum for 12 Years, 1951-2 to 1862-3 inclusive, except in the cases explained,in | Plota. Farm- | Com-|Sulphate Sulphate Sulphate yard | mon of of Mag: Manure.) Salt. | Potass.t) Soda. | josiat | Tons. | Ibs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. 1 20 #600 400 200 allied ae nliicey Inet - 3 | Unmanured 4 || Unmanured .,. 5a = 30 300.; 200 100 5b an oe 300 200 100 6a aia oe 300 200 100 6b a0 oe 300 200 100 Ta on ae 300 200 100 7b ad oe 300 200 100 8a oe «s 300 200 100 8b At o 300 200 100 9a? 55 ae 300 200 100 908 oie os oe aio 10a . . 105 5 O lla 11 0 12a 550 0 12b 50 550 Ac 13a . 300 oo 50 13) 300 . oe 14a be ’ 420 14) D . 420 lia 300 200 100 15) 300 200 100 16a 3364) 3800 200 100 16) oe 300 200 100 5 { l7a we oe or 176 on cs A oo 5 18a o0 300 200 100 18) . oe 300 200 100 19 ar .- oe oe 20 || Unmanured .. 50 bi 21 4 «.- oe 300 200 100 22 o. 50 300 200 100 Superphosphate of Lime. Sulphate * of Bone- ay ee Muriatic| Ammo- ash, (Sp.er-1"7). Acid. | nia. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs, 600 450 oe m7 200 150 59 200 150 a0 200 150 100 200 150 100 200 150 200 200 150 200 200 150 300 200 150 300 200 150 . .- .- oe 200 oe BA 200 200 150 200 200 150 ° 200 200 150 es 200 200 150 . 200 200 150 . 200 200 150 ee 200 200 150 . 200 . 200 150 200 200 ve 200 400 200 ae 200 300 200 150 400 200 150 400 oo ao 200 On on 200 200 150 os 200 150 os 200 on 200 300 c . 100 * 100 Muriate’ of Ammo- nia, lbs. Nitrate of Soda. Ibs. 550 550 Rape Cake, Ibs. 500 500 | * For the particulars of the produce of each separate season, ‘see Tables X.-XXI. inclusive; and for those of the twelve years collectively, Tables XX1I.-XXVI. inclusive, App.| Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 163 NOTES TO TABLE IX. (p. 162.) [TabE IX, is intended to be drawn out to the left, free of the book, as it has reference to the succeeding Tables.] u i 1 For the 16th and succeeding seasons—the sulphate of potass was reduced from 600 to 400 Ibs. per acre per annum on Plot 1, and from 300 to 200 Ibs. on all the other Plots where it was used; the sulphate of soda from 400 to 200 Ibs. on Plot 1, to 100 Ibs. on all the Plots on which 200 Ibs. had previously been applied, and from 550 to 3364 Ibs, (two-thirds the amount) on Plots 12a and 12b; and the sulphate of magnesia from 420 to 280 Ibs. (two-thirds the amount) on Plots 14a and 146, * Plot 9a—the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and the superphosphate of lime, were applied in the 12th and succeeding . seasons, but not in the 9th, 10th, and 11th; and the amount of nitrate of soda was for the 9th season only 475 Ibs. per acre, and for the 10th and 11th seasons only 275 lbs. 8 Plot 9b—in the 9th season only 475 lbs. of nitrate of soda were applied. * Common sali—not applied after the 10th season. 5 Plots 17a and 17b, and 18a and 18b—the manures on these plots alternate: that is, Plots 17 were manured with ammonia-salts in the 9th season; with the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, in the 10th; ammonia-salts again in the 11th; the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, again in the 12th, and so on. Plots 18, on the other hand, had the sulphates of potass, soda, and magnesia, and superphosphate of lime, in the 9th season; ammonia-salts in the 10th, and so on, alternately. VOL. XXV. ; N 164 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GRowTH or WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. APPENDIX.—TABLE X.—Propucs of the 97m SEason, 1851-2. Srp (Red Cluster) sown November 7, 1851 ; Crop cut August 24, 1852. | PropucEe PER Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). By MANURE. Offal Corn 33 Corn ao Plots. Dressed Corn. ei ae sate to 100 See |) OE ue Taw )Produce f Total 100 _| straw. 5 an Jory Corn, and 7 res ¢ Quantity. een BES 4) Hee Chaff eek Chaff, saci bonis Bushel. | Straw). Bush. Pecks.) Ibs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 15 02 | 55:8 72 919 | 1706 | 2625 59 109 168 8°4 | 53°8 1 13 1 56°9 714 825 | 1497 | 2322 ||— 35 |—100 |—155 94 4 55°1 2 27 2} | 58°2 | 1123 | 1716 | 3457 | 5173 856 | 1860 | 2716 7°0 | 49°6 3 18 3k | 56°6 78 860 | 1597 | 2457 bs a 30 9°9 | 53°9 4 13 12 | 57-3 | 1062 870 | 1571 | 2441 | 10 |— 26 |— 16 || 15°9 | 55 4 5a 16 3 57°5 72% | 1038 | 1903 | 2941 178 306 484 7°5 | 54°5 5b 17 02 57°3 864 | 1065 | 2032 | 3097 205 435 640 8°8 | 52°4 6a 20 3 57°6 953 | 1288 | 2581 | 3869 428 984 | 1412 8°0 | 49°9 6) 20 3% | 57°5 | 1012 | 1300 | 2604 | 8904 || 440 | 1007 | 1447 8°5 | 49°9 7a 26 24 | 56°0 | 1262 | 1615 | 3850 | 5465 755 | 2253 | 3008 8°5 | 41°9 7b 26 82 | 55°8 1392 1643 | 5772 | 5415 783 2475 2958 9°2 | 43°6 8a 27 3% | 55°9 | 1402 | 1699 | 3806 | 5505 839 | 2209 | 3048 9°0 | 44°6 8b 27 OF | 55°9 | 1382 | 1651 | 3772 | 5423 791 | 2175 | 2966 8°8 | 43°8 9a 25 2 55°6 | 1712 | 1591 | 3714 | 5305 731 ; 2117 | 2848 |] 12-1 | 42°8 9b 24 12 | 55°38 | 153 1509 | 3374 | 4883 649 | 1777 | 2426 11°3 | 44°7 10a 21 8% | 55°9 97% | 1320 | 2787 | 4107 460 | 1190 | 1650 8:0 | 47°3 10) 22 02 | 57°3 80 1343 | 2819 | 4162 483 | 1222 | 1705 6°3 | 47°6 lla 24 02 | 55°6 | 128 1472 | 3081 | 4553 612 | 1484 | 2096 9°5 | 47°8 11d 22 14 | 55°9 | 1332 | 1887 | 2912 | 4299 527 | 13815 | 1842 10°6 | 47°6 12a 24 12 | 57°4 | 1002 | 1503 | 8257 | 4760 643 | 1660 | 2303 v72, | 46° 1 12b 24 12 | 57°3 | 1012 | 1492 | 3232 | 4724 632 | 1635 | 2267 7°3 | 46°2 13a 24 0 57°5 | 100% | 1480 | 3222 | 4702 620 | 1625 | 2245 7°3 | 45°9 13) 23 32 | 57°1 | 1062 | 1476 | 3289 | 4765 616 | 1692 | 2308 7°8 | 44°9 14a 24 12 | 56°9 | 1142 | 1507 | 3547 | 5054 647 | 1950 | 2597 8°2 | 42°5 145 25 Of | 56°7 | 107 1530 | 3607 | 5137 670 | 2010 | 2680 7°5 | 42°4 15a 23 12 | 57°4 | 1112 | 1451 | 3212 | 4663 591 | 1615 | 2206 8°3 | 45°2 15) 25 0% | 56°8 902 | 1520 | 3421 | 4941 660 | 1824 | 2484 6°3 | 44°4 16a 28 3} | 55°0 | 2042 | 1794 | 4677 | 6471 934 | 3080 | 4014 12°8 | 38°3 16) 280 10 By Olan lh Ale) 1700 | 4616 | 6316 | 840 | 3019 | 3859 11°5 | 36°8 17a 25 2 569155) Webs) | lb77 | 8784 | 5811 I Wve lege 2e54 9°4 | 42°2 175 24 14 125629") 1132 1520 | 3466 | 4986 660 | 1869 | 2529 9°5 | 43°9 18a 5 3 57°0 864 869 | 1687 | 2556 9 90 99 || 11°0 | 51°5 18) 14 32 | 56°7 75) 921 | 1764 | 2685 61 167 228 8°9 | 52°2 19 24 32 | 561 183} | 1582 | 3397 | 4979 722 | 1800 | 2522 13°1 | 46°6 20 14 02 | 56°6 val 875 | 1577 | 2452 15 | —20; — 5 8°8 | 55°5 21 19 12 | 56°9 683 | 1177 | 2108 | 3285 317 511 828 6°2 | 55°8 22 19 22 | 55°9 823 | 1176 | 2179 | 3855 316 582 898 7°5 | 53°9 Arp. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 165 Experiments at Rorgamstep on THE GrowrH or Wauerat YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME Lanp. Appenpix.—Tanite XI.—Propuce of the 10TH Szason, 1853. Srxp (Red Rostock) sown March 16; Crop cut September 10, and carted September 20, 1858. i . Propuck PER AcrE, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). BY MANURE, Offal | — {| Corn |. Corn Plots. I Dressed Corn. Total to a | = Offal | Total | Straw: | Produce an poe Total 400 || Straw. | Quantity. ah a a chat, ree or Chaff, |Produce,| Pressed. Bushel, Straw). | Bush. Pks.| lbs. | tbs.: | Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs. || Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. || De 9 OZ | 49°1 | 142% 599 | 1807 | 2406 240 | 394 634 || 31°1l | 33°1 ign} 6 13 | 46°1 | 1002 404 | 1632 | 2036 45 219 264 || 33°2 | 24°§ 2 || (9. OF} S11) 148 1120 | 3372 | 4492 761 | 1959 | 2720 || 14°6 | 33°2 3 5 St 45°] 98 859 | 1413 | 1772 gn ae Bc 3570 | 25:4 4 | 7 1 46°1 | 107 446 | 1670 | 2116 87 257 344 || 31°6 | 20°3 | 5a. 10 0 48°9 993 587 | 1951 | 2538 228 538 766 || 20°5 | 30°1 5b 10 1 48°9 | 1112 | 611 | 2130 | 2741 |} 252 717 969 || 22°6 | 28°7 6a 16 3} ] 51°8 | 1122 978 | 2777 | 8755 619 | 13864 | 1983 || 13°0 | 35:2 6) 19 1 51°8 805 | 1072 | 2798 | 3870 713 | 1885 | 2098 8°1 | 38°3 fa || 23 ah 52°2 | 189 1869 | 5741 | 5110 |} 1010 | 2328 | 3338 || 11°3 | 86°6 Tb. 23 21 51*1 | 1823 | 1857 | 3734 | 5091 998 | 2621 | 3319 | 10°8 | 36°3 8a 22 12 | 51'1 | 1912 | 1346 | 3966 | 5312 987 | 2553 | 3540 || 16°6 | 33°9 8b 24 93) 51°1 | 1502 | 1425 | 3927 | 5352 || 1066 | 2514 | 3580 |] 11°8 | 36°3 91 11 1 47°7 | 1554 691 | 2399 | 3090 332 986 | 1318 |} 29-0 | 28°8 95 10 12 46°1 1582 649 | 2253 | 2902 || 290 840 | 1130 || 32-2 | 28°8 104 | 9 382 | 48°9 | 1592 642 | 2049 | 2691 283 636 919 |} 8391 | 31°38 Ob.) 15. 2 49°8 | 1274 896 | 2682 | 3578 537 | 1269 | 1806 |} 16°6 | 33°4 lla || 17 2 50°1 1272 1015 | 2524 | 3539 656 | 1111 | 1767 || 14°4 | 40°2 1lb || 18 pean) ae a ed 1073 | 2707 | 3780 714 | 1294 | 2008 || 12°38 | 39°7 lla 22. 0 52°0 | 1372 | 1283 | 8665 | 4948 924 | 2252 | 3176 || 12°0 | 85:0 125 23. 32} 51°1 1403 | 1875 | 3704 | 5079 || 1016 | 2291 | 3307 || 11°4 | 37°1 13a 22 12 | 52°1 | 179 1841 | 3704 | 5045 982 | 2291 | 3273 15°4 | 36°2 13) 23. 25 | 51°1 | 169 1396 | 3912 | 5308 |} 1037 | 2499 | 3536 13°8 | 35°7 l4a 21 2 51°2 | 203} | 1822 | 3471 | 4798 963 | 2058 | 3021 18°2 | 38:1 14) 23 02 52°6 | 132% | 13847 | 3761 | 5108 || 988 | 2348 | 3336 || 10°9 | 85:8 l5a 19, Sl*l | 1612 | 1143 | 3361 | 4504 | 784 | 1948 | 2732 || 16°5 | 84-0 15) 23 23] 51°1 13803 | 1351 | 8756 | 5107 992 | 2343 | 3335 || 10°7 | 36°0 l6a 24 14 | 52°5 | 220 1496 | 4904 | 6400 || 118 3491 | 4628 || 17°92 30°5 165 25. 82.) 62°5 1862 | 1537 | 5019 | 6556 || 1178 | 3606 | 4784 || 13°8 380°6 l7a 8 12 | 49-8 101? 520 | 1996 | 2516 || 16] 583 744 || 24°3 | 96-1 17d 8 32] 48:9 1024 539 | 2012 | 2551 180 599 779 || 23°5 | 26°8 18a M7 32 | 52°9 | 175 1111 | 5385 | 4496 752 | 1972 | 2724 || 18°7 | 82¢8 185 20, 3 52°1 | 163% | 1256 | 3796 | 5052 897 | 2385 | 3280 || 15-0 | 33*1 19 19 13 | 52°6 1473 | 1160 | 3213 | 4373 801 | 1800 | 2601 14°6 | 36e1 20 5 32 | 47°8 | 150 425 | 1659 | 2084 66 246 312 || 54°4 | 25°6 21 12 33 | 50°4 101? 753 | 2181 | 2934 394 768 | 1162 |) 15°6 | 84°5 22 Ope} 49°4 86 592 | 1860 | 2452 233 447 680 || 17°0 | 81°8 166 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [AppP, EXPERIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. APPENDIX.—T'aBLE XII.—Propuce of the 111TH Season, 1853-4. Seep (Red Rostock) sown November 12, 1853 ; Crop cut August 21, and carted August 31, 1854. Propuce Per Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163), PER MANURE. 3 Offal | Corn Plots. Dressed Corn. ae - BA Offal | Total | Straw | Produce Straw | Total || 100 | gt Weight and Corn Corn. and Hts Guantien “= Corn. | Corn. Chaff. Ko ri Chaff. Produce.|| Dressed. Bushel, Straw). Bush, Pks.| Ibs. Ibs. lbs, lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. 0 26 12 | 61°0 592 | 1672 | 2114 | 3786 313 | —23 290 3°7 | 79°1 1 24 14 | 60°2 594 | 1529 | 2531 | 4060 170 394 564 4°0 | 60°4 2 Al O% | 62°5 | 103% | 2675 | 4450 | 7125 || 1316 | 2313 | 3629 4°0 | 60°1 5 21 Ot | 60°6 82 | 1359 | 2137 | 3496 oF aa a 6°4 | 63°6 4 23 «34 | 61el 612 | 1521 | 2338 | 3859 162 201 368 4°2 | 65°1 5a 24 13 | 61:0 914 | 1578 | 2520 | 4098 219 383 602 6°1 | 62°6 5b 24 O 61°6 53 1532 | 2503 | 4055 |. 173 366 539 O10 1) Lee 6a 33 22 | 61°8 | 1032 | 2186 | 3845 | 6031 827 | 1708 | 2535 5°0 | 56°8 6) 34 22 | 61°8 | 1004 | 2239 | 4055 | 6294 880 | 1918 | 2798 || 4°7 | 55°2 7a 45 22 | 61°9 | 1314 | 2950 | 5603 | 8553 |} 1591 | 3466 | 5057 || 4°7 | 52°6 7b 45 13 | 61°8 {403 2944 | 5496 | 8440 || 1585 | 3359 | 4944 | 5°0 | 53°6 8a 47 12 | 61°4 | 152% | 3065 | 6135 | 9200 || 1706 | 3998 5704 5°3 | 50°0 8b 49 24 | 61°8 | 1394 | 3208 | 6117 | 9325 || 1849 | 3980 | 5829 t 4°6 | 52°4 9a 38 3 60°7 | 1034 | 2456 | 4142 | 6598 || 1097 | 2005 | 3102,|)) 4:4 | 59°3 9b 38 52 | 60°7 | 118} | 2480 | 4243 | 6723 || 1121 | 2106 |.3227 | 5*0 | 58°4 | 10a 34 12 | 60°5 | 13\4 | 2211 | 3597 | 5808 852 | 1460 | 2312 || 6°3 | 61°5 100 39 O02 | 61°6 | 1213 | 2535 | 4468 | 7003 || 1176 | 2331 | 3507 5°0 | 56°7 lla 44 2 61°1 | 1402 2859 | 5147 | 8006 |} 1500 | 3010 | 4510 b°2 | 5596 116 43 OF | 61°2 | 1174 | 2756 | 5020 | 7776 || 1897 | 2883 | 4280 4°5 | 54°9 12a 45 324 | 62°2 | 114} | 2966 | 5503 | 8469 || 1607 | 3366 | 4973 4:0 | 53°9 120° 45 VAY 6222 | V5 2939 | 5473 | 8412 || 1580 | 8336 | 4916 4°1 | 53°7 18a"}| 45 0% | 62°2 | 106 | 2913 | 5398 | 8311 1554 | 3261 | 4815 3°8 | 54°0 13} 43 32 | 62°2 | 1303 2858 | 5545 | 8403 || 1499 | 3408 | 4907 4°38 | 51°6 14a 45 12 | 62°2 | 127% | 2946 | 5552 | 8498 || 1587 | 3415 | 5002 4°5 |, 53=2 14b 44 O24 | 62:2 | 1202 | 2863 | 5418 | 8281 1504 | 3281 | 4785 4°4 | 52°9 15a 43 1} | 62-1 | 1113 2801 | 4898 | 7699 || 1442 | 2761 | 4203 4°1 | 5792 15) 43 1 62°4 | 1123 2810 | 5273 | 8088 |} 1451 | 3136.| 4587 4°2 | 53°3 | 16a 49 2% | 61°7 | 1732 | 3230 | 6702 | 9932 || 1971 | 4565 | 6536 5°7)| 492 16} 50 O02 | 61°7 | 196 | 5293 | 6635 | 9928 || 1934 | 4498 | 6432 6°3 | 49°6 17a 45 3 62°1 | 104 | 2948 | 5270 | 8218 || 1589 | 3133 | 4722 3:7 | 55°9 17) 42 23 | 62-2 8634 | 2732 | 4897 | 7629 1373 | 2760 | 4133 3°3 | 55°8 18a 24 0 61°2 55 1526 | 2418 | 3944 167 281 448 3°8 | 63*1 18) 23 22 | 61:0 643 | 1511 | 2377 | 3888 152 240 392 4°5 | 63°6 ‘ | 19 4] 02 | 61°7 | 1223 | 2666 4677 | 7843 || 1807 | 2540 | 3847 4°8 | 57°O 20 22) iS 60°8 62 1445 | 2217 | 3662 86 80 166 4°5 | 65°2 21 32 02 | 61°2°| 63; | 2030 | 3440 | 5470 671 | 1303 | 1974 3°3 | 59°] 22 sl 3 61°0 554 | 1994 | 3840 | 5584 635 | 1203 | 1838 2°9 | 897 pr App. ] Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 167 Exrertments AT RotHAMSTED ON THE GRowTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. ‘ Avpenprx.—T ante XIII.—Propuce of the 127TH Srason, 1854-5. Seep (Red Rostock) sown November 9,1854; Crop cut August 26, and carted September 2, 1855. Propucre Per Acre, &c, (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163), INCREASE PER ACRE By MAnNuRE. Offal Corn Sas Plots. Dressed Corn. . ey nae A 100 = <> ra uce Weight Anas ies ' ae (Corn || Corn, | and peal Dressed.| S'raw. Quantity. per “ | Chaff. and Chaff. Bushel. Straw) Bush. Pecks.| lbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 ei 70 60°7 63 1096 | 1726 | 2822 24 |= 61 |— 37 6°1 | 63°5 1 18 2 60°5 57% | 1179 | 1890 | 3069 107 103 210 ol 6224 2 34 2% | 62:0 884 | 2237 | 3845 | 6082 || 1165 | 2058 | 3223 4-1 | 58°2 3 ie) 0 59°2 65 | 1972 | 1787 | 2859 oe a aie 6°5 | 60°0 4 1S) (2%) 59°5 574 | 1168 | 1832 | 3000 96 45 141 5°2 | 63°8 5a 18 2 599 464 | 1157 | 1819 | 2976 85 32 117 4°2 | 63°6 55 18 0% | 60°1 51% | 1148 | 1800 | 2943 71 13 84 4°7 | 68°5 6a Be a 60°3 80% | 1753 | 2837 | 4590 681 | 1050 | 1731 4°8 | 61°8 6 28 1 60°9 872 | 1811 | 3037 | 4848 739 | 1250 | 1989 5*1 | 59°6 7a 32 22 | 59°4] 142 2084 | 3911 | 5995 || 1012 | 2124 | 3136 7°38 | 58°3 7 33 1d | 59°5 | 154 2138 | 4158 | 6296 || 1066 | 2371 | 3437 7°8 | 5194 8a 29: 3 58°8 | 160 1909 | 3838 | 5747 837 | 2051 | 2888 9°2 | 49°7 8d 33 O02 | 58°7 | 205 2153 | 43842 | 6495 || 1081 | 2555 | 3636 || 10°5 | 49°6 9a 29 ‘23 | 58°3 | 203% | 1932 | 3946 | 5878 860 | 2159 | 3019 |} 11°8 | 49-0 9b 25 13 57°3 | 1523 | 1605 | 2212 | 4817 533 | 1425 | 1958 || 10°5 | 50°0 10a 19 3$ | 571 | 145 1285 | 2512 | 3797 213 725 938 || 12°7 | 51°2 10d 28 04 | 58°9 | 145 1805 | 3268 | 5073 733 | 1481 | 2214 827 || Sa°2 lla 1g 8 °S. 55*3 | 174 1210 | 2484 | 3694 138 697 835 || 16°8 | 48°7 11d 24 23 | 56°3 | 1938¢ | 1580 | 3153 | 4733 508 | 1366 | 1874 || 14°0 | 50°1 12a 30 02% | 59°5 | 1514 | 1940 | 3538 | 5478 868 | 1751 | 2619 8°5 | 54°8 12b a5 62 60°2 | 157 2172 | 4010 | 6182 |} 1100 | 2223 | 3323 7°8 | 54°2 13a a9 «660 59°9 | 1872 | 1924 | 3503 | 5427 852 | 1716 | 2568 |} 10°8 | 54°9 13) 32 | 2 60°4 | 1472 | 2110 | 3870 | 5980 || 1038 | 2083 | 3121 7°5 | 54°5 l4a 29 3 60°0 | 1672 | 1954 | 3577 | 5531 882 | 1790 | 2672 9°4 | 54°6 14) 33 12 | 60°0 | 14827 | 2158 | 4003 | 6161 || 1086 | 2216 | 5302 7°4 | 53°9 l5a 3l 3} | 60°0 | 1193 | 2030 | 3825 | 5855 958 | 2038 | 2996 6°3 | 53°1 5b 33 3 60°6 | 1464 | 2193°| 4222 | 6415 || 1121 | 2435 | 3556 792) | 52°0 16a 35 12 | 58*2 | 160 2100 | 455. 6634 || 1028 | 2747 | 38775 8°3 | 46°3 16b 32. 2 58*2 | 225$¢ | 2115 | 4991 | 7106 || 1043 | 3204 | 4247 || 12:0 | 42°4 l7a 18 32) 60°8 78} | 1227 | 1976 | 3203 155 189 344 6°8 | 62-1 176 17. OF | 60°38 77% | 1110 | 1804 | 2914 38 17 55 ae on pokes 18a 82 32 | 60°9 | 122% | 2127 | 4017 | 6144 || 1055 | 2230 | 3285 6"1 | 52°9 18) 33 12 | 60°8 | 135% | 2170 | 4215 | 6385 || 1098 | 2428 | 3526 | 6:7 | 51°5 19 30 0% | 58°7 | 195$¢ | 1967 | 3851 | 5818 895 | 2064 | 2959 || 11°1 | 51°1 20 tia © p2k4)) 61h 76% | 1155 | 1831 | 2986 83 44 127 7°1 | 63°1 21 24 12] 60°8 47 1533 | 2419 | 3952 461 632 | 1093 3°2 | 63°4 22 24 2% | 60°1 702 | 1553 | 2457 | 4010 481 670 | 1151 4°8 | 63°2 LS 168 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ APP, EXPERIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GRowTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR . ON THE SAME LanD. Appenprx.—T ante XIV.—Propuce of the 13ru Smason, 1855-6. Seep (Red Rostock) sown November 13, 1855; Crop cut August 26, and carted September 3, 1856. Propuce PER Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). BY MANURE. | of | Oa Plots. Dressed Corn. Total F to ihe = aE |... ...| Offal | Total | Straw | Produce traw | Total 100 | stra Weight 5 and Corn || Corn. and ve. | Dressed. ye Quantity. | per | C™ | CP | chase se Chait, es eal Bushel. Straw). Bush. Pecks. Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. 0 18 1d | 56°8 | 182% | 1179 | 1969 | 3148 287 411 698 | 12°7 | 59°9 1 7 02 | 56°3 | 1553 | 1102 } 1935 | 3035 210 375 585 | 14°0 | 57°0 2 36 1} | 58°6 | 150 2277 | 4517 | 6594 || 1385 | 2759 | 4144 71 | 52°8 3 14 2 54°3 |. 1034 892 | 1558 | 2450 == bo AS Le) 5743 4 16 1k | 55°5 | 1152) 1026 | 1781 |.2757 |) 184) 178 307 || 12°7 | 59°3 5a 18 32 | 56°5 | 1042 | 1167 | 2012 | 3179 | 275 | 454 729 | 9°9 | 58°0 " 58 Pr, 134 | 56°2 | 1062 | 1247 | 2122 | 3369 | 355) 564) 9191] 9Q4 | 5827 6a 27 14 | 58°2 | 1282 | 1717 | 8050 | 4767 || 825 |} 1492 } 2317 81 | 56°5 6b 28. 0%] 58°5 | 1102 | 1755 | 3093 | 4848 | 863 | 1535 | 2398 | GF |156"7 7a 37 1 58°0 | 152% | 2312 | 4560 | 6872 || 1420 | 3002 | 4422 } Zh’) 50°7 7b 86 22 | 57°6 | 1402 | 2244 | 4398 | 6642 | 1552 | 2840 | 4192 || 6:7 | 51°0 8a || 40 02 | 56:8 | 2284 | 2507 | 5182 | 7689 | 1615 | 3624 | 5239 || 10°0 | 48-4 8b 37 8B | 57°1 | 2302 | 2400 | 5089 | 7489 || 1508 | 3531 | 5039 || 10°6 | 47-2 | 9a 82 14 | 57°2 | 1682 | 2019 | 3875 | 5894 || 1127 | 2317 | 8444 1 (SS eee, 9b 26, 0 56°3 | 2144 | 1679 | 3152 | 4831 || 787 | 1594 | 2381 |) 14°6 | 53°3 10a || 24 OF | 55°6 | 162% | 1505 | 2818 | 4323 | 613 | 1260 | 1873 | 12°1 | 58°4 10d 2 Q2EW5T? 2-145 1727 | 3168 | 4895 || 835 | 1610 | 2445 || 9°2 | 54-5 lla 3k 84 | 57°3 | 1732 | 2001 } 3517 | 5518 || 1109 | 1959 | 3068 9°5 | 56°9 116 30 823 | 57°5 | 183% | 1946 | 3443 | 5389 || 1054 | 1885 | 2939 || 10°4 | 56°5 12a 33. 34 | 58-7 | 1112 | 2102 | 3847 | 5949 || 1210 | 2289 | 3499 536 | ode7 126 32 = 8K | 58°8 | 1452 | 2079 | 3725 | 5804 | 1187 | 2167 | 3354 7°5 | 55°8 13a 32 12 | 58°6 | 138 2036 | 3743 | 5779 || 1144 | 2185 | 3329 7°3 | 5404 13) 30 3652 | 58°9 | 193 2008 | 3651 | 5659 || 1116 | 2093 | 3209 || 10°6 | 55:0 l4a 35 O02 | 58°6 | 1403 | 2195 | 4202 | 6397 || 13803 | 2644 | 3947 6"9 | 52-2 14) 34 O02 | 59°0 | 145 2162 | 4117 | 6279 i 1270 | 2559 | 3829 |} 7:2 52°5 HT | | 15a 380 OF | 59°1 | 1423 | 1923 | 3521 | 5444 | 1031 | 1963 | 2994 8:0 | 54°6 150 32. «COO 59°4 | 1432 | 2045 | 3752 | 5797 || 1158 | 2194 | 8347 || 7:5 54°5 \| 16a 38 0% | 58°5 | 1952 | 2426 | 5529 | 7955 |) 1534 | 8971 | 5505 8°8 ; 43°9 166 37 3 58°7 |. 2324 | 2450 67 | 7917 1558 | 3909 | 5467 || 10°5 | 44°8 17a 31 2) | 59°0 | 1162 | 1983 ; 3558 | 5541 '| 1091 | 2000 } 3091 6°3 | 55°7 176 |; 30 1% | 59°1 | 1374 | 1935 | 3465 | 5400 || 1043 | 1907 | 2950 TT +») 560R 18a 17 3% | 57°8 | 107 1140 | 2012 | 3152 248 454 702 || 10°4 | 56°7 18) Le +O ant 934 | 1181 | 1938 | 3069 239 380 619 9°0 | 58°3 19 32 1 58°9 | 157% | 2059 | 3562 | 5621 | 1167 | 2004 | 3171 8°3 | 57°8 20 17 02 | 57'7 85 1075 | 1888 | 2963 || 183 330 513 || 8°4 | 5790 21 22 1% | 58°0 98 1398 | 2529 | 3927 506 971 | 1477 35 itbore 22 21 1$ | 57°8 | 109% | 1351 | 2498 | 3849 459 940 | 1399 8-8 | 54°] App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 169 Exvrrermmnts at Rormamstep oN THE GRowtsa or WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Apprenpix.—Tasite XV.—Propuce of the 141m Smason, 1856-7, Strep (Red Rostock) sown November 6, 1856 ; Crop cut August 18, and carted August 22, 1857, Plots. Straw Propuce Per Acre, &c. (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). Dressed Corn. 5 Offal | Total” ‘ Weight! Gorn. | Corn. Quantity per Bushel. Bush. Pecks.| Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. 18 22 | 59°0 86i | 1181 7 2% | 59°0 76 1118 41 Of | 60°4 982 | 2587 19 32°) 58°3 74% | 1236 22 1} | 58°8 674 | 1586 22) + S# | 59-0 562 | 1409 24 2h | 58°8 662 | 1512 35 ~1% | 59°9 92% | 2211 85 «614 | :59°8 782 | 2193 43 14 | 60°5 | 1603 | 2782 46 12 | 60°3 | 1082 | 2902 47 3 60°8 | 1582 | 3058 48 382 | 60°6 | 1693 | 3129 ro So 60°1 | 135 2767 36 02 | 58°0 | 1212 | 2220 29 O% | 58°0 | 1252 | 1816 34 2 58°6 | 1632 | 2185 33 ° 0 58°5 | 150 2432 39 02 | 58°0 | 1212 | 2397 43 383 | 60°4 | 100 2747 45 2 60°4 | 1042 | 2729 42 3 60°6 | 122% | 2714 43 2 60°5 | 1082 | 2739 43 3 60°5 | 1342 | 2781 42 32 | 60°3 | 1132 | 2699 42 ‘12 | 60-4 | 125% | 2681 44 12 | 60°0 962 | 2765 48 32 | 60°5 | 175 3131 + 0 60°5 | 1692 | 3194 26 «22° 59°T 66 | 1642 25 3; | 58°8 592 | 1583 41 4 | 59°7 | 1142 | 2566 40 02 | 59°8 | 1242 | 2519 41 23 | 59°5 | 123% | 2600 19 22 | 58°4 622 | 1218 24 O 60°6 812 | 1538 23 0% | 60°6 873 | 1491 Total Produce (Corn and Straw). Ibs, 2726 2650 5910. 2813 2958 3026 3247 4968 4950 6462 6793 7355 7579 6634 5203 4208 5060 5375 5317 6394 6312 6421 6386 6439 6351 6368 6543 7814 7897 3700 3523 6009 5884 5793 INCREASE PER ACRE BY MANURE. Straw | Total Corn. and z Chaff. Produce. Tbs. “Tbs, Ibs. — 55 |-— 32 |— 87 —118 |-— 45 |—163 1351 | 1746 | 3097 130 |- 5] 145 173 40 213 276 158 434 975 | 1180 | 2155 957 | 1180 | 2137 1546 | 2103 | 3649 1666 | 2314 | 3980 || 1822 | 2720 | 4542 1893 | 2873 | 4766 1531 | 2290 | 3821 || 984 | 1406 | 2390 | 580 815 | 1395 949 | 1298 | 2247 1196 | 1366 | 2562 1161 | 1343 | 2504 1511 | 2070 | 3581 1493 | 2006 | 3499 1478 | 2130 | 3608 1503 | 2070 | 3573 1545 | 2081 | 3626 1463 | 2075 | 3538 1445 | 2110 | 5555 1529 | 2201 | 3730 | 1895 3106 | 5001 | 1958 | 5126 | 5084 406 481 887 347 363 710 1330 | 1866 | 3196 1283 | 1788 | 3071 1364 | 1616 | 2980 f- 23 |- 15 |-— 36 302 238 540 255 230 485 Offal Corn Cornu to 100 100 Dressed, Straw. C29 Wh 2085 7°3 | 73-0 4°0 | 77°9 6°4 | 78°3 5°1 | 88°2 4°2 | 87°2 4°6 | 87°1 4°4 | 80°2 3°7 | 79°6 6°1 | 75°6 3°9 | 74°6 B°5 | 71°32 5°7 | 70°3 el Nak" 6 5°8 | 74°4 7°4 | 75°9 8°1 | 76°0 6°6 | 82°6 5°4 | 82-1 3°8 | 75°3 4:0 | 76°2 eid, || ane 4°1 | 75°1 5°1 | 76°0 4°4 | 73°9 BO) eT 3°6 | 73°2 5°9 | 66°9 5°6 | 67°9 4°2 | 79°8 3°9 | 81°6 4°7 | 74°5 5°2 | 74°9 5°0 | 81°4 5°5 | 77°6 5'6 | 84°8 6°2 | 82°5 170 Report of Experiments on the Growth of VW heat. [ App. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GrowTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME Lanp. ApPENDIX.—T ABLE XVI.—Propvuce of the 15rH Srason, 1857-8. Sep (Red Rostock) sown November 3 and 11, 1857; Crop cut August 9, and carted August 20, 1858. PRODUCE PER ACRE, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). BY MANURE. | Offal Corn Plots. || Dressed Corn. Total = 06 ‘ | a |Z Offal ||) Dotalu im sstawiierouuce Straw | Total 100 Weight and Corn || Corn. | and |p Straw Quantity. es Corn. | Corn. Chaff, ce at Chaff, Produce.|| Dressed ushel Straw), Bush, Pecks.| Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. 10) 20 3 61°2 61} | 1332 | 1902 | 8234 191 232 423 4°8 | 70°0 1 16 12 | 60°7 643 | 1055 | 1630 | 2685 ||— .86 |— 40 |—126 6°5 | 64°7 2 38 3} | 62°6 82% | 2512 | 3837 | 6349 || 1871 | 2167 | 3538 3°4 | 65°5 3 18 0O 60°4 52 1141 | 1670 | 2811 oe .- id 4°8 | 68°3 4 |} 19 Of] 61°1 362 | 1206 | 1673 | 2879 65 3 68 oF lh a2e 5a | 18 22 61°5 35 1187 | 1532 | 2719 46 |—158 |— 92 S20) 7ai°d 5b | 19 1 61°4 45 1227 | 1643 | 2870 || * 86 |}— 27 59 3°8 | 74°7 6a || 28 21 | 62°1 412 | 1818 | 2577 | 4395 677 907 | 1584 2°3 | 70°6 6b || 29 O4 | 62:1 38t | 1850 | 2713 | 4565 709 | 1043 | 1752 21 | 68°2 7a 38 2% | 61°9 65 2450 | 3965 | 6415 || 1309 | 2295 | 3604 2°7 | 61°8 7 39 2% | 62°3 68 2530 | 4092 | 6622 1389 | 2422 | 3811 2°8 | 61°8 8a |) 41 33 | 61°8 863 | 2680 | 4667 | 7347 |} 1539 | 2997 | 4536 3°3 | 57°4 8) |, 41 32 | 61°7 943 | 2675 | 4667 | 7342 || 1534 | 2997 | 4531 3°7 | 57°3 9a || 37 2} | 60°8 | 100 2384 | 4317 | 6701 1243 | 2647 | 3890 4°4 | 55°2 9b || 23 2 58‘8 88 1470 | 2688 | 4158 329 | 1018 | 1347 6°4 | 54°7 10a || 22 32 | 59°6 75? | 1489 | 2130 | 3569 298 460 758 5°6 | 67°6 1001) e2% ~ 3 61°4 704 | 1775 | 2615 | 4390 634 945 | 1579 4°1 | 67°9 lla |} 30 3% | 60°5 | 108$ | 1977 | 2797 | 4774 836 | 1127 | 1963 5°8 | 70°7 11d 33 02.| 60°4 | 104 2099 | 3018 | 5117 958 | 13848 | 2306 5°2 | 69°6 124 37 32 | 62°1 782 | 2437 | 3663 | 6100 || 1296 | 1993 | 3289 3°3 | 66°5 125 37 = O# | 62°1 764 | 2387 | 3673 | 6060 || 1246 | 2003 | 3249 3°3 | 65°0 13a || 37 O2 | 62*1 72 2384 | 5693 | 6077 || 1243 | 2023 | 3266 3°1 | 64°6 13b || 37 O02 | 62°7 662 | 2397.| 8677 | 6074 || 1256 | 2007 | 3263 2°9 | Gos 14a 37 0 Bz || 62-1 652 | 2413 | 3737 | 6150 || 1272 | 2067 | 3339 2°8 | 64°6 14) 38 14 | 62°0 61; | 2436 | 3710 | 6146 ||,1295 | 2040 | 3335 2°6 | 65°8 lda |} 35 13 | 62°6 703 | 2285 | 3515 | 5800 || 1144 | 1845 | 2989 3°2 | 65°0 15) an | 2 62°8 812 | 2436 | 3698 | 6134 || 1295 | 2028 | 3323 3°5 | 65°9 l6a || 41 3 62°1 | 106% | 2702 | 4797 | 7499 || 1561 | 3127 | 4688 4°1 | 56°3 16) | 42 0 | 62°1 993 | 2717 | 4813 | 7530 || 1576 | 3143 | 4719 3°8 | 56°5 17a | 33 1} | 62°5 66% | 2150 | 3203 | 5353 || 1009 | 1533 | 2542 3°2 | 67°1 17) 33 3h | 62°5 652 | 2181 | 3274 | 5455 || 1040 | 1604 | 2644 3°1 | 66°6 18a || 22 32 | 62°3 412 | 1472 | 2008 | 3480 331 338 669 2°9 | 73°3 18) || 20 232 | 62°4 492 | 1338 | 1967 | 3305 197 297 494 3°8 | 68°0 | 19 || 33 12 | 62°5 932% | 2177 | 3185 | 5362 || 1086 | 1515 | 2551 4°5 | 68°35 20 | 17. 0 60°3 633 | 1089 | 1730 | 2819 ||— 52 60 8 6°2 | 63°0 21 || 24 12 | 61°5 704 | 1574 | 2373 | 3947 433 703 | 1136 4°8 | 66°38 22, || 22 0 61°5 582 | 1412 | 2180 | 3592 271 510 781 4:3 | 64°8 App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. wel EXpPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED ON THE GnrowTH or WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Appenprx.—Taste XVII.—Propucs of the 16TH SxEason, 1858-9. Seep (Red Ros- tock) sown November 4, 1858 ; Crop cut August 4, and carted August 20, 1859. | Propuce PER AcrE, &c, INcREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). BY MANURE. Offal a Gann Corn Plots. Dressed Corn. a eC. ae ae ee a eA Offall |« Totals, Tew | Sn Total Straw. Corn rm. and i Quantity. wee Corn, | Com. | nee | Soa |] CO | Gage |Produce,|| Dressed Bushel Straw), Bush. Pecks.| Ibs. | tbs. | Ibs. | Ibs | Ibs. || Ibs | “Ibs | Ibs 0 21 22 54°0 88} | 1254 | 2310 | 3564 203 135 338 7°6 | 54°3 1 18 6s 55°0 | 101 1189 | 2300 | 3489 138 125 263 9°3 | 51°7 2 || 36 OF | 56°5 | 218% | 22683 | 4810 | 7073 || 1212 | 2635 | 3847 || 10-7 | 47°1 3 WB 12 | 52°5 882 | 1051 | 2175 | 3226 “a oe Se 9°2 | 48°3 4 19 O02 | 55°0 | 131¢ | 1188 | 2230 | 3418 137 55 192 || 12°5 | 53°3 5a 20 22 | 56°0 | 1233 | 1277 | 2328 | 3600 226 148 374 || 10°7 | 55°0 5b 20 23 56°0 | 1183 | 1273 | 2398 | 3666 222 218 440 || 10°2 | 53°2 6a 29 ~22 | 56°5 | 1333 | 1808 | 3747 | 5555 757 | 1572 | 2329 8°0 | 48:3 6b 30 04 | 56°5 | 153% | 1855 | 3853 | 5708 804 | 1678 | 2482 9°0 | 481 7a 34 22 | 55°9 | 1584 | 2097 | 4677 | 6774 || 1046 | 2502 | 3548 8-2 | 44°9 7b 34 2 55°9 | 155 2U89 | 4803 | 6892 |) 1038 | 2628 | 3666 8°0 | 43°5 8a 34 3} | 54°0 | 1862 | 2068 | 5353 | 7421 || 1017 | 3178 | 4195 9°9 | 38°6 8) 34 O02 | 534 | 1812 | 2007 | 5597 | 7604 956 | 3422 | 4378 || 10°0 | 35°9 9a 30 «0 54°5 | 1702 | 1806 | 5270 | 7076 755 | 3095 | 3850 || 10°5 | 34°3 9b 24 22 50°5 | 170 1412 | 3590 | 5002 361 | 1415 | 1776 || 18°7 | 89°3 10a 18 3% | 51*5 | 280 1207 | 2730 | 3937 156 555 711 || 28°5 | 44°2 10) 25 2 52°5 | 160 1500 | 3420 | 4920 449 | 1245 | 1694 |! 11-9 | 43-9 lla 26 33 | 51+4 | 2482 | 1628 | 3527 | 5155 577 | 1352 | 1929 || 18°0 | 46°2 11b 27) =3} | 51°3 | 2744 | 1698 | 3577 | 5275 647 | 1402 | 2049 || 19°3 | 47°5 12a 34 2 54°5 | 1702 | 2060 | 4550 | 6610 || 1009 | 2375 | 3384 9°0 | 45°38 12) 34 32 | 54°8 | 2062 | 2115 | 4743 | 6858 || 1064 | 2568 | 3632 | 10-9 | 44°6 13a 34 02 | 55°0 | 155% | 2037 | 4737 | 6774 986 | 2562 | 3548 8°3 | 43°0 13) 34 34 | 55°0 | 1683 | 2087 | 4807 | 6894 || 1036 | 2682 | 3668 || 8°8 | 43-4 l4a 34 1$ | 54°5 | 175% | 2054 | 4763 | 6817 || 1003 | 2588 | 3591 9°4 | 43°1 14) 34 22 | 54°5 | 188% | 2074 | 4700 | 6774 || 1023 | 2525 | 3548 || 10°0 | 44°1 l5a 34 02 | 55°0 | 1712 | 2053 | 4773 | 6826 || 1002 | 2598 | 3600 9°1 | 43°0 15) 35 02 | 55:0 | 165 2095 | 4993 | 7088 || 1044 | 2818 | 3862 8°6 | 42°0 16a 34 32 | 52°6 | 1892 | 2026 | 5927 | 7953 || 975 | 3752 | 4727 || 10°3 | 34-2 16) 34 12 | 52°6 | 198 2005 | 5793 | 7798 || 954 | 3618 | 4572 || 10°7 | 34°6 lia 21 14} 55:0 75 1247 | 2483 | 3730 196 308 504 6°3 | 50°2 175 9 $s 54°5 90 1168 | 2373 | 3541 117 198 315 8°3 | 49°2 18a 382 3} | 55°5 | 1532 | 1973 | 4533 | 6506 922 | 2358 | 3280 8°4 | 435 18) a 32 56°0 | 158} | 1980 | 4650 | 6630 929 | 2475 | 3404 || 8-7 | 42°6 19 30 62 55°5 | 2112 | 1903 | 4023 1 5926 852 | 1848 | 2700 || 12°5 | 47°3 20 17 «32 | 52°5 | 1022 | 1039 | 29917 | 3256 || —12 42 30 || 11°0 | 46-9 21 26 14 | 54°0 | 1153 | 1538 | 3185 | 4723 487 | 1010 | 1497 8-1 | 48°3 22 24 02 | 55-0 | 180 1460 | 2980 | 4440 409 805 | 1214 9°8 | 49° | i 172 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. EXPERIMENTS at RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROowTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE’ SAME LAND. AppENDIX.—TasLE XVIII.—Propuce of the 17TH Srason, 1859-60. Srp (Red Rostock) sown November 17, 1859; Crop cut September 17 and 19, and carted October 5, 1860. - Propucr Per Acre, &c. IncrEasr PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163), BY MANURE. Offal | Corn | Com Plots, Dressed Corn. Total to to Weak tah, otak, 1, Sew eae Corn eee apse a eee Sita Quantity. ee eo ae Chaff. and te Chaff. Produce,|} ~TT8s? Bushel. Straw), Bush. Pecks.| Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. 0 14 1d | 58°5 61% 826 | 1445 | 2271 88 | —14 74 SO Rb r2 1 12 E 52°8 61 717 | 1880 | 2097 —21 | —79 |—100 9°3 | 52°0 2 32 12 | 55°5 72% | 1864 | 3440 | 5304 || 1126 | 1981 | 3107 4°1 | 54°2 3 12 oF | 52°6 | 623 738 | 1459 | 2197 wi aA oe 9°3 | 50°6 4 14 2 55°0 734 832 | 1520 | 2352 94 61 155 Mori |) tay. te 5a 10s) 23 | 54°0 562 903 | 15380 | 2483 165 121 286 Gey 5a" 2 @ 5b 16 Of | 53-1 78 935 | 1660 | 2595 197 201 398 9° 1 } 56°3 6a 21 Of | 53°7 762 | 1210 | 2183 | 3393 472 724 | 1196 6°8 | 55°6 6) 22 32 | 54:2 884 | 1826 | 2393 | .3719 588 934 | 1522 Tel pope: 7a 27 33 | 54°3 98+ | 1612 | 5003 | 4615 874 | 1544 | 2418 Bris; 15827 70 27 23 | 54°3 | 102 1597 | 3137 | 4734 859 | 1678 | 2537 6°8 | 50°9 8a 30 3 52°8 | 183% | 1759 | 3880 | 5639 || 1021 | 2491 | 3442 82 | 45*3 8b 31 22 | 52°3 | 1293 | 1787 | 3813 | 5600 || 1049 | 2354 | 3403 7°8 | 46°9 9a 32 2% | 51°5 | 1762.) 1858 | 4777 | 6635 |} 1120 | 3318 | 4438 10°5 | 38°9 9b 19 2% | 48°5 | 205 1155 | 3130 | 4285 417 | 1671 | 2088 || 21-6 | 36°9 10a 15 OZ | 49°5 | 155 905 | 2213 } 3118 167 754 921 20°7 | 40°9 106 18 24 | 51°0 | 1112 | 1060 | 2360 | 3420 322 901 | 1223 || 11°8 | 44°9 lla 22 1Z | 51°0 | 1282 | 1270 | 2503 | 37735 532 | 1044 | 1576 || 11°2 | 59°8 116 ||, 22 14 | 51-2 | 1612 | 1307 | 2693 | 4000 569 | 1234 | 1803 |, 14°1 48°35. 12a 28 OX | 53°4 | 1462 | 1648 | 3230 | 4878 910 | 1771 | 2681 9°8 | 51°0 12b 26 92 | 53°5 | 155 1577 | 3087 | 4664 839 | 1628 | 2467 || 10°9 | 51°1 134 26 Of | 54°83 | 1544 | 1575 | 2993 | 4568 837 | 1534 | 2371 | 10°9 | 52°6 13b || 27 03 | 53°8 | 139 1600 | 8037 | 4637 862 | 1578 | 2440 9°5 | 52°7 14a || 27 13 | 53°7 | 1144 | 1583 | 3053 | 4636 845 | 1594 | 2459 7°8 | 51°9 14). Pf OF | 53°2 | 1212 | 1563 | 3103 | 4666 825 | 1644 | 2469 8°5 | 50°4 15a | 25 1d | 53°8 | 146 1510 | 2877 | 4387 772 | 1418 | 2190 || LO*7 | 52°5 15) 28 0 54° 100% | 1614 | 8090 | 4704 876 | 1631 | 2507 6°7 | 52°2 Iéa || 32 2 52°0 | 165 1856 | 4117 | 5973 |} 1118 | 2658 | 3776 9°8 | 45°1 166 || 32 3 51°7 | 1984 | 1889 | 4207 | 6096 1151 | 2748 | 3899 || 11°4 | 44°9 17a 24 O2 | 54*1 | 107% | 1409 | 2700 | 4109 671 | 1241 | 1912 S73) ||o2e2 17) | 26 14 | 54°3 | 1144 | 1548 | 2970 | 4518 810 | 1511 | 2521 8°0 | 52°1 18a |; 15 1d | 54°5 944 929 | 1720 | 2649 191 261 452 || 11°3 | 54°0 18) 16 14 | 54°6 732 963 | 1743 | 2706 225 284 509 || 8°3 | 55°3 19 24 OZ | 53-0 | 158 1435 | 2743 | 4178 697 | 1284 | 1981 12°4 | §2°3 60 || 12 Of | 51°5 99% 722 | 1483 | 2155 —16 | —26 | —42 || 16°0 | 50°4 aro Is 2 52°5 7 893 | 1746 | 2639 155 287 442 9°6 | 51°2 22 || 138 38£/ 53°8 | 102% 847 | 1567 | 2414 109 108 217 || 13°8 | 54°0 —— App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 173 Experiments av RorwamsteD on THE GrowrH or WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. . Apprnpix.—Tasie XIX.—Propuce of the 181H Smason, 1860-1. Seep (Red Rostock) sown November 5, 1860; Crop cut August 20, and carted August 27, 1861, Propucr PER Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). Plots. Dressed Corn, Weight Quantity. per Bushel. Bush. Pecks.) Ibs, 0 15 14 | 57°6 1 12 3¢ | 57°6 2 84 34 | 60°5 3 1l 14 | 5794 4 ll 33 | 58:0 5a 15 12] 59°1 5b 15 14 | 59°0 6a 27 14) 59°5 6b 27 34 | 59°4 7a $5 86241, 59°0 7 34 1% | 59°0 8a 36 06=—(O 58°3 8b 84 OF} 58°5 9a 383.8 56°8 9b is 3 53°9 10a 12 33 | 55°0 10d 15 82 | 55°5 lla 23 eh 55°38 116 25 OF | 55°8 ‘12a |} 32° 14 | 58°1 12b 33 12 | 58°7 13a 33 «-14:| «59-9 136 350 (OO 60°0 l4a 83 02 | 591 14) 33 3 | «59°38 15a 34 1} | 60°0 15) 34. 3 60°2 l6a 36 12 | 58-0 16d 37 2 58°6 lia 19 1 59°38 17) 18 O02 | 59°1 18a 32 1} | 59°6 18) 33 1g | 59°5 19 32 2 58°8 20 18 02] 57:9 21 16 1Z | 58-2 22 19 22 | 58:5 Offal Corn. Total Corn, ‘Total Produce (Corn and Straw). lbs. 2769 2215 5303 1990 2193 2540 2692 4328 4501 5764 5738 6203 5985 6607 8079 2784 3196 4032 4223 5201 5481 5486 5794 5502 5476 | 5506 5727 6761 6775 2982 2829 5144 5446 || 5345 2340 2749 3263 Total and |Produce. || lbs. 779 225 3313 203 550 702 2338 2511 3774 3748 4213 3995 || 4617 1089 794 1206 2042 2233 8211 3491 3496 3804 3512 3486 3516 3737 4771 4785 BY MANuRE, Straw Corn. Chaff. Ibs. ‘Tbs. 265 514° 92 133 1466 | 1847 127 76 3811 239 346 356 1019 } 1319 1082 | 1429 1527 | 2247 1447 | 2301 1554 | 2659 1454 | 2541 1426 | 3191 173 916 118 676 297 909 719 } 1323 842 | 1391 1273 | 1938 1408 | 2083 1432 | 2064 1568 | 2236 1589 } 2123 1437 | 2049 1452 | 2064 1513 | 2224 1602 | 3169 1696 | 3089 493 | 499 430 409 1314 | 1840 1386 | 2070 1371 | 1984 136 214 373 386 570 703 100 a : ° em OP Oo to ry orc nnmnonrnop ODreoorwon mM — — eb Noe DDO DOAWNnAaO wow lorie *) SCmMWmMUWONW FOr ee aD a wo oo D for mor te i f lo oll Wore} 10°3 AOARMAAMOP ON owrwoan NOs Mise wate: tes @ ws. “ve QNeorworney 174 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. ExXpPrerimMents At RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROowTH OF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. AppenDIxX.—TasLE XX.—Propuce of the 197TH Srason, 1861-2. SrEp (Red Rostock) sown October 25, 1861; Crop cut August 29, and carted September 12, 1862. Plots. || Propuce PER Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). By Manure, Dressed Corn. Total eo ae Offal | Total | Straw | Produce Straw | Total Weight " and Corn || Corn. and Quantity. er SG Chaff. Ses Chaff. peesue, Bushel. Straw). Bush. Pecks.| Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. || Ibs. | Iba | Ibs 19 3% | 58°5 65 1228 | 2030 | 3258 232 317 549 16 22 | 58:0 554 | 1024 | 1748 | 2772 28 35 63 38 14 | 61-0 | 107 2447 | 4195 | 6642 || 1451 | 2482 | 3933 16 600 57°8 734 996 | 1713 | 2709 oe oi aia 16 2k | 58°5 75% | 1049 | 1662 | 2711 53 | —51 2 17-32 | 59°0 582 | 1119 | 1840 | 2959 123 127 250 17 2% | 59°0 602 | 1101 | 1860 | 2961 105 147 252 27 2 59°5 78% | 1715 | 2859 | 4554 719 | 1126 | 1845 28 3h | 59:8 764 | 1797 | 3100 |. 4897 801 | 1387 | 2188 35 (22 | 5963 922 | 2200 | 3906 | 6106 |} 1204 | 2193 | 3397 86 OF | 59°5 | 110% | 2265 | 3913 | 6178 || 1269 | 2200 | 3469 39 3 59°2 | 122% | 2477 | 4728 | 7200 || 1481 | 30107] 4491 39 0% | 59°O | 1412 | 2452 | 4635 | 7087 || 1456 | 2922 | 4378 43 1Z | 59°5 | 1042 | 2688 | 6050 | 8738 || 1692 | 4337 | 6029 25 33 | 56°3 | 1864 | 1641 | 3256 | 4897 645 | 1543 | 2188 23 «04 | 56°5 | 1542 | 1457 | 2593 | 4050 461 880 | 1541 24 3h | 57°5 | 1722 | 1600 | 2843 | 4443 604 | 1130 | 1734 26 2% | 58°0 | 156 1706 | 2842 | 4548 710 | 1129 | 1839 27 «©04 | 58°0 | 166 1734 | 2873 | 4607 738 | 1160 | 1898 34 1} | 58°0 | 1042 | 2096 | 3649 | 5745 || 1100 | 1936 | 3036 33 02 | 58°0 992 | 2025 | 3609 | 5634 || 1029 | 1896 | 2925 31 3% | 58°0 | 1002 | 1953 | 3589 | 5542 957 | 1876 | 2833 382 2% | 58:0 | 1242 | 2019 | 3672 | 5691 1023 | 1959 | 2982 30 1? | 58°0 | 120 1886 | 3397 | 5283 890 | 1684 | 2574 32 O41 | 58°1 1444 2008 | 3550 | 5558 || 1012 | 1837 | 2849 30 12 | 58°3 | 101 1872 | 3396 | 5268 876 | 1685 | 2559 32 4 =22 | 58°3 | 125 2029 | 3758 | 5787 || 1033 | 2045 | 3078 36 14 | 58°0 | 120% | 2225 | 4527 | 6752 || 1229 | 2814 | 4043 36 0% | 57°5 | 155 2233 | 4497 | 6730 || 1237 | 2784 | 4021 27 33 | 58°1 | 1281 | 1747 | 3080 | 4827 751 | 1367 | 2118 27 | (2)) 58-1 85 1685 | 3077 | 4762 689 | 1364 | 2053 18 13 | 58-5 92 1168 | 1993 | 3161 172 280 452 18 22 | 58*5 | 102 1195 | 2140 | 3335 199 427 626 23 1% | 57°2 | 1432 | 1479 2653 | 4132 483 940 | 1423 12 13 | 573 | 108 818 | 1517 | 2335 ||—178 |-196 |—374 20 1d | 58-1 90% | 1273 | 2192 | 3465 PHL, 479 756 20 02 | 58-0 862 | 1250 2180 | 34380 254 467 721 _ eee HD or MIAADMTMINKCON KH np DOV RR Or Or mbsf FOO ao an NDWOAUNNA—- wo > Se App. ] Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 175 EXprerRIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH oF WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. ApPENDIX.—TaBLE XXI.—Propuce of the 20TH Sxason, 1862-3. Seep (Red Rostock) sown November 17, 1862 ; Crop cut August 10, and carted August 18, 1863. Propuce per Acre, &c. INCREASE PER ACRE i (For the Manures see pp. 162 and 163). BY MANURE. | Offal | Com | Com + Plots. Dressed Corn. Total | to ss iam | Offal | Total | Straw | Produce! - Straw | Total | 100 | go Weight} Com. | Corn. | ud | (Corm || Corn. | and |proguce,|| Dressed.| °%4¥- Quantity. per Chaff. and Chaff. | Hi Bushel. Straw). | Bush. Pecks.| lbs Ibs Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs Ibs Ibs. || 0 22 O% | 62°6 422 | 1429 | 1825 | 3,254 |] 302 225 | “427 || 31 | 78°3 1 20 3 62°8 314 | 1334 | 1745 | 3,079 207 145 352 2°4+ | 76°4 2 44 0 63°1 | 1092 | 2886 | 4279 | 7,165 || 1759 | 2679 | 4438 4°0 | 67°5 3 Lar pt 62°7 473 | 1127 | 1600 | 2,727 ee ee ee 4°*4 | 70°4 4 20° OE 62°3 414 | 1303 | 1654 | 2,957 176 54 230 3°3 | 78:8 5a 19 22] 63:0 462 | 1283 | 1687 | 2,970 156 87 243 | 3°4 | 76°1 5b 197 33 63°0 522 | 1296 | 1768 | 3,064 169 168 337 4°2 | 73°3 6a 39 14] 62°3 692 | 2522 | 3714 | 6,236 || 1395 | 2114 | 3509 2°8 | 67°9 65 39 —=CO*8s 62°3 582 | 2534 | 3716 | 6,250 || 1407 | 2116 | 3523 | 2-4! 68-2 7a 53 12 | 62°6 | 1402 | 3477 | 5853 | 9,330 || 2350 | 4253 | 6603 || 4:2 | 59+4 7 54. OO 62°5 | 132 | 3507 | 5878 | 9,385 || 2380 | 4278 | 6658 || 3°9 | 59-7 8a 56 9-22 | 62°3 | 1452 | 3668 | 6715 {10,383 || 2541 | 5115 | 7656 | 4-1 | 54°6 8) 54 32 | 62°3 | 1443 | 3559 | 6489 {10,048 || 2432 | 4889 | 7321 4°2 | 54°8 9a 55 22 | 62°1 | 1232 | 3576 | 6312 | 9,888 || 2449 | 4712 | 7161 3°6 | 56°7 | 9b 41 12 | 62°5 | 134 2723 | 4197 | 6,920 |) 1596 | 2597 | 4193 || 5°2 | 64°9 10a 39 03 | 62°6 | 134% | 2587 | 3481 | 6,068 || 1460 | 1881 | 3341 5°5 | 74°3 103 43 22 | 62-8 | 1282 | 2858 | 4056 | 6,914 || 1731 | 2456 | 4187 4°5 | 70°5 lla 45 0 62°5 | 167 297 4233 | 7,212 || 1852 | 2633 | 4485 || 5-9 70°4 116 46 2 62-1 | 171 | 3060 | 4459.| 7,519 || 1983 | 2859 | 4792 || 5:9 | 68°6 12a 54 2% | 62°1 | 1333 | 3533 | 5443 | 8,976 || 2406 | 3843 | 6249 3°9 | 64°9 126 53. 62°2 | 141¢ | 3454 | 5365 | 8,819 || 2327 | 3765 | 6092 4°3 | 64°4 13a 531 62°6 | 119 3453 | 5739 | 9,192 || 2326 | 4139 | 6465 3°6 | 60°2 13d 53 -14:| 62°5 | 1072 | 3439 | 5799 | 9,238 || 2312 | 4199 | 6511 3°2 | 59°S l4ta 54 1¢ | 62°5 | 1252 | 3527 | 5459 | 8,986 || 2400 | 3859 | 6259 3°7 | 64°6 145 53-12 | 62°5 | 1102 | 3450 | 5299 | 8,749 || 2323 | 3699 | 6022 || $*3 | 65+] lia 48 11 | 62°5 952 | 3114 | 5162 | 8,276 || 1987 | 3562 | 5549 | 3°2 | €0°3 156 48 0 62°9 | 109 3127 | 5113 | 8,240]) 2000 | 3513 | 5518 || 3:6 | 61-2 16a 56 22 175% | 3710 | 7007 |10,717 || 2583 | 5407 | 7990 l7a 21 02 | 62° 3°2 | 71°4 17) 2). ik | 62° 46 1389 | 1903 | 3,292|| 262} S03 | 565 3°4 | 73°0 18a 46 12 | 62° 1053 | 3006 | 4883 | 7,889 || 1879 | 3283 | 5162 3°6 | 61°6 18) 46 02 | 62° 1112 | 3009 | 4728 | 7,737 || 1882 | 3128 | 5010 || 3-8 | 63°6 . ' 19 46 22 | 62°9 | 118 | 3054 | 4523 | 7,577/| 1927 | 2923 | 4850 4°0 | 67°5 | 20 Wi 2s 62:5 32 1137 | 1472 | 2,609 10 }—128 |—-118 || 2:9 | 77°3 21 27 2% | 62°5 | 692 | 1796 | 2483 | 4,279|| 669 | 883 | 1552 || 4:0! 72-4 22 29. 3 | 62°4/] 522 | 1907 | 2692 | 4,599]! 780] 1092 | 1872 || 2-8] 70-9 176 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [AP | HARVESTS. Plots. I bad 1845. | 1846. | 1847. | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. 1851, 1852. | 1853, 1854, | bush. pks.| bush. pks./ bush. pis. bash, pk bush, pks./bush, pks. bush. pks./bush, pks.}bush. pee. bush. pks.|bush. _ pi O || 19 33 82 0) 28 13) 30 23) 19 of] .. | 19 12) 18 84] 15 02 9 0%) 26 1g 1 || 16 3/26 14) 92 08] 82 1/16 of .. oo | 18 12113) Wes eae ae 2 || 20 19) 32 0 | 27 0] 29 33.25 23) 31 0] 28 2) 29 24] 27 22119 O8| 41 OF 3 || 15- 0} 23 03) 17 33) 16 34,14 3/19 1] 15 33/15 34]18 83 5 383) 21 oF 4 || 14 22) 29 23) 25 33) 27 12) 24 63) 30 0] 27 3] 28 04] 18 13) 7 1)23 33 | ( | 1 i) 4 (22 a ee oi}29 0 29 33/37 13/29 33/36 0 | 16 3/10 o|o4 | nt ag ol 50|| 26 salt 50 03) }32 2/30 33] 89 82] 30 3] 387 82]17 O24 10 1] 94 oO 6a\| 45 1 | 98 os f20 12] 24 33) 24 33) 56 13) 30 02 33 13) 20 3) 16 33/338 2 6b f | “ “4/\29 O8| 24 18) 26 3] 37 32] 29 32) 81 04] 20 32/19 1] 34 2 74\| 15 9 | og o3(f22 32] 27 32) 30 32) 38 23) 32 1 | 36 3] 26 23) 23 24) 45 oF 7b f\| “ “#31 3825 12) 29 321 37 38) 82 02] 37 14] 26 38 28 93) 45 1h 80\ 15 93\ 97 galf22 32) 82 13) 19 3 | 22 3 | 28 3 | 26 OF | 27. 33) 22 13) 47 13 8bf) 2 #/(29 02) 30 3] 19 O82 31 23] 30 1] 27 23127 O02) 24 22) 49 af | | 9 3 22 3 1 3 1 m4 9 aah) 19 2333 1F 23 2856 of| 18 23] 30. 23) 80 13] 81 13] 25 2.) 11 1 | 38 « - v 2 - — ey | 28 33/26 0/25 o3/ 22 13/27 28| 29 of] 24 13] 10 18| 38 10a H 15 13 31 9227 13] 25 3] 19 1 ')-32 23) 26 33| 28 33] 21 33) 9 33) 34 1 10D) + 4/)\17 23) 25 23) 295 02) 32 12) 17 33) 28 24 | 22 02 15 2) 39 Ge 11a)|| 17 02! 30 3 \f23 12] 80 32/29 12) 35 03| 30 33) 32 23) 24 Of 17 2) 44 2 11bf|| =| 30 02) 29 132] 24 3 | 32 13] 29 123) 31 22) 22 14 18 23) 43 0 12a “45 9 | 98 og {o4 13} 29 2| 29 3] 85 32] 29 38] 82 3 | 24 12) 22 0} 45 8 125 f| “| "" “#/(98 23127 0] 26 O83] 34 12] 30 38) 32: 22) 24 12] 28 32] 45 1 134\! 16 yal o5 0 |{24 0 | 29 22) 29 13) 34 3%) 81 33 30 23 | 24 O | 22 13) 45 O 13 || 4s 29 12) 27 13| 25 32) 34 23) 30 12) 80 3} | 23 33/23 22) 43 3% | 15 3/97 1 las 23| 28 Of, 28 02) 34 13] 31 19) 31 OF | 24 19) 21 2) 45 1 14)J) 26 23126 32/25 23] 31 12) 81 12] 31 03] 25 02) 28 O82] 44 Of a 16H] 92 3 {3 13) 32 22 33/ 31 32| 26 O02) 27 02] 23 13) 19 0] 48 155 4) °" “127 23) 32 0 | 24 23) 30 08] 30 323) 30 22] 25 02) 23 22) 43 1 160|| 7 al gg 31/f28 3 | 29 12/29 33) 33 13) 38 23) 36 33] 28 33) 24 13) 49 OF 16) f) oS #130 1) 54 23) 30 13] 33 33) 33 3] 36 22] 28 0/25 33) 50 Of 17a\) 4g 33! 39 ogif33 28| 83 3 | 27 23/34 1/31 1) 381 331/25 2) 8 19/45 3 , 17s) 4) ©" “4/\30 2/35 18) 28 32/33 12)-29 921 30 92] 24 12) § 33) 42 oF yl 50 a 33 ou f3l 0 | 32 0% 26 3 | 32 13) 29 33) 30 33/13 3/17 33 24 O- 18s!) Ps #/\21 1129 14/26 23] 83 22) 28 23/ 81 02] 14 382] 20 3 23 | 2 4 4 2 | 19 || 24 12) 84 3]28 8/82 3] 29 13/29 922) 29 0] 80 1 {24 33) 19 12] 41 OF 20 ; 24 OB) i. . 20 Of| 16/02) .. | 14000 |v14) 1) 4a 08) 5 3k ae Dl | Z - liz gi {19 14) 12 38 32 of 22 | - 3 219 22 10 19st ae 1 See foot-note No. 5, to Appendix Table I. p, 147. 2 For Plots 0, 1, 20, 21, and 22 the averages are for only 19, 18, 17, 13, and 13 years respectively. 3 On Plots 17 and 18 the manures have alternated during the last 12 years; that is, ammonia-salts on Plots - 17, and the mixed mineral manure on Plots 18, in one year ; mineral manure on Plots 17, and ammonia-salts on Plots 18, in the next year, and so on. RS PP] Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. nyt 27 HEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME Lanp. Busnets and Proks, per Acre, per Annum. Harvests. AVERAGE of Orlast || Plots. 1856. | 1857. | 1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862, | 1863, |20 Years,?) 12 Years, 1844-63. | 1852-63, sh. pks./bush. pks.|bush, = bush, pks.| bush. a bush, pks. cen pks.|bush. pks./bush. pks.|/bush. pks./bush. pks. 18 14/18 22) 20 3 | al 21} 14 13/15 14/19 8 22 OF] 20 13) 18° 1 0 17 «(02/17 23) 16 13/19 3/12 132) 12 3% 16 22) 20 3 18. daalon Te 1 86 14] 41 O02) 88 32) 86 03] 52 123) 384 32) 88 14) 44 O 32 13) 35 14 2 14 2) 19 382) 18° 0) 18 13) 12 34 11 14/16 0717 1 16 Aad) 2 3 16 13) 22 13/19 03/19 O02 14 2] 11 53) 16 22) 20 1 20 23,16 3% 4 18 383) 22 33] 18 23) 20 23/15 23) 15 12) 17 Sz] 19 23] 22 0% 18 1 5a 20 13) 24 92/19 1] 20 23) 16 O23) 15 13/17 23/19 38 23 1/18 22 5b 27 12| 35 Id) 28 24] 29 23) 21 OF; 27 1h} 27 2) 39 13] 27 13) 27 32 6a 28 03) 35 14) 29 03/ 80 O08] 22 33/27 33} 28 32) 39 3 28 14/28 3 6b $7 1) 48 14] 38 22) 34 23) 97 33) 85 23) 35 24) 53 13] 33 14) 56 1 Ta 86 23) 46 14) 89 22) 34 23) 27 23) 384 13) 36 O08) 54 0 33 3 | 36 22 7b 40 03) 47 3 | 41 32) 34 32/30 3/36 0/389 8] 56 22 | 32 2] 87 32 8a 87 33) 48 32) 41 2} 34 O2] 81 22) 34 O02) 39 O32) 54 321] 33 13) 88 02 8) 32 13] 48 3] 387 22) 30 0] 32 23) 33 3/43 13/55 22] 381 12) 34 2 9a 26 0| 36 O02) 25 2) 24 23/19 923)18 38] 25 382) 41 12] 26 034) 25 32 9) 24 02) 29 Of, 22 33) 18 32/15 03) 12 32) 23 03] 39 OF | 24 0 | 22 222 || 10a 27 23) 34 21/27 3} 25 2/18 22) 15 32) 24 383/43 221 25 33) 26 32 || 10d 31 33) 39 0} 30 33) 26 33) 22 14) 25 19) 26 22) 45 0 29 02/29 1 lla 30 2%) 39 02] 33 02) 27 33) 22 14) 25 O08 27 O24) 46 2 29 12) 80 Of || 116 33 33] 43 34) 87 38) 34 24) 28 03) 32 13] 34 13] 54 22] 32 132) 35 08 || 120 32 33) 438 2 | 387 O02) 34 33) 26 22) 33 13) 33 02) 53 1 382 14) 35 Of || 120 $2 12) 42 3) 37 O08) 34 02) 26 02) 33 12] 31 32/53 1 81 28/ 34 12 || 130 80 32) 438 2] 37 02) 34 33) 27 02) 35 0} 382 23) 58, 12] 31 383) 34 82 || 180 35 03) 43 3 | 37 33) 34 13/27 13) 838 02] 30 13) 54 18] 81 33) 34 82 || 14a 34 03 42 33) 88 13) 34 23) 27 02) 35 33) 82 02) 53 12] 31 332] 35 Of || 14d 31 32] 30 03) 42 14) 35 12) 34 03) 2 13) 3 13] 30 12) 48 12] 381 0] 353 Of |} 15a 33 3) 32 0} 44 12) 87 2) 35 02) 28 0} 34 3] 32 23) 48 O 2 OF 34 32 || 15d 33 13/ 388 03) 48 33) 41 3] 34 33/ 32 2] S86 13] 36 14) 56 22] 35 o2 88 2 16a b2 2) 37 3/50 O]| 42 Of 34 12) 32 3] 87 2] 36 03] 55 O2 | 35 S| 38 2 6b 18 33 31 23) 26 23) 88 13/21 13) 24 02/19 1 | 27 34] 21 OFF 27 ad 18 324 17a). 17 03) 30 13) 25 33] 88 32/19 3] 26 12] 18 02| 27 23; 21 13] 26 32 a 175[., S232 17 +35) 41 02) 22 33) 82 32) 15 12) 32 13/18 12) 46 12 | 27 23! lay 914 18af- 33 1Z/-18 0} 40 02] 20 22) 32 2/16 12) 33 12] 18 23| 46 OF | 27 02 32 28 fis 30 03; 32 1) 41 23) 88 13) 80 2) 24 03) 32 2/23 13) 46 22] 30 33) 31 22 || 19 17 (23) 17 «03 19 +23) 17 O 17 Sri l2 03] 13 OF (12) Te DENTE 1-1 15. 2%-1) 90 24 12) 22 13) 24 Oj 24 13] 296° 12/15 2] Y6 12/20 13| 27 2%] 21 32 22 of || 21 24 22) 21 12) 28 03 22 0] 24 O82] 18 323) 19 23] °20 »02/ 29 38 21 14 21 22 || 22 ‘The average given for Plots 17 is that of 12 years mineral manure succeeding ammonia-salts Plots .. or 18); “and that given for Plots 18, of 12 years ammonia-salts succeeding the mineral manure (Plots i7 or 18 178 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [ApP, EXPERIMENTS AT RoTHAMSTED ON THE GROWTH OF . APPENDIX.—TABLE XXIIJ.—WEIeuTs HARVESTs, Plots. | 1844, 1845. | 1846. | 1847. | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs, Ibs. Tbs. 0 58°5 56°5 62°3 | 61°1 | 58°4 we 60°8 | 61°9 | 55°8 | 49°8 1 59°0 54°8 62°16) |) "6152%)' 59°16 oe sie 61°7 | 56°9 | 46°9 2 59°3 56°8 63°0 | 62°3 | 58°2 | 63°8 | 61°9 | 63°6 | 58°2 | 51°1 | 62°5 3 58°5 56°5 63°8 | 61°0 ) 57°3 | 61°4 | 60°6 | 61°] | 56°6 | 45°9 4 58°0 58°0 63°5 | 61°9 | 58°5 | 63°0 | 61:2 | 62°6 | 57°3 | 46°6 aa 61°8 | 59°2 | 63:1 | 60-4 | 63°3 | 57°5 | 48°6 | 61:0 : { 63°0 58°3 63°4 5b 57°3 { 63+3f/ Ol'4 | S971 | 63°4 | 60-4 | 63-3 | 57°3 | 48-6 | 6176 6a \ AW s7-g {| 63°7 | 62-1 | 58°8 | 63-0 | 61-1 | 63+3 | 57°6 | 51°5 | 61°8 6b | 63°5 | 61°6 | 56°9 | 63-0 | 61°3 | 62°3 | 57°5 | 51-5 | 61°8 7a | ABs Ba { 63°0 | 61-7 | 59°4 | 63°1 | 61°0 | 63°0 | 56°0 | 52°1 | 61°9 7b 63°4 | 61°5 | 59°6 | 62°9 | 61-2 | 63:0 | 55°8 | 51°9 | 61°8 82l\\ b1+3 56-3 {| 63°5 | 62:1 | 56°2 | 61+7 | 61-1 | 62-8 | 55-9 | 51-7 | 61-4 8b 63:6 | 61°7 | 59-4 | 63:0 | 61°0 | 62°6 | 55°9 | 51°8 | 61°8 -o (£62°5\| xe. : ; ; ‘ : ; 0 || cos | 58s {| 63-0 Vee 56°7 | 62:8 | 60-4 | 62-4 | 55¢6 | 47-4 | 60°7 63°3 | 61°3 | 58°3 | 62°3 | 60°8 | 62°0 | 55°3 | 46-9 | 60-7 10a | bao 56+3 {| 63°6 | 61°5 | 58-1 | 62-3 | 60-2 | 61-9 | 55-9 | 48-6 | 60*5 108 63°8 | 61°2 | 57°8 | 62°3 | 61-1 | 62°5 | 57°3 | 49°5 | 61-6 lla | e1t8 56-0 §| 63°3 | 61°6 | 59°6 | 62-6 | 61-0 | 62-3 | 55°6 | 50°7 | 6171 11d 63°2 | 61°S | 57°9 | 63°0 | 611 | 62°5 | 55°9 | 511 | 61°2 12a \ BEE 55-3 {| 63°0 | 620 | 59°3 | 64-3 | 61°5 | 63-1 | 57°4 | 52°0 | 62-2 125 ° 11 63°4 | 61°8 | 59°2 | 64°3 | 61°4 | 62°5 | 57°83 | 51°9 | 62-2 13a \ Ae 56-3 §| 63°5 | 62°5 | 57°9 | 64-1 | 60-2 | 62-6 | 57-5 | 52-1 | 62-2 13 - 63°2 | 62°3 | 58°4 | 64-1 | 61-0 | 62°3 | 57°1 | 51-9 | 62°2 14a | ans s7+5 {| 63°0 | 62°8 | 58°8 | 64-3 | 61-1 | 62-9 | 56-9 | 51-9 | 62°2 145 99 1) 63:4 | 62°8 | 58°5 | 64:3 | 61°5 | 62°8 | 56°7 | 52°4 | 62°2 15a) veo 57+5 {| 6225 | 63°0 | 58-1 | 64-2 | 61-5 | 62-7 | 57°4 | 51-6 | 62° 156 If °* 65°0 | 62°6 | 56-9 | 64*1 | 61°0 | 62°9 | 56°8 | 51°7 | 62°4 164 |l\ goes 56+3 {| 62°5 | 62°3 | 60-0 | 64°5 | 60-3 | 63*5 | 55°0 | 52°38 | 61-7 165 ce 62°7 | 62:6 | 58°4 | 64°6 | 60-4 | 63°4 | 54°5 | 52°3 | 61°7 174 ll) gous Bnee { 62°8 | 62°3 | 59°7 | 64°3 | 61-2 | 63°3 | 56°5 | 49°5 | 62°1 3) 175 - 63°0 | 62°0 | 59°7 | 644 | 61°5 | 63°1 | 56°9 | 48°6 | 62-2 184 |!\ go.9 56-5 {| 62°8 | 62°7 | 59-2 | 64-0 | 61-2 | 63-0 | 57-0 | 52°6 | 61-2 18) } 62°0 | 62°9 | 59°6 | 64:0 | 6O°9 | 62°4 | 56°7 | 52°6 | 61°0 19 61°8 57-0 | 62°0 | 62°8 | 56°2 | 63°9 | 60°8 | 62°4 | 56°1 | 52°4 | 61°7 20 hs 560 .. | 62°5| 58:3] .. | 59°1 | 60°8 | 56°6 | 47°5 | 60°8 2) Bi is i: ye 4 id +» Vey -gf] 56°9 | 50°B-| 61-2 22 as a. if 5 x A a 55°9 | 49°3 | 61°0 a a 1 See foot-note No. 5, to Appendix Table I. p. 147. 2 For Plots 0, 1, 20, 21, and 22, the averages are for only 19, 18, 17, 13, ait 13 years respectively. 3 On Plots 17 and 18 the manures have alternated during the last 12 years; that is, ammonia~ salts on Plots 17, and the mixed mineral manure on Plots 18, in one year; mineral manure on Plots 17, and ammonia-salts on Plots 18, in the next year, and so on, '| APP. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of ,Wheat. 179 Wuear Year arrer YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. j per Busnex of Dressep Corn, each Year. TIARVEsts. AVERAGE. Of Of last Plots. 1855, | 1856. |' 1857, | 1858. | 1859, | 1860, | 1861. | 1862, | 1863, | 20 Years,?} 12 Years, 1844-63, | 1852-63. lbs. lbs. lbs, lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. |* lbs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. 60°7 | 56°8 | 59°0 | 61°2 | 54°0 | 53°5 | 57°6 | 58°5 | 62°6 58°4 57° 5 0 ) 60°5 | 56°3 | 59:0 | 60°7 | 55:0 | 52°8 | 57°6 | 58°0 | 62°8 58°1 Bee. ill. it! |} 62°0 | 58°6 | 6O°4 | 62°6 | 56°5 | 55°5 | 60°5 | 61°0 | 63°1 60°0 59°3 2 ES 3 0 4 59°2 | 54°3 | 58°3 | 60°4 | 5 52°6 | 57°74 | 57°8 | 62°7 57°9 56°5 59°5 | 55°5 | 58°8 | 6l°l | 55° 53°0 | 58°0 | 58°5 | 62°3 58°7 57°2 59°9 | 56°5 | 59°0 | 61°5 | 56°0 | 54°0 | 59°1 | 59°0 | 65°0 59°4 57°9 5a 60-1 | 56°2 | 58°8 | 61°4 | 56°0 | 53°1 | 59°0 | 59°0 | 63°0 59°0 57°8 5D 60°S | 58°2 | 59°9' | 62°1 | 56°5)| 53°7 | 59°5 | 59°5 | 62°3 59°6 58°6 6a 60°9 | 58°5 | 59°8 | 62*1 | 56°5 | 54°2 | 59°4 | 59°8 | 62°3 59°5 58°7 6b 59°4 | 58°0 | 60°5 | 61°9 | 55°9 | 54°3 | 59°0 | 59°S | 62°6 59°5 58°4 7G 59°5 | 57°6 | 60°3 | 62°3 | 55°9 | 54°3 | 58°9 | 59°5 | 62°5 59°4 58°3 7 58°8 | 56°8 | 60°8 | 61°8 | 54°0 | 52°8 | 58°3 #592 | 62°38 58°9 57°8 8a 58°7 | 57°1 | 60°6 | 61°7 | 53°4 | 52°3 | 58-5 | 59°0 | 62°3 59°1 57°8 8b | 58°3 | 57-2 | 60-1 | GO-8 | 54°5 | 51°5 56°8 59°5 | 62:1 58°4 57°1 9a 57:3 | 56°3 | 58°0 | 58°8 | 50°5 | 48°5 | 53-9 | 56°3 | 62°5 | 57-7 | 55-4 || 9b | 57-1 | 55-6 | 58-0 | 59°6 | 51°5 | 49-5 | 55-0 | 56-5 | 62-6 | 57°8 | 55-9 | 10a | 58°9 | 57:2 | 58°6 | 61+4 | 52°5 | 51°0 | 55-5 | 57°5 | 62°8] 586 | 57-0 || 10d 55°3 | 57°3 | 58°5 | 60°5 | 5174 | 51-0 |.55°3 | 58-0 | 62°5 | 58-3 | 56-4 || 11a 56°3 | 57-5 | 58:0 | 60-4 | 51°3 | 51°2 | 55°8 | 58-0 | 62-1] 58-3 | 56-6 || 110 59°5 | 58-7 | 60-4 | 62-1 | 54°5 | 58-4 | 58+1 | 58-0 | 621 | 59°4 | 58-2 || 12a 60-2 | 58-8 | 60-4 | 62-1 | 54-8 | 53°5 | 58°7 | 58-0 | 62-2 | 59°5 | 58°3 |] 125 59°9 | 58°6 | 60°6 | 62-1 | 55-0 | 54°3 | 59°9 | 58°0 | 626 | 59°6 | 58-6 || 132 60°4 | 58°9 | 60° | 62-7 | 55+0 | 53°8 | 60°0 | 58-0 | 62:5 | 59*7 | 58-6 | 135 60°0 | 58°6 | 60-5 | 62-1 | 54°5 | 53°7 | 59°1 | 58-0 | 62-5 | 59°6 | 58*3 || 14¢ 60-0 | 59-0 | G03 | 62*0 | 54°5 | 53°2 | 59°3 | 581 | 62°5 | 59°6 | 58:4 || 145 60°0 | 59°1 | 60°4 | 62°6 | 55-0 | 53-8 | 60-0 | 58-3 | 62°5| 59°7 | 58°6 || 15a 60:6 | 59°4 | 60-0 | 62S | 55°0 | 54°0 | GO-2 | 583 | 62:9 | 59-7 | 58°7 |] 158 58*2 | 58-5 | 60-5 | 62-1 | 52°6 | 52°0 | 58-0 | 58+0-| 62 59 57°6 || 16a 58°2 | 58-7 | 60°5 | 62*1 | 52°6 | 51°7 | 58-6 | 57-5 | 62°3] 59 57°6 || 16b 60°8 | 59°0 | 591 | 62-5 | 55-0 | 54-1 | 59-3 | 58-1 | 62-8] 59°5 |] oo. g4 |f170 60°3 | 59-1 | 58°8 | 62°5 | 54-5 | 54°3 | 59°1 | 58-1 | 62-8] 59-4 || 17{5 60°9 | 57°8 | 59°7 | 62°3 | 55-5 | 54-5 | 59-6 | 58-5 | 62-6 | 59-7 1) non g | (18a 60°8 | 57-7 | 59°8 | 62*4 | 56-0 | 54°6 | 59°5 | 58-5 | 62-8 | 59-6 |f °° {isp 9 _ 4 The average given for Plots 17 is that of 12 years mineral manure succeeding ammonia-salts (Plots 17 or 18); and that given for Plots 48, of 12 years ammonia-salts succeeding the miheral manure (Plots 17 or 18), VOL. XXV. : (a) | 180 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [App. Exprrmments at RorHAMsTED ON THE GROWTH OF ApPEeNnDIx.—TasLe XXIV.—Toran Cory, .— HARVESTS. Plots. 1844,! 1845. | 1846. | 1847. | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. 4 Ibs. Ibs. Tbs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. Tbs. 0 | 1228 | 1967 | 1906 | 2031 | 1259) .. | 1220] 1296 | 919] 599 | 1672 1 || 1040 | 1689 | 1509/2119 | 1124] .. | .. | 1251] 825 | 404 | 1529 2 || 1976 | 1967 | 1826 | 1981 | 1705 | 2068 | 1861 | 2049 | 1716 | 1120 | 2675 3 923 | 1441 | 1207/1123 | 952] 1229 | 1002 | 1083] 860] 359 | 1359 2 sss | 1879 | 1777 | 1780 | 1583 | 2063 | 1785 | 1919 | 870| 446 | 1521 A 1305)| ... S27 : ba 1431 { et 1921 | 1911 | 2446 | 1974 | 2473 | 1088 | 587 | 1578 956 ! Bb 1732 { uate 2132 | 1982 | 2651 | 2018 | 2611 | 1065 | 611 | 1532 6a Sasa Bae 1400 | 1663 | 1672 | 2410 | 1960 | 2271 | 1988 | 978 | 2186 6b ‘l 4! 1967 | 1632 | 1737 | 2484 | 1980 | 2119 | 1300 | 1072 | 2239 7a sagt || Bas 1534 | 1834 | 1936 | 2576 | 2134 | 2524 | 1615 | 1369 | 2950 7b > j| 2163 | 1682 | 1963 | 2531 | 2112 | 2532 | 1643 | 1357 | 2944 8a Baa it aaa | 1549 | 2115 #1263 | 1481 | 1856 | 1785 | 1699 | 1346 | 3065 8b | 1988 | 2020 | 1267 | 2080 | 1948 | 1863 | 1651 | 1425 | 3208 9a || 614 |{T277}) 181 | 2035 | 1951 | 2142 | 1591 | 691 | 2456 op (ip 1280 | 2131 1755 a 1942 | 1717 | 1669 | 1475 | 1762 | 1970 | 1509 | 649 | 2480 10a Soe | Agen 1850 | 1702 | 1984 | 2141 | 1721 |.1966 | 1320 | 642 | 2911 10b 1216 | 1705 | 1604 | 2157 | 1171 | 1937 | 1342 | 896 | 2535 lla Sata GINS 1628 | 2044 | 1984 | 2317 | 2001 | 2216 | 1472 | 1015 | 2859 116 2055 | 1941 | 1641 | 2149 | 1940 | 2163 | 1387 | 1073 | 2756 12a ial Ried { 1661 | 1953 | 1938 | 2396 | 1935 | 2934 | 1503 | 1283 | 2966 125 2 4) 1955 | 1796 | 1717 | 2277.| 2013 | 2203 | 1492 | 1375 | 2939 13a eee ET { 1660 | 1959 | 1955 | 2340 | 2097 | 2102 | 1480 | 1341 | 2913 13) 2 1998 | 1801 | 1730 | 2346 | 1964 | 2083 | 1476 | 1396 | 2858 144 \ ee eae 1605 | 1944 | 1834 | 2266 | 2023 | 2120 | 1507 | 1392 | 2946 145 1812 | 1856 | 1726 | 2123 | 1995 | 2121 | 1530 | 1347 | 2863 15a nasee | LBaRE { a112 | 2214 | 1571 | 2109 | 1693 | 1839 | 1451 | 1143 | 2801 “aBD a 1861 | 2140 | 1607 | 2005 | 1942 | 2077 | 1520 | 1351 | 2810 16a ‘oaks |. omen 1592 | 1959 | 1973 | 2954 | 2134 | 2499 | 1794 | 1496 | 3930 165 2028 4| sory | 2283 | 1948 | 2268 | 2159 | 2501 | 1700 | 1537 | 3293 17a \ spiel eR 2241 | 9292 | 19383 | 2316 | 1985 | 2149 | 1577,| 520 | 2948 a\17 |p 22 2034 | 2314 | 1946 | 2259 | 1961 | 2079 | 1520 | 539 | 2732 |, te bea ae 9048 | 2160 | 1734 | 2163 | 1934 | 2083 | 869 | 1111 | 1526 18) = 1474 | 2029 | 1804 | 2243 | 1845 | 2090 | 921 | 1256 | 1511 19 1580 2114 1889 | 2195 | 1838 | 1994 | 1850 | 2031 | 1582 | 1160 | 2666 20 ” 1495 | .. | 1332, 1050] .. | 868] 956] 875 | 425 | 1445 : ie = ANG? . 1292 1177 | 753 | 2030 “\| 1176 | 592 | 1994 Eee 1 See foot-note No. 5, to Appendix Table I. p. 147, 2 For Plots 0, 1, 20, 21, and 22, the averages are for only 19, 18, 17, 13, and 13 years respectively. 3 On Plots 17 and 18 the manures have alternated during the last 12 years; that is, ammonia- salts on Plots 17,and the mixed mineral manure on Plots 18, in one year; mineral manure on Plots 17, and ammonia-salst on Plots 18, in the next year, and so on, Arp. | 1855. Ibs. 1096 1179 2237 "1072 1168 1157 1143 1753 1811 2084 2138 1909 2153 1932 1605 1285 1805 1210 1580 1940 2172 1924 2110 1954 2158 2030 2193 2100 2115 1227 1110 2127 2170 1967 1155 1533 1553 1856. Ibs. 1179 1102 2277 892 1026 1167 1247 1717 1755 2312 2244 2507 2400 2019 1679 1505 1727 2001 1946 2102 2079 2036 2008 2195 2162 1923 2045 2426 2450 1983 1935 1140 1131 2059 1075 1898 1351 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 1857, lbs. 1181 1118 2587 1236 1386 1409 1512 2211 2193 2782 2902 3058 3129 2767 2290 1816 2185 2432 2397 2747 2729 2714 2739 2781 2699 2681 2765 3131 3194 1642 1583 2566 2519 2600 1213 1538 1491 in lbs., per Acre, per Annum, eR RAR NT SD Warat YEAR Arter YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Harvests. AVERAGE, of Of last 1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862. | 1863, | 20 Years2| 12 Years, 1844-63. 1852-63, lbs. |§ lbs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. lbs, Ibs. 1332 | 1254 826 | 1001 | 1228 | 1429 1296 1143 1055 | 1189 717 828 | 1024 | 1334 1169 1025 2512 | 2263 | 1864 | 2202 | 2447 | 2886 2076 2232 1141 | 1051 738 736 996 | 1127 1026 964 1206 | 1188 832 863 | 1049 | 13803 1327 1072 1187 | 1277 903 | 1047 | 1119 | 1283 1422 1146 1227 | 1273 935 | 1082 | 1101 | 1296 1495 1169 1818 | 1808 | 1210 | 1755 | 1715 | 2522 1759 747 1850 | 1855 | 1326 | 1818 | 1797 | 2534 1815 1796 2450 | 2097 | 1612 | 2263 | 2200 | 3477 2121 2268 2530 | 2089 | 1597 | 2183 | 2265 | 3507 2152 2283 2680 | 2068 | 1759 | 2290 | 2477 | 3668 2064 2377 2675 | 2007 | 1787 | 2190 | 2452 | 3559 2125 2386 2384 | 1806 | 1858 | 2162 | 2688 | 3576 1991 2161 1470 | 1412 | 1155 909 | 1641 | 2723 1670 1621 1439 | 1207 905 854 | 1457 | 2587 1547 1435 1775 | 1500 | 1060 | 1083 | 1600 | 2858 1655 1693 1977 | 1628 | 1270 | 1455 | 1706 | 2979 1860 18384 2099 | 1698 | 1307 | 1578 | 1734 | 8060 1875 1885 2437 | 2060 | 1648 | 2009 | 2096 | 3533 2064 2194 2387 | 2115 | 1577 | 2144 | 2025 | 3454 2065 2207 2384 | 2037 | 1575 | 2168 | 1953 | 3453 2032 2165 2397 | 2087 | 1600 | 2304 | 2019 | 3439 2049 2203 2413 | 2054 | 1583 | 2125 | 1886 | 3527 2042 2191 2436 | 2074 | 1563 | 2173 | 2008 | 3450 2045 2205 2285 | 2053 | 1510 | 2188 | 1872 | 3114 1989 2088 2436 | 2095 | 1614 | 2249 | 2029 | 3127 2053 2186 2702 | 2026 | 1856 | 2838 | 2295 | 3710 39 2420 2717 | 2005 | 1889 | 2482 | 2233 | 3607 2284 2431 2150 | 1247 | 1409 | 1229 | 1747 | 1870 1761 11814 2181 | 1168 | 1548 | 1166 | 1685 | 1389 724 1472 | 1973 929 | 2050 | 1168 | 3006 1774 20544 1338 | 1980 963 | 2122 | 1195 | 3009 1751 = { 2177 | 1903 | 1485 | 2107 | 1479 | 3054 1984 2016 1089 | 1039 722 872 818 | 1137 1033 989 1574 | 1538 893 | 1109 | 1273 | 1796 1373 1584 1412 | 1460 847 | 1306 | 1250 | 1907 1352 1362 181 10a 116 126 13a 14D 15a 15) 16a 16) 17a 17b{, 18a 18) 19 20 21 22 a eeeeeeeeeeeeeSISPEe tO 4 The average given for Plots 17 is that of 12 years ;mineral manure succeeding ammonia-salts (Plots 17 or 18); and that given for Plots 18, of 12 years ammonia- manure (Plots 17 or 18). o 2 salts succeeding the mineral | 1 See foot-note No. 5, to Appendix able I. p. 147. 182 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. [Arr. Experiments At RorHamsTep on THE GRowrTH oF Appenpix.—Taste XXV.—'oran Srraw Harvests. Plots. | ] | 18442 1845. 1846. | 1847. | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | 1858. | 1854, | Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. | tbs | Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs, | Ibs 0 1436 | 3977 | 2561 | 3277 | 2074 | .. | 2037 | 1862 | 1706 | 1807 | 2114 1 || 1203 | 3699 | 1953 | 3735 | 1735 | .. .. | 1845 | 1497 | 1632 | 2531 29 || 1476 | 3915 | 2454] 3698 | 3041 | 3029 | 3245 | 3094 | 3457 | 3372 | 4450 3 1120 | 2712 | 1513 | 1902 | 1712 | 1614 | 1719 | 1627 | 1597 | 1413 | 2137 4 1104 | 3663 | 2390 | 2948 | 2713 | 2645 | 3312 | 2949 | 1571 | 1670 | 2338 5a || 2684 { ost 3412 | 3266 | 3589 | 4504 | 4131 | 1903 | 1951 | 2520. ||> 1116 Bont : 5b || 3599 \ ott 3721 | 3533 | 3824 | 4379 | 4294 | 2032 | 2130 | 2503 6a i Stall cee { 1676 | 2786 | 2878 | 3072 | 3927 | 3624 | 2581 | 2777 | 3845 6b | 2571 | 2803 | 2968 | 3516 | 3959 | 3507 | 2604 | 2798 | 4055 7a |\ iro | 3043 §| 1968 | 3151 | 3088 | 3584 | 4485 | 4587 | 3850 | 3741 | 5608 7b 2 45 1! 3007 | 2953 | 3413 | 3396 | 4280 | 4302 | 3772 | 3734 | 5496 8 |) 169 | ago {| 1963 | 3683 | 2517 | 1815 | 3407 | 2769 | 3806 | 3966 | 6135 8b || 2 2575 | 3720 | 2148 | 3166 | 3591 | 2830 | 3772 | 3927 | 6117 9a ||| | ose {2508 | yous | s6e8'| sx50 |) sal bane eee me 9b 1368 4058 <| ~ “" |\ 3052 = og : = { | 2603 | 2858 | 2918 | 1s10 | 3165 | 2942°| aa74 | 2253 | 4243 104 | 1115 | 4ocg {| 2244 | 2891 | 2867 | 2851 | 3089 | 3070 | 9787 | 2049 | 3597 105 | 2 266 4) 1455 | 2874 | 2926 | 2960 | 1949 | 3048.| 2819 | 2682 | 4468 lla 1 1000 | 4104 {| 2133 | 3517 | 3274 | 2892 | 3806 | 8386 | 3081 | 2524 | 5147 THAI pias \| 2715 | 3203 | 2898 | 2942 | 3741 | 3302 | 2912 | 2707 | 5020 12a ict lt aneee 2163 | 3452 | 3390 | 3371 | 3921 | 3600 | $257 | 3665 | 5503 125 2554 | 3124 | 2880 | 3300 | 3905 | 3581 | 3232 | 3704 | 5473 13a 1204 | sas {| 2827 | 9306 | 2290 | 3236 | 4026 | 3544 | 3229 | 3704 | 5398 135 g 55 4! 9455 | 3171 | 3072-| 3246 | 4008 | 3440 | 3289 | 3912 | 5545 14¢ |) ring | g¢96 {| 2031 | 3362 | 5257 | 5211 | 4052 | 3605 | 3547 | 3471 | 5552 145 | : 2534 | 3006 |'2897 | 3218 | 4015 | 3537 | 3607 | 3761 | 5418 150) hore |} eae 2936 | 3876 | 2937 | 3038 | 3321 | 3041 | 3212 | 3361 | 4898 156 || 2513 | 3617 | 3016 | 3262 | 3926 | 3432 | 3421 | 3756 | 5273 16¢ |) J4sq | aigy {) 2067 | 3417 | 3115 | 8384 | 5103 | 4234 | 4677 | 4904 | 6702 160 | { 2836 | 4012 | 3380 | 3559 | 4615 | 4532 | 4616 | 5019 | 6635 | 17¢ |) +459 | gaag 4] 3278 | 4027 | 3296 | 3891 | 4126 | 3597 | 5734 | 1996 | 5270 2) 17) 22h | 9784 | 4261 | 3324 | 3858 | 4034 | 3406 | 3466 | 2012 | 4897 184,|\ 1-65 | geiq | 2838 | 3852 | 2935 | 3592 | 3927 | 3390 | 1687 | 3885 | 2418 lisp lp, 14 : 1893 | 4164 | 3056 | 3779 | 3844 | 2586 | 1764 | 3796 | 2377 19 1772 | 4915 | 2495 | 4202 | 3295 | 3270 | 3527 | 3348 | 3397 | 3213 | 4677 20 3104 2074 | 1721 | .. | 1639 | 1609 | 1577 | 1659 | 2217 21 e 3 hy ! + \) egg |{2108 | 2181 | 3440 22 Z f eve 1860 | 3340 2 For Plots 0, 1, 20, 21, and 22 the averages are for’only 19, 18, 17, 13, and 13 years respectively. 3 On Plots 17 and 18 the manures have alternated during the last 12 years; that is, ammonia- salts on Plots 17, andthe mixed mineral manure on Plgts 18, in one year; mineral manure on Plots 17, and ammonia-salts on Plots 18, in the next year, and so on, Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. 1726 | 1969 | 1545 | 1902 1890 | 1933 | 15382 | 1630 3845 | 4317 | 3328 | 3837 1787 | 1558 | 1577 | 1670 1832 | 1781 | 1572 | 1673 1819 | 2012 | 1617 | 1532 1800 | 2122 | 1735 | 1643 2837 | 8050 | 2757 | 2577 8037 | 3093 | 2757 | 27138 3911 | 4560 | 3680 | 5965 4158 | 4598 | 3891 | 4092 38838 | 5182 | 4297 | 4667 4342 | 5089 | 4450 | 4667 3946 | 3875 | 3867 | 4517 $212 | 3152 | 2983 | 2688 2512 | 2818 | 2592 | 2130 3268 | 3168 | 2875 | 2615 2484 | 8517 | 2943 | 2797 8153 | 3443 | 2920 | 3018 3538 | 3847 | 5647 | 3663 4010 | 3725 | 3583 | 3673 8503 | 3743 | 3707 | 3693 3870 | 3651 | 3647 | 3677 3577 | 4202 | 3658 | 3737 4005 | 4117 | 5652 | 3710 3825 | 3 4222 | 3 4534 | 5529 | 4683 | 4797 4991 | 5467 | 4703 | 4813 1976 | 3558 | 2058 | 3203 } 1804 | 3465 | 1940 | 3274 4017 | 2012 | 3443 | 2008 4215 | 1938 | 3365 | 1967 1 3851 | 3562 | 3193 | 3185 1831 | 1888 | 1564 | 1730 2419 | 2529 | 1815 | 2373 manure (Plots 17 or 18). 1855, | 1856, | 1857, | 1858. Harvests, (and Cnarr), in lbs., per Acre, per Annum. Warat Yar arrer YEAR ON THE SAME Lanp. Apr.] Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. AVERAGE. Of Of last | 20 Years,? | 12 Years, 1844-63, 1852-63. ae aes Ibs. Ibs. 2072 1846 1965 1767 3515 3869 1693 1662 2125 B32 7 2345 1856 2501 1938 2909 2957 3044 3067 3776 4187 38850 4236 3862 4706 38977 4725 3739 4426 2998 3187 2656 2605 2866 3061 3124 3181 3176 3285 3617 3952 3607 3962 3582 3945 3632 4033 3609 3983 3615 4019 3499 3795 38669 4028 444] 5152 4511 5151 3060 2988 i 19854 3065 3096 } 837554 3416 3521 1807 1714 2298 2343 2266 2308 4 The average given for Plots 17 is that of 12 years mineral manure succeeding ammonia-salts (Plots 17 or 18) ; and that given for Plots 18, of 12 years ammonia-salts succeeding the mineral 183 Plots. 184 8a 11d 12a Snr SS" I NM On es Oem ~S=s mann Oma ee ens" i aI OO OO Oa Os Oe Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 1845. Ibs. 5944 5388 5882 4153 5542 4115 5331 551 uo oO es ee e_—— i eeetieen tt aati enti tami _——. oneness oa seas ee*=*". o wo wo LS Se ) Oo 6189 or or for} Je} oO lo wT @ C= lor) Cd or) a o _ ie) fon) i i “I or © = ive) a O fox x [App. Experiments AT RorHaMsTED ON THE GROWTH OF APpPENDIX.— TABLE XXVI,.--Toran Propucr A nn En SS SS HARVESTS. 1846. | 1847. | 1848. Ibs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. 4467 | 5308 | 3333 oo 3462 | 5854 | 2859 sis 4280 | 5609 | 4746 | 5097 2720 | 3025 | 2664 | 2843 4167 | 4728 | 4296 | 4708 2846 S lise} 5333 | 5177 | 6635 3319 » 4977 5853 bate 6475 3076 | 4449 | 4550 | 5482 4538 | 4435 | 4705 | 6000 3502 | 4985 | 5024 | 6160 5170 | 4635 | 5376 | 5927 3512 | 5798 | 3580 | 3296 4563 | 5740 | 3415 | 5246 i Od SoI)| sme i 3647 ieee 3126 | 4718 4545 | 4575 | 4587 | 3285 4094 | 4593 | 3701 |, 4992 2671 | 4579 | 4580 | 5117 3761 | 5561 | 5258 | 5209 4770 | 5144 | 4539 | 5091 3824 | 5405 | 5328 | 5767 4509 | 4920 | 4597 | 5577 3987 | 5265 | 5245 | 5576 4753 | 4972 | 4802 | 5592 3636 | 5306 | 5091 | 5477 4346 | 4862 | 4623 | 5341 5048 | 6090 | 4508 | 5147 4374 | 5757 | 4623 | 5267 3659 | 5376 | 5088 | 56388 4855 | 6295 | 5328 | 5827 5519 | 6249 | 5229 | 6207 4818 | 6575 | 5270 | 6117 4886 | 6012 | 4669 | 5755 3367 | 6193 | 4860 | 6022 4314 | 6397 | 5183 | 5264 8406 | 2771 1 See foot-note No, 5, to Appendix Table I, p- 147. 2 For Plots 0,1, 20, 21, and 22, the averages are for only 19, 18, 17, 13, and 13 years yespectively. 3 On Plots 17 and 18 the manures have alternated during the last 12 years; that is, ammonia- salts on Plots 17, and the mixed mineral manure on Plots 18, in one year; mineral manure on Plots 17, and ammonia-salts on Plots 18, in the next year, and so on. lbs. 3257 5106 2721 5097 6478 6397 5887 5939 6619 6392 5263 5539 5501 4927 4810 3120 5807 5681 5856 5918 6053 5972 6075 6010 5014 5868 7237 6774 6111 5995 5861 5689 5377 2507 lbs. 3158 38096 5148 2710 4868 6604 6905 5895 5626 7111 6834 4554 4693 5394 4912 5036 4985 6602 5465 5834 5784 5646 5523 5725 5658 4880 5509 6733 6833 5746 5485 5473 5676 5379 2565 }2090{ Ibs. 2625 2322 5178 2457 2441 2941 3097 3869 3904 5465 5415 5505 5423 5305 4883 4107 4162 4553 4299 4760 4724 4702 4765 5054 5137 4663 4941 6471 6316 5311 4986 2556 2685 4979 2452 3285 3355 lbs, 2406 2036 4492 1772 2116 2538 2741 3755 3870 5110 5091 5312 5352 3090 2902 2691 3578 3539 3780 4948 5079 5045 5308 4793 5108 4504 5107 6400 6556 2516 2551 4496 5052 4373 2084 2934 2452 1849, | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. 18S 1854. Ibs, 3786 4060 7125 3496 38859 4098 4035 6031 6294 8553 8440 9200 9325 6598 6723 5808 7003 8006 7776 8469 8412 8311 8405 8498 8281 7699 8083 9952 9928 8218 7629 3944 3888 7343 3662 5470 5334 App. | Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 185 Wueat YEAR Arren YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. (Corn and Srraw), in lbs., per Acre, per Annum. Hanvests. | AVERAGE. | of Of last |} -P1>ts- 1855. | 1856, | 1857. | 1858. | 1859. | 1860. | 1861, | 1862. | 1863, || 20 Years?| 12 Years, 1844-63. 1852-63. Ibs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. Tbs. Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Ibs. lbs. 2822 | 3148 | 2726 | 3284 | 3564 | 2271 | 2769 | 3258 | 3,254|| 3368 2989 ) 8069 | 3035 | 2650 | 2685 | 3489 | 2097 | 2215 | 2772 | 3,079 || 3134 2792 1 6082 | 6594 | 5910 | 6349 | 7073 | 5304 | 5303 | 6642 | 7,165]| 5591 6101 2 2959 | 2450 | 2813 | 2811 | 3226 | 2197 | 1990 | 2709 | 2,727] 2719 2626 3 8000 | 2757 | 2958 | 2879 | 3418 | 2852 | 2193 | 2711 | 2,957 3452 2804 4 2976 | 3179 | 3026 | 2719 | 3600 | 2483 | 2540 | 2959 | 2,970, 3767 3002 5a 2943 | 3369 | 3247 | 2870 | 3666 | 2595 | 2692 | 2961 3,064 3996 3107 5b 4590 | 4767 | 4968 | 4395,| 5555 | 3393 | 4328 | 4554 | 6,236 |] 4668 4704 6a 4848 | 4848 | 4950 | 4563 | 5708 | 3719 | 4501 | 4897 | 6,250]| 4859 4863 6) 5995 | 6872 | 6462 | 6415 | 6774 | 4615 | 5764 | 6106 | 9,33G]] 5897 6455 76 6296 | 6642 | 6793 | 6622 | 6892 | 4734 | 5788 | 6178 | 9,385 || 5982 6519 7D 5747 | 7689 | 7355 | 7347 | 7421 | 5639 | 6203 | 7200 /10,383|| 5926 7083 8a 6495 | 7489 | 7579 | 7342 | 7604 | 5600 | 5985 | 7087 |10,048 || 6102 7111 8b 5878 | 5894 | 6634 | 6701 | 7076 | 6635 | 6607 | 8738 | 9,888 5730 6587 9a 4817 | 4831 | 5203 | 4158 | 5002 | 4285 | 3079 | 4897 | 6,920 4668 4808 9 3797 | 4823 | 4208 | 3569 | 3937 | 3118 | 2784 | 4050 | 6,068 |} 4203 4038 || 10a 5073 | 4895 | 5060 | 4390 | 4920 | 3420 | 3196 | 4443 | 6,914|| 4521 4754 || 10b 3694 | 5518 | 5375 | 4774 | 5155 | 3773 | 4032 | 4548 | 7,212|] 4984 5015 || lla 4783 | 5889 | 5317 | 5117 | 5275 | 4000 | 4223 | 4607 | 7,519|| 5051 5170 || 116 5478 | 5949 | 6394 | 6100 | 6610 | 4878 | 5201 | 5745 | 8,976 || 5681 6126 || 12a 6182 | 5804 | 6312 | 6060 | 6858 | 4664 | 5481 | 5634 | 8,819 5672 6169 126 5427 | 5779 | 6421 | 6077 | 6774 | 4568 | 5486 | 5542 | 9,199]| 5614 6110 || 134 5980 | 5659 | 6386 | 6074 | 6894 | 4637 | 5794 | 5691 | 9,238] 5681 6236 || 13b 5531 | 6897 | 6439 | 6150 | 6817 | 4636 | 5502 | 5283 | 8,986 || 5651 6174 |) 144 6161 | 6279 | 6351 | 6146 | 6774 | 4666 | 5476 | 5558 | 8,749 || 5658 6224 145 5855 | 5444'| 6368 | 5800 | 6826 | 4387 | 5506 | 5268 | 8,276], 5488 5883 || 15a 6415 | 5797 | 6543 | 6134 | 7088 | 4704 | 5727 | 5787 | 8,240]| 5722 6214 || 150 6634 | 7955 | 7814 | 7499 | 7953 | 5973 | 6761 | 6752 |10,717 6680 7572 16a 7106 | 7917 | 7897 | 7530 | 7798 | 6096 | 6775 | 6730 |10,332 || 6795 7582 || 16d $203 | 5541 | 3700 | 5353 | 3730 | 4109 | 2982 | 4827 | 3,28s|| 4821 31664 ||f174 2914 | 5400 | 3528 | 5455 | 3541 | 4518 | 2829 | 4762 | 3,292|| 4712 1763 6144 | 3152 | 6009 | 3480 | 6506 | 2649 | 5144 | 3161 | 7,889|| 4839 5809 4 ||f 184 6385 | 3069 | 5884 | 3305 | 6630 | 2706 | 5446 | 3335 | 7,757)! 4847 18) 5818 | 5621 | 5793 | 5362 | 5926 | 4178 | 5345 | 4132 | 7,577 5400 5537 19 2986 | 2963 | 2777 | 2819 | 3256 | 2155 | 2340 | 2335 | 2,609 || 2840 2703 || 20 3952 | 3927 | 3353 | 3947 | 4723 | 2639 | 2749 | 3465 | 4,279/] 3671 3727 || 21 4010 | 3849 | 3298 | 3592 | 4440 | 2414 | 3263 | 3430 | 4,599/| 3618 3670 || 22 4 The average given for Plots 17 is that of 12 years mineral manure succeeding ammonia-salts (Plots 17 or 18); and that given for Plots 18, of 12 years ammonia-salts succeeding the mineral manure (Plots 17 or 18), (lesan VI.—On Peruvian Guano and the Means of Increasing its Efficacy asa Manure. By Dr. Avaustus VoELCKER. PERUVIAN guano, like well-made farmyard-manure, has been found to benefit more or less all kinds of crops grown on every description of land. For this reason it is considered a more universal fertiliser than artificial manures, which, like nitrate of soda, wool-refuse, horn-shavings, &c., exercise a beneficial action upon vegetation solely in virtue of their nitrogen, and conse- quently should only be used in special cases and with great dis- crimination, especially on soils deficient in the mineral substances found in the ashes of plants. With the exception of a trifling quantity of sand, seldom exceeding 2 per cent., and 12 to 15 per cent. of moisture, genuine Peruvian guano contains nothing which is not of great utility to vegetation. We find, indeed, in it in a concentrated state the most valuable fertilising constituents, and do not meet in it with substances which, though necessary to a healthy growth of plants, are abundantly distributed throughout most soils, and therefore may well be dispensed with in a concentrated manure, But although it contains potash, soda, chloride of sodium, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and ies or nearly all the ash-constituents of plants, the large amount of ammoniacal salts and nitrogenous organic matter which enter into it chiefly determine its commercial and agri- cultural value. Ammoniacal salts and nitrogenous matters possess a money- value which is, in a great measure, independent of the demand — of the agriculturist for these materials. Guano, when cheap, may and has been used as the raw material for the manufacture of spirits of hartshorn, carbonate and sulphate of ammonia, as also for preparing Prussian-blue, murexide-purple, and other dyes, and such competition would disturb, and possibly might injure, the market for the farmer. In my own mind I have no doubt that Peruvian guano is worth more to the agriculturist and the dealer in artificial ma- nures than to other chemical manufacturers, because its consti- tution is one that gives it special value as food for plants; as a source of nitrogen, it differs materially from wool-refuse (shoddy), (which being impregnated with oil’ dissolves but slowly in the soil, and is therefore far less valuable,) and resembles a quick acting because rapidly decomposing material, such as blood or fish-refuse. Genuine Peruvian guano contains from 6 to 7 per cent. of ready-formed ammonia, and an amount of nitrogenous organic constituents which on decomposition yield about 12 per cent. Peruvian Guano. 187 of ammonia. (The phosphates which guano contains—bone- earth in a finely divided state to the extent of 22 to 24 per cent.—as well as its soluble alkaline phosphates, are presented in a very valuable shape. Its alkalies, specially the potash, will much benefit crops on light soils, which are generally deficient in this element. As long as Peruvian guano was sold at a price which left a broad margin for profit, many farmers did not trouble themselves to enquire whether they derived the utmost advantage from its application, or whether they did not incur a partial waste by applying it to crops or upon soils for which other fertilisers were better suited. But a gradual rise in price compelled them to study greater economy in its use, and to try experiments with a view of ascertaining when, and in what quantities, for what crops, and upon what soils, it should be used. The successful employment of superphosphate and similar artificial manures, prepared more particularly for root-crops, has at the same time very much tended to enlarge our experience and knowledge on the relative merits of phosphatic and ammo- niacal fertilisers. The high price of guano for the moment aided the introduction of superphosphate, and gave greater range and precision to this branch of agricultural science. The true interests of the importers of guano and the manu- facturers of manures are not opposed to each other ; for Peruvian guano, judiciously used for special purposes, can well compete with other artificial manures; and for other purposes a much cheaper manure may often be used with greater advantage in preference to guano. It appears desirable that Peruvian guano, as hitherto, should be sold genuine by the recognised agents of the sole importers ; and the supervision which the importers exercise in appointing respectable agents, and the care they take to prevent the adul- teration of guano, deserve all praise. If, however, it can be shown that the efficacy of Peruvian guano may be greatly increased by certain chemical and mechanical means, requiring more time and attention than the farmer is likely to bestow upon it; and that the admixture of other fertilising matters renders guano more useful in many cases, it must surely be an advantage to the importers to give fitting opportunity for its being so treated and combined, If it were true that the proportion of nitrogen in the organic matters and of ammoniacal salts in manures solely determined their efficacy and value, in reference to all crops, in all climates, and on every description of soil, Peruvian guano, perhaps, would be pre-eminently the most valuable artificial manure. We know, however, very well that this large supply of nitrogen is, in some cases, of no use whatever, and in others exercises a decidedly in- 188 Peruvian Guano. jurious effect. There are clay soils in Gloucestershire, Hereford- shire, and other counties, on which the application of ammoniacal salts to root-crops often diminishes the crop, and, at the best, is of no benefit whatever to the swedes or turnips. Again, on light sandy soils, although for a time highly nitrogenous manures may largely increase the yield of corn, yet their exclusive and long continued use leads to a rapid exhaustion of the soil in those mineral constituents of which an abundant supply is required by all cultivated plants. On the other hand, there are certain loamy soils on which Peruvian guano is used with great advan- tage for grass and corn crops, especially as a top-dressing for wheat and barley ; and the only question which arises is, whether the required nitrogen is more economically applied to the land in that shape, than as nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, soot, &c. . Preparation of Guano. When guano is used as a top-dressing, or is drilled in, more care should be taken than is frequently bestowed to apply it ina good mechanical condition. It should never be sown without having been submitted to the rather tedious and unpleasant process of sifting and grinding into a fine powder. ‘The hard lumps, varying from the size of a pea to that of an egg, which always occur in good Peruvian guano, do not materially differ in composition from the finer particles, and should be reduced to as fine a powder as the rest. If guano is sown without such preparation, the fine dust will be carried away too readily by the wind, and the coarser portions will fall too much together in one place. In consequence of this unequal distribution, the young plants will be burned up where the lumps drop, near-by there will be a rank growth, and the crop will ripen unequally. The danger arising from unequal distribution is less when the manure is applied to the land in autumn before sowing the seed-corn. This practice should be adopted in all cases in which the soil contains a fair amount of clay, which, in virtue of its well-known absorbing properties, retains the fertilizing constituents of guano, so that the rain falling upon the land during the winter months, instead of re- moving the most valuable manuring substances, as in the case of light sandy soils, has the advantage of disseminating them uniformly through the soil. Mechanical Preparation of Guano. It has been recommended to sift the guano, to spread the lumps retained by the sieve on a clean stone-floor, and to pass a garden- roller over them, or to beat them down with the back of a shovel Peruvian Guano. 189 or a turf-beater. It is extremely difficult, however, by these means to reduce them to a sufficiently fine powder. Even grinding under a millstone does not answer the purpose, for guano is very apt to cake under the stone. It therefore requires to be mixed with some material which counteracts this tendency to cake. Gypsum, fine ashes, salt, charcoal-dust, and dry soil, are some of the materials that have been recommended. Gypsum, however, does not prevent the caking; it therefore is ill suited for the purpose. Salt likewise is objectionable; for it gives the guano a moist appearance, and rather increases than diminishes the difficulty. Finely-sifted coal or wood ashes, charcoal-dust, and dry soil, answer better; but perhaps the best material for effecting the reduction of guano to a fine powder is sharp sand. The proper way of proceeding is first to sift off all the fine guano- dust, then to mix the hard lumps left in the sieve with about twice their bulk of sand, to spread the mixture on an even floor, and to -pass a heavy roller over it, or to beat down the lumps with a wooden mallet. The admixture of sand prevents the caking of the guano, and greatly facilitates its reduction to fine powder. After the whole has gone through the sieve, salt in the proportion of two parts by weight to one of guano may be added with great advantage. The moisture imparted to the guano by the salt prevents the dusting, which is so great an inconvenience in sowing it by hand. Salt in conjunction with guano, more- over, has a specific action on vegetation, which is specially bene- ficial to corn-crops on light soils. Analyses of Guano. Notwithstanding that many elaborate and careful analyses have been made, some peculiarities in the chemical constitution of Peruvian guano have been passed by either unnoticed or have not attracted the degree of attention to which they are entitled. In order to render more intelligible in what these peculiarities con- sist, and how far they affect our endeavours to render guano more efficacious, I would invite attention to the following analyses of three samples of Peruvian guano of this year’s importation. Composition of Three Samples of Peruvian Guano. Moisture... o aa 1842 15°14 16°56 *Organic matters and salts of ammonia.. .« 5211 52:81 51°70 Phosphates of lime and magnesia Song “earth) 21°99 20°26 23°55 fAlkaline salts... oe we. 3 On 10°52 6°44 Insoluble siliceous matters (sand) | ea fe Waa cotta 1:27 1°75 100:00 100:00 100-00 *Containing nitrogen seiko SP agreemel’ . oteds 15°41 15°13 Equal to ammonia oe ee SENy I Malice. 18°69 18°37 +Containing phosphoric acid « awehtst, Se 2°23 2°48 1:08 Equal tobone-earth .. .. «2 .. «. 483 5°36 2°34 190 Peruvian Guano. Organic Matter and Salts of Ammonia.—For all practical pur- poses it is quite sufficient to determine together organic matters and ammoniacal salts, and to indicate how much ammonia will be produced by 100 parts of guano on its final decomposition in the soil, The salts of ammonia, as well as ie organic. matters, include several distinct chemical compounds, Phosphate, sulphate, oxalate, urate, and carbonate of ammonia are constantly present in Peruvian guano; but the relative proportion of these salts variesto. a considerable extent in different samples. The organic matter includes uric acid, a little urea, oxalic acid, guanine, and other nitrogenised substances, and also butyric, phocenic, and similar fatty acids, to which the peculiar and characteristic smell of guano is principally due. With the exception of the fatty acids, all these organic substances are rich in nitrogen, and very prone to suffer decomposition in the presence of water. The most important product of their decomposition is ammonia. The strong and pungent smell of guano damaged by sea-water is due to ammonia, and indicates a partial decomposition which the nitrogenous organic matters have sustained. Such a decomposition does not take place without loss of ammonia. Hence dark-coloured and pungent- smelling samples are generally poorer in nitrogen, and _ less valuable than those which are light- coloured, dry, and far less pungent. Uric acid and urate of ammonia, which are nearly in- soluble in water, contain fully one-third of their weight of nitrogen. As long as guano is kept in a dry atmosphere, the nitrogen in these compounds remains in a fixed condition. Under the influence of oxygen and a certain temperature, uric acid in the presence of water passes through a very remarkable series of transformations, producing ‘aaiai urea, and oxalic acid. Urea in its turn is readily resolved into carbonate of ammonia, ‘These changes in the nitrogenised constituents proceed rapidly when guano is incorporated with a moist soil. It cannot, therefore, be doubted that the nitrogenous matters of guano, in virtue of the ammonia they produce, are as useful to vegetation as the actual ammonia which occurs in it in the shape of ammoniacal salts, For all practical purposes, therefore, the distinction. between actual ammonia and potential ammonia * is of little significance, and the same money- -value which is given to the actual ammonia may with propriety be assigned to the ammonia which guano is capable of yielding on decomposition, Oxalic acid, it will be noticed, is a product of decomposition of uric acid, and therefore is always present in damaged guano * That is to say, the ammonia which nitrogenous matters are capable of eyolving gradually in the soil. Peruvian Guano. 191 in greater abundance than in dry and sound samples. In good samples, which have an aromatic rather than pungent smell, | find invariably a large proportion of uric and little oxalic acid, and in inferior, dark, strong-smelling damaged samples, com- paratively speaking, little uric and ce dasalic acid ; therefore a large amount of oxalic acid in guano indicates irifestto quality. The oxalic acid, however, as we shall see hereafter, plays an important part in rendering the insoluble phosphatic constituents soluble. Ready-formed Ammonia in Guano. In a scientific point of view, the determination of ready- formed ammonia in guano is of some interest. In a practical point of view, it likewise appeared to me desirable to ascer- tain whether or not guano contains any free or, more properly speaking, volatile carbonate of ammonia. I therefore deter- mined in the preceding samples both the amount of free ammonia and that present in the shape of ammoniacal salts, For this purpose 100 grains of each sample were introduced into a glass retort, and ated with 4 ozs. of distilled water. The retort was eonaectéd air-tight with a glass receiver, to which was attached the bulb apparatus, used in nitrogen combustion: Both the glass receiver and bulb apparatus contained a measured quantity of sulphuric acid of known strength for the reception of the ammonia given off during the process of distillation. The contents of the retort were nearly distilled to dryness, and by‘ this means the free or volatile carbonate of ammonia was dis- tilled over with water only, and received into sulphuric acid. It is hardly necessary to observe that a portion of the acid becomes neutralised by the ammonia, and that by employing a fixed quantity of sulphuric acid, and a standard solution of caustic soda, the exact amount of ammonia given off during the distillation can be readily determined by the well known alkali- metrical process. The result was that the 3 samples furnished :— ; 1 No.1. No.2 + No.3. EPA CNUEE NS ict ee, ond ies> (doe. 118 1°31 1°32 It thus appears that the proportion of free ammonia in these 3 samples of good Peruvian guano was little above. 1 per cent. The preceding figures express the amount of caustic or free ammonia ddmaimedia in the vapours that were received in the acid during the process of distillation, Guano, however, like all other putrefying nitrogenous substances, does not furnish ammonia free or caustic, but as a carbonate; this carbonate is often in common life mucaaled free ammonia, in consequence of its being volatile and having the same smell. 192 Peruvian Guano. In order to determine the amount of ammonia existing in the shape of urate, sulphate, and other salts, the residue from which the volatile carbonate of ammonia was distilled off with water, was mixed with quick lime, some caustic soda, and a fresh quantity of distilled water, and after the acid in the receiver and bulb apparatus had been renewed, the contents of the retort were distilled nearly to dryness. The following were the results obtained :— No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.] o s < Percentage of ammonia present as salts ie BA] 5:53 4-91 ammonia oo Ef water : Adding the ammonia which occurred in these samples as volatile carbonate to that existing in the shape of non-volatile salts, we get in the first sample 6°54, in the second 6°84, and in the third 6:23 per cent. of ready-formed or actual ammonia; and as the total amount of ammonia to be furnished on ultimate de- composition amounted to 184 per cent. in round numbers, it will be seen that in good samples one-third of the total amount of ammonia which guano is capable of yielding is actual, and two-thirds potential ammonia, or, more correctly speaking, one- third of the nitrogen exists in ready-formed ammonia, and two- thirds in the form ‘of uric acid, guanine, and other organic matters which readily yield ammonia on decomposition. The proportions of volatile and of fixed but ready-formed ammonia vary considerably in different samples. In dry and first-rate samples the ready-formed ammonia seldom exceeds 64 to 7 per cent.; the ammonia in a volatile condition usually amounts to 4 or 4 per cent. In wet or damaged samples, on the other hand, the proportion both of volatile ammonia and of ready-formed but fixed ammoniacal salts is more considerable. The following determination indicates this difference. Percentage of free Ammonia in— eA vary goodisamplonienny callie cumin CONS 2. Ditto SOURIS PALS ores bate bakit, 3. Ditto Prose acd eh ells) 4, Ditto son fees fsa Wiech vate lpgeY 5: Damaced omanon se. mieen ise) | sew sen) tecuumlcowe 6. Ditto Mer as Ee come oem Me Ditto AR pall A Talephy Sct Eee Mae hee oni There was but little of a pungent smell in the 4 good samples; the 3 damaged specimens had a strong smell of ammonia. In No. 7 the amount of fixed ammonia was 9°944 per cent., which is considerably more than is found in some good guano. It follows from these remarks that a powerful pungent smell, to a certain extent indicates inferior quality. Peruvian Guano. 193 The Solubility of Phosphates in Guano. Genuine Peruvian guano contains from 22 to 24 per cent. of earthy phosphates ; but since the action of rain or other deterio- rating influences remoyes the soluble constituents, the proportion of insoluble or eatthy phosphates is larger in inferior samples. The earthy phosphates occur in guano in a finely divided condition, in which they are no doubt more valuable than they would be in the shape of a coarse powder ; but several direct de- terminations have shown me that they are not more soluble than good bone-dust. In two_experiments which I made, I found that 1 gallon of water dissolved respectively 2°46 and 2°64 grains of phosphate of lime. . In addition to insoluble phosphate of lime and magnesia (bone-earth), guano, it will be seen by the preceding analyses, contains soluble phosphoric acid in considerable though varying quantities. The soluble phosphoric acid occurs naturally as phosphate of ammonia, which, according to the usual way of performing an analysis, is classed with the alkaline salts. As this phosphoric acid is a most valuable constituent, it ought always to be determined when it is desired to ascertain correctly the money-value of guano. On an average | find in Peruvian guano a quantity of soluble phosphoric acid, which corresponds to 5 to 6 per cent. of bone-earth. Alkaline Salts.—In considering the value of Peruvian guano, the fact that it contains potash ought not to be overlooked. On an average good samples contain from 6 to 8 per cent. of alkaline salts, and, according to Professor Way, nearly one half of their weight consists of potash. This constituent may contribute a good deal to its value as a manure for root-cops grown on light land deficient in potash, Salt does not fix Ammonia. Various means of increasing the efficacy of guano have been from time to time recommended, amongst others the addition of salt ; and there can be no doubt of the propriety of such an ad- mixture. The grounds on which its recommendation was based are, however, mistaken, because the beneficial effect certainly does not arise from any power which salt is supposed to possess of fixing the ammonia. Any one, who possesses even a slight acquaintance with chemistry may readily ascertain experimentally the amount of free .ammonia contained in solutions or dry sub- stances, and may satisfy himself that free ammonia is neither increased nor diminished by the addition of salt in small or large quantities. It is strange how generally the opinion has 194 Peruvian Guano. been received which ascribes to salt this power. The explana- tion of this mistaken notion no doubt lies in the fact that salt is an excellent antiseptic, and consequently prevents the further decomposition of nitrogenous organic matters, and with it the further formation of ammonia, but it does not fix any existing free ammonia. Free ammonia in a substance soon escapes, and since, by the use of salt, further decomposition is effectually stopped, and the pungent smell which accompanies it is no longer perceptible, it is easy to conceive how salt should have received credit for being a fixer of ammonia. In proof of the supposed value of common salt as a fixer of ammonia the following experiments of M. Barral, editor of the ** Journal d’Agriculture Pratique,” are quoted :—M. Barral took samples of guano; the one he kept pure, the other he mixed with an equal weight of common salt. The sample of pure guano was found on analysis to contain 12°56 per cent. of nitrogen ; the sample mixed with salt contained 6:23 per cent., or as nearly as possible half the quantity of nitrogen. Equal weights of the two samples were exposed to heat for three hours in the same stove, in a current of air, maintained at 212° Fahr. They were spread out so as to have the same thickness, and occupy an equal sur- face, and they had been equally pulverised. At the end of three hours, on examining the two samples, the pure guano had lost 5'1 per cent. of its nitrogen, while the mixture had lost only 1-9 per cent. This experiment, which appeared to be in favour of the preservative power of salt, was repeated under another form. Equal weights of the pure and the mixed guano were left in the open air, in plates, during fifteen days. At the end of that time the amount of nitrogen was determined in each sample, and it was found that the pure guano had lost 11°6 per cent. of its ni- trogen, while that mixed with salt had lost only 5 per cent. In- dependent of the influence of salt in these experiments is the important fact that in this case upwards of one-tenth of the nitrogen was lost in the course of fifteen days. It. will be observed -that the guano here used contained only 12°56 per cent. of nitrogen, that is, a quantity much smaller than occurs in genuine sound Peruvian guano. It appears to me, therefore, likely that the guano was not of the best description, but probably a sample in an actual state of decomposition. Such samples yield ammonia constantly as a product of decomposition of the nitrogenous matters, and the addition of salt had not the effect of fixing any free ammonia, but by checking decomposition, it pre- vented the further formation and loss of ammonia, The correct- ness of this view appears clearly from the following experiments, which I made ini the hope of confirming M. Barral’s observations. Peruvian Guano. 195 A sample of good Peruvian guano, which furnished a quantity of nitrogen corresponding to 17:24 per cent. of ammonia, and contained 12°82 per cent. of moisture, was dried in a current of hot air for three hours at a temperature of 212° Fahr. The am- monia driven off with the watery vapours was carefully collected in a bulb-apparatus containing hydrochloric acid, and the amount determined in the usual way with bi-chloride of platinum. At the end of 8 hours it was found to have lost 75 per cent. of am- monia, A second sample of the same guano was mixed with an equal weight of common salt, and submitted to the same process. The mixture contained 11:20 of moisture, and furnished on com- bustion with soda-lime 8°73 per cent. of ammonia, or as nearly as possible half the quantity which was found in the pure guano, At the end of 3 hours’ drying in a current of air at 212°, the loss in ammonia was determined and found to amount to ‘40 per cent. The pure guano, it will be seen, lost no more ammonia than the sample mixed with 50 per cent. of salt. : Dried at 212° Fahr., the pure guano furnished altogether 19:77 per cent. of ammonia, and the mixed sample 9°83 per cent. Equal weights of the pure and mixed guano were now exposed to the open air, in plates, during one month. At the end of that time the percentage of moisture, free ammonia, and total amount of nitrogen, calculated as ammonia, were determined in precisely the same way as before. The pure guano then contained 17°65 per cent. of moisture, °69 of free ammonia, and on combustion with soda-lime furnished altogether 16°30 of ammonia. The mixture of equal parts of salt and guano after a month’s exposure to air contained 19-69 per cent. of moisture, °31 of free ammonia, and yielded altogether 7:94 per cent. of ammonia. Calculated in a perfectly dry state, the pure guano produced 19°73 of ammonia, and the mixed sample 9°88, or almost exactly the same quantities which both samples yielded before exposure to the air. Notwithstanding the absorption of moisture during a month, neither the pure nor the mixed guano lost any ammonia. The absorption of moisture by the pure guano, it will be remarked, amounted to nearly 5 per cent., and that by the mixed sample to 7 per cent. These results, arranged for the sake of greater perspicuity in the following tabular form, show at a glance that genuine Peru- vian guano loses but an insignificant proportion (} per cent.) of ammonia by long exposure to air at the ordinary temperature, or by drying in a current of air of the temperature of boiling water, and that therefore salt did not in these experiments exercise any chemical action. , VOL. XXV. P 196 Peruvian Guano. Guano and Salt Experiments. hi Bt .. | After exposure to Air Before exposure to Air, for 1 Month. 50 per Cent. 50 per Cent. of Guano, | of Guano, Pure and Pure and Guano. | 50 per Cent. || Guano. | 50 per Cent, of Common of Common Salt. | Salt. Percentage of moisture 12°82 11-20 | 17°65 19°69 Percentage of ammonia driven off ks with Tehins at 212° Fahr. \ nie *40 "69 “Bl Percentage of total amount of nitro- rs , Ady gen of the guano in natural state } fatty Se) aoa ay Equaltoammonia .. .. .. 17°24 8°73 16°30 7°94 Percentage of total amount of nitro- { gen calculated for substance, si 16°28 8°10 |} B6"25 8°14 at 2129 Babes en oe eee Bins Equaltoammonia .. .. .. | 19°77 9°83 19°73 9°88 The same guano which was used in the preceding experiments was kept for a period of more than a year, and then analysed ; it then yielded the following results :— MIOISHUTE TE oe et eel sel cen ee Ge fel en nD *Organic matter and ammoniacal salts .. .. .. .. 52°31L Phosphates of lime and magnesia (bone-earth) .. .. 22°278 Alkaline salts. ...,1 440 .as'p, ‘csyruemeuy | gay eat die kee Insoluble siliceous matter (sand)... .. .. .. .. 1°443 100-000 +@ontaming nitrogen): | 5. les -2) a= eet es er) eIDO Equal toammonia.. -. -. +. 22 «- + 16°52 Percentage of nitrogen in perfectly dried guano.. .. 15°90 Equal to ammonia 5s" | api be Eagan 19°31 It will be seen that even in so long a period the guano scarcely lost any ammonia; the total amount of nitrogen in the dried guano was 16-28 per cent. in the preceding year; now it is 15-90 per cent. The difference between the two determinations—*38 per cent.—is so small that it might fairly be regarded as a variation, which may occur in any two separate analyses of the same material. It follows unmistakably from these experiments that good Peruvian guano may be kept for any reasonable length of time in a dry place (such as a dry shed), without losing any of its fer- tilizing properties, and that there is no need of resorting to che- mical substances which are known to possess the property of fixing ammonia. The recommendation to cover up or mix it immediately after its delivery with some fixer or preserver of -ammonia, therefore, possesses no practical value. Peruvian Guano. 197 Damaged Guano. The case is different with damaged or wet guano. Such guano is generally in an active state of decomposition, and loses the more ammonia the longer it is kept. When good guano is mois- tened with water, it enters into an active fermentation in less than 24 hours, in consequence of which it rapidly loses ammonia. Care, therefore, should be taken not to expose guano to rain, and not to store it away ona damp floor or in an exposed shed. The peculiar smell of dry Peruvian guano, it has been observed already, is caused by a number of fatty acids derived from the fish-oil of the food of the guano-birds. There are, however, many persons who, on noticing the more or less powerful smell emanat- ing from guano, farmyard manure, compost-heaps, and similar mat- ters, have an indiscriminate apprehension of a loss of ammonia. In an active state of putrefaction refuse matters of that kind cer- tainly give off ammonia, but when the*process of putrefaction is effectually arrested by desiccation, the further evolution of am- monia ceases, and the disagreeable smell of the refuse matter, though not so pungent as before, still remains sufficiently unaltered to show that animal matters may smell strongly and yet not lose any ammonia. If any one doubts the truth of this assertion, let him drench a couple of ounces of Peruvian guano completely with dilute sulphuric acid, and he will find that the characteristic smell of the guano is not removed or weakened by the acid. If the smell were due to ammonia, the excess of acid would of course instantly saturate this volatile alkali, and destroy the smell. Guano soaked in oil of vitriol may be dried and heated for hours at a temperature not exceeding 212° Fahr. without losing its peculiar smell; though it is hardly necessary to say that at that temperature ammonia cannot escape from a dry and very acid powder. ; Damaged and wet guano should either be applied to the land without delay, or if this is impossible, it should be dried before it is stored away. To this end the guano may be thinly spread on a dry floor and be mixed with gypsum or a similar drying material. If sand or peat-mould or charcoal-dust is used, it may be well to moisten it at the same time with some oil of vitriol diluted with an equal bulk of water, for the acid will fix the free ammonia, which in wet guano amounts to 14 to 13 per cent. The mixture may be exposed with advantage to direct sun- heat, or be submitted to a moderate artificial drying heat, and if heat cannot be applied conveniently, the moist guano-mixture should be turned over in a place exposed to a current of air. E 2 198 Peruvian Guano. Water as a Solvent for Guano. It has been frequently noticed that Peruvian guano is not so efficacious ina dry season or localities as ina wet season or in dis- tricts where the rain-fall is high. This perhaps is one, but not the only reason why Peruvian guano is so highly and justly appre- ciated in the West of Scotland, and generally in the western counties, and why in several of the eastern counties it has been superseded in a great measure by superphosphate of lime. Again, it has been observed that Peruvian guano is never more beneficially applied to the land than when a sufficient length of time is allowed for the rain to wash it into the land. These and similar observations tend to show that guano, like most highly- concentrated manure, produces the most beneficial effect upon vegetation when it has become thoroughly acted upon by water and its constituent elements have been uniformly diffused through the soil. That guano should be applied to the land at a time when heavy showers of rain or a succession of wet days may con- fidently be expected, is a rule with all good farmers; and it remains for the agricultural chemist to point out the reason why this should be done, and also to explain why, on the same soil and upon the same crop, guano at certain times acts much more beneficially than at others. The difference in the practical efficacy -of Peruvian guano is intimately connected with the action of water . on its constituents. A comparatively small quantity of water corresponding to a mere passing shower of rain falling on a field recently manured with guano appears to have a different effect from that of a large downfall on its constituents ; as this subject has a direct practical bearing upon agricultural practice, I have carefully studied the action of water upon guano, and now proceed with a description of my experiments and a statement of my results, ‘ Experiments showing the effects of a definite and large quantity ' of Water on Peruvian Guano. The same three samples of guano, the composition of which is given in the beginning of this paper, were employed in the fol- lowing experiments :— 100 grains of each sample were boiled up for a few minutes with half a decigallon of distilled water, another half decigallon of cold distilled water was added, and the mixed and muddy liquid allowed to settle for 24 hours in a stoppered glass-bottle. The clear liquid was then filtered off, and the insoluble matter collected, on a weighed filter, The insoluble matter was dried ~ in a waterbath, weighed, and then burned. In’ the burnt residue the percentages of sand, insoluble phosphates, oxalate of lime, Peruvian Guano. 199 and alkalies were determined by approved analytical processes, and in the soluble portion, those of soluble bone-earth, oxalic, sul- phuric, and phosphoric acid, of chlorine, potash, and soda, The percentages of nitrogen both in the solution and in the insoluble matter were also determined. The following Table embodies the results of these deter- minations :— No, I. No. Il. No. Il. ; Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Portion soluble in water .. .. 5701 .... 4892... 48°01 Consisting of :— IWS Sh oS ee, ene Per AC a) Oe. LODO Tribasic phosphate of lime .. Se 00 ears ao) ee “44 Phosphoriciacid)*..// ss) * 5. ac 2:62: 234. 2°38 ribasic pl a 2 = ee ee, Pe breenUaigh) | orceesyt LN "b Ree) VA") Xs) PUlpounc acid |.~...... .. 5 G29 ee ZiBOn wt « 3°30 Oxalicmerd).. Fs. sc). . es SEM) Dy ok OG = 5:18 (Cilonmey 3s as vy fie oe rf 48 (ts PSO 2. 1:02 WOtssiiese? Pose. (pei eed? By "S169 thn: MOT wig ae ical OO CANECets en PMS ae as 33 G2 ua aT yal 86 *Ammoniacal salts and soluble " TOBA ehe teil BBiarc. 1656 organic matters Bon! Bee Portion insoluble in water Bee AD GOP COS? (hse er ogo Consisting of :— Insoluble phosphates .. .. elke RL OO DON ect A792 Mg beat pes lsOO Oxalate’ofilime ; %.\.. a CHOY Pace 1 eg a 1:37 Potash and soda .:° .. | |<. ie 60% | es “Gunes SUC Insoluble siliceous matter 2, i es Eel 151 (Ganlieeescta es ee 2 tInsoluble organic matters .. Pe AALOISO Ale sth) AAT Ggibestd 26°74 10000 100-00 100:00 *Containing nitrogen .. .. Sap TUM Ve 9°88 sé Not Equaltoammonia .. .. -- 14:07 Sri Wes) -. deter- t+Containing nitrogen .. .. i Si82.(h 22 5°46 -. mined. Equaltoammonia .. .. SE 4°67 os 6°63 A glance at the preceding analytical result shows :— . That a large proportion of Peruvian guano is soluble in pure water. . That a small quantity of bone-earth passed into the solution. . That Peruvian guano contains soluble phosphoric acid in combination with alkalies in considerable quantities, . That it contains also oxalic acid. - On washing guano with water the oxalic acid in com- bination with ammonia passes into the solution as oxalate of ammonia. | 5, That only a small amount of oxalic acid remained in the in- soluble portion as oxalate of lime. 6. That the insoluble part of guano contained a little potash and soda. ol H= Oo bo 200 Peruvian Guano. It is not possible to wash these alkalies completely out of guano even where large quantities of boiling water are employed. 7. That by far the greater portion of the nitrogen contained in the organic matters of guano is soluble in water, and there- fore may be supposed to be present in a readily assimilable state for the use of plants. On burning, Peruvian guano leaves a perfectly white ash, which dissolves in hydrochloric acid without the least effer- vescence. ‘The amount of sulphuric acid in this ash is much less than in the guano before it is burnt. The three samples, in which I found before burning 3°52 per cent., 2°88 per cent., and 3°30 per cent. respectively, gave ashes which contained only 1:29, 1:25, and 1°16 per cent. of sulphuric acid. As guano leaves only one-third of its weight, in round numbers, of ash, it is evident that by far the greater proportion of sulphuric aeid which it contains, is dissipated by burning. In the next experiment IT tried to ec tanee Peruvian guano completely with water. 100 grains were boiled repeatedly with large quantities of water, and the insoluble portion was washed upon a filter with distilled water for more than five days. Even after that time a little was dissolved, but as the washings then contained only a trace the exhaustion by water was discontinued, the insoluble matter collected on a weighed filter, dried at 210°, weighed, and then burned. The insoluble matter was analysed as_ before. The whole of the solution was exaporated to dryness, and the residue, after drying at 212°, weighed and analysed. During the evaporation of the large quantity of fluid em- ployed in exhausting the guano, ammonia was constantly given off, and as the complete evaporation and drying of the residue occupied nearly a week, a large proportion of uric and other nitrogenised compounds was destroyed and dissipated in the form of carbonate ofammonia. It will be seen by the subjoined analysis that no less than 334 per cent. of organic matter were destroyed in this way. The guano analysed in the usual way, that is without exhaust- ing it first with water, produced the following results :— Moisture .. ¥ od Ame ee big! 15), 4,9, Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 13 a! $60°%3. Phosphates of lime and magnesia (bone- earth) « 2207 Alkaline salts .. .. uo cel ekeky hes eee vfacrg Insoluble siliceous matter wa, 4 ee Ir=s es MOA A ZS RK WWRAAAAE S WENA ESS US SSS Sa BS ESSSSSMSss S ESSN | A N gy 7 / U xX | ZA £ N = WLLL SS’ d y L / 4 SSS. 0 WWW l’:B XG GN"... OOM KX. SSS SY EXSY SS BSSSSSSSssy OC AN RX SSSA ESSSSSSSSSS ESS puv sospne oq} 10f su00l oyVALIg “f *udta]} Ue Oy as ee, *Solpel 1OJ SMIOOA Baa “TL —:sSdulping yueuysadayy “OL uIvjuNo; pu a 4 RWW =I i=) Kr PARP] Ca >) 1-3) SSESSSSS OOM TIO KW. nN dsl. AN S “SIQUOISSIMIMIO/ z “BIQSOYIIO pesiyy, “CT "9.a]Ua0 UL ‘aiseq [ejUeuIvU 10 ‘spaq-JoMOP UIA ‘MOUS WMO] “OD ‘ox ‘Arourgovur woy “* “EG *sosviuiwo Joy “ “Z “100P FSA “I “sloop auRUg "NV1d GNNOYD JO NOILVNW1dX4 Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg. 231 1s. 2d. ; 21st (1 thaler), 3s.; 22nd and 23rd (} mark), 34d. In addition to those who paid the above’ prices for admission at the gates, a large number of tickets (5168) were sold giving admis- sion during the continuance of the Meeting. For these the charge was 15 marks each, or 18s. The number of persons admitted each day by tickets and by payment at the gates was as follows :— By Admission Ticket. By Payment. Total, UL Valet acsen OLO00) | as o's 670 oo or 5,670 Pirie © ooo! .§) Teo... OL . Sipe 000 | ..)....', TNO86 _ «..1. 2 24086 tr eeeiel S000 FS hash IRS csc, 247 lomann seep 0000) Uo.. .01 2 608 ae seh eeGsGoS Was... PASE! (2IG00- ree on | AOI LS Wt 1 4218 Peedi. ees 8000, .... pdttbO7 2... 4ienOs Peg wm GOO... 2.0L). uo» GLI eigtieahe 1/1000!) .)....) w2,990 § ac~ »o 2900 ae GO00.. «) 1,404. « cee 2008 * 36,200 157,716 193,916 The Finance department, the most satisfactory test of the practical success of such undertakings, alone remains to be touched upon. This presents a most satisfactory and encou- raging appearance; for although the total expenditure was no less than 296,685 marks, or 17,706/. sterling, the nett proceeds amounted to 376,615 marks, or = 22,4571. sterling, thus leaving a clear surplus of receipts over expenditure of 79,480 marks, or 47511. sterling. The several details of the Expenditure may be considered under the following heads :— 1, Prizes in Money, Cups, and Medals. . Costs of construction, decoration, &c. . Working expenses. . Expenses of foreign Jurors and guests. Or em Oo bo . Expenses of administration. 6. Sundry expenses, including music, printing, advertise- ments, Ke. &e. 7. Surplus of receipts over expenditure. * The numbers given of admissions by these tickets must be considered rather as an estimate than as being strictly correct, as the registration was very imperfect. At the same time it should be observed that the numbers given of admissions by payment are in all probability considerably below the correct amount, as great irregularities, on the part of the money takers in the admission department, were discovered at an early period of the meeting. 232 Report on International The several items of those expenses may be perhaps best given in a tabular form, as follows :— 1, Prizes :— Marks current. Ee Us A. Inmoney °s.0 5.0 3. et ce ee oe 26,262e, ees eee B. In cups oe ae pe wee ee at re 9) “OS GOOle = Meme ee Os In.medals; 020 lee" san [ee Slasher ea rah 102k CGE 8863°580 2. Construction, &c. :— A., Buildings %. 3. 4s, oe, ae, OD, LESS bo eias B. Groundworks se ae ee we we we 49662 == =: 2949, C:,, Decorations <. °°... ge.0t.s i sais (G(s eos D. Flower show : ce os osu pas,, 2:0802) ——mewllb OEE K. Water supply and fittings oo ee) ope yees .0)296)) 0 ee leat I. Lighting sea eo Abaness ose) op 418 = 24955 7240°893 3. Working ee — A. Forage .. comer tes, snes pwes). easel. GO mt mC Gen B. Coals... Seal he) ne | Se pee aE 73°716 C. Transport expenses 20 orn Coes 8724 == 52:089 D. Land for steam-plough tial, viet cutee 6,177 = 3868776 edt gE ANG TDSTUTANI CE. Mee ier corm hes a ural ere wera 640$ = 38°253 F. Police and fire-guard .. .. -.. .. '.. 93,7572 ==" 2249928 G. Small expenses... -. -. 0 we we | 8,198 © == «190925 1781728 4. Expenses of sundry Jurors and guests .. .. 10,921 = 662:044 5. Expenses of Administration :— A. Salaries, presents, &. .. .. «», -- -», 20,089¢) ==" ANZ 7B. Hire homes Felt 35") stot ae ee O ees 75'223 CGS tabionery, (Sci -c01 iy 2s) es an om one 8662 = 51746 1854-685 6, Sundry Expenses :— Avs Mui; mse jae ed aos; pcebeekest ppcee) Bevin eels OOO, ee—memmel Oeics B..Printing, i. . en fe. ces) = gf on. eMC OL on me ele One C. Advertisements s) <5 5 ts. 0->, oe). al ol O2 en D. Postage and telesrams.. .. «| 2,878) = ATO! E. Bank commission and loss on Change. dc Mba 86-880 2319°505 7. Surplus :— ney i ‘coor A. Cle fsa ee ‘a dite 1475} = 88-089 B. Cash se, fee be ee noe 4, 00 gy wony comeintO, 00D a tm=—mm—EED OIA 4 4745:138 * In these tables the pound sterling is calculated at 16°75 marks, the rate of exchange at the time. Agricultural Exhibition at Hamburg. 233 The Receipts may be tabulated under the following heads :— 1. For admissions to Show. 2. Entry-fees for Stock, Ke. 3. Rent. 4. From sundry sources. The details are as follows :— 1. Personal Admissions :— Marks. =) £. A. Tickets for the meeting .. .. «.. « 77,520 == 4,628:059 *B. Cash taken at the doors .. se .. .. 242 407 = 14,472:059 C. Taken at steam plough and reaper trials .. 7,7083 = 460:208 PP ARO MUIIDSTCE ue kp nk wk is 16,343 = 975°716 20,536:042 2. Entry Fees :— Thalers, &. A. For machinery, COE Maa TONIC FM 4,047 = * 607:05 Eee RCo Bras ls Ss Tues je 8hhi oe” | ae "aig aie uty LON eae NOZOORS C. Products Reig cise: tyes mee Lia tas, Tieyce «WALDO a aie esl 2h. 1403°175 38. Rent :— Marks current. aes A. From restaurateurs co es te se 2,000 == -238'805 B. 4 refreshment tents Sty den be cod Moah ae) 71641 C. Photographic atelier ... 2. .. o o» @25 c= 7462 817:908 4, Sundry Sources :— A. Commission on auction sales heme OO = 81:343 B. Sale of manure oo tyedwigictay les 6152 = 80°776 we, HUEplus dds ~~ i ws. fehl de es pL, O44 S= +1 80-283 Wirintereston balances © ..0/\se 0 2) ee as 2533 == 157134 207°536 Such are the details of the International Agricultural Meeting at Hamburg, an undertaking as creditable to those who organised and conducted: it as it was satisfactory to those who attended nee PAUMIHeNIATHe ent lcs ac. csc, as, . 400000 3 Ld5th Se Meat, Beeld! ke DILO SES Sy LOth (sep cu oe) co (2848'656 Sime Lattipokews) ct rustevcs~ /se | 2ODT- OMA pL Ohhee eee sees bs. Vs. A TeRGIabS sp LOM wih ks) ee te os, VETO THOS gy DOLL trawl ya 'eu “rane moOeslae arn PAUSE ee! Sell as) sed eel HOVATNTE H eende > sy. cee waned onal oe 44626 FETC ee ee eee ee 19°462 14,472°055 234 Annual Report on Adulterations, §c. it, whether as exhibitors or merely visitors. The benefit, too, to the country in whose interests it was mainly undertaken, cannot well be overrated. The numbers who came from distant parts to see it, in spite of the unfavourable, nay inclement, weather during the entire period of the Show, testify to the interest it excited, and to the sound judgment and discrimination of the Executive Committee, who had recognised and supplied a re- quirement of German agriculture. Under even the unfavourable circumstances of a first attempt, of bad weather, and of the unforeseen and lamentable loss which the Committee sustained on the very eve of the Meeting by the death of its President,* its success was beyond all expectation. Let us hope, in the interest of agriculture generally, that a fes- tival which has been so successfully inaugurated may be perpe- tuated—that we may at no very distant day be again invited to take part in another International gathering on the same ground ; when I feel certain that the good results of the last will secure even a greater proportion of exhibitors from Great Britain than were then present, creditable though that proportion was. loun WILSON. IX.—Proressor VoELCKER’s Annual Report. 1. Adulteration of Oilcake ; 2. Of Artificial Manures ; 3. Analysis of Egyptian Guano; 4. Of Nile-water; 5. Causes of Barrenness in Soils ; 6. Subjects recently under Investigation. In my last annual Report I directed attention to the enormous extent to which oilcakes, professedly sold as genuine, were mixed with cheap refuse feeding-materials, or with more or less unwholesome foreign impurities,- imported with the seed from which such cakes were made. 1. At the request of the Council I delivered a lecture before the Society on the subject of cake adulteration, which appears to have attracted considerable attention in the agricultural and commercial community, and I have now the satisfaction to report that a great improvement has taken place in the manufacture of oilcakes. Amongst the samples sent for examination during the past season, comparatively speaking, few were found to be grossly adulterated or absolutely injurious to cattle, and a large propor- tion were what they professed to be, pure genuine linseed-cakes * On the death of Baron Ernst Merck the Presidency of the Executive Com- mittee devolved upon Mr, Aug. Jos. Schon, under whose able management, aided by the personal exertions of his colleagues, the Meeting was conducted to such a successful termination. To this gentleman I am indebted for the statistical details given in this Report. Annual Report'on Adulterations, §'c. 235 of superior quality. Still, however, inferior and more or less impure cakes find their way into the hands of the agriculturist ; and continued vigilance on the part of the purchaser is still desirable, in order to put the trade in oilcakes into a healthy con- dition. A step in the right direction has lately been taken by the seed-crushers themselves, who, to check seed-importers in the practice of mixing linseed with worthless and often injurious weed-seeds before it reaches the shores of England, have organized a plan which will secure the importation of linseed, containing not more than 5 or 6 per cent. of foreign impurities. Little or no difficulty may therefore be expected in procuring pure linseed-cakes, provided a fair remunerative price is paid for them. The best cakes examined by me this season were of English make, stamped “ Pure.” Almost equal to them I found several samples of Marseilles cake. The latter, however, though pure and superior to the generality of English cake, are, as a rule, not quite so good as the best English or American, inasmuch as they are too hard pressed, and, consequently, rather deficient in oil. For store stock, on the other hand, they will be found an economical food on account of their moderate price. In buying this cake, care should be taken to select good samples, inasmuch as it is frequently mixed with nut-cake. , Decorticated cotton-cake, which is only made in America, is now seldom seen in the market, and its place is now taken almost entirely by whole-seed cake of English make. In former years, cases of so-called poisoning with cotton-cake were fre- quently brought under my notice ; in the past season only three or four instances of the injurious effects from its use were re- ferred to me: from this it may be inferred that English cotton- cake is now generally sold in a better condition than formerly. This, indeed, is the case. Having failed to detect an essentially poisonous matter in any of the cotton-cakes, which, nevertheless, unquestionably had an injurious, and, in many cases, fatal effect upon the animals to which they were given, I looked closely into this matter, and learned that the injury to cattle was produced by the hard, indigestible, and badly comminated husk. My sug- gestion to remove a portion of the coarser husk by screening, and to reduce the remainder into a tolerably fine powder, has been adopted by several makers, who have thus removed the chief defects that characterize all cakes in which the husk may be seen in large fragments. Inferior cake has always a brownish colour, instead of a more greenish-yellow appearance. 2. The lecture on Manure Experiments on Grass-land delivered by me last May has led to an extended correspondence, and elicited many inquiries from members of the Society, affording an 236 Annual Report on Adulterations, §¢. indication that the improvement of grass-land is now receiving a greater share of attention than formerly, It is with satisfaction that I have to report that the adultera- _ tion of artiftcial manures is decreasing from year to year. Few samples of Peruvian guano are now found to be adulterated, and superphosphate of lime and similar fertilizers are generally sold in a better condition and of higher intrinsic value than in former years. 3. A new description of guano was recently sent me for examination from Egypt. Two samples were found on analysis to contain in 100 parts: No. 1. No. 2. Moisture . ae eae meee A LHCILS 15:06 *Oroanic matter and ‘salts of ammonia . Saas 89°50 39°30 Phosphates of lime and magnesia (bone-ear th) « 18°28 19°89 Sulphate of lime .. apne RO 3°15 Alkaline salts (chiefly chloride of sodium) .. 20°98 20°39 Insoluble siliceous matter .. .. eet: 1:34 2°21 100°00 100°00 *Contathinp nitrogen’). f sales) Sey ee eee 10°93 Equal to ammonia 66 ss; sis <0, 4 oe) eee Monae 15°27 Though not equal to Peruvian guano, these two samples are very valuable, and richer in nitrogenized organic matters than most other varieties of guano and artificial manures. Whether this guano is found in large quantities or not, and is likely to be imported into England, I have not as yet been able to ascertain. 4, The Government of Egypt for some time past has actively encouraged agricultural improvements. In the course of an inves- tigation into the agricultural resources of that country, specimens of Nile-water were lately sent to me, that 1 might endeavour to determine the causes of the remarkable fertilizing effects which if produces, and to ascertain at what period of the rise of the Nile the water is most valuable as a fertilizer. The first specimen was taken at the beginning of the rise, and on examination was found to contain, in an imperial gallon,— Grains. Suspended iostten’ svehbe. Ae! “onl Peo! mies eee use Solublesmatter’ .spgss oh Ge. te yp Mon Desa et oo Wun miei The suspended matter, it will be seen, amounts to more than the matter held in solution. It was found to consist of: Grains. Mineral substances (fine ernie and sand) oo hem 0ISe *Organic matter 3 set lo se de Re OE 23°83 *Containing nitrogen... ee ee ee we ‘ll Equal to ammonia Ae id Scale Jeaulaey ear 18 Annual Report on Adulterations, §c. 237 The clear filtered water left on evaporation, when dried at 300° ‘Fahrenheit, 17:87 grains of dry residue, which, on analysis, produced : Organic matter ee 2°12 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphoric acid 07 Silicate of lime Rights cit. cfih t asglllics”Vitactyl ch ot lexan nueeto WenpONAteKOMGe tot See sh bes), set wise asl gene 200 Cenbonuteror mapnesia® Ve Fe 26 Carbonate of potash Dae bP Pe | 66 WambOnaigiouscday fge,4 eeliypeay) oe sas ii ap erated! W/BIZ6 OBTOMOGIOM SOCIO Biron (ee ome aca sieb ye ioO OMUCERORDOLASDN vcnw icity Ricn. wie. anche F somal cee yuias 93. Nitrate of potash .. 5. we we wee tee 18 The proportion of soluble matters in this specimen of Nile- water, it will be seen, is very trifling. On the other hand, it contains a good deal of carbonate of soda and magnesia. When filtered, and deprived thereby of its sediment, which appears to be mainly instrumental in renewing the fertility of the land, Nile-water is wholesome and agreeable to the taste. The second specimen of Nile-water was taken at the height of the flood, and distinguished from the first sample by a bright, almost blood-red colour. On standing for a considerable length of time it lost its colour, and deposited per imperial gallon, 87°51 grains of solid matter, which consisted of— Mineral substances (extremely ‘fine dey, and sand, con- 81°66 taining a great deal of oxide of iron) . a 4 *Organic matters no) BORE S WBS Woe A EE ' 8751 *@ontaining nitrogen: jsp) is.) de) veoh lites aes as "26 IGUALIG Am ONAN eras ics bila le Onl f anied eben’ 31 The filtered and clear water on evaporation and drying at 300° Fahr., furnished 11°88 grains of solid residue per imperial gallon. ‘This residue, on analysis, yielded-— Oreanic matter .. 1°54 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of phosphor acid 1:04 Carbonate of lime Bhd A) SP ae P ae) eA Silicate of lime .. 4 3°87 Sulphate of lime .. Ss EP SRP seamd eai y eaetia blll (53) CiplOmd ecOu ROC ss siyye byl ph k3! tec gets) Wolsl RM ‘79 Carbonate of soda SOC Ew ee. ogee mee) &- ‘A8 Nitrate of potash ROMSecae Sania Gale Sct g fe/Sjae ta ia Carbonate of magnesia ee res say RCE, Eee The red colour of this Nile-water L find not to be due to organic matter, but to extremely finely-divided oxide of iron. This red peroxide remains in suspension for weeks together, and thus imparts a bright red colour to the water. , 238 Annual Report on Adulterations, §c. There is a good deal of difference in the composition of Nile-. water taken at the beginning and at the height of the flood. In the latter stage the suspended matter is nearly four times as large as at the beginning of the rise. On the other hand, the amount of soluble matter is a good deal less. The decrease of soluble organic matter in the second specimen is very remarkable, and as there is much more nitrate of potash in the water at the height of the flood, it would appear that the nitrogenous organic matter is rapidly converted into nitric acid, which, uniting with potash, forms nitrate of potash, a constituent which has been discovered before in Nile-water, but, as far as I know, not quantitively determined. 7} AJthough the soluble saline constituents which are present in this and other waters used for irrigation contribute to their fer- tilizing properties, in the case of Nile-water it is chiefly the suspended matter which produces the well-known and astonishing effects upon vegetation. In this suspended matter we have both mineral and organic matters in a highly divided and most effective condition. If it be remembered that the second speci- men of water contained a quantity of suspended organic matter, which on decomposition furnishes 3-10ths per cent. of ammonia in round numbers, and that, consequently, every 1000 gallons, in addition to an enormous quantity of mineral food for plants, contain an amount of organic matter in suspension which, when deposited on the land, will gradually generate no less than 300 lbs. of ammonia, no surprise will be felt at the results practically obtained in the irrigated districts of Egypt. My object in relating some of the details which were brought to light in the course of my examination of Nile-water, is to direct the attention of the English farmers to the benefits which are in most cases likely to result from a good system of irriga- tion. It is well known that some waters are better adapted for irrigating purposes than others; but our information on the par- ticular circumstances which determine their relative yalue is very limited. This subject is well worth a careful and extended chemical investigation. 5. For some time past my attention has been directed to an examination into the causes of that barrenness which characterizes , some soils, and the great fertility which distinguishes others. Several soils have lately been examined by me, which were almost completely barren, and yet neither in their texture nor any other physical characteristic presented any indication that marked them as such, Some important results have been obtained already, and others may perhaps follow on further pursuing this inquiry. Annual Report on Adulterations, §c. 239 6. In addition to the usual analytical work for members of the Society, and the investigation to which reference has been made in the preceding observations, the following experiments. were carried on by me during the past season :— 1. On Milk and Dairy-management :— On this subject, and on the composition of annatto, papers, embodying the results of my investigations, appeared in the last number of the Journal. 2. On the Solubility of Phosphatic Materials in Water and Saline Liquids :— The results of this investigation are ready for publication, and will form the subject of a paper in a future number of the Journal, 3. On the means of preserving and rendering more efficient the Fertilizing Constituents of Peruvian Guano :— A paper on the subject will be found in the present number of the Journal. 4, Experiments with Nitrate of Soda on the Wheat-crop :-— The results of these experiments fully confirm the favourable opinions which I expressed in former communications of nitrate of soda, when judiciously used as a top-dressing for wheat. Thus, in one experiment, the produce of the land not top-dressed was 384 bushels of wheat, and that of land top-dressed, at the rate of 2 cwt. of nitrate of soda and 4 ewt. of salt per acre, was 494 bushels. The application of nitrate of soda, in conformity with the results obtained in previous years, increased the yield of both grain and straw. 5. Experiments with Salt on Mangold; Swedes and Turnips ; Wheat :— The crop of Swedes and turnips were such failures that no satisfactory conclusion can be drawn from the experiments. In the Mangold crop, when grown on heavy land, no effect was observable, but on light sandy soil,a beneficial result followed from the use of salt. Applied to wheat, it decidedly checked the development of the leaf and stem ; but whilst less straw was obtained from land so top-dressed, the yield of grain was neither diminished nor increased. Avaustus VOELCKER. 12, Hanover Square, London, December, 1863. Analyses 240: Salt Experiments and Mangolds. Analyses made for Members of the Royal Agricultural Society, January to December, 1863. Guano .. os, | eae Superphosphates and similar artificial manures Pome tes (si) Nitrate of soda and salts of ammonia .. .. .. .. 25 Refuse Manires . tis wae tet. Teed Gee. Path see Bone-dusti oes bP Merete A ay Limestones and marls Seu tvs Swick” wee dee? , Geto aORL Soils Oe AOE camera be Ze Wraters 1 tec este og ail HEL. Ro Vie ae SR Oilcakeshenpese i ais Feeding-meals and vegetable productions roy acolo. lo) Examinations for poison ens er, ca 363 X,.—Salt Experiments and Mangolds. By Dr, Augustus VOELCKER. ComMoN salt has been employed in all ages and in all countries for the purpose of promoting the growth of cereal and legu- minous crops, grass, and roots—in short, every description of agricultural produce. It has, moreover, been specially recommended, by experienced and intelligent farmers, as a most useful accessory manure for the mangold crop. On the strength of their testimony it must be admitted that salt has proved of much utility to mangolds in many instances, yet we must be prepared to meet with others in which it is certainly useless, and may even be hurtful. When facts appear to contradict each other, it is of no avail to deny the validity of practical evidence, or to accept only those facts as true which agree best with our individual experience ; we must rather try to gather information from our failures, as well as from successful experiments. In common agricultural life an experiment with this or that manure by which a con- siderable increase in the crop is obtained is characterised as a success ; but if unattended by such increase, as a failure: whereas, in reality, such a success is often rather a failure. For, in a more philosophical sense, experiments are really successful only when they teach something that can be clearly recognised as an abiding lesson either for warning or for imitation. Upon the accumula- tion of a mass of suck well-ascertained facts, our ultimate object, namely the establishment of general principles applicable to agri- culture, must depend, In this more philosophical sense, it must be confessed that we do not possess many successful agricultural experiments with salt. It has, perhaps, been tried more extensively and under a greater variety of circumstances than any other fertilizer, and yet in Salt Experiments and Mangolds. 241 general no better answer can be given to the inquiry “ What have we learned from these trials ?” than simply this: “in some cases salt did good—and in others, not.” Such a reply clearly can be no guide for successful applications in future. Impressed with the reputation which salt has gained as a manure for mangolds, | tried some experiments in 1862 in the hope of ascertaining the quantities which might be used to the best advantage. In recording the results of these and similar experiments, I consider it very important that the physical and chemical properties of the soil should be described as carefully as possible. Observations on a large scale have convinced me that the nature of the soil has a great deal to do with the success or failure in all cases where salt is tried as a manure. The field in which the experiments were tried was in excel- lent condition, both as regards manuring and mechanical work- ing. It bore clover in 1860, and a good crop of wheat in 1861. It received a good dressing of dung in the autumn of 1861, and was in-capital order when the mangolds were sown in 1862. The soil was a calcareous clay, containing no sand, and a suffi- cient amount of clay to render it decidedly heavy and difficult to work in wet weather. The subsoil on which it rests is stiff clay. A portion of the soil, taken from a large sample removed from different parts of the field, was submitted to analysis, and the following results obtained :— Composition of Soil from Experimental Mangold-field of the Royal Agricultural College Farm, Cirencester. Moisture (when analysed) .. .. .. .. 4710 Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 10022 Oxides of iron andalumina .. .. ... .. «. 15°602 Carbonate of lime ool) ES) eon, Pag ee Mee} mtellfalee icy Clit khan clei hein ae mee A 375 Phosphoric acid af Sch Ae toed Sas “O72 MaEHOnATeYOLMAOMESIAN 2. asl ou Loe oe ‘798 Potash .. Ariat wcaad br 832 SOA... 4. 098 Insoluble siliceous matter (clay) HOLS ot ht Segerer 99°744 It will be seen that clay is the preponderating constituent of this soil, which contains also a considerable proportion of car- bonate of lime. Nine plots of 1-20th of an acre were selected for the experi- ments from the most even part of the mangold-field, The man- golds grew vigorously where the salt was sown by hand along both sides of the drills on the 29th of July. Each plot consisted of four - drills. One plot received no salt ; the eight others were dressed at the rate of from 1 to 8 ewts. of common salt per acre. The roots were counted and carefully weighed after cleaning and dressing. 242 Salt Experiments and Mangolds. The following Table shows the results that were obtained :-— EXPERIMENTS wiTH SALT uPpoN Manconps (ORANGE GLOBE). ) . Number of AES ear ie E Foes Produce per Plot. | Produce per Acre, ——s | ———— —$$—$—. —__—— cwts. Cwts. qrs. Ibs. Tons. cwts. lbs. No. 1 1 482 16 3 8 16 138 48 5 ee 2 516 V6 O28 16 4 12 eas] 5 498 Va 2r 21 14 13 4 he tatgh 24: 4 517 14 yey 1l7/ 14 $15 4 | 5, 5 | Nothing 497 15 © 12 15 (26 aon 1 5 | 546 18 OF 27 18 4 92 An wait 6 | 480 16 2 13 16 12 36 Or ts Uf 502 14 el) 14 8 44 an | 8 515 14, 3) 425 V4 VG ye52 These experiments, it must be confessed, are not calculated to demonstrate the utility of salt as a manure for mangolds, On four plots the produce was actually slightly lower than on the plot not dressed with salt, and, omitting plot No. 6, the increase in the crop on three plots was but inconsiderable. The result obtained on plot No. 6 is evidently exceptional, the much larger number of roots grown on this plot having, no doubt, affected the product. It is likewise possible that more farmyard- manure may have been accidentally dropped here than on other portions of the experimental field. In all probability, the dif- ferences in the amount of produce of all the nine plots are rather due to the difficulty of distributing farmyard-manure uniformly, and to the natural variations in the productive powers of the dif- ferent parts of the field, than to the use of salt. Whatever may be the cause of the variations in the produce, salt evidently did not produce a decidedly beneficial effect wpon the mangold-crop. All the roots of each plot were carefully weighed, and it is incumbent on the experimenter faithfully to record the results, though they may present discrepancies for which an explanation cannot be given, In conclusion, it is well to bear in mind that the soil of the experimental field was a stiffish calcareous clay. On land of that character, common salt, if I am not mistaken, seldom pro- duces any good effect; whilst on light sandy soils, if my expe- rience teaches. me true, it is generally applied with great success, It would, therefore, be wrong to say in a general way that salt is of no use to mangolds; all that can be said with propriety is, that in the preceding experiments it did not produce a decidedly beneficial effect upon that crop. 12, Hanover Square, London (W.), February, 1864. ( 243 ) XI.—Statistics of Live Stock for Consumption in the Metropolis. By Rospert HERBERT. DunrineG the last six months of 1863, the metropolitan cattle- market was somewhat heavily supplied with beasts, which with few exceptions came to hand in excellent condition, and met a ready sale at steady prices. ‘The past may be considered as one of the most successful, if not the most profitable, seasons on record for the production of fat stock, as regards both England and Scotland, but in the beasts derived from Ireland no improve- ment has been apparent, and they have therefore changed hands heavily at moderate rates, notwithstanding that only 11,280 beasts were received from that quarter, against 14,820 in the corre- sponding period in 1862, and 14,340 in 1861. The supply from Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire com- prised 66,510 head; being a slight falling off compared with the previous year, From various other counties, exclusive of the eastern districts, 21,250 head were reported; whilst from Scot- land the arrivals were on a fair average scale. Although the crop of grass was deficient in most parts of the United Kingdom, and the quantity of hay secured was scarcely an average, most breeds of sheep made their appearance in greatly improved condition. The Downs, half-breds, Leicesters, Lin- colns, Kents, and Hampshire Downs especially were in prime order ; nevertheless, the mutton trade was in a healthy state, and prices were remarkably steady. Up to quite the close of the season lambs came forward in rather large numbers, and the sale for them was rather active at high rates. Calves and pigs were in but moderate request, and the supplies in the. market were far from extensive. The annexed Table shows the total numbers of each kind of stock exhibited in the last six months the year 1853, as well as in those of the last four years :— Total Supplies of Stock Exhibited. Last half of year. Beasts. Cows. -|Sheep and Lambs.| Calves. Pigs. 1868) sf 2 149 ,008 3191 860,800 17,058 15,284 L860" ye. t 145,420 38015 762,740 15,766 15,470 LOGIE ws: 149,750 3187 774,260 12,441. 20,116 S62)" +sareeos 159,450 3148 759,671 12,579 18,220 W632) Sa te | 168,232 3127 761,070 14,822 17,550 The excess in the total supply of beasts over that of the last six months in 1862—8782 head—arose from large arrivals from the Continent, which rather exceeded 61,000 head against 37,843 head in the preceding year. It follows, therefore, that the VOL. XXV. Ss 244 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat additional supplies have been made up of foreign importations. The district bullock arrivals are detailed in the following’ state- ment :— District Bullock Arrivals. baat hatt ot year, | Rothe | Tasers | Other parts of } Scotnnd. | Ineland Eee eee Oe 54,650 8650 14,500 4728 7,412 TSEC nat wits 66,140 9500 20,500 1151 7,852 TS6U a. 47) 71,450 2500 9,700 4586 14,340 1OBH! tes wk 74,570 5050 19 ,620 3307 14,820 1LOGS6 bi wb 66,510 3850 21,250 3213 11,280 The supplies of foreign stock showed greatly improved quality. Many of the beasts sold at from 25/1. to 29/.; whilst some of the sheep realized as much as 62s. each. At these rates they were taken somewhat freely by the West-end butchers. These remarks have special reference to the arrivals from Holland. ‘Those from Germany exhibited slightly improved points; but their general condition was inferior. he calves and pigs were, if anything, of better quality than in the two previous years :— Imports of Foreign Stock into London during the last Six Months of 1863. From Beasts. Sheep. Lambs. Calves. Pigs. Amsterdam .. .. 165 10,715 Ac + =) Antwerp Bal sts 46 120 aie 764 55 Boulogne .. « oo be “0 28 30 1SyasN ay Ge. wuowase 3,619 842 24 of ne Calawir san ol h.: a 50 287 221 Corunna ae "588 30 iy +3 ae Dordte sek. a: 4,312 | 18,099 5,804 342 : Gluckstadt .. .. 13 oe te op 45 Hamburey, a ©. 1,628 52,705 53 24 7,421 Harlingen .. .. | 10,144 29,960 1,212 2,344 9,749 Medemblik .. .. 1,158 30,430 ee 55 a New Dieppe.. .. 131 3,446 oc 162 - Oporta 29) err 536 oe 60 ae ba Ostend+.i+ | exaleds 206 538 16 409 44 Rotterdam .. .. | 13,162 68,600 4,454 | 13,078 1,471 Touning Abvk Parts 24,874 27,969 6,275 4 on Vigo 03.) »d thes 1,053 e 4 Pe us Total .. .. | 61,485. | .223,424 17,785 17,497 18,936 The foregoing return shows a large increase in the exports from Harlingen, Rotterdam, and Tonning. From Bremen, Dordt, &c., the shipments were likewise on an improved scale. The number of sheep shipped from Hamburg was about 7000 for Consumption in the Metropolis. 245 in excess of 1862, in the last six months of which 37,843 beasts, 178,554 sheep, 12,279 lambs, 11,436 calves, and 12,232 pigs, were received from all sources into London. The statistics issued by the Board of Trade thus return the importations into the United Kingdom during the last six months of the following years :— Imports into the United Kingdom. Year. Beasts. ees Calves. Pigs. 1862 se Me 57,356 250,140 19,610 }.. 17,279 1861 Sie 59,049 266,249 19,715 25,919 1860 Aeon ek 59,817 243,804 19,594 21,510 1859 Say lake 48,841 192,750 14,764 9,965 1858 TS sh 54,348 163,840 19,494 11,315 1857 SCs OV ,Lod 147,096 18,273 10,172 1856 oF se 51,418 151,472 16,179 9,707 1855 ms ob 555222 142,712 14,905 | 11,762 1854 Hi ee 65,881 145,406 16,355 10,440 The quotations, taking the average of the last six months, were 2d. per 8 lbs. higher for beef, and 4d. per 8lbs. higher for mutton, than in 1862. They compare with previous years as under :—- Average Prices of Beef and Mutton, Per 8 lbs. to sink the Offal. Brer. 1849, 1850. 1851. | 1852. 1853. ile Ge s. d. s, d. | & d. peck SoG) ya a 3.0 ere OL hah wee Te oS Midding.. .. ..| 3 8 3 4 3 6 :| 34 Bi iis Prime B5eC Bhs a .2 4 0 3 10 | 3 10 > 4 10 1854, | 1855 isse. | 1857, 1858, s, d. s. de Ge Pa eae” s. d. Infefier. is a 38.2 3.4 210 210 2 10 Middling.. .. «. 4 0 4 2 4 0 3 10 4 0 Prime ., aisle gusts 0 5 2 5 2 4 10 5 2 ; 1859 | 1860. 1861. 1862. | 1863. s d. s. d. ied. s. d. | rd. Tntenior<¢ 4: 7s. 2 10 VAS 3.0 te 3.°4«A Middling., .. 1.) 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 2 5 2 5 4 5 0 410 5 0 Pome 5 ive ty. a : : s2 246 Statistics of Live Stock and Dead Meat Moron. | 1849, | 1850. 1851. 1852, 1853, sds Suita: By te Sr ts si ikds Inferioniice wae fies 3. 4 Dao Dy 3} 2 10 210 Middling.. 3 10 3°44 3 2 3 10 4° 4 Prime 4 4 4 2 4 0 4 8 5 ee 1854 1855 1856. | 1857. 1858, sd, S; hia, oh 0h sid. Soi ae Inferioniennessaeese 3-2 3.6 8 6 3 0 210 Middling Pat GA 4 0 4 2 4 4 4 2 4 0 Prime SEB? | he 5 0 5 0 5 4 5 A D2 1859. | 1860. | 1861. | 1862, 1863, SAG. su id, a ap ‘Sas Seni Inferior es cht |e 3) 0 Bi42 Bh 3. 8 4 0 Middling Sap aah 4 2 4 6 4 6 4 8 5 0 Prime Bo fade 65 Oreeir 5 10 5 8 D6, 5 10 Owing to the fine condition in which both beasts and sheep have come to hand, the supply. of rough fat has considerably increased, and the price has fallen to 2s. 1d. per 8 lbs. against 2s. 3d. in 1862. If we may judge from the quality of the stock in the hands of the Norfolk graziers, and the present state of the tallow market, there is very little prospect of fat becoming dearer. Adyices from Holland and Denmark state that in all pro- bability increased shipments of stock will be made to this country in 1864. But they probably will not more than balance our increasing consumption. The steady increase in our home pro- duction of really consumable meat will, however, prevent any decided advance in prices. Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been heavily supplied with each kind of meat—the arrivals from Scotland and the north of England having been very large—yet the trade has been firm. The state of the wool trade during the last six months may be briefly referred to. The unusually high prices demanded for cotton, arising from its scarcity, and the active inquiry for woollen goods for export, produced a firm market for all descrip- tions of wool, and a rise in the quotations of 2d. per lb. on the | average sales. The quantity of English wool taken by con- tinental houses exhibited a deficiency when compared with some former periods; but their purchases of colonial were on an extensive scale. The market was, therefore, relieved of any excess in the supplies arriving from our colonies, and the bulk of our for Consumption in the Metropolis. 247 native clip was worked up at home. In the year, two public sales of English wool were held in the metropolis, and the whole of the quantities offered, about 2500 packs, was readily disposed of. The experiment will, we understand, be repeated ; but as yet it has not met with much success, the prices realised at the auctions not having exceeded those offered to the growers in various localities, “During the whole of 1865 the importations of wool into England were as follows, compared with 1862 :— 1862. 1863. Bales. Bales. Colonial so SPB sete 375,010 Horeion.... 2 «# | =», 222,060 220,316 Totals) Oh (5673 668 595, 326 There was, it will be perceived, a slight falling off j in the supply of foreign wool at hand last year, but an increase in colonial of 29 405 bales. The export trade took off about 50,000,000 ihe. of colonial, 14,000,000 Ibs. foreign, and 8, 500, 000 Ibs. English, or in all 72,500,000 lbs, In the pre- vious year the aggregate shipments were about 60,000,000 lbs. The present market value of each kind ‘of English wool is as follows :— per Ib. Sa. ds sithd, Shropshire Down tegs .. .. oe eo eto 20 55 (UGE) 6 fc. yc G5 1.11 to 1 113 Jamibsiss* St a wisplal stig cas esdeey | Lad: oto 42 South Down tegs. :. sAealecttever toot Wee Ga Oy le SOS. Leicestershire ewes and wethers Abeer itor elites 3 lambs ae 1 22 to 2 6% Somersetshire ewes and wethers ID Beto, 1 ets Hertfordshire ewes and wethers 1 82 to 1 103 Lincolnshire hoggets ~ city Paty oanes oe «COL ae ee ewes and nether ey eee see EOS? to: lame ls Wiltshire, Hampshire, &c., tegs 1 103 to 1 11 % i ewes and wethers LTE ome Cr + lambs 1s ait Shs Kent tegs soe Ua 2 el tO eames PP be and wethers Ad 2- OY torZre On: », lambs L 6¥ tolls Gz NCrolk, Suffolk and. Essex tegs Ly Oe top2m Oz, iF 2 ewes and wethers Is Seaton ne. The continuance of a high range in the value of money in the discount market is calculated to have some influence upon the demand for wool; but so long as cotton is selling at high cur- rencies, so long shall we have a steady sale for home and colonial qualities. 4, Argyle Square, St. Pancras, London. ( 248 ) MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NOTICES. 1.—Swedes, Mangold, and the Steam-Plough. By CuarEs LAWRENCE. In the 22nd Volume of our Journal I gave some reasons for con- sidering it desirable to invite members of the Society to com- municate, in short articles, the results of any experiments they might have made, or of any special modes of treatment in the cultivation of various crops, and in the management and feeding of animals, under some such head as “ Miscellaneous Communi- cations.” Reports of this description are often productive of utility beyond their intrinsic merits. They set men thinking, and thus become the origin of more important practices. I send another specimen of the contributions to which I referred, in the hope of encouraging others to do the like. Some three or four years ago | recommended the mixture of mangold and Swedes in the same field, in another publication ; * and I gave my reasons for the adoption of that course. Having occasionally since observed the admixture, adopted in various ways without attention to the special grounds on which it was recommended, I will here repeat the principles on which I adopted and have continued it with satisfactory results, The deterioration of the Swede crop of late years has been matter of common remark ; and has been attributed, reasonably enough, to the too frequent repetition of the crop on the same ground, It had been my practice, as is usual, to feed off the Sieur on the land with sheep ;’ which produced a heavy growth of barley, but always more or less laid by heavy rains in June and July, to the great damage of the corn, and the clovers sown with it. This was a source of double mischief, requiring remedy, As the mangolds are necessarily hauled off for storing near the feeding-stalls, it occurred to me that both the dif- ficulties which I have referred to might be obviated by grow- ing a given number of rows of Swedes, and then the same number of rows of mangolds, alternately over the field; and by merely reversing the order of these roots when the field should come again in course for the root-crop, the result would be * My ‘Handy-Book for Young Farmers. Longman and Co. ° Swedes, Mangold, and the Steam-Plough. 249 that the Swedes and mangold would be repeated on the same ground once only in eight years; and half the crop, the Swedes only, would be fed off, to the benefit of the barley. The sheep being folded across the lines of the root-crop, the whole field would be equally manured to the advantage of the barley, As the land requires the same preparation for the Swedes as for the mangold, there is no practical difficulty in this arrangement, ‘though the periods of sowing vary. We drill the rows for the mangolds the latter end of April, and those set out for Swedes the beginning of June. As a mere matter of detail, 12 rows of each are found a con- venient number. If 28 inches apart, each crop would occupy a space of about 28 feet in width. If the 12 rows are pulled, and placed ready for topping in four lines, reckoning. 3 feet for each line, there will be 8 feet clear on either side for the carts when removing the mangolds. The cultivation of roots, in these days, naturally suggests to the mind the preparation for them by the agency of steam, I do not possess the requisite engine and implements, but:as my farm adjoins that of the Agricultural College, I have hired their engine and Mr. Fowler’s plough the last three autumns. The two first seasons we used the regular plough, turning over a furrow averaging about nine or ten inches in depth, for the ensuing root-crops. ‘The result was the two worst crops of Swedes and mangolds I have ever experienced. I record this in order to prevent any farmer who may have screwed up his courage to hire a steam-apparatus from being hastily discou- raged by a similar result from a repetition of the experiment. The comparative inferiority of the first crop under such circum- stances, to a greater or less extent, is a necessary result, unless the plough be followed by the cultivator drawn by the same agency, at the same depth, once or more in the following Spring. Otherwise, the seed will be deposited in soil which has not been for ages exposed to those influences which are essential to the formation of a proper seed-bed. Any attempt to accomplish the due adinixture of this subsoil with the productive soil at a depth of 10 inches by the ordinary:cultivator worked by horses would be fruitless. It is only by the product of the entire course of crop- ping, whatever that may be, that the result of the first operation by steam-power can be justly estimated. ; From the first moment I saw the plough at work, I had the impression it was not the right implement. I very much pre- ferred the state in which the land was left by Mr. Smith’s cultivator, which, according to my judgment, leaves the land in a much more favourable position for atmospheric culture during the winter, and consequently for spring tillage. Last autumn 250 Swedes, Mangold, and the Steam-Plough. I used what are called the digging breasts on Fowler’s plough with much satisfaction. I regard these digging breasts as a step in the right direction towards the more effectual smashing up adopted by Mr. Smith. It so chanced that I visited his farm early in the spring, when he was commencing his operations on Jand turned up by his implement in the previous autumn, and I had an opportunity of comparing the state of it with that of mine, which had been turned down by the steam-plough at the same season. I consider my land naturally superior to that which surrounds Mr. Smith’s farm, and much more easy to cultivate ; but while my deep furrow remained unbroken, there having been very little frost during the winter, involving the necessity of expensive and repeated cultivation, with a most un- unsatisfactory seed-bed at last, | found Mr. Smith actually drilling his beans in an admirably prepared soil, the drill preceded by cultivating tines on the same frame as his drill, on the land smashed up by his machine the previous autumn, without any intervening operation. It is true that Mr. Smith’s land had undergone a similar autumn preparation in a previous course ; but it was clear to me that the actual working condition of his land resulted chiefly from the greater extent of surface favourably presented to atmospheric influences during the winter. Cirencester, January 23rd, 1864. 2.—Method of converting old Barns into Cattle-Boxes. “To P. H. Frere, Esq. ‘Dear Sir,—As you asked me to send you an account of my method of converting old-fashioned barns into cattle-boxes, | beg tg hand you the following short paper, with an illustration referring to a barn fitted up on my own property at Bursledon, near Southampton. “Having during the last seven years thrashed the whole of my corn by steam-power, and believing that corn is generally better placed in ricks than in barns for that purpose, and my barns having been empty during ten months of the year, I have adopted the practice of feeding cattle of different ages in them, as I invariably cut my cloyers for soiling stock in the green state, instead of incurring the expense and risk of making hay. I have found there is no accommodation for feeding cattle under cover equal to that afforded by an old-fashioned thatched barn, which is warm in the winter and cool and healthy for the animals in the summer; and although I have designed and built upon properties under my agency cattle-boxes upon the newest ee a a a Method of converting old Barns into Cattle- Boxes. 251 and most approved principle, and have also seen some of the best cattle-feeding establishments in the kingdom, yet I assert that practically, for both summer and winter feeding of cattle of different ages under cover, I have seen nothing to equal the advantages to be derived from an old barn properly fitted up, the roof being usually so much higher than that of buildings ‘specially designed for box-feeding. The accompanying illustra tion exhibits what was originally a barn, with straw-house attached; the barn-part is fitted up so that it may be filled with corn at harvest, and it has been thus used during the present season—the corn was threshed out at the end of six weeks, and it has since been occupied by both store and fatting cattle. It will be noticed in the sketch that the rails dividing the boxes are made to take apart. “ My estimate of constructing the boxes is as follows :— £. 3s. d. Required 6 rails of fir poles, 11 feet long and about 34 inches diameter, with ends chopped square to fit into the supports, say 6d. each .. 0 Two upright fir posts, 8 inches diameter, let into the ground 2 feet, and screwed at top to tie-beams of barn, at 3s, each : ne eet. SARC ae he 12 iron brackets made of ¢ by inch wrought iron, at 8d. each .. Re 2 slabs, 104 feet long, at side of feeding path, 2s, each 10 yards of cube digging aad TOS? lui bod Carpenter’s wages for erection, &e. co =) ood &:o:..o qootrH 0 oD oooo fo) — ——_ Total cost of each box .. .. . bari 9. © “This must be considered a very aan amount, and it may be further diminished upon all soils, excepting oravel or stone, by breaking up the bottom of the boxes; which, after being saturated with the liquid-manure, may be removed with the dung when the boxes are cleaned out ; this, being repeated a few times, will excavate the boxes to the required depth of 2 feet. “Tn most cases it will require care not to disturb the ground- pinning brickwork; I therefore leave about 8 inches width of soil next to the brickwork. “Tt will be found that the barn-floor, being 13 feet by 24 feet, affords ample room for the cutting of turnips, chaff, &e., and also store-room for a considerable “quantity of roots and hay, and the feeding-path leading from the floor gives access to all the boxes alike. ** The accommodation requisite for cattle whilst feeding under cover is so much on the increase, that the question how boxes can most readily and economically be furnished is interesting to both landlord and tenant; the former, although desirous of encouraging the latter to keep a larger number of cattle, may Method of converting old Barns into Cattle- Bowes. 252 > © . s 3 ® ‘A V 9uy] Wo toND0g ~ AIVOS «9I/r we 5 - peeeiee! brad bee Ss =e | ‘tn | Je 3 or os ox oF =| | Bide mid 4 = = \ : o e N A s¢ I LEZu - 2 ss ASE y- = at ne = mM ey S “= Id i iaea) KeO) a dik Ev IH) LA, = dA Ca |= [id abe NUVd GrOm a NV1d ay be converted, MMe Ud CLM Lo \e—t9--01-—hs - Gh &-07--~ a t out to the tenant the ordinary barns of the farm m Of-—>|¢ Gt aAaSNOH AVULS * | GH MULL VU MMM LULL ay fairly poin hesitate before putting up new bu m Regulating the Sex of the Offspring of Animals. 253 “ At the same time the cost is so small, as I have here shown, that few tenants would object to fitting wp barns in the manner described, if the landlord granted permission and at the same time allowed some of the materials. * “ JoserpH Biunpe i, Land Agent, &c. ‘“* Bursledon, Nov. 26th, 1863.” 3.—On Regulating the Sex of the Offspring of Animals.* Ir there be any device for regulating the sex of the offspring of our flocks and herds, every breeder is interested in knowing it ; even if a hint can be given which only improves his chance, without costing much trouble, it still is a boon. It would seem from the following testimonial that Professor ‘Thury of Geneva had got some insight into one of the factors which enter into this complicated and mysterious problem :— “1, G. Cornaz, manager of the property of my deceased father, M. A. Cornaz, late President of the Agricultural Society of Roman Switzerland at Montet, Canton de Vaud, hereby certify that I received from M. Thury, Feb. 18, 1861, a paper containing confidential instructions for the purpose of making a practical experiment to ascertain the law which regulates the sex of the offspring of animals. **] have applied these directions to my herd of cows, and have obtained at once, without any tentative trial, the desired results, “Tn the first instance, in 22 successive cases, I endeavoured to obtain heifer-calves. My cows were Swiss, and my bull a pure Durham. Heifer calves were, therefore, in request—bull calves only fit for the butcher; zn every instance I obtained the desired result. ‘Later, when I had bought a pure-bred Durham cow, I was anxious to breed a bull to take the place of the one which I had bought at a large price. Again I acted according to Professor Thury’s directions, which are ready of application, and again | was successful, ** Besides my Durham bull, I designedly bred 6 half-bred oxen for the plough from cows selected for their colour and size, My herd comprised 40 cows of all ages. “On the whole I have tried the new directions twenty-nine times, and in each case obtained the desired result, male or female ; I have had no instance of failure. I personally watched _.~ For the materials on which this and the following papers are based the editor is indebted to the ‘ Journal d’Agriculture Pratique.’ 254 Regulating the Sex of the Offspring of Animals, each trial. I can consequently declare that I consider Professor Thury’s system to be real and certain, and I hope that all breeders will speedily profit by it. “* Drawn up at Montet, February 10,1863. **(Signed), G. Cornaz,”* We may learn from a pamphlet of Professor Thury, ‘On the Law which regulates the Sex of Plants and Animals,’ what is his scientific theory, and what are the practical directions which he deduces from it. The following statement is a brief summary of his views. Starting with the vegetable kingdom, Professor Thury adopts the theory of Knight, who, in concert with Wolff, De Candolle, and Robert Brown, considered stamens and pistils to be funda- mentally identical (both being modifications of the leaf), and further regarded the production of the male organ in plants as due to greater maturity or more perfect development. Considering how general the laws of Nature are, the Pro- fessor infers that the propagation of animals follows an ana- logous course. He states that it has already been admitted that for certain oviparous animals the last hatchings produce males; that Huber recognized as fact that early fecundation produces female bees, and vice versé; and so from one step to another he arrives at the conclusion that an egg yet unimpreg- nated, is female during the first part of its passage down to the matrix, and male in the last part. The sex, then, of the creature will depend on the degree to which the egg is matured at the moment of fecundation. He therefore considers it to be a general law that fecundation which follows shortly after “heat ” or menstruation breeds female offspring, and vice versd. The following are his directions and cautions :— 1. The peculiarities of different cows should be observed and taken into account. The number of hours during which they take the bull varies from 24 to 48. To obtain a heifer, the first part of this period is selected; for a bull-calf, the latter part. ; Exceptional animals, such as are fat or tied-up, afford no fair criterion ; but healthy, well-conditioned specimens, living in the open air, should be selected for experiment. These views must only be taken for what they are worth; so far as the result depends on the mother, and she is a fair repre- sentative of her sex, the hint may be serviceable ; but that the sex of the offspring is quite independent of the sire, as is here assumed, is a doctrine which will not pass unchallenged. Growth of Wheat. 255 I will conclude this notice by an extract from a letter addressed to me on this subject by Professor Wilson :— ‘It is very desirable that these principles should be properly tested on a sufficiently large scale, and by reliable persons who would themselves take care that the advice given should be correctly followed. A few years’ experience would then enabie us to determine whether M. Thury’s deductions are valid as a law.” ; 4.—PROFESSOR VILLE’S Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Ir may be well for the same Journal which records the important results of Mr. Lawes’ continuous experiment on the growth of wheat, to make some mention of trials now in. progress in France, undertaken with a similar aim and resting on a somewhat similar basis. M. Ville has been for some time known as a man of science who had turned his attention to vegetable physiology in con- nection with chemistry, and his experiments fgr testing the conditions of the growth of plants in artificial soils and atmo- spheres have excited the more notice because the results he obtained were at variance with those of Boussingault and others. M. Ville affirms with increasing confidence the doctrine that plants can, to some extent, feed directly upon the nitrogen in the air; a belief which Boussingault seems to have been con- strained by his own most accurate experiments to renounce, even in regard to that tribe of plants for which he had formed favourable anticipations. That zealous patron of Agriculture, the Emperor of the French, has installed M. Ville in a Professorship of Natural Philosophy at Paris; has provided for him a splendid laboratory on a scale which rivals Rothamsted; and, to complete the parallel, has put at the disposal of the Professor trial-fields at the Imperial Farm of Vincennes, where the doctrines of the class-room are set forth in field doctrines, and illustrated by growing practical results. ‘The three varieties of plants have been selected for a continuous experiment in the same soil with the same chemical fertilizers: wheat, to represent the cereals ; peas, for the leguminose ; and beet-root. ' These trials have already been maintained for three years ; and the wheat crop, now to be recorded, is the third produced in three successive seasons from one dressing applied in December, 1860. It has been objected to Mr. Lawes, by Baron Liebig, that his dicta have been verified only on one class of soils; and the objection, so far as it is correct, is important: it is therefore a happy circumstance that the land assigned to M. Ville is 256 Growth of Wheat. a very porous sandy loam resting on gravel which contrasts favourably with the clayey loam that overlies the chalk at Rothamsted. In the words of M. Barral, “Le sol en est argilo siliceux, de consistance assez légere mélangé de gravier, avec un soussol formé d’un gravier assez compacte.” This is evidently a poor soil, and therefore well suited for testing the relative action of different manures. In one respect, how- ever, it seems doubtful whether the French trial-field, situate on the skirt of the Wood of Vincennes, be a good repre- sentative of general husbandry ; for if it be new land—a recent clearing on which humus has more or less accumulated, the advocates of the mineral theory will hardly have pitched upon a fair field of battle. Preparatory to the experiments, the soil was stirred to the depth of from 8 to 10 inches by the hand-grubber (la béche) a short-handled picker, with either a broad point or with bent prongs,—a most effective implement in the hand of the peasant proprietor for autumn or winter cultivation. M. Ville’s design is to test manures of four different classes, nitrogenous, phosphatic, calcareous, and alkaline, in varied com- binations, and in contrast with the unmanured soil. To this end, directly after the grubbing, the trial wheat-plots (1 are=4 poles nearly) received in December, 1860, the following dressings as here computed for the English acre :— Ibs. Mumateof ammonia |... <5) s-\ rs) se POU Phosphate of lime ef Sao [ite y ADO Double silicate of potash and lime ooh Poe Oa The muriate of ammonia was derived from the sal ammoniac of commerce, it contained 24°92 per cent. of nitrogen ; this supply was feekuned to correspond with that furnished in 110 tons 18 ewts. of farmyard manure. ‘The phosphate of lime was obtained 3 the precipitation of chloride of calcium by phosphate of soda ; was consequently a very pure and fine substance. The cue silicate of potash and lime was provided by M. Kuhlmann, of Lille, and it contained one-third part of potash, one-third of hia and one-third of silica, or silicious acid. The cost was estimated at from 8/. to 9/. 10s. per acre. This single dressing has afforded three successive crops (two of spring ‘wheat, the last of winter wheat), amounting each year, as the ‘ Moniteur’ asserts, to 35 hectolitres per hectare (384 bushels per acre), The Abbé Moigno in his Journal, ‘Les Mondes,’ speaks of these crops as “the most astonishing verifications of the experi- ments of the laboratory,” demonstrating the part which each constituent of a complete manure plays in the development of ‘ Growth of Wheat. 257 the plant, and the consequent shortcomings of partial dressings ; the absolute necessity of nitrogen for wheat, of silica for peas, and of potash for both one and the other, being thus forced upon the view. But we have a more severe and perhaps a more ex- perienced witness and critic than these in M, Barral, the Editor of the ‘ Journal d’ Agriculture Pratique.’ That accomplished Editor, it appears, has occupied a position in some degree antagonistic to M. Ville, being in part influenced ‘by his reverence for an illustrious savant (Boussingault), whose opinions M. Ville had attacked.” A sense of public duty almost constrained M. Barral to visit Vincennes, where he was courteously received and urged to inspect in person the harvesting of certain of the trial plots. The general survey, and the table of results which follow, rest upon his excellent authority. ‘A glance at the different plots,” he writes, “ was sufficient to show, that where a dressing of manures, complete according to M. Ville’s view, had been applied, the crop would exceed 30 hectolitres (33 bushels per acre), and that on the other plots the yield would fall much below 20 (22 bushels). He further states: —“On the 23rd of July a square which had received the complete manure was cut and thrashed in my presence, and on the 30th of July one-half of another plot which had only received phosphate of lime. On that same day the crop on an unmanured plot, which had been previously cut, was also thrashed.” (These plots were part*of the third successive wheat- crop from land cultivated and manured in 1860.) The seed had been sown by hand at the rate of rather more than 14 bushels per acre in lines about 53 inches apart. Each experimental plot (are) contained 8 beds a metre (89 inches) wide, having 7 drills with a path nearly 13 inches wide between the beds, a cord being fixed round each bed to support the ears. The plots tested varied in extent from 4 poles (the unma- nured) to about 105 square yards (for the complete manure), and 60 square yards (for the phosphate). M. Barral gives the details in full, but it will best suit our purpose to give only the results as adjusted to our own measures and weights:— Cropper Acre, Vag complete | Phage st Lime | osama Ibs. cwts. lbs. lbs. cwts. Ibs, lbs. cwts, lbs. Straw .. .. .. « | 5670—50 70 | 158416. 28 | 1821—16 28 Chaff and short stuff .. 645 264 290 Com .. « . «.. | 882419 80| 862=7 78| 721—6 49 Yield in bushels oe we 575 14-4 12:2 : f Kil. Kil. Kil. Weight per hectolitre .. | 795 75° 745 258 Growth of Wheat. These results, adds M. Barral, speak for themselves. To obtain such an excess of produce for three successive years, if it has been done for three years, at a cost of from 8/. to 9/. per acre, is magnificent. Due allowance must, however, be made for the effect of the trenching, and of the subdivision into squares (and possibly for an acl supply of humus), but otherwise it would seem that if a mixture of chemical manure, such as may be represented by nitrate of soda and phosphate of ‘lime, with the addition of some potash, gave good results on such a soil as this, we may hope to find them generally effectual. The four principal elements are thus provided: other constituents are not less necessary, but in such small quantities that most soils have already a sufficient supply. The real importance of these minor constituents is well illus- trated by some experiments on the minute must-plant (Ascophora nigrans), conducted by Professor Raulin of Brest, as quoted by M. Barral. The Professor writes, “By a judicious choice of mineral substances, this plant may be made to develope itself in an artificial medium as rapidly as in its most appropriate natural fluids. Vegetation continues till one constituent runs short. The mineral substante: requisite may thus be stated in their order of i importance—Phosphorus, Potash, Magnesia, Sulphur, Man- ganese. These were supplied in “the form of phosphate of eos carbonates of potash and magnesia, sulphate of potash, and carbonate of manganese. If a fluid which contains all these substances ,will produce, say 20 grains of this plant, one that only differs from it by the absence of manganese will then only produce 5 grains in the same time; if sulphur be withheld the product will only reach 2 grains ; if magnesia or sulphur, only 1 grain; if phosphorus, only half a grain. The required amount of these substances is very small, amounting to not more than 2 per cent. of the plant’s bulk of even phosphorus, which is most in requisition; there are probably yet other substances which likewise enter into its constitution, but in still smaller degree.” This illustration of the wide difference which subsists between manures which are practically complete, and those which fulfil the rigorous scientific conditions of completeness, may fitly close this notice of signal, if not exceptional, success obtained by the use of artificial manures on a light porous soil. 5.—The Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. Mucz interest and discussion has been excited of late in France by M. D. Hooibrenk’s proposed methods of increasing the pro- duce both of corn and of fruit-trees, which have attracted the attention of the Emperor, have been investigated by a special Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. 259 commission of the highest character, have been the subject of several official documents published in the ‘ Moniteur,’ and have been honoured with a special notice in the ‘ Ministerial Report’ on the present status of the Empire. Our agricultural press has, from time to time, given currency to much of this intelligence, yet it may be well to lay it before our readers in a combined form, much condensed, freely rendered into English rather than closely translated, the quantities being given in English weights and measures, that the report may be intelligible to the ordinary farmer, which otherwise is not the case. Since the experiments which affect corn-crops concern us more than those made on vines and fruit-trees, our attention will be restricted to the former class. The practical aspect of the question will best be gathered from the careful directions issued by Marshal Vaillant, as head of the Commission, to ensure completeness for the fresh trials which are to be made in 1864 at the Imperial farms, at the leading agricultural colleges, and on the estates of some distinguished agriculturists. If the results obtained by one series of tests may be thoroughly relied on as representing the average effect produced on large fields of similar quality, treated alike, M. Hooibrenk will have converted one of the curiosities of garden practice into a most important feature in the management of the farm, It is, how- ever, unfortunate that a second test, emanating from the same high authorities, more accurately executed, but on a still smaller scale, gave results much at variance with the first. In 1863, the chief experiments have been’ conducted on the well-known estate of Sillery, in Champagne, the property of M. Jacquesson, a gentleman of the highest character and position, who invited M. Hooibrenk to take up his residence in France. The experiments were there tried on a large scale for wheat, rye, oats, and barley, growing on 200 acres, in fields of 374 acres and upwards. In these fields two-and-a-half acres were left in their ordinary state, and the rest operated upon. The plots hitherto tested have, however, contained only 4 rods and a square metre (39 inches) respectively, so that we may look for the result of the thrashing of the general crops with some interest. Let Mr. Hooibrenk first state his theory respecting artificial fecundation in his own way. He teaches us that: It is not so simple a matter as it appears at first sight, to decide whether a crop is in flower or not ; as your decision depends on the direction in which you walk, the stamens which turn to the east or the south being commonly developed before those on the west and north sides, It is a general rule in the vegetable kingdom that the pistil or VOL. XXV. A 260 = Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. female organ is ready to be impregnated before the pollen on the stamens is matured, Here, as in the animal kingdom, the female organ is the more precocious; it is also the more susceptible of injury from rain, fog, frost, or insects, which may disturb the little honey-drop placed on its tip to receive the pollen and trans- mit it to the ovary—the seat of the embryo. If this drop have disappeared, the advent of the pollen can do no. good: The pollen, on the other hand, has such a hardy constitution that it may be kept for seven or eight years without losing its efficacy, ° To remedy, as far as possible, this risk of injury, the fringe used in the artificial process is moistened with honey, which is the same substance as this drop—for the bees collect, but do not convert their store. The law of cross-breeding applies as well to cereals as to all other produce ; and the grain which is impregnated with pollen from a neighbouring ear is always finer than that which has © received the pollen from the same ear. The following is a summary of the advantages to be derived from the artificial process :— 1. The happiest moment is chosen for the fecundation, instead of waiting for a breeze, which may not approach till the pistil has been impaired. 2. Whereas, in a state of nature, a good many ovaries are fecundated on the first day, on the second day not so many, on the third still fewer, and so on for a week or even ten days, by the artificial process, all that are ready are impregnated at once, and nearly all the rest (those to the north and west especially), within three or four days; the grains therefore ripen, and are fit for harvesting together. 3. Whereas, in the ordinary ear the grains are largest at’ the bottom, and diminish as they mount upwards, until the topmost spikelets are empty and unprofitable, “ fecundation” makes all the grains equal in size from bottom to top, and on all four faces of the ear—all the spikelets are full, and the ear is as square as possible. 4. The artificial process adds force and vigour to the whole plant. The Commission issued by M. Behec, Minister of Agricul- ture, included M. Payen, the famous chemist and philosopher ; M, Dailly, a practical agriculturist, member of the Central Society of Agriculture; M. Lefour, the late President of the International Exhibition at Lille; with M. Simon, Chief Secre- tary to the Minister, Three Commissioners visited Sillery on the 24th of July, and in their presence trial plots of 4 rods each of wheat and rye "Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. 261 were cut, thrashed, weighed, and measured: the barley and oats were not then ripe, but a few days afterwards they underwent the same test in the presence of the Communal authorities, The results which then obtained the sanction of the Commis- sion (ont été officiellement constatés) were highly satisfactory to the experimenter, who’ felt warranted to state that his process had, on an average, added 50 per cent. to the corn-crop, and that, in a fine season, when artificial aid would be less telling than usual. On the 10th of August the Commissioners read their Report to the Central Society of Agriculture; up to the end of 1863 this Report had not yet been published. After this Report, M. Dailly (the practical agriculturist of the Triumvirate) read a memorandum relating to a second testing, which was published in the ‘ Journal d’ Agriculture Pratique,’ from which the follow- ing passages and calculations are extracted :—- “The produce per are (4 poles), of which you have just received the report, as tested at Sillery, on the 24th of July last, by M. Payen, M. A. Simon, and myself (M. Lefour being pre- vented by illness from accompanying us), corresponds with the following crops per hectare, Per Hectare, Per English Acre. Hectolitres. Kilogrammes. Bushels. lbs. Wheat fecundated* .. .. 41°5 - 3160 46 2728 Wheat not fecundated Se PSUS 2100 34 1848 Rye fecundated .. .. .. 845 2550 38 2244 Rye not fecundated .. .. 226 1600 25 1408 “If the number 100-represents the fecundated wheat and rye crops, the natural crop of wheat will be represented in bulk as 73°49, and in weight as 67:74; and the rye-crop in bulk as 65°50, and in weight as 62°64, “We thought it would be well to try whether the produce obtained on a square metre (39 inches) corresponded with those already determined on the plots of one ‘are’ each. The four plots were cut before our eyes, and the stalks gathered on each were tied up and ticketed.” M. Dailly then states very minutely the extreme care with which one-half of each of the four bundles was examined at Paris; the amount of straw, ‘short stuff,” chaff, and grain, the number of stalks of corn and stems of weeds, and the number of grains required to fill a small measure—being carefully recorded. This second trial, reduced to the same standard, gave results as follows :— * The wheat field, 373 acres, had received 20 tons per acre of farm-yard manure, according to the custom in Champagne. The rye, also 374 acres, followed a wheat-crop, no manure at all had been applied. T2 262 Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. Per Hectare. Per Acre, Hectolitres. Kilogrammes. Bushels. Ibs. Wheat fecundated .. .. 35°00 2550 39 2240 Wheat not fecundated .. 982:00 2340 36 2059 Rye fecundated .. ©.. ... 2840 2000 352 1760 Rye not fecundated .. .. 17:00 1200 19 960 Or, if as before, the fecundated crops be represented by 100, then the natural wheat-crop is now represented in measure as 91°42, in weight as 91°76 ; and the rye-crop in measure as 59°89, in weight as 60. The half-bundle of the wheat left to nature contained 215 ripe and 7 unripe stalks, in all 222, with two stems of weeds; its competitor had 225 ripe stalks and 13 weed stems. With the rye, the natural crop had 142 stalks of corn, many of which were blank, and 22 of weeds; its rival had 242 stalks of ripe corn, and 16 of weeds. M. Dailly aptly remarks that the produce appeared to vary as the number of stems; whereas the artificial process could exert no influence except on the number and weight of the grains in a given number of stems, Of the natural wheat-crop only 166 grains were required to fill a centilitre, as against 175 grains of the rival parcel ; but of the natural rye-crop it took 259 grains as against 247. It is elaborately calculated that the natural wheat-ear averaged 12 grains as against 13; and the natural rye 14 grains as against 15, The reader may, by a little attention, see for himself how con- siderable the discrepancies are between the results of the two trials; and if the smaller bundles were a fair sample, how small was the advantage gained in the quality of the ears. These reports, which emanate from nearly the same authority, are per- plexing, if not discouraging. That which is favourable to M. Hooibrenk has the advantage of being based on the larger trial of the two. Meanwhile there are many indications that the question, though still an open one, is considered to possess much interest and importance. The following instructions, issued by Marshal Vaillant (which are here slightly abridged), bear sufh- cient testimony to this. Instructions for the Conduct of Experiments designed to test M. Hoorsrenr’s Method of Artificial Fecundation, §c., of Cereals. (Extracted from the ‘ Moniteur,’ November 14th, 1863.) M. Hooibrenk recommends the adoption of two distinct processes :— Ist. Rolling the corn three or four times after it is up; and 2ndly. Artificial fecundation at the flowering season, The first rolling should be done shortly after the corn is above Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. 263 ground, when it is about 3 inches high; the second and third severally at a week’s interval. They should be performed at a slow pace, and on a day which, according to the usage of the district, would be considered favourable for the purpose. The same track should be followed each time and in the same direction, that the stems may be bent to the same side. Autumn corn which has been rolled before winter should have one or two more rollings in spring, when vegetation revives. The roller should be grooved; it should be weighted according to the nature of the soil and the custom of the neighbourhood. (Experimenters will have a pattern roller delivered to them.) If the autumn corn is “thrown out” by winter frost, the common roll of the country should be used to set it firm again. Rape and maize are not to be rolled. Artificial fecundation is put in operation when the plant begins to flower, It is effected by a rope 25 to 30 yards long; to this rope are attached pieces of woollen twist (torsades de laine) 2 feet long, so as to touch each other and form a continuous fringe. A little piece of lead, the weight of a swan-shot, is fastened to one of the threads at intervals of 4 inches. The wool employed should be long and coarse.* The threads are smeared with a small quantity of honey by drawing the fringe through the moistened fingers. To effect artificial fecundation the apparatus is drawn over the corn. The fringe ought to trail over the whole length of the ear, so that each spikelet, from the highest to the lowest, be brought into contact with its threads. The workmen should also, as they walk, make the rope shake the ears slightly. Three men are required for the work: two, placed at either extremity of the rope, draw it along; the third supports it in the middle, and gives it a slight lateral to-and-fro movement. This operation is repeated three times, at an interval of one or two days, and in calm weather. The first time it ought, as far as possible, to be performed from east to west, the second time from west to east, and for the last time the farmer may follow his discretion. If there is dew or frost, the work should not begin before 10 A.M.; it should not be done in the rain. The crop should, in all other respects, be tréated according to the general practice of the neighbourhood in respect of tillage and manuring. For rapeseed, buckwheat, and maize, the same rope and the * The rope complete may be bought of M. Boucley, Rue Montholon, No. 34, Paris. 264 Artificial Fecundation of Cereal and other Crops. same procedure may be adopted, except that for maize the leaden weights should be heavier, The apparatus should be washed after being used for each variety of plant. That the influence of each of M. Hooibrenk’s suggestions may be distinguishable, and clearness and precision given to the results sought, the Commission suggests that the experiments should be made in the following manner :— The fields selected for experiment should, as far as possible, be similarly circumstanced as to soil, manure, tillage, and aspect, and apart from woods, roads, and avenues of trees, Each field should be divided into four plots. To the first, the ordinary management of the district should be applied. On the second, rolling, but not fecundation, should be tried. On the third, both the roll and the fringe should be used. On the fourth, artificial fecundation should be tested without rolling. | The experimental plots may be restricted to a square measured off in the centre of an irregular field, or to four “lands” of like quality. The crop should be harvested at the same time and in the same manner on all four plots; the head and tail corn, the straw and the short stuff, should each be separately ascertained. At harvest time the number of stalks should be counted which are growing on one square metre of ground of average character in each of the four plots. All these stems should then be carefully pulled up, so as to preserve their roots, and they should be made into a bundle, labelled . . . . and forwarded to the Commissioners. The experimenter is to fill up a schedule, of which a copy is furnished, and send a description of the field and its position, with an account of the fluctuations in the yield of the cereal under trial for a series of years on that spot; of the yield of other portions of the field or fields not under experiment; of the cost of the men and horses employed in rolling and fecundating the field; and he is invited to give his opinion of the value of the measures which M. Hooibrenk advocates. One word of comment respecting the rolling referred to may be of use. In the vineyard and orchard much of M. Hooibrenk’s art consists in giving to the side branches an inclination of 112 degrees. This idea has been imported into his cereal experi- ments, where it is, perhaps, less at home, seeing that rolling must cease before the stem is developed. This portion of the The Leporide. 265 experiment is not as novel or as interesting as the other ; since, without connecting our practice with this new theory, good farmers have not overlooked the use of the roll, so far as leisure and a happy moment could be found. : It will, however, be useful to have the effects of repeated rollings separately investigated and carefully recorded. 6.— The Leporide. Boru the farmer, who is more and more conversant with cross- breeding, and the naturalist, who cannot stand apart from the existing controversies on “ species,” are interested in the practical development given in France of late to a race of hybrids between the hare and the rabbit, which bears the name of “ Leporide.” This half-bred has been reared during the last seventeen years under the management of M. Roux, President or Vice President of the Agricultural Society of Charente, who appears to be an intelligent but unscientific and unobtrusive landed proprietor. Its fame has been spread abroad by M. P. Broca, a French naturalist, in a treatise on Hybridising, published in 1859,* who twice visited and inspected M. Roux’s establishment, and carefully weighed his explanations. It appears that among the recognised hybrid animals are found (in addition to the mule) the offspring of the he-goat and the ewe; of the setter-dog and the bitch-wolf (of which breed four generations were reared by Buffon); of the camel and drome- dary ; Buffon’s crosses between the ox, bison, and zebra; and those also obtained by John Hunter from dogs, jackals, and wolves, Moreover instances have been already recognised of a hybrid birth from the hare and rabbit: between 1773 and 1780 the Abbé Gagliari, near Oneglia, bred from the buck-rabbit and the doe-hare, and Amorretti recorded the results in 1780. In 1831 the London Zoological Society received a communication relating to the chance birth of a hybrid from the buck-hare and doe- rabbit. In this case a leveret had been reared with two young rabbits, buck and doe, The doe borea litter of six young ones, of which three were common rabbits and the other three resembled the hare, One of the latter alone survived, and some years after was dissected by Professor R. Owen, whose examination settled the previously existing doubts as to the hare having been its ‘sire. Its intestines, it is said, corresponded neither with those of the rabbit nor the hare; the great bowel differed but little from that of the rabbit, the smaller one was that of the hare. ‘The skin * ‘Recherches sur ?Hybridité Animale en général, 266 The Leporide. resembled that of the hare, but the hind limbs were like those of a rabbit, and the flesh was white. Owen recognised it as a hybrid. That hybrids may be produced between these two animals seems not to be disputed; but that hybrids should be prolific and breed one with the other, or with either parent stock, has been a point of acrimonious contention, which is not the less bitter because it is prompted by a motive to which respect is due. It has been a dogma of the Naturalists that hybrids of different species are sterile, and the hare and rabbit are classed as belong- ing to different species ; moreover, points of religious belief have got mixed up with the Naturalist’s creed respecting “species.” So M. Ronx and his reporters have been libellously assailed, and the truth of their assertions tested, and, as it seems, con- firmed, M. Roux’s object in his cross-breeding was to unite with the prolific character of the rabbit some of the superior qualities of the hare. With this view the doe-rabbit was at first preferred (the doe-hare being a very shy breeder in confinement, besides being less prolific), and further modifications in the race were afterwards introduced. The first cross very nearly resembled the rabbit; the females among them were then put to the buck-hare, pal thew produce were ‘ larger and stronger than either father or mother,” yet in appearance they were only half way between the hare aa rabbit. M. Roux next bred from this second generation (“inter se”), and the offspring resembled their parents, but the litters diminished in number down to from two to five; so a little more rabbit blood was thought desirable, and the does, three-quarter hare, were put to a half-bred buck. The result was quite satis- factory—the produce exhibited the handsome features and form of their mother, and they were prolific. When they were further bred from ‘inter se,” the litters numbered from five to eight, and they were more hardy even than the rabbit, and easily reared: they grow fast, are precocious, and will begin to breed at four months. The gestation occupies thirty days ; they suckle for three weeks: twenty-seven days after the last birth the doe may be put to the buck, and can very well rear six litters ina year. It is stated that this breed supplies a large amount of meat for the food consumed; sold at the age of four months they make two francs in the market, when the warren-rabbit fetches only one franc. When older their skin becomes more valuable than that of the hare, and commonly sells for one franc, At a year old they generally weigh from 8 to 11 lbs.; picked specimens have attained to 12, 14, aed even 17 lbs. With results such as these, M. Roux considered that he had reached his aim, and this new stamp of animal was to be retained and jnatntained. _ To breed these animals the following course must be pursued: The Leporide. 267 a leveret should be caught between twenty and thirty days old, when he can live without being suckled; he should be kept with some young doe-rabbits of his own age, quite apart from any other animals: he wiil grow up‘ with them, but continue to be more shy than they. When they are of an age to breed, all the does, except one or two, should be withdrawn, and shortly these will be with young; they may then be removed and some of the others brought back. The hare will after this be gene- rally kept by himself, and the doe will be brought to him at night, when all is quiet, and a covering will be put over the bars of his hutch, It appears that the number of the young at a birth depends on the sire as well ason the dam: a doe-rabbit put toa hare, instead of rabbit, will bring forth five to eight, instead of eight to twelve young ones ; and again, as already stated; a buck hybrid of half- rabbit blood increased the numbers of the quadroon litter, This stock has now been kept up through some fourteen or fifteen generations, and in consequence of the pains which have been taken to avoid too much of breeding “in and in” they have not fallen off in size or appearance. M. Broca speaks of M. Roux as a gentleman who has no pretensions whatever to scientific knowledge, and yet reports that his whole account of the course of events tallies exactly with that which an enlightened physiologist, familiar with the laws of “ Hybridity,’ would have anticipated under the circumstances ; and this he considers to be in itself strong evidence of the truth and accuracy of his statements. . If our readers who are breeders of stock, have had patience to proceed thus far, a word may suffice to point out to them that, whatever be their flock or herd, they have a personal interest in the broader features of this subject. . Extreme cases are best qualified to throw a light upon the mysteries of cross-breeding, and to aid the investigation of the “laws of hybridity.” The less the affinity, the broader the contrasts between the two parents, the more manifest and distinct will be the part which each plays in moulding the nature of the offspring. The hare and the rabbit are so little akin, that the idea of any fusion between them has been a stumbling-block to orthodox science. If we are satisfied that both the buck-rabbit and doe- hare, and also the buck-hare and doe-rabbit, have been successfully brought together, either of these two phases will be worthy of examination, and the one will illustrate the other. M. Roux’s hybrids of different degrees, originating with the doe-rabbit, have all had white flesh, like that of the rabbit in colour, though different in flavour (Gagliari’s, bred from the doe-hare, had red meat) ; their coat is said to resemble the hare in its texture, but its colour is VOL. XXV. U . 268 The Leporide. intermediate, a reddish grey ; the ears are as long as those of the hare, with this peculiarity, that in many instances one ear is erect, the other pendent ; their heads are larger than those of the rabbit, the eye more prominent and placed nearer to the nostrils; the hind-legs are said to resemble the hare (Prof. Owen’s report, as we have seen, differed in this respect), the fore-legs are longer ; the length of tail is intermediate. ‘The rabbit-blood, through the male or female alike, appears to give and maintain a_ prolific character, that of the hare to impair it. From such considerations M. Broca has been led to adopt a distinction in the physical constitution, suggested by Bichat, between the relative (or animal) life and the organic (or vege- tative) life, and to consider that in hybrids the former is chiefly influenced by the sire, the latter by the dam. The expression “ relative life” seems intended to signify all that tends to bring the animal into relation with external objects—the organs or instruments of perception, will, locomotion, sensation; whilst on the organic life depend digestion, secretion, nutrition: that is to say, the formation of tissues through the blood in like manner as wood is formed by sap, whence organic is nearly synonymous with vegetative life. One illustration of the use to which such curiosities of phy- siology may be put by farmers may serve as a fitting conclusion to this statement. We have lately had before our eyes an in- teresting lecture on the breeding and management of sheep from Mr. Woods, agent to Lord Walsingham. ‘The practical aim of this address is especially manifested by the special notice it directs to cross-breeding, as generally practised in Norfolk, rather than of the management of his Lordship’s first-rate South- down flock, Mr. Woods raises the question whether farmers should not rather put a down-ram to long-woolled ewes than continue to follow the converse practice. Now, if the flesh distinctly takes after the dam, and “the consistence of the pelt” be that of the sire, it would seem that we should lose rather than gain by the change suggested. So far as quality of flesh is concerned, the down-ewe is decidedly preferable, for the butcher values dark meat, particularly in young animals; so far as perception, and will, and sensation influence the temperament, a placid long- woolled sire will answer best. With respect to the wool, there may be a doubt whether we should refer its character to the sire or to the dam; yet this theory appears to support the preference given to the sire bearing a heavy fleece. At all events, breeders may get some food for meditation from the records of Cagliari’s and Roux’s respective forms of hybrids. : § eR Uli AVTD woono7\W ---AMVILYAL adi, 77 yy KZ Se Ay = \ S ederair CLP slr see OL Oo io.) cr fon) log > eon re. ~ es —— —— ean ew ea —— enn ~~ en en en —_ © Cropping and Manuring. 1850. 1851, Turnips, Wheat, Dung—Aztificial. Unmanured, Mangolds, Wheat, Dung—Artificial, Unmanured. Wheat, Barley, Artificial. Artificial. Wheat, Barley, Artificial. Artificial. Wheat, Clover, Artificial. Unmanured, Clover, Wheat, Unmanured. Folded. Clover, Wheat, Unmanured. Unmanured, Wheat, Barley, Folded. Artificial. Wheat, Tares, Folded. Dung Mangolds, ° Wheat, Dung—Artificial. Unmanured, Turnips, Wheat, Artificial. Unmanured. Turnips, Wheat, Dung—Artificial, Unmanured. Clover, Wheat, Unmanured. Folded. Tares, Wheat, Dung. Unmanured. Mangolds, Wheat, Dung—Artificial, Unmanured. Clover, Wheat, Unmanured. Artificial. * e * The cropping, as given in the Summary, is for 247 acres of arable only—the farm having been only recently increased to its present size. + Light acres of Barn-Field (now Barley) were devoted to the successive growth of Turnips with artificial manures from 1843 to 1852 inclusive, the tops and roots being always carted off the land, and the last two crops (1851 and 1852) being grown with mineral manures only. Barley has been grown each year since, the present being the third crop without manure | Agriculture of Hertfordshire. 287 | ROTHAMSTED FARM.—Jvs, 1863. tue Araste Lanp nor unper Hxpertment.—(14 Years, 1850-63, inclusive.) | Cropping and Manuring. {) —— i 1852, : 1853, 1854, 1855. Barley, Oats, Wheat, Oats,t Artificial. Artificial. Artificial. Artificial. | Barley, Trefoil, Wheat, Mangolds & Swedes, Artificial. Unmanured, Folded. Dung—Artificial. Mangolds, Wheat, Wheat, Wheat, Dung—Artificial. Unmaunured. Artificial, Artificial, Clover, Swedes, Barley, Wheat, Unmanured. Dung—Artificial. Unmanured, Artificial. Wheat, Barley, Mangolds & Turnips, Wheat, Folded. Artificial, Dung—Artificial. Unmanured. Barley, Fallow & Turnips, Wheat & Barley, Trefoil, Artificial. - Artificial. Artificial. Unmanured. Turnips, Barley, Trefoil, Wheat, | Artificial. Folded. Unmanured. Artificial. | i Trefoil, Wheat, Barley, - Beans, Unmanured. Folded. Unmanured. Dung. Wheat, Barley, Swedes, — Wheat, | Unmanured. Artificial, Dung—Axtificial. Unmanured. Barley, Clover, Wheat, Tares, Artificial, * Unmanured. Folded. Dung. Barley, Oats, Wheat, Swedes, Folded. Artificial. Artificial. Artificial. Oats, Oats, Beans, Wheat, Artificial. Artificial. Dung. Unmanured. . Barley, Turnips. Barley, . Wheat, i Artificial, Dung—Artificial. Unmanured, Artificial. i Turnips, Barley, Clover, Wheat, Artificial. Folded. Unmanured. Folded. Trefoil, Wheat, Turnips, Barley, Unmanured. Folded. Artificial. Unmanured. ; Tares, Barley, Beans, Wheat,t h Dung. Unmanured, Dung. Unmanured. (excepting a portion round the outside which is manured with 1 civt. of Nitrate of Soda), the object being to grow a Corn crop until the organic manures of the different Plots are equally exhausted. . ° _ __q Part of Agdell under the Rotation of Turnips—Barley—Clover (or Beans or Fallow)— | Wheat; with various Experimental manures applied for the Turnips. The present is the last | crop of the second course of the above Rotation. | ¥ 2 288 Agriculture of Hertfordshire. SUMMARY STATEMENT OF Toe Present AND Previous Croppina, &e.—continued. NAME or Fievp, BARN .. Thmry ACRES .. <. Upper HARvENDEN .. HARPENDEN .. Lirrtr Hoos .. IMolsousiky aa Ba. Non Kyotr Woop Lirtitr Knorr Woop SAWPIT RICcK-YARD Hes) He Srx AcrzEs.. Cuay-Crorr AprLEe TREE Tron Acres Park Fietp AGDELL Acres, eH ~ iss) ee Lael > (=) ao le) i = SS (on) on for) a a eee ee ae eS ee a" oO © Cropping and Manuring. Turnips, Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Turnips, Artificial. Red Clover, (peren.), Unmauured, Oats, Artificial, Wheat, Artificial, Oats, Artificial. Wh eat, Artificial. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured. Oats, Artificial. Barley, after Sheep-Folding. Oats, Artificial. Swedes, Dung & Artificial, Barley, Artificial. Wheat, Artificial. Barley, Artificial. 1857, Wheat, Artificial. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured. Barley, . after Sheep-Folding. Wheat, Artificial. Turnips, Artificial. Barley, , Artificial. Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, Artificial. Mangolds, Dung & Artificial. Trefoil, Unmanured, Beans, Dung. Oats, after Sheep-Folding. Tares, Dune. Red Clover (bien.), Unmanured. @ Lares, Dung. 1858. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, after Sheep-Folding. Beans, Dung. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, after | Sheep-Folding. © Swedes, Artificial, 4 Barley, after 4 Sheep-Folding, Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, Unmanured, | Wheat, after | Sheep-Folding. | Wheat, Artificial. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured. Oats, Unmanured. Wheat, after . Sheep-Polding. © Oats, Unmanured, | Agriculture of Hertfordshire. 289 Summary STATEMENT or THE Present AND Previous Crorrf&e, &c.—continued. | Red Clover (peren.), Unmnanured. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, Artificial. Swedes, Ding & Artificial. Oats, Artificial. | Red Clover | (peren.), Unmanured, Oats, after Mangolds, Dung & © Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Barley, Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Wheat, Artificial. Tares, Dung. Wheat, Artificial. Barley, Artificial. Sheep-Folding. Wheat, after Sheep-lolding. Swedes, Dmng & Artificial. Barley, Artificial, Oats, after Sheep-Folding. Mangolds, Dung & Artificial, Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured, Wheat, Artificial, Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured. Oats, Unmanured, Tares, Dung. Beans, Dung. Red Clover (peren.), _ Unmanured, Oats, Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Oats, Artificial. Garden- ground, Cropping and Manuring. 1861, Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Oats, after Sheep-Folding. Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured, Oats, Unmanured. Wheat, Artificial. Oats, Artificial, Wheat, after Sheep-Folding. White Clover, Unmanured. Oats, Unmanured. Wheat, Unmanured. Wheat, Artificial. Mangolds, Dung & Artificial. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured. Ned Clover (peren. , Unmanured. Oats, Unmanured. 1862, Oats, Artificial (2 ewts. Guano). Red Clover (peren. ), Unmanured. Oats, after Sheep-Folding. Wheat, © Artificial (2 ewts. Guano), Barley, Artificial (2 ewts. Guano, |L ewt. superphos.). Oats, Artificial (3 ewts. Guano). Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Oats, Artificial (3 ewts. Guano), Wheat, Artificial (2 ewts. Guano). Mangolds, Dung & Artificial. Oats, Artificial (3 ewts. Guano), Dung Wheat, Unmanured. Wheat, after Sheep-Folding. | Wheat, Artificial (2 cwts. Guano). Tares, Dung. 1863. Red Clover (peren.), Unmanured, Wheat, Done} & Fallow! Sheep-Folded (2 ewts. Guano). Red Clover. Unmanutred. Oats, Artificial (8 ewts. Guano). Barley (3 ewts. Guano, 1 ewt. superphos.). Barley (53 ewts. Manure). Oats, Sheep-Folded. Swedes, Dung & Artificial. Tares & Oats, Sheep-Folded (2 ewts. Guano), Wheat, Unmanured. Mangolds, Dung & Artificial. Wheat, Dung. Laid down in Grass-Seeds. Oats (3 ewts. Guano), Oats (3 ewts. Guano). Barley, Sheep-Folded. 290 Agriculture of Hertfordshire. therefore, confime our attention to a survey of the system of management adopted on this demesne farm of a Hertfordshire landowner who possesses in an eminent degree the practical qualities requisite to make such an undertaking successful. The Home Farm consists of about 450 acres, including 94 of ark. The soil is a strong loam on a clay subsoil resting on chalk at a depth of about “12 feet, and sufficiently dry without artificial drainage. Chalking has been here practised by the method already described. _One or two fields were drained, with the idea that they might be sufficiently altered in texture to admit of their being folded by sheep in winter without injury to the land. The result, however, only confirmed Mr, Lawes in the opinion that on such strong soils barley after winter folding is an unsafe crop, owing to the mechanical condition of the land, which is not corrected even by the frost. “Barley,” to quote Mr. Lawes, “ will generally succeed better on this land after wheat than after roots, provided it receives a proper application of artificial manure.” The artificial manures for corn-crops are sown and harrowed in with the seed, and top- dressings are avoided as far as possible. So wide an interest is felt in this well-known farm that a detailed summary of its cropping may be of service. (See pp. 286-9.) Number of Acr&Es in various Crops in each of the 14 Years. Roots} Clover Total Years. Wheat. Barley. Oats. Beans. and and iNorad , ‘Tares. Grasses. ¥ 1850 73 “ or 97 75 245 1851 172 50 oo 14 9 245 1852 23 108 5 63 46 245 =< 1853 38 72 39 ae 58 38 245 1854 95 63 ae 14 33 40 245 1855 131 10 28 14 44 18 245 1856 42 25 82 a6 52 36 237* 1857 56 32 32 5 66 46 237 1858 68 380 75 14 32 18 237 1859 : 42 33 66 An 46 50 237 1860 50 14 74 6 56 37 237 1861 43 ae 86 52 56 237 1862 74 9: 72 5 47 30 237 1863 The following is a Summary of the Number of Acres in Corn, in Beans, and in Green Crops in each of the 14 years :— * Right acres appropriated in 1856 to experimental purposes: Agriculture of Hertfordshire. 291 SumMARY or CRoprrna. Green’ Date. Com: Crops. Beans. Crops. Total 1850 73 ee 172 245 1851 222 ae 23 as 1852 136 AG 109 os 1853 149 ne 96 oe 1854 158 14 73 oo 1855 169 14 62 oe 1856 149 =" 88 237 1857 120 > 112 ee 1858 175 14 50 as 1859 141 =o 96 oe 1860 138 6 93 s 1861 129 ot 108 1862 155 5 77 1863 151 ot 86 2063 58 1245. 3366 Acres, The average yearly acreage of each crop has been :—Corn, 147,5,; beans, 41; green crops, 8812. An excess of horse-power is necessarily kept for occasional work connected with the estate and the experimental lands, giving a reserve force which can be concentrated on the farm when needed. Without this reserve, or that of steam, the above system of cropping would not be practicable. The fallows for roots are broken up in the autumn, with three or four horses, to a depth of 9 or 10 inches; ploughed back in spring, then twice across, and outed in 27-inch ridges. Swedes get 12 tons of dung per acre, and mangold about 25 tons of dung; of which, part is applied in autumn, and the remainder in spring. 2 cwts. of guano are sown on the dung, and 2 cwts. of superphosphate drilled with the seed. Mangolds are drilled the last week in April, Swedes the first week in June. They are horse-hoed, and cultivated in the usual way in all respects. The crop of Swedes averages 15 tons; of mangolds, 30 tons per acre. Both are commonly drawn off the land. Salt has on this land proved even injurious as a manure for mangold. We saw a field just previous to storing (1863) where a trial of different weights of salt has been given at rates varying from 5 to 10 ewts. per acre, and in every instance the leaves looked yellow and the roots were smaller than when the salt was omitted, and the injurious effect was greater in proportion to the quantity of salt given. Wheat usually follows the roots after a 5-inch furrow, 2 bushels of seed per acre. Browick and Rostock (red varieties) are drilled in 9-inch rows from the first week in October till the end ; average crop, 35 bushels per acres 292 . Agriculture of Hertfordshire. Chevalier barley usually follows wheat, or other corn, and proves of better quality than when grown after roots. The land is ploughed once with a 6-inch furrow, usually in December, and 24 bushels of seed per acre are drilled, in 7-inch rows, in Hebruary or March ; 2 cwts, of guano and 1 ewt. of superphos- phate is the usual dressing. The crop averages 6 quarters per acre, Tartarian oats are drilled after corn, 7 inches apart, with once ploughing; 4 bushels of seed per acre, 2 cwts. of guano, ‘and about 1 ewt. of sulphate of ammonia. Hed and Canadian oats are drilled after roots ; 3 to 4 bushels of seed per acre, with 2 ewts. of guano. The Tartarian are sown in February, and the average crop is 10 quarters per acre. The red oats average 8 to 10 quarters; and the Canadian, which are the last sown, 6 to 9 quarters. All the corn-crops are rolled in spring; they are kept clean without hoeing. A good deal of straw is used for the estate and to thatch the little stacks on the experimental plots ;,some is sold. , A flock of 200 Southdown ewes is kept on the grass-land, or on clover with mangold, and during the winter is brought into well-littered yards for the night. The details of management are the same as on any other well-managed heavy-land farms. At present there is no indication of diminution in the pro- ductive power of the land. Corn undoubtedly bears frequent repetition on the same land better than roots, even if they be folded on the ground. Of this we saw a marked instance near Rothamsted. By grubbing up a fence some ill-farmed land, which had not been in roots for many years, was added to one of the fields cropped with turnips in the usual rotation. The whole field, similarly treated as to manure and tillage, was sown with swedes, and these, though healthy throughout, were more vigorous in growth and proved a heavier crop on the new land. The practical lesson taught by this branch of Rothamsted farming is, that on strong land corn crops are more profitable than green crops; and that they may be repeated on such land for a series of years, without the usual intervention of fallow crops, with no apparent decrease in the productive power of the Jand. ‘To carry out this system two conditions are essential,—a reserve of mechanical power on the farm, and a proper use of artificial manures. Mr. Lawes has endorsed his opinion and practice by letting a farm of 400 acres for 21 years without restrictions as to cropping, One instance of a farm in which, by the aid of steam-cultiva~ tion, great and rapid improvements have been effected, deserves some exceptional notice. In the autumn of 1861, Mr. John Agriculture of Hertfordshire. 293 Prout, of London, bought about 450 acres of good heavy land near Sawbridgeworth, and proceeded with great spirit—making it an example of the improvement that may be effected in a short time with the aid of steam-cultivation— to clear away hedges, drain the land, fill up ditches, construct roads, and form reservoirs to feed the engine. A considerable quantity of the draining was done by one of the steam mole-ploughs of Mr, Edington of Chelmsford. The depth was 28 inches and width 14 feet, and the contract 35s. per acre, exclusive of digging and piping the main drains, which cost 5s. per acre. Owing to the wretched condition of the land it was thought advisable, instead of growing wheat on the out- going tenant’s fallows, to give them a second year’s fallow. This was done by repeated ploughing and cultivating with a 14 horse- power engine, including ploughing and subsoiling to a depth of 14 inches. About 100 acres of Rivett wheat were sown without dressing, and, as might be expected after the two years’ fallow and with the remarkably productive harvest of 1863, the crop was very heavy, reaching 8 quarters an acre on some portions that at the present date have been thrashed. The crop on well-farmed lands, of this description of wheat, was, in some instances, equally heavy ; the extraordinary season, in fact, levelled the distinctions of management. In future years we do not doubt that the benefit of thorough tillage with liberal farming will become even more apparent in the average quantity of corn that the farm will produce. The Home Farm of the Earl of Essex is remarkable for an extensive experiment on sewage brought from the adjoining town of Watford. The pipes were laid down eight years ago. The population from which the sewage is derived is about 4500 ; this does not include the whole parish. Pipes are laid under 96 acres of land, comprising 35 acres of permanent pasture, 7 to 10 acres of Italian rye-grass, and the rest arable. The soil of the neighbourhood is chiefly dry and gravelly, though this parti- cular spot is rather less light than the average. The pumps are worked by a 12 horse-power fixed engine, and throw daily 60,000 to 70,000 gallons, which if applied to one acre of land would moisten it to a depth of 3 inches. In practice, the whole of the sewage is applied during the winter to the 35 acres of permanent pasture, and early in March it is turned on to the rye-grass, and is confined entirely to that crop as long as it continues in growth. Cutting commences when the rye-grass is 1 foot high, which, in 1863, was on the 11th of April; and, as fast as the land is cleared, it is again irrigated daily, receiving a greater or less quantity, according to the quantity of ground cleared. Five cuttings are obtained, and the crop of the year varies from 30 to 294 Agriculture of Hertfordshire. 50 tons of green fodder. Growth is much assisted by cloudy and showery weather, and is checked by a dry scorching season. The quantity of stock maintained is 18 or 20 horses and 15 beasts ; they eat the rye-grass with avidity, and the oxen need no other food while it lasts. They are fattened off on swedes, chaff, and 2 lbs. of linseed-meal, or 6 Ibs. of oileake. iT SS Abbots Langley. © G_140 River Coln at Watford, Swallow Iloles ———> f’ Leayeslon. 5 to L~| A oe 3 * Bedmont. Gaddesden Row. % Leayerstock Green, Studbam., + White House farm. BouNDARY OF THE CouNTY. “NIVHD AHL NI GNOOT SI UALV AK | c ") HOIMM LV Widdq IHL WIA “YA INV dV) AHL NITMIGT AVAGIN ADGTY AL JO ATAYAG NOU NorLoas * 99 9T]} JO [PAOT { JAVTL 198A, (ery Ayrurry, 310 Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. character—rather a sharp flint-gravel, somewhat under the average quality of the district. The whole has been more or less chalked from below, according to the custom of this county. The fer- tility of the farm is maintained, not by selling off the produce and trusting to London and other extraneous sources for an equivalent, but by developing and trusting to its own internal resources, The following list of animals fatted and sold from the farm has been kindly furnished in Mlustration of the system pursued ;:— 1862. 1868, Tisimibs’ <3.) 26 ae ae Po SO ies eee “Sheep teal gif osc eee, Cooma GeOOS Beasts rete as oe ee Se MS 0 5 Calvesia vot Ait da ttsch icine Ay lke Se 50 Pigs ae.'f lee . te. se, Gly (LOD eG Motal head. -. :., 980 1001 On 817 acres of land. The system of cropping is four-course, managed with especial reference to sheep-stock. Much reliance is placed on the deep cultivation of the soil, which is principally effected by the use of a two-wheeled plough, divested of its mould-board, which follows the first plough, armed with a share copied from that of the unwieldy and disused old Hertfordshire plough. Besides the usual succession crops of swedes, mangold, mixed layers, tares (to be followed by white turnips), it is the practice here to sow rape between the rows of beans on the heavier portion of the farm. A certain portion of the ewe flock, which averages 330 head, consists of Dorsets, which are put to a Sussex or half-bred ram ; both ewe and lamb are generally fatted for sale, and the stock replenished from fairs, Tue CHALK District. The Northern or chalk district, having a fall anticlinal to the dip of the stratum, is drained by streamlets which are the affluents of the Cam, the Ouse, and, in one instance, of the Thame. This remarkable tract of land may be’ surveyed looking from Sandon, which stands high on a rounded escarpment of the outlying Plastic clay. On descending from the higher ground, the chalk—here geo- logically the lower chalk.without flints—is more thinly covered with gravel, and very frequently becomes a part of the cultivated tilth. It does not, as in the Vales of Aylesbury and White Horse, end in bold escarpments immediately overhanging the upper green sand and gault, but sinks to the level of these strata Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. 311 by gentler undulations, which present a breadth of very useful arable land. This district is thus described by Sir Henry Chauncy in the ‘ Historical Antiquities of Hertfordshire’ (1700) He says, “The Vale of Ringtale, or Wringtale, which lies north of the great ledge of hills crossing the northern part of this county (extending from Backway to Offley), where the soil is mixed with white marl, yields the choicest wheat and barley, such as makes the best mault that serves the King’s Court or the City of London, which caused Queen Elizabeth often to boast of her Hitchin grape.” It has been noticed that this county comprehends within its boundary a small tract of land to the north of the villages of Ashwell and Caldicot, on the outcrop of the trace of the green- sand and of the gault clay which underlies the lower chalk. It is all more or less covered by the drift of the chalk, though in some places the sheer gault lies very near the surface. Though its general features and management resemble those of the tract to the south just described, which rests on the lower chalk, there is this notable difierence—that, as it rests on a clay subsoil, it requires thorough drainage. It was here that Mr. Bailey Denton carried out that mixed system of drainage of which there is so full and valuable a record in this Journal under the head of the Hinxworth Drainage. IRRIGATION, Mi1ts, AnD MEapows. Although the streams which issue from the deep valleys by which the surface of the chalk is furrowed afford to this county abundant supplies of water, agriculturally they have not been turned to much account. Near Rickmansworth, on the Chess, on the Bean, and at the Hoo, water-meadows indeed may be seen; but frequently the ancient weirs have been superseded by mills, the old water-rights having been either bought up by the millowner or lost by desuetude. The corn-mills themselves have often been diverted to the manufacture of paper, for which purpose machinery was first set up by M. Foudriener, its inventor, on the river Gade. The Gade, as its traverses this county, has a uniform fall of 14 feet per mile, which offers great natural facilities for irrigation, as well as water-power. DRAINAGE OF Low Mrapows. Perhaps there is nothing in the whole county which more obviously calls for improvement than the so-called water-meadows, or rather marshy swamps, which line the banks of some of the rivers. This is more striking in districts where there is little 512 Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. natural or available grass-land. The remedy is simple. The mill-dams are impediments to the free action of the landowners, but very generally this difficulty may be overcome, The wet- ness of the meadows is not, even near the mill-heads, due to soakage from the river, but from stagnation in the soil of water derived from springs on either side of the valleys. As a remedy, first a ditch should be cut as near to the side of the valley and as far from the river as possible. In some cases pipes of large bore might be used; the spring-water should then be led below the outfall provided by the next mill-dam; the cleansing of the ditches, brick-rubbish, or any hard material, should be placed or even piled on the surface of the meadows; then with ordinary attention to keeping up the river-banks and filling up all trans- verse ditches, much valuable land might be reclaimed from its virtual sterility. WATER-CRESSES. A new rival to the water-meadow has sprung up of late from the artificial culture of water-cresses. Fifty years ago those who sold this plant were content “to strip the brook with mantling cresses spread.” One such was Mr. Bradbury, to whom the idea suggested itself that water-cresses might be cultivated to advantage. He obtained permission first to try the experiment in spring-ditches at West Hyde, in the parish of Rickmans- worth, just on the borders of Bucks, and satisfied the occupier of the land that the cleansing of the ditches and regulation of the height of the water in them as practised by Mr. Bradbury was beneficial. The ditches were next let at a certain rent and under certain restrictions, and very shortly Bradbury’s cultivated water- cresses became a regular article of traffic in the London market. From this small beginning a large trade has sprung up, which now extends to the Manufacturing Districts. The persons who hire the spring-ditches for the cultivation of the plant scour and cleanse them with much care, level their bottoms, and often expand their area till they form a series of shallow lakes, in which the height of the water is regulated by dams. These dams are either permanent—formed of stones or two lines of boards, supported by stakes, between which clay is rammed ; or temporary—consisting of moveable boards, bricks, or other ma- terials. These, in some cases, are either placed transversely to the flow of the water, to keep it to its required level in the sub- divisions of the beds, or else so arranged that the stream may be conducted under the bank-side, apart from the adjacent bed, as by an irrigation-carrier, to any spot below. Very fre- quently borings are made in the chalk to facilitate the issue of the clear spring-water in its purity, which is deemed of great Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. 313 . importance to the quality of the crop. The best sorts of cresses are then selected, that most in request is known as the Dutch Brown, from the shade of colour it takes when it has reached maturity. ‘The plants are placed in rows, generally with stones upon them, to prevent their being removed by the flow of the water. All this.is done at considerable expense ; besides which it is necessary to guard the beds from attacks of birds, especially the blackbird, whose ravages at certain seasons are of a very serious character. By regulating the height of the water in the yarious divisions a proper succession in the ripening of the crop is secured. The cutting is performed either by wading in waterproof boots between the rows, or by placing moveable planks across the beds. The washing and packing in hampers or baskets finishes the operation. The growth of this simple and indigenous plant is daily on the increase; the letting the ditches for this purpose is more profitable to the landowner than the irrigation of the meadows, if it could be done; the rent cannot be estimated by the acreage under cultivation. Such sums as 40/., 50/., and upwards are oftea paid by persons who have little capital but their industry, and employ a great pro- portionate amount of other labour in gaining their living. CHERRY-ORCHARDS. In the western parts of the county the cherry-orchards occupy so considerable a portion of the soil, and form so great an item in the rural economy, as to demand attention. They are gene- rally found at a high elevation, where there is a considerable depth of loam, clay, or gravel, naturally drained by the chalk beneath. The great age of many of the trees shows that their culture is of ancient date, as also appears from the agricultural histories of Hertfordshire. It does not seem that these orchards have been extended of late years, in spite of the access to the Manufacturing Districts afforded by the introduction of railways. The great drawback to the cultivation is the precarious nature of the crop, which is very often destroyed in a single night by an untimely frost, apart from other casualties to which fruit-crops are liable. The fruit is generally sold on the trees to dealers, and realises from 12s. to 16s. per “ped” or basket, holding about four dozen pounds. The sorts grown, though not confined to the county, are characteristic of Hertfordshire. These are known as the Caroon, the largest sort, and small Hertfordshire black, Besides the usual uses, they are converted into cherry brandy, and, if report says true, enter very largely into the com- position of other liquors, to which they do not give their name, They are also used for the purpose of dyeing. : 514 Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. Woops AND PLANTATIONS. Woodlands cover a large part of the surface of this county. The quantity and quality of timber varies considerably in different districts. In the north-western portion, where the chalk is near the surface, beech woods prevail. To the south of this, on a zone running from the south-west to north-east, oak and ash are more abundant, both in the woods and on hedge rows, the oak having generally a stunted appearance ; the ash is also of slow growth, but bears a good character for wheeler’s stuff. Still further south the elm may be said to be the weed of the country. In the most southern portion, where the chalk is covered by the London and Plastic clays, the elm and oak attain a much larger growth, unless the upper drift gravel intervene, which is only suited to larch or fir. The beech woods, in which underwood refuses to grow, are periodically thinned, and the fall used by wheelers, and, in some cases, by chair-makers, though this trade is almost entirely confined to Buckinghamshire. ‘The ordinary coppice is commonly cut every twelve years and sold by auction. As a general rule, the growth is not sufficiently straight and free to serve a better purpose than making rods or headers for fencing pea-sticks, faggots, or at best, ee stuff, or sparred hinalles and wattled hurdles for sheep. The woodlands are too often objects of little care, and are scarcely ever renewed or replanted as the old stools die or fail. Those which belonged to the late Sir John Sebright, of Beech- wood, are, however, an exception to this rule, and bear the traces of careful replenishing to this day ; his son and successor follows his example. . In many places woods have of late been grubbed, when, from their frequent interlacing with the arable land, they were incom- patible with improved cultivation ; but in a county where there are so many resident proprietors, coverts for game will not readily give place to the steam plough. STRAW-PLAIT. The manufacture of straw-plait not only furnishes employment for the females of the labouring classes, but bears on the agri- cultural interests of part of the county, by creating a market for some of the wheat-straw grown within its limits. This trade, from its nature, varies with and is ruled by the fashions in dress. Luton and Dunstable, in Bedfordshire, are its head- quarters, though it extends to the centre of the county of Hertford, where much plait i is made to supply the dealers, whose attendance at Hitchin and elsewhere creates a considerable market. The Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. 315 straw grown on the chalk soils at the north of the county is well fitted for the purpose. The straw drawers either purchase the straw in the bulk, and take away all that suits their purpose, or, more commonly, bargain to take, by weight, that only which they select. The farmer who has a crop fitted for the purpose has it reaped with great care, if the weather be fine, in an early stage of its maturity, leaving the sheaves open for a time till they are quite dry, and setting aside those in which the straw may be twisted; they are then placed, with care, in the rick or mow, so as to come’ out quite straight and uninjured, The person who is employed by the dealer to draw the straw takes a certain quantity from the sheaf and binds it quite tight with a leathern strap; he then places his parcel, thus formed, be- tween his legs, takes a few straws at a time just beneath the ears and draws them out, until his other hand, to which he transfers them, is full, and ties the handful, like a gleaner, beneath the ears. The flag is removed by a coarse iron-toothed comb, the ears are cut off, and it is then handed to a second person, who makes up bundles about a foot in diameter, neatly bound with straw. The straw is then in a marketable state, and passes to the manufacturer to be sorted, cut into lengths, and so fitted for use. The waste is not so great as might be supposed, all the chaff and caving is left behind with the ears, and with much of the rough straw, which may be converted into manure. The operation puts the farmer to some inconvenience, but the price given is remunerative, amounting, on an average, to about a penny per pound, so that the value of the straw may exceed that of the corn. The moral effects of this manufacture are often called in question ; the early age at which the children are employed sadly hinders their education by keeping them from the village school; it indisposes and unfits them for domestic service, though it retains them at home and hinders their being subjected to the drudgery of field labour, VARIETIES OF WHEAT. Although the vale of Ringtale, in the north of the county, gained a name of old for the Hertfordshire white flour, the land generally is better adapted to the coarser red wheats, and high farm- ing cannot in this respect overule the inherent quality of the soil. eto Mr. Hainworth, of Hitchin, great credit is due for the attention bestowed by him on the selection and improvement of wheats. He is a cultivator of Spalding, Syer’s Red, Red Straw White, Hopetown White, Red Lammas, and other wheats; and has given his own name to a varicty raised by him from a 316 Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. single ear, which he specially recommends, as bearing the forcing of high fan ming, As the fair testing of different sorts of wheat on the same ground is as difficult as it is important, Mr. Hainworth’s method is worthy of notice. First he selects a field in which the soil is as near as may be, of an uniform ‘character, measuring, for example, 16 poles wide by 33 poles long; 8 rows of each dif- ferent sort of wheat are dibbled with great care, the short way of the land, 9 inches apart, and 5 inches between the holes, in each of Which three corns are deposited. T his is repeated in succes- sion until the whole piece of land is cropped with say 11 beds of each sort. The 8 rows of each variety in each bed are reaped separately, bound and set up, then brought together, threshed and measured, thus giving a fair average of the whole 11 beds, grown in diferetit parts of the same field. The farm'on which these experiments are made is necessarily in a high and cleanly state of cultivation ; its fertility, im fact, is cua ened by the application of London stable manure. PIE this careful selection, cultivation, and testing of varieties ee wheat be looked on merely as a Commaeteill speculation, the results must be valu- able ; but in this case, as in almost all such, the higher object of advancing the interests of agriculture gives a fresh stimulus to the labour and skill which such experiments at all times require. SHEEP, After a word of commendation of the Hoo flock of 400 Sussex downs, improved of late by rams from Babraham, and a word of warning as to the ultimate results of cross-breeding between the long and short woolled races, however promising at first, I pass on to speak of that which for not less than two cen- turies has been called “the far-famed Beniington flock.” Ben- nington is a village near the centre of fie county, between Stevenage and Semdom The flock, which is still owned by the descondanre of those who first pened it, is said to have sprung originally from the old Wiltshire horned breed, which appears to have formed the staple of the sheep stock in the midland counties of England up to the beginning of the present century. Within the memory of many persons, the horn, one of its dis- tinguishing features, though reduced in size, was still retained, and in all respects the sheep were nearer their original type than at present. Attempts at improvements were at one time made by the introduction of Leicester, Gloucester, or Cotswold rams, though the produce of one, if not both these crosses, was weeded from the flock. Of late years the chief, if not the only new blood, has been Lincoln; some of the flock still retain traces of > Agricultural Notes on Hertfordshire. Olt the Roman nose, and other traits which render this flock remark- able, both as a record of the past, and a most interesting instance of the successful breeding of long woolled sheep. It is said, and the assertion is borne out by the appearance, great size, and noble character of the flock, that the weight to which the ewes attain when fatted is 20 stone, that a teg has been known to shear 213 lb. of wool; and that the average weight of two fleeces is 28 lb. or 1 tod. The flock now unfortunately numbers only 200. The value placed on them for breeding purposes may be learned by the significant fact, that all the ram lambs are saved, and command a ready sale at good prices. It may be a question whether this breed and quality of sheep is that best fitted to a neighbourhood and soil such as that on which it has been so long and so successfully maintained ; the mere fact of its existence, however, supplies an argument in its favour. They are said to do better and to be more hardy than the Lincolns, by which, from time to time, the stock has been replenished, and compared this year favourably with some Lincolns newly imported, which stood beside them in the fold. IMPLEMENTS. One novelty among implements is to be found in the ad- justment of shafts for the purpose of turning,: or rather re- versing the action of a heavy iron roller, an unpatented invention of the owner of Beechwood, which weighs 3 tons, and can be loaded by filling a cradle with stones up to 4 tons. The roller is used either on the sward of the park, or to compress the roads ; in either case, the difficulty is to turn so heavy an implement with two horses drawing abreast, and necessarily leaning on a shaft. This is avoided by fitting the double shaft to the upper of two hollow discs of woodwork encircling the cylinder, which revolves after the manner of a railway turn-table on that beneath it. For the purpose of turning, two vertical iron pins, by which the discs are fastened together, are drawn, the horses make a half turn, the pins are replaced, and the roller is ready to move in the opposite direction, without the least strain or inconvenience to the team. VOL. XXV. nk ( 318 vi XIV.—Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1801. By J. D. Dent, M.P. My pear S1r,—In looking over the Reports. of the Census Commissioners for 1861, I have met with certain information connected with Agriculture, which, I think, deserves some per- manent record in our Journal; and I shall venture to submit to you, first, some of the Tables which have been prepared by the Commissioners, and then a few remarks of my own upon them, The first thing which strikes us, in England and Wales, is the aggregation of population in towns—the inhabitants of 781 towns amounting to 10,960,998; and those of the villages and country parishes to 9,105,226. “The area occupied by the 781 towns is 2991 square miles; that of the rest of the country, 55,330 square miles.” During the decennial period from 1851 to 1861 the rate of increase of population has been much greater in town than in country, and the large towns have gained more than the small ones. In 1851, 580 towns were included in the record, and in that year the population of these ‘towns and that of the sur- rounding country was nearly equal; ‘but in the subsequent ten years, while the population in the villages and country parishes increased at the rate of 6:5 per cent., the increase in the towns was 17:3 per cent., this difference being due to the migration from country to town.” Unfortunately, for purposes of comparison, the Census Com- missioners of 1861 have drawn up their Tables which refer to the occupations of the people, in a somewhat different form from those of 1851; and there is also a variation between the Scotch and English systems, which renders an exact comparison a matter of difficulty. These changes have arisen from a desire to impart to the returns of each successive census a greater degree of accuracy, and to point out more clearly the different occupations of the people. In 1851, and again in 1861, the farmers of the United Kingdom were requested to return the number of acres which they occupied, and also the number of labourers whom they employed. In 1851 we find 91,698 persons, who, in the returns, called themselves farmers, but had apparently no labourers. Many of these probably did all the labour themselves; others had the assistance of their children; some employed labourers only during a portion of the year; and some may have had labourers whom they did not return. It is certain, however, that in parts of the country, men who have only a few acres of land and employ no workmen, :have always been returned as farmers ; and this we must bear in mind when we compare the number Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1861. 319 of farmers and graziers as stated in the Occupation Tables with the number of farm-holdings returned. There is considerable uncertainty as to whether the farmers returned all their in-door farm-servants ; and while-in some cases women and boys were included, in others they were not. We must also bear in mind that many of the labourers, and also of the farmers who are here returned, are disabled or superannuated ; the workman as well as the retired tradesman or professional man being, by the rule of the Commissioners, referred to his former calling, even though he might be an ineffective member. oh tie first Tables which we will extract are VII. and VIII. :-— TasBLe VII.—Noumper of Persons engaged in AcricuntuRE in ENGLAND and WALEgs, enumerated at each of the Censuses of 1851 and 1861. Persons. Males. Females. Occupations. a) ee 1851, 1861. 1851, 2861. | 1851. | 1861. Total of Agricultural Order. . ~ {2,011,447 {1,924,110 |1,559,762 |1,545,667 |451,685 |378,443 Land Proprietor . . ... - 30,315 30,766 17,047 15,181 | 13,268 | 15,635 Farmer Grazier . Pehid a+ ys 249,431 249,735 | 226,515 | 226,957 | 22,916 | 22,778 Farmer Grazier’s Wite a 164,618 | 163,765 ae ae 164,618 |163,765 Farmer’s Son, Grandson, Brother, &e. 111,704 2,¢ 111,704 92, 321 cin aid Farmer’s Daughter, Sister, Niece, &c.| 105,147 ‘ a ie 105,147 | $3,820 Farm-Bailiff . 10,561 5,6 10,561 15.698 Ef ie Agricultural Labourer (Outdoor) « 952,997 58,265 | 908,678 | 914,301 | 44,319 | 43,964 Shepherd (Out-door). °. 12,517 5,50 127517 | 25,539 | He Farm-Servant (In-door). . . .| 288,272 5 189,116 } 158,401 | 99,156 | 46,561 Land Surveyor, Land Agent 3,06 3,064 4,702 Be or Agricultural Student 104 499 Hop-Grower .. . é 30 33 Willow Rod Grower or Dealer . 59 35 1 ‘Teazle Grower, Merchant : 85 81 - Agricultural Implement Proprietor 50 236 5 Agricultural Engine and Machine one ‘Worker . é ah 1,205 Land-Drainage Service ll 1,761 : The remainder of the list of occupations is not so closely con- nected with agriculture :— Persons, Males. Females. Occupations, _———— SS 1861. 1861, 1851, 1861. | 1851. | 1861. Colonial Planterand Farmer . . 16 91 16 91 ne ae Others connected with Agriculture 128 117 116 7 12 44 Woodman and Wood-gatherer . . 7,772 8,916 7,772 8,907 os 9 Others connected with eo ee 236 10 220 10 16 iis Gardener . . eto! is 71,805 78,533 69,685 76,760 | 2,120) 1,773 MMRUIMODVIOAI. 0) a. yp, er Voy gy 2,383 2,917 2,390 2,838 33 79 Watercress Grower . . 39 55 39 55 op ee Others connected with Horticulture 97 27 23 22 74 5 TasLe VII.—Noumper of Farmers and Graziers, Farm-Bailiffs, Farm-Servants (In-door), Agricultural Labourers, and Shepherds (Out-door), enumerated at the Censuses of 1851 and 1861 in England and Wales. POD g We aig y se, Uhudee. vats, ak See EE ea eas, Mie) i el A Seas ZA 2 320 Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1861. In Scotland, the totals of the agricultural class were— WSN An Gale wSG oo 40) oo oo Ghts2(0B3 WeYa Sy iso cat, oc on coe con | BYSGS) These Tables may be found at p. 35 of the 3rd vol. of the ‘Census of England and Wales for 1861.’ From Table VIL, I think, we may gather that the tendency in England and Wales is not towards a subdivision of land. The class who return themselves as proprietors of land, remains very stationary ; and from my own experience, I should say that land is not going into more hands, but that estates are rather increasing in size; and that landed proprietors, as a class, are a wealthier body than they formerly were. Tables, which I shall shortly quote, will give us the idea that the size of farms is increasing, and that small holdings are being absorbed in the larger ; and this is to some extent corroborated by Table VII., m which we find fewer of the farmers’ relatives employed upon the farm, and farm-bailiffs considerably increased. The very great diminution of in-door male farm-servants is a further indication of a change in the class of men who now make farming their pursuit; since men of the new stamp feel the in- convenience of boarding in their houses a large number of youths, with whom, a few years ago, the farmer worked during the day, and associated in his leisure time. But the increase in male out-door labourers and shepherds does not compensate for the decrease in in-door servants, which, exclusive of the farmers’ relatives, amounts to 12,050. Iam not inclined, from personal experience, to imagine that there has been any decrease in the aggregate of manual labour employed upon farms ; on the contrary, the superior cultivation of our crops, and the increased care bestowed upon our flocks and herds, lead to the opposite conclusion. When, therefore, 1 remember that some few years ago it was no unusual thing in a parish of 600 inhabitants, not far removed from an active manufacturing dis- trict, to have ten or a dozen labourers entirely or partially out of work during the winter months, and that now in the same parish we are frequently obliged to supplement our own labourers by Irish, I can only conclude that the redundant agricultural popula- tion has been absorbed by manufacturing industry ; and that those who remain are more efficient, better paid, and more fully employed than they were 10 years ago. Referring to Table VIL, it will be found that three new classes of industry have been called out to assist in agriculture. ‘There are now 236 proprietors of agricultural machines, which, being no doubt let out for hire, are available for the small farmer; and attached to these there are 1205 agricultural machine-workers, Besides these, the land- Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1861. 321 drainage service forms a new class of 1761 men, who are principally employed by the companies which lend money for agricultural improvements, We find the class of out-door shepherds more than doubled since 1851, rising from 12,517 in that year to 25,559 in 1861. This increase of shepherds does not seem to agree with the conclusion, at which Mr. Thompson arrived in the last number of the Journal, viz., that our sheep-stock had diminished. During the mide week at Newcastle I had the opportunity of talking this matter over with Messrs. Torr and Randell, who attributed the increase in the shepherd-class to two causes ; first, to the increase of sheep, which each of them, speaking the one of Lincolnshire, the other of Gloucestershire, believed to have been considerable; and, secondly, to the enlarged size of farms. On small holdings, the farmer, his son, or his head man looked after the sheep, and was not returned as a shepherd: as farms grow larger, and the flocks on them are increased in number, it becomes the sole duty of one or more men to look after the sheep, and this is an- - other reason why the class returned as shepherds has so largely increased. The experience of these two gentlemen is so much more valuable than my own that I readily quote it, and will merely add, that it quite coincides with what I have Goticed in my own locality. Yet another class may, for a moment, claim our attention. In 1861, 490 agricultural students are returned as against 104 in 1851—another indication of the new race of farmers, who find it advisable to exercise their brains as well as their muscles in the service of agriculture. Another set of Tables is published which are of some interest as far as they go, because they profess to give the size of the farm-holdings in this country. In 1851, these were worked out for the whole country ; but in the census of 1861, the abstracts were on a smaller scale, because the Commissioners had a delusive hope that such returns might be superseded by a general system of Agricultural Statistics to be carried out for England and Wales on the Irish plan. In this year, therefore, they selected one county from each of the the ten registration districts into which England and Wales is divided, and made the abstracts for those counties only. ‘The counties selected were Bucking- ham, Cambridge, Chester, Cumberland, Lincoln, Norfolk, Shrop- shire, Sussex, Wiltshixe, and the North Riding of York. There are, however, ee Tables of the year "1851 which relate to the size of holdings generally in Great Britain; and as there are no corresponding Tables in the Report of 1861, I will quote them here. The following Table in the Census of 1851 gives the number of acres of cultivated land in Great Britain; but the hill-pastures of 322 Agricultural Notes on the Census of 1861. Scotland, and probably of some parts of England and Wales are not returned as cultivated :— Acres of LAnp in Great Brirary, and Acres of Land returned as in the Occupation of the Farmer by whom it is Farmed. Estimated ‘ Number of priest Number Acres Acres under Uncnitivated of Farms, of Territory. eee on Umnceonuiea! Farmers. for. Great Britam .. .. 285,936 57,624,377 | 29,213,312 | 28,411,065 neland 5.5 Ueicmaiites) Me=sieemn ED ees Difference 44h se MAS atlas “800 ‘8 of a grain of anhydrous potash was thus fixed in the soil from each 1000 grains of solution, consequently 22°40 grains were removed from the whole solution (28-000 grains), and fixed by 3500 grains of soil. 1000 grains of this calcareous soil thus absorbed 6°40 grains of potash. In this experiment it appears that, in round numbers, two-thirds of +he potash was absorbed, and one-third remained in solution. _ Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 335 Experiment No. 2.—On Stiff “Clay Ye The clay used in. .this experiment was an extremely stiff and retentative Essex clay, containing but little lime and sand, as the following analysis further shows. Mechanical Analysis. { Subsoil, Surface-soil, Moisture’ <. ss cal | ealhie Olea igi ok Organic matter and w water of combination AoC “dense | 4'00 aye, Woe aysiu do siieieey tesa een cool emmarely COLO Lime .. acti Ghee lvls: Mt Raniah an fan Se Ao ees 219 ROE cr <<. alae ay owt Mee TO Osteen OT 100°00 100°00 Chemical Analysis. Subsoff. Surface-soil. Moisture .. .. 2 Bie nO eee Or Organic matter and water of combination 487 .... 480 Oxides ofironandalumina .. .. ..° 1738 .... 785 Phosphoric acid et cts karan Sate SOG) Sassi “04. Wanhonateoflime c .. ce ss, 08 | L002 ccvms | eai0d Sulphateoh lime, .. .. ss. we ss slo eaabas 15 Magnesia .. nts hn ee A Ae wf, 99 Alkalies and loss... “t yc) ee Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) 65°71 .... 80°85 100:00 100:00 1750 grains of subsoil and an equal quantity of surface soil were shaken up in a bottle with the potash-solution, and allowed to remain m contact for a period of four days. One decigallon of the liquid was then filtered off, and the amount of potash accurately determined, as in the preceding experiment. Anhydrous Potash (K 0). Before oe with soil the solution contained, in : 1°213 ¢ 1000 grains .. eiciclh Canwe Vee After contact ieee Ne ee soc teeny cay 399 Mirerenes! 0 25 RO 814 The whole liquid employed in this experiment consequently parted with 22-792 grains of caustic potash, which were fixed by 3900 grains of soil. 1000 grains of this clay accordingly absorbed 6°51 grains of anhydrous potash. Experiment No. 3.—On a Fertile Sandy Loam. The soil used in this experiment was a friable, red-coloured, fertile, light, turnip loam, and yielded on analysis the following results :— simeat 2 Be 2 336 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. Moisture .. a Oo NS Organic matter and water of combination a Oa Oxides of iron and alumina se.) is, | se AeORLO Carbonate of lime SEP Aa, oh epee 22 Alkalies and magnesia a ea, e220 Insoluble siliceous matter (sand and same clay) 82:22 100°44 The solution of potash was combined with 3500 grains of this soil and treated as before. Anhydrous Potash. 4 decigallons of potash, solutions, before aes 33-966 with 3500 grains of soil, contained After contact. Ser eee eee Lik OBL Potash absorbed by the soil .. .. 19:935 According to these determinations, 1000 grains of the fertile turnip loam absorbed only 5°69 of anhydrous potash, which is less than the quantity absorbed from a solution of the same strength by the stiff clay and the calcareous subsoil used in the preceding experiments. Experiment No. 4.—On Pasture Land. The analysis of this soil yielded the following results :— Moisture nyse) ped A Voeteice Fil too Mets SL Is Se eee Organic matter... .. So 5, wel yess beeen en ers Oxides of iron and alumina aie, saikil } Meise, Rglisenaeenen eles OW Carbonate:of lime 5 3, dees, | cre aceon lee ‘Sulphate of lime ake emer sae more ies: 3) 73y518) Phosphoric acid ole lity t Ch RE, | Ae OS ‘Chloride of sodium .. ch, sie) basen eee "112 Potash (soluble in acid solution) recor ne | LO Soluble silica .. . ote, ae ORE Insoluble siliceous matter ag: oe tee) Fe Beton”. 100°248 The insoluble siliceous matter here mentioned consists of about equal proportions of clay and sand. The soil, it will be seen, is rich in organic matter, and also contains a fair proportion of soluble potash. Like other pasture Jand, rich in organic matter, it is rather deficient in lime, and would be much improved by liming or marling. The experiment was in this instance carried out in precisely the same manner as before. : Anhydrous Potash. Before contact with the soil, 1000 grains of Peaeiiacs 1-213 solution contained % After‘contacts; <)5it.d PSL ee Ale ees “890 Difference bot me. | een | ee 823 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 337 Accordingly 1000 grains of this pasture land absorbed 6°57 of potash. Experiment No. 5.—On a Marly Soil. The soil employed in this experiment, on analysis, was found to contain in 100 parts: Moisture. .. ze «oe 492 Organic matter and Ww ater of combination. Sete, SOS. CMIUGOMINON Msg S icne car lee tive tes Wieésice § O98 Alumina .. Say a ea cota a het cee Selh”' 6:06 Carbonate of lime et Bee oe eect eee: ee eo LO SUNGHATOLOLIOClss ‘sel ce) se, Fon eel setl cee | VO Magnesia and alkalies se ce Meee yas,» ete Soluble silica (soluble in caustic potash) . erate uo Insoluble siliceous matter (chiefly clay) .. .. .. 36:00 100-00 The experiment was made precisely as before, with the following result :— Anhydrous Potash. Before contact with soil, the solution contained .. 33966 PANLGMATORYSICOMtACH.. co . se s6 ca} cn «0 ClO Potash absorbed by 3500 grains of soil .. 25°412 1000 grains of this soil accordingly absorbed 7:26 grains of anhydrous potash. In this experiment more potash was absorbed than by any of the preceding soils, not excepting even the stiff clay. It will also be noticed that this marly soil contained a large proportion of soluble silica, as well as a considerable amount of oxide of iron and alumina. [I find that soluble silica and the hydrated oxides of iron and alumina possess the power of fixing potash in a large proportion, and their presence in a well cultivated clay or marly soil affords thus a guarantee for its retention of potash. In many stiff clays, however, that have never been exposed to the ameliorating influence of the atmo- sphere, the oxides of iron and alumina, as well as silica, occur in a state in which they are not readily acted upon even by powerful chemical re-agents, and in this condition we have good grounds for believing they do not possess the power of absorbing potash or ammonia in any marked degree. Good and deep cultivation, by facilitating the action both of air and water, not only unlocks the mineral treasures already stored in the soil, but also brings the land into a mechanical and chemical condition, which enables it to retain the fertility imparted to it by natural or artificial manures. >, B88 | Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. Experiment No. 6.—On Sterile Sand. The soil selected for experiment was a very sterile, red, ferru- ginous sand, containing scarcely any clay, mere traces of lime, and much oxide of iron, as will be seen by the following analysis :— 4 WHEY Ab axl iS: epg Saale Cee ks, cele eID *Organic matter .. .. sles Weaehe Bae “ecb ee Oxides of iron and alumina SMe) ie eel Carbonate of lime shy; Geely) ies PReph eoeea see Alkalies and magnesia... sey.) 0900125 aR Insoluble siliceous matter (sand) an | sn omer | eaeReraee 100°00 *Containing nitrogen da ne hag. | REE pale aay 21 Wey MOEN AE | oh) 55. a 1 ol my co bn *25 3500 grains of this soil left in contact with the potash solution for four days gave the following results :— Anhydrous Potash. Before the experiment the solution contained .. 30°966 After 5 a -» 12413 Potash absorbed by 3500 grains of soil ., 21°553 1000 grains ‘of this sterile sand consequently absorbed 16:16 grains of caustic potash. In this series of experiments the following quantities of caustic potash were thus absorbed by 1000 grains of | Potash (K 0). Grains. i. Galeareous soil. ss “sos. vole sis) Lieiaal een aeRO De Hea VYAClAy ser Jody case Seon. ete Heer ae nace 3) Fertile:sandyiloami':., /) 1s.) 46) “ER Bin OS aerae6d 4,.;Pasturelarid’ ves dary; facwricemey waptsels: a) Bel Meee 5: Marly soil ys Pes 2 fisectl pol cee op freshen aed eee ae G, ‘Bterilesands cep ss tppccws [Eas Ue eee! ate ORO These six soils differ greatly in their physical and chemical con- stitution, ranging from the heaviest clay land at the one extremity to the lightest of poor sands on the other. In every instance a considerable proportion of caustic potash was absorbed ; it may therefore be Safely inferred that all soils, no matter what their composition, possess the power of separating caustic potash from its solution in water. This power, as has been already shown, differs in various kinds of soils, and is sometimes greater in poor or sterile soils than in good or rich arable or pasture land. However, with respect to the absolute quantity of potash which a soil is capable of absorbing, we must be careful to avoid a hasty judgment, for actual experiments show that the amount of potash which is fixed by a given quantity of soil depends Se a Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 339 on a variety of conditions. Thus 1000 grains of a soil which in one experiment is found to separate 561 grains of caustic potash’ from a weak solution, will take up two, three, and four times as much if brought into contact with a much stronger solution, Therefore, as in the case of caustic ammonia, the strength of the solution materially affects the amount of potash retained by the soil. Again, the relative proportions of soil and liquid determine in some measure the quantity of potash absorbed. These two circumstances, therefore, in addition to the variations in the purely chemical constitution of different soils,. materially affect the result. Another striking similarity between the absorp- tion of potash and that of ammonia is presented to us in the fact that the absorption by the soil of these and, in all probability, of other fertilizing matters, is never complete. It does not matter whether a strong or a weak solution of potash is passed through a soil, whether more or less of liquid is employed, or ‘in what way the experiment is modified, in every case the liquid after its passage through the soil will be found to contain more or less potash, showing that its complete absorption by the soil, even under the most favourable conditions, is impossible. 2np SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.—ABSORPTION OF POTASH FROM A SOLUTION CONTAINING CARBONATE OF POTASH. I have much pleasure in recording here some careful experi- ments made some years ago in my laboratory by Mr. Charles Philips, a pupil of mine, who took particular interest in my investigation of the absorbing properties of soils. At my request Mr. Philips experimented with two soils,* which possess similar general characters, but differ chiefly in the proportions of car- bonate of lime which they contain. Both are calcareous clay soils, of moderate depth, and tolerably open character. They both contain clay in preponderating proportions, and hardly any sand which can be separated by washing. Submitted to analysis by Mr. Philips they gave the following results :— A. Mechanical Analysis. Field, No. 7. No. 12, MIGIS TC ONN sce mgt eer Groene de eerie Sky. Soimey soliteee Organic matter and water of combination 863 .... 981 Jiime .. Cook eecem ee Wie cle thie 5 Sebel!) Zit) OAC! wey Mine! te tig ap op! ay! us WE Oe © erent! G4E88 Olen cl com meni coil oats 7, 25, nl TON roe OS Or —. 100:00 100-00 * Taken from fields on the farm attached to the Royal Agricultural College Cirencester, marked No. 7 and No. 12 on the map. 340 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. B. Cheniical Analysis. Field. Moisture .. . =e 881 were Oe Organic matter abd water of combination 8°63 sone 9°81 Oxide Of iron FA) PLS, OR Bake 1 SE 1488 os cen Osi JAlimina. siivr.ea ls: » fae Ghee eerie 2 Oo aes 2°46. Carbonateofslimen acy aise nee arene cOL +seo PAO LU h MAO MN Ys es Mes ns ae SB 28 Magnesia, 20 22S Leste uch ee Ue LOO’. neem 55 Potash Shin deat ey © Cae See Ged Ge* 88 Sodaii. 4 << Ba cell shee eaeeely ee 33 Phosphoric AGU Pa gra tiocasueaie ies Sea pouae 03 Chiondesiof sodium ss.m tein sees 02 An ie 02 Soluble silica .. . oS: eb eng NOLO) tam bac eee Insoluble siliceous matter | oe te ADO See enero 100°21 99°83 A watery solution containing ‘55657 per cent. of pure car- bonate of potash was employed in the following experiments. 3500 grains of each soil were mixed with 7000 grains of this solution, and after repeated agitations left to stand for twenty- séven hours. A portion of the liquid was then drawn off, boiled with baryta-water; the excess of baryta-water was next removed by carbonate of ammonia and a little free ammonia, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness; the residue was heated to redness, and then the potash determined by chloride of platinum. The following are Mr. Philips’s results :— Carbonate of Potash. Soil No. 7. Soil No. 12. Grains. Grains, Before contact with soil the solution contained 388°9599 .. 388°9599 After contachy tes tsa. Pca Wee Piece) Test 2s MO DONI2ttemeremmmmnte (es ion Difference... .. ae eas . 30" 4087 27°9293 Therefore 1000 grains of this soil from field No. 7 absorbed 8°6882 grains of Gathonaee of potash, equal to 5°9179 of an- hydrous caustic potash. 1000 grains of the soil, from field No. 12, absorbed 7°9798 of carbonate, equal to 54355 of anhydrous caustic potash, 38RD SERIES OF EXPERIMENTS.—ABSORPTION OF POTASH FROM A SOLUTION CONTAINING SULPHATE OF POTASH. Experiments No. 1 and 2. In the next two experiments a solution Containing °62128 per cent. of pure sulphate of potash was combined with the same two soils in the same proportions as before. Mr. Philips obtained the following results :— Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition, 341 Potash, calculated as Sulphate of Potash. Soil No. 7, Soil No, 12, Grains. Grains. Before contact with soil the solution contained 424896 .. 424896 Afteriqontache erate! Seeeeszi lic. 0o eek W ca) ETBSO es, NSS Difference Se MAPS, ey 30-6957 31° 1549 1000 grains from field No. 0. q absorbed 4:7148 of potash, equal to 8:7702 of sulphate of potash. 1000 grains of soil from field No. 12 absorbed 4°8088 of potash, corresponding to 8°9014 grains of sulphate of potash. On comparing these results with those previously obtained on the same soils with carbonate of potash, it appears that potash was not separated in so large a proportion from its combination with sulphuric as from that with carbonic acid, Experiment No. 3.—On the Sulphate of Potash on a Marly Soil. The soil in this instance was the same on which the experi- ment with caustic potash had been made. 1b. of this soil was mixed with 8 decigallons of distilled water and 120°8 grains of pure sulphate of potash. The greater portion of the solution was drawn off after standing four days. 2 imperial pints of the per- fectly clear solution on evaporation to dryness gave a residue, weighing 37°77 grains, dried at 300° Fahr. This residue, on analysis, gave the following results :— Grains. Organic matter and water of combination oe ey 1-690 heating) br ict hale Crain he pod ae Pie Soluble silica .. ye 000 Oxides of iron and arent with traces of phos) 050 MONE Aidt. l ct oe PN The ee : % PUP NALe OL MMO) Ciadiepies lifes e) wai det | sctg hon, £2204 Sulpmabe OR MAONCSIANG tc: Seo ach cos, se pas COLE UL pPHateTOL POCASIB Sep sce) Eccl Ges fs seat es Olle Ghlomderotpotassmmn sy EE SS yas, Mat aoe 470 @hloridevoisodimy «.)M he) else ifeck Pac) 4ee)) “890 37833 According to these determinations, the total solution (8 deci- gallons) after contact with 1 Ib. of soil, contained :— Grains. , Organic matter and water of combination .. .. 5408 Soluble silica .. ie ot GRO, Oxides of iron and alumina, and traces of " phos- 160 phoric acid ts if Seca ates ot SUlphaterom meg sche Veh ccs. bese oes.) eee eeu; SSO Sulphaterofmagnesiay’ “Sosa ss. a Ee) BESTE Sulphate af potash, 1. sav) ea jsyos clas Wheme phe, PeLTO Ghlomdetot potassium. 5.) «<5 enh ss | cet me ee lo04- Siloride’ Or sodium. "j. "1. "3. ue ee, peeee ee Lee 121-064 342 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. © This amount of solid matter is nearly identical with that which the solution contained before the admixture, viz., 120°8 grains; but it is no longer exclusively sulphate of potash, but a combination of salts, in which sulphate of potash and sulphate of lime are most conspicuous. It will be remembered that this soil contained a good deal of carbonate of lime, and it will be seen at a glance that whilst a certain amount of potash became fixed, the sulphuric acid with which the potash was originally combined passed through the soil prin- cipally in union with lime. Before filtration the solution con- tained :— Grains, SUM UTIC ACId se dyeteag oe) bests) poe rise Pees Mae eRe POUASN 55, yo, | toes © ce) seid Seger” Sete) ae eee 120-800 After filtration through the soil, the whole solution con- tained potash, 39°565 grains; consequently, 25°695 grains of potash were absorbed by 1 lb. or 7000 grains of soil, and 1000 grains of soil absorbed 3°671 grains of potash. The sulphuric acid in the liquid after filtration through the soil is distributed as follows :— 23141 grains are united with lime’ 32°653 sf is potash and 1:316 on “ magnesia, or 57°110 grains of sulphuric acid altogether, No absorption whatever of sulphuric acid thus took place. Indeed, the filtered liquid contained a little more sulphuric acid than originally existed in the 120°8 grains of sulphate of potash. This slight excess arises from a small quantity of sulphate of lime naturally existing in the soil, which augments the quantity produced by the sulphuric acid of the decomposed sulphate of © potash. The preceding analytical results are interesting, as affording a positive proof of the fact that a solution of a single salt like sulphate of potash in percolating cultivated soils, gives rise to a great variety of new chemical soluble combinations, several of which exercise important functions in the nutrition of plants. Experiment No. 4.—With Sulphate of Potash on a Sterile Sandy Soil. For comparison with the preceding experiment, a solution of sulphate of potash was tried upon the sandy soil, of which the analysis will be found in the early part of this Paper (see p. 338, supra). Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 343 ' The experiment was conducted in precisely the same manner as in No. 3. 2 imperial pints of the solution, after contact with the sandy Boal on evaporation, gave a residue, which dried at 300° Fahr., weighed 37,700 grains. This residue, on analysis, yielded the following results :— Organic matter and salts ofammonia .. .. .. 27540 Soluble silica... iene 10 AO Oxides of iron and alumina, With traces of piles: A 040 BDTIGIACUT Soph ake) nih nth thoed shes Sulphate of lime AOE AS” Rey (ese ra Sulphate of magnesia Pe oe wae Ne oe ca | OOS Chiorideof. potassiunmr’ se be SM ee 98 y Sulphate of potash .. 0.2 we a. we ee we SEAT 37°453 The sum total of the separate constituents of this residue, it will be seen, agrees as well as can be expected with the amount obtained by diatat evaporation of 2 pints of liquid. Calculated for 8 decigallons of liquid brought in contact with one pound of soil, we obtain the following joostil tis — ‘ Grains. Organic matter and salts ofammonia .. .. . 8128 Soluble silica... a 128 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of Phos: “198 Bhomiescide sy Na “san laa oe! ce a4 a Sulphate oplimehvus Ai Teed pe oP Ug BO stlphatd of magnesia qs cise | osity csiiee ls. / LGL2 Chiamde.of patassiwm:; <5... ant eatswngi mel =» s lime and 1:075 - 55 magnesia 50°847 Before filtration, the solution contained 55:540 of sulphuric acid. It would appear, therefore, that sulphuric acid, as well as potash, was absorbed in this experiment. This, however, is not the case ; for, on making a separate sulphuric acid determination in another portion of the solution after contact with soil, and avoiding previous evaporation to dryness, I find in 8 decigallons 56°368 grains of sulphuric acid, that is, a slight excess over the quantity of sulphuric acid in the 120°8 of sulphate of potash, which were dissolved in 8 decigallons of distilled water. It is evident, therefore, that the evaporation to dryness of the filtered liquid and heating of the residue, had the effect of dis- sipating a considerable proportion of sulphuric acid. But as the filtered liquid had no acid reaction, the acid could not be present in a free state, and the question arises in what state of com- bination did it exist? , | The experimental soil, it may be mentioned, had received rather a heavy dressing of Peruvian guano. Digested with water, it gave a brownish-coloured solution, which afforded distinct indications of the presence of ammonia. A portion of sulphuric acid, originally united with potash, doubtless passed into the filtered liquid in combination with ammonia. As sulphate of ammonia, like all salts of ammonia, is volatile at a high temperature, the evaporated and _ strongly- heated residue of the filtered liquid could not contain any sulphate of ammonia; the analysis of this residue consequently yielded less sulphuric acid than the liquid from which it was obtained. A careful determination of the amount of ready- formed ammonia in this soil showed that it contained -103 per cent. of ammonia. As 1 |b. of soil was used in the filtration experiment, this evaporation of ready-formed ammonia in the soil is quite sufficient to combine with the quantity of sulphuric acid that escaped on heating the solid matter left on evaporation of the filtered liquid. The result of this experiment is interesting in several respects. 1. On comparing the results obtained in passing a solution of sul phate of potash through the soil, it will be noticed that much less potash was retained than was the case when caustic potash was Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 345 filtered through the same soil. This sandy soil contains a good deal of hydrated oxide of iron, a constituent well known to possess considerable chemical affinity for caustic potash, and none for sulphate of potash. In consequence of this special display of chemical affinity which manifests itself when a solution of caustic potash is passed through a soil containing hydrated oxide of iron, more potash was fixed than when a solution of sulphate of potash was brought into contact with the same soil. 2. It is worthy of special notice that the solution of sulphate of potash after filtration through the sandy soil contained a weighable quantity of sulphate of ammonia, which was not the case with the marly soil in the preceding experiment. The power of soils to retain ammonia is generally assumed to be greater than their power of retaining potash. Here, however, an instance is presented to us in which a salt of potash, by acting on the ammoniacal combination in a soil, overcomes the supposed superior affinity of ammonia. Contrary to all expectation, ammonia, in combination with sulphuric acid evidently supplied by the sulphate of potash, passed into the solution, whilst potash took its place and was retained in the soil. 3. On comparing the analysis of the sterile sand with that of the marly soil, it will be seen that, whilst the former is very poor in lime, the latter contains it in a large proportion. In the sandy soil but little sulphate of lime was produced, on account of the deficiency of lime in the soil; and the consequence was, that sulphate of ammonia, as well as sulphate of lime, passed through the soil. In the case of the marly soil, there was sufficient lime present to lay hold of the sulphuric acid sepa- rated from sulphate of potash on the fixation of potash by the soil, and no sulphate of ammonia—at least not any appreciable quantity, passed through it. In other words, in these experi- ments the deficiency of lime in the sandy soil caused the elimination and loss of valuable ammoniacal compounds, which were retained in the marly soil. Under favourable circum- stances, lime thus becomes, as in the case before us, a preserver of ammoniacal compounds in the soil. 4, The preceding experiments throw new light on the uses of lime in agriculture. We know practically how essential the presence of lime is for the healthy growth of every kind of cultivated produce. On soils very deficient in lime, most crops, especially green crops, are subject to all kinds of disease ; and, consequently, roots fail altogether on such land, even if it has been liberally manured with good yard-dung or guano. Up to a certain stage, corn and roots grown under such conditions appear to thrive well, but as the season advances they sustain a check, and at harvest-time yield a miserable return. The remedy for such failures, which are not at all uncommon in 346 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. localities where poor sandy soils prevail, is a good dose of lime or marl, and then, and only then, farmyard manure or guano may be applied to the greatest advantage. Marl or lime alone does not suffice for meeting all the requirements of our cultivated crops on such poor sands, and though calcareous minerals supply a most necessary element of plant-food, and by acting on the latent stores of food in the soil, produce at first a most strik- ingly favourable effect upon vegetation, they soon fail to produce the desired effect if repeated too often, to the exclusion of other fertilizing matters. On the other hand, the most liberal applica- tion of farmyard manure of the best quality never produces so beneficial and lasting an effect on poor sandy soils as when they have been previously well marled or limed. On such land no doubt the proverb holds good :— “* Lime and marl without manure Only make the farmer poor.” But at the same time I have a strong impression that on such land manure, without lime or marl, does not help much towards paying the rent. There are some soils which swallow up manure, with, so to speak, no satiable appetite, without ever feeling the better for the manure; they are appropriately called very hungry. On all such soils I have no hesitation in saying much manure is wasted, or the most is not made of it, if previously to the application of farmyard-manure, guano, &c., the land has not received a good dose of mar! or lime. My recent filtration experiments point out the reason why marl or lime is peculiarly valuable on poor sands. It is not merely by supplying in a direct manner a deficient element of nutrition that lime acts so beneficially on such soils,-but because it pre- serves in the soil the more valuable fertilizing matters, which, like salts of potash or ammonia, rapidly filter through sandy soils, unless a sufficient quantity of marl or lime has been pre- viously applied to the land. By these means the bases of the more valuable saline soluble constituents of rotten dung or of guano are retained in the soil, whilst the acids filter through it in combination with lime, a constituent which is, comparatively speaking, inexpensive. 47H SErtes.—EXPERIMENTS WiTa A SoLuTION oF CHLORIDE OF POTASSIUM. , Experiment No. 1.—On Calcareous Soil. 3500 grains of calcareous soil* were mixed with a solution of 52°91 grains of pure chloride of potassium in 4 decigallons * For analysis see p. 334. Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 347 of water; after standing four days the liquid was filtered off and the potash carefully determined. Chloride of 2 Poteet, Potash. Before the experiment the solution contained 52°910 == 3838°378 After contact with soll .. .. .. .. .. 83°044 == 20°854 Wiferenes! 2) ) 20 .\ie. 19°866) vez 112524 Thus 3500. grains of soil absorbed 12°524 grains of potash contained in 19: 866 grains of chloride of potassium, or 1000 grains absorbed 3°578 of potash. The amount of chlorine in 92:910 of chloride of potassium is 25-248 grains. In the liquid, after passing through the calcareous soil, I found 25°324 grains of chlorine. The soil, therefore, absorbed’ no chlorine whatever, Experiment No. 2.—On Clay Soil. This and the next two experiments were made in precisely the same manner as No. 1 Potashtes Potash. Before filtration the solution contained .. .. 52°910 == 33°378 MANGE AUtTAON as, ase ek ee) sets |S gs COFCOS, == 19°488 22:026 == 13°895 1000 grains of soil consequently absorbed 3-97 of potash, Experiment No. 3.—On a Fertile Light Sandy Loam. Chloride of Potassium, Potash. Before the experiment the solution contained he 4 decigallons, S\agik. sicaile Wetidees p82 a ak ole After contact with soll .. .« .. ..» e« 40°468 == 24-188 12:442 == 9-190 1000 grains of soil, therefore, absorbed 2-626 grains of potash. This soil, it will be seen, absorbed a good deal less potash than the clay soil. Experiment No. 4.—On Pasture Land. Chloride of Potassium. Potash, Before the experiment the solution contained 52°910 = 88°378 After contact’ with soil 9... 5. 3. He ws 82060 == 920-205 20°850 = 18°153 1000 grains of this soil thus absorbed 3°758 grains of potash. In the filtered liquid which passed through this soil, I found 25°32 of chlorine, chiefly in combination with lime, which 348 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. agrees almost exactly with the amount of chlorine in 52-910 of chloride of potassium. Another proof is here given that the electro-negative portion of the chloride of potassium entirely passed through the soil, and the base of the decom posed salt alone was absorbed by the soil. Experiments No. 5 and 6.—On Calcareous Clays. The two following experiments were tried by Mr. Philips on soils from fields No. 7 and No. 12 of the Royal Agricultural College farm :— The solution of chloride of potassium was much stronger than that employed in the preceding expetiments. In both experi- ments a solution containing °6617 per cent. of chloride of potassium was used. 3500 grains of each soil were shaken up in a bottle with 7000 grains of this solution of chloride of potassium. After a lapse of 24 hours, the greater portion of the liquid was filtered off perfectly clear, and the potash determined in a weighed quantity. The following results were obtained by Mr. Philips :— Experiment No. 5.—Soil from Field No. 7. qa ae Before filtration the solution site Erie) con- f 46319 = 29-221 tained .. 5 < aT After filtration sf. 0 se <5 wel we © 60 atoe LO 20 ee Oem Difference te bio ee OT LZ eee Consequently 1000 grains of soil absorbed 5:066 grains of potash. Experiment No. 6.—Soil from Field No. 12. Chloride of Potash Potassium. ona Before the experiment the solution contained 46°319 == 29°221 After contact with soil .. .. +» »» ». °°8°020 == | 6:059 Retained by 3500 grains of soil .. 88°299 = 24-162 1000 grains of soil thus absorbed 6°903 of potash. These filtration experiments, No. 5 and 6, show that soils absorb a much larger quantity of potash from a stronger solution of chloride of potassium than from a more dilute one. Experiment No. 7.—On Sterile Sandy Soi. In this and the next experiment 7000 grains of soil were shaken up with a solution of 104°55 grains of chloride of potassium in 8 decigallons of water; the liquid was drawn off after four days, and analysed. 2 pints on evaporation gave a residue which, dried at 300° Fahr., weighed 32°540 grains. Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 349 ' On analysis, this residue gave the following results :— Organic matter and ammoniacal salts Soluble silica Grains. 2°840 050 Oxides of iron and alumina, withy, traces of. canine ‘050 acid Sulphate of lime | Chloride of caleium .. Chloride of Magnesium Chloride of sodium Chloride of potassium 1-493 033 261 sO -. 27:590 82°427 According to these determinations, the whole solution (8 deci- gallons) contained :— Organic matter and salts of ammonia Soluble silica .. Grains. -«- 8088 160 Oxides of iron and alumina, and traces of phosphor acid 160 Sulphate of lime S28 yanne. 48Ge hlonae oncalenim: .c cc cs ae. sel oes ‘ Chloride of magnesium .. .. «2 «2 «- Chloride of sodium Chloride of Potassium Chloride of Potassium. oi aleeaiaal the whole rae 104°550 oe ee ‘the soil, i it a 88-288 1000 grains of sandy soil, according to this 4717 105 835 aa “OH -. 88:288 102°765 Potash. == OOO == 59°699 = 10258 result, absorbed only 1:465 grains of potash. ‘This soil thus possesses, in a much weaker degree, the power of separating potash from its chloride than any of the other kinds of soil experimented upon. The amount of chlorine in 104°55 grains of chloride of potassium (used in this experiment) is 49°819 grains, The residue that would be left on evaporation of the whole solution of chloride of potassium after filtration through the soil, contained, after heating, 42°976 of chlorine, namely :-— 063 grains in combination with calcium 624 a as magnesium 213 Pe 55 sodium and 42-076 3 a potassium 42-976 VOL, XXY. 350 Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. We might hence infer that chlorine had been absorbed by this soil; but having previously ascertained the presence of ammonia in the soil, we may rather assume that this entered into com- bination with the chlorine, and so passed out; while the potash, as evidently was the case, became fixed. Being volatile, chloride of ammonium could not be present in the residue, hence the deficiency of chlorine in the analysis of the heated residue. That chlorine was not retained by the soil appears from a direct chlorine determination which I made in the filtered solution, instead of in the residue left on its evapora- tion. Calculated for the whole liquid (8 decigallons) I found 49°392 of chlorine in the liquid after filtration through the soil, which agrees closely with the amount of chlorine in the chloride of potagcium solution. It is temarkable that both the solutions of sulphate of potash and of chloride of potassium in passing through this soil lost but little potash, and caused the solution of a certain amount of ammonia contained in the soil. Experiment No. 8.—Absorption of Chloride of Potassium on a Marly Soil.* Fight decigallons of the same solution as before were employed ; 2 pints of the liquid filtered through the soil, on evaporation gave a residue weighing 32°781 grains, dried at 300° Fahr. The analysis of this residue yielded the following results :— Grains. Organic matter and water of combination .. .. .. 1:230 Soluble silica .. .. aoe ‘060 Oxides of iron and alumina, with traces of ‘Thosphori : acid aS Teh hale’ Micka ie ea ns 050 Sulphate Of Lire, + oo can selec cues nel am Ghloriflezofeealctimmi x 9135212 wee Wk ow ee Sod) dee Chloride/ofamagnesium: (y.. afc) Won ekseet ae none Chloride ofisodinmmy es) leer) weet, hee h aces ete ciel an eran O@hloriderof potassium ts sl uses ue lll niele emt pemnen nD 32°895 In conformity with previous experience, a considerable quantity of chloride of potassium when in contact with this clay-marl was decomposed ; the potash of the decomposed salt alone became fixed in the soil, and the chlorine passed out principally in com- bination with calcium. According to the preceding results, the whole solution (8 deci- gallons) after filtration through this soil, contained :— * The composition‘of this soil will be found in p. 337. rk Absorption of Potash by Soils of known Composition. 351 Grains. Organic matter and water of combination .. .. «.. 93'936 SOUEMSTSINGAMEUE cis: yes tei, igs asa! ge, ye) along eee Oxides of iron and alumina, and traces of phosphoric acid *160 Sulphate of lime .. ais! + biota ale REN SR oh RE @hlovineiGh cakcinn 2. fee: @ I ll I! eo osaneg Surpopaquay, Jt snony 74UOD £1--- 79:6 -F “7003 ZL JOY J bs au) BE = —— ; 5 shumaido posano7.k =—_——— Ss puUUnYyD anfing noynys a> i 7 ' SIV ¥2 & wee nee ee eee eee WR99)= == = lm Pelee ow wpm ee ene soi “UBT PUNO. Log 4aoJ Jo arog “uONRAITY Pug ‘SHSUO]] LUDIT-ALUOT UOT SAIAVIG THAO]T TO DNIA\ ANO CNY GULNGO TNL ONIMOHS—yY NVI aa" The Improved Construction of Stables. 367 No. 7. The question of paving involves the following prin- ciples :— Paving should wear well, not become slippery ; be watertight ; be easily cleansed. No. 8. The objection to cess-pits extends to all sewers or covered drains within stables, which are merely cess-pits of another form. The drains, like the stable floors, should be impervious. to moisture. Cobble-stones and paving-stones should never be used for forming stable-gutters; these should be made of smooth material, with as few joints as possible, carefully laid, having a shallow saucer-shaped section, and with as rapid an incline as it is possible to obtain. .... . These gutters should didchatse into an underground-drain (which should be a drain-pipe), ‘at a distance of at least 12 feet from the stable-wall. As the surface-drains always receive a considerable quantity of dung, besides urine and water, it would be advantageous to provide a trap at the openings of the underground-drain to prevent effluvia returning, and to avoid stoppages. To mend old Stables.—Besides the directions here given for the erection of new buildings, the Report offers suggestions for the improvement of existing stables. Those arranged on the old transverse construction should have shafts for the removal of foul air carried from the ceiling to above the roof. The middle of the length of the stable is the best place for such shafts, although the corners may be more ready of access. ‘ Their conjoint area should be equal to 18 square inches per horse at the least.” Fresh air may be admitted by openings close to the ceiling Explanation of the Plan. The plan is that of a stable for 48 horses under a single roof. The interior length of the building is 143 feet 8 inches, and the breadth 33 feet. The height of the side-walls to the spring of the roof is 12 feet, and the total height is 20 feet 6 inches. Each horse will thus have 1605 cubic feet and about 100 superficial feet of space. There is a door opening in halves and two windows at each opposite end, and a door opening in halves on each opposite side. ‘The stalls are of the usual width of 5 feet 6 inches, and there is a central passage 14 feet wide between the opposite stalls. This stable is ventilated by a louver 16 inches wide carried from end to end of the roof, affording about 4 square feet of ventilating outlet for each horse. To ensure a continuous movement of the air in the stable at all times, a course of air-bricks is carried round at the eaves; the whole affording a fresh- air inlet of one square foot per horse, and an open space is left under all the doors for the same object. When a larger amount of ventilation is required, it can be afforded by opening a sufficient number of swing windows, of which one is provided for each stall. These windows are 3 feet 3 inches high, by 2 feet 6 inches wide. To ensure a movement of the air near the horse’s ead when he is lying down, an air-brick is introduced between every two stalls. 2pd2 368 The Improved Construction of Stables. at each end of the stable. Each shaft or inlet should be pro- vided with a louver or ‘‘ spreader ” within the stable, to prevent occasional down-draughts, As many air-bricks as possible should be introduced at the ends, close to the ceiling. To supply air to the horses while lying down, a hollow iron- shaft may be carried all the way across the stable, from outside to outside, under the cribs, so as to fit into the angle made by ‘the transverse wall and the floor. In this shaft holes will be made at the corner of each stall. This arrangement will be available when horses stand in double rows, heel to heel ; it may be adjusted also to other plans. When it is in contemplation to provide stable accommodation for cart-horses in stalls amounting to 100 square feet superficial and 1600 cubic feet for each horse,the question arises—whether a single step further would not.serviceably provide each horse with a box? With judicious management and a moderate supply of straw, the utmost comfort of the horse may thus be combined with the best economy of manure. When I last visited Mr. Lawes’s farm at Rothamsted, the cart- stabling struck me as almost perfect, though obtained by the conversion of a wide, old, boarded cart-lodge into horse-boxes in a homely style, and at very moderate expense. These boxes, 19 in number, form a double row, with a raised walk 4 feet 6 inches wide down the centre. A shed at one end acts as a store for hay and straw, and likewise holds the chief part of the harness; the rest is suspended in the stalls. Stout iron rods are used for the sides of the boxes; the wooden pillars, which form two corners of each box and range along the central path on either hand, afford a great stay and support to the old defective roof; each horse has his own rough door opening to the outside, so that he never disturbs his neighbours. The building is detached from the yards, so that one objection con- nected with stables opening inwards on farm-premises does not here arise; viz., the horses when they go in and out for work or water do not disturb any other stock in the yard. There is louver boarding over each door, and when the horses are at work the doors are set open and the building is thoroughly aired. The litter on the top was clean, the air sweet, without a trace of ammoniacal gases ; yet, when Mr. Lawes called for a fork and stirred the bedding from beneath, a moist mass appeared reeking with the richest vapours. I have seen of late spacious costly halls for stabling cart-nags, where neither the ventilation, the standing, nor the appliances for making and removing manure were half as satisfactory as those of Mr. Lawes. ae sk Ha s Ly ————— 9 Aor, Dou (eon apo merrubp ae, b WY jake a ~& mere a fl < RE NS Os Nee eT Y A a: RS <“] an awa 91 91 | ‘quaptooe . 0} Suro | ‘uayn} JOU. QUILT, | A UIE dana | 0 Do IGT ASILY. e{ ‘sqt “stb “No! yg ey “HIOM 4B 4ST ‘omy pouimnsuod = |-Bury10 A, pony | sm33iq | Gzé ond ond ‘con -eaning} “HOM jo orngeNy 1 169 | ‘suo, UL aioy stad | posour los | osioy-2£ | ) GI | ‘Tore Joaod OS1OU-GT ‘soujsuo Z | ‘yova iamod | ‘soulsuo Z *“I9MOd-aS10}T yeuyu0 N OOL “sq Ur wte}sS jo wINSSOL | Bury1o Ay "DOLE *an30] -vyR9 ur Joquin Ny IMO HF AXOARS *S HOI) 14-horse Engine, Anchor, c. (1539). Highly Commended. R. Garrett and Sons, for Improvements in Double Engines (Savory’s patent). Cuass II. The trial of systems for small occupations was conducted on precisely the same plan as those in Class I. On Thursday, July 14, ploughs working 7 inches deepcompeted. There were three entries : Messrs. Howard, and Messrs. Fowler with two systems. Lots of about 3 acres were measured out side by side. The soil was uniform in character and easily stirred. Lot 1 was drawn by the Messrs. Howard, who used one of Clayton and Shuttleworth’s 10-horse Portable Engines, working their double windlass and four-furrow plough on the well-known round-about system. There is little alteration to notice in their well-made machinery since the Worcester Meeting. The windlass has been strengthened by the extensidn of the supporting brackets. The arrangement for throwing either windlass in or out of gear is ingenious and simple. The shaft works on an eccentric, so that either end can be lowered or raised; as the windlass is lowered its motion is instantly arrested by a wooden break, and when again it is partially raised, and placed in position, a gentle check is maintained which prevents the slack rope from being given off too rapidly; the power that would otherwise be lost, by this operation is partially reclaimed by the action of the double snatch- block, which, since Worcester, has received the addition of a flange on the slack-rope disc. The plough consists ‘of a strong carriage on four wheels, the moveable frames at either end carrying the working parts, which when out of ground are sup- ported by strong springs fixed on the carriage. ‘The plough is steered by a lever action on the front wheels. The implement has been considerably strengthened, and the vibration noticed in the Worcester Report is not now visible. The Anchor arrangements were unaltered, and there was still the same liability to drag, though no accident of the sort occurred. We particu- larly call attention to the time occupied in getting up steam and setting down the apparatus as detailed in Table No. III., and to the large horse-strength _ required to move the apparatus from field to field: to do this at one operation would require about 8 horses—a ereater strength than ought to be found on a small occupation using steam power. The cost for labour, &c., would be :— Engineer *210V sad 4s09 TPO, @-€ OL €-9 tf €-0 II D's “kei rad yeudeg uo 4so.1o} Uy pur ‘way, pure *‘MUIN[O INOGL] IT} UI popnypout sx pur ‘saurSaa ofqnop soy Kep v ‘pg *s] pue ‘saursue o[surs 10J Ap v *sT pasavyo St [IO *sAUp 00% I9AO poyNqIAstp 48a1o}UL TOF “Ju90 aed g pue £19} PUL Ava Joy “yU0d Jed ZZT “zra 4aodayy 10389010 AA OY} UT SV }Sa1a}UT pu Ivo} PUL Ava OJ paydope ate saiNsy outLs 9y..—¢'N €.> G #9-9 4136 6/69 8!/9 81] FL 0 9 | WOHeIION | OL T | OF 08 19.7 | 69.4 Ne |) Ske | WEN VAG Ge (SO) Z oo! €°9 @| 16-8 Soe Gilcers | 9Ocei el alee 6G OD ol 08 iy oe ‘ta cv | ‘mM CH] ‘p's | Sat ‘stb “M9 Be ‘HH "qMo tod |'sinoH OT sae = ‘ “sqy Ur “ST qv yo "atat} eet aed *patans a Rae 04 Peres siamod | wrtaig ‘g10y Jed | Arq ted |*auop YIOA\! Sur - aoe qo “109 jon.t eesthes paumbar | 70H jo Bop jo | sa10V Jo -SIOAL | : Teor, ; | [BUTTON | OIMSSaIg ee anes cn 4890 t oun oman BUTyI0 A | “00 ‘andor “eNO ur Jaquun xy | “* Wa]MOW “ES PET), «+ soqmog PAVMOFT “7 a | | “UNE NT woM *oap soul ), SUIYIOM ‘SHONOTI-NVALY JO NOMIAGAWO) “¢ ATAVI;—']] SsvIp Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. + Je) 404 Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. 405 d. [Biakeabaeiaies Ce ae bac 6 a day. (RIGMOMONAUIN each. es cs vad sos Windlass-man Ba | Mec 2 anchor-men at Macey © or ce ZePOUtGU-DOYS 6 as, 9 ss sss Water-cartiand boy .. .«. NIL ce! senor) siogch Bape aaBGieens Total Se ae Ahae 20,0 MRD PDO OC COSCO RO The work was very good, the furrow laid over evenly, and the depth gene- rally well maintained: nor must it be forgotten that the round-about system is specially adapted for fields of irregular shape, as it can work corners that it would be difficult if not impossible for the direct system to deal with. Lot 2 was selected by Mr. Fowler for one of his 7-horse Engines and Anchor, working a three-furrow plough, driven at a pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch; the work done was really extraordinary, much too fast, however, for the furrow to be even; it was more broken and irregular than in Lot 1. The engine moved into the field, drawing the plough behind it, tra- versing stiff ridge and furrow; three horses brought the remainder of the tackle, which was ready for work in 85 minutes after reaching the field. The con- sumption of fuel, including getting up steam, was very moderate. The labour the same as that required by the 14-horse Engine as already detailed. Lot 3 was also occupied by Mr. Fowler, who here showed a modification of his system suitable for an ordinary 10-horse Portable Engine. 's ” *O10F zed ysog TOL D "3 “Key red Tendep uo 4so1o}Uy pur {eay, pue Ivo AA sS= LT I 1009i | ecare 8-6 0 6-71/0 € & 9 06 OTST G-OL I | 96-8 GG €)|0 61 8°6 G | $8.8 oA We ea) p's Sy sire ‘yao Jod = |simoyT OT ST qe yo ‘any jad | Aeq sed | -auop 4104 yeog jo | saloy Jo 4sog Joqmny 9 81 » 8 (Ys at) i Sena! Il €& LAW os “sqr ‘sib ‘s “ko sod “IO AL TO puv anoqryT yenjov ut fl) 2 Gi °° ond 9/61 GS} °° ond Sut} 9] 969 |{ camp } €l| ¢¢ 9 | Ssuissiq NNO] “Te *oumy} FIOM Sut jo pasn jong | 310A, omnye Ny 069 €0¢ 1¥9 089 ‘suo, UL aly Jed poaout THs, L Ort OL 08 Ol OL “Sqr OL sromod }} urea}g ~dS10FT jo [eulMoNy | emssarg BUTAIO A ————— 0S¢ | S09 esl) ORY en 00L | gFS FFS1)| = rage ‘¥ “anZoy ‘eo | “30 Jaquiny pavaoyy “Fp ** qapMog *¢ UvusfOFY “Ss ** JOTMOT ‘TL Ng —. SH - ST lll SOI “SOTPUL g 7B AT[VULUIOM SuryIOa ‘SUOLVAILVIAO-NVALY JO NOMLILAINOD “Ff TIAVI—']] ssVvVIO 408 | Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. for going into the low ground.. The total cost will appear heavy, probably some extra fuel was consumed in consequence of the delay. In the adjoining field Messrs. Fowler and Howard ran a neck-and-neck race, Fowler occupied Lot 3, the upper portion, with one of his 7-horse engines, working a 4-tined balance Cultivator. The pressure of steam was seldom less than 105, and ranged between this and 115 lbs. on the squareinch. The pace was tremendous; consequently the work was irreeular, and in several places portions of ground were missed. he depth varied, but would not average more than five inches ; and, as will be seen by reference to the Table, less soil was moved than on any other lot. We strongly deprecate these racing trials, which really afford no criterion of what can be done in an ordinary day’s work on a farm, Here was a rare opportunity for showing really good work in a practical form; and instead of this we saw the power of a nominal 7-horse engine to do the work of a 12 or 14-horse engine, and some very in- different cultivation. We trust the public will not suppose that good cultivation can be effected for a total cost of 2s. 7:4d. per acre. If they double this sum they will probably be still under the mark. Except on quite light soils, a 7-horse engine is not sufficiently powerful ; and we are convinced that Mr. Fowler would not recommend his customers, except under peculiar circumstances, to invest in a stngle engine of this class. It is always good economy to have so much power that the engine may be master of its work, What would be the condition of an engine after a year’s work similar to this trial? Would it not be worn out, or at any rate greatly injured? Our calculations for wear and tear are, consequently, altogether insufficient for such work as this.* ‘Then, again, let it be borne in mind that good work ona hard unbroken surface is im- possible when the implement is driven fast. Three miles an hour is the out- side pace for work such as this, and whenever this is exceeded something must suffer. There is another consideration that may well induce the Society to check such exhibitions, viz., the public safety. It was a most fortunate circumstance that this engine was working from the near side: had it been otherwise, the fly-wheel, which from some imperfection in the key (which either fell out or broke) fled off the shaft, instead of alighting against the hedge, must have dashed into the group of spectators, causing a frightful loss of life. Jt may be said that this was quite an exceptional accident, but was it not in consequence of the excessive speed causing intense vibration, that the key gave way ? Messrs. Howard, in Lot 4, made better work than Fowler, though here the pace was much faster than would be desirable for every-day work. Thesmoke- box and lower part of the funnel were nearly red hot, and would very soon have been burnt through, and the wear and tear must have been great. ‘The implement travelled at a great pace, and coming in contact with a large stone, the shock was sufficient to throw the driver with violence to the ground, where he lay for some minutes stunned and sick. ‘The land was decidedly better moved than Lot 3, though here and there we found missed spots, and we should have preferred a somewhat rougher surface. 620 tons were moved per acre, the average depth being about 5% inches. It will be seen that the time occupied in actual work was nearly identical: had the time of getting up steam, setting down tackle, &c., been noted, Fowler would have gained somewhat. Here, again, as in all the other trials, Fowler’s engines prove themselves the best constructed to economise fuel ; this is probably due to the greater extent of heating-surface in the boiler in proportion to the horse-power. We have * In reference to this question, we may remark that the actual wear and tear on the boiler and furnace of an engine bears a close proportion to the amount of fuel eonsumed; thus the greater the latter, the greater will be the wear and tears Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. 409 Clayton and Shuttleworth’s engines consuming more than double the coal used by Fowler's 7-horse engine. We award as follows :— Virst Prize, 502,, to John Fowler, for 7-horse Engine, Anchor, &c. (1541). Second Prize, 25/., to J. and I’. Howard, for Apparatus (1608). In concluding this portion of our Report we would remark that, whilst the result of these trials proves incontestably that steam power can economically compete with horse labour, it is not so much in the mere saving of cost as in the superior quality of the work, and consequent influence on produce, that steam asserts its superiority over animal power for strong soils. Crass III. Ploughs for Steam Power. Messrs. Fowler, Howard, and Steevens entered in this class. The trials took place on Friday, July 15th, in a portion of Mr. Jamieson’s stubble field. Messrs. Savory’s Double Windlass was used, and one of Messrs. Howard’s Anchors. The draft was tested by a new and very beautiful Dynamometer, designed by Messrs. Easton and Amos specially for the Newcastle Show. Mr. Amos has kindly forwarded us the following description of this ingenious piece of machinery: “In testing the traction force required to move culti- vating implements drawn by steam power, the ordinary dynamometer, which travels over the land, is incapable of registering results correctly, owing to the ever yarying resistance caused by irregularities of the surface. It therefore appeared desirable that a fixed dynamometer should be constructed, capable of correctly registering the tractive force or strain caused by the resistance of the cultivating implement on the wire rope, and giving the total amount of power used in an experiment to overcome resistance, however variable that resistance might be, as regards time or intensity. These ideas were matured, and the result was the Newcastle Dynamometer. The train of reasoning used in the invention of the instrument was in conformity with the law of statics; thus, if a rope be passed over two pulleys placed some distance apart, and weights of unknown _amount be fastened to each end of the rope, it is no difficult task to ascertain the amount of the weights so placed. For if upon the rope, midway between the two pulleys, we hang a known weight of any amount, it will,.cause the rope to be deflected from a straight line; then all that is required is to multiply the central weight in lbs. by the distance from the central weight to one of the pulleys, upon which the rope rests, in inches; divide the product by twice the deflexion of the rope, the quotient is the weight in lbs. of either of the weights which tend to tighten the rope over the pulleys, or in other words, is the measure of the strain on the rope. The instrument consists of a strong wooden frame, mounted upon carriage-wheels, having on its centre a strong cast-iron vertical socket. A cast-iron screw column, fitted with a fly nut, drops into this socket and moves freely in it, and the column can be raised or lowered by the fly nut. To the top of the column is fitted a long arm of wood by a joint at the centre, so that either end can be raised or depressed. The arm thus possesses a movement both horizontal and vertical, like that of a transit instrument. At each extremity of the arm a pulley is placed, which turns freely on vertical pins, the centres of these pulleys being 18 feet apart. At the centre of the arm isa central pulley with vertical spindle, carried by two strong springs. These springs are so placed that they deflect the central pulley twelve inches out of a straight line between the other two. The rope passes over the end pulleys and under the central one, so that the deflexion of the unloaded rope is twelve inches. ‘The instrument being fixed in a position between the engine and the Cultivator, the tractive force on the rope is shown 410 Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. by the deflexion of the middle pulley becoming less. The greater the tractive force, the less the deflection of the rope. The results are accurately registered, however variable they may be both as to time and intensity.” Without care- fully prepared diagrams, which Mr, Amos has not had time to complete, it wee be impossible to explain the arrangements by which the indicator works, As the Dynamometer was constructed to register only in one direction, the implement and rope was in each case drawn back with horses. The land was very rough, consisting of narrow high lands, across which the ploughs were drawn. This was a trial which severely proved the capacity of the imple- ments for sticking to their work, and the way in which the soil was moved through the furrows was particularly noticed. Steevens’ Plough did not maintain its depth, turned over a rather broken furrow, and often almost missed the low ground, We are more and more satisfied that this implement, highly ingenious though it be, is not yet strong enough for heavy land ; it does not stick to its work either asa plough or cultivator should do. Messrs. Howard and Fowler both made much better work. ‘The principle on which the Balance Plough is made, seems the best yet invented for general purposes. In this class Messrs. Howard exhibited a 'Two-furrow Plough, similar in construction to the ordinary plough, but intended to work at an extra depth. We have no doubt that in deep fen-land, or where, as in the South of France, very deep ploughing is desirable, this implement would Se very efficient, ‘The subjoined Table will explain the actual results in each case. Me GyPSii pian ihe agi ay eu min. sec, fhe Steevens .. .. | 1310 65 { Z ; a la pais Fowlers; \s-) as |) 1544} 9% Sh done] 3. oo 1 pecan eae J. and F. Howard | 1609 | 80 { ob. ol d+ mesegeaie seme The last column shows the average horse-power required to work each implement; one horse-power is by definition a force which will lift 33,000 lbs. one foot high in one minute. Award :— First Prize, 20/., to John Fowler. Second Prize, 100., to J. and F. Howard. Silver Medal to W. Steevens, for Improvements in Steam Plough, We Highly Commend J, and F. Howard for Two-furrow Plough (1611). Cuass IV. Cultivators for Steam Power. This was one of the most interesting features of the trials, especially when we consider the importance of the Cultivator in relation to steam power. Five imple- ments were entered for competition. Messrs. Howard’s Engine, Windlass, &c. were employed, and one land of clover stubble given for each trial; the reyo- * Diagrams and a full description of the Newcastle Dynamometer will appear in the next number of the Journal. Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. 411 lutions of the engine being carefully noted in each case. The Dynamometer described above was fixed a little distance from the engine, in such a position that the draft on the rope could be registered as the implements travelled up the land ; each implement was allowed to proceed up and down in order to arrange the depth, the test was then applied, generally twice, the time accurately noted, and the distance measured through which the implement travelled. In each case a portion of soil was weighed, the width of work ascertained, and thus the actual draft for a given weight of soil moved was found. The work was laid bare right across each lot, so that the character of the bottom and the depth attained were apparent. In connection with this object we measured a square yard on the unbroken surface, and weighed the soil to a depth of six inches; the result was 3ewt. 2qrs. 15 lbs.; this will be some guide as to the depth disturbed by each implement. | . viaen Actual Num. Total h areas of an| taken | +... Time Weight | Horse- ae Karti ‘ower Name. ee by Yards oecu- pee of a Yard | power prske ea moved, required ee 2 Imple-| ™2 pied S- | Square. | em- ended, |i Tons.) tomove - ogue:| ment | | ployed Pp F 1 Ton. ft. in M.S. aS qrs. Ibs. | 1. Howard A. 1607 |3 53 130°6 115 | 3950 8 2 5 | 37°52 1547700 | 26°68 58009 | Ditto B, : 2/2158°8 148] 3982 4 0 7} 31°43 1866942 | 37°18 50208 . 81°62}. 1 10°). 38176 3 1 24! 23°55 777150 | 18°06 | 43024 | 2% Fowler. | 1553 | 3 10 |$23°95 | 0 57 | a02 | 3 124 | 239° | 749263 | 18-45 | 40599 | H 85°14;1 0 2660 2-2 23 | 20°57 678810 | 10°87 62419 ee > 116201 2 16 $se-24|1 0] 24st | 2 223 19-05 | @se6so | 11-02 | 57150 91°0 10 4194 3 117 | 34°7 1145100 | 19°67 58209 | 4. Coleman . «| 549/310 /$35°7 11 0| 4699 | 3 117 | 34-37 | iidosio | 17-97 | 63dsd | 5. J. A. Williams | 2037 | 3 0} 79°4 |1 01] 38767 3 0 17 | 27°27 899910 | 12°51 | 71936 il N.B. The unit of power is the force generated by 1 lb, falling through the space of | 1 foot; 1 horse-power is by definition a force which will lift 53,000 Ibs, 1 foot high | per 1 minute. shares, and afterwards with broad shares, The results are lettered A and B in the preceding Table. The Cultivator consists of a ribbed wrought-iron frame, very strong, and is so arranged that the tines furnished with double points rock on the frame, so that as the points in work are depressed the hinder ones are slightly raised. The arrangements for altering the shares are not so simple as they might be, and caused a considerable delay. ‘he narrow tines left a very uneven and ridgy bottom, ‘The implement worked full 6 inches in the deepest parts, and the soil was moved at the rate of 857 tons per acre. The broad shares which cover all the ground left a more even bottom; and though they worked at the same depth, a greater weight of soil was moved, equal to 983 tons per acre. The width disturbed was in both cases 8 feet 53 inches. Lot 2.—Fowler, working the 4-tined balance Cultivator, made some excellent work, This implement was submitted to a second trial, as an objection was raised to the first experiment. The bottom was decidedly the most even of . all the trials; the depth somewhat less than in Lot 1; 847 tons per acre were’ moved. The width stirred was 3 feet 10 inches. The lighter draft of the | balance Cultivator is partly accounted for by the fact that this implement clears its way by getting rid of the soil, throwing it on one side, whilst other Culti- | Lot 1.—Messrs. Howard worked their 3-tined Cultivator, first with narrow | vators cut their way through a dead mass of earth, which, as soon as dis- turbed, falls back, and checks the onward course of the implement, The surface was left in a good condition for after work. 412 Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. Lot 3.—Mr. Steevens’ combined implement, described before, worked with narrow tines, and left a most uneven bottom. It was explained to us that better work would have been made had broader shares been substituted. We - have no doubt this would have been so; but why, then, was it not so ex- hibited? The Judges are called upon to decide on the merits of implements as they come before them. As it was, the work was decidedly bad. And in this rather hard soil we again had evidence that Mr. Steevens’ implement is liable to shirk its work; probably the weight of the frame which carries the tines is insuffi- cient to keep it quite steady. The soil moved was at the rate of 654 tons per acre, the width of the implement 2 feet 10 inches. Lot 4.—Coleman and Morton’s Cultivator made fair work; the bottom was, however, somewhat uneven, the tines being too narrow for this hard soil. In this case the draft of the empty implement was added, since the system re- quires two Cultivators—one in, and one out of work. Soil moved, at the rate of 823 tons per acre; width disturbed, 3 feet 10 inches. We were pleased with the work of this Cultivator on both occasions that it came before us, though we do not approve of a system that requires two implements to do only the work of one. Lot 5 was occupied by Mr. J. A. Williams with his Leviathan Cultivator, an enormous implement, which covers 6 feet 2 inches between the wheels and disturbs 6 feet of ground. It consists of a strong rectangular frame on three wheels; two support the body, and one in front is used for steering. The frame carries a series of head-blocks, set perpendicularly by screws which regulate the depth of the forepart of the cultivating-shares. Three cultivating-frames are attached, each carrying three cast-iron coulters. The coulters are 33 inches wide, by 1} inch thick, bevelled fore and aft. Three descriptions of shares are provided—narrow chisels, broad chisels, and steel broad-shares, which cover all the ground. The cultivating-frames are independent of the carriage-frame, being raised out of the ground and kept to a given depth, or rather prevented from entering the ground too deeply by a lever-press; in other words, we have much the same arrangement as in the coulter of a drill, only the press is there employed to keep the coulters in the ground, and here to prevent their drawing in too deeply. The man steers from a seat on the carriage-frame ;-the implement tums at the land’s end; it weighs about 1 ton. Mr. Williams’ plan of cultivation consists in going twice over the same ground; the depth cultivated was very irregular, The frames, each acting as independent levers, jumped about a good deal, and kept rising and sinking as far as the press allowed, according to the obstruc- tions in the soil. The soil moved was at the rate of 762 tons per acre. Width twice moved, 8 feet. The Award was as follows :— Cis) Ue Hirst Prizeito John Motwler) Yn (ets) eeu renee Ome Second Prize to J.and F. Howard .. .. .. 1210 0 Silver Medal to Coleman and Morton. Ciass V. Trial of Steam Harrows. These trials took place on Saturday, July 16th, the ground selected being the three lots ploughed by the competitors in Class 11. The whole area, about 8 acres, was divided into five equal strips; lots were drawn, and each implement worked across the three ploughings. Messrs. Howard kindly lent their power, which proved very suitable for the work; after each implement had traversed a bout, the large horse-plough Dynamometer was attached, and Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. 413 an observation taken in both directions. It will be seen that the draft was in each case greater when the implement was travelling from the engine, | | | Draft | Num-' (Distancall Tae Width | in lbs. | Horse- berin,; Descrip- |. ~~ of Land} Draft per Foot in, power Name. Cata-| Cost. tion, | Yards. | vied. | nar | in Ibs, | Width of | em- logue. | Brus.) Bee | rowed: Land | ployed. harrowed. &, 8, {| American |) Trig tearm Geta excessi ee er A g to excessive draft 1, Kelsey . « «| 2440 | 12 i) ee } caused by imperfect traction adjustments. ao bt yw. S. | ft. in. 2, J, and F, Howard | 1614 | 30 0f (Norwegian). i179 | 9 99 1799 263°3 | 11:9 Harrow | 6 10 Ditto. a os ie 158 | 2 20 | (1744 255°2 10°7. 3, J. and F. Howard | 1613 | 22 of oe i 165 | 1 i: 10 0 { 1588 158°8 12°4 Ditto. me ee i 154 | 210 1521° | 152-1 9-8 4, Fowler . . . {| 1554] 50 0 Ditto 1574 2 5 ll 7 1967 169°8 | 13°5 Ditto. , ae A re 1625 |2 5 1947 168°0 | 13:8 ! Double ee . - ; ! | a | { Trial discontinued, owing to breakage from im- _ BPR aria’ = «;| 2088.) 20 04 Genes perfect traction adjustment. : & N.B. The last column shows the average horse-power required to work each implement. No. 1.—Kelsey’s Harrows are an American invention, of some merit, though not seen to advantage on this occasion, because the imperfect adjustment of the draft caused the implement to bury itself in the soil, and act as a Cultivator rather than a harrow. We consider the arrangement of the tines simple and good. The implement consists of a strong wooden frame, forming 2 equilateral triangles, one placed within the other. The teeth are so arranged as to cut the ground alternately in either frame, at equal distances apart; and it is evident that if it be properly balanced, nothing can escape the action of the teeth. It has never been tried before with steam-power. The inventor proposes to draw it backwards and forwards without turning : experiénce can alone decide whether this is practicable; we think in foul land the imple ment would clog up when the broad end of the triangle meets the soil. pala this be the case, an arrangement for turning might readily be intro- uced. No. 2.—Messrs. Howard worked their Norwegian Harrow, consisting of three rows of star-shaped discs, working between each other, and thus completely comminuting the surface. This implement acts as a combined harrow and presser, pulverizing the surface, and at the same time consolidating the under soil. Crossing the rather open furrews of a clover ley, this implement was in its right place. It requires, however, a dry surface, and land free from stones, es value is rather exceptional than*general, The trial was very suc- cessful. No. 3.—Messrs. Howard’s Steam Harrows, made on the zigzag principle, and provided with a simple steerage and seat for the workman, are excellent implements for crossing fallows in the spring. The length of tines and weight of frame cause all these implements to work rather as Cultivators, cutting through the furrow, than as harrows proper. The width taken is so great that, in order to break fresh ground at each turn, the harrow has to start forward a short distance, then retrace its steps, and thus get into its proper track ; practically we should double our work, and thus do away with this dodging backwards and forwards, and loss of time. Looking at the VOL, XXV. 2G 414 Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. moderate cost of these drag-harrows, the quantity of work they could accomplish, the quality of the operation, and their adaptation for any kind of steam power, we think Messrs. Howard have produced a very valuable implement. No. 4.—John Fowler’s Steam Harrows are provided with slack-gear; they are attached ‘to and work between the fore and hind wheels of a carriage which carries the slack-rope drums. The weight of this carriage is considerable, and the pressure of the hind wheels upon the work a disadvantage. The cost of the implement is also an objection ; 50/7. is too much to pay for such a tool. The work was very good, the surface more broken than No, 3, due to the fact that the teeth, whilst somewhat shorter, are nearer together. No. 5.—Mr. Ashby tried an enormous pair of rotating harrows, of great weight, furnished with strong round tines; the diameter of the two harrows, and consequently the width of soil they would disturb, was 13 feet 8 inches. So great was the power required to move these harrows in the form they assumed at the, trial, that the iron bar to which the rope was fastened was bent double without the implement being moved. Mr. Ashby informed us that it was intended to attach them to Fowler’s slack-gear carriage, and thus the depth and draft could have been properly regulated. Unfortunately, time did not allow of a second trial. In reference to the very interesting figures resulting from the Dynamometer tests, the two last columns are the most important, showing the actual draft for every foot in width harrowed, and the average horse-power required to work each implement. We think it is clear that whilst dragging may be in some instances economically substituted for cultivating, horse-power will have the advantage for harrowing operations, We award the Prize of 20/, to J. and I’. Howard. Cuass VI. Windlasses and Application of Power thereto, The object of the Society in offering this prize was to ascertain by which system of haulage a given amount of work was performed with the least ex- penditure of power. We understand that our decisions have been objected to in some quarters, under the idea that a windlass can only refer to machinery on which a rope is wound, and therefore that a clip-drum cannot be a windlass. Those, however, who arranged the wording of this prize, and who are emi- nently qualified to decide this point, considered that any machinery by which the rope is hauled and enabled to draw an implement through the soil is to all intents and purposes a windlass, and eligible to compete in this class, These trials, as well as those for Cultivators, were unavoidably delayed until Monday, July 18. This was in one respect an advantage, as the superior attractions of the Show Yard secured us a clear field, which was of the utmost importance, and the progress of the work, after the preliminaries had been arranged, was most satisfactory, affording a striking contrast to our experience in Class III., when the trials were frequently impeded, and at last put a stop to, by the crowding of spectators. Once again we venture to make a suggestion. It is that Dynamometer trials should take place before the public trials are announced. There were several very interesting points that we would gladly have investigated, but time-did not permit. Mr. Amos arranged these trials in the following manner. Mr. Fowler’s 14-horse Engine drove each of the windlasses in succession through the large 50-horse power Dyna- mometer. The windlasses were detached from the working parts (piston and slides, &c.) of each engine, so that the draft registered indicated the actual power required by each system of haulage to perform a given quantity of work. Fowler’s 'hree-furrow Plough was used, working at a fixed depth 7 inches, and taking a regular furrow 10 inches in width. It is therefore | Report on Steam Cultivation at Newcastle. 415 evident that so long as the speed was equal, and the same amount of soil moved in each case, the result must present a true verdict. There were four competitors, Messrs. Coleman and Morton, W. Savory and Son, with the double Windlass Engine, John Fowler, and J. and I’. Howard. The draft was taken in both directions, except in the last turn with Messrs Howard’s Windlass, when one of the plough-shares came in contact with a fast stone, the body or skife broke; and the lateness of the hour, 8°30, prevented any further trial. Having ascertained the upward draft, we could easily make deductions for the lighter draft when coming down hill, similar to those which the other trials warranted. Cubic py «| Units of Power} 000. ar i es Feet of Total Units expended in Dir ee Name. - of Power : aa it ORL Earth expended, | Moving 1 Cubic eit moved. | “XP * | Foot of Earth. F Coleman and Morton , “0 * 782760 1397°7 Uphill. Ditto, A Bo) 38° ¥ 809740 1333°4 Down. Savory andSons . ., : " 1, 041480 1694°5 Uphill, Ditto. ore 3 ° q 934560 1469°2 Down, IER i) va 16 > f O 923128 1486°9 Uphill. OS ate) ae 1 19 ¢| 528° 4] 2°72 | 229,854} 1282"4 Seaman and Co. Ditto. 549° 4} 2°30 | 215,090 | 1281'8 Hunt and Pickering Ditto. W. Ball and Son . Ditto. . 1 22¢| 483° 5 | 2°37 | 205,245 | 1127" 1 21 ¢| 498° 8 | 2°21 | 194,760 | 1069-9 These tables, which have been carefully prepared for us by Mr. Amos, contain many interesting points. The small amount of variation in the draught of the several ploughs shows how nearly perfection has been attained in their construction. The last column, which may be said to sum up all the rest, deserves special attention, as enabling us to make the most complete and exact comparison of the actual draught of the different implements when removing a given quantity of earth. ‘The unit of power spoken of is the power required to lift 1 lb. one foot high. Swing Ploughs—In this division we proceeded ina precisely similar manner, working the implements at two depths, and carefully examining every point. We selected three for the Dynamometer test, the result was as follows :— Total | Units of Time Actual] Units of | Power Dimen- Cubic | occupied Dradeat Horse-| Power | expended Name. sions of | Feet of in Plough | Power expended|to remove Furrow. | Earth, | Experi-| ie em- during ] Cubic jments, | ™°PS: | ployed.| Experi- | foot of ments, | Earth. min, sec. Ransome and Sims 1 22} 556°1 | 2°72 } 122,620 }. 1297°5 an ae } 608-5 9°64 | 264,697 | 1419-2 M‘Gregor and Co. 1 26 5 3 995 ~4+ itto. 1 12 + 546 4] 2°82 | 225,390 | 1274°8 ; Note.—Ransome and Sims's first run was lost by the plough being stopped by a large stone. We would here remark that too much stress must not be laid upon the Dynamometer tests of the swing ploughs, as owing to the hardness of the ground, and the absence of wheels to steady the implements, the draught was very unequal, and even with wheels great difficulty was experienced in obtain- ing an equal draught throughout. Indeed, we very much doubt whether it is possible, with horse-power, to obtain in hard or stony land an absolutely correct result from the Dynamometer. A little difference in the holding of the plough, or the height of the horses acting on the hold the driving-wheel of the 420 Report on the Newcastle Show-yard. Dynamometer takes of the ground, may make a considerable difference in the result. To make these tests thoroughly reliable, we would suggest that the ploughs, when being tested, should be drawn by steam-power, so that not only might furrows of uniform depth and width be turned, but turned in exactly the same time, and with the same pressure on the wheel of the Dynamometer. We award as follows :— To Messrs. J. and F. Howard, for Wheel Plough (1617) .. .. 15 3 Ransome and Sims, HOMO WINS, | ye CUTS) meee 15 We highly commend Ransome and Sims for Wheel Plough (1 761). oo - a W. Busby and Co, rs = (399). _ a Seaman and Co. i as (572). is J. and F. Howard, for Swing ,, (1620), We commend M‘Gregor and Co. . (2935). 9 z William Ball and Son for Wheel is (2380). Cuass JI].—Heravy Lanp PuLoueus. Wheel Ploughs.—Of the ten implements selected in this division of Class ITI. only eight started, two exhibitors declining to compete when they understood the nature of the work they were expected to perform, viz., to turn a furrow from 9 to 10 inches deep, and thus move, in most cases, a couple of inches of the hitherto undisturbed subsoil. The work generally was good, but we must specially notice that performed by Messrs. Ransome’s Implement (1764), price 61. 10s., which was most excellent. Messrs. Howard’s (1619), price 7/., and Messrs. Ball’s (2384), price 57. 12s., also did very good work, whilst Messrs. M‘Gregor and Co., exhibited a strong useful plough (2933), price 77. 2s. 6d. At the request of the Messrs. Howard we tested theirs and Messrs. Ransome’s ploughs, with the following result :— Total | Units of + Dis- - Time | Actual} Units of | Power Me um tance | Dimen- ge occupied) Draught Horse-| Power | expended Name. Gs ees Price. in sions of Earth in Plouch | Power | expended|to remove 1 ie Yards | Furrow. areal Experi- aS ite em- during 1 Cubic ENS run. Temovec.) ments. 5+ | ployed.| Experi- | foot of | ments. | Karth, We te fee eer on ty cc J.and F. Howard | 1619 7h aN) 7a | 1510 1 Ye iGi a 2 ~ nS . ne ay | qeecton|| 20875 a 10} | 13613 | 8-19 | 612,675 | 1307-0 Ransome and Sims | 17647 6 10 7 e Foe LZ ‘ ‘ ~ ae idee ie e iy 15x10} | 459 Le st 1234°4 | 7-08 | 544,370 | 1185-2 | r ' In these trials the ploughs were drawn by four horses, but when the Dynamometer was applied six horses were used, in order that the team might be fully up to their work ; the four horses had plenty to do, but the six did . their work easily. Swing Blech Of the two implements selected for this trial only one started, Messrs. M‘Gregor and Co.’s (2934), price 61. 7s. 6d. As this plough made good work, and appeared to bea strong, useful implement, we considered it deserving of the prize. Our award was as follows :— £ To Messrs. Ransome and Sims, for Wheel Plough (1764) .. 7 M‘Gregor and Co., for Swing Plough (2 9384) ope uit We highly commend Messrs. Howard for Wheel Plough (1619). Balls, for Wheel Plough (2384). We commend M! Gregor and Co., for Wheel Plou: alt (2983), Report on the Newcastle Show-yard. 421 Before leaving this part of our subject, we would direct attention to the Wheel fittings and fastenings of Messrs. Seaman and Co., in which are com- bined, strength, simplicity of construction, and saving of friction. The straight axle used by Messrs. Ransome and Sims is also strong and simple. ‘The result of these trials convinces us, and, we believe, the public also, that either in deep ploughing, or when the land is hard and baked, as it was at Long Benton, Wheel Ploughs are greatly superior to Swing Ploughs. Cuass 1V.—Suxrsom PLovenus. There were six entries in this class. After a careful trial we decided that Mr. Bentall’s implement (306), price 47. 4s., was the most efficient, breaking up the subsoil thoroughly ; and, consequently, the prize of 102. was awarded to him. We also commended the plough exhibited by Messrs, Ransome and Sims (1786), as coming nearest to it in efficiency. Ciass V.—Parixe Piovens. - There were four entries ; the prize of 107. was awarded to Messrs. Hunt and Pickering, for article (1669), price 57. 10s. No premium was offered by the Society for diggers, but we believe that a really efficient implement of this kind, capable of effecting, by horse power, work similar to that known as ‘* Smash- ing” by steam, would prove a boon to small occupiers. We tried five imple- ments. Of these we highly commend Cotgreave’s Subsoil Fen-land and French Plough (1785), price 107. 10s., as a most efficient implement, which tills and pulverizes the soil at one operation, and is highly valuable for a certain class of soils. We also commend Ransome and Sims’s Solid Beam Iron Plough, V.R. (1772), price 5/., as, in some measure, coming up to our idea of a digger. In connexion with this kind of work we must notice Messrs. Llancoch’s Pulverizer Plough,(2456), price 67. 10s., to which we awarded a silvermedal. We saw this implement at work more than once; although it was not exhibited in this class. Messrs. Hancock’s idea is to produce a seed-bed at one operation; this they effect by attaching to their frame three separate cutting shares, each fur- nished with a short mould-board, the front share entering the soil, say 2 inches, the second four, and the third 6 inches, or in this proportion up to whatever depth the implement is set. It will be readily understood that the soil thus broken up as it were by degrees is rendered very fine and light, and the work performed was excellent. We regret that the draught of this implement was not compared with that of the ordinary plough working at the same depth. With slight modifications, the strengthening of some parts of the imple- ment, and the use of malleable iron shares, we believe that Messrs. Hancock will have produced an efficient ‘‘ Smasher,” which will prove valuable to those who cannot attain to steam cultivation. We also saw at work, and highly commended Mr. J. G. Harrison’s double Mould-board or ridging Plough (3646). This implement was fitted with an improved share, to be used in ridging up stubble on strong land. We also had our attention called toa com- bined Plough-Harrow and Drill, invented by Mr. L. L. Sovereign, of Canada (2421), price 25/,, in which there are several points of interest and ingenuity. On light land, where a seed-bed is easily made, this may prove a useful implement. In conclusion, we beg to tender our thanks to the stewards and their assistants (not forgetting Mr. Gibson, our field foreman, who was most attentive and active in the performance of his duties) for their attention to all our requirements, and especially for the manner in which horses were provided for the various trials, by which our work was essentially forwarded. Signed Thomas P, OUTHWAITE. Epwarp WortLEY. Tuomas P. Dons. Newcastle-on-Tyne, July 22, 1864. ° 422 Report on the Newcastle Show-yard. Report of the Trial of Cultivators, Clod Crushers,' Plain Rollers, and Harrows. We selected for trial 22 cultivators, 8 clod crushers, -17 rollers, and 41 sets of harrows, in all 88 implements ; each of these had to be conveyed a distance of four miles to the trial-ground, where many of them were tried in two and several in three different fields. The time thus allowed for testing the merits of each implement was consequently very limited. ‘he trials may thus have appeared less satisfactory than if more time could have been allowed the exhibitors to adjust and work their respective implements. Speaking generally of the implements which came under our notice, we feel that great praise is due to the exhibitors for the great improvements which haye been accomplished in their manufacture, particularly in the quality of the materials used, and the hardening the points, &c., most exposed to wear and tear. Although many of the attempts at novelty of construction may not have been so successful as could have been desired,’ the exhibitors show a commendable spirit in endeavouring to give practical effect to any new conception or suggestion. The first trials coming under our consideration were the CULTIVATORS. Out of the 22 selected, 18 were tried with broadshares on a piece of foul land rendered very hard by the dry weather. Under this severe trial many of them made very fair work. These were again tried with points, along with the remaining 9, working as grubbers or scarifiers on a piece of clean fallow. Here they nearly all worked well. The construction of these implements was very varied, no two of them being alike, so likewise was the force required to work them, which ranged from 1 to 6 horse-power. This made it a difficult task to decide on their merits; but considering that a plain, strong, simple, and well-manufactured implement was the “ desideratum,”’ we awarded a prize of 127. to Mr. Bentall, 10/. to Messrs. Coleman and Morton, and 87. to Mr. Charles Clay. We also highly commended Messrs, Coleman and Morton’s cultivator for large occupiers ; and commended Messrs. Corbett and Sons’ implement. CLop CRUSHERS. Hight were selected for trial in this class, being worked on a piece of rough fallow well suited for the purpose. Several of them made excellent work, and after testing the draught of four of the best of them by the dynamometer, we awarded a prize of 9/. to the Beverley Iron and Waggon Company, 6/. to Messrs. Crosskill and Sons, and 5/. to Mr. Cambridge; we also highly com- mended Messrs. Amies and Barford’s implement. ROLLERS. There were 17 selected for competition, most of which showed great im- provement in their construction, from the judicious substitution of wrought for cast iron both in the cylinders and frames; and also from their being made up of segments instead of one whole cylinder, a change which enables them to turn more easily, and to work much more effectually where the surface is un- even. Improvements were also made in the mode of fixing the bearings, so that they could be removed without the necessity of taking the frames to pieces. We considered the Ballasting Rollers, exhibited by Messrs. Amies and Barford, very superior. They were entirely of wrought iron, and were composed of 2 water-tight cylinders which can be loaded at pleasure—thus securing a light. - and heavy roller in one implement. Our instructions only allowed us 10/. in this class, which we apportioned by awarding a prize of 77. to Messrs. Amies_ and Barford, and 382. to the Beverley Iron and Waggon Company. We also Report on the Newcastle Show-yard. 423 highly commended the Roller No. 1986, exhibited by Messrs. Amies and Barford ; and commended those exhibited by Messrs. Crosskill and Sons, Hill and Smith, and Hunt and Pickering. Harrows. There were 41 sets selected for competition, comprising all sorts of harrows for light and heavy land. ‘This class of implement is, perhaps, more remarkable for varieties in construction than any other ; besides the well-recognised zigzag harrow, they came before us under the different appellations of Combined Harrow and Scarifier, Lever, Scuffling, Rotating, Jointed, Chisel-toothed, Duck- footed, Excelsior, Flexible, Chain, Extirpator, &c. The first trial took place on a piece of very foul land that had been broken up by the cultivators with the broadshares, and was so severe a test that very few of them could get through their task without choking. The next trial was on a piece of clean fallow “which had been ploughed a few days previously. Here they all, whether designed for light or heavy land, made such good work that we found it necessary ‘to select a few of the implements for a third trial on a piece of clover-ley which had been ploughed by steam. ‘This answered the purpose admirably. The large number and the great variety of these im- plements render it impossible fully to discuss in detail, in this Report, the merits of their different modes of construction ; several among them, although not mentioned in our awards, are well deserving of notice, and would prove very useful on suitable land. It being our duty to consider what implements were best adapted to the country at large, we awarded three prizes of 8I., 71., and 5/. to Messrs. J. and I’, Howard for their three sizes of harrows. We highly commended’ the jointed harrows exhibited by Messrs. Ransome and Sims, also the flexible or chain harrow exhibited by Messrs, J. and F. Howard, and the chain-harrow exhibited by Mr. Cambridge. SCHEDULE or AWARDS. Number of Imple- z Price of het roe a ea ee Implements. Exhibitor’s Name, Amount of Prizes. — & & d. &. Cultivators, 308 7 7 O | Mr, Edward H.Bental. . . . ale 22. 590 710 0 | Messrs. Coleman and Morton . . 10 359 11 11 0 | Mr. Charles Clay. . Fis 8 504 13 10 0 | Messrs. Coleman and Morton . . Highly Commended. 3989 910 0 | Messrs.Samuel Corbett and Son . Commended, Oct 1404 1810 0 bre rita Tron and Waggon 9 376 | 1810 0 | Messrs, ‘Willm: Crossicill and Sons - 6 1493 15 0 O | Mr. William C. Cambridge. . . 5 1981 18 10 0 | Messrs. Amies and Barford . . . | Highly Commended. Rollers, 1983 18 10 © | Messrs. Amies and Barford. . » Zi 17. 1405 1510 0 cues Iron and Waggon: 3 1986 14 0 0 | Messrs. Amiesand Barford | | ; Highly Commended. 278 11 11 O | Messrs. Willm. Crosskill and Sons ‘ Commended. 643 10 10 0 | Messrs. Hilland Smith . . Ditto. 1674 10 10 © | Messrs, Hunt and Bickering . . Ditto, Harrows, 1647 4 0 0 | Messrs. Jas. and Fredk. Howard . 8 41. 1649 6 6 0 Ditto Ditto : 7 noe 3 12 mn Ditto Ditto ‘ 5 795 Vitae a essrs. Ransome and Sims. . . | Highly Commended. 1652 4 0 0 | Messrs. Jas. and Fredk. Howard . ‘ Dito, 1498 5 0 0 | Mr. William C. Cambridge. . . Ditto. ee ere nee A ee Sie . JOHN THOMPSON. : Joun HickEn. 424 Report on the Newcastle Show-yard. Report on Miscellaneous Implements and Brick and Tile Machines. New- castle, 1864. Tne principal Implement-makers were well represented at this Meeting. 'The entries were not, however, so numerous as at Worcester, and it did not appear to us that there were many new Implements deserving of special remark ; but we observed throughout the show, in various departments, many signs of progress and improvement in mechanical details. Out of 207 exhibitors, we found that Newcastle and neighbourhood, with the country to the north and west of it, included the names of 32 only. Of these, Newcastle sent 5; Northumberland, 8 ; Berwickshire, 2; Edinburgh and Kelso, 1; Glasgow, 1 ; Carlisle, 6; Ayrshire, 2 ; Aberdeenshire, 2; Stirling, 2; and Penrith, 3. The Excelsior Grain Separator (No. 3 size), 1070, invented by A. B. Childs, and manufactured by Riches and Watts, is a very effective machine, com- bining the action of blast, riddles, and exhaust. The price is high, 40/., but its great utility more than compensates for this. Having subjected the machine to the dynamometer test, we found the power consumed moderate, and accordingly awarded Mr. Childs a Silver Medal for this valuable machine. The American Grist Mill (1065), price 267. 10s., invented by Amory Felton, of Troy (U.S.A.), and exhibited by Riches and Watts, is in our opinion the best metal mill that has yet been brought before the public. It consists of a chilled cast-iron fluted cone, working within a cylinder of the same material and shape. he arrangements for feeding the mill appear to be good. ‘The working parts when worn out are renewable at a trifling expense. Having thoroughly tested this machine with the dynamometer, and made various experiments, we had much satisfaction in awarding it a Silver Medal. Amies and Barford exhibited a fan attached to a chaffeutter, by which the cut chaff is driven through a spout in any required direction. The arrange- ments include the boxing up of all the working parts, which are thus preserved from dust, whilst accidents to the workmen are guarded against; to this invention we gave a High Commendation, believing that in many situations it may prove very useful. : In the class of Reaping and Mowing Machines there were many improve- ments in details, and we are led to infer that the next trial of these machines under the auspices of the Society will be attended with more than ordinary interest. To Messrs. Burgess and Key, we awarded a Stlver Medal for their set of draining tools, which were well made and useful. Brick MAcHINEs. The competitors in this class were Messrs. Whitehead, Pinfold, Sharp and Bulmer. ‘The following table gives the results of the trials :— Horse-power Quantity of Manu-} Quantity of Manu- Name. Number in| Price of | required to | factured Clay factured Clay Catalogue. | Machine. Drive expressed expressed per each Machine. jper Minute in Ibs.| Horse-power in lbs. £. Whitehead. . . . 305 39 7 542°166 ~ T7452 Pinfold). es ever m ienteg0r 165 i (2 O2ae Sharp and Bulmer. 3900 60 Machine badly managed, and trial discontinued. It will be seen that of the two machines tried, Pinfold’s expressed rather more clay m proportion to the power consumed than Whitehead’s. ‘The bricks produced were neither so good nor well finished; and looking at the great difference in the price of the two machines, wé felt justified in awarding the Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. 425 first prize of 107; to Mr. Whitehead; Mr. Pinfold received the second prize of 51. Trnrm MACHINES. Only two machines were exhibited, one by Mr. Page, and the other by Mr, Whitehead. ‘The former not being fitted with a pulley, according to the published yequirements of the Society, could not be tested, and we must leave the public to draw their own conclusions. We gave Whitehead’s machine a severe trial with very inferior clay, its work was satisfactory, and we awarded it the prize of 5/7, ; Ist Experiment. Wei | Total ue of Number in| Price of eight of Time in | Units of eh Name, ~. | Catalogue.} Machine. | g Clay Fuel. Screening.| power to Ser oe - Screened. ea verded 100 lbs. =P ‘| of Clay. 23h ewts. qrs. Ibs. /cwts, qrs- 1bs.! minutes. Whitehead . 295 21 05/0) | o 20L1G 20 69°425 10°583 2nd Experiment. Weight of Number |TotalUnits! or Power | of Lile Name. Clay Time. of Tiles, | of Power for 100 ft. | made per Screened, 13+ in.long.| expended. of Tiles. | Minute. 4 ewts. qrs. bs.) Min, sec. feet. Whitehead 5 312) 18 30 174 55°315 28°957 10°52 W. ‘TrNpatLu. GiLson Martin. XXIV.— Report to the Council on the Cattle Exhibited at Newcastle. . By J. Dent Dent, M.P. For.many years'the Royal Agricultural Society confined its prizes for cattle to Shorthorns, Herefords, and Devons, and placed all other established breeds together in one class. At various meetings local committees offered special prizes for breeds not distinguished by the Society, and in 1862, at the Battersea show, the Society itself extended its list of premiums to most of the established breeds of England and Wales. Last year at Wor- cester the Sussex cattle were thus distinguished ; and this year’s prize list included special classes for Sussex, Channel Islands, Scotch Horned, Polled, and Ayrshire cattle, in addition to the class for other established breeds. It seems to me to be one of the first duties of the Society, not merely to encourage our standard breeds of cattle, but in each locality which it visits, to offer prizes that may bring out the very best specimens of the races which are found most suitable to the district ; and a little care in the arrangement of the prize-list will enable us to do this without much additional * 426 Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. expense, or the risk of a show of inferior animals. In the present case, the Scotch classes were inadequately filled, as far as numbers go; and this may be partly attributed to the fact, that our prize-list was not advertised in the Scotch papers. I would advise that for the future the prizes which are to be given for local breeds should be made known more generally in the district, and that paying more regard to locality, we avoid giving such prizes, as for Sussex cattle in the north, or for Galloways in the south. But while we have been doing our utmost to increase the supply of beef, by developing the meat-producing qualities of animals, I think we have been neglecting very much their milk- ing properties. No doubt the price of beef has been steadily advancing, but so have the prices of butter and of milk. Ireland used to be a great source of supply of butter to our markets ; but in that country, since 1859, the milch cows have been diminished by 295,996, and we are scarcely yet sensible of the full effect of the diminution of live stock which has there taken place; * and in all probability the prices will rise still higher than at present. This falling off in our supplies of production is already telling on the prices of foreign butter as well as meat. The butter which in 1854 was only valued by the Customs at 4J. 5s. per cwt., has, during the last two or three years, been at 4/. 15s., and this, too, during the period of Lancashire distress, when a large proportion of our best-consuming population was out of work ; and the quantity imported, which was 425,663 cwt. in 1859, i in 1863 was 986,708,f while, from the etied preference given to fresh over salted butter, we may safely infer a yet greater rise in the value of the produce of our home dairies ; and, indeed, I find that the produce of my own dairy, which is bought for the Leeds market, averaged in 1852, 5/. 12s. ; in 1862, 67. 1s. 4d.; and in 1863, 62. 10s. 8d. per cwt. It may be no easy matter for the Society to offer prizes which shall encourage the milking properties of cattle, but I think that both breeders and judges have too much lost. sight of this quality in their desire to produce the utmost symmetry of form with early maturity. The following quotation from a speech, * This diminution is in no way counterbalanced by the imports of foreign stock into the United Kingdom, because while Irish stock since 1859 has been lessened by 677,323, our importations from abroad haye only amounted in the same year to 546,127 head, of which one-third were calves sold for veal. The greater part of the Irish stock has come into our graziers’ hands, and for the time has tended to keep down the price of lean cattle, but now that the number of reproductive ani- mals in Ireland is so seriously diminished, our supplies both of grazing beasts and. of butter must decline. t The value of the oxen imported has risen in the same time from 147. 10s. to nearly 17/. each, Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. 427 made by Mr. Riley in Cheshire, tends to show the opinion which dairy farmers entertain of high-bred stock :— “ Asa feeder of beef, he did not mind how nearly the cattle he purchased were related to ‘ Royal Dukes’ and ‘ Duchesses,’ or even to ‘ Royal Butterflies ;? the nearer the better, the first cost being equal; but if he wanted milk and cheese, he would rather have his stock related to the short-legged, roomy- bodied, and rather thick-horned Cheshire cows of 1800, to the Ayrshire, or even the Welsh cow, and would prefer their being matched to the son of his neighbour’s best milking cow than to a bull of Bates’s or of Booth’s.” We may, indeed, go further, and ask how many of our high- bred cows can rear their own calves, Beautiful as were the classes of female shorthorns at Newcastle, there was not one amongst them that we could expect to fill a pail with milk. And yet if we turn to the early history of their race, we find Mr. Bates describing one of his early cows as yielding for some months, on grass alone, butter and milk to the value of 2/. 2s. per week; and of others he speaks as having the same property to a less extent. Mr. Carr, the enthusiastic historian of the Warlaby and Killerby herds, says of one of the cows, “Satin,” that she was “all a dairyman could desire ; but she was never fit to make up for show.” And of another, “Caroline ;” ‘She was a pro- digious milker, and her daughter shows what she might have been but for her accident, and her excessive addiction to milk.” Plhirases like these make us almost fear that the Shorthorn breeder may look upon milking properties as a defect. But another ardent admirer of the Booth shorthorns, Mr. Storer, of Helliden, in a letter written and published whilst I was penning these remarks, says :— “If my letter should direct the attention of Shorthorn breeders to the desirableness of doing their best to retain those milking qualities in their cattle, for which (as well as for the tendency to produce flesh) the breed has long been celebrated, I shall be satisfied.’’ I cannot therefore but think, that if our great breeders had applied their energy and skill to improving the families in which these good qualities were united, we might have had Shorthorns, not perhaps so perfect in symmetry, but of a more useful character, capable of producing plenty of milk and butter, and likewise of breeding calves—which would, in due time, fill the feeder’s stall to his satisfaction. In the north we expected a good show of shorthorns, and were not disappointed. The whole of the classes were well filled, and in male animals the show was decidedly superior to many that have gone before it. Twenty-five aged bulls were brought into the ring for the first prize. Mr. Wiley, one of the judges, describes them ‘“‘as a level, good class, of great size and substance, though not containing many animals of extraordinary 428 Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. merit.” Mr, Parkinson says: ‘‘ Every one must admit that the shorthorns were very well represented. With regard to the aged bulls, although they might be called a good class, particularly upon first sight, and probably, taken as a class, equal to former shows, still I think they were very inferior to the cows and heifers. The prize bull, No. 6, although a very fine animal of great substance and quality, with good hair and good ‘looks, wanted the style and length of quarters so requisite for a first- class Shorthorn. We all thought him much superior to any of the rest, but very much inferior to others that have taken the same prize upon other occasions.” I think the public had rather a higher opinion of them, and considered this as a remarkably even class of good animals. There was more difference in the two-year-old bulls, who were not, with one or two exceptions, of the highest stamp. The yearlings made up a very large class, on which it was not easy to decide, and the ultimate decis: on gave rise to some criticism. Mr. Parlencon writes of them: ‘In Class 3 we had great diffi- culty in making our award. I now think if we made a mistake, it was in not rejecting 51, and placing No. 46 the third.” Mr, Wiley merely remarks, it was a fair, good class. I think that in this and the next class, although there were not many animals of the highest style of excellence, some very good useful animals were shown, many of which were sold at satisfactory prices. The judges and the public generally considered all the female classes good. Of the cows, Mr. Parkinson writes: “The class of cows was very good. I do not think there could be a doubt as to the prize cow being quite deserving her high station. And in giving the other prizes in that class, we showed that the high fed ones did not, of necessity, obtain prizes.” This class was generally commended ; and, in spite of some extravagance of feeding in all the animals, presented a very fine show of robust Shorthorns. The two judges who communi- cated with me, speak highly of the heifer classes, in which some of the high-priced animals of the Townley herd had to yield the pride of place; and as a proof of the general excellence of the show, Mr. Parkinson says :—‘I have little to add of the heifer classes, except that they promise well to keep up the character of the show in future years. I may also say that I never saw so few inferior animals in a show-yard.” The Shorthorns came from all parts of the united kingdom, and many of the old breeders found it no easy matter to main- tain their position against new rivals. The Scotch sent twenty- seven animals, and were most successful, carrying off the first and second prizes in the aged bull class, the first in the two-year old, and the second in the yearling bull classes. In the cows, Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. 429 the second prize and reserve number; in two-year-old heifers the first prize, in yearlings the second, and in calves the third prizes, besides several commendations, were taken across the border. The districts of Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland furnished fifty-one animals to the show-yard, and carried off the first prize for cows, the third for bull calves, and the second for two-year-old heifers. Before leaving the Shorthorn classes, I will venture to make one or two remarks on the present system of judging, and the criticisms which were addressed to me as steward of cattle. One suggestion made is, that the society should provide me& to lead the cattle into the ring, in order to avoid the supposed partiality of judges towards the stock of particular breeders, whose herdsmen are known to them. But apart from the difficulty of finding «proper persons in sufficient numbers to lead the cattle, I believe that many, if not most of our judges, know the animals themselves, certainly the older ones, just as well as racing men know the horses that are about to start for a race. For my own part, I would place a complete catalogue of the stock in the judges’ hands, and trust to their sense of honour and impartiality, rather than keep our present position of supposed ignorance, which is no safeguard, but rather a screen for favouritism or incompetency. Another ‘suggestion was made that we should increase the number of judges to five, but those who saw the judging of the horses at the Agricultural Hall by a jury of five will not readily forget the tedious process, which produced results quite as much open to criticism as the judging in our own show-yard. I feel sure that three competent men are better than more. Whilst upon this point I would urge all breeders of stock and members of the society generally, to send to the Council a good list of names of men whom they con- sider qualified to act as judges. The names suggested are so few, and there is so much ridiculous jealousy, that from an experience of three years I can safely say the Council has no, more difficult task than the selection of judges. Surely those who neglect to send in names of competent and disinterested men are as much to blame for the difficulties which arise as the Council and those who work hard in its service. We could not expect a numerically strong entry of either Herefords or Devons, but we had amongst those sent some very superior animals, especially in the female classes of Devons. A Hereford herdsman called my attention to one of the prize cows, which was suckling her own calf, and challenged me to bring a Shorthorn one that would do the same. In the Here- ford cow and heifer classes the fault of over feeding prevails, if anything, to a worse degree than amongst the Shorthorns. VOL. XXV. 2H 430 Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle, Mr. Keary has sent me the following report :— HEREFORDS, In the Orp Butt Crass (1X.) of HerErorps, there were several good ones, besides the prize animals, It might be called a small but good class. In the Second Class (X.), only three were exhibited, two of which were good ones, The Third Class (X1.) was not a good class. The next Class (XII.) was a bad class. The Cow Crass (XIII.) was small. The first and second prize animals were very good, and there were some other good cows. In Class XIV. (Hetrers) there were three very good animals, including the firstyand second prizes. , Crass XV, (Yeartine Herrers).—The prize animals were good. Cuass XVI. (Herrer Catves) contained 3 pretty good ones. On the whole the exhibition of Herefords was a very creditable one. The number in each class were small, but there were many very good animals, and but few below mediocrity. . Devoxs. Cxiass XVII.—Bulls above 8 yrs. and not exceeding 6 yrs. old. Only two exhibited. The first prize bull (219), belonging to Mr. Walter Farthing, of Stowey Court, Bridgewater, is a very remarkable animal, and had certainly the largest amount of flesh upon short legs of any bull in the yard ; although he is apparently much too fat and heavy for a bull, we were assured by his owner, after the award was made, that he is a regular and sure stock- getter. This bull was exhibited as a calf at Leeds, where he won, and he has won first and second prizes at every meeting since. The second prize bull (218) was not in any way remarkable, Devons. Crass XVIII.—Bulls above 2 and not exceeding 3 yrs. old, The first prize bull (228), belonging to John A. Smith of Bradford Peverill, Dorchester, of extremely good quality of flesh, and altogether a nice animal ; but his head is rather effeminate, and the masculine character not sufficiently developed. The second prize, No. 222 (General Hood), is in some respects superior to the first prize, but inferior in quality, and not let down enough in his fore- quarters, Only 3 animals were exhibited in this class, and the third, 224 (Mr. Walter Farthing), was considered worthy of commendation, and is no doubt an im- proving young bull. 4 Devons. Crass XIX.—Bulls above 1 and not exceeding 2 yrs. old. ‘ First prize, No. 226 (Walter Farthing), a very useful and improving young ull. The second, No. 225 (the same owner), below mediocrity, Altogether this must be considered a bad class. Drvoys. Crass XX.—Bull Calves above 6 months old. Only one calf (No. 231) exhibited, and the quality of his flesh was so extremely bad that we hesitated some time before awarding the prize. Devons. Crass XXI.—Cows above 3 yrs. old. First prize, No. 284 (John A. Smith of Bradford Peverill, Dorchester), 4 very beautiful cow, and decidedly the best in her class. ; Second prize, No. 287 (Walter Farthing), a very good old cow, having worn remarkably well, and carrying a great deal of good flesh on all her points. On the whole a very good class, Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. 431 Devons. Crass XXII.—Heifers in Milk or in Calf. First prize, No. 244 (Walter Farthing), not a first-class animal. Second prize, No. 242 (Charles Hambro, of Milton Abbey, Blandford Dorset). A small poor class, and very inferior to those of former years. Devons. Crass XXIII.—Yearline Heifers. First prize, No. 246 (General Hood), a remarkably good heifer ; perhaps the best Devon exhibited, and certainly one of the best heifers in the yard, Second prize, No. 249 (George Turner), rather a nice heifer, but overgrown rumps for her age. One or two more nice heifers exhibited here, and altogether a nice class. Devons. Crass XXIV.—Heifer Calves, above 6 months. One only was exhibited, No. 251 (Walter Farthing) ; a good calf. To sum up. The Devons were smaller in numbers, and, excepting a few good animals, the Show must be considered inferior to that at Worcester, and a sad falling off from Battersea. This may be accounted for perhaps by the great distance of Newcastle from the counties where Devons are chiefly bred. None of the true North Devon men, as the Quartleys or Daveys, exhibited. Sussex CarTLe, These cattle were small in number, and very inferior in quality, &c., to the Battersea Exhibition, where they cut a very good figure. The distance from home may account for the small number shown, but does not explain their great inferiority, as one would have thought that the best would be sent, and the bad ones kept at home. H, W. Kerary. Bridgnorth, 26th July. Mr. Keary’s remarks on the Sussex cattle confirm me in my opinion that it is unwise so far from home to offer prizes for any breed of cattle which have no particular merit to recommend them for adoption in other than their own locality. If the other breeds were over-fed, Sussex, at all events, were exhibited in a thoroughly natural state. The Channel Islands cattle mustered strong, when we consider the distance they had to come, and there was an excellent show of the useful red Suffolks, who deserve a better place than a class made up of themselves and the nondescript Breton race. Although the Scotchmen failed in number in their own especial classes, Mr. McCombie may fairly boast of having shown in the Angus classes some of the best animals in the yard. In other races we in vain look for a cow who, when over thirteen, and having had a calf every year since she was two years old, can still, as his “Charlotte, No. 319,” face the ordeal of a show- yard with success. Mr. Fullarton may well describe her and her daughter, as ‘’F' wo uncommonly fine animals, the young cow being of the most complete symmetry ;” while he says of the entries generally, ‘ As a whole we consider the lots shown of this breed to be of great merit, more especially the bulls, cows, and yearling heifers, No 324, Mr. McCombie’s yearling being a most 2H 2 432 Report to the Council on the Cattle exhibited at Newcastle. perfect beast.” Beautiful as Mr. McCombie’s stock are, I should like to have seen some one else enter the lists against him, and show to Englishmen that there is more than one breeder.of such excellent stock. Of Ayrshire and Horned Scotch cattle the show was but in- different, though the judges, through Mr. Fullarton, report favour- ably of the Ayrshire cows and heifers, and also of the two West Highland cows belonging to the Duke of Athol. The local committee offered prizes for Galloways, which were successful in bringing forward some good animals of the breed, the judges calling the aged bulls “‘a very superior lot,” and also quoting the two prize cows “as excellent specimens of the breed.” * I feel how very imperfect are these remarks upon the different classes, but it has been my duty rather to look at the show generally than to make individual criticisms. The cattle were admirably delivered into the yard before the opening of the show, and removed on the Friday night without trouble or confusion. When I left Newcastle on Saturday morning, at 8.30 a.m., the traffic superintendent of the North Eastern railway informed me that all the stock had been sent off during Friday night, except those whose owners wished them to remain. When I remember the confusion of Worcester, I think it only fair to place on . record the superior management of the railway authorities at Newcastle. The cattle were paraded each day in the rings, the beautiful show ground affording ample space for their display, and I believe that both to the owners of cattle and the public this parade gave unqualified satisfaction. It was carried out without any difficulty, because the herdsmen were willing and anxious to assist, and I should not do justice to them if I were not to acknowledge here their ready civility and constant attention to the wishes of myself and the other officers of the society with whom they were brought in contact. I may say the same of the yardmen employed by the society, and of our invaluable assistants, the members of the A division of police. It is very gratifying to me to report that the arrangements for fodder, and generally for the comfort of both animals and men gave general satisfaction, Although there are some trifling improvements in the shedding, which may easily be carried out at a future meeting, on the whole I feel justified in congratulating the society on a show of cattle, somewhat un- equal in its component parts perhaps, but still highly instructive and satisfactory. * Tn the cases in which I have received any written communications from the Judges, I have quoted their own words, as being preferable to any comments of my Owl. Report of the Stewards of Stoch at the Newcastle Show. 438 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. Horsss. This part of the Show fell 37 short in its numbers as com- pared with last year, and, in spite of the inducements which were held out to owners of Clydesdales, only 9 entries were sent from over the Border. The whole of the entries reached 164, which were distributed into 33 classes, with three silver medals and 835/. of prize money. ‘There was a very clean bill of health, as only 5—to wit, a thoroughbred sire, 2 hunters, and 2 dray- horses—were disqualified, 4 of them for roaring and the fifth for whistling. The hunters were saddled, and ridden in the very spacious horse-ring—a novelty which gave great satisfaction, We should, however, mention that the mode adopted in the Catalogue, of keeping the Society’s and the Local Committee’s classes separate, was productive of a good deal of confusion to the spectators and of difficulty to the acting Steward. For the future we beg to recommend that the Thoroughbreds, Hunters, Roadsters, Ponies, and Agricultural Horses should follow each other in that order both in the Catalogue and into the ring for whatever prize they may be entered. It might also be well, after the successful experiment of this year, for the Society to permanently embody in their programme the prize for Agricultural pairs, and to have a class for Three-Year Fillies and Geldings calcu- lated to make carriage-horses. The Pony Classes were very weak. The present standard, “not exceeding 14 hands,” just excludes many of the best, but the difficulty might be met by raising it half a hand, and establishing another class for those not exceeding 13. For the Thoroughbred Stud-Horse prize (Class LII.) there were only 10 entries, and “ Buccaneer” did not come, in conse- quence of his owner, Mr. James Cookson, accepting the office of Judge. Cumberland furnished the winner in “ Laughingstock,” whose owners, the Messrs. Moffatt, were second to “ Royal Ravenhill” for the Society’s prize with “ British Yeoman” at Carlisle, and won it with him the following year at Chelmsford, The winner, of whom one of the Judges says he is “as beautiful a horse asl ever saw, but not fully let down yet,” is closely allied in blood to “ Asteroid” and “The Marquis.” He is by “ Stock- well” from a “ Touchstone” mare, the dam of ‘‘ Gamester,” and both of these horses were bred by Sir Charles Monck, of Belsay Castle, in Northumberland. But for “ Gamester’s” lack of knee-action, it would have been a very near point between them ; but eventually the St. Leger winner was placed third, as 434 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. “‘Caractacus,” the Derby winner, had been, a few weeks before, at the Agricultural Hall. “Cavendish,” who was second to “ Neville” at Worcester, when the whole class was highly com- mended, occupied the same position again. ‘He is a horse of a very beautiful colour, but he seems to be growing Coarse.” “Sir Walter Scott” was disqualified; and the other five, ‘‘Carbineer,” “ Littlecote,” “ Layton,” ‘“ Lord Chesterfield,” and “¢ Schuloff,” received no mention from the Judges. The new rule that no horse should compete in the Hunter Sire, Class LIII., unless he be thoroughbred, effectually weeded out the motley lot which were entered for this prize at Worcester, while it excluded animals like ‘“ Ellcott” and “Safeguard,” the very excellent second and third of last year. Only two were entered, and the first prize was awarded to “quite a quality horse,” “ Motley ;” while the second was withheld for lack of merit from ‘ Royal Oak-Day.” Class LIV., for Hunter Brood-Mares, was “very ordinary.” The winner, Mr. Brown’s “Sally,” was ‘‘rather a nice, short- legged one” from Cumberland, and, like Mr. Charles Moffatt’s commended one, by ‘Galaor.” Mr. William Scarth’s mare ‘‘ Plucky ” was rising twenty, and still good for her years. As this prize, as well as that for Class LIII., was given by the Local Committee, “ Beechwood,” the winner of the first prize in the Hunter Class (CX XVIII.) at Worcester, was entered again,—an anomaly which might be worthy of consideration by the Council. However, his “action and quality were only ordinary,” and the first prize was unanimously awarded to Sir Frederick Graham’s chesnut gelding “‘ The Tyke,” “a rare galloper and mover alto- gether, but with less substance than ‘ Beechwood.’” Mr. Sutton’s highly commended “ Voyageur” was “light-fleshed and all muscle and wire, with hind-legs of especially beautiful quality,” and the Judges also liked ‘*Grapeshot.” In fact, “there were several good weight-carrying hunters, but some of them hardly up to a fast thing with foxhounds,” The Four Year-old Hunter, Class CX XIX., was headed by Mr, W. H. Clark’s “Sprig of Nobility,” by “Sprig of Shille- lagh,” “a rare four year-old, master of great weight, and with depth of rib like an aged horse.” The second prize was given to Messrs. Norman’s “ Radical,” “a horse of nice quality, but too short altogether,” and with the white hind-stockings which the “ British Yeomans” invariably exhibit whenever they fall chesnut. Mr. Pease’s ‘‘Silas Marner,” who was highly com- mended, ‘‘ had fair action, but was a little defective in his ribs.” The Three-Year Old Hunter, Class CX XX., brought out “a moderate lot.” he first prize was given to Mr. Boyd’s chesnut gelding, by “ Auchinleck ;” and the second to Mr, R, W, Hodg- Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. 435 son’s bay filly, by “ Neville,” and “a good goer.” One of the Judges thus reviews the classes in detail :— “ As regards our particular classes, I can only say that as the object was to select a stallion best suited to improve generally the breed of horses, we were more likely to succeed in giving the prize to ‘Laughingstock,’ of ‘ Bird- catcher’ type and blood, than to any other in the class. ‘l'o get race-horses, I should certainly have selected ‘Cavendish, not that I quite approve of him even for this purpose: but if put to well-ribbed-up mares he may be suc- cessful. “Thoroughbred mares from their frequent want of bone and general power may be met by a horse often without much quality ; but the mares sent by farmers to a thoroughbred are, nine times out of ten, so lumbering and defi- cient in quality, that much of it is absolutely a sine quad non in a travelling thoroughbred sire. Shoulders there must be, as in this point country mares are generally deficient, and as experience tells me that the external organisation is mostly from the horse, there is very little chance of breeding a clever horse for the road or field from a bad-shouldered stallion. In racing, shoulders may sometimes be dispensed with, as race-horses travel, so to speak, on even ground; but a hunter has to contend with all sorts of ground, and cannot extricate himself from difficulties with shoulders into his neck. The prize horse was good in this respect, and with a short back and undeniable trotting action he beat ‘Gamester’ who was much more my idea altogether of a horse to get hunters, but he could not either walk or trot. ‘ Laughingstock,’ like many of the ‘ Stockwells, had his hind-legs too much bent, which I think a ereat fault in a hunter-sire; but still, take him altogether, he was the best of the lot. Still the lot, with the exception of ‘ Gamester,’ if he had action, was, I am certain, a bad one. ““ Cavendish’ was too heavy and coaching in his neck, and wanted another back-rib to make him ¢ight enough to get hunters except out of remarkably short-backed mares. Besides this, I know every cross of big-headed ‘ Black- lock’ to be ucterly deficient in the necessary style and fashion for country purposes. I was therefore obliged to oppose ‘Cavendish.’ ‘ Voltaire, ‘ Charles XIL.,’ ‘ Brutandorf,’ ‘ Hetman Platoff, ‘Barnton,’ and ‘Fandango’ have all more or less had hunting mares put to them, and with few exceptions have signally failed. If ‘Motley’ had been shown for the £100 prize, he would have had a chance in such a year as this was, though he is not quite straight enough on his fore-legs, to beat a good one; still, in other respects, he has all the character of ‘Touchstone,’ with compactness enough to meet a country, and with good knee-action. “Among the Hunters I thought ‘ The Tyke’ as firm a horse as I ever saw, with undeniable hind-legs, and almost faultless in other respects ; and I had the satisfaction of hearing (after our judgment was given) from aman upon whom I can rely that he was a first-rate performer in the field, and clever up and down hill. “The winner in the Four-year-old class had very light action, and showed much blood for ¢ big horse ; but he was bigger than I liked, though our jude- ment has been confirmed at Middlesborough, where this class was superior to that of The Royal. “The Three-year-old winner was the only one of his class with the slightest pretensions to ever making a hunter. The mare that was second, though very ae as far as she went, did not look like getting to size enough for the ield. The Roacster Stallion, Class CXXXI., was only four strong, and three of these from Yorkshire. ‘ Venison” was “ quite out 436 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. of place” amongst them, and the highly commended ‘ Young Pretender” “had not so much quality as the winner,” “ Pre- sident Junior,” who has now taken about twenty prizes, nearly all of them fivets. One of the Judges writes thus :— “The winner is without doubt one of the best looking Roadsters ever seen, and ‘ Young Pretender’ nearly as good; but I beg respectfully to suggest to the Stewards whether it be desirable to encourage “this class of stallion. To my mind, this is the animal we want to breed, and not to breed from; as, un- less this class of horse is put to a thoroughbred mare (which we know seldom happens), he must beget something inferior to himself.” The Roadster Mares or Geldings, Class CXXXII., were ‘a fair average class, without containing anything very first rate.” The winner, Mr. Richard Foster’s “* Multum in Parvo,” an Ivish- bred one, ‘‘ was decidedly the best both in shape and action,” and Mr, Pease’s neat chesnut, ‘* Whitefoot,” was commended. There were only a couple in the Hackney Brood Mare Class LV., but neither of them so true a type of the sort as “ Crafty,” the winner of last year. One of the Judges observes :— “This prize was for mares in foal or with a foal at their foot ; and there were great doubts as to ‘The British Queen’ being in foal, while ‘ Fanny’ had a foal at her foot. On this account I consider that even if the winner had only been of equal merit with her opponent, instead of being superior in shape, she would have been entitled to the prize. Both mares were good average specimens of Hackneys.” There were only three Pony Stallions in Class LVL, and Mr. W. Norman’s chesnut, “ Jack,’ the reserved number at Worcester, took the first prize again to Cumberland, which fairly beat Yorkshire in the non-aextenitural classes. ‘“‘ Jack’ is of a rare stamp, with capital hock and general action, and shows considerably more breeding than the second prize pony, ‘ Glen- garry,’ which is also from Cumberland, but of the old hairy- heeled sort, strong and useful, but deficient in quality.” The third was quite unworthy of ie company, as he was simply “a vich cream, with bad shoulders and no action.” There were no grand Suffolk and Norfolk entries in the Mare Ponies (Class LVII.) this year. “The class was very moderate, and as one of the three, No. 409, was disqualified for being 2 inches above the 14 hands specified in the conditions, it only remained for us to decide between the two greys, No. 410 and No. 411, ‘Beauty’ and ‘My Lady,’ and our decision was in favour of ‘Beauty’ as having the best action. Both of them were the property of Mr. George Heppel Ramsay.” Class CXXXIIL, for Pony Geldings, had five entries, and of these two were not present, and ‘ Flora” was disqualified as being of the wrong sex. “The prize-taker, ‘Little Stag,’ a roan of 114 hands, was decidedly superior to his opponent in shape and action, while Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. 457 ‘Dick,’ a black of 87 inches, is a good specimen of a toy pony. ‘Little Stag’ went remarkably well.” The prize for Mountain Mare Ponies under 134 hands, in Class CX XXIV., was awarded to “a good-shaped, useful, flea-bitten grey, breeder and age unknown, with a good foal at her foot,” and nothing to op- pose her. The agricultural horse classes were a mere shadow és their former selv es, and contained comparatively few good specimens. Class LVI, for Agricultural Sires, was headed by two well known prize fiance s, Mr. Samuel Strickland’s ‘ Lincolnshire,” and Mr. Matthew Read’s “ England’s Glory ;” and the former gentleman was also at the head of the Class LIX., with his young sire, ‘ General Garibaldi.” In Class LX., for Agricultural Mares, Mr. J. B. Dixon’s “ Jolly,” a Northumberland mare, with a very good colt at her foot, was first, despite the weight of eighteen years, and Mr. 8. Thompson’s “‘ Diamond,” a five-year-old mare, and a good prize-winner, second. One Two- Year-Old Filly only was entered in Class LXI. There were only four entries for the 110/. devoted to “ Drays ” in Classes LXII.-LXV. In fact, in two of these classes, there was nothing even to claim the second prize, in a third it was withheld: and that for Two-Year-Old Fillies was a blank for the second time in succession. It seems quite a matter for con- sideration whether these classes should be continued, as they appear to answer no purpose, and under the present regulations there may be a distinction, but certainly no difference, between Dray and Agricultural Horses, The same animal is often ranked in two successive years under these two different heads. Class CXXXYV., for Agricultural Pairs, produced one of the nicest spectacles of the meeting, as the eight pairs were led round the ring. Mr. C. M. Palmer’s very cleanly-looking grey and bay seven-year-olds, “ Dick” and “Sharper,” took the head prize. A very g eho pair of bay Clydesdale Mares, belonging to the Duke of gaiilton: were placed next to om, and Mr. AV H. Hunt’s bay and black were commended. The head and only prize for a Clydesdale Stallion, Class LX X., was awarded to Mr. A. Grierson’s ‘‘ Benicia Boy,” who won the 25/. last year as the best Clydesdale sire in the Galloway district, and was a capital specimen of this great Scottish breed. “Sir Walter Scott,” the first prize winner at Battersea, and quite one of the lions of that show, was disqualified by Professor Varnell for roaring. His son, “ Young Sir Walter Scott,” a colt of no remarkable promise, won in the younger stallion Class. None of Mr. Crisp’s Suffolk entries arrived, and as they formed five out of the sixteen, which is five less than last year, the show of the “cherry reds” sank into very small dimensions. There were 438 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. other absentees as well as Mr. Crisp, and in the Two-YVear- Old Filiy Class (LXITX.), which produced such a wondrous baker’s dozen at Battersea, neither of the two entered were forthcoming. In short, the sixteen entries on paper dwindled down to six—four stallions, two in each class, and two brood mares.. Mr. E. Collingham’s four-year-old stallion, “Talbot,” was a compact, good sample of the breed, on sound, short legs. Sir Thomas B. Lennard’s “ Canterbury Mare” was a very grand mare; and Sir Edward Kerrison, who won this prize last year with “ Bragg,” now took the second prize with “ Lady Jane.” One of the Judges reports as follows :— “Class LVIII. for aged horses was the most numerously represented, but not better than all the classes ought to have been, with such liberal prizes offered. There was no difficulty in placing them. The first prize went to a fine animal, with much substance and good action; and the second to a short- legced, compact, and very active horse. The accident which happened some time ago to the latter’s off fore-foot did not make any difference in his style. No. 418, ‘ Blooming Heather,’ was neat and well proportioned, but not very large. “Class CCLIX., for two year-olds, needs but little comment, as it had only four entries. We hope they will improve as they grow older. “Class LX. contained some very good mares. ‘The first prize was awarded to a particularly fine mare, 18 years of age, but not looking nearly so old. We cannot help thinking that her stock have done show-yards some service. The second prize mare ran her hard, being a very clean-legged, good shaped, and strong animal, but not showing out to advantage. A very fine mare was shown without a foal. This being a class for mares and foals, she could not take a prize, though well deserving of it, and we hope to see her and her progeny at some future day. “ Classes LXII.-LXYV., for drays, contained only four entries, and leave more room for regret at the little support the dray classes received than for comment on the merits of the animals, but I would not omit to mention the beautiful foal with the grey mare, No. 437. “Class CXXXV., for pairs of mares or geldings. Amongst this local class, were many very good animals, which commanded much of the public attention, and, if such were bred in the neighbourhood, the classes for both sires and dams ought to have been better filled, more especially as we noticed the good style of horse generally used about Newcastle. Had there been three prizes instead of one, they would have fallen to highly deserving animals. The owner of the two mares, No. 527, ‘Sally’ and ‘ Maggie,’ may well feel proud of them. “ Classes CXXXVI. and CXXXVIL, for three year-old agricultural geldings or fillies and two year-old geldings. Only four out of the six entries put in an appearance, and these call for no particular notice; but the yearlings in Class LXXXVIII. had amongst them some very promising aspirants to fame. The first prize-taker was a very superior colt ; the second, somewhat hunter fashion, but with plenty of strength, and no doubt will thicken into a first-class plough- horse. Of those not in the prize-list, No. 548, a Suffolk, deserves mention, and will most likely be heard of another day.” Another of the Judges writes :— “Taking them altogether I never saw the agricultural horses so moderate, in short, not a first-class animal among them, though there were several good ones. In Class LVIII., for stallions, the first prize horse was a good one, clean and active ; the second satisfactory ; and the third ditto, ‘This was the best class Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. 439 that came under my notice. I really do not think the other classes worth remarking upon, except the local class for mares and geldings, which, taking them altogether, I considered good. I cannot understand why the numbers were so short in most classes, as the arrangements were first-rate, and every facility was afforded for selecting the best without any trouble, So much space is a very great advantage to the Judges.” It was very evident that the exhibition of horses, taken alto- gether, was not so good as it ought to have been, and not nearly equal to many of the local shows in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire —not to mention the Agricultural Hall, where 40 thoroughbred stallions, many of them very superior, 60 hunters, 20 hacks, and a great number of ponies were shown. With few exceptions this has always been the weak point in our meeting, and there must be some cause; perhaps we may profit by experience, and make improvements before the next show at Plymouth, No doubt if we wish for a good exhibition we should afford every facility to exhibitors and impose as few restrictions as possible. The charge of 2/. for each horse-box is very objectionable, and has a material effect in diminishing the numbers, It is no answer to say that the horses would cost more in the town, or that formerly we did not provide boxes. It is not to be expected that any one will send a horse from a warm stable to be placed in an open shed with a thorough draught. Two Hunter sires !—perhaps now we shall not insist on their being thoroughbred—of course they should have several crosses of good blood, but it cannot be right to exclude such horses as “ Elcott,” “Safeguard,” ‘ East Lancashire,” ‘ Grey Prince,” or a host of others. The rule that mares should either be in foal or with a foal prevents many of the best from being shown. This condition should be erased from the prize-sheet. R. Minwarp, SHEEP. In its entries of Cotswolds, Oxford Downs, Southdowns, and Shropshires, the Newcastle Meeting was considerably below Worcester. Even Leicesters and Lincolns showed a slight decline, and so would the “* Hampshire and other Short Wool ” classes, if they had not been helped out by a few Holme Lacey Ryelands. Still if the distance from their peculiar localities told severely upon the display of four of the leading breeds, their deficiency (102) was more than compensated for by the entries of sheep peculiar to Scotland and the Border counties, and thus the balance against Newcastle was reduced to 32 on a total of 415. The new requirement that all sheep exhibited should have been really and fairly shorn bare now first came into operation, 440 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. and its good effect was most strikingly manifest in the absence, with three exceptions, of the preposterous length of wool left upon so many animals in previous years. Still there were a few other cases open to a suspicion that the above condition had not been literally fulfilled, and if it be so, and any exhibitors are now congratulating themselves upon having escaped detection, they will do wisely to abstain from repeating the deception, which amounts, in fact, to a fraudulent entry, and must be so treated. Two Inspectors of Shearing were appointed by the Council, one of whom was unavoidably absent, and thus the invidious duty devolved upon Mr, Samuel Druce of Eyntham alone, who kindly, though reluctantly, undertook the task; and reports that ‘the requirement of the Council that all sheep shown should be bare shorn after the 1st of April has been carried out except in the case of three rams of the Mountain Cheviot Class.” These animals were disqualified accordingly. The entry of Letcesters (which “ comprehended many grades in Classes LX XIV.-LXXVL.), fell three short of ie it was when the Society met at Newcastle eighteen years ago; but it is pleasant to note that of the four gentlemen, Messrs. Turner, R. Smith, Burgess, and Pawlett, who then took prizes for their rams in the face of a very severe competition, the only two that are alive or continue to breed ‘“ Bakewells,” were in the front rank again this July. The name of Mr. Sanday, which has for many years been as closely connected with this class as that of the late Mr. Jonas Webb with the Southdowns, was absent from the catalogue at last ; but the grandsire of Mr. Borton’s first Prize shearling was one of his old Holmpierrepont flock. This was “a very nice sheep with a very beautiful skin,” and twin to Mr. Borton’s reserve number. Mr, Pawlett was second, and Colonel Inge, who was first in this class last year, took the silver medal, The rams were “a very good class,” and Mr. Cresswell was first (with his reserve soma at Worcester), and second, and commended as well, while the medal and the reserve number fell to Mr. George Turner. There were only five pens of shearling ewes, and Mr. Samuel Wiley, of Brandsby, the patriarch of Leicester ram-breeders since Sir Tatton Sykes died, ‘“* won after a sharp contest,” with Lieut.-Colonel Inge, who took the first prize last year. Mr. Wiley’s were ‘“‘a very good lot with fine skins,” and quite a Brandsby model pen. The Cotswold, Classes LXXVII.-LXXIX., were not, as a whole, so uniform or so well got up as we have known them, and hardly so heavy in wool. Mr. Robert Garne, who took two firsts, a second, and a third last year, did not make an entry ; and Mr. William Garne and Mr. George Fletcher (who was first with his shearling ewes at Worcester) were also resting on their ” Report of the Stewards of Stoch at the Newcastle Show. 441 oars. The shearling ram entries alone on that occasion were exactly equal to the present entries in all three classes. Mr. E. Handy, who won the ‘first ram and the second shearling prizes here in the general long wool class, in 1846, was first now with his shearling; and Mr. Beale Brown, who had the second shearling prize of last year, took first and third honours in the ram class, with two very fine sheep. ‘The lots fell pretty equally, as Mr. J. Wells was first in his turn for the shearling ewes, and Mr. W. Lane second. The Cotswold Judges Report thus :— The shearling rams were not so numerous nor were they so good as on former occasions. ‘There were four fine specimens of older sheep, very large, of fine form, and well woolled ; and the shearling ewes were of average merit. Doubtless, the distance prevented many from sending sheep. Among other names which we missed in the catalogue of exhibitors, and which we hope to see in the classes next year, were those of Messrs. Hewer, Fletcher, Garne, &c.” In the Lincoln and other Long Wool, Classes LXXX.- LXXXIIL, Mr. R. Wright (who did not exhibit last year) and Mr. T. B. Marshall were first and second respectively for shearling rams and ewes, and a pen of shearling ewes belonging to the latter gentleman again divided two of Mr. Howard’s. The first prize shearling was a good one, with fine substance, and a long and thick set staple of wool. The first prize ram was a very grand sheep, girthing 6 feet, and said to have cut 193 lbs. of wool. The second was also a very good one, with wool perhaps finer in quality, but not so thickly planted. The first pen of shearling ewes had plenty of size and nice bone, and the second and third were also gay and good. The Oxford Downs (Classes LX XXIII.-LXXXYV.), as is to be expected in a cross-breed of this kind, still exhibit a con- siderable diversity of colour in their legs and faces; but the tendency seems as much as possible towards the dark faces, and to the retention of the Cotswold top-knot. Some of them were perhaps a little too high on the leg, but it was a very fair show on the whole. Mr. George Wallis, who won all the ram prizes last year, was in equal force again, and also “ skinned the lamb” in the shearling ram class. Of shearling ewes there were only four pens; the first and second prizes were awarded to Mr. Henry Overman and the Duke of Marlborough; the two other pens were highly commended, and commended. Subjoined are the Reports of the three Judges :— ~ “T considered the Oxfordshire Downs a good class, although not so numerous as last year. The shearling rams shown by Mr. G. Wallis, which obtained the first, second, and third prizes, were exceedingly good, big with fine quality, 442 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. and so were the sheep shown by that gentleman in the Class for Rams of any age.” “ Numerically speaking, neither the Oxford nor Hampshire Downs appeared in much force, which may be accounted for by the great distance of the show from the localities in which these different kinds of sheep are bred. The several classes of each kind of sheep contained specimens which fully sustained the high position they have respectively attained. The Oxfordshire Down shearling ram class came first under notice. The Ist, 2nd, and 8rd prize sheep of Mr. Wallis were of good formation, combining fine size with good wool. The 8rd prize sheep was a very compact, well-formed animal, and which, if its head had been more in character with the true Oxfordshire Down ram, would have been differently placed. The sheep exhibited by Mr. Bryan were strong firm-fleshed animals. Those exhibited by Mr. Charles Howard were not up to the mark for competition in a Royal Show-yard. In the class for aged rams, the prizes again fell to the lot of Mr. Wallis for sheep of much the same stamp as those exhibited by him in the shearling class. ‘The other sheep exhibited in this class were good specimens of their kind. The class for shearling ewes did not contain a pen of any extraordinary merit. ‘The ewes exhibited by Mr. Overman were more uniform in form and in quality of wool than those exhibited by his Grace the Duke of Marlborough, though the latter had most decidedly the preference for colour.” We have seen a better class of shearling Southdown rams at previous meetings of the Society. The tails of some of them were not nicely set on, and two or three might fairly challenge the old Sussex comment “ he won’t do—he ties his stockings above his knee.” Last year, Lord Walsingham won every prize in the ram and shearling class, and had the reserve numbers as well; but on this occasion his Lordship showed no older rams, but repeated his victories with the first and second prize shearlings, and the first prize for shearling ewes. His Lordship’s first prize shearling was a very perfect sheep of his kind, but rather small. The second, which had been first at the Norfolk Show, was a larger sheep, but decidedly inferior in symmetry, as he is too high in his rumps. Mr. Rigden’s medallist was very nice behind, but fails in his shoulders. Mr. Waters, who had never previously won a prize for this breed of sheep in the Society's Yard, was first in a very fair class of rams, with a very good one. It had plenty of size, and fine loins, and was full of the real Down character, A more perfect forehand has been seldom seen. The second prize was taken by a ram of Mr. Rigden’s, not noticed in the shearling class at Worcester, with fine rumps, wool, and general quality. The ears of the silver medal sheep were rather too short; but he was very good and straight in the back, and very snug in front. A noted old Babraham sheep was not noticed in this class, and seemed to have lost his handle on the journey. Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. 448 The shearling ewes made up a very beautiful class, and it would be difficult to find a match for the first prize pen, sent by Lord Walsingham. ‘The Goodwood ewes were a very level lot, but not on quite so large a scale, and hardly so well got up. The four other pens, those of the Duke of Richmond, the Earl of Radnor, Lord Walsingham, and Sir Thomas Lennard, were all highly commended, and most deservedly so. The judges of the Shropshire sheep, Classes LXXXIX.- XCI., who remark that “some of the breeders of pens will in future do well to pay greater regard to the appearance, the character, and the wool of their sheep,” and mention ten entries sent by five different owners, have handed in the following report :-— “The Shropshires form, we believe, the largest of any of the Sheep classes at the Royal Meeting of the present year, the numbers entered being as follows, viz. -— “Class LXXXTX.—Shearling Rams .. .. .. 46 3 XC.—Older Rams AE) icity ws ey es XCI—Shearling Ewes .. .. . 10 'This number of entries we consider comparatively large, taking into con- sideration the distance at which the Show is held from the counties whence they sprung, and the districts where they have hitherto been best known and appreciated. “We have great pleasure in recording our opinion that the Shropshires exhibited at Newcastle are, with a few exceptions, uniform in character and quality, and combine good size and weight with excellent wool-growing pro- perties ; and that they are in all respects well calculated to maintain their position as a useful and profitable breed, and to obtain the favour of those persons who study to breed an animal capable of producing at once a high-class - and plentiful supply of mutton and a heavy fleece of good wool. “We find the class much more distinctive and uniform in character than in former years, the result, no doubt, of the sheep being recognised by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and the consequent stimulus to flockmasters to breed from pure sires, possessing natural perfections and blood of unquestion- able purity. “Jn making our selections, we have endeavoured to adhere to the type we consider best calculated to maintain the reputation of the breed, and to promote the advantages of sheep breeders and the public generally ; and while we have Kept in view the importance of producing a heavy fleece, we have not forgotten the necessity of recommending the animals most capable of producing heavy muscular flesh, and those best calculated in their own natures to perpetuate a symmetrical, heavy, and hardy sheep. “* We are pleased to note that the general excellence of the Class of Shearling Rams caused us much trouble in making our decisions, no fewer than 18 speci- mens being ordered by us into the ring to make our final selections from, and we do not hesitate in pronouncing them to be the best 18 sheep we ever saw together.” The first prize for Shropshire shearlings was awarded to a totally new exhibitor, Mr. E. Thornton, of Pitchford, with Mr. H. Matthews and Mr. J. Coxon second and third ; and the strength of this class may be judged of from the fact that the 444 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. judges gave six high commendations, and five commendations. In the ram class of any age, Mr. John Coxon and Mr. Price William Bowen took the first and second prizes. In that for shearling ewes, the Messrs. Crane (who have won five out of six prizes during the last three years) were not in their usual form, and Mr. H. Matthews, Mr. H. Smith, and Mr. E. Holland, M.P., were the prize takers. It is worthy of remark that two York- shire breeders had high commendations in this and the ram class. Of the Hampshire and other Short Wool, (Classes XCII. and XCIV.) the Judges report separately :-— “ Although they were not so well represented in numbers, they were never surpassed in quality. The shearling ewes shown by Mr. W. B. Canning had the size of the Hampshire Down and the quality of the Sussex, and his first prize shearling ram was quite as good as his ewes. Mr. Humfrey’s shearling ewes were exceedingly good, and his first prize sheep in the class for rams of any age was never surpassed for size and quality.” ¢ “The Hampshire Downs appeared in still fewer numbers than the Oxford Downs, though the different classes contained specimens of greatly improved form and quality. The first-prize shearling ram, exhibited by Mr. Canning, is one of good form with beautiful quality of flesh and wool. The first-prize aged ram, exhibited by Mr. Humnfrey, is equally remarkable for fine form (par- ticularly about the setting on of the shoulders) and has also good quality of flesh and wool. The shearling ewe class contained three pens of extraordi- nary merit. I should think’the pen exhibited by Mr. Canning has never before been equalled (certainly not surpassed) for colour, form, and quality of flesh and wool combined. The pen exhibited by Mr. Humfrey was very good indeed, as also the pen exhibited by Mr. King.” ‘¢ The show of Hampshire Downs was very meagre as to quantity, but the quality was very good. Mr. Rawlence, who was so successful at Worcester last year (although he had entered both shearling rams and ewes), did not put in an appearance, which left the field open for Mr. W. Canning of Elston, who exhibited perfect specimens of rams and ewes, which took first prizes. Mr. Humfrey’s stock did not come up to their former excellence, and Mr. King of Beckhampton took the second prize for shearlings with a very large old-fashioned Hampshire—not ‘ the Improved’ Mr. Humfrey’s aged ram was a very fine specimen of what a Hampshire ought to be, and took second prize at Worcester last year. There were only three pens of ewes exhibited, but they were all good; Mr. Canning’s were A 1, Mr. Humfrey second, and Mr. King’s specially commended. The distance from home prevented many of the Hampshire flockmasters from sending their stock, but it must not be considered, from the shortness of the entries, that the interest in the breed is at all lessening, as the prices lately realised at the sales prove the contrary.” The competition in these classes was confined to six breeders, and one of them (Mr. J. B. Downing) entered four of his Holme Lacey flock of Ryelands, which were so successful in their special classes of last year, but they received no mention. Report of the Stewards of Stockh at the Newcastle Show. 445 The Cheviots were by no means so good as we have seen them at the Highland Society’s meetings, and there were no entries from Messrs. Brydon, Borthwick, and Hunter, who carried off a great majority of the prizes at Battersea. There was not a single Scottish entry in the Blackfaced classes, which were furnished by Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, Westmore- land, and Cumberland. ‘The Herdwicks were pretty nearly a Caesberland class, as that county sent thirteen entries out of sixteen, but still Westmoreland and the Messrs. Browne had the best of it in the prize list. “The kingdom of Scotland and Northumberland,” as the breeders of Border Leicesters term it, did its duty very fairly. This class of sheep has been coming into repute for some years past with the English flockmasters, many of whom attend the great Kelso ram sale inSeptember. Last year no less than 2180 rams were sold there in one day. The Border type is so marked that the Judges at once disqualified two English Leicesters which were entered in the ram class, The black ‘spots which are discernible about the head and ears of so many of them tell of their descent from the old Teeswaters. They are small in the scrag, but have fine general substance and size, and cross well with the Lincolns and Cotswolds. They also do well on moderate land, and bear storms well at the foot of the Cheviots. It is the speciality of the ewes to be very prolific, and to “milk like goats.” They are rather bare on their bellies, and have fine but rather light weighing wool. Their breeders go for open wool as much as possible, so as to correct the close coat of the Cheviots in crossing ; and if there is one thing they avoid more than another it is a tendency to blueness about the head. In the prize list the Messrs. Simson were especially successful. The Judges report as follows on these four breeds -— “In the Class of Cheviot Shearling Rams there is a good entry, and the breed is well represented. he shearling ewes are also a fair lot; but the aged rams are limited in numbers, and, with one or two exceptions, only of ordinary quality. “The Blackfaced breed is poorly represented in all the classes. “The Herdwicks are a good lot in all the classes. “In the Border Leicester classes there is a good show of shearling rams, several of which are of superior quality. In the other classes the entries are fair, but in each the breed is well represented.” The two Wool Judges have handed in the subjoined Re- port :— “In presenting their Report the Judges wish to observe that, considering the reputation of Northumberland as a wool-producing country, and its contiguity to Berwickshire, which produces the most valuable, deep-staplo1 VOL. XXV, a1 446 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. wools in Great Britain, the show of wool did not equal their expectations, either as to quantity or quality. “The class of Leicester and Border Leicester was moderate, and specimens were found which they considered were not pure Leicester, but descended from the Cheviot ewe. They would recommend the Council to have a special class for wools of mixed breeds. 'The single specimens of Cotswolds and Lin- colns being of no merit either for breed or texture, the priaes were withheld. The Shropshire specimens were very good, and that which obtained the prize was first-rate wool, both as regards breed and quality of staple, combined with strength and cleanliness. The other descriptions being only moderately repre- sented need no comment.” Pias. In spite of the proximity of Newcastle to the great pig breeding districts of the West Riding, the entries under this head showed a decrease of twenty as compared with Worcester. The local committee gave no prizes, but the deficiency was mainly to be found in the small white and Berkshire classes, which far more than counterbalanced an increase of one-third in the large whites, i Class CI., for Large White Boars, was better than last year, and there were more of them, The first prize, Mr. H. Harrison’s “Young Hero,” from a sow of Mr. Wainman’s breed, wanted a little more hair, but was an easy winner, He is a very good and level pig, with great width between the ears and over the shoulders, and remarkably well filled up about the head. Mr, Duckering’s “ Victor,” the second prize taker, had no tail to speak of; which is too often the first symptom of in and in breeding. The Small White Boars made up a very good class (CII.), but smaller than last year, when Mr. Mangles had six entries, and was third with “Cupid.” This gentleman now wins with Cupid’s own brother, “ Brutus,” which was then the reserve number, and has grown into a very excellent pig, both in flesh, form, and hair. Mr, Findlay, of Easterhill, was second with “ George I.,” a good thick-fleshed pig, and Mr. Stearn third with “ Young Duke,” which was very much younger than either, Among the Small Black Boars (Class CII.) there was rather a tendency to be short of hair, a want which the profusion of black essence with which they are covered can hardly be said to supply. The hair of both Mr. Sexton’s “General Peel” and his “Blair Athol,” the first and second prize winners, beth of them by “ Battersea Prince,” was perhaps a little too coarse. The former had a fine outline, but the latter fails slightly behind the shoulder. Mr. Stearn’s “Sambo” was softer in the hair, but there was too little of it. Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. 447 The Berkshire Boars (Class CIV.) were very inferior in every way to those shown at Worcester, and Messrs. Hewer and Joyce, who contributed ten out of twenty-three entries on that occasion, were conspicuous by their absence. The Rev. H. G. Baily won both the first and second prizes, as Mr, Hewer did last year. The first was a fair, useful pig, and the second had not a particularly nice head, and was rather slack behind the shoulders, and narrow between the ears. Mr. A. Stewart’s “ Garibaldi” was only seven months old, but his quality and symmetry were remarkably good, and he well deserved the silver medal. Class CV., for Middle Boars, was as short in numbers as it was last year, when Mr. Wainman won with “The Nabob.” This gentleman (who took five first and two second prizes) won again) with “ Perfect Cure,” by “ King Cube,” the Worcester first prize winner in the small white boar class. ‘‘ Perfect Cure” has a rare back, good hair, and hams fully suggestive of his name. Mr. C. W. Graham’s “Pride of Leeds” again holds the second place ; but he does not fill all his points so well as the winner, and is hardly so straight in his back or so wide below. The Large White Sows made up a good level class (CVI.) of thirteen, or six more than last year, when it was won by Mr, Wainman’s “ Fresh Hope,” whose hams when she was killed in the spring weighed 94lbs. each. Mr. Wainman was first and second with two very deep sided and short legged sows, “ Rival Duchess,” and “Rival Hope.” The former, which won at Hamburg last year, was the youngest by six months, and was in better bloom; while the latter, as well as the medallist, Mr, J. Hickman’s “ Young Princess,” had a litter of pigs at her teat. The Small White Sows were a capital class (CVII.), though Mr. Crisp, who was first in this as well as three other classes at Worcester, did not send any of his entries. Mr. Wain- man’s ** Silver Branch,” a wide, deep sow, of great activity, and with capital hair, took the first prize, but her appearance rather suffered from her being so heavy in pig. The second prize taking sow, Mr. Stearn’s “ Victoria II.,” which was also second at Wor- cester through the disqualification of Sir Edward Kerrison’s “ Annie Laurie,” had a rare lot of pigs at her side. Mr. Findlay’s third prize sow, “ Lady Emily,” by his “George I.,” was very symmetrical in her back, but perhaps rather wanted depth ; and Mr. Hatton also exhibited two good ones, “ Queen of the West” and “ Reine de Flora.” A good Class (CVIII.), of Small Black Sows was headed by Mr. Sexton’s “ Breeze,” own sister to his ‘‘ General Peel,” a sow of very true proportions, well backed up by Mr. Stearn’s “ Queen 212 448 Report of the Stewards of Stock at the Newcastle Show. of Oude,” and “ Aunt Chloe,” the latter of which was perhaps a little light in the poll. Class CIX., for Berkshire Sows, contained several specimens rather too high in the back, and deficient in the filling up of the jowl. There was only one entry (which received a high com- mendation) instead of five, as at Worcester, from the Royal Agricultural College; and Mr. Joyce’s absence from the ranks was hardly compensated for by Mr. Wainman, who showed Berkshires for the first time. ‘ Dido” and “ Mrs. Gamp,” two very clever sows, the property of Mr. Arthur Stewart, were first and second, and Mr. G, M. Allender’s “‘ Topsy,” which took the third prize by lapse at Worcester, now held that place on her own account. The winners were decidedly ‘“ Improved Berk- shires,” but still the class fell short of the very excellent one of last year. There were again exactly eleven entries in Class CX. for Sows of the Middle Breed. Mr. Wainman was first and second, with ‘“‘ Northern Garland” and ‘ Happy Link,” which were some- what difficult to divide. Both of them were rather short of hair, but especially beautiful in their bone. ‘‘ Happy Link” was second last year, but was disqualified in consequence of having her first litter of pigs nineteen days too soon, and her next eleven days too late; and hence “ Lucky Link,” another of Mr. Wainman’s, succeeded to her prize. Mr. H. Reynolds’s ‘‘ Dewdrop,” by ‘Pride of Leeds,” the reserve number of last year, took the silver medal, We now come to the pens of young breeding sows. Mr. Wainman was first in the Large Whites, Class CXI., with a middling lot, very unlike his ‘‘ Advance Symmetry,” “ ‘Advance Quality,” aa ‘No Surrender,” of last year. For the Small Whites, Class CXII., there were only two entries. Lord Wenlock’s had quite as good, if not better quality than Colonel Pennant’s first prize pen, but their hams were lighter, and they did not stand so well on their legs. Mr. Sexton’s ‘‘ Three Graces,” from his Battersea first prize sow, won easily in Class CXIII. for Small Blacks. Mr. Tombs and Mr. Druce were first and second in Class CXIV. for Berkshires, with pretty fair pens, which can hardly be said for Class CXV., and its sows of the Middle Breed. On the whole, it was a fan average show of pigs, but not up to the level of Leeds, Battersea, or Worcester. ; ( 449 ) XXV.— Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat for 20 Years tn succession on the same Land. By J. B. Lawns, F.R.S., P.C.S., and J. H. Gizpert, Ph. D., F.RS., FCS. [Continued from Page 145.] II. Errecys OF THE UNEXHAUSTED RESIDUE FROM PREVIOUS MANURING UPON SUCCEEDING CROPS. WHEN the same crop has been grown for many years in suc- cession on the same land, in some cases with a change of manures, and in others with the same manure year after year, it is obviously essential to a right interpretation of the results obtained, carefully to pauaden the effects of the unexhausted residue ae previous manuring upon the succeeding crops. The questions of the permanency fof effect of different manures, and of the tendency to exhaustion which partial manuring may induce, are, moreover, of great practical importance, and are frequently discussed by practical men. These questions cannot, however, be satisfactorily dealt with without such evidence as the accurate record of the amounts of produce obtained year after year, on the application of manures of known description and amount, can alone afford. ‘The results of the experiments which ae the subject of this Report obv iously provide data well fitted to aid the elucidation of some of the important points involved. The subject is necessarily one of detail, requiring analytical as well as field results for its full consideration ; ; but it will be here treated of by reference to the field results alone, and only so far as may be necessary to aid the proper interpretation of the results themselves, and to give some indication of their bearings upon the important prac- tical questions—on the one hand of accumulation, and on the other of exhaustion. The results first adduced will illustrate more particularly the effects upon succeeding crops of an accumulated residue from previous nitrogenous manuring. In the first year of the 20 of the experiments, plot 4 was manured with the ashes of farmyard-dung, and gave no increase of produce whatever ; during the next 7. years it was manured with superphosphate of lime and sulphate of ammonia, the latter in amount averaging about 277 lbs. per acre per annum; and throughout the subsequent 12 years it received no manure what- ever. Table XXIII. shows the produce and increase obtained during the 7 years of the application of the artificial manures, and also during the succeeding 12 years under the influence of the previous heav y cropping, and of the unexhausted residue of the previous mineral and ammoniacal manuring :— 450 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Taste XXIII.—Propuce and Increase of Wuuar obtained during 7 Years of the application of Phosphatic:and Ammoniacal Manure, and during the 12 succeeding Years without Manure. 7 Years, Manured. |/12 Years, Unmanured. r 1845—1 851. 1852—1863. Plots, MANURES, &e. A i verage yerago Total. Annual. “otal. Annual. Dressed Corn, per Acre; in Bushels and Pecks. 4 | Superphosphate of Lime, & Sulphate 1 38 2 of Ammonia, annually, for 7 eat 193 0) 20 28 | 400 eae 3 | Continuously unmanured ee sor WES SE i, 22 | 185 382/15 2 Increase .. «| 69 131 9 32 | 17 2h 1 18 Weight per Bushel of dressed Corn, Ibs. 4 | Superphosphate of Lime, & Sulphate 61°2 572 of Ammonia, annually, for 7 years 3 3 ce 3 | Continuously unmanured 33d o5 60°2 oe 56°5 ee | Difference .. .. 5 1:0 so 0°7 Total Corn, per Acre ; lbs. 4 | Superphosphate of Lime, & Sulphate of Ammonia, annually, for 7 oes 12,786 eat ME SEEe oe) 3 | Continuously unmanured iol) ders 8,037 1148 11,567 964 Increase. 4,74) 679 re 108 Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre ; Ibs. 4 | Superphosphate of Lime, & Sulphate ¥99 of Ammonia, annually, for 7 years 205620 1° 2046 | ene ee 3 | Continuously unmanured oor) ee Longo O neo 26 || 19+940 1662 Tmeneasey Chess Gs 7.821 | 1118 843 70 Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre; lbs. . 4 | Superphosphate of Lime, & Sulphate\) 55 49g | 4773 || 33.641 | 2804 of Ammonia, annually, for 7 years : : 83 | Continuous!y unmanured .. « | 20,836 | 2976 || 31,507 | 2626 pe eS Increase no eG 12,570 | 1797 2,184 178 After the ashes of farmyard-dung had been used withott giving any increase, the phosphatic and ammoniacal manuring gave, eee ae Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 451 during the 7 years of its application, a total increase of about 694 bushels of dressed corn, and 7821 Ibs. of straw; or an average annual increase of nearly 10 bushels of dressed corn, and 1118 lbs., or about half a ton of straw. These amounts would re- move from the land only about one-third of the nitrogen, and one-seventh of the phosphoric acid supplied in the manure; to say nothing of the phosphoric acid, and all other mineral consti- tuents, supplied ; in the first year of the experiments (1843-4) in fhe form of the ashes of farmyard-dung. Yet the total amount of increase obtained during the next 12 years, due to the large residue from the previous manuring, was only 174 bushels of corn, and 843 lbs. of straw, or of ween about one-fourth and of straw about one-ninth as much as that yielded during the seven years of the application of the phosphate and ammonia. The average annual increase over the 12 years amounted to less than 14 bushel of dressed corn and to 70 lbs, of straw. This experiment was arranged for the purpose of determining whether during the later years there would be a less produce than on the continuously unmanured plot, indicating exhaustion of the available alkalies and silica during the 7 years of forcing by the application of other constituents to their exclusion; or whether there would be an increase, due to the accumulation in the soil of nitrogen and phosphoric acid, in which case it might be concluded that there was, as yet, no deficiency of available alkalies and silica in the soil, relatively to the annually available supplies of nitrogen from natural sources. The latter proved to be the case. In fact, there is no doubt that the farmyard manure ashes applied in the first year, would supply at any rate consi- derably more potass than was removed by the increased produce during the next 7 years. It will perhaps be objected, that the increase would have been much greater, both during and after the 7 years, had fresh supplies of alkalies been provided. Under the conditions of the experiment, such as they were, however, the unexhausted residue of previous manuring was obviously very slowly available in succeeding seasons, Again, to a portion of the experimental plot 3, from which 12 unmanured crops of wheat had been taken—a kind of treat- ment which it has been alleged by Baron Liebig would bring our soil into such a condition of exhaustion of available mineral constituents that it would yield no increase on the application of ammonia-salts alone—a dressing of these salts was applied in the 15th season, and then 7 crops were taken without further manure, in order to trace the degree or limit of the effect of the unex- hausted residue of nitrogen supplied. The results are given in the following Table (X XIV.) :— ; 452 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Tanne XXIV.—Propucre and Increase of Wueat, both in the Year of Application, and during the 7 succeeding Years, by the use of Ammonia- salts alone for 1 Year after 12 Crops without Manure. | 1 Year, | Total, Manured || 7 Years Dien STN (after 12 | Unma- Plots.| MANURES, &e. Tome, -|} seers | nured). ;| 1857— | ease 1863. Dressed Corn, per Acre; in Bushels and Pecks. 3a | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts for 1856, afterwards unmanured | 28 0 | 115 OF 3 | Continuously unmanured ws eet a teu 0a) Joie | A RS eer Increase by Ammonia-salts Preis eens il) 2 Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn; lbs. Sut 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts for 1856, afterwards unmanured | 56°3 || .. 3 | Continuously unmanured Ce oa ot a too. |e BPE ae Increase by Ammonia-salts , .. .. 2°0 an Total Corn, per Acre; lbs. 3a | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts for 1856, afterwards unmanured |} 1759 7138 3 | Continuously unmanured sis, | tiba! foie Soles) Leiet) euaiergl AMO | 7025 Increase by Ammonia-salts .. .. | 867 | 113 Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre ; Ibs. | 3a ie 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts for 1856, afterwards unmanured | 8052 11,836 5 | Continuously unmanured Baidu fos) ca o8! a 1558 || 11,448 | ae Increase by Ammonia-salts .. .. | 1494 | 588 Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre; lbs. 3a , 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts for 1856,afterwards unmanured | 4811 18,974 | 3 Continuously unmanured we Qreei) pe [ale yee | Soeaalll epee Oa MBs aes Increase by Ammonia-salts bt edo | 2361 | 50L Thus, 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts per acre, applied on land which had grown turnips, barley, peas, wheat, and oats since manuring and then 12 crops of wheat without manure, and applied, more- Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 458 over, in a season of inferior grain-producing quality, gave in the year of the application an increase of about 13 bushels of dressed corn, and 1494 lbs, or rather more than 13} cwts. of straw. This amount of increase would, however, carry off only about one- fourth of the nitrogen supplied. Yet the total increase obtained without further manure during the 7 succeeding years, was only 14 bushel of dressed corn, and 388 lbs., or about 34 cwts., of straw. Here again, then, the residue of the previous nitrogenous manuring was but very slowly, and very partially, recovered in the succeeding crops. It may, of course, be alleged against this experiment, that the want of effect of the residue of the previous nitrogenous manuring was due to the exhaustion of mineral constituents. The experiment next considered is less open to this objection. Plot 5 was variously, but liberally, manured during the first 8 years of the experiments. During that period, considerably more nitrogen, more than twice as much potass and phosphoric acid, and probably more of every other mineral constituent, except silica, had been applied in the manures than was taken off in the total produce; and very much more, therefore, than was contained in the increase of produce. In each of the 12 succeeding years, a mixed mineral manure, supplying liberally potass, soda, magnesia, lime, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid (but no silica), was applied. Table X XY. (over leaf) shows the results obtained during these 12 years. It is seen that the total increase obtained during 12 years by the annual use of a liberal mixed mineral. manure, succeeding 8 years of accumulation of nitrogen and mineral constituents, was only about 354 bushels of dressed corn, and 2827 Ibs., or about 25+ ewts. of straw; equal to an average annual increase of less than 3 bushels of dressed corn, and little more than 2 ewts. of straw. The question arises—is this amount of increase due to the mineral manures applied during the 12 years of its production, or is the whole, or part of it, to be attributed to the previous. accumulation? Doubtless part is due to previous accumulation, and part only to the direct effect of the newly-supplied mineral manure in enabling the plant to avail itself more fully of the natural supplies of the soil and season. Even were nearly the whole attributable to accumulation of nitrogen previously sup- plied, the amount is very small compared with that from direct nitrogenous manure. In fact, the limit of the effect of the unex- hausted residue from the nitrogenous manuring of the earlier years is seen to be such, that it is obvious the average results of the different manures over the last 12 years, may, in most cases, be 454. Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Tasty XXV.—Propuce and! IncrEAsE of Wuerat obtained during 12 Years with Mixed Mineral Manure, after 8 Years of liberal Nitrogenous and Mineral Manuring. 12 Years, 1852—1863. Plots. MANURES, &c. Average Total. Annual, Dressed Corn, per Acre; in Bushels and Pecks. 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year... .. -. | 221 Of 18 1% 3 | Unmanured, every year.. .. .. « .. o» «+ | 185 3% Tncneasel i va tition mere 85 12] 2 38% Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn ; lbs. 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year .. .. -- ae 57*°9 3 | Unmanured, every year SO Gen PH BOO!) tow (co OC 56°5 Mncrease sy sari ia uren nets 36 1°4 Total Corn, per Acre ; lbs. 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year.. «- « | 18,888 1157 8 | Unmapured, every year... «» 2. «. «. »» «» | DU, o67, 964 Increase Hen here) Bee slhois 2/821 193 Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre ; Ibs. 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year .. «. +. | 22,767 | 1897 3 | Unmanured,every year-. .. <. o» «» o +» | 19,940) 1662 Increase” ves ashi wer | 282% 235 Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre ; lbs. 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year... «- «» | 36,655 | 8064 3 | Unmanured, every year. .. «© « «» -» «» | 81,507 | 2626 —___——- Itoeeeey Ay) ab) aa An 5,148 | 428 (essen canenndsnmins—sssc uss: scsi scene ic Sc Ae aD Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 455 taken as sufficiently nearly indicating their comparative effects in a practical point of view. If, however, the increase on plot 5 during the 12 years is to be referred in any great ‘part to previous accumulation, what an insignificant amount remains as the effect of the mixed mineral manure in restoring the productiveness of the wheat-exhausted soil. It will, perhaps, be said that it would have been greater if silica in an available form had also been supplied. Baron Liebig has, however, maintained that, provided there be a sufficiency of available alkali in the soil, there will never be a deficiency of available silica. Our own analytical results do not justify this conclusion in all its fulness. At the same time, it may. be stated that the mixed mineral manure employed did supply a great excess of available alkali; and that when to the same mineral manure 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts were annually - added there was a further annual increase of nearly 18 bushels of dressed corn, and nearly 20% ewts. of straw, notwithstanding the exclusion of silica from the manure. The next selection of results affords even more direct and more striking evidence of the comparatively small immediate effects of the supposed unexhausted residue from previous nitro- genous manuring. During the first 8 years of the experiments, plots 17 and 18 received much about the same amounts of nitrogen, potass, and phosphoric acid, and yielded about the same amounts of total produce as plot 5; plot 18, however, received rather less than the others. The accumulation of nitrogen and mineral con- stituents was, in fact, practically very nearly the same on all 3 plots. From this time, instead of receiving mineral manure every year as plot 5, each of the other two plots (17 and 18) received ammonia-salts and mixed mineral manures alternately. In other words, when plot 17 was manured with ammonia- salts, plot 18 was manured with the mixed mineral manure, and vice versé; so that, each year, the one had ammonia- salts immediately succeeding the mixed mineral manure, and the other the mixed mineral manure immediately succeeding ammonia-salts. The deta‘led results of this most interest- ing experiment are recorded in the Appendix Tables, and some of them are exhibited in the coloured diagram No, Il. (facing p. 461), to which reference will be made further on. But the point to which attention is now to be particularly directed is the amount of increase obtained when the mixed mineral manure each year succeeded ammonia-salts, as on plots 17 or 18, compared with that obtained when the same mixed mineral manure was employed year after year on the same plot, as on plot 5. Table X XVI. illustrates this point :— 456 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Taste XXVI.—Propuce of Wueat by Mixed Mineral Manure each Year succeeding Ammonia-salts, compared with that by Mixed Mineral Manure Year after Year. 12 Years, 1852—1863. Plots. MANURES, &. c Aveo P Total. Annual. aresee Com, per Acre; in Bushels and Pecks. 17 or 1S | Mixed Mineral Manure, each year x eoy: 295 3} 18 32 | __ 4001bs. Ammonia-salts She BO ao item Es 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure, every year .. .. «. | 221 Of 18 12 Increase sl.) eek eee 4 23) 0 13 | Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn ; lbs. 7or 18 | Mixed Mineral Manure, each ey Maeriaie: 58-0 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts Sous erly ee aaa ¥ 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure, every year oe beg eet aimee yf hoi) Increase: ie Ps) 200) 7-= ll Nae | O°l Total Corn, per Acre ; Ibs. 17 or 18 | Mixed Mineral Manure, each year unuris 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts sa) 8 oe | M5177 1181 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure, every year -. .. 13,888 | 1157 Increase. sis) Sscpees gies 289 24 Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre; Ibs. 17 er 18 | Mixed Mineral Manure, each year ae 23,823 | 1985 ' 4001bs. Ammonia-salts ee eee oo 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure, every year «. «» «+ |) 22,767 1897 eS ee anchease ras.) 1s lke 9 1,056 88 Total Seon ee and Straw), per Acre; Ibs. 17 0r18 Mixed Mineral Manure, each ‘year succeeding) £8,000 | 3166 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts oats ate 5 | Mixed Mineral Manure, every year... -. | 36,655 | 3054 | —EE | Tnerease’ os) 2+, cen es ie 1,345 | 112 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 457 Assuming, as doubtless was the case, that at the commencement the 3 plots were practically in very nearly the same condition of productiveness, it might be supposed that the mixed mineral manure applied each 9 year after ammonia-salts, as on plots 17 or 18, thus providing the most favourable conditions for the pro- ductive effect of the unexhausted nitrogenous residue, would give a considerable increase beyond that'on plot 5, where the mineral manure each year succeeded mineral manure. Table anos shows, however, that plots 17 or 18 gave annually only about + bushel of corn, and cwt. of straw more than plot 5. Yet the average increase oliamedks in the years of the applic aun of the aramonia:salts on plots 17 or 18, though always succeed- ing the mineral manure, would carry ‘off little more than one- third’ of the nitrogen supplied ; whilst, as the next Table (XXVII., p. 458) “shows, this increase was considerably less than when the ammonia-salts were used in conjunction with, instead of in succession to, the mixed mineral manure. Thus, in the course of 12 years, an annual supply of 400 lbs. of ammonia-salts, each year succeeding the mixed mineral manure, gave 45 bushels less corn, and 5475 lbs., or nearly 49 ewts., less straw, than the same amount of ammonia-salts used each year in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure—heing an average annual deficiency of about 3} bushels of corn, and ‘rather more than 4 cwts. of straw, where the ammonia-salts were used in the year after, instead of with the mineral manure. Even adding the average annual increase (over the unmanured produce) by the ammonia-salts succeeding the mineral manure, to that by the mineral manure succeeding the ammonia- salts, the amount scarcely reaches that obtained where the two manures were used in conjunction. ‘That is to say, the influ- ence of the mineral manure succeeding the ammonia-salts seems to have been to render practically available, at any rate no more of the unrecovered residue of the supplied nitrogen than brought up the increase in two years to that attainable in the one year when the two manures were used together, the whole of the remainder being still unaccounted for, so far as the immediate increase of crop is concerned. The facts brought to view in the last five Tables (XXIII.— XXVII.), are of great scientific interest, and of great practical importance, It has been alleged by Baron Liebig that, in some of our experi- ments, there has been so much more nitrogen annually applied in manure than taken off in the increase of crop, that after a few years the increase obtained on a further addition was not at all due to the new supply, but would haye been the same without it, 458 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Tarte XXVII.—Propuce of Waar by Ammonia-salts each Year in con- junction with the Mixed Mineral Manure, compared with that by Ammonia- salts each Year succeeding the Mixed Mineral Manure. ]2 Years, 1852—1863. Plots.’ MANURES, &o. Avera Total, Annual, Dressed Corn, per Acre ; in Bushels and Pecks. 7 | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, | every year... Pakro re yl 436 2 | She 17 or 18 | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts, “each year ‘succeeding | 3 Mixed Mineral Manure bo" ino’ ta, 6c | S9t laa — Difference «oe eel| 400 02 oene Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn ; lbs. 7 | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, 58°4 every year .. sib), Nejeliy e 2) eens a 17 or 18 | 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, “each year succeeding 58°7 Mixed Mineral Manure Sede cea as eee Mmmtors me Difference AO tee ce or 0°3 Total Corn, per Acre; lbs. 7 | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral ey 27,306 | 2975 every year... ee Mid feliie a otoUs ace we 17 or 18 | 400 lbs. Ammonia- salts, “each year succeeding Mixed Mineral Manure ee coe Ga’ oc et 24, 692) Oa Difference ua, any Mate 2,654 221 Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre; lbs, 7 | 4001bs. Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, 50,539 492192 every year... 17 or 18 | 400 lbs. Ammonia- alee each year succeeding Mixed Mineral Manure Aare ae ares rs 45,064 | 3755 ——— | eee Difference ane Sa 5,475 457 Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre; lbs. 7 | 4001bs. Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, 77,845 | 6487 every year... ’ 17 or 18 | 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts “each year succeeding Mixed Mineral Manure sald ewes Bees 8} Go 716 pang Difference ee. eek 8,129 678 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 459 by virtue of the large accumulation within the soil from, the previous manuring. The results adduced show that there is no foundation in fact for this assumption. It is demonstrated that, of the nitrogen supplied in manure for wheat, and not removed in the immediate increase of crop, so much as remains in the soil is in such a state of combination, or distribution, as to be extremely slowly recoverable by succeeding crops of the same description. How far such residue would be more rapidly available to a succession of crops of different descriptions, taking different ranges within the soil, and having different habits, and requiring different conditions, of growth in other respects, is a very important question, both in a scientific and practical point of view. It would be impossible to consider adequately in this:place the evidence in our possession bearing upon this point; but it may be remarked, in passing, that it is in favour of the supposition that other plants grown in alterna- tion with the cereals do gather up, within a given time, more of the nitrogen supplied for, but-unused by, the latter, than a suc- cession of them would do; and even barley seems capable of utilizing, within a given time, a much larger proportion of the nitrogen of manure not recovered in the immediate increase of the crop than wheat. Although the excess of the nitrogen supplied in the manure beyond that taken off in the increase of the crop for which it was applied had such little influence upon the next succeeding crop, analysis of the soils from several of the experimental plots has shown that there is an accumulation of nitrogen in some form. Nor can there be any doubt that, except in special cases, soils become richer rather than poorer in nitrogen in the course of cultivation ; showing a gradual accumulation of nitrogen beyond that annually available for the crops. In illustration, it is suffi- cient to refer to the fact, that the percentage of nitrogen in surface-soils is found to be much higher than in the subsoils on which they rest; that is to say, it is the higher the more they are exposed to the contact of the roots, the débris of the crops, the manure, and the atmosphere. Leaving out of consideration the question whether or not there is an actual loss of a portion of the nitrogen supplied in the manure, either through the agency of the growing plant, or from the transformation of nitrogenous compounds within the soil, and evaporation in some form, or drainage beyond the reach of the roots, the obvious practical conclusion from the results hitherto adduced in this Section is, that, of the nitrogen supplied in _manure for the growth of wheat, a large proportion remains unrecoyered as increased yield in the immediate crop, and 460 Report of Experiments on the Grow‘h of Wheat, is but very slowly, if ever fully, recovered in succeeding crops. The next question to consider is, the degree, or limit, of effect on succeeding crops, of the unexhausted residue of mineral manures. This point is illustrated in a very interesting manner in the coloured diagrams (I. and II.) facing p. 461. The results obtained on plots 3, 10a, and 10b, to which dia- gram I, relates, will be first poecd. The diagram, which will be easily padectaod on inspection, shows at one oe the general character of the manuring, and the bushels of corn obtained per acre, on each of the plots, in each of the 20 years of the experi- ments (harvests 1844-1863 inclusive); and the following is a more detailed description of the experiments and their results :— Plot 3 was unmanured throughout the 20 years, and during several previous seasons, Plots 10a and 106 had the same mineral manure in the first year (1843-4). 10a had ammonia-salts in each of the 19 succeed- ing years. 10% had the same amounts of ammonia-salts in 17 out of the 19 years ; in the 3rd year of the experiments (1846) it was left unmanured, in the 5th (1848) it had mixed mineral manure with the ammonia-salts, and in the 7th (1850) mixed mineral manure alone. The following Table shows the total amounts of the different manures applied per acre on each of the two plots (10a and 100) during the 19 years, 1845-1863 inclusive :— TanLtr XXVIII. 10a Plot 10a. Plot 105. | over or under 100. Ibs. Ibs. \| Tbs. SullphateyofyAmmonia) ..s eset sic a cist ete 3692 5268 +424 Muriate'ofAmmionia «>. <- <. .. .. || \S468)) m | (3268 +200 Bone-ash .. aun seve tee | aS 400 |; —400 Sulphuric Acid Sp. a 1: 7) « 3B 9G, 00 oe 300 — 300 Pearl-ash .. Pe eer neC | 9b 600. — 600 Sodasash sti. cetisel Ose, (ehh necro eal as 400 — 400 Sulphate of Maenesia, “02 Gl )eell nse Be 200 | —200 In the Ist year (1843-4), although the land was in that state of practical exhaustion consequent on the removal of turnips, barley, peas, wheat, and oats since the last application of farmyard- manure, plots 10a and 10, manured with silicate of potass and superphosphate of lime, gave less than half a bushel of dressed corn, and only 77 Ibs. of total produce more, per acre, than the unmanured plot (3). _ wf ro 7 er, : vue , ae pm = a et ne fl ae ee Er * LAT ee ; Ar He lg ebart +) poet ;6BET Lal =, ia: wns ne ren 5 raaven deheet pee eh me OE ay TR Sa ire Sete iki a + . 4 . Bs bed | wl Aad gi x LW Fe a. * an r 4 in r +i - * “(at eh ; j wp s% | 4 : rai b>. 2} rd a . — a ee ee Fi 7 ‘ . rr 7 ) Biba ys Z » ; 10305 - ee esi) a faery |p * cma W “hh trey fiok bi gad ae ae - —— a ene, ee ee al , "i k ess apt ite | ul ae) ae = is pet Ai ils an one) se Paw oS ie ary oye am, he. w ve aoa sath fey ie i wt 1 ¥ ete Ee SS eee ee a. et rs ~~ ae Pore EXperIMENts Al! RorHamMstep on tHE Growrnm or Wear Yrar ArTeR YEAR ON THE SAME LANp. Dracram 1,—Showing the*effects of Ammonia-salts Year after Year, alone, and with occasional Mineral Manure, &e. Plots. | 1844, | 1845. | 1846. | sar. | | | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | 1853. | 1854. | | 1855. | 1856. 1860. | 1861. | | Dressep Corn per Acre, in Bushels and Pecks. P' [15 34] 13 38 | 1862. 1863, | | | 5 3 16) 3$| 14 3 |19 1 2 Increase. | | 19 3¢ | 18 0 | 18 Hh Be 3b | 11 14 | 16 0 1 Plots, 1852. Dracram 2.—Showing the effects of Ammonia-salts, and Mixed Mineral Manure, applied separately, in alternation, and in combination. 1853. | 1854. | 1855. | 1856. 1857. | 1858. 1859. 1860. | 1861. 1862. 1863. | = anes eee Se alle | | | | Produce. le Tnerease, Description of Manure. Dressep Corn per Acre, in Bushels and Pecks. By fg} Be 5 32] 21 Ot | LO I aeh & | 19 32 18 0 | 18 1%) 12 3% | il ibe | 16 0 | ily il | 15 2 | Unmanured, every year (also for 8 preceding years). 7 5 é | | | Mixed Mineral Manure alone, every year. 17 18 | 3 10a 10b Mixed Mineral Manure alternated with Ammonia-salts (Plots 17 and 18). Ammonia-salts alternated with Mixed Mineral Manure (Plots 17 and 18). Ammonia-salts alone, every year (also for 7 preceding years). Ammonia-salts alone, every year (also in the preceding year). Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure, every year. | U : : | nmanured. Ammonia-salts alone. Mixed Mineral Manure alone. ee Ammonia-salts and Mixed Mineral Manure. Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 461 In the 2nd year (1845), 10a and 10) were both manured with ammonia-salts at the rate of 336 Ibs. per acre, and gave rather more than 81 bushels of dressed corn, and rather more than 38 cwts. of straw, against scarcely 234 bushels of dressed corn, and only 244 ewts. of straw, on plot 3 without manure. Thus, whilst a mixed mineral manure gave scarcely any increase what- ever in the first year, ammonia-salts alone gave an increase of rather more than 84 bushels of dressed corn, and about 13} cwts. of straw, in the second. In the 3rd season (1845-6), 10a being again manured with ammonia-salts, gave nearly 274 bushels of- dressed corn, and 20 ewts. of straw, against not quite 18 bushels of dressed corn, and 134 ewts. of straw, on the continuously unmanured plot (3). Ammonia-salts, again used alone, gave, therefore, an increase of nearly 94 bushels of dressed corn, and about 64 cwts of straw. But plot 10d was left this year unmanured, and it gave about + bushel less dressed corn, and 4 cwt. less straw, than plot oe Here, then,. neither the unexhausted residue of the mineral manure supplied in 1844, nor that of the ammonia-salts supplied in 1845, gave any increase in 1846. In the 4th year (1846-7), plots 10a and 108, so differently treated in the preceding year, were again equally manured with am- monia-salts alone. The result was, almost identical amounts of both corn and straw in the two cases, and an increase over the unmanured plot of nearly 9 bushels of dressed corn, and about S$} ewts. of straw. In the 5th year (1847-8), the two plots again received equal amounts of ammonia-salts, but 104 had in addition a mineral manure supplying potass, soda, magnesia, lime, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid. Plot 10d was, therefore, in a more favour- able condition than plot 10a, not only by virtue of this direct supply of mineral constituents, but also on account of the less exhaustion of them in 1846, when, being left unmanured, it gave so much less both of corn and straw than plot 10a. The result was, that, with 142 bushels of dressed corn on the unmanured plot (3), 10a, with ammonia-salts alone for the 4th time, gave 19}, and 10d, with ammonia-salts for the 3rd time, and with mineral manure in addition, rather over 25 bushels; and the amounts of straw were, on plot 3, 15}, on plot 10a rather more * than 21, and on plot 108 rather more than 26 cwts. There was, therefore, an increase of 44 bushels of dressed corn, and 5} cwts. of straw, on plot 10a; and of 10+ bushels of dressed corn, and 103 ewts. of straw, on plot 10); or a difference in favour of 10), due to the greater abundance of mineral constituents, of nearly 6 bushels of dressed corn, and of 5 ewts. of straw. There was, then, already in the 4th year of the application of the ammonia- VOL. XXV. 2K 462 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. salts alone, evidence of considerable relative deficiency of avail- able mineral constituents, notwithstanding the application in the lst year of silicate of potass and superphosphate of lime. Nor is this to be wondered at when it is considered that, in the 4 crops grown by ammonia-salts alone, there would probably be more than five times as much potass, about three times as much phosphoric acid, and more than thirty times as much silica removed from the land, as would be lost to it in a whole course of rotation of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat—supposing only the corn and . meat to be sold, and the manure produced from the straw, and the consumption of the roots and clover, to be returned to the land. In the 6th year (1848-9) both plots were again equally manured with ammonia-salts alone, and they gave almost identical quan- tities of dressed corn, amounting to about 134 bushels more than that on the unmanured plot; whilst, of straw, 10a gave an increase of about 11 cwts., and the much less exhausted plot 10 only about 1 cwt. more. In the 7th year (1849-50), 10a again received arn oeaannte alone, and gave nearly 27 bushels of dressed corn and 274 cwts. of straw, which was equal to an increase over the unmanured produce of nearly 11 bushels of corn and about 124 cwts. of straw. 100, on the other hand, had a manure supplying libe- rally every mineral constituent at all likely to be wanting, except silica, but containing no ammonia, and the result was, an increase over the unmanured plot of little over 2 instead of 11 bushels of dressed corn, and of only about 2 instead of 124 ewts. of straw. Thus, even in the 6th year of their application, ammonia-salts alone gave 9 bushels more dressed corn and nearly 104 cwts. more straw, than the mixed mineral manure alone, notwithstanding that a relative deficiency of mineral constituents had shown itself Z2 years previously, and that even on 104, where so much less ammonia-salts had been applied in previous years, there had still been considerably more than twice as much nitrogen supplied as had been recovered as increased yield in the crop. ‘The defective result on 10d, by the mineral manure alone, could not be due to the want of ayail- able silica, since the exhaustion of it was very much less than on 10a, which, nevertheless, gave so much more produce. It is, moreover, clear that, although the available supply of mineral constituents had become defective in relation to the amount of ammonia artificially supplied, it was still in excess relatively to the annually available supply of nitrogen from natural sources. From this time forward, for 13 consecutive years, plots 10a and 106 received exactly "the same amount of ammonia-salts annually (200 Ibs. sulphate and 200 Ibs. muriate), and neither of Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 463 them any mineral manure. During the first 2 years, the two plots, previously so differently manured, gave almost identical amounts of produce; but from that time forward, 10, which, in the earlier years, had the ammonia-salts omitted twice, and twice received the mixed mineral manure when 10a had none, gave every year several bushels of corn (with its proportion of straw) more than 10a. It is clear that 10a had become relatively very deficient in certain mineral constituents. Nor is this to be wondered at when the circumstances of the experiment are considered. To say nothing of silica and other constituents, the first 7 crops taken from 10a removed about 14 time as much phosphoric acid, and more than twice as much potass, as were supplied in the first year (1843-4), On the other hand, 106 received in manure during the same 7 years, more than 14 time as much phosphoric acid, and more than twice as much potass, as were removed in the crops. In other words, 10a was already much poorer, and 106 much richer, in both phosphoric acid and potass, than at the commencement, If these circumstances are borne in mind the Summary Table XXIX., given overleaf, will have considerable interest. During the 6 years, 1845-1850, plot 10a received 424 Ibs. more sulphate and 200 Ibs. more muriate of ammonia than plot 106; but during the same period plot 100 received 600 lbs. pearl- ash, 400 Ibs. soda-ash, 200 lbs, sulphate of magnesia, 400 Ibs. bone-ash, and 300 lbs. sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1:7), whilst plot 10a received no mineral manure. The result was, that whilst both plots gave a considerable increase, 10a gave a total of 13} bushels of dressed corn, and 1278 lbs., or about 114 ewts., of straw, more than 10b—equal to an average annual increase of 24 bushels of dressed corn and nearly 2 cwts. of straw, due to the larger amount of ammonia-salts, notwithstanding the much more favourable condition of 10) as to mineral constituents. Over the next 13 years, 1851-1863, during which neither plot received mineral manure, and both the same amount of ammonia- salts annually, 10a, previously so much more exhausted of mineral constituents, gave 514 bushels of dressed corn, and 5483 lbs., or about 49 ewts., of straw less than 106—equal to an average annual deficiency of nearly 4 bushels of dressed corn, and of 3? ewts. of straw. It is worthy of remark, however, that although 10d continues to give notably more produce than 10a, due to the supply, and to the less exhaustion, of mineral constituents during the earlier years, it appears to be of late progressively declining in annual yield, and even somewhat more rapidly than 10a; for, if the average annual produce of the last 6 years be compared j 2K2 with 464 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. Taste XXIX.—Propuce of Wurat on Prot 10a compared with that on 100, during the 6 Years, 1845—1850, the 18 Years, 1851—1868, and the whole 19 Years, 1845—1863. Plot 10a. Ammonia-salts every Year, Plot 10). Without Manure the 2nd Year, with Mineral Manure the 4th and 6th Years, and Ammonia-salts the Ist, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, and succeeding Years. 6 Years, 1845—1850. | 13 Years, 1851—1863. || 19 Years, 1845—1863. = = = a ee Plots. | Average | F ] Average i Average Total.) | Annual. I Total. | Annual. || Total. Annual. Dressed Corn, per Acre; in Bushels and Pecks. ie ae ee Fe a ee 10a 163 22/27 14 || 300 13] 23 0f || 464 0| 94 12 10) 150 12/25 02 || 351 33) 27 02 || 502 13) 26 12 10a over or under 105 |+13 1/42 1 )/-51 2}—4 0 |-88 134 -2 0 Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn; Ibs. i | | 10u ye Gorsr ile we 56°3 | 4 57°6 10b ievace 60°6 | 57°4 | f 58°4 —_— |__| —__|_______|_____. 10a over or under 10) | ae -0°3 |. 6 -I1'l 6 -—0°8 | | : Total Corn, per Acre; lbs. | | | 10a ; 10,728 | 1788 19,194 | 1476 29,922 1575 10) 9,833 | 16389 22,254 | 1712 B2ROey 1689 10a over or under 10b | +895 | +149. IR eae | —236 | 2166 | —114 | He abit Sh Total Straw (and Chaff), per Acre ; lbs. ] { 10a 17,708 | 2951 || 34,302 | 2639 | 52,010 | 2787 100 16,430 | 2738 || 39,785 | 3060 | 56,215 | 2958 i rt oe 10@ over or under 10) |+1,278 | +213 |— 5,483 | — 421 —4,205 | — 221 if | i | | | Total Produce (Corn and Straw), per Acre; lbs. ; i) | jl 10a | 28,436 | 4739 | 53,496 4115 | 81,982 4312 | \ | |) | | ————— _| — 10b | 26,268 | 4377 || 62,039 | 4772 | 88,302 | 4647 | | 10a over or under 10) | 42,173 | +362 Wisea: — 657 | 8-870 — 335 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 465 with that of the preceding 6, it is found that, whilst 10a has given 14 bushel of dressed corn Sad 180 Ibs. of straw, 10) has given 1: bushel of dressed corn and 304 lbs. of straw, less over the ier than over the earlier period. Over the whole 19 years, plot 10a, with its larger amount of ammonia-salts and less supply of mineral constituents, gave 38+ bushels of dressed corn, and 4205 lbs., or about 374 ewts., of straw less than 10—equal to an average annual deficiency of 2 bushels of dressed corn, and nearly 2 ewts. of straw. Here, then, is an obvious case of exhaustion of available mineral constituents relatively to the available supply of nitrogen, and also a very marked effect from the unexhausted residue of the mineral manures applied in the earlier years. t would be inappropriate to go into detail as to the compara- tive exhaustion of the two plots in respect to individual mineral constituents without adducing the results of analysis relating to the subject. But it may be stated generally, that the average percentage of mineral matter is considerably lower in the pro- duce of plot 10a, than in that of plot 3 without manure; and further, that in the ash of the grain the propor tion of phosphoric acid, ona in that of the sta the proportion of the silica more particularly, i is becoming reduced. During these 19 years, how- ever, there have been removed from the plot as much phosphoric acid as would suffice for more than 50 years, as much potass as would suffice for more than 100 years, and as much silica as would suffice for more than 500 years of ordinary rotation, where only corn and meat are sold, and the due proportion of the home- manures are periodically returned to the land; whilst the first five crops of the twenty would remove about as much phosphoric acid, and the first three about as much potass, as was supplied in the first year of the experiments.* Under such very un- usual treatment, it is’ certainly not surprising that the annually available mineral constituents of the soil should prove to be insufficient. Diagram II. (facing p. 461), further illustrates the point in question, ‘There are there shown, side by side, the bushels of dressed corn per acre, in each of the last 12 years of the experi- ments, on plots 8, 5, 17, 18, 10a, 106, and 7; and the further * Baron Liebig tells his readers that we applied in the first year as much soluble phosphoric acid as would be contained in about 1750 lbs. of guano. The fact is, that the total phosphoric acid applied would be contained in about one-half that amount of Peruvian guano of average composition. He also misrepresents our conclusions; and so, as in other instances, by the aid of his own mis- statements, makes a point for ridicule where he cannot controvert. (Hinleitung and ‘ Natural Laws of Husbandry,’ p: 500, and context,) 466 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. conditions and results of the different experiments will be suffi- ciently understood from the following few comments. It is seen, as shown in another form in Table XXVI., that plots 5, and 17 or 18, give almost identical amounts of average annual produce, and therefore of average annual increase over plot 3, during the 12 years in question—the one (plot 5) having mixed mineral manure alone every year, but succeeding heavy dressings of mineral manure and ammonia-salts in preceding years, and the others having the same mixed mineral manure each year succeeding an excess of ammonia-salts in the pre- ceding year, and succeeding also, as on plot 5, mixed mineral manure and ammonia-salts in the earlier years, But the point which it is the chief object of Diagram II. to illustrate is, the very different effect of a given amount of ammonia-salts according to the supply of available mineral con- stituents within the soil. During each of the 12 years, plots 10a, 10), 17 or 18, and 7, each received exactly the same amount of ammonia-salts ; and, taking the results of each year separately, the order as to amount of produce is, invariably—plot 7 (highest), 17 or 18, 104, and 10a (lowest) ; that is, the lowest where the mineral constituents were the most exhausted, and the highest where their supply was most liberal. The point is also well illustrated by reference to the average annual results over the 12 years. Thus, the average annual increase (over the unmanured produce) was:—on 10a, with ammonia-salts alone (not only each year of the 12, but for seven years previously), 7} bushels of dressed corn, and nearly 8} ewts. of straw; on 104, also with ammonia-salts alone every year of the 12, and for some years previously, but with mineral manure in two of the seven preceding years, nearly 114 bushels of dressed corn, and 124 ewts. of straw; on 17 or 18, where ammonia-salts each year succeeded mineral manure, 174 bushels of dressed corn, and nearly 18? ewts. of straw ; and, lastly, on plot 7, with the ammonia- salts and mixed mineral manure used each year together, nearly 21 bushels of dressed corn, and 22? cwts. of straw. With the same amounts of ammonia-salts, therefore, there was a difference in the amount of increase of produce annually ob- tained of from 74 bushels of dressed corn and nearly 84 cwts. of straw, to 20% bushels of corn and 22% ewts. of straw, according to the supply of available mineral constituents within the soil. There was a difference of from 7} bushels of corn and nearly 8} ewts. of straw, to nearly 114 bushels of corn and 124 ewts. of straw, due to the application of mineral manure twice in the earlier years of the experiments (104) ; and there was a difference Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 467 of from 174 bushels of dressed corn and nearly 18? cwts. of straw, to 20% bushels of corn and 22# cwts. of straw, due to the application of the mixed mineral manure each year in conjunction with the ammonia-salts, instead of each year preceding them as on plots 17 or 18. In the greater amount of increase on 10 than on 10a, there is striking evidence of the permanent and lasting effect of the unex- hausted residue of the artificially applied mineral constituents, if only available nitrogen be provided within the soil. On the other hand, the greater amount of increase on plot 7 than on plots 17 or 18, shows the much greater effect of the mineral constituents when applied at the same time with the ammonia- salts. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that even plots 17 and 18 received much more of all those mineral constituents that were supplied than was removed of them in the crops. The con- dition and distribution of the constituents within the soil, would, however, be very different in the two cases, The very interesting and important results which have been briefly passed in review in this Section, especially those to which the coloured Diagrams refer, may he still more briefly sum- marised as follows :— 1, A somewhat heavy loam, of fair average wheat-producing quality, taken at the end of a five-course rotation since manuring, gave scarcely any increased produce of wheat in the year of the application when manured with a mixture of silicate of potass and superphosphate of lime; but it gave a very considerable, though progressively diminishing, amount of increase, when afterwards manured for 19 consecutive years with ammonia-salts alone. 2. It is obvious that, taken in the condition of practical exhaustion specified, the soil still contained an excess of annually available mineral constituents, relatively to the annually avail- able nitrogen supplied by soil and season without manure, When, however, large quantities of ammonia-salts were annually applied, the relative deficiency of mineral constituents became apparent, even as early as the fourth year of their application. 3. When ammonia-salts were applied, the greater portion of the nitrogen remained unrecovered as increased yield in the crop for which it was employed. ' 4, The unexhausted residue of nitrogen supplied as manure, was but very partially and very slowly recovered as increased yield in succeeding years, even when followed by the liberal application of such mineral manure as was very effective when used in conjunction with newly applied ammonia-salts, 5. Mineral constituents supplied in the soluble form in the 5th and 7th years of the experiments (though giving very little 468 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. increase when in the latter year they were used alone), continued to increase the effect of ammonia-salts afterwards annually applied for 13 consecutive years, 6, A given amount of ammonia-salts gave very different amounts of increase, according to the supply of available mineral Constituents within the soil ; giving very much more when mineral manures were applied i in the same, than in the preceding year, notwithstanding that, in the latter case, there could be no deficiency, though doubtless less favourable ‘condition and dis- tribution of the mirieral constituents. 7. The same mineral manures which were very effective when supplied with ammonia-salts, gave very little increase of pro- duce when used alone year after year for 12 years, although following an excess of ammonia-salts applied in preceding yearsr; and they gave very little more when they were applied every year succeeding an excess of ammonia-salts applied in the immediately preceding year. 8. The unexhausted residue from previous mineral manuring, though it served as an effective reserve against exhaustion, had little. or no effect ‘in increasing the growth of wheat without the aid of available nitrogen provided within the soil. An unexhausted residue from ‘previous nitrogenous manuring had also but little influence upon the immediately succeeding crops, even when aided by the application of mineral manures. The bearing of the facts adduced in this Section, upon the question of the probable influence on the mineral wealth of our soils, of the use of artificial nitrogenous manures, under the cir- cumstances, and in the degree, in which they are generally em- ployed in the ordinary course of agriculture in this country, will be considered further on, when the whole of the experimental evidence which it is proposed to bring forward in the present Report is before the reader. With regard to the bearing of the results on the subject of the next Section, it is obvious that the degree and limit of effect of the unexhausted residue of previous manuring, whether nitrogen- ous or mineral, are such that, if the circumstances of the different plots are duly considered, there will be little danger of misinter- preting the results obtained on the application of the different manures year after year on the same plot during the last 12 years. III. AVERAGE ANNUAL RESULTS OVER THE LAST 12 YEARS. Subject to such reservations as the facts already adduced sug- gest, and to others which will be referred to in the course of the discussion, attention may now be directed to the average annual Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 469 results over the last 12 years, from each description of manure applied year after year on the same plot, during the whole of that period. These are given in Table XXX., pp. 470, and 471. The details of the manures are given in Appendix Table IX., and are further explained in the Notes at p. 163, facing that Table. The details of the produce of each separate plot in each separate year will be found in Appendix Tables X.—XXVIL., pp. 164-185. It may be explained tlfat in the Summary Table XXX., wherever the plots are divided into two (a and 6), and both por- tions are manured alike, giving duplicate experiments and results, the mean of the two only is given. Average Annual Produce without Manure. There were three plots entirely unmanured during the last 12 years of the experiments to which the results in Table XXX, refer. Plot 3, had been unmanured for the 8 preceding years also, as well as during the 5 years of rotation before the experi- ments commenced. Plot 20, which was at the other side of the field, had been unmanured the same number of years as plot 3, with the exception that in the third year it received a mixture of the surplus of the artificial manures used on the other plots. Plot 4 had been unmanured during the last 12 years only ; during the preceding 7 years it had been manured with large quantities of superphosphate of lime and sulphate of ammonia, and in the first year of the 20 was manured with the ashes of farmyard manure. Plot 3, which had grown wheat without manure for the whole 20 years, and plot 20 for 19 out of the 20, gave almost identical average annual amounts of produce over the last 12 years. On almost every point, however, plot 20 gave slightly the better result ; but the difference is so small that the experiments mutually confirm each other, and the produce of plot 3 (continuously un- manured) is adopted as the standard by which to compare that of the manured plots. Its average annual yield per acre over the 12 years was 154 bushels of dressed corn, and 1662 Ibs. or nearly 15 cwts. of straw. The average weight per bushel of the dressed corn was lower than in any case but two of the manured produce ; but the proportion of corn to straw was almost exactly the same as with farmyard manure, and higher than in most cases with artificial manure. The tendency to produce a fair proportion of corn to straw was, therefore, without manure, more than equal to that under the majority of the conditions with manure ; and the low weight per bushel was, doubtless, due to the sluggish growth and consequent defective power of ripening, Plot 4; 470 Plots. 21 6 (a § b) T(a gb) 8 (ag 3) 16 (ag b) 17 @ §) 18 (ag) 10 (a) 10 (2) ll(@ gb) 12 (a §& b) 13 (a § b) 14 (ag b) 9 (a) 9 (b) 15 (a) 15 (0) 19 || for the Manures previous to 1852 see Appendix Tables I, -VIUL. pp. 146- 161). | Unmanured (12 years, premopely, Superphosphate of Lime | and Ammonia-salts) .. aides xis) 3 tsar Aas a Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED oN THE GROWTH OF TasLeE XXX.—AveErAGE Propucs, and Increase by MaNnvrgy) Manures per Acre, per Annum, for 12 Years; 1852-1863, (For further particulars see Appendix Table IX. and Notes, pp. 162-3 ; and 14 Tons Farmyard Manure, every year (20 years, 1844-63) Unmanured (20 years, 1844-63) .. 1. 0 0 Unmanured (17 years, 1847-63) Superphosphate of Lime! (16 years, 1848-63) .. Sulphates of Potass, Soda, and Magnesia (15 years, 1849- 63) Mixed! Mineral! Manitrel2\ 72) Wee ieee es peers eo oe . 100 Ibs. Muriate Ammonia, and Mixed Mineral Manure .. 100 lbs, Sulphate Ammonia, and Mixed Mineral Manure °.. 200 lbs. Ammonia-salts °, and Mixed Mineral Manure 9 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts, and Mixed Mineral Manure... . 600 lbs. Ammonia-salts, and Mixed Mineral Manure.. .. 800 lbs. Ammonia-salts, and Mixed Mineral Manure... . |(Mixed Mineral Manure (in alternation with 400 lbs. Ammo- nia-salts) .. 400 lbs, Ammonia-salts (in ‘alternation with Mixed Mineral WENO ad AO Ud a bs co no) ct Su | 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, alone (19 thd Ammonia-salts ed 1845-68)... dike: 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, alone (13 year: s, ‘1851- -63), a Re 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts, and Superphosphate of Lime é 400 lbs. Ammonia-salts, Superphosphate of Lime, and Sul- } phate of Soda.. .. 400 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, Superphosphate ‘of Lime, and Sul- } phate of Potass 400 Ibs, Ammonia-salts, Superphosphate of Lime, and biel phate of Magnesia.. .. .. of « 550 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, and Mixed Mineral Manure * 350 lbs. Nitrate of Soda, alone) th May hee) epee | 400 Ibs, Ammonia-salts, Mixed Alkalies®, and Superphos- phate of Lime”... | 300 lbs. Ammonia-salts, Mixed ‘Alkalies,° Superphosphate of Lime,’ and 500 lbs. Rape-Cake .. 500 Ibs. Rape-cake Sur Gn) Go Omi ce 300 Ibs. Ammonia-salts, Superphosphate « of Lime,” =a 31 1 « Superphosphate of Lime ”—4 parts Bone-ash, and 3 parts Sulphuric Acid, Sp. gr. 2 “ Mixed Mineral Manure ”—Superphosphate of Lime, and Sulphates of Potass, Soda, ta Magnesia, . 3 « Ammonia-salts ”—equal parts Sulphate and Muriate of Ammonia of Commerce. 4 Qa—the Mixed Mineral Manure not applied until the 12th Season, 1854-5; and only 476 Ibs, Nig Propuce, &c. Quantity. bo i) oS woe Bi BK RO i =) Dressed Corn. Weight per Bushel. Ve pe. 4 218 20 | q ig Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. WHEAT YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND, yer Acre, per Annum, over 12 Years, 1852-63, £3, Propucr, &c. Total Produce (Corn and Straw). Tbs. 6101 2626 27038 54°9 54°4 57°2 * Dressed Corn, Over Un- manured (Plot 3). 19 (=) _ KO bolt bush, pks. 34 to Go 09 Hele bole Lol |= Hele Bo COnwwwor [oo] wow orf © CS ea cS la oS bo Over Mixed Mineral Manure (Plots 5a & b). bush. . pks./) © bo & Go = C9 Wl ielce time _ eho (=) leo edi Hl INCREASE. | | Over | Un- manured (Plot 3).| \@ | 1234 | 1124 if | 1222 { Over | Over Mixed Over | Mixed Mineral) Un- | Mineral Manure manured| Manure! (Plots (Plot 3).| (Plots 5a & b). | 5a pox pur fae a (923 DY St Pt a es caxn)s | oe.n 08-9 10.8 || ea.g| 40.9 | 29.2/ peor | a9-11 | eto | so | cn | ep.or| ono | apt | op-rt |{ po post per ceyresceiuoumeay “Bcf eo | (928 D)8 (QR Dv) 2 ) 2 = 1, * * ginuRyy [RIOULPAy QRV)L | Lec ©6.P 98.6 aug |ce.¢ | 6t.¢| 928 | e¢.h | 99.6 | cer | 19.9 | cao | 18.6] 99.2 | SFOL | { paxtpy pue ‘sypes-eimowary “sqt oop | (230) 4 2 “ z , 4 ey’ (@) OANUBYY [BIOULPAL PAXxt caxv9 | osr | ser | 69.¢ || e.g] 99.) | at | ¢9.8 | oF.o | Lr | 90. | 89.9 | OLF | Lo.b | ELL | SF.e as eae. SETI. eat hoe | (023099 *sqr “sqt ‘sqrt |] sat | ‘sat | ‘sat | ‘sat | ‘sat | ‘sat | ‘Sat | ‘sat | “sar | sat) “sat | “Sat | €9-GG8T|\S9-8S8T ‘UG-@S81 | Co9T-OPL Ad “TITA=T SOIR T—Xtpuad rervon at | Sttox 9 | ‘sivax 9 (SQST| COST TOST | OOBT| GEST | SGST| LEST | OUST | SRT |PEST| EST | SGT) OV Kee aL nt Te a “SVOld OL puodsag IL | “XT oTquy, ‘xtpueddy oes ete ‘1d ~—— —_— oe JOIN IO) "E9-SESy ‘S.iv9 X GI “AD VUIAV ‘SUVA 9 GNOOUS "SUVA 9 SUT 10j ‘unuuy Jed ‘a1oy sod sornuryy | (eee nn ee EEE “HOSVOR OT} OF PUL “TIOS OT[} UITJIA SJUONyYSuO/ [e1oulpY JO Ajddus NTqUpwarv ory 07 faroy rod pordde Ayyuvnb oy} oF Surproooe “ANGI jo uontodoid $71 pur Surets-jvoyA\ JO osvo.1oUl (sqr09 =) pysnq T eonpoad oj poambo. (euommy SV POTLOYOoL OPVAJINT SV MOSOIBINN JO 10) aimuvy UL vrMowUry jo Ayyueny— IXXX PAV, Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 487 ewts. of commercial muriate of ammonia, in about 2? ewts. of genuine Peruvian guano, or-in rather more than 22 ewts. of nitrate of soda. These amounts are more than are usually em- ployed in common practice for the wheat crop; and most prac- tical men would consider double these quantities to be'very heavy, if not excessive dressings. In bringing to bear upon the question under consideration the additional experimental evidence now at command, we shall assume, therefore, that the results obtained by the use, per acre, of 50 or 100 lbs. of ammonia (or their equivalent of nitrogen as nitrate) most nearly represent those which may be expected in ordinary practice ; and further, that the results obtained by these amounts in the cases where the mineral constituents (unless silica) are not in relative defect, are also such as are most likely to be ob- tained in ordinary farm practice. Accordingly, we adopt for our purpose, the results obtained on plots 6 with 200 Ibs., and on plots 7 with 400 Ibs. of ammonia-salts (containing, respectively, 90 and 100 Ibs. of ammonia) in each case used in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure; and these will be taken as the standards by which to compare the effects of larger amounts of ammonia with the same mineral manure, or the same amounts of ammonia under less favourable conditions as to the supply of mineral constituents. It will be observed, that, almost uniformly, rather less ammonia was required to produce 60 lbs. increase of corn on the average of the last 6, as compared with the first 6 of the last 12 years. It will, perhaps, be said that the apparently better effect during the later years is in reality due to the unexhausted residue of the supplies in the earlier years. Evidence enough has been adduced showing the limit of the effect of such unexhausted residue 3 and, whilst admitting that a portion of the difference in favour of the later years may be attributed to previous accumulation, there can be no doubt, as has been shown, that the last 6 seasons were themselves more favourable than the preceding 6, and that to this cause a considerable portion of the difference is really due. Subject, then, to some correction on the score of accumulation, the average result over the 12 years may doubtless be taken as pretty closely representing the average effect of a given amount of ammonia, according to the amount of it employed, and to the favourable or unfavourable condition of the soil in regard to the supply of mineral constituents. When 50 Ibs. of ammonia per acre were annually applied in conjunction with a complex mineral manure, excluding silica (plot 6), the average annual result was, that 4:86 lbs. of ammonia were required to produce 60 lbs. increase of corn, with its equi- valent of straw. This amount of ammonia, as has been said, 488 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. is as much, if not more, than would be generally employed ; and it is seen that, with it, the quantity expended for each bushel of increase was very nearly the previously assumed amount of 5 Ibs. When double the quantity per acre was used, which would be much more than appropriate for most soils and seasons, rather more than 5 Ibs. (5°37), when 3 times the amount 7°35 Ibs., and when 4 times 9°47 lbs., were required. ‘Thus, when excessive amounts of ammonia are employed, much more is expended for the production of a given amount of immediate increase of crop, than when only moderate quantities are used ; and it has been seen how very slowly the excess may become available in after years. Still more unfavourable was the result when 400 Ibs. of ammonia-salts (equal 100 lbs. ammonia) were employed under defective conditions as to the supply of mineral constituents. On plots 17 and 18, on one or the other of which that amount was each year employed succeeding the application of the mixed mineral manure in the preceding year, it required 6°69 Ibs. of ammonia to produce 60 lbs. of increase of corn with its propor- tion of straw. On plots 12, which might be deficient in ayail- able supply of magnesia and possibly of potass, on plots 13 which were probably relatively deficient in magnesia, and on plots 14 probably in the later years in potass, the amount of ammonia required was from 5:76 to 5°85 Ibs. instead of only 5°37 lbs. on plots 7, where, with the same amount of ammonia- salts, the mineral manure each year supplied all three bases— potass, soda, and magnesia. ‘Then again, on plots 11, to which no direct supply of either potass, soda, or magnesia, had been made throughout the 20 years (only small quantities in rape- cake) 8°57 lbs., on plot 102, with a deficiency almost certainly of potass and phosphoric acid, and probably of magnesia also, 11:2 lbs., and on plot 10a, with a still greater deficiency of mineral constituents, 21°57 lbs., or more than 4 times the normal amount of ammonia, were required to be provided for the pro- duction of 60 lbs. increase of corn, and its proportion of straw. Very similar results were obtained when nitrogen, about equal in amount to that in 100 lbs. of ammonia, was supplied in the form of nitrate of soda, instead of ammonia-salts. When the nitrate was used year after year with the mixed mineral manure (plot 9a), it required nitrogen about equal to that in 5:41 Ibs. of ammonia to produce 60 lbs. increase of corn and its proportion of straw, against 5°37 lbs. when ammonia-salts were used (plot 7). But when the same amount of nitrate was used without the mineral manure, an amount of nitrogen averaging about 12°8 lbs. of ammonia was annually expended to produce the same result, It may be observed, too, that assuming the farmyard manure ; Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 489 to have contained only a moderate proportion of nitrogen, the amount expended for the production of a given quantity of increase corresponded to considerably more ammonia than was required when nitrogen equal to 50, or even 100 lbs., of ammonia was employed as ammonia-salts, or nitrate of soda, in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure, notwithstanding that the latter contained no silica, a constituent so liberally provided in the farmyard manure, It would appear, therefore, that the practical results have not yet been materially affected for want of available silica where the mixed mineral manure was employed. ‘There is, however, evidence in our analytical results that silica has become relatively deficient where it has not been supplied in the manure, Very striking indeed, then, is the difference of effect upon the immediate increase, of a given amount of nitrogen in manure, whether used as ammonia-salts or nitrate, according to the available supply of mineral constituents within the soil; and with the overwhelming evidence before him, which such a com- prehensive summary of experimental results on the point affords, the practical man will not fail to see that he not only very in- juriously further reduces his immediately available supply of mineral constituents, but also pays very dearly for his increase, if he seek to obtain it by means of purely nitrogenous manures, when his soil is already unduly exhausted of mineral consti- tuents. Equally, if not more, striking, is the difference of effect of a given amount of ammonia in one season as compared with another, Where the mineral condition is the most defective, there the result of a given amount of ammonia is the most reduced below the average in a bad season. Leaving the reader to the study of all such abnormal cases in the records given in the Table, it will be sufficient here to direct attention to the great difference of effect according to season even under the more favourable conditions as to the amount of ammonia employed, and as to the associated supply of mineral constituents. The results of plot 6, where only 50 Ibs. of ammonia were applied each year, and always in conjunction with the mixed mineral manure, will well illustrate the point in question, Whilst, taking the average of the 12 years, it required 4°86 Ibs. of ammonia in manure to yield 60 Ibs. of increase of corn and its proportion of straw, in the remarkably productive season of 1863 it required only 2°42 lbs., but in 1853, 7:13 Ibs., in 1860, 8°85 Ibs., and in 1852, 12°45 Ibs. The amount of produce was, indeed, lower in 1853 than in 1852; but as the deficiency was very much greater with the mineral manure alone (upon the produce of which the increase is calculated) than where the 490 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. : ammonia-salts were also used, the amount reckoned as increase due to the ammonia was by so much the greater in 18538, and hence the better result for a given amount of ammonia in that year than in 1852. To conclude on this point: Great as is the difference of effect of a given quantity of ammonia, according to the amount applied per acre, to the mineral condition of the soil, and to the season, still, when only moderate quantities were used, when there was a sufficient supply of mineral constituents, and taking the average of many seasons—that is, under the conditions the most com- parable with those of the average of common practice—the result was, in marked accordance with our early estimate, that almost exactly 5 Ibs. of ammonia were required to be expended to obtain an increase of 1 bushel of wheat grain, and its proportion of straw. VY. CoNncCLUDING OBSERVATIONS; SHOWING THE PRACTICAL BEARINGS OF THE RESULTS. Referring the reader to the fuller summaries already given, of the conclusions arrived at in reference to each separate branch of the subject, it only remains, in bringing this paper to a close, very briefly to recapitulate a few of the most prominent facts elicited, and to show their connexion with, and bearing upon, the ordinary farm practice of this country. 1. On a soil of not more than average wheat-producing quality, and taken for experiment after a course of 5 crops since the application of manure, wheat has been grown successfully, without manure, and with different descriptions of manure, for 20 years in succession. 2. Without manure, the produce of dressed corn was, in the first year, 15 bushels per acre; in the last, 174 bushels; and, taking the average of the 20 years, 161 bushels. 3. With farmyard manure, applied every year, the produce was, in the first year, 204 bushels; in the last, 44 bushels; and, on the average of the 20 years, 324 bushels. 4, With artificial manures, the highest produce was, in the first year, 241 bushels ; in the last, 564 bushels; and, taking the average of the 20 years, 353 bushels, or considerably more than the average produce of Great Britain when wheat is grown in the ordinary course of agriculture in rotation; and also con- siderably more than was obtained in the same field by an annual application of farmyard manure. 5, Mineral manures alone, though applied in the soluble form, increased the produce scarcely at all; that is, they did not enable the plant in any material degree to assimilate more nitrogen and Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 491 carbon from atmospheric sources, than when it was grown on the practically exhausted unmanured land, 6. Nitrogenous manures alone, increased the produce very considerably for many years in succession; hence, the soil in its practically ‘exhausted condition was relatively much richer in available mineral constituents, than in available nitrogen, 7. The largest crops were obtained when mineral and _nitro- genous manures were employed together; and it was by such mixtures, even though they supplied no silica (nor carbon), that the produce by farmyard manure was far exceeded, although the latter supplied, not only both silica and carbon, but all other con- stituents in larger quantity than they were removed in the crops, The question arises—Will any conclusions drawn from these results regarding the character of the exhaustion induced by a course of cropping in this particular soil, and consequently regarding the description of manure required before it will again produce full crops of wheat, be at all applicable to any other soil, or to soils generally ? Baron Liebig, although he profusely illustrates his own views by reference to field experiments, and even to isolated results of our own, if by unfair representation they can be made to serve his purpose, and although it is*doubtless by the evidence of such experiments that he has been led to his present, and on many points greatly amended, views, at the same time denies the utility of field experiments generally, and of our own in parti- cular, as a basis of deduction regarding even a neighbouring field, and, still more, a field in any other locality. Other autho- rities look at field experiments in a very different light. Only a few weeks since, in a lecture delivered before the members of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, at Stirling, Professor Anderson took as his subject the importance and the best mode of promoting field as well as other experiments in connexion with agriculture. With regard to the particular soil upon which the experiments which form the ‘subject of this Report were made, Baron Liebig, according to the exigency of his argument, has maintained alter- nately that it was so rich, and so poor, in mineral constituents, that it was utterly unfit for the purposes of our investigation. To aid the judgment of those who may wish to consider the subject in the spirit of candour proper to an important practical and scientific inquiry, it may be well to indicate how far the results, briefly stated above, are Consistent with those obtained in direct experiments in an adjoining field, and on soils of very different descriptions in other localities, and also how far they are con- sistent with the common experience of practical agriculture in this country. 492 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. The following Table (see page 493) shows, side by side, the average annual produce obtained, without manure, by the “mixed mineral manure” alone, by 400 lbs. ammonia-salts alone, and by the ‘mixed mineral manure” and 400 Ibs. ammonia-salts together— 1. During 8 years (1856-68) in the experimental field in which the results recorded in this paper were obtained. 2. During the same 8 years in an adjoining field, after several wheat crops had previously been taken without manure, 3. During 3 years (1852-54) at Holkham, in Norfolk, on a soil described as a light, thin, and rather shallow, brown sand- loam, but resting upon an excellent marl containing a large quantity of calcareous matter, and which had grown wheat in the preceding year with the same manures, and white turnips ma- nured with farmyard dung and guano (of which both tops and roots were removed), in the year preceding the wheat. 4, Over 4 years (1856-59) at Rodmersham, Kent, on a soil described as a mixed clay, upon a chalk subsoil lying from 4 to 6 feet below the surface, and which had grown—in 1853, turnips manured with 2 ewts. of guano and 3 cwts. of superphosphate of lime per acre, the crop being fed on the land; in 1854, barley; and in 1855, beans with stable dung. The coincidence of the results 6btained in the two fields at Rothamsted is most striking; and when the known differences in the condition of the comparable plots in the two cases are taken into consideration, even the differences, such as they are, only afford additional evidence of the consistency of the indications, Thus, in Broadbalk field, the mineral manure alone succeeded heavy dressings of nitrogenous manure, whilst in the other it did not ; and, accordingly, there is rather more produce in the former than in the latter. Again, the ammonia-salts had, in Broadbalk field, been used alone for several years on the same plot prior to the period taken into the calculation ; and hence, with the greater exhaustion of mineral constituents in its case, there was rather less produce. ‘The results without manure, and with the mixed mineral manure and ammonia-salts together, are so nearly identical in the two cases as to call for no remark. The Holkham soil and subsoil were totally different in character to those at Rothamsted; the condition at the commencement as affected by recent manuring was rather higher, and two of the seasons over which the averages are taken were unfavourable, and one very favourable for the wheat crop. With these great differ- ences of circumstance in almost every ‘particular, we still find, as at Rothamsted, very little increase by mineral manure alone, con- siderably more by ammonia-salts alone, and more still by mixed . mineral manure and ammonia-salts together. The Rodmersham soil and subsoil were more nearly allied in Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 493 Taste XXXII.—Results of Experiments on the Growrm of Wueatr by different Manures,.on different Soils, in different Localities, and in different Seasons. AVERAGE ANNUAL RESULTS, 7 | Rothamsted, 8 Years ; MANURES APPLIED FAcH YEAR. c _:1854- 61. * ta Inam, Kents = % Years, 4 Years, ka Broadbalk Hoos 1852-54 | 1856-59 | Field, Field. ; | Dressed Corn, per Acre; in Bushels and 1 Pecks, | Unmanured.. .. .. a Peeuslt LO Omnia Om" Wy "oer 2oh Wom Mixed Mineral Manure, alone . Sepabisn. ace fete 16 OF | 19 OF | 28 2 Ammonia-salts, alone... 23 Of | 26 02 | 27. OF |. Sl iz Mixed Mineral Manure, and “Ammonia-salts 88 12| 37 12 | 82 23] 33 2 Weight per Bushel of Dressed Corn ; lbs. Unmanured.. . gaiha 57°0 | 61°3 59°4 Mixed Mineral Manure, aioe) euee 58°4 58°5 62°1 60°1 Ammonia-salts, alone .. : 56°0 56°9 59°6 58°5 Mixed Mineral Manure, and Ammonia-salts 58°9 58°0 62°4 57°8 ee Corn, per Acre; lbs. Unmanured . cy ja “on 990 926 1111 1565 ‘Mixed Mineral Manure, alone eae seth ae 1192 987 1202 1760 Ammonia-salts, alone... 1471 1618 1636 1917 Mixed Mineral Manure, and “Agnmonia-salts 2407 2295 2055 2020 Straw (and Chaff), per Acre; Ibs. ‘ Unmanured . eeibieem stil. L620 1459 1298 3343 Mixed Mineral Manure, alone co toon ooh cin! 1528 1700 3949 Ammonia-salts, alone... 2536 2705 2240 4788 Mixed Mineral Manure, and PArmonia- salts | 4176 4016 2838 5696 character to those of Rothamsted; but the condition as affected by recent manuring was very much higher. In fact, the land, so far from being at the commencement in a practically exhausted condition requiring liberal manuring, was described as being already in a well cultivated and fertile state, and prepared for the wheat crop. The quantities of ammonia actually applied were, therefore, obviously very excessive. The result, under these cir- cumstances, was, as might be expected, much higher produce VOL, XXV. 2M 494 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. without manure, and smaller amounts of increase, especially of corn, with the nitrogenous manures, Still, the general character of the average results over the four years, is the same as in the other cases. There is but a small amount of increase by the mixed mineral manure alone, much more by ammonia-salts alone, and more still by the mixed mineral manure and ammonia- salts together. But, independently of the evidence of direct experiment, such as is afforded in the results above referred to, we would here reiterate the opinion given in substance in former papers, and founded on a very extensive acquaintance with the practical experience of farmers in the use of artificial manures in every district of Great Britain for many years past, that, in 99 cases out of 100 in which wheat grown in the ordinary course of agriculture requires further manuring, it would be much more increased by the application of nitrogenous than of purely mineral manures ; in other words, that in the ordinary course of agri- culture with rotation, as practised in this country, the supply of mineral constituents immediately available for the wheat crop, is almost invariably in excess relatively to the immediately avail- able supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere, or the accumulated stores within the soil itself. Furthermore, with few exceptions, the worse the so-called ‘‘ condition” of the land, that is, the more it is in theagricultural sense exhausted, the more striking would be the effect of exclusively nitrogenous compared with that of exclusively mineral manures, What, then, are the common practices of British agriculture which lead to this result ? Let us take as an example, as we have done before, the practice of the so-called four course rotation—of roots, barley, clover (or beans), and wheat. Let us further assume, for the sake of argu- ment, that on the average 30 bushels of wheat, 35 bushels of barley, and the meat from the consumption of 10 tons of swedes, and clover equal to 6000 lbs. of clover hay (or 1500 lbs. of bean corn), are the products sold from each acre of the farm in the 4 years, and that the straw of the corn crops, and the excrements from the animals feeding on the roots and the clover or beans are retained on the farm as manure, and returned periodically to the land. Confining attention, for the sake of simplicity of illustration, to those mineral constituents which, so far as exist- ing knowledge goes, are the most likely to become relatively deficient in the majority of soils, it may be estimated that, under such a course, the average annual loss per acre by the sale of corn and meat, would be of potass from 44 to 5 lbs., of phos- phoric acid from 7 to 8 lbs., and of silica about 3 lbs. Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 495 But all practical men will admit that the amounts of produce here assumed to be exported from each acre, or equivalent amounts in other forms, could only be so under one of two con- ditions. Either the soil must be naturally a very fertile one, or the produce must be kept up by means of purchased cattle-food or artificial manures. In the case of a soil so fertile as to have yielded for any considerable number of years the average produce supposed without assistance from import, it may well be ques- tioned whether it, with its workable subsoil, would not be com- petent to yield annually, by decomposition, the necessary amounts of the mineral constituents mentioned, and if of them of others also, for an all but indefinite period. In the other case—that in which the produce is kept up by means of the import of cattle- food or artificial manure, or gf part one and part the other—the loss of the constituents in question derived from the soil itself will, of course, be by so much less than the amounts assumed above, and that of others will be also reduced. There can indeed be little doubt that, in actual practice, the loss to the soil itself, by the sale of corn and meat, is generally more nearly one-half, and frequently less than one-half, of the above assumed amounts of the constituents mentioned ; and that of others will be less accordingly. So far as the purchase of food for stock was relied upon, no selection could well be made from the current supplies in the market, that would not bring upon the farm more of the mineral constituents than the increase of produce due to the manure obtained from it would remove from the land in the form of corn and meat. In fact, to increase the sales of corn and meat by the import, of cattle-food as generally practised, is to increase, and not to diminish, the amount of available mineral constituents within the soil. If, on the other hand, the produce were kept up by means of artificial manures, the rules of selection among intel- ligent practical men are such, that almost invariably much more of phosphoric acid at any rate, would be brought upon the land, than would be removed from it in the increase of corn and meat ° due to the use of the imported manures. In the case supposed without import, it is probable that, in the majority of instances, phosphoric acid would be the most liable to become deficient in relation to other constituents. The sources of phosphoric acid developed in recent years, promise, however, to answer to any demand that seems likely to be made upon them to remedy such exhaustion of it as the present agricultural prac- tices of the country induce. In the case of imports, on the other hand, especially where they consisted chiefly of the current artificial manures rather than 2M 2 496 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. of cattle-foods, potass would be the most likely to become defi- cient. ‘The sources of potass in the market are, indeed, not large, and its price is high. Still, it would be a very economical manure if it increased the immediate produce by an amount con- taining anything like the proportion of that supplied, which is obtained in the case of nitrogen when nitrogenous manures are employed. But current practices have certainly not yet so far reduced the relative supply of potass in our soils as to render the application of direct potass-manures to the wheat crop at all profitable to the farmer. The results detailed in this paper clearly show, however, that salts of potass are effective enough on the growth of wheat when the immediately ayail- able supply within the soil is really unduly exhausted relatively to that of other mineral constituents, provided only that there be no deficiency of available nitrogen. In the case of Legu- minous crops, indeed, potass-manures will frequently greatly increase the amount of nitrogen assimilated over a given area without any direct supply of the latter by manure. And should it happen that our modern system of town drainage should lead to such an exhaustion of our arable lands of their due propor- tion of available potass, that potass-manures from without should become really effective, there can be little doubt that a sufficient economical source of supply would soon supervene on such a demand. There is, of course, no question, that if the manurial consti- tuents resulting from the consumption of the corn and meat sent into our towns could be returned to the land whence they came, its produce would be considerably increased; for with the mineral constituents there would always be associated nitrogen, in amount which would serve to render effective a considerable portion of all, if not the whole of some, of those constituents. If, however, human excretal matters continue to be diluted with water to the extent recognised by the growing system of urban defecation, and if dilute liquid sewage cannot be distributed in small quantities over large areas at a much lower cost to the farmer than has yet been proposed, there is little hope that the manurial constituents derived from the human food sent into our towns can be re-distributed over the area from which they came. Indeed, having regard to the inapplicability of dilute liquid sewage to arable land, except in’small quantities and at particu- lar seasons, and to the assumed cost of distribution, it appears probable that the most profitable mode of utilisation of sewage will be, to limit the area by applying the greater part, if not the whole, to permanent or other grasses, laid down to take it the year round, trusting mainly to the periodically broken up rye-grass land, Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 497 and to the application to arable land of the solid manure result- ing from the consumption of the sewaged grass, for obtaining other produce than milk and meat by means of sewage. In the illustrations given above, therefore, it is sought to convey an approximate idea, on the one hand of the utmost extent, and on the other of the probable limit, of the loss to which our arable soils are subject by the sale of corn and meat, supposing the mineral constituents be not returned to the land whence they came, Confining attention to this object, we necessarily leave out of view the cases in which roots, hay, or straw, are largely sold, for, in such, compensation is generally made by the return to the land of town manures of some kind. If this be not done the loss of mineral constituents will, of course, be very con- siderable. In view of the facts eae adduced, we think it may safely be concluded, that the modern practices of this country, taken as a whole, do not tend to the injurious exhaustion of the mineral constituents in anything like the degreé that has been assumed by some. Further than this, we think the evidence is more in favour of the supposition that, in a great majority of our soils, they are, by the combined aid of progressive liberation, and of restoration from without, becoming, in -the course of cultivation, richer rather than poorer in immediately available mineral constituents relatively to immediately available nitrogen. So far as this is attained at the expense of the constituents of the soil itself, there is, of course, the less to fall back upon within a given depth from the surface. But, it surely cannot be denied, that if there really is an annual liberation of mineral constituents in available form for the growth of plants, at least a portion of _ this may, with propriety, be sold off the farm for good and all. The exact amount of annual loss of mineral constituents which any soil, with its workable subsoil, can permanently support without injury, cannot, indeed, be proved. But such evidence as is at command goes to os that, under the conditions at present existing, the nature and extent of the loss to which our soils are subject are such, that the majority are deficient of avail- able nitrogen rather than of available mineral constituents, so far as the requirements for full crops of the cereal grains are concerned. Insisting strongly, then, as we have always done, upon the absolute necessity of a full supply of available mineral con- stituents within the soil, relatively to that of nitrogen, we still believe that, in the actually existing conditions of British agri- culture, it is not they, but the available nitrogen, that is generally found to be relatively deficient. What then, are the sources of available nitrogen within the 498 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. soil, to which the farmer must look for the production of good crops of wheat ? In former papers in this Journal, we have pointed out that his chief means to this end was the adoption of a suitable rotation of crops—alternating with his corn the so-called ‘ green,” “ fallow,” or “ fodder” crops, an important office of which it is to collect from natural sources, or to conserve on the farm in the form of manure, available nitrogen for the increased growth of the saleable cereal grains. We have further maintained that, as either by bare fallow, or a rotation of crops, with the consump- tion of the fallow crops and the retention of the straw on the farm, the accumulation of available mineral constituents will generally be in excess of the available nitrogen, it is the amount of the latter, rather than of the former, that will be the measure of the increased produce obtained by such means, Baron Liebig’s former views of the means by which our cereal crops were to be increased were, however, directly opposed to those here stated. He assumed that fertility was quite independent of the ammonia conyeyed to the soil; that if only the necessary mineral constituents were supplied in sufficient quantity and in available form, our cultivated plants, Graminaceous as well as Leguminous, would derive sufficient ammonia from the atmosphere; that the presence of ammonia in our manures was immaterial; indeed, that the entire future prospects of agriculture depended upon our being able to dispense with ammonia in our manures, therefore with animal manures, and hence with the bulky farmyard manure, and substitute for it artificial preparations. Baron Liebig now fully admitting the inefficacy of the wheat- manure devised by himself, attributes its failure to the condition of insolubility in which the mineral constituents were provided in it; and having formerly treated the investigations of Professor Way on the properties of soils with much ridicule, he now passes a well merited eulogium on the important experiments and dis- coveries of that gentleman and Mr. H. S. Thompson, and alleges, that since it has been shown that certain soluble mineral sub- stances become sufficiently insoluble when supplied to the soil, the want of the anticipated effect of his manures is completely explained. It is obvious, however, that those discoveries afford no explanation whatever of that failure; for if insolubility were the only bar to efficiency, the same constituents supplied in the soluble form should have the effect which Liebig’s wheat manure was designed to produce, They should, in fact, enable the wheat-plant to assimilate sufficient nitrogen from the atmosphere for large crops. But the results of direct experiment recorded in this and former papers, as well as the common experience of this country show, that those soluble mineral manures which are effective enough Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 499 when available nitrogen is supplied within the soil, are entirely unavailing to yield any more than a very immaterial amount of increase in the absence of such supply.* \ Very inconsistently, however, with the supposition that want of solubility was the defect of his mineral manure, Baron Liebig now maintains that progress in agriculture depends, not as before on being able to dispense with a rotation of crops, with nitro- genous manures in general, and with farmyard manure in par- ticular, and to substitute it by artificial preparations, but upon a proper rotation of crops, the successful growth of fodder plants, the use of farmyard manure, and the accumulation of nitrogenous food within the soil, so very important for the perfect growth of the cereals, Whilst thus adopting the views which we have maintained in opposition to his own for so many years past, and have supported by much experimental and other evidence in the pages of this Journal, he seeks to convey the impression to his readers that we have in reality advocated directly contrary opinions—that, in fact, in insisting upon the necessity of an accumulation of available nitrogen within the soil for the increased growth of the cereals, we assume that the chief source of that accumulation should be ammonia purchased from without. In illustration of the hopelessness of improvement in agriculture under such conditions, he points out how very inadequate are the supplies of nitrogen in the form of purchased manure from without to any largely increased growth of corn; a view in which we need hardly say we fully concur. No doubt the supply of ammonia, or nitrogen in some other form, from without, limited as it is, is a very important adjunct to that accumulated for the growth of the saleable cereal grains by means of rotation, and its associated practices. But we have * Notwithstanding Baron Liebig’s former ridicule of Professor Way’s experi- ments, and his subsequent acknowledgment of the importance of his results only after it was generally admitted, and when it was found that they were essential as the basis of new views of his own, and that they served him to explain his previous error (in a manner, however, which is seen to be quite untenable), the following are the terms in which that acknowledgment is spoken of by Professor Hofmann in his eapacity of International Reporter :— “The correction of his error by Way, Liebig frankly and unhesitatingly accepted. His genius instantly appreciated the value of the English chemist’s observation ; and shed upon it so bright a light as may be said to have doubled its importance. Liebig, in fact, studied the new truth in all its bearings, supplied its most generally received interpretation, displayed its momentous consequences, elevated it to the rank of a law of nature, and embodied this law as one of the corner-stones of his great edifice.” “ Probably, in all Liebig’s illustrious career, no incident bears higher testimony than this to the vigour and fertility of his intellect, to his undeviating candour, and to his disinterested solicitude, on all occasions, for truth and truth alone.’ (Report of International Exhibition of 1862, p, 167.) 500 Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. long ago expressed our conviction that if the supplies of ammonia were much increased, the available mineral constituents of our soils would in their turn become relatively deficient. It is one thing to maintain, as we do, that under the existing conditions of agriculture i in aire country, the nitrogen in manures has justly“ a preponderating value attributed to it, and quite another to advocate as we do not, and never hare done, that nitrogenous manures alone should be obtained from without. Nor is it the practice of intelligent farmers so to make use of the nitrogenous manures in the market. Those which the most nearly approach the character of purely nitrogenous manures, such as ammonia-salts and nitrate of soda, are rarely even for a single crop used alone, and never so by any farmer of moderate intelligence, unless—to say nothing of the periodical supplies of the home manures, perhaps enriched by the consumption on the farm of purchased food for stock—he applies specially phosphatic manure to some other crop in his course. The objection that has been raised against the practice of purchasing food for stock, that that which is a gain of constituents to the purchaser is in the same degree a loss to the seller, surely in these days of growing intelligence, and of extension of commercial freedom and interchange of commodities throughout the world, hardly requires serious ‘consideration. The producers in thickly- populated districts will reap the just reward of their folly if they dispose, without due compensation, of products which the require- ments of their own markets, or of their own soils, render it de- sirable that they should keep at home. But, if countries thinly populated in relation to the area, and to the capabilities of the soils and climates with which they have to deal, should not supply the wants of those more densely peopled, in exchange for such commodities as they may need and their customers may be able to supply, because in so doing they would dispose of a portion of the mineral constituents annually. liberated within their soils, the sooner this chemical principle of protection is understood and acted upon, and the sooner the commercial system of the world is abandoned, and we make up our minds to be satisfied with that which is produced at our own doors, the better we suppose will it be. For our own part, we are disposed to entertain some trust and confidence that the laws of supply and demand, if left un- fettered by artificial restrictions, will in this, as in other matters, so regulate production as may best contribute to the wants of mankind at large. Taking, however, the conditions of our agriculture as they really exist, and not anticipating a revolution in the sense just supposed, we are disposed to consider that the relation of the supplies of potass and other mineral constituents, to those of Report of Experiments on the Growth of Wheat. 501 phosphoric acid and nitrogen in the market and available from other sources, is such, that there is not much danger, except in isolated cases, of an excess of nitrogenous manure from without injuriously deranging that balance of constituents within the soil which it is essential to keep up, if not only full, but healthy, crops are to be produced. At present, at any rate, the produce per acre over the country at large is annually increasing rather than diminishing. The probability is, indeed, that any growing derangement in the composition of our soils will show itself in increasing tendency to abnormal growth, or disease of various kinds, rather than in gradual diminution of at the same time healthy crops. There is, however, as yet, so far as we are aware, no well-established evidence showing any clear connexion between the essential conditions of our modern system of cultivation, manuring, and cropping, on the one hand, and the prevalence of particular forms of faulty growth on the other. Indeed, on many of our heavier soils, and even on lighter ones if purchased cattle-food be liberally employed, corn crops may be grown more frequently than is consistent with what have generally been considered the established rules of good farming, not only without injury to the soil, but with pecuniary benefit to the producer. On heavy soils barley of better quality may be obtained after wheat than after a root-crop. But when corn is taken after corn, great attention should be paid to the cleaning of the land, and manure should be liberally applied. When wheat follows another corn-crop, not less than 50 to 60 Ibs. of - ammonia (or its equivalent of nitrogen in some other form) should be applied per acre, and when barley or oats follow a corn-crop, from 40 to 50 Ibs. The quantity of phosphate employed with the ammonia should be greater for spring than for autumn sown corn-crops, The manures should be applied at the time of sowing the seed, ( 502 ) MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NOTICES. 7.—Mr. J. B, Lawzs and the Mineral Theory. By Baron Lizsie. In the last number of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’ published i in 1863, there is a paper by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, in which old charges against me, personal and others, are revived ; and as they have sent an extract from that paper to all the Tinremiaee Agricultural Colleges, and Journals in Germany, as well as duplicates to myself, it is evident that they attach a great value to their statements, and in order to give others the means of judging them correctly, I think it advisable to answer them, In my ‘ Principles of Agricultural Chemistry’ (p. 90, 1855), I had called Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s attention to the fact that their experiments included the proof that farmyard-manure (organic manure) could be entirely replaced by mineral manure (for sulphate of ammonia and sal ammoniac are mineral) ; and, therefore, so far from refuting my doctrine, they had really sub- stantiated it. To this they replied that ammoniacal salts belonged to the class of organic manure ; that 1 had always considered them as such; and that in falling back on the strictly scientific mean- ing of the terms Lalas) and inorganic, | was begging the question ; was trying by a maneuvre or ruse to give a new defi- nition to my mineral theory, or rather to substitute for it another which was not my own. Although I tried to convince them by a. paper printed i in the ‘ Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ’ (1856), that I never had considered ammoniacal salts an organic manure, they return to their accusations now, and endeavour to support them by quoting the following passages of my works :— “But the weight or amount of the crops is in proportion to the quantity of food of both kinds, atmospheric and mineral, which is present in the soil, or conveyed to it in the same time. By manuring with aamoniacal salts a soil rich in available mineral constituents the crops are augmented in the same way as they would bave been if we had increased the proportion of ammonia in the air.”—Principles, pp. 77-8 (1855). “The mineral constituents act, as is shown by the produce of the unmanured land, without any artificial supply of ammonia. “The ammonia increases the produce only if the mineral constituents be present i in the soil in due quantity, and in an available form, “ Ammonia is without effect if the mineral constituents are wanting. Con- The Mineral Theory. 503 sequently, the action of ammonia is limited to the acceleration of the action of the mineral constituents in a given time.”—Principles, pp. 86-7 (1855). «........ the other is the action of sulphate of ammonia as a solvent for certain important mineral constituents of the soil.”—Jb., p. 99 (1855). “ Ammonia, when used as a manure alone, and when there is a want of mineral constituents in the soil, is like the spirits which the labourer takes in order to increase his available labour, power, or imagination ; and, like that stimulant, its action, in this case, is followed by a corresponding exhaustion.” —ZIb., p. 106 (1855). “ A fertile soil must contain in sufficient quantity, and in a form adapted for assimilation, all the éxorganic materials indispensable for the growth of plants. : ; ; A field artificially prepared for culture contains a certain amount of these ingredients, and also of ammoniacal salts and decaying vegetable matter,”— Fourth edition, p. 169. It is scarcely necessary to multiply these citations, as the mean- ing of them is nearly the same. The conclusion which is drawn by Mr, Lawes from these pas- sages is the following :— “These sentences will be sufficient to show whether or not Liebig is justified in now attempting to fall back, in agricultural discussions, upon the more strictly scientific meaning of the terms ‘mineral’ and ‘inorganic, so as to include within them ‘ammonia,’ ‘ammoniacal salts,’ ‘atmospheric constitu- ents,’ &c., and thus to give a new definition to his mineral theory, or rather substitute at this date for his own theory, which has proved to be erroneous, another not his own.” It is quite true that I have contrasted ammonia with mineral substances ; but the meaning of these passages must be obvious to any candid reader of my works, I said (4th edition, p. 59)— “No conclusion can have a better foundation than this—that it is the wm- monia of the atmosphere which furnishes nitrogen to plants,” In my ‘ Principles of Agricultural Chemistry,’ from which the first passages quoted by Lawes are taken, I said :— “ All these substances (phosphoric, sulphuric, silicic, and the alcalic, lime, _ magnesia, iron, &c.), ave included in theterm mineral food of plants. Carbonic acid and ammonia are the atmospheric food of vegetables.” (p. 24.) In my book I had to explain the relation of the atmosphere to the soil in the growth of plants, and to distinguish the elements furnished by the air and those by the soil, and to avoid, by con- trasting them, a long tedious enumeration of each of these elements, which all had been stated as inorganic. \ divided them into two classes—atmospherie and mineral. I must admit that some scientific education is required for a man to understand that the word atmospheric, designating gaseous compounds, like the word salt (for ammoniacal salts), in whatever connection they may be used, entirely exclude the idea of organic. We speak frequently of salts of organic acids (acids derived from organic compounds), but a salt itself is never called organic, 504 The Mineral Theory. because it is exactly the opposite of organic. As to the term mineral constituents, | showed in the 8th chapter of my book that the constituents of ashes are originally constituents of minerals— thus, potash, a constituent of feldspar ; phosphoric acid, a consti- tuent of apatite, &c.—(See also chap. 9, on formation ‘of arable soil, and chap. 12, on fallow.) From this it will be understood why I used the word mineral constituent to designate the constituents of ashes, sometimes of soils, but never for ammonia. Ammonia. is a constituent of the atmosphere, but is never a constituent of any mineral: it is mineral and inorganic, but not a’ mineral constituent, For a man not versed in scientific language, there is some ambiguity in the word mineral—at least in Germany we say sui- phate of ammonia is mineral (in its origin), and the mineralogists say sulphate of ammonia is not a mineral (species) ; but this has nothing to do with Lawes and Gilbert’s accusations. Although the word organic does not occur in any of the sentences quoted from my works, and is never associated with ammonia, although I distinctly stated that the opposite of mineral constituents was atmospheric, they affirm that by atmospheric I understood organic constituents. ‘Their mode of arguing is most simple. ‘They take any passage out of my book, twist their own erroneous idea into it, and then assert that, by contrasting am- monia with mineral constituents, I had regarded it as an organic manure, The origin of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s statements can scarcely be understood without referring to a definition of manure which Mr, Lawes gave in 1847, and which he is pleased to call his theory. It is the following (‘ Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England,’ vol. viii. p. 240) :—} “T NOW COME TO THE ACTION OF manures, WHICH are generally divided into two classes—organic and inorganic. ALTHOUGH THIS DISTINCTION IS BY No MEANS SATISFACTORY, I SHALL ADOPT IT AS BEING GENERALLY UNDERSTOOD, Organic manures are those which are capable of yielding to the plant, by decomposition or otherwise, oR¢ANIC MATTER—carbon, hydrogen, OXYGEN, and nitrogen—CONSTITUENTS WHICH UNCULTIVATED PLANTS DERIVE ORIGINALLY FROM THE ATMOSPHERE. Inorganic manures are those substances which con- tain the mineral ingredients, of which the ash of plants is found to consist.” Before I enter on any discussion of this definition or theory, I must beg to recal the views, on the food of plants, which I pub- lished in the year 1840. They are contained in the following passage :— “The elements of nourishment of all green plants are inorganic or mineral substances, «The plant lives on carbonic acid, ammonia, water, phosphoric acid, sul- The Mineral Theory. 505 _phuric acid, lime, magnesia, potash, iron; and many, too, require common salt,” As I did not admit the existence of organic food, my theory was called mineral theory. This name was correct, inasmuch as it was directly opposite to another theory, which prevailed before 1840. According to De Saussure, Sprengel, Thaer, &c., there were two different laws of nourishment, and two kinds of manure, organic and inorganic. “ Uncultivated plants,” says De Saussure, “ receive their combustible elements from the air, their carbon from carbonic acid ; but the products generated from this kind of food possess no value for agricultural purposes. ‘The normal development of cultivated plants, on the other hand, and the amount of pro- duce of arable fields, depends on organic matter in the soil, on residues of fermentation, and decay of animgl and vegetable matter.” “Fertile soils contain a mixture of these remains, and their absorption by the roots is a powerful assistance to the food which is contributed by the air and water.” “Plants receive their nitrogen almost entirely by the absorption of the soluble organic substances.” ‘Mineral substances, marl, gypsum, clay, lime, favour the growth of plants, but take no part in nourishment.”—(Sce ‘ Biblioth¢que Universelle,’ t. 3, p. 430 ; ‘Ann. of Chemistry,’ t. 42, p. 235.) This view, it will be seen, is diametrically opposed to my theory, inasmuch as De Saussure maintained the necessity of organic food for cultivated plants, and I denied it altogether. At first sight the so-called theory. of Lawes, or his definition of manure, would seem exactly identical with that of De Saussure. Mr. Lawes assumes the existence of different laws for cultivated and uncultivated plants, and of two classes of manure, organic and. ténorganic, just as De Saussure and Sprengel maintained; Mr. Lawes does not claim this theory as his own, but states that it . was generally understood, though by no means satisfactory. There are, however, two essential differences between Mr. Lawes’s so-called theory and that of De Saussure. First, that Mr. Lawes admits the existence of inorganic food or manure, consisting of the substances contained in the ashes of plants. The second, that Mr. Lawes applied the name of organic manure to something very different from what De Saussure meant. For the first, De Saussure knew nothing of the fact that the ashes of plants were nutritive elements; for he maintained that they (for instance, potash, lime, magnesia), were variable ingredients, changing with the geological formation and character of soils. I think no one can deny that I was the first to point out that the elements of the ashes were really food of plants, and Mr. Lawes has most certainly no claim to this essential part of my theory. As to the second, by organic manure De Saussure meant 506 The Mineral Theory. genuine organic matter. Mr. Lawes, bowever, has not the slight- est desire to prove that the vegetable mould of Sprengel, or the organic extracts of De Saussure, are necessary ingredients of an efficient manure. On the contrary, all his experiments tend to prove that these substances, which cannot be produced in a ma- nufactory, are not necessary. What then does Mr. Lawes mean by organic manures ? The reader will be puzzled to learn that Mr. Lawes’s theory, correctly expressed, is exactly the same which I published seven years before his definition of manure :—That the action of manure depends on two classes of bodies. ‘The combustible part of plants derive their carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, from car- bonie acid, ammonia, and water ; the incombustible parts of plants consist of phosphoric, sulphuric acid, potash, soda, lime, magne- sia, silica, iron; that ‘* stable manuregthe excrements of men and animals, do not influence vegetable life by means of their organic elements, but indirectly by means of the inorganic compounds which decomposition and slow combustion produce ; in conse= quence, therefore, of their carbon being changed into carbonic acid and their nitrogen into ammonia, Thus” organic manure, consisting of parts or remains of plants or animals, may be re- placed by those inorganic compounds into which it resolves itself in the soil.” ‘ The difference between Lawes’s theory and mine is simply this—that he has borrowed the substance of mine and the terms of De Saussure’s theory—that he calls ammonia, carbonic acid, and water, which I had called atmospheric food, organic manures ! There is still a question to be solved :—Were these three sub- stances classed by Lawes as organic manure generally understood by that name ? Now it is perfectly certain that neither De Saussure nor Sprengel employed the term organic to denote these three sub- stances, which they knew as inorganic. This denomination can therefore not be referred to them. ‘There ‘exist, moreover, no chemical works published before Lawes’s definition (1847), in which they are classed as organic food or organic manure. It was consequently not generally understvod that ammonia, water, and carbonic acid belong to the class of organic manure. ‘The part of Mr. Lawes’s theory which belongs to himself, is merely this erroneous nomenclature; I repeat, that the terms of his definition of manure he has taken from De Saussure, the essence of it is simply mine, but the manner in which he has tacked De Saussure’s terms on to my meaning is purely his. I cannot think that the humblest teacher of chemistry in Great Britain would be content to accept a theory from a man who shows such ignorance of the first elements 6f chemistry as Mr. The Mineral Theory. 507 Lawes, and yet Mr. Lawes has the conceit to make believe that I had adopted his definition of manure seven years before he gave it, and that although it was by no means satisfactory to himself, it was perfectly satisfactory to a German professor of chemistry. ; It is obvious that his definition of manure would be perfectly satisfactory, if his word organic were changed into my word atmospheric, and carbonic acid, ammonia, and water included in the term inorganic, to which they are universally assigned., Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert’s conclusions belong to that class which goes under the name of Fallacies of Confusion in John Stuart Mill’s‘ System of Logic,’ and which comprehends, “ among others, all those which have their source in language, whether arising from the vagueness of our terms or from casual associ- ations with them, in which no other causes can be assigned for the mistake committed than neglect or inability to state the question properly, and to appreciate the evidence with definite- ness and precision.” If the leading idea of my work is borne in mind, as it is stated in the following passage (4th edition), ‘On Manure,’ p-. 186 :— “‘ A time will come when plants growing upon a field will be supplied with their appropriate manures, prepared in chemical manufactories, when a plant will receive only such substances as actually serve for its food, just as at present a few grains of quinine are given to a patient afflicted with fever instead of the ounce of wood, which he was formerly compelled to swallow in addition,” it will be seen that all my statements and endeavours were directed with a view to oppose the ruling idea that organic ma- nure was necessary to preserve the fertility of fields and to increase the crops. The prejudice in favour of their necessity had grown to be a dogma, and the progress of agriculture depended on the farmers becoming aware of their error. My whole book may be described as an uninterrupted protest against the existence of organic food of plants, for organic matter cannot in the nature of things be produced by chemical manu- factories ; and if they were really necessary, chemistry could afford no assistance to agriculture. If any one will consider the real cause of this sixteen years’ controversy, he will be aware that it is a false definition of manure. If Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert had not classed ammonia and ammoniacal salts among organic manures, a dispute upon my theory would have had no excuse. There is something so degrading from a scientific point of view at the bottom of this controversy, that those who have taken part against the only scientific doctrine which agriculture possesses, will look back 508 The Mineral Theory. with shame when a few years have elapsed ; but there is nothing humiliating to me, although much that is highly annoying, for I am not so proud as to think myself humbled when I am fulfilling the vocation to which I have devoted my life—that is, of instruct- ing others. ‘To suppose that in this controyersy I was influenced by personal motives would simply be absurd. When I strenuously endeavoured to make the agriculturists view things rightly, it was not for their own sakes, but in order to ward off future evils and the imminent dangers which threaten society at large. Every man of intelligence must see the strongest confirmation of my teaching in all the facts produced in this dispute. Every single experiment of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert brings new evidence in its favour, and every doubt must disappear by the creation and progress in all countries of Europe of an immense branch of industry—the fabrication of artificial manures from inorganic or mineral substances, which is now extensively employed. Mr. Lawes’s definition of manure, though false in itself, may yet have had, perhaps, a good effect in diffusing more widely these artificial manures, which are all, without exception, mineral manures. ‘The prejudice in favour of organic manure was so strong that many agriculturists accepted under that name artificial manure which they would have refused under the name mineral manure, and Mr. Lawes, acting on his definition, could give, in all conscience, the assurance, that their manure for corn contained the organic constituent which is most efficacious in stable-dung. 8.— Use of Green-podded Beans as Food for Stock. My pear Sir,—In accordance with your wish, I send you the results of my experience, extending over several years, in the use of green-podded beans, passed through the chaffcutter and given to stock. Horses, cattle, cows, sheep, and pigs, all thrive - upon this food. It is especially good for milch cows and for fattening bullocks ; so much so, that the latter will leave much of their cake if they get a full allowance of beans. To turn them to the best account they should be allowed to stand till they are well podded. We begin to use them about the first week in July, and continue to do so until the 20th of August, the period varying according to season. There is a great weight of food in one acre of beans. We calculate that they pay about 7/. 10s. per acre in meat. It seems strange that so few are used in this manner, even when farmers are very short of summer-feed. We generally give a little bran and malt-combs with the Advantage of Inoculating Sheep for Smail-Pox. 5Q9 beans, and from about the middle of August, when they become fit for harvesting, mix some straw-chaff with them to prevent the bullocks getting “ blown.” | J. MECHI. August, 1864. 9.—On the Advantage of Inoculating Sheep for the Small-Poz. By Jostan Deacon. On y lately returned to England after very many years’ residence in Russia, [ was both surprised and gratified on reading Pro- fessor Simond’s able lecture on ‘‘ Small-Pox in Sheep ;” surprised that the question had not been long since decided, gratified at his masterly and conclusive treatment of the subject. I venture now to add my humble testimony, derived from twenty-five years’ experience in the steppe country of Mid and South Russia, where I have had landed estates under my administration with flocks of merino sheep varying from a few thousand head to upwards of twenty thousand. On these inoculation was systema- tically employed with unfailing success. Although the sheep under my charge were perpetually exposed to contagion, from the existence in our immediate neighbourhood of flocks in which thousands have died from the neglect of this precaution, J never lost an adult animal from the ordinary small-poz. In order to show the impossibility of avoiding contagion, I may state that the only boundary-mark between properties in the open steppe country is a deep furrow made with the plough, which is soon overgrown with grass. The shepherds are accus- tomed to meet on the border to chat with their neighbours. How- ever strict the orders were not to approach a neighbour’s frontier when his sheep were tainted by this disease, | have myself more than once caught the, shepherds returning from, or close to the frontier when such a flock was in sight. Detection is, how- ever, very difficult, as twenty thousand sheep would be spread over a space,of some forty or fifty thousand acres, divided into many farmsteads, ' I have heard of sheep which had been inoculated having caught the infection, but have frequently traced the cause to imperfect inoculation, which was not unfrequent so long as the operator merely passed an impregnated thread through the ear of the animal; but, as soon as the plan of making the puncture under and on,the fleshy part of the tail became general, such failures were less common, I was as particular in insisting on the careful inoculation of our lambs as on the vaccination of the children of the peasants. Our losses of /ambs from inoculation VOL. XXV. 2N 510 Subsoiling Pastures, Sc. were so trifling that we never kept a separate account ; they were merged in the general total of yearly losses. The only precaution considered to be necessary was not to inoculate during very hot or cold weather; the latter, in parti- cular, proved fatal by preventing the free formation of the: pustules and driving the disease inwards. Those who have the general charge of large flocks in Russia are mostly Germans who have some knowledge of the veterinary art, and I never yet met with one of them (I have had many under my orders) who doubted for one moment the efficacy of inoculation; on the contrary, it is considered by them to be one of their most im- portant duties to perform that operation with success. The German sheep-inspector, who is always well paid and is intelli- gent, would as soon think of being without his pipe as without his inoculating needle ! I shall be most happy to give any further information on this head to any one requiring it; my address will be with the worthy Secretary of the Society, 10.—On Subsoiling Pastures, with a description of a new Imple- ment. By H. Woop. As the breaking-up of meadow-land is prohibited by most farm- leases under a heavy penalty, my attention has long been directed towards the best means of improving it. I venture to lay before the readers of the Society’s Journal a brief statement of the results of my experiments during the last 20 years. The roots of meadow-grass require nourishment as much as those of garden or field plants under spade or arable cultivation. Ihave known them sometimes to penetrate to the depth of 18 inches, finding their way into the holes of rabbit-burrows; at other times they have become so interlaced and interwoven as to prevent the downward percolation of water, even after a heavy fall of rain. Puddles of water on the hide-bound surface of meadows tend to rot the grass, and where open dyains are con- structed, the water in passing off not unfrequently carries away with it portions of manure held in solution or suspension, and thereby robs the land of nourishment. To prevent this waste of valuable fertilising constituents, I have adopted the practice of scarifying or cutting through, the surface of the meadow to the depth of 12 or 13 ‘inches ; and a passage being thus opened, through which the water can filter, every particle of manure con- tained in it is retained by the soil, just in the same way as an ordinary domestic filter abstracts and detains the impurities of drinking water. Subsoiling Pastures, §c. Si} The implement which I use for the purpose is a scarifier, 6 ft. across the back beam, and 3 ft. across the front. It was origi- nally made for tines of 3 sizes, but for these I have substituted curved knife tines to be. affixed to the cast-iron frame, at a dis- tance of 24 ft. or 3 ft. apart. The knives are so curved that their point is 15 inches below, and 15 inches to the right or left of the head. The weight of the implement is from 4 cwts. to 5 cwts., and as I only use it at the end of October or beginning of November, when the ground (a tenacious soil on a clay subsoil) is soft and well saturated with rain, a pair of horses can draw it with ease, and make 7 acres of good work in aday. I prefer working at a depth of 12 or 13 inches, but this can be regulated by raising or depressing the wheels, of which there are 2 pairs so placed as to keep the implement in true position. Taking the cost of horse-hire at 8s. per diem, and wages at 2s., the cost of the operation will average about ls. 2d. per acre. After the heavy autumnal rainfall the surface of the meadow should be brought to a level with the roller before the scarifier is used, . Woodhill, Ripley. 2 2 ( 512°) ABSTRACT REPORT OF AGRICULTURAL DISCUSSIONS. . ‘ —1e— Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, February 17th. orp Frversuam in the Chair. Mr, J. B. Lawzs, of Rothamsted, Herts, introduced the subject of Tue Action ofr Common Satr as Manure. He said: Salt is a substance very largely used. by the agriculturists of Great Britain, and supposed to possess very valuable properties. Among its other advantages, it is said largely to increase the pro- duction of grain and straw, and to improve the quality of both. It has also the reputation of producing very great effects on certain crops of marine origin, such for example as mangold wurzel, for which it is much used, and of fixing ammonia in the soil, and conveying moisture in dry seasons. Many experiments on the advantages resulting from the use of salt have been published, but I do not propose to refer to them, because last year. certain owners of salt works offered a prize for the best essay on that subject; and when published, it will doubtless contain all that is known as to the good qualities of salt. There is great difficulty in arriving at definite con- clusions with regard to the actual value of manures, and forming a correct pounds-shillings-and-pence notion of their effects in the soil. Sinclair states, as the result of experiments made in 1817, that while 45 tons of dung gave between 40 and 50 bushels of wheat per acre, 6 bushels of salt gave above 70 bushels, and 45 bushels of salt gave above 90 bushels. Experiments such as these, however, cannot be accepted in the present day; and I propose to pass over results published with regard to salt, and to confine myself to some experiments which have been carried on upon my own farm. The field to which I am now about to refer was manured for turnips in 1839, after which there were removed from the land, barley in 1840, peas in 1841, wheat in 1842, and oats in 1843, without any manure being applied, by which the land was brought into a level and compa- ratively exhausted condition. In 1848 it was sown with wheat, and has been under that crop ever since. The particular experiments to which I am going to refer were conducted on plots A and B, consisting of about one-third of an acre each, and running parallel to each other down the field. With one exception these two plots have, for 20 years, received exactly the same description and amount of artificial manure each year. In 1844, 1845, and 1846 they reccived the same manures ; in 1847 one received rather more artificial manure than the other, and therefore IT pass over those years. The Table to which I am going to refer gives the average produce of 1848, 1849, and 1850; for 1851, 1852, and 1853; and then for the last ten years, The difference Lhe Action of Common Salt as Manire. 513 between A and B is this: they both received exactly the same amount of other artificial manure; but A, unlike B, received for three years together 3 ewts. of common salt per annum in addition to the other ,manures. The parallel is exact, with that exception; and if there be “any difference in the produce it ‘must be due to the salt. Wueat YEAR AFTER YEAR ON THE SAME LAND. Prors A and B the same mixed Mrnerat and AmMmonrA MANuRE each Year; and A 3 Cwts, of Common Salt, per Acre, in addition, i in 1851, 1852, and 1858. Produce per Acre, &c. | Dressed Corn. Total Gace 7 Ww ‘cht Produce, Corn to 100 yeigh & Straw straw. = Averages of Harvests. Bushels. | Per Bushel aarares th Bay eo tat Bey Dressed. (Ibs.) Plot A Plot B Plot A|Plot B[Plot A Plot BlPiot A) Plot B)Plot A|PlotB NR Ni IG90. | doy | con |oeche taken cece | case Lrescn | as. URS Years before using salty ¢) S| 32% | 61-6 | 61-1 | s0ss | 9976 | 97-2 | 56-0 | 6-7 6°3 1851, 1852, and 1853. (3 Ba | tel KA See a a : pei ay 30 | 303 | 56-9 | 36-7 | 6535 | 6568 | 42°6 | 41-7 | 12°3 | 1-0 eee years after?! goz| goz | 5g-4 | 58-4 | 7799 | 7811 | 49°6 | 50-4 | 7-4) 8:3 1838-1863 (16 years) . . | 372| 374 | 58°7 | 58°7 | 7222 | 7234 | 49-7 | aos | 8:2 8-4 | | Sometimes when a manure has been applied to the soil, the en- suing year happens to be favourable, and this may not be the case at another period. Therefore, to arrive at exact conclusions, we must follow the results down from year to year for a con- siderable length of time. It will be seen by referring to the Table that the mean produce of 1848, 1849, and 1850, the years previous to the application of salt, was 32: and 324 bushels respectively ; showing that the crops of wheat were extremely alike. There was, in fact, no difference between them. Again, in 1851, 1852, and 1853, the years in which A received 3 ewts. of salt per acre per annum, and B did not, the produce of wheat per acre was exactly the same, being 30 ‘bushels in each case. Then, in the next ten years the produce was again nearly alike. The produce of the sixteen years was in each case 37} bushels; showing that there was no trace whatever of the action of the 9 cwts. of common salt. Some persons think that although salt may not increase the quantity of produce, it improves its quality. Let us see what was the weight of the grain per bushel. In the first three years the weight was a little higher in A than in B; in the three years 1851, 1852, and i858, when the salt was applied, the difference was again slightly in favour of A, though not so much as it was before ; and in the next ten years, the weights per bushel were almost exactly alike. In point of fact it made no difference whatever, whether we used 9 ewts. of common salt or not. I now come to the total produce of straw and corn as shown in the second division of the Table. The total annual produce of the first three years was 5985 Ibs. against 5976 lbs., a difference of a few pounds only ; in the three years when salt was used the produce was as nearly 514 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions. as possible the same; and in the ten years after the salt was applied, the average produce was 7799 lbs. against 7811 lbs.—again a differ- ence of only a few pounds. In the total average produce of the whole period of sixteen years the difference was only 12 lbs., 7222 Ibs. against 7234 lbs. The next columns show the relation of corn to straw. Salt is sup- posed to strengthen straw and improve its quality. The figures show. the proportion of corn to 100 straw. In the first period, before ‘salt was applied, A, having 57 lbs. of corn, was rather superior to B, which had 56 lbs. In the next period we have 42°6 against 41°7, there being again a slight difference in favour of A. In the next ten years the case was reversed, and the result was in favour of the land which received no salt, the figures being 49:6 against 50. Again, in the sixteen years the comparison is 49-7 against 49°8, being a very little im favour of B. Taking the whole period, there is, practically, no difference in the proportions of corn and straw. I must now speak of the proportion of offal corn to 100 lbs. of dressed corn as shown in the last column. In the first three years A was in this respect slightly superior to B. In the three years in which salt was applied, the reverse was the case; that is to say, the quantity of offal corn was a little larger when the salt was used. In the third year of this second period, I may remark, the balance was still greater against salt; the offal corn was then 17 on A, to 13 on B, showing that the salt had the effect of injuring instead of improving the quality. In the next ten years the result was 7-4 in A to 8°3 in B. Taking the sixteen years the results are almost identical; that is to say, we see no effect whatever from the use of salt in these careful and prolonged experiments. Turning now to the action of salt upon another crop, I may remark that on my own farm I generally grow from 10 to 15 acres of mangold wurzel a year; and, following the common custom, I have usually applied salt to the land. My usual course has been to apply half a dressing of dung in the autumn, and half a dressing in the spring, and then the 2 ewts. of guano or some other artificial manure, and 4 ewts. of salt per acre, the salt and artificial manure being strained on the top of the dung, and ridged in, and the seed dibbled on the top. As everybody says that salt is good for mangold wurzel I have always used it; and, assuming that it did increase the crop, I was anxious to ascertain more exactly the extent of its effect. Last year I ordered one acre to be manured with 5 ewts. of salt, another with 10 cwts., and another to be left without any salt, the other manures being the same in the three cases. One thing which struck me immediately was, that the plants which had no salt grew faster than those which had it. There could be no mistake about the matter. The salt evidently appeared to check the growth of the mangold wurzel. This went on for a good many months, and at one time there was a great difference between one set of roots and the others, The crops were very carefully weighed, with the following result :—The produce per acre in roots was, without salt, 21 tons 2 cwts.; with the smaller quantity of salt it was 20 tons The Action of Common Salt as Manure. 515 10 ewts.—a difference of 12 ewts.; and where 10 ewts.’ of salt were applied there were only 18 tons. Again, as regards tops, where there was no salt the produce of .tops was 7 tons 6 ewts., where the smaller quantity was applied it was 8 tons 5 ewts., and where the larger quantity was used it was 7 tons 8 ewts. Therefore the result was, that where the smaller quantity of salt was used there was more top and less bulb, and where the larger quantity was used both top and bulb were less. These experiments are for one year only, and therefore I do not rely much upon them. I am satisfied that this year salt has checked the growth of mangold wurzel rather than promoted it; and though this may have been because the season was a very dry one, the effect was certainly very distinct. I have one more set of experiments to bring before you; they are not my own, but were conducted some years ago by Mr. Keary on the farm of the Earl of Leicester. Mr. Keary who was a very strong advocate for salt, and contended that it did a great deal of good, was kind enough to send me the result of some experiments which he made upon wheat in the years 1852, 1853, and 1854, His practice was, he stated, to put 6 tons of dung, 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda, and 2 cwts. of salt, mixed together, per acre. In some cases his separate experiments are comparable with one another. For example, in one case he used only 1 ewt. of nitrate of soda, and in another 1 cwt. of’ nitrate of soda with 2 ewts. of salt. In the first year the nitrate of soda with the salt gave 37 bushels, and the nitrate without the salt gave 424 bushels; in the second year the nitrate of soda with the salt gave 33? bushels, and the nitrate of soda without it 35 bushels; in the third year the nitrate of soda with the salt gave 47 bushels, and without it 49 bushels. In the three years there was a difference in favour of the nitrate of soda without the salt of 83 bushels of wheat and 6 cwts. ‘of straw. The results of these experiments were sent to me by Mr. Keary to,shoy the great value of salt, whereas I might cite him as a witness against salt as a manure. It may be that sufficient care was not exercised in making the experiments in the instance referred to; but be that as it may, the result is to show a loss in three years of 83 bushels of corn and 6 ewts. of straw, arising from the use of 6 ewts. of salt. : Some years ago a French commission was sent to this country to inquire as to the effect of salt on corn. I never saw the Report of that commission; but the other day I wrote to Monsieur Barral (editor of the ‘Journal d’Agriculture Pratique’) to make inquiries about it ; and in his reply he states as follows :— : “ Paris, Feb, Sth, 1864. “The Report you mention is written by Mr. Milne Edwards. It was printed at the ‘Imprimerie Nationale, at the expense of the French Govern- ment, in January, 1850. Mr. Milne Edwards was then trying his best to prove the possibility of restoring the old tax on salt without doing any injury whatever to agricultural interests; consequently, he declared most readily that salt is useless as a manure, and his opinion may be suspected of being tainted by some political prejudices. Nevertheless, I believe in the 516 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions, truthfulness of that part of the Report, and am myself prepared to declare that salt is of no value aé all as a manure, if used without any other fertilizing matter. But lam ready to alter my opinion respecting mixtures, as double decompositions may be produced in the womb of Mother Earth.” Thus it appears that M. Barral is of opinion that salt has no value as a manure itself, but that it may act usefully in conjunction with other manures. So far as my own experiments have proceeded, I have always used it in conjunction with other manures; but the results have not been satisfactory. It may be asked, Why should not salt be useful when we find it existing largely in a certain class of plants? There can be no doubt that salt is to be found in a certain class of plants; but the question of the value of salt depends, I think, not so much upon what is found in the plant as upon what is sent off the farm. If salt is taken out of the land by a plant which is consumed on the farm, as is the case with mangold wurzel, it may be concluded that the salt is not exported, and that it therefore needs not to be replaced by import. As to grain, an analysis of ripe corn will show that it contains little or no salt: there is just a trace of it, and nothing more. Animals undoubtedly contain salt. I have had a great many animals analyzed at different times, and you may assume, as a general rule, that an animal, as he stands alive, contains about 3 per cent. of mineral matter ; an ox about 4 per cent., and sheep and pigs about 23. Three per cent. may be taken as an average of mineral matter, and of this about 8 per cent. is salt. Therefore an ox weighing 1000 lbs. contains about 23 Ibs. of salt, and a sheep or a pig weighing 1 cwt. contains about 4 ounces of salt. Hence the amount of salt carried off the farms by animals is very small indeed. A great many experiments have been made for the purpose of ascer- taining the amount of salt which falls on the land through the medium of rain. I do not wish to go into figures, but there can be no doubt that a large quantity does descend in that way upon our soil. In our climate, surrounded as we are by sea, the fall of salt in rain is decidedly larger than the amount carried off the land by salts from the farm, and consequently, so far as our fields require salt, they obtain it from that source. Without expressing any very strong opinion on the subject, I would say that the general conclusion at which I have arrived is that salt does not act beneficially as a manure, though it has occasionally an action of some kind or other ; and thatif there are many well cultivated farms on which salt is used, there are also many which are kept in the highest condition without the purchase of it. Iam not at all prepared to say that the former are not as well farmed, or do not produce as good crops as the latter. I cannot help thinking, that the large amount of money which is expended annually on salt as a manure throughout the British Isles is not returned in the produce. There may be some cases in which it is, but I think that, as a general rule, the outlay of money is not returned in increased production. The Action of Common Salt as Manure. 517 In answer to the Chairman, Mr. Lawss said, as the result of experi- ments on the effects of salt in the feeding of cattle, he had arrived at the conclusion that, though it might be very well to give animals a taste of salt, great care should be taken not to supply it in excess. In answer to Mr. Dent, who thought that Mr. Lawes might have used an excessive quantity of salt on his farm, and thereby retarded the growth of his crops, Mr. Lawezs replied, that 4 cwt. per acre of salt had been his ordinary dressing. His object had been to grow large crops, and he assumed that salt was likely to be beneficial to mangold wurzel, but though there was plenty of plant it was possible that, in the experiments referred to, the application of salt might have been excessive. Mr. Fisnzr Hoss, having prefaced his remarks by observing that a good deal depended on the cliaracter of the climate and soil where salt is used, said :—So far as my experience goes, I may remark that in the eastern parts of England, where we have a dry climate, we find, especially in the case of marine plants, that salt is very beneficial. We also perceive that along the coast, where the air is impregnated with salt, we can grow mangold wurzel, even without farmyard- manure, better than in other situations. Not only so, but the quality of the crop is decidedly firmer, and mangold is generally admitted to contain more saccharine matter there than in parts of the interior where high farming is carried on. Therefore I think the remarks which Mr. Lawes has made to-day only show that, so far as his experi- ments have gone, they have not proved salt to be of very great service. I believe that salt and guano, mixed at the rate of about 3 ewts. per acre of each, form an excellent manure for both wheat and mangold wurzel. We have found in my own county that where salt has been used through a course of cropping, especially on marls and other similar lands, it has not produced the same advantages that it did previously. I myself have used it to a considerable extent at various periods of the year, and have been occasionally annoyed at having my attention called, particularly after frost, to the bad appearance of my wheat, where salt had been applied... One great benefit of salt in our dry climate is, perhaps, in its destruction of many insects in the soil, which for the last few years have been very injurious, not only to our root-crops, but also to many of our cereals. I know very well that we cannot lay down any general rule with regard to modes of cultivation or the application of manures; but I do not agree with Mr. Lawes that, on the whole, salt has been too highly valued by farmers. I think he will find, on examination, that even in a humid climate it is beneficial. In Corn- wall, fishery salt, as it is termed, appears to be used almost universally for stiffening straw. In my experience I have scen fields of wheat where 3 ewt. of salt. per acre had been applied, and the straw was remarkably white and very stiff, while in other cases a much smaller application has apparently produced an equally beneficial effect. On the other hand, I have known salt prove very injurious when applied to a crop of swede turnips, though when applied to mangold on the same soil it produced a good effect. We sce in our gardens how beneficial salt is to asparagus, which is a marine plant. Again, 518 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions. sea-weed, which of course contains a considerable proportion of salt, is now extensively used, and the more its effects are seen, the greater is the demand for it. I do not think that salt should be run down as if it were a thing of no agricultural value; for there are soils and climates where it is very beneficial when used judiciously. The CHarrman having testified to the beneficial effects of salt in arresting the ravages of the turnip-fly, asked Mr. Hobbs whether he had known salt alone to be efficacious in destroying insects ? Mr. Fisnzr Hoss said he had never found any active property of that kind in salt when applied by itself, but in combination with other manuring ingredients it had so operated. A more powerful agent than salt was required to destroy the fly; and it should be applied when the plant was humid, for it would then act most beneficially upon the leaf. Mr. Drnt, M.P., would like to know whether Mr. Lawes had made any experiments with salt on grass land. A notion had generally prevailed that the application of salt to land bearing rough or coarse grass had a tendency to produce a finer kind of herbage. He had always been in the habit of applying salt for mangold wurzel. For some years he grew very good crops, but he did not believe that for the last four years any one in Yorkshire had produced a satisfactory crop ; ‘yet the crops there had, he believed, been grown very much in the same manner every year, and with the same proportion of salt. The use of salt had certainly, in Yorkshire, the effect of stopping the maggot, which was eating the leaf. Dr. Vortcxer said, from what he had seen on a large scale in pass- ing through different counties of England, and from his inquiries into the circumstances under which salt had been used, he had come to the conclusion that in light and sandy soils salt was often, if not gene- rally, used with very great benefit; while on heavy soils it was attended with either no advantage whatever, or decided disadvantage. Amongst the properties of salt there was one which belonged, he believed, to all very soluble saline matters, viz., that of retarding the growth of plants when applied in quantities of above 3 cwt. per acre. Salt certainly retarded the growth of plants, and for that very reason it was, he believed, that it was of such great utility on the lighter soils. It kept the plant for a longer time vegetating and in good growing condition, and the final result was a larger produce, especially in the case of mangolds. In the eastern counties the moderate use of salt had very materially increased the root-crop, and, as he believed, in virtue of its retarding the growth of the plant. In lighter soils, when dry weather set in, roots were very apt to dwindle away, or to yield only half crops; but by applying salt in moderate quantities, provided the land were otherwise well manured, the life of the plant was prolonged, and a larger crop ultimately obtained. But the reverse of this was the case when salt was applied to heavy land. In some parts of Gloucestershire the crop was sometimes taken up before it was ripe, and the mangold was there less valued in consequence. The use of salt on stiff clay soils, such as those referred to, would further retard the ripening. ‘The use of manures like superphosphates, which The Action of Common Salt as Manure. 519 promote early maturity, was here advisable. The question, in fact, was entirely one of maturity. Salt was taken up in immense quantities by plants. Some time ago he made some experiments on that subject, and he was amazed at the enormous quantity which he found plants to absorb. Salt being assimilated by plants, circulated in them; and, according to their structural differences, some plants were benefited and others de- stroyed by it. Cabbages would take up an enormous quantity of salt. He had seen a plant with the salt taken up by the roots crystallizing on the leaves. This property of assimilation in salt was very useful for some purposes, but injurious in others. The question was, in fact, altogether one of soil. ‘Therefore he believed they were not justified in saying, on the one hand, that salt was of no use; or on the other, that it was of very great use. It depended on the application which was made of it whether it would be useful or the reverse. Some years ago he made some experiments on grass-land with salt and with nitrate of soda. Now nitrate of soda pushed on the growth of grass, and secured a larger produce. Salt, on the other hand, checked it to such an extent, that if they used on stiffish land as much as 10 ewt. per acre, they would get less crop, even though nitrate of soda were used with it. Cattle were very fond of salt grass, naturally preferring sweet to rank herbage; and if cattle, especially when out of condition, were placed in fields where there were large deposits of ammoniacal manure, salt would be of great advantage in checking rank vegetation and sweetening the herbage. But, then, while salt sweetened the herbage, it diminished the total amount of produce. He would only add, that his last year’s experiments in mangold, so far as they went, tended to confirm the view taken by Mr. Lawes. By the use of various quan- tities of salt, beginning with 1 cwt. and going up to 9 ewt., he obtained results which did not prove that on a heavy calcareous clay salt pro- duced a beneficial effect. Mr. J. Hooxrer (Oatlands, Walton-on-Thames), said: Having made some experiments with salt, he had put down the results, which did not at all accord with those of Mr. Lawes. His soil was a rather stiff clay resting on a sandy subsoil, on the banks of the Thames. He took the land in 1860 in a very foul condition. Ten acres he was obliged to fallow. Four acres by the side of them, and with precisely the same kind of soil, he planted with mangold wurzel, for which crop he applied 4 ewt. of salt per acre at different periods of the year. In the autumn of 1861 he sowed the plots with rough chaff wheat over the whole fourteen acres. The plant came up well, and looked remark- ably well up to the time of blooming, giving the promise of a large crop; but then the crop on the ten acres which had received no salt entirely broke down. The yield was as follows: the four acres salted gave 30 bushels per acre of good quality; the ten acres which were not salted gave 20 bushels per acre of tailing quality. He selected samples of straw from each piece for analysis in order to see what was the cause of this failure, and whether salt or the want of it had anything to do with the result. On examining the ash of that grown on the salted land he found that it gave 83 per cent. of silica; whereas 520 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions. the ash of some of the best straw that could be found on the land not salted only gave 78°94 per cent. of silica. Moreover, the straw of the salted land was by far the brighter of the two, and was much harder for the reapers to cut, a consequence of its containing more silica, The next year he conducted a series of experiments on the same kind of land, though not the same pieces. The wheat was drilled in the autumn of 1862, and 14 ewt. of salt per acre was sown broad- cast,on the 12th of May, 1863. A few plots in the piece were not salted ; at harvest several pieces of each were carefully weighed. The following is the mean result of this experiment:—The land salted gave a produce of 2475 Ibs. of wheat per acre, and that not salted gave a produce of 2337 lbs.; showing an excess of 138 lbs. per acre on the salted land. Further, the land salted gave a produce of 3389 Ibs. of straw per acre, and the land not salted a produce of-3150 Ibs. ; showing 239 Ibs. per acre extra on the salted land. The greater weight of straw in proportion to the wheat, is accounted for by the finer quality of the straw, which containing more mineral matter than that grown on unsalted land, consequently weighed heavier. He agreed with Professor Voelcker that on stiff land a small quantity of salt was better than a large quantity, and that it ought to be used sparingly in each application; he would prefer manuring the root-crop with salt to its direct application to cereals. Mr. Lawes, in replying to the various criticisms on his remarks, said, it might be supposed that his land was not favourable for an application of salt; but it should be observed that his experiments with mangold wurzel were carried on, not upon experimental land, but as part of his ordinary farm practice; the soil being a heavy loam resting on yellow clay. Mr. Keary’s experiments were also part of what is termed farming practice ; and, though he said that salt was a capital manure, the results which he gave tended to show the contrary. He appeared, indeed, not to have analyzed the results of his own experiments. He (Mr. Lawes) agreed with Dr. Voelcker that when salt was applied to grass-lands the herbage looked better and the cattle seemed more fond of it; but he doubted, nevertheless, whether the grass contained the best meat-producing qualities, nor, indeed, did he think that salt ultimately increased the amount of produce. He also concurred in the Dr.’s opinion that salt checked the growth of plants ; but whether that was an advantage to the farmer was another question. | Did they wish their crops to be stopped at particular stages of growth ? They all knew that in some years crops were too ripe in autumn, and at others not ripe enough. That was a matter which depended on the seasons. One year there was a hot summer, ripening the crops too early, the next year perhaps the case was reversed; and a manure like salt would perhaps be beneficial at one period and not at another. As regarded cattle, they knew that cows fed much on mangold wurzel were apt to scour. What they ate operated on them like a dose of salts. As agriculturists, they did not want to accumulate salt in mangold wurzel; what they needed was good feeding qualities, and the question of the value of salt and other manures depended on their Management of Clay Lands for Sheep-Feeding. 521 influence on the feeding properties of crops. In conclusion, he did not deny that salt might act beneficially if used judiciously on lands which were suitable to it; but when applied extensively and without great care and discrimination the crop would not, in his opinion, pay for the outlay. Mr. Fisher Hosss, in opposition to the remark that the scour in cattle arose in a great degree from the salt present in mangold wurzel, said, that when sheep had too much vegetable matter, and showed symptoms of scour, almost the first thing the shepherd did was to give them a handful of salt, and in nine cases out of ten it proved a corrective. Mr. Lawes observed that what he had referred to was an accumula- tion of salts in mangold, which gave them a purgative character. Mr. Fisarr Hosss suggested whether mangold wurzel, being a marine plant, might not on that account take up more salt beneficially than was done by swedes and common turnips. He had himself observed that when salt had been used to a considerable extent for the mangold wurzel plant, it produced no injurious effect, whereas the swede died off with the same amount of salt. Mr. Lawss said he had, in fact, never grown mangold wurzel without salt; but, this year, having occasion to make experiments in relation to this question he found, to his surprise, that his crop seemed much better without salt than with it. He had been as steady a user of salt as any one, and, if questioned on the subject, he should probably have said that mangold, being a marine plant, required salt; but, after his recent experience, he should look a little more carefully to his con- sumption of salt another year. Mr. R. Barker moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Lawes, and the Chairman, before putting it, said he believed that agriculturists would gladly avail themselves of any information to be derived from the practical experience of trustworthy persons who engaged in such inves- tigation. Mr, Lawes having returned thanks, the proceedings terminated. Meeting of Weekly Council, Wednesday, March 16th. Mr, Raymonp Barker in the Chair. Lecture by Mr. Aurrep Hucuzs, of Thorness, Isle of Wight, on Tre Manacement or Cray LAnps ror Surrep-Frrpina. Mr. Hvenrs, in recommending ‘his “ scheme ” or system of manage- ment, commenced with the remark that he had had. two years’ satisfac- tory experience of it on a very stiff clay farm, near Cowes, in the Isle of Wight—on land not adapted to the four-course shift, nor kind to barley ; which, though it will grow valuable roots, defies the tenant to turn them to any profitable use. The farmer of such a soil, he continued, is deprived of two important sources of income: a good yield of useful malting barley, and the production on the land itself of a large quantity of mutton. He then proceeded as follows :— The system of management which is set forth in this Paper is in- 522 Abstract Report of Agricultural Discussions. tended only for such land as that described; and those whose lot is cast on a kinder soil, not subject to these conditions, will probably find nothing in this scheme that will assist them in their business. My object has been to discover a course of cropping adapted to this soil, to relieve it to some extent of the heavy burdens and innumerable difficulties which beset its tillage, and to find the means of profitably consuming the greater part of the root-crops on the land. The diffi- culties attending the management of clay-land are too well known to all engaged in it to need minute description. We have all seen the long rugged tracks of the cart-wheels in our turnip-fields, and the corresponding yellow scars in our barley crop, in the month of June, as the result of carting off our roots to the ungrateful bullock at home. We have also seen the thin barley and thinner seeds, where stood the puddled fold and unhappy sheep, afterwards the battle-field of Clod and Crosskill. Where spring corn is to follow the root-crop on land like this, and in a climate like ours, these things must happen ; but what worse preparation can there be for our most valuable, most sensitive, and most delicate plant, barley? Then, again, on taking wheat after clover on such land, when there has been rain enough to admit of its heing ploughed, the land comes up so tough and stubborn that the wheat can only be putin by force, and buried or rather hidden, in its water-tight drain, by a vast amount of horse-labour and wear and tear; whilst if the season be unfavourable, the wheat is not got into the land till winter is come. Now, though wheat likes a firm bottom, the seed of wheat, like all other seeds, does not like to be wedged up in a water-tight bed, smeared over with the harrow. Wheat likes an early start, and its produce is, ceteris paribus, very much in proportion to the progress it makes in the first quarter of its growth. If our soil, therefore, is naturally tough and binding, we must adopt such a mode of preparation as will afford as kindly a seed-bed as possible. Our seed must fall into soil in a condition ~ favourable to a rapid development of root and stem. Again, with re- gard to our most valuable heavy-land roots, mangold, if they are grown after wheat, even with the most active autumn tillage, the time of preparation is so short that we do not get either the weight or the quality of root which the same land is capable of producing when exposed to the influence of a midsummer sun. The system of cultivation which is set forth in the diagram (see pp. 524 and 525), meets these drawbacks to our success, and by affording seasonable and ample time for the profitable consumption of a very large amount of, green crop on the land by sheep, enables the heavy- land farmer to participate in the advantages of sheep-farming. It renders the farm self-fertilizing, the haulage of the root-crop home is avoided, and by growing for the most part roots that will store on the land, and taking no corn-crop in the spring, ample time is afforded to consume the root-crops with advantage to sheep and land. ‘The rotation is so arranged as to defer the repetition of each crop for seven years instead of four ; and the subdivision of each course affords an opportunity of removing “clover and such crops as are most sensitive on the point of repetition, to an interval of fourteen or twenty-one EEE SEE Management of Clay Lands for Sheep-Feeding. 523 years.