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THE

JOP RNA Th

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

Sbird Series.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE

LIBRARY
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL

GARDEN

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1891.

PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON

MAR 1 7 1915

CONTENTS OF VOLUME IL

THIRD SERIES.
1S9QI.

PORTRAIT OF JETHRO TULL . - “ : . Frontispiece

Special Hrticles.

PAGE

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 2 : : < re
By Eart CatTHcart,

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects . - é : . 41
By J. Avévsrus VoricKer, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.

Acidity in Milk (Ziustrated) : , : : : : - eeoG
By Francis T. Bonn, M.D.

Farm Poultry . - 5 ; - : : 5 OR
By W. B. Teenie PZ. s.

The Tubercle Bacillus (Idlustrated) . - . : ape . 83
By Prof. Enear M. Crooxsuanr, M.D.

Technical Education in Agriculture. 5 meat : : E95
By W. Fruan, B.Sc., LL.D.

Modern Bee-keeping (Zdlustrated) , ‘ : : ; ‘ ~ 112
By Tuomas B, Brow, F.L.S.

Agriculture and the House of Russell , ; F 128
By Ernust CLArx, Secretary of the Society ai Editor of the

Journal.

Methods of Preventing and Checking the Attacks of Insects and Fungi
(lllustrated), By Cuartes WHITEHEAD, F,L.S., F.G.S. 21?

iv Contents of Volume II.

The Survival in Farming
By Wit11im E. Bear.

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-Making
By Francis T. Bonn, M.D.

Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91 .
By Girpert Murray.

The Canker of the Larch (Illustrated) .
By J. B, Carruruers, F.L.S.

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays
By Prurrose McConnett, B.Sc.

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria (Z//ustrated) ,
By Eryest CLARKE.

The Doncaster Meeting (With a Plan)

By W. Fram, B.Sc., LL.D., Official Reporter.
The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster (llustrated)

By W. Anperson, C.E., D.C.L., F.R.S.

PAGE

. 288

. 299

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster (Z/dustrated) [with a Note

on the Efficiency of Separation] . . :

By J. Avcusrus Vortcker, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.

Miscellaneous Implements exhibited at Doncaster (Illustrated)

By W. J. Maupey,

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891 (Zdlustrated)
By W. C. Brown.

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops

. 621

. O47

’
. 657

By Sir Joun Benner J.awas, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., and

J. H. Grezert, LL.D., F.R.S.
The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil
By J. M. Hl. Munro, D.Sc.

Sale of Corn by Weight . « . : :
By R. Jasepr More, MP.

Abortion in Cattle ‘ ° r . F
By Prof. G. T. Brown, C.B.

The Future of Agricultural Competition
By Wirt FE, Boar,

Contents of Volume I. Vv

Profit Sharing in Agriculture. : ; : ‘ : ; PTA:
By ALBert GREY.
The Dutch Agricultural Colonies . : ; : : : : . 794

By Ernest CLARKE.

Official Reports.
Annual Report for 1890 of the Royal Veterinary College (Zidustrated). 146

Further Report of the Education Committee on Technical Education

in Agriculture, February 3, 1891 - aS : 3 : . 155
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March 1891 . ; welod
Report of the Consulting and Acting Consulting Chemists for the years

1889 and 1690. é - 3 ; : : : ale

By J. Aveusrus Vortcxer, Ph.D., B.A. BS Sc., and E. W. VoELCKER.
Report of the Consulting Entomologist, March 3, 1891 (Illustrated) . 168
By Eveanor A. ORMEROD.

Report of the Council to the Anniversary General Meeting of Governors
and Members, May 22, 1891. - : ; c : : . 395
Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890 . - . : . 362
By J. Aveustus Vortccer, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.
Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890 by Local Agricultural
Societies ; 3 A ; 3 ° ‘ CC a : . 379
By J. Aveustus Voutcrer, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.
Reports of the Consulting Entomologist, dated May 5, 1891, and

June 2, 1891 (Lllustrated) . : - ‘ . . . . 389
By Exeanor A, ORMEROD.
Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891 . 2 . 398
Report of the Education Committee on the Results of the Senior
Examination, 1891 - 2 2 Migie, aay»! te : ! , 407

The Comparative Feeding Values of Decorticated and a
Cotton-cake , . : “ : ‘ bietis : . 585
By J. Avevstus Vortcker, Ph.D, B.A, B.Se.

vi Contents of Volume IT.

Report of the Consulting Entomologist, July 28, 1891.
By Exveanor A. ORMEROD.

The Diamond-back Moth (Z/ustrated)
By Exveanor A, ORMEROD.

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July, 1s51

Report of the Council to the Half-Yearly General Meeting of Governors
and Members, December 10, 1891 . ; 5 F -

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December, 1891

Report of the Education Committee on the Results of the Junior

Examination of November, 1891 . . 5 ‘ . ° . 823
Report on the Experiments with Bouillie Burdelaise (Illustrated) . 828
Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist . 835

By J. Aveustus VortokeEr, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.
Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Botanist . 845

By Witt1am Carruruers, F.R.S.
Annual Report for 1891 of the Honorary Consulting Maotomologist
(Illustrated). By Einanorn A,ORMEROD . : : :
Report of the Judges on the Milking Machine exhibited at Doncaster .
By R. Neyitte GRENVILLE and Tuomas Riesy.

Motes, Communications, and Reviews.

The Cost of Wheat Growing. By Jamus A, Carrp , : : - 172
Pink Eye among Horses in 1890, By Prof. J. Wortiry Axe. . 175
Market Rights and Tolls. By Cucin M.Cuarmayn , : . . LD
The Quality of Barley. Sete . ' : ‘ ‘ . 188
Permanent and Temporary Pastures. : . . ’ : . 192
The Weather of 1890 , : al Bs : , ‘ : - 193
The Great Frost of 1890-91 (Zllustrated) . ; ‘ : 196
Recent Agricultural Inventions . . : ‘ . : . » 200
The Price of Wheat in 1890 ° ‘ , ‘ ‘ ; ’ 204
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. «© . « «4 206

Contents of Volume I.

Harvesting the Seed of Root Crops. By W. J. Manpry
Farmers’ Accounts. By Westtry Ricuarps ., ;
Some Remarkable Features in the Winter of 1890-91 .
Lopping and Topping Trees. By S. B. L, Drucn °
Hay Harvest Forecasts, 1890 : , : ;

Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture. By W. Fream, B.Se, LL.D.

Recent Agricultural Inventions . :

The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man
By G.S1us WoopueEan, M.D.

The Agricultural Holdings Act. By 8. B. L. Druce .

The Canker of the Larch. By Ropert ANDERSON ,

American Farm Crops. By R. Hanry Rew : -
The Smut of Onions, By J. W. Learner, Ph.D. .
Recent Agricultural Inventions . . : : -

Statisties affecting British Agricultural Interests .

The Sampling of Manures and Feeding Stufls
By J. Aveusrus Voricxker, Ph.D., B.A., B.Sc.

Experiments in the Planting of Potatoes, By Guorcn MAtprEn .

.

Farming without Live Stock. By W. Fream, B.Se., LL.D.

The Late Duke of Devonshire. By ERNesr Cuarxr, .

Recent Agricultural Inventions . ; : - F :
Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests A 7
APPENDIX.

List of Council of Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1891

Standing Committees for 1891 , : ° . .
Chief Officials of the Society . - ‘ : ,
Geographical Distribution of Members aid Council! —,
List of Governors of the Society . ;

List of Honorary Members of the Society .. :

Summary of Members on the Register at December 31, 1890

. 879

883

xl

xi

vill Contents of Volume II,

Report of the Auditors, March 2, 1891 7) ae gh a
Balance Sheet for 1890, with appended Statements of General and
Country Meeting Receipts and Expenditure , - * .
Table showing number of Governors and Members in each year
from the Establishment of the Society . : : :
Proceedings of the Council, February 4, 1891 , =i Wien
Proceedings of the Council, March 4,1891 . 5 . - ‘
Principal Additions to the Library during the year 1890. -

Proceedings of the Council, April 8, 1891 . : - : =

Proceedings of the Council, May 6,1891 .. ,. 7
Proceedings of the Council, June 83,1891 i : :
Proceedings at the General Meeting, May 22,1891 . .

Proceedings of the Council, June 23, 1891

Proceedings of the Council, July 29,1891. . ; : :
Proceedings at the General Meeting, June 23,1891. : .
Officials and Judges at the Doncaster Meeting

Award of Prizes at the Doncaster Meeting . : : ; Z
Proceedings of the Council, November 4, 1891, : E :

Proceedings of the Council, December 9, 1891
Proceedings at the General Meeting, December 10,1891

elxv
elxxyi

elxxxiii

Prizes offered in connection with the Warwick Meeting, June, 1892 elxxxvii

ERRATUM.

On page 495, Part III, for “lighter,” read, “ lighter framed.”

DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.

All the pages of text (1 to $84) should come first in the bound volume; and the pages of

Appendix (i to exc) at the end.

;

Text :—Pages 1 to 216 of the text are included in Part I. (March 31, 1891) ; pages 217 to 440 in
Part LI. (June 30, 1891) ; pages 441 to 656 in Part ILL. (Sept. 30, 1891) ; and pages 657 to 854

in Part 1V. (December 31, 1891).

Appendix : Pages i to xIviii are included in Part I, ; xlix to Ixxvi in Part IT. ; lxxviii to elxiv in

Part III. ; and clxv to exe in Part LY.

Cloth cases for binding can he obtained of Messrs, Spottiswoode & Co., price Ls, 8d,

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

a

fetwkho PULE:*hiS LIFE; “TIMES
AND. TEACHING.

Men, like pictures, may be placed in an obscure light; but,
that being so, it is for the truth-seeking biographer a congenial
duty to endeavour honestly to lift an originally excellent and
worthy biographical portrait into the light of the present day, to
free it from the dust of ages and the cobwebs of ungrateful
neglect, to raise it up on high, and crying aloud to exclaim,
“Behold the true portrait of a patriotic man worthy of abid-
ing fame, who, judged by the standard of his own age, was a
giant indeed, that, by taking giant steps far away in advance,
conduced perhaps more than any man to the advancenient of
British agriculture, and thereby benefited his fellow countrymen,
- and materially added to the stature of his country.”

The world forgets so much and remembers so little. Until
the other day Tull’s grave was undiscovered, and even now no
storied urn, no monumental brass, marks the modest grave of a
man so worthy of honour. Yet more remarkable still is the
fact that, although the student reads the name of Tull “ writ
large” on the face of every arable field in Great Britain, and
over all the world wherever British agriculture is known and
prevails, the ordinary reader—and such is fame !—will say to
himself, ‘‘ Who was this man? when did he live ? and what did
he do?”

Jethro Tull in the early years of the reign of King George

_ the Second wrote a book, entitled The Horse Hoeing Husbandry,

VOL. Il. T. S,—5 B

2 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

or a Treatise on the Principles of Tillage and Vegetation, wherein
is taught a Method of introducing a sort of Vineyard Culture into
the Cornfields, in order to increase their Product and diminish
the Common EHupense. The principles formulated in this famous
book, ultimately—but step by step and by very slow degrees—revo-
lutionised British agriculture. Tull invented the drill; but our
admiration and gratitude are chiefly due to him because of the
reasons which he gave us for the utility of his undoubted inyen-
tion of that now universally employed implement.

Throughout one hundred aud fifty years of neglect and com-
parative obscurity the true light and tradition have been handed
down undimmed and undiminished by the Levitic hands of a
real agricultural succession of scholars and authors. They knew
full well that to study Tull’s book is to strip many an early agricul-
tural philosopher of his borrowed plumes. Twenty-four years
after Tull’s death it was said by the personal friend and neigh-
bour! who painted his original biographical portrait, that Tull was
the first Englishman, perhaps the first writer ancient or modern,
who has attempted with any tolerable degree of success to
reduce the art of agriculture to certain and uniform principles ;
and it must be acknowledged that he has done more towards
establishing a rational and practical method of husbandry than
all the writers who have gone before him. Again, thirty years
after, a famous pilgrimage was made by Arthur Young. “I
visited,” said the well-known writer, ‘“‘ Prosperous Farm, which
the celebrated Jethro Tull has made for ever famous by a work
which will unquestionably carry his name to the latest posterity.”

Twenty-seven years again pass and an agricultural author,?
whose Rural Rides and other writings are, in the literature of
our country, models of nervous English, visited Prosperous.
He has written thus :— .

“JT was born and bred amongst affairs of gardening and
farming, and I was well read, but till I read Tull I knew
nothing of principles. Here are, in fact, all the whele code
of the principles of vegetation and of general application,
whether in the cornfields, the pastures, the gardens, the cop-
pices, the woods, and the forests.”

And again he says with characteristic homespun eloquence :
— Just indignation is excited when we remember that Tull’s
ideas have been pillaged by a whole gang and succession of -

1 —. Y., of Hungerford, in the Gent. Mag. of 1764. This able gentleman
probably belonged to the Yorke family; the surname constantly occurs in the
Parish Registers, but diligent search so far has failed to connect the surname
with a Christian name of which the initial is D.

2 Cobbett.

Jethro Tull: his Infe, Times, and Teaching. 3

Drill Husbandry ’ banditti, who in their turn have so plundered
one another, until no one of them, perhaps, could guess who was
the original thief.”

Yet another writer, author of the two gems of agricultural
literature, brings this true agricultural succession down to our
own day and generation. His charm of manner, his many
accomplishments, have left a deep and lasting impression in the
hearts of some still living friends and colleagues. The author
of the History of Agriculture } and of Talpa refers to the sadly
interesting life of Tull, and goes on to say that “he was the
greatest individual improver that agriculture ever knew... .
Thera was, before the dawn of chemical and geological science,
ingenuity and originality of thought groping in utter darkness
of guesswork and speculation. ‘Tull best answers the question,
What can chemistry do for agriculture? So far as he was un-
knowingly in accord with chemical truth he was right; as he
deserted it he was wrong. Deep and perfect pulverisation is the
great secret of vegetable nutrition: in regard to that beautiful
mystery, Tull distinguished the form without seeing the face.”

The spirit of individual enterprise was incarnate in Tull.
His life exhibits all the conditions of a great and original
discoverer—there is much in his history to remind the student
of James Watt. By his original idea Tull was pursued rather
than pursuing; his very errors and excesses are nearly as in-
structive as his successful experiments. In him, there was a
rare combination of two faculties, perception and reflection ; the
flash of his common-sense genius was beautiful in its simplicity.

Great and ‘prolific ideas are usually simple. With him the
inventive faculty was a passion, an instinct; an observer, a
finder-out, his eyes were as spy-glasses, observing soil, culture,
vegetable productions, methods, implements, everything; he had
the quick perception which sees and foresees the effects of various
combinations, as well as insight, dexterity, patience, persever-
ance, faith, and, after a fall, the dauntless determinaticn that im-
parts the conviction, ‘I shall rise again:” Tull’s practical nature
is well demonstrated in his own words: ‘“ Writing and ploughing
are two different talents; and he that writes well must have
spent in his study that time which is necessary to be spent in the
fields by him who will be master of the art of cultivating them.”

Tull was also an excellent mechanic, a musician, and a clas-
sical scholar of no inconsiderable attainments. He was, however,
unhappily, a valetudinarian ; his whole life was one long struggle
with chronic disease. But these fearfully depressing influences

1 Wren-Hoskyns.

4 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

were overborne by that never-resting energy of spirit which was his
chief characteristic. Tull’s own words are very sad; of his book
he says, ‘“‘ The whole was written in pains of the stone and other
diseases as incurable and almost as cruel.” Tull was not without
a sense of humour. For example, he rechristens an adverse book,
The Practical Husbandman; he says it should have for title The
Cockney Husbandman, who never practised agriculture out of
the sound of Bow bells. By way of illustration he cites the
case of an old woman of good eyes and strong imagination, who
could see a needle upon a barn, whilst she could not see the barn
itself. And, again, a gentleman who consults with his bailiff about
entering upon a new scheme of husbandry is likely to have the
same encouragement as a Papist, having a mind to turn Protes-
tant, would have by asking the opinion of his confessor.

Partly by nature, chiefly no doubt from bodily infirmity, Tull
was very irritable, and highly sensitive to criticism, which in
his case was monstrously and outrageously offensive. He was
also intolerant as regards the perversity, stupidity, and ignorance
of his workmen and labourers. By these two things his life
was continually embittered ; poor Tull with overstrung nerves
certainly did not attain to Charles Kingsley’s ideal :

The world goes up, and the world goes down,
And the sunshine follows the rain;

And yesterday’s sneer and yesterday’s frown
Can never come over again.

Patient reader—this is a Tullian phrase—‘ patient reader,”
before reaching the regular and chronological biography of
Tull, it may be well to glance at the state of agricultural know-
ledge immediately preceding the Tullian era, and, to understand
Tull and his life-work, it is almost necessary to consider briefly
the agricultural, social, and political condition of the England of
his day. It is well also to premise that there are very few
materials for a biography. In Tull’s own book there are iin-
valuable autobiographical touches, literary manna to be carefully
garnered and husbanded. So far as can at present be ascer-
tained, only two persons who knew him personally have left
written records of facts and impressions. One of these has
been already referred to, the very able gentleman of Hungerford
who wrote in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1764. His biography
is the one foundation upon which all subsequent compilers have
built. The other person who knew Tull intimately—a regular -
correspondent, who visited at Prosperous, and was often visited
in town, was Charles, eighth Lord Cathcart. His MS. diary gives
names, dates, and facts very exactly, although unfortunately
the narrations, except on great occasions, are too often wanting

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 5)

in detail and colour. Some thirty years ago, Cuthbert Johnson,
F.R.S., an able and voluminous agricultural writer, took infinite
pains, as a labour of love, to collect materials by search, by corre-
spondence, by advertisement, and by the offer of a money reward.
Yet, though happily his quest succeeded to some extent, he failed
in tracing even the place where, after life’s fitful fever, all that
was mortal of weary Tull was laid to rest. Mr. Cuthbert Johnson !
—who has generously sown for others to reap—thus prefaces his
valuable MS. collection : ‘‘ I have laboured to collect information
for a personal history of this famous man, but to little purpose—
his own incidental notices of himself are the most important.”

To digress for a little while in the directions just now sug-
gested: the art of agriculture, in the sense of practice with
science, flourished under the Romans—Virgil, that prince of
Latin poets, wrote his Georgics about thirty years B.c.—then
agriculture pined and dwindled away during the dark ages A.D.
486-1400, being kept alive only by monasticism and by the
learning of the monks. An interesting illustration of this fact
appears in a recent publication.2 Walter Mapes, canon of
St. Paul’s, archdeacon of Oxford in 1196, wrote in the Welsh
language a still extant treatise on agriculture. When Caxton,
the wonderful London haberdasher, set up his printing press at
Westminster, a fresh and ever-increasing impulse was given to
British agriculture, which has continuously ramified and extended
to overspread the civilised world. Agricultural biography,
chronologically arranged, containing a notice of the life and
writings of the British authors on agriculture from the earliest
date in 1480 to 1854, has been usefully compiled by Donaldson :
he founds on previous works by West and by Loudon. A glance
at the evolution of agricultural science during the period now in
question, namely, from the general use of printing to the date of
the new husbandry of -Tull, should be useful and instructive.
No doubt every inventor has stirred up some pre-existing but
latent germs-of his discovery. Tull is the eighty-first name on
the list of recorded agricultural authors. On analysis, thirty-

} Tam greatly indebted to Dr. Cuthbert Johnson, of Waldronhurst, Croydon,
for having placed at my disposal the Tullian Collection of his late uncle, Mr.
Cuthbert W. Johnson, F.R.S., barrister-at-law — a Collection which could
have been formed only by an able man, after devoting to a congenial task
much patient and laborious research. His personal contribution is chiefly a
review and critique of Tull’s book. A very appreciative notice of this volu-
minous agricultural author will befound in Donaldson’s Agricultural Biography,
London, 1854.

* Gerald the Welshman, Wenry Owen, B.C,L., Corpus Christi Coll, Oxon,
London, 1889.

6 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

one names may be eliminated as dross—unknown, unworthy,
obscure. This leaves forty-nine authors, thus distributed: seven
judges or lawyers, four bishops and clergymen, eleven scholars,
college dons, or Fellows of the Royal Society, five soldiers, five
land agents, four farmers, three tradesmen or citizens, two
farriers, two country gentlemen, one ambassador, one dissenting
minister, two surveyors, one gardener and seedsman, and one
medical man. Truly, it has been well said that in other things as
well as in politics important reforms usually come from without.

These are grand and ever to be remembered names: Littleton
and Fitzherbert, both judges, the latter really the father of
British husbandry, his work (1534) The Boke of Husbandrie ;
old Tusser with his rhyme and reason, of whom it was well said,
“Thou teaching Thrift could never Thrive!” The older writers.
had a provoking way of mixing up agriculture proper with
extraneous matter, as a chapter “on Brewing Compound Ale,
a general purge and a generous medicine.” The author of
Adam out of Eden, 1626, Adam Speed, Gent., mentions
turnips, potatoes, clover, hops, and flax. One of Gervoise
Markham’s books has a nice suggestive title, namely Cheap
and Good Husbandry. Sir Richard Weston, ambassador
(1645), by his Discourse of Husbandry as used in Flanders
laid the foundation of an improved agriculture in Britain.
Turnips, clover, flax, and other crops were previously known in
England, but differed from the crops grown in Flanders as wild
plants differ from those under cultivation. Hartlib was a
superior person, a friend of Milton and rewarded by Cromwell;
in advance of his day he suggested the foundation of an agricul-
tural college, and died in poverty.

The Civil War made the country gentlemen poor and conse-
quently industrious. After the Restoration they became dis-
sipated, and husbandry for a long time was left to the tenant
farmer. Pepys notes this fact, ‘Our gentry are grown ignorant
in everything of good husbandry.” The Revolution brought
many eminent characters to the front, one of whom was Walter
Blythe (1649). The City of London in his day petitioned
against two nuisances, ‘Newcastle Coal in regard to the
Stench; and Hops to spoil the taste of Drink.” He, like Sir
Richard Weston, advocated the cultivation of green fodder
plants and roots. John Evelyn’s illustrious name needs no
heralding ; philosopher, soldier, diplomatist, the Terra (1658) ~
and his Sylva are known to all well-read agriculturists.
Evelyn also wrote in his Diary, 1684, ‘“‘ London is so filled with
the fuliginous steam of sea-coale that hardly could one see
crosse the streetes.” Yarranton in 1663 had an eye to the

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. ?

purchase of sound seed: he mentions clover, and drilling, that
was, dropping seeds in a furrow by hand as in a garden.

Worlidge in 1669 is the first to direct attention to ray
grass ; he suggests drilling corn, and gives acut of a theoretical
drill. After the invention of his own drill, Tull mentions this
implement. Bradley, an eminent agricultural writer of those days,
showed him the cut of Worlidge’s drill, which he said was only a
proposal and never made but in the cut.!_ Bradley spent 251. in
making one, and when finished it would perform nothing. There
was no sort of structural analogy between this suggestion and
Tull’s subsequent invention. The views of Worlidge in regard
to agriculture proper are scientific, but his knowledge of ani-
mals was very imperfect. Gabriel Reeve, of Hackney, then
(1670) a rural district, is worthy of honourable mention, because,
having been a practical farmer for thirty years, he travelled in
Flanders ‘and there he saw a lesson to bé learned.” The potato
as a field-crop is first mentioned (1681) by John Houghton,
F.R.S. Donaldson was a Scotch writer of considerable repute
who, whilst showing others the true and solid way, was himself
always in the ditch. His book, Husbandry Anatomised, was
published in London in 1697, and certainly was of considerable
repute. Lord Cathcart had it when a boy, and it is again men-
tioned in a second list of his books, which included also Adam
out of Eden. A country gentleman—‘ Campania Felix ”—
recommends, in 1700, hand manures as malt dust and pigeon’s
dung. My Lord Bishop of Ely (1707) chose a curiously sug-
gestive title, Curiosities of Nature and Art in Husbandry and
Gardening. John Mortimer, in the same year, wrote the Whole
Art of Husbandry ; the book is a distinct advance, being compre-
hensive and systematic, yet even he digresses in the most
provoking way—trees, liquors, ale, cider, and gooseberry wine.
Mortimer was a sort of early English Alderman Mechi, of Tip-
tree fame. Forty bushels of hand-sown soot to the acre pro-
duced, he says, ‘‘a mighty sweet grass.” 160 bushels of hot
lime to the acre lasts five years. In addition to soot he recom-
mends other hand manures, as ashes, soap ashes, rags, and malt
dust. The spade used in paring and burning, of which there
is a cut, is exactly that in use in our day. He advises
broad-cast turnips on fallow, for consumption in March. “ Few
farms,” Mortimer observes, “ will carry three rents. ”

Giles Jacob, gent., 1717, had good ideas on horse-breeding—
like breeds like and that sort of thing. Dr. Bradley, F.R.S., a

1 There is a copy of the cut in the Cuthbert Johnson Collection—an ugly
sort of great hopper, or funnel, square on the plan, mounted on four high
velocipede-like wheels,

8 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

college Don, recommends (1721) a cross between the Barb
horse and the English mare: the horsey Don distinctly loved a
shapely and bright bay with black points. He wrote the first
systematic beok on the animals of the farm. Poultry, however,
are not mentioned. Edward Lawrence, land surveyor, 1726,
is worthy of honourable mention. He was an enlightened man,
and contributed materially to the advancement of agriculture ;
his condensed style marks a new era. His cash and rental
books, in form, are good to our day. Turnips, well hoed and
cleaned, greatly improve the land, and should be fed off on the
land by sheep. Vetches, both summer and winter, are great
improvers. He suggests—clover seed, 12 lbs. per acre; rye-
grass, 13 bushels per acre; sainfoin, 4 bushels per acre;
lucerne, 14 lbs. per acre; lentils, tares, and buckwheat.

Brigadier Mackintosh wrote in 1730. He was an educated
man, of sound and comprehensive views. Lord Cathcart, in his
diary, mentions the Brigadier having visited him in Edinburgh
Castle on the agricultural business of the Society of Scotch
Improvers.

This hasty and imperfect retrospect may, to some extent,
serve to illustrate the general law of continuous evolution, with
constantly accelerated velocity, and to indicate more particularly
the gradual—the very slow and gradual—evolution, during the
period in question, of the art of agriculture in its relation to
science, and how that gradual evolution prepared the way for an
original thinker and refurmer—in short, for the advent of Jethro
Tull.

The pen of no mortal man could paint a wordy picture of
the social, fiscal, and material condition of England at the
Tullian era, as Hogarth with intense realism has painted to the
life the men and women of all degrees, and the streets and
places of London in which they lived and moved and had their
being. To understand Tull perfectly and the men and women
of his day, from the great gouty peer in his easy chair to the
Grub Street scribbler and the beggar in the gutter, turn over
carefully and mark, learn, and inwardly digest a collection of
prints after Hogarth.

Lord Macaulay’s! famous third chapter of the first volume of
his Histcry should be studied by the curious reader as comple-
mentary to this biographical sketch, and as the finest and most
graphic wordy picture, painted on the most extended canvas, of —
the then, and immediately preceding, state of England, at a
period a long way antecedent to the time when the commercial

1 See also Mr. Lecky’s History of the Lighteenth Century, vol. i.

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 9

element outgrew the agricultural. Turn to the map of London
in those days. To the north, cattle fed and men with dogs
wandered for sport over the site of Marylebone, Finsbury, and
the Tower Hamlets. Islington was a solitude. To the south of
the river, there was a mere fringe of houses and gardens, with
the great Lambeth marsh. To the west, St. George’s Hospital was
in the fields. To the east, the London end of Whitechapel
Street led at once into the country. Londoners, then as now,
were gregarious : the gentleman about town talked of dining at
his cluab—a tavern club ; and taverns and coffee-houses there were
of every kind and degree.

But in those days a wide line divided the town from the
country. In our time, when the traveller breakfasts in London
and dines comfortably in Edinburgh, it is difficult to realise the
conditions of locomotion in Tull’s day. It was easy enough, as we
have seen, to get out of London ; and then, in those pre-Macadam
days, the highways were simply infamous—dry ditches in summer,
and wet ditches in winter. Gradients were unconsidered, the
way uninclosed from the fen or common over which it passed, and
many deep-trodden tracks converged at a bridge or ferry, with
inundations in which the traveller, floundering in darkness, might
have to swim for his life. In 1725 Lord Cathcart mentions in
his diary that he travelled north in June: the roads were full
of water, there was the very greatest difficulty in crossing the
rivers, and in his chaise he was completely wet through. In
riding post there were constantly terrible falls. In January,
1754, he writes: ‘“ All went well until I arrived within three
miles of Doncaster, when, suddenly, my horse fell with a crash
and with me under him. I fancied myself crushed to death.
I got on a mile further, but was then obliged to send for a
Doncaster surgeon, who bled me. I slept at Doncaster and had
a bad night. I was so bad all day I could get no further than
Wetherby. Next day I was all right again, and read the King’s
speech with great pleasure. I had another terrible fall between
North Allerton and Darlington, but was not a bit the worse.”
Not only were the roads, and the chaises, and the post-horses dis-
couraging to the traveller, but there was always the exciting
prospect of meeting the highwayman or the footpad and of being,
in the disagreeable encounter, mulcted of felonious toll. The
one redeeming feature amongst all these drawbacks and dis-
comforts was the roadside inn, which, more often than otherwise,
was clean, warm, and comfortable.

Whoe’er has travelled life’s dull round,
Where’er his stages may have been,

May sigh to think he still has found
His warmest welcome at an inn,

10 Jethro Tull: lis Life, Times, and Teaching.

These miserable and dangerous roads, the ruts often by
measurement four feet deep, with the wrecks of broken-down
waggons strewed by the roadside, led to provincial towns very
different from those which exist in our day. Manchester was a
poor, ill-built market-town, with a population, all numbered, of
some 6,000 souls. Birmingham was a much smaller place, and
Leeds was a town only a little larger than Birmingham.

The roads, such as they were in those days, traversed thou-
sands of square miles of moors, or furze-breaks, or fens, which
are now in our day smiling cornfields. One-half the area of
the kingdom was then moor, forest, or fen—and the population
of England did not exceed 54 millions. Comnfons and common
fields prevailed, with a consequent intermixture and debasement
of stock, amongst which infectious diseases, scab and rot, and
every other sort of plague of a like nature, were disastrously
rampant. Tull complains bitterly of damage done and quarrels
caused by stray sheep. ‘The statute-book since Tull’s time
contains thousands of Enclosure Acts; ten thousand square
miles or more have been reclaimed at the sole cost of the
landowner. Without any expenditure of public money, a fourth
part of England has been turned from a wild toa garden. To
understand Tull and his times it should always be borne in
mind that in his day and long afterwards England was a wheat-
exporting country; the products of the soil at that time far
exceeded in value the fruits of industry.

Born as the present generation is to steam transit by land
and by sea, it is difficult in our day to appreciate in any sense
the difficulties in old times, before soldiers and Macadam con-
structed scientific roads. Difficulties of locomotion not only pre-
vented the fusion of persons and of classes, but the well-springs of
intelligence and education were dammed at their source, and the
general distribution of food and commodities was rendered well-
nigh impossible. Sir Walter Scott said he knew a man who
remembered the Scotch mail arriving in Edinburgh from London
—all England addressing all Scotland with one letter. Civilisa-
tion, indeed, advances hand in hand with locomotion.

The agricultural produce carried on the then existing infamous
roads was comparatively inconsiderable. ‘Transport from London
to Birmingham was 7/. a ton; from London to Exeter, 12/. In
1696 the whole wheat, rye, barley, oats and beans annually grown
in England was computed at less than ten millions of quarters,
Wheat was grown only on strong land; the quantity estimated
at two millions of quarters; and it was exported or consumed
exclusively by well-to-do persons. The sheep and the oxen of
those days, when, generally speaking, green crops were unknown,

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 11

being starved in winter, were consequently puny. Cattle were
killed when the grass failed in early autumn, and the beef was
salted down for winter ; and at that season game and fresh-water
fish were the only procurable fresh animal food.

And now, and most important of all, we come to consider
the provincial persons who used these Slough of Despond roads,
because these people together formed the disjunct inert mass that,
with extraordinary courage, Jethro Tull set himself to move ina
new and unwonted direction. The country gentleman was usually
poor, and often little better educated than his groom or his
gamekeeper ; his pleasures were derived from the sports of the
field, and his too often pot-house language was racy and redolent
of the province from which he derived his origin. The farm-
yard was at the back of his house, and cabbages and gooseberries
grew by his front door. Yet in many respects the esquire was
a gentleman: pride of family and family tradition made him
sensible of responsibilities and jealous of his honour. In London
the mere country squire was altogether out of his element,
and looked and felt like a bumpkin, stared at by every passer-by.
They certainly drank in those days—all classes; as claret was
expensive, the tipple was strong beer. Beer was then not beer
only, but everything that is now consumable in the nature of
wine, tea, and spirits.

The rural clergy, the rank and file of the Church as a whole,
were generally disregarded as a plebeian class, and probably
behaved accordingly. Anyway, they were certainly not usually -
instructed and enlightened men: helpmates meet for Tull and
his undertakings. The yeomanry were a manly and true-hearted,
but unimpressionable and very dogged race, the stuff out of
which Cromwell created his Ironsides; they were more numerous
than the tenant-farmers. These small proprietors, with’ their
families, were estimated at more than one-seventh of the whole
population, their average income was supposed to be 60/. or 70.
ayear. The tenant-farmer of those days was of inconsiderable im-
portance ; his instincts accorded with those of the yeomen; they
taught him that the Tullian system, requiring as it did space and
appliances, threatened his very existence—he had then given no
promise of the great future that awaited his class; with neither
money nor book-learning, the tenant-farmer blindly trod the
shallow and crooked furrow which had been turned by his sire
and his grandsire and his fore-elders from time immemorial.

Another and irresistible cause subsequently converted the
yeomanry and small farmers into wage-earning labourers. Do-
mestic industries formed an all-important element in the house-
hold economy of the small farmer: these home and consequently

12 Jethro Tull: his Infe, Times, and Teaching,

dispersed industries were altogether superseded by the concen-
trated and crowded manufactories of the huge cotton-spinning
and other industrial communities. It has, moreover, been truly
said: Deduct from agriculture all the practices that have made
it flourishing, and you have precisely the management of very
small farms.

It was then without any doubt amongst the great and
enlightened landowners—men devoted to landscape gardening
and husbandry, the statesmen, the soldiers who in ‘‘ Anna’s
Wars” had served in Flanders, the scholars, and travellers, and,
above all, in the most influential combinations of such men
associated in the Scotch and Irish Societies of Improvers in
Agriculture—that, as he himself cordially acknowledges,! Tull
found in his endeavours appreciation, encouragement, and that
which is the most sincere of all flattery, namely, intelligent
and successful imitation.

Jethro Tull, the scion of an ancient Berkshire and Oxford-
shire family, and heir to a competent paternal estate, was
born at Basildon, in the county of Berks, in the fourteenth
year of King Charles II.; he was baptised at Basildon on March
the 30th, 1674, as “Jethro, the sonne of Jethro and Dorothy
Tull.” The father represented a branch of the family that
was long seated at Midgham, in the Kennet valley, between
Newbury and Reading. A John Tull of Midgham died of the
’ plague in 1603, and was buried in his orchard; shortly after-
wards his wife Joan was carried off by the same pestilence. In
1641 Giles Tull was churchwarden of that place.. The grand-
father of the subject of this biographical sketch was one Giles
Tull of Midgham, and from him in due form a pedigree has
been deduced.2 The name of Tull to this day abounds on the
borders of Berkshire and Oxfordshire and the regions round
about. ‘The antiquity of the a! is further vouched by an
extract from the public records,? which establishes the fact that
in the time of King Edward I1I.—1327—there was seated at
that place a ‘‘ Johns Tulle de Cobham.”

Jethro Tull, the agricultural author, matriculated from St.
John’s College, Oxford, on July 7, 1691, then aged 17 years.
He does not appear to have taken a degree. He was admitted

1 Speaking of his system, “If it be ever common it must be made so by
gentlemen,”—the great gentlemen farmers—“ as other improvements have
been.”—Tull’s Notes on the Preface.

2 By the author of Basildon Notes : see note on p. 39. This learned gentleman
cites authorities and says the name of Tull is Norman, from Tull-Noelant in
Normandy. ‘The name appears A.D. 1272 in connection with English manors,

3 Cuthbert Johnson MS.

Jethro Tull: his Lite, Times, and Teaching. 13

a student of Gray’s Inn on December 11, 1693, and was called to
the Bar on May 19, 1699. Itis recorded in the Order-book of the
Society: “Mr. Jethro Tull had full standing in commons, per-
formed his exercise, paid his duties, received the Sacrament, and
has a chamber in his own right.” It is recorded also that he had
two years’ standing at Staple Inn, and that he was the only son
and heir of Jethro Tull, of Howberry, in the County of Oxford.
' The original bond, dated Haster term, 1699, to duly pay charges
at Gray’s Inn, is, with signature!—‘“ J°. Tull ”’—and seal, in the
Cuthbert Johnson collection.

Later in this year, Tull married—namely, on October 26,
1699—Susanna Smith, of Burton-Dassett, in the county of
Warwick, the bridegroom being described as ‘‘ Jethro Tull, of
Gray’s Inn, gentleman.” Mrs. Tull was of good family; this is
particularly stated by the Hungerford friend, the original bio-
grapher, and it is further evidenced by the numerous existing
tombstones in the chancel of Burton-Dassett church and in
that churchyard.

The poor lady, commencing married life at an early age,
probably trod an uphill and thorny path. Nothing is known
of her beyond this: she survived her husband, and had one
son and four daughters. As recited, she had a jointure, possibly
a marriage settlement; but was not the executrix of her
husband’s will, which might well have been a ‘‘damnosa hwre-
ditas.” Mrs. Tull was more or less a woman of affairs, as may
be gathered from this circumstance: on Sunday morning,
February 28, 1731, she called on Lord Cathcart, at his house in
Queen Street, Westminster, and just as he was going to church,
no doubt—as indicated by adjoining entries in the diary—on
her husband’s urgent private affairs.

Tull studied law, not as a profession, but to investigate the
principles of the Constitution, hoping to make a figure in public
life; he also, and probably with the same object, made, as was
usual with educated men in those days, the grand tour of Europe.
Habitually a diligent observer, nothing escaped his attention.
We are told he especially noted soils, culture, vegetable pro-
ductions, methods, and implements. In the French vineyard
culture he discovered what he thought one general method of
cultivating to advantage all land in all countries. This tour was
probably made between the years 1693-9, after his studentship
at Gray’s Inn, and before his call to the Bar and marriage. On
his marriage he settled on a paternal farm in Oxfordshire.

' A facsimile of Tull’s signature as it appears on this bond is given in the
frontispiece.—(ED.)

14 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

This farm was Howberry, in the parish of Crowmarsh—
being separated from Wallingford only by the Thames. Of the
extent and exact position of this farm occupied by Tull nothing
is certainly known. Generally speaking it is said the land in
the parish is very fertile: the soil belongs to the Upper Green-
sand formation, rich in phosphate of lime in the form of cop-
rolites, and bears heavy cereal crops, the wheat and barley being
of the highest quality. It is particularly adapted to the growth
of peas and beans, and bears heavy crops of sainfoin and other
fodder plants, and potatoes, and altogether this land would
appear well adapted for the purposes of experimental farming.
The family circumstances that caused Tull to diverge from the
course in life he had proposed to himself—namely, polities—and
to take to agriculture are unknown. It was, he says, ‘‘ accident
not choice, made me a farmer, or rather many unforeseen acci-
dents.” The further reasons he himself has made plain. He
says :—

As to agriculture, it was not by choice, but by a sort of necessity, that I
practised it; and I never kept an acre in my hands that I could reasonably
dispose of to a tenant, I knew too much of the inconveniency and slavery
attending the exorbitant power of husbandry servants and labourers over
their masters, to propose to myself any other gain by occupying land but to
repair the injuries done to it by bad tenants, and to keep it till I could let
it at a reasonable rent to such as I thought good ones. I have occupied
only two farms; the first was in Oxfordshire. I so much improved that
farm in nine years as to let it for above a third more rent than it was ever
let before; and that being almost thirty years ago, the rent is not sunk yet,
but likely always to continue, or increase.

The drill was invented about the year 1701. And this, in
substance, is Tull’s account of his discovery :—“ My diversion
in youth was music, I mastered the mechanism of my organ.
Plough-servants began to exalt their dominion over their masters,
and a gentleman-farmer could make little profit of arable land ;
mine being that sort, so I resolved to plant my whole farm with
sainfuin. Seed was scarce, dear, and bad, and enough could scarce
be got to sow, as was usual, seven bushels to an acre. [ examined
and thought the matter out, and found the greater part of the
seed miscarried, being bad, or too much covered, or too little
covered. I observed and counted, and found when much seed had
miscarried the crop was the best. Then I learned to distinguish
good seed from bad, and by many trials found in my strong land
that the best seed would not succeed unless covered at a certain
exact depth, and I discovered the reason of this nicety. So I
caused channels to be made, and sowed a very small proportion
of seed, covered exactly. ‘This was a great success.”

Next year the labourers in a body struck against this innova=

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 15

tion and were dismissed ; as was said in those days, ‘“‘ It were more
easy to teach the beasts of the field than to drive the ploughman
out of his way. I resolved,” says Tull, “to quit my scheme
unless I could contrive an engine to plant sainfoin more faith-
fully than hands would do. I thought and examined all the
mechanical ideas that had ever entered my imagination, and at
last pitched upon the groove, tongue, and spring in the sound-
board of the organ. With these a little altered, and some parts
of two other instruments as foreign to the farm as the organ, I
composed my machine. The first seed-box was worked on the iron
gudgeon of a common wheelbarrow with a brush-harrow to
cover the seed.”! It was named a “ drill ” because when farmers
used to sow their beans and peas into a furrow by hand they
called the action “ drilling.”

Tull goes on to say :—‘‘ The drill has been used almost as long
in planting most sorts of corn, for hand-hoeing, and subsequently
for horse-hoeing. It has been pretended I brought the imple-
ment from France or Italy, when itis well known it had planted
two farms before I went abroad, which was not until April 1711.
How could I have brought that which did not exist?” Tull,
even at this time, was above all things aclean farmer and waged
unrelenting war against those thieves and robbers of agriculture,
weeds. ‘Tull was most particular in cleaning his seed; this he
did by drawing it on a table with a table-cloth. His apt similes
are happy and characteristic : “‘ The crop of wheat with irregular
intervals, under the old husbandry, by being irregular serve
chiefly for the protection of weeds; for they cannot be ploughed
out without destroying the corn, any more than cannons, firing
ata breach whereon both sides are contending, can kill enemies
and not friends.” Again he says: “ Under the old system the
plants stand on the ground in a confused manner, like a rabble ;
ours like a disciplined army.”

Tull’s invention of the drill may be thus described 2: The
idea taken from the rotary mechanism of the organ is the
foundation of all agricultural sowing implements . . . . The first
invention was a drill-plough, to sow wheat and turnip seed in
drills three rows at a time. There were two boxes for the seed,
and these, with the coulter, were placed one set behind the other,
so that two sorts of seed might be sown at the same time. A
harrow to cover in the seed was attached. He afterwards invented
a turnip-drill somewhat similar to the other, but of alighter con-
struction, and so arranged in regard to the dropping of seed, and

1 Gentleman’s Magazine, 1764.
2 See J. A. Ransome’s Implements of Agriculture,

16 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

its subsequent covering with soil, that one half of the seed
should come up earlier than the other’, and with a view to enable
a portion at least of the young plant to escape the ravages of
the turnip fly. The manner of delivering the seeds in both
these drills was by notched barrels: Tull’s essential principle
was, in feeding the seeds, the use of cavities in the surface of
solid cylinders.

Necessarily in those days there were vast difficulties in
construction, the extent of which it is difficult for us to estimate.
We now have perfect tools, standard gauges universally accepted
and machines for measuring to the one-millionth of an inch. In
Tull’s day, and long after, inventors—James Watt, for example—
were tortured by blundering mechanics with the rudest tools
and inadequate appliances. ‘Tull’s seed-boxes were made, we
are told,! “by Mr. Bennet, a very ingenious mathematical
instrument maker in Crown Court, Soho.” Turning from the
subject of the original drill, now only of historical interest, Tull’s
own pregnant sentence may be cited as summing up that -
question : ‘I owe my principles and practice originally to my
travels, as | owe my drill to my organ.”

Nature and wisdom always say the same thing. Tull’s
attention to detail was extraordinary—perhaps unparalleled.?
Indoors and out he was always studying the open book of Nature,
and doubtless made many notes afterwards utilised in his
published book. ‘No canon,” he says, ‘having limited what
we shall think in agriculture, nor condemned any of its tenets
for heresy, every man is therein a freethinker, and must think
according to his reason, whether he will or no.” The foregoing
fine sentence is no doubt highly characteristic of the man. “ It
is,” he says, ‘in the interest of every one who lives by bread
that true principles be established in agriculture, but none ought
to be allowed as such until they have been thoroughly examined ;
every man is well satisfied by experiments made by himself.”
With the practical eye of an experienced husbandman he experi-
mented, he entered into the habits and properties of plants, their
production and nutrition. In sickness even his bedchamber
was filled with various plants, with their roots, in whole or in
part, so disposed in pure water or mixed fluids as to be under
observation. In short, he treated the living, growing sentient
plants of the farm as a zoologist or biologist might study the |
ways, tastes, and habits of some rare and curious animal.

Tull’s usual saying, says his Hungerford friend, was this,
habitually repeated: ‘‘ There’s more than a rent odds in saying

1 Gentleman's Magazine, \764, 2 Cyclo. Brit.

Jetivo Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. i?

to farm-servants, ‘Go, do this thing or that,’ or, “‘ Come, let us
_go and do it ’”—his version of the proverbial saying:

He who by the plough would thrive
Must either hold himself or drive.

The practical application of this theory, bodily exertion and
exposure, together with the continuous attention necessary to his
operations, brought on a serious chest complaint, which rendered
it absolutely necessary for him to seek a milder climate in France
and Italy: the sunny South, where, in the words of his familiar
Virgil, “ He might quaff the pendant vintage as it grows.” But,
before setting out, note-book in hand, he decided to sell part of his
Oxfordshire estate, and to establish his family at a farm of his own
in Berkshire named “ Prosperous,’ and situated in the parish of
Shalbourne. The reasons for selling land were probably other
than personal, because Tull says in one reply to his critics, “I
have never spent an estate in any manner.” Before going
abroad he must have been some little time at ‘‘ Prosperous.”
His daughter Mary was baptised at Shalbourne in 1710, and “I
travelled,” he says, ‘‘in April, 1711, being above ten years after
making and using my drill. . . . I was obliged to travel for
saving my life.”

Tull tells us :—‘‘I took the first hints of my horse-hoeing
culture from the ploughed vineyards near Frontignan, and Setts,
in Languedoc, a southern province of France, on the Mediter-
ranean. After my return to England, I improved these hints
by observing that the same sort of vineyard tillage bestowed on
potatoes and turnips had the same effect on them as it had on
these vines. So also in regard to corn. I was thus confirmed in
the principles which, by arguing from effects to their causes, I
had formed to myself, and my practice ever since has-been a
further confirmation of the truth of the same principles.” He
observes further, pursuing his Virgilian studies on the spot and
with great zest, ‘‘The ancients were perfect masters of the vine-
husbandry, which seems to have engrossed their rural studies,
that it did not allow them so much reflection, as to apply the
use of those methods to the increase of bread, which they had
discovered to be most beneficial for the increase of wine.” ‘Tull
tells us that he travelled through Italy, and shrewdly observed
that the patrimony of St. Peter lost when compared with the
hereditary estates adjoining. ‘I went,” he says, “the whole
length of Italy by land, traversing the kingdom of Naples almost
all over, and made a considerable stay in many places thereof.” As
compared with that of other countries, he was greatly struck by
the extraordinary cost of English labour,

VOL, II, T. S.—-5 ¢

18 Jethro Tull : his Life, Times, and Teaching.

After an absence of three years, spent in observation and
studies with a view to the practical agricultural objects of his
life, our traveller, in 1714, returned with well-filled note-
book, from Montpellier in France, ‘‘ repaired in his constitution,
but embarrassed in his fortune.” He returned to his Berkshire
home, Prosperous Farm, a place for ever famous as the home
of Tull for twenty-six years, from this period to the end of his
chequered life.

The rural parish of Shalbourne is situated in the south-
western corner of the county of Berks; chiefly in that county,
but a portion of the parish is in Wiltshire. Partly in both these
counties, but principally in Berkshire, is the farm on which Tull
laboured and experimented, in health and sickness, in sunshine
and in storm, often in need, necessity, and adversity, to perfect
the Tullian system and to publish its principles to a then world
which, speaking generally, was ungrateful and heedless, if not
utterly adverse. This pleasant and seciuded spot, in our day
known chiefly to hunting-men and villagers, has been, as we
have seen, and probably will be again, the object of many and
reverential pilgrimages. Tull says of his lone farmhouse : “ The
lands be so remote from all farmers that they cannot be let
without the house where I live, and which is situate in an air
that I would not willingly part with.” This is Tull’s description
ef the farm ‘‘ whereon only I have practised horse-hoeing ” :—
* Situated on a little chalk on one side and heath ground on the
other, the soil is poor and shallow. It is one of the highest
farms in that part of Berks, and may be seen at ten or twelve
miles’ distance. The bulk of the land is, on the south side, for
near a mile in length called Bitham Hills, all on flinty chalk ;
below is a bottom on chalk also, which has lain for many years
with sainfoin. On the west side all the land is called East Hills.
On the north-west is a high field called Cook’s Hill, the only one
not on chalk, a poor, wet, spewy soil. ‘The soil generally is too
light and too shallow to produce a tolerable crop of beans. This
farm was made out of the skirts of others; great part was a
sheep down with a full reputation of poverty.”

Arthur Young’s “ pilgrimage ” to “‘ Prosperous ” was in 1794,
when, covered with glazed tiles of home manufacture, the old
house still existed; he calls it a “ wretched hovel.” Arthur
Young, after careful inspection, considered that the description
of his farm by Tull was true and just. ‘ Here it was,” he adds, ~
“Tull practised and registered that drill-culture which has been
the origin of so many experiments, and the basis of so many
publications in almost every language in ae ”L In the

1 His own words; Annals Agric. v, 23, 172

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 19

Cuthbert Johnson Collection there are sketches of the tumbledown
little old granary and little old stable as they appeared in 1840.

Tull had a two-pronged hoe, which he called a “ bidens,”
and, for mellow ground, one with three prongs, called by him a
‘“‘tridens;” one of these last was found in the mud at the bottom
of the well at “ Prosperous.” ! A heavy and rudely made hoeing
tool, such as an old roadman might use for scraping down and
spreading road metal, it was probably pitched contemptuously
into the well by one of Tull’s bitter foes—an idle, disgusted and
ultra-conservative farm-labourer.

Tull says, “I keep a team of horses, but only for the use of my
tile-kiln. I do not use oxen, only bulls, bought in when they
are cheapest, and I have them castrated.” An original in all
things, he had for this operation a method of his own. ‘“ They
are called bull-stags. I yoke three in a hoe-plough.” Cobbett,
in his Rural Rides, mentions two “ pilgrimages” to “ Prosperous,”
and writes of Tull’sradical husbandry—that is, going to the root
—feeding the growing plant by deep tillage. The second visit
was on November 20, 1821. Cobbett observes, “‘ with Mr. Budd?
I rode to-day to the farm of Tull; my companion did the same
thing with Arthur Young twenty-seven years ago—it was a sort
of pilgrimage.”

We are told, by his friend and original biographer,’ Tull set
out at “ Prosperous” with a firm resolution to perfect his under-
taking in spite of the opposition of the lower class of husband-
men. He revised and improved all his old implements and con-
trived new ones, and generally pushed on his new system,
demonstrating to all the world the good effects of his horse-
hoeing culture. He grew without manure successive wheat
crops on the same ground for thirteen years, and superior to
that grown by his neighbours in the ordinary course, labour
and tillage supplying the place of manure and fallow, and with
the saving of at least two-thirds of the seed-wheat—a saving in
the aggregate of the food of millions upon millions of people.‘

1 The hoe is said to have been at one time in the possession of the Royal
Agricultural Society. Figured in the Cuthbert Johnson Collection.

? An eccentric attorney of Newbury; an ardent admirer of Cobbett. Many
of his published letters are dated from Budd’s farmhouse, Burghclere,

8 Gentleman's Magazine, 1764.

4 Sir John Lawes was so good as to read this paper, and he has favoured
me with the following observations :—“ Tull is quite an original genius, and a
century in advance of his time. I consider he has been most unjustly accused
of not placing sufficient value upon farm-yard manure; he advocated cleanli-
ness, and saw dung was a great carrier of weeds. ‘To give some clear idea of
the value of Tull’s advocacy of drill husbandry, and the freedom from weed,
which can alone be obtained by the use of the drill, I may mention that, so far
as statistics will allow, I have ascertained the ayerage yield of the wheat crop

(ye

20 Jethro Tull: his Infe, Times, and Teaching:

Tull’s ploughs and other implements were in prineiple and in
effect the rude forerunners of the perfected and world-famed.
British implements of our own day; so also his scrupulously
clean husbandry, with drilling and horse-hoeing, with deep and
constant tillage, is inseparably associated with the modern and
most improved principles of the art of agriculture.

The exact details of Tull’s practice are now subjects only ot
historical, not of practical, interest. The curious reader is referred
to his book, in which every detail is amply set forth ; the illus-
trations of the implements invented and used are excellent. The
instinct of true genius in poor, worn-out, much-abused Tull was
prophetic, and in the faith thus modestly and pathetically set
forth he died :—‘“‘ Some, allowed as good judges, have upon a
full view and examination of my practice, declared their opinion
that it would one day become the general husbandry of England.”

That the Scotch farmers were the first to discover the merits
of Tull’s system is a fact recorded by Loudon. Boswell mentions,
in his Life of Johnson, that in 1773, at Rasey, in the Hebrides,
the great man told us that Dr. Campbell called on him, and they
talked of Tull’s husbandry. Campbell said something, and Dr.
Johnson disputed it. ‘‘ Come,” said Dr. Campbell, “ we do not
want to get the better of one another, we want to increase each
other’s ideas.” Dr. Johnson took it in good part, and the con-
versation went on coolly and instructively. Northumberland
in 1780! borrowed the system from Scotland, and it gradually
worked its way southward. The Tullian system, as has been
said, was first taken up by certain of the great landowners of
England—as, for example, Lord Ducie ? and Lord Halifax *—and
afterwards with great zeal by the Society of Improvers in the
Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland, a Society founded in July
1723; it lived a short but invaluable life of twenty-two years,
and perished in 1745, during the distractions of the then civil
war. During the whole of its life, Mr. Hope of Rankielor, ‘the —
last President of the Society, was the life and soul of the Society
in Scotland : a man, as Chambers well says,‘ who deserves to be
better remembered than he is. He was the intimate friend and

of the world, and Iam able to say that the average yield is less than it is at
the present time upon my permanent wheat land, after more than sixty years
absolutely without manure. Here we have the result of Tull’s three great
principles—drilling, reduction of seed, and absence of weed. If he were alive
now and were writing for the agriculture of the world, he would, I think, be _
quite justified in saying everything he said in regard to cleanliness and
manure.”—C.

1 Northumberland Survey, p. 100; Cyclo. Brit. vol. vi.

2 Matthew-Ducie Moreton, created Lord Ducie, &c., 1720, Died 1735,

3 George Montague, Karl of Halifax, K.B, Died 1739,

4 Dom, An, Seot., iii. 485,

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 21

correspondent of Lord Cathcart, and what Hope did in Scotland
Lord Cathcart zealously seconded at the seat of government in
London; and hence the interest of the Cathcart Diary in con-
nection with the life of Tull. It has been truly observed—and
it is a fitting preface to the Diary—that from the illustrations
that lie around a subject, and opposite and parallel to it, we must
seek at once elucidation and embellishment. The dashing Grey
Dragoon, bred to arms in the school of Marlborough—the Diarist,
born in 1686, was twelve years younger than his friend Tull, and
died the same year, namely, in 1740, whilst in command of the
expedition to Carthagena.!

The Diarist first mentions farming on April 17, 1725: “ At
five this morning I left en chaise to be with Lord Halifax at
eight o'clock. He showed us his gardens at Bushy, of which
park he was ranger, and at his other lodge, Abbs Court, his
horses, his farm, his cows, and everything interesting that he
had, and in a manner most interesting and obliging. We dined,
and returned to London in the evening.” In June 1726, the
Diarist in Scotland was elected President of the Society of
Scotch Improvers. He says, “I supped with them.” Again,
“T spent the evening with Hope of Rankielor and others of the
Society at a tavern, conversing on many projects.” In July:
“‘T presented Hope to the Duke of Aregyle,”? who gave a half-
promise to visit the Ayrshire scene of the Diarist’s Scotch farming
operations. Passing over meetings of council and a general
assembly of the Society in February 1727, mention is made of
the Englishman in the Diarist’s Scotch farm employ. ,

In April the Diarist had a visit from his friend, Hope of
Rankielor, who greatly approved of his works, his system, his
hedges, his trees, the manner of working the land, of the burnt
earth, and the manner of draining by bavins of brushwood; in
fact, Hope approved of everything. In May, the Diarist was
busy in working with his levelling instruments, and happy in
showing his agricultural and landscape works to his lady
visitors. ‘‘ Peggie Bellenden,”’* a young lady celebrated in the

' See the works of Tobias Smollett. ‘ Expedition against Carthagena.”

2 John, second Duke; born 1678; commanded at the Battle of Sheriff-
muir Dumblane, where the Diarist is credited with having, under the Duke,
saved the day by leading a squadron of dragoons over a then frozen but
usually impassable morass, (Lord Mahon’s History of England, &c., vol. 1,
cee. y. 2nd revised ed. Murray, 1839) The Duke is commemorated by

ope—
“ Argyle, the State’s whole thunder born to wield,
And shake alike the senate and the field.”

Tradition, or Sir Walter Scott—equivalent terms—says the Duke was
interested in all details—a thorough practical farmer.
* Margaret and Mary Bellenden, daughters of John, second Lord Bellenden,

22 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

memoirs of those days, is specially mentioned as one of the
party ; the fact is interesting as showing the interest taken even
by fine ladies from town in the country pursuits of almost inac-
cessible Scotland. On July 14, at the King’s levée in London,
the Diarist witnessed a presentation, which marked an era—he
saw ‘‘the Quakers presented.” Later in the month our Diarist
writes, “I was with the King in the evening, who asked me
about my plantations.” In August he again visited the farms
at Bushy and Abbs Court.

In July 1728, the Diarist gaye Lord Townshend,! who was
much interested, an account of the Scotch improvers, and also
of Thomas Hope, with a view of getting him a provision of 2001.
a year. Lord Townshend received this proposition very graci-
ously. In 1729 there was some special agricultural subscription
in which Hope and the Diarist were interested ; he gave as his
subscription 51. for three years. The Duke of Argyle, his
brother Lord Ilay,? Frederick Prince of Wales and others also
subscribed. On one occasion the Prince asked the Diarist if in
Scotland he had many horses. ‘‘ Yes, sir,” was the reply, ‘‘a
great many, but they all go in the plough!” And on April 2
the Diarist writes, “I went to Sir Robert Walpole—the
Prime Minister—and for the same object he paid me his sub-
scription.” ‘This incident of the subscription is interesting as
giving the names of some of those practically interested in
agriculture. On March 18 the Diary further records, “I
had a long conversation with Lord Ducie about agricultural
improvements; he asked me to visit him, that I might judge for
myself of the advantages of the Tullian system.”

On April 8, 1730, the Diary records: ‘‘ I went to Court, where
JT had a long conversation with Lord Halifax about the operations

ladies celebrated in the memoirs and poetry of those days. Horace Walpole
says of the last-mentioned lady, a maid of honour to the princess: “I never
heard her mentioned by anyone who did not prefer her as the most perfect
creature they ever knew.” She married Col. John Campbell, a groom of the
Bedchamber—was the mother of the fifth Duke of Argyle, and died 1736.

1 Charles Townshend, Viscount Townshend, Lord President of the Council,
born 1676, died 1738: the colleague and rival of the Prime Minister, Sir Robert
Walpole. In anage of corruption, Townshend passed his public life in handling
political pitch, yet finally retired into private life with hands clean and unde-
filed. Lcrd Townshend was an enthusiastic farmer. Having, as Secretary of
State, attended his master, King George I. in his visits to Hanover, Lord
Townshend studied turnip husbandry there, and on a large scale introduced-
that system into his county—Norfolk. It is interesting to observe how one
great step in advance leads to another. Tull and Townshend prepared the
way for Bakewell, who, with a view to improve the animals of the farm,
travelled abroad, like Tull, to study, and then experimented.

2 Archibald, Earl of Ilay, second son of the first Duke of Argyle, 1682-1761,
and afterwards Duke of Argyle, Managed the Scotch business of the Govern-
ment for Robert Walpole.

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 23

of Tull, and of Hall, a Papist attorney near Hungerford, on their
manner of enriching the land with tares: 10 acres fattened 200
sheep in a summer. Later, I went to buy a barometer.” On
April 21: “TI was with Sir Robert Walpole! this morning, and
then to Court, where I had a long conversation with Lord
Halifax about my Scotch improvements, of which he much ap-
proved.” On April the 28th: “I went to Court, and afterwards
to the House of Lords, where I had a long conversation with
Lords Bathurst ? and Litchfield about agricultural improvements.”

On May the 9th the Diarist writes : ‘Lord Halifax pressed
me to be of a party to go and see Tull at Abbs Court; I ac-
cepted. I dined with Scarborough,* Chesterfield,t Albemarle,>
Deloraine ® and Schultz.” This must have been an interesting
dinner party, and no doubt Abbs Court and Tull were subjects
of conversation, because Lord Scarborough, the Diarist’s greatest
friend, was brother-in-law of Lord Halifax. Lord Chesterfield
—then Lord Steward of the Household—was the celebrated lord,
the author of Letters to his Son. Colonel Schultz held some
office at Court, a man of wit; he is celebrated in Pope’s Court
Ballad as a punster.

On May the 24th: “ After dinner I walked with the King, who
questioned me regarding my manner of planting trees.” A da
or two later, Sunday: “I went with the King to Marble Hill?
—a charming place—the King constantly asked me the names
of trees.” On June the 11th: ‘“‘ After dinner I had, on the terrace
at Windsor, a long ¢éte-d-téte with the King; the King talked of
employing certain regiments to clear and level roads through
Windsor Forest, and said that he was not quite sure the Colonels
approved. ‘ Yes, sir,’ I said, ‘they will like the duty; I know
one at Kinsale [1.e. the Diarist himself] who would be very
“ happie ” to offer his services.’ The King laughed heartily and
said, ‘I believe you would work for nothing.’ ‘ Yes,’ I added,
‘and, to boot, pay our own marching money.’ The Duke—the
young Duke of Cumberland—invited me to his supper.” On

—_——<$<—<—<————

1 Sir Robert Walpole, Earl of Orford, Prime Minister of England, 1715-17
and 1721-42.

? Allen Bathurst, first Baron and ‘Earl, born 1684, distinguished for wit,
taste and learning ; died in his ninety-first year.

3 Richard, second Harl of Scarborough, K.G. ; died in 1740,

4 Philip Dormer Stanhope, fourth Earl of Chesterfield, K.G.; died in 1773.

5 William Anne Keppel, second Earl of Albemarle, K.G., a soldier; died
in 1754.

6 Francis Scott, second Earl of Deloraine ; born 1710, died 1739.

7 Marble Hill, a little villa near Twickenham, belonged to Lady Suffolk, see
post, page 26. Lords Burlington and Pembroke designed the house, Lord
Bathurst and Mr. Pope laid out the gardens, and Gay, Swift, and Arbuthnot
were self-constituted superintendents of household,

24 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

July the 22nd: “I went on horseback this morning to see the
works in Windsor Forest : in less than two days several miles of
road have been levelled. I saw nearly all the officers, who begged
me to hint to the King that on this service the subalterns were
at great disadvantage, which in the evening I did not fail to do.
I did full justice to officers and men; the King was surprised
and charmed at the work done by the troops.” July 23: “ Out
walking I told the King of the character of Thomas Hope and
of. our Scotch improvements. The King was well satisfied,
chiefly in regard to our manufacture of linen of Cambray, which
would prevent English money going to France. The King
seemed pleased with what I said in regard to Thomas Hope.”
August the 10th: “The Duke of Dorset! promises to interest him-
self about Hope.” August 13: “ I walked in the evening with the
King, and read to hima letter I had from the Duke of Chandos,?
thanking me for having taught his people to burn clay—a won-
derful success.” On August 14: ‘I had an invitation from Sir
Robert Walpole, asking me to visit him at Houghton in Norfolk.”

These incidental records of the names of some of those
interested in the agricultural affairs of that day are the best
evidence, so far as they go, as to the men, or some of them, and
as to the influential Scotch Society which from the first appre-
ciated and adopted the Tullian principles—principles that, for
want of due care and interest, men such as those named, and
many others of their class and power, would never have willingly
allowed to die.

Abbs Court, or Apps Court, a manor one and a half mile
north-east from Walton-on-Thames, celebrated in song by Pope,
was inherited by Lord Halifax ; situated on an open plain adorned
with noble elms and oaks, it has a pretty look-out towards
Hampton Court. Here, at this half-way house, surrounded on
the home farm by instructed, intelligent, appreciative great men
from London, we can picture to ourselves poor Tull in his glory.
Having for the moment escaped from his everyday surroundings,
his wife Susanna and her girls, “ his hovel of a house ” at Pros-
perous, and his idle, mischievous labourers, he is in the enjoy-
ment of the few happy hours of a life usually rendered miserable

1 Tuionel Cranfield Sackville, seventh Ear] and first Duke of Dorset; died 1763.

2 James Brydges, ninth Baron and first Duke of Chandos, created 1719, _

known as “the Princely Chandos;” died at Canons, near Edgware, in 1744,
Canons, the “ Timons villa” of Pope’s satire :
“ At Timons villa let us pass a day
Where all cry out, ‘What sums are thrown away !'”
The glory, however, was of brief duration :
“Deep harvests bury all his pride has plann’q
And laughing Ceres reassumes the land,”

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 25

by bodily suffering and petty annoyances amounting in the ag-
gregate to mental torture. Fancy him at the age of fifty-six, as
in the characteristic portrait '—which, if not by Allan Ramsay,?
is at least of his school—arrayed in his best ruffled velvet coat and
full-bottomed wig; and having dined well, he is depicted as
demonstrating, with index finger extended and self-satisfied ex-
pression, the excellences of some excellent part of his agricultural
system—a charming discourse, spiced, no doubt, with humour,
and delivered with the ease of a scholarly gentleman, together
with the dignity of an intuitive philosopher.

The Diarist’s — Lord Cathcart’s — visit to Tull at “ Pro-
sperous” was on Monday, September 7, 1730. On the Friday
previous he drank tea en familie with Mrs. Howard—Lady
Suffolk,* in those days a person of the greatest influence-——and
explained to her his object in going to Pontypool, which was to
enlarge his knowledge of smelting and of iron manufacture.
The next day he did not go out hunting with the Court, as he
was preparing for his journey. The Queen was gracious, and
asked why he travelled to Wales. The King asked the same
question, and very graciously granted leave. Queen Caroline
was a woman of great ability, a good and firm friend; her
Majesty subsequently headed the list of the subscribers to Tull’s
book. The “ Wizard of the North” has, with magic power,
reproduced for us the men and women of that day—the Queen,
the Duke of Argyle, Lady Suffolk, and many other interesting
illustrations of this biography, English and Scotch, will be found
in the Heart of Midlothian.

On Sunday, September the 6th, when the Diarist started at
half-past nine o'clock, it rained hard; he dined at a little inn,
where he picked up some useful agricultural information. From
thence the ten miles to Newbury was done in fine weather. He
supped with the family of Colonel Schultz. On Monday morning,
the 7th, at half-past nine o’clock, the Diarist arrived at Prosperous
Farm, where he was delighted with Mr. Tull, who showed him
over his property, and explained without the least reserve his
whole system. The Diarist left at 3 o'clock, and young Tull set

1 Agriculturists are indebted to Mr. Martin J. Sutton, of Reading ; he has,
with great public spirit, purchased this interesting portrait, in order that, in
the public interest, it may be safeguarded. The portrait of Tull was formerly
in the possession of Mr. John Richards, F.S.A., of Camden House, Reading, the
founder of the Berkshire Ashmolean Society. At his death, in 1840, it was
bought by the late Mr. John Snare, of Reading; his widow, Mrs, Snare, of
Kelburne Lodge, Wokingham, sold the portrait to Mr. Sutton,

? Allan Ramsay, the painter, was a fellow-countryman and friend of the
Diarist.

* Lady Suffolk’s Letters, 1712-67, London: Murray, 1824,

26 Jethro Tull: his Infe, Times, and Teaching.

him on his way as far as Marlborough ; thence to Bath. The roads
were very bad onwards to Bristol, near which place he met Miss
Vane, a lady well known in the memoirs of those days '—“‘ she
pretended to be more ill than she really is”! On horseback next
morning, at half-past four a.M., to pass the Severn with the tide;
i. traveller arrived too soon, and passed the time at a very nice
inn. Terrible roads in Monmouthshire. He arrived at Ponty-
sf at 8 in the evening of the 9th, thoroughly wet through, and
slept ina miserable inn. Next day with Mr. Hanbury. Passing
over a great deal that is interesting enough, but not of agri-
cultural interest, the Diarist, after dinner, left his host on the
12th, with much regret, having been treated with great good-
ness. ‘The Severn was impassable at New Passage, so the road
to Chepstow was taken ; at Chepstow he took a guide to Lydney,
arriving at Nymphsfield on Sunday the 13th: ‘‘ Here,” he says,
“* [ changed my linen,” and arrived at the house of Lord Ducie,
who was in bad health and in bed. After seeing him, the Diarist
supped with Mr. Moreton, the son and heir of the house, who was
most kind and obliging—it is pleasant to trace a family likeness
in an old picture, and to observe how agricultural proclivities
tend in some families to become hereditary. Next day my lord
was much worse, and they considered him in great danger. Mr.
Moreton, with Mr. Adderlie, their agricultural manager, showed
all the undertakings, which were very satisfactory and much
admired. The site of the house is admirably chosen, and the
view of the Severn very beautiful. On the 15th, at 10 o'clock,
the Diarist left Woodchester Park, and Lord Ducie, who was
rather better. Mr. Moreton conducted him by a beautiful valley
to Hampton. Near Cirencester the Diarist was picked up by
Colonel Selwyn ? in his chaise: “‘ we went seven mortal miles
over infamous roads to breakfast at Wanborough.” On Sept. 17,
again at Newbury, the Diarist wrote to young Tull, and, resunting
his journey en chaise, arrived at Windsor at six o’clock in the
evening. He dined with the young Duke of Cumberland, and
was received by him and by the princesses, his sisters, with great
demonstrations of pleasure; the Duke was greatly attached to
the Diarist, whose own two boys were about the same age, and
playmates. Next day the King and the Court received him
well; he says: ‘‘ Lord Halifax paid me great compliments on

the information I had gained concerning agriculture.” :

1 Horace Walpole’s Letters, vol. i.

? Colonel John Selwyn, equerry to the Queen, father of the better known
George Selwyn, celebrated as a wit. The passion of this really tender-hearted
man was to see coffins, corpses, and executions, He died in 1791, set. 72.—See
Memoirs of George Selwyn, by Jesse and Horace Walpole,

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 27

Lord Ducie, who, we are told, “accompanied” Tull in his
operations—that is to say, the noble Lord’s operations kept pace
with Tull’s—is twice and very suggestively mentioned in the
Horse-hoeing Husbandry Book. In reply to critics, Tull says:
“Can it be reasonably believed that a person of his Lordship’s
known good sense and judgment would have continued the
practice of a scheme so many years and annually increased it,
unless he had seen it succeed, or if upon the whole he had been
a loser by it? I believe my Lord might be two or three
thousand pounds out of pocket or more, but most of this money
was expended upon building walls, making new ways, inclosing
commons and common-fields, planting miles of quick hedges, and
constructing houses and farm-buildings. I never heard there
was any loss by the husbandry, but the contrary. It would be
the highest reflection upon a person of his Lordship’s honour
and integrity to imagine he would approve a scheme on which
he had observed for many years, if he had not been convinced
by his own knowledge and experience that it was just.”

And again an instance occurred in the case of a nobleman
well skilled in agriculture, presumably Lord Ducie. He had two
arable estates. On that near home T'ull’s four-coultered ploughs
had been used with success. Some, therefore, were sent to the
other and distant estate. On a subsequent visit it was found not
one furrow had been ploughed with them. Bailiffs, steward,
servants, and all, said the ploughs might be all very well on the
one estate; yet the land was different, and they were no use
here. No argument of my Lord’s prevailed ; so at last he went
into the field himself, set the coulters, threw off his coat—and
ensigns of honour—and ploughed a whole land, and so shamed
the ploughmen that they condescended to plough well with the
four-coultered ploughs. The moralis grandly Tullian—no new
implement can expect fair play when the master is taught by
servants.

The following extract from Lord Cathcart’s Diary appro-
priately closes his agricultural year, 1730. December 2:
“T went this morning to teach Sir William Strickland and his
manager how to burn clay ;” and again, December 4: “ I stayed at
home for a long conference with Sir William Strickland’s agent :
Texplained to him many things concerning agriculture of which
he was ignorant, and also my system of accounts, with which he
was greatly pleased.”

The year of grace 1731 saw the commencement of the
publication in London of Tull’s magnum opus, in the shape
of his Specimen of a Work on Horse-hoeing Husbandry, in
quarto—five chapters of the afterwards completed book; this,

28 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

to the intense disgust of Tull, was immediately reprinted in
Ireland—pirated without acknowledgment; and in those days
there was no legal remedy. So Tull writes, fearing that the
whole work in like manner would be pirated, “I was come to a
resolution to publish no more.”

The year 1731 was a Tullian year in Lord Cathcart’s
Diary, January 12: “I wrote to Lord Stair and to Mr. Tull.”
This was the Diarist’s relative and the chief originator of the
Scotch Agricultural Society, Maréchal Lord Stair:! there was
a trade in black cattle between the Maréchal and Lord Halifax,
asin Sir Walter Scott’s Two Drovers, which traffic Lord Cathcart
arranged. January 18: “Tull the younger and others dined
with me.” January 21: “ Mr. Tull called on me this morning.”
Saturday, January 23: “ Very frosty, I was this morning with
Lord Bingley,? with Mr. Tull: my Lord greatly approved Tull’s
system.” January 28: “‘ James Campbell is very ill; I was with
him.” Young Tull was fourteen years afterwards on Campbell’s
staff as aide-de-camp. Sunday, February 28: “ Mrs. Tull called
on mein the morning before 1 went tochurch.” March 10: “I
went at 7 o'clock to Rothe’s ; we started with Lord Stair for Abbs
Court, where we saw them drilling sainfoin and barley at one
and the same time. We hada very agreeable walk all over the
farm, and dined at Hampton Court with Lord Westmorland,
and in good time returned to town.” March 12: “I had this
morning a long conference with Mr. Tull. Yesterday wrote to
Thomas Hope.” March 24: ‘* Went on foot to Highgate to
see a theodolite: then tc call on Colonel James Campbell, who is
better : afterwards to the House of Lords with the King: went
to a coffee-house at St. Mary-le-Grand about selling Sauchie—
Scotch—coal: called also on Lord Sempill, the Duke of Dorset,

1 John, 2nd Earl of Stair, K.T., Field-Marshal, second in command under
King George II. at the battle of Dettingen, Ambassador to France on the
death of Louis XIV. The Earl] died in 1747. He was the Diarist’s first cousin,
and with him, as with others, at that time landscape gardening was a passion,
and landscape gardening and home farming went hand in hand: he was a
devoted agricultural improver. Bridgeman and Kent were then the two great
professional landscape gardeners, and some of their work may be traced at
the present day. They were advocates of a natural system as opposed to the
hard lines, right angles, and clipped monstrosities of the Dutch school, Kent
laid out Kensington Gardens, and amongst others he worked for Lord Bur-
lington at Chiswick and Lord Cobham at Stow. The Diary so often cited is
full of evidence of the passion which then prevailed in regard to that delightful
art, which is the creation of the most pleasing pictures out of nature’s own locally
available materials,

2 Robert Benson, M.P, for the City of York, raised to the Peerage as Baron
Bingley, 1713. His daughter Harriet married George Lane-Fox. She was the
heiress of Bramham Park in Yorkshire. ‘The beautiful park and gardens
Lord Bingley there created remain to this day monuments of his taste and
liberality,

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 29

Mr. Grant, and Dr. Haye.” March 27: “Sissen came to me
this morning to teach me how to plot the angles taken the
other day with the theodolite. I dressed the King,’ who spoke
much about my regiment and strongly recommended me to keep
up its strength... .” April 5: “I went to the House of
Commons to hear the debate about Gibraltar. Letter from Mr,
Tull.” April 6: “ Went to Lord Halifax and had a long
interview with him touching the affairs of Mr. Tull.” April
15: “A long conference with Mr. Tull.” April 16: “A
letter from Mr. Tull.” April 17: “A visit from Mr. Tull.”
May 8: “A letter from Mr. Tull, which I answered at once.”
May 12: “Letters from Mr. Tull.” May 21 (in Scotland):
“Visited Lord Loudon and saw his home-farm.” June 7:
“Saw Lord Stair’s home-farm, Castle Kennedy, and was not
edified.” June 10: ‘Long conversation with his manager on
the method of Tull.” August 31: “ Letter from Young Tull.”
October 24: “ Showed Lord Crawford my plans and the theodo-
lite.” October 30: ‘ At home drilling wheat @ la Tull.”

November 7 : “‘ Went on Sunday to see Lord Drumore’s farm
near Edinburgh, which is altogether good.”? November 9:
*“ Dined at a tavern with Duncan Forbes of Culloden and
Thomas Hope of Rankielor.” November 13: “ Dined at Hope
Park, where they showed me the new winnowing machine.”
November 22: “ Visited Lord Stair at Newliston; my Lord
showed me his farm before dinner, which is in very good order ;
I did not approve of his manner of drilling.”

Half a word fixed upon or near the time and spot is worth
a cartload of recollection. These necessarily imperfect and
fragmentary extracts are very typical of the day, and interesting
as showing how much amongst landowners agriculture was the
fashion and a subject of interest; the extracts show also that
Tull was a man about town, and in conference, confabulation,
and correspondence with most influential friends. And, further,
after much persuasion, the considerations and communications
just suggested lead up to Tull’s consent—his disappointments
notwithstanding—to publish, as originally intended, the whole
work on Horse-Hoeing Husbandry.

1 Groom of the Bedchamber to King George II. when Prince of Wales.
Groom of the Bedchamber to the King, and subsequently Lord of the Bed-
chamber.

2 The day before he reviewed his old regiment, the Scots Greys, and dined
at a tavern with General Wade and his old comrades. All were well satisfied
the one with the other. This was the famous general who made the Highland
roads celebrated by the inscription :

P If you had seen these roads
Before they were made,

You would hold up your hands
To praise General Wade,

30 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

‘“‘T was prevailed on,” says Tull, ‘‘ to change my design—not
to publish any more—by several letters, one of which, from a
noble peer, I make bold to insert.” It is dated ‘“‘ London, February
8, 1732;” on February 11, three days later, Lord Cathcart says
in his diary: “I wrote to Mr. Tull; meanwhile he came to see
me.” ‘This letter that follows was probably written by Lord
Halifax, and the blanks should be filled in with the name of the
Diarist. The letter runs thus :—

My dear Sir,

showed me your letter to him of the third of this
month. Iam extremely sorry to observe from it that you are under great
discouragements at present. I am much interested in your preservation,
from the happiness I have of a personal acquaintance with you, as well as
from the concern I think the public has in a person who has laboured so
successfully in its service. I would fain hope that the apprehensions you
had from your spitting of blood are, long before this time, removed by its
having ceased. If that is the case, I must conjure you, for the sake of
your own glory, and for that of your country’s benefit, to apply heartily, and
without loss of time, to the publishing of your work. If you cannot get an
amanuensis from Oxon speedily, pray let send you one from hence. I
am persuaded the subscription money will go far towards printing your book ;
but, if anything should be wanting, you may be assured that your friends
here will contribute towards having a work so beneficial communicated to
the country, and in a way that the profit arising from the sale of the book
shall return to yourself. The hardship that has happened you from the re-
printing your book at Dublin might easily have been prevented, if we had
foreseen that the thing was to have happened ; but now that we are aware of
that inconvenience, you may depend upon it your friends will either get a
stop put to the printing from hence, or by the means of the authority of my
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.—I am ever, with great esteem,

My dear sir, Your, &e.,

“ At length,” says Tull, “overcome by the importunities of
noblemen and gentlemen of South and North Britain, as well as
of Ireland, I unwillingly printed and published my humble
essay.” }

From a biographical point of view the evidence of this
letter, together with the extracts from the diary, are of the utmost
importance. They show the impression made at the time on
highly placed persons, men of the world who knew Tull per-
sonally and intimately, statesmen, soldiers, and courtiers, who
had ro sort of motive to flatter or exaggerate. Obviously
they liked Tull personally, they considered his health and life
of public importance, they regarded him as labouring for his -
country’s benefit, and looked upon him as a public benefactor.

It is amusing to contemplate Tull in his character as a

»

1 In connection with Ireland, Tull says, in reply to a request for an in-
structor, ‘No Englishman of his would yenture his health in Ireland,”

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 81

courtier; he evidently mended his best pen when he wrote:
‘‘The reason there is no dedication to my essay is this: the
Queen having done me the honour to subscribe to my book,
I could not dedicate it to any other person, and her Majesty’s
royal virtues being too far above any panegyric I was able to
write, I chose rather to leave it to the protection of the royal
license and the laws.”

The first edition of the Horse-hoeing Husbandry in folio!
appeared in 1733, and to this a supplement was added in 1739.
The book was at once translated into French, and subsequently
into various Continental languages. During literary gestation
and delivery, poor Tull suffered infinite pain; and immediately
after delivery there was war to the knife. The fruit of his brain
and its author were, as we shall see hereafter, continuously ex-
posed to the most cruel, unjust, and savage attacks of carping
critics.

“J was,” says Tull in his preface, “so far from being
inclined to the scribbling disease, that I had disused writing for
above twenty years. I was too ill to assist when the MS. was
transcribed for the printer; I was never able to correct a proof;
my scribe misplaced my notes, and they did not appear in
connection with the text they were intended to explain:” the
scribe, ignorant of country affairs, often placed the cart before
the horse. ‘Tull groans over the trouble he underwent in
connection, especially, with his plates of the implements, “ with
an infernal train of mechanics, scribes, printers, drawers,
engravers, &c., &c., who, taking advantage of my confine-
ment, put me to a double expense—towards which the sub-
scriptions did next to nothing—also by delays, tricks, and
fraudulent practices gave me such an embarrass that if I had
foreseen I would not have underwent.” Always in regard to
his book Tull speaks with the modesty which is the characteristic
of true greatness. ‘For my part, I pretend to no other merit
but my endeavour to answer the desires of my friends.” He
writes touchingly of the inadvertencies that happen to the pen of
a person in pain; because he cannot write but in a hurry.

Obviously the best commentary on Tull’s book is the book
itself, and in preference, as the voluminous notes are arranged

1 The following editions are thus noted in Alibone’s Dictionary of Authors :—
«Specimen of a Work on Horse-hoeing Husbandry,’ Lond. 1731. 4to,
‘New Horse-hoeing Husbandry.’ 1733. Folio. (Supp. 1739. Folio). 1739.
Folio. 1751. Folio, 1753. Folio. 1762. 8vo, 1772. 8vo. In French by
Duhamel, In English, new edition by Cobbett. 1822. 8vo. 1829.” The
French say Voltaire was a disciple of Tull. Voltaire was in England,
1726-28.-- Grand Dictionnaire Larusse, Art., Tull,

32 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

with the text, Cobbett’s edition ;! but Cobbett leaves out all the
implement matter as obsolete. The explanatory plates in the
earlier editions, however, and in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1764,
are excellent. ‘his, in his own words, is what Tull proposed to
himself when he began to write his book; but a glance at the
table of contents, as printed in the foot-note, will show that
the work, as was well said at the time, “ripened under his
hands ” :—

“T. In treating of roots, it is proved that they extend hori-
zontally to a much greater distance from the stem than it is
commonly thought; and that they are in this, and in all other
respects, by nature, adapted to receive the benefits of horse-
hoeing husbandry.

“TI. The natural and artificial pastures of plants are
described.

“TIT. Itis shown how this artificial pasture is raised by dung
and by tillage, and what difference there is between the one and
the other means of raising it.

“TV. That deep and proper hoeing is a sort of tillage that can
supply the use of dung; and that it is for want of this tillage
that few plants are brought to their full perfection.

“ V. The rules for putting this husbandry into practice are
shown, as far as the author’s experience reacheth.

“VI. All the particular instruments necessary for that
purpose are described in cuts by the inventor, with directions
how to make and use them.”

“My readers,” Tull says, ‘‘ will not accuse me of breach of
promise for having exceeded my proposals.”

To treat adequately of Tull’s science, to recognise in his
thoughts and operations the germs of subsequent discoveries,
would tax the ability of a consummate scientist. The science of
chemistry and that of vegetable physiology, especially chemical
science, is advancing almost daily and by rapid strides. The
science of Tull and his forecasts, the flash of intuitive genius,
the results of imperfect experiments conducted continuously, but
with inadequate appliances, are—and this cannot be too often
repeated—to be judged by the standard of his own day, not of

1 In Cobbett’s edition the table of contents is thus :—Preface by Mr. Tull;
chap. I., of Roots; II., of Leaves; III., of Food of Plants; IV., of Pasture ~
of Plants; V.,of Dung; VI., of Tillage; VII., of Hoeing; VILL, of Weeds;
IX., of the Virgilian Husbandry; X., of Turnips; XI., of Wheat; XII., of
Smuttiness; XIIL., of Blight; XIV., of Saint-foin; XV., of Lucerne; XVL., of
Change of Species; XVII., of Change of Individuals; XVIII, of Ridges;
XIX., of the Difference between the Old and New Husbandry; Addenda to
the Horse-hoeing Husbandry ; Notes to the Preface,

Jethio Tull: his Life, Timés, and Teaching, 33

ours; and so judged and so measured, the overtopping mental
stature of Tull stands out grandly when projected on that distant
and little-worked-upon background.

Tull’s was essentially a fact-finding disposition; he had the
true instincts ofa man of science. “Truth,” he said, ‘‘is like gold,
the more tried the brighter—experiment for yourself.” Again,
and the phrase bears repetition, ‘in agriculture, that is, in
science, every man should bea freethinker. Water when it runs
off soon is beneficial; where it remains it is injurious.” “It is
a vulgar error that the winter rains do not enrich the earth.”
Tull writes of “ water carrying down some impregnated earth,”
and of “strong land that is tenacious of such impregnated
particles.” His entire theory on the province of water as an in-
strument or vehicle in vegetable nutrition is most suggestive. He
was acquainted with the rain-gauge and greatly interested in the
records of rainfall. He worked with his microscope, but the in-
strument, he says, was a bad one, particularly in examining water
in the roots of plants, and, to his apparent surprise, he found the
water clear and limpid.

Tull appears to have been greatly exercised in regard to this
proposition : ‘It is the vessels of plants that make the different
flavours, the flavours are not in the earth until it has entered
and been altered by the vegetable vessels.”

Before proceeding further to consider Tull’s science, it is only
fair to cite his own words in regard to manure; he fully recog-
nised that dung was a serious obstacle to clean farming, as ‘it
conveyed the seeds of weeds. He says: ‘“‘ The vulgar in general
believe that I carried-my farm-yard dung and threw it in a river.
I have no river near ; besides, my neighbours buy dung at a good
price; but it is known I neither sell nor waste any dung.
Against such lying tongues there is no defence.” !

The greater part of the MS. before referred to of Mr. Cuth-
bert Johnson, F.R.S., consists of a review and criticism of the
book of Tullian husbandry. The MS. probably contains to his
day—that was thirty years ago—the best estimate of Tull’s
scientific knowledge. As limitations of space forbid a transcript,
it may be useful here just to glean a little from the pages of
this competent, able, and painstaking writer. ‘‘ Pulverise the
soil, and prevent exhaustion by weeds, is the essential Tullian
principle. Tull says horse-hoeing keeps plants moist in dry
weather, counteracting the bad effects of drought by pulverisation,
and adds, ‘dews are the richest present that the atmosphere
gives to the earth” He knew sulphur and nitre exist in the

' Addenda to Horse-hocing,
VOL, Il. T. 8.—5 D

34 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

air; dew has both of these substances. The chemistry of 1732
did not enable him to distinguish between nitre and nitric acid—
aquafortis—but he did distinguish ‘an acid spirit in the air,
and ‘much of the nature of aquafortis.’ Here he was giant
strides in advance in the knowledge of his day.”

Dews, he thinks, are exhaled from rivers and moist lands,
and from the expirations of vegetables. Dew is re-exhaled from
waste ground, but most of that which falls on well-tilled land is
retained. He well knew that rain-water contains foreign sub-
stances. Could we compute the quantity of earth—in his mind
the food of plants—in rain-water, it might correspond to the
quantity of earth—food of plants—taken off annually by the
wheat. Tull experimented on roots with a view to ascertain
how they absorb food; he placed plants of mint in plain water,
salt and water, and partly in both salt and fresh water. Some
he placed partly in milk, others in a strong infusion of garlic,
with other constantly varied experiments, and noted the effects
for his practical object.

The gases in his day were all confounded under the name
of air; he was aware, however, that air passes into the leaves of
plants, and that without air plants die. Enthusiasm in regard’
to tillage made Tull appear, as has been observed, to run a-muck
against farm-yard dung, which, no doubt, with poorly fed animals,
in Tull’s day, was poor stuff; twenty to thirty loads per acre were
constantly used. He appreciated hand manures, especially peat
ashes, which he carted twelve miles. He had a considerable
knowledge in regard to capillary attraction, and the absorptive
power of finely pulverised earth.

Tull drilled his turnips in six-feet ridges, sometimes in a
single, sometimes in a double row, fourteen inches apart, and
used dung; ‘it is useful, for turnips haye commonly less time.
to grow than other plants.” He pleaded earnestly for wide
intervals between the ridges of wheat, to be horse-hoed. Tull’s
system, as to pickling wheat, is, in many parts of the country,
followed to this day. He was also well aware of the importance
of change of seed; flax-seed, he says, ‘‘ brought from Holland
and sown in England will bring as fine flax as there, but the
very next generation is coarser.”

Tull, according to Wren Hoskyns, did not push his theory
far enough: where his theory halted his practice began to fail.-
He did not know the object of stirring was to admit freely air
and water, which contain all the organic elements of vegetation—
hydrogen, carbon, and ammonia. Had he known this he would
have avoided the erroneous theory which led to his want of due
appreciation of the chemical yalue of manure.as opposed to its

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 35

purely mechanical action. A very recent writer in a work of
authority! thus sums the Tullian theory and with this preface:
“Tull studied the principle of growth in plants, and with extra-
ordinary, perhaps with unparalleled, attention to surrounding
details. The food of plants—in his view—consists of minute
particles of earth, and consequently the more worked and stirred
the more is there food range for roots. Hence rows and drills
wide apart, and tillage of intervals by plough and hoe and until
near maturity.”

If the spirits of just men made perfect could look down
upon sublunary affairs, how the shade of Tull would rejoice in
the chemical science of our day! This recent experiment would
just be after his own heart :—peas, vetches, clover and lupins
grown in sterilised sand. The plants cannot thrive—dwindle—
there is no nitrogen beyond that in the seed. Add a little liquid
extract of good soil, and watch the transformation: these same
plants shoot out and flourish exceedingly. How a recent paper
in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society
on the sources of nitrogen in vegetation? would open his
eyes to so much that was hidden and obscure! No word
but amazement would describe his attitude on learning that
it is supposed there are little germs essential to vegetation,
and microbes in the soil which require to rouse them into
vigorous action, aération, warmth, and peculiar soil, or, in other
words, pulverisation, tillage, draining, and lime. And further,
that it is inferred each plant has its own familiar little microbe,
to minister to its special wants and tastes, and that the little
special microbe helps leguminous plants to obtain nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere. But enough; in our day, in’ the
flowing tide of modern science, outsiders are soon beyond their
depth, struggling vainly with advancing waves and shouting to
the humane man of science for essential assistance.

Usually the inertia of good people discourages more than
the opposition of the bad. This was not so in the case of Tull.
Acrimonious Grub Street criticism—“ their dirty wit ”—seemed
to have scorched and burnt up his sensitive nature; but all the
same, it never prevented his giving a Rowland for an Oliver!
Difficulties of communication and a restricted newspaper press
in his day, probably by concentration, rendered the venom of
unjust criticism intensely venomous, and “Spit forth” to an
extent not easily appreciated in our time, when writers and

1 Cycio. Brit.
* Trans. R, Soc. v. 180; Proceedings R. Soc. vy. 47, Sir John Lawes and
Dr, Gilbert,

D2

36 Jethro Tull: his Lifé, Times, and Téaching.

public men are rendered, by endless conflicting newspapers and
their attrition, completely pachydermatous. Tull appealed fear-
lessly to Chief Justice Time, and that grandest of grand juries,
Posterity, and the charge agreed with the verdict, and—without
the possibility of reversion—it was, and it is, altogether in Tull’s
favour. By consequence the ears of his virulent maligners are
nailed to the literary pillory of history: in the suggestive
imagery of the Book of Job,' it may be said of these enemies of
Tull’s—‘ among the bushes they brayed: under the nettles they
were gathered together.”

Chiefest in that bad eminence was one Stephen Switzer, a
clever, well-educated man; a gardener and seedsman, and himself
a reformer in his own art. He was a Hampshire man by birth,
but probably of a family of foreign extraction. His garden
was at Millbank; he had a stand bearing a sign of the flower-
pot in Westminster Hall, close to the entrance to the Court of
Common Pleas, He was the head of a Society which contained
amongst others a writer whose pseudonym was “‘ Equivocus,” so
that for brevity Tull called the whole gang of his. tormentors
the Equivocal Society, or otherwise the Secret Society. He
says of them ‘they have blackened themselves all over with
their own ink.” It is not necessary for the present purpose,
which is only to convey a just impression of Tull’s manly life
and surroundings, to do more than to cull from their writings a
few beauties of literary and critical style. Tull says “the Secret
Society—the Equivocal Society—likewise are not content with
abusing my vegetable principles, and terming me an atheist, but
also describe me by the similitude of the most odious, despicable,
and pestiferous animals. ‘They also usurp the power of the
Inquisition of damning books because not their own, And
again, they, the critics in question, seldom make use of any
other logic than that of Billingsgate; they call me names—
atheist, infidel, fool, mente captus, madman, ass, owl, viper,
carping insect, &c., all feminine arguments of scurrility.”

The following extract is from a book supposed to be unique,”
named The Practical Husbandman and Planter :

And now what is there that could induce this author—Tull—to fall
[in so unmannerly a manner as he has] on one of the best authors of
antiquity [Virgil| and whose husbandry has stood the test of.so many
ages, but a too high conceit of his own opinion above that of all the rest of
miankind. He might indeed have attacked a Bradley or even a Woodward
(as he has done) with pretty good success; but a Virgil is certainly an Over-

Wei fololp s.0.a)7(s
2 In the library of Mr. Robert Hogg, LL,D., F.L,S., to whom I am indebted
for the extract,—Q, : :

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 37

match for him, and ’tis much to be wondered at that Virgil's translator,!
who has so just a value for him, should let this great adept pass so long
unobserved. If wit be the case, he ought to have taken care at whom he
level’d it, lest like Liquour that is squirted into other People’s faces, it should
recoil back upon his own, and make him the Ridicule of every Reader. A
conceited envious critick (and such must that Author in this case be) is a
sort of Viper who (being continually nibbling at every author that comes
in his way) is one of the most pestiferous Mortals that is; nor can he (as is
visible in those ill-natured Remarks) escape the most admired Poet that
ever wrote, though it be one who, like Steel, polishes every subject he
touches, and whose metal is so hard as to break the teeth of all little
carping Insects.

The learned, obliging, and fortunate possessor of the unique
little book from which this elegant extract is taken appends this
just, if exclamatory note, ‘‘ So much for honest, unselfish, patriotic
Jethro!!” ;

‘“‘ Death and the Husbandman ” is one of the spirited pictures
in the series of the “Dance of Death:” there is the old
husbandman holding a wheel-plough, to which four great
horses are yoked, and all are vigorously engaged in drawing the
last crooked furrow of the field: under the brow a village with
smoke and life, and in the middle distance, glorified by the rays
of the setting sun, there is a church: in order to finish
off the furrow, Death, in a short shirt, skips merrily along,
whipping up the leaders. Holbein, at ‘ Prosperous,” would
probably have sketched Death as a mischievous agitator stand-
ing in a cart haranguing poor Tull’s ignorant labourers, ‘‘ whose
tongues were even more nimble than their hands,” and inciting
his besotted neighbours to strikes and opposition ; or otherwise
as pouring additional gall and venom into the ink of his unjust
critics; or more probably still, Holbein would have depicted
the only son of the house, John Tull, as being tempted by the
enemy to more foolish adventures and bubble speculations,

John Tull had the inventive faculty of his father without his
stability of character. Probably through the influence of his
father’s friend, the Diarist, John obtained a commission in
the artillery train, and it is said that at the Battle of Fontenoy
he acted as aide-de-camp to General James Campbell, a lifelong
friend of the Diarist, and that the General, being mortally
wounded, died in John Tull’s arms. Subsequently, and more
than ever, he was afflicted by the madness of speculation, which
then attacked all classes—a sort of reflex of the great South Sea
wave. Scheme after scheme was proposed. Some of young

1 William Benson, 1682-1754, critic, politician, author, country gentleman,
wrote Virgil’s Husbandry, or an Essay on the Georgics, First book translated
in English yerse,—Dict. Nat. Biog,

38 Jethro Tull: his Infe, Times, and Teaching.

Tull’s particular follies are noted in the Gentleman’s Magazine ;!
history ? refers generally to such schemes as importing jackasses
from Spain, a wheel for perpetual motion, fishing for wrecks,
&c. The inevitable end came; he was arrested for debt, and in
1764 died in the Fleet Prison. Jethro Tull, the father, doubtless
with due appreciation, left to his son John by will the sum of
one shilling.

Poor Tull! it may be inferred that in a financial sense he
was pulled down less by bad health than by the extravagance of
his improvident son; the father, a man of firm resolves, wrote
thus :-—

It is to the new husbandry that I owe the property of my farm. ...
I propose no more than to keep out of debt, and leave my estate better
behind me than I found it, which unless some accident prevents, I shall
perform. .. . But the lands of the farm I have now (Prosperous) lie so
remote from all farmers, that they cannot be let without the house where I
live, and which is situate in an air, that I would not willingly part with.
To avoid this, and yet be out of trouble, as I was likely to be confined to
my bed, I prepared materials for building a new farmhouse, and had in a
manner agreed with a tenant to enter upon my farm the last summer, which
was disappointed by an accident, and now perhaps I may be enforced to
keep it as long asl live. However that may happen, I am confident (all
things considered) that in the time I have already occupied it, if I had
managed it in the common husbandry, the value of its purchase would have
been lost by it, though a robust, able-bodied farmer in the clovering and
turnip method might have thrived upon it: but every farmer on the old
system that has rented it (and here have been few other since it was first
made into a farm), that being about seventy years ago, has either broke, or
quitted it before the end of his term.

There is reason to suppose that Tull’s infirmities confined
him to his home at Prosperous for the six years preceding his
death, and indeed we are told that during much of that time
his many and increasing infirmities confined him to his room;
of his hundred acres of drilled wheat he says, ‘‘ I have not ‘seen
any of it being confined within doors by many diseases which
are adjudged to be the most cruel of any incident to a human
body.” He adds, touchingly, “I have no one here in whom
I can confide.” Often—how often—the rewards of mediocrity
are immediately paid, those attending excellence being settled
in reversion: poor Tull, in reference to the word “ glory” in
the before-referred-to letter from the noble lord, said pathetically
of fame: ‘Glory is the reward of warriors attained in the field

1 A new fish warehouse was opened in Covent Garden Market for the sale
of fish brought by land-carriage from seaporis at a great distance. Another
of the same kind has been opened in Oxford Market. This is a project of Mr.
John Tull, son of the late ingenious Jethro Tull, author of the Horse-Hoeing
Husbandry.— Gent.’s Mag., 1761.

* Hist. Eng. 18th Cent., Lecky.

Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching. 389

of battle: but in our arable fields the master of them must be a
slave to those people who are under the greatest obligation to
serve him; and slavery is opposite to victory.”

Tull’s will was made on the 24th of October, 1739, some
months before his death. The preamble recites: “‘ I Jethro Tull
of Shalbourn in the county of Berks Esquire being very sick
and weak in body but of sound mind and memory praised be
God for it do make this my last will” &c. His sister-in-law,
apparently a helpful woman, Ann Smith, of Burton-Dassett,
spinster, is made sole executrix: his real and personal property
to be sold and divided in five equal shares, one share each to his
four daughters, the fifth to his executrix. He states that, as his
wife had a jointure, he did not think it reasonable to make any
addition thereto. For some reason or other, Mrs. Tull—any
way, in his later years—scarcely seems to have been a helpmate
meet for her husband, to succour, help, and comfort him in his
danger, necessity, and tribulation.

The “ very sick and weak body” could no longer uphold the
“sound mind ”—the never-resting, energetic spirit. Death
came—not Death the enemy, the morbid creation of a medizval
brain, but the beneficent Angel of Death—Azrael—the friend of
poor Tull, friend of all suffering worn-out humanity, the friend
of all those whose strength is but labour and sorrow. Jethro
Tull died early in the month of March in the year 1740, at the
age of sixty-six years.

*“No man can tell where the remains of Jethro Tull, the
benefactor of his kind, were deposited.” So wrote Chambers! in
his biographical sketch. No loving, no lingering, local tradition,
no known record pointed to the hillock of mortality in the dull
churchyard beneath which rested all that was mortal of one who
by common consent is deemed worthy to be called a “ benefactor
of his kind.” Mr, Cuthbert Johnson, F.R.S., offered a reward
for the discovery of Tull’s grave, but in vain. After twenty
years of pious care, the diligence of a learned and well-known
antiquary ? of the Royal County was, in 1889, rewarded, and his
discovery thus published to the world :—

A cursory glance at the registers of the church of this parish (Basildon)
shows that they contain many names of historical importance and interest,

and by their means the writer has been able to solve a problem which has
hitherto baffled all the inquiries and researches of the professional genealogist

1 Genl. Bio. Dic. By Alex. Chambers. New ed. London: 1815.

2 Stray Notes of the Parish of Basildon in Berkshire. By Walter Money,
F.S.A., Herborough House, Newbury, I am under great obligation to this
learned and agreeable gentleman for all that he has done, and endeavoured to
do, to assist me in regard to this biography of a worthy of the Royal County,—C,

% Times, August 24, 1889,

40 Jethro Tull: his Life, Times, and Teaching.

and local historian—-namely, the burial-place of Jethro Tull, the eminent ex-
erimentalist in agriculture. Jethro Tull was buried at Basildon, as will
e seen from the following extract from the parish register :—“ Jethro Tull
gentleman of the parish of Shalburne in the county of Berks was buried
March ye 9th 1740. Mem.'—This Jethro Tull Esquire was the author of
a valuable book on agriculture, entitled Horse Husbandry.—Geo: Bellas,
Rector.”

So Tull was born at Basildon, and buried there. That place,
situated on a beautiful réach of the river Thames, is eight miles
north-west from Reading, and consequently a long distance—
twenty miles as the crow flles—from Prosperous and Shalbourne.
He must have expressed a yearning desire, after his troubled
day on earth, to rest near the peaceful scenes of his infancy and
early youth.

The world goes up, and the world goes down,
And the sunshine follows the rain.

The world of Queen Victoria is not that of King George II.
of pious memory. Yet some things remain to us of the old
days; for example, the Tullian system remains and universally
prevails. The old church of St. Bartholomew at Basildon dates
from King Edward II.; its flint and stone dressings, defying
time, are in outline sharp as ever; the fine old yew-trees in the
old churchyard may flourish for ages ; within the western tower
of brick, with its pinnacles, the four ancient bells are now as
they were long, long before Tull’s rejoicing mother, unheedful ot
future greatness, bore her infant Jethro to be made an heir of
everlasting salvation; and the old bells ring out now as they
rang when the old church finally received Jethro Tull in its
quiet shade; then the old peal rang out once and again its
remorseless toll—brave old bells—

Peal out evermore—
Peal as ye pealed of yore. ’
Brave old bells, on each Sabbath day ;
In sunshine and gladness,
Through clouds and through sadness,
Bridal and burial have passed away.
Tell us life's pleasures with death are still rife
Tell us that Death ever leadeth to Life ;
Life is our labour and Death is our rest,

If happy the Living the Dead are the blest.
CATHCART.

1 Mr. Bellas was, at the time of ‘Tull’s burial, vicar of Basildon, and
rector of the neighbouring parish of Yattendon,

— FO

41

INDIAN AGRICULTURE IN ITS
PHYSICAL ASPECTS.

To anyone interested in agriculture a tour in another country
than his own cannot fail to be of much profit, and when that
embraces a special and definite study of the agriculture of a
distant part of the great British Empire, it is surrounded with
peculiar interest. Already the growth of an export trade in
agricultural produce from India has exercised a considerable
bearing upon England itself, and the condition of that vast
country with its teeming masses, the greater number by far
engaged in the pursuit of agriculture, cannot fail to be a matter
of deep concern. Looked at purely from the point of view of
an agricultural observer and inquirer, I can hardly imagine
any field so fertile in rewarding a careful study as India offers ;
and when one is privileged, as I have been, to pursue an
investigation under auspices so favourable, and with advantages
so great as were afforded to myself, he can scarcely fail to return
deeply impressed with the general excellence of the native agri-
culture of India, and with the truly wonderful administration
of that great and important Empire.

The object of my mission—one to which I was deputed by
Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for India—was to endeavour,
after inquiry made on the spot, to offer such suggestions to the
Government of India as might tend to the improvement of the
agriculture of the country, and more particularly that which
might result from the teachings of science.

In view of the fact that, although my main conclusions and
recommendations have been already submitted to Government,
my entire report is not yet issued, I am precluded from entering
here into any debateable points as to what the duty of Govern-
ment should be in the way of fostering agricultural improvement;
but it may be of interest to generally review the external
conditions of the agriculture of India, and briefly to indicate
the principal respects in which its systems differ from our own,

This will be my purpose in the present paper.

My residence in India extended over fourteen months, during
which I was enabled to travel freely over the six leading provinces
of the empire, the remaining two, viz. Burmah and Assam, not
being comprised in the scope of my inquiry. I was thus enabled
to see as great variations of agricultural practice and conditions
as was possible, and to study them during each of the agricultural
seasons of the year. That such a review was not only desirable,
but absolutely necessary, before any sound conclusions could be

42 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

come to, those who are well acquainted with India can readily
testify, and the time, alas! has been only too short to exhaust
the interest in or to do justice to the subject. However, with
the facilities so readily put at my service, I was able to make a
tour in each of the six provinces, viz. the Punjab, the North-
West Provinces and Oudh, Bengal, the Central Provinces,
Bombay, and Madras, and I visited each one twice, viz. once
in the cold season, and again during the rains.

The first and most natural differences that strike the newly-
arrived visitor are the prevailing heat and the ever-present sun,
features playing a most important part in determining the
agriculture of India. As the journey is made from Bombay or
other seaport into the open country, the town is rapidly left,
and many an hour or even a whole day may be passed in the
train before another town of any considerable size is met with,
for agriculture is the staple industry and occupation of the
people. But in place of the wide and often undulating fields of
England, the monotony of crop-growing pleasantly broken here
and there by the variation of pasture land with its feeding herds
of cattle and sheep, we find in India a level plain stretching for
many miles along our route, and split up into almost minute
divisions, upon which not one but several crops or patches of
crops may be seen growing. No hedges nor even stone walls
mark the boundaries either of field or holding, for, in all but a
few special districts, hedges, properly so called, will not grow, and
in other parts one may traverse a thousand miles without
coming across a stone even the size of a pebble.

It is not a land of large, but of very small holdings, the
average area belonging to a cultivating tenant being only about
five acres. On this small space he and his family, and often his
brothers or other relatives with their families as well, exist—
living, as it were, under a communal system. No trees surround
the fields or break the landscape, unless where a poor and barren
stretch will not repay cultivation, and has been left to jungle
growth or remains a bare parched spot. Along the coast line
may be seen dotted here and there the tall cocoanut tree ; but its
region is soon left behind, and an occasional palmyra, or toddy-
palm, takes its place. It is only when the journey, it may be of
several days’ length, brings one to the mountain or hilly regions,
that the vast forests are met with and fringe the cultivated area ; -
otherwise, the general appearance of the country is that of a
vast, heated, and, apart from the agriculture, uninteresting plain.

The workers we see on these small five-acre holdings are
not the day labourers, with the farmer walking busily amongst
them, but the tenant himself and his family, each taking his and

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 43

her part, and more frequently than not working on rather than
above the ground—a group of scantily clad dusky men and women,
here squatting down and busily weeding; here, in a similar
position, cutting a crop with hand and sickle, and laying the
handfuls side by side until a bundle is gradually formed; there
driving along the pair or more of oxen (not horses) that pull the
plough which lightly runs through the top surface of the soil but
turns no furrow over; there throwing with wicker basket-scoops
the water from an adjacent pool or running channel on to the
growing crop, or raising it from a well in leathern buckets
drawn up by bullocks with a rope and pulley. In place of
grazing herds in green fields, there are wandering troops of thin
half-starved cattle that roam over the barren tracks, picking up
what they can, though hardly a green spot seems to reward
their search, or goats that pull down‘and pluck every green
bough or twig that offers itself, or buffaloes cooling their hides
in muddy pools, from which if possible they will allow only their
heads to emerge.

As we pass on, other changes are noticed: what is now in
the cold season a tiny stream, and in the hot season may be dried
up altogether, will in the rainy period swell into a vast swift-
flowing torrent, and cover the wide bed which now lies exposed.
Elsewhere a canal, or its numerous. branches, carried off by en-
gineering skill from some great river, brings the all essential
water that the crops require, and without which agriculture
would in many parts be at a standstill for the greater portion of
the year. Yet another feature cannot fail to strike the eye: in
some districts are vast plains coated with a snow-like crust and
devoid of all vegetation. These are the well-known reh or usar
tracts, the bringing of which into cultivation has baffled nearly
every effort, but the reclamation of which would, over many
thousand acres, supply food for the wants of an ever-pressing
population.

As the days and the weeks go by we have no longer the
changes of a fickle English climate, with its alternation of rain
and sunshine, but a steady continuance of a long series of days
one like the other, but always hot; then, as March is reached,
it becomes hotter and hotter, until, when all the country presents
at length a burnt-up appearance, there comes, about the end of
June or early in July, a tremendous change. Therains descend
in torrents, the rivers become swollen and flood the land, and coat
the barren spots, as if by magic, with a green sward.

Such are, very briefly, some of the most prominent features
that characterise the external appearance of Indian agriculture.
But this, though a sketch of what may be seen, is not true by any

44 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

means of all parts generally : for I may as well say at the outset
that there is hardly a statement that can be made about Indian
agriculture, as deduced from any one district, which cannot be met
by a precisely opposite statement taken from the experience of
another. It has been well said that there is no such thing
as one country India, or one Indian people. It is a continent
fifteen times the extent of the whole British Isles, and made up of
many countries and many peoples, all totally diverse. So
also is it with regard to the agriculture: and in this consisted
the very difficulty I had to meet—the impossibility of suggesting
any general improvement which might be applicable to many
parts alike. Each portion of the country must be taken by itself,
and in relation to its particular surroundings and circumstances.
What those were, it was my duty to ascertain and now briefly to
describe.

With the above caution I would say generally that the agri-
culture of India is, in my opinion, excellent ; and how to improve
it is a problem which is, I do not hesitate to say, a harder one
than how to improve English agriculture. More than this, I
have seen numerous instances of as fine and careful cultivation,
combined with fertility of resource on the part of the raiyat, or
cultivating tenant, as is to be met with in the best parts of our
own country. The determining factor with the Indian culti-
vator is the facilities to which he has access. The excellence of
his cultivation is bounded not by the use he makes of the faci-
lities ; indeed, it is wonderful how he does utilise what he has.
Nor is it bounded by his want of knowledge, but by the existence
or non-existence of the essential requisites to success. I, there-
fore, unhesitatingly dispose of the ideas which have been erro-
neously entertained that the racyat’s cultivation is primitive and
backward, and say that nearly all the attempts made in the
past to teach him have failed, because he understands far better
than his would-be teachers the particular circumstances under
which he has to pursue his calling.

To take first the people, or rather the peoples. Agriculture
is, as I have said, the main occupation of the country, and it
is estimated that fully 90 per cent. of the rural population
is directly engaged in its pursuit. Of the 265 millions that
inhabit India, there are about 145 million Hindus, and
among these, generally, the best cultivators are found. The
45 million Mahommedans are scattered among the Hindus,
preponderating in some districts and being fewerin others. They
are a meat-eating race, as distinguished from the Hindus, who,
as arule, are not. Large herds and flocks are therefore in the
care of Mahommedans mainly, and they are also the butchers ;

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 45

among the Hindus, however, are several tribes and castes
whose associations are with cattle, though for the most part
with milking and breeding herds. Along the river-sides the
Mahommedans predominate, and thither and into the forests the
plough and the milking cattle are driven in the height of the
hot season.

Without some knowledge of what is implied in the word
caste, one is unable to appreciate the enormous influence this
exerts upon the people themselves and upon their agriculture.
At the same time, so complex a subject is the one of caste that
without a very extensive knowledge of the country it is impos-
sible to understand it. But that among the Hindus certain
castes and races are exceptionally good and others exceptionally
bad cultivators remains a fact, and that the differences are fre-
quently to be traced entirely to the respective castes is shown
by the existence side by side in the same village of superior and
inferior cultivation. Certain castes, as the Brahmins and
Rajputs, consider it derogatory to engage in manual labour
themselves, and they employ hired labour; low castes, such as
the Kachhis, on the contrary, do not scruplé to even use the
night-soil of town or village, which higher castes disdain to
handle, and they are liberally rewarded in a magnificent resulting
cultivation. Not only are there these differences, but there are
castes who are noted for the special branches of agriculture
which they follow: such are the growers of vegetables, the
market-gardeners, the cattle breeders, the graziers, the milk sup-
pliers. Hach man follows the vocation of his particular caste,
and nothing will raise him out of it into a higher one, or make
him, if a cultivator, depart from the practice of that caste. The
Mahommedan, or, among the Hindus, the low caste chamar or
the “sweeper” class, may touch a bone, or collect bones for
export, but to the higher caste Hindu this would be an unclean
act.

In dealing, therefore, with the agriculture of India, points
such as these, and many like them, which do not enter into our
English agricultural conditions, have to be taken into account.
True it is that the influence of caste is beginning to weaken under
the spread of education and under the necessity of making the
land yield more liberally for the supply of food to its overcrowded
population ; but it remains a powerful factor still, and one which
can only be very gradually removed.

If inherent differences among the people themselves, differ-
ences which can only slowly disappear, affect the agriculture,
how much must the latter be ruled by that striking feature, the
Indian climate, one which neither the State nor the people can

AG Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

alter? As I have indicated, the seasons are not of the varying
nature of our own, but are sharply defined and continuous over
the greater part of India. While everywhere and always it is
more or less hot, there is a cold season ranging from December
to March, during which, with the exception of occasional and
uncertain showers at Christmas time, and known as the Christ-
mas rains, no rain falls. This is the period of the rabi or cold-
weather crops, crops which approach more to our English cultiva-
tion, and consist mainly of wheat, barley, numerous pulses,
linseed and other oil-seeds. These crops, sown in November,
are grown either by the aid of the rainfall of the previous kharif
or rainy season, which still remains in the soil where it is suf-
ficiently retentive, or, where soil is dry and sandy, by water
supplied by artificial irrigation either from wells, tanks, surface
reservoirs, or by the wonderful system of canals now carried
throughout the country wherever practicable.

By March the cold-weather crops are reaped and the heat
gradually increases, until in May and June the whole surface
of the land presents a parched and burnt-up appearance, and,
except in a few favoured parts, no green thing is visible. Cattle
roam over the fields of stubble endeavouring to eke out an exist-
ence on what is left, and for about six weeks at this time their
life is a very precarious one, for the growing and storage of
fodder-crops is not in general practised, nor can the raiyat
devote much of his small holding to his cattle. It has to keep
him and his family, and pay the rent, as well as feed the cattle,
so the latter consequently have only the broken straw (bhusa)
which is left after the grain has been trodden out by the bullocks
upon the threshing-floor. Grass the raiyat cannot grow, partly
for the foregoing reasons, and partly because he has no water to
supply to it, whilst more often than not the hills and forests are
too far away for him to drive his cattle to for shade, shelter, and
pasturage.

Just when everything appears at a standstill and forebodes
the worst privation, a sudden change comes over the scene with
the advent of the south-west monsoon, about the end of June
or early in July, and both nature and cultivator spring at once
into activity. The rain falls copiously and the dry earth sucks
it in greedily ; from being a barren plain, everything presents
almost in a moment a green surface, and crops rapidly cover the
ground. These are the kharif or rainy-season crops, and they
are as distinct from, as the others are like, our English crops,
for, though it be the rainy season, the weather is just as hot
between times, and in some respects much more oppressive than
eyen during the heat of May and June, The crops are those of

Indian Agriculture in its Physical. Aspects. 4?

& more tropical nature—numerous kinds of millet, rice, maize,
sugar-cane, cotton and others. Towards the end of September
the rains cease altogether, and—except where, as in Southern
India, currents set in from an opposite direction, and the north-
east monsoon brings, though not always, the rains of October—
no rain may again fall over the greater part of India until the
next rainy season. In October the kharif crops are reaped, and
ploughing goes on briskly on the lands reserved for the winter
or rabi crops, which are generally sown about. November.

But while this description may be taken as true for the
greater part of India, it is by no means so for the whole, and it
would have to be varied in almost each separate locality, for the
very reason that, although the rain comes, it does not come in
like quantity everywhere, nor is the soil on which it falls equally
retentive. ‘To understand rightly how this is so, one must study:
the physical features of the country, and also its geological
nature. Stretching across the northern part of the continent
from west to east, and forming its boundary, runs the great
Himalayan range, whilst along the western coast, and in close
proximity thereto, are the Western Ghats, leaving an open-
ing between them and the Himalayas. It is here that the vast
plains of Sind and Rajputana lie, and through this gap the
south-west monsoon can enter. On the eastern side are the
Eastern Ghats, whose height, as compared with the others, is
insignificant. In these three ranges we have the determining
factors, so far as the configuration of the country is concerned,
of the different seasons. The earth’s surface, in Northern India
at least, which towards the close of the year has been losing its
heat more rapidly than the surrounding sea, and has thus been
enjoying a cold season with its accompanying temperate crops,
gets gradually more and more heated up as March comes in, and
so it continues, growing hotter and hotter till it becomes quite
parched and vegetation is burnt up. Then asouth-west current,
laden with moisture from the surrounding and cooler sea, rushes
in and strikes on the western side of the continent. The high
Western Ghats impede its progress and cause it to deposit its
moisture in heavy rainfall along the western coasts of the
Bombay Presidency. But over the Ghats it cannot pass, and
the consequence is that the country on the other side of them
remains still a dry and heated plain. Further north, through
the opening referred to above as being left between the Western
Ghats and the Himalayan range, the monsoon rushes, and passing
over the intensely heated plains of Sind and Rajputana (which
are mostly too hot to allow the deposition of moisture to take
place there), it becomes cooled as it goes farther on, and abundant

43 Tnidian Agriculiure in its Physical Aspects.

rainfall over the northern plains is the result. Over the lofty
Himalayas too it cannot pass, but sweeping along gives an ex~
tremely heavy rainfall all along their base, and so on over the
whole of Bengal, Assam, and Burmah, which consequently are
the most wet and damp parts of the empire; here failure of
Train is never known.

In these regions and along the Western Ghats the agriculture
as a consequence shows a marked difference from that of other
parts; it is here and under these conditions that the rice crop
flourishes—for rice is not, as is too often supposed, the most
general crop grown in India. In like manner, when in October
the reverse current sets in and the north-east monsoon blows
across the Bay of Bengal, it strikes on the eastern coast of South-
ern India, the part alone exposed to it. It passes, however,
over the low range of the Eastern Ghats, which are not suffi-
ciently high to impede it, and deposits its moisture as rainfall in
those districts which, owing to the intervention of the lofty Western
Ghats, received none from the south-west monsoon. In this
way, in a favourable year, each portion of Indiareceives toa greater
or less extent its rainfall at one time or another; according to
it the agricultural practice will be determined, the crops grown
will vary, and, just as the force of the monsoons varies, so will
there be the difference between abundance and scarcity, while,
should one or the other fail in any part, the dreaded famine may
stare the country in the face.

It is to guard against this latter that the efforts of Govern-
ment have been and are still being most actively put forward in
the supply of water through a system of irrigation by canals, in
encouraging the making of wells and storage reservoirs, and
lastly in the rapid extension of the railway system throughout
the length and breadth of the country—measures which must
have the hearty support of all who in any way understand the
peculiar conditions of Indian agriculture. It has been necessary
for me to explain at some length the action of the monsoons,
for without it any understanding of the agriculture is im-
vossible.

Whilst over a great part of India there are thus two clearly
defined seasons, a cold and a rainy season, with their respective
crops, in the southern part and in the Madras Presidency gene-
rally there is a more steady warmth throughout the entire year,
and consequently there are not the regular rabi and kharif
crops, but only early and late sowings of the same crops.
Wheat, as a result, has no place in this more tropical climate,
and though rice is largely grown, it is not by means of the
rainfall alone, as in the Bengal and Bombay Presidencies, but

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 49

only where abundant irrigation from channels, streams and
tanks is available. In Behar, and some other parts of Bengal,
there are three rather than two crop seasons, a bhadoi or hot
season intervening between the cold and the rainy seasons.
Then it is that the indigo plant, sown in February, flourishes,
and is gathered about the end of June or early in July. Sugar-
cane, too, is planted in February, and grows on through the hot
season, though needing abundant irrigation for its development,
until the rains come and supply the natural moisture.

Along with the rainfall, the soil must be taken as determin-
ing also to a large extent the nature of the crops grown.
Broadly speaking, India may be considered as divided into three
distinct geological series ; the first or northern portion, which is
one vast alluvial area and comprises the great Indo-Gangetic
plain ; the second, a central zone spreading over part of Bombay,
Central India and the Central Provinces, the soil being known
as the black cotton-soil; and, thirdly, a rocky area comprising
Madras and Southern India generally. Each division has its
minor local distinctions; but, while of the northern it may be
said that it is a rich alluvium, quickly drying and needing
replenishment by rain or irrigation from well or canal, the
black cotton-soil is very retentive and holds ample moisture
from the annual rainfall, to enable the sowing of winter crops
in November, so that artificial irrigation is hardly, if at all,
required. In the third or rocky zone the only way to pro-
vide water is by storage tanks, or by channels led from rivers or
streams, irrigation from wells being difficult. Thus, in the
north may be seen regularly on the same holding the crops of
both seasons, the one growing by the aid of well or canal irriga-
tion, the other by means of the rainfall and the powerful heat.
In the Central Provinces, on the contrary, are great stretches of
cultivation of one and the same kind, in some districts the cold-
season wheat and linseed, in others the rainy-season cotton and
millets; whilst in Southern India, as explained, the crops go on
much the same all the year round, and are distinguished mainly
by early and late sowings.

Over individual areas, again, there will be enormous varia-
tions in the amount of rainfall, each having its correspondence
in the crops grown and the method of cultivation pursued.
Thus, crops which depend on a heavy rainfall and a damp
climate flourish only in certain parts—Assam, for instance, with
its rainfall of from 60 to 160 inches and more, produces tea
luxuriantly ; Behar gives the indigo cultivation ; and rice belongs
to Burmah, Eastern Bengal and the western coasts of Bombay.
Other crops, such as wheat, require a drier climate, though water

VOL, II. T, S—5 E

50 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects,

may in some cases have to be given artificially; others again,
such as the pulse crops, gram (Cicer arietinum) or arhar (Cajanus
indicus), can, when once germinated, do without dependence on
water, and are suited to a hot, dry climate. The indigo plant,
again, is favoured in the development of leaf (the portion used
for making the well-known dye) by the damp climate of Behar
and Bengal; but the production of the seed goes on much better
in the drier climate of the Punjab and the North-West Provinces ;
and so it is that the two cultivations are carried on in quite
distinct parts of the country.

As I trayelled about I had ample opportunities of studying
the various changes in agricultural practice. To take a single
province—the most northern one, the Punjab—we may have, even
here in the plains, variations from the seven inches of annual
rainfall in Multan to twenty-six inches at Amritsar, and thirty-
five inches at Hoshiarpur ; and, when one reaches the hills, as at
Simla, the rainfall increases to seventy inches and more yearly.
In the first-named case canals are absolute essentials to guarding
against famine; in Hoshiarpur, on the contrary, the water-level
is quite near the surface, and irrigation by wells is practicable
everywhere. In the Bombay Presidency we may go to places
like Baroda or Neriad, or to Igatpuri (where the rainfall is from
100 to 170 inches annually), and will find rice growing without
any irrigation ; grass headlands and live hedges too may be seen.
But as we pass inland to the Khandesh district the rainfall sinks
to thirty inches, and rice is replaced by cotton, millets and
wheat, while neither grass nor hedges will grow. South of
Bombay, in the Kistna valley, the rainfall is forty inches, at
Belgaum sixty-five inches, and at Londa, a comparatively small
distance off, as much as 150 inches yearly. The cultivation alters
with each set of conditions, kharif crops being distinctive features
of one part and rali crops of another. Going into Eastern Bengal
during the rains one sees the country in great measure inundated,
the crops of rice and jute growing, as it were, out of the water
itself, whereas, after the floods have subsided, the inundated land
and the beds of rivers and streams are the cultivating areas for
mustard and cereal crops.

Nor is the influence of varying climate seen alone in the
crops, but it is marked in the cattle and even in the people
themselyes. On the dry plains of the Punjab especially, and -
also in the North-West Provinces, the bullocks are fine, large
and strong ; but when we come to the damper regions of Bengal
they are found to be diminutive and miserable looking.
Buffaloes, however, rejoice in a wet or damp climate, and they
flourish in many parts of Bengal and along the Western Ghats,

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 51

taking frequently the place of bullocks as plough cattle. The
Bengali, clever as he is intellectually, is a poor specimen physi-
eally, when put by the side of a Sikh from the Punjab, or even a
North-West raiyat.

The bearing of an uncertain rainfall on the possibility of
famine, and the determining of means to prevent it, are most
important points. It is neither in the wettest nor, singular as
it may appear, in the driest tracts, that there is the greatest
danger of famine. In the former, as also on the moisture-
holding black cotton-soil, there is always certainty of sufficient
water; in the driest tracts, again, the raiyat will never venture
on growing a crop unless he is certain of having water enough.
But the really precarious districts are those in which there is just
the chance of enough rain coming to induce the cultivator to
venture on sowing a crop; for, should the rain not come or not
continue, there will be a total failure of the crop, and scarcity
will result. If this be followed by a second failure, what is
known as famine will set in. Happily, the Government have
wisely foreseen that it is these precarious tracts which most need
the extension to them of means of irrigation; and happily, too,
the expansion of the railway system enables the quick transmis-
sion of stores of grain. What, however, is still to fear, is, first,
that a famine may come in any part before even the authorities
are aware of it, for they are so few and so widely scattered, while
the people themselves will never complain, but bear their mis-
fortunes in silence; secondly, the simultaneous occurrence of
famine in different regions, for, there being no stored reserves of
grain in the country, it is only possible to imagine how direful
in its effects such a calamity must of necessity be.

Next to people and climate, a word more must be said about
the soil than has already been included. But little is known
about it beyond what the cultivator himself knows practically.
The main geological types are few, but the local subdivisions
are many, and for each of these the raiyat has his particular
name, and the knowledge of what it will best produce. There
are no peaty soils, nor anything akin to our gravels, oolite or
chalk soils, nor yet to our heavy clays, but there are the vast
plains of alluvium already referred to, the singular black cotton-
soil, and subsoils composed of a concretionary kind of limestone
known as kankar. Classification of the soil according to its
capabilities is the system on which assessment of the land
revenue (for the Government is practically in the position of
landlord) is based, and this is modified according to the various
local circumstances, the facilities for irrigation, &c. In a
country where irrigation plays so important a part, the relation

E2

52 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

of soil to moisture is necessarily one of great moment. It is
true that in some parts the superfluous water has to be led off the
land, but this is done by carrying it in channels or by a system
of embankments which prevent the rush of water over the
surface, and the consequent washing away of the top soil; it is
not done by any subsoil drainage system, so familiar to us in
this country.

But the main problem in India is not how to remove the
water, but how to bring it to the soil, and then how to keep it
there. Indian soils are normally dry, English soils wet.

The mention of this naturally leads one to consider whether
the native system of shallow-ploughing, or rather scratching the
eround, is so very wrong as would-be improvers have made it
out to be.

The action of the native plough resembles that of a pointed
stick running just below the surface of th> ground, some 24 to
3 inches deep, and stirring the soil whilst it tears out and brings
to the surface any infesting weed. ‘Though there may be
instances where deep-ploughing would be effectual, I believe
that in the great majority of cases the native system of ploughing
is the one best adapted to the conditions, and that, were a
furrow-turning plough used, the result would be to lose a great
deal of the precious moisture. Again, if the soil be at all stiff,
the slice turned up by an English plough would speedily
become baked in the hot sun and remain a brick rather than
soil. The native ploughing, on the contrary, pulverises the
soil, and the repeated going over the land, while it costs the
cultivator no more (for the bullocks and the labour are his own),
enables him to get that fine tilth which is essential to him, and
thereby he does not lose the moisture. Frequently with a
furrow-turning plough it would happen that weeds, instead of
being torn out as they would be by the digging action of the
native plough, would be buried, and there are many of these in
India which would speedily spring up again and form a dense
matting.

Of the soil-constituents it may be said that, while phosphoric
acid, potash and lime are present in greater abundance in most
Indian soils than in English ones, there is a marked deficiency
both of vegetable matter and of nitrogen. Black cotton-soil
has been referred to as a special feature, and it is popularly -
supposed to be of inexhaustible fertility. Other tracts there
are which every year receive a fresh renewal of silt from rivers
and mountain streams, and these in the Punjab constitute the
rich wheat-growing areas which need no other manuring than
what the silt affords. But there are other not so desirable effects

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 53

of river and flood, and often much land is cut up with ravines
and rendered unculturable. Lastly, there is the singular
appearance of a saline efflorescence known as rei, a mixture of
various soda-salts, principally the carbonate and sulphate. In
the North-West Provinces alone, between four and five thousand
square miles are thus affected and rendered unproductive. Such
land is termed usar. The singular point is that, amid these areas
there are patches not only culturable, but on which some of the
richest crops are grown. The problem of overcoming wsar has
long engaged the attention of Agricultural Departments. Canals
are charged with bringing it, but it is clear that it is a saline
deposit existing below the surface, which, under the combined
influence of water and a strong evaporating force like the sun,
is first dissolved and then brought to the surface, where the salts
erystallise out and remain as a white incrustation,

A most interesting question, but one to which, at this stage,
no definite reply can be given, arises, as to whether the soil of
India is, under the system of agriculture pursued, undergoing
exhaustion or not. The average yield of wheat, for example,
may be set at about 12 bushels per acre over the whole country,
as against the 30 bushels of England. A large proportion af
this goes for export, and the increasing area under wheat shown
in the agricultural returns denotes that this export is one that
is likely to continue. The possibility of soil-exhaustion going
on can only be determined by a careful study of what is removed
from the land, and how far this is replaced either by the forces
of nature or by the artificial replenishment of manuring. I
have mentioned the deficiency of nitrogen which I observed in
the case of several Indian soils, but it is worthy of note, too,
how very large a proportion of the crops annually grown, also
of the trees and shrubs, and even of the weeds, are leguminous
in character, and may thus, if recent investigations be correct,
possibly derive their nitrogen direct from the atmosphere.

Water, in its general bearing on the agriculture, has been
referred to, but many pages might easily be occupied in de-
scribing the systems of canal irrigation, and the many ingenious
devices which the native employs for lifting water on to his land,
whether it be from canal, or reservoir, or from wells. All alike
give rise to one marked distinction in the appearance of irri-
gated as compared with unirrigated, or, as it is termed, “dry”
land, This consists in the dividing up of the irrigated patch or
field into numerous little compartments by means of small
mounds or embankments of earth some 5 or 6 inches high.
This gives to the plot a honeycombed appearance, and the
compartments are made to communicate with each other by

54 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

simply breaking down the dividing partition. Thus, by letting
the water flow slowly, first into one compartment which is
blocked off from the others, then breaking the partition and
allowing the water to run into the next, the whole crop is
gradually watered in turn, the cultivators meantime keeping up
a regular flow along the main channel, be it from well, canal
branch, or other source. This work, more especially in the case
of irrigation from wells, is most admirably done, and the
“‘ garden land,” as in the latter case it is called, presents some
of the most splendid features of careful and high-class culti-
vation that one can possibly see in any part of the world.

It must not be supposed, however, that irrigation from wells
is possible everywhere, for it is often the case that the water-
level is too low to repay the labour of well construction, or,
again, hard rock may intervene, or the water be brackish. This
depends entirely upon the geological character of the district in
question. It is quite possible, as e.g. in the case of the North-
West Provinces, to find a successive series of zones running
across the country, each one differing in respect of adaptability
to this or that means of water-supply. First, there may be the
zone where rainfall is abundant and neither canal nor well be
needed ; then one where the water-level is high and irrigation
from wells may be a useful supplement ; next a region where no.
canal comes and cultivation with wells is the only kind to depend
upon ; after that another where both canals and wells are present,
and where both are needed, one to supplement the other ; lastly,
there may be a district where the water-level is so low that the
digging of wells is impracticable, and dependence must be
placed entirely upon a canal supply. It is to the extension of
canals in districts such as the last named that the attention of
Government and of the Irrigation Department in particular is
rightly directed, inasmuch as the cultivation alters, and different
crops are often grown according as canal or well irrigation is
used,

This explanation shows the great variations that may be
observed in the agriculture even within a moderate range, and
that no one description can be made general fn its application.
In the alluvial Indo-Gangetic plain, as we pass from west to
east we cross three tracts with quite distinct general features as
regards irrigation: first, the Punjab, the country par ewcellence
of canals ; then the North-West Provinces and Oudh, where, as
shown above, both wells and canals have their place; then
Bengal, where for the most part both are unnecessary, and
storage of rainfall takes place in surface reservoirs which dry up
each year, On the black cotton-soil of Central India irrigation

Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects. 55

is hardly, if at all, required, and embanking of land to hold the
water up, and to prevent its washing the soil away, takes its
place. Further south, on the rocky land, canals and channels
again have their use, and storage of water is effected, not by
shallow surface reservoirs as in Bengal, but by the digging of
“tanks,” as they are called, but which are really embanked
lakes formed by intercepting watercourses. ‘T'o the digging of
wells, the formation of tanks and reservoirs and embanking of
land, the Government gives encouragement through a system of
advancing money at easy rates to the cultivators, and by defer-
ring increased assessment for the improvements effected. This
is known as the taccavi system.

The next point of striking importance in the external sur-
roundings of agriculture is the supply of wood for timber and
fuel, and the provision of grazing by means of those forests
which still remain to the country. There can be little doubt
that India in the past has suffered great detriment both as regards
its climate and its agriculture by the reckless devastation of
wood and forests which has until within recent years been allowed
to go on unchecked. It is, therefore, a matter of much satis-
faction that now, late though it be, the charge of the forests has
been put under a responsible Department, and that they are
being preserved for the benefit of the State and the welfare of
the people. Not that the work is complete, nor that reservation
of forest land has been effected without considerable friction
from an increasing population which presses its cultivation up
to the limits of the forest area in the endeavour to find room for
itself. But it is equally certain that the Native, if left to himself,
would as speedily exterminate what remains as he has done in |
the past, whether by wholesale clearance for cultivation, or by
excessive grazing with cattle, and, worst of all, by the destructive
herds of goats. Then, but only when too late, would the dis-
covery be made how important is the relation which the forests
bear to agriculture, and how essential to the latter the forests
really are. .

The spread of cultivation to the limits of the forests has altered
in great measure the scope of the Forest Administration, which
was at first non-agricultural and confined itself to the produc-
tion of large timber. Now, however, the position is changed,
and the Forest Department is recognising that the areas under
its control must be more uged in the direct interests of agri-
culture, and that, as far as possible, not only a timber supply
for the great works of the country is needed, but also that the
provision of wood for agricultural purposes, and for fuel, as also
of fodder and pasturage for cattle, forms part of its duties. That

56 Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

this is so is only fully understood when it is remembered what
the raiyat’s difficulties are in the way of providing fodder for his
beasts, and when it is explained that, while the only really avail-
able source of manure is cattle-dung, this is largely burnt as
fuel, and is thus lost to the land, simply because there is not a
sufficiency of wood available to take its place. This agricultural
loss might to a considerable extent be met by the extension of
the wood-supply of the country, and steps in this direction are
being taken both by the Forest Department and by the local
authorities of towns. The importance of provision of pasturage
and shelter for cattle in times of drought is very great, whilst
in holding up the soil and preventing its denudation by the
unbroken flow of water over its surface, the covering of the
ground with trees and herbage has an indirect bearing upon the
climate of the heated regions. In the course of a journey one
frequently passes vast open but perfectly barren spaces over
which large herds roam ; these are not the usa plains referred
to previously, but they are the “ village wastes,” the common
property of the villagers, and melancholy examples do they
afford of what the cultivators would, by excessive stocking and
over-grazing, do with the rest of the land now under forest,
were it left to their unchecked control.

I have briefly touched on the supply of manure to the land.
Of this, as stated, the only really available source is the cattle-
manure produced on the holdings, and of it a great part is lost
owing to its being used as fuel in the absence of wood. In
Indian agriculture manure by itself is not sufficient, water is
needed along with it; nor is water by itself enough, manure
must go with it; the two are in fact interdependent. Could
the raiyat have both of these where there is need of them, he
would be behind none in the results of his cultivating skill and
diligence. S
J. Augustus VOELCKER,.

ACIDITY IN MILK,

Wnuen it is considered that directly milk passes from the udder -
of the cow it exhibits traces of acidity, that this acidity goes on
steadily increasing the longer the milk is kept, and that it
exercises a most important influence both on the value of the
milk itself as an element of food and on its conversion into butter
and cheese, it will be evident how essential it must be to the

Acidity in Milk. 57

proper conduct of dairying that those who have to handle milk
should be able, not only to recognise the presence of acidity in
it, but also to estimate with some approach to accuracy the degree
of acidity which a given sample of milk or its products may have
reached.

The chemist has for a long time been able to do this with
as much precision as can be desired in any ordinary process of
the kind ; but the application to dairy-work of the method which
he employs, though simple enough in theory, involves practical
obstacles of such a nature that in the difficulty which has been
found hitherto in dealing with them must be sought the ex-
planation of the fact, that although cheese-makers especially
have for years past been appealing to the chemist for aid in
helping them to determine the acidity of milk and whey, the
chemist has hitherto, in this country at any rate,! made no re-
sponse to their appeal. In the course of the experimental in-
quiries which the writer has for the last few years been carrying
on in dairying, it became at an early stage evident to him that a
mode of estimating acidity with fairly approximate accuracy was
of the first importance ; and he has madealarge number of ex-
periments with the view of working out a process which, whilst
accurate enough for practical purposes, should be so simple as
to be usable by any person of ordinary intelligence. Before
proceeding to describe the process itself and some of the results
which are obtainable from it, it may be well to say a few words
on the principles on which it is founded.

First, then, with reference to the measurement of acidity
generally. If we take a vessel containing any acid liquid, such
as vinegar, we can measure the volume of the vessel by means
of a foot-rule ; we can also estimate its weight by putting it into
the scales ; and we can determine its temperature, if we wish to
do so, by means of the thermometer. But how are we to gauge
its acidity ? We ordinarily test ‘ sourness’ by the taste ; but a
little reflection, or still better, a little experiment, will soon
convince anyone who needs conviction that the sense of taste,
like all the other senses, is liable to serious error, and that it is
therefore quite incapable of giving information of any precision
or trustworthiness. Most dairyers, however, who have any pre-
tensions to a proper knowledge of their business are aware that
better information as to acidity than the sense of taste or smell
can give them may be obtained by the use of litmus-paper. If

1 The process of acidimetry suggested in the following pages is similar in
general details to that proposed by Soxhlet and Henkel, but the appliances
employed by these authorities are far more complicated, and, in the writer’s
opinion, quite unsuited to ordinary dairy use,

58 Acidity in Milk.

a piece of blue litmus-paper is dipped into a sample even of fresh
milk it gradually turns purple, and if the milk is stale the purple
will change into a bright pink. By the rapidity with which
this change takes place we may form a rough idea as to whether
the milk is very acid or not, as we may do also by comparing
the indication given by the milk with that given by vinegar.
But even litmus-paper is insufficient, for want of delicacy, to
indicate slight variations in acidity, or to give us any precise
idea of the relative acidity of any two acid liquids which we
may wish to compare with one another. For such a purpose we
require a gauge, which we can apply to the acid liquid in the
same way as we use a foot-rule to measure cubical capacity, or
a balance to measure weight, or a thermometer to measure
temperature. How is this to be obtained ?

To construct such a gauge we have to take advantage of a
chemical fact which is familiar to everyone, and that is, that
the property of acidity which ordinary acid bodies possess can
be neutralised and concealed by the addition to them of bodies
of an antagonistic character, known as alkalies, such as common
washing-soda. A fact which is not quite so familar to those
- who have no knowledge of chemistry, but which a little simple
experimentation will make very clear, is, that if we take a definite
quantity of any acid liquid, say one ounce of pure vinegar, we
shall find that, however often we repeat the experiment, it will
always take exactly the same weight of any given sample of
washing-soda to neutralise the acidity. Here, then, we have a
basis for the construction of a gauge of acidity. or all that we
have to do is to settle on a standard quantity of soda, and use it
as a means of expressing the acidity of any liquid to which we
may wish to apply it.

What we need for this purpose is a unit weight, just as we
take the inch as the unit of length and the degree as the unit of
temperature. We may, then, call the amount of acidity which our
unit weight of alkali will exactly neutralise one degree; and it
will be obvious that by thus taking as many unit weights of
alkali as may be necessary to neutralise the acidity of a definite
quantity of any acid liquid we can speak of its acidity as being
5, 10, or any other number of degrees, as the case may be. If
we always use the same unit weight of alkali and the same bulk
of liquid we shall be able to compare the acidities either of the -
same liquid at different times, or of different liquids, with the

same ease and certainty that we can measure the contents of
two different cans of milk, or estimate their temperatures at the
same or at different times.

But, it may be asked, How are we to know when we haye

Acidity in Milk. 59

neutralised the acidity of any given liquid? It will be obvious
that the whole exactness of our gauge will depend upon this
point; for if we add too much or too little alkali we shall intro-
duce a source of error into our test which will vitiate it, and may
make it practically useless. This difficulty is overcome by the
adoption of a very simple device. Suppose that before adding
an alkali to our acid liquid we place in the latter a piece of blue
litmus-paper: the blue colour will, as before indicated, become
changed into a red. Let us now cautiously add our alkali (to
facilitate which we will dissolve it in water, so as to obtain a
solution, which may be the more easily employed for neutralising
purposes), and observe what takes place. At a certain stage
of the operation the red colour of the litmus will begin to
change into purple, and if more alkali is added the purple will
pass again into the original blue. Here, then, in the stage
which exists between the change of the red colour of the litmus
into blue we have an indication of the stage of neutralisation ;
and the more this stage can be shortened the more exact the
determination of the point of neutralisation will be.

From its property of thus indicating the point when neutrali-
sation is reached in the mutual action of acids and alkalies on one
another, litmus is technically called an indicator, and it belongs
to aclass of chemical agents all of which possess the property of
being affected in the same way, and consequently of being avail-
able as indicators. Some of these bodies, unlike litmus, have no
colour at all, except in the presence of either an acid or an alkali;
and this is an advantage in an indicator, as it is much easier for
the eye to recognise the change from colour to no colour than from
one tint to another, especially when that change is from such a
colour as blue to another colour like red, through all sorts of
intermediate gradations of purple. Moreover, litmus is not
nearly so sensitive in its reactions to acids and alkalies as some
other indicators are. Amongst these is a body known as
phenolphthallein, one of the numerous members of that most
interesting group of chemical products, the derivatives of coal-
tar. This substance, which when in solution gives a full purple
colour in the presence of a most minute quantity of any alkali,
loses that colour altogether when the alkali is neutralised by an
acid; or, whilst in the presence of an acid it gives no colour at
all, when the acid is neutralised by the addition of an alkali,
the purple tint makes its appearance. By taking advantage,
therefore, of these properties of this sensitive colour reagent, and
adding a minute quantity of it to any acid solution, and then
gradually adding to the mixture an alkaline solution until a

60 Acidity in Milk.

permanent purple colour is produced, we are enabled to recog
nise with ease the precise point when the acidity is perfectly
neutralised.

Having thus arrived at a knowledge of how to measure
acidity, it only remains to decide what scale of measurement we
shall adopt for the purpose—that is to say, what unit of measure-
ment we shall assume. Just as in measuring the size of a can
of milk we take an inch for our unit, and as in estimating the
temperature of the milk we take a degree on the thermometric
scale, whatever that scale may be, as our unit of temperature, so
in gauging the acidity of the milk we require to decide on some
definite quantity of acidity which can be itself measured with
certainty whenever we want to reproduce it, and in terms of
which we can express or estimate the acidity of any given liquid.
Now the inch, and also the degree of the ordinary thermometric
scale used in this country (Fahrenheit’s), are both of them
arbitrary units; that is, they were originally adopted for reasons
of practical convenience rather than to satisfy theoretical con-
siderations. On the same grounds, for reasons which it is un-
necessary to discuss here, the unit of acidity which the writer
has adopted is one which he has found most convenient for the
general objects which have to be kept in view in measuring
acidity for dairy purposes. It is represented by an exceedingly
minute weight of pure, dry, crystalline oxalic acid, an acid
which is generally selected by the chemist for this purpose,
because it can be easily obtained of uniform strength. It is
simply necessary to make a solution containing a definite quantity
of this acid, and then to make an alkaline solution which exactly
equals it in strength, and we then know that every unit of the
alkali represents one unit of our normal or standard acid ; and
if we can only measure that unit with ease and accuracy we have
at our disposal a mode of measuring acidity which is, in theory,
as exact and as reliable as the foot-rule or the thermometer,
and is in every way comparable with them.

Now here comes in one of the practical difficulties of this
question. It is very easy for the chemist to measure acidity in
his laboratory, because he has not only the appliances and
materials at his disposal for so doing, but the knowledge and
skill which are necessary for using them, and for avoiding the
fallacies into which an untrained person may easily fall in so
doing. In order, in the first place, to meet the requirements of
the problem, it is necessary to have as a neutraliser an alkaline
solution of considerable strength, or otherwise the delicacy of the
test would be proportionately impaired and its practical value
in the same degree diminished. But, unfortunately, the alka-

ee el el

Acidity in Milk. 61

line solutions which are best adapted for use as neutralisers, viz.
caustic potash and soda, when exposed to the air become gradu-
ally weakened by absorption from it of carbonic acid, and the
stronger these solutions are the more rapidly do they absorb
this gas. This is, of course, fatal to their trustworthiness for
measuring purposes, and they would be useless for such purposes
unless they were protected from exposure to the air. In the
laboratory this is easily effected by the use of devices which
present no difficulty to those who are accustomed to handle
delicate apparatus, and who can easily satisfy themselves whether
from any accident the neutraliser solution has undergone dete-
rioration. But for the comparatively rough purposes of the
dairy, and for use by operators who would, in most cases, have
had little or no training in the employment of such resources,
appliances of this type would be altogether unsuitable.

Hence the problem further resolves-itself into devising an
arrangement in which a solution of a caustic alkali, of such
strength as to be sufficiently delicate for practical requirements,
ean be kept with so little exposure to the air as not to materially
affect the uniformity of the results which it will give. This
arrangement must be of such a kind that a measured quantity
can be easily drawn from it; and it must be, further, sufficiently
simple to enable any person of ordinary intelligence to use it
without risk of serious error; sufficiently strong to prevent it
from being easily broken; and sufficiently cheap to make its
cost no reasonable ground of objection.

Having thus endeavoured to explain the principles on which
the method of measuring acidity is based, and the conditions which
have to be satisfied in order to make it available for ordinary
dairy requirements, it only remains to describe the specific form
and strength of neutralising solution, and also the unit of measure-
ment which the writer has adopted. The Neutraliser is a
solution of potassium hydrate (caustic potash) of such a strength
that one unit volume exactly neutralises one volume of a
solution of 7°875 grammes of pure, dry, crystallized oxalic acid in
one litre of water. This solution of oxalic acid is exactly one-
eighth the strength of the normal solution as employed for ordi-
nary laboratory purposes, and it has been adopted because it
has been found by a good deal of practical experimentation to
represent an alkaline solution of convenient strength for general
dairy work. A higher or a lower standard of alkalinity might
be employed without affecting the principle of the test; but
either step is attended with disadvantages, which increase in
proportion as we diverge from the standard above indicated.

A more important consideration is the unit to be adopted

62 Acidity in Mith,

for measuring the Nevwtraliser and the means by which the
process of measuring is to be effected. After a great deal of
experimentation it has been decided to adopt the drop as the
simplest form of unit, and one which can be measured with
sufficient precision for the purpose in view, provided certain
simple precautions are observed. Those precautions are the
use of a dropper with an outlet of standard size, and the regu-
lation of the rate of dropping to about one drop per second,!
The latter condition can be easily observed by anyone of
ordinary intelligence ; the former is satisfied by always using
the same dropper. With the view of providing a dropper which
may be used by various persons so as to give comparable results,
the writer has adopted a nickel-plated brass tube having an
external diameter of 17 B.W.G. (Birmingham Wire Gauge), as
being as convenient as any for the purpose. And in order to
allow of the neutralising solution being employed in the sim-
plest possible way, a glass pipette, having a section of the above
tubing attached to one end and an indiarubber capsule at the
other, by pressure on which the pipette can be filled or emptied,
has also been adopted.

But the most difficult element of the problem was to devise
areceptacle for the Neutraliser in which it could be kept without
exposure to the air, and from which it could be extracted so as
to be measured in drops. Various forms of burette and drop-
bottle have been tried, but all of them were found to be open to
objections of one kind or another, from which the writer,
believes that a simple device which suggested itself to him is
free. This consists in fixing what may be called a glass well-
tube in an air-tight manner in the neck of the bottle holding
the Neutraliser, in such a way that the bottom of the tube
nearly reaches to the bottom of the bottle, and is constricted to
such an extent that the metallic tube of the dropper just»fits
into it and projects for about half an inch below, when the
dropper rests in the well-tube. By this device no air can enter
the bottle except to supply the place of the solution as it is
drawn off, and thus the total volume of air which can come into
contact with the solution, so long as the well-tube is kept fixed
in the neck of the bottle, is limited to the cubic capacity of the
bottle itself; and this limit can, obviously, only be reached when
the solution is quite exhausted. The amount of error which -

1 The variations in weight of water dropped from the same outlet as quickly
and as slowly as possible may amount to nearly ten per cent., but a slight
variation from the rate above indicated produces such a trifling error that it
may be disregarded.

Acidity in Milk. 63

may thus be introduced into the test is, even at its maximum,
so small that it may be disregarded. The error which may be
introduced from continuous exposure of the small area of the
liquid corresponding with the hole at the bottom of the well-
tube is also so slight that it has no appreciable effect on the
strength of the solution during any reasonable period, especially
as this hole is filled by the dropper when the appliance is not
in use.

The only other element of the arrangement that has to be
noticed is the quantity of the liquid to be tested which is taken
fora sample. For reasons of a technical kind, connected with
the production of the appliance in a cheap and simple form,
which it is unnecessary to explain here, the quantity adopted
for the purpose is three cubic
centimetres, which gives a
bulk that is neither too large
nor too small; and this quan-
tity is easily taken from the
gross bulk of the liquid to
be tested by means of a glass
sampling tube, with a rubber
capsule at one end, and a mark
on the tube to indicate the
precise amount to be taken by
it.

The general nature of the f
appliances thus described will
be better understood by refe-
rence to the accompanying
wood-cut, which represents
the bottle of the Neutraliser
with the dropping-tube rest-
ing in the well-tube, and on
either side the dropping-tube
itself, and the sampling tube.

A very few words will suffice to explain the proceeding in-
volved in making the test itself. The end of the sampling-tube
is inserted in the liquid to be tested, say milk; the rubber
capsule is compressed between the finger and thumb, and by
this means the proper quantity of the milk is taken up in the
tube, and is then squeezed out into a small glass or cup. In the
same way a charge of the Neutraliser is taken by means of the
dropping-tube and dropped into the milk, to which a minute
quantity of the Indicator has been added, until a permanent

64 Acidity in Milk.

purple colour has been produced. The number of drops required
for this purpose gives the number of degrees of acidity which
the milk possesses.

It is only possible here to add a few words in illustration of
the information which the test as thus made is calculated to give,
and of the conditions under which acidity is developed in milk
and its products.

If a sample of milk that has stood for a few hours ina warm
place be examined by the test above described, it will be found
to exhibit an acidity which may vary from 4 to 6 or 7 degrees.
This acidity will be due to two distinct bodies: to lactic acid
and acid salts (chiefly acid phosphates), and to carbonic acid.
The former of these compounds, which may’ be called the fixed
acidity, is due to the fermentation of the sugar present in the,
milk, and to its conversion into lactic acid. This acid in its
turn acts upon the basic salts of the milk (alkaline and earthy
phosphates), and converts them into acid salts. The carbonic
acid, which may be called the volatile ingredient of the acidity, is
produced by a further breaking up of the lactic acid. The two
together make up the total acidity.

It is this total acidity which is determined by the test which
has been above described, and it is very questionable whether any
advantage is to be obtained by a separate determination of its
two component parts, inasmuch as the principal effect which the
development of acidity has on the milk, viz. that of rendering the
casein insoluble, is produced by carbonic acid as well as by lactic
acid, though, as might be supposed, from the difference in the
relative intensities of these two acids, with different degrees of
energy. ‘The relative feebleness of free carbonic acid makes it
much more difficult to determine with precision the amount of
it which may be present in any given liquid; but a fair approxi-
mation to it may be made by using an alcoholic solution of
alizarin as an indicator instead of a solution of phenolphthallein,
as above described. The latter of these two reagents is affected
by free carbonic acid, as it is by all other free acids or acid salts
of any energy; the purple colour of an alkalised solution being
equally discharged. But the action of alizarin is different. If
a drop or two of this reagent be added to a solution such as
whey, the acidity of which is due to the presence of free carbonic
and lactic acids as well as acid salts, a bright yellow colour is~
communicated to the solution. If now the acidity is gradually
neutralised by an alkalia point will be reached when the yellow
tint passes through an intermediate brownish tint into purple.
This transition indicates the stage of neutralisation of that
portion of the acidity which is caused by the lactic acid and acid

Acidity in Milk. 65

phosphates, for free carbonic acid has very slight, if any, effect
on the colour of alizarin, and the alkali therefore produces its
full effect directly this stage has been reached.

To take an illustration which will show the application of the
test in its most marked form: A sample of whey which has been
bottled and allowed to ferment under pressure, may, when un-
corked, and when active effervescence has ceased, show, with
phenolphthallein asan indicator, as much as 80 degrees of acidity.
But, with alizarin, the acidity registered would be only from 30 to
40 degrees ; thus demonstrating that the volatile acidity, due to
the presence of carbonic acid, may under such conditions
amount to nearly as much as the fied acidity, caused by lactic
acid and the acid phosphates. Indeed 40 degrees is the highest
amount of acidity in whey due to fixed acid which the writer
has ever observed ; when that amount of acidity is reached the
further generation of lactic acid is arrested, unless the free acid
be neutralised by an alkali or an alkaline earth, as is done in
the process for manufacturing the acid for commercial purposes.

The acidity of perfectly fresh milk may be as low as zero.
Indeed in cases of local or constitutional disease the reaction of
the milk may be distinctly alkaline. Such milk is absolutely
unfit for cheese-making, as it rapidly undergoes the butyric fer-
mentation, amongst the products of which are hydrogen and
carbonic acid; and this leads to the permeation of the cheese
by these gases, with the results, so well known to cheese-makers,
of “heaving,” “ puffing,’ &c. Hence the great importance to
the cheese-maker of being able to estimate the acidity of the
milk which he employs, for if he finds it deficient in acidity he
has the indication to push on the development of acidity, which
he may do in several ways.

The amount of acidity which milk should possess for cheese-
making varies from three to seven degrees, according to the
time of year. In the spring, when the cows are feeding princi-
pally on the abundant herbage of early pastures, the casein of
the milk will be deficient in tenacity, and a higher degree of
acidity will be desirable in the milk than in the summer and
autumn, when, from the grasses being seeding and the pasture
comparatively dry, the tenacity of the casein will be much
higher. Without the means of accurately measuring the acidity
of milk in this respect, the work of the cheese-maker is mere
blind empiricism ; but with the aid of the acidometer he has the
whole process under complete control.

A great deal of loose and inaccurate talk is often to be heard
amongst so-called “ practical” cheese-makers about the import-
ance of getting the curd out of the whey before acidity is deve-

You. ii. T..S.—oa F

66 Acidity in Milk.

loped. As a matter of fact the progress of acidification in the
cheese-vat before the whey is drawn off is very slow. Indeed,
the degree of acidity shown by the whey at the stage when it is
drawn off in the ordinary routine of the Cheddar process will be
sometimes absolutely less than that of the milk before the rennet
was added to it. This apparent paradox is partly due to the
fact that the observation of the change of colour produced by
the addition of the Indicator is more easily perceived in a trans-
parent fluid like whey than it is in an opaque one like milk;
and the eye therefore recognises the passage of the stage of
neutralisation more readily in the former case than in the latter ;
leading to the impression of a lower grade of acidity in the whey
than was exhibited by the milk.

The real rise of acidity in cheese-making does not take place
until the curd is exposed to the action of the air, as in the
process of cutting and piling. Then the free access of oxygen
allows of the rapid development of lactic acid, and the acidity
may in the course of an hour or less rise from five to twelve or
fourteen degrees.

The development of acidity in cream during the progress of
ripening may be easily traced by the acidometer. Here the
total acidity is materially augmented by the retention of carbonic
acid in the viscous fluid, and may rise to as much as sixteen
degrees before the cream becomes thoroughly clotted by curding,
This viscosity of cream, which interferes somewhat with the
delicacy of the acidometric test, may be counteracted by diluting
the cream with a given amount of water, and multiplying the
degree of acidity obtained in proportion to the volume of water
which has been used.

The acidometer is of great value in determining the stage to
which a given sample of milk may have advanced in the process of
spontaneous acidification. As the curding of milk is entirely
due to the effect of the acid in neutralising the alkaline phos-
phates by which the casein of the milk is retained in its viscous
condition, it is easy to satisfy oneself by the aid of the appliance
how far any given sample of milk has progressed in this direc-
tion.

In fact, no one who handles milk, for whatever purpose, can
do so with any certainty of what he is about unless. he can
estimate its acidity, and this it is now possible to do with as much-
ease. and certainty as its temperature can be gauged by the
thermometer or its weight determined by the balance.

Francis T. Bonn.

67

FARM: POULTRY.

Forty years ago the Royal Agricultural Society offered a prize
for the best essay on the rearing and management of farm
poultry. This was awarded to Mr. William Trotter, of Healey
Mill, Hexham, for a very practical and useful article on the
subject. Since the date of its publication a great impetus has
been given to poultry keeping, by the establishment of compe-
titive shows for fancy varieties. At these shows, however,
useful properties have been almost entirely ignored, and prizes
have been awarded for accuracy of marking in feather, symmetry
of comb, and other fancy points having no reference whatever
to the value of fowls as market or table poultry, or as egg-
producers. In fact, it is hardly too strong an assertion to main-
tain that every breed which has become a fancy or show variety
has been deteriorated in practical value. The produce of eggs
in particular has been utterly neglected, and many of the breeds
which, before the era of poultry shows, were valued as large
egg-producers, are now almost useless in that particular.

Half a century since, Spanish fowls were commonly seen in
many of the large stable and farmyards about London, being
kept solely for their abundant production of large white eggs.
They are now known as the worst layers of any non-incubating
variety, and some of the hens that have figured largely as prize-
winners have never laid an egg. Amongst the incubating
breeds Cochins were at one time regarded as the most prolific
layers, being absolutely credited by some with the faculty of
laying two or even three eggs perday. Jor the last forty years
they have been bred solely for feather, and the result is that this
breed, once possessed of certain useful properties, is now valueless
except as a fancy fowl. Its introduction into our poultry
yards has in fact done more harm than good to our native
breeds, inasmuch as, while it has lost its own prolificacy, its defi-
ciency of flesh upon the breast has tended considerably to depre-
ciate the value of our table poultry with which it has been
crossed.

Since the introduction of fancy poultry the importation of
eggs, more especially from France, has gone on increasing to an
enormous extent, a fact which some persons seek to account for
by the supposition of the existence of large and extensive poultry
farms in France. ‘This belief is so thoroughly grounded in the
mind of the public, that scarcely a year passes but poultry
farms are started. These generally last but for a couple of

F2

68 Farm Poultry.

seasons, at the end of which time the capital of the founders is
exhausted, and all the plant and what remains of the stock is
distributed by the hammer of the auctioneer.

Poultry farms have been tried in England under every
variety of condition. Large portions of land have been devoted
to their service, and have in some cases been gratuitously
given for the purpose. In others extensive ranges of buildings
have been erected according to various plans, but in every
instance the result has been the same—disastrous pecuniary
failure. Numerous accounts of suppesititious poultry farms in
France have appeared in English journals; but they have had
no existence except in imagination. Mr. Charles L. Suther-
land, one of the Assistant Commissioners of the Royal Commis-
sion on Agriculture, devoted special attention to the subject in
1879 in the course of his investigation into the agricultural
conditions of West Central France, and he thus describes the
result of his inquiries :—!

It is a commonly received idea in England that there exist in France
huge poultry farms, where fowls are kept by several hundreds, and it has
been over and over again urged on English farmers to adopt this poultry
farming on a gigantic scale, as some sort of means of alleviating the present
depression and enabling them to make money. A long acquaintance with
the chief French poultry-breeding districts, as well as answers to inquiries
T have from time to time made on the subj ect, enable me positively to deny the
existence of such establishments. The greatest number of heads of poultry
that can be kept profitably on a single farm varies from 200 to 300. Ifa
greater number than this is kept the ground becomes poisoned, and it is found
impossible to rear chickens. Whenever large poultry farms have been
started in England, as, for instance,at Bromley in Kent, they have failed, and
chiefly owing to the above reason—a reason perfectly well known to and
understood by all practical poultry keepers. The manner in which so many
fowls are reared and eggs produced in France is as follows, independently, of
course, of climatic influences, which must be held to be of some little account.
Every peasant proprietor, every ordier, with perhaps two or three acres of
land, keeps fowls, the produce from which is collected by dealers who scour
the country. In this way a very large number of fowls in the aggregate is
kept, but they are scattered about all over the country; and so well is the
necessity for change of ground understood in the districts where poultry
rearing is a special industry, that gre.t sacrifices are made by the breeders
to secure fresh ground on which to rear their chickens,

There can be no doubt that poultry could be much more
extensively and profitably reared by the small farmers and
cottagers in our own country than is now the case, and far better
table fowl could be produced. ‘The great drawbacks to the
profitable keeping of poultry are identical with those alluded to
by Mr. Whitehead in his valuable /Tints on Vegetable and Fruit

i Rapoite of the io Rona Commission on ‘does culture, Apes to Part I. p. 816
(Parl. Paper, C. 2778, II.). Quoted in Journal, Vol, XIX, (Second Series), p. 190.

Farm Poultry. 69

Farming, issued by the Royal Agricultural Society. These
he states to be “the excessively high rates charged by the
railway companies for the carriage of produce, and the unsatis-
factory modes of distribution. In the existing circumstances
the producers get the minimum value, while the consumers
have to pay the maximum price. The pernicious system of
salesmen and middlemen, and the routine of markets, hinder
enterprise and check production.” If poultry are consigned
to the markets, the producer has no check whatever on the
middleman, and whatever the price to the consumer may be, he
gets a very inadequate return. But in spite of these drawbacks
it is believed that the cultivation of poultry may be largely and
profitably extended, if it be conducted in accordance with profit-
able rather than fancy considerations.

Fow Ls.

The first point to be considered in the keeping of poultry
is the accommodation that can be afforded them. ‘The practice
of allowing fowls to roost in the trees, though very conducive
to their health and high condition, is one that is obviously
rarely practicable ; but with regard to a house no particular form
or character is necessary. Stalls of an unused stable or any
ordinary shed can with little or no expense be converted into a
poultry house as advantageous as the most expensive. The
arrangements in ordinary houses are eminently unsatisfactory.
Usually perches are made one higher than the other, the top-
most being near the roof; the result is a twofold injury. Fowls
retain their original instinct of roosting high up in trees, remote
from their enemies. Consequently all ascend to the highest
perch, fight for places, knock one another down, and, as they
fall perpendicularly, injure and frequently break the keel of the
breast-bone. When descending from the trees in the open, the
fowl has the power of flying a long distance, and comes to the
ground gradually. When dropping from a high perch in a con-
fined building it comes with violence on the ground, strikes
the feet against the floor, which in heavy birds induces ‘“‘ bumble
feet,” and is also apt to break the breast-bone.

These evils may be avoided by putting all the perches on
one level, about three or four feet from the ground, when there
will be no quarrelling for places, and the fowls can be caught
when required with much greater facility. In this case, there

1 Hints on Vegetable and Fruit Farming. By Charles Whitehead, E.L.S.,
F.G.S, Third Edition, 1890, John Murray. Price 6d.

70 Farm Poultry.

must be no access to high rafters or cross-beams, up to which the
fowls can fly. The nest-boxes which are to be seen in country
poultry houses are usually placed in rows on shelves, which
are sometimes in tiers, one above the other. No arrangement
can be imagined better calculated to ensure the injurious dryness
of the eggs, and to favour the generation of vermin which
infest the sitting hens and nests.

The nests, in accordance with nature, should be on the damp
ground, so that the eggs may be cooler below than above. A
bushel of mould, or a thick green turf kept in its place by two
or three bricks, makes the most efficient and healthy nest.
They may also be made in boxes, or in old market baskets filled
with moist earth. These can be covered over with an ordinary
circular coop, so that the sitting hen is not molested by the
others. Ifa hen lays away, stealing a nest in a hedge or under
a corn stack, or any other obscure situation, the eggs should
never be touched, if chickens are desired; as soon as the
hen has laid her full clutch she will sit, and bring out a far
stronger and healthier brood than will be produced under any
more artificial circumstances. The exposure of the eggs to the
weather does not, as many persons imagine, injure them in the
slightest degree, for when a hen sits under these circumstances
she usually hatches every egg.

If only one place can be devoted to both the hatching and
laying fowls, it is necessary to divide the former from the latter
by a piece of wire-work. For, if the laying hens are allowed to
intrude upon those that are hatching, fighting—tending to a
great destruction of eggs—ensues. Where it is practicable, it is
always exceedingly desirable to sit two or three hens on the
same day. When they have sat a week the eggs should be
tested, and those which are not fertile removed. Many instru-
ments under various names have been devised for this object,
but none of them are superior to a piece of stiff cardboard, as the
cover of a book, having an oval hole cut in it slightly smaller
than the eggs to be examined. ‘This is readily used with an
ordinary lamp at night. The eggs should be carefully removed
from under one of the hens, taken to a dark room and then
examined. ‘The cardboard is held upright between the eye and
the light, and the egg is placed against the hole. If the light
shines through it and it is clear, having the same appearance as-
a new-laid egg, it is not fertile, and it is worse than useless to
replace it under the hen, as it occupies space and is liable
to be broken and soil the other eggs. Those eggs that are
fertile and contain chickens are perfectly dark and opaque,
except at the larger end, where the air space is to be seen.

Farm Poultry. 71

When two or three hens are set upon the same day and the
eggs are examined at the end of a week, the clear ones being
removed, it frequently happens that a sufficient number are
taken away to enable the eggs of two hens to be given to one,
or the eggs of three hens to be given to two, when a fresh
sitting can be given to the hen that has been deprived of her
batch. The eggs should hatch at the expiration of three weeks,
viz., on the twenty-first day. The less interference that takes
place at this time the better. Occasionally the life of a
weakly chicken unable to get out of the shell may be saved by
assisting it, but there is no doubt that more chickens are
destroyed by interfering with the sitting hen on the twenty-
first day than are saved by any assistance rendered. The hens
should be left in the nest until the next day, when the young
- chicken will be strong, dry and active. The hen should then be
put under a coop with her brood: if possible in a sunny place, as
under a south wall.

The first food for the chicken should be egg and milk
(the clear eggs removed from the hens answer admirably
for this purpose). Hach egg should be beaten up with a couple
of tablespoonfuls of milk, and set into a custard-like mass by the
side of the fire or in the oven. This should not be given to the
chickens until the hen has been abundantly fed with corn and has
satisfied her own hunger. For other food I much prefer to use
a little canary-seed or Egyptian dari to crushed grits, which
are apt to become rancid from the external covering having
been removed. Bread and milk can also be given to the
chicks, and sweet meal and milk; but much loss in rearing
chickens occurs by the use of old meal which has been exposed
to the air after grinding, and has become pungent and acrid.

The practice of cooping hens and chickens, though in many
cases indispensably necessary, cannot but be regarded as an evil.
The hens have no power to scratch for worms and grubs, which
form the natural and by far the most advantageous food for the
young. The chicks again are fed day after day in the same
place, and constantly pick up food contaminated by their own
dung, a practice which is certain to induce disease.

It is often alleged that hens allowed at large with young
broods wander so much as to “ drag them to death.” This how-
ever is only the case when the hen is not well fed and she has
to seek for food for herself as well as worms for her chickens.
In health and vigour no chicken can compete with those that
are produced by a hen who steals a nest under a hedge, and
brings out a clutch of strong robust chickens, with which she
returns to the homestead when they are two or three days old.

72 Form Poultry.

If chickens miust be confined, it is much better to put each coop
into a temporary run made by unrolling a coil of wire-work ;
this can be shifted every day on to fresh ground, a proceeding
of very great advantage. Under these conditions the chickens
are out in the early morning sun, instead of being shut up in the
close air of a fowl-coop for some hours after they are awake, as
is usually the case where the hen is confined.

The practice of tethering hens by one leg, which is frequently
adopted by gamekeepers who rear pheasants, is one that may
advantageously be introduced into poultry keeping. At the
present time the custom is largely followed of giving chickens
artificial food, which is often of very highly spiced and stimu-
lating character. In my opinion no practice can be more
objectionable. No dried animal food can equal the natural diet
obtained by the hen for her chicks if she is allowed liberty,
and highly spiced substances are neither natural nor desirable as
food for chickens. The utilisation of the waste house scraps is
most valuable. Bread soaked in milk, potatoes from the table,
&c., and very small quantities of meat may be given. Care
should be taken not to give fowls at any age too much animal
fat; this is especially important as regards laying hens.

The temporary runs that I have recommended can be placed
anywhere about the farm buildings, or still more advantageously
in a garden where the young chickens can wander at will, and
find much wholesome food without doing any damage. An
orchard is also an exceedingly useful place for the coops or
runs, as well as for the older fowls. The advantage of placing
fowls in an orchard is twofold. They destroy large numbers of
injurious insects, and at the same time fertilise the ground
with their droppings. If an orchard is divided into two
parts, one of which is used for fowl keeping and the other
not, it will be found that the former is much more productive
than the latter, the circumstances being equal. The late Mr.
Mechi, of Tiptree Hall, used to allow his fowls to roam freely in
his cornfields, and he always maintained that they did so with
great advantage to themselves and with no injury to the corn.

In determining the most profitable breeds for a small farmer
or cottage proprietor, we have first of all to consider whether
eggs or market poultry are the more important consideration.
In some places eggs pay much better than table fowls, and in -
others the reverse. If eggs are wanted, a non-incubating breed
should be kept, as these lay a much larger number of eggs than
hens that habitually sit. Formerly Spanish were largely used
for this purpose, but their value, as before stated, has been
utterly destroyed by their being solely cultivated as white-faced

Farm Poultry. 73

fancy fowls. The common black Mediterranean breed, known as
Minoreas, are amongst the very best layers at the present time,
provided that ordinary farm-yard specimens and not show
breeds, bred solely for size and regularity of comb, are selected.
Leghorns, or a somewhat similar breed, have been, since their
first introduction from America by myself in 1868, so closely
interbred and shown as fancy fowls, that their size and vigour
have much deteriorated. Their general colour is white, but
recently they have been crossed with game fowls, to produce
what are called Brown and Pile Leghorns, by which their
vigour has been considerably increased. Andalusians, birds of
the Spanish type, are also good layers, but they are now bred
more exclusively for fancy marking than for profitable considera-
tions. Spangled Hamburghs, or so-called pheasant fowls of the
North of England, were formerly most profitable layers, but they
also have been so exclusively bred for feather, that their valu-
able properties have been greatly lessened.

On the whole, I should be inclined to recommend ordinary
farm-yard black Minorcas as the best breed that a small farmer
can have, if the production of large white eggs is desired. I
am sure, however, that no breed of fowls in existence will pro-
duce on the average anything like the number of eggs which
is sometimes stated as a common result. If a farmer can
obtain an average of one hundred and fifty eggs per annum
from his stock, he may consider himself to have done very well.
In many localities, as near towns and other populous places, it
will be found desirable to use every effort to obtain new-laid
eggs in the early part of the year, when they often fetch very
high prices. For this purpose reliance must be placed on early .
hatched chickens, as the May broods do not lay freely in the
cold weather.

When birds are required for market or the table, Mediter-
ranean breeds, such as Andalusians, Minorcas, and Leghorns,
are of very small value, not carrying much meat on the breast
or being capable of furnishing plump and saleable chickens.
For table poultry, Dorkings have a very great reputation, but
the markets of London are chiefly supplied with what are
known as Surrey fowls, which have been derived from the old-
fashioned Dorkings that existed before the time of competitive
shows. The modern show Dorking derived its greatly in-
creased size from being crossed with the Malay breed, and what
it gained in size it lost in quality and plumpness. It has also
the disadvantage of being delicate. These defects may be
removed by judicious crossing, and there is no doubt that the
best table fowls at present produced in this country are those

74 Farm Poultry.

resulting from crossing the Dorking either with the old-
fashioned English game or the Indian game. By these means
a hardy, early matured, very plump breed is produced, and
at the shows of dead poultry these birds have always proved
superior to others put into competition with them. I have
never, under any circumstances, not even in the shows of
fattened dead poultry that take place in Paris, seen better
specimens of large plump table fowls of the highest quality,
than those that were exhibited as the result of this crossing at
the last Dairy Show held at the Agricultural Hall.

The Azeel, or Indian fighting cock, is an extraordinarily,
plump, close-feathered, and heavy bird, and also crosses ex-
cellently with the Dorking or Surrey fowl; but it has two
disadvantages—it is rather small, and of such exceedingly com-
bative propensity that it is difficult to manage. Moreover, the
hens are very indifferent layers, usually wanting to sit after
laying ten or a dozen eggs. The crosses between the Indian
game or the old-fashioned English game and Surrey or farm-
yard fowls are, on the other hand, as good layers as any variety
of fowl that habitually sit. Thereisa preference in this country
for table fowls with white legs; although a most absurd one,
it must not be omitted from consideration when breeding for
the table, as to some extent at least it affects the price of market
chickens.

I have not thought it necessary to mention particularly
other crosses and other breeds of poultry as market fowl. Many
farmers have sought to increase the size and value of their fowls
by crossing with some of the Asiatic varieties, such as Cochins,
Brahmas, Langshans, &c. It is quite true that size can be
gained in this manner, but as the cross-bred birds are deficient
in the amount of flesh on the breast, and carry a great deal of
offal in the shape of heavy coarse bones and useless feathers, tlie
proceeding is not desirable. Crosses of this kind have found
no favour in the eyes of our more practical neighbours, the
French, nor are the birds appreciated by the feeders, who buy
for the purpose of fattening for the market. There has been a
run recently on a cross-bred breed, manufactured some few
years since in America, and known as Plymouth Rocks. These
being hardy fowls, and for sitters abundant layers, they met
with considerable fayour in this country, especially as their well-
marked plumage allowed them to be exhibited as fancy fowl.
Their yellow skin and want of quality and plumpness render
them however not adapted for market fowl in England, In
America, where a good roast fowl is a rarity, chickens are mostly
used as “broilers” when young, being split down the back and

Farm Poultry. 75

cooked on a gridiron, when the bright yellow skin of the Plymouth
Rock is not objectionable. At present the fashion in fancy
poultry has tended in favour of a handsomely feathered breed,
termed Wyandottes, and the Plymouth Rocks are going out
of fashion. As Wyandottes have been reared exclusively for
feather marking, they are, as might be expected, destitute of any
merit as market fowls.

It may be asked what course should be recommended to a
small farmer, who has a stock of fowls and wishes to improve
them, with the view of producing good birds for the table. In
many cases it would not be desirable to dispose of present stock
and buy an entirely new one. The plan would be expensive, to
commence with, and there might be a difficulty at the present
time in getting really good birds for useful purposes. Birds
that are now advertised and sold are in nine cases out of
ten fancy birds, that have not been bred with any idea of
their economical value. I should be disposed to recommend
a small proprietor to carefully look over his stock; to get rid
of all the small, weakly, undersized birds; to allow no pet fowls
to remain, only those that are really the best of the stock;
and then, getting rid of all male birds, to place in his yard a
good close-feathered, short-legged Dorking or Surrey cock.
At the end of the year this bird should be at once got rid of—
killed and eaten, if it cannot be sold. The following year the
best of the large pullets only should be allowed to remain. The
cross-breed cockerels having been disposed of, a good heavy,
short-legged, Indian or old-fashioned English game, should be
obtained as the stock-bird for the season. Each year in succes-
sion a new stock-bird should be got, either Dorking, English, or -
Indian game. For it is the constant interbreeding which takes
place in most farmyards that leads to the great deterioration of
the size, condition, and constitution of the poultry.

As none of the half-bred cocks are to be kept, it is desirable
to sell them as early as possible. They realise more money when
young, and should be prepared for the table or market at once.
The best mode of doing this, although it is not always in the
power of the small farmer, is to take the cockerels away be-
fore they attain maturity, as soon as the combs begin to shoot
and before the curved tail feathers can be seen. If they can be
placed together in a run far removed from any hens, they will
grow into large size without losing quality as table fowl:
whereas, if they are allowed to run with the other fowls, they
are continually chasing them and quarrelling among themselves,
They cease to gain in weight and lose very much in condition,
the flesh becoming hard. But this separation of the sexes in

76 Furm Poult.

chickens inténded for the table is only practicable in farms of
some considerable size. In every case it will be found desirable
to sell off the cockerels, and those pullets that it is not desired
to keep for stock, at an early period of their lives, or else to put
them up to fatten in the ordinary manner. If fattened in coops,
the cockerels should be shut up as soon as the central tail
feathers are noticed as curving over the others, and they should
be fed upon meal and milk until they have obtained the desired
fatness.

Fowls cannot, however, be fatted without care and attention.
They should be shut up in coops raised from the ground on
legs, the bottom bars being about an inch and a half apart, so
as to ensure cleanliness. Not more than a dozen fowls at atime
should be put up together in one coop. In front a wedge-shaped °
trough should be placed. ‘This should be filled three times a
day with coarse fresh oatmeal mixed with milk. No more food
should be given at once than will be eaten up at the time,
before a fresh meal is given. The troughs should be kept
thoroughly clean. It is best to have two sets, so that each can
be scalded with boiling water every other day after use. At
one end of the coop water should be given, and on the ledge
supporting the trough a small supply of fresh clean gravel; a
green turf may occasionally be put in the coop.

It is necessary to give these fatted fowls their first meal in
the morning, at sunrise. If this meal is delayed until about
eight o’clock, the fowls have been hungry and restless for hours,
during which time the fat of the previous day has been wasted
in useless exercise. About a fortnight is generally sufficient to
fatten fowls, if these precautions are attended to. If the fowls
are wanted fatter, they may be kept up a week longer, during
which time they may be given a little hard mutton fat, such
as the parings of the loin, which may be put in the scaldiig
milk with which the oatmeal is mixed.

If fowls are wanted exceedingly fat, they must be crammed.
Ona large scale this is done by the aid of a cramming machine,
of which Hearson’s is the best that I have seen, but a small
number may be crammed by hand, selecting those that have
been put up to fat for a fortnight. In cramming, the oat-
meal is mixed with boiling milk (to which a little mutton
fat may be added, if thought desirable), sufficiently stiff to roll
into sausage-shaped masses about two inches long and the size
of the finger. Each fowl is taken out in succession, held in the
lap, the beak kept open with the thumb and finger of the left
hand; the sausage-shaped mass of meal should be dipped into
milk, and placed at the back of the throat and pushed down

Farm Poultry. 77

with the finger, the head being extended. About six or eight
of these crams are given two or three times a day to each fowl,
care being taken to ascertain that the previous meal has entirely
passed out of the crop before another is given. Should it not
have done so, the beak should be opened and some warm milk
poured down the throat. The fowls thus fatted are usually
spoken of in the London market as Surrey capons, but the term
is incorrect, as very few of them have been operated on, nor is
the operation necessary. If the fowls are killed as described,
after sixteen hours’ abstinence from food, it is not desirable to
draw them before sending them to market, as they keep much
better when not drawn, and consequently realise higher prices.

No fowl should be killed until it has fasted fourteen to six-
teen hours. Those birds that it is intended to kill early in the
morning should have both food and water taken away not later
than four or five o’clock the afternoon before. If this is not
done, and they are killed full of food, it soon decomposes, turns
the birds green, and renders them comparatively worthless.
Even if the food has passed out of the crop into the bowels, the
fowls will not keep long, as the half-digested food in the interior
causes them to spoil, and gives them an exceedingly unpleasant
flavour.

With regard to the mode of killing fowls intended for sale,
the almost universal practice in England is to break their
necks. -This should be done by seizing the legs of the fowl in
the left hand and the head in the right, the back of the bird
being upwards, and the comb in the hollow of the hand. If
the legs of the birds are then held against the left hip and the
head against the right thigh near the knee, by strongly extend-'
ing the fowl, and at the same time bending the head suddenly
backwards, the latter is dislocated from the top of the neck, and
death results instantaneously, all the large vessels being torn
across and the blood escaping into the skin of the neck. Mus-
cular contractions, however, remain for some minutes, during
which time the fowl, if put down, knocks itself about, bruising
the flesh ; it should therefore be held in the hand or hung up by
a string round the legs to a hook in the ceiling. The fowl
having been killed should be plucked whilst warm; in fact the
professional killers proceed to remove the feathers immediately
after dislocating the neck, as they then come out very easily
and the skin does not tear. There is no cruelty in doing this,
even if it be before the muscular contractions have ceased, as
the head of the fowl is removed from the body, being connected
only by the skin, and all sensation is at an end. When care-
fully plucked the fowls should be placed on their backs, the

78 Farm Poultry.

hocks being tied together, the wings twisted behind the back,
and the neck allowed to hang down so that the fluid blood
accumulates in it. Under no circumstances should the breast-
bone be broken, as it deteriorates very much the value of the
fowl. It is needless to say that the legs and feet, if they are
soiled, should be washed before the birds are sent to market.

The question may be asked whether it is most profitable to
sell fowls from the yard or after being fatted. It depends
entirely upon the mode in which they are kept, and the local
character of the demand. If fowls are well fed in the runs, more
especially when the young cocks are kept separate from the
hens, they are in the finest possible condition for the table, and
the expense and trouble of cooping and fatting are saved ; but if
they are not highly fed, and if both sexes are allowed to run
together, the flesh of the birds soon becomes hard and the quality
inferior. Another precaution should be taken: it is the custom
of many persons to use maize for the feeding of poultry. This
contains a very large percentage of yellow oil, and when given
to fowls in quantity it accumulates under the skin, rendering
them of a yellow colour, and consequently less saleable than
they otherwise would be. There can be no doubt that the best
food for making the flesh of fowls white and firm is that used
in France, namely, buckwheat meal with milk; but it is hardly
obtainable in this country, at least at a cost that would prove
remunerative, and consequently either barley or oatmeal is usually
employed. The latter, haying a much higher percentage of
fatty matter, is by far the more valuable. Great care should be
taken that the meal used for fatting fowls has been freshly
ground, and is free from any pungent or acrid flavour. It
should be mixed with milk in place of water. If skimmed
milk is used, the fatty matter which has been removed in the
cream may be replaced advantageously by boiling up with the
milk some hard mutton fat, such as the trimmings of the loins.

TURKEYS.

Turkeys, though exceedingly profitable, are not reared to as
great an extent in this country as in France. The best breed to
employ is the Cambridge crossed with the recently imported
American, the crossing giving increased size and stamina.
The hens when laying are very apt to conceal their nests, in which
case they may be allowed to hatch their own eggs, or the latter
may be removed and placed under large fowls. The eggs should
be tested like those of fowls, on the eighth or tenth day, and
only the fertile ones replaced in the nest. The chickens make

Farm Poultry. 79

their appearance on the twenty-eighth day. The young are
rather delicate, and should not be interfered with until the
following day, as they require no feeding for the first twenty-
four or thirty hours. During this time, as is the case with fowls,
the young bird is digesting the yolk which is drawn into the
body at the period of hatching and furnishes the first food.

Great care should be taken to place young turkeys at first in
a dry situation, such as the foot of a wall facing the south, or
under an open shed. ‘The first food of the young turkeys
should be egg and milk, prepared as for fowls; but it should be
remembered that turkeys are much more addicted to feeding on
green vegetables than fowls are. If allowed to wander at will,
it will be noticed that they eat bitter herbs, such as dandelion
and milky lettuces, and care little for whole corn. If ants’ egos
can be obtained, such as are used by the gamekeepers for rear-
ing pheasants, they will be found a most valuable addition to
the food of young turkeys. But great dependence must be
placed in the first instance on egg and milk, fresh meal and
milk, lettuces run to seed, chopped dandelion, and such insect
food as the birds can obtain for themselves. In wet weather,
when the rain necessitates keeping them under cover, they should
never be kept on hard ground, but the floor should be covered
with dry soil or ashes. If the hens are cooped, the coops
should be moved every day, the grass around them for some
considerable distance being mown, as is done in the case of
pheasant rearing.

Turkeys are particularly subject to cold in the head, caus-
ing swollen faces and sore eyes, which rapidly develops into
roup, a most infectious and troublesome disease. Care must be
taken therefore not to allow hens to wander with the young
birds early in the morning, before the sun has dried the grass.
Although delicate when young, turkeys are particularly hardy
when old, and may be allowed to roost in the trees, where they
do much better than in houses. For the market it is not
necessary to shut them up, but they may be fed on soft food
mixed with skimmed milk two or three times a day. In France,
flocks of young turkeys are frequently put under the care of a
girl, who drives them with a long light pole on to the stubbles,
where they feed on the corn which would otherwise be wasted.
This method of utilising the waste corn which is always
knocked out in harvesting is very much neglected in England,
although some farmers, by having movable poultry-houses on
wheels, endeavour to carry it out. The rearing of turkeys is
hardly to be recommended in damp localities, more especially
where the soil is heavy and clayey ; but in suitable situations,

80 Farm Poultry.

where sufficient amount of attention can be given to the birds
during the first few weeks of their lives, there is no form of
poultry that pays better, as they always, about Christmas time
or often before, realise very high prices in the markets, and can
usually be sold privately, when the profit does not go into the
hands of the middleman.

DUCKS.

The usual mode in which ducks are kept in a farmyard is
the reverse of advantageous. The plan followed should be that
adopted in the neighbourhood of Aylesbury and in the sur-
rounding villages, where many tons of ducklings are reared
annually and sent to the London markets, realising a most re-
munerative price. It-is said that nearly 40,000l. per annum is
paid to the neighbourhood for early ducklings. The breed
chosen there is the white Aylesbury. The ducks are allowed on
the water during the daytime, but kept under cover at night.
To feed them well, the best plan is to put the food, which is
generally oats, into a pan of water. If highly fed, they will lay
as early as December, and the eggs are particularly valuable for
producing early ducklings. They are hatched under hens on
nests made in the usual manner on the ground with soft, short
straw, which is much better than hay. The nest should not be
allowed to become dry. If it does, the eggs may be sprinkled
with lukewarm water daily. No interference with the newly
hatched brood should take place until the following day. At
Aylesbury the ducklings which are reared for the market are
not allowed to go into water. After a few days three or four
broods are given to one hen, and they are kept in small com-
partments in the rooms of the cottages of the rearers, or in
sheds, each lot being separated by boards. The compartments
are littered down with short straw, and kept particularly clean.

Unlike fowls, the young ducks require a very considerable -
proportion of animal food. Their first food should be hard-boiled
eggs, mixed with boiled rice, and bullock’s liver cut up into
small pieces. This is given to them several times a day. After
about a fortnight they are furnished with meal which is mixed
with scalded chandler’s greaves, and they also have a due supply of
oats placed in water. ed in this manner they rapidly attain a
very considerable size, and at the age of ten or twelve weeks are-
fat enough for market. These early ducklings command a very
high price. In the first of the London season nine or ten shillings
a couple, or even more, is frequently given for them. At the age of
about twelve weeks they begin to moult, and then the nourishment
that they receive goes to the formation of new feathers, and they do

Farm Poultry. 81

not increase in weight for another eight or tenweeks. Hence, there
is no advantage in allowing them to remain over twelve weeks
before killing them. The secret of success is to feed the young
ones as rapidly as possible and get them into the market at the
earliest possible period. Those ducks that are intended for
stock, and not for killing, may be allowed to go into the water
after some three or four weeks, but permitting them to swim
when growing does not tend to increase their size.

The Aylesbury are by far the most profitable breed for market
purposes ; they are good layers and heavy birds. The Pekin
breed, which has been introduced from China within the last
few years, does not weigh as much as the Aylesbury, nor is it
as advantageous for market. The ordinary coloured breeds of
ducks are not so desirable, as the dark colour of the down,
which is difficult to remove entirely, before sending to market,
renders them less attractive in appearance when killed. In
purchasing Aylesbury ducks for stock, the greatest care should
be taken not to procure over-fatted specimens in which the belly
trails on the ground. These are never fertile, both drakes and
ducks being absolutely useless.

~ GEESE,

Geese will be found to be advantageous only under certain
conditions. Where there is an opportunity of their grazing
without expense, in the short grass of commons, they can always
be kept to advantage. The large size exhibition geese are not
to be recommended for farm purposes, as they are by no means
good layers, and frequently are absolutely sterile. For the
market the ordinary saddle-backed grey and white geese, if
selected of good size and quality, are as good as can be em-
ployed. Geese as well as ducks should have a house to them-
selves, removed from the ordinary poultry. An unused pig-sty
makes an excellent goose-pen. ‘I'he nest should be made in the
corner with mould covered with straw, and large enough for
the goose to sit comfortably without risk of crushing the eggs.
The young are hatched after thirty days, and may be fed at
first with meal and milk. A little custard is also advan-
tageous, and so are chopped lettuces and fine grass. The
young at first need not be allowed to go to the water, as a large
milk pan, half full of pebbles and water, is all that they require.
After about a week no further care is necessary for them except
giving them food. The most advantageous way to do this is to
put the grain in a trough of water.

VOL, Il. T, S—5 G

82 Farm Poultry.

In the previous remarks I haye not alluded to the employ-
ment of incubators, which are now used to a very considerable
extent by those who hatch large numbers of fowls. Whether
incubators can be employed advantageously by the small farmer,
depends altogether upon the number of chickens that he con-
templates rearing. I do not think an incubator of less size
than one containing fifty eggs is at all desirable, as the external
surface in proportion to the bulk renders it less easy to keep up
a regular temperature, and a small number of eggs can be as
easily hatched under hens. The most successful incubator is
that manufactured by Hearson, in which the supply of heat is
instantly shut off when it exceeds or even reaches the desired
temperature, which can be regulated to any required degree. I
have tested this incubator for some years, and find that it
hatches as large a proportion of eggs as the best hens. The
eggs are placed in circumstances in which the natural condi-
tions of hatching are most carefully reproduced. Moisture rises
from below, the heat is given above, and the natural temperature
cannot possibly be exceeded, however great the excess of heat
from the lamp or gas employed in the machine. Incubators in
which the heat depends on the supply of hot water once or twice
a day are always altering their temperature, and are conse-
quently unsuccessful. Others, in which the eggs are exposed to
the fumes of hot air rising from the combustion of a lamp, are
even less to be relied upon, as the eggs do not hatch well, unless
the air in which they are contained is particularly pure.

The impurity of the air is one of the chief causes why the
egos in an overcrowded or dirty fowl-house never hatch as well
as those that are sat upon by the hens out in the open air, as
under a hedge, or any other concealed situation. An incubator,
therefore, should never be placed in a close-confined room, but
in some compartment or shed where the atmosphere is particu-
larly pure. ‘The chicken breathes through the pores of the shell
for many days before it escapes from the egg, and is particularly
susceptible to the foul effects of an impure atmosphere in the
early stages of existence.

Whether or not an incubator can be used depends entirely
on the requirements of the farmer, but should it be determined
to employ one, it is most desirable that an efficient instrument
should be selected, as the use of cheaply constructed machines
will only end in disappointment.

W. B. TEGETMEIER.

83

BME TUBERCLE. BACILLUS,

A VALUABLE and instructive article was contributed to Part Il.
of the Journal, last year by Mr. Duguid, on ‘Tuberculosis
in Animals, and its relation to Consumption in Man,” in which
the author pointed out that this subject was of just as much
interest and importance to stock-owners and others connected
with the cattle trade as to Sanitary Medical officers and
guardians of the public health.

Mr. Duguid fully justified this statement in a very temperate
discussion of the possible transmission of tuberculosis from the
cow to man by the flesh and milk of animals suffering from this
disease, and especially in his concluding remarks on the need
for legislation in Great Britain in connection with this subject,
and on the vexed questions of slaughter and compensation.

No scientific subject of late has received so much attention
in the columns of the daily and agricultural press as tuberculosis,
and indeed the tubercle bacillus has been a topic of daily
conversation. There is a desire for information on the part of
intelligent laymen, while in scientific professional circles the
interest attaching to tuberculosis is steadily increasing, and the
importance of a thorough investigation of the subject in all its
aspects is daily becoming more fully recognised. It is proposed,
in this paper, to give some account of the tubercle bacillus and
its products, and of the effect of Koch’s liquid on tubercular
animals, avoiding as much as possible all technical expressions,
which would render the account unintelligible to many.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE TUBERCLE BACILLUS.

It had long been known that consumption or tuberculosis
was communicable from one animal to another by experimental
inoculation, but investigators failed to find out the cause or
contagium. In 1882, Koch discovered the Bacillus tuberculosis,
and published the evidence upon which he based his conclusion
that this microbe was the germ of the disease.

This minute parasite is a vegetable organism. It is found
in all forms of tuberculosis in man and the lower animals. It
is readily detected in the sputum or expectoration of human
patients suffering from phthisis or tuberculosis of the lungs.
The discovery of this micro-organism was therefore of the
greatest possible value, for its presence is a certain indication
of the existence of tubercular disease (see Plate I.).

G 2

84 The Tubercle Bacillus.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I.

The Tubercle Bacillus in Man and Lower Animals.

The figures in this plate represent the bacilli in tuberculosis of different animals,
examined under the same conditions of amplification and illumination. x 1200.

Fig. 1—Bazilli in pus from the wall of a human tubereular cavity. In this
specimen the bacilli are shorter than those in tubercular sputum, and are very
markedly beaded.

Fig. 2.—Bacilli in pus from a tubercular cavity from another case in man. They
are present in the preparation in enormous numbers. The protoplasm occupies
almost the whole of the sheath, and the bacilli are strikingly thin and long.

Fig. 8.—Bacilli in sputum from an advanced case of phthisis, showing the ordinary
appearance of bacilli in sputum—sometimes beaded, sometimes stained in their
continuity—occurring both singly and in pairs, and in groups resembling Chinese
letters.

Fig. 4.—Bacilli in a section from the lung in a case of tuberculosis in man, The
bacilli in human tuberculosis are found in, and between, the tissue cells, and some-
times, as in equine and boyine tuberculosis, in the interior of giant cells, but not so
commonly.

Fig. 5.—From a cover-glass preparation of the deposit in a sample of milk from a
tubercular cow. The bacilli were longer than the average length of bacilli in bovine
tissue sections, and many were markedly beaded.

Fig. 6.—From a section of the brain in a case of tubercular meningitis in a calf,
showing a giant cell containing bacilli with the characters usually found in sections
of bovine tuberculosis.

Fig. 7.—From a section of the liver of a pig, with tubercle bacilli at the margin of
a caseous nodule.

Fig. 8.—From a cover-glass preparation of a crushed caseous mesenteric gland
from a rabbit, infected by ingestion of milk from a cow with tuberculosis of the
udder.

Fig. 9.—From a section of lung in a case of equine tuberculosis, showing a giant
cell crowded with tubercle bacilli.

Fig. 10.—From a section of lung from a case of tuberculosis in the cat, with very
numerous tubercle bacilli.

Fig. 11.—From a cover-glass preparation of a crushed caseous nodule from the
liver of a fowl, with masses of bacilli. These are for the most part short, straight
rods, but other forms, varying from long rods to mere granules, are also found.

Fig. 12.—From sections of the liver and of the lung in a case of tuberculosis of an
ostrich (Rhea). Isolated bacilli are found, as well as bacilli packed in large cells,
colonies of sinuous bacilli, and very long forms with terminal spore-like bodies and
free oval grains,

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THE TUBERCLE BACILLUS IN MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.

Edgar M Crookshank Punscut The Dangerheld Printing Company, Londo 4

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The Tubercle Bacillus. 85

The mere discovery of a particular parasite in association
with a disease is, however, no proof that it is the cause of the
disease. ‘To establish a causal relation a great deal of evidence
is necessary, for it must be proved that the micro-organism does
produce the disease in question. To obtain such evidence we must
first isolate the bacillus from tubercular tissues ; it must be grown
artificially outside the animal body, and with a pure cultivation
we must be able to produce the disease by introducing it into
susceptible animals.

THE CULTIVATION OF THE TUBERCLE BACILLUS.

Koch pointed out that, if a fragment of tissue containing the
bacillus were inserted into solidified blood serum ! a growth of the
“bacillus took place, which after a few weeks became easily visible
to the naked eye. Minute dry scales developed on the surface of
the cultivating medium. By sowing the bacillus in fresh tubes
or flasks containing this medium, the cultivation of the bacillus
could be kept up indefinitely. The cultivating medium, what-
ever its composition, must at the outset be free from all micro- .
organisms of every kind.

For most bacteria, beef-tea containing gelatine is used. A
small quantity is allowed to set in a test-tube, the most convenient
vessel for use in the laboratory. This medium readily liquefies
if the temperature is raised; and if, therefore, it is necessary to
grow the bacteria in an incubator, a meat-jelly is used in which
Japanese isinglass (agar-agar) is substituted for the gelatine.
After sowing the bacteria on the surface of this jelly, the test-
tubes are placed in the incubator at the temperature of the
blood.

For the cultivation of the tubercle bacillus Koch, as already
mentioned, employed solidified sterilised blood serum, but the
preparation of this medium took so much time and was so com-
plicated that but few succeeded in verifying his discovery.

On the other hand, the preparation of meat-jelly is compara-
tively easy. A great advance was therefore made in the study
of the life-history of the tubercle bacillus when the French
bacteriologists, Nocard and Roux, discovered that the addition
of 5 per cent. of glycerine to meat-jelly prepared with agar-agar
afforded a soil on which the tubercle bacillus could be cultivated
in abundance with the greatest facility.

’ Blood is allowed to clot in clean glass vessels, and the liquid part, cr
serum, is decanted into test-tubes and solidified by heat.

86 The Tubercle Bacillus.

Just as we can grow tropical plants in this country by
supplying the necessary conditions of temperature, moisture,
and soil in hothouses, so these microscopic plants or bacilli
can be cultivated outside the animal body by supplying the
necessary food and by keeping them in an incubator with careful
regulation of the temperature.

It is not absolutely necessary to employ the cultivating
media in a solid state, but it is preferable when we require to
study the appearance as presented to the naked eye of the bacilli
en masse. Beef-tea with glycerine, but without either gelatine
or agar-agar, can be employed, and when the growth has
developed to its full extent, the bacilli can be separated by
filtration through porcelain, and the filtrate examined. The
secretion of the bacillus, if such has been formed, is thus
separated, and the changes which have taken place in the liquid
by the digestion of the complex substances in the broth can be
ascertained.

TUBERCLE BACILLI AND THE WHITE BLOoop CORPUSCLEsS.

Having obtained cultivations on either solid or liquid media,
the next step is to inoculate susceptible animals. Koch assured
us that the inoculation with the isolated bacillus of such animals
as rabbits, guinea-pigs, and monkeys, produced the disease tuber-
culosis, and hence the tubercle bacillus is very generally accepted
as the active agent in the production of this disease.

The hereditary character of consumption, however, indicates
that we have to deal with something more than the life-history
of the tubercle bacillus. If the disease be solely due to the
inhalation of a micro-parasite, why should the disease be
hereditary, and why should tuberculosis in cattle be increased’by
breeding in and in? We have obviously not only to deal with
the parasite, but with other factors. Susceptibility to the disease
can be increased by unhealthy surroundings and inherited.

According to the theory of Metschnikoff, a Russian bacterio-
logist, there is a constant warfare between the white blood
cells! and bacteria. If an animal has immunity from or is proof
against a disease, and also in cases of recovery from an attack
of a disease, the white blood cells or “ phagocytes” attack and -

1 The blood consists of a clear fluid called liquor sanguinis, with little disc-
shaped bodies called red corpuscles, and colourless protoplasmic cells called
white corpuscles. ‘The latter constantly change their form by sending out and
retracting delicate processes like the small unicellular organisms known as
amcebe. They migrate when a tissue is in need of repair, passing through
the delicate wall of the minutest blood vessels.

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TUBERGLE BACILLI AND PHAGOCYTES OF THE FROG. ,

LdgaxM Crooks hank, Puyo

~The Tubercle Bacillus. 87

destroy the invading micro-organisms. If, on the other hand,
there is no immunity, the phagocytes are unable to cope with
the bacteria. The latter destroy the white blood cells, increase
and multiply, and ultimately destroy their host.

These phenomena have been studied by the writer after
injecting a few drops of a cultivation of the tubercle bacillus
in broth into the dorsal lymph sacs of frogs, and withdrawing
some of the lymph by means of a capillary pipette at intervals
of a few hours and then of weeks. The lymph cells, white blood
cells, or phagocytes, can be seen to take up one or more tubercle
bacilli, just as an amoeba takes up foreign particles. In some
cases the cells are completely filled with the bacilli (see Plate IT.!).

The question arises whether the cells actually take up
and destroy living tubercle bacilli, or whether the bacilli are
first destroyed by the blood or lymph which, in animals having
an immunity, is unsuitable for the growth of the bacilli, or is
even capable of destroying them. Whichever may be the right
explanation, the practical lesson is that the tissues and blood
must be kept in a state of health by proper hygienic surround-
ings, and by absolutely rejecting tubercular subjects for breeding
purposes when dealing with animals, and by discouraging mar-
riage of tubercular persons when dealing with mankind.

DESCRIPTION OF CULTIVATIONS OF THE BACILLUS.

Having explained the method of cultivating bacteria, it may
be of interest to more fully describe the appearances of the
cultivations of the tubercle bacillus. During the past year, the
writer has confirmed and extended the observations of Nocard and
Roux, and photographs of cultures of the bacillus are given in
the accompanying woodcuts (Figs. 1-7). The bacillus was
isolated from the expectoration of a phthisical patient, and
successive sub-cultures have been prepared up to the tenth
generation. In these photographs the part of the test tube is
represented in which the meat jelly has been allowed to set with
a sloping surface; on this sloping surface the bacilli were sown
by means of a platinum needle, the point of which was charged
with the bacilli. The platinum inoculating needle consists of two

1 Description or Prare II,
Tubercle Bacilli and “ Phagocytes” of the Frog.
(a) White blood cells of the frog; (b) cells enclosing single bacilli; (c) cells

enene two or more hacilli; (d) and (e) cells packed with more or less disintegrated
acilli,

Fourth sub-cultures on glycerine agar-agar, nearly ten Another sub-culture on glyce-

ae old, from human tubercular sputum. Inocu- rine agar-agar of the sameage
ated April 17, 1890. (From photographs.) and source as Figs. 1 and 2.

Fia. 4. Fig. 5, Fie. 6,

Fifth sub-culture on glycerine Sixth sub-culture, from the Eighth sub-culture nearly two
agar-agar more than six same source, more than months old. Inoculated De-
months old. Inoculated three months old. Inocu- cember 8, 1890, (From phota-
July 22, 1890, lated October 15, 1890, graphs.)

(From photographs, )

The Tubercle Bacillus. 89

inches of platinum wire fused into the end of a glass rod about
the length of a penholder. ‘This needle can be sterilised by hold-
ing it in the gas-flame, and when cool the point is dipped in the
bacilli to be inoculated, and then lightly traced over the surface
of the jelly.

The individual bacilli increase, forming ‘ colonies,’ which have
the appearance of minute white points. These go on increasing
in size, and are sometimes smooth and moist, at other times dry
and crinkled. According to the number of the bacilli inoculated,
the colonies will either remain isolated or join and form a more
or less continuous coating.
The appearances are much
more characteristic when
this medium is, compara-
tively speaking, dry. A
semi - transparent mem-
branous growth develops
and thickens, and some-
times assumes a character-
istic lichenous appearance. 4 Isolated colonies on glycerine agar-agar after

° nearly ten months’ growth. Sub-culture from
In about six weeks to two human sputum (fourth sub-culture). B, Isolated

months the culture has fully ee months’ growth. (From
developed. In old cultures,

especially when the individual colonies remain isolated, the
appearance is very characteristic. The consistency of the growth
depends upon the character of the soil and the age of the culture.
If the medium is moist the growth is moist and viscous, but
more often it is distinctly tallowy, and in old and dry cultures -
scaly and friable.

In glycerine-broth, without either gelatine or agar-agar,
luxuriant growths can be obtained in a few weeks. In four or
five days minute flakes or specks are visible, which steadily in-
crease in size, and, subsiding to the bottom of the flask, form
ultimately a very copious deposit. This deposit is extremely
tenacious, and on shaking the flask it rises in stringy masses,
giving an appearance which is quite characteristic. If the flask
is left undisturbed, a delicate film forms over the surface of the
liquid, which can be readily broken up by gentle agitation. If
undisturbed for several weeks this film increases in thickness, is
irregularly fissured, and has more the appearance of tallow
floating on the surface.

To be certain that the growth we have obtained is in reality
a growth of the tubercle bacillus, we must examine it by the
method we employ for the detection and examination of the
bacilli in tubercular tissues,

90 The Tubercle Bacillus.

MicroscopicaL EXAMINATION OF THE BACILLI.

The bacilli are colourless, and therefore not easily distin-
guished from the tissues in which they grow; we have, there-
fore, to employ the process of staining them with an aniline dye.
By this means we can readily differentiate the bacilli, and study
their form and their relation to the tissues in which they grow.
It is this method which gives us an inyaluable means of ascer-
taining the existence of tuberculosis.

To illustrate this, let us suppose that we have to deal with
an indurated condition of the udder of a cow. To distinguish
between chronic inflammation and tubercular disease may be a
matter of the greatest difficulty, and perhaps of impossibility, if
we trust to symptoms and physical signs. And yet itis a matter
of the greatest importance, for the danger of employing the milk
of cows suffering from udder tuberculosis is, especially to children,
a matter beyond doubt.

But if some of the milk is drawn off into a test-tube and
set aside for an hour, we can readily examine the sediment for
tubercle bacilli. The supernatant liquid is poured off, and a
little of the sediment spread out upon a cover-glass. This is
allowed to dry and is fixed by passing the cover-glass through the
flame of a gas-burner or a spirit-lamp. ‘The cover-glass is then
floated, with the prepared side downwards, on hot carbolised
fuchsine ! in a watch-glass for three to five minutes. The cover-
glass is next transferred to dilute sulphuric acid, which washes
the stain out of everything except the bacilli. If desired, a
contrast stain can be given to the rest of the preparation by
placing the cover-glass for a couple of minutes in methylene
blue. In such preparations the tubercle bacillus is stained
brilliantly red, and the tissue cells and any other micro-organ-
isms are stained blue.

In dealing with the diseases of animals, this power of re-
taining the stain in the presence of acid is an absolute indica-
tion of the presence of the tubercle bacillus. In man this
statement does not hold good, for the same occurs in the case of
the closely allied leprosy bacillus.

If now the cultivations of the bacillus are examined by the
same method, we can readily detect the same bacilli; but they
are found to be shorter and thicker than in human sputum, and
for the most part without the beaded appearance. In old

1 A crimson aniline dye prepared by dissolving 5 parts of crystals of fuchsine
in 10 parts of alcohol and 100 parts of a 5 per cent. watery solution of carbolic
acid,

Fic. 1.
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mM

PNG Ne

agar-agar,

Cover-glass preparation, stained with carbolised fuchsine and
treated with sulphuric acid, from a cultivation on glycerine

x 1200. (Powell and Lealand 1/12 apochrom.,, 0.i.
E.P. 10, Lamplight illum., edge of flame.)

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Cover-glass preparation of a cultivation in glycerine milk stained hy
Neelsen’s method (carbolised fuchsine and sulphuric acid.) x 1200.

PLATE Tie

The Tubercle Bacillus. 91

cultures on glycerine-agar-agar the number of granular or
beaded bacilli increases, and there are also numbers of peculiar
forms. These are long bacilli, in some cases two or three times
the length of an ordinary bacillus, provided with a club-shaped
enlargement, and in other cases bacilli with short lateral
branches (see Plate III., fig. 1). The bacilli with swollen
extremities and the branched forms were first observed by Nocard
and Roux. In milk the appearance is very striking, many bacilli
attaining in old cultures a great length, and all are more uni-
formly beaded than in any other cultivations (see Plate III.,
fig. 2). In old cultivations we can observe the formation of
spores or seeds both in stained and unstained preparations. In
the latter case they are recognised in the form of one or two
highly refractive bodies in the individual bacilli.

CHEMICAL PRODUCTS OF THE BACILLUS.

To understand the formation and ‘effects of the chemical
products of the tubercle bacillus, it is necessary to briefly refer
to a most important branch of pathological chemistry. So long
ago as 1822, Gaspard and Stick discovered an intensely poisonous
substance in extracts of the dead subject. In 1836, Panum
found a poison in putrid material; later, a crystallisable poison,
sepsin, was obtained from putrid beer, and a venomous nitro-
genous body from putrid meat. This subject did not attract
very much attention until the classical researches of Selmi.
Selmi, in a celebrated poisoning case, demonstrated the presence
of an alkaloid as the result of post-mortem change;-up to
this time the discovery of an alkaloid in the body after death
was considered as a proof of a poison having been administered
during life. This stimulated the investigation of these newly
discovered poisons, and the researches of Gautier and Selmi
established the fact that albuminoid substances undergoing
decomposition ! give rise to the formation of animal alkaloids.
These animal alkaloids Selmi named ptomaines, from ptoma, a
dead body. Brieger, finding that the products of putrefaction
were less poisonous than the products of pathogenic bacteria,
suggested the name towines to distinguish the latter.

Ptomaines, or animal alkaloids, have been divided into two
classes: those which are non-oxygenous, liquid, and volatile ;
and those which are oxygenous, solid, and crystallisable.

‘ Decomposition, or putrefaction, is the result of the growth of septic
bacteria,

92 The Titede Baatae

As examples of the non-oxygenous ptomaines, there are
the following :—

Parvoline, an oily liquid of an amber colour, oblained from
putrid mackerel and horseflesh.

Hydro-collidine, prepared from the same sources. This
substance is so highly poisonons that it was compared by Gautier
to the venom of the cobra.

Collidine. Another highly poisonous substance, obtained
from putrid gelatine and pancreas of a bullock.

Neuridine, prepared from fish, flesh, and decaying cheese.

Cadaverine, obtained from ordinary putrefaction, from herring
brine, and from pure cultivations of the common bacilli found
by Koch in Asiatic cholera, and by Finkler in cholera nostras.

Putrescine, from putrefaction. This substance and the
two former are alike poisonous, and produce some of the sym-
ptoms of cholera.

Of oxygenous ptomaines, which in some cases are found also
in healthy tissues, the following may be mentioned :—

Neurine, from putrefaction after death.

Choline, from bile.

Muscarine, from a poisonous mushroom (Agaricus muscarius),
and from putrid fish. All these are highly poisonous.

Gadinine, from putrefying codfish.

Mytilo-towine, the active agent in cases of mussel-poisoning.

Typhotowine. A poison isolated from pure cultivations of
the bacillus of typhoid fever.

Tetanine, from cultivations of the bacillus of tetanus.

Meat poisoning, produced by the consumption of putrid
sausages, hams, and poultry, is attributable to the presence of
poisonous animal alkaloids.

But the poisonous substances of most interest to the bacte-
riologist are those isolated from pure cultivations of the patho-
genic or disease-producing bacteria, including alkaloids and
albumoses or tox-albumins, such as cadaverine and putrescine
from cultivations of Koch’s common bacillus; typhotowine ;
tetanine; an albumose and alkaloid from the anthrax bacillus ;
and tuberculin from the tubercle bacillus.

TUBERCULINE.

At the International Medical Congress at Berlin, August
1890, Koch announced that he had discovered a substance which
prevented the growth of tubercle bacilli, not only in tube culti-
vations, but in the bodies of animals. On November 14 a further
publication was made, describing the effects upon lupus, con~

The Tubercle Bacillus. 93

stmption, and other forms of tubercular disease. On January 14,
1891, Koch announced that the substance employed in his
anti-tubercular treatment was a glycerine extract of pure cultiva-
tions of the tubercle bacillus. This extract now bears the name
of tuberculine.

Koch, after pointing out that the effective substance in
this extract could be precipitated by absolute alcohol, stated
that ‘‘ for application in practice, this purification of the gly-
cerine extract offers no advantage.” This would indicate
that Koch regarded the isolation of the active material in
a pure state as superfluous. It seemed to the writer, who had
been simultaneously investigating the products of the tubercle
bacillus, a matter of great scientific interest to determine, if
possible, the chemical properties and physiological effects of the
separated products. In a conjoint investigation with Mr.
Herroun, the products of the tubercle bacillus in pure cultiva-
tions in glycerine-broth have been shown to contain albumose
and an animal alkaloid, or ptomaine.

It is much to be regretted that the details of experiments
with tuberculine on animals have not been published by Koch,
and that details are wanting of the chemical properties of the
substance or substances contained in his extract. The hope
that the extract would prove a curative agent has almost
overwhelmed the scientific side of the subject, and the informa-
tion which is most likely to be of real value is probably that
which has hitherto been withheld from publication.

EFFECT OF TUBERCULINE ON HEALTHY AND TUBERCULAR
ANIMALS.

With the assistance of Dr. Abraham, who was cne of the first
to receive Dr. Koch’s liquid from Berlin, the writer injected
guinea-pigs with centigramme doses. Two tubercular guinea-
pigs and one healthy one have been treated since January 7. Two
other guinea-pigs in the same stage of tuberculosis were killed
and carefully examined, both macroscopically and microscopic-
ally, as a guide to the condition of the internal organs in the
cases selected for treatment. The first injection in the tuber-
cular guinea-pigs caused rise of temperature, swelling of the
diseased glands, and redness of the surrounding skin. The
second and subsequent injections produced a rise of temperature
and tenderness, but no sudden glandular swelling. In one
guinea-pig, which had been inoculated with bovine tuberculosis,
the tubercular glands steadily increased in size. The tempera-
ture reaction was most marked after the fourth injection, when

94 The Tubercle Bacillus.

it reached 1072° Fahr. in two hours. After nine injections
death resulted, and at the post-mortem examination the spleen,
liver, and lungs were found to be diseased, the spleen and liver
being almost solid masses of tubercular deposit. In the other
guinea-pig, inoculated with human tuberculosis, the disease is
progressing, but the animal is, at the time of writing, still living.
With the exception of a very slight rise in temperature, the
healthy guinea-pig was not affected by the injection. In France
Jaccoud inoculated a guinea-pig with Koch’s liquid, and subse-
quently inoculated tubercular virus ; and the result led him to
conclude that previous impregnation of the system with Koch’s
liquid had in this case no ‘preventive action. Dujardin-Beau-
metz made similar experiments with similar results. Animals
were inoculated with Koch’s tuberculine and then with the virus
of tubercle ; in other cases he inoculated with tubercle first and
afterwards with tuberculine. In both series the animals died
of tuberculosis.

EFFecT oF TUBERCULINE ON CATTLE.

In the Veterinary Institute at Dorpat, Gutmann injected
three tubercular cows with tuberculine. In all three animals the
temperature began to rise about eleven hours afterwards, and in
all during the “reaction ” there was some difficulty of breathing
and loss of appetite. The disease was diagnosed partly by the
physical examination, and partly by the detection of bacilli in
the bronchial mucus and in the milk, and by changes in the lym-
phatic glands. Gutmann concluded that Koch’s liquid was an
aid to diagnosis. At the Royal Veterinary College the writer
injected a cow, supposed to be tubercular, on two occasions with
doses of two and three centigrammes. 'The temperature, takén
hourly, remained normal, but increased cough was noted. A
third dose of fifty centigrammes was followed by a negative
result, and a fourth dose of one gramme of the liquid produced
a slight rise in temperature. The case is still under observation.

In a subsequent article the writer hopes to say more on
the question of cure, and the effect on animals in relation to
diagnosis.

Epaar M, CRrooKsHANK.

95

TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN
AGRICULTURE.

Tr is not easy to frame a concise definition of what is meant
by agricultural education, though it may be regarded as em-
bracing a knowledge of the soil, of the plant, and of the animal.
An adequate knowledge under these three heads must neces-
sarily involve considerable time in its acquirement, and it offers
a wide field of study and investigation for anyone who would
wish to be, in the true sense of the term, a thorough agricul-
turist. Thanks to the progress of science during these later
years, the meaus whereby it is possible to acquire a knowledge
of the soil, of the plant, and of the animal have been much
increased ; consequently there is less excuse to-day than there
was thirty or forty years ago for ignorance respecting what
may be regarded as common agricultural knowledge.

Notwithstanding this, the fact remains that a knowledge
of the soil, of the plant, and of the animal will not, by itself,
make a man an agriculturist. He must acquire this knowledge
on the one hand, but, on the other hand, he has to familiarise
himself with the means and the methods by which the farmer is
brought into relationship with the soil, with the plant, and
with the animal—in a word, with that which is embodied in
the comprehensive term “ practice.”

There is still another side of the farmer's life, which, for
want of a better phrase, may be called the business side: not
only has the farmer to possess a knowledge of the soil, the
plant, and the animal, and to rightly appreciate his own rela-
tion thereto, but he has to face his fellow men in the markets
of the world. If he cannot successfully deal upon the markets,
then his scientific education is practically of little use or value
to him, for it is in the markets that the farmer must look for
his final school of examination. No amount of scientific educa-
tion, however thorough and comprehensive it may be, can be
regarded as of practical agricultural value unless it is so made
use of by the recipient that he can at the proper time focus,
as it were, his energies on a given subject, and turn to the best
advantage that which may come before him when he is brought
face to face with the men from whom he has to buy and the men
to whom he has to sell. A competent critic has dissented from

* Based upon an address delivered before the Newcastle Farmers’ Club,
January 3, 1891,

96 Technical Education in Agriculture.

this view because, as he says, it reduces the farmer to the level
of a huckster. Admitting, however, that scientific knowledge
properly applied will enable a farmer to produce better crops
and to breed better animals, without increasing their cost, it is
none the less a fact that unless the commercial capacity—the
trading instinct—be well developed in him, his bargains are
not unlikely to prove unprofitable.

AGRICULTURE NOT A SCIENCE.

Whilst, therefore, it is by no means implied that a scientific
and technical training will not greatly help a man in producing
that which he has to sell, and in valuing that which he wishes
to buy, it is desirable to emphasise the fact that agriculture is
not a science. Much misunderstanding has, indeed, arisen
through regarding agriculture as a science. We might as well
talk of the science of plumbing, or of building, or of seaman-
ship, as of the science of agriculture. Agriculture is an art, an
industry, and, above all, it is a business in which commercial
principles will come to the front as much as in any other of the
many industries to which human ingenuity is applied.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

With regard to technical education in agriculture, it may
be useful to point out that technical education (rZyvn, an art or
industry) consists by no means exclusively of scientific education.
There are many sciences which bear upon the art of agriculture,
and which help us to understand its principles; but technical
education in agriculture involves something more than instruc-
tion in the sciences which shed light upon it. These may be
broadly grouped as mathematics and mechanics, physics and
chemistry, and the natural history sciences, and, in so far as
they bear upon agriculture, are of direct agricultural value.
But, although they are useful as throwing light upon the art,
or industry, or business of agriculture, they only form a part of
that technical knowledge which every agriculturist should
possess. In addition to these subjects, there are others, of a less
purely scientific nature, which should undoubtedly be included
in any complete scheme of technical instruction in agriculture.
As an example may be mentioned surveying, which is to a great
extent an art based upon mathematical principles.

Book-keeping, again, may be regarded as the key to the
farmer’s position, and it is not easy to suggest any subject
capable of more direct and profitable application than this, A

Technical Education in Agriculture, 97

farmer who can properly apportion to the various sections of
his business tlt shares of receipts and expenditure which belong
to. them, has gone a long way towards solving the difficulties
of his profession. Hitherto book-keeping has occupied a some-
what subsidiary position. ‘This should not continue, for it
supplies the method by which, from month to month and from
year to year, a farmer can gauge his position and feel his
way. A valuable result of a sound system of book-keeping
is that it suggests to a farmer the discontinuance of that part
of his business which is carried on at a loss, and the directing
of his energies more especially to that which is proved
to be profitable. It deserves to be noted that the Royal
Agricultural Society long ago recognised the value of book-
keeping, as a branch of agricultural education, by introducing
it as an obligatory subject into the syllabus of its Senior Ex-
amination.

We might also include what may be termed commercial
knowledge. There seems to be a great lack—if we take
England through—of a proper comprehension of the relation of
markets one to another. Commercial knowledge would, to a con-
siderable extent, promote the comparison of the markets of dif-
ferent districts. With the enormous facilities for transport now
existing, the influence of one market upon another is determined
not so much by its geographical position as by the means or
the rapidity by which produce can be transferred from one
place to another. The railway, the steamship, and the telegraph
help to annihilate distances. In the towns of England we
consume bread made of flour grown upon the western prairies
of North America, and in some of our butchers’ shops we find
mutton raised upon the sheep runs of New Zealand.

Another branch of technical instruction in agriculture, and
one which deserves to be made more prominent than ever it has
been, is that relating to statistics. It is of so much importance,
that there need be no hesitation in putting it in the front rank.
The reason for this has been foreshadowed in what has just been
said about the markets of the world and their virtual proximity
to each other, owing to the excellent facilities for transport which
exist. Any farmer—particularly if he be a grazier—who will
take the trouble to study the agricultural statistics of this
country, will be enabled, to a certain extent, to forecast his
position, and to see what would probably be the best line for
him to take in the ensuing season. ‘This assertion is not made
upon a mere theoretical basis, for the plan has been put into
practice by more than one shrewd farmer, who, year after year,
profits by a careful study and analysis of the Agricultural

VOL. 0. T. s.—d H

98 Technical Lducation in Agriculture.

Returns of Great Britain. The Returns for the year 1890 have
come out—for the first time—under the direction of Major
Craigie, who is singularly apt in the art of presenting statistics.
A decided improvement, especially in the matter of comparison, is
noticeable in the current Returns. We learn for the first time the
sources of certain agricultural products which are placed upon
our markets to compete with the home products. In the course
of the tables there may be observed quite a dozen distinctive
details which have never hitherto been apparent in the Returns.
It is submitted that statistics should enter into an agriculturist’s
course of study as a part of his technical education. It can
hardly be called a pure science, but it is a branch of knowledge
in which scientific principles are largely involved—especially in
the little understood process of the determination of averages—
and which bears an essential relationship to the commercial con-
dition of the country.

FieLp EXPERIMENTS.

Another subject connected with technical instruction is that
relating to field experiments. Field experiment, in the strict
sense of the term, is the most hazardous kind of inquiry that
any scientific investigator can enter upon. It is surrounded by
so many difficulties and so many chances, and the errors of
experiment—to use a phrase well known to scientists—are so
great, that it requires a mind of the first capacity to eliminate
these incidental errors and arrive at the truth. Fortunately we
have, in England, the finest type of experimental farm in the
world—that at Rothamsted. But that farm has been carried on
under such exceedingly careful conditions that, if anyone will
take the trouble to study the results established there, and in
particular note the extreme exactitude which has characterised
the work throughout, he will become conscious of how immensely
difficult it would be to parallel these experiments elsewhere.

The successful prosecution of such investigations demands con-
siderable experience. How,then, can we rely upon the judgment
of a young agriculturist—a beginner? The student is hardly
the person to ask for an opinion on an experimental point, or for
the interpretation of experimental evidence. As well might we
make a law student a judge in order to train him for a barrister.
What we really want are men of trained habits of thought and of
ripe experience. These are the men to whom such problems in
original research more directly appeal. In no other industry,
involving scientific principles, except that of agriculture, has it
ever been snegested that the crude student should be educated

Technical Education in Agriculture. 99

by assuming a critical mental attitude with respect to problems
lying in the indefinite region between the known and the un-
known.

As a matter of fact, most of the so-called agricultural ex-
periments are directed not so much to the work of investigation
as to that of demonstration. They serve as examples or illus-
trations, answering on a large scale the same purposes as ex-
periments performed in a laboratory. Whilst, therefore, the
prosecution of agricultural experiments, 7.e., of those directed to
original investigation, should be kept distinct from this subject
of technical instruction in agriculture, we may multiply, as
much as we like, fields of demonstration, and repeat, under
different conditions of climate, season, soil, and situation, the
experiments carried out elsewhere.

THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

The Science and Art Department, South Kensington, is a
Government organisation which has exercised a very profound
influence upon the present position of this country. It has now
been in existence for upwards of thirty years, and it would be
difficult to over-estimate the good it has done. It was not, how-
ever, until twelve or thirteen years ago that it first included Agri-
culture as a subject of instruction in which grants were made.
Even then it did not recognise it as a business, because it is
opposed to the rules and policy of the Department to recognise
any business as such. But, just as the Department had pre-
viously recognised the “ Principles of Mining ”—that is to say,
the scientific principles involved in or underlying the art or
business of mining—so now it recognised the “Principles of
Agriculture,” and instituted examinations in the subject which
have been continued yearly ever since. It has fallen to the
writer’s lot to take part in these examinations from the com-
mencement, and he has—up to the present time—read and
assigned marks to not less than 10,000 papers. There
have been indubitable signs of progress from year to year. The
papers written for what is called the elementary stage, by boys
of twelve to sixteen years of age and upwards, are far superior
now to those sent up ten years ago. The reason is that the
teaching has improved. The answers of ten years ago were of
a feeble character, and showed emphatically that the teachers
themselves were inefficient. Now the answers are of an intel-
ligent kind, and are often very well expressed, thereby showing
that the lads are better taught. These students are mostly in-
structed in country schools, and chiefly in the evening. In fact,

H 2

100 Technical Education in Agriculture:

in the Science and Art Department this country possesses an
organisation which has done more than any other institution to
foster and encourage the system of evening classes—a system
which is being wisely followed in connection with the further
extension of the study of agricultural subjects.

So long as the Science and Art Department retains the
subject of the Principles of Agriculture, rural authorities
will be well advised to avail themselves as much as possible
of the privileges it offers. The value of the Department
should not be underrated; it has a comprehensive organisa-
tion, and a large sum of money is annually at its disposal.
Most of this money is paid to teachers on the results of the
examination of their pupils. It is possible, in some rural
districts, to group the science subjects of the Department in
such a way as to provide a comprehensive curriculum. Machine
construction and drawing, mechanics, physics, and steam—take
these four subjects, and apply them to the principles of agricul-
ture in the case of an intelligent boy who is going to spend
his life upon the farm. A knowledge of this group of subjects
would make him a very handy man amongst the machinery which
is daily becoming more indispensable to the farm. Moreover,
from studying such a group of allied subjects, a boy would
acquire knowledge that would help him to become an efficient
farm labourer, and enable him to rise to a good position as a
farm bailiff. Another natural group of subjects comprises physics,
chemistry, geology, botany, and animal physiology. A boy need
not—it would be advisable that he should not—take all these
in one winter; he might spread his studies over several winters,
and it is a great advantage for the country boy to have such
resources to fall back upon in the winter evenings.

There is one subject which must not be overlooked, and that
is mathematics. A conclusion based upon my fourteen years’
professorial experience at agricultural colleges is that a lad
who is fairly competent in mathematical studies is a good
medium to work upon. ‘Those interested in the welfare of any
young agriculturist should take care that in his school days
the study of mathematics is not ignored. The time devoted to
acquiring proficiency in arithmetic, geometry, mensuration, and _
the elements of algebra and trigonometry—the latter really in-
dispensable in the case of suryeying—will never be regretted.

Mopet Farms.

We have yet to consider the question of instruction in the
practice of agriculture, involying, as it does, personal acquaint-

Technical Education in Agriculture. 101

ance with, and skill in the actual performance of, those multi-
farious manual operations which make up farm work. Whilst
no one will be inclined to dispute the assertion that familiarity
with farm practice can only be acquired on a farm, there has
probably been no question more widely debated than that con-
cerning the possession, or location, of such farm. Isa farm an
indispensable adjunct to an institution in which agricultural
education is imparted, or can the student obtain efficient prac-
tical training, suited to his requirements, elsewhere? We
discuss this question later, but this may be said at present:
Years ago much was heard about ‘“ model farms,” and there was
a period after the Great Exhibition when it was thought that
the model farm would serve as the chief teacher of the future
farmers of the country. Model farms were started—some of
them very beautiful—but where is the model farm that ever paid
its way ? The most useful type of model farm to place before
the young agriculturist is the farm which pays its way best.
My own idea is that the model farm is the farm that year by
year makes the largest profit. How it is worked is another
consideration—if it makes the biggest profit, that is the model
to put before our young men. The model farm which is con-
ducted as a toy is not only valueless but injurious, because
learners will see at such a farm much that would not be tole-
rated upon a farm that has to be worked on commercial principles.

CLASSES OF PEOPLE NEEDING TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION.

A Parliamentary Return! made some years ago showed that
there were in England and Wales no less than 55,000 farmers
who cultivate holdings of between 50 and 100 acres. These
55,000 occupiers may be regarded as, in every sense, men capable
of combining practice with science, whilst the same statement
may probably be made of most of the 67,000 farmers who
occupy holdings of from 100 to 300 acres in extent. If they
can get a certain amount of useful scientific knowledge, they
are in a happy position to practically apply this knowledge,
because their farms are not large enough to enable them, as a
rule, to relieve themselves of manual labour. They find it ex-

1An Agricultural Return for 1886, presented to Parliament, records for
England and Wales :—

Farm Holdings, 50 acres to 100 acres . - - 54,937 } 121.961
” sr LOO Gl rte S00, gene ; : 67,024 :
» 9 300 * DOOR "5, wake . 5 11,841
» OOO? Cae SHOOO I) : : 4,194 & 16,608
” » over 1000 acres ’ ’ ’ 573

102 Technical Education in Agriculture.

pedient to take a share in the work of the farm, but at the same
time they are men of capital. They belong to a class that may
be materially benefited by the result of recent legislation, which
has led to the allocation to each county! of. a sum of money,
originally intended for other purposes, but now available for the
promotion of technical education.

Below this class we pass gradually into the large class of
labourers. Perhaps there is no problem connected with rural
education which occasions so much difficulty as that concerning
the training of the labourer. It would be unnecessary to offer
the labourer’s child the same technical education as the son of
the occupier of a large farm, for, possessing no capital, he does
not need such education. But there are many points in which
the education of the labourer’s child might be materially im-
proved, whilst the community itself would benefit thereby.
Farm work is of such a nature that whoever has to get a liking
for it must commence young. It is similar, in this respect, to
seafaring. If a lad wishes to become a smart sailor it is futile
to wait till he is 19 or 20 years of age before he first walks the
deck; he must commence early in life to take an active part in
the work of a sailor. So with the farm labourer—he must begin
young.

Commencing at an early age, a boy contracts a liking for farm
life, and becomes contented with it. Then arises the question:
What can be added to this life to give it a greater interest ?
As a rule, directly the farm labourer has finished his day’s work,
he has no resource at all. Would it not be possible so to interest
and instruct the children of farm labourers as to make them
more useful? It seems that it would, and, indeed, at little
expense, by means of a system of instruction carried into the
heart of the rural districts. This education must be taken» to
the people ; it must be made available in the villages. As an
example, there can hardly be a doubt that by means of evening
classes an instructor would succeed in interesting boys in the
details of machinery. The teacher could, upon a black board,
demonstrate such details, and he might borrow ploughs and
other implements and take them to pieces so as to show the
various parts,and explain the mechanical principles involved—
“The Anatomy of the Plough” would form a capital subject for -
a lecture. Commencing thus, the boys would speedily become
interested, and the interest would grow as the teacher led them

1 For details see: “‘ Statement as to the distribution of Beer and Spirit Duties
proposed to be appropriated in aid of Local Taxation, in addition to the
amount proposed to be paid in aid of Police Superannuation Funds—England
and Wales.” ([C. 6113.]|—Eyre & Spottiswoode. 14,

Technical Education in Agriculture. 103

on to understand more complicated appliances, such as the cream
separator, the threshing machine, and the steam engine. By
this method he would instruct the boys, teach them to draw
working details, and perhaps prepare the way for some of them
in time to become inventors. Somebody has said that the
whole of the money spent by the Science and Art Department
would be well spent if it enabled the country to produce a
Faraday. That is perfectly true, and an intelligent grasp of the
principles of machine construction on the part of the coming
generation of farm labourers could hardly fail to produce useful
results in the direction of improvement. All mechanical ap-
pliances would, at the same time, be subjected to better, because
more intelligent, management, and considerable saving would
thus result.

There are many other avenues of instruction that might be
opened to the boys upon a farm. They might be taught to
take an interest in the life that is around them. It is possible
to take up a turnip fly, and to place it before many a farm
labourer who has been hoeing turnips for twenty years, and who
yet will not be able to say what the insect is. Boys might
easily be induced to take an intelligent interest in the insects
of the farm, and the offering of prizes for collections of injurious
insects would arouse their enthusiasm. Lads pride themselves
upon a knowledge of the birds’ nests in their districts, and even
of the number of eggs in each. If a new direction were given |
to their thoughts, and they were led to take as great an interest
in injurious insects, the knowledge they thus acquired would be
serviceable in combating the ravages of these pests. Field
botany would form another subject of study, and_boys might be
encouraged to make collections of the weeds of arable land, and
of grasses, together with their fruits and seeds.

But it is necessary to not only interest the boys and girls—
we must get at the parents also. To promote this object there
should be some properly defined system of education working
from a recognised centre. There might be instituted a series
of lessons in what might be termed rural economy, which would
certainly attract the attention of farm labourers and possibly of
their wives as well, and if the older people were secured the
children would follow. Practical instruction might be given
upon the making of butter, the management of bees, and the
keeping of poultry, whilst a lecture or two upon the pig would
find attentive listeners. Bees, poultry, and pigs would afford
safe staples to work upon. Another suitable subject is fruit
culture. In many cottage gardens good fruit trees are going to
tuin because their requirements are not properly understood

104. Technical Education in Agriculture.

and attended to. An expert teacher going through the country
districts could give demonstrations on the pruning and the
general culture of fruit trees, and answer questions upon points
of practice. The crops usually cultivated in cottage gardens and
allotments could be made the objects of similar instruction.
Some boys have an intuitive liking for and knowledge of farm
stock; they know all about horses in their rough way, and’
others know much about cattle or sheep. Give them a chance
of systematising this knowledge, aid them by the knowledge of
others, and there is no telling what good might result. Village
school children might, very fairly, be taught something about
the machinery on the farm, and they might learn to identify
the insects which destroy, as well as the weeds which infest, the
crops. As bearing upon this point the following extract is
quoted from a paper on ‘“‘ Preventable Losses in Agriculture ”
which the writer read before the Economic Science and Sta-
tistics Section of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, at the Manchester meeting, in September, 1887 :—

The yillage school affords an admirable means whereby much useful
instruction might be imparted to country lads, to their immediate intellectual
benefit and to their subsequent welfare. For instance, attractive object
lessons in botany and entomology might be made the means of familiarising
boys with the habits and life histories of farm pests, and would foster in
them the practice of independent observation, so that in years to come for
each pair of eyes now at work there might be thousands. It surely would
not be difficult to interest an intelligent village boy in the natural history of
wireworms and leather-jackets, of turnip-flies and saw-flies, of birds and
insects which help the farmer, and of those which injure him, of the good
grasses and the bad, and of notorious weeds and parasites. Yet, whilst the
school wall is adorned with pictures of the tiger and the elephant of the
Indian jungle, there are none showing the metamorphosis of a click beetle
or the structure of a grass. The boy may be taught to draw a map of the
unstable frontiers of the south-east of Europe, which are hundreds of miles
away, but he is never taught to seek out the ergot which infests the grasses,
or to destroy the chrysalids which hang upon the hedgerows, or to recognise
the plants of the meadow close to his cottage door. Knowledge such as this
might become of much use to him, and render him a valuable and desirable
servant in after years; but it is kept from him, and he grows up stolid and
indolent, because, during the most impressionable years of his life, our system
of education fails to interest and instruct him in matters which will be of the
greatest practical importance to him, and most intimately associated with
his future labours.

It is scarcely necessary to argue that it is the poorer classes
who will most require the assistance of the County Councils,
and of other local authorities in a position to aid them. A
great work may be done in the rural districts, but it will need
to be organised and directed from local centres. The agri-
cultural labourer has always been more or less a problem, and a

Technical Education in Agriculture. 105

somewhat difficult subject to deal with. The qualifications of a
good farm labourer need to be much more varied than those of
a man who obtains his livelihood by managing a machine or
hewing coal. Any attempt that is made to help the labourer
must primarily be of such a nature as will render him contented
with his country home, and will disabuse his mind of the idea
that by going away to the town he is bound to benefit his posi-
tion. A first step in this direction is to improve his knowledge
of those little industries on which much of his comfort depends.
This is quite a different thing, however, from advocating what
might be called a fine education, for that would only discourage
the labourer, and make him like the man of whom it was
written—

He could not sow nor reap,

He was not wise at all,

For though full many arts he knew,
He badly knew them all.

AGRICULTURAL SIDES OF COLLEGES.

Quite recently, considerable interest has been awakened in
the subject of agricultural education, and we are already becom-
ing familiar with the phrase “‘ the agricultural side of University
Colleges.” In many of our great public schools there is what is
termed ‘‘the modern side.” This “ modern side” was unknown
in the earlier years of the century, and hitherto the “ agricultural
side ” has been unheard of in connection with University Colleges.
This will be the case no longer. In various towns in England
and Wales—in Leeds, Newcastle, Bangor— agricultural sides ”
are being established, and other provincial colleges are preparing
to follow suit. The question arises, How far are these colleges
capable of affording efficient agricultural instruction? A little
consideration will show that they may be admirably adapted to
the purpose. Ih such institutions there is no need, in the case of

*a given subject, to duplicate the means of acquiring a knowledge
of it simply because the students intend to follow different
avocations. Very much of the chemistry which is useful to the
farmer is useful also to the physician and to the iron smelter.
Hence, there is no necessity for one system of instruction in
general chemistry for the farmer, another for the physician, and
another for the iron smelter, and, so far as they can all study
in common, they should do so. Then there is the science of
physics, which finds innumerable applications in all industries,
and there are other subjects to which the same general rule

applies,

106 Technical Education in Agriculture.

In the University Colleges of England and Wales,! the
mathematical subjects, including not only mathematics itself,
but also mechanics, mechanical drawing, and building construc-
tion, are efficiently provided for. Chemistry and physics were
amongst the first subjects for the teaching of which provision
was made when these colleges were established. Botany and
geology usually have a well assured place in the curriculum,
and are capable of valuable economic applications. In connec-
tion with zoology there is room for enlargement. It should
be made to include the subjects of anatomy and physiology
as applied to farm animals. It might also be associated
with a professorship, or lectureship, dealing with comparative
pathology. Every day we are learning more and more how
closely the diseases of men and of animals are allied to each
other, and at the present moment a Royal Commission is
inquiring into the relations of tuberculosis in animals to human
health. Surveying and mensuration are subjects capable of
agricultural application, and are already taught in the colleges ;
they are necessarily taken as subsidiary branches of engineering,
or as portions of the mathematical instruction. But certain other
subjects must find a place, if the colleges are to become efficient
as centres of agricultural education. Such are agricultural
chemistry, book-keeping, commercial knowledge, and statistics,
or agricultural economics, whilst in some cases forestry should
be added. These could be dealt with by means of lectureships,
and then the University College might reasonably be regarded
as a well-equipped institution for giving instruction in matters
bearing upon agriculture.

Is A Farm INDISPENSABLE ? .

The question as to whether a farm is necessary has been anti-
cipated. An illustration will serve to show why it is not necessary
to have a farm attached to the College. There is, in London,
what was long known as the Royal School of Mines. It has
but recently become merged in an institution called the Royal
College of Science. It has enjoyed a distinguished career as
the Royal School of Mines, and has turned out some of the most
eminent mining engineers and practical geologists in the world.
There is no mine attached to the school, nor do the students

1In England and Wales, exclusive of London, Oxford, and Cambridge,
there are “ University Colleges ” at Aberystwith, Bangor, Birmingham (Mason
Science College), Bristol, Cardiff, Leeds (Yorkshire College), Liverpool, Man-
chester (Owens College), Newcastle-upon-Tyne (College of Science), and
Nottingham,

’

Technical Education in Agriculture. 107

work in a mine; but they learn the principles on which the art
of mining engineering is based, and they learn them so well
that, after spending a certain time subsequently in acquiring
practical experience, they come into the front rank of mining
engineers. Then, again, we have various schools of engineering.
The students in these schools are not, however, engaged in
building harbour walls, lighthouses, railways, or Forth Bridges,
but they learn in the schools the principles which they afterwards
put into practice.

It is obyious that, if the possession of a farm is to be a sine qué
non, the salutary movement which is now in progress in the
provinces can only end in disappointment. Moreover, it would
be fatal to the aspirations of the University Colleges, and they
would be permanently barred from taking any steps for the
promotion of agricultural education. As a matter of fact, the
possession of a farm is a mere incidental circumstance, and the
lack of it should offer no obstacle whatever. In the provinces,
students of the sciences bearing upon agriculture need experi-
ence little difficulty in seeing good agricultural practice when
they wish. Besides, the course in the colleges would not
extend to more than about 32 weeks a year. This would afford
the student, both in winter and summer, an opportunity to go
on the farm again. It is not good policy to give the practical
training and the theoretical instruction together, for it is diffi-
cult to successfully combine sustained mental labour with hard
farm work. It has been attempted, but not with success. A
farm attached to a college is apt to be made a convenient
excuse for shirking class-room or laboratory work. Student.
labour in the field is an expensive luxury to him who employs it,
whilst if a student has to earn his college maintenance by the
sweat of his brow, his time will be occupied more with earning
than with learning.

Reference is often made to the United States in support
of the system 6f working students at an agricultural college
the same as if they were reformatory boys. But even in America
the practice isonthe wane. ‘The following letter from Professor
L. H. Bailey, of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
Ithaca, N.Y., speaks for itself :—

The example of the Michigan Agricultural College. which is the oldest
in America, and the chief exponent of the so-called manual labour system,
is the best proof of the proposition that, as facilities for instruction grow, the
mere manual trainings decrease in extent. That institution still holds to
its traditional purposes, and most of its faculty would no doubt disclaim any

alling off in the manual labour, Yet such labour has fallen off. It was
once thought that every student should labour four hours every day. In
my own day, labour was required for three and a half hours until about the

108 Technical Education in Agriculture.

middle, or near the end of my course, when it was dropped to three hours.
Later, it has been dropped to two and a half hours for many or most of the
students, and students are not compelled to work every day now. For these
labour hours certain kinds of laboratory practice are substituted, as manipu-
lations in chemistry, veterinary surgery, microscopy, and the like, and the
faculty will tell you that this is manual labour! It simply shows that new
methods are creeping in, and the old are disappearing, even when the new
are struggling, as you may say, under repression. And as fast as the new
ones creep in, just in that proportion does the college increase in usefulness,

As the University Colleges develop their agricultural sides,
the work they do might be supplemented by farmers effecting
a temporary interchange of their sons. Here is, say, a farmer in
the North, who has a farmer friend in Norfolk or Wiltshire, or
some other county, and they both have sons of about the same
age: what more suitable than that these two young men
should change places for a year? It expands a man’s mind if
he can see the farming and learn the markets of another district
besides his own; and, in an arrangement of this kind, the col-
lege-taught student, the son of a farmer, might acquire a great
amount of knowledge that would be useful and valuable to him
all his life.

Tue DISPOSAL OF THE GRANT TO CouNTy COUNCILS.

In many counties it has already been decided that a portion of
the money accruing from the Beer and Spirit Duties shall go to the
aid of agricultural education. It is deserving of consideration as to
how far it may be expedient for counties to group themselves
together, or how far it may be advisable for each county to work
independently. This is really a matter to be determined
locally, as it only concerns the agricultural centres themselves.
Such centres are being established, as at Leeds, Newcastle, and
elsewhere, whilst Bangor has constituted a centre for the last
two years. These provincial centres would localise the agricul-
tural interests of the various parts of the country, and would
operate against that bureaucratic system which is ever tending
towards centralisation. The centres would conveniently in-
fluence very considerable areas. The latter object might possibly
be effected by commissioning local teachers, who would be
appointed, presumably, by the central authority itself in each
district. These local teachers should be qualified men, who would
be competent to impart technical instruction in the villages and
remote rural districts, in a manner not hitherto attempted. In
that way would be raised up a local network of agricultural
education which would permeate every region of the country.
This system would make provision not only for the subjects

Technical Education in Agriculture. - 109

tliat have been previously referred to, but for instruction in such
important matters as practical dairying, including butter and
cheese making. As already intimated, the County Councils
have something to look to as a type, or guide; but it will, no
doubt, be prudent to hasten slowly, and not to adopt any scheme
until it has been well threshed out.

Toe STATE AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

A subject of first-class importance is the relation of the State
itself to these schemes of agricultural education. With regard
to the Board of Agriculture, it is necessary to remember that it
has only recently been called into existence. In the Act by
which the Board was established occurs the following clause :—

The Board of Agriculture shall also undertake the collection and pre-
paration of statistics relating to agriculture and forestry, and may also
undertake the inspection of, and reporting on, any schools which are not
public elementary schools, and in which technical instruction, practical or
scientific, is given in any matter connected with agriculture or forestry, and
the aiding of any school which admits such inspection and in the judgment
of the Board is qualified to receive such aid, and the aiding of any system
of lectures or instruction connected with agriculture or forestry, and the in-
spection of and reporting on any examinations in agriculture or forestry.

From this it is apparent that the functions of the Board, with
reference to any kind whatever of agricultural education, are of
a very extensive nature. The Board may even go so far as to
assist such education, which means to furnish funds. But the
Board has hitherto had only 5,000/. per annum at its command for
this purpose. Ifthe Board is to do more work in this direction,
Parliament must be asked to sanction the grant of a much larger
sum of money to be placed at the disposal of the Board.! More-
over, the granting of a yearly sum to the Board of Agriculture must
no longer be amatter of uncertainty. It should be a recognised
regular occurrefice. It is too much to expect those who are
managing institutions to raise large sums of money by means
of local subscriptions, while each year the Board of Agriculture,
if it makes a grant, is compelled to say that it is only a tem-
porary one, and that no claim for its continuance can be based
thereon.

It is also specially to be noted that the Board has the power
of inspecting and reporting upon every kind of agricultural
education in this country. Any body or corporation then,
including County Councils, should be required, before spending

1 In the Estimates for 1891-2, a sum of 8,000/. has been set down for the
purpose indicated.

110 Technical Education in Agriculture.

the ratepayers’ money, to submit to the Board the whole of its
scheme in connection with education, and show all the facilities
it possesses for giving agricultural instruction.

The Act! of 1890, which places the various sums of money
at the disposal of the County Councils, says that the Council
of any County or County Borough may contribute such sum or
any part of such sum “for the purposes of technical education
within the meaning of the Technical Instruction Act, 1889, and
may make that contribution over and above any sum that may
be raised by rate under that Act.” It does not say “ must;” it
says ‘‘may”—but it is believed that County Councils which
disburse the money in this direction will have established a
sufficiently good claim to its becoming an annual grant in aid
of technical instruction. The Technical Instruction Act, 1889
[52 and 53 Vict. ch. 76], contains the subjoined clause :—

The expression “technical instruction” shall mean instruction in the
principles of science and art applicable to industries, and in the application
of special branches of science and art to specific industries or employments.
It shall not include teaching the practice of any trade or industry or employ-
ment, but, save as aforesaid, shall include instruction in the branches of
science and art, with respect to which grants are for the time being made by
the Department of Science and Art, and any other form of instruction (in-
cluding modern languages and commercial and agricultural subjects) which
may for the time being be sanctioned by that Department by a minute laid
before Parliament, and made on the representation of a local authority, that
such a form of instruction is required by the circumstances of its district.

These two clauses, taken together, afford a tolerably clear
indication as to what the Government desires with regard to
these sums of money. More than this, however, the Chancellor
of the Exchequer (Mr. Goschen), in reply to a question by the
Marquis of Hartington in the House of Commons, on December 4,
1890, said: ‘If County Councils set themselves heartily to
work to utilise the grants for important educational purposes, it
will probably be difficult for any Minister to persuade Parliament
to divert them.” And Lord Hartington, who presided at a
Conference convened by the National Association for the Pro-
motion of Technical and Secondary Education, on December 5
last, said :—

Perhaps I may be allowed to supplement the answer of the Chancellor of ?
the Exchequer by a consideration which I think of an important character.
It is desirable to remember the source from which these grants come. They
proceed from an additional tax placed upon spirits and beer. It is quite
possible that a state of things might arise under which these articles would
not bear the additional duty, and it would then become a question whether
the grant should not be made up from some other source arising from the

co a ee
1 Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, [53 and 54 Vict, ch,60.]

Technical Education in Agriculture. 111

general taxation of the country. Ifthe grant had been placed to the reduc-
tion of rates alone, the question would arise whether Parliament would con-
sider itself justified in imposing a new taxation upon the community to
reduce the burden upon the ratepayers. It is impossible to say what answer
Parliament might make to such a question; but if this grant should be
applied to the establishment of important educational work which would be
beneficial to the whole community, it becomes almost morally certain that
it would be incumbent upon any Government that might be in power at the
time not to deprive the local authorities of the grant. We are, therefore,
justified in suggesting to Local Authorities that it would be a shortsighted
economy to apply the grant solely to the reduction of the local taxation.
The best way of securing the fund will be to see that it is used for the
purpose for which it was originally granted, by stimulating existing institu-
tions in the work which they are now doing, by adding a scientific and
practical side to schools, and providing new schools where such do not now
exist,

PusLic FUNDS APPLICABLE TO AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

The sources from which moneys applicable to purposes of
agricultural education may be derived are varied. In the first
place, moneys come direct from the Treasury,! from which source
certain sums of money are allotted to University Colleges. In
so far as the normal instruction in these colleges is given to the
agricultural student, to that extent must the Treasury grant be
regarded as applied to agriculture. The Treasury further sub-
sidises the Scotch Universities. A possible source of considerable
revenue is now also to be found in the Education Department.
In England the Privy Council, under the New Code of Educa-
tion, permits of instruction being given in agriculture to children
in village schools, and it also permits of the establishment of
evening classes in agriculture. In Scotland the Education
Office supplies the sinews of war through the Scottish Educa-
tion Department. Then, again, there is the Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, which assists agriculture
through its ordirfary Science Classes. It also aids agriculture
through the medium of Training Colleges for teachers, one of
the alternative subjects which teachers in training may take
being the Principles of Agriculture. It further assists agri-
culture through the Normal School of Science, now a part of
the Royal College of Science. Another and distinct source is
afforded by the Charity Commission, which has control of
endowed schools, and several of these endowed schools are occu-
pied at the present time in improving the quality of their

1 Under the operation of the Intermediate Education (Wales) Act, 1889,
the Principality is in advance of England. See the Manual on Intermediate
and Technical Education (Wales), by Thomas Ellis, M.P., and Ellis Griffith,

112 Modern Bee-keeping.

agricultural instruction. The Home Office, in its relations
to Reformatory and Industrial Schools, encourages a certain
amount of instruction in manual agriculture. The Office
of Works, in that it supplies funds for the Royal Botanic
Gardens at Kew, where regular courses of instruction are
given, assists agricultural education. We must, further, regard
the County Councils as affording support to agricultural edu-
cation, because in every county the County Council has
power to apply the new revenues derived from the additional
Duties on Beer and Spirits, or a portion thereof, to agricultural
purposes. Finally, there is the Board of Agriculture, which,
during each of the last three years, has expended in Great
Britain a sum not exceeding 5,000/., in the form of subsidies to
various institutions supplying general agricultural and dairying
instruction.

The success of technical education in agriculture must be
determined chiefly by the inherent capabilities of those to
whom it is imparted. In other words, the profitable applica-
tion of the results of technical training to the varied problems
that day by day present themselves to the farmer, and call for
prompt solution, must ultimately depend upon the individual.
Probably the gravest mistake that can be made is for a young
farmer, when he enters upon his first occupancy, to think that
his education is finished. It has really only just begun.

W. FrReaM.

MODERN BEE-KEEPING.

THE occupation of Bee-keeping ranks amongst the oldest pur-
suits, and in the days before the manufacture of sugar it was
one of the most important industries, furnishing the principal
sweet, Honey, and the chief illuminant, Bees’ Wax. Yet there
can be no doubt that, at the beginning of the present century,
the culture of Bees had fallen to a very inferior state. Hence,
it will be of interest to trace the causes that led to the rise and
progress of what is now in all parts of the world a growing
industry ; and one, moreover, which should always be intimately
associated with the agricultural and fruit-growing interests.
During the latter half of the eighteenth and the early part of
the nineteenth centuries the spirit of improvement was at work,

Modern Bee-keeping. 113

and many busy minds were occupied, not only in investigating
the natural history of the Honey Bee, but in cultivating the
Bee in habitations more suited to the increased quantity and
improved quality of its Honey. Space is hardly available to give
a history of all who in those days laid the foundations of the
now fairly perfect system of Modern Bee-keeping. Huber,
Réaumur, Bonnet, Bevan, Munn, Nutt, and others, all did work
that prepared the way for the practical hives of Langstroth in
America and of Woodbury in Great Britain. The perfecting of
these Movable Comb Hives must be looked upon as the first
great step towards success. For a long time, however, Bee-
keeping was far more a hobby than a business. It is true that
many enthusiasts took it up and, on a small scale, made it a
great success; but it was not until the Bee Keepers’ Associa-
tions were formed, and practical knowledge was diffused through
their agency, that the art began to assume the proportions of a
national industry.

To the Americans belongs the credit of the origin of the
movement. In the United States, Bee-keeping had already
secured a hold upon the people when the Langstroth Hive was
introduced. The Americans grasp new ideas much more quickly
than we do, and it was the gigantic results achieved in California
that opened our eyes to the possibilities of Bee-keeping as a
great and profitable business. In California the Honey Bee
was unknown, but, as the result of much persevering labour—
for this was before the time of transcontinental railways—a few
stocks reached there in 1850 vid the Isthmus of Panama.
They, or rather their immediate successors, sold at fabulous prices
for a year or two; but, in a land literally flowing with Honey, Bees
multiplied in a way that Bee Keepers had never even dreamed
of. Asa matter of fact, the Honey overflowed from the Hives
placed in the sage bush, so that in a very few years the hill-sides
became dotted with vast Bee Farms, which then were, and still
are, the wonder of the world, for as yet they are unrivalled. A
large export trade in liquid Honey was the natural consequence,
and at first the produce came principally to this country. Now,
owing to the excellent transit arrangements and the low
freight rates, it nearly all goes to the Eastern States, where it is
regarded as a high-grade product.

The success achieved stimulated similar work elsewhere.
Nearly all our Colonies took the matter up, and marked success
attended the efforts of Australia and New Zealand. Their
product is now quite well known on our markets, and, on account
of their favourable climates, they have been far more successful
than we in this country. In Britain we can never expect to get

VOL. II. T. S.—5 I

114 Modern Bee-keeping.

such good results, owing to the uncertainty of our weather,
though this difficulty is lessened, in a measure, by bestowing
careful management upon our stocks.

There is no doubt that the management in this country is
decidedly superior. Our Apiaries are far more tidy and neat
than many of the large concerns abroad, which have a neglected
and untidy look about them, their Hives not being so well
made or so well kept, and the paint-brush being conspicuous
by its absence. Our chief difficulty at home has always been
the low price at which the imported Honey is sold, this being
the commodity which we have to compete with. One feature,
however, is greatly in our favour—it is admitted by all
authorities that no country in the world produces such
delicious Honey as our own. We may not be able to get
the quantity, but we can and do secure the quality, and this
has been, and always will be, our main support. Honey of
high quality is the natural produce of this country, and we
have, therefore, only to teach our Bee Keepers how to put it
upon the market in the best and most attractive form in order
to lift it out of the field of low-price competition ; a good article
will always fetch its value. The great results achieved in the
United States and in our Colonies were in Extracted or Liquid
Honey alone, so that we are really without any competition at
all in the matter of Comb Honey, the production of which,
therefore, should always take the first place.

Only once has any attempt been made to compete with us
in Comb Honey. This, however, was on a most notable occasion,
and it has never been repeated. It is interesting to the readers
of this article as having been in connection with the Royal
Agricultural Society’s Show at Kilburn in 1879. The Honey
Exhibit at Kilburn was a startling one, the like not having béen
seen either before or since. A firm of American importers
claimed to have landed the enormous quantity of 80 tons of
Comb Honey in sections. Whatever might be the actual
weight, it was undoubtedly a very large lot, and an immense
pile was staged at Kilburn in the Bee Department—over two
tons, if my memory serves me aright. The advanced British Bee
Keeper of that day was alarmed at the prospect of this kind of
competition in the Comb Honey business. The lesson, however, ~
had a good effect, and stirred up great energy in the raisers of
Comb Honey, the result being that we speedily learnt how to
produce the best Comb Honey in sections in the world.

Up to this time Sections and Honey Extractors were com-
parative rarities, and we must bear in mind that the two above-
named articles, with the Movable Comb Hive and Foundation,

Modern Bee-keeping. 115

are at the bottom of our success. The planks of our platform
may be arranged thus :—Movable Comb Hives, Comb Founda-
tion, Extractors, Sections, and, by no means least, Education.

For the last named we are indebted to the British Bee
Keepers’ Association, as galvanised into life by the Rey. H. R.
Peel. To his great efforts, untiring perseverance, and per-
sistent overcoming of difficulties, British Bee-keeping can never
cease to be indebted. Though we had another good pioneer
in the person of Mr. C. N. Abbott, with his “ Bee Journal,”
still, it is not too much to say that Mr. Peel was everything to
the cause of Bee-keeping in that day. He gave time, energy,
means, and that too without stint; he clearly saw that the
British Bee Keepers’ Association must assume the position
of a parent, and that every county in Great Britain must
become its child, and be educated on this question. He
therefore started on the work of forming, in the counties,
Bee Keepers’ Associations, in affiliation with the Central
Society whose headquarters were in London, and at the
time of his much lamented death he had in a great measure
accomplished the work. In every county the advanced Bee
Keepers were sought out and brought together into an associa-
tion, and then began the work of educating the unskilled Bee
Keepers of the county and of inducing all who were connected
with agriculture or horticulture to commence Bee-keeping on
right lines. The humble cottager was, however, the chief sub-
ject of instruction. With the spirit of a true philanthropist,
Mr. Peel strove to better the position of the labourer, to raise
him by means of his Bees, and to lessen his poverty by his own
exertions, so that in being relieved he was not in any way
pauperised or a loser of his self-respect. There are numbers of
this class spread over the land who have cause to be thankful
for the knowledge they gained from their County Bee Keepers’
Association. >

Experts were engaged, and made visits to every Bee Keeper
in the county. Bees were examined and some practical
work was done in each Apiary, and, in several of the
largest and most successful associations, a census was taken of
the number of stocks of Bees. To the loca] Agricultural and
Plower Shows the Bee Tent was sent, and practical lectures with
illustrations were given to all who desired to see and to listen.
In the very early days of this Tent work great wonder was
excited, and the lookers-on would scarcely believe their eyes.
When the work was begun in the counties it is scarcely too
much to say that it was the custom to kill 90 per cent. of the
Bees at the end of the season in order to obtain their Honey.

"2

-

116 Modern Bee-keeping.

At present we believe that this fate does not happen to 10 per
cent. of them ; even the peasant who has not so far-advanced as
to use the Movable Comb Hive, but still sticks to his straw skip,
does not now kill his Bees. He has learnt how to drive them from
their Honey without the use of the Sulphur Pit, and the con-
tamination of the Honey by its fumes. He now takes his
driven Bees and unites them to his weak stocks. He knows
well the value of a strong stock and gets through a bad winter
with but trifling loss, whereas in the old time his colonies would
be decimated. If, moreover, the summer has been bad, he both
unites and feeds in the autumn. His Bees then come out well
in the spring and are strong, and the swarming time is therefore
early. Then, to avoid loss of his swarms and the trouble of
watching, he makes his swarm artificially. To have accomplished
all this work is highly creditable to the County Associations. It is
true that at the present time they are, to an extent, resting on their
oars, but there are various reasons for this. Their active aggres-
sive educational work is, in great measure, finished, and Associa-
tions are now doing more in the way of organising Shows for the
exhibition and sale of the Honey they have taught their mem-
bers to produce.

The reproach that the Honey obtained is difficult to sell
has often been heard at the Association Meetings. From long
experience, however, we know that this is not the case, as we
can call to mind many of our best and largest Apiarians whose
produce is all bespoken year by year, they having diligently
worked and so obtained a name for excellence of product. The
Shows, however, have done a good work, for it is well known
that the very finest goods are there displayed, and therefore the
best houses send their representatives to Shows to-buy—hence
the very fancy prices we often see written on the sale cards at
these exhibitions.

The work of the Associations has further been superseded
by the greatly increased circulation of the Bee periodicals. The
‘“¢ Bee Journal,” in the hands of Mr. Abbott, was, to some extent,
the organ of his own particular business, and Mr. Peel, judging
that it would serve British Bee-keeping better as an entirely
independent organ, purchased it, and it grew and flourished _
amazingly. Its success caused other Journals to spring up, all
of which were short-lived, with the exception of the ‘‘ Record,”
which in the able hands of Messrs, Raitt and Carr took a firm
hold of the Northern and Scotch Bee Keepers. Wisely, we
think, these journals were brought under the same management,
that of Messrs. Cowan and Carr, the one representing the scien-
tific and the other the practical side of the industry. As almost

Modern Bee-keeping. 117

every Bee Keeper became a subscriber to either the “ Journal 4
or the “Record,” and thus got the latest information either
weekly or monthly, as the case might be, the work of the Asso-
ciations naturally became less and less needful, and now only a

Bar Frame Hie.

Roof. Upper part of upper body.

yy

LET )

Lower part of upper body, empty. Lower part of upper body, filled with
; shallow bars;

Lower body, with porch and entrances. Floor-board.

very few of the still existing local Associations give their mem-
bers the usual spring and autumn visits of experts.

Bee-keeping is an industry that presents unique features.
Its products, Honey and Wax, cost nothing, and if not collected
are wasted. The gatherers—the Bees—do their work without
payment. The task of looking after the Bees is very light,
so that in this business we haye labour and material free. All we
have to pay for is the supervision of the gatherers, the cost of

118 Modern Bee-keeping.

the habitation in which they dwell, and the utensils in which
they deposit the products. Again, every pound of honey
gathered means so much added to the national wealth, as every
pound collected here means that much less foreign honey to be
imported.

Few persons, even among fruit-growers and agriculturists,
think of the benefits that Bees confer upon them. Without
the aid of the Bee our fruit crops would, in a great measure,
fail, for Bees alone fertilise a very large proportion of the
blossoms. The yield of white clover or sainfoin seed is im-
mensely increased if an Apiary is near; and this alone, apart
from the profit the Bees yield directly, should induce agricul-
turists to keep them. One of our largest fruit-growers, Lord
Sudeley, has an extensive Apiary attached to his fruit farm at
Toddington, and there is no doubt whatever that did he not gain
even so much as a pound of Honey per year upon them he would
be repaid again and again by the fertilisation of the fruit-tree
blossoms through the agency of the Bees, and the consequently
greatly increased yield of fruit. We give too little thought to
their importance, in so many ways, to our welfare. In olden
times so much were their products prized that elaborate laws
were framed for the protection of Bees, and pages might be
written on this point alone. It is decidedly interesting that in
Germany a law has recently been passed which embodies nearly
all the old edicts on the subject, and includes strict regulations
to prevent the spread of the disastrous disease called foul brood,
the microscopic researches into which by Schonfeld, Helbert,
Cohn, Cheshire, and Cowan are of surpassing interest, and,
though not of such general importance, are quite as absorbing
as the investigations of Pasteur and Koch. Within the last
year or two, foul brood has also been made the subject of legis-
lation in Canada.

There are many persons who regard Honey simply as a
luxury, but it is more than this. It is a most wholesome food,
and everyone who values health would do well to take it daily
in quantities of two or three ounces. For children it is invalu-
able, and should always form part of their daily diet, the morning
meal being the best time for its use. The trashy syrups of the -
breakfast table should be banished and Honey should take their
place. Some Bee Keepers of our acquaintance eat Honey each
morning in their oatmeal porridge in place of sugar, and
there is no doubt it is far more wholesome than much of the
sugar of the present day. For preserving some kinds of fruit itis
particularly adapted, as it has not any tendency to crystallise
as sugar often does. Agriculturists know its value as a cattle

Section, as above, with full sheet of Comb Foundation fixed,

120 Modern Bee-keeping.

medicine. Our ancestors obtained their strong drink from it, and
there are many yet who make their metheglin and mead, and find
them better than the drink sold to the public at the present day.
As a liqueur, an old mead of, say, ten years of age is very hard to
beat.

It will be well in conclusion to give some idea of the imple-
ments in use with the Modern Bee Keeper. His Hives are still
very much on the Woodbury lines, though many alterations
have been made and various neat devices added to render them
simple and easy to work. The floor-board should always be
easily removable, and should have an ample alighting board.
Tastes vary as to legs; they are useful in the winter, but should
be removed, we think, when the cold snowy weather is past, and
for the remainder of the season the Hive should rest on a bed of
dry ashes raised about six inches above the level of the sur-
rounding ground. The Hive should have two bodies with
double walls on two sides. ‘The lower body should have a well-
spreading porch to shelter the entrance from the sun’s rays, and
the entrance doors should be so contrived as to open the whole
width of the Hive, so that efficient ventilation may be obtained
in the hot weather. The upper body should be in two parts,
the lower part of the correct depth for shallow frames, as their
use is very advantageous. At the same time, if the two parts
of the upper body are placed together, they should form a Hive
capable of taking the ordinary standard bars. Then, if supering
is resorted to, all we have to do is to remove the walls from
these upper bodies, when crates of Sections can be tiered one
upon the other. The roof finishes off the Hive. Everything
should be kept well painted, as dryness is very essential to the
welfare of Bees, which were originally natives of a very much
drier climate than our own. The Hive illustrations given here-
with will show all points alluded to better than pages of ex-
planation.

Sections are an important feature, as by their use we get
our Comb Honey in a saleable form. The one-piece Sections
are very ingenious, being strips of tough wood }? inch in thick-
ness and 2 inches wide, with tenons at each end. ‘Three V-
shaped grooves are taken out of each strip, merely a thin
shaving being left at the bottom of each groove. When these
V-joints are wetted they readily bend without breaking, and the
tenons are pushed into each other, a perfectly square strong
box being the result. We are indebted to the Americans for
this device, and the invention is claimed by Mr. C. E. Parks,
who manufactures about 15,000,000 yearly, of which Great

Supér for Bar Frame Hive.

Sectional diagram, showing arrangement of Divider and Sections.

7
\F

©;
|

w/

MST
i

ree

Natural based Comb Foundation.

?
«|
ZB

©
©;

cr
i

e
,
2

Method of fixing full sheets of Comb Foundation in Bar Frames.

122 Modern Bee-keeping.

Britain receives about 2,000,000 annually. We are unable to
produce them in this country, as we have no suitable wood.
The wood used is Basswood (Tilia Americana), the American Lime
Tree.

The frames both of the Hives and of the Sections must be
furnished with Comb Foundation. It is the free employment of
this that gives us our large crops of Honey. Pure Bees’ Wax is
used, and the sheets are produced on roller mills. The illus-
trations show the devices used for the fixing of the Foundation
in both Frames and Sections. In both, simplicity is the great
feature.

Next comes the Extractor, consisting of a tin cylinder
having revolving cages in which are placed the bar frames filled
with Honey. When the cages are then caused to revolve the
Honey is thrown out, and the Comb remains in the Bar Frame

= Revolving Cages of
Centrifugal Honey Extractor. Centrifugal Honey Extractor.

for further use. It will be seen that a great saving is effected
by being able to use the Comb time after time, instead of cut-
ting it up and squeezing out the Honey, as was done in the
old days.

To finish the whole we run our Liquid Extracted Honey into
clear glass jars, furnished with pretty metal screw caps, and affix to
each jar an attractive label. Our Sections we put into enamelled
metal cases with glass on each side to protect the Comb from dust,
&c., and our work is done.

In conclusion we may say that British Bee-keeping owes
much to the Royal Agricultural Society, its annual Shows having
for years been the chief meeting-place of Bee Keepers. By
the lectures given in its Bee Tents, moreover, many have been
induced to join the ranks of those who practise this delightful
industry.

Tuomas B, Biow.

128

AGRICULTURE AND THE HOUSE
OP RUSSELL.

THE death of the ninth Duke of Bedford has deprived the Royal
Agricultural Society of one of its staunchest and most dis-
tinguished supporters—of one who, though rarely prominent in
its public proceedings, filled the office of President in the year
1880, when the Country Meeting was held at Carlisle, and whose
memory will be long cherished as that of a nobleman who, with
unstinted and continuous generosity, assisted in developing by
experimental science the practical resources of the farm. It is
therefore but just that special reference should be made in these
pages to his worth and work; and advantage may be taken of
the opportunity to give some account of other members of his
House who were in their time similarly noteworthy as pro-
moters of British agriculture. ;

It is, of course, simply in the nature of things that the
possessors of vast landed estates should be more or less
interested in agriculture. In several instances, however, the
Earls and Dukes of Bedford have not been content with the
general concern indicated by these words—for which, indeed,
no credit coyld be claimed—but have devoted themselves with
ardour and enterprise to this great national pursuit.

The first of these to make for himself a name in agricultural
annals was Francis, second Lord Russell of Thornhaugzh, and
fourth Earl of Bedford, who succeeded to the earldom in 1627,
and was mainly instrumental in accomplishing for the vast
district now known as the Bedford Level that which was
achieved for Norfolk ‘a century and a half later by ‘“‘ Mr. Coke,
of Holkham.” And in considering his work it should be borne
in mind that, although he was possessed of vast estates, their
revenues were insignificant compared with the princely income
derived from them in these later days. The great estate
surrounding Southampton House—on which the Earl’s patriot
grandson cast his wistful eyes on his way to the block in
Lincoln’s Inn Fields, in 1683—was, as Macaulay tells us,
‘renowned for peaches and snipes”; but its owner did not
dream of the rent-roll now yielded by the squares and streets that

_ occupy its site. We learn, on the same authority, that the Harl’s
son, the first Duke, was most reluctant to accept advancement to
__ the highest rank in the Peerage, for “an earl who had a numerous

124 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

family might send one son to the Temple and another to a
counting-house in the City, but the sons of a duke were all lords,
and a lord could not make his bread either at the Bar or on
Change.” ‘To this fourth Earl it was, therefore, by no means
a matter of indifference whether an enterprise involving enor-
mous expenditure turned out a success or a failure; but, not-
withstanding all the risks attendant upon the undertaking, he
was mainly instrumental in setting on foot, and in bringing to
an advanced state of completion, a stupendous task, demanding
the clearest foresight as well as the highest courage.

Amongst the estates which came into the possession of John,
first Earl of Bedford, in the time of Edward VI., was the Bene-
dictine Abbey of Thorney, Cambridgeshire, which had been a
religious house since the days of Alfred the Great. In Tanner’s
Notitia Monastica, published at the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury, the annual value of this property was appraised at 15,2401.
But when Francis, the fourth Earl—not long released from the
Tower, to which he had been sent for having fought with
Eliot and his stout compeers for the Petition of Right—suc-
ceeded to the title in 1627, he found the 18,000 acres composing
the domain a mere waste, the hillock on which the Abbey had
been built being the only portion not submerged by water. It
seems that at a much earlier period a very different state of
things prevailed, for Henry of Huntingdon, writing in the twelfth
century, described the surrounding country as “ very pleasant
and agreeable to the eye, watered by many rivers which run
through, diversified with many large and small lakes, and adorned
with many woods and islands ;” and William of Malmesbury, a
contemporary chronicler, described the lordship as abounding in
lofty trees, fruitful vines, and productive orchards, and having
no waste land in any part. But in 1236, in consequence of a
raging wiud which lasted for eight or nine days, the sea rose to
an unusual height, broke through its banks at Wisbech and
other places, and caused great havoc, attended with the loss of
many people and cattle. Seventeen years later a similar irrup-
tion occurred, and though the breaches in the banks were
repaired, under an order from the King, the work was inadequate
to prevent further mischief, and the land gradually became
reduced to the state of a stagnant and pestilent morass, the water
being in some parts from ten to twenty feet deep.

The natural desire to reclaim this land induced the fourth
Earl to embark in a still wider undertaking, including the
whole of what was formerly called the Great Level, now known
(in commemoration of his great achievement) as the Bedford
Level, and embracing a tract whose length extends from Toynton

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 12

or

in Lincolnshire to Milton in Cambridgeshire—about sixty miles
—whilst its breadth reaches from Peterborough in Northampton-
shire to Brandon in Suffolk—nearly forty miles. Wiffen, in his
Memoirs of the House of Russell, states that the matter had pre-
viously engaged the attention of James I., who declared that he
would no longer suffer the land to be abandoned to the waters.

Plans were accordingly made, estimates formed, and commissions
issued in favour of such as might be willing to commence a general drainage ;
but disputes arising, the King himself, for 126,000 acres of the waste,
became the undertaker of the great work, and invited over from the Low
Countries Sir Cornelius Vermuyden to carry his project into effect.
Vermuyden obtained for himself and the foreign adventurers whom he
persuaded to embark with him in the speculation a grant of this allotment
from the Crown. But meanwhile a strong jealousy of foreign intervention
became rooted in the minds of the people of those-parts, who, in their
aversion to the Flemish engineer, earnestly solicited the Earl of Bedford,
for the good of the whole country, to become the head and patron of the
princely undertaking. Their request was seconded by a court of the com-
missioners of sewers held at Lynn. Vermuyden’s contract was abandoned,
and the Ear! assented to their call. By a contract entered into on a commission
issued by the Crown, and enrolled in the Court of Chancery, September 1,
1630, the Earl was to have 95,000 acres of the inundated land as his return
for the expense and hazard consequent upon the drainage. He associated
with him fourteen other gentlemen, whom his spirited example allured to
take inferior shares, and the work was pursued with extraordinary zeal and
perseverance. In 1637 the Earl had expended on the task the immense
sum of 100,000/. The execution of the work being at first adjudged
defective, his grant was restricted to 40,000 acres; but he still persisted in
his project with an assiduity suited to his singularly energetic mind, un-
depressed by the many serious obstacles that impeded its accomplishment.
The original grant being renewed at a session held at Ely on March 2, 1653,
it was decreed that the magnificent undertaking was completely achieved—
a triumph altogether unexampled in the history of British agriculture.

In the words of the historian of the Bedford Level, ‘‘a more
striking instance of self-devotion to the wishes of the people,
and the real benefit of the State, appears not upon the records
of history ;”! and no one will deny that, considering the nature
of the enterprise and the risks attendant upon it, the Earl and
his coadjutors richly deserved all that they got, especially as we
learn from Mr. Pusey’s paper in this Journal on the agricultural
improvements of Lincolnshire that, “though the body of stag-
nant water was greatly reduced, still it was not subdued, so that
the fen land was worth little, even when George ITI. came to the
throne.”? So late asthe year 1800 it was stated that more than
300,000 acres in Lincolnshire suffered, on an average, a loss
of 300,000. a year for want of efficient drainage,* and it was

1 Wells, History of the Bedford Level, Vol. I. p. 106.

? Journal R.A.S.E., Ist Series, Vol. IV. (1843), p. 290.

* Mr. Albert Pell favours me with the following valuable note: “The effect
of the Bedford Level adventurers’ work was only to render the land ‘summer

126 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

reserved for the engineering skill of the Rennies and Telford, and
the mechanical genius of Watt, to complete the great work to
which this noble pioneer so determinedly set his hand. But, to
use the words of Mr. Froude in one of his Short Studies, “ if solid
work well done, if the addition of hundreds of thousands of acres
to the soil available for the support of English life, be a title to
honourable remembrance, this Earl ranks not the lowest in the
Cheneys pantheon.”

The fifth Earl and first Duke, who, as has been shown,
was instrumental in carrying out the scheme commenced
by his father, survived its accomplishment for nearly half a
century—until the year 1700. Passing by his immediate suc-
cessors in the title, we come to John, the fourth Duke, who
succeeded to the estates in 1732, and of whose interest in agri-
cultural matters we have occasional glimpses in his published
Correspondence, and in the introduction prefixed thereto by
his great-grandson, the late Earl Russell. We read of his fre-
quent journeys to his property for the purpose of marking out
hedges, planting trees, and letting farms. Planting was with
him a very favourite occupation, for the evergreen drive at
Woburn was his work; and in 1745 he converted a rabbit war-
ren in the park into the fine plantation, more than 100 acres in
extent, known by the name of the Evergreens, to commemorate
the birth of his daughter, afterwards Caroline, Duchess of
Marlborough. It is related of him that on one occasion, his
desire to thin the young trees being resisted by his gardener,
who said it would destroy the plantation and injure his profes-
sional reputation, the Duke not only carried out his intention,
but (with somewhat unmerciful sarcasm) met the objection b
puttinz up a notice-board facing the road :—“ This plantation
has been thinned by John, Duke of Bedford, contrary to the
advice and opinion of his gardener.” Of the plantation so
formed Mr. Forbes, a later gardener, says, in his preface to the
Pinetum Woburnense, that many of the Coniferea may be
pronounced as unequalled by any other plantation in the king-
dom, and that this may be chiefly attributed to the sean
judicious thinning during their early growth.!

land.’ In winter most of the reclaimed land was ‘bright,’ 7.e., covered with
water. ‘This was, however, all the adventurers pretended to do, It was left
to others to obtain complete mastery of the water by forming subsidiary dis-
tricts under Local Acts, and lifting the water by machinery into the great
arterial works of the adventurers.”

1 «The mischief and damage arising to plantations in general from a bad
system of pruning, or neglect, induced the late public-spirited Duke of Bedford
[Francis] to direct a series of experiments to be made at his expense by W.
Pontey, of Huddersfield, on his extensive plantations in the neighbourhood of

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 127

We are thus brought to the famous “farming Duke of
Bedford,” Francis, the fifth Duke, who succeeded his grand-
father in 1771, when he was a boy of five, with, humanly
speaking, the prospect of a long career of usefulness. This
hope was, however, doomed to disappointment, for his life was
cut short, in 1802, at the early age of thirty-six; not, how-
ever, before he had made his mark as one of the most eminent
agriculturists of his time, a worthy contemporary and friend of
Mr. Coke, of Holkham. He was instrumental in establishing
one of the earliest of our local agricultural societies, and created
on his estate a model farm of 300 acres, sparing no expense in
supplying it with the most approved buildings and appliances.
He also devoted great attention to cattle- and sheep-breeding
in a systematic and intelligent fashion. Arthur Young, in his
Annals of Agricultwre for 1795, gives a long and _ precise
account of an experiment set on foot by the Duke in 1793 for the
purpose of comparing the growth, at different periods, of 7
Southdowns, 7 New Leicesters, 7 Cotswolds, and 7 Wiltshires,
all shearling wethers. In the following year the experiment
was repeated with 80 lambs, 20 of each sort. The weights were
first taken on November 19, after eighteen hours’ fast; then on
February 25, 1795, when 4 Wiltshires were discarded, it being
found that 16 Wiltshires ate as much as 20 of the other breeds.
The 76 remaining sheep were next weighed on May 13; then
on July 3, after being shorn, the wool being weighed separately ;
on October 15, when they were put to turnips; and on February
16, 1796, when they were sent to market. The second-best
from each lot was killed and weighed in detail, and the rest
were sold. The most minute particulars are given of this ex-
periment, which is described as ‘‘a very valuable one.” Its
result was that the Leicesters were found to be the best, and
the Wiltshires “ incomparably the worst.” Indeed, Mr. Young
adds :—

We have to regret that the twenty Wiltshires were not continued through
the trial, because in that case the inferiority of the breed would have been
more decisively proved ; there is reason to suppose that had this been done,
they would never have fattened at all."

But one other point remained to be ascertained after the
sheep quitted the hands of the Duke of Bedford, and this, it

Woburn” (Trans. Soc. Arts, Vol. XXIV. p. 8, 1807). Mr. Pontey published
two valuable books, The Forest Pruner, or Timber Onners’ Assistant, and The
Profitable Planter, on the title-page of which he describes himself as “Planter
and Forest Pruner to the late and present Duke of Bedford.”

* Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXVI. p 435.

128 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

will be seen, was put to a practical test, with an entertaining
result :—

The Leicesters (says Mr. Young) have a bad reputation as mutton at
the table of a gentleman, and the Southdowns are esteemed amongst the
best in the kingdom. Lord Somerville purchased a leg of both these breeds,
directing the butcher to cut both in the same form: his lordship gave a
dinner, at which the Duke of Bedford, the President of the Board of
Agriculture, and other company fond of the good cause were present—I had
the honour of partaking it. The legs of mutton were placed on the table at
the same time, for the company to pronounce which was the best; and the
result was that by much tbe larger part of the company declared in favour
of the Leicester, thinking while so doing that it must be Southdown. The
difference in fact, however, was very small: the flesh of the Leicester was of
a closer texture, but rather of a paler colour ; the gravy of the Southdown of a
higher flavour.’

In the Charter granted to the English Board of Agriculture
in 1793, the Duke, who was then, it must be remembered,
barely twenty-eight years old, was named as one of its members,
and his attendance at its meetings was as regular as his many
avocations would admit. He also took a prominent part in the
foundation of the Smithfield Club, presiding at the first meeting
held for that purpose, December 17, 1798, and officiating as its
President until his death, little more than three years later.
His efforts for the improvement of agriculture were, indeed,
as unceasing as they were necessary, for at that time English
farming was in a very primitive state. We learn from Mr.
Bennett’s Prize Essay on the Farming of Bedfordshire that in
the Duke’s early time two-thirds of that county were in common
field; athird of the arable land was under a dead fallow every
year; the part under crop was wofrlly damaged by water; the
meagre-looking sheep were often swept off in entire flocks by
the rot; the neat cattle were of no distinct breed; the farm
implements were of the rudest kind. No one who lived in or
near his time could, says Mr. Bennett, “be ignorant of the
efforts which the Duke put forth to arouse the torpor-stricken
agriculturists of his day.” But he did not, like his friend and
fellow-labourer, Mr. Coke, live to see the triumphs of improved
farming, through which, according to the writer from whom
we quote, there were in 1857 “scores of farms producing-50 per
cent. more corn than in 1794, and supplying the metropolitan ~
markets with a stone of meat for every pound supplied at the
former period.” ?

Perhaps the best evidence of this popular nobleman’s enthu-
siasm in the cause of agriculture is to be found in the accounts

1 Annals of Agriculture, Vol. XXVI. pp. 483-4.
2 See Journal, R.A.S.E. Ist Series, Vol, XVIII. (1857), p. 28,

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 129

of the famous Woburn Sheep-shearings. These ‘“ sheep-shear-
ings” were far more important than so modest a term would
imply, and were in reality important meetings, at which the
Duke’s tups and ewes were let at certain fixed prices, choice
neat stock were exhibited, novel and improved implements were
shown, wool was sold, and prizes were awarded to the most
successful exhibitors. There were, indeed, all the elements of a
Modern agricultural show; and to these must be added the
unbounded hospitality dispensed by the Duke, who entertained
two or three hundred visitors at the Abbey for several days in
suecession. Contemporary records of these gatherings are full
of interest, and we find amongst the names of those present the
Duke of Manchester, the Earls of Egremont, Lauderdale, Spencer,
and Winchelsea; Lords Sherborne, Preston, and Ludlow; Sir
John Sebright, from Worcestershire; Sir Thomas Carr, from
Sussex; Sir John Riddell, from Roxburgh ; Sir John Ramsden,
from Yorkshire ; Sir Charles Davers, from Suffolk; Mr. Coke,
of Holkham; the President (Sir John Sinclair) and Secretary
(Mr. Arthur Young), of the Board of Agriculture ; the President
of the Royal Society (Sir Joseph Banks); Messrs. Ellman
(Sussex), Parsons (Somerset), Westcar’ (Bucks), Quartly
(Devon), Jobson (Northumberland), Buckley and Stone
(Leicestershire), Ducket? (Surrey), and many others whose
patronymics are, or have been, familiar to agriculturists, In
the chronicle for 1400 we are told that the call for post-horses
and conveyances on the London road was so great that many
could not get to Woburn till the business had commenced;
others were obliged to go by indirect roads, and then, failing
to get conveyances across country, were compelled to walk a
number of miles.

The order of proceedings was much the same year by year.
At nine in the morning of the first day of the meeting in 1800
the Duke gave a public breakfast at the Abbey, and about two
hours later the company proceeded “in a grand cavalcade,”
headed by his Grace, to “‘the new farm-yard,” to inspect the
sheep-shearing, at which “five of the best hands that could be
procured” were employed. Thence they proceeded to a building
specially erected as an exhibition-room, to see the ewes or tups
to be let for the ensuing season.. The Duke then opened the

1 At the Sheep-shearing in 1801 Mr. Westcar received the thanks of the
meeting “for the successful exertion of his talents in rearing Leicestershire
cattle.” i .

2 In 1799 the first gold medal of the Board of Agriculture was given to
Mr. Ducket for his general merit as a cultivator, and also for having presented
his skim-coulter plough to the Board, offering to fix that coulter free of ex-
pense to ploughs sent to him from any part of the kingdom,

VOL. IT, T. S,—5 K

130 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

certificates presented by competitors for his prize of fifty guineas,
offered to the person who should, between the previous June
and Christmas, have expended the largest sum (not less than
sixty guineas) in the purchase of breeding ewes or theaves of
“the New Leicester or Southdown breed.”! About 3 P.M. the
company returned to the Abbey, where the Duke entertained
some 200 noblemen, gentlemen, and yeomen at dinner in the
large hall. Here tables were laid, ‘‘ which branched out in
three directions, but so contrived as to have but one head, at
which his Grace presided.” On this occasion Prince William of
Gloucester (a nephew of George III.) was at the Duke’s right
hand, and Lord John Russell, his brother, afterwards sixth Duke,
“‘sat as croupier.” After dinner the King’s health was drunk,
and this was followed by a number of toasts and “ sentiments,”
such as “‘Success to Agriculture,” ‘“‘A Good Crop of Wheat,”
“The Fleece,” “‘ The Plough,” ‘‘ The Memory of Mr. Bakewell,”
and the like. ‘This occupied the time till six o’clock, when the
company again proceeded to the farm-yard, where various at-
tractions awaited them—for example, ‘‘a very fine hog, the
property of Mr. Pickford, wagon-master, supposed to weigh
about 100 stone”; and, on another occasion, ‘‘a very extra-
ordinary fat three-shear wether, of the New Leicester breed,”
296 lbs. live weight, admitted by the company to be the fattest
sheep they had ever seen.” In the meantime, the sheep-shearers
continued their work “in a place conveniently adapted for the
whole of the meeting to see them.” After witnessing their per-
formance, the Duke conducted his visitors to the ‘* Evergreens,” to
see some select Devonshire oxen, and thence to the water meadow,
near Birchmoor House, in Crawley Lane, where there were
some fine cows of the same breed.

On the second day the tups were first shown, singly, after
which sweepstakes of five guineas each, made by the Duke of
Bedford, Lord Winchelsea, Lord Somerville, and Mr. Bouverie,
for the best two-year-old Devon heifers, were determined in
favour of Lord Winchelsea. Mr. Garrard,’ ‘the modeller of
cattle,” then placed before the company his models of the prize
cattle shown at the previous Smithfield Show, and of other
noted animals; after which attention was directed to improved

1 at the death of his Grace these premiums were discontinued, in accord-
ance with his avowed intention, as he felt that the object in view—the intro-
duction of these breeds into the county—had been attained.

2 Details of the weight of this sheep are given in the “ Annals of Agricul-
ture,” Vol. XX XIII. pp. 317-18.

* George Garrard, an animal painter and modeller, born 1760. He practised
largely in modelling, and in 1802 was elected an Associate of the Royal
Academy. He died at Brompton in 1826, :

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 131

implements in husbandry, and, where practicable, they were set
to work. This occupied the time till 3 P.M., when there was
another big dinner at the Abbey; and at 6 o'clock an adjourn-
ment was made, as before, to the farmyard, where his Grace’s
tups were offered for the ensuing season at fixed prices, and when
there were two or more claimants the hiring was determined
by lot.

. On the third, fourth, and fifth days—for the ‘‘sheep-shearing ”
usually extended from the Monday to the Friday inclusive—
very much the same programme was gone through. Prizes!
(amounting to about 125 guineas) were given by the Duke for
cattle and sheep, and for ploughing competitions, in which ox-
ploughs took part, three oxen being considered as equal in
expense to twohorses. The conversation at the dinners (at one
of which the Duke’s cups and other prizes were distributed)
was, we are assured, “entirely agricultural,” and was not infre-
quently productive of challenges: as when Mr. Coke? “ offered
a bet of 100 guineas that he would stock 100 acres with South-
down wethers against another 100 acres to be stocked by any
four New Leicester breeders ”—the respective merits of these
sheep being hotly contested at the dinner-table; or when some
Herefordshire breeders undertook to produce better cattle than
any county in England—a challenge which was at once taken up
by Sir Robert Carr on behalf of his county, Sussex.

At the farm, amongst other exhibits shown from time
to time, we find “‘ two remarkably fine and fat cows, which had
been fatted by poor feed”; and “ Mr. Chaplin, from Lincoln-
shire, exhibited some extremely fine sheep of his own breeding,
which were highly approved of.” Ploughing competitions
usually formed part of the programme, as in 1800, when there
were “five different ploughs—namely, a Northumberland, a
Surrey or Ducket’s, a Bedfordshire, a Norfolk, and a Scotch one
—on which experiments were made in sowing turnips, by
making the furrows wide apart.” At another time, a dressing-
machine was produced which “completely dressed a bushel of
wheat in six minutes”; or the “capital mill,” built by the
Duke, and worked by two horses, with two men to supply it, was
set to work to thresh corn, which “ undergoes every operation—
the chaff goes one way, the dirt or dust another,’ the corn

* On one occasion Mr. Garrard exhibited a model of a piece of the loin of
a fat three-shear wether, which had taken a premium in the previous year,
and we are told that “the fat measured seven inches” !

* At the Sheep Shearing in 1799 Mr. Coke offered the Duke 150 guineas
for a Southdown ram, and Mr. Arthur Young remarks that this was ‘‘an ad-
vance in the estimation of that race.”

K 2

132 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

falling into a sack and the straw into a waggon. <A double
harrow, ‘‘to harrow two lands at the same time,” was brought:
from Nottinghamshire; and Mr. Salmon, the Duke’s surveyor,
produced a drilling-machine, drawn by one horse, to drill seven
rows of any kind of seed, and so contrived that, “if the horse
went crooked, the man guiding the machine could keep it
straight; and, on the contrary, if the horse went straight, the
machine could be made to go crooked if required.”

No account of these historic gatherings would be complete
without a reference to the mechanical genius of Mr. Salmon,
whose very name is probably quite unfamiliar to most readers
of the Journal, but whose services in the improvement of agri-
cultural implements were of remarkable, and in his day of unique,
importance. Robert Salmon was for 30 years, from 1790 to 1821,
surveyor to the Dukes of Bedford, and his inventions were one of
the staple attractions of the annual sheep-shearingsat Woburn. In
1797, the Society of Arts awarded him thirty guineas for a chaff-
cutting engine, which was the parent of all the modern chaff-
cutters. At the sheep-shearing of 1801, Mr. Salmon exhibited
his ‘‘ Bedfordshire Drill,” which became the model of all sueceed-
ing drills. In 1803 he showed a plough wherein the slade was re-
placed by a skew wheel, as in Pirie’s modern double-furrow
plough. In 1804 he brought out an excellent ‘scuffler,” or
cultivator. Two years later, in 1806, he exhibited a self-raking
reaping machine, but neither this implement nor a threshing
machine shown with it attracted any public notice at the time.
In 1808, however, Salmon’s reaper was described in Bell's
Weekly Messenger, and it is a remarkable fact that this early
machine embodied all the principles of the modern self-raker,
which was not introduced until nearly sixty years later.’ In
1814 Salmon patented the first hay-making machine, to which
modern improvement has added nothing but new details. He
received, at various times, silyer medals from the Society of Arts
for surgical instruments, a canal lock, apparatus for pruning
trees, a man-trap, and earth walls; but, perhaps, his most im-
per tant work was the designing of the Duke of Bedford’s Home

“arm and estate buildings, at Woburn, all of which were models
in their way. ‘This great, obscure mechanician, died at Woburn
in 1821, aged 69—The Gentleman's Magazine, in recording his
decease, speaking of him as ‘“ well-known and respected by the
admirers of the fine arts and sciences, the inventor of many
useful and yaluable inventions in surgery, agriculture, and
hydraulics.”

To the grief of his many friends and of the agricultural
world generally, Duke Francis died on March 2, 1802, at the

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 133

early age of thirty-six. Charles James Fox, in moving the new
writ for the borough of Tavistock, said of him that “to con-
tribute to the welfare of his fellow-citizens was the constant,
unremitted pursuit of his life ; by his example and his beneficence
to render them better, wiser and happier”; and contemporary
literature is full of regrets at his “ untimely decease.”! The
Board of Agriculture were not slow to bear testimony to the
sincerity with which they, “in common with every friend to the
improvement of the country,” lamented the death of “the most
judicious and munificent promoter of the national agriculture in
all its branches.” The Board resolved that a medal should be
struck in memoriam, and should be presented in gold to their
Majesties the King and Queen, H.R.H. the Prince of Wales,
and the Duke of Bedford; and decided to apply to his Grace
for permission to have a bust of his deceased brother for their
Board-room.? In the following year (1803) no difficulty was
experienced in raising upwards of 3,000/., the Prince of Wales
heading the list with 100 guineas, in order to erect a statue in
his honour ; and, the work having been entrusted to Westmacott,
the bronze statue in Russell Square was the result. It was erected
in 1809, and represents the Duke holding some wheat-ears in
one hand, whilst the other rests on a plough, with accessory
figures, at the base and on the pedestal, of agricultural stock
and implements.

But perhaps the most conclusive testimony to his merits is
borne by the man who, of all others, was best qualified to
appreciate and least likely to exaggerate them—Arthur Young,
whose well-known initials are appended to a notice in the
Annals of Agriculture, from which the following passages are
taken :—

The agricultural world never, perhaps, sustained a greater individual loss
than the husbandry of this empire has suffered by the death of the Duke of
Bedford. The late Duke came to the management of his vast property

in 1787, and gaye very early signs of that regulated attention to business
and order in the enlightened management of landed property which ensured

' In a delightfully quaint little History of Woburn, published in 1818, a
copy of which was kindly lent me by Mr. Charles Howard, is a long panegyric
of Duke Francis, accompanied by a series of stanzas, ‘the spontaneous
effusion of an Inhabitant of Woburn,” in honour of him and of the house of
Russell generally. :

* This bust is doubtless that by J. Nollekens, R.A., figured in the frontispiece
to the General View of the Agriculture of the County of Bedford, published
by the Board of Agriculture in 1808. Jt is also figured in the engraving of
the “ Woburn Sheep Shearing” referred to on page 136, amongst the art objects
surrounding Mr. Garrard.

_* Vol, XX XVIII. (1803), p. 369,

134 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

much of the celebrity that followed; but his peculiar fondness for farming
was not very manifest till 1793. In July, 1795,I passed four days at
Woburn, and then found many signs of a decided attention to agricultural
pursuits. The first sheep-shearing celebrated by a numerous company was
in June, 1797, and continued to be held in the same month every succeeding
year, but with greater increasing numbers and éclat, till it became at last
by far the most respectable agricultural meeting ever seen in England—
that is,in the world—attended by nobility, gentry, farmers, and graziers,
from various parts of the three kingdoms, from many countries in Kurope,
and also from America. Through all this period the Duke was advancing
rapidly the improvement of his great farm; increasing and wonderfully
ameliorating the breeds of live-stock,in which he was singularly skilled, and
highly successful in all his exertions. His system of irrigation was con-
ducted with great felicity of invention, and executed with uncommon energy.

In order that his experiments might be more varied and extensive,
and applicable to a more general utility, he engaged a gentleman of most
respectable talents to superintend the whole ; fixed the plan of an establish-
ment for agricultural education; arranged the idea and determined the
execution of a botanical garden and a laboratory, that the improvement
and cultivation of his farm might go hand-in-hand with those scientific
inquiries which would offer the most precious opportunity to students of
every description to avail themselves of all the assistance which liberality
and talents could confer. Such an establishment, under the controul of a
mind in which extent of views, clearness of understanding, and severity of
judgment were happily combined, could not fail of proving of so decided a
benefit to the agriculture of the whole kingdom that, much as the Duke of
Bedford has been admired for what he effected, it may be safely asserted
that he saw but the morning of that fame which would have attended the
maturity of his exertions in this first and most respectable path of public
utility?

The work so well begun by the fifth Duke of Bedford was
zealously taken up by John, the sixth Duke, who, at the sheep-
shearing held three months after his lamented brother's death,
gave orders that everything should be conducted as on former
occasions, the general arrangements being entrusted to Lord
Somerville and Mr. Coke, of Holkham, the former of whom
presided at the dinners. His Grace felt, indeed, that “in the
promotion of agriculture he was treading in the steps of the
brother whom he succeeded, and whose memory he cherished
with a degree of affection that amounted almost to veneration.” ?
Under his direction the Woburn gatherings continued for many
years to attract agriculturists from far and near. Indeed, the
visitors increased in numbers, for'in 1805 there were ati
the Abbey dinners, on Monday 236, on Tuesday 246, on Wed-
nesday 232, and on Thursday 178. In 1810 the company in-

1 Vol. XXXIX. of the Annals of Agriculture contains a long account of
his Grace’s husbandry, illustrated with plans, &c., and extending over more
than 70 pp., also from the pen of Arthur Young.

2 «Letter on the late Duke of Bedford,” addressed by Sir William Jackson
Hooker to Dawson Turner, Esq.

. Agriculture and the House of Russell. 135
cluded the exiled King of France, Louis XVIII., and several
of the noblesse who followed his fortunes and misfortunes.

On the last day of this sheep-shearing, Mr. Coke, in
acknowledging the toast of his health, remarked on the great
advantages which had arisen from such gatherings, and, referring
to the exertions made by Sir Joseph Banks in favour of Merino
sheep,! admitted the service he had rendered to our manufac-
turers, but thought it could hardly be expected that the breed
would be serviceable in yielding mutton to the country, and
proposed as a toast, ‘Sir Joseph Banks, and a fine fleece on a
fat carcass.” Sir Joseph, in responding, urged that the improve-
ment of the Merino sheep had but just begun, but he anticipated
that they were as capable of development as the Lincolnshires
or Southdowns, and had no doubt that in a few years the breed
would answer all the purposes which its patrons desired. Time
has, however, shown that the practical agriculturist was right,
and that the sanguine expectations of the great naturalist have
not yet been fulfilled.

The sixth Duke also succeeded his brother as President of
the Smithfield Club, and continued in office till 1815, when he
resigned the post on proceeding to the Continent, but most
generously placed at the disposal of the Club the sum of 125
guineas, to be offered annually in prizes, which were subse-
quently distributed under the name of the ‘‘ Bedfordian plate and
medals.” On his return from abroad he resumed the presidency,
which he continued to hold until 1821, when he withdrew from
the Club altogether, being of opinion that its objects had been
fully attained, and that it had no longer any raison détre. The
members were, however, opposed to its dissolution, and, after an
interregnum of three years, Lord Althorp (afterwards one of
the chief founders of the Royal Agricultural Society) became its
third President,? and inspired its operations with renewed
vigour. It is probable that a similar feeling led to the ultimate
discontinuance by the Duke of the Woburn sheep-shearings, as
adyance was made in agricultural practice, and their usefulness was
superseded by the formation of numerous agricultural societies.

An excellent idea of the scene at these famous sheep-shear-
ings, as they were held in the days of the sixth Duke of Bedford,
is obtainable from a now rare engraving from a painting by
G. Garrard, A.R.A.—‘‘the modeller of cattle” already referred
to—published in May, 1811, and a copy of which (presented in
November, 1875, by Messrs. Eastons and Anderson) is now

1 It is stated that at the sheep-shearing in 1799 some Spanish wool from
sheep bred in England was sold to the wool-staplers at 5s. per lb,
* Journal R.A,S.E., Vol, I. 8rd Series (1890), p. 149,

136 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

one of the treasures of the Society’s collection of pictures.
This print shows us in the centre of the picture the Duke
himself, mounted on a favourite mare, and inspecting a piece
of broadcloth presented by Mr. George Tollett, “of his own
Merino growth.” Near his Grace stand Lord Somerville,
Mr. Charles Gordon Grey, and Mr. Curwen, M.P. ; also, H.R.H.
the Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), Lord Winchelsea,
Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, and Mr. Ellman. Further to the
left is a group inspecting a Southdown tup, in the centre of which
stands the Marquis of Tavistock (afterwards seventh Duke). In
the background is Mr. Northey, M.P., on horseback, inspecting
some Swedish turnips presented by Mr. Thos. Gibbs; also, Mr.
Astley, Lord Wilham Russell, Mr. Chas. C. Western, M.P., Sir
Charles Bunbury, Bart., and others. On the right of the picture
are two men shearing sheep, and near them is a group, including
Mr. Arthur Young, Sir John Sinclair, Sir Joseph Banks, Mr.
Coke, Sir George Osborne, Sir John Sebright, Col. Beaumont,
and the second and third sons of the Duke, afterwards General
Lord George William, Russell and Earl Russell: In order “ to
commemorate the encouragement given by the late and present
Dukes of Bedford to the art of modelling cattle,” an artist
(presumably Mr. Garrard himself) is represented in one
corner as distributing models to the Duke’s four infant
sons, Wriothesley, Edward, Charles, and Francis John, amongst
whom is one, Lord Charles James Fox Russell, who still
happily survives to this day. Lord Charles, represented in the
picture in a child’s frock and a straw hat, became one of the
very earliest members of the English Agricultural Society, his
adhesion to it bearing date May 26, 1838; and as such he
was made a Foundation Life Governor of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England on March 5 of last year.

The sixth Duke himself became a Governor of the English
Agricultural Society on June 6, 1838, and was one of the first
Vice-Presidents of the Society, holding this office until his death
on October 20, 1839, at the age of 73. The vacancy thus
caused in the list of the Society’s Vice-Presidents was not filled
until the first General Meeting held after the Charter had
been granted (May 22, 1840), when, on the motion of Mr. Ray-
mond Barker, the Duke of Buckingham was appointed.

In addition to his conspicuous services to agriculture chronicled
above, it should be added that his Grace is entitled to much
credit for his experiments on the produce and nutritive qualities
of grasses, the results of which are shown in the Hortus
Gramineus Woburnensis, a costly folio produced by George
Sinclair in 1816, ynder the Duke’s direction, and containing

Agriculture and the House of Russell. 137

not only botanical descriptions of the different grasses, but also
actual specimens, together with perfect and imperfect seeds, and
accounts of their practical value as feed. A copy of the original
edition of this work (of which several smaller editions have
since been published) is to be found in the Society’s library.
At another time, when recovering from a severe illness, the
Duke directed his attention to the cultivation of heaths, and
published the result of his inquiries in a volume issued in Bee
entitled Hortus Hriceus Wobwrnensis. 'This was followed,
1829, by the Sulictum Woburnense, descriptive of the Wobnid
willows ; and in 1839, the year of this ardent naturalist’s death,
appeared the Pinetum "Wobwrnense. The series also included a
description of upwards of 6,000 ornamental plants and shrubs,
published under the title Hortus Woburnensis.

The sixth Duke had by his first wife (who died in 1801)
three sons: Francis, born 1788, who succeeded to the title,
George William (father of the ninth duke), and John, afterwards
the famous statesman ; and by his second wife, seven sons (one
of whom, Lord Charles James Fox, born 1807, still surviv es) and
three daughters.

Francis, the seventh Duke, worthily supported the tradi-
tions of the family for agricultural inquiry and improvement ;
and he was fortunate in possessing the intimate friendship of
the third Earl Spencer, whose agricultural biography has
already been given in the Journal.! Their tastes in agriculture,
politics, and rural sports were the same; and both are equally
entitled to honourable fame for their efforts in improving the
labourers’ cottages on their estates. One who was in a position
to know the facts said at the meeting of the Bedfordshire
Agricultural Society in 1860 that “the highest honours that
would be associated with the name of the seventh Duke of
Bedford,” then just appointed to the Lord-Lieutenancy of the
County, ‘‘ are those that he has gained for himself by the attention
he has drawn, the example he has set, and the work that he has
done, in advancing the welfare of the labouring classes through
the instrumentality of their dwellings. ‘The name of Bedford—
whether applied to the title or the county—has long been
honourably associated with improved agric ulture ; but it was left
to the present possessor of the title to find out a crying evil,
and apply the proper remedy.” The Duke was, indeed,
a most just and excellent landlord, granting long leases
at moderate rents. He built most of the well-arranged farm
homesteads and cottages which everywhere adorn the estate,

} Journal R,A.S.E., Vol. L., 3rd Series, (1890), p. 138.

138 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

and carried out a splendid system of drainage on all his
clay soils. Ata time when the oyer-preservation of game was
fashionable he set his face against it, and, although keeping the
shooting in his own hands, he gave his tenantry liberty to course
the hares. In his time the “Park Farm” was admirably
managed, the turnip husbandry especially being of the highest
order. (The arable land has since been laid down to grass,
and thrown into the Park). He kept a splendid herd of
Herefords, and a magnificent flock of Southdowns, and for many
years there were at the Park Farm, Christmas sales of some of
the finest bullocks, sheep, and pigs the country could produce.
In 1849-51 the Duke gave facilities to Mr. Lawes and Dr.
Gilbert for some interesting experiments on the fattening of
oxen, the results of which were communicated ten years after to
the Society’s Journal.! The Duke placed at the disposal of the
experimenters, for the purposes of this inquiry, his numerous
feeding boxes and fattening oxen at the Woburn Park Farm, the
special advantages of which were the selection from and dealing
with large numbers of animals, and the facility afforded by the
box system for the collection and preservation of the manure—
to determine the quantity and composition of which constituted
an important object of the experiments. The Duke became a
Governor of the Royal Agricultural Society on succeeding to
the title, and maintained his association with it until his death
at the age of seventy-three, in May, 1861, when he was suc-
ceeded by his only son, William, the eighth Duke, born in 1809.?
The eighth Duke was always more or less an invalid; and a
large share of the management of the family estates thus fell
upon his cousin and heir presumptive, Francis Charles Hastings
Russell, eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell,
G.C.B., second son of John, 6th Duke of Bedford, K.G. Lord
George William Russell was for some time Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary at Berlin ; and thus his family weré
chiefly educated abroad. Mr. Hastings Russell, as he was called,
served for a time in the Scots Guards, and became in 1847, at the
age of twenty-eight, Member of Parliament for Bedfordshire, a
position which he retained until his succession to the Dukedom,

1 Journal R.A.S.E. 1st Series, Vol. XXII. (1861), p. 200.

2 For the explorations in the British Museum and other mines of informa-
tion relating to the past, which have resulted in the unearthing of so many
interesting facts as to the earlier Dukes of Bedford, I am chiefly indebted to
the literary acumen and assiduity of my friend Mr. Francis Ford. My sources
of information as to the ninth Duke are too numerous to be here chronicled ;
but my thanks are especially due to Sir John Lawes, Mr. Dent, Mr. Charles
Howard, and to the past and present managers of the Woburn Experimental
Farm, Messrs. Malden, Fraser, and Elliott.

Agriculiure and the House of Russell. 139
on the death of his cousin in May 1872. Although he did

not take an active share in the debates in the Commons during
his Parliamentary career, ‘‘ never had constituency,” writes a
Bedfordshire elector to me, ‘a more exemplary member.”

In 1872, Colonel Kingscote, C.B., M.P., then, as now, a
very active Member of the Council of this Society, made a
special effort to obtain new subscribers to the Society amongst
his Parliamentary colleagues; and one of those whom he in-
duced to join was Mr. Hastings Russell. Almost immediately
afterwards the eighth Duke died, and the new Duke took up
the Governorship which has been held by the head of the house
of Russell ever since the Society was formed.

Very shortly after, in June 1873, his Grace was elected a
Member of the Council to fill the vacancy caused by the elec-
tion of Lord Kesteven as Trustee; and he speedily took an
active share in the business of the Chemical and Education
Committees, of which latter he was elected Chairman in 1874.
He held the post of Chairman of the Education Committee
until he succeeded to the Presidency in 1879, and it was chiefly
owing to the efforts of His Grace and of Mr. Dent that the
Society’s scheme of Junior Scholarships was promulgated in 1874.

The Duke was elected a Vice-President of the Society in
November 1874, on the death of the Earl of Egmont ; and when
the Society's Jubilee was celebrated in June 1889, he was
elected a Trustee. He was chosen to succeed H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales as President of the Society after the Kilburn
Meeting in 1879, and retired from the Presidential Chair at
the conclusion of the Carlisle Meeting in 1880—memorable for
the deluge of rain, no less than 2°78 inches falling in the four
days, Monday to Thursday, so that at one time the swollen
Caldew, a tributary of the Eden, threatened to inundate the
Show-ground. In 1874, when the Society pitched its tents
at Bedford, the Duke gave 1,000/. to the Local Fund, and took
great interest in the proceedings. In 1878 he was elected
President of the Smithfield Club. Of late years his Grace has
not often been seen at the Meetings of the Royal Agricultural
Society in Hanover Square; but his interest in the Society’s
welfare continued unabated to the last, and its affairs were often
the topic of conversation between him and his contemporaries
on the Council.

It is, however, in his munificent endowment of the Woburn
experiments that the Duke’s connection with agriculture will
be chiefly remembered. In the spring number of the Journal
of this Society for 1875, Mr. (now Sir John) Lawes had written
an article on the estimated value of manure obtained by the

140 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

consumption of different articles of food, which attracted great
attention at the time, and which acquired still greater import-
ance after the passing, in the same year, of the Agricultural
Holdings Act of 1875, which provided for compensation to
outgoing tenants for the unexhausted value of purchased food
being subject to arbitration. The late Mr. Charles Randell was
not satisfied with the results announced by Mr. Lawes, and on
November 3, 1875, the Council, on his motion, carried a resolu-
tion requesting the Chemical Committee to consider the propriety
and the manner of instituting a series of experiments “ by
practical farmers in different districts” to ascertain the actual
manurial value of the kinds of food most extensively pur-
chased.

At the instance of the Chemical Committee, this reference
was extended by the Council on February 2, 1876, ‘‘so as to
enable the Committee to obtain the opinion of practical and
scientific witnesses as to how far the knowledge we already
possess of the fertilising properties of manures and feeding
stuffs, especially the latter, can be relied upon as a basis of
valuation to be made under the compensation clauses of the
Agricultural Holdings Act.” Thereupon the Chemical Com-
mittee at once proceeded to take evidence, and the witnesses
whom they examined on February 3, 4 and 28, included Mr.
Lawes, Mr. E. P. Squarey, Mr. (now Sir) Jacob Wilson, Mr.
Thomas Huskinson (then President of the Surveyors’ Institu-
tion), Mr. Benj. Bomford (a neighbour of Mr. Randell’s),
Mr. Randell himself, Mr. James Martin, Major I’. L. Dashwood,
and Dr. Augustus Voelcker.

The evidence taken by the Committee was subsequently
published by the Society in a closely-printed octavo pamphlet
of 132 pages, which contains a large amount of still interest-
ing reading. The Duke of Bedford was a member of the
Committee, and although there is no formal record of it at this
stage, it is evident that he had made known his willingness to
allow experiments of the kind contemplated to take place at
Woburn. Mr. Lawes referred in his evidence (Q. 162) to a
scheme which he had drawn out for the Duke for ascertain-
ing the manurial value of decorticated cotton-cake as against
wheat; and the Chairman of the Committee, Mr. Wells, in
reference to a suggestion by Mr. Squarey as to the inaugur ation
by landowners of a series of experiments which would carry out
and amplify the Rothamsted experiments, said (Q. 335): “ We
have had an offer from the Duke of Bedford; and I think it is
very likely that if an experiment is settled upon there would
be an offer of something of the kind you speak of,” On Feb-

- Agriculture and the House of Russell. 141

ruary 28, 1875, when the Duke was present, the late Dr.
Voelcker, in reply to a direct question from the Chair, said
(Q. 1033) he thought there would be great difficulty in carrying
out “ practical” experiments of the kind proposed in different
places ; that it would be better to begin with one experimental
station and prove by experience the utility of such experimental
stations, and then to extend them to other parts of the country ;
and that he should like to see one thoroughly well-established
and well-conducted experimental station on land differing as
much as possible from that at Rothamsted.

In the course of the inquiry and the discussion which arose
in connection with Mr. Randell’s motion, it appeared to be
generally considered that further experimental evidence on tke
subject might be of much value; but it was at the same time
decided that the probability of obtaining sufficiently accurate
and applicable results in that way was not such as to justify the
Council in making a grant for the purpose. The Chemical
Committee reported in April 1876 that they felt ‘they would
only be justified in recommending experiments, the results ob-
tained from which would be held by a general concurrence of
opinion, scientific and practical, to be thoroughly exhaustive
and worthy of confidence.” But they added: ‘“ An opportunity
for carrying out experiments has been offered to the Society by
the Duke of Bedford,” and they therefore recommended “that
Mr. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker be requested to draw up a
scheme for carrying on at Woburn such experiments as they,
in conjunction with the Chemical Committee, may determine
on.

In this way originated the now famous Woburn Experi-
mental J’arm. The Duke expressed his wish that the experi-
ments should be conducted at his own cost, and he offered
to give up for the purpose Crawley Mill Farm, comprising
about 90 acres, with the house and buildings. On examination,
it was found that there was no suitable area on that farm, suf-
ficiently even in character and in condition of soil, as to render |
it available for a considerable series of comparative experi-
ments. Eventually, after inspection of many others, a large
field of 27 acres (Stackyard field) of much more suitable land was
selected on Birchmoor Farm; and his Grace with characteristic
energy at once made arrangements with the tenant to give it
up for the purpose, paying him compensation on the most
liberal scale. Crawley Mill Farm has however been also
retained, as a means of providing the requisite buildings, a resi-
dence for the manager, and the opportunity of having at command
the necessary horse and hand labour for the experiments,

142 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

The experiments commenced in 1876, and up to November 16,
1877, the Duke had advanced 4,500/. on their account. Since
then they have involved his Grace in an expenditure of not
far short of 1000J. a year.

Although the heavy cost of these experiments was borne
entirely by the Duke, and although he took the greatest interest
in their establishment and progress—for he seldom or never
went to Woburn without paying one or more visits, unannounced

‘and unattended, to the experimental plots—he scrupulously
abstained from interference. At the same time, he was always
more ready to extend than to curtail the investigations, and
frequently desired to be informed of anything required in con-
nection with them, in order that it might be at once provided.
While thus open-handed and generous, it was only in a most
quiet and retiring way that he allowed himself to appear as con-
nected with the experiments; and, indeed, he objected to men-
tion being made of the Society’s indebtedness to him.

The field experiments have now reached a stage at which
their future progress will be of even greater interest and im-
portance than before, both in a scientific and a practical direc-
tion. The land, which at one time it seemed impossible to
exhaust by continuous crop-growing, now shows signs of that
exhaustion, and of an approach to the limit of the efficacy of
manure applied in: the past. Valuable confirmation—but on
different soil—of the Rothamsted inquiries respecting the con-
tinuous growth of wheat and barley is, however, forthcoming ;
and experiments on the laying down of land to permanent
pasture are approaching a point at which the results of com-
parative treatment will become manifest. In the clover experi-
ments, however, there is much still to learn in connection with
the problem of “ clover-sickness.” The Duke’s grant of the land
and farm has also enabled the Society to carry out a yearly series
of feeding experiments on both bullocks and sheep, the results
of which, in view of the increasing importance of stock-rearing,
will be of particular value.

The late Duke was a firm believer in silage as food for all
kinds of stock, and at considerable expense instituted a series of
experiments in relation thereto at the Heath Farm, Woburn.
He took special interest in these experiments, and on four or
five days after the opening of the silos, at which he was present,
he visited the farm, carefully inspecting the cattle under experi-
ment, and keenly examining their general condition. The system
resolved upon by his Grace is now regularly carried out, and
only last year he had a number of silage stacks made from the
grass in the park. During the past winter the deer have been

* — Agriculture and the House of Russell. 143

fed almost entirely upon silage, and the stockman states that
they prefer it to hay. ©

His Grace was particularly proud of his Jersey herd, and
was an excellent judge of the breed. The herd was good
throughout, and included many animals which would have
been highly placed at the leading shows. Though he would
never allow them to be exhibited for prizes, many will remember
the evident pride with which they were occasionally paraded
for inspection. He had the most accurate accounts kept of the
weight of milk from each cow; and his dairy was justly re-
garded as a model. He was also very fond of Jersey beef—a
too expensive luxury for most people—and considered its flavour
superior to that of any other breed. On one occasion, he sent
to Mr. Fraser, the manager of the Experimental Farm, a couple
of sirloins of beef—one being Scotch and the other Jersey—with
a note to the effect that, after tasting the two, he felt convinced
that Mr. Fraser would become a convert to the Jersey beef.
The Jersey bullocks and the West Highland cattle formed a
very picturesque contrast in the Park, which, says Mr. Dent,
“was the most evenly grazed and the best kept, both as to
absence of weeds and neatness of roads, I ever saw.”

_ In all the details of farming operations the Duke took great
pains to be well informed, and was, indeed, in every sense a
practical agriculturist as well as a great landowner. The late
Dr. Voelcker once said that he thought the Duke possessed the
best knowledge of the details of farming of any nobleman in the
country. Whilst about the land, it seemed as though his greatest
interest was in matters relating to farming, and he was always
well up in any question—no matter how small—that was under
discussion in the agricultural papers and elsewhere. In going
round the experimental plots, he was always anxious to
know what was the opinion of farmers as to the prospects for
the year, and what the probable prices and yields might be.
This was particularly the case during those years when he was
remitting large portions of the farm rents. He was, too, very
open-minded—ready to apply well-considered theories to the
test of practice, and to give them his support ifhe could depend
on the reputation of the men by whom they were advanced, though
he was sure to sift the matter, as far as possible, before coming
to a decision.

The Duke was an earnest friend to education, and erected
several schools in various parts of his estates—those at Husbourne
Crawley, Ridgmount, and Steppingley, to which he frequently
took his visitors, may be cited as examples. He was also
careful to provide gardens and allotments for the labourers.

144 Agriculture and the House of Russell.

His courtesy to all was proverbial, for he would not enter the
humblest cottage on his estate without removing his hat, and no
one who recognised him was allowed to pass without reciprocal
acknowledgment. No detail in the management of his estates
was too small for him to go into personally. He had an ex-
cellent memory, even for statistics, and those who had business
relations with him had to be very careful in their conversa-
tion if they desired not to be caught tripping.

Perhaps no one ever cared less for high rank and great
wealth; and the simplicity of his tastes, and his dislike of
display, gave to the public an altogether erroneous view of the
generosity of his disposition. In his early life he had not been
very near the title, nor was his own family wealthy ; and he
retained to the last in his personal habits the simplicity of a
poor man. He would sometimes observe that he had lived
upon all incomes, from 2001. to 200,0001., andthat he could do so
again. ‘To say that the demands on his purse, real or preten-
tious, were unceasing, is but to state that he shared the privi-
leges and penalties entailed by the possession of great wealth on
all who have to dispense it. But he was very tender to the
poor and needy, and was always willing to assist, and to assist
liberally, any good work that had a just claim on his sympathy
and help. The necessary inquiries having been made and
satisfied, the general direction was to send a remittance, “ but
with no name,” and the extent of his benevolence in this
anonymous form was doubtless very great. The town of
Bedford, in particular, has reason to be grateful for his constant
and generous help, abundant evidence of which is to be found
as one passes through its streets.

One of his intimate friends, Professor Jowett, the Master of
Balliol College, Oxford, has, in a sympathetic memoir appearing
in the Spectator of March 7, 1891, thus summed up in power
ful language the charitable instincts of his Grace :—

Tis acts of munificence were princely. He builta great many churches and
schools, certainly not from the motive which is said to have impelled great
men of old to the performance of such works. He liked to do for others
what they were unable to do for themselves; to try, for example, experi-
ments in agriculture which were beyond the means of ordinary persons,
Yet he never valued himself on his good deeds, but would rather apologise
for them. Sometimes, when he gave hundreds and thousands, he would
assume the character of the receiver rather than of the conferrer of a favour.
Tle was often believed, and sometimes believed himself, to be a pessimist ;
but his pessimism or cynicism was not inconsistent with the most careful
fulfilment of his duties te others. In him these qualities never obscured the
fine discrimination, the just allowance, the kindly sympathy, the intense
compassion for /es misérables, which in his best moments, when he was quite
sure of being understood, he gave proof of in word and deed,

. Agriculture and the House of Russell. 145

Mr. Dent writes: “The Duke was a very kind host, wonder-
fully well informed on many subjects, and with a great deal of
humour underlying a rather peculiar manner. When he enter-
tained the foreign visitors at Woburn during the Kilburn week,
his felicity and facility of expression, in German, French,
and English, struck every one with surprise.” Mons. Jules
Laverriére, of the Société Nationale d’Agriculture de France,
writes to me in the same strain, with a vivid remembrance of
his Grace’s urbanity and hospitality on the occasion referred
to by Mr. Dent. Similar testimony is forthcoming from those
who attended the admirably arranged excursion of foreign
visitors to Woburn during the year of the Indian and Colonial
Exhibition in 1886. In fact, as the Master of Balliol observes,
“it is not too much to say of him that he was one of the
finest gentlemen in Europe. In his own house he took extra-
ordinary care of his guests, and they went away delighted
with him.”

The graceful tribute paid to the memory of the late Duke
by the Earl of Ravensworth, as President of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, at the first meeting of Council held after his
Grace’s decease, is printed in eatenso in another part of this
number ; but room must also be found in the Journal for the final
sentences of the éloge of Professor Jowett, as summing up in a few
masterly words the leading characteristics of the Duke’s character:

He never gained distinction because he never sought it. He would haye
been the first to ridicule the notion that he would be remembered a century
hence. He was disinterested and unambitious, altogether free from the
prejudices of rank or wealth, not without a considerable touch of genius in
his nature. But he was a spectator, not an actor, on the theatre of the
world. He would not have cared to be numbered among famous men. To
be ignored was what he would have preferred. Yet there are a few persons
for whom he did care, who will always remember“him, as long as they live,

to have been a highly accomplished man of a singular goodness and kindness
of heart, and unlike anybody else whom they ever knew.

Immediately after his aecession to the title in January of this
year, Francis, the 10th Duke of Bedford, with the public spirit
that has always characterised his House, spontaneously expressed
his wish to provide for the continuance of the experiments at
Woburn which had been inaugurated by his father, the late Duke ;
and the Society is thus happily able by his Grace’s munificence
to contemplate without anxiety the progress of a work not only
valuable in itself, but of the highest importance to agriculture
and to the country at large.

ERNEST CLARKE.

a ace

Vou. W..T. $.—D) 1?

146

Official ‘Reports.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ROYAL
VETERINARY COLLEGE

On Investigations carried on for the Royal Agricultural Society
during the year 1890.

In presenting this Report to the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society, the first duty of the writer is to recognise the importance to
veterinary science of the munificent grant of 500/. per annum for
the purpose of founding a Department of Comparative Pathology
and Bacteriology at the College. By the aid of this grant a com-
pletely furnished laboratory for research has been established, and has
for some months past been in full operation. The effects of the
action of the Royal Agricultural Society extend far beyond this im-
mediate outcome. An impetus has thereby been given to the whole
system of veterinary teaching, as exhibited in the vastly improved
accommodation for students and the greatly increased facilities for
demonstration which the new offices at the College afford.

As our knowledge of the part played by bacteria in the réle of
nature is extended, we recognise more and more the importance of
acquiring information about their life-history, and especially so in
the case of those which must be classed as pathogenic (disease-pro-
ducing) or septic in their action after they have effected a lodgment
in the tissues of an animal. The revolution in the practice of, the
physician, surgeon, and veterinary surgeon during the last twenty
years will not be so much wondered at if it be kept in mind that all
the loss and disappointments caused by the following diseases may be
traced either directly or indirectly to. the action of micro-organisms
or bacteria—viz., tuberculosis, contagious pleuro-pneumonia, diph-
theria, cholera, swine-fever, rabies, glanders, typhoid fever, anthrax,
tetanus, leprosy, besides a whole host of others, which at present we
can only rank as being probably caused by bacteria.

A concise account of the new Laboratory will be a fitting in--
troduction to the Report of the work which has been carried on
during the past year :—

The laboratory is situated on the north side of the quadrangle of the
Royal Veterinary College, and consists of three rooms—viz., the preparation
room, the microscope room, and a photographic dark room,

Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary College. 147

In the preparation room morbid specimens are received, dissected,
hardened, and sectioned, or otherwise prepared for examination in the
microscope room; and when suitable results have been obtained they are
recorded for future use, if need be by means of photography, in the third or
dark room.

The atmosphere is full of bacteria or germs; but fortunately the patho-
genic organisms bear but a small proportion to those which seem to be harm-
less in their nature. Nevertheless, the fact of myriads of such organisms
being present in the air renders the investigation of bacterial diseases both
tedious and difficult, on account of the liability to atmospheric contamination

Fig. 1.—Steriliser with Reservoir.

a, water in steam chamber; 6, supply tube; c, lower chamber of reservoir; d, communicating
pipe; e, reservoir ; /, air-tight cap with lever for filling reservoir ; g, air tube; h, water gauge ;
i, thermometer ; &, felt-covered lid.

taking place during the necessafy manipulations. It has been found that
bacteria are unable to survive the action of heat, and when this can be
applied in a moist form a much lower temperature and a shorter time will
be required to kill them than if dry heat had been employed. When by this
means (or otherwise) freedom from these atmospheric interlopers has been
secured, our instruments and apparatus may be considered in a fit state for
further use—z.c., sterilised. Fig. 1 will give some idea of how this is carried
out ; the vessel to the left is the well-known steriliser invented by Dr. Koch,
and the suggestion that to Koch’s steriliser should be added the reservoir
was first made by Dr, A. P. Aitken, of Edinburgh.
L2

148 Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary College on

When the steriliser is prepared for use, the tubes, flasks, or instruments
are placed in a suitable vessel and lowered into the steam chamber; a
Bunsen burner is applied underneath, and in a few minutes steam rises, and
can be maintained as long as may be required; the water which has evaporated
being automatically replaced from the reservoir through the connecting tube (4).
When the contents of a flask or tube have by this means been made pure or
sterile, they can be kept so by simply plugging the orifice with cotton wool,
which is found to act as a filter to the air which may pass through it.

In practice it is found that micro-organisms may be cultivated upon
various media, such as the cut surface of a potato, a slice of beetroot, bread
paste, and blood serum; but by far the most useful medium is the peptonised
extract of beef and gelatine, so well known to all workers in this branch of

scientific investigation. It is now usually made

Fig. 2. in considerable quantities, and kept ready for use

in large flasks, an ingenious arrangement of which

(shown in fig. 2) enables it to be drawn off into
small tubes.

This is also the method of obtaining deposits
from milk. The cream, rising to the top, leaves
any sediment in the neck of the inverted flask,
from which it may be easily withdrawn by means
of the tap. Urinary deposits may be obtained in
the same way.

Many of these organisms or germs require a
higher temperature than that of our atmosphere
for their cultivation, and when an investigation is
being made into their action and effects on the
tissues of an animal, it is needful to cultivate them
at the same temperature as the animal's body.
For this purpose incubators are employed very much after the fashion of the
“ Artificial Mother” so well known to all interested in poultry, the source
of heat being regulated automatically. The incubators in this case, how-
ever, are specially fitted up to receive tubes, flasks, und plates instead of
eggs and chickens.

During an investigation into the cause of an outbreak of disease among
cattle it may be found requisite to grow hundreds of these minute fungi in
test-tubes and upon all of the media already mentioned, before the particular
one which has caused the mischief can be discovered. Even when this stage
has been reached we are only upon the threshold of our investigation, for
it must be further determined how this organism propagates itself, ubder
which of many conditions does it best thrive; its variations of form under
each of those conditions must be registered, so that in future outbreaks it
may be more easily recognised. After all thishas been accomplished it still
remains to be investigated how this disease-producing germ has obtained an
entrance into the animal, how it caused the lesions which may be discovered
in the various parts of the carcass, and, again, the naked-eye and the micro-
scopical appearance of these parts must be fully and accurately described.
It is proved beyond doubt by many failures that we must not rest content
with doing all this once only; again and again has the whole procedure to
be gone through, and varied so that errors of judgment and of manipulation ~
may be eliminated before the result can be made public.

When it is necessary to examine the diseased .carcass, a post-mortem
examination is made, and, as has been already stated, the naked-eye
appearance, size, and weight of the various organs are placed on record ;
then portions of these organs are prepared for a further examination under
the microscope by being hardened in ‘ Muller's fluid” or in alcohol. If the

Investigations in 1890 for the Ro

149

yal Agricultural Society.

‘payonyy nuowuny yun ‘adoosovorupy pun Yar auwT

‘vasuapuoyj— hydnshowsovu-ojoyg—'¢ “Ett

150 Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary College on

lesions have to be localised, or if their extent in an organ has to be noted, slices
or “sections” of exceeding thinness are cut from it by means of a Hamilton-
Bruce microtome; this instrument enabling us to obtain them of any size up
to 13 x 9 inches.

These sections, after being submitted to the action of yarious staining
reagents, whereby the diseased portions are differentiated from the healthy,
are mounted between two thin glasses and transferred to the microscope
room for examination; but it should be kept in mind that such large sections
are not always required, and as a rule much smaller ones, which can be cut
about the ;4,, part of an inch in thickness, are sufficient for all practical
purposes,

The whole of the foregoing, and also such work as modelling in plaster,
wax, and gelatine, is carried on in the preparation room, and from it is

Fig. 4.—Jar for Collection of Organisms from Atmosphere.

= = — =

a

a, air jar ; 6, perforated rubber cap; ¢, elbow tubes; d, exhaust tube; e¢, litre flask
with (7) tube leading from it.

reached the microscope room. Here the sections are placed under suitable
lenses, and the results of such observation are recorded. Frequently photo-
graphy, both with the ordinary camera and with the microscope and camera
combined, is called into aid in this important matter. Fig. 3 illustrates
the almost unique and expensive apparatus employed for photo-micrography.
It was made by Messrs. Swift & Son from designs and under the super-
intendence of Mr. A. Pringle, of Bexley Heath; it is fitted with the oxy-
hydrogen light of about 600 candle-power, and may be used to obtain
enlargements up to about 4,000 diameters.

In this room is stored the apparatus not in actual use, and also some
which is kept ready for emergencies.

A jar, which is of peculiar construction, and is used for the collection of
organisms from the atmosphere, is worthy of notice (fig. 4). The bottom
of this jar is covered with a layer of peptonised gelatiue, which has been

Jnwsatigations in 1890 for the Royal Agricultural Society. 151

sterilised. The air is then slowly exhausted through the orifices at ¢ c, and
replaced by a current which finds entrance at 6; the organisms in this cur-
rent gravitate and stick to the layer of gelatine on the bottom of the jar, and
from this, when they have grown into colonies, they may be transferred to
tubes for further observation, &c.'

From the foregoing description some idea of the equipment of, and
of the laborious and tedious nature of the work carried on in, this
department may be formed. Of course it is quite impossible in
the short time that has elapsed since the laboratory was completed
to furnish any results of the investigations which are at present
being conducted ; but, as might be expected, contagious pleuro-
pneumonia has received a good deal of attention, and more especially
a form of it wherein the lungs of the animals pyesented rather
different appearances to those usually seen in such cases. Tubercu-
losis, anthrax, swine-fever, foot-rot in sheep, various morbid
growths (tumours), and lungs of sheep affected with parasites have
been examined.

Numerous morbid specimens have been received during the time
the laboratories have been opened, and there is good reason to
believe that the extent of the means of research will not be in excess
of the demands which will be made upon them in the immediate
future.

Inquiries into Outbreaks of Disease among Farm Stock.

On January 18 a visit was made to Hereford in reference to a
cow suffering from chronic disease of the stomach and liver. The
chief features of the case were general weakness, loss of appetite, pro-
gressive wasting, and suspended rumination, with other symptoms of
disordered digestion. The animal died, and post-mortem examina-
tion revealed an enlarged and disorganised liver and an atrophied
and much dilated state of the walls of the rumen.

At the request of a farmer residing near Southminster, an
inquiry was instituted into an outbreak of anthrax in a flock of
ewes. In the course of the inquiry it transpired that since 1886
several horses and pigs had died suddenly after being turned into a
certain pasture on the farm, and from the description given of
the symptoms and post-mortem examinations there was no doubt
that the losses sustained were due to some form of blood-poison-
ing. In one or two instances the spleen was noticed to be con-
siderably enlarged, and the lesions generally were such as to de-
note anthrax. The water supply to the suspected pastures is
furnished by a brook into which, it is said, surface-drainage is re-
ceived from adjacent fields, which from time to time are manured

* I have to thank Dr. Noel Paton and the Laboratory Committee of the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh for placing at my disposal the blocks
from which figs. 1, 2, and 4 have been produced, and Messrs. Swift & Son for
the block for fig. 3—G. T. B.

152 Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary Oollege on

with imperfectly-boiled flesh obtained from a neighbouring “ knacker-
man.” The flock of ewes to which the outbreak refers was turned
into these pastures for a few hours on May 1. On the 3rd, two of
them died suddenly, and on the 4th three others succumbed after a
brief illness. Parts of the dead sheep were given to pigs, and in a
short time all that partook of them developed symptoms of anthrax.
Examination of the blood of the sheep revealed the presence of
anthrax organisms.

On February 1 a request was made for a visit into Surrey, where
several cows presented small tumours beneath the skin of the udder,
supposed to be tuberculous. General and microscopical examina-
tion of the morbid growths showed them to consist of fat, and they
were reported to be quite innocent growths and in no way likely to
contaminate the milk. The hereditary nature of these formations
was strikingly marked in the fact that mother, daughter, and
granddaughter were each and all affected.

On March 18 an inquiry was made into an outbreak of skin
disease of a peculiar nature affecting a flock of sheep in Kent. The
malady is reported to have prevailed in the flock for several years,
resulting in the loss of four or five sheep annually. It is confined
to ewes, and appears to commence shortly after the tupping season.
In every case it has proved fatal. Small, ill-conditioned animals
are most frequently its victims. The duration of the disease usually
exceeds two. or three months.

With reference to the symptoms, it is remarked that the fleece first
becomes unusually light in colour, and soon the affected animals are
seen.to nibble the wool and to show irritation of the skin by rubbing
and biting themselves. Later on the body becomes emaciated, the
wool falls off in locks, until the fleece is completely shed, and death
sooner or later results from exhaustion.

Examination of the skin reveals here and there small red spots
scattered over the surface, and slight scurfiness. Microscopical
examination of the scurf and of the skin itself was made, but no
parasites were found. Post-mortem examination showed all the
organs of the body to be free from organic disease. The malady
is still the subject of inquiry.

A visit was made into Hampshire on April 18 respecting an
outbreak of disease among sheep. At that time 100 of the flock, out
of a total of 807, had died. The chief symptoms of the disease were
diarrhea and wasting, resulting in exhaustion and death. In some
few instances sudden attacks of giddiness with inability to stand
were the only indications of disease. The duration of the malady
was from one to three weeks. In one or two instances, however, it_
did not exceed forty-eight hours. 5

Congestion and inflammatory changes in the stomach and intes-
tines, softening of the kidneys, and a general watery state of the
tissues of the body were the chief post-mortem changes. Some
parasites (Z'richocephalus affinis) were found in the large bowels, but
not in large numbers. The sickness and mortality were considered ,
to arise out of the indifferent supply of milk furnished by the ewes,

Investigations in 1890 for the Royal Agricultural Society. 153

compelling the lambs to subsist almost exclusively on dry food and
the tops of turnips, which they had not the power to digest.

The circumstances relating to an outbreak of anthrax on a farm
in Sussex were inquired into in May last. The disease occurred
in a herd of beasts of which seven or eight succumbed or were
destroyed. The herd was divided into several lots, and with one ex-
ception the disease was confined to animals receiving furze as a part
of their food. Large quantities of foreign grain were being used
for feeding purposes, but whether this or the Indian bones with
which the pastures had been freely dressed was the source of infec-
tion could not be satisfactorily determined. It was believed, how-
ever, that the sharp spines of the furze, by wounding the mouth, had
opened a channel for the entrance of the virus into the system.
Acting upon this view of the causation of the disease, measures of
prevention were prescribed, and mortality ceased.

On June 17 a visit was made into Wiltshire, where a large mor-
tality was reported in a flock of lambs. The disease had existed for
some weeks, and had proved very destructive. Profuse diarrhea,
rapid wasting, ending in exhaustion and death, were the chief symp-
toms of the affection. Post-mortem examination was made in several
instances, and considerable numbers of thread-worms (Z'richocephalus
affinis) were found in the large bowels of all the cases inspected.
A course of treatment, general and medical, was prescribed, with
the result that the mortality ceased, and the health and condition of
the flock rapidly improved.

An inquiry into an outbreak of influenza fever in Lincolnshire
was made in July last. The disease appeared in a stud of horses
belonging to a farmer, and although it had caused serious losses, it
had so far abated at the time of the inquiry as to require no specia
treatment. ;

On August 20 advice was sought respecting a sudden outbreak
of disease in a herd of cattle belonging to a farmer in Berkshire.
At the time of the occurrence the animals were pastured in fields
adjoining the house and farmstead, and immediately preceding it a
large pond in the garden had been run off into the pasture. The
water carried with it a considerable amount of putrefying organic
matter, and it was believed the cattle had partaken freely of this,
and in consequence had become the subjects of septicemia or blood-
poisoning, which both the symptoms and post-mortem appearances
denoted. Eleven animals were suddenly attacked, of which number
one died and the remaining ten had to be destroyed. Dulness,
stupor, muscular tremors, great prostration, and an unsteadiness in
the gait were the leading symptoms. Post-mortem examination
showed intense general congestion of the principal organs of the body,
and blood extravasations into the tissues of the stomach, kidneys,
lungs, and heart. Search was made for other possible causes of the
outbreak, but none were found.

In October last inquiry was made into an outbreak of parasitic
bronchitis in a herd of Jersey heifers belonging to a farmer in
Worcetershire. The disease was almost exclusively confined to

154 Annual Report of the Royal Veterinary College.

animals recently imported, of which nine were attacked out of a lot of
eighteen, and four died. The great percentage of deaths resulting
from the disorder was not altogether due to the direct influence of
the parasites, but was materially influenced by exertion and exposure
while travelling to and from agricultural shows. A frequent husky
cough with free expectoration, hurried breathing, diarrhcea, increas-
ing prostration and weakness, were the leading symptoms. Post-
mortem examination revealed large numbers of thread-worms
(Strongylus micrurus) in the bronchial tubes, and considerable con-
solidation and disorganisation of the lungs resulting from broncho-
pneumonia. With regard to treatment, it was recommended that
the sick beasts be placed in a dry well-ventilated shed, and be kept
perfectly quiet. The body was ordered to be clothed, and a plenti-
ful supply of good nutritious food allowed. Diffusible stimulants
and tonics were also prescribed according to the requirements of the
case.

On November 10 an inquiry was made into an outbreak of
cowpox in a herd of milch cows in Wiltshire, with special reference
to the fitness of the milk for human consumption. The herd com-
prised about sixty animals, the greater number of which were suffer-
ing from the disorder. The disease had existed for several weeks
when the inspection was made, and, commencing simultaneously in
one or two animals, it gradually extended to others, and ultimately
through nearly the whole herd. Of several men engaged in milking
three were inoculated in the hands, which gave rise to an eruption
similar to that on the cows’ teats. The eruption as it appeared
on the latter commenced in one or more thickened and slightly raised
spots on the teats. In a short time these were followed by small
vesicles or blebs, which on being broken by the hands in milking
were soon converted into angry-looking ulcers. Further manipula-
tion of the teats resulted in considerable swelling, and in several
instances the inflammatory action extended to the udder, and this,
together with imperfect milking, led on to garget and destruction
of one or more of the quarters. Notwithstanding the state of
the teats, and the infectious character of the disorder, all the
animals continued in good general health throughout the attack. It
is interesting to note that although the milk from these animals was
being drunk for three weeks by large numbers of persons, no ill
effects were reported from its use. It was nevertheless considered
unfit for human consumption, and ceased to be used for that

purpose.

Cases of Disease in Cattle, Sheep, and Swine admitted for
Treatment during the year 1890.

Amongst a variety of interesting and instructive cases of dis-
ease received in the College Infirmary from members of the Society
and also from district veterinary surgeons in the course of the past
year were the following :—

(a) Sheep suffering from aphthous disease affecting the lips and

Raport of the Education Committee, February 3, 1891. 155

sometimes the legs, particularly on sandy or gritty soils, during wet
and cold weather. This malady did not prove to be contagious, as
healthy sheep penned with the diseased ones did not suffer.

(b) Contagious mammitis (garget) in ewes : a disease which has
proved very fatal in wet weather in several districts.

(c) Cases of parasitic lung disease in lambs.

(d) Cases of pleuro-pneumonia in cattle, for experimental treat-
ment by sulphurous acid gas, which was not proved to possess the
curative properties ascribed to it.

(e) Cases of foot-rot in sheep were admitted at different times
during the year, and experiments were tried to test the alleged con-
tagious character of the disease, but without result. Further experi-
ments will be made as opportunities occur.

(/) Several lambs were admitted suffering from diarrhcea, result-
ing from the invasion of tape-worms ; but these parasites were not
so common among lambs as they were during the previous year.

It is not possible in the space which is available for this Report
to refer to the investigations which have been carried on for more
than a year in reference to the life-history of the lung-worm. But
a separate Report is being prepared, and will shortly be ready for
publication.

G. T. Brown, Principal of the College.

January, 1891.

FURTHER REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COM-
MITTEE ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN
AGRICULTURE.

[For previous Report, see Vol. I., Third Series (1890), page 851.]

Since the meeting of the Council in November last, when the subject
of agricultural education was discussed, the question has been
prominently brought forward atthe meetings of County Councils,
and of agricultural clubs and societies in most parts of England.
Several letters asking for advice or suggestions on the subject of
education have been received by the Secretary of the Society and by
individual Members of the Committee. Almost every County
Council in England proposes to devote a portion of its funds to the
teaching of agriculture. It is, therefore, very desirable that these
funds should be applied systematically, and not wasted over temporary
or ephemeral projects.

2. The first difficulty in administering the funds, which are at
present at the disposal of the County Councils, arises from the
restriction imposed, “that these funds must be applied in institu-
tions existing in the administrative county in which the funds are
raised or have been granted.” The Government have, however,
promised to introduce a Bill to remedy this defect ; and our sugges-

156 Report of the Education Committee, February 3, 1891.

tions are based on the supposition that these funds may be used for
assisting institutions in contiguous counties when it is evident that
the inhabitants of the county so contributing would be benefited
thereby.

3. We must not imagine that our agricultural population is so
destitute of means of agricultural information as some people would
declare. For years earnest and cultivated men, like Sir John Lawes,
Sir Harry Thompson, Mr. Pusey, Mr. Chalmers Morton, Mr. Wren
Hoskyns, and many more whom we could mention, gave to the
public the results of their research in the pages of the Journals: of
the Royal Agricultural and the Bath and West of England Societies,
and in the “ Agricultural Gazette.” Since those earlier days others
have continued in the agricultural press of the present day to spread
their theories and extend their teaching; and every one who has
noticed farm pregress for the last fifty years, both in prosperous and
unfortunate times, has seen the result of this teaching. We might
also mention the good work done at Cirencester, Downton, and else-
where, and the encouragement given in this direction by the Science
and Art Department and by our own Society.

4. There is now, however, a demand for something beyond this.
We are asked to provide competent teachers who may instruct
classes in colleges or schools, or who may take their teaching to the
country villages and towns, and so bring it home to the people
interested.

5. Many institutions for higher education have of late years been
established, and these have already in existence the means of teach-
ing physiology, chemistry, botany, mechanics, and other branches of
science which are cognate to agriculture. It would not, we think,
be difficult to find such convenient centres in most parts of England.
The College of Science at Newcastle, affiliated to the University of
Durham, would supply a centre for the northern counties ; the
Yorkshire College at Leeds for Yorkshire ; the Owens College at
Manchester for Lancashire and Cheshire ; the University College of
North Wales at Bangor for North Wales and the border counties ;
Nottingham for one portion of the Midlands, Birmingham» for
another ; Cambridge for the Eastern and Oxford for the Home
Counties. No doubt we have omitted some institutions; but we
have sufliciently indicated that there are already in existence centres
of education which might serve for groups of counties, at which
could be obtained the adequate instruction of teachers, and also at
which students might attend without much difficulty.

6. Groups of County Councils might agree to support the
agricultural or other technical instruction at these centres. A
common course of teaching might be agreed upon between the~
authorities of these institutions, a common standard for degrees,
diplomas, and scholarships, and possibly a common Board of
Examiners. To all these objects the County Councils affected
might contribute ; and scholarships might be given by local autho-
rities, and by the Royal and other Agricultural Societies. It might
then be possible to relinquish the Senior Examinations of the Royal

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March, 1891. 157

Agricultural Society, and to give instead a certain number of medals
or other honours for distinguished students. New scholarships of
more value than those now existing might be given for older
students, without relinquishing those which we furnish for boys, and
which are of considerable advantage.

7. At these centres of education the analysis and examination of
manures and feeding stuffs might be carried out; research in
physiology and other studies encouraged ; and a class of students
and teachers educated who would be available for agricultural sides
in county or other middle schools. From the same source would
come peripatetic lecturers, and instructors for village classes and
continuation schools. We should look forward at ‘most centres to
the establishment of dairy schools, both fixed and peripatetic, and
to the provision of such lectures on rural life as might equally in-
terest the farmers’ and the labourers’ children.

8. It is not our province to enter into detail as to how such
schemes could be carried out, but rather to suggest a general view
of the subject, and to indicate that the Royal Agricultural Society
and the County Councils may do more good in assisting existing
institutions, and in aiding the establishment of new institutions of a
similar character, than by attempting themselves to establish teaching
institutions of their own.

Moreton, Chairman.

February 3, 1891.

[For the discussion in Council on the adoption of this Report, see
page xxxiv of the Appendix. |

QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE,

Marcu 1891.

1. Mr. J. Bayley, of Willaston Hall, Nantwich, sent on nae 25,

1890, a sample of manure sold as “Blood and Bone,” price 7/. 10s.

per ton, The following analysis and report was returned on
June 2:

Moisture. : . 21°30
1 Organic matter and water of combination . 22-78
Monobasic phosphate of lime - 4°85
Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phos- }
phate) rendered soluble by acid } Dealt Ue
Insoluble phosphates . ‘ ; ’ » 11°30
Sulphate of lime, alkaline sya &e. | : . 29°76
Insoluble siliceous matter. : F 10:01
1 Containing nitrogen . - . = Lots
equalto ammonia . : 5 - . 215

me manure contains some bone, but the price charged for it is altogether
a °

158 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March, 1891.

Repeated applications for further particulars of the transaction
failed to elicit any reply from Mr. Bayley.

2. Mr. E. F. Maunder, of Crichel, Wimborne, sent on November
20, 1890, a sample of linseed-cake which was offered to him at 8J.
per ton. The following analysis and report was returned on
November 27 :

Moisture . = ; “ - - . 13°50
1 Albuminous compounds (fiesh-forming matters) . 26°50 100-00
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . g . 3134
Woody fibre (cellulose) 5/2. pig aeaaees
? Mineral matter (ash) . : ; . . . 855
1 Containing nitrogen . . . - 424
? Including sand . = 3 . » 355

The cake is a very impure one, containing over 34 per cent. of sand and
a considerable admixture of foreign seed, and some earth-nut husk.

In reply to inquiries Mr. Maunder wrote as follows :
December 8, 1890.
Dezsar Sre,—Re linseed cake 1437. I have seen the party from whom
I obtained the cake of which I sent youa sample. The cake was sent me
by an error, as he had two lots come in, and his man loaded my wagon
from the wrong lot: this is sold as an impure cake at 7/. 5s. per rey and is
manufactured in Hull.—I am, yours truly,
Epwiy F. MavspEr.
Dr. Voelcker.

An allowance was subsequently made to the purchaser.

3. Mr. Philip Ascroft, of Rufford, near Ormskirk, sent on
December 3, 1890, a sample of manure, 25 tons of which he had
bought as “‘ Blood and Bone Manure,” price 3/. per ton on rail.

The following analysis and report was returned on Decem-
ber 2:

Moisture . . x 3 - 5 : . 1570
1 Organic matter . : - : - - - 33:50 ~
Phosphate of lime - : - : - 321} 100-00
Oxide of iron, alumina, &e. . : 3 : : a)
Sand . : ‘ ; 2 : : . 13°45
1 Containing Siecle : : ‘ - . 26
equal to ammonia “ " - 334

The manure called “ Blood and Bone kent which you say you bought
as “pure,” appears to be mere refuse bone and hair material mixed with
some blood. The bone is chiefly conspicuous by its absence. It is of
course absurd to describe such u material as “‘ pure” blood and bone manure;
it is neither pure blood nor pure bone. As a rule, manures of this description
are sold at prices very much in advance of their actual value.

Mr. Ascroft wrote, on December 15, to say that, as he had
merely purchased according to a sample handed to him at the time,
he had no claim against the vendor.

| Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March, 1891. 159

4, Mr. J. C. Beall, of Bletsoe Park, Bedford, sent on December
10, 1890, a sample of soot which he had bought as genuine and free
from any admixture—price 45s. per ton carriage paid. The delivery
appearing unusually heavy and in wet condition, Mr. Beall sent a
sample for analysis. The following analysis and report was returned
on December 13 :

Moisture. ; , ; : é - ye LO. 40
1 Organic matter and ammonia salts é : . 80°72
Oxide of iron, alumina ? : : < . 26:46} 100:00
Carbonate of lime, &e. . ? ; - : Pa S09)
Insoluble siliceous matter. : , : . 16:47
1 Containing nitrogen : : : : Pa Sal:
equal to ammonia A : : : . 143

The sample consists largely of cinders, flue scrapings, &c., and contains but
little valuable soot. It is not worth anything like the price charged.

Subsequently Mr. Beall wrote that, as he had been given a very
considerable reduction, he was not willing to mention the vendor’s
name. The amount of this reduction was 12s. 6d. per ton.

5. Mr. J. Pratt, of Lickhill Farm, Stourport, sent on January
' 29,1891, a sample of a 2-ton lot of cake, which he said was sold
to him as “pure,” and to contain 11 to 12 per cent. of oil, the
price being 8/. 7s. 6d. per ton, carriage paid. The following analysis
and report was returned on February 4:

Moisture. : : : . : : . 14:25
Oi: : ; , : , : ; eel EI 4
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 21-06 100-0
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre. . . 31°55 0
Woody fibre (cellulose) : ‘ : : eel2:b%
2 Mineral matter (ash) . ; E : . at S:60
1 Containing nitrogen. ‘ : - noon
?Including sand. 0 3 5 : - 401

The cake, although possessing oil above the guarantee, does not contain
this in the form of pure linseed-oil, for there are hemp, rape, earth-nut,
spurry, and other seeds in quantity mixed with the linseed. As‘a conse-
quence, the percentage of nitrogen is very low, and the fibre excessive,
also there is 4 per cent. of sand present, and the cake is altogether a very
impure one.

The cake was one of Hull manufacture, and was purchased of
an agent in Kidderminster market. Mr. Pratt added that he would
be careful how he purchased in the future, for though the agent in-
formed him that the cake was sold as oil-cake, he was under the
impression at the time that he was buying Jinseed-cake.

A reduction of 2/. 10s. was subsequently made.

6. Mr. R. Neville Grenville, of Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, sent
on February 3, 1891, a sample of linseed-cake which had been
supplied in December toa tenant of his, by Messrs. Croad & Brown,

160 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, March, 1891.

Bridgwater Oil Mills. Half a ton had been purchased at 8/. 5s. per
ton. The following analysis and report was returned on February 6 :

Moisture. - . : . - : . 12:50
“a . 3 eae eee : : -), LOWE
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 26°50 :
Mucilage, sugar, aad Siycatible fibre ee - . 32:04 100-00
Woody fibre (cellulose) - ; ; : «= SO
? Mineral matter (ash) . : ; ‘ : eee t
1 Containing nitrogen . : : ; . 408
? Including sand . : ; - , . 4:00

In addition to the 4 per cent. of sand, the cake contains admixture of
rape and starch-yielding seeds. It is an impure cake.

The vendor, when spoken to as to the inferiority of the cake,
stated that, being out of cake at the time, he bought this lot, and
was selling it for 5s. per ton less than he gave for it.

7. Mr. T. Holtby, of Cowlam, York, sent on February 13, 1891
a sample of manure which he had purchased at 80s. per ton. The
following analysis and report was returned on February 18, 1891 :

Moisture. : - : ; 2 : . 18:25
1 Organic matter . - : : - : - 16:05
Sulphate of lime . 5 : . - : . 45°54 ;
Oxide of iron, &e. ‘ : , : : . 2°44 10000
? Phosphoric acid . : : 5 : : = Tia
Sand . : : : : : z ; . 15:95
1 Containing nitrogen. - : : oh ae
equal to ammonia . : : . : «oe
2 Equal to phosphate of lime . - : . 386

This is a manure of but little value, and the price asked is extravagant.
It is half gypsum with about 4 per cent. of phosphate of lime, and con-
tains little more than this of any value.

Mr. Holtby said he had not asked for any guarantee, and was

unwilling to give vendor’s name.
.

The Committee have reason to know that a considerable amount
of cake is being sold as “o7/-cake” which is not made from pure
linseed, but contains a large admixture of other seeds, some of which
may be injurious to stock; they would, therefore, warn farmers
against purchasing “oz/-cake” under the impression that they are
getting “pure linseed-cake,” and they again wish to impress upon
buyers the desirability of insisting that the invoice shall deseribe the

purchase as “ Pure Linseed-Cake.”
Emtyn, Chairman.

March 2, 1891.

161

REPORT OF THE CONSULTING AND ACTING
CONSULTING CHEMISTS FOR 188 AND 18go0.

NotwitHstanpinc the large accession to the number of Members of
the Society which took place i in 1889, there were fewer samples sent
to the Laboratory for examination than in the year previous. In
1890 there was, however, a small increase in the number of samples
sent by Members, as will be seen from the following comparative
table :-—

List of Anaiyses made for Members of the Society.

1889 1880
Linseed-cakes . 2 - : - 309 454
Undecorticated cotton-cakes a ‘ 5 a hee 95
Decorticated cotton-cakes . : see 85
Compound Rea and meals. - 36 35
Rice-meals : : 9 6
Cereals . = : - - : : . 18 15
een ad b : 2 : - - : _ = 8
and hay. E : = 3 4 1 2
Butter, milk, and cream . ; ; : 6 8
~ Waters : : = : : seeds 143
Superphosphates . . : }
Dissolved bones and compound 2 - ¢ aol 27
artificial manures . : =e
Bones and bone-meals . : - - ae 00 7
Peruvian guano . : - : : 220 18
Fish guano . : : : : = <a> 28 21
Shoddy 2 7 3 : d : ae 20 29
Basic slag. : 3 - : we 22
Sulphate ofammonia . - : : + 2S 7
Nitrate ofsoda_ . - - z iy =F; oe 65
Potash salis . - : : : . a 11
Refuse materials . - : i ey 49
Soils . : - = : weed 12
Miscellaneous. iu, > : t rae! 10
1,436 1447
Analyses in connection with the Annual) 80 20
Country Meeting. 3
Analyses in connection with the Woburn }
experiments and those of Local Agricul- cul: 123 79
tural Societies . 5 - 3
Yofal . ~ - - . 1,639 1,546

Linseed-cakes.—Feeding materials, and especially linseed-cakes,
have, as usual, formed a large proportion of the samples sent for ex-
amination, and, indeed, it is well that this should be the case. The
Chemical Committee’s Quarterly Reports show markedly the attempts

a of certain vendors to avoid committing themselves to a clear

Ps VOL. Il. T. S.—5 M

162 Report of the Consulting and Acting Consulting

guarantee of the purity of the linseed-cakes they offer for sale, and
also the prevalent disregard by Members of the advice which the
Society gives them, only to buy cake which is “ guaranteed pure and
delivered in good condition.” In the spring of 1890, the Council
issued to the Members of the Society a form of contract embodying
these conditions, and it is gratifying to know that in the majority
of cases where this guarantee has been insisted upon, a pure cake
has been supplied.

The plea constantly put forward by vendors is, that it is impos-
sible to guarantee a cake to be “pure,” and this is given as an
excuse for a guarantee in such terms as “made from linseed
imported on a basis of 96 per cent. purity.” Such a guarantee is,
however, useless ; that linseed is bought on a 96 per cent. basis un-
fortunately does not mean that it contains 96 per cent. of linseed.
When a cargo of linseed is imported into this country, samples are
taken and analysed by the Linseed Association, under a contract
according to which, in the case of Calcutta seed, 4 per cent. of admix-
ture is allowed. The amount of dirt and foreign seed is determined
in a sample drawn from the cargo, and, should it exceed the allowed
4 per cent., a reduction is made in the price. Non-oleaginous seeds
and dirt are considered valueless, but oleaginous seeds, other than
linseed, are reckoned as being half the value of linseed. A cargo of
linseed may thus be bought on the 96 per cent. basis, and yet not
contain anything like 96 per cent. of linseed. In the quarterly
report of the Chemical Committee for March 1890, a case is men-
tioned in which the manufacturers of a linseed-cake, which was re-
ported on as containing an excessive quantity of sand, stated that
they found that some of the seed which they had bought on the 96
per cent. basis contained no less than 28 per cent. of dirt.

A guarantee commonly insisted on by cake-makers is that of
“95 per cent. pure.” This is open to the objection that, after the
seed has been crushed and made into cake, it is impossible to ascertain
definitely whether there is 95 per cent. of linseed in it ornot. Before
the seed is crushed it is perfectly easy to determine this ; butpywhen
one is no longer able to pick out the individual seeds, nothing more
than an approximation to the real percentage can be arrived at.
Again, in such a guarantee, no notice is taken of what the 5 per
cent. of impurity consists ; it might be, for instance, some poison-
ous seed, such as castor-oil bean or mustard. Such a guarantee,
further, opens the door to the wilful admixture with a pure seed of
adulterants, the exact amount of which cannot be precisely deter-
mined. To the cake-makers who endeavour by careful screening to
produce a really pure cake, the recognition of such a guarantee as
the above is an injustice.

That linseed-cake, in order to be considered pure, should be abso-
lutely free from every particle that is not linseed is of course
impracticable. Linseed naturally contains impurities, and it is
hardly possible to remove every trace of these. By careful screen-
ing, however, the purification of the seed can be carried to an extent
which leaves it practically pure ; and this is, in fact, actually done

Chemists for the Years 1889 and 1890. 163

by those makers who are willing to go to the necessary trouble and
expense.

The existence of so many inferior cakes in the market is the
fauit of those farmers who look more to their actual money outlay
than to seeing that they get their money’s worth. So long as they
are content to buy, as linseed-cake, cake which contains all the im-
purities which may naturally be in the seed, or which have been
added to it, so long will the supply meet the demand. Were they
one and all to insist on having pure cakes only, there would soon be
no market for the many bad cakes sold. The term “oil-cake” is a
misleading one, and may now almost be taken as synonymous with
impure linseed cake. Such “ oil-cakes” are media for getting rid of
the dirt and weed seeds which are removed from linseed and other
seeds, and, although they are sold at prices much below that of pure
linseed cake, and are described as being “good value for the money,”
they are often dear at any price. Numerous cases of injury to stock
have arisen through feeding on oil-cakes which have contained seeds
of a deleterious nature.

That farmers are very careless in the manner in which they
purchase their feeding-stuffs and manures is an indisputable fact.
The common practice of taking, in return for their farm produce,
cake and manures from dealers without any guarantee whatever, is
a fertile source of the farmer being defrauded. The figures of an
analysis are in themselves alone no sufticient guarantee ; for a lin-
seed-cake may be impure and yet show a very good analysis.

The necessity of having a guarantee such as is put out in the
Society’s form of contract is clearly shown by the following instance
which occurred recently. A Member of the Society had purchased
a quantity of linseed-cake on the strength of an analysis which
indicated that the cake contained nearly 15 per cent. of oil. The cake
was duly delivered in two lots, but when the cattle were tried on
the second lot it was noticed that they did not like it, or do as well
as before. Samples were therefore taken from each delivery and
sent for analysis.

The sample representing the first‘delivery was found to contain
11-60, and that of the second delivery 12:27 per cent. of oil, instead
of the 15 per cent. stated in the analysis on which the purchase was
made. Moreover, the second delivery of cake was in a mouldy and
unsound condition, and the cake had evidently been made from
damaged seed not fit for feeding.

American linseed-cakes, the purity of which has been favourably
spoken of in previous reports, were, at least during 1889, not nearly
as good as before. Since then, however, an improvement has been
shown, but the cakes are generally excessively hard and low in oil.

In reference to the value of oil in linseed-cake as a feeding con-
stituent, an experiment carried out by Mr. F. I. Cooke, of Flitcham,
King’s Lynn, on behalf of the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, is
recorded in Part IT. of Vol. XXV. (1889) of the Journal, and is
well worthy of attention.

A fresh adulterant for linseed and other cakes has to be added

M 2

164 Report of the Consulting and Acting Consulting

to the already long list which vexes both farmer and analytical
chemist. This is the use of the refuse from glucose manufactories.
Attention was drawn to it by the receipt from an anonymous source
of a memorandum in the following terms: ‘‘ We send you a small
“sample of twenty tons of the saccharine meal just fresh made. It
‘is the palest and sweetest we have seen. The price is 37s. 6d. per
“ton, free delivered to steamer here, net cash, bags 2s. each. We
*‘iave had no complaints from the several seed-crushers who use it
“regularly, of either their oil or cake, in fact several have told us
“voluntarily they have not had a single complaint from their cus-
“tomers. We are told its composition is rice, sago, and tapioca.”

Subsequent to this, the presence of this material was detected in
two linseed-cakes, a close examination of which was induced by the
occurrence of an abnormally high percentage of mineral matter (ash),
viz. between 10 and 11 per cent., instead of about 6 per cent., as is.
usual in linseed-cakes. This ash on analysis was found to consist
largely of sulphate of lime.

Cotton-cakes.—In the last report attention was drawn to a number
of samples of undecorticated cotton-cake which were found to be
stale or mouldy, and to the danger attending their use. Consider-
able improvement in this respect has since been shown, but during
the past season some cases of adulteration of cotton-cake with
worthless materials have been referred to in the Quarterly Reports of
the Committee. There are cases, also, of cotton-cake made from
seed not properly freed from the cotton-wool. The danger of using
such cakes is very great, inasmuch as the cotton is apt to collect in
lumps and cause ir ritation and subsequent inflammation of the coats
of the stomach. Undecorticated cotton-cake, although having—
owing to its somewhat astringent properties—-a special adaptability
under certain circumstances, cannot compare either in feeding or
manurial value with good decorticated cotton-cake. Experiments
carried out at Woburn show the decided superiority of the latter in
both respects. The great difficulty, however, is to obtain decorticated
cotton-cake free from hard lumps, and in anything like a modefately
soft condition.

As regards meals, a word of caution is necessary. A case was
recently ‘brought to notice in which several animals had been
poisoned by the use of a meal made from musty decorticated cotton-
cake, One or two cases have occurred in which decorticated cotton-
cake has been found to be mixed with rice and rice-meal, ostensibly
for the purpose of rendering it softer. This is well enough so long as
the cake is sold under the clear understanding that it is a mixed
cake, and if it be priced accordingly. When, however, it is merely
described as “ decorticated cotton-cake of a soft kind,” and the
price has been the full one of pure decorticated cotton. cake,
notwithstanding the admixture of the cheaper rice meal, the sale
under such description should not be permitted.

Hemp-cake.—A sample of this gave on analysis :—

s

Ohemists for the Yeurs 1889 and 1890. 165

Moisture. . : : : : : . 13:48
Oil. : : : : : oO
1 Albuminous compounds : : : ; . 80°50
Digestible fibre, eters, Caer : : . 15:36
_ Woody fibre 5 . : ; : . 23°53
* Mineral matter (ash) . . : : . SOS
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen : : . £88

2 Including sand : : : . 209

The cake in some respects is richer than ordinary cotton-cake,
though haying rather more woody fibre. The extracted oil had a
somewhat acid character, and hemp-cake may probably not be so goo¢l
a food as cotton-cake, though, when cattle have become used to it, it
may do as a substitute in the case of fattening animals.

The price, 5/. 10s. per ton at Hull, offers, however, no special
inducement for its use in preference to cotton-cake.

Rice-meal.—-A Member of the Society sent a sample of rice-meal
for examination, stating that neither horses, cattle, sheep, nor pigs
would eat it, although they had all been previously feeding on rice-
meal. The analysis it gave was :—

Moisture 10°58
Oller : 8:73
1 Albuminous compounds 10°75
Starch, digestible ane, &e: . 50°23
W oody fibre 11:33
Mineral matter (ash) . 8:38
: 100-00

1 Containing nitrogen : : : ‘ 1-72

2Including silica. : = : : 4:04

This meal was not of good quality, and, as shown by the excessive
amount of woody fibre, contained a good deal of the husk left with.
it. As the animals possibly were “previously feeding on a good
quality meal, the fact of this excess ef husk may not improbably
have kept them from taking the new lot readily.

Manures.—Superphosphate, which for some time past had been
sold at extremely low prices, has more recently experienced a
decided rise in price. This has been caused mainly by the increased
cost of labour and freight, also by the scarcity of phosphates suitable
for the manufacture of good superphosphate. To meet the increased
cost, superphosphates of very inferior quality, and made from low-
grade phosphates, have been in several instances sold to those farmers
who do not trouble to buy with a definite guarantee of quality.

The last number of the Society’s Journal contains records of
cases in which superphosphate has been sold at prices of 3/. 5s. and
3l. 10s. per ton, and yet has only contained from 18 to 21 per cent.
of soluble phosphate. This clearly shows the necessity for farmers
buying with a definite guarantee. In this connection it is satis-
factory to note that the ‘Chemical Manure Manufacturers’ Associa-

*

166 Report of the Consulting and Acting Consulting

tion—an association representing the leading manure manufacturers
of the country—at their general meeting last year passed the follow-
ing resolution :

That this meeting is of opinion it is desirable, in the interests of the
trade, that, for the future, the percentage of soluble phosphate guaranteed
shall be branded on each bag sold for the home trade in a conspicuous
place.

A farmer, therefore, has now only himself to blame, if he does
not satisfy himself as to the quality of the superphosphate he buys.

Dissolved Bones.—In the published Quarterly Reports reference
has been made to some cases of manures sold as “pure dissolved
bones,” which on examination have proved to contain either an
admixture of material other than bone, or to be made from bones
which had been deprived of the greater part of their nitrogenous
matter by the process of steaming them. Under the provisions of
the Merchandise Marks Act it has been laid down by the highest
authorities that, for a manure to be properly described as “ pure
dissolved bones,” it must be made from raw bones and acid only,
without any admixture whatever.

Nitrate of Soda and other Nitrogenous Manwres.—It is worthy
of note that, during the two years, the numerous samples of nitrate
of soda sent for analysis have all been found to be genuine ; sulphate
of ammonia, with few exceptions, has also been of good quality.
Samples of shoddy, wool-refuse, &c. frequently contain a large
quantity of dirt, and in many instances weed-seeds occur to a large
extent. These, when their vitality has not been destroyed, are a
very fruitful source of spreading the growth of weeds upon land to
which such shoddy is applied. Cotton-waste, a substance manurially
of no value, was in one instance sold as wool-manure, and was
reported upon accordingly.

Refuse and Miscellaneous Materials used for Manure.—The
most frequent source of impo-.ition which the farmer experiences is
undoubtedly in the sale to him of materials with no proper guarantee
of quality, or else under misleading descriptions worded in’ such
a way as to make him believe that he is buying at a very low price
a manure which is a very valuable one. A frequent practice with
respect to many manures to which high-sounding descriptions are
given, is to lay special stress on the words “guaranteed analysis,”
and to publish in a conspicuous part of the circular an analysis
which on a close examination is found to be not really the one
guaranteed, and which does not represent the composition of the
material actually sold.

Cases of the above nature have been repeatedly published in
the Quarterly Reports of the Chemical Committee, but unfortunately
the attraction of a low price is a strong incentive to a farmer to buy
what is represented to him as being a manure worth two or three
times the price asked. For example, a farmer bought 14 tons of a
manure stated to be genuine Peruvian guano at 2/. 12s. 6d. a ton,
The following was the analysis :—

“Chemists for the Years 1889 and 1890. 167

Moisture. . . . . ‘ . 5. G6
1Organic matter . : . : : se esis,
Phosphoric acid . eens : . : . 23:05
Lime . : : : : ; : : . 23°51
Oxide of iron, alumina, c. : - ; » 29:92,
Insoluble silicious matter. c : ; a 2G OF
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : 2 - 0:20

equal to ammonia . : . . 0:24

This material did not partake at all of the nature of Peruvian
guano. It contained practically no ammonia, and was simply a
phosphatic material containing a large amount of iron and alumina.
In another instance, a purchaser of a so-called “ turnip manure,”
being doubtful of its quality, sent a sample for examination. The
analysis showed :—

Moisture. . - : : : : . 23°60
1Organic matter . ° - : : - . 10:02
Sulphate of lime . : : : : . . 30°16
Carbonate of lime : A : : 5 we 87
Oxide of iron, alumina, &c. . A - : « 5:85
Phosphate of lime . : ° . ied
Insoluble silicious matter . : - - 27°80
100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . - : » 0-48

equalto ammonia . : » 058

This material was nothing but waste impure sulphate of lime,
possessing very little value indeed.

Waters.—During 1890 an exceptionally large number of samples
of water were sent for analysis. This no doubt was mainly due to
the scarcity experienced in the water-supply. Many new wells were
sunk, and disused wells were once more called into requisition.
The water of these often proved to be greatly contaminated and
altogether unfit for a drinking supply. Several waters, otherwise
pure, contained, moreover, appreciable quantities of lead in solution.
This in some cases amounted to as much as three-quarters of a grain
per gallon. These were, as a rule, soft waters, but not in every
instance.

It may, in conclusion, be mentioned that, in addition to the
list of analyses given at the commencement of this Report, a very
large number (upwards of 800) of partial analyses of the soils of the
Woburn experimental fields were made during the year 1890.

J. AuGustus VOELCKER,
E. W. VoeELcKer.

168

REPORT OF CONSULTING ENTOMOLOGIST.

ImMEDIATELY on the breaking up of the long frost of December and
January, inquiries regarding insect pests (then found in good health
and uninjured by weather influences) recommenced as usual.

At the beginning of February I had observations (with specimens
accompanying) of Cockchafers’ grubs being turned up at a locality in
Aberdeenshire at the rate of some hundreds to the acre. On
January 29, inquiries were sent me regarding what proved to be the
(sometimes) very destructive caterpillars of the Common Swift Moth,
Hepialus lupulinus, being found in bean stubble, about six inches
below the surface, with the frost still in the ground for several
inches below them. These were from near Hayward’s Heath, in
Sussex. Also at Seaford Grange, near Pershore, about 9 or 10
o’clock in the evening of January 29, moths of various kinds were
found to be about in plenty. Amongst them were females both of
the Winter and of the Mottled Umber Moths,

These points are of serviceable interest to note just now, as
giving proof from field observation (of what is well known scientifie-
ally) that cold—at least, such cold as is ordinarily met with in this
country—cannot be depended on to destroy insect life so long as the
insects are in their naturally-formed or chosen shelters. So far as
effect of mere cold goes, I have found in my own experiments that
beetle and fly larvee, which had been frozen torpid, showed, except in
a solitary instance, no apparent damage on being thawed, neither
did butterfly chrysalids after being frozen stiff; nor did I find any
damage occurring to caterpillars, whether of moths or of Ichneumon
parasites, nor to Thrips, nor to the Apple-bark Acari, nor to the
Phytopti, which I had opportunity of examining, exposed to similar
temperatures as the above, in their natural circumstances. ’

If, however, their natural shelters are broken up and the creatures
are exposed to alternate wet and cold, their numbers may be most
serviceably diminished.

The Small or Common Swift Moth caterpillars are not often
inquired about, but where they do occur they have a power of doing
very great mischief. They feed at the roots of a good many kinds of
garden and field crops, including grass ; my own acquaintance with
them has been in winter and spring, at the roots of winter beans or
of bean stubble when ploughed up. These caterpillars are somewhat-
over an inch long, cylindrical, yellowish or whitish, with brown
horny head, and the next segment horny above but pale. The other
segments are usually (but not always) marked on the back with four
black dots, each producing a bristle, and with a line of dots and
bristles running along each side. Their colour distinguishes them
from the Common Surface Moth caterpillars, and they may be known

Report of Consulting Entomologist. 169

from beetle or fly grubs by being sixteen-footed. They are to be
found at work at this time of the year a little below the surface of
the ground, and presently change to chrysalids in cells in the earth,
from which the smallish, clay-coloured and white-marked moths come
out in May.

Where the ground has no growing crop on it, the best way to
prevent recurrence of the attack is to plough or skim, so as to turn
the caterpillars out on the surface, or thoroughly loosen the soil
round them ; and, even later on, amongst growing crops, cultivating
as deeply as could be managed would do some good by throwing the
caterpillars out to the weather and birds.

We had a very good instance of this just lately in the case of
the Cockchafer grubs found near Skene, in Aberdeenshire. These
great grubs, of which specimens were sent me on February 2, were
found, in ploughing up lea to a uniform depth of 54 inches, to the
amount of a few hundreds per acre. Those which were thrown out
were found not to have sufficient vitality to rebury themselves ; and
as the plough was commonly followed by large birds, specified as

Common Cockchafer, with larva and pupa.

crows, starlings, &c. which cleared the grubs thoroughly, the work
was done very satisfactorily.

The grubs sent me appeared to be full-grown, at which stage
they are usually considered to go down much deeper than six
inches ; but on inquiry I received information that they had not
been further down, for they were all- found at the bottom of their
burrows., There was, however, so much “foggage ”—that is to say,
old grass remaining on the grass-land which was being broken up—
that this acted in some degree as a protection from the frost.

The above notes appear to be worth special attention as being
practical observations of the serviceableness of turning out cater-
pillars in the winter.

With regard to the Winter Moths, and some others of the
Orchard Moths, we have also trustworthy observations of even the
unusually long-continued cold of the past December and January
not having availed either to prevent development of the moths from
their chrysalids, or to destroy the vitality of the eggs.

On the evening of January 29 (about 9 or 10 o’clock), moths
were found in plenty at Seaford Grange, near Pershore, and amongst
these the wingless females of the Winter Moth (Cheimatobia bru-

170 Report of Consulting Entomologist.

mata) and of the Mottled Umber Moth (Hybernia defoliaria) were
taken on the trunks of apples, and plums, and a large number of the
winged males of the Mottled Umber Moth, living and freshly caught,
_were found sticking in the grease-bands on the apple-trees. Other
kinds, too, were identified as being present. I have also notes from
a locality in Herefordshire, where caterpillar-prevention is receiving
careful attention, that trees with eggs on them which were placed
in heat about the middle of February were speedily found to have a
full crop of caterpillars.

The non-effect of cold in doing what is called “clearing the
grubs,” has long been known scientifically, but it is still so little
appreciated popularly that it appears worth while to note a few of
these fresh field observations whilst they are still almost in progress.

With regard to considerations of prevention of Orchard Moth
caterpillars (independently of weather influences), we now know,
from observations of the past and previous seasons, that Winter
Moths and other destructive kinds having wingless females may
be found at intervals ascending the orchard trees, from somewhat
before the middle of October until at least the end of March. These
orchard observations clearly show that although “sticky-banding”
is (as we all know) exceedingly serviceable for lessening the numbers
of the great body of autumn and early winter ascending moth-pests,
yet the constant complaints (such as are sent to myself yearly
about May) from orchard-growers—that their trees are swarming
with caterpillars, although they spared no pains in banding in
autumn—have a cause beyond what autumn banding can possibly
meet.

We see for ourselves, beyond what is laid down in entomological
books, that there is enough presence of wingless moths to account
for the subsequent attacks, besides what is owing to the presence of
other kinds—as Lackey, Small Apple Ermine, Figure of 8, and
other injurious kinds—which no “ sticky-banding ” will stop, because
the moths come on the wing.

To meet this difficulty, although palliatives—such as shaking
down caterpillars, smoke from specially-
sometimes be of use, no thorough remedy is known here, nor in the
great fruit-producing countries of the world, excepting spraying
the trees with insecticides of such a nature, and so applied, as will
kill the whole collection of ravaging hordes at once without injuring
the leafage or promise of fruit ; and for this purpose the applications
chiefly used, on the broad scale of United States and Canadian fruit-
growing practice, have been emulsions of soft soap or applications of
Paris green or London purple.

We have not tried the emulsions of soft soap on a large scale
here, because there is great difficulty in so mixing the mineral oil
and soft soap that they shall not presently separate and the —
application greatly injure the leafage. London purple, which, like
Paris green, is an arsenical insecticide, has a capacity of doing much
good, and in the coming season its use will probably be more
widely tried, But the observations, which have now been con-

Report of Consulting Entomologist. 171

tinuously carried on from February in last year up to the present
time with regard to the use of Paris green, have shown that in this
country, as well as in the States and Canada, it may be applied
mixed with water as a fine spray with excellent effects in clearing
the caterpillars, without injuring the leafage, and without subsequent
injury to the trees or anything else.

I am in constant receipt of information as to the working of
these two insecticides, and shall be happy to give all information in
my power on the subject to any applicant.

Amongst other attacks Clover-stem sickness is showing itself as
usual, and in last week I had a portion of a warbled hide sent me
showing that the year’s mischief has already very badly begun.
All these matters, and the usual routine of inquiries, Iam attending
to, to the best of my power.

ELEANOR A. ORMEROD.
March 3, 1891.

172

Hotes, Communications, and
‘Reviews.

THE COST OF WHEAT-GROWING

Tere has been much correspondence in agricultural papers lately
as to the cost of growing wheat, and it is well known that the
cultivation of wheat in the United Kingdom has been gradually
falling off in area, during the last twenty years, until the home
growth has become almost an unimportant item in the total re-
quirements of the country.

Wheat is not so much grown, chiefly owing to the fall in price
from an average of about 48s. per quarter, previous to 1880, to an
average of 32s. per quarter, which may be taken as that of the last
five years. This means, putting the crop at 28 bushels per acre, a
loss of no less than 2/. 16s. per acre, or 6,954,066/. on the acreage
of 1890, a loss that has to be borne in varying proportions by the
landowner, the tithe owner, the farmer and the labourer. The
purpose of this paper is to estimate how far the farmer’s loss is
made good to him by diminished cost of production, and with this
object the following tables have been drawn up, to show the differ-
ence in the expenditure on growing an acre of wheat in the ten
years previous to 1880, and the last five years.

»

Before 1880 The last five years
& s.. a, Sea @&
Filling, carting, and
spreading dung 10 0 " , , « 0: °O
Ploughing - Sn eLO eau : : ; > LO) oe
Rolling . : LG : - : =) alk
Dragging, 4s.; har-
rowing, 33. ; % 30 ’ : : ree,
Drilling : ; 2 4 ; : : eee
Harrowing : 1 O io
Bird scaring, 1s.;
spring roll, Is. . 2 0 : : : oe ee
Harvesting : = 15 0 15 0
Threshing, 7s. 6d.;
dressing, 3s. 9d.:
and marketing,
3s. 9d. : » 16 0 ; : oko: 10
Carried forward 3310. , : 3 310

s

The Oost of Wheat-growing. 173

Before 1890 The last five years
Pe dy GS & s. d.
Brought forward 3 3 10 Brought forward 3 3 10
Rent A . egal Sao ee 30 % fall. 17 6 less 10% 6 4
Tithes, rates, and ese
taxes 5 - lay 25 % ‘> : a6 PT eS
seed 2 bush. )
Seed, 2 bush.@/7s.. 14 0 @ 4s. 6d. J 3-0
OL Gee (rome Mak, «Be Pees ST ee eS se
—s 114 0
5 12 10 411 6
411 6
1 1 4 diminished cost of production.
& os. ds. | Sg. de
Produce. | Produce.
28 bush. @ 48s.perqr.8 8 0 | 28 bush. @ 32s. perqr. 5 12 0
Expenditure - . 5 12 10 | Expenditure : 4a 6G
215 2 | 1 One

The resulting diminished cost of production, 1/7. ls. 4d., leaves
17. 14s. 8d., a deficiency that has to be put up with by the farmer
as against his position prior to 1880. In other words, he made a
profit in the first period of 2/7. 15s. 2d. per acre; he now only
makes 1/. Os. 6d.

The first table is taken from the Agricultural Gazette of Feb-
ruary 21, 1881; and it was then drawn up with the view of reducing
the usual imaginary scale of expenses for growing an acre of wheat
to a practical figure that might leave a margin of profit. In the
second table it is estimated that there has been since, on corn-grow-
ing lands, a fall of rent of 30 per cent. ; of tithes, rates, and taxes of
25 per cent. ; and of labour, including money actually paid to the
labourer, cost of horses, horse keep, and cost of implements and
machinery, of 10 per cent.

There is no doubt a very considerable variation in the apparent
cost of growing an acre of wheat in different parts of the kingdom,
and there is also a very different resulf ; but it may be allowed that
when there is an increase of expenditure there is a more valuable
crop, and that a cheaply-grown crop is not a heavy one. So that a
generalisation is the only way to get at figures that are likely to be
near the truth.

The fact of wheat being grown at a profit at all now is one not
often admitted, and yet it cannot be that farmers have gone on
year after year cultivating it at a loss. They have been much dis-
couraged by the continual fall in price, and until rents, and tithes,
and other expenses fell in sympathy, the cropcertainly did not pay
to grow ; but now that there has been a general reduction, an average
yield should apparently be profitable, though the small profit accru-
ing does not leave much margin to balance the outlay on the crops
that are frequently grown chiefly in preparation for wheat. Turnips
fed off by sheep, and heavily manured, if followed by wheat should
make it produce above the average ; but unless the expense of the
turnip tillage is spread over the rotation, it is impossible to regard

174 The Cost of Wheat-growing.

it as otherwise than exceedingly unremunerative. However, as
the manuring, cleaning, and cultivation, and subsequent feeding off
the land, where that custom prevails, are undoubtedly beneficial until
the end of the rotation, it is not right to charge the whole loss in
growing green crops to the next year. The same may be said with
regard to the heavy dressing of farm-yard manure, which is usually
applied to the ley ground ploughed up for wheat. It is certainly
not nearly exhausted by the wheat, and its influence is seen through
the succeeding course of cultivation.

In the table that has been quoted, no mention is made of manure
further than the labour attached to it, it being assumed that the
straw, the value of which is not taken into account, goes to make
the farmyard manure ; or, if it is sold, that its equivalent is returned
to the land in the form of bought dung or artificial fertilisers.

The aim of the cultivator of wheat must be to have his expendi-
ture so low that there is an assured margin of profit. When that
is accomplished, and when we can grow wheat remuneratively as
cheaply as our foreign competitors, there appears to be no reason
why our home acreage should not be gradually increased, so as to
put the country generally into a sounder position as regards produc-
tion of food, without in any way interfering with the doctrines of
free trade.

To go back to quite another period, in comparing the various
payments made by the farmer now with those in the time of Arthur
Young, it is immediately noticeable that the gainer is the agricul-
tural labourer. Though more must be allowed in the later figures
for use of implements and machiner Ys the three following examples
show the expenditure on labour to be 22s. 6d., 27s. Td., and 33s. per
acre, at the end of last century, against 63s. 10d, and 57s. 6d. at the
present time.

Arthur Young's Lastern Tour.

Vol I. p. 349. Vol. II. p. 47. Vol. III. p, 88.
Doneaster, 1769. Norfolk, 1771. East Kent, 1771. ,
£8 da. £s. d. £ sod.
One ploughing 5 0 One plough - 3 0 Plough . 7 0
2harrowings . 1 0 Seed and sowing 16 0 Sead and sow ing 13 0
10 pecks seed . 12 6 Manuring . sel tb 0 Weeding . 1 6
Sowings . 4 3 Reaping and har- Harvesting 10 0
Rent . ° -210 0 vesting . . 6 Threshing 8 0
Harvesting oe lk) Threshing . » 0 Carrying . : 4 0
Threshing . ‘ 6 8 Carrying - 3 0 Rent . : yt ee
Carrying ets) Rent . Sp opcseee nO

10 1 Be Oy 8 13 6

Produce, 30 bush. Produce, 3 ye bar Produce, 4 qrs.
@ 87s.4d. .7 0 0 40s. . 0 0 @ 45s. . «(%, 0-0
Straw. . a lige Ka a) Straw " Bl ted)
810 0 915 0

These examples are chiefly interesting as showing that, more than
a hundred years ago, the return was better than it is now, with a
considerably lower outlay.

It is not easy to put a fixed sum on the wheat crop alone to

The Cost of Wheat-growing. 175

represent its cost of cultivation ; an estimate only can be made,
various other things being taken into consideration. In dealing
with the new grounds of new countries, where they merely plough,
sow, reap, and thresh year after year until the land is exhausted,
there is no difficulty. But, grown as wheat is grown in England, one
crop in a rotation, taking its share in the manuring, cleaning, sheep
feeding, it is hard to do anything but to put the expense of the
whole rotation on one side, and the receipts on the other. That,
naturally, would be beyond the scope of this paper, which is more to
find out whether the actual mechanical operation of growing and
harvesting an acre of wheat, including rent, rates, and taxes, has
become a cheaper one to nearly the same extent as the produce has
declined in value.

The table quoted from the Agricultural Gazette of February 21,
1881, would have been considered before that time to be decidedly too
low. It used to be a common saying that it would not pay to grow
wheat for less than 50s. per qr., and then it came to be said that it
could not be grown below 40s. per qr. At twenty-eight bushels, the
money value of these two prices comes to 8/. 15s. and 7J. per acre,
and both of them show a profit on an outlay of 5/, 12s, 10d. as in
the table.

In reply to a cireular sent to a few large growers of wheat, the
answers show that the average from widely distant parts of England
of the actual expense, without any charge for manure, is 4/. 11s. 7d.
This is singularly near the estimate made of the last five years.
The figures compare as under :—

Average of answers Last five years
- sa a PGP earn oe
Cultivation and seed = 5 5 1h ale) Mak 1 LIEAG
Harvesting, threshing, and marketing a | Ue OT.)
Rent, tithe, rates, and taxes . = cole (Sh co ib O
zea i A ATG
= James A, Cairn. -

PINK EYE AMONG HORSES IN 1890.

INFLUENZA, in that peculiar form now known as “Pink Eye,” has
been largely prevalent during the past winter.

My attention was first directed to it in a large stud of horses in
the north of England in October last, after which it spread in all
directions, and there is perhaps hardly a provincial town of any size
in which it has not prevailed to a greater or less extent It also has
been prevalent in many country districts, where serious losses have
been sustained. In London the mortality, I believe, was never
greater than during the recent outbreak, This has been shown by
the plethora of dead horses received at the slaughtering establish-

176 Pink Eye among Horses in 1890.

ments of Messrs. Harrison, whose yards for several weeks were filled
to repletion with carcasses. Horses of every description, under all
circumstances and conditions of feeding and general management,
both old and young, have been victims to the epizootic. Large studs,
however, in populous centres, where many animals are crowded to-
gether under one roof, with indifferent ventilation and drainage,
have suffered beyond comparison with those better managed and
living under more wholesome conditions.

The existence of the epizootic during the Christmas season
proved most disastrous to railway and tramway companies, parcel
contractors, cab proprietors, job masters, and others whose business
is so largely increased by holiday necessities. Here horses met
the disease under the most adverse circumstances. Long hours,
with consequent overwork, fatigue, and debility, do much to predis-
pose to this, as to all specific fevers, to aggravate symptoms, and to
bring about serious and fatal complications. Besides, it is rarely
the case that establishments in populous industrial centres have the
means of isolating the sick from the healthy ; and, as a result, the
disorder spreads from horse to horse until all or nearly all become
its victims. Moreover, the mischief is usually added to when, as
the result of disablement of some of the stud, others are called upon
to do extra duty. These overwrought creatures, worn down by
toil and fatigue, soon become receptive of the virus of the affection,
and too often succumb to its influence. At such times as Christmas
in town, and seedtime and harvest in the country, townsmen and
agriculturists alike are disposed to risk the stud in the exigencies of
the hour, and to disregard the early indications of disease. Such
trifling, however, almost invariably adds to the mortality record.

The form of the disease recently prevailing was singularly free from
those catarrhal symptoms which are commonly identified with influ-
enza outbreaks. Discharge from the nostrils, soreness of the throat,
and cough are quite exceptional phenomena in the course of the
malady ; and the more we see of the disorder, the more are we con-
vinced that the term “influenza” embraces several febrile affections
pathologically distinct from each other. The period of incubation—
z.e. the time which elapses between the reception of the contagion
and the manifestation of disease—varies somewhat in different cases,
but it may be said to range between three and five days. All
animals are not equally receptive of the disorder: some resist it
altogether, others yield only after long exposure, and some contract
it at once. A similar discrepancy is also observed with regard to
its intensity, duration, and result. In one case it is mild and brief ;
in another it is severe, protracted, and fatal ; while in yet another
it rung its course rapidly, and quickly destroys life. This latter
characteristic is especially the case where animals have been con-
tinued in work for a few hours after the onset of the disease.

In addition to the unfavourable conditions already enumerated,
horses are predisposed to attack by any sudden change from country
stables to the vitiated atmosphere of towns. Rarely have animals
from the country entered the stables of our large firms and horse-

Pink Eye among Horses in 1890. 177

owners without speedily becoming affected with the epizootic. Great
numbers of new purchases have fallen victims to the disease within
a few days of their arrival, and have succumbed before entering
upon the work for which they were intended. Overcrowding, in-
efficient ventilation, bad drainage, and various other causes which
enfeeble the constitution and diminish its vital resistance, tend to
augment the receptivity of the individual horse. Up to the present
time, private stables have suffered comparatively little from the dis-
order. Increased air-space and good sanitary surroundings have
proved a barrier against the disease, or, failing this, have tended
to greatly shorten its duration and mitigate its effects.

Unlike the catarrhal form of influenza, there are in this disease
few or no premonitions of its onset : hence it is that horses, appar-
ently well in the morning, are found in the middle of a day’s work
suddenly manifesting symptoms of an urgent character. The onset
of the affection is abrupt and severe—so much so that in two or
three hours a horse is completely prostrated, and reduced from seem-
ing health to a helpless invalid. Sudden and extreme prostration is
the characteristic development of the early period of the disorder.
In a short space of time the patient becomes dull and extremely
depressed. ‘There is lowering of the head, the eyelids droop, and
the face wears an expression of extreme dulness and languor. At
the same time, movements—formerly active and vigorous—become
lethargic and feeble, and, less frequently, the gait is rolling and
unsteady. In a state of rest the animal shifts the weight from
one limb to another, and gives evidences of muscular pain and ex-
haustion. He will lie down for long periods, emitting now and again
a deep moan ; and if approached shows no disposition to resume the
standing posture. Closer examination reveals a quick and feeble
pulse ; the breathing is more or less accelerated. The temperature
of the body is heightened to the extent of three, four, or five degrees,
and associated with this there is marked general prostration. . The
membrane of the eye is of a deep brick-red hue, and in some
instances the structures of the eyelids are generally swollen, partly
from the overloaded vessels and partly also from an escape of
fluid into the tissues of the part. In extreme cases this dropsical
state of the membrane causes the lids to be everted, or turned inside
out, and there is a profuse discharge of tears. Thirst and lack of
appetite are early symptoms in the attack, and for the most part the
bowels are constipated.

In some outbreaks, however, and especially where animals
have been closely packed in ill-ventilated and otherwise unsani-
tary stables, the digestive canal shows marked irritability and
disorder. In other cases a foul stinking diarrhcea results, attended
with signs of abdominal pain. In these examples of the affection
the animal paws the ground, looks towards the flank, and repeatedly
lies down in slight paroxysms of pain. These are unfavourable
symptoms, and unless relief be quickly afforded a fatal termination
to the case is much to be feared. A very striking clinical feature
in the recent outbreak refers to the state of the bladder, which in

Vor. T..$.—5 N

178 Pink Eye among Horses in 1890.

numerous instances has been found to be seriously involved in a
general inflammation of the lining membrane. This has occasioned
symptoms of abdominal pain (often referred to the bowels), and fre-
quent staling and restlessness of the hind extremities. Swelling of
the legs takes place early, and continues throughout the attack. The
same condition may appear about the lips, beneath the breast, and
along the course of the belly. Indeed, all the depending parts of the
body show a disposition to dropsical effusion into the tissues. The
duration of the disease varies from five to fifteen days. In favour-

able cases, symptoms of returning health are seen about the sixth

day, when the head ceases to droop, the eyes become bright, a desire

for food returns, and the swellings begin to disperse. The tempera-

ture of the body falls, and the pulse and respirations show a marked

change both in number and character. In unfavourable cases, pul-

monary complications most commonly arise in which the lungs

become involved in a gangrenous or suppurative inflammation, end-

ing in septicemia (blood-poisoning) and death. Not infrequently

pleurisy is added to pneumonia, or the disease centres itself in the

large bowels and kills by gangrenous enteritis.

The proportion of animals attacked has varied considerably in
different studs, depending upon special circumstances and manage-
ment: in some it has not exceeded five to six per cent., while in
others it has reached as high as seventy to eighty. Similar variations
are noted in the mortality of the disease : in some studs it has not
exceeded two or three per cent. ; in others I have known it to reach
as high as fifteen per cent. This greater death-rate is invariably
identified with overcrowding and bad sanitation, and especially with
an absence of means of segregation of the sick.

With reference to the treatment of influenza, it has to be borne
in mind that it is essentially a febrile disease and, like all other
specific fevers, runs a definite course. The symptoms above de-
scribed are evidences of the struggle which is going on between the
virus on the one side and the vital resistance of the animal on the
other. Inasmuch as we cannot effectively assail the former, measpres
of treatment must be directed to strengthening and upholding the
latter and guarding against complications which threaten in the
course of the attack. The treatment of influenza, although in some
individual instances simple enough, is not, from the broad standpoint
of medicine, a duty to be undertaken by the amateur save at con-
siderable risk. Numerous examples of serious and extensive losses
due to amateur doctoring have recently been noticed. Much, how-
ever, may be done by the intelligent horse-owner to limit the spread
of the disease, and by judicious nursing to assist the efforts of the-
veterinary practitioner.

Prompt and complete isolation of the sick from the healthy is of
the first importance in dealing with this and other contagious dis-
orders. The sick box or stable should be large and dry, with ample
ventilation, and where practicable the temperature should be kept
at between 55° and 60° Fahr. Good drainage and the frequent
removal of all excrement, with general cleanliness, are important

Pink Eye among Horses in 1890. 179

adjuncts to medical treatment. In the summer months, when the
weather is warm, the door of the stable may be thrown open ; and
at all times provision should be made for the free entrance of fresh
air. Protection from draught should be provided, and on no
account should the animal be unduly exposed. To uphold the
surface circulation and prevent internal congestions, the body should
be well clothed and the legs enclosed in flannel bandages. The latter
may be removed from time to time, and the legs briskly rubbed with
a straw wisp ; but the body-clothing should on no account be com-
pletely taken off until the fever subsides.

In view of the prostrating influence of the disease, everything
should be done to support the bodily strength. Any description of
wholesome food may be allowed in small quantities, often repeated
so long as the appetite remains. Cooked food, however, is preferable,
if acceptable to the patient. Well-scalded oats and bran, with a
fair amount of boiled linseed, form an agreeable and attractive diet
for sick horses. This may be varied by scalded chaff and malt-
meal. Should these be refused, the appetite may be tempted by a
few carrots and old beans, or, in the summer season, by vetches,
clover, rye-grass, and any other well-matured green foods. Rank,
rapidly grown herbage should be avoided on account of its tendency
to ferment and irritate the bowels. Medical treatment for the most
part is to be directed towards subduing the fever and guarding
against internal congestions. For this purpose, alcoholic stimulants
or ethereal compounds are much to be preferred, and, in conjunction
with saline diuretics, prove most efficient in lowering the tempera-
ture of the body. In some instances, where the bowels are much
constipated, a small dose of sulphate of magnesia, given for two
consecutive days, with a little aromatic powder, is usually sufficient to
excite a gentle action in them. When the fever has dispersed
and signs of returning health appear, convalescence may be com-
pleted by a course of iron tonics in combination with quinine or
nux vomica. A plentiful supply of good food should now be offered,
and slow walking exercise allowed if the weather is favourable ; but
the too early resumption of work shorld on no account be pérmitted.

J. WorTLEY AXE.

MARKET RIGHTS AND TOLLS.

TE Royal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls, which began
its work in July 1887, presented its final report to Parliament on
January 15,1891. I had the honour of being appointed as one of
the Assistant Commissioners, and as such I visited and reported
upon some eighty markets in England, including Bolton, Bradford,
Carlisle, Hull, Leeds, Newcastle, Norwich, Sheffield, and Sunderland,
and had the opportunity of hearing from local authorities and
market frequenters of all classes their opinions on most of the
N 2

180 Market Rights and Tolls.

subjects referred to the Commission. It is impossible here to deal
exhaustively with all the evidence which was collected, for it occupies
ten volumes; but it may nevertheless be instructive to examine
some of the more important conclusions which have been arrived at
by the Commissioners. It is unfortunate that several of these con-
clusions are not unanimous, so that there will in all probability be
but little legislation on the subject, but for the present we may well
content ourselves with the practical lessons which can be learnt
from them.

By far the most important conclusion is the first :

That it is desirable to put an end to the system under which no person
is allowed to hold a market within a certain distance of an already existing
market, due regard being had to the interests of the present possessors of
the monopoly rights.

This goes to the root of our present system of markets, and is agreed
to by seven only out of the twelve Commissioners, whilst it is rejected
by tive. It is said by the majority that the Market Monopoly
obviously belongs to a state of society wholly different from that
of the present day, because the restriction of a six-mile limit by
which it is guarded is quite unsuited to the rapid means of transit
and communication which now exist, and there is no longer the
same desire that each locality should have its own commercial
centre. J do not think, however, that this conclusion necessarily
follows from the premisses. It may be conceded that the old mono-
poly right cannot be justified, but it does not follow that all mono-
poly rights are therefore undesirable. The question is one of a purely
practical character. Can a successful public market be established
and maintained without some sort of monopoly rights? This is a
matter upon which each person is certainly entitled to his own
opinion, for, except in the United States, the experiment has not yet
been tried. In the United States, as will be seen on p. 17 of the
Report, a Market Monopoly is unknown, and the result has been
twofold: first, public markets have fallen into disuse, and have
given way before private enterprise ; secondly, there is no longer
any control exercised by the State or Local Authority over markets,
except for general purposes of health and police regulations. The
power of establishing markets still exists, but it is not exercised by
the municipal authorities. I do not know whether the majority of
the Commissioners have considered the possibility of such a result
following from their conclusion, but I should suppose not, as the
rest of their resolutions point to the abolition of private enterprise
in markets, and to the establishment of greater control by Local _
Authorities. The answer given on this point by Mr. Little, who
dissents from the opinion of the majority, is as follows (p. 124) :—

The case of markets appears to be analogous to that of a gas or water
undertaking. They exist for the convenience and advantage of the public ;
they are frequently established and developed at considerable cost of capital,
for which no immediate return can be expected, and no extension of the
public market system can be looked for if the privilege which has hitherto
attached to markets be withdrawn,

Market Rights and Tolls. 181

Much the same reasoning is used by Mr. Allanson Picton and
Mr. Pierce Mahony, On p. 125 they say :—

The advantages of a market to the community very much depend on the
concentration of business in one place; and this is largely contingent on the
existence of those ancient rights. They may be objectionable when in
private hands, but when held by representatives of the whole community,
they may be so used as to facilitate local trade.

* Sir James Corry and Sir Thomas Martineau say on p. 123 :—

In the nature of the case it is impossible in practice to avoid market
monopolies altogether. It must be remembered that a market essentially
differs from a shop, the former depending on a concourse of both sellers and
buyers. It is therefore impossible to make an indefinite increase of markets
in any particular place, and any attempt to do so, while it might inflict
serious injury on established markets, would confer no corresponding benefit
ou the community.

These arguments of the minority are supported by the experience
obtained from the United States, and appear to me to be convincing.
A choice must be made between private enterprise practically
uncontrolled, on the one hand, and, on the other, public markets
with monopoly rights, regulated as to charges, bye-laws, production
of accounts, and restraint as to leasing, &c. There can be no doubt
that the evidence which has been collected in regard to general
markets is overwhelmingly against the system of private enterprise,
because it leads to excessive charges, and constant disputes between
the market owners and the general public. It is for this reason that
the Commissioners unanimously recommend in their third conclusion :

That the Local Authorities, whether in county or borough, ought to be
empowered to purchase markets now in private hands, either by agreement
or by compulsion,

It is not difficult to appreciate the reason for this. If the town
does not provide or regulate the market, it will have no interest in
supporting it. The owner must make all that he can out of it ; and
the less accommodation he provides within reason, the greater may
be the competition for places ; because, when all is said and done,
the farmers and vegetable growers will certainly try to sell within
a walking or driving distance of their homes if possible. The idea
of bad accommodation and high tolls is abhorrent. to all the Com-
missioners, and they, therefore, resolve, not only that all market
owners should make bye-laws subject to the Local Government
Board, but that the stall-holders should have a right of appeal
against excessive charges to the County Council. If the market
monopoly is abolished, the market owner enjoys no privilege, and the
public can no longer claim the right to control the management or
the charges for the use of the market. If the terms of one market
owner do not suit the stall-holders they must seek another, and
there is nothing for them to complain of.

But, it is argued, if there is a desire for a local commercial
centre, the ratepayers will not be slow to provide it, I doubt this,

182 Market Rights and Tolls.

No provident local authority would invest the ratepayers’ money
upon a concern which might at any moment prove to be an abso-
lute loss, owing to the competition of private enterprise. I will
illustrate what I mean from my experience in some of the towns
which I visited in my capacity of Assistant Commissioner. In
Leeds the capital expenditure upon markets is variously estimated
at 162,268/. and 288,549/., with the result that the Market Com-
mittee is unanimously against allowing private competition. It
will be seen on p. 449 of Vol. IV. presented with the Report, that
the Committee prevents auctioneers from selling cattle outside
the market, although the auctioneers are willing to pay the market
toll, which they consider a perfectly reasonable demand. At Bed-
ford there is an excellent cattle market belonging to the town on
a space of three and a half acres, but only three-quarters of the space
is used, because the principal trade in sheep and pigs is carried on
at a private auction mart close by. At Ripon noattempt is made to
create a satisfactory public cattle market, because private individuals
have been allowed to obtain prescriptive rights of market. At
Sunderland the general markets are carried on at a loss of 3001. a
year, partly because a private market has been allowed to establish
itself in a more central position. At Spennymoor a rival market has
arisen within a quarter of a mile of that belonging to the Local
Board, but outside the district of the latter, and the result has been
disastrous to the prosperity of the market (Vol. IV. p. 369).

Mr. Ashton, one of my colleagues as Assistant Commissioner,
reports as to Basingstoke that “the cattle market has been crushed
by the establishment of an auction mart within the town” (Vol. ITT.
p- 385). It is evident from these examples—and many others might
be cited—that free competition may ruin public markets, and that
the ratepayers are not very likely to risk their money if such com-
petition is to be allowed. Thus one of the principal objects which
the Commissioners have in view, namely, that of placing markets
generally under the control of local authorities, will not be attained.

Before leaving this part of the subject, I ought perhaps to point
out in greater detail the objections which are made to the monopoly.
These are illustrated on p. 83 of the final report by a résumé of
a successful action brought by the owner of the Spitalfields Market
against the Great Eastern Railway Company. The defendants in
that case were prevented from establishing what might have proved
a very useful market for the sale of roots and vegetables in London,
because it happened to be within 3} miles of a chartered market.
I would say of this case that it does no doubt show the objection to
any hard-and-fast lines by way of restriction, but it does not prove ~
that the absence of all restriction is likely to be beneficial.

Further evidence as to the objection to the monopoly is given on
pp. 60 to 63, where restrictions on the sale of goods outside the
market are dealt with. It is clear that some of these cannot be
justified, as, e.g. the regulation at Penrhyn that butchers shall
not be illowed to sell in their own shops on market days. The
chief question raised by these restrictions, however, is as to the

Market Rights and Tolls. 183

treatment of hawkers. Mr. Ashton says, on p. 61, that in the
West of England the general markets are unable to compete with
hawkers, and he is of opinion that for purposes of protection it is
desirable that hawkers should pay toll or take out a licence, which
he justifies on other and more general grounds. The question of
hawkers will be dealt with hereafter, but I may say here that in my
experience I found no instance of the price of food being enhanced
by tolls upon hawkers, whereas I did find several cases of markets
injured by an unrestricted system of hawking. Further, in my
opinion, there is nothing so effective as a successful and flourishing
market for the cheapening of food.

I have not yet said anything as to the last words of the conclu-
sion—* due regard being had to the interests of the present pos-
sessors of the monopoly rights ”—but they are very important. With
regard to them there is even greater diversity of opinion among the
Commissioners, and upon them is founded another suggestion,
namely, the appointment of a Market Commission to determine the
amount of compensation. Five of the Commissioners, who belong to
the original majority, are of opinion that the sums adjudged to be
due for the abolition of such rights should be paid to the holders out
of the Public Funds. Lord Balfour of Burleigh thinks that such
matters, being of purely local concern, should be paid for out of the
local rates, without any grant from the Imperial Funds. Mr.
Childers prefers no compensation at all by pecuniary payment, but
he would allow to the owners, in certain cases, extension of the
monopoly for a limited number of years. Sir James Corry and Sir
Thomas Martineau agree with Lord Balfour of Burleigh as to
Imperial Funds, but they think it would be most objectionable that
Local Authorities should be compelled to burden themselves, ‘ not
for the purchase of a valuable privilege, but for an unproductive
payment in respect of rights that have disappeared.” I think the
use of the word “compelled” isa mistake ; but Mr. Little says, “It
would be hopeless to expect that the ratepayers with whom the
decision must rest would ever sanction the expenditure of money in
purchasing, establishing, or enlarging markets, if the Market Mono-
poly be abolished.” With this opinion I entirely agree, and the con-
clusions of Mr, Picton and Mr. Mahony are practically the same.
This shows that under any circumstances there must be great diffi-
culty in getting rid of the Market Monopoly ; and some idea of the
magnitude of such an undertaking may be gathered from the fact
that at Sheffield the Duke of Norfolk possesses markets upon which
he has spent 200,000/., and his agent thinks it would be unfair to
buy him out at 40 years’ purchase. At Bradford, again, the Cor-
poration pays to a Miss Rawson a rent of 5,000/. a year for
the privilege of working the markets.

I need not enlarge upon this point, for the mere difficulty of a
undertaking is no argument against its principle ; but it may be
useful to consider whether the suggested appointment of a Market
Commission depends solely upon the abolition of Monopoly Rights.
I think not, Resolution 24 reads as follows :—

418 Market Rights and Tolls.

That a Markets Rights Commission, to endure for such time as may be
necessary, and to be constituted in such manner as Parliament may deter-
mine, be appointed to hear and decide all questions referred to or arising
out of the foregoing resolutions.

It must be admitted that many rights have been proved to exist
in England, Scotland, and Ireland, which nobody but an antiquarian
or an interested ratepayer would attempt to defend. These are
summed up in the sixth resolution as “ Octrois, transit tolls, and all
restraints whatsoever of an analogous character, on free sale,
purchase, and carriage.” Putting aside what I have already alluded
to in regard to competitors with the market, there is very little
doubt that these rights must go, and, as they are to be paid for, it
is well that a Special Commission should be appointed to deal with
them.

Particular examples may be usefully cited. At Newcastle an
income of 5,541/. is obtained from a through toll which was
originally granted for repairing the streets. The cost of such
repairs is now provided for by a general rate, but the income is
maintained for the purpose of relieving the rates. These tolls are a
nuisance to everybody, but there is a difficulty in abolishing them,
because they have been mortgaged for 120,0007. (see p. 10 of
Vol. IV.). Similar tolls exist at Carlisle and at Cork, the income
derived from them in the first city being 1,256/. a year, and in the
second 2,370/. The corporations are naturally reluctant to give up
these incomes, but they do not pretend to justify the toll which is
“collected upon all goods, cattle, carts, waggons, &c. ; or upon all
kinds ef grain and agricultural produce passing into one or other of
these cities.” The same remarks apply to the Shore Placks, or Plack
Dues, at Dundee. This is a duty levied upon all sorts of victuals or
food, grain, flour, wheat, barley, oats, oatmeal, &c. at the rate of 8d.
a ten on all such goods loaded or unloaded in the port of Dundee
(see pp. 63 to 67 of the Report). This is obviously objectionable,
and is one of the many difficulties which the Commission would have to
deal with. But whether the Market Monopoly be abolished or not,
the Commission would certainly find occupation in determining the
compensation to be paid by Local Authorities for the purchase of
markets now in private hands, besides determining the principle on
which charges in a market are to be made, as suggested in the
sixteenth resolution.

After the abolition of Monopoly Rights, by far the most im-
portant conclusion is that all markets should as soon as possible
pass into the hands of Local Authorities, and that when once in the -
hands of such authorities, they should not be given up to any other -
body. This subject is dealt with in the third, fourth, fifth, eleventh,
and fourteenth resolutions, and has already been alluded to in the
discussion of the monopoly principle. It has this point in its favour,
that the Commissioners are unanimous about it, and the only question
in dispute is as to whether Local Authorities should be compelled
to purchase or be allowed to exercise their discretion, Four of the

Market Rights and Tolls. 185

Commissioners appear to be in favour of compulsion. Sir James
Corry and Sir Thomas Martineau say, p. 123 :—

We are of opinion that the most practical and effective reform lies in the
direction, not of the abolition of market monopolies, but of the transfer of
all of them now in the hands of private individuals, or self-elected trustees,
to the responsible representatives of the inhabitants in their different local
areas of government.

Mr. Picton and Mr. Mahony say, p. 125 :—

All public markets now in the hands of trading companies or cor pora-
tions other than municipal should be taken over by Local Authorities ; and
the latter, if necessary, should be compelled by legislation to acquire them.

In support of this view may be cited the opinion of the late Mr.
Bradlaugh, who says (p. 71)—

that the Local Authorities should be empowered and required by law to
acquire all existing rights to hold Sos to levy tolls, and to make regu-
lations in connection with markets.

It is noteworthy that the desire for compulsory powers seems to
be nearly universal amongst Local Authorities, but in practice
“considerably less than one-half of the markets in England and
Wales are under the control and management, or in the possession
of Local Authorities” (p. 69). This question of compulsion is a
matter of great importance, but it does not sufficiently bear upon the
character of markets to justify further discussion in these pages.

What is of more importance to consider is whether, assuming
the markets to be in the hands of Local Authorities, they should be
what are called “ free markets ”—in other words, whether market
accommodation should be provided by Local Authorities free of
charge. Mr. Picton and Mr. Mahony are the only Commissioners
who deal with this subject directly ; they say, p. 125 -—

Local Authorities should not be allowed to apply the profits of markets
to the reduction of rates; but, beyond a small margin for contingencies, all
excess of profit over expenses, interest, and sinking fund, should go to
reduce market rates, tolls, and stallages, and to improve accommodation.

That is almost exactly the opinion of Mr. Bradlaugh, whose
views appear on p. 110, and are of great interest, because he was
the originator of the Markets Commission, and no doubt started it
with this object. It is curious that, with the exception of Mr.
Bradlaugh, there is hardly a person of any importance whose evidence
ean be cited in favour of this principle ; but in practice it is difficult
to find any oes where the authorities have acted in any other
spirit.

The reason is this: the rate of tolls is not allowed to be exces-
Sive in any case, and wherever the revenue from tolls is large the
capital expenditure upon markets has been so great that the revenue
barely provides for the maintenance and necessary extension of the
market, together with a sinking fund for repayment of capital in a
period of 30 or 40 years. However, the question of principle must
be answered, and it is a difficult one. Why should the shopkeepers

186 Market Rights and Tolls.

of a town pay rates for the purpose of providing accommodation for
their rivals? The answer given by the advocates of the principle
is, that it is necessary for every town to provide food for its inhabit-
ants at the cheapest possible rate. To this it is replied, on behalf
of the ratepayers, that if all market tolls were abolished to-morrow
the consumers would not be perceptibly benefited. Mr. W. H.
Talbot, the Deputy Town Clerk of Manchester, says of his Council :

We see no justice in such a suggestion, This is property which has
been paid for and is used without extortion or without unfairness. We
think also that it would open the door to great abuse in the shape of
favouritism and corruption of all kinds, and we do not think the consumers
would be perceptibly benefited by it.

Mr. Fulford, the Chairman of the Markets Committee at Birming-
ham, says :—

T have no doubt that the benefit obtained by the reduction of tolls would
go into the pockets of the sellers.

This is important testimony, and it is corroborated by the evidence
obtained from almost every market owner in the kingdom. Such
profits, moreover, can never be large, and are the natural reward of
a careful and generous administration.

Next in order to free markets it is natural to consider very
shortly the subject of free hawking. This is a larger subject than
would at first sight appear, and in nearly every town is the cause of
constant consideration and frequent dispute. The difficulties con-
nected with it range from the important question of serious injury
to the town market by competition to the comparatively unimportant
question of annoyance to foot passengers by obstruction. The ques-
tion certainly ought not to be ignored in any Bill which professes to
deal exhaustively with markets. It is not directly dealt with by
the majority of the Commissioners, but free hawking is no doubt
implied in the abolition of Monopoly Rights. Mr. William Little
says of it (p. 124) :—

a.)

The practice of hawking is generally permitted under certain conditions,
but some amendment of the law in this particular seems desirable, I would
suggest that Local Authorities, being market owners, should have the power
of regulating hawking by issuing permits or licences to hawkers under con-
ditions approved by the Local Government Board.

Mr. Picton and Mr. Mahony say (p. 125) :—

Hawkers should be freed from the charges imposed on them in the
interest of markets.

I much prefer the opinion of Mr. Little, and so does Mr. Ashton ;
and I think it will be found that our opinion is in accordance with
the views of most market authorities, and very generally of the
hawkers themselves. The first hardly requires illustration, but I
may state that not only did I receive many complaints of unfair
competition, and obstruction of the streets, but health officers often
gave evidence to show that without some system of licences there
was no protection against the sale of unwholesome food, whilst Chief

Market Rights and Tolls. 187

Constables stated that unlicensed hawkers were often tramps or
thieves in the disguise of traders. Of the second I will give one
illustration. At Newcastle I received a deputation of costermongers,

- whose spokesman, Mr. Charles Smith, made this curious complaint

(Vol. IV. p. 25) :-—

We feel that we should like to take out a licence. We feel we are not
respected as we should be, as other people in the same line in other towns
are. We wish to pay a small sum a-year for a licence, that would cause a
more respectable class of people to engage in ourtrade. It would do away
with children sellers; it is diseraceful to see that sort of thing going on in
this town compared to other towns.

Many hawkers and costermongers have expressed to me the same
opinion, and it seems to me reasonable to expect that persons who
pay something, however small, for the privilege of using the streets
of a town for the purpose of trade would be more respected as a
class by the inhabitants than those who pay nothing.

The remaining subjects dealt with in the Report belong to
administration rather than to general principles of government, but
are of great importance to farmers and others who depend upon
markets. Resolution 21 says, and with it few will be inclined to
quarrel :—

That all inequalities of charges in respect of persons or trading classes
should be prohibited, except upon account of special advantages of position _
or accommodation. All exemptions of persons from market charges to

cease,

Resolution 22 says :—

That money payments in all cases should be substituted for tolls in
kind.

It is sad to part with old friends, which remind us of the good
old days of Pie Poudre Courts, but ready money is a great consoler,
and we will say farewell to tongues of oxen, eggs, pints of corn, and
the rest of them, with a good grace. &

A matter of much current interest is embodied in Resolution 23 :

That markets which are now required to be provided with machines for
weighing cattle should be furnished with sufficient and suitable accommo-

dation for the same, the question of sufficiency and suitability to be deter-
mined by the Board of Agriculture, after inspection.

I am entirely in favour of this method of selling cattle, but I
found very little support for it in the markets which I visited. At
Wakefield, which is one of the largest markets in England for home-
bred cattle, there is one weighbridge, but it is scarcely ever used.
It takes about ten minutes to weigh a beast upon it, so that about
six beasts only could be weighed in an hour; and yet I was asked
to believe that it was “sufficient and suitable.” To become popular
this system must be made as simple and convenient as possible, and
it should be taken for granted, in providing accommodation, that
every farmer is a wise man, and will sell his cattle by live weight if
he can find a machine,

188 The Quality of Barley.

Two or three other points deserve notice. Resolution 26 says—

That it is desirable to collect statistics of the market prices of meat, and
in particular that the prices of cattle at per stone, live weight, should be
collected (in the same manner as the prices of corn are now returned) in
such markets as may be selected for the purpose by the Board of Trade.

Also in Resolution 25 we read—

That it is desirable to collect statistics of market prices of commodities
through the agency of market owners as far as possible.

A great deal of evidence upon this subject has been collected
both at home and abroad, and is referred to on pp. 111-118.
The last resolution I will call attention to is number 18 :—

That all powers given to Local Authorities in respect of markets by the
Public Health Act should be extended go as to include fairs,

This is a very simple and necessary reform.

The limits of space prevent my giving to several subjects the
attention which they merit ; but I hope I have said enough to show
that the Royal Commissioners have expended much labour upon the
subject entrusted to them, and have shown great skill in presenting
the result of that labour to the public.

Ceci, M. Cuapman.

THE QUALITY. OF BARS Eas

THE deterioration in the general quality of the barley of recent years
growth is a matter sufficiently serious to demand careful investiga-
tion. Undue richness in nitrogenous ingredients confers upon the
barley grain a quality which is liked neither by maltsters nor by
brewers. There exists an opinion that heavy artificial manuring
may be accountable for an excessive percentage of nitrogen in barley.
It is possible, too, that barley grown upon land which immediately
previously has carried sheep, generously fed with cake, may likewise
show too high a proportion of nitrogenous matter. The subject
obviously is one for discussion ; still more is it one for experiment.
In anticipation that the problem will receive full investigation,
certain facts and opinions are here recorded.

In his opening address on November 11, 1889, as President of
the Surveyors’ Institution, Mr. E. P. Squarey, after quoting the low
average prices of English barley, proceeded “to call attention to a
matter of grave moment to farmers and landowners disclosed in
these figures. The average value of barley for ten years, from 1860

- to 1870, was 36s. ld. per quarter, and 26s. 7d. per quarter for
1886-7-8, whilst the average up to September 1, 1889, is only
25s. 4d. This variation appears to be due rather to a degradation
of quality than to those causes of cheapened transport and increased
areas of cultivation which have tended to reduce the yalue of wheat

The Quality of Barley. 189

and oats, inasmuch as the sources of supply of the best imported
barley are of comparatively limited area and production. The
inferior qualities of barley (certainly an exceptionally large propor-
tion of the growth of 1888), being generally consumed on the farms,
are not included in these results, and the omission of their values
increases pro tanto the stated average. Hence English barley,
ranging thirty years ago from 35s. to 42s. per quarter, now compares
with an average of about 26s. per quarter, whilst the Bavarian and
French barleys are currently selling from about 48s. to 50s. per
quarter in Mark Lane. I suggest, then, as a most important area
for inquiry, the causes of this generally lowered character and
quality of barley now, as compared with that currently grown
thirty years since. This degradation in quality cannot be tabulated,
but my inquiries amongst corn-dealers, maltsters, and farmers,
having experience of the last thirty years in all parts of England,
tend to confirm the view that really fine, ‘kindly,’ samples of
barley are now the exception where formerly they were the rule.

“The seasons have not permanently changed, the efforts to
obtain the best varieties and samples of seed are persistent, and
every method and variation of cropping has been tried, and yet, as
T have said, the Burton brewers and maltsters are paying 45s. to 50s.
per quarter for the rare best English and foreign barleys, as against
the miserable average of 25s. of our markets! And no indisposition
exists to use the home growths if, as formerly, good quality were
obtainable in sufficient quantity.”

The foregoing furnishes a practical view of the subject, as it
concerns English growers. More recently it has been brought
prominently and officially under the notice of French cultivators.
In several of the memoirs in the Ztwdes agronomiques (1891),
Professor L. Grandeau reverts to the matter, and his salient obser-
vations are here placed at the disposal of English readers.

The extension of the brewing industry, and the steadily in-
creasing demand for beer on the part of the people of European
countries, are facts commended to the consideration of the cultivators
of France, a country in which the area under barley has been well-
nigh stationary for a quarter of a century. The annual production
of barley in France does not much exceed one-half that of Britain,
whilst the average yield per acre in France is only about 57 per
cent. of the corresponding yield in this country. M. Tisserand,
Directeur de lAgriculture, has endeavoured to account for this
position of the barley-growing industry in a country naturally well
supplied with good barley soils. He instances three facts: (1)
barley yields but little straw ; (2) for a long time barley grain had
a value only about half that of wheat ; (3) not much beer is brewed
in France. For these reasons French growers have neglected barley,
preferring to devote their energies to the cultivation of wheat, as
being in France the more remunerative crop. But the conditions
cited are no longer maintained. Every day prime samples of barley
are more and more in request ; the price of barley, if only of medium
quality, is three-fourths of that of wheat ; and good malting barley

190 The Quality of Barley.

frequently commands a figure equal to that of wheat. As, moreover,
the yield of barley per acre is about one-third more than that of
wheat, this is an additional argument in favour of barley. That
which has been accomplished by the barley-growers of Bohemia and
Moravia by careful cultivation, the selection of the best seed, and
the judicious application of manures, is equally possible in France,
where so much benefit has already resulted from the application of
scientific principles to the culture of wheat and sugar-beet. But it
is to the production of the best, and none but the best qualities of
barley, that all efforts in the way of improvement should be directed.

Having thus dealt with the subject in its general aspects,
M. Grandeau proceeds, in a subsequent memoir, to discuss a ques-
tion of high practical interest, namely, as to how far it is expedient
in the cultivation of barley to employ nitrate of soda as a fertiliser.
A trade journal, the Revue industrielle de la Brasserie et de la
Malterie, commenting on the disastrous results produced in brewing,
by the use of malt made from barley in the manuring of which
nitrate of soda has been employed, stated that brewers and maltsters
were forming a league for the proscription of nitrate of soda, and for
demanding a guarantee that barley offered for sale shall have been
grown without the application of nitrate. The journal alluded to
derives support for its contention from a case, recorded in the
Chemiker Zeitung, in which one of the largest brewers of Heilbronn
purchased a considerable quantity of barley grown upon a farm which
enjoyed the reputation of producing excellent grain. The sample
was, indeed, of fine marketable quality, and yet the first beer it
yielded was of too inferior a character to be utilised. Some of the
barley was therefore sent to Hohenheim for analysis, with the
result that the grain was declared to be too rich in nitrogenous
matter for brewing purposes. The question then arose as to the
origin of this excess, and it was suggested that nitrate of soda had
been freely used in manuring the crop. Inquiry at the farm
confirmed this suggestion. Eventually the brewer disposed of the
barley by selling it at a heavy loss to a distillery. The case, says
the Chemiker Zeitung, is not an isolated one, nor, it adds, need it
cause surprise.

It is evident that M. Grandeau is somewhat sceptical as to the
influence exercised by nitrate of soda, used as a fertiliser, upon the
malting quality of barley. He mentions that there are scarcely more
than a dozen recorded comparative analyses of the grain of cereals
(wheat, barley, and rye) grown in. the same soil, with and without
nitrate of soda. These, however, show a slight excess—from 0-96
to 1 per cent.—of nitrogenous matter (protein) in the grain grown
with nitrate. It is difficult to believe that this small difference in
the percentage of nitrogenous ingredients can account for such
unfortunate results as those at the Heilbronn brewery.

Recognising the importance of the subject in farming districts
devoted to the growth of malting barley, it is suggested that the
problem be investigated in the field. Two adjoining areas, previously
cultivated and manured in the same way throughout, should be

The Quality of Barley. 191

sown with barley of choice quality, the one area receiving, however,
nitrate of soda, and the other farm-yard manure. The grain from
the crops should be delivered separately to a maltster, and the beer
from the one would be compared with that from the other.

Looking below the mere surface of the question, it is necessary to
remember that by far the most important source of the nitrogen of
the cereals is afforded by the nitrates contained in fertile soil. In
whatever form, such as farmyard manure, dried blood, poudrette,
shoddy, &e. nitrogen may be applied to the land, this element
becomes available to crops only after the nitrogenous matter has run
the gauntlet of the chemical changes which result in the production
of a nitrate. These changes require for consummation varying
periods of time, depending upon the temperature, the humidity, and
the aeration of the soil, the nature of the raw manure, and so forth.
But eventually the nitrate is produced. What, therefore, is the
difference between applying nitrate of soda directly to the soil
and waiting for the nitrification of crude organic matter? The
difference is simply and solely one of time—the period necessary for
nitrification is suppressed. There is, in effect, no change in the
method of nutrition of the cereals. In the one case, as in the
other, they acquire, in the state of nitrate, nitrogen needful to their
development. It is true that the administration of the dose can ye
more accurately timed in the case of nitrate of soda. It is under
the genial influence of the warmth and the light of April and May
that the vegetative growth of the cereals reaches its maximum

- intensity, and it is at this period that the cultivator puts at the

disposal of the crop the largest quantity of immediately assimilable
nutriment.

Finally, M. Grandeau considers that judgment should be reserved
till rigorous field experiment has demonstrated whether or not the
brewing quality of barley is controlled by the nature of the fertilisers
in which nitrogen is presented to the crop. He therefore urges
that this season, for the information and in the interest of agricul-
turists, maltsters, and brewers alike, comparative experiments should
be made. Upon one part of a field of barley nitrate of soda should
be top-dressed as usual; upon the other part no nitrate should be
applied. The brewing qualities of the resulting samples of grain
would then be tested and compared.

It should be remarked that it is probable that brewers and their
chemists know more about this matter than M. Grandeau suspects ;
and it is, of course, possible that barley grown with too much farm-
yard manure may prove as unfit for malting purposes as that grown
with too liberal a dressing of nitrate.

Significant as this problem may be to French barley growers, it is
still more so to English cultivators. Attention is therefore directed
to M. Grandeau’s suggestions, and the season is yet sufficiently early
for them to be put into operation in connection with the crop now
occupying the land.

192

PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES.

Or the total area of land in England under all kinds of crop, bare
fallow, and grass, more than 51 per cent. is in permanent grass.
Of the similar cultivated area in Great Britain, permanent grass
covers nearly 49 per cent. Approximately, therefore, half of the
agricultural area of this island is in grass, so that the interests
associated with grass farming are obviously great. It is to the
present and prospective farmers of grass land that Mr. Sutton’s
work! specially appeals, and its inherent merits are such that it has
not appealed in vain, for it has passed into a fourth edition in less
than five years from the date of its first appearance.

The book is, in its entirety, a happy illustration of “ Practice
with Science.” Primarily, it is a practical book written by a
practical man for practical men. But Science, as the handmaid of
Practice, sheds her light upon its pages, and the result is in the
highest degree instructive. The early chapters deal with the-drain-
age of grass land, cultural preparations, and the selection of grasses
and clovers. The main part of the book is then occupied with
descriptions of the species of plants commonly found in meadows
and pastures. Next follow instructions for the spring and autumn
sowing of grass seeds, the immediate after-management of new
pastures, and the management and improvement of old grass land,
as well as the breaking up of such land. The sections on hay-
making, on grazing, and on the conversion of grass into silage,
are replete with sound suggestions applicable in the field. An
important division of the work is that dealing with temporary
pastures, whether one, two, or three years’ ley, or intended to
remain down for from four to eight years.

Amongst the agricultural grasses which are figured and described
are fiorin, foxtail, sweet vernal, yellow oat grass, tall oat grass,
dogstail, cocksfoot, seven species of fescue, perennial rye-grass,
Italian rye-grass, timothy, and four species of meadow grass (genus
Poa). The leguminous plants dealt with are five species of 7'ri-
folium (white clover, red clover, cow-grass, alsike, and yellow suck-
ling), together with common trefoil, birdsfoot trefoil, lucerne, and
sainfoin. Yarrow and sheep’s parsley likewise receive attention.
The descriptive accounts of these various species are models of con-
ciseness and correctness, and will be appreciated alike by the farmer
and the student. The tone of the entire volume, indeed, is such as
to qualify it for the field rather than the bookshelf, though as a
reference manual it has no equal.

The two dozen coloured plates of grasses and clovers are skil-

1 Permanent and Temporary Pastures, with Descriptions and coloured
Illustrations of leading Natural Grasses and Clovers. By Martin J. Sutton.

Fourth Ed. Pp. xii and 172, with 23 coloured plates, London: Simpkin,
Marshall, and Co, 1891.

The Weather of 1890. 193

fully executed, and, like all true works of art, they are true to
nature. Each plate is faced by a technical description of the species,
_ accompanied by an analytical table showing the chemical compo-
sition of the plant. Woodcuts representing front and side views of
the “seeds” of the grasses, natural size and magnified, will be found
of great assistance to cultivators who wish to avoid sowing adul-
terated samples of seed.

Readers who are familiar with the modern literature of this
subject, whether French, German, or American, will find it difficult
to name any foreign work worthy of being ranked side by side with
this admirable volume. The secret of its high quality is perhaps to
be found in the circumstance that it has been a work of slow growth,
based upon the accumulated experience of many years. More than
a quarter of a century has elapsed since Mr. Martin Hope Sutton,
the father of the author, contributed to this Journal a paper on
the same subject, which has been expanded into the valuable
manual now under notice. That it should have been the good
fortune of an Englishman to write a work that has taken a front
place in the “ grass literature” of the world is a circumstance that
must prove as gratifying to the author as it must be satisfactory to
his brother agriculturists.

THE WEATHER OF 1890.!

First Quarter.—The weather in Janwary was very cold for-the first
three days, the temperature on the 1st being as much as 9°°7 below
its average ; then from the 4th to the end of the month it was re-
markably warm, being above its average on the 6th, 7th, 12th, 15th,
15th, 16th, and 25th days, by 13°-4, 12%3, 10°-6, 10°, 10°-4, 10°-3,
and 10°-7 respectively, and on several other days it was as much as
7° and 8° above. The atmospheric pressure was below its average
from the 18th to the 28th, being as much as three-quarters of an
inch below on the 22nd, and nearly 1:2 inch below on the 23rd, and
it was generally above on other days. The fall of rain was slightly
above its average at all stations, and the S.W. wind was prevalent.
The weather in Pebruary was warm for the first two days, and then
generally cold, dry, and with frequent frost for the rest of the month.
The temperature of the air was above its average on the first two
days, then below till the end of the month, with the exception of the
16th, 17th, and 18th days, when it was 3°-4, 0°-9, and 0°-7 respect-
ively above. The atmospheric pressure was above its average from
the Ist to the 11th, and from the 18th to the end of the month,
being nearly three-quarters of an inch above on the 23rd. The fall

' Abstracted from the particulars supplied to tt Registrar-G al b
James Glaisher, Esq., PRS. &e, ie ie + aa

VO. Dy T) S.—5 Q

194 The Weather of 1890.

of rain was small. Snow fell on several days. Cold E. and N.E.
winds prevailed.

The weather in March was for the first five days bitterly cold,
the temperature of the air for these five days being nearly 14° below
their average. The last instance of such low temperature about
London in March was in the year 1845. The atmospheric pressure
was below its average from the 5th to the 26th, and above on the
other days, being particularly below on the 16th, when it was more
than three-quarters of an inch below its average. The fall of rain
was above its average at some stations and below at others, and the
S.W. wind was prevalent.

Second Quarter.—The weather in April was mostly dry, with
cold E, and N.E. winds. The temperature of the air was generally
below its average, a few days only exceeding their averages. The
atmospheric pressure was above its average during the first five days,
and generally below during the remainder of the month, The fall
of rain at a few stations slightly exceeded the average, but was
below at most stations. The sky was generally overcast. It was a
month very favourable for farming operations.

The weather in Jay was variable, but on the whole fine.
Till the seventh day the weather was warm, then cold for two or
three days, then warm to the 25th, which day and that preceding,
viz. the 24th, were hot, and from the 26th the weather was cold
to the end of the month. The atmospheric pressure was below its
average till the 20th, and above it from the 21st. The fall of rain
was generally above its average. Very cold winds prevailed from
the 26th to the end of the month. The month was favourable for
agricultural pursuits.

The weather in June was cold and wet. The temperature of
the air was nearly constantly below its average. The atmospheric
pressure was below its average from the second day to the 6th, and
from the 26th, and was generally above on other days. The fall of
rain was generally above the average. There were but a few fine
days in the month, and the showery weather at the latter part of the
month was bad for hay-making.

Third Quarter.—The weather in July was cold, dull, and wet.
The temperature of the air on two or three days only was at about
its average, on all other days it was below, and at times to as much
as 11° or 12°. The atmospheric pressure was below its average till
the 19th day, and was generally above from the 20th. The fall of
rainwas above its average at most places. On the 17th the fall
was excessive, amounting to three inches at many places in the
counties of Middlesex, Hertfordshire, and Berkshire. The fall of
rain spoiled much hay, and generally the month was unfavourable
for the hay crop.

The weather in August was cold, wet, and sunless. The tem-
perature of the air was generally below the average ; the 1st and the
5th were the only warm days in the month ; the second half of the
month was very cold, particularly from the 24th to the end, The

The Weather of 1890. 195

atmospheric pressure was below its average from the 10th to the
29th, particularly so from the 23rd to the 29th, and it was generally
above its average till the 9th and on the 30th and 31st. The fall
of rain was above the average at all stations. The bad weather of
this month most seriously checked harvest operations ; the corn was

‘damaged both by wind and rain.

The weather in September was very fine, warm, and dry, with
clear skies and bright sunshine. The temperature of the air till the
14th was generally a little below the average, the 5th and 6th were
warm, as were the 10th and 11th, but to a less degree ; from the
15th every day was warm and above its average mean temperature.
The atmospheric pressure was below its average from the 16th to
the 22nd, and above it on every other day. The fall of rain was
small, and there was almost a freedom from both fogs or mists at
many stations. The month was very favourable for gathering in
the late harvest.

Fourth Quarter.—The weather in October was very fine and dry.
The temperatures of the air during the first week and the last two
days were above their averages, and below generally from the 8th
to the 29th, particularly so on the 26th, 27th, and 28th days. The
mean temperature of the 28th was 16° below its average, and it was
the coldest day in October for many years. The atmospheric
pressure till the 30th was above its average, with the exception of
two or three days. The fall of rain was small.

The weather in November was generally fine and mild till the
24th, when very severe weather set in and continued. The tem-
perature of the air differed but little from the average till the 12th.
It was warm from the 13th to the 24th, and particularly on the
19th, 20th, and 23rd days, the mean temperature of these three
days being exceptionally warm for the time of year, averaging full
10° above their averages. On the 25th the temperature fell quickly,
to the 28th, when the mean temperature at Blackheath was 20°-2,.
being 21°-4 below the average, and the mean depression of tempera-
ture below their averages for the six days ending the 30th was
141°. The atmospheric pressure was below its average till the 13th,
and was above from the 14th, with the exception of the 23rd, 24th,
and 25thdays. The fall of rain was below its average about Lon-
don, but was in excess at many stations in the Midland and
Northern Counties.

The weather in December was very cold, with frequent fog and
light snow. The cold was remarkable for its persistency and severity.
On many days the deficiency of temperature below average exceeded
12°, on the 14th it was as large as 172°, and on the 22nd as large as
21°. The atmospheric pressure till the 14th was for two or three

‘days together below its average, and then for two or three days

above ; from the 15th to the 19th it was below, and above from the
21st. The fall of rain was small. The month is remarkable as
being the coldest December in this century.

196

THE GREAT FROST OF 1r890-of.

THE recent prolonged period of severe cold, the extraordinary dry-
ness of the month of February, and the blizzard of the second week
of March, have introduced some disturbing factors into the normal
phenomena associated with an English winter. What effect such
unusual factors will produce in the succeeding summer remains to
be seen. Meanwhile, the concurrence of frost and drought is being
made the subject of careful investigation on the part of meteorolo-
gists. A valuable contribution to the inquiry was submitted to the
Royal Meteorological Society at its meeting on February 18, by
Mr. Charles Harding, F.R.Met.Soc., through whose courtesy the
diagrams on pages 197 and 199 are presented. The labour involved
in the preparation of Mr. Harding’s paper, ‘‘ The Great Frost of
1890-91,” was very great, the author having found it necessary to
work up the daily observations made with verified instruments at
about 150 stations in the British Isles, and also at a number of
Continental stations.

The frost prevailed from November 25 to January 22, a period
of 59 days. It was most severe over the south-eastern counties of
England, where the mean temperature for the entire spell was more
than 2° below the freezing point, Cambridge having a mean of only
28-5°, whilst at seaside stations on the coast of Kent, Sussex, and
Hampshire, the mean was 32°. In the extreme north of Scotland,
as well as in the west of Ireland, the mean was 10° higher than
in the south-east of England. In the southern Midlands, and in
parts of the south of England, the mean temperature for the fifty-
nine days was more than 10° below the average, but in the north
of England the deficiency did not amount to 5°, and in the extreme
north of Scotland it was less than 1°.

The cold, in fact, decreased gradually ina northerly and westerly
direction, the Shetlands being 11° warmer than Cambridge, the
Hebrides 10°, Valencia 13°, and Scilly 134°. In the north-east,
north, and west of Scotland, and the north-east of Ireland, the
deficiency of temperature was less than 2°.

The lowest authentic reading was 0°6° at Stokesay, Shropshire, on
December 22, and at Rounton, Yorkshire, on January 18; but almost
equally low temperatures occurred at other periods of the frost. At
many places in the south and south-west of England, as well as in
parts of Scotland and Ireland, the greatest cold throughout the
period was registered at the end of November ; and at Waddon, in
Surrey, the thermometer fell to 1°, a reading quite unprecedented
at the close of the autumn. At Addington Hills, near Croydon, the —
thermometer was below the freezing point each night, with one ex-
ception, and with only two exceptions at Cambridge and Reading,
whilst in the Shetlands there were only nine nights with fros
although at Biarritz frost occurred on thirty-one nights, and a

tome on six nights. At many places in England the frost w
continuous night and day for twenty-five days, but at coast statio

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198 The Great Frost of 1890-91.

in the north of Scotland there was not a single day on which the |
frost remained unbroken.

All round the coasts of the kingdom the sea-water was warmer.
than the air during the month of December, according to the records
received from the lightships. On the Sussex coast the excess was
14°, on the north-east coast 6°, and off the Shetlands and round
Treland about 3°. Two feet below the surface of the Thames at
Deptford the temperature of the water was continuously below 34°
for thirty-two days, December 23 to January 23, the river being
blocked with ice during the greater part of this time.

In Regent’s Park, where skating continued uninterruptedly for
forty-three days, the ice attained a thickness of over 9 inches.

Thermometers fixed at various depths in the soil, in different
parts of the British Islands, showed that the frost had nowhere
penetrated as far as 2 feet into the ground, but, in the south and
east of England especially, there were several days on which it was
recorded at a depth of one foot, whilst at 6 inches the ground was
frozen for a month.

The subjoined table gives details of the prolonged frosts of the
last hundred years, from which it will be seen that in the neigh-
bourhood of London, the cold was of longer duration than in any
previous frost during the last century. The next longest spell was
fifty-two days in the winter of 1794-5, whilst in 1838 frost lasted for
fifty days, and in 1788-9 for forty-nine days ; neither the mean
nor the minimum was, however, so low as in several previous cases.
It is important to note that nearly all the prolonged frosts of the
last century were followed by a fairly dry spring and summer, but
the accompanying weather was by no means always hot.

PROLONGED FROSTS OF THE LAST CENTURY, FROM OBSERVATIONS
MADE IN LONDON AND ITs VICINITY.

af Days
Mean See Go
; 5 With | With
| of _| With With . « |Abso-
Days’| Mean} Mean| maxi- ae mini-| Of | daily |™8*| MPXM jute
Date dura- |maxi- | mini-} mum mini- | ™um | con- | mean aan mun | maxi-
tion |mum | mum] and = ye temp. tinu-} 82 Eee aes mum
mini- | @2U™ | below | ous | deg, a a deg.
mum 20 | frost | or i a
deg. below below Jabove
deg. | deg. | de g.| deg. deg.
2 1788-9 Nov. 26 to Jan.13 |] 49 | 31:3 276 29°4 | 17°5 4 12 33 30 3 46
1794-5 Dec, 18 to Feb.7. .| 52 | 31°9 | 26°3 | 286 7 ll 12 35 23 3 46
1813-4 Dec. 26 to Feb.5. .| 42 | 33:0 | 21°5 | 27:3 8 16 ll 32 20 5 41
1838 Jan. 5 to Feb. 23 . .| 50 | 82:9 | 24:9 | 28:9 |—4:0 9 13 381 19 5 50
1855 Jan. 10 to Feb. 25 . .| 47 | 34:8 | 24:5 | 29:7 | 111 12 4 31 15 7 48 .
1860-1 Dec. 15 to Jan.19 . | 86 | 34:9 | 24:8 | 29°9 80 8 3 26 9 4 47
1879 Noy. 14 to Dec. 27. .| 44 | 37:2 | 247 | 31:0 | 13:7 4 2 22 6 12 55
1881 Jan.7to26 .... 20 318 | 221 | 27°0 | 12°7 10 9 14 12 1 41
1890-1 Nov. 25 to Jan. 22 .| 59 | 835 | 25:0 | 29°38 | 12:0 10 10 41 27 9 44

! The frost of 1788-9 has been included, as it occurred but little more than 100
years ago. The temperatures, however, are not from self-registering thermometers,
but the observations used as the maximum were made at 2 P.M. and those for the
minimum at 8 A.M. each day. The observations for all other periods are from self-
vegistering thermometers,

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200 Recent Agricultural Inventions.

The left-hand map on page 197 is intended to indicate, by means
of isotherms and values, the mean temperatures over the United
Kingdom for the whole period of the frost. The figures denote the
temperatures, and the lines the various limits of—under 30°, 30° to
32°, 32° to 34°, 34° to 36°, 36° to 38°, and 38° to 40°. An isothermal
line, it may be observed, is a line drawn through places possessing
the same temperature—in this case the same mean temperature.

The great difference between the temperature of Scotland and
Treland, and that of England, is explained by the fact that during
the whole period there was a large area of high barometric readings
over Europe, which maintained an almost permanent position. The
incoming disturbances from the Atlantic could not make headway
into Europe, but skirted to the westward of our islands, their
centres keeping well out in the Atlantic. Consequently our western
coasts felt the warming influence of these disturbances, although the
weather remained comparatively quiet. England, especially its
eastern parts, was not at all affected by these disturbances.

The right-hand map on page 197 is designed to show the deficiency
of the mean temperatures for the period of the frost, when compared
with the averages of twenty years past. At Greenwich the mean
was 9°5° below the average, and in some parts it was more than 10°
below, while in the extreme north of Scotland it was approximately
in agreement with average conditions.

It is a noteworthy fact that, as may be learnt from the diagram
on page 199, on only one day—January 13—was the mean daily tem-
perature at Greenwich in excess of the average daily mean for sixty
years. Indeed, the frost was throughout remarkable on account of
the absence of any high temperatures.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.

The subjects of Applications for Patents from Dec. 15, 1890, io
March 14, 1891.

N.B.—Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.

Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.

he ietuon, Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
Year 1890,
20443 CocKER, -" ta Potato-harvester.
20457 BARLOW, B. (Rich-
ards § Cartes) ° . Automatic grain- weighers.
20589 Torpr,G.C. . Mowing and reaping machine.
20602 Bonng, C.R. (Heinsdorf) Testing quality of grain or seeds.
20696 Brown, T. . . Beater bar for threshing machines.
20739 BRADBURY, J. ‘ . Forming, binding, &c, trusses or sheaves,

20837 CHANDLER, A. . , Apparatus employed in mowing and reaping,

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 201

Title of Invention,

. Apparatus for sharpening knives of reapers, &c.

No. of
Application. Name of Applicant,
Year 1891,
137 BAYLY, J. P. (Magers)
140 Zn » (Webster).
141 o » (Wilkin)

449 BOUSFIELD, E. T..

1081 STEPHENSON, G. & C.

1276 VigREUX, L.

1418 LANz, H.

1442 TuRNER, T. H.

1685 BAWDEN, R. .

1724 LANDIss & JENNER

1889 Ros, J. P.

1917 BOARDMAN and others

1952 STARK, A.
1973 CoLE, W.
1984 CoTTIs, C.

2243 STRETTON, W. G. .

2292 NEEDLEY, F.

2350 THOME, J. E.
2980 EDWARDS, E.

3151 Fry, H. W.

3158 SHEARER and another
3366 MATTHEWS, E. C
3418 Muwns (Pike)

3506 Rowe, G. E. .

3808 TooTH and others

3861 Dyson

4058 CHANDLER, T. 13{-
4213 FRIEDERICH, P.

4439 PRING, J. E. .

.

.

Cutting seed potatoes. .

. Harvesters.
. Baling hay and straw.
. Pressing hay, &c.

Triturating straw, &c. for cattle.
Threshing machines.

. Self-cleaning cylindrical wire-screens for

grain, &c,

. Ploughs.

. Threshing machines.

. Spades for weeding and transplanting.
. Apparatus for planting potatoes.

. Cord-knotters for grain-binders.

. Harvesting machines.

. Lawn-mowing machines.

. Potato-sorting machines.

. Threshing machines.

. Horse-rakes.

. Stirring and turning over malt by electricity.
. Crushing or pulverising grain, &c.

. Land-grabbers.

. Sheaf-binding harvesting machines.

. Mowing machines.

. Mowing and reaping machines.

” ” ”
Composition for tillage purposes.

. Seed-drills.
. Corn-pianters.
. Hay-rakes

Stable Utensils and Fittings—Horse-shoes, &c.
20427 MURCHIE, H.

Year 1890.

20500 DAVIES & ATKINSON
20539 Bout (Théron)

20579 DOLMAN

20691 KENRICK & SCILLY

20733 Tarn, J.

20762 Bouxt (Cottel)

20870 BARTZ, H.

21063 STRAUSSLER, J.

.

.

.

21146 ALLISON (Turney)

21179 STEEL, J.
21223 MEYER.

21298 HUNTOON
Year 1891.

35 DAVENPORT, Ses
43 Horr, H.C. & J. H.

61 WEBB, G. E..
94 RAMSTER, T..
106 WAyMouTH, W. J.
149 BAyLy (Magram) .
178 McKeEnny, J.

197 WEED, R.

. Horse-shoe.

. Stopping runaway horses.

. Roughing horses.

. Stirrups.

. Safety stirrup-bar.
20700 LAKE(Simmons and anr.) Flooring for stables.
20723 CLARK®, T. U.

. Safety stirrup.

. Controlling horses.

. Harnessing horses and driving vehicles.
. Arresting escaping horses.

. Shoes for horses, &c.

. Stopping runaway horses.

. Tethering horses, &c.

. Bridle-bits.

. Horse-neck pokes.

. Roughing horses, &c.

. Attachment to horse-shoes to prevent slipping.

, Adjustable saddle-girth.
. Saddle-trees,

. Horse-shoes.

. Horse-blanket fastener,
. Bit for horses.

. Horse-shoes,

202 Recent Agricultural Inventions.

Title of Invention.

. Feed-bags for horses, &c.

A Beaton: Name of Applicant.
Year 1891.
270 ATKINSON, G. B. .
273 CRONK,G. . %

307 ALcOcK & OATES .
313 Het, A. 5 f
338 Hook, Ei. : =
487 WALCH, E. J. :
562 SCOFIELD, E. W. .
803 BINARD, V.

. Horse-shoes.

”

. Horse-clipping machines.

. Horse-shoes.

. Spring horse-shoe clip with pad.
. Stopping runaway horses.

83L CHAMBERLAIN & N ASH,

850 WINGRAVE, W. V.
1008 PAGE, M. A
1026 REYNOLDS, W. R..

1062 HUsner, W.. ,
1093 DUNKLEY, H.

1266 KnigutT, A. W.
1321 Kine, G.

1331 Munns, W. H. (ilar

shall) .

1487 CHAPMAN & MERRITT '

1562 GLossop, J.
2047 TEMPERLEY, J.
2094 HORNSBY, G. S.

2110 FOULKES, R., and others

2291 HOFER, F.

2367 Norravtr, B. J.
2532 BAILny, E.

2861 PoLL & BENNETT.
3119 MaAcKLEY, G. T.
3370 RUTTER, A. ik

3742 CLARKE & SEYMOUR

3875 BARAWITZKA, G. .
4204 EAsTon, H.
4441 BIrTEn, G.
4530 ZELLERIN and anr,

Securing and releasing horses, &c. to and from
stalls.

. Attachments for roughing horse-shoes.
. Fastening horse-shoes by adhesive substances.
. Spring hooks for lessening jerks, &c., to

draught horses,

. Safety reins and bridle.

; . Safety stirrups.
1245 BENFIELD, J., and others

Horse-shoes.

Preventing horses knocking their hind legs
together.
Heel-expander for horses.

. Horse-collars.
. Safety stirrup attachment.

. Roughing attachment for horses.
Horse-shoes.

. Tightening device for saddle-girths.
. Horse-shoes.

. Saddle-cloths and saddles.

. Nose-bag.

. Shoes for horses.

. Breastplate and neck-strap for horses.
. Safety stirrup.

. Preventing horses from running away.

. Reins for controlling and driving horses.
. Pneumatic horse-collar,

. Harness.

Carts and Carriages.

Year 1890.
20676 WEBB, H.& F. .

Year 1891.
959 THOMPSON, W.
(Gouldberq)

1346 BoISRENOULT, G. H.

1857 MULLETT, W.G. .
1931 CHESTERTON, W. J.
3944 KENNEDY, J.

Year 1890,

20626 BAYLY (Jordan
Porter)

21068 SALENIUS, E. G.

20920 WHITEMAN & Cox

Ee

. Vehicles for lightening draught and easing
horses’ shoulders.

Vv =
. Farm waggons.

. Vehicles for distributing, &c. manure,

. Brake for two-wheeled vehicles,
. Whip-socket.
. Chapel or dog-carts.

Dairy Utensils, &c.

and

. Motor for churns.
. Manufacture of butter.
. Filtering milk.

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 203

No. of

Application. Name of Applicant.
» Year 1891.
279 BUCKLEY, I. . .

498 SCHAFFTER, M.

713 HANLY, M. M.

1547 RUSSELL, and another
2038 Hops, J. :

2175 GIBSON & CAMERON
2195 WILLIAMSON, J. T.
2709 NICHOLSON & GRAY
2955 MuNNS (Kneeland)
3415 EVENDEN, R. E.
3841 HULT . ‘
3842 STuBE & Max SPIRO
3920 Evans, G. P..

29
. Milk-can protector.
. Milking machine.
. Packing and transporting butter.
. Centrifugal churns.
. Cream-separators.
. Process to increase the value of whey.
. Cheese-vats.

Title of Invention.

. Churns for butter-making.

. Milking apparatus.

. Instrument for testing milk.
. Apparatus for making butter.
. Appliance for cutting cheese.

”

Poultry and Game, &c. Appliances,

Year 1891.

1468 THE BRADFORD AND
DISTRICT RABBIT,
CAT, &c. SOCIETY and

others
1607 LANE, W.N.
1683 LANE, W. ae

. Poultry pens.
. Artificial brooders for chickens.
. Inecubator-cases.

2777 ASHMORE & WILMORE . Crushing apparatus for preparing birds’ food,

Year 1890.
20594 FIRMIN, G.
. 20695 BiIcHON and anv.
Year 1891.
1516 CoLE, W.
2036 SILVER, W.
2220 LANG, G. .
2665 Hancock, T.F. .
2720 Boutt, A. J. ( Pallas)
2802 ROBERTS, F.S. .
4072 STEINBACH, A. R..
4416 OUTRAM, O. A.

Miscellaneous.

. Attachment to hurdles, &c., for sheltering.
. Preventing disease in potatoes, &c.

. Facilitating the shearing of sheep.
. Shearing or clipping hair or wool.
. Fencing in of farmyard and produce.

. Covering for hay-stacks, &c.
. Feeding cake for cattle.

. Machinery for shearing and clipping.

. Muzzle for dogs.
. Drenching Bottle.

Numbers of Specifications relating tg the above subjects Published
since December 13!
(with prices in parentheses).

1373 (6d.), 1392 (6d.), 1448 (6d.), 1455 (6d.), 2317 (8d.), 2403 (6d.), 2565 (6d.),
2686 (8d.), 2726 (8d.), 2780 (6d.), 2884 (8d.), 3002 (6d.), 3049 (8d.),
3134 (4d.), 3218 (6d.), 3545 (8d.), 3709 (6d.), 3779 (8d.), 3851 (11d.),
4167 (6d.), 4233 (6d.), 4278 (6d.), 4279 (6d.), 4381 (6d.), 4554 (4d.),
5134 (8d.), 5221 (6d.), 5357 (6d.), 5391 (6d.), 5395 (8d.), 5528 (6d.),
5885 (8d.), 6962 (8d.), 7986 (8d.), 8551 (4d.), 10269 (6d.), 10828 (8d.),
12904 (6d.), 13005 (8d.), 13912 (6d.), 14215 (8d.), 14417 (4d.), 14530
(6d.), 15380 (8d.), 15435 (8d.), 15897 (8d.), 16454 (6d.), 16708 (8d.),
16754 (6d.), 17144 (6d.), 17413 (8d.), 17632 (6d.), 17768 (8d.), 17781
(6d.), 17907 (6d.), 17959 (6d.), 18183 (8d.), 18911 (6d.), 19663 (8d.),
19799 (6d.), 20066 (6d.), 20691 (6d.), 20870 (6d.).

1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
38 Cursitor Street, London, E.C.

THE PRICE OF
WHEAT IN 1890.

AVERAGES FoR 1890,

ORE Tae Soper. el OL

Barley . 5 2s 40

Oats . : : . selon)
THE annual Imperial ave-
rage price of wheat has
risen 2s. 2d. a quarter
above that of 1889. In the
latter year the annual ave-
rage was 29s. 9d., whereas
in the past year it was
31s. 11d. ; in 1888 it stood
at 3ls. 10d. The weekly
fluctuation has also been
greater, ranging 6s. 10d. ;
in 1889 it was 3s. 3d. and
in 1888 8s. ld. The lowest
weekly average for the past
year was 29s. 8d. on March
22, and again on April 5.
The highest weekly average
was 36s. 6d. on August 16.
The highest weekly average
forthe past two years was in
the month of August. The
price of barley has exceeded
that of wheat in several
weeks in the past year, but
it has never been higher
than 32s. 3d. a quarter, on
January 18; the lowest
was 22s. 6d. on July 5; so
that the fluctuation (9s.
2d.) has been greater than
in the case of wheat. The
fluctuation in oats was
3s. 2d.; highest 20s. 5d.,
on August 93; lowest
17s. 3d., on October 18.
The annual Imperial ave-
rage price of corn during
the past year was :— Wheat,
31s. 1ld.; barley 28s. 8d. ;
oats, 18s. 7d. The sep-
tennial tithe rent-charge is
ll. 17s. 114d. lower this
year than last, it being in
1889 78/. 1s. 3$d., whereas
this year it is 76/. 38, 3#d.
per 100/.—lower than it has
ever been. The average
from the commutation in
1836 is 1007. 133, 23d.

Henry ALLNure,

2
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Each space between the horizontal lines indicates fourpence.

STATISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
moericUmeukRAL INTERESTS.

TABLE JI—AVERAGE PRICES OF BRITISH CORN PER QUARTER (Imperial
measure) as received from the Inspectors and Officers of Excise conform-
ably to the Act of 45 & 46 Vict. ch. 37, in each week of the year 1890.

[From the “ London Gazette.” ]

Week ending fj Wheat | Barley | Oats | Week ending Wheat | Barley| Oats
1890 Le divs Gl s a 1890 Saye eS es
January4 ./30 0/30 5/18 3] July5 . ./32 8/22 6| 19 10
January 11 . (30 1/31 5|18 4| July12. ./|33 2.94 2/19 4
January 18 ./|30 2/382 3/18 4) July19 . - |33 10|24 6|19 6
January 25 ./30 1/32 2/)18 7|| July 26 . -|35 0/25 2) 19 10
February1 ./30 1/32 2/18 6) August 2 - | 35 10/23 4120 4
February$ .|29 9/31 10,18 7 | August 9 -|36 3/24 5| 20 5
February 15 .|29 8/31 8 18 7| August16 . 36 6 25 4/20 3
February 22 .'/29 9/31 2/18 6) August 23 - 136 5/26 2) 20° §
March 1. - |29 10' 30 11,18 8] August 30 a0, 9 Lie Si home 2
March 8 . . |29 11)30 9118 6) September 6 .|34 6/30 11/19 1
March 15 - |29 11|30 8/18 6G|| September 13. /133 7/30 3/18 8
March 22 -/29 8)}30 4\18 7|| September 20. 32 1/29 11/17 9
March 29 - 29 9/29 10\18 6) September 27.31 6/29 9/17 8
Average of ) Average of ) et
Winter: },|29 11;31 2,18 6 Summer+ 34 5/296 8 19 5
Quarter } | . Quarter ) |
April5 . ./29 8/30 0|18 1) October4 .|31 2/99 5\47 5
April i2. * +29 9 | 29 9/18 6] October11 . | 30 I1}29 3) 17 5
April19. .{|29 10)29 10/18 6|| October18 .}3010\/29 7\17 3
April 26. - |30 4/29. 2)18 6) October 25 ./|31 0/29 10| 17 3
May3 . -|380 9/27 9/}18 8|| November1 ./31 6/|29 7/17 3
May 10. -|3L 7/28 3)19 2|| November8s ./32 1/99 5117 3
May17. .(\32 5/27 7/19 3] November15. 32 8/29 3/17 6
May 24 . . |383 2/30 5/19 10 | November 22. |/32 9/28 11/17 8
May 31 . »|32 11|26 5)19 10) November 29. |32 7/29 0/17 8
June7 . .{|32 10/25 1/19 8| DecemberG .|32 3/28 -9| 17 10
Junel4. .|32 8/25 7/20 0| December 13 . |32 2/28 5| 17 10
June 21 . - |82 9/24 11;19 11) December 20 . |32 4/25 8/17 6
June 28. .|32 8/26 0/19 6|| December 27./|32 3/98 5/1711
| ! |
Average of) | Average of) |
Spring pale Fi 27 Orig I Autumn - 31 11) 29 Tie taeg
Quarter | |

: | Quarter

—

206 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.

TABLE II.—ANNUAL AVERAGE PRICES AND QUANTITIES OF BRITISH CORN
sold in the Towns in England and Wales from which Returns are received
under the Corn Returns Acts, in each of the Years 1880 to 1889.

[From the “ London Gazette.” ]

Year | Wheat
mas reds

1880 | 44 4
1881 45 4
1882 | 45 1
1883 AL
1884 | 35 9
1885 32 10
1866, || ‘Bl
1887 32 6
1888 31 10
1889 29 9
1890 | 31 11

Barley

33 1
31 11
31 2
31 10

Oats

i
for)
Noowonntwo

Wheat Barley Oats
Qrs. Qrs. Qrs.
1,607,908 1,591,925 164,791
1,738,255 1,631,504 211,444
1,903,858 | 1,873,820 211,699
2,901,146 2,575,528 408,471
2,833,132 3,149,341 492,918
2,739,515 2,765,500 393,042
2,739,822 | 2,474,466 367,083
2,495,124 | 2,589,667 309,478
2,427,861 1,911,835 255,726
2,945,408 3,329,814 415,783
3,439,699 3,327,991 599,033

TABLE IIJ.—Returns published pursuant to the Corn Returns Act, 1882, and
to Act of 6 & 7 Wm. IV. for Commutation of Tithes in England and Wales,
showing what has been, during the Seven Years ending Christmas Day in
each Year, the AVERAGE PRICE of an IMPERIAL BUSHEL of British
Wheat, Barley, and Oats, computed from the Weekly Averages of Corn
Returns in each of the years 1884-90,

[From the “ London Gazette.”)

Average (Septennial) prices per bushel

Year

1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890

Wheat Barley Oats
7 z d. s. d. &. d.
5 42 4 13 29
5 12 3 118 2 ‘gE
411 3 10 2 94
4 82 33 83 2 6}
4 6 3% 25
4 25 3 62 2 4
3.118 oe % 2 38

TABLE IV.—AVERAGE PRICES OF WOOL IN EACH OF THE UNDER-
MENTIONED YEARS.!

ENGLISH Nea
Year | - Pasi

| Leicester Half-breds Kent | Southdown ap eri

| — |

| Per Ib. Per Ib. Per lb. | Per Ib, Per Ib

d. ad, | d. d. d, dy | od, aor! Ss. d

1884 | 8ito 9$| 9 to 94] 9 to 92/10 tol 13] 1 Of
TES eSe 5° 9 | SH 9k | 9 5, 98 1 Ded (Oeu 105
1886 |9 , 93| 94 » 10% | 92 ,, 10} | o2 sol 10 0 94
1887 | 93 ,, 103 | 10 ,, Lie | 10F 5, 10% | 10s... 1 oe 0 104
1888 | 9} ,, 10 9 », 104 gi, 105 9% ,, 0 iy 0 10+
1889 | 94 ,, 103 | 10+ ,, 11 | 10} ,, 10¢ | 10$,,1 Of] 0 10}
1890 | 92 ,, 104 | 108 ,, 114 | 104,11 |11 ,,1 1 | 0.103

SourH
AFRICAN

y
°
g
—
ca

ocoooocoor:s
—
=)
_

1 The prices of English wool have been calculated from the list given
weekly in the Zconomist newspaper.

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 207

TABLE V.—NUMBER OF HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND PIGS IN THE
UNDERMENTIONED COUNTRIES, FOR EACH OF THE YEARS INDICATED.

[From the Agricultural Returns. ]

A | ee, 7 | Sheep and hs
Countries Years | Horses | Cattle | ‘jambs Pigs
No. No. No. No.
1888 | 1,936,702 10,268,600 | 28,938,716 3,815,643
United Kingdom .. . . 4 1889 1,945,386 10,272,765 29,484,774 | 3,905,865
1890 | 1,964,911 10,789,858 | 31,667,195 | 4,362,040
1887 | 1,438,551 8,873,574 97,239,986 | 1,100,478
Australasia. . . . . « - 4 1888 | 1,485,923 9,136,178 | 96,134,041 1,075,316
1889 | 1,543,641 9,462,316 | 101,274,080 1,041,359
1887 605,276 2,049,945 | 1,408,701 868,530
Canada'. . . . . ~~» 4 1888 596,218 1,928,638 | 1,349,044 | 819,079
1889 664,541 2,040,108 | 1,375,521 | 887,126
|
3 { 1888 266,120 1,292,039 | 13,177,285. | 142,479
CapeColony . . +--+ + + {1 1889 295,370 1,502,845 | 13,953,445 | 159,835
ek ee
1886 50,012 | 629,725 | 676,437 32,927
i ee ee 1887 54,326 | 611,794 484.288. | 46,306
1888 49.548 | 655,932 | 609,805 | 45,569
: § 1869 | 1,384,623 | 7,421,915 | 5,026,392 | 2,551,973
Austria... -- + + + { 1880 | 1,463,282 | 8,584,077 | 3,841,340 2,721,541
( 1870 | 2,158,819 5,279,193 | 15,076,997 | 4,443,079
incary ; r J 1880 | 2,078,528 5,311,378 9,838,133 4,160,127
{ 1884 | 1,748,859 | 4,879,038 | 10,594,831 | 4,803,639
; 1866 | 283,163 | 1,242,445 586,097 | 632,301
Belgium . * + 7 1880 271,974 | 1,382,815 365,400 | 646,375
{ 1876 | 392.262 1,348,321 1,719,249 503,667
Denmark Bee tag basa! 347,561 1,470,078 1,548,613 | 527,417
(i888 | 375,533 | «(1,459,527 1,225,196 | 770,785
( 1886 | 2,938,489 13,275,021 | 29616,547 | 5,774,994
Mirsirietd) cad ule sien ®> 40° -t) 1887, 2,908,527 13,395,259 | 92280,190 | 5,978,916
( 1888 | 2,891,919 13,377,368 | 922,630,620 | 5,846,578
{ 1873 | 3,352,231 | 15,776,702 | 24,999,406 |- 7,124,088
Germany.” . {1883 3,522,545 15,786,764 | 19,189,715 } 9,206,195
= a a nn | oe)
- £1886 | 272,700 1,530,800 802,700 458,200
1 OU | 1887 274,300 | 1,525,600 804,300. 490,254
oe ee a ee a
test f§ 1875 | 657,544 3,489,125 | 6,977,104 | 1,553,582
LFS ca Sei { 1881 | 660,123 4,783,232 | 8,596,108 1,163,916
5 f 1865 | 149,167 953,036 | 1,705,394 | 96,166
Norway - --- + - ° + 1 1875 | 151,903 | 1,016,617 | 1/686,306 | . 101,020

re: 1882 | 20,015,659 | 923,845,104 | 47,508,966 | 9,207,666
terenne nears 4) ; | 1883 | 17,880,792 | 93.628,031 46,724,736 | 9,361,980
¢ * + { 1888 | 19,663,336 | 24,609,264 | 44,465,454 | 9,242,997
1886 484,885 | 2,381,467 | 1,443,676 548,210

Swodeiiiesicis des cs |. LORF 481,257 2,330,706 1,377,685 571,114
1888 482,096 2,349,098 1,349,807 610,469

49,934,777 | 43,544,755 | -44,346,525
50,331,042 | 42,599,079 | 50,301,592
52,801,907 | 44,336,072 | 51,602,780

United States of America 1888 | 13,663,294

{ ts 13,172,936
1889 | 14,213,837

: The figures given for Canada in 1887 relate to the Provinces of Ontario
Manitoba, and the North-West Territories. In 1888 the numbers for Ontario
only are shown.

; Sees yee .
208 — Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.
TABLE VI.—EsTIMATED ToTAL PRODUCE AND YIELD PER ACRE OF THE
AND NUMBER OF Horses, CATTLE, SHEEP, AND PIGs, IN
[From the Agricultural Returns and
| England B| Wales
|
Acreage, | Pmiuceot | average | Acreage, ,| Produccot| Average |iMl
‘thousands’ et (000) yield per (000) | pial (000) yield per aq
Crops (000) omitted | Gabel acre omitted omitea | acre. 1
/ | ie
1889 1850 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 (1890 1889 1890. }
a, So Sl fay | a
Corn Crops :— Acres | Acres Bush.| Bush. Bush. Bush. Acres |Acres ) =H Bush. Bush. Dosh, i
_ Oi 2,322 | 2,256 69,336 | 69,442 | 2987 30-79 68 |. 68 Le73 L713 2443) 24°94
BarleyorBere . . ~~) 1,776 | 1,776 56,037 | 62,250 3155) 35°06 122) 120) Race --99°07| 30°24
; | | | : | : j
| Oats . . . « «| 1,624] 1,643 | 68,109 |72,104 | 41°94| 43-75 249 | 241 | 8150/8116 | 39-73] 33°65) |
| | | j 1 |
: | ; |
[5 > Fae 60 eae - — 1 i ie Pe yf
| : . i a
| iat Sees | 304 | 340 | 8,693 | 11,103 | 2855 32°63) 2 2 | = 59 | 98-99| 3135.
i | / : |
| eee omar. tC. | Rees) ais 5,840 | 6,223 | 2632) 26-76 1 2, 31, 40 21-16 mot
|
| | na =. CMa... =.
Torat Coan Crops .| 6,307 | 6,281 — — eS 443, | > Aa ) 7a |
: eee
GREEN CROPS :— | Tons | Tons | Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons | Tons |
Potatoes . . « ~| 385} 338| 2,337| 1,959) 608) 562) 40| 40/ 938) 177 | 595) 443,
Turnips and Swedes . | 1,370 | 1,393 19,295 [19,022 1403/1365 72 = 72 | 1,083 | 1,155 | 14°99 | 15°91.
Mangolds . . «- «| 318] 323 5,978] 5,903 | 1879) 18-29 7 7| 122) 196 | 17-53] 17-22
| | | |
Carrots, Cabbage, Kohl-) ms Oe Ee » as 2 ae ae
rabi, and Rape. . J 151 as: | = ° |
| Vetches, &c. . - = “ 294 298 — = — — 3 3) — = = = | a]
| . ToraL GREEN Crops | 2,518 | 2,523, — | — a 194) 3859) ee
ee ees eee eines See es es ee
. OTHER Crops, Grass, &c. :— i
Clover and artificial grasses ) 9,420 | 9,811 ~~ + = — {}1:579 11,614} == easy fy |)
and permanent pasture ) E } 1
Dittoforhay . . «| 6,168| 5,816 | 9,692| 8183; — | — 695 | 674] 781) 737] — | — |
: Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | ;
ee 2] | PROMO |
Hops -. . Py F 5 58 | 54 498 284} 862) 5 236)) — — = | = = ee )
Small Fruit? . 71 ay — a ae ? |
be SS ee aemmy fee ! |
Tora OTHER Cnors. | 15,685 | 15,724 | — —{—)— } | = |
|
— - ——- ———————— — — = = — = = — |
: Year Year Year Year
Live Stock 1889 1890 Year 1889 1890
Actual No, / Actual No. . Actual No. |" Actual No.
ieee RRA Ace (oa te 1,091,041 1,099,557 / 141,143 143,336
/ |
Cathe “Cm te ye 4,352,657 | 4,617,641 ; €66,101 705,115
itep <9 eee 15,839,882 | — 16,841,288 | 2,840,689 | 3,069,710 i
Hin +c x) * 2,118,385 | 2,355,760 i 240,741 | 258,175 i

the bushel of Beans and Pens.

» Turnips only.

* Including Beetroot,

‘ Nore.—The produce of the Corn Crops for Ireland, which was originally given in weight, has been converted into
* Gooseberries, strawberries, and

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 209

PRINCIPAL CROPS, AND ALSO THE ACREAGE UNDER OTHER CROPS AND GRASS,
THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE YEARS 1889 AND 1890.

the Agricultural Produce Statistics.]

ee — ean SS —————__—____——- |

Scotland | Ireland United Kingdom i

Acreage, | Produce of | Acreage, | Produce of Acreage, | Produce of |

Average ‘ Sr Average
thousands’ crops, ‘thou- Average ‘thousands’ crops, ‘thou- 5 thousands’, crops, ‘ thou- ;

(000) sands’ (000), Yield per =" (q99) | sands’ (000) Yield Per (00) sands’ (000) Yield per
omitted onitted eee omitted | omitted omitted omitted |

|
) 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890 1889 1890
J SS
1 Acres | Bush, Bush. Bush. Bush, Acres Acres Bush, Bush. Bush,| Bush. |Acres |Acres Bush. Bush. Bus. Bus.
' 62| 2,194) 2,200, 36°04) 3549 80, 92 2,681 | 2,639 29°87) 28°58) 2,539 2,479 75,884 75,994 20°89 30°66
| |
{ 216 | 7,842; 8,062 35:09 | 37°36 186 | 182, 7,277, 6,860 39'07| 37°60 2,308 2,294 74,704 80, 794 32° 7 35°23
|
; 1,014 |37,182 39,968 | 36°61, 39°43 1,239, 1,221 20,637 51,107 40°87 | 41°86 4, 128 | 4,124 164,078 171 295, 39° 7a a 54
| |
OE ea se ea ee 16 i ie a 85 | 6o| <a fr oek|
| | | | | |
16} 509 536 | 3410) 33°33 | 4; 125; 162 34:05) 43°61 325 362 = 9,875 11,860 28°87 32°77
fy A 35 3Y | 24-85 | 25°48 1 1 1b 19 2246) 29°30 226, 220 5,921 6,313 26-27 28-71
| |
|| a | ra a et a ay tes aos
so — {les = — || 1,535} 1515) — A ieee — 9,611) 9,548 — ee
Tons | Tons | Tons "Tons | Tons Tons Tons _ Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons
142, 1,012; 676 6°54 | 4°78 787 | 781 2,848| 1,810! 3:62) 2°32 1,366 1,310) 6,485 4,622) 4°71) 3°53
| | | |
482 7,789) 7,581| 16°30 15-72 1298 1295 3,910 ' 4,255 113-12 ' 14-40 2,218 2,243 32,007 32,002 14°43 14:27
| | |
A} 19} = 17] Wel) 14°57)| * 44) = 477 622? 663 *14:12 714-27 370 378 6,740 6,709 18:21 17°76
ii | 52| 56 Sess ler = 216} 932) — | — |— | —
14) — | — |} —] — 38) 35)) — | — | — | — 351; 352, — — j—
| | | | | i
(SS eS ee | eee | Se GS Geen | SECS en SO al SS
Peeters P= | iar htaie) er — | | 4621] 4515) = | —.| — | =
| | hn ea
| | | | | |
2,330} — | — | ~ | — | 9,995,10,211 — | — | — | — | 23,3302402 — | — | —| =
681} 958, 952; — | — 2,187) 2,093 4,854| 4,594, — | — 9,675 9,187 16,285) 14,486; — | —
} | | | Cwt. | Cwt. 'Cwt.
—{/—|—/]—-]=— 4 97 — | — | ~ | — T1¢|) 99) — =: ||
l> | |
Se el = se | | —;-};-|]-|- 58 54-408 284 862) 526
| | | | |
4), — — | — | — —- — — = — = ae | om — =
| hese fee | | |
|) 2,801) 2,915) — | — = /- /12,296 12,401 | a — | — 33,179 33,366) — | — [ae
i}. t I i | } | bl a BI L = : — 5
| l
| Year 1889 | Year 1890 Year 1889 Year 1890 Year 1889 Year 1890
Actual No. | Actual No, Actual No, Actual No, Actual Wo, | Actual No.
189,205 189,727 515,188 523,384 1,945,386 1,964,911
|
1,120,797 1,185,876 4,093,944 4,240,753 | 10,272,765 | 10,789,858
| | |
6,951,449 7,361,461 3,789,629 4,323,805 29,484,774 31,667,195
151,677 159,674 1,380,548 1,570,279 | 3,905,835 4,362,040

hels, at the rate of 60 1b. to the Gishel of Wheat; 50 lb, to the Gustial or Barley ; : 39 1b. to the bushel of Oa's ; and 60 tb. to
er small fruit, including what is grown between trees in orchards and also in market gardens,

P

210

TABLE VII.—QUANTITIES AND VALUES oF Cory, Meat, Foop Propucts,
KiInGpom IN THE YEAR 1890, WITH THE

Home Produce and Foreign Imports in 1890.

(From Trade and

Axmmats, Livine
food) :—
Oxen and Bulls . e
Cows... §.» . :
Calves. a F .

ToraL CATTLE

Sheepand Lambs .

Swine. A
Toran
Corn :-—
Wheat +

Wheat Meal and Flour

Barley A

Oats .

Peas

DRT Mtl os i
Maize .

Maize Meal . F
Toran

MEAT :—
Beef, Salted .
3) Fresh <
Mutton, Fresh .
Bacon.

Hams. . .

Pork, Salted (not Hams) . |

» Fresh ’ .

Meat,
Salted or Fresh A

Meat preserved otherwise |

than by Salting
Rabbits. i
LOCAL “ss >

' Beef, 551
* Beef, 1

51,
Ald

|
sail
098 cwt.; mutton, 78, 409 ewt. ;

(for

unenuimerated— } |

Quantities |

1888 1889 1890 |

No. No. No. |]

287,266 441,811 536,518 ||

49,724 60,366 49,146 |)

40,098 3,044 | 56,929 ||
877,088 555,221 642,593 |
956,210 678,058 358,458
24,509 25,324 | 4,036

|
Cwt Cwt. Cwt.

57,224,934 | 58,602,271 | 60,474,180
16,912,773 | 14,699,201 | 15,773,336
21,277,477 | 17,415,943 | 16,677,988
18,737,436 oie 12,727,186
2,420,847 | 1,688,512 / 1,842,488
3,010,144 | 3,585,473 | 3,344,918
25,338,551 a 43,437,834
14,846 24,066 | 7,145
| 144,937,008 148,217,595 | 154,335,075
226,536 | 264,542 | 274,726
837,444 | 1,379,511 1,854,503
989,085 | 1,226,669 | 1,856,419
2,854,536 | 8,498,144 8,790,570

728,305 | 977,608 | 1,209,446 l
244,801, 260,587 | 254,857
249,778 | 116,846 | 45,295
66,781} 90,982 | 103,881

| |

542,599 642,857 734,811"
100,872 | | 193,774 143,641

6,828,827 8,590,520

10,068,239 | eats 991 18,601,309 | 20,622,824

Values
1888 1889 1890
a £ £
5,130,837 | 8,133,468 | 9,682,778
634,982 732,385 595,178
146,155 203,454 227,591
5,911,974 | 9,069,307 | 10,908,947
1,740,549 | 1,195,407 | 696,312
74,784 95,373 14,474
|| 7,727,307 | 10,360,087 | 11,016,333
21,971,331 | 22,530,838 | 23,584,616
9,530,800 | 8,559,563 | 9,074,290
6,069,190 | 4,968,947 | 4,985,406
|
4,588,712 | 4,472,508 | 3,908,497
705,747 | 558,503 605,099
920,088 | 1,123,233 993,505
6,881,307 | 8,580,080 | 9,863,034
8,046 19,365 30,060
50,675,221 | 50,808,127 | 53,044,507
349,259 | 871,580 381,734
1,920,847 | 3,015,180 | 3,923,015
‘7
1,940,979 | 2,578,621 | 3,447,776
6,592,959 | 7,287,207 | 6,978,061
1,923,936 2,501,484 | -9,869,115
|
359,921 390,265 | 341,424
556,054 286,139 109,834
;
120,551 | 197,017 | 227,572
| .
1,377,023 | 1,632,333 | 1,946,195"
276,562 | 341,483 | 398,098

other sorts,” 105,304 cwt.

»4197,; mutton, 181,482/.; other sorts, 340,2942,

Foreign Imports. 211

AND ARTICLES AFFECTING AGRICULTURE, IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED
CoRRESPONDING FicurEs FOR 1888 AnD 1889,

Navigation Returns.)

Quantities - | Values
wre 1888 1889 1890 1888 1889 1890
Darry Propucr :— | Cw. Cwk | Ow | £ £ £
te 1,669,314 1,927,469 | 2,027,717 | 8,902,193 | 10,243,728 | 10,598,848
Margarine - ie 1,138,174 1,240,760 1,079,996 3,263,826 3,652,722 | 3,083,731
Ghecss “eee. 1,917,541 | 1,909,545 | 2,144,074 | 4,542,078 | 4,494,554 | 4,975,234
one ft. ee 4,725,029 | 5,077,774 | 5,251,787 16,708,297 | 18)391,004 18,657,813

|
Povrtry, &c. :—
aay aot Game, alive eee ee ae 403,197 472,686 497,858
or . .
Gt. Hunds,| Gt. Hunds, | Gt. Hunds, |
Fees. . . . «| 9,320,617) 9,416,639 | 10,291,246 || 3,077,109 | 3,122,813 | 3,498,809
| pe
EOTRIN Pest a5. | - _ — | 3,480,306 | 3,595,499 | 3,926,660
PS ie ee ee el once a)
Proit, VEGETARLES, &C.:— | Bushels Bushels | Bushels ||
Apples(raw). . ss | -3,821,946 | 3,617,997 2,574,957 || 1,037,084 976,118 786,072
Frnit, unenumerated (raw) 3,039,100 | 2,189,508 3,584,663 || 1,387,271 1,149,834 1,806,811
Onions . « « .| 3,479,418 9,969,751 | 3,871,195 || 641,956 674,547 | 724,020
Potatoes . . 7 2,384,144 | 1,864,610 | 1,940,100 || 802,110 735,999 714,257
i|
Vegetables, nnenume- } aa | Ss mS | 21.77 7
rated (raw) c a | | 621,771 623,789 773,590
Cwt. Cwt, } Cwt. |
Hops . = a 2 ey 215,927 200,690 | 188,028 | 796,404 716,637 877,704
| eo See | I 1 ———
Toran =... =e ee — || 5,285,896 | 4,876,924 | 5,682,454
} SSS eS ee ee
CLES! | Hl
OTHER ARTICLES :— Chuck: Cwt. Cwt. .
Tard. . . . | 888,469 | 1,193,831 | 1,273,236 || 1,815,420 | 9,178,408 | 2,091,704
Flax. 4. . +) 1,888,050) 1,783,189 | 1,80ch469 || 2,991,898 | 3.066.114 | 9,856,276
Lb. |
Wool, Sheep and Lambs’ . | 635, oan 244 |696,396,186 |630, 236, 298 || 25,897,745 | 28,393,755 | 26,945,057
Wood & Timber : Lo ads Loads ‘Loads |

Hewn. . . «| 1,985,249| 2,389,491 | 2,978,374 || 4,042,407 | 5,635,118 | 5,004,554

Sa Split, Planed } | = -
erred’ tee } 4,336,084 | 5,318,750 | 4,778,314 || 9,638,077 | 13,142,333 | 11,092,291

458,948 230,547 448,254 820,273 416,377

Sisvess. gf. a 9k] 143,872 170,155 155,995 590,112 694,115 669,243
Tons Tons Tons
Oil-SeedCake . . ., 259,573 256,296 280,616 1,620,634 1,703,521 1,743,279
Cwt. Cwt. | Cwt. |}
Seeds: Clover and Grass . 334,432 296,314 | 378,589 | 684,185 608,097 758,204
| Tons Tons | Tons |
eee COLON 5” = Gets ors 255,500 289,413 314,050 1,646,349 1,940,995 749,215
Qrs. | Qrs. Qra.
= Flax and Linseed .; 2,542,027 | 2,272,019 1,932,035 |

| 1,
4,800,016 | 4,577,799 3,949,104

REPS sn a, nS 279,615

’ Worktige. y\" | — | = ae | 54,175,097 | 62,760,528 | 57,275,327

212 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.

TABLE VIII—NUMBER AND VALUE OF LIVE CATTLE, SHEEP, AND SWINE IMPORTED
INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS.

[From Trade and Navigation Returns]

Sy

Value

| Number |
ai | 1888 1889 1890 1888 | 1889 | 1890
| Hic Be £ £
From Denmark .| 27,885 | 30,047 | 21,238 | 384,451) 359,245 246,578
» Germany . | 10804 es —._| 176347 «See
° » Spain 11,484 | 11,587 | 8,071 || 188,614, 190,754 132,450
a | |, Canada .| 58,761 | 82,207 | 109,610 | 1,036,269] 1,424,731] 1,739,718
Bull | ., United States . | 142,865 | 294,128 | 384,198 2,840,911! 5,793,366) 7,351,981
ae », Other Countries, 36,467 | 23,842 | 13,401 | 554,245, 365,872, 213,01
Total . | 287,266 | 441,811 | 536,518 | 5,130,837| 8,133,468) 9,682,778
From Denmark. 35,439 | 47,895 | 32,699 | 410,867) 539,436] 357,584
,, Sweden 3,061 | 2,887 | 1,660, 34,648) 32,409} 18,551
,» Germany. 4,239 — — || 66,415 — =
Cows 4.2» Canada .| 2,216 | 2,237 | 10,859 || 40,354 39/342! 152,580
», United States. 630 262 441 || 12,415 4,285 7,234
,, Other Countries| 4,139 | 7,085 | 3,487 || - 70,283] 116,913) 69,229
Total . .| 49,724 | 60,366 | 49,146 || 634,982] 732,385] 595,178
From Denmark. 4,235 | 10,911 | 22,021 15,959 39,474 79,308
» Holland . 36,494 | 41,214 | 33,424 || 128,863} 160,282] 143,781
» Canada : 167 144 840 454, 249 1,683
Calves », United States . — 33 t| _ 111 ye
| ” Other Countries) 202/ 742] 637 879, 3,388] «2,802
Total 40,098 | 53,044 | 66,929 | 146,155) 203,454) 227,591
From Denmark 94,454 | 153,362 | 139,465 | 134,949] 296,163} 208,449
» Germany. . 299,589 | 193,191 | —- || 536,851} 318,939} ,»—
ae » Holland . . 498,458 | 198,035 | 119,669 || 954,268] 422,129| 319,490
ae » Canada .| 45,339 | 55,857 | 42,640 || 89,272! 111,128] 83,656
Lambs) ” United States.| 1,203 | 18,690 | 3,904 || 1,956) 36,288 7,900
a », Other Countries| 17,167 | 58,923 | 52,780 || 23,263] 80,760] 81,817
Total 956,210 | 678,058 | 358,468 |/1,740,549| 1,195,407| 696,312
i Es |— :
From Denmark. 16,325 | 19,719 | 1,420 | 56,521) 79,086 5,671
» Holland . 8,173 | 1,675 362 | 18,230 3,183 1,205
» Canada ‘ —_ Sara, pee , ee | —- _-
Swine », United States . — — | 1,086 | — —- 4,054
,, Other Countries, 11 8,930 | 1,168 || af 13,154 8,544
bfcme | een | Powe see ee
Total .| 24,509 | 25,824 | 4,036 | 74,784) 95,878) 14,474
Total value of all kinds 7,727,307 10,360,087 11,216,333
|
= pa ee eee

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,

215

TABLE IX.—QUANTITY AND VALUE OF DEAD MEAT IMPORTED INTO THE
UNITED KINGDOM IN THE Four YEARS, 1887-90,

[From Trade and Navigation Returns. |
Thousands ( 000") omitted,

|

DEAD MEAT
BAcon :—
From United States
» Other Countries |
Total. ° <
‘He From United Stat
‘om United States.
ety te { 5, Other Countries .
Motels sic
Frest From United States
s .
al oa { » Other Countries .
Total.
Hawes :—

From United States
» Other Countries .

Total. . °

Mrat, Unenumerated :—
F United States
Salted or Fresh { ee de tas

» Other Countries .

Total A) .

wise than by, Mutton. . °
Salting . -(oOtherSorts . ..

Total . .

Preserved, other- {se ramen hae

MUTTON, Fresh :--
From Holland or

», Australasia . 3
» Argentine Republic
» Other Countries .

Total, .

PORK :— .
Salted or Fresh eter United States

(not Hams) » Other Countries .
Total. . .

RABBITS :—
From Belgium . F

s Other Countries
Total. 5

ToTAL OF DEAD MEAT

1887 1888 | 1889 1890
Quan-' Quan- | Quan- Quan-
| “tity Value tity vais tity Value tity Value
lCwt.| & | Gwt.| £ | cwt.| 8 | Cwt.
. 2,203 4,229/ 1,865 3,853 2,548 | 4,810) 2,935| 4,891
798 | 2,101) 989 | 2,540, 950 | 2,477| 856, 2,087
3,001 | 6,330 | 2,854 | 6,393 | 3,498 | 7,287| 3,791| 6,978
a | Le | ee
203 | 810] 213| 325! 254] 352] 963] 359
15} 24] 13) 24] 19} 12] 28
218 | 334] 226| 349} 265| 371) 275| 382
645 | 1,456! 785 | 1,815 | 1,270 | 2,812] 1,694] 3,630
13| 25] 52] 106) 110] 203] 161] 293
658 | 1,481] 837 | 1,921| 1,380 | 3,015] 1,855| 3,923
814 | 2,097] 647 | 1,697) 873 | 2,217] 1,094] 2,584
107 | 293] sl] 297/104] 284]-115| 285
921 | 2,390| 728 | 1,924| 97 | 2,501| 1,209] 2,869
Galle 138 FS 6), 2a.|) Pash say \732
41| 103} 54/ 114) 69] 149) 87) 195
47| l6| 57| 120| 91] 197] 104| 297
Se lietecs rites. wiltkwabe tly Ws, eee 552| 1,424
xe Seite ce eee il lice 78| 182
nl. coy, Altesesaps esti MI soci ore 105} 340
519 | 1,350] 543 | 1,377! 643 | 1,632| 735| 1,946
1 = eo as
63] 152} 88] 190| 78] 175| 116] 9275
441 | 925] 543 1,104) 613 | 1,292) 897] 1,823
251| 443] 347/ 628) 395| 750| 435) 923
30] 57; 11| 19] 141] 362) 208] 527
785 | 1,577) 989 | 1,941) 1,227 | 2,579 | 1,656) 3,448
192 | 275] 150! 238] 192] 983] 205] 282
236 | 498 338 | 679| 194] 393] 95/ 169
428 | 773} 488 917] 386| 676) 300] 451
110} 293} 92) 250) 113] 309/ 129 357
Tlie P8leteySs| 9 28)” IL 32] 14| 41
117 | 311) 101 | 276) 124] 341) 143) 398
6,694 |14,662 | 6,823 15,218 | 8,591 | 18,601 10,068 | 20,623
ui

a ee Se a aes ae a ee
* Not separately enumerated prior to 1890,

214

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests,

TABLE X.—QUANTITIES AND VALUES OF BUTTER, MARGARINE, CHEESE, AND
EGGs IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN EACH YEAR FROM 1888 TO

1890 INCLUSIVE,

[Prom Trade and Navigation Returns.)

| QUANTITIES
1888 1889 1890 1888
BUTTER ewt. ewt. ewt. | £

From Sweden. - 205,847| 212,141| 224,935) 1,128,939
=o SWenmark: vs 604 512) 677,491 | 824,749) 3,335,064
» Germany. . 160,915| 111,027} 104,450) 813,198
“Holland § #,-- 155,020} 151,073} 156,069|| 784,523
mo prance... . 439,993 | 566,524) 525,105 | 2,378,835
Pee ANHGD).2 fa ve 9,173} 22,634 15,155 || 40,797

» United States 23,207' 110,187} 84,553 93,243

» Other Countries. 70,647 76,392, 93,401) 327,594
Total. . | 1,669,314 1,927,469 | |
eB ee ee a eee
|
MARGARINE ewt. ewt. | owt. £ }
From Norway. . . 7,784, 11,051) 15,084|) 25,045 |
» Holland 1,048,401 1,137,094 1,001,968 2,951,522
» Belgium P 6,676 | 10,527 | 1,684 | 18,130 |

3, Other Countries. 80,813 82,088 61, 260 | 269,129
motile owe te | 1,138,174 | 1,240,760 | 1,079,996 | 3,263,806 |
CHEESE ewt. | cwt ewt. £

From Holland. 328,801| 327,384] 292,215 || 822,498
trance. 29,304 32,941 40,364 | 92,428

» Canada. 667,461, 675,900 837, 890, 1,523,833 |

» United States 812,430! 827,626) 919, 408 | 1,905,776 |

» Other Countries . 79,545 45,694, 54, 197. |) 197,743 |
Total. . 1,917,541 | eal (2,144,074 4 542,278
reat at reat |
Eaas | bauieeia iandedla ioniesth ry /
From Germany . | 3,707,091 | 2,998,865 2,915,491 1,146,739 |
» Belgium 1,582,929 | 1,817,353 | 1,927,477 490,011
» France . . | 2,692,057 | 2,950,566 3,089,255 1,053,309
» Other Countries. | 1,338,540 1,649, 855 2,359,023 ce
Total. 4 lg 1820: 617 9, 116, 639 10,201,246, "3,077,109

a

VALUES
1889 1890
Boe see
1,141,218 | 1,175,722
3,743,576 4,422,257
588,660| 544,271
767,457 | 792,786
3,073,473 | 2,847,144
95,167| 60,739
448,825) 322,385
385,352 433,544

2,027,717 8,902,193 10,243,728 fee 848

£ £

33,399| 45,57
3,280,628 2,804,675

30.269, 4.454
308.426) 229/024
3,652,722 | 3,083,731
"£ £
807,037". 723,105
106,057! 127.832

1,565,526 | 1,914,232
1,899,864 2,081,546
116, 070 | | 128,519

f, 494, 554 |4 4,975,234

£- £
393,902 $68,655
565,057 | 585,032
1,181,335 1,270,092
482/519 705,023
8,122,813 3,428,802

\
——————————

?

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests. 215

TABLE XI.—VALUE OF CORN IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN
EACH OF THE SEVEN YEARS 1884-90.

[rom Trade and Navigation Returns.)

=
1884 | 1885 1886 | 1887 1888 1889 1890
| ————_| ——-——- | - | ————_ | ————— |__
Ve | Os Ie we ee £ £ £
Wheat, . | 19,825,021 | 24,066,013 | 17,888,155 | 21,335,902 21,971,331 22,530,838 | 23,584,616
Wheat Flour 10,166,010 |"9.651, 7508 8,254,407 | ; 10, 020,433 9,530,800 8.559.563 9,074,290
29,991,031 | 33,717,621 | 26,142,562 | 31,356,335 31,502,131 31,090,401 | 32,658,906
Barley 4, "228 722 | 4, 528, 823 | 3,968,437 3, 769,272 6,069,190 Soe 947 | 4, "985, 406
Oats 4.195,514| 4,252,135 | | 3, 974.434| 3.489.818 4588712 4.479.598 | 3,908,497
Maize 7,303,099, 8,473,863 | 7,614,113| 7,535,946 6,881,307 8,580,080 9,863,034

e|

.| ° 93:970| ° 18,811; — 12,899 4,934 8,046 19,365 30,060.
Beans and Peas « | Les 1,758,105 1,512,985 | 1,662,992 | 1,625,835 1,676,736 1,598,604

t

Total of Corn | 47, (02 | 52,749, 258 | 43,225,430 | 47,819,297 | 50,675,221 50,808,127 | 53,044,507

TABLE XIJ.— QUANTITIES OF WHEAT,W HEAT MEAL, AND FLOUR IMPORTED
INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE FIvE YEARS 1888-90; ALSO THE
COUNTRIES FROM WHICH THEY WERE OBTAINED.

[Prom Trade and Navigation Returns. |

(Thousands (“000”) omitted.)

1886 | 1887 | 1888 1889 | 1890

“Cwt. Cwt. | Cwt. Cwt.

Wheat from— |
5,523 | 21,369 a ue 19,389

TGSED. Stee ME 8G mE oe ea
Gaoany . . . - +-.| 1,318 | 1,552 3,265 2,539 1,101
RAWGO sy ws WN te] 3 71 20 127 3
Turkey . See py se 249 2 182 | 667 900
armmania:.- & seh i * 290 585 | 1,419 2,862. | 4,654
Ll i 41 198 730 | 325 | ~ 425
United States. . . . . 24,621 | 30,505 14,647 | 17,016 | 17,201
Mewar anal. |. (at 1,702! |. 2,206) IF ase |: 523) | © “28
British India. . . -. . | 11,029 8,509 | 8,189 | 9,217 | 9,112
Australasia . . 739 1,347 | 2,316 | 1,406 | 3,058
British North America . 3,081 3,965 | 1,089 | 1,168 1,128
Other Countries. .. . 622 1,322 2,518 1,380 3,482
=f
Total Wheat . . . 47,405 | 55,785 | 57,225 | 58,602 | 60,4744
Wheat Meal and Flour from—

Germany. 4 ol). 1s ; $17 | 589° | 4,109 | T1565 | 895
France . . naar 115 | 98 | 102 | 91 103
Austrian Territories eine geS6o j 1,391 | 1,946 1,838 | 1,370
United States. . . . | 11,473 | 14,873 | 12,557 | 10,068 12,026
British North America 770 | 959 | 785 | 1,169 933
Other Countries. . .. 202 147 414 | 378 446

TS ae ao

Total Wheat = aed S x
and Flour . . j| 14,739 18,057 | 16,913 | 14,699 | 15,778

216 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interest s.

TABLE XIII.—NuMBER OF HoRSES, AND THEIR DECLARED VALUE, IM-
PORTED INTO, AND EXPORTED FROM, THE UNITED KINGDOM, IN EACH
OF THE UNDERMENTIONED YEARS.

[From Agricultural Returns and Trade and Navigation Returns.)

IMPORTED EXroRTED

Year | —_—_—_— Year

| Number | Value Number Value

| = £
1886 11,026 189,901 1886 7,326 | 409,045
1887 11,641 197,679 1887 9.463 547,396
1888 11,505 192,624 1888 12,880 848,311
1889 13,832 277,388 1889 14,266 | 984,611

12,922 | 699,187

1890 19,404! 336,496 1890

l

! Note.—the countries from which horses were imported in 1890 were as
follows :—Germany, 12,600; Denmark, 2,607; Holland, 1,575; France, 783;
Belgium, 499; United States of America, 361; Canada, 225; and 751 from
other countries.

TABLE XIV.—QUANTITIES OF CERTAIN ARTICLES OF FOREIGN AND COLONIAL
PRODUCTION IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM IN THE YEARS 1887-90

[From Trade and Navigation Returns.|

|

1887 —s-:1888 1889 | 1890

Bones (whether burnt or a} 51,882 | 65,651 2,855, 69,949
Cotton,Raw . . cwt. | 15,903,117 | 15,246,408 | 7,159,316 | 16,011,350
hh nn oo 21,251 | 25,052 | 26,804 28,005
Hemp. . . . cwt. | 1,472,857] 1,822,065 | 1,973,210 | 1,890,367
Hides untanned: Dry =~ 627,132 | 585,254 | 575,158 455,098

a a Wet ., | 523,393] 576176 | 647,250| 684,948
Petroleum . . .gallons | 77,458,062 | 94,177,807 |102,647,478 104,809,146
Flax-seed and Linseed qrs. 2,341,175 |_ 2,542,027 | 2,272,019 | 1,932,035

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

~MmBITWODS OF PREVENTING AND
CHECKING: RHE: ATTACKS, OF
INSECTS AND) FUNGI:

No one can deny that the disorders of cultivated plants have
greatly increased both in numbers and intensity, even within
the recollection of middle-aged cultivators. This not only ap-
plies to Great Britain but also to every country under the sun.
The crops on the recently cleared land in Australasian countries
are as subject to insects and mildews as those in English fields,
which have been tilled from immemorial times. Under the
fierce rays of the Indian sun myriads of beetles, caterpillars, and ,
flies, with fungi of divers kinds, frustrate the labours of the
planters. In Northern latitudes, where the soil is fast bound by
frost for more than half the year, all sorts and conditions of
insects appear to vex the crops of corn, herbs, and fruit as soon
as the ice and snow have vanished. Rusts, blights, and moulds
are just as rife there as under tropical skies or in temperate
climes. It will be found, for example, that the Codlin moth is
as destructive in the apple orchards of Canada, the United
States, and Australasia as in those of England, and that the
wheat-fields in Manitoba, Minnesota, and New South Wales are
becoming as subject to rust (Ustilago segetum) as those in the
British Isles.

The interchange of seeds, fruits, plants, roots, and cuttings
between all the countries of the world has tended to spread many

VOL. II. T. S.—6

218 Methods of Preventing and Checking

of the enemies and parasites peculiar to crops. In this way the
appearance of new insects and fungi in countries previously free
from them is easily accounted for, but it is difficult to explain the
reason of the exceeding increase of some of the pests of certain
crops within the last half century, and the consequent serious
injury occasioned by them. For instance, aphides have come
regularly upon the hop plants during the last few seasons, and
would have caused utter destruction if prompt measures had not
been taken against them. Within the last ten years the cater-
pillars of the winter-moth have become chronic pests in many
of the apple-producing districts of England, having been until
then the most occasional visitors in comparatively rare places.

With regard to fungi, their development in the form of mil-
dews, moulds, blights, and rusts is even more remarkable. Fifty
years ago the potato disease caused by the fungus Phytophthora in-
jestans was unknown in this country, and the vines in France and
Germany were free from the Oidiwm Tuckeri, which has caused
such great losses in all their vineyards. Since 1878 another
mildew (Peronospora viticola) has sorely plagued European wine-
producers. It was first noticed in France in the Charentes, and
spread rapidly. The hop mildew (Podospheera castagnet), though
known in Kent before the curious and general invasion of
mildews in 1843, has since then assumed a far more virulent
and chronic nature, and has extended its attack to all the hop-
growing counties. Since 1875 a mildew (Hemileia vastatria)
has much troubled the coffee-planters in Ceylon, and within the
last few years a mildew (Peziza Willkommiz) has seriously affected
larches in English and Scotch woods and forests. The apple and
pear scabs (Fusicladium dendriticum and Fusicladium pyrinum)
were not observed in Great Britain until after 1844. In some
seasons since that date apples and pears have been greatly dis-.
figured by the blotches, or black spots, upon them produced by
these fungi. The apple scab (Fusicladinm dendriticum) was first
noticed in Canada in 1882; also in Illinois, Wisconsin, and
other American States where apples are cultivated. It prevails
also in the apple orchards of South Australia, where it was
first seen in 1865 or 1866.

Among the most notable and calamitous visitations of insects
of modern date, that of the Phyllowera vastatrix, or vine louse,
in the French vineyards stands prominent in respect of the injury
occasioned and the enormous money losses sustained. It is
estimated that from 1875 to 1887 the total loss to France
amounted to more than 400,000,000/.! These figures are based

' Les Insectes dela Vigne, Par Valéry Mayet (1890).

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 219

upon the report of the French Director of Agriculture, from
which it is also seen that more than 3,000,000 acres, or half of
the vineyards of France, were entirely destroyed by this insect.
The rest of the vineyards were saved from destruction by the
persistent use of most expensive remedies and methods of pre-
vention, which have now to be constantly employed ; these, and
the substitution of American vines—supposed to be phylloxera
proof—for the indigenous varieties, have succeeded in restoring
comparative prosperity to the French cultivators of the vine.

The tiny flea-beetle known as the “fly ” literally devours the
turnip crop in some seasons, causing pecuniary loss that can
hardly be estimated. In 1881 the attack of this beetle was very
general and disastrous in England and Scotland. Miss Ormerod,
in her elaborate report upon an inquiry made for the Seeds and
Plant Diseases Committee of the Royal Agricultural Society, con-
siders that the direct loss in twenty-two English and eleven
Scotch counties was more than half a million of money, merely
for seed, sowing, and resowing, with the necessary cultivation.
The indirect loss from the failure of food for stock in these
circumstances can hardly be estimated, but it must have been
enormous. In most dry seasons this turnip beetle is immensely
destructive in parts of the country.

The hop aphis has frequently reduced the hop crop from its
estimated annual average of seven cwt. per acre to one and a half
or two cwt. per acre, entailing the loss of close upon a million
sterling.! But in these later days science and energy have tri-
umphed over the enemy, so that a “blight” in hops, with its
ruinous consequences, may be averted if the proper measures
are taken.

Among the latest calamities that have befallen English
producers through insect agency is the wholesale onslaught
made upon fruit-trees by innumerable caterpillars of various
moths, so that in several fruit-growing counties hundreds of
acres of apple, plum, and damson trees have been stripped of
leaves, blossoms, and fruit in the last three or four years,
and the crops of red currants and raspberries have been nipped
in the bud. Against the attacks upon fruit trees the most
efficacious remedy has so far proved to be syringing or spray-
ing the trees with “arsenites,” as Paris Green and London
Purple, which are extensively used in the United States for
severe attacks of insects.

The sawfly (Nematus ribesit), or rather its larva, frequently

' This aphis is termed by E. J. Lance, in his work entitled The Hop
Farmer, “ This blighter, this barometer of poverty |”
Q 2

220 Methods of Preventing and Checking

spoils the gooseberry and currant crops in plantations and
gardens. Caterpillars of a moth known as Anisopteryx Hscularia
have lately taken to eat the foliage of filbert and cob-nut trees
in Kent, and cause much loss to gooseberry growers, by eatin
the leaves and young fruit.!. The mustard beetle (Pheedon betule)
has much troubled the mustard-seed. growers in Cambridgeshire
and Lincolnshire since 1884.

There are many other insects more or less vexatious to
British cultivators that might be enumerated. Enough has,
however, been adduced to show that crops of all kinds are ex-
posed to the most grave dangers from this cause, against which
it is most essential that instant and constant watchfulness should
be observed.

The same remarks apply to fungoid disorders, even more
dangerous and insidious, whose infection can be transmitted by
the breezes from field to field, even from country to country, by
means of spores, or seeds, that cannot be distinguished without
a microscope. ‘Their infection may also be conveyed in plants,
seeds, and tubers from one end of the world to the other.

Glancing rapidly at the chief crop-destroying fungi,
the potato fungus (Phytophthora infestans), immeasurably the
most formidable, must naturally be first mentioned. The
terrible consequences of its ravages in Ireland are historical.
Until lately no rational or satisfactory remedy was propounded
for it. It is now believed that sulphate of copper is a valuable
remedy for this disease, from experiments that have been made
in the past three years in France, Belgium, and the United
States. These experiments will be described later on in dealing
with various substances that have been found useful against
noxious insects and fungi, together with the machines for
applying them.

The hop mildew (Podosphera castagnet) ravaged the English
gardens unchecked until about twenty-five years ago, when the
planters, hearing reports concerning the beneficial use of
powdered sulphur against the vine mildew in France, tried this
remedy upon the hop plants. Though its action is very un-
certain, depending in a great degree upon the weather, there
has been a large diminution in the injuries caused by the
fungus since the employment of sulphur.

Market gardeners have found the onion mildew (Peronospora
Schleideniana) most troublesome latterly, affecting both the
onions planted for seed as well as those sown for pulling for

1 Some gooseberries were sent me from Cambridge lately which had been
half eaten by these caterpillars.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 221

market purposes. At present no important attempts have been
made to stay the advances of this fungus; applications of
sulphate of copper have been strongly recommended,' but no
records of experiments made with this have as yet been received.
This onion disease is very rife in the Canary Isles and in
Bermuda, where onion culture is one of the principal industries.
Mr. Shipley, in a report upon this disorder in Bermuda,
states that a mixture of freshly burnt quicklime and sulphur
has been applied with much advantage, and that solutions of
sulphate of iron kill the fungus without injuring the onion
plants.”

Incaleulable losses were sustained by the coffee-planters in
Ceylon through the fungus Hemileia vastatriz before men-
tioned. This appeared suddenly about the year 1876. Mr.
Marshall Ward, in his report upon this to the Ceylon Govern-
ment in 1881, proved beyond doubt that the disorder was
communicated by the spores of the fungus conveyed by the
wind. He placed strips of glass covered with glycerine at some
distance from infected coffee plants, and found spores of the
fungus imbedded in the glycerine, which proved that they were
carried by the air. Many other experiments confirmed the con-
clusion that the wind conveyed the spores over considerable
distances. Innumerable spores in all stages of freshness and decay
were observed in the meshes of some canvas exposed among the
coffee plants for several months. Mr. Marshall Ward believed
that the intervention of forest-land, which prevented the spread
of the spores by the wind, had preserved certain coffee planta-
tions from infection.

Among other fungi injurious to crops are the “smut” or
“brand” of wheat (Ustilago segetum) and “bunt” (Tilletia
caries), which are checked by steeping the seed wheat in sulphate
of copper solutions. Rust (Puccinia graminis), very prevalent
in some seasons, is difficult to combat, and but little has been
attempted in this country in order to prevent it. In Australia
it is becoming most destructive, and has, it is said, already
caused a loss of 2,500,000/. An Intercolonial Conference upon
this serious affection of the wheat crop met at Melbourne in
March 1890, and recommended each of the Australian Govern-
ments to institute experiments in various directions.

' Third Annual Report of the Agricultural Adviser to the Board of Agri-
culture (1890).

* Report by Mr. A. Shipley on the Onion Disease in the Bermudas. Kew
Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information. October, 1888.

* Report on the Coffee-leaf Disease. By H. Marshall Ward, Cryptogamist
to the Ceylon Government (1881),

222 Methods of Preventing and Checking

For instance :—

a. On the effect as regards rust of manuring.

b. The effect of applying lime, ferrous sulphate, and salt to the soil.

ce. The effect of applying to the rusted crops, by means of the Straw-
sonizer and otherwise, solutions of sulphate of iron, sulphate ot
copper, &c.

d, Efficacy of burning all straw, weeds, and other plants in the infected
field, and of using other disinfected agencies with the view of
destroying spores.

e. The relative values of different varieties of wheat.

J. The effect as regards rust of different times and modes of sowing.

g. Investigations regarding plants that act as intermediary hosts,' and

regarding all plants that are affected by rust in the different
colonies.

For the fungus causing scab on apples (Fusicladiwm dendri-
ticum) no remedies are yet used in England. In the United
States and Canada most satisfactory results have been obtained
from spraying the trees with carbonate of copper and ammonia
—three ounces of carbonate of copper and one quart of ammo-
nia to 28 gallons of water—also by using “eau céleste,”
which is made by dissolving in hot water 2 lb. of sulphate of
copper and 24 lb. of carbonate of soda in separate vessels. These
are then mixed together, 14 pints of ammonia are added, and
the whole diluted with 32 gallons of water. It is stated that
this latter mixture gave the best results, and the conclusion
arrived at from a series of experiments in localities where
scab prevailed was that either of the copper mixtures added
from 25 to 50 per cent. to the value of the crop, at a cost of
not more than 2s. to 2s. 3d. for an average-sized tree. The
greater number of the fruit-growers in Great Britain do not know
the origin of scab upon apple and pear leaves and fruit, and
have no idea that any special treatment will stay it or prevent
its appearance, and they would probably smile at the suggestion
that solutions of sulphate of copper would effect these desirable
results. These affections have not as yet been very serious in
this country, but as they will probably increase, like other
fungoid diseases, attention will be fixed upon them, and there
will be loud outcries for remedial measures.

Many other instances could be adduced of the increase of
insects and fungi destructive to crops in this and other lands,
but enough has been put forward to show how great and
alarming it has been. At the same time the knowledge of
economic entomology and mycology has naturally advanced, and
there are now numerous skilled workers in’ many countries

} As the barberry-tree (Berberis vulgaris) in Great Britain,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 2238

diffusing information as to the life histories and habits of these
enemies, and means to lessen and to hinder their dangerous
action. In our own country there is first and foremost Miss
Ormerod, the Consulting Entomologist of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, who has devoted her life to explain to cultivators
the mischief done by certain insects, and how to destroy them
or to diminish their evil effects. Professor Riley has done the
same in the United States with persistent energy and splendid’
ability. There are a crowd of others in America working on
the same lines with the utmost intelligence. Among these may
be mentioned Professors Lintner and Comstock, Dr. Packard
and Mr. Hubbard. All these are engaged in finding out modes
of preserving crops from insect ravages. ‘Their works and re-
ports teem with their successes, and consequent gain to farmers,
fruit-growers, and gardeners. By their science and practical
skill the invasions of locusts from the Rocky Mountains into the
corn-covered plains below have been wonderfully minimised.
Through their sagacity the Colorado beetle has. been baffled in
its work of destroying potato crops by means of poisonous “ Paris
Green ” judiciously distributed upon the leaves ; while the Codlin
moth, the insidious destroyer of apples, quails equally under well-
directed sprayings of this and its kindred “ arsenite,’ London’
Purple.” !

Perhaps among the many brilliant achievements of the
generals of the United States entomological army the com-
plete victory of Professor Riley over the fluted scale (Icerya
Purchasi) in the orange and lemon groves of California fitly
bears the palm. These scale insects in 1886 and 1887 were fast
destroying all the trees of the citron tribe in California, when
Professor Riley had the happy thought to send a qualified person
to Australia to collect and bring over quantities of a beetle
(Vedalia cardinalis) known to feed upon the scale insects there.
In an extremely short space of time this beetle, which is much
like the ladybird (Coccinella septem-punctata, Béte de bon Dieu),
that clears off the aphides from hop plants and roses, had freed
the greater part of the orange and lemon trees from their foes. As
Mr. Henry, another American entomologist, remarked, this was
the “best stroke ever made by the Agricultural Department at
Washington. The distress was very great indeed, and, had no
remedy been found, the scale would probably have destroyed the

1 All this is recorded in Professor Riley’s remarkable Missouri Reports,
and his subsequent Reports to the United States Department of Agriculture ;
also in Dr. Lintner’s Annual Reports as Entomologist to the State of New
York, and in the valuable Reports of the United States Entomological Commis-
sion, by Professor Riley and Dr. Packard.

to

224. Methods of Preventing and Checking

citron industry of the State, for its spreading to every grove
would only have been a question of time.” !

Not less important and valuable are the achievements of
French savants in their warfare against the phylloxera, the
scourge of vineyards, whose calamitous action has been previously
described. By means of submersion of the land in the plains
that could be irrigated, by the application of bisulphide of carbon
and sulpho-carbonate of potassium, and by replanting with
American vine stocks proof against these insects, the plague has
almost been stayed. It is calculated that at least one million
acres of vineyard have been replanted with American stocks.
Until better and cheaper modes of using bisulphide of carbon
and sulpho-carbonate of potassium were devised the cost was
very great. ‘The bisulphide is put into the ground in two or three
holes close round the roots of each vine with a kind of hand-
pump (pal) terminating in a tube with a short point having an
orifice near its end. ‘This is thrust into the earth, and the liquid
is forced into the hole by pressure from the pump. Sulpho-car-
bonate of potassium is conveyed through main pipes laid in the
ground in the vineyards, communicating with a second system of
pipes of much smaller diameter, from which thereis a third system
of small india-rubber or gutta-percha hose with taps to be turned
on for the treatment of each stock. By means of asteam-engine
the liquid is forced through the systems of pipes. The cost of
this is from 3/. to 61. per acre. Before this improved method
was introduced the cost was from 20/. to 30/. per acre, which
was prohibitive to all but wealthy proprietors.” By these and
other means, carried out with vigour and persistency, the
phylloxera will be soon stamped out ‘from the French vineyards.
‘“‘ Nowhere,” says Professor Riley, ‘‘ has the combat been carried
on more energetically than in France, originally the most sorely
stricken country, and nowhere has so much success been achieved
against phylloxera attack.” 4

The same may be said with regard to the mildews which
have plagued the French viney ards, the Oidium Tuckeri and
its more dangerous congener, Per onospora viticola. Constant
applications of powdered sulphur keep the former of these
in subjection in ordinary climatic conditions, if they are made
regularly at certain defined intervals. Curiously, sulphur has
no effect, or comparatively no effect, upon the Peronospora
viticola, Sulphate of copper is employed with wonderful
results against the Jatter fungus. It was the custom to

' Insect Life. Edited by C. V. Riley. “Washington, 1889- 90.
* Les Insectes de la Vigne. Par Valéry Mayet. 1890.
* Insect Life. Edited by C. V. Riley. Washington, 1889-90,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 225

sprinkle the grapes by the roadsides with dust mixed with
verdigris to choke off marauders; after a time sulphate of
copper, being cheaper, was used for this purpose. When the
Peronospora viticola appeared in the country, in 1878, it was
remarked that its effect upon the vines thus treated was modified,
also that the leaves kept normally green.! This led to the trial
of sulphate of copper as a remedy, which, owing mainly to the
energy of MM. Prillieux, Millardet, and Gayon, has been found
to be completely satisfactory. In 1886 M. Prillieux reported,
at a séance of the Société Nationale d’Agriculture de France,
that ‘‘the numerous experiments made this year have demon-
strated beyond doubt the efficacy of salts of copper in combating
the Peronospora of the vine.” * At the same séance M. Prillieux
strongly advised that careful experiments should be made to
prove whether this remedy would be efficacious against the
potato mildew (Phytophthora infestans) causing the potato
disease. He stated that two or three experiments were made
in 1886, but, as the,conditions were not satisfactory, the results
could not be accepted as in any way decisive. Upon M. Pril-
lieux’s recommendation experiments have been made in various
parts of France, among which stands pre-eminently a series
carried out by M. Aimé Girard in 1888, 1889, and 1890. These
show plainly that sulphate of copper is as effectual against the
potato mildew as against the vine mildew. Experiments carried
out in Belgium at the State Agricultura] School at Gembloux,
under the direction of M. Petermann, and those conducted by
M. Thienpont at Etichoe in East Flanders. and others under
the direction of the Agricultural Society of East Flanders at
Ghent,‘ also proved that this mildew yields to treatment with
salts of copper. In America, trials in this direction undertaken
in 1889 were satisfactory, and it is learnt from an agricultural
journal published at Cape Town, Africa, that “‘ several experts
have tried solutions of blue vitriol with good results on enfeebled
potato crops.” The experiments have only lately been conducted ;
the reports are, however, favourable without exception.°

It has been shown by researches made by MM. Millardet,

Traitement du Mildew par le Mélange de Sulfate de Cuivre et de Chaux.
Par D. Jouet. Annales de l'Institut Agronomique, 1886.

* Bulletin des Séances de la Société Nationale d’ Agriculture de France.
No. 10. Année 1886.

* Le Traitement dela Maladie dela Pomme de Terre pendant Vannée 1890,
par E. Thienpont. Bruxelles.

4 Rapport dela Société Agricole de la Flandre Orientale sur U Etat de V Agri-
culture dans la Province pendant Vannée 1890.

§ Agricultural Journal. Published by the Department of Agriculture of
the Cape Colony. December, 1890.

226 Methods of Preventing and Checking

Gayon, and Schlcesing! that the conidia (the minute spores) of
the vine mildew cannot germinate in water containing the most
infinitesimal quantity of sulphate of copper. This was proved by
experiments of the following nature. The conidia of the fungus
sown upon leaves that had been treated with weak sulphate of
copper solution did not germinate, while conidia sown upon
leaves untreated with sulphate of copper germinated perfectly in
the rain-drops upon their upper surfaces. It was found that the’
vine leaves had great power of absorbing the sulphate of copper,
as leaves treated upon their upper surfaces with sulphate of
copper resisted inoculation by the fungus when conidia were
sown upon their under sides, where the disease first manifests
itself. Elaborate experiments reported by M. Schleesing show
that the copper is retained with the greatest tenacity by the
cuticle of the leaves. It is this retention which makes treat-
ment with sulphate of copper solutions so effective as a preven-
tive of fungoid attacks. With regard to the potato fungus,
which appears first upon the under surface of the leaves and
invades the plant, descending finally to the tubers, the sulphate
of copper application has been shown by recent experiments to
prevent the fungus from establishing itself upon the plant, just
as in the case of the vine disease. It has also been shown
that applications made after the fungus had been established
stayed the attack and considerably increased the crop, as com-
pared with example plots not treated. At the same time, the
leaves of the plants to which sulphate of copper had been applied
to cure the disease already present, preserved their greenness
and vigour, while untreated plants were dead and prostrate.
The complete rationale of the action of sulphate of copper upon
plants has yet to be explained. It is expected that the experi-
ments that are being carried out by the Royal Agricultural
Society of England in connection with the Board of Agriculture
may throw some light upon this point. They will, it is fully
believed, establish the fact that this is a preventive of the potato
disease, and that in certain stages it will act as a cure for it.
With all these dangers besetting the crops of the field, the
orchard, and the garden it is not unnatural to find a desire on
the part of cultivators to be posted up in the life histories of destruc-
tive insects and fungi, and especially to be shown ways and means
of averting their evil consequences. Miss Ormerod’s most
valuable reports, and those issued by the Agricultural Depart- _

' Recherches nowvelles sur Vaction que les composés cuivreua exercent sur le
développemené du Peronospora de la Vigne. Note de MM. Millardet et Gayon,
présentée par M. Schlesing. Comptes-rendus des Séances de U Académie des
Sciences, 1887.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 227

ment and its successor the Board of Agriculture, have plainly set
forth details of the chief crop pests, together with the best means
of preventing or mitigating their evil effects. It is, however,
considered desirable that a summary should be given of the
remedies suggested for the principal insect and fangoid enemies,
and the best formulze for their preparation, founded upon prac-
tical experience of their use; also that descriptions should be
furnished of the machines and engines that have been proved to
be useful in distributing the various prescribed substances upon
plants and trees in the most regular and economical fashion.
These prescriptions and the apparatus for employing them have
been brought downto date. They are not yet by any means satis-
factory or sufficient either from a scientific or a practical point of
view. ‘The science and practice of the treatment of plant dis-
eases are still in their infancy, the subject having until lately
been held to be of comparatively small moment and interest.

Foreign modes of dealing with insects and fungi are also noted
here as being in many respects in advance of those in this
country, because the losses from these causes have been of a far
more series nature.

For convenience the subject is presented under four heads,
viz.:—Oorn Crops; Root and Vegetable Crops; Fruit Crops ;
Hops ;—under each of which the insecticides and fungicides found
useful to combat some of the disorders peculiar to the respective
crops are defined, and the best systems of applying them are
indicated.

Corn, GRass, AND CLOVER Crops.

Unfortunately, many of the insects and fungi destructive to
corn crops, from the nature and time of their attack, are not
amenable to what may be termed heroic treatment, or. direct
applications of preventives and remedies. «lor illustration, the
Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor), when once upon the wheat
and barley plants, cannot be reached. In like manner the corn
sawfly (Cephus pygmeus), the ribbon-footed corn fly (Chlorops
teeniopus), the wheat bulb fly! (Hylemyia coarctata), the wheat
midge (Cecidomyia tritici), and the corn thrips (Thrips cerealium),
when established, must be left to work their meeds of mischief.
The same applies to fungi, as the smut (Ustilago segetwm), and
the rust (Uredo graminis), against which nothing has been
attempted in this country when they are upon the corn plants,

1 This has caused considerable harm this season in several parts of the
country, notably in Essex, Lincoln, and Hertford. Its injury appears to
increase,

228 Methods of Preventing and Checking

although it may be found before long that sulphate of copper,
applied to the plants when young, will prevent the appearance
of these insidious parasites. There are indirect means of pre-
venting the appearance of the above-cited insects and fungi
given in the reports already mentioned.

Wireworms, the grubs of the click beetle (Hlater lhineatus),
most troublesome ravagers of corn and other crops, can be
hindered in their destructive progress by dressings of gas-lime,
at the rate of 10 cwt. per acre ploughed in before a crop is
taken, especially in the case of clover leys and broken-up grass
land. ‘Top dressings put on the crops in the early spring,
consisting of soot, from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, or guano,
from 13 to 3 ewt. per acre, or nitrate of soda, 1 to 2 ewt. per
acre, have been found valuable, acting as plant stimulants, as
well as by keeping the insects from the plants. Salt put on at
the rate of from 4 to 6 cwt. per acre is also useful as
tending to make the neighbourhood of the plants unpleasant.
Rape dust broadcasted at the rate of 4 to 8 ewt. per acre
attracts wireworms to it, as they are very fond of it, and it
thus gives the plants a chance of growing away from them, at
the same time acting as a forcing stimulant. After all these
applications the land should be well rolled with a Crosskill
roller.

In some seasons the corn aphis or plant-louse (Aphis granaria)
causes much harm, first by exhausting the juices of the corn
plants—wheat, barley, and oats—and later on by getting into the
ears and doing exceeding mischief. When it is seen that these
aphides are on the corn plants in numbers it would be well
to apply a wash of soft soap and quassia in the proportion of
7 lb. of soap to an infusion made from 6 or 7 Ib. of quassia
chips to 100 gallons of water.! This should be put on with the
Strawsonizer, before the corn plants get too high. Or, paraffin
solution might be used, made of 3 quarts of paraffin to 100°
gallons of water, with 4 or 5 lb. of soft soap; or paraffin pure
and simple distributed at the rate of from two to three gallons per
acre by the same machine. It must be remembered that aphides
multiply with incredible rapidity ; early dressings may therefore
effectually prevent a bad attack.

For oats affected by eelworms (T'ylenchus devastatria), which
make the bases of the stems swell and the plants unhealthy
and unproductive, applications of sulphate of potash at from 1 to
21 ewt. per acre have been found most useful; and a mixture of

' Soft soap has cost about 15s, per ewt., and quassia 11s, per cwt., taking
the average of the last five years.

Li)
bo
eo)

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi.

Superphosphate of lime 2 ewti)
Sulphate of potash . . 1 cwt. per acre
Sulphate of ammonia . 1 owt. }

has been found of benefit.

To eelworms are frequently due the disease of clover known
as “ sickness.” These minute nematodes may be found in quan-
tities in the stem of disordered clover plants, for which a dressing

consisting of
Sulphate of potash . 3 cwt.)

Sulphate of ammonia 1 cwt.! per acre

has been found of great service, and ancther, equally efficacious,
was composed as follows :—
Sulphate ofiron . . 1 ewt, |

Sulphate of potash . 1 cwt.; per acre.
Sulphate of ammonia 1 ewt.)

Almost similar remedies to those employed against wireworms
may be used for the grubsof the daddy longlegs (7'ipula oleracea)
and its congeners (7ipula maculosa, &c.) when they infest corn
crops.

All these dressings of manure and preventive substances
can be put on by hand, or with ordinary broad-casting machines,

!

th
- aK
li

:

h

Fic. 1.—The Strawsonizer for powdered application.

i

Aa anil
Nees

oh
:
i

or with the Strawsonizer, whose powers of distribution are
now generally acknowledged. One great advantage of this
distributor is that as little as half a bushel of powdered sub-

230 Methods of Preventing and Checking

stance can be put on per acre, and as small a quantity of liquid
as a gallon per acre if desired. In many cases of insect and
fungoid attacks upon plants the object in spraying is to spread
the obnoxious substance all over the leaves in the form of a
mist or dense fog. A yery small quantity suffices to make the
plants objectionable to insects and fungi.

Fig. 1 illustrates the machine for distributing powdered
manures and dressings, a8 guano, nitrate of soda, soot, salt, lime,
and for sowing corn and seed of all kinds. It is light, being
worked by one horse, and will dress or sow at from two to four
acres per hour. The machine consists of two driving wheels
with several gearing wheels for working up the speed of the

Fic, 2.—The Strawsonizer for liquid application.

small fan within, which revolves at the rate of 300 revolutions
per minute. A hopper is used for powders, and a light tank,
as will be seen by Fig. 2, when liquids are to be put on,

Roor AND VEGETABLE CRops.

Among the worst enemies of turnip crops, and the first, is
the turnip “fly,” or flea beetle (Phyllotreta nemorum), appearing
soon after the seed has germinated, and clearing off every
particle of growth as fast as it is made.

A good deal may be done to prevent the attack by cultiva-
tion, by getting a fine tilth, sowing plenty of seed, and sowing

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 231

upon a stale furrow, and by rolling, &c. The best substances
to apply as remedies are :—

Lime, at the rate of from 10 to 20 bushels per acre, put on in the early
morning when there is dew on the plants.

Soot, at from 5 to 15 bushels, also put on early.

Mr, Fisher Hobbs’s mixture of } 3 bushel of gas lime, + bushel of quicklime,
3 Ib. of sulphur, and 6 Ib. of soot. per acre, well mixed and put on in the
early morning.

Finely powdered dry guano is also valuable, at from 1 to 2 cwt. per
acre, applied when there is dew.

Pure paraffin oil, at from 1 to 3 gallons per acre, put on at any time ;
or, better, paraffin with soft soap and water.

All these applications must be increased in quantity per
acre if they are put on by hand. An ordinary broad-casting
machine will probably require quite the maximum quantity, or
even more, in order to ensure the thorough dressing of each leaf.

Each of these substances can be evenly spread over the
plants by means of the Strawsonizer in the minimum quantities
stated above, and will be more effectual than large quantities
thrown on by hand or with old-fashioned machines. The object
is to cover every leaf with fine powder or mist, and make it
objectionable to the small beetles and their very minute larve.
By this machine, from 2 to 4 acres can be treated per hour,

A yery useful machine for distributing powdered substances
was shown at a recent trial at Sevenoaks. It was adapted by
Mr. T. Wood, of Swanley, Kent, being practically a hop
sulphurator with the blast directed downwards instead ot up-
wards. It may be used for root and corn crops before they are
high, for strawberries, and for bush fruit.'

In Kent, Worcester, and Hereford, where hops and fruit
are extensively grown, this machine, as shown by Fig. 26, adapted
for sulphuring hops as well as for distributing powders for. fruit
bushes, would be very convenient.

Similar dressings may be adopted for te mustard beetle
(Black Jack, Phedon betulc) to those used for the turnip beetle,
though it must be said they are not always efficacious.

For the mustard beetle the following is also serviceable :—

5 lb. of soft soap well dissolved in warm water,
The extract of 5 lb. of quassia chips, boiled,

To 100 gallons of water.
This should be put on lightly with the Strawsonizer,

Turnip aphides, cabbage aphides, the turnip sawfly, and
other insects of similar habits can be checked materially by
soft soap and quassia mixtures. ‘These have been distr ibuted qi

ee Fig. 26 (p. 255).

232 Methods of Preventing and Checking

means of a large garden engine set upon high wheels, having a
pair of hose with jets. This process is tedious, and will now be
effected far better by the Strawsonizer.

The comparatively new plague of the mangel wurzel crop,
the mangel fly (Anthomyia bete), has been affected in an im-
portant degree by spraying the plants with a composition of

1 gallon of paraffin oil mixed with 1 gallon of boiling water, in which
1 tb. of soft soap has been dissolved. This must be well stirred and diluted
with at least 10 times its bulk of water.

Or, for the Strawsonizer set to distribute the minimum
amount of liquid,

2 gallons of paraffin with 1 or 2 Ib. of soft soap, to fix it well on the
leaves, would suffice.

Paraffin and soft soap compositions, and quassia and soft soap
washes, have been tried with advantage to prevent and check
the onion fly (Anthomyia ceparum), the celery fly (Tephritis
onopordinis), and the carrot fly (Psila rose, all of which are
immensely destructive in market gardens and in ordinary
gardens. These remedies may be put on with the Strawsonizer
in large holdings, and
with garden engines
fitted with nozzles like
the Riley, the helmet
spray, the Climax, and
the Stott nozzles (de-
scribed later on); or
with a “ Knapsack ”
machine, of which
there are several pat-
terns in use in the
French vineyards. The
best of these seems to
be the Eclaic (Fig. 3).

The Eclair is about
two feet high and con-
sists of a copper re-
servoir, or vessel, hold-
ing 26 pints, made to
fit on to the work-
man’s back, being fast-
ened there with straps
like a knapsack. A rod traverses the lower part of the re-
servoir inside, being worked by a lever with the workman’s

Fic. 3.—The Eclair.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 233

hand. This does not move a piston as in ordinary pumps, but
acts upon an india-rubber diaphragm, by whose sucking action
the liquid is forced up through pie
the delivery tubes with great int
force. With the Vermorel or mn
the Riley nozzle the liquid can >
be delivered in the finest spray,
or almost in single jets, and in
any direction. For high trees
the delivery hose can be length-
ened by light canes and directed
by a boy. The machine will
throw a spray from 20 to 25 feet,
and a jet 30 feet high. It weighs
about 40 lb. when full. The cost
is 35s,!

Onion crops, a source of much profit to market-gardeners,
suffer greatly from the onion mildew (Peronospora Schleideniana).
Sulphate of copper solutions will prevent this attack if put on
onion plants for seed at the end of May, and on onion plants for
bulbing just as the bulbs begin to swell.

One of these is a bowillie bordelaise, composed of

Tuc 4.—The Eelair at work.

5 lb. of sulphate of copper (bluestone),
24 lb. of quicklime,
2% gallons of water.

One mode of preparing this is to dissolve the sulphate of
copper in a wooden vessel in three gallons of boiling water. In
another vessel the lime is put with four or five pints of water,
and when slaked four gallons of water are added and the whole is
well stirred. This is then poured into the tub containing the
sulphate of copper, being passed through a sieve to keep back
the particles of lime. The whole is well stirred and the rest of
the water is added.

Another and a weaker preparation, prescribed by a practical
vine cultivator in France, as suitable for the potato mildew, is

3 lb. of sulphate of copper,

1 lb. of quicklime,
20 gallons of water.

The sulphate of copper should be allowed to dissolve in cold
water by hanging it in a coarse bag or basket inatub. Ina
separate tank the quicklime is slaked and passed through a sieve

‘ The Eclaic is sold in London by Messrs. Clark & Co., Windsor Cham-
bers, 20 Great St. Helens, E.C.

VOL. Ii. T. S.—6 R

234 Methods of Preventing and Checking

and put into the tub with the sulphate of copper. The whole
must be well stirred.

The tomato, a vegetable now cultivated upon a large scale
by market-gardeners and ordinary gardeners, is much affected
in some seasons by a fungus of the family Peronosporee.
Sulphate of copper bouillies have been proved to be efficacious

Fic, 5.—For aad spraying.

against this. These may be put on with the Eclair, or other
“Knapsack,” machines.

Sulphate of copper may be used in the form of powder for
mildews of various kinds. A good preparation of this con-
sists of

Parts
Sulphur . . . . . . ‘ . 50
Quicklime . . . . ’ . . 3
Sulphate of copper. : : : endo ’
Pit-coal dust, very finely erashed : , oboe

100

Another powder, the Skawinski,! active against fungoid
growths, and used for the vine mildew, is composed of

40 Ib. of sulphate of copper,
G lb. of quicklime,
154 lb. of pit-coal dust, very finely crushed.

This may be put on with the soufflet, or bellows (Fig. 6),
which constitutes a very useful apparatus for small holders,

1 The Skawinski powder is obtainable of MM. Skawinski, Lesparre, Médoc,
France, at about 9s, 6d. per cwt.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. = oaee

for applying powdered substances in the case of insect and
fungoid attacks.!

Fic. 6.

A handy pail engine for small occupiers is the Snow’s Patent
Universal Garden Engine (Fig. 7), which may be fixed in an
ordinary pail. The
pump is very strong,
forcing a powerful jet
either in a single
stream or in a thick
fog. It is most easily
worked. Fig. 8 illus-
trates the admirable
Helmet spray jet by

Fic. 7.—Snow’s patent garden engine.*

Fic, 8.—The Helmet spray jet.

which plants can be enveloped in the densest mist. This
delivery can be regulated by turning a screw.

1 Messrs. Clark & Co., Windsor Chambers, 20 Great St.
soufflets at a cost of about 3s. each.

* This and the Helmet spray jet can be obtained from any irenmonger,
R 2

Heiens, supply

2°6 Methods of Preventing and Checking

From experiments before alluded to in other countries,
sulphate of copper solutions, mixtures, and powders have been
proved to prevent and check the action of the potate fungus
(Phytophthora infestans).

These have been most successfully used in the form of a
bouillie bordelaise, for which prescriptions have been given above.
This should be put on as a preventive from the 15th to the 25th
of June, at from 140 to 150 gallons per acre, and again four weeks
or so later, especially if heavy rains have fallen. If it has not
been put on early as a preventive, a dressing should be given
directly the first signs of disease show upon the leaves. For
the French experiments, conducted by M. Girard, the bouillie
was made of 20 Jb. of sulphate of copper and 10 lb. of lime to
100 gallons of water, which is rather weaker than the bouillie
used for the vine mildew (Peronospora viticola). M. Peter-
mann employed a bouillie of about the same strength in his
Belgian experiments at Gembloux, but put on 220 gallons per
acre. ,

M. Thienpont used a bouillie of about 16 lb. of sulphate of
copper and 6 lb. of lime to 100 gallons of water at Etichove in
East Flanders. M. Petermann made trials also with sulphate
of iron, applying it as a bouillie composed of 20 Ib. of sulphate
of iron and 10 lb. of lime to 100 gallons of water, and putting
on 220 gallons per acre. M. Petermann considered this as
efficacious as the copper bouillie, and much cheaper.

Besides the Skawinski powder, the Podechard powder may
be employed. ‘l'o make this 11 1b. of lime are slaked in 2 gal-
lons of water and 22 lb. of sulphate of copper are dissolved
in 44 gallons of boiling water, After this is cooled, it is mixed
with the lime and water. This is put over 220 lb. of unslaked
lime, which it slakes, and with which it is incorporated. From
20 to 30 lb. are usually put on per acre with the soufflet
(Fig. 6).

The bouillie bordelaise and other liquid applications can be
put on with the Kclair and other ‘“ Knapsack ” machines, also
with the Strawsonizer, which, however, requires to be set upon
higher wheels for use among potato plants when they are high.!
This machine will distribute the sulphate of copper powders -
equally well, but it must be remarked that these have been
found by vine cultivators not nearly so effectual as the bouillies
and other liquid forms, though the latter are more costly and
more difficult to apply.

1 Iam informed that a special machine could be made for potato plants
when high,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 237

M. Vermorel has recently brought out a machine on the
same principle as the Eclair but drawn by a small horse. It is
designed specially for applying sulphate of copper bouillies to

9

Fia.

potato plants. M. Vermorel states that before offering this for
sale he experimented with it for two years. It consists of a
copper reservoir, holding from 22 to 44 gallons according to the
size of the machine, fixed upon two wheels, The wheels move

238 Methods of Preventing and Checking

two eccentrics working the pumps, or diaphragms, like those of
the hand Eclair. The liquid is forced up through the tubes and
is distributed downwards over the plants through the Vermorel
nozzles at A and B, as seen in Fig. 9. The width between the
wheels varies with the size of the machine. The smallest machine
is only 20 inches wide.!

A machine for distributing powdery materials has been
recently invented by M. Vermorel. This is called ‘la Torpille.”
It is carried on the back like the Eclair, and holds about 23 Ib.
of powder. By the easy movement of a lever the contents
of the metal tank, or reservoir, are discharged through a tube
directed at pleasure, and the quantity is governed by a simple
arrangement. ‘The cost of this is about 25s.

There are many kinds of hand machines in France for
putting on liquid solutions. They are chiefly made in the
** Knapsack” form, to be carried on the backs of men and
women. The pulvérisateur Japy is a useful machine; the
pulvérisateur called “‘ Salvator Folium,” made by Berteau et Fils,
in the Gironde, is also serviceable, as well as the pulvérisateur
Bourdil. In Italy there are several forms of distributing
machines of this character,? and in the United States there is a
surprising number of bucket-pumps, “ Knapsack” pumps, and
aquapults.? Nothing of this kind, however, is more valuable
or simple than M. Vermorel’s Eclair “ Knapsack ” pump.

Fruit Crops.

Among the most destructive insects affecting fruit crops are
the caterpillars of several moths, particularly the winter moths,
the lackey moth, and the ermine moth. Some of these get
into the leaf and blossom buds directly the latter begin to
form.

The females of the winter and other moths crawl up the
stems of fruit-trees in the autumn and place eggs near the
buds. It is important to stop their ascent, either by placing

guards round the trees or by smearing the trunks to neep, them
back.

1 The Horse Eclair (Kelair ’ la Traction) can be obtained at Windsor
Chambers, 20 Great St. Helens, E.C.

2 There is a detailed account of these in the Zstruzione per conoscere e
combattere la peronospora della vite, in the Annali di Agricoltura, published
by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, 1886. Rome.

3 These are fwlly described, with legions of machinery for distributing in-
secticides, in the Mourth Report of the United States Entomological Commission,
1883-85, published by the United States Department of Agriculture,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 239

One form of moth guard is shown in Fig. 10.

mM
r" ' | |
Bisa deal i
TITLE
\ ies aa a
i | ne
as (ee
hl ve awe |
Fie. Sea moth guard. Fic. 11.—Section of moth guard,

This guard is a girdle of tin with a wide rim turned up round
inside. It is fastened to strong linen or sacking, and fixed round
the tree by a cord, to which the linen or sacking is sewn.

Another kind of guard (Fig.
12) is much used in the United
States. It is made of wood or of
tin.

These preventive measures will
also be of use as regards several
other insects which ascend fruit-
trees, particularly the caterpillars
of the Codlin moth (Carpocapsa
pomonella), and the female of the —
apple bud weevil (Anthonomus
pomorum), which ascends the trees = i
for egg-laying. a ee

Banding fruit-trees with sticky Fic, 12.—Another moth guard,
or greasy substances is largely
adopted in the United States, in Canada, and in this country to
entrap climbing insects. This must be done early, quite by the
end of October, in order to prevent the female winter moths
from going up the trees, and the bands must be attended to until
Christmastide. This practice has been found of the greatest
benefit by many fruit growers, and should be adopted and
thoroughly carried out in all infested localities.

The best material for this purpose is axle-grease, or cart-
grease, composed of oil of resin and carbonate of lime, as this does

240 Methods of Preventing and Checking

not run like ordinary cart-grease made of animal fats. Care
must be taken, as some of the compounds advertised have injured
trees. Constant greasing, also, even with the most approved
mixtures, is apt to injure the bark. It is well, therefore, to put
the grease upon bands of grease-proof paper, as used by grocers,
from six to eight inches wide. ‘These can be fastened round the
trees with bast or string.’

For the attacks of “caterpillars upon apple, plum, damson,
pear, and cherry trees, sprayings with various compositions
have been found useful. These are also of advantage as against
the apple-bud weevil (Anthonomus pomorum), the ‘apple-sucker
(Psylla mali),? the American blight, or woolly aphis (Schizoneura
lanigera), the Codlin moth, and other pests.

The compositions employed in order to prevent and check
the attack of destructive insects, or to clear them away alto-
gether, should differ according to their various natures and
habits. Thus, as has been well defined by Professor Riley and
Dr. Packard,’ those which bite and eat the foliage or blossoms,
as caterpillars and the larvee of saw-flies and the larve of beetles,
are affected directly or killed by poisons applied to their food,
while other classes of insects, such as Aphides and the Cercopide,
living upon the sap of plants extracted by suction from the
leaves or stems, are killed by a direct effect upon their bodies,
or are starved out and prevented from reproduction by the un-
pleasant or unwholesome surroundings occasioned by oily, sapo-
naceous, bitter, pungent, or irritating applications.

For example, caterpillars upon apple-trees would be poisoned
by feeding on the leaves sprayed with solutions of Paris Green
or London Purple. On the other hand, aphides, for instance of
the hop plant, being covered as well as the leaves which
they infest with spray from mixtures of soft soap and quassia, or
of soft soap and paraffin oil, rapidly disappear. It has not been
ascertained whether these act directly upon their bodies, or by
making the host-leaves offensive and unbearable.

Washes are various ; one has been applied with much benefit
in Kent for caterpillars and larvee of similar habits, consisting
of—

' The Hon. Cecil T. Parker informs me that he has used vaseline with
great advantage for banding fruit-trees. It costs 23d. to 3d. per lb., and re-
mains sticky throughout the winter.

* The injury caused by this tiny insect has only been recently noticed,
though, as Miss Ormerod states, it is well known in Britain. Some harm has
been caused by it this season in some apple orchards.

5 Fourth and Fifth Reports of the United States Entomological Commission,
1883-1885; 1886-1890. Published by the United States Department of Agri-
culture,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 241

5 to 7 |b. of soft soap,
6 to 8 lb. of quassia chips,
To 100 gallons of water ;

or

5 to 7 lb. of soft soap,

4 pints of carbolic acid (Calvert’s No. 5),
To 100 gallons of water.

The same quantity of paraffin oil may be used instead of
carbolic acid.

Another wash is composed of

6 to 7 Ib. of soft soap,

2 Ib. of finely-ground hellebore,
5 pints of paraffin oil,

To 100 gallons of water.

In order to mix these washes, the soft soap must be dis-
solved in a tub with hot water. The quassia chips should be
boiled, and the extract put in another tub. When paraffin is
used it must be well stirred in boiling water before it is put into
cold water. The required quantities of soft soap, quassia extract,
or paraffin are put into water-carts containing cold water, which
are then driven to the scene of action. A small copper is re-
quired, which can be set in a temporary shed, or even in a
open, near where the washes are to be used.

ARSENICAL INSECTICIDES.

Arsenical insecticides are employed most extensively in the
United States and Canada for the Colorado beetle, the cotton
worm, the Codlin moth, the canker worm, and many other de-
structive insects. They are recommended by Professors Riley
and Lintner, and many other United States entomologists of
high standing. They have been tried in England for two
seasons, but not largely, as the fruit-growers are rather afraid
of their poisonous qualities.

Where they have been applied with care and thorough-
ness the results have been decidedly satisfactory, but it must
be borne in mind that if washes made with them are too strong
they will burn up the foliage and blossoms ; therefore great care
and accuracy are necessary in preparing them.

Paris Green or Emerald Green (arsenite of copper) and
London Purple (obtained in the manufacture of aniline dyes,
and composed of lime and arsenious acid) are the chief arsenical
compounds made use of in America and in this country.

In America, according to Dr. Packard, “the efficacy of
London Purple is established, and it is generally preferred
because of its cheapness, better diffusibility and visibility on

242 Methods of Preventing and Checking

the foliage. London Purple seems also to injure the plant less
than Paris Green.”!
Experiments made with Paris Green in England prove that
the proper proportion of Paris Green is—
For apple trees, 5 oz. to 100 gallons of water.
» pear trees, 6 oz. to 100 gallons of water.
», plum and damson trees, 8 oz. to 100 gallons of water.

» currant trees, 8 oz. to 100 gallons of water.

», filbert and cob-nut trees, 6 oz. to 100 gallons of water.

For fruit-trees whose leafage is fully developed, or forest
trees, a mixture of 10 oz. of Paris Green to 100 gallons of
water has been found satisfactory in America. ‘Two or three
pounds of flour are added to this to retain the poison on the
leaves.

In her report for May last, presented to the Council of the
Royal Agricultural Society by the Seeds and Plants Diseases
Committee, Miss Ormerod says :—

“Very great interest is taken in many parts of the country in the treat-
ment for destroying orchard moth caterpillars by application of Paris Green
spraying ... Weare continuing to find the benefit of last year’s treatment.
I have reports from various places, where the Paris Green spraying was
used on a large scale, of winter moth caterpillars (up to date of report) being
comparatively absent, whilst over a district where (so far as I am aware)
little or nothing was done in this way,I have report of the caterpillars
appearing in large numbers.”

Paris Green should be obtained always in the form of paste,
as it is very difficult to mix it as powder.” -It is most important
that Paris Green mixtures or washes should be kept stirred
while being applied, so that they may be of uniform strength,
and that 3 or 4 quarts of flour should be added to each
100 gallons of mixture to make it stay upon the leaves.

a7
Lonpon PURPLE.

London Purple is now sold in the form of a powder. The
solution has been withdrawn, as being so much more active in
its effects that, unless used very weak and carefully applied in a
fine spray, there is distinct danger of injury to the foliage. Dr.
Lintner recommends about 1 lb. of powder to 200 gallons of
water for ordinary use, and that “ eight quarts of flour should be
added to cause the arsenite to adhere better to the leaves and

| Fifth Report of the United States Entomological Commission, 1886-1890.
Published by the United States Department of Agriculture.

2 Paris Green can be had from Messrs. Blundell and Spence, Upper Thames
Street, London, at 1s. per lb.; London Purple of Messrs, Hemmingway, 60
Mark Lane, London, at 9d. per lb.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 243

prolong its action.”! This proportion would be rather too strong
for some fruit-trees in this country. The strength of the mix-
ture must, as also in the case of Paris Green, depend upon the
age and condition of the foliage. Young, tender foliage cannot
bear so strong a dressing as mature leaves. Much also
depends—and ‘this applies equally to Paris Green—upon the
manner in which the mixture is put on. If it is sent up on the
foliage in drenching showers it must not be so strong as if
diffused in fine spray or mist, which is the proper method. The
results of various experiments indicate the following pro-
portions :—

For apple trees, 6 oz. to 100 gallons of water.
y, pear and cherry trees, 7 oz. to 100 gallons of water.
» plum and damson trees, 8 oz, to 100 gallons of water.
» currant and filbert trees, 8 oz. to 100 gallons of water.

It is most impor-
tant that the manner
of application should
be of the most gentle
nature. As to the
time, it would be well
to spray with a weakish
solution just when the
leaf buds begin to ex-
pand., Spraying should
be avoided when the
blossoms have opened,
and should be done
again when the fruit
has set, and with a
stronger mixture. As
the poisons may take
some time to cause any
effect, patience must
be observed, and con-
siderable time allowed
to elapse before they
are put on again.

In_ using these
arsenical poisons it is
obvious that tubs, Fig. 13.—For high spraying.
pails, and all vessels
in which they are mixed must be kept solely for this purpose.

' Fifth Report of the State Entomologist on the Injurious and other Insects
of the State of Nen: York, 1889,

244 Methods of Preventing and Checking

They must not be put on fruit-trees or fruit-bushes whose fruit
approaches ripeness. In the cases of currant bushes, and goose-
berry bushes especially, whose fruit is often picked when small
and green, it would be dangerous to apply them after the fruit
has formed. When orchard-trees have been sprayed animals
must not be turned in for some long time. Where cabbages,
broccoli, lettuces, &c.,
are grown under fruit-
trees it would be dan-
gerous to use poisonous
washes, as the folds of
the vegetables would
retain them.

Paris Green and
London Purple are put
on with machines hav-
ing strong force-pumps
and nozzles suitable for
distributing liquid in
the form of dense mist
all over the leaves.

Fic, 14.—For lateral spraying. The Eclair has

been found to answer

well for spraying trees of moderate height and for all fruit-

bushes. ‘The modes of using it for these are indicated by Figs.
13 and 14.

For the fine distribution of liquids there can be no better
nozzle than that
known as the Ver-
morel nozzle. In
this nozzle the liquid
is driven through a
small orifice quite
at the side of the
globular chambers,
and forced up in

Fic. 15.—The Vermorel nozzle. spray through an

aperture in the

centre of the face or cap as shown at c. Fig. 15 shows a
recent alteration in this nozzle, giving two globular chambers

so ingeniously adjusted that the direction of the spray can be
changed by moving the screw cap A, without interference with
the flow of liquid. ‘The outer chamber is fitted with a spring
valve, which being pressed at B forces a pin up through the cap
orifice and remoyes any obstruction,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 245

Another good nozzle is the cyclone, or Riley nozzle (Fig. 16),
which, like the Vermorel, has for its principal feature the situa-
tion of the inlet into the chamber as shown ate. This causes
a rapid centrifugal movement of the liquid, which issues through

Fie, 16.—The Riley nozzle.

the cap ¢ in a funnel-like spray regulated by the size of the
aperture. At 1 is given the typical small-stemmed nozzle as
it appears when removed from the chamber. ‘The circular body

Fic. 17.—The Climax nozzle.

of this cap is chambered out inside and screws down to the
bottom of 1, the orifice d coming in juxtaposition with e shown
in the section 2. These parts should meet accurately. The
face of the cap is shown at c.

246 Methods of Preventing and Checking

There is yet another nozzle worthy of being figured, known
in America as the Climax (Fig. 17), whose peculiarity is a long
tubular chamber (No. 1), with its face covered with fine wire
gauze; through this the liquid is forced from the orifice in
No. 2 and divided into fine mist. If a strong pump is em-
ployed, liquids are thrown considerable distances with this
spray.

For large fruit-trees in orchards and for those in plantations,
with fruit bushes or filbert or cob-nut trees set between them,

Fie. 18

machines like hop-washing engines or large garden engines are
required.

There are two sizes of these in use.

The machine shown in Fig. 18 holds 30 gallons. It has a
strong pump worked by a lever handle which forces the liquid
through the hose. ‘Three men are required for this, one at the
pump and two with the hose. Hither the Riley, Vermorel, or
Climax nozzle can be fixed to this, The nozzle usually fitted

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 247

to it is simple, and does not distribute the liquid sufficiently.
It must be reiterated that, as a rule, the object in spraying is
not to send a single volume of liquid upon the trees or plants,
but a dense mist to cover every particle of foliage. This machine
has power enough to spray ordinary fruit-trees. In the case of
exceptionally high trees the men can stand upon ladders. This
is a common practice in the United States. As this machine is
about 2 feet wide, it can be worked in plantations where the
fruit- bushes are at least 5 feet apart.

The principle of the next size machine is the same, but it
is much larger, holding 100 gallons of water and requiring a
horse to move it. This is suited for orchards, and the highest
trees can be sprayed with it.

Another very useful little machine is made by Messrs.
Boulton and Paul, of Norwich. Being only 3 feet 2 inches wide,
it can be moved about easily in plantations. It is fitted with
two hose for delivery, and has a powerful pump. A peculiarity
of it is that it has “dashers” within it for keeping mixtures, as
of Paris Green, London
Purple, soft soap, and
paraffin, well stirred
whilst in use. In Fig.
19 it is shown as a
watering-cart also, but
this apparatus may be
dispensed with. A fruit-
grower who tried it on
bush trees about 7 feet
high informed me on
April 17 that he had
sprayed 6,000 of these,
at the rate of 2,500 per
day, with 360 gallons
of water in which 18
ounces of Paris Green Fic. 19,
had been _ dissolved.

“« Unless there were some arrangement for elevatin g the sprayer,”
my informant adds, “it would hardly answer for lofty standards.
The nozzle known asthe “ Stott” works well with this machine
giving a fine and well-diffused spray (Fig. 20).

A valuable machine introduced from America is Hemmine-
way’s American spraying machine, adapted for the distribution
of London Purple, Paris Green, and other insecticides. This is
highly spoken of by Professor Riley and other American ento-

248 Methods of Preventing and Checking

mologists.!_ The pump of this machine is very powerful, capable
of being worked to a pressure of 100 lb. on the square inch,
with a moderate amount of hand power, though 50 to 60 lb.

OER

Fic. 20.—The Stott patent sprayer.

pressure is sufficient. It sends fine mist to the height of 20
feet, and a single stream from 40 to 50 feet high. A short
“delivery hose with a small nozzle is inserted in the tank to
keep London Purple, Paris Green, and other mixtures uniformly

Fic. 21.—Pump detached.

suspended by continual
agitation.” Hose to the
length of 30 feet can be
fitted to this pump, and
an arrangement of brass
tubing 6 feet 3 inches
in length convenient for
high trees.

The figures (21 and
22) show the pump
working from a_ pail,
and attached to a garden
engine.

There are many
other machines in use
in the United States
and other countries.
Some are very elaborate
and expensive ; some
are fearfully and won-
derfully made; others
are simple and cheap.
The most practical and _
useful, however, have
been described here,

and it is believed they will be found to work satisfactorily. The

Strawsonizer and other horse was

e@ machines have not been

1 This can be obtained of Messrs. Hemmingway, 60 Mark Lane, London,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 249

described under the head of ‘‘ Fruit Crops,” because it is con
sidered that they would not be practically useful in orchards, on
account of the impossibility of covering large trees sufficiently
with spray, and getting at all sides of the trees, during their
necessarily rapid transit. These horse machines, it is obvious
also, could not work in plantations with standards and fruit-
bushes growing together. They may be used, with many modi-
fications and alterations, in plantations of fruit-bushes set alone,
but not where there are large trees requiring to be sprayed

Fic, 22.—Pump fitted to garden engine,

individually for some minutes. For these, hand-pump machines
are essential.

There are just a few more remedies to be noticed under this
head. One of these is lime used as a wash for the bodies and
larger limbs of fruit-trees, put on thickly and freshly slaked in
the autumn. If thisis thoroughly well worked into the bark with
a stiff brush, many insects in various forms will be dislodged,
and the lime adhering to the bark may in a degree prevent some
insects from ascending. Lime-wash also removes the green
lichenous growths on the stems and limbs of fruit-trees, which
serve as a cover for many pests and affect the health of the
trees. When fruit-trees, particularly apple-trees, have mosses
and lichens upon their branches, harbouring insects in the egg,
larval, pupal, and imago form, powdered lime should be thrown

VOL, I. T, S.—6 S

250 Methods of Preventing and Checking

up over them in damp weather. In a short time, if this has
been thoroughly done, the mosses and lichens will dry up and fall
off. This operation can be performed by men having flour-scoops
tied to poles.

Powdered hellebore is very efficacious against the gooseberry
sawfly (Nematus ribesi’) if put on in damp weather. Care must
be taken with this, as it is most poisonous. The bushes should
not be dusted when the berries are formed. ‘This can be puton
with the soufflet (Fig. 6, page 235)!

Hellebore may also be used as a solution and applied with
the Kclair or other ‘‘ Knapsack ” machines.

For the red maggots of the raspberry moth (Lampronia
rubiella) which have done extraordinary harm to raspberry
growers this spring, lime was put on with an adapted sulphu-
rator, but without much good. This moth appears in June,
and where it has been plentiful it will be well to cut the canes
back close and burn every particle.

Thick soft soap and sulphur dressings,” with paraffin added,
may be brushed on the stems of black currant trees infested
with the currant mite (Phytoptus ribis), whose mischief is rapidly
spreading. ‘The dressing should be well worked into the stems
with a brush after the bushes have been pruned in the autumn.
In very bad cases it would pay to cut all the wood back close,
and burn every vestige of it, and work the soft-soap mixtures
into the stem. ‘The distorted leaves, or galls, which show upon
the currant bushes should be picked off.

In the case of a bad attack of a weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus)
upon young apple and cherry trees, round the tips of whose
leading shoots it had gnawed off the bark, it was found that a
dressing of very thick soft soap and paraffin preparation put
round the stems quite prevented the insect from climbing up
the tree. <A very little is sufficient, and it is important that it
should not be renewed in the same place, or the bark may be
injured. These weevils have been very abundant this season,
particularly in raspberry plantations. They can only be caught
by tarred boards held under the canes at night while they are
feeding. As they are in the ground by day, hoeing or digging
frequently would move them. Lime dug in might be useful.

1 T sent a soufflet to Mr. Albert Pell, who was anxious to find a machine to
apply hellebore to check the gooseberry sawfly in Cambridgeshire. Mr, Pell
writes: “ You will see by the enclosed card that the soufllet i is the right tool,
as I felt sure it would prove to be.”

’ 2 Messrs. Burford, of Chiswick, have prepared a compound of soft soap and
sulphur, in which the sulphur appears to be fairly dissolved and incorporated.
with the soap. Miss Ormerod recommends this composition.

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 251

Hops.

For aphides upon hop plants the planters “wash” or spray
the plants with soft soap and quassia mixtures directly “ flies,”
winged aphides, appear upon the leaves, for in a day or two
they will produce a wingless generation, termed “lice,” and very
soon countless swarms will be propagated.

Many remedies have been tried, but nothing is better than a
solution of

6 to 7 lb. of soft soap,

6 to 8 lb. of quassia (the extract of),
To 100 gallons of water.

Some planters put rather more quassia and less soap, others
more soap and less quassia. This application operates by the
quassia making the leaves bitter and unpleasant for the aphides
to put their suckers in, as well as by the mixture affecting the
tender bodies of the aphides.

Another mixture has been found useful composed of—

6 to 8 Ib. of soft soap,
3 lb. of tobacco extract,
To 100 gallons of water.

And one has been tried with advantage, consisting of —

6 to 7 lb. of soft soap,
3 to 4 pints of paraflin,
To 100 gallons of water.

Tn using this much care must be taken to mix the paraffin
well with the soap and water while very hot.

Hand hop-washing machines, are pringipally made use
of by planters who haye small or moderate-sized holdings.
They require three men, two with the hose and one to pump.
Supplies of the mixture are carried by men in common pails
from the water-cart brought to the outside of the hop garden.
Ordinary nozzles are generally used which send the liquid in
jet form, not as fine spray, it being still held desirable to send
it against the leaves with some force and in some volume, neces-
sitating the consumption of a larger amount of liquid than if
spray nozzles were employed. J['rom one to two and a half acres
a day, according to the quantity of bine, can be washed with one
of these hand engines, and it takes from 200 to 400 gallons
of liquid to wash one acre, varying also with the quantity of
bine.

Hop-washing machines drawn by horses get over from four
_to five acres perday. Large planters in many cases adopt these

s 2

252 Methods of Preventing and Checking

now, as it is most important to get all the hop plants washed
in a very short time when the aphides appear. The smaller
machine requires one horse. By the horse machine the

yarious washes are forced by strong pumps set in action by the
wheels, through a series of tubes arranged with mathematical

Vic, 24.—The “ Mistifier.”

precision on each side of the machine, having small perforations
at regular intervals, serving as jets or nozzles.
The machine shown in the figure (23) above is made in several
5

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 253

sizes, to contain from 65 to 110 gallons.! Two horses are re-
quired with the larger-sized machines. From 500 to 700
gallons of liquid are distributed per acre with them.

An improved horse hop-washing machine has been recently
patented by Mr. Muirhead, of Maidstone, called the ‘‘ Mistifier ”
(Fig. 24).

This is made on an entirely novel principle, embodying a
new application of the use of compressed air in combination
with the liquid, so that a powerful stream or an atomised mist
ean be produced. - Instead of the series of horizontal tubes with
small perforations most liable to be blocked up, rows of pipes
with nozzles are substituted. The nozzle attached to this
machine is very
good, giving a fine,
well distributed
spray. Swinging
pipe brackets are
arranged on either
side, so that jets
can be directed well
under the leaves
and close to the
poles without the
possibility of doing
any damage to the
machine. —

From 100 to
350 gallons are used
by this machine,
according to the set-
ting of the valves.”

The Strawso-
nizer has been
adapted for hop-
washing, but as it
was not ready in
time for the last
season its suitability
for this purpose has
~not yet been fully
tested. In trials of recent date the planters have complained
that it does not put on enough liquid, but the contention of the

Fic, 25.—The Strawsonizer for hop-washing.

! The price ranges from 35/, to 48/,
* The price of this machine is 45/,

254 Methods of Preventing and Checking

inventor is that it is better to apply a much stronger wash in
small quantities, and in dense mists, so that every particle of
the plant may be bedewed, rather than to send it forth ina
continuous stream, much of which misses the mark and is simply
wasted. Moreover, the wash does not remain so well upon the
leaves if it is dashed against them. This raises the important
question as to whether spraying with mist, or “ squirting,” as
hop-washing is called by many in Kent, with sharp showers is
better. There seems to be much in the argument practically
demonstrated by the Strawsonizer. In the Strawsonizer the
liquid issues from the nozzles in the form of spray propelled by
a strong current of air. The nozzles are placed at the extremity
of the air tubes, being fed with the liquid by small pipes con-
nected with the reservoir, the supply being adjusted by inter-
vening taps in any quantity from 1 to 80 gallons per acre.
There are two pairs of nozzles for hop spraying; the lower
pair takes the bottom leaves, and the upper pair the higher
leaves and branches on each side of the machine. It is calculated
that the “hop wash” must be used about ten times as strong as
that used in ordinary machines, and it is contended that the
results are equally satisfactory.

Tue Hor Mipew (Podosphaera castagnei).

As in the case of vine mildew (Oidium Tuckeri), for which
sulphur is dusted upon the vines as a preventive measure, many
hop-planters put finely powdered sulphur upon the hop plants
as soon as they are up the poles. Some use the finest “ flowers ”
of sulphur; others, a coarser kind of sulphur, probably sulphur
vivum, containing grit or dust. The purest, lightest sulphur, with
the particles most finely divided so that they may get into the
interlacing filaments of the mildew, should be used. ‘‘ Flowers”
of sulphur combine these qualities. They are the first products
of the sublimating and refining chambers, and fall during these
processes in light showers upon the floors and walls. Their
particles are spheroidal ; to the touch they are unctuous. Sulphur
vivum is the last product, ‘or dross; it is heavy and has im-
purities and varying percentages of earthy admixture, shown
by its grittiness. The particles are of irregular shape, and from
their weight are more likely to rebound from the leaves when
blown on them. Sulphur vivum is from 40 to 50 per cent.
heavier than pure flowers of sulphur, and the amount of sulphur
in it varies from 50 to 67 per cent., while in good flowers of
sulphur the percentage is 95 and upwards,

the Attacks of Insects and Fungi. 255

The action of sulphur is materially influenced by conditions
of weather. It is more powerful in heat, when volatilisation
takes place, and appears to be inoperative in dull cold seasons.!
It should always be put on the plants in sunny still weather, if
possible, and as soon as they have got well over the poles.
Another sulphuring should be given in about three weeks, and
a third later on, especially if there are any traces of mildew upon

Fig, 26.—Hop sulphurator.

the “burr.” Should the fungus attack the cones when deve-
loping or when they are out, sulphur must be used again, though,
if possible, this should be avoided. as brewers object sometimes to
hops that have been sulphured while fully out.

The quantity of sulphur varies from 40 to 60 lb. per acre,
according to its lightness and quality. In France very small

' For details. as to sulphur and its effect on hop mildew, see Mould or
Mildew on Hop Plants, by Charles Whitehead. Clowes and Sons, Stamford
Street, London,

* The price of sulphur js from 117. to 13. per ton,

256 Preventing and Checking Attacks of Insects and Fungi.

quantities are put on at a time, with hand bellows, or soufflets.
The hop-planters make use of a machine drawn by a horse
termed a ‘“sulphurator,” a sketch of which is given in
Fig. 26.

This machine consists of a hopper in which the sulphur, or
other powdered material, is placed. Air is driven by a fan up
a blast pipe, into which the sulphur is fed by a feed-roller with
a revolving brush. It is thence distributed in a dense wide-
spreading cloud. Having large travelling wheels, and being
light, with little friction, the draught is very easy. The feed
arrangement can be adjusted while the machine is in motion,
by which the amount of sulphur or other powder can be
regulated. About five acres per day can be sulphured with
this machine.

The price of the “sulphurator” is 12/. 12s. By cutting a
hole in either side of the hopper, the sulphur or other powder
may, by inserting a funnel, be directed downwards and dis-
tributed over fruit-bushes and low crops, as suggested on
page 231.

Sulphate of copper solutions have been tried by a few hop-
planters for mildew, but as yet no definite conclusions have been
arrived at. It is believed that sulphate of copper would be
efficacious against this mildew as it is against the vine mildew
(Peronospora viticola).

There are other preventives and remedies made use of in
hop plantations for insects and fungi, and other machines for
applying them. ‘The chief and most important have, however,
been given.

It may be explained that in the limited space of an article,
whose inception dates only from the April Council Meeting,
it is impossible to allude to all, the numerous insect and
fungoid evils that beset the crops of cultivators, and to the
many devices and inventions that human ingenuity has con-
ceived to circumvent them.

CHARLES WHITEHEAD.

The Survival in Farming. 257

THE SURVIVAL IN FARMING.

Two assertions have been frequently made in connection with
the depression from which agriculture has been long suffering.
One is that high farming does not pay when prices are low;
and the other is that small farmers have withstood the depres-
sion better than large farmers. My object is to examine each
of these statements, and to ascertain, as far as possible, what
degree of truth, if any, there is in either or both of them.

The first assertion, which will be first examined, has at
present been given in its barest terms only. Those who make
it usually imply, and frequently state, that high farming has
been less remunerative, or more unremunerative, than low
farming during the period of depression. Some have gone so
far as to say that the better a man has farmed the more money
he has lost ; while others have not hesitated to declare that the
days of high farming are over, and that the cheap and exhaus-
tive system which prevails in America and other new countries
is the only type of farming which will survive in the future.

In all questions in dispute a great deal depends upon defi-
nitions. ‘The reputation of high farming has suffered greatly
through the extravagance and indiscretion of some of its votaries,
so that it is important at the outset to state that high farming
is not necessarily extravagant farming. It appears to me that
the best definition of high farming is obedience to the old and
wise injunction: ‘“ Feed your, land before it is hungry, and
clean it before it is foul.” Anyone who constantly and thoroughly
carries out this direction must be a high farmer. It depends,
however, upon the judgment which he displays in obeying the
injunction whether he is a good high farmer or a bad high
farmer. Those who have thrown the greatest discredit upon
high farming have been men whose knowledge of the business
they have adopted was in inverse proportion to the capital at
their disposal. In feeding land before it is hungry it is neces-
sary to successful results, not only that the land should be fed,
but that it should be fed with the particular food which it
requires, in such quantities as experience has proved to be
desirable under different circumstances. ‘The application of the
wrong manures, or of extravagant quantities of the right
manures, is likely not only not to yield a profit, but even to do
more harm than good. Similarly, in cleaning land before it is
foul, discretion as to methods and cost of labour is of the utmost
importance. Large sums of money have been wasted upon

258 The Survival in Farming.

costly and useless or unnecessary implements, and more upon
hand Jabour rendered necessary by the neglect of cheaper means
of cleaning land.

These statements may appear as truisms to experienced
farmers, and yet it is necessary to make them in order to clear
away sources of misapprehension. ‘There is, too, another point
upon which a disclaimer is necessary on behalf of high farming,
and it is this: that ornamental farming is not essential to high
farming. It is true that a thoroughly well cultivated farm
must always be pleasing to the eyes of an experienced farmer,
that well-kept fences are essential to cleanliness, and that there
is no economy in letting implements, carriages, and machines
rot for want of an occasional coat of paint. Nevertheless, money
is often spent for ornamentation alone, and therefore wasted, as
far as the business of farming is concerned, so that this item
ought to be eliminated in considering whether high farming
pays or not.

In short, high farming must be taken at its best in compar-
ing it with low farming, also taken at its best, eliminating, as
far as possible, all badness of farming of either the high or the
low class. Such a comparison, indeed, would be effected if we
could examine the financial records of any given number ot
high and low farmers in different parts of the country who have
survived the long trial of depression, for it may be taken for
granted that, as a rule, the incapable members of each division
have collapsed. hat such an examination is impossible “ goes
without saying.” ‘The nearest approach to it is the ascertain-
ment of the opinions of experienced and extensive observers as
to the results of the two styles of farming under the trial of
depression, and this means of information I have not neglected,
as will be seen presently. Before giving the evidence collected,
however, I have something more to say in relation to the state-
ment under consideration and the arguments by which it is
supported.

The law of diminishing returns is often cited as proving
that high farming cannot pay when prices are low. This law,
however, is very misleading when stated without the qualifica- ~
tions which apply to it in great variety under different cireum-
stances. ‘There is a limit, varying with soil, climate, season,
and other conditions, beyond which the profit on the production
of any crop is in inverse proportion to the expenditure, becom-
ing less and less as outlay is increased, until it vanishes and
gives place to loss. It is also true that the lower the price of
produce is, the sooner the limit is reached. But it is begging
the question to assert, without direct proof, that, at current

The Survival in Farming. 259

ptices, the limit is below the standard of expenditure recognised
as constituting high farming. If we obtain an increase of 50
per cent. in a crop through putting on the land a certain
quantity of manure, it is likely that the use of double the
quantity of manure will give a further increase of 1% more than
25 per cent. In this illustration of the law of diminishing
returns it is obvious that the percentage of profit is less on the
heavier dressing than on the light one, and yet it may be more
than sufficient to cover the extra expenditure. But, if we treble
the quantity of manure, the chances are that the produce in
excess of that obtained from the double dressing will not be
great enough to repay the cost of the extra manure. Indeed,
it often happens that a very heavy dressing does more harm
than good. :

A few years ago Sir John Lawes published an article in
which he expressed the opinion that such high farming as was
illustrated on some of his experimental plots at Rothamsted was
not remunerative at the current prices of corn. That statement
was quite true, except that such farming as was referred to ought
to have been termed extravagant rather than merely high. The
greatest average yield of wheat during thirty-eight years ending
with 1889, at Rothamsted, was 364 bushels an acre, obtained by
the annual use of 600 lb. of ammonia salts, 34 cwt. of super-
phosphate, 200 lb. of sulphate of potash, and 100 lb. each of
sulphates of soda and magnesia. No high farmer of experience
would dream of using such quantities of manure for a wheat crop,
although the application is valuable for purposes of experiment.
To parody a well-known saying, it is magnificent; but it is not
farming.

The average yield for the same period on a plot to which
two-thirds of the quantity of ammonia salts named above
were applied yearly, with the same quantities of the other
manures, was only 3? bushels an acre less than the maximum,
and the extra yield did not pay for the extra manure. But this
medium dressing of ammonia salts, with the other manures,
gave an average yield of 8? bushels more than was obtained
from the use of 200 lb. of ammonia salts, with the same
quantities of other manures; and the application of the extra
200 lb. was profitable even at recent low prices. It is to be
borne in mind, too, that the smallest of the three dressings
would be a liberal one under an ordinary system of rotation,
though not on land continuously cropped with wheat. Under
the ordinary rotation, again, the potash, soda, and magnesia, for
most soils, might be dispensed with. Even if we take into
consideration such high farming as is illustrated on the plot to

260 The Survival in Farming.

which 14 tons of farmyard manure have been annually applied,
we see that it paid better than no manure at all. On that plot
the average yield of wheat during thirty-eight years was
34 bushels an acre, whereas on the unmanured plot close by it
was only 13,bushels. The extra 21 bushels on the manured
plot, at only 4s. a bushel, would come to 4/. 4s., whereas the
manure, at 5s. a ton, would cost only 3/. 10s. If any objection
be taken to the valuation of the dung, on the ground that 5s.
will not cover the cost of carting and spreading, the answer is
that the extra straw and chaff obtained would meet any reason-
able charge for labour, including the extra expense of harvesting,
threshing, and marketing the increase of produce.

We have here a fair comparison between such extreme low
farming as is commonly pursued in new countries and high
farming, and it is clear that the latter is the more remunerative,
or the less unremunerative, of the two systems in this case. It
is certain that the extensive production of 13 bushels of wheat per
acre every year at 4s. a bushel would soon land the occupier of
any farm in this country which would produce that quantity in
the bankruptcy court ; whereas, it 1s not certain that the annual
production of 34 bushels at 4s. a bushel would not pay, under
average conditions as to rent and other expenses, reduced as
they are in periods of depression. But while the comparison is
a fair one, as between the high and low systems of continuous
wheat-growing, it is not by any means the most advantageous
comparison that could be given to show the superiority of high
farming. A better one, even of the same character, is afforded
in the case of the Rothamsted barley experiments. The average
yield of a plot manured annually with 275 lb. of nitrate of
soda, and 34 cwt. of superphosphate, was 454 bushels during
thirty-eight years, while the average yield of two unmanured
plots in the same field was only 17} bushels. The cost of tlie
manures, at recent prices, was about 35s., and the extra barley
obtained on the manured plot was over 28 bushels an acre,
which at only 3s. 6d. a bushel would bring in 4/. 18s. The
application of such a dressing, for barley grown in an ordinary
rotation, would be high farming, and on land in good condition
it might be too much. Similar comparisons might be drawn
from the results of the Woburn experiments.

Other striking examples of the remunerativeness of judicious
manuring may be taken from the records of experiments on the
mangel crop carried out last season by the Bath and West of
England Society. These experiments are particularly con-
venient for the purpose now in view, because the cost of each
dressing of manure is given, as well as the yield of roots, The

The Survival in Farming. 261
‘]

Average results obtained at twenty-three stations show that the
greatest yield—a little over 29 tons—was obtained from the
application of 4 ewt. of nitrate of soda, 4 ewt. of superphosphate,
and 4 ewt. of salt per acre, costing 2/. 15s. The average yield
of two unmanured plots at each of the twenty-three stations
was not quite 153 tons, and the increase on the manured plots
just referred to averaged nearly 134 tons per acre, costing
As, 2d. per ton. Where half the quantity of nitrate of soda was
used, with the same quantities of superphosphate and salt, the
increase was about 2 tons less, and the cost of the increase was
only 3s. 3d. a ton.

Now, the law of diminishing returns is sometimes applied
as if it meant that the returns obtained when capital is expended
in manure are necessarily less in proportion to cost than those of
land left to its natural resources. ‘The comparisons just given
show how entirely mistaken this idea is. In the case of the
barley, the increase on the manured plot cost only 1s. 3d. per
bushel, and it is certain that every bushel grown on the
unmannred land cost a good deal more than that amount.
Similarly, in the case of the mangel, the extra produce on one
set of plots cost only 3s. 3d. a ton; whereas, the 152 ton8
grown on the unmanured plots must have cost at least double
that sum, because the quantity at 3s. 3d. a ton comes to only
21. 11s. an acre. Further, out of ten sets of manured plots
the increase over the produce of the unmanured land cost 6s. 7d.
a ton or less, although the manure, including dung in two cases,
ranged in cost up to 3/. 8s. 6d. an acre; and, as a ton of mangel
is worth more than 6s. 7d., it may fairly be said that every one
of these seven dressings was remunerative, and that, therefore,
the law of diminishing returns did not apply to it. Similarly,
in the case of grass land, it might be shown, by citing the
results of Mr. Martin John Sutton’s experiments, that the increase
obtained by the use of certain manures cost less than the produce
of the unmanured land.

On virgin land, obtained free of cost, the case might be
different, although I imagine that few virgin soils would grow
more than 153 tons of mangel per acre without manure, and, if
T am right, the application of manure might be profitable. It
is obvious, however, that the natural produce of rent-free virgin
land costs much less than that of land in this country, and that,
therefore, the law of diminishing returns would more quickly
come into play in the former case than in the latter.

In short, the abstract argument in favour of judicious high
farming is this—that the cost of growing a small crop with
little or no manure is nearly as great as that of growing a great

262 The Survival in Farming.

crop with a liberal allowance of fertilisers, except for the
difference in the cost of the manure. The other expenses of
farming are but slightly affected. A good crop costs less to
keep clean than a poor one, but more to harvest and dis-
pose of.

The question becomes more complicated when we have to
consider high farming consisting in the keeping and liberal
feeding of a large number of live stock in proportion to acreage.
Here a great deal depends upon the judgment and business
capability of the farmer as buyer and seller, upon the question
whether the stock are bred and reared at home or bought
in as stores to be fattened, upon the class of land upon which
the animals are kept, upon skill in feeding, and upon other con-
siderations. ‘To simplify the question, poor grazing land, only
fit for the breeding and partial rearing of stock, such as the
hill districts of Wales and Ireland, may be left out of account.
The small area of very rich pasture in the country may also be
set aside, with the remark that if it is well stocked with
fattening animals it cannot be badly farmed. Wholly arable,
or mixed arable and grass farms lend themselves best to the
discussion now before us.

Unfortunately there is a “ plentiful lack” of exact records
of the cost of keeping stock, or—and this is of more importance
to the question at issue—of the cost of the manure which they
leave upon the farm. There is, I believe, a general concurrence
of evidence to the effect that the most remunerative method of
fattening stock reared on the farm is that of keeping them
“doing” from the first, and selling them at an early age.
Where this system is pursued, with a sufficient number of
animals, it is necessarily high farming, as cake or corn is con-
stantly being consumed. At various times I have heard or read of
many instances in which stock so reared left so goodly a sum for
their keep that the cost of the manure they made must have
been very little. Indeed, I have heard of instances in which
cattle were said to have paid well for everything they had eaten,
though I have never seen a properly-kept account proving this,
except in relation to breeding or dairy cows. With sheep and
lambs, however, such good fortune is not very uncommon when
the markets turn in favour of sellers, and this remark applies to _
fattening as well as to breeding. Now, the low farmer would
keep fewer stock in proportion to his acreage than the high
farmer, and, as a rule, an inferior description of stock, while he
would not allow them much purchased food or home-grown
corn. As a breeder, the low farmer has been simply ‘“ no-
where ” in recent times, as he has not invested capital enough

The Survival in Farming. 263

in his business to produce the prime animals which have made
all the running. As a feeder, again, he has been shut out of
the advantages obtained from early maturity in fattened stock.

It is doubtful whether his manure has not cost him as much to
make as that of the judiciously liberal feeder, and it has not been
worth half as much when made. There is, no doubt, a great
deal of waste in giving cattle excessive quantities of cake; but
such extravagance, except for show beasts, is less common, E
believe, than “it was some years ago. The principles of feeding
are more generally understood than they were when nearly every
farmer despised ‘‘ book-knowledge,” and the wastefulness
referred to has been fully exposed. It is characteristic of
reckless and extravagant farming, and not of such judicious
high farming as is alone worth defending.

A low farmer may be, and often is, a capital judge of stock,
as well as a very keen higgler. There are low farmers, too, who
keep a few stock well, and others who keep a good many poorly,
In either case a good buyer and seller may often make a profit
if he catches the market in his favour; but this does not help
the condition of his farm, and he must be a dealer rather than a
farmer if he is to make up for inferior crops by profits on live-
stock. A man who keeps a fair number of stock in proportion
to his acreage, and feeds them well, cannot be a low farmer.
There are various grades of highness and lowness in farming—
so various that the line of demarcation may be difficult to
draw in some cases; but, for the purposes of my argument, I
have nothing to do with the class, if there be one, which may be
said to represent a mean between the two main divisions, and
there are comparatively few farmers who cannot be said to verge
towards one or the other.

Recalling my definition of a high farmer as one who feeds
his land before it is hungry and cleans it before it is foul, I
wish now to call attention to a type of farmer entitled, in my
opinion, to be classed as high, although perhaps this may not
be generally allowed. A case which was under my observation
for many years may be described as illustrating this type. This
farmer’s land was heavy, and chiefly arable. He did not breed
or dairy, as his land would not bear stock in winter. In summer
he fed off most of his green crops with fattening sheep, which
had a moderate allowance of cake, reserving only enough clover
and grass for hay for home consumption. In winter he fattened
as many cattle as he grew roots for, giving them cake and corn
as well as roots and hay. The cake was the only fertiliser which
he brought on to his farm, as he did not buy any artificial or
other manure. His theory was that ‘“‘a farm should baste

264 The Survival in Farming.

itself,” and his only departure from that principle consisted in
the purchase of a moderate quantity of cake. He adhered to
the four-course rotation, and he grew excellent crops. His
farm was well horsed, so that he was always forward with his
autumn cleaning of stubbles, and with the ploughing of his
land for spring corn and roots before winter set in, also with
the cultivation of land on which tares had been mown or fed.
Thus his land was always clean, as well as in good heart, and but
little hand cleaning of his crops was necessary. His expenditure
was not heavy ; but he was, in my opinion, unquestionably a
high farmer. He saved money even after the period of de-
pression was well on its way, and the condition of his farm was
improved in a marked degree during his tenancy.

Before the discovery of what was until recently the missing
link in the theory of the conservation or increase of fertility in
farmed land, English chemists would hardly have admitted,
without direct proof, that my old neighbour could have been
improving the condition of his farm: because, they would have
said, the cake brought on to the land was not sufficient to restore
the elements of fertility sold off in corn, meat, and wool. But
now that it is admitted that the growth of clover, tares, and
other leguminous crops increases the fertility of the soil, at least
as far as the supply of nitrogen is concerned, there is no
difficulty in explaining why the farm was improved in condition.
It is desirable to point out, however, that the system pursued
would not have been high farming on light land, as it would
not have kept up the fertility of any soil which did not possess a
practically inexhaustible supply of potash and other minerals.

On some equally good land near the farm just mentioned,
there were two or three farmers who kept scarcely any stock,
and purchased no cake worth mentioning, and no manure.
They kept their land fairly clean, and grew good crops of corn
in hot seasons, but frequently had very poor crops, and they
did not survive many years of agricultural depression. This
reminds me of an advantage which low farmers have in such
seasons as the last two, when all the heaviest of the corn crops
are badly laid, while their crops may be just too light to go
down, though fairly good. The tendency of heavy corn crops
to lodge is the greatest of all the disadvantages of the high corn
land farmer. At present, chemists have not succeeded in dis-
covering any remedy, or even palliative, to this evil, and all that -
can be done to prevent it is to be careful not to sow too thickly
or too early on land in high condition, and to grow stiff-strawed
varieties of corn.

There are low farmers who are also clean farmers, and when

The Survival in Farming. 265

such men take a farm in good condition, they often grow satis-
factory crops for many years. The experience gained in con-
nection with the unmanured plots at Rothamsted and Woburn
shows how very slow the decline of fertility is in land kept free
from weeds. It is not surprising, then, that members of this
best division of the low farming class often make a good living
during a long tenancy. But the examples given above show
that they could produce extra corn and roots at less cost than
that of what they grow if they applied purchased manure judi-
ciously ; and, I believe, although actual proof is not easy to
give, that they would also be better off if they kept more live
stock and fed the animals well.

So far as my own experience goes, the farmers who have
done best, both before and since the depression set in, have
been those whom I should describe as high, but not extravagant
farmers. I can call to mind only one low farmer who appeared
to increase in wealth, though I have known others who have
held on to their farms surprisingly, “ with their noses always
just over the grindstone.” But one individual’s experience does
not count for much in relation to such a question as the one
under notice, and, mindful of the fact, I have obtained from a
few land and estate agents in extensive practice in different
counties the results of their observation and their conclusions
thereupon.

The questions to which replies were solicited were these :—

1. What class or classes of farmers have best withstood the
effects of agricultural depression in. your district: (a) high (I
do not mean extravagant) farmers, or low farmers ; (b) farmers
of large (over 300 acres), medium (100 to 300 acres), or small
(under 100 acres) farms ?

2. What have been the principal causes of the failure of those
who have not succeeded, and of the success of those who have
withstood the depression ?

In reviewing the replies received, reference to the second
assertion referred to at the commencement of this article is
necessary. This question is essentially one to be decided by
evidence. The definite assertion is made that small farmers
have withstood the depression better than large farmers. This
may be true of some districts, and not of others, the question
being whether it is true as a general rule. In the event of the
assertion being verified, a further question would arise as to the
reason why small farmers have withstood the depression better
than large farmers.

Two of the most extensive land agents in the north of Eng-
land, who do not desire their names to be published, give some-

VOL, Il, T. Ss —6 7%

266 The Survival in Farming.

what conflicting evidence in relation to each of the two questions.
One, whose observations have been made chiefly in Cumberland
and Westmoreland, where stock-rearing is the prominent feature
of the farming, with dairying in the second place, says that
“good farming (high, but not extravagant) has stood the de-
pression the best”; and that not many failures have taken place,
while “ those that have occurred have generally been amongst
the smaller class.” The other witness, confining his remarks to
Cumberland, says that ‘“ industrious working farmers, who per-
sonally superintend their own business thoroughly, not being
amateurs, have best withstood the depression.” He agrees,
however, with the other observer in stating that farmers holding
100 to 300 acres have held their own best. Bat while the
former witness names want of sufficient capital as the principal
cause of failure, the latter says ‘insufficient practical training
and want of steady application.” Conversely, the latter witness
attributes the success of those who have attained it to steady
and continuous attention to business on the part of industrious
occupiers who have an adequate knowledge of live-stock.

Writing in relation to another pasture district, the North
Midland dairy and breeding country, Mr. Gilbert Murray says
that “the men who have held their own are those who haye
bred their own stock and consumed the principal part of the
cereal produce of their farms, and, in addition, have been large
purchasers of supplementary foods at low prices;” also that
“farms of 80 to 200 acres have been most remunerative, owing
to the labour difficulty, wages being now 18s. to 21s. per week.”
Insufficient capital to stock the land is named as the chief cause
of failure.

Extensive grazing and dairying districts, as well as a con-
siderable area of arable land, are covered by a report from Mr,
J. Perkins, junr., of Loughton, Rugby, whose observations relate
to parts of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Rutland, Warwick-
shire, Staffordshire, and other counties. He is of opinion that
large graziers, breeders of sheep and cattle, dairy farmers on
suitable holdings, including makers of Stilton and other kinds
of cheese, have done best. ‘‘ High farmers,” he says, “ have best
held their own where they used skill and judgment;” and,
although “low farmers have often saved money,” in too many
instances it has been “at the expense of the land.” “ These
remarks,” Mr. Perkins holds, ‘‘ apply to every sort and size of
farm.” Insufficiency of capital and want of judgment in
buying and selling, as well as circumstances which affect all
farmers alike, and which therefore do not elucidate the question
at issue, are named as the causes of failure where it has occurred.

The Survival in Farming. 267

In the fine grazing and dairying district of Mid Bucks, ac-
cording to Messrs. Reader & Son, of Aylesbury, the farmers who
have best held out against the depression are ‘‘ those occupying
the largest farms, with that all-powerful motive-power, a suffi-
ciency of capital, enabling them to retain their corn, cattle,
&c., to await the best markets, and make the best of any
advantage either in purchasing or selling. Very few farmers
have actually failed in the district.”

More than half the total cultivated area of Sussex being in
permanent pasture, the report of Mr. J. Plumer Chapman, of
Lewes, on East and Mid Sussex, may be included among the
replies from pastoral districts, especially as it relates chiefly to
dairy farms, from which milk is extensively sent to London,
Brighton, and other towns. Excluding the hill farms, the
holdings are not large, and Mr. Chapman declares in favour of
small farmers as those who have best withstood the depression,
and especially men who have given up wheat-growing to a
great extent, substituting green crops, and keeping more stock.
Insufficiency of capital to begin with, or after losses, is given
as the chief cause of failure. ‘‘Those who have done best,”
Mr. Chapman adds, ‘“‘besides sheep breeders, have- usually
been of the small trading class, who dispense with the service
and profit of the middleman, and who have farmed at the
least possible working expense.”

Still selecting replies from districts mainly pastoral, the
next to be noticed is one from Mr. William Sturge, of Bristol,
a past President of the Surveyors’ Institution. Writing from
long experience in Gloucester, Somerset, Wilts, Hereford,
Monmouth, and South Wales, this gentleman says in relation
to all sorts of farms :—‘‘ I do not think high farmers have done
better than others. Dairy and grazing farmers have done
fairly well with an abatement of rent of 10 to 20 per cent.
Farms of this class rarely exceed 300 acres. On the whole,
small working farmers have done best. Arable farmers can
hardly make both ends meet with reductions of 30, 40, and even
50 per cent. in rent.” Success or failure, Mr. Sturge appears
to think, has depended mainly upon the proportion of pasture
to arable land.

The head agent on one of the most important estates in the
country, whose name is not to be published, refers to great dairy,
grazing, and arable districts in Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Wilts,
and Somerset. In this reply no opinion is expressed as to the
superiority of high or low farming from an economic point of
view, the writer appearing to be impressed mainly with the
idea of industry and skill being the great essentials to success.

r 2

268 The Survival in Farming.

Occupiers of small and medium farms—the latter not over 200
acres, he says, have best withstood depression, and he ranks the
two divisions equally in this respect. The reason he gives for
their having held up better than large farmers is that the diffi-
culty of managing labourers and leading them on in their work
is increased when farms exceed 200 acres. On farms of the
size named or less, it is remarked, ‘“‘ the farmer is foreman him-
self at all work.” Besides bad seasons and the lack of timely
reductions of rent, the principal causes of failure are declared
to have been the farmers’ “ lack of economy in management and
inability to suit their habits of living to altered circumstances.”
The causes assigned of success in withstanding depression are
reasonable rents or timely reductions, with good management
and economical habits of living. For the consideration of the
ladies this correspondent adds :—‘‘I attach to the wife of the
medium and small farmer more than half the credit or blame of
success or non-success in the business.”

So far the evidence, as selected from pastoral districts
mainly, is not overwhelmingly in favour of the views expressed
in the preceding portion of this article, as the two last witnesses
and one Cumberland correspondent are clearly not impressed
with the virtues of high farming in periods of depression, and
both favour small or medium farms rather than large ones. On
the other hand, it will be noticed that the other correspondents
quoted, so far, are more or less distinctly in favour of high
farming, and dwell upon the importance of sufficiency of capital.
On the whole, it appears that in some of the grazing and dairy-
ing districts referred to, large farmers have done best, while in
others small or medium occupiers have had the advantage.

Turning to evidence from districts in which arable or mixed
farming prevails generally, I find no distinct answer to ny
questions in a reply from a Lancashire correspondent, who is of
opinion, however, that small farmers lose a great, deal by absent-
ing themselves from their business to attend two markets in a
week, not, as a rule, to buy or sell, but, as they explain—“ just
com’ to see hoo things was goen.” Apparently, the farmers in the
Lonsdale South-of-the-Sands district, to which the writer
mainly refers, as a rule, have passed well through the depres-
sicn, whether they are large or small occupiers. :

Writing on North Yorkshire and Durham, Mr. Samuel
Rowlandson says that the farming on the east side of these
counties is generally mixed arable and grass, and on the west
side chiefly moorland, devoted to dairying and grazing. The
moorland farmers have stood the depression best, as their young
cattle and lambs have made fairly good prices, while cheese has

The Survival in Farming. 269

sold pretty well. In the mixed farming districts the low
farmers had the advantage during the wet seasons; but ‘in fair
average seasons, good—not extravagant—farming will always
answer the best.” As to whether large or small farmers have
best withstood the depression, Mr. Rowlandson says that there
is no rule, as “it has depended entirely on the man himself,
and the farm he occupied.” He adds—‘‘ No doubt, a man
with a large family of sons, all workers, has apparently done the
best ; but in many of these cases the wage due to the sons has
not been paid. ‘This practice has often enabled a man to pay a
much higher rent than he would, had he paid for his labour,
have been able to afford.” he failure of some, according to my
correspondent, is attributable to their occupying a larger acreage
than they had capital for, and that of others to incompetent
management; while rare business capability, skill in the buying
and selling of stock, close attention to all details, and practical
knowledge of all farm work, have enabled many to succeed in
spite of the depression.

Mr. William Abbot, of Holbeach and London, says that in
the South Holland district of Lineolnshire, where arable and
grazing farming prevail, high farmers have passed through the
period of depression better than low farmers, and large and
medium occupiers better than small holders. High rents under
leases taken in better times are mentioned as having caused
many failures. ‘“ With low farming,” it is added, ‘“ small yields
have resulted, and, market prices ruling so low, produce has not
made sufficient to cover expenses.” Moreover, “store stock
have been purchased very dear, and sold when fat very cheap.”
But “farmers who have farmed high, and got good crops, have
been able to meet the markets better,” and “some graziers have
been more fortunate than others with their stock.”

In Bedfordshire, with its mixed farming, according to a firm
of land agents in extensive practice, ‘‘the best farmers,” and
those occupying “large and medium-sized farms,” have passed
through the bad times most successfully. Apart from the low
price of corn, and the depreciation in the value of fat stock,
insufficiency of capital is named as the chief cause of failure ;
and, conversely, the possession of plenty of capital, and the
skilful farming of good land, are given as the sources of success
in withstanding depression.

Mr. Charles Elsworthy, of Upwell, reporting on Cambridge-
shire, where the farming is chiefly arable and grazing, says that,
“taken upon the whole, medium and small farmers have with-
stood the depression best,” and that the principal cause of failure
has been “lack of capital.” Grazing last year did badly, but

270 The Survival in Farming.

arable better, chiefly because potatoes were extensively grown,
and sold well. The reference to lack of capital as the chief
cause of failure, tells in favour of high farming.

Very distinct answers to my questions are given by Mr. H.

J. Gayford, of Hast Raynham, Fakenham, in relation to North-
west Norfolk, where the land is nearly all arable, and there are
few farms under 100 acres, the general run being from 500 to
700 acres, with some up to 1000, and a few larger. He writes:
“‘The men who have best withstood the depression are men of
business capacity, with ample capital, who have always been
well stocked, and have been able to economise in working
expenses, and to purchase in the cheapest markets.” Similar in
purport is the statement that want of capital has been the chief
cause of failure, and sufficient capital and enterprise the secrets
of success. As to the few small farmers, Mr. Gayford says that
their land is “generally badly farmed,” and that they are
“ doing badly.”

Mr. G. E. Walker, of Woodbridge, writing on East Suffolk,
where the farming is chiefly arable, says that the large oceupiers
and those who have farmed well have come through the trial
best, though a few of the small farmers have done well where
the land is extra good. Increase in the cost of labour and
want of capital are named as the chief causes of failure, while
farming well and paying special attention to breeding have
been instrumental in keeping farmers from ruinous losses, the
county having distinct breeds of horses, cattle, and sheep.

With respect to Essex, where the farms are chiefly arable,
the verdict of a well-known firm upon the county as a whole is
that farmers who have farmed well, so as to keep up their
occupations to a fair standard, have met the bad times best. No
general rule applies as to size of farms, success or failure
having depended upon the ability and capital of the tenant.
The causes of failure mentioned are unpropitious seasons, the
low prices of produce, the high prices of store cattle and sheep,
and the low prices of fat stock. On heavy soils, adapted only
for corn, prices, it is added, have been ruinous, although land-
lords, in the experience of the writer in all parts of the county,
have reduced rents from 20 to 70 per cent.

Referring in general terms to all the Home Counties, Messrs.
Simmons & Sons, of Reading, write as follows -—“ Our expe-
rience of the last ten years is ‘that the men who have stood their ”
ground best in the face of the depression which has affected
agriculture have been those who have occupied farms of about
250 acres, with a proportion of at least one-fourth grass, and
who have directed their attention to the rearing and raising of

The Survival in Farming. 271

stock of all kinds. The causes of failure have been chiefly
where tenants have tried to cultivate large arable farms with
insufficient capital, relying almost entirely on the corn crop for
profit. High farming on arable land has not been profitable,
our experience being that a large outlay in respect of artificial
feeding stuffs has failed to secure anything like a profitable
return. On the other hand, those who have kept no stock have
been the first almost to go to the wall. Undoubtedly, in this
neighbourhood, and as far as our experience extends in any part
of the district embracing what may be called the five Home
Counties, the system which has held its own out of all others has
been that of keeping a breeding flock in proportion to the
extent of the arable land, and rearing every year a certain
number of calves, thus avoiding the necessity of going to
market, when, as has so often been the case in recent years,
there has been no prospect whatever of a margin of profit
between the price demanded for store beasts and the prospective
price to be realised by their sale at the end of the season. The
greatest mistake a tenant can make is to attempt to farm more
land than he has capital to properly stock, and if more attention
were directed to the breeding and rearing of all kinds of agri-
cultural stock, there would, in our opinion, be fewer cases
recorded of ruined agriculturists than we have, unfortunately,
been accustomed to witness during the past decade.”

The reply is quoted at length because there are two or three
important points in it. It will be observed that Messrs.
Simmons, while pronouncing against the remunerativeness of
high farming on arable land, dwell more emphatically still upon
the importance of having sufficient capital for the acreage held.
Therefore, it may fairly be said that they regard low farming as
more dangerous than high farming. Probably, if cross-examined,
they would explain that it is only what they deem extravagant
high farming that they find unremunerative, and not what is
termed “good” farming. Some other points in their evidence
which are particularly well put, come out also in the majority of
the replies, and will be commented on presently.

A land agent whose practice is chiefly in Mid-Kent, where
arable, hop, and fruit farming prevail, says that, leaving out of
consideration the hop and fruit farms, high farmers have cer-
tainly withstood the depression better than low farmers. The
chief causes of failure given are want of capital, the starving of
the land, and the “absence of business habits to such an extent
that it is surprising that many have ever got a living.”

Mr. W. Frank Perkins, of Southampton, writing on ex-
perience gained in the county of Southampton, says :—‘ We

272 The Survival in Farming.

have so few high farmers here, that I am unable to give an
opinion. Certainly the smallest farmers, who dairy and grow
vegetables, and retail in their own carts—men of 20 to 50
acres,—have done best around here.” Insufficiency of capital,
the fall in wheat, sloth in adapting their trade to the exigencies
of the times, and reckless borrowing of sharpers, are given as the ©
causes of failure; while those who have succeeded owe their
success to their judgment in dealing in stock, the production of
saleable crops, milk, and butter, and to humble living, the family
assisting in the labour of the farm.

One of the best known land agents in Wiltshire, writing
on the mixed farming districts of the Southern, Western, and
Midland Counties, states that, as a rule, men who have pursued
recognised systems of farming, with sufficient capital, and have
conformed by domestic thrift to the reduced earnings of their
farms, have best withstood the depression ; also that farmers of
about a hundred acres in grass districts have done best, while
those holding over three hundred acres of arable land have suf-
fered most. My correspondent adds :—‘ The losses incident to
1879 and following seasons largely reduced the capital of the
tenant, with the result that borrowed capital was imported to
an excessive amount. No improvement in prices or physical
conditions occurred to enable farmers to meet their increased
burdens. Hence a large class of tenant farmers absolutely dis-
appeared, who are not yet replaced by others, which accounts
for the inability to let large arable farms.”

Taking into consideration the fact that insufficiency of
vapital is given as the principal cause of failure in the great
majority of the replies to my questions, it may fairly be said
that, on the whole, they tell strongly in favour of such mode-
rately high farming as has been advocated in this article. No
doubt, reduction of expenses, referred to by several corre-
spondents, has been essential in a period of small returns; but
the reduction should not consist in the starving of the land.
The bills which have been cut down to the greatest advantage
have been, not the cake or the manure bill, but the household
and the labour bills. There is no doubt that a good deal of
superfluous and unremunerative labour was employed in the
** good old times,” especially in counties where wages were low.
In my opinion, nothing is less remunerative on a farm than
hand labour which is not absolutely necessary. The land must
be kept clean, no doubt ; but it should be, as far as possible, by
the plough, the cultiv ator, the harrow, and the horse hoe, rather
than with the hand hoe. Another economy mentioned ‘in the
replies is that of dispensing with the services of middlemen,

The Survival in Farming. 273

and this is highly desirable, and might be managed to a much
greater extent than it is. The possibility of selling a good deal
of their produce by retail is one of the chief advantages which
small farmers enjoy, though the greatest of all is the economy of
labour which they effect by working with their men, and often
by employing members of their own families. On the other
side may be set the economy effected on large farms by the use
of labour-saving implements and machines.

Another point alluded to by most of the witnesses is the need
of keeping the land well stocked, which is also an argument: for
high farming. Skill in the buying and selling of stock is as
frequently mentioned as essential, and general business ability is
dwelt upon in several instances as the reason why some men
have held on during the depression, while their neighbours
have gone under. Business ability is, of course, essential in all
branches of industry and at all times ; but it has been peculiarly
important in farming under the long and severe strain to which
that industry has been subjected.

The advantages of breeding stock of all kinds are alluded to
by several correspondents, and Messrs. Simmons particularly
point out the benefit of rearing a certain number of calves every
year. Apparently breeding has greatly extended of late upon
medium and small farms, and if we can but clear the country
of pleuro-pneumonia, as we have cleared it of foot-and-mouth
disease, a further extension of this desirable movement may be
expected. At such a time the opening of this country to.
American stores would be a calamity of the worst description.
The subject is too large to be dealt with fully in this article ;
but, in connection with the evidence given above, it is not out of
place to protest against the shortsighted views of those who
would incur a great danger in order to get cheap*lean stock for
a year or two, or perhaps only for a few months. Home breed-
ing would be crippled if the American stores came in great
number, and dairy farming would be seriously injured through
the rearing of calves being rendered unremunerative. Sooner
or later, too, disease would be brought over by the foreign
beasts—possibly Texas fever, and probably pleuro-pneumonia,
and then, after we had been led to rely upon the foreign supply
of stores for fattening, they would be shut out of the country,
and something like a lean-stock famine would result.

During the last ten years the struggle for existence among
the different systems of farming in the world has been severe,
and the results appear to me already to show very clearly which
is likely to prove the fittest, and therefore to survive. Itisa
notable fact that while the wheat area of Europe during the

274 The Survival in Farming.

period has increased, that of the United States and Canada has
barely been maintained. Moreover, in the last five years, that
of Australasia has increased by only about 200,000 acres, and
the Indian acreage has fallen off. The wasteful cattle range
and ranch systems of America, too, have been entirely unsuccess-
ful of late, as is demonstrated by the fact that the number of
cattle this year has failed to show an appreciable increase for the
first time during twenty years, and population has been gaining
ground upon cattle. Bearing in mind the fact that, during the
past decade, millions of acres of new land in the United States
and Canada, in which wheat is almost necessarily the first crop,
have been occupied, and that, therefore, as the total acreage has
been stationary, an area equal to that of the new land must have
gone out of wheat cultivation, the unremunerativeness of wheat-
growing in these countries may be considered proved. The
whole tendency of farming in these countries is towards mixed
husbandry and the production of fruit and culinary vegetables,
and this means an advance in the direction of high farming,
which will be accelerated with the rapid increase of population,
at least in the United States. I do not agree with the prophets
who predict that, in ten years, America will have ceased to ex-
port grain and meat, because I believe that higher prices will
induce better farming, which will increase the fertility of the
soil and therefore the yield of crops, while meat will be produced
on millions of farms under an economical system, instead of
under the cheap, but wasteful, range and ranch systems.

Is it credible, then, that while America is advancing towards
the British system of farming, we, in this country, will retrograde
in the direction of the present American system? The answer
is obviously a negative one. With the best markets in the
world within easy reach, British farmers will find that their
interests will lie in the production of the greatest quantity of
the best of everything. 'he depression has taught them some
useful lessons in economy, one of the most important of which
is that they cannot afford to bid recklessly against each other
for farms. But the economy which will be practised will consist
in the curtailing of wasteful business and personal expenditure,
and not in the starving of their land.

As to the size of farms, it will probably vary in the future as
it has varied in the past. Large and small holdings have their
respective advantages for various purposes and in different
localities. In arable districts at least, and so far as the pro-
duction of the ordinary crops of the farm is concerned, I do not
believe that a holding not too extensive to be efficiently superin-
tended by one man can be too large for the most economical

The Survival in Farming. 275

results, provided that he has capital enough for his acreage; or
that fifty-acre farmers can get a good living by growing corn
and keeping a small number of live stock. In favourable
situations for marketing milk, butter, fruit, vegetables, eggs and
poultry, small farmers who are shrewd and industrious may do
well; and cheese-makers on small holdings have always been
able to hold their own, if they and their wives were good and
skilful managers. But any experiment in setting small farmers
up in business with State funds will be too artificial to succeed.

A good deal might be done by and for farmers to give them
a better chance of success than they enjoy at present. Co-
operation in buttermaking, and in the purchase of what they
require, and the sale of their products, has yet to be tried in this
country on an extensive scale and under the best conditions.
Railway companies must be induced or compelled to treat
farmers fairly, and to encourage traffic which they now handicap.
Encouragement, too, should be given to the enterprising invest-
ment of capital by tenants by making it more secure than it is
at present.

If space were available strong evidence might be cited in
support of the opinion that the worst days of agricultural
depression are over, and that a gradual, if slow, recovery of
prosperity for British agriculture—indeed, for agriculture in the
world at large—may be expected. If this anticipation should
prove true, there will be even stronger reasons than can be given
at present for predicting that the survival in farming will not be
the exhausting system now general in America, or the penurious
slavery inherent to a peasant proprietary, but that it will be a
system of judicious high farming, in accordance with the prac-
tice which has made the finest type of British agriculture the
best in the world.

Wituuam E. Bear.

THE WORK OF ACIDITY IN: CHEESE-
MAKING.

Ir you talk to an intelligent British cheese-maker about the
practice of his art, and interrogate him about the conditions
which have to be fulfilled in order to carry it on successfully, he
is pretty sure, especially if he be of the Cheddar “ persuasion,” to
make “acidity” the burden of his discourse. He has learned
by experience that in some way or other—he does not know pre-

276 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

cisely how—acidity in cheese-making is the “master of the
situation,” and his desire is to capture this untrained creature,
to put a bit in its mouth and to harness it to his yoke, so that he
may make it draw the product of his cheese-vat quietly and
steadily to market instead of upsetting it prematurely into the
ditch.

It is a rather singular commentary on this fact that not-
withstanding the importance which the British cheese-maker
thus attaches to the work of acidity in cheese-making, the litera-
ture of the art is extremely poor in information regarding it.
Not only do the few text-books in the English language which
deal with the theory of cheese-making either ignore the subject
altogether or treat it in a meagre and confused manner,! but the
French and German manuals are almost equally deficient. The
comprehensive work of Von Klenze is silent in regard to it, and
even the exhaustive treatise of Fleischmann dismisses it with
much less consideration than might have been expected.

It may, therefore, not be unprofitable, in the interests of the
British cheese-maker, to examine this problem of the influence
of acidity in cheese-making, with the view of ascertaining in
what it really consists and how far it is capable of being cecn-
trolled ; and the more so as the little that appears to be known
about it by practical cheese-makers has been acquired in a
purely empirical manner, and, as is commonly the case in such
matters, is too often invested by them with an air of mystery
which is probably proportionate to the obscurity which exists in
their own minds in regard to it.

But, before discussing the work of acidity in cheese-making,
it may not be out of place to say a few words as to the source
from which acidity in milk is derived, and the influence which
it exercises on the composition of the milk; for, unless the
cheese-maker has at least a general idea on these points he cqn-
not deal with this condition of milk with the intelligence which
is necessary to command success.

In the preceding number of this Journal a description was
given (‘“‘ Acidity in Milk,” page 56) of an appliance by means of
which the acidity in milk can not only be recognised but its
amount estimated with sufficient precision for the purposes of
dairying, and anyone who will provide himself with such an
appliance, and will take a little trouble to employ it in examin-
ing milk under different conditions, will soon acquire an amount

1 An exception must be made in favour of the great work of Professor
Sheldon on Dairy Farming, which, in this, as in most other subjects, is an
excellent exponent of the growing knowledge of the period. Nor must the
writings of Duclaux be overlooked.

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. ° 277

of knowledge on this subject which will enable him, by the aid
of a few still more simple appliances, to work out a series of most
instructive experiments for himself. But, even without such an
appliance for measuring with precision the amount of acidity
present in milk and whey, anyone who will procure a few of the
blue and red litmus-papers, which may be obtained from any
pharmaceutical chemist, may by their aid obtain a good deal of
useful knowledge on this matter. Let us see what can be done
in this direction.

If we take a sample of perfectly fresh milk from a healthy
cow and test it with the litmus-papers referred to above, we shall
find that whilst the blue paper is feebly reddened to a purple
tint, the red paper is also blued by it to the same hue. This
paradoxical effect (technically known as the amphoteric reaction
of milk) is due to the presence in the milk at the same time of
certain alkaline salts (phosphates) which act upon the blue
litmus-paper in the same way as free alkalies do, and also, in
all probability, to that of a small quantity of free carbonic and
lactic acids, the result of fermentative action in the milk which
has commenced even in the udder of the cow.

The clearness of the alkaline reaction may be increased by
boiling the milk, but it gradually disappears as the souring of
the milk proceeds.

If we are able to measure the exact acidity of the milk by
means of the appliance referred to above, we shall probably find
that it is not more than two or three degrees. The alkalinity,
on the other hand, cannot be directly measured, unless we can
avail ourselves of other resources of the chemist, and its chief
importance lies in the proof which it affords that even in per-
fectly sound milk, at the earliest stage after its separation from
the udder of the cow, a certain feeble trace of it is to be dis-
covered by the aid of the reagent which we have employed for
the purpose.

If, now, the sample of milk be left to itself and be examined
from time to time with both the blue and red litmus-papers, it
will be found, as indicated above, that the red litmus-paper
gradually ceases to exhibit any change in tint whilst the blue
paper becomes redder and redder. By the aid of an acidometer
the increase of acidity in the milk can be minutely followed
until it reaches from 15° to 20°, at about which stage, according
to the temperature at which it has been kept, spontaneous
curding of the milk will take place.

Upon what, it may be asked, does this curding depend >
Clearly, in a primary degree, on the increase of acidity. That
this is the case may be proved by taking another sample of fresh

278 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

milk, raising it to the same temperature as that at which the
previous sample had been maintained, and adding sufficient of
a solution of lactic acid! to raise the acidity of the milk to the
degree above indicated ; curding will then take place.

As to the exact conditions under which the curd is formed,
it will be sufficient here to say that it is produced by the separa-
tion in a compact and insoluble form of a constituent (casein)
which had previously existed in the milk in a state of what may
be called diffuse fluidity ; a state, if not of actual solution, of
diffusion which closely approaches to it, and which may be nearly
compared with that produced by dissolving a small quantity of
gelatin in a rather larger amount of water. If we make such a
solution we shall find that the fluidity of the water is not ap-
preciably affected; but by treating the solution with certain
well-known chemical agents the gelatin can be curdled or ren-
dered insoluble, precisely in the same way as the casein has
been in the milk under observation. In the case of the gelatin
the curd so formed appears in the condition of scattered flocks,
just as that of milk does if the milk be kept stirred at the time
when it is coagulating. But, if the gelatin be dissolved in the
water in larger quantity, by the aid of heat, and the solution
be allowed to cool, it then, as is well known, gelatinises—i.e.
separates in a peculiar condition, intermediate between solidity
and fluidity, in which the whole of the water is retained in a
state of intimate union with it.

The union, indeed, in which the gelatin is thus combined
with the water is so intimate that it cannot be separated from
it except by drying. The jelly when once formed in this con-
dition, which can only be done by lowering the temperature of
the warm solution in the way described, has no property of con-
tractility by which it can free itself of the water with which’ it
is united. This is a very important point to bear in mind,
because, as we shall see, it essentially distinguishes the jelly or
curd of gelatin from the corresponding jelly or curd of casein.

To appreciate this distinction it is only necessary to raise
the temperature of the curdled milk to about 90° F. and to
observe what takes place in it. This observation will be much
facilitated by scoring it across vertically, at right angles, so as
to divide it into cubic columns resting on the bottom of the ~
vessel, just as is done in cheese-making, and by also running the
knife around the margin of the curd, so as to separate the latter
from the surface of the vessel. On doing this we shall soon see

1 This acid may be obtained of any pharmaceutical chemist. It is generally
supplied of such a strength that it will require considerable dilution with water
to adapt it for such experiments as those described in this paper,

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. 279

the rifts in the curd made by the knife gradually widening and
the clear whey appearing between the blocks of curd thus
rendered apparent. ‘This will go on, so long as the temperature
of the mass is maintained, until the curd, which is at first soft,
compressible, and easily broken up, becomes firm, resistent, and
possessed of a considerable degree of cohesiveness or tenacity.

Now, just as it was evident that the formation of the curd
was originally due to the presence in the milk of a certain *
degree of acidity, so it is equally clear that the casein of which
it is composed possesses at the time of separating from the milk
a certain amount of spontaneous contractility, in virtue of which
it is able gradually to contract on itself, and in so doing to
squeeze out the liquid whey. ‘This power of spontaneous con-
traction which the curd possesses is the very foundation of
cheese-making, and unless it be thoroughly recognised by the
cheese-maker, and the conditions under which it can be main-
tained be clearly appreciated, it is impossible for him to acquire
an intelligent acquaintance with the principles of his art.

The interest of the phenomenon is the greater because it is
probably the best illustration which we possess of the lowest
grade of organisation. In this respect, the jelly of casein, which
we have already compared with the jelly of common gelatin,
and have distinguished from it by the possession of this property
of spontaneous contractility, may be compared, on the other
hand, with another kind of jelly—viz., that of the clot which
blood forms outside the vessels in which it circulates in the
living body, or, after a certain time, inside them, when the
body cools after death. This coagulation of the blood is caused
by the gelatinisation of a body (jihrin) closely allied to casein
in its ultimate composition, but differing from it in possessing a
still higher degree of self-organising power. Into the very
interesting problems of the relations exhibited by these three
bodies—gelatin, casein, and fibrin—to one another, it would
be out of place to enter here; they have only been thus
incidentally referred to in order to impress upon the cheese-
maker's mind the fact of the spontaneous contractility of the
eurd, and ‘to afford illustrations which may enable him to
appreciate the mechanism of the process by which the curd
gradually assumes the form which he seeks to give it with the
view of ultimately converting it into cheese.

In each case the jelly must be looked on in the light of a
sponge of gelatinous material, in the interstices of which are at
first retained not only the water in which the spongy fabric
itself was originally dissolved, but also any matters which have, |
in common with the gelatinous material, been in solution in it,’

280 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

as well as any others, such as, in the case of milk, the fat-
globules and certain mineral constituents (earthy phosphates)
which have been merely suspended in it in a state of minute
division. In the case of the gelatin, this sponge is possessed
of no contractility whatever, and the effect of heat on it is
merely to resolve it again into a state of fluidity. But, in that of
the milk jelly, when once this sponge has been organised it goes
- on slowly contracting and squeezing out the liquid whey from
its interstices, whilst retaining in them the fatty and mineral
matters, and in so doing it passes into the condition of firm,
tenacious curd.

Let us now, whilst the curd is thus being organised in our
sample of soured milk, take a second sample of fresh milk, of
about the same degree of acidity as the first, and, after raising it
to a temperature of about 90° F., mix it with enough! solution
of rennet to coagulate it in about half-an-hour. We shall then
obtain a jelly which, in its general appearance, is indistinguish-
able from that formed spontaneously in the soured milk, and
which, if divided in the same way as was done with the latter,
will be found to exhibit the property of spontaneous contractility
as that did.

So far as we have yet gone, therefore, it is evident that the
primary work of the rennet is to effect the coagulation of the
casein of the milk in the same way as acidity did, and that it
will do this in the presence of only a feeble degree of acid.

Let us now carry the experiment a stage farther, and,
taking a third sample of fresh milk, add carefully to it, stirring
the while, enough of an alkaline solution (that formed by dis-
solving a few crystals of common washing-soda in a teacupful of
rainwater will answer the purpose) to neutralise any acidity
that may be present—that is, until the milk produces no effect
on Llwe litmus-paper or gives a permanent purple tint with a drop
or two of the indicator solution (see p. 59) of the acidometric test.
If now the milk, thus slightly alkalised, be treated with solution
of rennet, under the same conditions as those under which the
fresh milk was renneted, it will be found that it also will in
time coagulate, but that it will take much longer to do so, the
actual length of time required varying with the degree of
alkalinity of the milk. Moreover, when the curd has formed it
will be seen to differ materially from that of the untreated milk
in its want of cohesion, breaking up when touched into separate

1 The exact amount necessary for the purpose will depend upon the quantity
of milk and the strength of rennet employed. One drop of rennet to half-a-
pint of milk will do for a rowgh approximation, which may be modified accorc-
ing to the result of experiment.

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. 281

flocks. It has, in fact, all the characteristics of what is called
a flocculent curd, and if any attempt is made to separate it from
the whey, the latter will become turbid from the minute frag-
ments of curd which will separate with it, forming the “ white
whey ” which is so familiar to cheese-makers with a defective
curd in the milk-yat.

It will thus be seen that whilst the presence of acidity in
milk is not essential to enable rennet to exercise the peculiar
power which it possesses of coagulating it, a certain amount of
acidity in the milk when the rennet is added to it gives to the
curd a degree of tenacity which renders it firm and enables it to
be handled without loss of any material portion of its structure
in the whey.

We have already noted that, in the case both of the milk
coagulated spontaneously by souring, and in that coagulated by
rennet in the presence of a small degree of acidity, the curd
possesses the power of spontaneous contractility (which is really
an indication of elasticity); but if we compare with it in this
respect the curd of the alkalised milk, we shall find that the
contractility of the latter is very feeble. Instead of the rifts
produced by the knife steadily widening, and the blocks of curd
as steadily contracting, the curd remains an inert mass, which
does in time show some slight amount of contractility, but not
enough to give it anything like the firmness of the other samples,
or to free it from the whey, as has occurred with them.

The indication thus afforded of the effect of a small amount
of acidity in communicating elasticity and tenacity to the curd
formed in milk by rennet may be still further illustrated by
taking yet another sample of fresh milk and adding to it enough
of a solution of lactic acid (the acid produced in milk spon-
taneously during souring) to give it from ten to twelve degrees
of acidity, as determined by the acidometer. If the milk thus
artificially soured be treated with comparatively the same
quantity of rennet used in the previous experiments, and under
the same conditions of temperature, &c., it will be seen to
coagulate’in a much shorter time than before; and if the curd
be sliced, as before, the readiness with which the blocks will
contract, and the comparative firmness which they will present
- when handled, will give proof of a high degree both of elasticity
and tenacity.

From this short series of experiments, which are so simple
that any person of ordinary intelligence can perform them with
the aid of a few cups or basins, of solutions of soda and lactic
acid, and of common litmus-papers (if an acidometer be not
available), it is easy to learn in a thoroughly practical way what

VOL, II, T, $6 U

282 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

are the primary effects of acidity and of its excess or deficiency
on the curd produced in milk by rennet. From the results thus
obtained it is not difficult to form a general idea of what will
be the secondary or remote effect of the three conditions on the
curd when it comes to be separated from the whey and to be
handled as it requires to be in order to convert it into a compact
cheese. But the practical working-out of this problem is scarcely
more difficult than the experiments which we have already de-
scribed. All that is necessary is to take quantities of milk
which are sufficient to give such an amount of curd as can be
conyeniently handled! ; to drain the whey off the curd after the
latter has been gradually reduced to small fragments by cutting
or breaking with the fingers; to then press these fragments
into any convenient mould, so as to weld them into a uniform
mass, and, in fact, to treat the samples of curd generally in the
way in which curd is dealt with in making any ordinary type
of hard cheese. One point in this after-treatment is essential
in order to produce results which shall be comparable with one
another and with those obtained in ordinary cheese-making, and
this is that the curd shall in each case be maintained as nearly
as possible at a uniform temperature, commencing at about
90° F. and falling gradually to about 65° F., at which tempera-
ture the compacted cheese should be maintained as long as is
practicable.?

Let us now assume that we have converted the curd of the
four samples of milk, treated as first described, into four cheeses ;
that we have handled these miniature cheeses in the way in
which larger ones would be treated after they are taken from
the cheese-vat or mould; and that we have kept them suffi-
ciently long to allow of their undergoing those fermentative
changes in which the process of ripening consists: what will be
the differences, if any, which we shall observe in them ?

To take first the curd obtained from the spontaneously soured
milk: we shall find, at the outset, that it will have so low a
degree of tenacity that it will be difficult to get it to cohere into
a compact cheese at all. If we succeed in doing so, the cheese

1 One gallon of milk is ample for this purpose in each case, and less can be
made to do with a little practice.

2 It has not been thought necessary to give precise instructions here as to the
treatment of the curd in this series of experiments, as anyone with even a
slight acquaintance with practical cheese-making will be able to judge from ~
his own experience how to proceed. A hot-air chamber sufficient for the
purposes of the experiments above suggested can be constructed out of an old
biscuit tin, in which two or three holes are made as inlets and outlets of
the products of combustion of a small benzoline lamp and for the introduction
of a thermometer.

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. 283

as it dries will become so brittle that it can scarcely be handled
without some of it crumbling away. As time passes it will get
drier and harder, until eventually it will break up into a number
of hard, tough fragments, without either the characteristic odour
or flavour of cheese, and which appreciative mites will ulti-
mately resolye into appropriate dust. If we compare with this
result that obtained from the slightly alkalised milk, we shall
observe, on the other hand, that, as has been before indicated,
the contraction of the curd is so feeble that it is impossible to
free it from the whey, even in a very imperfect degree, without
losing a considerable portion of it in the whey, and that when
we have got it into the mould it forms a sodden mass
which no amount of pressure will consolidate into the consistence
of a proper cheese, except at the expense of a great loss of
“white whey.” If the cheese so formed be kept at a high
temperature (over 65° F’.), it will gradually exhibit evidences of
putrefactive decomposition. Gaseous products will form in it,
which will distend it in one direction or another, and will
ultimately cause it to burst. Hither in the whole or in parts it
will soften until it may become perfectly fluid. The small
amount of the genuine flavour and odour of cheese which it may
acquire will soon be replaced by the offensive products of
putridity ; and the cheese will end by becoming the congenial
breeding-ground of maggots.

Such, in brief, is the contrast which the cheese made under
the two opposite conditions of excess and defect of acidity ex-
hibits. The two intermediate samples—viz., that made from
ordinary fresh milk and that from milk the acidity of which
has been artificially increased at the time of renneting—display,
as might be expected, gradations of character which correspond
to the amount of acidity present in them at the curding stage.
In the first of them we shall have a product which approaches
the character of a sound, well-flayoured cheese in proportion as
it has been made in other respects properly. But however
properly in such respects the second of these two cheeses may
have been made, the vice implanted in it by the excess of acidity
present at the outset will make itself more or less apparent
afterwards throughout its history. It may not be as dry or as
crumbly or as tasteless as the cheese which was made from the
spontaneously soured milk was, but it will approach these charac-
teristics in proportion as its acidity rises beyond the amount
required to give just that degree of tenacity and elasticity to
the curd which will enable it to expel all the whey but what is
wanted to promote those fermentative changes on which the
ripening of the cheese depends.

u2

284 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

From all of these facts it follows that the curding of milk
by rennet as practised in cheese-making is by no means a simple
phenomenon. We will dismiss from our consideration here the
effect on the process of variation of temperature and of variation
in the character of the casein itself (dependent on variation of
food, period of lactation, &c.), and will confine our attention
exclusively to the relations which exist between the rennet
and acidity. It is obvious that, so far as the mere coagulation
of the casein is concerned, these two agents are capable of
replacing one another, but in each case the curd obtained will
differ materially both in its primary and in its secondary charac-
teristics. By using excess of rennet we may, it is true, develop
a considerable contractile power in the curd, but then the
secondary effects of such an excess in promoting premature
decomposition render its employment for that purpose fatal to
the keeping quality of the cheese. Hence the need of a certain
amount of acid to co-operate with the rennet and to give the
curd a firmness which it would not otherwise possess.

The contractility which the curd exhibits in its earlier
stages is easily destroyed, depending as it does on the main-
tenance of a proper degree of warmth. If the curd is chilled,
and in proportion as it is so, its contractility will be paralysed,
the whey being retained in it in a degree which will defy all
the powers of the press to extract it, and then good-bye to any
prospect of making a sound cheese.

It is often asserted that it is during the development of
acidity in the whey, before the latter has been drained from
the curd, that the most important influence of this agent is
produced. But this is a mistake. For, if the acidity of the
whey be tested whilst it is in the vat, it will be found to increase
very slightly, if at all, during the time for which it is safe to
leave it there. The error has arisen from mistaking the effect
of the heat of the whey for that of its acidily. It is after the
whey has been lifted from the curd, and the latter has been ex-
posed to the combined effect of heat and air, that its acidity
increases so rapidly.

Reference may here be made to a rather paradoxical fact
connected with the development of acidity in milk, which may
be noted in making the experiments described above. If, after
the curd has been formed in each of the samples of renneted-
milk (assuming that they have been meanwhile kept at a suit-
able temperature), we test them at intervals we shall find
that the acidity in the whey of the sample that had been
artificially soured at starting, though greater by several degrees
than it was at the outset, is not appreciably more (and may

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. 285

in some cases be even less) than that of the untreated milk ;
whilst the whey of the milk which was alkalised may be the
most acid of all. But, notwithstanding the curious change
which has thus taken place in the relations of the three samples
of whey in this respect, those of the curds are not apparently
altered. The curd of the alkaline milk is still soft and incoherent,
although its whey is now of so high a degree of acidity, whilst
that of the acidified milk is still tougher than that of the others
although they have overtaken it in the race of acidity.

This somewhat paradoxical fact shows conclusively that it is
at the earliest stage of its formation that the permanent character
of the curd is impressed upon it, and that it is at this stage also
that acidity produces its special effect in modifying the peculiar
action of rennet. It is true that the defect arising from deficiency
of acidity at the renneting stage may to some extent be corrected
by encouraging the development of acidity at a later one (that
of draining, after the whey has been removed); but the error
caused by excess of acidity at starting can never be effectually
rectified afterwards, and the only remedy for it is to push on the
ripening and marketing of the cheese as rapidly as possible.

In addition to the effect which acidity thus produces in
modifying the tenacity of the curd developed by the special
action of rennet, it exercises two other actions in cheese-making
which are of considerable importance.

In the experiment described above we have indicated the
effect of insufficient acidity as it may be shown in sound milk
the natural acidity of which has been artificially neutralised by
the addition to it of a certain amount of alkali. But this con-
dition of deficient acidity may, under certain circumstances, be
met with naturally in milk, and when this is the case its effect in
cheese-making is most pernicious. And the reason is simply this:
the absence of a certain degree of acidity—still more the presence
of marked alkalinity—in fresh milk is in the great majority of
cases, if not in all cases, a symptom of disease, either local or
general, in the cow from which the milk has been taken, for it is
caused by excess of alkaline phosphates in the milk, and this is, in
its turn, due to excessive tissue-waste. Now, alkalinity in a highly
organised fluid like milk is a most favourable condition for the
development in it of the germs which bring about putrefactive
decomposition, even if those germs are not already present in it
as the result of disease.! Hence such milk exhibits, when treated
with rennet, during the curding stage, unmistakable evidence of

' Much light has been thrown on this subject by the researches of
Duclaux, a full account of which will be found in the monograph Ze Lait
(Paris, 1887: J. B, Bailliére et fils. Pp. 336, 3fr. 50c.).

286 The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making.

the commencement of decomposition in the evolution of gas.
This gas, unlike that developed by the’natural fermentation of the
sugar of the milk (carbonic acid gas), is insoluble in the watery
constituent of the milk, and therefore makes itself evident as
bubbles. A certain quantity may escape to the surface of the milk
during the stage of curding, but the bulk will remain imprisoned
in the curd, and may even so affect its specific gravity that instead
of sinking in the whey when free to move in it, as sound curd
should do, it will rise to the surface of the whey, forming the
“ floating curd” with which so many indifferent cheese-makers are
familiar, and which has been the béte noire of so many cheese-
factories, especially in America. Professor Sheldon suggests that
it was in consequence of the trouble experienced in the earlier
American cheese-factories from this cause that the attention of
American dairymen was directed to the value of acidity in cor-
recting it. This was very probably the case, for it is not only in
America but in this country also that the effect of artificially de-
veloping acidity in milk which is suspected to be unsound has
been empirically discovered to be a corrective, and various agents
have been employed for the purpose of creating it. Im some cases
the result is brought about by the addition to the milk, before
it is renneted, of a certain amount of sour whey, the action of
which is to inoculate it with a special dose of the ferment by
which acidity is developed. In others the addition of an acid,
such as lactic acid (the natural acid of the milk), or an acid salt,
such as the acid phosphate of lime or alum, has been employed
with equally useful effect and without the risk, attendant on the
employment of sour whey, of introducing with the acid-producing
germs others which may exist in the whey with them, and
which would give rise to special sources of mischief during the
ripening stage. .
But probably the least objectionable method of neutralising
the defect in question is to keep the milk in the vat at the
renneting temperature sufficiently long to raise the acidity to
the required point before renneting it, taking care, of course,
that it is well stirred meanwhile, so as to prevent the cream
rising. The next best remedy is to push on the acidification of
the curd during the draining stage, by cutting it up well and
piling it often, so as to expose it freely to the air, at the same time -
keeping it warm. In either of these ways the mischievous effect
of deficient acidity in the milk may be more or less perfectly
remedied, for the development of acidity arrests the multiplication
of the special germs which flourish in neutral or alkaline milk,
and the growth of which is attended not only by the evolution
of the gases of putrefaction, as aboye indicated, but by modifi-

The Work of Acidity in Cheese-making. 287

cations of the butter-fat of the cheese which destroy its proper
aroma and flavour, and substitute more or less offensive ones
for them.

The second effect of acidity in cheese-making alluded to
above, but to which it is only possible to make a passing reference
here, is the influence which it exerts in favouring the develop-
ment of the mould on which the successful manufacture of soft
cheese of the Camembert type, or of semi-hard cheese of the Stilton
and Gorgonzola type, depend. A certain degree of acidity ap-
pears to be highly conducive, if not essential, to the growth of
the fungus (Penicillivm) of which this mould consists, and which
probably flourishes at the expense of the acid. Hence in both
of these types of cheese, whether the mould grows outside the
cheese or inside it, its production is favoured by not checking
the acidity too much by salting or by cooling of the cheese in
its earlier stages.

The general outline of the work ot acidity in cheese-making
which has been thus given, with an incompleteness of detail for
which the unavoidable limitation of space must be some apology,
will, it is hoped, at least offer a clue to the intelligent cheese-
maker by which he will be enabled to work out for himself the
rules that are necessary to enable him to avail himself of it for
his own practical purposes. Two conditions only are essential
to his doing this: the first is that he shall possess some appliance
for measuring acidity ; and the second is that he shall take some
little trouble to learn how to use it properly. With such an
appliance at his command and with a few ordinary vessels, such
as teacups or breakfast-cups, for holding samples of milk, small
quantities of solutions of rennet and of lactic acid, and a chamber
of any kind in which the temperature can be maintained at from
80° to 100° F., he may without difficulty institute a series of ex-
periments similar to those described above, by which he will
soon learn more than he would by reading pages of written de-
scription. He may in this way study for himself the relative
effects not only of acidity, but of rennet and of temperature, on
the formation of the curd; and it is not too much to say that
unless he will do this he will never become a truly intelligent
cheese-maker: for it is only in this way that he can disentangle
the complex problem which is presented by the combined action
of these three agencies on the casein of milk.

Francis T. Bonn.

288

EXPERIENCES OF THE SEVER@
WINTER OF 1890-91.

In order to place more clearly before the reader the influence
of rainfall and temperature upon the produce of the soil and the
health of the live stock of the farm, it is necessary to take a
retrospective view of a cycle of years, for which purpose we
have selected the period 1885-90. Although the mean rain-
fall varies considerably in different localities, yet taking the
average of the last six years the deficiency throughout the
whole of England is very shght. During the winter of 1890
and the spring of 1891, the springs have, in many localities,
been nearly as low as they were in the dry summers of 1868
and 1870. In some districts the only supply for the stock of
the farm was carried in water-carts from available points, often
at some distance from the homestead.

I have in my own practice spent considerable sums in con-
veying water by gravitation, and in raising it by motive power,
for the supply of homesteads and cottages. My experience,
which coincides with the opinion entertained by other observers,
is that the general extension of drainage is exercising a dis-
turbing effect on the springs by carrying off the surface water
more rapidly, and thus preventing its percolation through the
soil to supply the deep wells and subterranean circulation. If
this contention be correct it is obvious that the rapid removal
of the surface water will reduce evaporation, and slowly decrease
the amount of rainfall. Medical men are aware of the fact that
certain diseases are more prevalent ina wet than in a dry season,
though the latter is more fertile in its own special maladies.
The same influences affect the health of the lower animals, to
which we shall refer as we proceed.

During the period under consideration, farmers have sus-
tained large losses of stock due to causes of a preventable
character. ‘The season has, on the whole, been peculiar. South
of the Trent the temperature was more variable, and on the
average more severe, and the snowfall much heavier, than was
experienced in counties in the more northern parts of the king-
dom. In some of the south-western districts of Scotland the -
plough was idle for little more than three weeks throughout the
whole winter. In many of the eastern and southern counties
of England the snow lay long and deep for many weeks. So
late as the second week of March the southern and south-
western counties were visited by one of the heaviest falls of snow

Ewperiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91. 289

on record. Onthe 10th, 11th, and 12th of the month, snow con-
tinued to fall uninterruptedly, accompanied by a violent gale
that caused great damage to shipping in the Channel and along
the south-west coast. The traffic, both on road and rail, was
entirely suspended; trains were blocked in snowdrifts, and
were unable either to proceed on their journey or retrace their
course, thereby causing great suffering, and in some instances
even loss of life. The stock of the farm, where exposed to the
elements, were caught in the drifts, which in places were
fifteen to twenty feet deep; the sheep could not be extricated
for several days, and on many farms the losses were heavy.
Whilst the inhabitants of the West were experiencing all the
rigours of an Arctic climate, we in the Midlands were compara-
tively free from snow. It was only on the elevated ranges of
North Staffordshire and of the Peak districts of Derbyshire that
snow was to be seen. During spring and early summer our
river valleys suffer far more from late frosts than do the more
elevated districts.

Where cattle were subjected to the test of the weighing
machine during the spring of 1890, the price of the best class
of stores per 100 Ib. live weight was relatively higher than the
price realised per 100 lb. for prime fat cattle of the same class
and quality. Owing to the scarcity of keep and the backward
state of the pastures, in April, 1891, store cattle were about
8 per. cent lower in value than they were at the same date in
the previous year. At the time of writing store and fat cattle
are worth the same price, a fraction under 4d. per lb. live
weight, which shows pretty clearly the unfortunate position of
the grazier who has to purchase his stock at spring. On mixed
occupations, where breeding and rearing can be successfully
carried on, the farmer is in a much better position. On all but
the best fattening pastures this system is capable of considerable
extension. In some districts the want of suitable buildings
for the accommodation of the young stock hampers the tenant
and retards the progress of breeding. This deficiency can be
supplied by inexpensive structures, fulfilling all the economical
requirements as regards labour, and maintaining the healthy
condition of the animals, at a small cost compared with the
usual erections of bricks and mortar and slated roofs. The
sheds can be made equally comfortable at less than half the
usual cost.

When the lands that have been abandoned are again brought
into cultivation, and large areas that have been laid down to
permanent pasture during the last ten years are again brought

290 Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91.

under tillage, though in many cases they are not adapted to
the growth of the finer cereals, they are nevertheless capable of
adding considerably to the output both of milk and meat. This
certainly would result under a system of co-operative dairying,
where the separated milk is utilised for the raising of stock on
the farm, and the cream is conveyed to a central depot, where
it is made into butter or otherwise profitably utilised.

There is little complaint to be made as to the price at which
good beef has been selling throughout the year, as 7d. to 74d.
per lb. is a fair price, though formerly 5s. per stone (of 8lb.)
was considered a good price. What the grazier is suffering
from is the high price of stores. We do not remember a period
when the graziers of the Midland Counties were so heavily hit
as they were in the season of 1890. Although there has been
a considerable drop in rents, this did not save the tenants of
feeding land from incurring serious losses.

Rearing has been extensively carried on during the last
two or three years, so that hopes were entertained that the prices
of stores would recede as stock became more plentiful; but at
present there is no prospect of this hope being realised. Those
who rear, aided by the low prices of auxiliary foods, have been
finishing off all the best animals at an early age, and it is only
the inferior or cull animals that reach the markets as stores.
This is clearly apparent in all our markets in the inferior
quality of the stock on offer.

The hay crop of 1890, though an average as to bulk, was,
with the exception of the small quantity secured before June
20, generally of inferior quality. Much damage was done, owing
to the unseitled state of the weather during the latter part of
June, and throughout a great part of July. When the fine
weather did set in the crops were over ripe, the seeds had been
shed, and the culms had assumed a woody condition. The
corn harvest, on the other hand, was secured in good condition,
and the straw was of prime quality. There was in reserve
an unusually large quantity of good hay, the produce of 1889.
The long severe winter of 1890-91, followed by a late spring,
made heavy demands upon the fodder ; nevertheless the prices
remain moderate. On most stock farms, the more extensive
use of meals, and other artificial auxiliaries, in combination
with chaffed hay and straw, prevents waste, and effects a
general economy in the consumption of fodder. On some farms
the litter is cut into chaff, whilst, on others, moss litter is to a
certain extent replacing straw.

The root crop was an average. The experience of the mild

Eaperiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91. 291

winter of 1889-90, still fresh in the memory of most farmers, and
the great difficulty in obtaining labour in many districts, were
the chief causes why the crop was not secured at the usual
time. On most farms, however, the mangel crop was saved,
Throughout the length and breadth of the land the swede,
common turnip, and cabbage crops were, on the other hand,
almost completely destroyed, the only exception being the later
sown swedes. These, where drilled on the flat, took a deeper
hold of the soil; hence they stood the severe weather better.
Cabbages, though producing a large quantity of food, are not
well adapted for winter use, being equally susceptible both to
rains and to frost. During the spring of 1890 swedes were
plentiful ; late in March large quantities of sound roots were
waiting to be eaten off free of cost on the dry soils of the East
Riding of Yorkshire, whereas this year at the same date there was
not a healthy root to be seen. On sound turnip land, where
the crop is fed off on the ground, sheep will do as well up to the
end of November or even to Christmas on soft turnips as they
will on swedes, with a considerable saving in the labour bill by
allowing the sheep to gnaw the roots on the ground instead
of passing them through the turnip cutter.

Roots are no exception to the general principles which govern
plant-growth. ‘hey attain maturity, ripen and decay. In order
to prevent, or at all events to retard, the last-named contingency,
they should be taken up and stored; otherwise, if left in the
ground exposed to atmospheric changes, their feeding qualities
deteriorate. The swede crop should be harvested early, and, if
possible, during fine weather ; the roots keep best when placed
in small heaps of not more than two cartloads each. A moderate
covering of earth is sufficient to protect them during the severest
weather, provided they are not exposed to the air whilst in a
frozen state. ‘The practice more generally obtains of cutting off
the end of the root with a sharp knife, and severing the leaves
from the crown. If for storage in the field, in order to be cut
and placed in the troughs for the fattening sheep during the
winter or spring, the system is wasteful. The leaves should be
severed so as not to wound the crown of the root, and the soil
should be shaken off without cutting off the ends of the roots.
By this means all waste from the exudation of juice is avoided.
The roots are carefully cleaned as required for use, and they are
found to be more crisp and nutritious, and hence more palatable
and better relished by the stock,

The mild open winter of 1889-90, accompanied by heavy root
crops and an oyer-average crop of hay, carried stock through

292 Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91.

with a lighter requisition on the hayricks than is generally the
case; hence a larger quantity of old hay of good quality was
left over with which to begin the winter of 1890-91. The
abundant and well-saved straw crop of 1890 was profitably
utilised as prepared food, instead of, as formerly, trampled
into manure in open yards. Another great advantage to the
stock farmer was the low price of cereals and other auxiliary
foods. The loss of the turnip crop caused to be sent to the
butcher many young animals in forward condition which under
ordinary circumstances would have been kept for two or three
months longer, thereby not only increasing the output of meat
but adding to the profits of the farmer. The depressed times
have taught men the value of economy, and the more general
practice which now obtains on the best farms of preparing the
fodder and other foods is resulting in greater economy, so that in
April there was still on most farms a fair quantity of the hay crop
of 1890, though generally of inferior quality. The most conclusive
argument as to the stocks is the rate of prices in the market;
the best quality of hay has reached, but not exceeded, 4/. per ton
delivered.

The use of meals and other feeding stuffs is still on the
increase. Many cases have come under my notice where a yearly
outlay of 40s. to 50s. per acre over the gross acreage of the farm
was incurred during the cycle of low prices. Even on mixed
farms, on the average an extra outlay of 15s. per acre has been
made on the purchase of artificial foods. We do not recollect a
more protracted or severe winter, lasting as it did without
intermission to the end of April, and yet we have often seen the
stock of the dairy districts in much lower condition at May Day.

It will probably interest the reader to place before him a
detailed account of the management of a farm of 586 acres,
only 24 acres of which are now in tillage, part of the old pas-
tures being second-rate feeding land, and the remainder of the old
pastures good store land: 117 acres have been laid down since
1885. 'Thecropping for 1890 was 10 acres cereals and 14 acres
mangel and cabbage, whilst 130 acres of grass land were mown.
The number of stock ou the farm during the winter of 1890-91
was 270 head of cattle of all ages. The hay and straw are chaffed,
and the chaff is mixed with meals, pulped roots, and silage.
Moss litter and uneatable straw alone are used as bedding. All
cattle are tied up, excepting calves. The tillage land is strong,
so the farmyard manure is applied to the land for the root crop.
During the autumn the winter-made manure is applied as made
to the young grass and poor pastures. In addition to a liberal

Ewperiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91. 295

dressing of farmyard manure, 14 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 3 cwt.
superphosphate are applied per acre for the root crop. Four work
horses are kept, besides four or five well-bred Shire mares for
breeding purposes; also a variable number of young Shires of
different ages.

A flock of 260 breeding ewes is maintained, in addition to
which 220 tegs have been wintered. The ewes are of no special
breed, the object being to obtain the greatest possible number
of lambs. ‘The prolificacy and milking capabilities of the ewes
are considered in order that a large proportion of the young
stock may be fit to go as fat lamb; about half the yearly pro-
duce, say 200, are sold off the ewes direct to the butcher. The
yearly outlay on cake and other purchased foods is 960/., and
the artificial manure bill is 130/. Forty calves a year are
reared, some of which are bred on the farm and the remainder
purchased.

In addition to the stock reared on the farm, barren cows and
heifers are chiefly fattened on the best pastures. On the best
store land a good class of lying-off cows and heifers, picked up
in the dairy districts, are sold to the London dealers when due
to calye. Others are bulled on the farm, a well-bred bull being
kept for the purpose. As a natural consequence, these latter
remain longer on hand, care being taken that they shall calve
at a time when milk is likely te be most wanted. By arrang-
ing that they shall come in at the right time, a difference of
several pounds per head in their value often results. The labour
bill amounts to 17s. 23d. per acre.

The farm is in the hands of a yearly tenant, subject to one
year’s notice to quit. I need scarcely say that the tenant is a
thoroughly practical man, possessed of ample capital, and
the management of the farm is in every way highly creditable
to the skill and general intelligence of the occupier.

There has been no apparent scarcity of milk during the
winter. All milk-selling farmers contract for the year at
separate prices for the winter and the summer six months.
Half the summer quantity must be furnished during the winter,
otherwise the farmer renders himself liable for damages. With
rare exceptions the stated quantities have been maintained ;
there has been very little demand for accommodation milk, and
this has been met by the factories at an enhanced price, the
only falling off having been during the latter part of April.
I have never known so large a number of cross-bulled cows—
that is, cows served to come in for the winter dairy. ['armers
in the Midlands use brewers’ grains largely for their dairy cows

294 Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91.

during the winter. Mangel, where obtainable, and maize and
rice meal, are fayourite foods. These increase the quantity at
the expense of quality, which gives rise to frequent complaints
from the purchasers, who charge the farmer with watering,
though he is innocent of the offence. A mixture of peas, oats,
and linseed ground together, mixed with chaff, and macerated with
hot water, is the best food, and roots should be used sparingly. A
liberal supply of pure water at an even temperature is essential.

The sheds should be roomy and well ventilated. No single
shed should be less than 18 feet wide inside the walls. Where
practicable we prefer double sheds, with a central feeding
passage. The mangers are made of fire-clay glazed inside.
The sheds should be well lighted and ventilated, and the cold
air should be admitted at the floor level, with a free exit for the
heated air at the apex of the roof. No under-ground drain is
admissible in a cowshed, the liquid drainage, if any, being con-
veyed in an open channel, and delivered into a trapped drain
well outside the buildings. All floors are composed of concrete,
finished on the top with a thin coating of fine stuff, and
notched to prevent slipping. ‘The best litter is peat moss; a
layer six or eight inches deep is spread over the whole of the
floor, a sprinkling of four-inch cut straw is scattered over the
beds, and there results one of the most healthy, comfortable,
and, as to the economical conservancy of the manure, most per-
fect sheds it is possible to make. The droppings are collected
from time to time and removed, whilst the peat absorbs and
preserves the urine and its valuable constituents. When the
moss litter has become thoroughly saturated, it is carried out,
and may be taken direct to the land, its place being supplied by
a fresh dressing. '

As already noticed, there was no scarcity of milk during the
winter months, so that, though the demand was better, prices
were not sensibly affected. Separated milk is being more
appreciated, and the demand steadily increases, both in the
towns and the rural villages. In some districts the owners of
butter factories are delivering fresh separated milk at the doors
of the working classes daily at one penny per quart. Thousands -
are now enjoying the luxury of a régular supply of milk, where,
though situated in country districts, milk could not be formerly
obtained except at prohibitive prices. Good cheese has been in
demand and has realised satisfactory prices ; both farmers and
factors are bare of stock, and as the early make is likely to be
light, the general opinion is that prices will harden. As to
butter, we need never expect to compete with the foreign pro-

Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91. 295

ducer except we adopt his methods. We have the best raw
material in the world, and yet we are urged to persistently
follow an unprofitable system ending in loss and disgust.
Were the English dairy farmers to co-operate and produce
butter in quantity, they are in a position to command the
best market prices of the day. The demand for the highest
quality of fresh butter is limited; only the best hotels and
private families will pay the price. For first-class powdered
or slightly salted butter, the demand is practically unlimited ;
if farmers would combine together and, instead of cultivating
a fresh butter trade, would lightly salt and tub the butter on
the Normandy principle, and dispatch it to market daily, it
would at once take the place of the Danish and Normandy
produce, and when well made it would excel either of these
in quality. The Normandy butter is the produce of small
holdings; the butter is churned at home, and is sent to a
factory where it is graded and packed for market. Butter made
in this way is never equal to that made from new milk, mixed
and passed through the separator, churned and packed on the
spot.

F I am well acquainted with three leading Dairy Counties,
and in my wanderings visit the butter markets whenever an
opportunity offers. During the last three weeks of April,
farmers’ butter was selling at from 10d. to 1s. per pound,
and in many country markets a pound means eighteen ounces.
Many of the sellers sit in the market for hours, waiting
for the customer who never comes; the old hands have a few
regular customers, who pay their shilling and go. Even
at the lower price it is not unusual for a considerable quantity
to remain unsold at the end of the day. What a contrast with
the cheese and butter shop round the corner! Here they are
busy all day supplying the country people with Norman and
Danish butter at 1s. 2d. to 1s. 5d. per pound of 16 ounces. The
Co-operative Stores in a large town well known to me take 800
to 1,200 lb. per week from a factory five miles distant, instead of
supplying their wants from the butter market not more than a
hundred yards from their own door, and at a price for the factory
butter from 3d. to 4d. per lb. above the current price in the
market.

It is said butter making does not pay, nor is it likely to do so
whilst made in the farmhouse. We want the light of science
to illuminate the dark path of farmhouse dairy management.
According to the recent utterances of some of our advanced
teachers, they are still guided as to the development of the
acidity of cream by taste and smell, whilst the acidity of the

296 Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91.

curd is ascertained by the application of the red-hot poker.
This leads the mind back to the days of Jesse Williams, the
father of the factory system, and can scarcely be accepted as
complimentary to the intelligence of the last decade of the
nineteenth century. Let the landlords and tenant farmers, who
are equally interested, band themselves together, erect and
equip factories, and thus lay the foundation of an industry that
will alike benefit the interests of agriculture and of the nation.
Last year a Limited Liability Butter Factory, of which I am a
director, handled about half a million gallons of milk; this year
we are considerably increasing the quantity. We have now an
established trade, and are well satisfied with the results. At
a recent meeting an offer was placed before us from a London
firm, doing a large family trade, for a given quantity per day for
a fixed period at an advance of ld. per lb. on the price of the
best Jersey. This we declined to accept, as we can place all we
make at more money. A retailer who supplies families has been
making 1s. 8d. per lb, for factory butter during the winter
months.

The contract prices of milk during the season of 1890-91
were practically the same as they have been for the last two or
three years—ls. 2d. per barn gallon of 17 imperial pints for the
six summer months, and 1s. 7d. per barn gallon for the six winter
months, the farmer paying carriage. Fora week or two at about
Christmas time accommodation milk made 2s. 6d. per dozen of
three imperial gallons, this being the measure by which milk is
purchased for the Manchester market. The finest factory butter
made from Is, 4d. to 1s. 6d. per Ib. wholesale, and retailers haying
a good family trade charged their regular customers ls. 8d. per
Ib. Best Derbyshire cheese made from 52s. to 65s. per cwt. of
120 lb.; fine Cheshire made rather more money.

,

The lambing season in the Southern Counties, which is fully
two months earlier than generally obtains in the Midlands, was
successful. ‘There was a full average crop of strong, healthy
lambs, and less than the usual mortality amongst the ewes.
Owing to the nearly total destruction of the root crops, and
the backward state of the forage and seed crops, the breeding
flocks have been with difficulty, and at great cost, carried through
the trying season. The crops that best withstood the severity.
of the winter were the different varieties of kale. Where these
crops were late-sown, and the kale seed was mixed with common
green-top turnip, it is remarkable how the latter resisted the
frost. This was, to some extent, due to the protection given
by the kale.

Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91. 297

Throughout the grass counties the crop of lambs was under
the average, and the mortality amongst both ewes and lambs
has been heavy. On many farms during the sharp weather the
ewes suffered from want of a sufficient allowance of nutritive
food. A foddering of poor hay once or twice a day, whilst the
land was covered with snow, was totally insufficient to main-
tain their condition, hence as the lambing season approached
the ewes were found to be weak and low in condition, whilst
their milk was scanty in quantity and poor in quality. Until
the rain came at the end of April the old pastures and seed
layers were perfectly bare, the ewes chiefly depending on trough
food. The lambs are stunted in growth, and the wool is dry,
denoting an unprogressive state.

The loss on a stock farm by the failure or destruction of the
root crop cannot be measured by the mere value of the crop,
though this is considerable. ‘The stock of the farm has to be
reduced, and placed on the market at unsuitable seasons, and in
an unfit state, whilst the animals that are left on the farm are
only carried through at great cost. The loss of a root crop deterio-
rates the manurial condition of the land, the effect of which is
felt throughout the whole rotation. On an average, we estimate
the loss on a stock-breeding and rearing farm—the roots were
up and stored during the autumn of 1890—at from 51. to 61.
per acre on the area of the root crop.

The depreciation in the value of store sheep during the
spring of 1891, due to the loss of the root crop, has been most
serious. ‘Throughout the great turnip-growing districts of the
Southern and Eastern Counties thousands of half-ripe sheep
have been slaughtered, entailing a heavy loss on the farmer,
whilst greatly lessening the future output of mutton. As regards
the tegs that have been carried on through the winter and spring,
when the cost of artificial foods has been deducted the balance will
be less than their value last November, whilst breeding ewes are
worth less by 15s. to 20s. per head than they were at the above
date. Throughout the turnip-growing districts of England the
numbers of sheep have considerably diminished.

The ordinary forage crops were for the most part cut down
by the severity of the winter, and the bleak weather of the spring
has had the effect of retarding vegetation. Rye, winter oats, and
tares, were probably never in so backward a state as they were
at the beginning of May. We have, however, learnt a useful
lesson, which I trust will not be readily forgotten—that is, that
of all forage crops cultivated for spring food none is so hardy as
the kale tribe, which in normal seasons produces a large amount of
valuable food ; its recuperative powers are of the utmost value to

VOL, II, T, S.—6 Xx

298 Experiences of the Severe Winter of 1890-91.

the stock owner. The seed layers have been heavily stocked,
and so made no progress, whilst the scarcity of keep necessitated
the stocking of the mowing grounds with ewes and lambs. It
is not in accordance with precedent to be able to gather an
average crop of hay from land that has been eaten bare till May
Day, and we have seldom known hay of good quality to be
secured after midsummer.

In sheltered situations brood mares, though wintered out
of doors, have done well. Where liberally supplied with
nutritious food they have maintained their condition and have
come through in a healthy state. The foals are dropping strong,
and the mares have a good supply of milk. The young stock of
different ages are housed at night in boxes with open yards, and
they are allowed a run in the fields during the day. They are
fed morning and evening in the boxes with oats and hay chaff,
and have a supply of water always at command.

We have already hinted that certain diseases which affect
the health of farm stock are more prevalent in dry than in wet
seasons, whereas the diseases most prevalent in a wet season
are less common inadry one. During the winter of 1890-91
the mortality amongst every description of breeding stock was
heavy, though this to a great extent was due to preventable
causes. ‘There is a disease well known to the veterinary practi-
tioner as septicaemia, or blood poisoning, from the admission
into the blood of some of the organisms which abound in putrid
solutions. The parturient septiceemia is the most common and
fatal, and it was from this that stock owners suffered during the
winter. It generally appears within a week of parturition, and
is due to local contagion conveyed by the hand of the operator
in difficult cases of parturition, or is acquired when the animal
lies down in a shed or box in which the germs of the disease
exist. Pntrefactive decomposition, involving the uterus, pro-
ceeds rapidly. When taken in time, it is readily amenable
to skilful treatment. Unfortunately, the disease is generally
too far advanced by the time the veterinary surgeon is
called in. Candour compels me to admit that the means of
prevention rest chiefly with the farmer. If, in the lambing
yard, the calving boxes, which are used alternately for cows and
mares, are not cleaned out for weeks, decomposing animal
matter, already charged with the germs of the disease, forms a
suitable host for the increase and nourishment of the special
organisms. The disease is highly contagious, and whether it
be lambing ewes, calving cows, or valuable breeding mares, they
seldom escape. If the sheds and boxes were carefully cleaned

The Canker of the Larch, 299

out and regularly disinfected, the losses from this cause are
capable of being reduced to a minimum.
Tuberculosis, more generally known to dairy farmers as

apes, is a fatal ‘and dangerous disease. As affecting cattle, it is
attributed to close breeding, but although common in the dairy
districts lam strongly of opinion that its origin and continuance
are due to an entirely different cause. ‘There is no inbreeding,
strictly speaking, in the dairy counties. The bulls are allowed
to range the pastures with the cows, and for obyious reasons
are seldom used more than one year, whilst they are obtained
from widely-different sources. Although, in many cases, the
disease may have become hereditary, tuberculosis follows the trail
of the grain waggon. Wherever brewers’ grains are largely used,
there cases of tuberculosis will be found most numerous. At
no stage of the disease is either the flesh or the milk fit for
human food. This is a disease that can only be stamped out
by compensating the owner. Lxperienced stockmen detect the
disease at the earliest stages of development. ‘The occasional
weak, hoarse grunt which is as yet the only symptom is seldom
mistaken, and the animal is at once sent to the auction and
passes to a new owner. Except under the conditions we have
mentioned the disease is not extensively prevalent, and could
be stamped out at a trifling cost. Once admit the system ot
compensation, and every case would be reported on its first
detection. To insure this it would be desirable to frame a code |
of stringent regulations imposing a heavy penalty on the owner
who failed or neglected to immediately report a case, or supposed
case, of the disease.

GILBERT Murray,

Pigeon kK ER OF THE CARCH.

In the spring of last year the attention of the Consulting Bota-
nist of the Royal Agricultural Society was called by Lord More-
ton to the extraordinary prevalence of the canker of larch-trees
at Sarsden, Oxon, where a large plantation on the property of
the Earl of Ducie was affected by the disease; and by Mr.
Faunce de Laune to its occurrence at Sharsted in Kent, where
in two different copses nearly half the trees were cankered.
The disease seriously affects the plantations in Kent where
this tree is grown for hop-poles; its results however are much
x 2

300 The Canker of the Larch.

more serious where the trees are grown for timber, as the canker
greatly distorts the trunk, if it does not entirely kill the
tree.

In the course of last summer's visit of inspection to the
famous pastures of England the Consulting Botanist found
cases of canker in larch plantations all over England and Wales.
Indeed, the disease is unfortunately too prevalent throughout
Britain, and seriously endangers the profitable growth of one of
our most valuable timber trees.

It is proposed in this paper to give an account of the cause
of the canker and to record the results of a somewhat lengthy
investigation of the subject, based on numerous specimens kindly
placed at my disposal by the Earl of Ducie and Mr. Faunce de
Laune, as well as to record observations made on living trees in
various parts of Britain.

The existence of canker in the larch has been known in
England for a considerable time, but it is difficult to determine
the exact period when the canker was first observed, as half a
century ago arboriculturists attributed the internal rot of larches
to the same cause as canker. In 1860 Mr. Charles MacIntosh,
the well-known landscape gardener, published a special work on
the larch disease in Great Britain. This contains a careful
review of all the literature of the subject up to that time, as
well as a record of the opinions of scientific and practical men
on the origin and nature of the disease. The author believed the
injuries to be due to errors or faults of cultivation. Bad draining,
planting on unsuitable soils, and using inferior seedlings were
considered to be the chief agents in causing the disease. Even
at that time it was feared that the canker would be fatal to larch-
growing in Great Britain.

In 1882 Mr. C. Y. Michie, forester to the Earl of Seafield
at Cullen House, published his practical work on “The Larch.”
He devotes a chapter to its diseases and in a few sentences dis-
poses of the canker. It is evidently the result, he holds, of such
causes as confinement, superabundance of moisture, cold wet
seasons, spring frosts, or, indeed, anything that injures the
outer coating of the bark. This disease, he says, is most in-
veterate on wet, cold soils, such as the border-lands of Scotland
and the north of England.

The English Arboricultural Society offered a prize for an
essay on the canker in the larch, which was adjudicated to
Mr. William Clark in April 1886. Mr. Clark considers that the
disease is generally found on undrained, retentive soils of bog or
clay, and that the trees attacked are often found to be unsound
or widely rotten at the core, He regards the variable climate

The Canker of the Larch. 301

of Britain as the cause of the disease. The microscopic fungus
found on the diseased parts was in his opinion not the cause of
the disease, but a result of it.

The observations and views of foresters and others who are
practically acquainted with the cultivation of the larch unfor-
tunately lose much of their value because the writers have insuf-
ficient knowledge of the nature of parasitic fungi and the effects
they produce on their host plants.

The real cause of the canker was not detected till 1859,
when the late Sir W. C. Trevelyan called the attention of Dr.
Lindley, as editor of the Gardeners’ Chronicle, to his discovery
of a small fungus associated with the disease, and forwarded
specimens to him. Dr. Lindley submitted the letter and speci-
mens to the Rey. M. J. Berkeley, the distinguished fungologist,
who perceiving the importance of the observation, after corre-
spondence with Sir W. C. Trevelyan, dealt with it in the Gar-
deners’ Chronicle for December 17,1859. Sir W. C. Trevelyan’s
letters (which, in view of the lack of knowledge on the subject
at the time they were written, give a singularly accurate account
of the disease), have, with the rest of Berkeley’s scientific corre-
spondence, recently been acquired by the Botanical Department
of the British Museum.

Mr. Berkeley, influenced by the notion generally prevailing
at that time, that there existed a connection between the rot in
the centre of the stem and the canker in the bark, endeavoured
to trace the roots (mycelium) of the fungus, passing through
the wood from the centre outwards, but without success.

This decay, sometimes called ‘“ foxing,” produces first a slight
discoloration of the wood in the centre of the stem, which
progresses until the wood becomes soft and spongy, and ulti-
mately completely destroyed, producing a hollow base to the
stem. ‘The process is one of simple decay in the wood, which
begins at the base of the tree and gradually extends upwards. It
is generally attributed to a superabundance of water in the soil,
but is probably due to the decay of the original tap-root, which pene-
trates only a little way into the soil before its growth is arrested,
while the secondary roots spread out laterally to obtain the food
necessary for the tree. This original tap-root, being no longer
an active organ in the life of the plant, is more liable to perish,
and would influence in its decay the centre of the stem with
which it was vitally connected. Proper draining would be of
great help in preventing this wet-rot attacking the root and
stem.

In 1855 the association of the canker with the fungus was
observed by a forester in Hesse, whose report in November of

302 The Canker of the Larch.

that year contains a very good and clear account of the disease,
and the effects it produced on the larch-tree. He attributed it
to the agency of a parasite, which he described as being in its
action like those which injure the potato and the vine. Several
German writers have since more or less fully described the canker.
The most important description, which is indeed a thoroughly
exhaustive account of the fungus and its effects, was published
by Dr. M. Willkomm, Professor at the Royal Academy of
Forestry at Dresden, in a work on the microscopic enemies of
timber. He considered the parasite to be an already known
fungus described by Fries under the name of Corticium
amorphum.

Dr. Robert Hartig, Professor at Munich, published a volume
in 1882 on the diseases of trees, and devoted a considerable
portion of it to the canker of larch. He showed that the fungus
which had been minutely described and figured by Willkomm
was a hitherto unnamed plant, to which he gave the new desig-
nation, Peziza Willkommii. In his recent revision of the Fungi,
Saccardo has separated this parasitic plant and its allies from
Peziza, and constituted them an independent genus, Dasyscypha.
But he considers the fungus of the larch to be only a variety
of that found on the Scotch fir, and so names it Dasyscypha
calycina, var. Prevelyani. The structural characteristics are no
doubt sufficient to separate this fungus as a distinct species,
apart from the consideration that it attacks only the living
larch, while the Dasyscypha calycina is found on the dead
branches of the Scotch fir. Accepting Saccardo’s genus, the
plant must now be called Dasyscypha Willkommii.

Professor Marshall Ward devotes a chapter in his work
on timber and some of its diseases, to the larch canker.
From his own observations, and from the works of Dr. Hartig,
he gives the only complete and detailed account of this disease
that we have in English. The investigations recorded here lead
to conclusions somewhat differing from those of Professor Ward,
as will be apparent in the course of the paper. Professor Ward
holds that the fungus cannot penetrate the sound bark, but
infects it only through some wound or injury; he attributes
these wounds chiefly to the effect of late frost.

The larch is affected by this disease in all the conditions
under which it is grown in Britain, irrespective of climate,
position, or soil. I have seen it attacking trees on heights as
well as on low-lying land, and on the thin calcareous soil of
Kent as well as on the clayey loams of the West Riding of
Yorkshire. ‘No doubt crowded plantations favour the spread-
ing of the fungus; while, on the other hand, open woods and

The Canker of the Larch. 303

especially single trees in mixed plantations are less subject to
attack.

Attention is generally in the first instance directed to the
disease by the flattened and deformed portions of the stem, the
free exudations of resin, and the discoloration of the bark as if
covered with soot. This blackening on the bark is due to the
presence of a small fungus (Antennaria pithyophila, Nees), which
is found on the bark of several other conifers besides the larch. It
has the appearance to the naked eye of a covering of soot, and
its true nature therefore escapes the notice of any but a careful
observer.

At certain times the surface of the depressed portion produces
many minute whitish cup-shaped fungi, the interior of the cup
presenting a reddish-orange colour, ‘The fungus generally takes
possession of a tree in more than one place; indeed, when a
plantation is seriously affected, the fungus can be seen on all
parts of the trees, even on the youngest branches.

The cup-shaped fungus on the bark is the only part of the
parasite that can be distinguished by the naked eye. This is
the fruiting part, pushed out from the roots (mycelium), which
are in full possession of the subjacent bark, in order to ripen
and shed its seeds in the air. This fungus is the true cause of
the canker, as Sir W. C, Trevelyan suggested. It is a parasite
sending its innumerable minute rootlets into the living bark,
and taking possession of the nutrjtive juices which the plant
prepares for its own use. The fungus lives in the bark; every-
where throughout the cankered portions the bark is completely
permeated by its mycelium, consisting of extremely minute
branching threads, which, by abstracting all available nourish-
ment from the bark, kills it. Further, it feeds on the active
layer below the bark from which the new wood and bark are to
be formed, and destroys it so that it is unable to perform its
functions. Even after this cambium layer has begun its work
of actively forming new wood, the mycelium spreading in the
bark above gradually arrests its formation.

As the fungus grows year after year, the mycelium extends
itself in search of food into a fresh portion of the bark, and
so the further formation of wood is prevented, and an ever-
increasing area of depression of the trunk is produced.

In Fig. 1 the ordinary form of the stem is seen at the two
extremities, and the flattening caused by the canker in the
centre. The origin of the injury was at a point slightly to the
left of the branch, which has at length been killed by the fungus.
The mycelium has spread outwards, growing more rapidly up
and down the stem, causing an elongated canker. The tree

304 The Canker of the Larch.

\\
il
WA

6 i!
AT
iy

CUNT
intl \
AM Mh \
i

imeus of the fruit of the fungus (Dasyscypha Willkommii)

Natural size.

ker, with num

scattered over it,

Wp
hii
es
(hs

Fic. 1—Stem of larch nine years old, from Sharsted, attacked !

The Canker of the Larch. 305

endeavours by an increased formation of wood under the still
living bark to provide adequate channels for the transmission of
the sap, which is prevented wherever the mycelium is present,
and to strengthen mechanically the weakened portion.

I have never found the fungus beginning an attack on an
old stem. When the external bark is no longer vitally active
it is unable to give nourishment to the young fungus in the
early stages of growth, when it pushes out its mycelium from
the germinating spore. ‘The normal dead bark, covering a tree
of several years’ growth, accordingly becomes a protection to
that stem. The numerous specimens examined all show that
they have been attacked before they were three or at the most
four years old.

It must not, however, be forgotten that any part of the tree
less than three or four years old is liable to be attacked, conse-
quently a plantation, say of twelve years old, may have escaped
the canker, but if spores reach it under suitable conditions, the
upper and younger parts of the stem and
branches will probably be attacked.

In Fig. 2 we have an instance of a
tree attacked twice by the canker, first
at the beginning of its fourth year’s life,
and later on in the same year another
attack was made at the opposite side, so
that in the fifth year a very small pro-
portion of healthy bark was left, and very
little wood was laid on; a greater activity ric. 2 section of stem of
of wood forming, though over a smal] _ [arch fromSharsted, attacked
area, took place in the sixth year, which third year, and nearly de-

. . . stroyed in its seventh year.
was again reduced by the vigorous life of — Natural size. .
the parasite in the seventh year, and it is
difficult to believe that, had the tree not been cut down, it
could have survived another year.

Fig. 5 is a section of a tree cut down in the spring of the
tenth year of its life, which was attacked at the close of its third
year, and the fungus surrounded half the stem, so that in the
fourth year the wood was formed only round one half of the
tree. During the five other years before the tree was cut down
the canker continued to hold possession of even more than half
the circumference, so that in the end the original centre, con-
sisting of the first three years’ growth, was outside the tree. The
resin due to the attack of the fungus is shown in a large mass
below to the left of the figure.

Fig. 4 is the section of a stem eut down at the begin-
ning of the thirteenth year of its existence, which has been

306 The Canker of the Larch.

attacked at the end of its second year, as shown in the lower
portion of the figure. The stem has been attacked in five other
places a little above or below the place where the section was
made, but sufficiently near to exhibit some of the injury done
to the tree at each place. The canker shown at its origin out-
side the second year’s growth has prevented the wood forming
from Ato aA. At A on the left side of the stem the new wood
has extended cver the injured portions of the previous two
years’ growth. The continuation of the twelfth annual ring is
broken by the second canker from B to B, and extends in the
section to the eighth year’s growth, the origin of the canker
existing lower down the stem. ‘he next interruption to the

Fic. 3.—Section of stem of larch, from Sarsden, Oxon, attacked by canker at the end of its third
year. Three-fourths of the natural size.

»
formation of wood is shown between C and Cc, and the gap here
is filled in with a mass of resin, F. The fungus has destroyed
the bark between p and p, and the effect of the disease is also
shown on either side of rE. The white patches in the bark
represent matted masses of mycelium.

The fact that the trees are attacked in the early stages of
their life, as shown in the sections, is confirmed by a recent
examination of a young plantation at Sarsden planted in 1887.
A number of diseased larches were found which had been
attacked in 1888 in the portion of the tree that was two years
old.

The eyil influence of the fungus on the larch is, as we have
seen, entirely due to the life of the mycelium of the fungus in

The Canker of the Larch. 307

the tissues of the bark. It penetrates the cells and fills their
interior, extracting for its own nourishment the substance of the

Three-fourths of the natural size

Fic. 4,—Section of a larch, from Sarsden, Oxon, attacked by canker in six places.

bark, and pushes its way to the inner surface of the bark, where
it consumes the active cambium layer.
The fungus in the course of time pushes its way to the

308 The Canker of the Larch.

exterior, compact masses are found near the surface of the
bark, and these give rise to the minute, roundish, white bodies
which are seen scattered over the diseased part in Fig. 1.
These white bodies
gradually increase in
size and open out
into flattened cups
with a raised white
border and a flat
concave centre of a
bright orange colour.
Fig. 6 represents a
piece of bark from
a tree in a small
plantation near New-
ton Morrell, North
Yorkshire, with large
and well-developed
cups of the fungus.
In Fig. 7 we
have a highly mag-

Fic. 5.—Dark cells, showing the threads of the mycelium of nified section of a

Dasuscupha Willkommii, magnified 400 times.
young and scarcely
opened fruit, as well as a mature one. The mass of mycelium
terminating in the fruit is shown in this seetion. The bright
orange-coloured centre
of the fruit contains the
seeds or spores of the
fungus. It consists of
an immense number of
minute elongated sacs
intermingled with
empty threads. Each
sac (Fig. 8) contains
eight spores of an oval
form arranged obliquely.
When the spores are
ripe, the top of the sac
Fic. 6.—Piece of bark with fruits of the canker fungus. Splits off like a little cup
= giana and allows them to es-
cape. One cannot realise the enormous number of spores which
are produced by a single cup. ‘These innumerable spores are
carried about in the air, and wherever they settle on the bark
of a young larch and find sufficient moisture to cause them to
germinate and enable them to push their minute roots into the

The Canker of the Larch. 309

bark, canker is originated. When the fruits are ripe and the
spores are discharged, the air is filled with them. They are so
microscopic that the eye cannot detect them, yet each spore is
able under suitable conditions to germi-
nate. It has been stated that it is neces-
sary for the spores to fall on an abrasion
or a wound on the stem or branch of a
tree in order to effect an entrance, but

Fic. 7.—Section through two fruits of the fungus, Fic. 8.—Spore-bearing sacs
magnified 20 times. ~ of the fungus, magnified
400 times.
the examination of a very large series of recently attacked
larches does not confirm this view. It appears that the-spore
germinates on the surface of the bark, but it is possible that
it may fall or be washed into a crack. In the first stage of
its life it is dependent on the external moisture. Should
the atmosphere be dry, and should there be no water on the
bark, the spore could not germinate, and myriads of spores
continually perish in this manner. But if it obtains the very
little supply of water needed, the spore sends out a small
thread which pushes its way into the bark, and having got
hold of the bark it is no longer affected by external dryness
or moisture. It obtains all it needs from the living juices
of the tree. The numerous cases examined, especially in very
young trees just attacked, furnish no evidence that the fungus
can infect the larch only through a wound or injury. ‘The
bark in such young trees is found to be unbroken. ‘This
fungus has the same power as the potato fungus of pene-
trating the protective covering of the plant, but in this case it

310 The Canker of the Lareh.

can penetrate only the young bark. Bark four or five years old
appears to be impervious to the attack of the fungus.

It should be carefully observed that this disease is limited to
the cankered portions of the stem, being purely a local injury,
and that the trunk below is healthy, there being no connection
between the disease and the roots of the tree. It cannot be
communicated to other parts of the tree by the juices or through
the wood. Each fresh canker is caused by a new and in-
dependent attack and is entirely due to the germination of the
spores of the fungus on the bark, and is not in any way the result
of the physical causes which have been credited with it, such as
confinement, excess of moisture, cold or wet seasons, spring
frosts, &c., except so far as these have favoured the growth of the
spore by providing the moisture necessary for its germination.

From this account of the canker it must appear that no method
can be suggested which will effectually prevent the attack of
larches by this disease. Were it clear that the spores could
gain entrance into the tree only through a wound or injury,
arboriculturists, by keeping the bark of their larches uninjured,
would ward off the disease. It is, however, plain that the spore
secures a hold without the presence of a wound, and consequently
any treatment with a view to preserving the young bark from
injury is of no avail.

The time to take steps to prevent or cure the canker is when
the trees are very young. When planting, each one should be
carefully examined, to discover if it has already been attacked,
and eyery specimen found to be diseased should be rejected and
destroyed by fire. Careful inspection should frequently be made
of the young plantations, so as to detect the first appearance of
the disease. ‘This can be determined externally even before the
small white cup makes its appearance, by the darker and
depressed appearance of the bark where the fungus is growing,
and should there be any doubt as to the presence of the fungus,
the slightest cut with the knife will show the very dark colour
of the injured bark. If this dark bark is carefully cut away the
disease would be arrested. No portion of the diseased bark
must be left, else the mycelium of the fungus will continue to
live and spread from that portion through the healthy bark.
It must be remembered that the fungus does not penetrate the
wood, so that when the bark is removed the seat of the disease
is got rid of. -

The same operation may be performed on older trees, but
when the canker is large there is little hope of the wood growing
over the injury, whereas in the young tree one has good reason
to expect that the injury may speedily be repaired by new wood

Experiences of « Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 311

gradually spreading over the exposed surface. To encourage
this it would be well to dress the exposed portion with some
substance fitted to protect it.

The fragments of diseased bark which are cut off should not
be left on the ground, but should be carefully put in a bag and
afterwards destroyed by burning.

The conditions which are essential to the successful growth of
other timber trees are all equally important in the case of the
larch. The crowding of healthy trees, while not advantageous
to their growth, is very dangerous when a tree is attacked, as
the infection of its neighbours by the spores is greatly facilitated.

Though every effort be made to combat the disease in districts
where plantations are extensively attacked, and the trees have
been greatly reduced in value, it may deserve consideration
whether it would not be better to replace the larch by other
trees suitable to our climate, and fitted for the purposes for
which the larch has been so long employed.

J. B. CARRUTHERS.

EXPERIENCES OF A SCOTSMAN ON
BME Bost CLAYS.

THE occupation of land in Essex by Scotsmen has become so
frequent that the settlers are often termed the ‘“‘ Scotch Colony,”
although they are scattered up and down the county, and oc-
cupy different kinds of soil. Ongar, Brentwood, and Chelms-
ford, however, represent the sort of centres where the greatest
number are to be found. A very large proportion, in fact the
majority, are from the district in Ayrshire of which Kilmarnock
is the centre; and as this is a famous dairying locality, it
follows that the immigrants brought their dairying propensities
with them, and largely converted their farms into milk manu-
factories. It is doubtful if, of recent years, dairying pays better
than other forms of farming; but when people have been accus-
tomed to it, like it, and have the necessary technical skill, they
do well to adopt it, even in a new and untried country.

The question has been asked, Why so many Scottish farmers
come to this and other parts of England? The question may be
answered ina very few words—excessive rentsat home. There is
not the least doubt that “the depression” has been very badly
felt in some parts of Scotland, especially the eastern agricultural

ia)

312 Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays.

half; but the dairy districts were the last to feel the storm, and
have weathered it best. In the case of these latter, much of
the work is done by the farmer and his family, especially in the
smaller holdings, and there has been a tremendous competition
for every vacantfarm. ‘This, of course, raised the rent, and even
now there are so many would-be tenants that the one who is,
unfortunately, the successful competitor for a vacant holding, has
offered a rent which means a ceaseless struggle to enable him to
make ends meet.

This combination of high rents and a greater number of
farmers than can possibly obtain farms can only mean that
the latter must “ hive off” to another locality. About eight or
ten years ago reports and advertisements of vacant farms in the
south ef England appeared in the papers—notably in the North
British Agriculturist,—land actually going begging for tenants ;
so we turned our eyes southward. First one or two came, and
finding the taste good, sent back a satisfactory report to their
friends behind. When these latter came, they in their turn sent
for other friends, until now the country is overrun with us.

The first consideration is, of course, the rent; and the Essex
squires, never having been accustomed to what a Scotsman
would call a big rent, meeting with tenants who had, came to
terms with comparative ease. The chief difficulty has been the
buildings. In the North there is always a superabundance of
stone of some sort—sandstone, basalt, granite, &c.—so that the
farm offices, however inadequate they may be, are solid and
substantial. Here in Essex there is no stone of any value.

This want of cheap building material has necessitated the
extensive use of the native timber (oak and English elm), and
thus we see whole homesteads made of oak framing and elm
boarding. When these are new, they are as good as any one
could desire—cheap, comfortable, and easily adapted to any kind
of stock ; but when old and rotten, and settled down off the
plumb, they need to be accompanied by very cheap land indeed
to catch the North-countryman. ‘Thus the landlord has often to
lay out a considerable sum on the buildings in merely putting
them into tenantable order. Besides this, there are often
many additions and alterations required for the new style of
farming being introduced, such as fitting up a byre, bringing
water in pipes to the house and yard, &c.

Coming from a country where long leases were the rule, it
was a novel experience to have farms as yearly tenants; but I,
for one, prefer to have it so. On this farm where I write there
was at first a short lease—now expired—and we now sit on at a
twelve-months’ notice; the Agricultural Holdings Act, plus

9

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 315

nitrate of soda, makes me feel easy in mind regarding this.
The majority of in-comers, however, have had their choice in this
matter, but I have not heard of any who have taken a long
lease.

It is a gratifying feature of this Northern irruption that no
English farmer has lost a home to make way for the in-comers,
so far as I am aware. The farms were either quite unoccupied,
worked by the landlord, or the old tenant was leaving in any
ease, and if the North-countryman had not arrived there would
have been no tenant at all. As to the reasons why the latter
succeeds where the former failed (or apparently does so—for ten
years is perhaps too short a time in which to judge of the
success of a movement), I haye my own opinion, but it is
outside the scope of this paper to enter on this question.

The title of this article is to some extent misleading regard-
ing the nature of the soil in Essex. A very large extent is, of
course, a stiff clay soil, formed from the weathering of the
London clay proper; but there is quite as much of the surface
of the county occupied by what is known to geologists as Bag-
shot sands and gravels, boulder clay, glacial drift, &. In
fact, a look at the one-inch scale Geological Survey map shows
that there is comparatively little of the brown colouring indi-
cating the clay formation. It occurs chiefly in the hollows and
valleys, while the tops of the elevations and knolls are occupied
more or less with soil full of flint gravel, and of quite a different
nature from the clay. For one thing, it is not so fertile naturally
as the clay, and in some places is actually barren, forming the
various “ heaths” and forest-lands (such as Epping Forest) of
the county. Where the lighter soils of the boulder clay and
glacial drift prevail, however, we have a very fertile district,
such as the famous Roothings of Essex.

Another practical difference between the heavy and the
lighter soils is shown in the manuring. Coming from a district
where whole or dissolved bones were almost the only artificial
manure used (excepting, of course, nitrate of soda), we preferred to
stick to them, but found they had not the slightest effect. I have
always been in the habit, during the last few years, of leaving a
ridge unmanured right down a field when applying a dressing
of artificials, and of giving the next ridge a double dose. By
this means one can tell pretty accurately the effect of an appli-
cation of any dressing, without going to all the trouble of
measuring and calculating, as is the case with elaborate experi-
ments. I thus found that on our clay phosphatic manures
have no direct appreciable effect. On the other hand, all
nitrogenous manures, such as guano—with, of course, nitrate of

VOL. I, T. S.—6 ¥

314 Experiences of « Scotsman on the Essex Clays.

soda and sulphate of ammonia—tell instantly and advantageously.
Notwithstanding the fact that guano is far above its value if
reckoned by units, in the same way as we value other artificials,
yet it is the most profitable in the end. I find that bones are
adhered to, however, by those Scotsmen who occupy the lighter
and more gravelly soils. The latter are, of course, more easily
cultivated, and the times of working less dependent on the
weather ; but that is not saying much, because both are difficult
enough. A great point in favour of Essex is the comparatively
small average rainfall. The same soil in the North would be
looked on as almost hopeless; but here we think it the best of
all, and, in fact, when we are advising a “ brither Scot ” who is
on the outlook for land in the South, we always warn him to
beware of light land, and take the heavy in preference. When
I see South-country Englishmen bewailing the misfortunes of
clay-land farmers, I cannot help wondering if it is their limited
experience makes them do so. If they had to farm clay land
in Scotland with forty inches of rainfall per annum, they would
know more, and have something to complain about.

I was born on a farm in Ayrshire where the soil is as stiff
as any I have seen here, lying, as it does, on the red and yellow
boulder clay of the coal districts. Here, however, the rainfall
is only half, and light land would be burnt up where clay land
is benefited; while the “inherent fertility” of the clay is
superior. Of course, I am referring to land which can be
ploughed with two horses abreast; three-horse land I believe
to be rather scarce. I am aware that there is some such land
where it is absolutely necessary to put three horses in a line to
plough it; but in one instance where I saw this done, I found
when the man went away to dinner that I could pull the plough
myself, as the soil was so light. I infer from this that three
horses are often put in where there is no need for them. I am
able to give the exact measure of the stiffness of our soil, how-
ever, from dynamometer trials of different ploughs. In lea land,
ploughing with Ransome’s ‘“Neweastle” wheel plough, ‘and
Howard’s “ Essex” plough, the draught is one cwt. for every
inch in depth of the furrow—a five or six inch furrow requir-
ing five or six cwt. to pull the plough. This we find a pair
of horses can do for a day of seven to eight hours, although
it is quite three times as much as ordinary land, and four times
that of some light land. I have tried three or four kinds of the
American chilled ploughs, which do so well on light land, but
the draught was no easier than Ransome’s with mould-board
No. 95, while the short stilts rendered it impossible to guide
them steadily. If any soil is stiffer than this, then I hold a very

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 315

decided opinion that it ought not to be cultivated at all, at least
with horses.

While on the subject of ploughs, I may mention that no
Scotsman can possibly approve of the native Essex wooden im-
plement. Apart altogether from its clumsiness, it has two faults:
the mould-board has not got twist enough, so that it does not
turn the furrow-slice properly ; while the share commonly used
has too wide a feather, so that the furrow-slice is cut clean out,
and will not hold against the mould-board sufficiently to be
turned. These defects do not appear in stubble or fallow
ploughing, but become at once apparent in lea land; in fact, I
thought the ploughing was well enough for the first three or
four years after I came to Essex, and it was only when we began
to break up land which had been laid away in pasture for that
length of time that the gaping, badly-turned furrows could be
seen, and led me to try other and more improved ploughs.
North-countrymen who have brought their old ploughs with
them find they do not suit the soil : the mould-boards are too short
and wide set, so that two horses cannot pull them; while if the
wearing surfaces are of the country-smithy, cast-iron kind, the
friction would be too much for even three horses.

I must acknowledge, however, that there are many things
about the native system of ploughing superior to that of the
North, and these we have of course adopted. In opening up lea
land from the flat, it is the custom here to “ plough out” two
furrows in what will be the centre of the ridge or “ stetch.” One
of the said furrows is ‘‘ chucked away,” and then the furrows are
ploughed imwards of the full depth from the first. In the
Scottish method, the furrows are ploughed inwards from the
beginning—very narrow and shallow at first, and the result is
that, though the crown may be perfectly level across (one of the
tests of good ploughing at matches), yet the grass springs ali
too readily among the crop where these shallow furrows are.- I
find our ploughmen lay off the ridges (or “‘stetches”) much more
easily than ever I was accustomed to in the North. A man will
“ draw off” a field with his plough and a pair of horses with no
assistance, and do it perfectly well. He carries a 7-foot mea-
suring stick in the body of his plough, with which to lay off the
widths; a few twigs cut from the nearest fence are used as
marks, or saplings split down the middle so as to show a white
face which can be seen at a distance, and that is all. The reins
hang loose on the stilts of the plough, the horses are guided by
the voice alone, and the result is furrows of marvellous straight-
ness. It is not uncommon in the North to see two men with
sticks painted like barbers’ poles, and a tape, or even Gunter’s

y 2

316 Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays.

chain, measuring off the land for the ploughman who comes
behind.

The native arable farming we immigrants found on coming
might be described as an irregular four-course shift : wheat, bare
fallow, roots, English broad red clover, beans and peas, were
grown in various orders, to suit particular circumstances, the
wheat and fallow occurring as often as possible. The bare
fallow was the only thing to which we had particular objection,
as on the face of it we could not see how cheap wheat was to
pay the expenses of a dear fallow, and its own expenses as
well. Of course, fallowing is not entirely unknown in the
North on clay soils, but it is the next thing to being unknown.
The Agricultural Returns some time ago showed that, while
in Scotland only 1 acre is fallowed out of every 254 (arable),
in England there is 1 in 27, or, taking Essex alone, 1 in 15.
Climate has, of course, a good deal to do with this, fallowing
being very difficult in a wet district. But a very slight acquain-
tance with the philosophy of farming showed us that the
benefits to be derived were purchased too dearly. It is carried
out for the purpose of killing weeds, and for mixing and
pulverising the soil, so that more plant-food may be set free.
Regarding the kiliing of the weeds, I shall have something to
say later on; but I may here say that it certainly does not kill
thistles ; it simply “ breeds thistles,” and they increase in direct
proportion to the amount of land fallowed. Any one can see
this proved by noticing how soon a heap of bare earth in a grass
field gets smothered over with them, as the down blowing in
autumn is fixed by the loose soil, and every seed grows, while
not one in a thousand takes root on the grass. Regarding the
second point, every one knows that removing a crop, without
replacing by manure the ingredients removed from the soil,
must eventually impoverish that soil. In fact, the soils of many
farms known to me have been so reduced that only a very poor
crop can be reaped, and the new men have had to launch out
money very largely in order to bring the soil up to a fair
standard.

It is a proof of the great natural fertility of the Essex clays
that they have stood this scourging system so long without
absolutely giving out. It is wonderful the effect that dung from
cake- and meal-fed cows has on such a soil. On our farm
at Ongar, we were informed on taking it that it did not
require manure, and had seldom had any supplied. We find _
that a respectable crop is not to be had without a dressing of
soms sort, and it is only getting into form now on going through
the second rotation, and there are dozens of farms of the same

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 317

kind. No Scotsman can ever be brought to see the necessity
for three, four, or five ploughings; if the land has to be fallowed,
it will be done with a three-horse grubber, getting over from
three to five acres per day. In fact, we cannot help thinking
that our English neighbours literally waste the labour of men
and horses, from the laborious way of doing their work, and the
clumsy machines with which they do it. I remember seeing on
this farm six horses in a set of harrows on the fallow land, with
two men sitting on the top driving; also, four horses in a
Crosskill roller, while three or four were always put in a drill;
now there is not a tool on it needs more than two horses to
pull, except a three-horse drag-harrow ; an American two-horse
drill sows seed and manure at one operation. The Suffolk
drill we found so cumbrous that we threw ours aside, and I
sowed the seed broadcast by hand for a year or two. Wheat
grown on land treated to so much expensive labour does not
of course pay: it would not pay even if it were tithe and rent
free, and it is part of the object of this paper to show how the
Scottish colony in Essex work on a much cheaper scale, and, so
far as I have yet seen, with gratifying results.

The first thing was to reduce the number of men and
horses; for however sorry one may be about depriving work-
ing-men of their opportunity of earning a wage, self-pre-
servation is the first law of Nature, and a farmer obviously
could not find work for men to his own detriment. This has
been done in a variety of ways: partly by using more modern
implements, partly by doing without a fallow, and partly by
putting away some of the arable land into temporary pas-
ture. The first of these requires no explanation, as the Ameri-
canising of our machinery is a thing that is gradually going
on, and we are getting lighter and handier tools every day.
If fallowing is abolished, however, one wants to know what
is going to take its place. Roots, of course, have generally
done so; but the writer is opposed to root-growing—at least,
in the South country; and on this holding (a square mile
in extent) the root area has been gradually diminishing, until
it has at last arrived at zero. If the land has been properly culti-
vated and treated, however, I do not hesitate to say that a fallow
is quite unnecessary. But to attain this end the soil must be
properly ploughed to begin with (a thing very seldom done), so
that all grass, weeds, and surface-rubbish be properly covered
in, and to as great a depth as possible. This gives the crop a
start, so that the weeds never get up to any extent, and are
thus partly choked or weakened. I have seen one ridge with a
perfectly clean stubble after the lea crop of oats was removed,
and the next ridge excessively foul—the difference being due

318 Kuperiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays.

to the ploughing alone. The next thing is to have the crop
well manured. If there has not been dung put in the land,
then there must be artificials given; but I prefer both together
—the artificials rich in nitrogen. Then there must be thick
seeding. I am convinced that many crops—especially wheat—
are sown too thin, and are lost for this reason. So we use
quite 50 per cent. more seed per acre than many in the neigh-
bourhood do, and are satisfied with the results. All these things
combined produce comparatively thick, heavy crops, which help
to smother all other growths, so that weeds never become so
rampant as where a thin, poor crop, on badly ploughed land,
is grown. Tor the same reason, we find tares one of the best
crops, and always grow as many as we can possibly use, to be
followed by wheat.

But, of course, all this would not be sufficient to keep the
land perfectly clean, so that it is necessary to attend to some
other alterations in the management—and a description of these
I now take up.

As a point of great importance in the system of reducing
labour, there comes the reduction of the laboured area by
the putting away in temporary pasture. The making of per-
manent pastures is a subject that has been greatly exercising
the agricultural mind for some years past; but I do not hesitate
to state my personal opinion that, on ordinary soils, this is a
great mistake, though, of course, there are many exceptional
cases where the land ought to be in grass, and never ploughed
up again. But putting into grass for a few years is quite a
different matter, and has everything to recommend it. It is, in
fact, adopting a six, seven, or eight years’ rotation, three, four,
or five of which are in “seeds.” By this means the total
amount of actually ploughed land is permanently reduced, as
for every lea field broken up there is one laid down; at the
same time, the “vegetable soul” of the soil is renovated by. the
formation of a young turf, while the weeds disappear more or
less.

We thus attain a great many desirable ends, the first of
which—saving of labour—has already been commented on.
Regarding the second, it may be pointed out that the perpetual
cultivation of land not only tends to reduce its store of fertility,
but actually to change the mechanical nature of the soil. A
clay soil like ours becomes stickier, and worse to work, a state-
of matters greatly modified by the growth of a mat of roots of
grasses for a time. In the same way the effect of a dressing
of dung ploughed in is wonderful. Practical farmers are well
aware of the good crops derived from newly broken up land, and
the superior benefit accruing from any manures put on such a

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 319

soil. As to its effects in enabling us to clean land, arable land
has developed weeds peculiar to itself, and these will not grow
among pasture for any length of time, any more than wheat will
grow there. There are three grasses which foul our land here—
couch-grass (T'riticum repens), black bent (Alopecurus agrestis),
and water-grass (Agrostis vulgaris). The first two of these
literally die out of themselves whenever the land is put into
pasture on this soil. On light soil couch would likely persist,
but not so on our stiff clay. The last one mentioned is our
greatest trouble, at least where the fields are wet; but it also
succumbs to manuring. Instead, therefore, of the laborious and
expensive cleaning of land by a bare fallow or by roots, we
simply plough properly, manure heavily, grow good crops, lay
the land down to grass, and there is no further trouble. I do
not, of course, mean it to be inferred that there is not a
single blade of couch, or the like, on the farm, but I certainly
maintain that there is not enough to be troublesome, or con-
spicuous, or enough to sensibly interfere with the growth of any
crop. To this I must except some seventeen acres on which
roots were grown in former years. Although 50s. per acre was
spent in hand-hoeing in addition to horse-hoeing, yet the land
is now, when laid away in “ seeds,” overrun with ‘‘ water-grass,”
and I doubt if it will clean itself without cropping and sowing
down once more. Otherwise the farm is practically as clean as
there is any need for it to be.

The composition of the grass mixture will interest many,
and I have already been often asked for it. It has been the
result of a good many years’ experience now, and I made it up
and modified it largely from noticing the kinds of grasses which
naturally throve best, or were most conspicuous in the locality.
It has been objected that I omit meadow fescue. This grass is
very scarce in the locality, and therefore I never thought* of
adding any of it, though possibly it might do better in such a
mixture on arable land. I have, however, tried tall fescue in the
mixture, but without getting it to grow satisfactorily. The tall
oat-grass (Avena elatior) grows abundantly along the fences,
but I have also failed to get it to grow well. I have therefore
—after altering a little from year to year—settled down to the
following kinds and quantities per acre :

Ib. Ib.
Perennial rye-grass . : . 13 | Perennial clover (broad) . . 3
Italian rye-grass 5 | White clover . : af a
Cocksfoot ; 5 | Alsike clover . : 2
Timothy . ; 3 | Trefoil (or Lucerne) 2
Meadow foxtail : 2 ==
Red clover (broad) . 3 0

320 Experiences of a Scotsman on the Hssex Clays.

This costs about 1l. per acre on the average of years, and we
have been abundantly satisfied with the results, and have no
difficulty in disposing of the big crops of ‘“‘ mixture” we have
mown off many of the fields. We have been advised that, for
a four or five years’ lea, less seed would do per acre; but I ama
great believer in thick seeding, and think that grass often fails
from too small a quantity being sown. There does not appear
to be any failure after a few years, such as I often hear about,
but the sward goes on improving, so that it is with regret we
break it up again when its turn comes round. Of course, the
land is put into good heart to begin with, but then that is one
essential part of the system. These “seeds” are either cut for
hay, or grazed with milk-cows, sheep, or bullocks, just as it
happens to suit.

It will thus be seen that fairly good crops are grown at a
minimum of cost, and that making wheat profitable at 30s. per
quarter is no mystery at all—in fact, it is the most profitable corn
crop we have where the straw can be disposed of for a fair price.
It will be inferred as a necessary corollary, that the crops ought
to be improving year by year, and we find that they are. Our
first wheat crops averaged 3 and 34 quarters per acre ; the crop of
1888 was 5 quarters, of 1889 was 4 quarters, and of 1890 was 44
quarters. But the most striking improvement is in the oats. The
weight per bushel five years ago was 384 lb. ; now it is 40 1b.,a
difference I attribute solely to the muck, which is the “ mither o’
the meal-kist,” and which has been applied to fields which never
had a dressing before, at any rate during the present generation.

While on this subject, I must not omit to mention the part
played by gas-lime in ameliorating the soil. The action of lime
on a clay soil is well-known, and in this district we use immense
quantities of the spent lime from the London gasworks, which
we get at the cost of the carriage. It is applied in various ways,
and many are foolish enough to use it without manure. We
have applied it raw to the coarse parts of pasture lands, but it
seemed to make them still coarser, at least during the first year.
Some mix it with earth for compost for top-dressings, and some
apply it to the fallows. We prefer to apply it raw, at the rate
of from 4 to 6 tons per acre, in autumn, to the lea land that is
to be ploughed up during the winter. By this means all
“orubs” are killed, the turf is partly killed, the soil is made -
more friable, while, of course, the natural fertility is stimu-
lated. By itself, I have seen it act on a crop as strongly as
nitrate of soda, but the soil must be fed along with it Its
effect on the mechanical texture of the soil is wonderful. I
remember one case of a field that was partly dressed and partly

Experiences of « Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 32]

left undressed with it, and in broadcasting the seed afterwards,
I could feel the difference in the soil in stepping from the
one part to the other every time I went up and down the
stetches, because the limed part was so much more loose and
friable. Some maintain that it docs no good to the soil, either
mechanically or manurially, but we would not like to farm without
it here. Of course, the land is ready for a fresh dressing every
time the grass is ploughed up. I have not seen the crop killed
by as much as 6 tons per acre, while, even on the permanent
pasture land, 3 or 4 tons put on raw did not do any injury in
this way. ‘There are two varieties of this spent lime used here
—the blue and the white. It is generally understood that the
former is more poisonous than the latter, from having been used
longer in purifying the gas; but for this reason it is more effec-
tual in its action, and its poisonous sulphites are oxidised long
before the crop is sown,

I do not happen to know of anyone who continues making
silage here, notwithstanding the great benefits which we read
have been derived from its use. In the excessively wet season
of 1888 a good many tried it on the stack system, but I have
not seen or heard of any that continued the experiment. The
conclusion arrived at was that ensilage would do for wet weather,
but that it is better to make hay if we could possibly get sun-
shine. A stack of silage was made on this farm, and a haystack
built on the top for pressure; but the silage heated excessively,
and I have been told that there was not enough pressure. At any
rate, this silage decreased the milk-yield of the cows very rapidly
when fed to them on two separate occasions, and it had to be
given to store cattle. We have not tried any since. Asno roots
are grown, the succulent food of the cows in winter is entirely
made up of chaffed hay, bean-meal, ground oats, and boiling
water—a mixture that I have satisfied myself over and over
again is better and cheaper than either roots or silage, and
which is in almost universal use in the dairy districts of Scotland.

One of the greatest changes in the system of farming,
brought about by the in-comers, has been the general turning to
dairying. It was not, of course, entirely unknown before, but it
was only a single farmer here and there who followed it, while
the great majority of the in-comers—being already dairymen—
have kept on at it. Many, indeed, as they were leaving farms
in Scotland, simply transported the whole of their live and dead
stock to the South, hiring a special train for the purpose, and
starting a fully-equipped herd of cows at the very first. It
would appear that the district was celebrated for its dairies long
ago, before the era of corn-growing set in, more especially for

322 Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essew Clays.

butter—as Suffolk was at one time celebrated for cheese. In
Mrs. Beeton’s Book of Household Management, it is stated that
Epping butter is the kind most esteemed in London; and I
remember learning out of my geography at school, more than
twenty years ago, that Epping was “‘ famous for butter.” These
statements, however, must have been traditions descended from
the ancients, for, so far as 1 am aware, most of the butter sold
about Epping now has been made either in Normandy or in
Ireland, for the few dairy-farms in the neighbourhood are all
taken up with the new milk trade. That does not alter the
fact, however, that much of the land is exceedingly good
butter-yielding soil, but it is not all of this kind, unfortunately,
for I know of instances where the butter yielded from a
given quantity of cream is at least 30 per cent. less than in
some other cases. So far as I can make out, the ‘ boulder
clay and drift” soils of the district are better than the London
clay in cream- and butter-yielding power—contrary to my
expectation,—and this irrespective of feeding or treatment
of the animals. The proximity to London, however, and the
superior handiness of the new milk trade, has made us all take
to this style of working. Most of us have come here to escape
the drudgery of cheese- or butter-dairies, such as are the rule
in the South-west of Scotland, and many would prefer to have
sheep and cattle, with no cows at all; so that if we must have a
dairy, it will be on the easiest system. It must be acknowledged
that cows do very well in the district, and though new milk is
not as profitable now as it was six or seven years ago, yet it has
agreat many things to recommend it. A very large quantity of
the produce of the farm can be consumed at home, thus retaining
a larger proportion of the fertility of the soil; the money is re~
ceived in monthly instalments as you need it, in place of only
at one or two periods of the year; and an immense quantity of
valuable dung is manufactured at home. Of course I am refer-
ring to dairying where large quantities of cake and meal are
bought in, the residue of which goes to enrich the land.

Unfortunately some of the proprietors of the district have
formed the idea that cows impoverish land, and refuse to let
their farms to dairymen, and this in spite of all the evidence
that has been made public on the matter respecting the small
amount of fertility removed in milk, and the large amount re-
turned in the cake and meal. One large farm in this neigh-
bourhood was refused to a Scotsman for this reason, and it is at -
present being furmed by a bailiff.

Reference has been made to the application of dung to the
arable land, and it is from the cows that most of it is pro-

Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays. 323

cured. But there is not enough of it, and in our case several
hundreds of tons of stable manure have to be brought on by
rail; the home-made material, however, always gives the best
results.

The breed of cows which we nearly all prefer is, of course, the
Ayrshire, though many take to the Shorthorns. The belief in
the Scottish breed is not, however, due to prejudice, because
we can make more money through them than through other
kinds. They cost less to start with, as the most of us (coming
from their native district) can get a truck-load sent south at the
lowest possible figure; and we find they milk as well as the
ordinary Shorthorns, and rather better than at home, while
they need decidedly less food. The drawback is that, in this
district, the old cows sell at very little; but as the loss is
spread over five or six years, it does not amount to so much.
Those who work with Shorthorns prefer to buy in immediately
after calving, keeping them only one season, and then dispos-
ing of them to the butcher. We find our Ayrshires tend
to grow larger and coarser than the usual type of the breed ;
but, on the whole, the change to a hotter and drier climate
seems to agree with them. Being of a more neryous tempera-
ment than the phlegmatic Shorthorn, the torment of flies in the
heat of summer affects them more, so that it has been found
necessary to put them indoors during the hot afternoons, and feed
with tares or other green forage. They take kindly to the old,
permanent ‘‘meads,’ "however, and the quality of the milk yielded
on this class of land is superior.

A word may be said regarding the milking of the cows. This
is almost universally done by women in Scotland, and it was quite
a change to have men and lads at it.. We find, however, that it
is generally better to take on lads, and teach them, than to have
older men who have previously been accustomed to larger cows,
suchas Shorthorns or Dutch. Dairying has thus become quite a
feature of the district, and where six or eight years ago only one
or two persons were engaged in it, there are nowadozen. But it
is only a feature, and the rest of the farming goes on pretty much
as usual. With us on this farm there is quite as much capital
inyested in sheep and builocks as in milch cows, while there is
always a large amount of meadow hay and “ mixture” for sale.

Of all the different breeds of sheep which are common in the
locality, there are none that give us more satisfaction than the
Romney Marsh, but unfortunately the supply is limited; Suffolks
and Hampshires are more common, but during the last year or
two the price of store animals has been so high that there was no
chance of buying with any room for profit in selling fat. On

324 Experiences of a Scotsman on the Essex Clays.

several occasions we have, therefore, brought Scottish sheep south,
and have had much better results. These are ‘‘ Crosses ” (Border-
Leicester Blackfaces) and “ Half-breds” (Border-Leicester
Cheviots)—sometimes designated in Scotland “ Greyfaces ” and
‘* Whitefaces ” respectively.

The initial cost is comparatively less, and there is a larger
percentage profit left on the outlay. These sheep are, as far
as possible, grazed on the “seeds” above described, being, of
course, allowed cake from the beginning of the year, having been
purchased in during the previous fall. Many will think that a
breeding-flock would better suit the circumstances, and no doubt
there is much to be said in favour of this view, more especially
as bought-in ewes in lamb do well. But then a regular flock
means a professional shepherd, with all the troubles of the sheep-
world added on to those of the dairy. During the occupancy of
a previous tenant, however, sheep were the only stock.

Live-stock from the North do not always prove a success,
however. We have had three- and four-year-old Highland
bullocks from Islay, as a change from the Welsh or Shorthorn
animals usually bought at Barnet or in the neighbourhood, and
these did very well. But the butchers grumbled about their
not being as well filled up with fat inside as they expected, and
as weighing-machines were not in vogue then, they got their
own way. From this it will be inferred that the land is not
such as will “ fat a bullock,” and we find it needs a large quan-
tity of cake with any breed. It will be noticed that Scotsmen
have practically two strings to their bow in the matter of live-
stock, because if the local supply does not suit them, they have
their native district to fall back on, where prices are generally
easier; and there is no doubt this choice of markets gives a
better chance of profit very often. Dealers, or friends left in
the North, can send up a few truck-loads of sheep or pine on
the shortest notice.

I must not close without detailing one more experience—
that relating to haymaking. The difference between the Eng-
lish and Scottish systems of haymaking has been so often com-
mented on in the farm journals as to need no detailed description
here. It may be shortly stated by the present writer—who has
made hay in both countries—that the English system is im-
mensely superior to the other, but entirely inadmissible in
Northern districts. In the South the hay is stacked out of the -
swathe, and allowed to “ sweat” in the stack. If this were
done in the North, it would go “ rotten black as muck,” except-
ing, perhaps, in a very dry season. It must first be built into
little ricks in the field, where a preliminary heating is gone

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 325

through, before it is fit for the stack. I have seen hay stacked
in the South with perfect safety that would only be considered
in Scotland fit to cock (‘“ quile,” as it is called). This means, of
course, that the labour is very much less, and, in fact, only costs
about one-third or one-fourth of the sum per acre that we paid
in the North, although the wages per man are nearly alike. We
find it averages from 4s. 6d. to 5s. 6d. per acre for labour, or
about 4s. per ton of hay made. ‘This is, of course, simply due
to the style of working which the climate permits. Heated
hay is looked on with suspicion in Scotland ; hay will not be
looked at here at all unless it is heated, and “ as brown
as a berry.” Since the advent of so much “ mixture” hay
here, however, there is a greater tendency to believe in the
benefits of green-cured fodder. Personally, however, I prefer
that which has had a gentle “ sweat.”

One might go on almost indefinitely describing the various
experiences met with in changing from North-country to South-
country farming. Details might be given regarding the
labourers and the method of working, wages, the beer question,
&e.,—all of which are different from what we are used to in the
North, and which intimately concern the success or failure of
the farming——and of the improvements (or what we believe to
be improvements) on the native methods. But the most promi-
nent points have been touched on, and perhaps enongh has
been said to show why West-country Scots have taken so kindly
to Essex soil.

PRIMROSE McConneELL.

SUGAR-BEET CULTIVATION
IN AUSTRIA.

In an article on the subject of the present position of agricul-
ture in Austria-Hungary, which appeared in the last volume of
the Journal,! I endeavoured to give a picture of the various
agencies for the advancement of agriculture which exist in
the Dual Monarchy, and to deal generally with what may be
called the administrative side of the question.

The actual practice of agriculture in the country is less easy
to describe in general terms. It is of every grade of merit and

? Journal, Vol. I. (3rd Series), 1890, pp. 673-709.

326 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

every degree of intensity ; and it would of course be impossible
to give, within the limits of the pages of the Journal, any
full-length description of the varieties of cultivation, crops and
live-stock in an Kmpire four times the size of England and
Wales, with every sort of soil, climate, altitude—an agglomera-
tion of twelve or more different races, with the physical and
mental characteristics of the Teuton, Czech, Magyar, Italian,
Pole, Russian, and Turk. Such a description, even if room
could be found for it, would not be of much value to the British
farmer, since the circumstances of different countries and nation-
alities vary so greatly that it might not be wise for him to copy
in England methods of cultivation found successful in Alpine
valleys or Hungarian plains.

There is, however, one important agricultural industry in
Austria-Hungary that has at the present moment a very par-
ticular interest for us in this country, now that renewed efforts
are being made to draw public attention to the manufacture of
home-grown sugar; and it occurred to me, therefore, that it
might be useful if, whilst I was in Austria on the business of
the International Agricultural Congress last autumn, I made a
special investigation on the spot into the cultivation of the sugar-
beet. Mainly through the good offices of Chevalier Max. von
Proskowetz, the indefatigable Honorary Secretary of the Con-
gress, to whose cheery companionship and never-failing fore-
thought I owe most of the pleasure of my visit, I was enabled
to make under the most favourable auspices a detailed inspection
of two typical sugar factories and a number of beet farms in
Northern Austria, at Lundenburg and Wischau respectively, ard
to collect much of the information summarised in the following
pages.

At Lundenburg I inspected eight separate farms of a total
area of 7,050 acres, which are under the personal managenient
of Herr Kuffner, the proprietor of the sugar factory; and at
Wischau ten farms of a total area of 5,800 acres, which are
under the control of the Company owning the factory. At this
last factory, 40,000 tons of beet-root are dealt with annually,
and 300 workmen are employed, excluding the labourers on
the farms.

Tur Brret-SuGar INDUSTRY ON THE CONTINENT.

Jn the discussions which have of late taken place as to the
possibility of growing sugar-beet in this country, the allegation
has been made that the system of bounties practised by foreign
nations is the only real impediment in the way of its profitable

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 327

cultivation in the United Kingdom. It is undeniable that
equally good sugar-beets can be raised in England as on the Con-
tinent; and if countries like Holland, Belgium, and Northern
France, with climates very similar to our own, can grow beet
successfully, there appears no valid reason from the agricultural
point of view why we should not have home-grown sugar. ‘The
crux is, Can we grow it at a profit, in view of the competition
of bounty-fed sugar from abroad? ‘This it would be foreign
to my present purpose to discuss. Moreover, the question of
bounties is one of high complication, and a recent attempt by
our Government to deal with it by an International Convention
met with disastrous failure.

The augmented consumption of sugar by the people, the re-
markable changes in its countries of origin, and the extraordinary
increase in the production of beet sugar as compared with that
from cane, are all facts of extreme economic importance. It is
not perhaps generally recognised that whereas thirty years ago
beet sugar only represented about one-fifth of the total produc-
tion of the world, it now represents more than a half. The
subjoined table! shows this very strikingly, though it must be
stated that 1889-90 was an exceptionally favourable year for
beet-roots :—

The World's Production of Sugar during the last seven Years.

Year Beet sugar Cane sugar Total production
Tons Tons Tons
1883-1884 2,361,000 2,323,000 4,684,000
1884-1885 2,546,000 2,351,000 4,897,000
1885-1886 2,220,000 2,340,000 4,560,000
1886-1887 2,730,000 2,345,000 5,075,000
1887-1888 2,452,000 2,470,000 4,922,000
1888-1889 2,765,000 2,280,000 5,045,000
1889-1890 | 3,500,000 2,278,000 5,778,000

It is seen from the above table that the production of cane
sugar has remained stationary or even diminished during the
last septennial period, while the production of beet sugar has
greatly increased.

Austria is the second largest producer of beet sugar in the
world. The subjoined summary shows in tabular form the
figures for the different continental countries for the last four com-
pleted years or “campaigns,” and for the present campaign of
1890-1, as estimated by the well-known expert, Mr. I. O.
Licht of Magdeburg, and is self explanatory.

1 La Sucrerie Indigene, March 11, 1890, p. 232.

328

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

Production of Beet Sugar on the Continent of Europe for the last five years.

1890-1891

Country 1889-1890 | 1888-1889 | 1887-1888 | 1886-1887
| Tons } Tons Tons | Tons | Tons

Germany . 1,335,000 | 1,264,607 | 990,604 | 959,166 | 1,012,968
Austria. . | 760,000 | 753,078 | 523,242 | 428,616 523,059
France . 700,000 787,989 | 466,767 | 392,824 | 485,739
Russia. . - | 530,000 456.711 | 526,387 441,342 | 487,460
Belgium - | 200,000 | 221,480 | 145,804 | 140,742 135,755
Holland eal 65,000 55,813 46,040 39,280 | 36,098
Other Countries 80,000 a | 87,000 | 79,980 69,127

Total 3,670,000 3.619, 678 2,785,844 | 2,750,206

| (estimated) |

| 2,481,950 |

Of the countries named in this table, Germany is a yery con-

siderable exporter to other countries, especially to England,
the German product representing about two-thirds of our total
imports of beet sugar. Austria is the next largest exporter, its
sugar going mainly to Mediterranean countries and the Kast,
but some of it coming to England vid Germany,

The growth of the beet sugar industry on the Continent since
it first became of economic importance is well shown in the
following table, extracted from a valuable paper by Dr. O. J.
Broch on Les Hxcitants Modernes.'

Production of Sugar-Beet on the Continent of Europe.

— =
| T

Average | | \ Agiahsis ae ; Other .
on ae France | Hungary Russia Belgium ts oon | ce
Tons | Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons Tons
1836-9 5,700 | 42,400 1,000 = — — _ 49,000
1840-4 | 13,900 | 27,800 3,300 = — _ _ 45,000
1845-9 | 15,00) | 40,000 4,000 _ _ — — 59,000
1850-4 | 70,200 | 68,300 | 15,600 | 11,200 8,000 | — —_— 174,000
1855-9 | 104,300 | 117,200 | 41,000 | 40,000 | 14,100) — — 317,000
1860-4 | 142,400 | 137,700 | 62,300 | 60,000 | 19,500 | — ao 422,000
1865-9 | 195,500 238,900 | 76,900 175,000 | 36,700 _ 2,000 | 725,000
1870-4 | 251,900 376,100 | 111,200 | 200,000 | 70,000 | — 6,000 |1,015,000
1875-9 | 341,600 | 362,800 | 300,000 | 320,000 | 66,200 20,000 |10,000 |1,420,000
1880-4 | 667,400 406,000 | 478,000 | 284,000 | 75,000 20,000 |10,000 1,940,000
1885-9 | 991,000 402,000 | 471,000 | 476,000 121,000 35,000 \1,000 |2,547,000

THe SuGAR-BEET INDUSTRY IN AUSTRIA,

The cultivation of the sugar-beet in Austria on anything like
a large scale dates back about spo Acopl but it has ieee” :

1 Bulletin de VInstitut Internationale de Statistique, Te Tome IT. 1887, p. 240.
(The figures for the last quinquennial period have been calculated by myself.)

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 329

developed during the last half of that period, as shown in the
following table :-—

1830 1860 1870 1880 1883
Number of factories 100 125 215 227 215
Tons of beet used 490,000 | 1,430,000 | 3,300,000 | 4,700,000 | 6,000,000

On the average of the ten years 1879-88, 494,000 acres in
Austria were devoted to the cultivation of sugar-beet, of which
318,000 acres were in Bohemia and 150,000 in Moravia. The
annual yield during the same period was 3,750,000 tons, or an
average of rather more than 74 tons per acre (in some parts of
Bohemia 10 tons).

Olivier de Serres, in his writings of 1590, makes mention of
the red beet as having only recently been introduced into Europe,
and as yielding a juice which “ on boiling is similar to sugar-
syrup.” But the root does not seem to have been considered as
having an industrial value, and was cultivated only for the table
or for cattle food, until 1747, when Margraff, a member of the
Berlin Academy of Sciences, believing sugar to be a regular
constituent of plants other than the sugar-cane, made examina-
tion of different varieties of vegetables, and succeeded in sepa-
rating from several kinds varying quantities of crystallisable
sugar, beet being found to be the richest. This important dis-
covery, however, remained dormant for nearly half a century,
when one of Margraff’s pupils, Karl Franz Achard, director of
the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, again took up the line of
research started by his preceptor, and finally succeeded in ex-
tracting sugar from the root on a comparatively large scale.
Prior to this, sugar had been obtained exclusively from the
sugar-cane, and was for the most part produced in the colonies
of the different countries, though in all cases refined in Europe.

The first attempts in Austria to obtain sugar from various
native plants had been made by Professor Jaquin in Vienna as
early as 1799, and by Dr. Ries in St. Pélten in 1803. Conrad
Adam in Vienna carried out experiments with the beet on a
larger scale ; he settled in Harowitz in 1800. ‘The first great
success was not, however, obtained with the beet as a producer
of sugar, but with maple-juice—a method which was first intro-
duced on the estates of the Prince of Liechtenstein at Hisgrub.!
Eyen this effort led to no permanent result, for it soon appeared
that the beet was the most fitted for the production of native
sugar ; and when, in consequence of the decree of the Emperor
Francis I., dated January 14, 1831, the production of sugar from

1 A charming spot near Lundenburg, with extensive forests and a magnifi-
cent palace, visited by me in the course of my inspection.
VOL. II. T. S,—6 Z

330 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

beet was relieved of the payment of industrial taxes during a
period of ten years, the manufacture of beet sugar became finally
and firmly established in Austria.

The first Austrian beet-sugar factory was erected at Do-
browitz in Bohemia by Carl Weinrich, by order of Prince
Thurn and Taxis; in the same year factories were built in
Moravia at Kirchwidern, in Lower Austria at Staatz, and in
Galicia at Krzywezwyce, near Lemberg. ‘The first undertaking
of the kind in Silesia was in 1832 at Ober-Suchau.! Except
the factory in Dobrowitz, none of those above mentioned are
still in existence ; but they had many vigorous successors, and,
according to the latest statistics, there were 215 factories at
work, of which 136 were in Bohemia, 49 in Moravia, 9 in
Silesia, 3 in Lower Austria, 1 in Galicia, and 17 in Hungary.
The beets used for sugar weighed, in 1888, six million tons; the
sugar produced weighed 750,000 tons, and of this there was
exported 450,000 tons.?

For a long series of years, a tax has been levied on sugar in
Austria; and the particular method of its being levied has been
the subject of much debate and many changes. A law of 1865
replaced a former system of duties on the actual weight of the
beet by theoretically fixing the yield of the quantities of beet
used. But it was found that the actual yield was often more
than the legal yield, so that a quantity of sugar escaped taxation,
and improvements in manufacture accentuated this advantage
to the makers.

Further laws were passed in 1878 and 1880, the last of
which fixed an excise duty equal to 8d. per ewt. of fresh beet,
and granted a drawback of about 10s. for every cwt. of sugar
exported.

The incidence of this duty gave rise, however, to dissatis~
faction, and the two Governments of Austria and Hungary sub-
mitted therefore to the Chambers, in 1887, a new law which

1 More detailed information as to the history and development of the
Austrian sugar industty appears in a Pamphlet, entitled: The Technical De-
velopment of the Sugar Industry in Austria, by F. Strohmer (Vienna, 1890),
published by the “ Centralverein fiir Riibenzucker Industrie.”

* Amongst other “ agricultural industries ” of Austria may be mentioned
47,708 distilleries, producing in 1888 nearly 20 million gallons of proof spirit ;
100 maltings, besides those at breweries ; and 1,835 breweries, 772 of which were
in Bohemia. There were brewed in Austria in 1888 very nearly 300 million
gallons of that light beer so much affected by the population. Pilsen in Bohemia
gives its name to a beer which has come to be regarded in England as typical
of the beverage drunk in such quantities in all German and Austrian towns ; but
most of the Austrian beers have a mild and soft taste, and Pilsener has a
strong—almost medicinal—bitter flavour, due to the far-famed Saaz hops, grown
in the vicinity,

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 331

came into force on August 1, 1888.! This law abandons the
whole previous system, and makes the actual produce the basis
for the levying of the duty. In place of a tax on the raw
material, the amount of sugar produced is subject to tax at the
rate of 11 florins per 100 kilos. (about 9s. per cwt.); and instead
of the drawback allowances on export, a direct bounty on ex-
portation is granted at the following rates :—

ay 2a,
(a) Sugar polarising 99:5 and over . - 2 4 percwt.
(6 ” ” 93 to 99 : ’ . 1 7 ”
(e) ” 88 to 93 . ° ‘ gba c a aa

Tt has been further provided that if the export bonus during
the producing season, i.e. from August 1 to July 31 of the
following year, should exceed 5,000,000 fl. (417,000/.), such
excess amount must be refunded to the Government pro rata by
the sugar producers.

This law was much criticised at the time, being regarded as
a concession made to the powerful sugar interests, and it was
argued that a subsidy of 5,000,000 florins annually was thereby
granted to the 200 sugar manufacturers of Austria, at the ex-
pense of the community. The Finance Minister, however,
declared that “it was, as a matter of principle, correct that
bonuses or premiums should not be granted, but that it was, on
the other hand, an undoubted fact that so long as other States
accorded bonuses, the beet-root sugar industry could not subsist
without similar support.” ?

AXIOMS OF SuUGAR-BEET GROWING.

In a report presented by Dr. Wm. McMurtrie to the
Department of Agriculture at Washington in 1880, the axioms
of sugar-beet growing are very succinctly stated in the subjoined
words, which I make no apology for adopting as the text of,
the more detailed observations on the subject contained in the
following pages :

Choose well-drained, permeable soils, not overcharged with nitrogenous,
organic, or soluble mineral matters. Choose the best qualities of seed.

‘ See Parliamentary Papers respecting International Conference on Sugar
Bounties, C. 5259 of Session 1888, p. 104, and C, 5260, p. 71, See also observa-
tions of Count Kuefstein at the second sitting of the Conference, Noy. 28,
1887 (C. 5260, p. 102).

? Mr. Phipps to the Marquis of Salisbury, Vienna, Nov. 2, 1887. Parlia-
mentary Paper C. 5259 of 1888, p. 81.

§ Report on the Culture of the Sugar-Beet: By William McMurtrie, E.M.,
Ph.D. ; agent and representative of the United States Department of Agriculture
at the Paris Exposition of 1878, Washington, 1880,

z2

332 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

Give preference to smaller seeds, ‘The best heets for all purposes are long,
tapering, and smooth; do not grow out of the ground; are of moderate
size; and are dense and heavy. Plough deeply and as frequently as may be
necessary to make the soil mellow. The more it approaches that of a
pane in physical condition, the more favourable it will be for culture of
the beet.

Be careful in choice of manures to be employed. Remember that in-
soluble and not easily assimilable nitrogenous organic compounds, before
they can be of use to the crop, must be thoroughly disintegrated and decom-
posed. They must therefore be applied sufficiently in advance of the crops
to secure this effect. Soluble nitrogenous compounds may be applied im-
mediately in advance of, or simultaneously with, planting; and of these the
nitrates are preferable. Nitrogenous compounds have a tendency to extend
the period of growth, and delay the time of ripening. This tendency is
counteracted by the phosphates, in consequence of which they increase the
production of sugar.

Stable manures must in all cases be worked into the soil with the
autumn ploughing. Do not apply more than 10 to 15 tons per acre, and
supplement it with nitrate of soda and superphosphate of lime at the rate
of trom 200 to 400 lb. of each per acre, according to the character of the
soil,

Alkaline salts should be applied with great caution, and only to soils
manifestly wanting them. They add to the cost of culture, and often
reduce the industrial value of the crop.

Plant closely. Separate the beets by about 8 inches in the row.

Jultivate early and often, and continue as long as the leaves will permit,
but not longer than the middle of July. Do not harvest until the crop is
thoroughly ripe, but it must not be allowed to be injured by frost.

Store the roots in such a way that they may be protected from extremes
of temperature and moisture, and observe care in ventilating trenches or
cellars; otherwise the roots will rapidly deteriorate.

SOILS ADAPTED FOR SUGAR-BEET.

Experts are not altogether agreed as to the soil best adapted
for the beet, but it may be stated generally that the physical
characteristics of the soil which tend to render it best suited
to the cultivation of the beet are porosity of surface and subsoil,
to admit of drainage of superfluous water and of free circulation
of the air, and power of absorbing and holding in a condition
convenient for ready assimilation the elements of plant ,food
existing within it or coming from external sources.

The climate most suitable for beet-growing is a moderately
warm one, with a sufficiency of moisture. The plant does not
thrive in rough mountain regions. Its quelity improves in
dry years, but wet years are favourable to its gross produce.
Rain in July and August gives weight, but a dry September
gives sugar.

Beet will thrive upon almost any soil which is well culti-
vated, but especially prefers a deep, moist, loamy soil, contain-
ing chalk and marl, A good mangel, turnip, or potato soil is

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 333

excellent for the purpose, provided it contains plenty of lime,
It is essential that the soil should be capable of deep cultivation,
as the plough must penetrate to a depth of 8 to 10 inches,
and the subsoil plough 6 inches below that. The roots must be
buried almost entirely in the ground to yield their full pro-
portion of sugar, and must penetrate freely into the subsoil if
they are not to be stunted and to run too much to tops.

There is no soil so well suited for beet as a good, well-
worked, deeply cultivated, and thoroughly drained clay-loam ;
or, in other words, a soil containing a good deal of clay, with a
fair proportion of sand. On calcareous soils the roots are gene-
rally small, rich in sugar, and yield a juice of great purity.

Most good clay-loams contain sufficient lime to meet the re-
quirements of the beet-root crop. Many light soils, on the other
hand, being poor in lime, are much improved by the application
of clay, marl, chalk, or quicklime previous to ploughing up the
Jand in autumn.

The subsoil has an important influence on this, as on all root
crops. It should be sufficiently friable to allow the ready pene-
tration of the roots, and be thoroughly well drained; for it is
vain to hope to grow successfully good sugar-beet on land
resting on a stiff, cold, and partially drained subsoil. In
dealing with rather heavy land particular attention has to be
paid to autumn cultivation. Deep ploughing in autumn and
stirring the subsoil without turning it up, and above all steam
cultivation—much practised by the large factories in Austria
are some of the means of preparing such land for beet roots.
“Tn short,” says the late Dr. Voelcker in a report on the subject
in this Journal,! which I have laid largely under contribu-
tion, “‘the same rules which apply to the proper cultivation of
the soil for other root crops should guide the farmer in preparing
his land for sugar-beets.”

Too much stress cannot be laid upon the necessity of care-
fully choosing and properly preparing the land intended for the
cultivation of sugar-beet. To obtain long, clean, properly
shaped roots, the plants must have a sufficient depth of soil to
grow in, as nothing fosters the development of side roots more
than the stoppage of the passage of the tap root by the hardness
or bad quality of thé subsoil.

PLACE OF THE BEET Root IN THE ROTATION.

- The most suitable preparation for sugar-beet is a white straw
crop, or well-manured potatoes. Wherever possible, beet is

1 Journal R. A.S, E., Vol. Ve (2nd Series), 1869.

334 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

made both to follow and precede a corn crop. Clover or “ seeds ”
should not precede beet, for although the roots grow to a large
size and yield well after clover-seeds, they remain poor in sugar
and take up too much saline matter from the decomposing re-
mains of the preceding crop. Beet is usually followed by spring
wheat. All experience points to the fact that repeated sowing
of beet on the same land is ruinous to the cultivator, even
where immense quantities of farmyard manure are applied, and
where a return is made to the land of all the constituents taken
from it by the beet.

At Lundenburg, the following two sorts of rotations were
found, one applied to the heavier soils, and the other to the
lighter soils.

Heavier Soils, Lighter Soils.
(a) Winter or summer wheat, with | (a) Rye, with dung.
dung: (2) Sugar-beet, with artificial ma-
(5) Sugar-beet with artificial ma- nures,
nures. (c) Barley or Oats,

(c) Barley.
(d) Kye or Lucerne.

At Wischau the rotations were found to be more elastic
and to be varied according to circumstances, although alterna-
tions were carefully observed. The most common rotations are :

I. (1) Autumn-sown cereals, (2) Sugar-beet, (3) Barley, (4) Sugar-beet,
(5) Barley, (6) Clover, Peas, &c.

IL. (1) Autumn-sown cereals, (2) Sugar-beet, (3) Barley, (4) Clover.

IIL. (1) Autumn-sown cereals (2) Sugar-beet, (3) Barley, (4) Sugar beet
for seed, (5) Autumn-sown cereals (6) Sugar-beet, (7) Clover.

TV. (1) Wheat, (2) Sugar-beet, (3) Barley, (4) Peas, (5) Autumn Rye,
(6) Sugar-beet, (7) Barley, (8) Sainfoin, (9) Sainfoin and sometimes (10)
Sainfoin.

“The fundamental principle of the cultivation,” says M.
Gustav Skutezky, the manager of this estate, “is to grow by
judicious alternations those plants which promise the greatest
yields. We abandon the regular fixed rotation after due gon-
sideration of the weather and the preparedness of the soil, in
cases where the sowing cannot be made under the most advan-
tageous conditions.”

VARIETIES OF BEET MOSTLY IN USE.

All kinds of sugar-beets are botanically identical with the
common garden beet, Betw vulgaris. The differences in varie--
ties have arisen by reason of special selection and culture, pro-
ducing a pure strain of some valuable peculiarity in the beet.

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 3835

These accidental valuable qualities, by careful selection, have
become fixed, and are associated with certain external properties
which have thus come to be regarded as distinguishing charac-
teristics. The shape and size of the beet, its colour, the
character of the foliage, whether erect or spreading, &c., are
the most frequent marks of distinction. ‘The varieties are fre-
quently designated by the names of those who have developed
them, or by the name of the town or locality in which they have
been grown, or by their colour.

The importance of proper selection of the variety or race of
the beet to be grown for sugar is strongly insisted upon by all
writers on the subject. A beet giving a large cultural yield,
rich in sugar, involves no more cost to the grower in its pro-
duction than one giving a small yield and low saccharine value.
It is therefore desirable to choose those varieties which will
give the largest returns, and be at the same time the most
satisfactory in every way to the grower who has to produce
them, and to the manufacturer who has to extract the sugar.

Experience shows that roots of moderate size yield a juice
which contains a smaller percentage of mineral and organic
impurities and affords a greater yield of sugar than larger ones ;
and it appears to be regarded almost as an axiom that the smaller
the beet the richer in sugar.

Up to a certain point, this is true. The great richness in
sugar of a beet depends upon the absence of zones of purely
cellular tissue, and the predominance of fibrous tissue more
dense and more slowly formed. But it is not less true that
between roots of the same richness, there may exist consider-
able differences of weight and size, and the great object of the
improved varieties is to harmonise as far as possible the qualities
of cultural yield and industrial value.

Quality being so important a feature in the cultivation of
the beet, the utmost care is taken to sow only those varieties
that can be relied upon for good results; and to the selection
and improvement of seeds, having these characteristics, an
enormous amount of care and study has been devoted by
scientists, seed-merchants, and producers.

When the question of sugar-beet growing in England was
first brought prominently forward by Mr. Duncan’s bold but
unsuccessful experiment at Lavenham, about twenty years ago,
the kind of beet most in favour with Continental growers was
the Silesian (see Fig. 1), on account of its free yield of roots
and vigorous growth. The interest of this kind is now, how-
ever, little more than historical; for in the course of the last
twenty years it (with its sub-varieties of Magdeburg, Breslau,

300 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

Imperial, Electoral, and the like) has gone almost completely
out of cultivation in favour of newer, richer, and more prolific
descendants of the old Silesian stock, the most famous of which
are the White Improved Vilmorin, and the Klein-Wanzleben.
The White Improved Vilmorin beet, though originally a
French variety (being called after the well-known seed firm of
Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., of Paris), has a great reputation all
over Central Europe, and the quantity of it annually distributed
isimmense. I found it in use at all the sugar factories I visited
in Austria, and highly spoken of for its exceptional richness,
its great purity, and its good keeping qualities. Originally
descended directly from the old white Silesian beet, it has been
the subject of careful and persistent cultivation for considerably

IN

)),
Vey 7

=

=?

Fic. 1,—The Silesian Sugar-beet. Fic, 2,—The White Improved Vilmorin Sugar-beet.

over thirty years, with the result that its qualities of richness
and purity have now become fixed and constant. Some thou-
sands of analyses have shown it to yield up to as high a pro-
portion of sugar as 16 per cent. of the weight of the roots,
12 lb. of sugar per gallon of juice being a very ordinary yield
with it.

A density of the juice of from 1-075 to 1-080, which corre-
sponds to a proportion of 14 to 15 per cent. of sugar in the root,
is quite common. ‘The average crop is from 12 to 14 tons of-
roots per acre, but over 16 tons of excellent roots are not infre-
quently obtained.

The particular characteristic of the Vilmorin beet is the

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 337

predominance of fibrous or sugar-bearing tissue, which gives
to the flesh a greyish tint. Its appearance is well shown
in Fig. 2. Two qualities of high value which it possesses are
those of not deteriorating under conditions which are habitu-
ally injurious to the richness of sugar-beets (such as acid soils,
the application of certain manures, and the like) and its ex-
cellent keeping qualities. Where several varieties of beet are
grown, it is often the practice to reserve the Vilmorin beets to
be pulped last, as being those that lose and spoil the least by
keeping.

The other variety of beet which is most extensively culti-
vated, particularly in Germany and Austria, is the Klein-
Wanzleben—so called
from the town (near
Magdeburg) where its
seed is chiefly cultivated.
This has a straight, coni-
cal root, often large at
the top and_ rapidly
tapering (see Fig. 3).
It is distinguished from
the Vilmorin variety by
the clearer and_ paler
colour of its leaves. It
succeeds best in alluvial
soils of moderate fer-
tility, and in the plains ;
in lands very rich in
humus, it ripens badly,
and loses much of its
richness. Under suit-
able conditions of cli- Fig. 3.—The Klein- Wanzleben beet.
mate, it yields an even
more luxuriant crop than the Vilmorin, giving easily 14 tons
in ordinary soils, and exceeding 16 tons in very favourable
circumstances. Up to as much as 15 to 16 per cent. of sugar
is obtainable from it, and under specially favourable circum-
stances even more.

At Wischau, Klein-Wanzleben was found to be the variety
chiefly used, as uniting a high polarisation to a satisfactory
yield per acre. Herr Skutezky said that, “‘in view of the
sugar-tax, the selection of Klein-Wanzleben is made in con-
sideration of these two incomparable qualities, as it is necessary
to satisfy both manufacturers and cultivators.”

In the paper by Dr. Augustus Voelcker, already alluded to

338 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

as haying been published in this Journal in 1869, he thus
defines the characteristics of a good sugar-beet; and though
improvement has steadily progressed in the plant since he
wrote, his words still hold good:

1. Good sugar-beets have a regular pear-shaped form.

2, They do not throw out many fibrous-branched roots or forks, Forked
roots are difficult to clean, and not so readily pulped as well-grown sym-
metrical pear-shaped roots. ~

3. They have a white, firm, and dense flesh, and clean sugary taste.
Soft and spongy thick-skinned rocts are always more watery than beets of
a uniformly firm, hard, and close texture.

- 4, They should generally weigh from 13 to 21b. Very small or very large
roots are not usually well suited for the manufacture of sugar. Roots weigh-
ing under # lb. are frequently woody, and besides sugar contain too large a
proportion of other constituents, which prevent in a large measure the ex-
traction of crystallised sugar from the juice, whilst roots weighing more
than 24 lb. are generally too watery and too poor in sugar.

5. They should always have small tops, and no tendency to become
necky.

G. Such roots do not show much above ground, but grow almost entirely
in the ground. Roots, the tops of which grow above ground, do not yield
so much sugar as others that bury themselves better in the soil, for the
heads of the roots, being exposed to light, turn greenish, and yield less
crystallisable sugar than the parts covered by the soil. Manufacturers of
sugar cut off the greenish-coloured heads of the roots before they are pulped,
and hence much waste takes place when beet roots grown ina large measure
above ground are sent to the manufactory.

7. Generally speaking, the higher the specific gravity of a beet root, the
more it is esteemed for its sugar-producing qualities. (Good roots are con-
siderably more dense than water, and rapidly sink to the bottom of a vessel
filled with water.!

8. The expressed juice of good beet-roots has a clean, sweet taste, and a
specific gravity of from 1-060 to 1:070. When very rich in sugar, the
specific gravity of the juice rises above 1-070, reaching occasionally 1-075
to 1-078.”

BEET Roots FoR SEED.

The production of seed is one of the most important opera-
tions connected with the sugar-beet industry. On the care and
skill which are displayed in this process depend the mainte-
nance and improvement of the sugar-producing qualities of the
beet. The beets which are to be preserved for seed are called
“mothers,” and are carefully stored in the manner explained
afterwards. They are selected at the time of harvesting from
specially grown beet, or from fields of beet which have shown

1 The fact that a root does not sink in a liquid of given density is, however,
no sure proof of its bad quality, since in most roots a cavity in the neck exists
which is full of air and of extremely variable size. It may cause very rich
roots to float when they would sink if solid. i

2 In consequence of the increased richness in sugar, the specific grayity is -
now at its best, 1:080 to 1:090.

Sugar-Beet Oultivation in Austria. 339

particularly good qualities on analysis.'| The weight of the roots
selected for mothers should be about the average of the best
sugar-beets, from 20 to 24 ounces. Smaller beets than these
would show a higher percentage of sugar, but it is not wise to
produce a race of small beets by selecting the seed from the
very smallest and richest beets grown. ‘The size of the ‘“ mo-
thers” having been decided, the beets are next selected for
their shape and external appearance. ‘Those regular in. shape
and smooth in external form are preferred. Roots of irregular
shape, or with more than one tap-root, should be rejected.

The beets to be preserved for seed are harvested with unusual
care to avoid injury. The neck is not cut away, but the leaves
are removed by cutting off the stems without injuring the neck
of the beet. ‘The clamping should be of such a nature as to
entirely protect the beets from frost, and yet prevent their
growth until the spring. The beets are removed at an early
date in the spring, and are immediately subjected to analysis
for the final selection.

At Wischau, I found a prominent feature was made of the
cultivation of beet for seed. The roots intended for this pur-
pose are chosen every year in a special laboratory, with the
euidance afforded by the polarisation of the juice. Well-formed
roots are first selected in the fields in the autumn, and are again
examined in the spring, when they are weighed. Any root of
less than 14 lb. is rejected. With an instrument not unlike a
cheese-borer a small cylindrical piece is taken out of each beet
weighing over 14 lb., and its specific gravity tested.

About 40 per cent. pass this test, and are sent for more com-
plete examination to the laboratory. There another but larger
cylindrical piece is bored obliquely out of the beet, and its
juice is examined with the polariscope to ascertain what per-
centage of sugar it contains. From the best of those with a
high polarisation, the roots weighing over 1$ lb. are selected
to form the very best. class, ‘“‘ Supra élite.”

In 1890, 18,068 beets were selected at Wischau by the
specific gravity test for further examination, two chemists and
fourteen other persons being employed in this operation. Of this
number of roots 333, or 1-84 per cent., were classed as “ Supra
élite”; 6,865, or 37:977 per cent., as “ Elite,” and used for the
cultivation of the finest seed; 6,716, or 37°10 per cent., as second

1 Messrs. Rabbethge and Giesecke, the famous cultivators of the Ilein-
Wanzleben variety, who have been growing beet for seed for upwards of
thirty years, state that in 1889-90 they tested 2,782,300 roots, from which
they selected 3,043 roots, equal to 01 per cent., for seed-growing purposes,

340. Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

quality, used for seed to sell; and 4,154, or 23 per cent., as
third quality, and discarded.

The cultivation of sugar-beet for seed has reached such a
stage of perfection that it is easy to modify the root according
to the needs or wishes of the producer; and as a consequence a
large number of growers are accustomed to produce for them-
selves, either in whole or in part, the seed which they need.
Seed-growing requires, however, so much attention, trouble,
and organisation, that the seed is usually purchased from the
firms of merchants who devote themselves to beet-seed cultivation.

Austria has perhaps been rather behind France and Germany
in its cultivation of special improved varieties of beet seed, and
has been content to import seed from foreign nations. But
there are a few scientific growers of beet for seed in Moravia
who have a high reputation for their products, foremost amongst
whom must be placed Chevy. Em. von Proskowetz, Junr., of
Kwassitz, and Herr Jirku, of Birnbaum.

SowlInG.

The field in which beet is to be sown should, as already
indicated, be ploughed in the autumn to the depth of from
eight to ten inches. The plough in each furrow should be
followed by a subsoiler, which will loosen the soil to the depth
of about six inches more. Each field should thus have the soil
prepared by thoroughly loosening it to the depth of from
fourteen to sixteen inches.’ The land being exposed through
the winter becomes quite mellowed, and in the spring can be
got ready by a simple preparation of the surface. This should
be done by a thorough cultivating until the surface of the
soil is reduced to perfect tilth.

The season for sowing extends from the beginning of April
to the first week in May. Sown too early in spring, the roots
are very apt to run to seed during growth, especially if spring
frosts should set in, and if the sowing be delayed too long, the
crop may not get fully ripe before it has to be taken up. The .
best time for sowing is considered in Moravia to be the middle
of April (from April 10 to 20), when the thermometer should
range between 50° and 60°; for at this temperature the seed
will germinate most surely and most rapidly. Under ordinary

1 In some of the better soils of Austria, as at Wischau, which is situated
in the wonderfully fertile valley of the Hanna, the soil is ploughed with the _
steam-plough to the depth of fourteen or fifteen inches: the subsoiler being
only used on lighter lands, where it is desired to avoid bringing up obnoxious
matter from below.

Sugar-Beet. Cultivation in Austria. 341

circumstances the steeping of the seed in water is dispensed
with, but occasionally the steeping of the seed for twelve hours
in water at a temperature of 120° Fahr. advances the growth of
the plant.

The quantity of seed sown rises to as much as 31 lb. per
acre. It is only by this liberal use of seed that a sufficiently
close crop can be assured, especially under unfavourable con-
ditions as to weather, &c.

The distances between the drills and between each plant
are regulated according to the various agricultural conditions
in which the land may be. The better the soil the closer the
roots may be grown. If grown too far apart on good land,
the beet roots become larger, but remain poor in sugar; and, on
the other hand, planted too near each other, the roots get rich
in sugar, but remain small, and the value of the produce in
either case is less than when both extremes are avoided.

Fifteen years ago the usual width between the rows was
sixteen inches. Some estates in Austria tried for a few seasons
fifteen inches and then fourteen inches; but nearly all have
eventually returned to fifteen or sixteen inches, which is the
width generally adopted. With this distance, the roots may be
separated from each other by about eight inches in the rows.

For the sowing of the seed, specially designed drills are
customarily used; but any drill that will deliver the seed
regularly and in sufficient quantity will answer every pur-
pose. The seed is either drilled in lines, or is dibbled. Machines,
too, are used, though not so commonly, that distribute at the
same time pulverised artificial manures; but these are being dis-
carded in favour of broad-casting machines. The seed should be
covered to the depth of from half an inch to one and a half inch,
according to the condition of the soil. If the soil be moist and in
good condition, the seed should not be covered more than half
an inch. If, on the other hand, the soil be very dry, it
should be covered to the depth of one and a half inch. After
the sowing, a Cambridge roller is passed over the field.

CULTIVATION.

As soon as the plants are large enough to show in the rows,
cultivation with the horse or hand hoe should be commenced.
A good deal of the hoeing is done by hand; but there is a
great variety of hoeing-machines in the market, from the simple
and primitive implement shown in Fig. 4 to the highly elaborate
compound machines sent out from the works of such makers as
Clayton and Shuttleworth at Vienna, Rudolph Sack of Leipzig,

342 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

or the Schlick Company of Buda-Pesth. Illustrations of an
implement which combines in itself the functions of a drill, a hoe,

Fic. 4.—One-row Horse Hoe.

and a moulder or ridger, are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, the different

appliances being fitted to the frame of the machine according

to the use to which it is to be put.

pi ae

arn

Fic. 6.—The same, shown as a Hoe,

When the plants show four leaves the process of thinning
should take place. If the rows be sixteen inches apart, a vigorous
plant should be left every eight inches. Careful selection

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 343

should be made and all the puny plants destroyed. It is better
to save the vigorous plants even if regular intervals are not
preserved, but no space should be left greater than twelve to
fifteen inches in extent. Much of the thinning can be done
by a narrow hoe, but where the plants are very close together,
at the place where the plant to be preserved is to grow, the
work must be done by hand. It is well to give a thorough
hand-hoeing at the same time, and the subsequent cultivation,
in most seasons, may be carried on with horse power.

When the plants are more advanced a few deeper cultiva-
tions may be desirable, and for these any good cultivator may
be used. The cultivation in all cases should be conducted for
the two-fold purpose of keeping the crop entirely free from
weeds, and for preserving a proper tilth of the surface of the
soil. At least once a fortnight during the period of growing
the beet field should be cultivated. If the season be very dry,
more frequent cultivation will be found useful. The final culti-
vation should leave the soil practically level. During cultivation
care should be taken not to injure either the leaves or the
root of the beet; and when the foliage of the growing crop
begins to cover well the surface of the soil cultivation may be
suspended,

The cultivation of the beet, like that of the mangel and
of root-crops generally, consists, in fact, in timely and careful
thinning, weeding, and keeping the soil in a loose and friable
state, by means of the harrow and the horse- or hand-hoe.
As long as the young plants are not injured by hand-hoeing,
the repeated application of the hoe from time to time is attended
with the greatest benefit to the crop.

MaNures AND MANURING.

Next to the soil, manure has a powerful influence on the
quality of sugar-beet. If possible, beet should not be grown
in freshly dunged soils, though with the improved varieties and
on good land this is not now considered so injurious as it used to
be in rendering the roots poor in sugar and overcharged with
saline matters. The presence of an excess of saline matters in
the juice of the beet is much dreaded by the manufacturer of
sugar, inasmuch as it largely prevents the extraction of the
sugar in a crystallisable state.

If the soil, however, is very poor, it is impossible to grow
anything like a crop without manure; in that case farmyard
manure must be applied to the land in autumn, or 3 or 4 cwt.
of guano, or a mixture of guano, bone-dust, and superphosphate

344 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

and sulphate of potash. Peruvian guano has been used with
advantage for beet on naturally poor soils, and when applied in
moderate quantities in autumn it greatly benefits this crop.

Ammoniacal salts, guano, rotten dung, and in general all
nitrogenous manures, require to be used with discrimination,
for their tendency is to encourage the luxuriant growth of tops,
and to diminish the percentage of sugar in the roots. <A certain
amount of available nitrogen in the soil appears to be necessary
for the healthy growth of the sugar-beet, and hence the use of
guano or animal manures cannot be dispensed with when the
soil on which the crop is intended to be grown is either
naturally very poor, or out of condition by repeated cropping.
On the other hand, nitrogenous manures, such as guano, sul-
phate of ammonia, or rotten dung, should not be applied to
beet when the land is in good heart. For soils in good agri-
cultural condition an extra supply of nitrogenous organic matter
or ready formed ammonia does harm, inasmuch as, though it
produces a very heavy crop, it both diminishes the percentage
of sugar in the roots, and prevents the manufacturer obtaining,
in a crystallised form, as large an amount of sugar as he can
produce from beet containing the same percentage of sugar,
but grown without the use of nitrogenous manure.

Superphosphate of lime may be applied to the land with
excellent effect at the time when the seed is drilled in. Bone-
dust also does good. On light soils, in which potash is gene-
rally deficient, a mixture of superphosphate and sulphate of
potash has been found most serviceable to beet in many cases,
not only upon light sandy soils but upon all soils in a com-
paratively poor agricultural condition.

The constituents to be taken into account in the necessary
restitution to the soil for the growth of beet are potash, phos-
phoric acid, magnesia, and-nitrogen. The quantities of these
constituents in 1,000 lb. of beet and beet leaves, averaged fiom
numerous analyses, are as follows :—

Constituents Roots Leaves
lb. lb
Potash . : Fs A “ . - ee 65
Phosphoric acid. : ° . . O8 13
Magnesia = “ ‘ ° : ~ "0 3:0
Nitrogen . : 3 ‘ ‘ 7 Eg 39
Total ash A “ : : es Pear (orl 18:1 -

Of all these fertilisers, that which combines in itself in the
highest degree all the elements of plant food, and which is.
naturally the most economical, is farmyard manure. ‘To pro-
vide the necessary dung, as well as to eat up the refuse pulp

Sugur-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 345

after the sugar has been extracted from the beet, a luitge head
of cattle must be kept. At each place visited the manure was
found to be carefully preserved in large, square, bricked dung-
pits, under the charge of special labourers who had no other duty.
The drainings are regularly pumped up from the bottom of the
pit, and distributed by hose over the surface, so as to keep the
dung moist and to consolidate it. So great was the anxiety to
show us everything, that for our special delectation this pro-
cess was exhibited in action at each farm visited, until our
olfactory nerves compelled us to ery “ enough.”

Care is taken that the manure is applied at a time when its
fertilising qualities can most speedily assert themselves ; so that
it is never spread in the spring, save in exceptional cases, and
then only for dressing mixed seeds, peas, oats, potatoes, or beet
intended for seed. The greater part of the dung collected
duriug the winter is not therefore applied till the month of
June for the clover stubble. If the quantity of dung is not
sufficient to fertilise the autumn-sown corn at this season, the
cereals are manured with artificials. The manure remaining
after July is reserved exclusively for beet, for which the manure
should be dug in during the autumn.

At the Wischau farms, which have a total area of 5,800
acres, about 1,250 acres are manured annually with farmyard
dung; and in addition the following quantities of artificials
have been used during the last three years—

1888 1889 1890
ewt. ewt. owt.
Nitrate of soda. omnes 44 52 55
Super eee ° oflime rao 80 83
Basic slag . : Jno te — 7
Gypsum. A : : 5 Aw, 18 29

These manures permit of nearly all the arable land being
dressed annually, in addition to the fertilisation due to the farm-
yard dung, which is for the most part supplemented by artificials.
There is no regular rule as to these supplementary manures,
which are applied according to the productive power of the
different fields. Herr Skutezky supplied us with details as to
the manuring of each crop, but it is only necessary to say here
that the beets are fertilised with farmyard dung, with 8 cwt. of
superphosphate and 4 to 5 cwt. of nitrate of soda. In cases
where the roots cannot be dressed in autumn either with dung
or compost, 10 to 12 cwt. of superphosphate and 6 to 7 ewt. of
nitrate of soda are supplied. The beet for seed receives 6 to
8 ewt. of nitrate of soda and 10 to 12 cwt. of superphosphate.
The areas manured in the last three years have been as
follows :—-

VOL, II, T. S.—6 Aa

346 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

1888 1889 1890
Farmyard dung ‘ ; . 1,042 1,289 1,308 acres
Composts, with “ Saturation-
Scum?/+ ; ‘ 2 551 268 308 ,,
Artificials aia ; . 8,748 4284 4,235 |.

About 27 per cent. of the total area at Wischau was under
beet, exclusive of that devoted to beet for seed; 8 per cent. to
autumn-sown wheat ; 2 per cent. to spring wheat; 11 per cent.
to rye; 25 per cent. to barley ; 3 per cent. to oats ; 15 per cent.
to clover and mixed seeds; and the balance to peas, lupins,
potatoes and unpreductive land.

Very much the same proportions were found at Lunden-
burg, except that beet occupied quite 30 per cent, of the ground.
On this estate dung is applied every three years to the heavier
soils, and every four years to the lighter soils. Artificial
manures are used for the sugar-beet and sometimes also for rye
and barley. About 20 tons of dung and 2 to 3 ewt. of chemi-
cal manures are used per acre. ‘These last, which consist of
superphosphate, nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, and
sulphate of potash, are distributed broadcast, mostly by hand.
Herr Kuffner prefers applying the artificials by hand, because he
objects to the ground being trodden by horses after ploughing.
Others prefer distributing manures by machines on account of
the greater evenness and regularity of the work, even in windy
weather.

RIPENING OF Roots.

Beet roots generally get ripe in about five months. When
sown in the middle of April they will thus be ripe in an average
season about the middle of September. Much depends, however,
on the season and the character of the land in bringing the
crop to maturity. The best time for taking it up is when the
roots are nearly ripe. This stage of development is recognised
by most of the leaves turning yellow and flabby. As the roots
ripen, the summer leaves, which are very large and have long
stout stalks, dry up and fall away, and leaves are developed
which are smaller and have short stalks. When these leaves
are laid flat and turn yellow, the root is ripe.

Should the weather be cold and no rain fall in autumn, the
crop may be left in the ground without injury a week or fort-

EE ———————

1 In German, “ Saturations-Schlamm.” ‘Chis is the precipitate of the three
etarifications of the beet root juice, twice with carbonic acid and lime, and
once with sulphuric acid and lime. These precipitates contain a great many
organic impurities (nitrogenous matter), as well as the potash and other in-
organic salts

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 347

night after the roots are quite ripe. But should the autumn be
warm and wet, growth starts again, and larger leaves are thrown
out. This should be avoided by all means, inasmuch as the
leaves in that case are produced in a great measure at the ex-
pense of stored-up sugar in the roots. Nothing does so much
injury to beet as a second growth of tops after the roots have
become ripe, and hence the safest plan is to take them up as
soon as possible after the crop has arrived at maturity.

A good indication of maturity is afforded when a root is cut
in two with a knife. If the newly cut surfaces of the beet
rapidly turn colour on exposure to the air, the ripening process
is not completed ; but if they remain unchanged, or turn only
slightly reddish, it may be taken for granted that the beets are
sufficiently ripe to be taken up. Immature roots sliced with
a knife rapidly turn first red, then brownish, and finally quite
dark on the surface touched by the knife.

Tur HARVEST.

The time of harvesting is not always coincident with the
time of ripening (?.e. when the leaves have become yellow and
faded), since a large quantity of the roots must be pulled before
they are fully ripe, in order to provide the necessary raw mate-
rial to the sugar factories, which generally begin their work in
September ; moreover, the grower has to be careful that the
roots are not overtaken while in the ground by severe frosts.
In such cases the harvest begins with the ripest plants. The
process of lifting out of the ground can be accomplished by
means of the spade, but a very popular implement is a fork
(Riiben-Heber) with a shoulder above the bifurcation to press
the foot upon. The labourer loosens the earth round the beet °
with this fork, and with his left hand pulls up the root by
the tops, shaking off as much earth as
possible before placing the beet on the
ground. It is very important not to
damage the roots by pricking or bruis-
ing, or they will be more lable to
decay when stored.

Labour being cheap, most of the
work is done by hand; but the beets
are also ploughed out by a variety of
implements not unlike our potato-
diggers in England. One such machine of Moravian construc-
tion is figured in the margin (Fig. 7.)

The crop should be haryested in fine dry weather and when

AAQ

Fic. 7.—Moravian beet-lifter.

348 Suyar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

the ground is in the driest condition. If the ground be wet at
the time of pulling, the earth will adhere to the root, and this
will also produce a tendency to decay. Moreover, trouble will
arise in the determination of the ton in the delivery of the crop
to the manufacturer. In most cases the leaves are removed
from the roots in the field, either at the time of lifting or at the
time of loading the carts or waggons in which they are to be
transported, either directly or to storage. The top of the beet,
called the neck, is cut off with the leaves from the root so as to
remove, with the top, that portion of the beet to which the
stalks of the leaves have been attached. Very often the necks
are cut off with the spade, as the roots lie in rows on the
ground. The work is not done so neatly as with a knife or
sickle, but a great deal faster. The object of removing this
portion of the beet is to prevent the mineral salts, which have
accumulated in large quantities therein, from entering the
factory, as these mineral salts exercise a very deleterious in-
fluence on the crystallisation of the sugar.

If there be danger from frost the roots are piled in pyramidal
heaps, either before or after the removal of the leaves, in such a
manner that they may be covered by their leaves or by straw.
The leaves are removed by a knife, sickle, or other instrument,
sufficiently strong and heavy that the operation may be effected
at a single stroke. It is estimated that in all twenty labourers
are necessary to pull and prepare for transportation from the field
the crop of one acre in a day.

Great care is needed in harvesting the crop, for the slightest
injury to the roots is followed by a proportionate loss of sugar.
When injured by careless manipulation in trimming or other-
wise, fermentation is rapidly set up in the injured roots, the
crystallisable sugar is converted into fruit-sugar or glucose, which
does not crystallise, and is consequently lost.

The leaves and tops, which cannot be used as food for
animals in their fresh state, are sometimes siloed (eingeséiuert) for
that purpose. They are thrown into holes made in the field and
trodden in, being heaped up high enough to form a roof about
a foot above the surface. In sandy soil they can be made sour
at once, but in stiffer soils they are best laid aside and allowed
to fade a little, and lose some of their water by evaporation.
The covering of earth must be sufficiently thick to prevent
the penetration of rain and air. Beet leaves, soured in this way,
last for two years; and mixed with chaffand hay they are given
to cattle and sheep. They are not, however, regarded as good
food; and are often left on the field and ploughed in, —

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 349

STORAGE OF Roots.

When beets are to be preserved for manufacture during the
winter months, or for the production of seed, special precau-
tions have to be taken to preserve them from wet and frost. It
is desirable that they should be left on the ground for a short
time before they are clamped, in order that they may lose as
much of their moisture as possible. The roots, however, should
not be left long exposed to the air, and never to the sun. It is
well, therefore, to cover temporarily the roots with their tops,
in the field, before clamping. In storing, special care should be
taken to prevent germination and throwing out fresh tops.
As light, heat, and moisture greatly favour germination, which
is necessarily attended with loss of sugar, the roots should be
specially guarded against these injurious influences.

The most effectual plan to preserve the roots in good condi-
tion is to select a dry and suitable locality, to pile the roots in
pyramidal clamps, about six feet broad at their base, and seven
feet high, and to cover the clamps immediately with dry earth.
At first the roots should be covered but slightly, in order that
the moisture may readily evaporate, and subsequently, when
frost sets in, another layer of earth, not exceeding one foot in
thickness, may be placed on the clamps. If at oncea thick layer
of earth is placed upon the roots, the moisture which they throw
off cannot freely escape, and in consequence they are apt to
heat and to suffer changes which diminish the amount of
crystallisable sugar which they contain.

The best temperature for preserving the roots in the fresh
state is from 35° to 40° Fahr., and the roots should be so
arranged in storage that they are not more than three feet
from an air-passage,' in order to secure constant and regular
renewal of the air to carry off noxious gases and superfluous
moisture, and to regulate the temperature—which has always a
tendency to rise. The trenches must also be thoroughly drained,
so that any water that may collect in the bottom may run off.

MANUFACTURE OF SUGAR.

The concern of the agriculturist proper in the manufacture
of sugar from beet is limited to the beginning, viz., the growth
of the root itself, and to the end, viz., the feeding of live stock
with the residual pulp. The actual process of the making of

' Most factories use these air-passages, but Herr Skutezky tells me he pre-
fers to do without them: and certainly at Wischau his beets are very well
preserved,

300 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

the sugar is of secondary interest only, from the point of view
of the readers of this Journal, and must be dismissed therefore
in a few words. The machinery for sugar manufacture is
somewhat complicated, and appears to become more so year by
year: for at the Agricultural Exhibition held in the Prater at
Vienna last autumn, there were quite a number of novelties for
the improvement of different branches of the process claiming
attention in the very interesting pavilion erected by the Central
Society for the Beet-sugar Industry in the Austro-Hungarian
Monarchy.!

The system of manufacture has been greatly changed since the
invention by Julius Robert, of Seelowitz, of the diffusion process,
and, as at present conducted, is best described in the words used
by Mr. H. W. Wiley, Chemist to the United States Department
of Agriculture, in a very valuable Memorandum on the Culture
of the Sugar-Beet (Farmer’s Bulletin, No. 3), recently published
by his Department.? ;

The beets are first conveyed to washing-tanks provided with suitable
apparatus for keeping them in motion and transferring them toward the
end from which the fresh water enters, in order that the whole of the
adhering soil, together with any sand and pebbles, may be completely re-
moved. By a suitable elevator the beets ave next taken to a point above
the centre of the battery, whence they are dropped into a slicing apparatus
by which they are sliced into thin pieces of greater or less length, so that
when placed in the cells of the battery they will not lie so closely together
as to prevent the circulation of the diffusion juices. The slices next pass
into the diffusion battery in which the sugar is extracted. The extracted
slices are carried through a press by which a portion of the water is re-
moved, and they are then in suitable condition for use as cattle food.

The diffusion juices are carried to carbonatation or saturation tanks, where
they are treated with from 2 to 3 per cent. of their weight of lime and after-
ward with carbonic acid until nearly all of the lime is precipitated. The slightly
alkaline juices are next passed through filter presses by which the precipi-
tated lime and other matter are removed. The juices pass next to a second
set of carbonatation tanks, in which they undergo a treatment in each par-
ticular similar to the one just mentioned, except that the quantity of lime
added to the second saturation is very small as compared with that of the
first. 3

The refiltered juices from the second saturation are carried to the
multiple-effect vacuum-pan and reduced to the condition of syrup. The
syrups are taken into the vacuum strike pan and reduced to sugar, con-
taining from 6 to 10 per cent. of water. The uncrystallised syrups, together
with the water, are separated from the sugar by the centrifugals, and form
the molasses. The molasses is either reboiled and a second crop of crystals

! For a description of the exhibits in this pavilion, see “ Oesterreichisch-
Ungarische Zeitschrift fiir Zucker-Industrie und Lan wirthschaft,. Jabrgang
xix. Heft iv. (1890). -

? The publications of the Washington Department of Agriculture compel
admiration for their succinctness and practical character. I have found Mr.
Wiley’s paper invaluable in the preparation of this sketch, and have not
hesitated to quote freely from it,

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria. 351

obtained, or is treated in various ways for separating the sugar which it
still contains.

If refined sugar is to be made,the juices and syrups are passed over
bone-black to decolourise them, and the crystals are washed in the centri-
fugal in order to make them perfectly white. Another method consists in
treating the juice with sulphurous acid and purifying the crystals by wash-
ing them with syrups of varying degrees of consistency until all the molasses
adhering thereto are washed away.

FreEDING OF Stock witH ReEruse PULP.

The waste products from the sugar factories consist of
molasses and the refuse pulp. The molasses are used for
various purposes, and their utilisation in distilleries is largely
on the increase. The pulp makes a most excellent cattle
food, its value being fully 20 per cent. that of the beet, and
being often assessed at a higher figure. It is much esteemed
for its fattening qualities, and it is regarded by some as
equal if not superior in nutritive properties to the roots from
which it is obtained.

The pulp may be fed either in the fresh state or preserved
in silos. Extensive experiments have recently been successfully
made in drying the pulp and preserving it in the dry state ;
but this method is not yet generally adopted.

It has, when fresh, a rather insipid or but slightly sweet
taste, and rapidly turns faintly acid on keeping. It is given to
fattening beasts mixed with straw, chaff, meal, and similar
materials, as by itself it is rather deficient in flesh-forming
compounds. Kept for any length of time, it turns decidedly
acid, and on some of the farms that I visited, there was a very
pungent odour in the mixing room. It is, however, quite as
much relished in this state by cattle and sheep as when fresh,
probably because the lactic acid, which is generated during the
time of keeping, makes it more digestible. Except in its more
acid taste, old pulp differs but slightly in its appearance and
general character from new.

I saw at both the factories I visited a great number of
very fine animals in process of fattening, though their pedigree
seemed to be of a nondescript order. Herr Kuffner of Lunden-
burg has quite a reputation for his cattle, and at the show of
butcher’s beasts held at Vienna during last year’s exhibition, a
Diploma of Honour was unanimously awarded to him by the
jury for his excellent collection of fat cattle. At Lundenburg
about 2,000 beasts are fattened every year. Some of them
consist of beasts who have done their share of work in the
fields; but the majority are animals bought directly at cattle

352 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

markets in order to be fattened immediately. Herr Kuffner buys
only young and well-developed beasts of the variety known as
the German race, and of about 70 stones live weight. The
fattening process usually lasts from 140 to 155 days. Each
beast in good condition receives per day, 112 lb. of beet-
pulp from the factory, 7 lb. of hay, and 7 lb. of chopped
straw; 2 lb. of groats after the fourth week, increasing gradu-
ally to 4 lb. in the twelfth week, and to 7 lb. in the last week ;
1 Ib. of oil-cake after the second week, increasing in the seventh
week to 2 lb., and in the ninth week to 3 Ib.; 1 lb. of straw,
and a pinch of salt. The destination of the beasts was not
stated, but they probably go to Vienna, which is only three
hours off.

At Wischau about 1,000 beasts are fatted annually, chiefly
for consumption at Brunn, the capital of Moravia, and a large
fine city of 95,000 inhabitants, chiefly occupied in the cloth and
machinery trade. The beastsat Wischau are mostly of the Styrian
and Moravian breeds. Only young heavy beasts are bought in,
of at least 84 stones live weight. The fattening usually lasts 150
days.

LABOUR.

Labour is not expensive in the beet-growing districts. For
the harvest season, a large number of workmen from distant
localities are employed, the wages of day labourers being 9d. to
1s. a day for men and 8d. to 10d. a day for women. These
wages are often doubled when piece-work is in force, as it is for
most of the operations of the farm. The system of administra-
tion of the farms was found almost universally to be very
elaborate and exact: so that any statistical fact desired, as to
labourers employed, wages, yields, or live stock, was at once
forthcoming without delay or difficulty.

I had the curiosity to inquire somewhat closely into the
farm staff at Wischau, and I found they numbered altogether
371, divided as follows: 30 salaried officers engaged in various
capacities, 8 shepherds, 24 foremen, 29 stablemen, 163 herds-
men, 22 dairymaids, and 125 labourers. All these received
their wages in cash, with the exception of a very few who also
had allowances in kind.

The number of extra hands employed during the season of
cultivating and harvesting the roots is often from two to three
thousand. The work of cultivation is paid for by the day, as
it is considered that it is done better under this system than -
by piece-work, The average wages of day labourers are 8d. per

Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria, 353

day, decreased to 63d. in the short days of winter, but in-
creased to 10d. or 1s. in times of pressure.

Harvesting and threshing are, on the contrary, always done
by piece-work, a special employé being set apart to make these
payments. The price paid for pulling beet is from 8s. 4d. to
16s. 8d. per acre.

On most farms the greater proportion of the agricultural
operations in which animals are required are performed by
oxen; but horses are coming more into favour for certain
purposes, and, at both Lundenburg and Wischau, I found
good teams of horses, though much lighter in character than
those to which we are accustomed in England.

At Lundenburg there are 170 horses, and about 350 draught-
oxen in the busy time; and at Wischau there were 79 horses
and 450 oxen for work on the farms, besides 641 fatting beasts,
223 dairy cows, 23 young oxen, 12 bulls, 6 calves, and 101
sheep. The horses are of no particular breed, being either
purchased in the country or brought from Hungary. The
_ working oxen were at Wischau exclusively of the Hun-

garian breed, which is famous for draught purposes and is
very hardy.

At. Lundenburg horses receive per day 11 to 13 lb. of oats
or crushed maize, and 15 lb. of hay; draught-oxen, 112 lb.
of beet-pulp, 11 lb. of meadow hay, 4 lb. of chopped straw,
and 3 lb. of groats, besides 14 oz. of salt per day. The
rations at Wischau were much the same, except that there was
less pulp, and less hay ; but more straw and 3 lb. of oilcake for
the oxen.

GENERAL REMARKS.

As to the profitableness of beet cultivation from a purely
agricultural point of view, it is not possible to give any very
precise information, since the money results of growing the root,
depend almost wholly upon the price obtained for the manu-
factured article—sugar. Dr. G. Shack-Sommer, of Liverpool,
who has recently made a praiseworthy attempt to direct
attention in this country to the subject of beet-growing, says!
that ‘from the very best authorities on the Continent he has
gathered the information that the immediate result of opening a
beet-root factory in convenient proximity to the growers is to
increase the value of land by one-third.” However this may be,
it is undeniable that the intensive cultivation of the soil which

' Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, April 30, 1891,

354 Sugar-Beet Cultivation in Austria.

the beet requires, and without which the growing of it should
not be attempted, improves the land, and enables it, directly or
indirectly, to give busy and remunerative employment to a con-
siderable quantity of labour.

Sugar is now low in,price, and the Austrian manufacturers
are, like their fellows elsewhere, eloquent as to the meagreness
of their profits. Those of them who have made contracts for a term
of years with farmers to supply roots, at rates which now appear to
them high, demand a revision of prices, and talk of limiting the
production. There is an agitation in Austria, as in England,
about the lowering of railway rates, and the Government is
chided for not taking steps for the ‘ development of exports.”

These are all matters into which it would be impossible for
me to dwell here at any length. The fact remains that for some
parts at least of Austria the cultivation of the sugar-beet has
been the mainspring and the mainstay of all agricultural im-
provement; and to it is due most of the activity, the progress,
and the prosperity of the districts which I visited.

ERNEST CLARKE.

Official Reports.

REPORT, OF THE COUNCIL

To the Anniversary General Meeting of Governors and Members,
held in the Hall of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Soctety, at
20 Hanover Square, W., on Friday, May 22, 1891.

Tue Council have to report the following changes in the List of
Governors and Members during the year which has elapsed since
the last Anniversary Meeting in May 1890 :—5 new Governors and
648 Members have joined the Society, 7 have been reinstated under
Bye-Law 12, and 4 Members have qualified as Governors ; whilst
the deaths of 3 Annual Governors, 7 Life Governors, 1 Honorary
Member, 137 Life Members, and 145 Annual Members have been
reported. A total of 34 Members have been struck off the books
under Bye-Law 10, owing to absence of addresses ; 150 under Bye-
Law 11, for arrears of subscriptions ; and 223 have resigned.

2. Amongst other Governors and Members whose loss by death
the Society has had to deplore since the beginning of the present
year are the Duke of Bedford, K.G., and the Earl of Powis (Trustees
of the Society), the Duke of Somerset, Earl Beauchamp, Earl Gran-
ville, K.G., Lord Edward Cavendish, M.P., Lord Heytesbury (a
Member since 1843), the Rt. Hon, G. A. F. Cavendish-Bentinck, M.P.,
Sir Richard Sutton, Bart., Sir Matthew Wilson, Bart. (a Member
since 1840), Mr. Thomas C. Baring, M.P., Mr. Henry A. Brassey,
Col. Hambro, M.P., Col. P. 8. Humberston (a Member of the Council
from 1858 to 1865), Mr. Edmund Beck, of Sandringham, Mr.
Nathaniel Clayton, of Lincoln, and Mr. David Greig, of Leeds.

3. These and other changes bring the total number of Governors
and Members now ox@the Register to 10,928, divided as follows:

34 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the
granting of the Charter on March 26, 1840) ;

60 Governors paying an annual subscription of 5/. ;

83 Life Governors who have compounded for their annual
subscriptions ;

19 Honorary Members ;

—

196 (carried forward)

356 Report of the Council.

196 (brought forward)
6,921 Members paying an annual subscription of 11. ;
16 Members who, having paid annual subscriptions for 50
Years, have become Life Members ;
3,731 Life Members who have compounded for their annual sub-
scriptions ;
64 Life Members by Examination ;

10,928 Total number of Governors and Members ;

or a net decrease of 56 Members during the year.

4, Since the last Meeting the Society has sustained a very severe
loss by the death of the Duke of Bedford, a Trustee of the Society,
and one of its most munificent benefactors. His Grace not only
provided the land for the establishment of the Society’s Experi-
mental Farm at Woburn in the year 1876, but most generously bore
the whole cost of the valuable experiments carried on there since
that time. The Duke acted as Chairman of the Education Com-
mittee of the Society from 1874 to 1879, when he succeeded H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales as President of the Society after the Kilburn
Meeting. Though not often present of late years at the meetings
of the Council, His Grace continued to the last to take an active
interest in the Society’s welfare. The Council have great gratification
in reporting that the present Duke of Bedford, on succeeding to the
title, spontaneously expressed his wish to provide for the carrying
on of the experiments at Woburn as heretofore, thereby ensuring
the continuance of a work not only valuable in itself, but of the
highest importance to agriculture and to the country at large.

5. The Council have also to regret the loss by death of the Earl
of Powis, another of the Trustees of the Society. The late Earl
joined the Council as long ago as 1856, and had ever since taken an
active interest in the general business of the Society. Lord Powis
was President in the year 1860-61, on the occasion of the very suc-
cessful Meeting held at Leeds, and was elected a Trustee of the
Society soon after the termination of his presidency.

6. The vacancy caused by the death of the Duke of Bedford has
been filled by the transference of the Earl of Ravensworth to the list
of Trustees ; and to fill other vacancies Mr. E. Wilfrid Stanyforth, of
Kirk Hammerton Hall, York, and Lt.-Col. J. E. Curtis-Hayward, of
Quedgeley, Gloucester, have been elected Members of the Council.

7. The accounts for the year 1890 have been examined and
certified by the Auditors and Accountants of the Society, and are
published in the current number of the Journal. The final results
of the working of the year are that, after writing off the customary
percentages for depreciation, the Society’s assets amounted at
December 31, 1890, to 35,1767. 13s, 2d., as against 38,056/. 7s, 10d,
at the end of 1889,

Friday, May 22, 1891. 357

8. The Council have made further contributions amounting to
200/., to the funds of the Mansion House United Association on Rail-
way Rates, making in all 300/. subscribed by the Society towards
safeguarding the interests of agriculturists in the Parliamentary
inquiry now proceeding ; and they have also granted, out of the annual
fund at the disposal of the Veterinary Committee, a sum of 50/. towards
the expenses of the International Congress of Hygiene which is to be
held in London next August, and which will have a section specially
devoted to the consideration of the relations of the diseases of
animals to those of man.

9. The Society’s forthcoming Country Meeting at Doncaster
promises to prove of great interest and exceptional magnitude. The
total amount of space allotted in the Implement Department is 12,743
feet run, exclusive of open ground space, as compared with 9,078
feet at Plymouth last year, 15,602 feet at Windsor in 1889, 10,743
feet at Nottingham in 1&88, and 8,217 feet at Newcastle in 1887.
With the exception of the Exhibition at Windsor, the entry of Im-
plements is, in fact, larger than any since the year 1884, when 12,904
feet were allotted at the Shrewsbury Meeting. The total entries of
Live Stock (horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs) are 2,240, as compared
with 1,769 at Plymouth, 4,014 at Windsor, 1,875 at Nottingham,
and 1,833 at Newcastle. The entries of Live Stock are thus nearly
400 in excess of any previous ordinary Meeting of the Society, not-
withstanding the operation of the new rule limiting to three the
number of entries in the same class that can be made by any
Exhibitor. There are 717 entries of horses, 669 of cattle, 649 of
sheep, and 205 of pigs, besides 803 of poultry, 55 of cheese, and 189
of butter.

10. The general arrangements for the Meeting are well advanced.
The Implement Yard and the Dairy will be open to Members of the
Society and the public on Saturday, June 20, when the charge for
admission to non-members will be 2s. 6d. The judging will take
place in all the classes on Monday, June 22, when the charge for
admission will be 5s. On Tuesday and Wednesday the charge for
admission will be 2s. 6d. each day ; and on the last two days,
Thursday and Friday, it will be 1s. each day.

11. Twenty-nine candidates have entered for the competitions
of Buttermakers for the Society’s Prizes and Certificates, to take
place in the Showyard, from Tuesday, the 23rd, to Thursday, the
25th June. Twenty-six shoeing-smiths practising in the Society’s
District E (i.e. the county of York) will compete for the Prizes
offered for shoeing Hunters and Agricultural Horses on the Tuesday,
Wednesday and Thursday of the Meeting. Arrangements are in
~progress for the delivery by experts of lectures on Dairy matters
and on Horse-Shoeing in the course of the week.

12. At the Show of Horses which was held at the Royal Agri-
cultural Hall last March, under the auspices of the Royal Commis-

358 Report of the Council.

sion on Horse Breeding, of the Hunters’ Improvement and Hackney
Horse Societies, and of this Society, and which was honoured by
the presence of Her Majesty the Queen, their Royal Highnesses the
Prince and Princess of Wales, and other members of the Royal
family, the three Premiums offered by the Society for Thoroughbred
Stallions serving mares in District E during the present season were
awarded to Mr. David Cooper’s Linneus, Mr. E. Hodge Banks’s
Moss Hawk, and Mr. Thomas Carr’s Crom-A-Boo.

These stallions, which will be pxiabited at the Doncaster Meeting
from the morning of Monday, June 22, to the evening of Wednes-
day, June 24, are located for the season as follows -—Linneeus at
his owner’s stables, Bainesse, Catterick, travelling also to Bedale,
Northallerton, Scotch Corner and Richmond’; Mods Hawk, Driffield

and travelling the district ; and Crom-A-Boo, Ripon and travelling
the district.

13. As already reported, invitations for the holding of the
Society’s Country Meeting of 1892 in their respective localities
were received from the city and county of Gloucester and the town
and county of Warwick ; and on the 4th February last deputations
from both districts waited upon the Council in support of these invi-
tations. After duly weighing the merits of the sites and other
accommodation offered by both Gloucester and Warwick, the
Council decided to accept the invitation of the latter; and the
Country Meeting of 1892 will therefore be held at Warwick, in the
grounds of the Castle Park. The historic interest of this site, its
beautiful situation, and the proximity of Birmingham and other
large centres of population in the Midlands, lead the Council to
anticipate at the Warwick Meeting a highly successful gathering.

14. The Council have already decided to hold, in connection
with the Warwick Meeting, trials of Ploughs in competition for
prizes in eight classes, as follows :

First Second

Class Prize. Prize.
1. For the best single-furrow plough for light land - £10... £5
2. For the best single-furrow plough for strong land : £10 £6
3. For the single-furrow plough best adapted for a press-drill

and broad-cast sowing . f : : : 2210 85
4. For the best two-furrow plough . 5 ; ; - “£10 > £5
5, For the best three-furrow plough ; : 3 Fe i One 3)
6. For the best digging plough for light land . / : ~ ‘£10 #5

: . W210 0-885
. . .610% seo

These trials will take place early in the spring of 1892, on land
selected by the Society, in the neighbourhood of Warwick ; and the
competing ploughs will, after the trials, be retained in the posses-
sion of the Society until the Warwick Meeting, when they will all
be exhibited together in the Showyard in a space set apart for the

purpose. Entries for the prizes must be made on or before Saturday,
July 25, 1891,

7. For the best digging plough for henry land
8. For the best one-way plough :

Friday, May 22, 1891. 359

15. In accordance with the usual rotation of Districts, the
Country Meeting of 1893 will be held in District G, which consists
of the counties of Chester and Lancaster and of North Wales.

16. The Council have appointed Mr. Lewis P. Rees, of 5
Lammas Street, Carmarthen, a Provincial Veterinary Surgeon of
the Society. The Examiners on the diseases of animals of the farm
other than the horse, in the examinations for the diploma of the
Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons held last year, have reported
that the following gentlemen attained the greatest distinction :—

Mr, J. E. Row, Veterinary Infirmary, Newgate Street, Chester.
Mr, F, E. Pracs, 4 Parker’s Place, Exmouth.

The Society’s Silver Medal has, therefore, been awarded to Mr.
Row, and the Bronze Medal to Mr. Place.

17. In the Department of Comparative Pathology at the Royal
Veterinary College, which is assisted by a grant from the Society,
important investigations relative to the diseases of farm stock have
been carried on. Foot-rot among sheep has been for some time a
subject of inquiry, and experiments have been made with a view of
determining to what extent the disease is contagious. At present,
a number of sheep are pastured on a clay subsoil, diseased and
healthy animals being penned together ; while, as a control experi-
ment, some sheep which have not been exposed to contact with
foot-rot are penned on another part of the meadow. Experiments
have also been conducted to test the communicability of tubercle
to susceptible animals by feeding on meat from tuberculous cattle,
such meat being, so far as could be ascertained, free from tubercle
bacilli. These experiments have been attended with positive results
in a large proportion of the animals which were fed. Directions
have also been given for an inquiry into the causation of abortion
in cattle.

18. Pink-eye among horses has lately attracted a great deal of
attention, and the question of including the disease under the
provisions of the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Acts has been much
debated. At one time there was a strong feeling in favour of this
action being taken. But the view seems to have undergone con-
siderable modification when it was realised that any interferencé
with the free movement and use of horses over a large extent of
country would cause serious interruption to trade. Pink-eye isa form —
of influenza which is not fatal if the animals attacked are put under
proper veterinary treatment as soon as signs of illness are apparent.
The most serious losses have occurred here and in America in con-
sequence of the practice of working horses while suffering from the
disease.

19. It was reported to the Members in December, 1889, that
the Society’s Consulting Chemist, Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, had
been selected by the Secretary of State for India, on the recommen-

560 Report of the Council.

dation of Sir James Caird, to advise the Indian Government, after
personal examination and inquiry, as to the best course to be adopted
for the improvement of Indian agriculture by scientific means. Dr.
Voelcker has now returned to his duties, and the Council report
with gratification that the Government of India have cordially ac-
knowledged the character and value of his work during his mission
in that country. During Dr. Voelcker’s absence his duties as Con-
sulting Chemist were very ably and efficiently discharged by his
brother, Mr. E. W. Voelcker, upon whom the Council have conferred
the Life Membership of the Society in recognition of their appre-
ciation of his services.

20. The number of samples analysed in the laboratory on behalf
of Members from December to the end of April has been 727.
The subject of the better regulation of the Sale of Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs, which has been brought before Parliament, is one
in which the Society is greatly interested, and it is sincerely to be
hoped that such measures will be adopted as will give practical
effect to the recommendations which this Society’s Chemical Com-
mittee have for so long been endeavouring to impress upon the
Members, but which have heretofore lacked any legal force or
support.

21. Feeding experiments both on Sheep and on Bullocks have
been carried out at Woburn during the winter. Those with Bullocks
were in repetition of an experiment of a former year, upon the com-
parative values of decorticated and undecorticated cotton cake. The
Field experiments are being continued as heretofore.

The Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, the Royal Manchester,
Liverpool, and North Lancashire Agricultural Society, and the
Essex Agricultural Society have, as in former years, carried out
the system of local experiments inaugurated in 1886.

22. It appears from the Consulting Botanist’s report that the
quality of the grass seeds continues this year to be satisfactory,
but that the clovers have been less pure than in previous years,
and have contained a larger proportion of the seeds of dodder.
Investigations have been made into fungoid diseases affecting the
larch and oak. The ingredients in pasture and in hay likely to
prove injurious to stock have been investigated in a number of cases.
Ergot was found to be frequently present, but not in quantity suffi-
cient to be injurious. }

23. The Council have, at the request of the Board of Agriculture,
undertaken to organise and carry out a series of experiments in
different districts of England and Wales, for the purpose of testing
the efficacy of sulphate of copper as a preventive of the special
fungus which attacks the potato plant. It is proposed that the
selected potato-plots shall be dressed with sulphate of copper upon
a uniform plan, by a person appointed by the Society ; that the
crops shall in the course of their growth be inspected by the Con- -

Friday, May 22, 1891. 361

sulting Botanist ; and that the produce when dug up shall be sepa-
rated and weighed under the superintendence of an officer of the
Society.

24. The work of the Consulting Entomologist is going on steadily.
Information is being constantly desired regarding the habits of crop
insects and the means of preventing their ravages, and to some ex-
tent also regarding timber and forest insects. Warble attack is also
receiving attention. A far greater amount of interest is being taken
by the public in practicable methods of lessening loss from orchard
insect attacks than has ever previously been the case, and from the
minute care that is being bestowed there is great hope of good
results. Correspondence also frequently takes place in this depart-
ment as to the best methods of promoting plain and practical
instruction in Agricultural Entomology, in connection with the in-
creased attention bestowed on Technical Agricultural Education in
various parts of the country.

25. The question of Technical Education in Agriculture, in con-
nection with the recent allocation to County Councils of grants
under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, has again
received the serious consideration of the Education Committee. They
have presented two valuable reports on the subject, which have been
adopted by the Council and published in the Journal. As numerous
inquiries have been addressed to the Society on behalf of County
Councils by persons seeking for information, it has been deemed
desirable to reprint these reports, together with an instructive
article on the general question of Technical Education in Agriculture,
contributed by Dr. W. Fream to the current number of the Journal,
for distribution in pamphlet form to Members of the Education
Committees of County Councils and to others interested in the
matter. The Education Committee have also been charged by the
Council with the preparation of a Text Book for the teaching of
Agriculture in Elementary and Continuation schools, which it is
proposed to issue at an early date under the authority of the Society.

26. Twenty-one candidates entered and thirteen actually com-
peted at the Society’s Senior Examinations which took place from
the 12th to the 16th of this month. The answers of the candidates
are now under the consideration of the Examiners, and the results
will be announced at the Meeting of Council to be held in June.

By Order of the Council,
ERNEST CLARKE,

Secretary.

VOL. II. T. S.—6 BB

362

FIELD EXPERIMENTS AT WOBURN IW
1889 AND 1890.

A. EXPERIMENTS ON ContTINuous Corn GROWING.
I. The continuous growth of Wheat.)

Tue years 1889 and 1890 comprised the thirteenth and fourteenth
seasons of consecutive wheat crops. The variety grown was Bro-
wick red wheat, 9 pecks per acre of seed being dibbled in by hand,
Nov. 7-9 in 1889, and Oct. 24-26 in 1890. The same manures
have, with the variations mentioned in the table of results, been
used each year since 1877 on the respective plots. The mineral
manures were sown on plots 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 two or three days
before the seed went in, and the nitrogenous top-dressings of
ammonia-salts (sulphate of ammonia and muriate of ammonia in
equal parts) and nitrate of soda were applied in spring (April
16-17) to the plots 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9, due to receive them. Plots
1 and 7 have been left without manure since the commencement in
1877, while plot 4 has had only the mineral manures during the
same period. On plot 11B, farmyard manure at the rate of about
7 tons per acre was applied early in February. This had been made
by bullocks in the feeding-boxes in December consuming definite
weights of food, so that the manure produced might yield the
estimated amount of 200 lb. ammonia per acre when put on the
land, and afford thus a comparison with the effect of ammonia applied
in the form of nitrogenous top-dressings on plots 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, and 9.
Plot 114, which last had this same manuring with farmyard manure
in 1882, has since had none, in order to see how long the effect of
the application would remain. On plots 10a and 10B the same
experiment had been tried, but with only a half-dressing (about
4 tons), of farmyard manure. This amount proving, however, of little
efficacy, it was decided to try in place of it a material like
rape-cake, which supplies organic nitrogenous matter to the
crop. Accordingly, both plots 10a and 10B received on Jan. 23,
1889 a dressing of about 8 ewt. per acre of rape-cake, this yield-
ing 50 lb. of ammonia per acre to the land. After this appli-
cation in 1889 plot 104 was left in 1890 without any fuither
dressing, but it was renewed on 10x, 100 lb. of ammonia to the
acre being applied to this plot in 1890.

The rainfall for the year 1889 was 23-67 inches, almost identical
with that of the very unfavourable year 1888. May was an ex-
ceptionally wet month, while both in July and August there were
11 wet days. In 1890 the rainfall was considerably less, viz. 16°8
inches, but although April and May were fine bright months, there

1 These experiments are for the purpose of showing the effect of different-
artificial manures, and of farmyard manure, upon corn crops grown year after
year on the same land.

TABLE I.—Propuce or Continuous WHEAT.

‘THIRTEENTH SEASON, 1889 FOURTEENTH SEASON, 1890.

PRODUCE PER ACRE | PRODUCE PER ACRE
PLots MANURES PER ACRE, Dressed Corn Dressed ad Corn
} acre applied every year since 1877 - a eds —-
Num- iter |Straw, Chaff, Num-| | Wei- Straw, Chaff,
Wei- | ber of} © a &e. Wei- | ber of &e.
ght | Bus- bas || ght | Bus- ae
hels | hel hels | “he |
lb. Ib. lewt. qr. Ib. || Ib. Ib. lewt. qr. Ib.
1 A Sota ea . e 776. | 181 | 592 | 14 2 2 |! 827-| 141) 68:7 }-14 2 922
{ 0 ammonia-sal s, contain- «2 | RO. | 3 q
ing 50 1b. etna Ghia 3 I} 1,552 | 26°3 | 59:08,| 26 1 27 1,445 | 24:7 15838 |} 19 2 15
275 1b. nitrate of soda, contain- ag | eR, 76 3 rr.
3 | ing Nitrogen —601b. ‘Amnmonta ¢ | 15042 (189 5506 | 23 0 2 | 1,727 | 31-2 (5529) 26 3 14
200 lb. sulph. potash, 100 al
| sulph. soda, 100 lb. sulph.! | -, 9:6 A E ¥ 97 |
4 iiiagiicai © avi’ Superphos- 729 | 122 |59'75 | 15 1 27 898 | 15-4 | 98°37 15 0 6
phate of lime . = |
200 Ib. sulph. potash, 100 1b.) |
sulph. soda, 100 1b. sulph. |
magnesia, 34 ewt. superphos- eee legs ; 2 os
5 phate aie lime, and 200 1b. + | 2,130 35°55 |59°91 | 37 3 11 (Dee 30°3 {60°21 | 26 3 O
ammonia-salts, containing 50 ]
lb. Ammonia . 6 ci <
200 Ib. sulph. potash, 100 Ib. |
sulph. soda, 100 1b. sulph.
| magnesia, 34 ewt. superphos- ” - | FQ, - ¢ —eR6
6 phate of lime, and 275 Ib. F\1,771 | 80% | 58:03 | 36 2 1 |/1,967 | 341 | 5762) 31 1 4
nitrate of soda, containing Ni- |
trogen=50 lb, Ammonia 4
7 Unmanured . ; - 779 | 13°9 |55°75 | 14 0 4 || 918 | 15-7 |5833 | 14 2 24
200 1b. sulph. potash, 100 lb. |
sulph. soda, 100 Ib. sulph. = | “
| magnesia, 3h ewt. peperphics: a ie eT) 1,568 ,|,26°0,, | 60°30: ).23).0 18
phate of lime . . A |
Ditto . . 1,240 | 212 | 585 | 19 0 6 || — = a= _
The same minerals as above, and ) | |
400 lb. ammonia-salts, con-}+| — — _ _ | 2,350 | 39°0 |60°25 | 31 2 2
taining 100lb. Ammonia. ) | |

(200 1b. sulph. potash, 100 1b.) |
94 ( sulph. soda, 1001b, sulph. mag. |
nesia, 34 cwt. super Bhesphate
oflime . ° ‘i
9B Ditto
The same minerals on above, and )
550 lb. nitrate of soda, a : ae 2
taining Nitrogen=100 hile 7 7a a |) 2,858 | 42°3 | 55°75 | pe 0 12
Ammonia

8a
8+ 8B
8B
84 | Ditto . 2,578 | 444 | 580 | 45 1 6

i: .
1882-8. No Manure (having re- |
ceived about 4 tons Farmyard
Manure, giving ae lb, Am-
monia, each year 1877-81) e 3 t ? 3 f ce .
1889, Rape-cake about 8 ewt, +/1158| 198 | 584 / 20 2 6 | 1,050) 176 | 5962 | 15 2 18
containing Nitrogen=50 lb. |
Ammonia. a . F 5
1890. NoManure .
1877-88, Farmyard Manure
about 4 tons, giving 100 lb. 4
Ammonia, each year : }
1888. No Manure. f
1889. Rape-cake abou 8 ewt. ¥ ¥ ;
containing Nitrogen=50 Ib. 1,416 | 23°38 | 594 | 25 O 10 | 1,830 | 30-4
Ammonia. . |

1890. Rape-cake, about 16 evwt.
containing Nitrogen=100 lb.

6017 | 28 1 26

104
Ammonia :

No Manure (having received
manure as 11B in each of the - ‘ ‘ yy A me
five seasons previous to 1882, 922 | 158 |58:25)15 2 0 (1,178 197 | 59°62 18 1 14
but none in 1882 or since). .

Farmyard Manure, estimated to ;

contain Nitrogen=200 Ib.!) 79g | 30:5 | 58:9 | 27 2 16 |) 1,736 | 205 |58:75 | 31 1 22

10
10B
Ammonia. Weight about 7

= ' tons.

364 Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.

were many wet days in June, July, and August. Under these
circumstances the crop of 1889 was very thin and but little superior
to that of 1888, nor did that of 1890 show any large increase. The
crops were cut and harvested Aug. 17-29 in each year. The results
are given in Table I., page 363.

The yields of the duplicate unmanured plots agree very closely in
1889 ; in 1890 plot 7 is rather the higher. Minerals alone have as
usual given no increase. In 1889 ammonia salts, whether used
-alone or with mineral manures, produced a larger crop than nitrate
of soda, but in the drier year, 1890, the exact reverse was the case,
nitrate of soda in each instance then showing the higher return.
The appearance of the plots on which these nitrogenous top-dress-
ings are used is, in the earlier stages, very poor and the plant is
very uneven, nevertheless towards harvest they seem to pull up
wonderfully, and the yield is much more than it has seemed likely
to be. The small increase (two bushels) from putting on in 1889
the double dressing of nitrate of soda is very noticeable, and while
the omission of ammonia-salts for a single year reduces the corn to
21 bushels, the effect of leaving out nitrate of soda is to take it as
low as 11-4 bushels, which iseven below the unmanured yield. This
greater diminution in the case of nitrate of soda is also very marked
in 1890. The effect of rape cake, applied so as to give 100 lb. of
ammonia per acre, is greater than that of farmyard manure esti-
mated to contain double that amount. Plot 114 still seems to show
the presence of some unexhausted fertility from the farmyard manure
put on in former years.

II. The continuous growth of Barley.

THE duration of these experiments is the same as those on wheat
growing, so that the results now to be recorded are those of the
thirteenth and fourteenth years of consecutive barley crops. The
plan of manuring is the same as with the wheat. Golden Melon
barley at the rate of nine pecks per acre was drilled in 1889 on
March 13th, and in 1890 on April 3rd ; the mineral manures were
applied the day previously and the farmyard manure fer plot 11s,
which had been made during December, was put on as a top-dress-
ing just after sowing was finished. Rape-cake was given to plot 10
a few days later, and the nitrogenous top-dressings were made on
April 29 in 1889 and May 9 in 1890. 1889 was a most unfavourable
year for barley, and heavy storms occurring in July knocked down
the crop very much, especially on the highly manured plots. 1890
was a more favourable season for barley, and an average yield
was obtained.

Cutting and harvesting of the crop took place August 13-29 in
year. The results are given in Table IT. opposite.

Mineral manures produced no increase in 1889, and only about
three bushels in 1890. The results from the use of nitrate of soda
or from ammonia-salts when used alone were closely alike both
years, but used in combination with minerals, nitrate of soda gave

PLots,
d acre

Taste If.—Propucr or Continuous Barwey.

MANURES PER ACRE,
applied every year since 1877

THIRTEENTH SEASON, 1889

| FOURTEENTH SEASON, 1890

PRODUCE PER ACRE

PRODUCE PER ACRE -

Dressed Corn

Straw,
Chaff, &c.

Num-
ber of
Bus-

hels hel

Wei-
ght

; 1lA
® il
lls

Unmanured .
er: 1b. ammonia-salts, contain- )
ing 50 lb, Ammonia :
275 tb. nitrate of soda, contain-
| ing Nitrogen=50 ib. Am-
monia.
2001b. sulphate of potash, 1001b.
sulphate of soda, 100 lb. sul-
phate of magnesia, 34 cwt.
superphosphate of lime .
("s lb. sulph. potash, 100 Ib.
sulph. soda, 100 Ib. sulph.
magnesia, 3h ewt. superphos-
phate of lime, and 200 lb. am-
—— containing 50 lb.

200 Ib. lb. = potash, 100 Ib.
sulph. soda, 100 Ib. sulph.
magnesia, 34 cwt. superphos-
phate of lime, and 275 lb.
nitrate of soda, containing
Nitrogen=50 lb. Ammonia
Unmanured
200 lb. sulph. of ‘potash, 100 Ib.
sulph. of soda, 100 lb, sulph.
of magnesia, 34 cwt. super-
phosphate of lime . r C
Ditto P
The same minerals as in 8B, and
400 lb. ammonia-salts, con-
taining 100 lb. Ammonia
ee .
200 lb. sulph. of “potash, 100 Ib.
sulph. of soda, 100 lb. sulph.
of magnesia, 34 ewt. oa
phosphate of lime .
(pe 3
The same minerals as ‘in 9B, and
550 lb. nitrate of soda, con-
taining ea 100 lb. Am-
monia :

1882-8. No Manure (having
received about 4 tons Farm-
yard Manure, giving 100 lb.
Ammonia, each year 1877- 81) |
1889. Rape-cake, about 8 cwt.,

containing’ Nitrogen=50 lb.

Ammonia 5 . « .

1890. No Manure

1877-87. Farmyard Manure,
about 4 tons, giving 100 lb.
Ammonia, each year

1888, No Manure :

1889. Rape-cake, about 8 ewt.,
containing Nitrogen=50 lb,
Ammonia.

1890. Rape-cake, about 16. ewt.,
containing Nitrogen=100 Ib.

\ Ammonia =

No Manure (having received
manure as 11B in each of the
five seasons 1877-81, but none
in 1882 or since) *

{contin Manure, estimated to)

contain Nitrogen= 200 lb. we |
monia. Weight about 7 tons”

)

Ib.
573
1,515

10°8
28°0

53-0 GL 4
13-16
15 0

11,425 | 27°6 |

687 | 13-0

1,778 | 32:3 | 5494) 14 1

1,794 21 1

1,120 | 21-4 | 52:95] 12 3

998 | 188 | 53:12); 10 2

1,274 | 24°1 | 52°75) 12

1,462 | 27-2 | 5366) 13 1 12

» In 1888 farmyard manure as in 11B was applied in error

lb. |ewt. qr. Ib. ||

oT

Dressed Corn

3 12
|

Num- Straw,
Wei- | ber of, gb haff, &c.
ght | Bus- Bus
ee tial |
lb. lb. | ewt. qr. Ib.
1,558 | 295 | 5282) 14 2 2
|2,126 | 39°6 | 5361, 19 1 18
| |
2,029 | 392 | 51:75) 21 0 7
1,736 | 32:2 | 53:96| 13 3 11
| 2,697 | 49:2 | 5481] 22 3 2
2,800 | 521 | 53-71] 26 0 17
1,292 | 246 | 52°54) 12 0 6
1,856 | 346 | 53°62) 17 3 20
2,814 | 519 | 5417) 28 2 4
2,974 | 422 | 5390| 21 1 4
| i
2,780 | 540 | 5141} 31 1 22
>
/1,634 | 31-1 | 52°50| 14 3 14
|
|| 2,032 | 39:1 | 51:94] 22 1 8
|
1,952 | 36-9 | 52°87; 19 O 12
|| 2,774 | 51:8 | 53:50] 26 2 18
i aa

2 Omitted in 1888 in error,

366 Field Lxperiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.

about two bushels increase and considerably more straw. Doubling
the dressing of nitrate of soda gave only 4 bushels more in 1889,
and 2 bushels extra in 1890. Rather more relative increase was
obtained from doubling the ammonia-salts, but nitrate of soda gave
the higher total yields. The omission of the top-dressing for a
single year did not in either season give such marked distinctions
as heretofore, between ammonia-salts and nitrate of soda, when
severally omitted. Thus in 1889 when ammonia-salts were left out
the yield fell to 21:9 bushels and to 18 bushels when nitrate of soda
was not put on ; but in 1890 the crop grown on the residue of the
nitrate of the former year was even higher than that from the
ammonia-salts. It is only fair, however, to mention that in this
year plot 84 was very patchy indeed. Plot 2 as usual looked at
first extremely bare in parts. In 1889 neither farmyard manure nor
rape cake applied as top-dressings told well, and in 1890 the effect
of the rape cake was not nearly so marked—-when compared with
the farmyard manure—as in the case of the wheat crop.

B. THe Rorarion ExpERIMEN'S.

These experiments were designed to ascertain, in brief, whether
the difference between the high manurial value of decorticated cotton-
cake when consumed on the land, as compared with the lower one
of maize-meal, is brought out in the respective crops grown by the
use of each, and also if the same difference is shown when artificial
manures of estimated equivalent strength to decorticated cotton-
cake and maize-meal severally are used.

The original plan of experiment was to manure for the root-crop
with dung made by the consumption of decorticated cotton-cake
and maize-meal respectively, then to feed off the roots on the land,
following with barley, and after that clover, which latter was eaten
off with decorticated cotton-cake and maize-meal once more, in
preparation for the wheat crop. After following this plan for two
entire four-course rotations, viz. 1877-84, it was found that the
expected difference was not shown, but that full crops had been
produced by the poorer manuring. The plan was accordingly
altered, and the field divided into two halves, the crops on one half
being grown without any manure, and being successively removed

2 | Rotation, No.1. | Rotation, No, 2. Rotation, No, 3. Rotation, No, 4.

Year | 4 acres 4 acres 4 acres 4 acres

|

| |
1885 Seeds | Roots —- _
1886 Wheat Barley Seeds Roots
1887 Roots Seeds Wheat Barley
1888 Barley Wheat Roots Seeds
1889 Seeds Roots Barley Wheat
1890 Wheat Barley Seeds Roots

off the land with the idea of removing its accumulated over-fertility,
while on the other half manuring with decorticated cotton-cake and

Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890. 367

maize-meal respectively is still continued, but much smaller amounts
are used and only once in the rotation, viz. when the roots are being
fed off. This plan has been continued from 1885 up to the present.
The table on page 366 represents the cropping.

Seeds.—Red clover was sown among the barley early in May at
the rate of 16 lb. per acre. The following year it was cut, for the
first time in June, and the second time in the middle of August.
The weights obtained in 1889 and 1890 are given in Table III.

Taste III.—Propuce or Cirover Hay 1n 1889 (Rorarion 1)
AND 1890 (Roration 3) AFTER BARLEY.

Produce per Acre
Prots, }-Acre Manures | =

| 1889 1890

if tons ewt. qr. lb. | tonscwt.qr. Ib.
No manure (after barley— |
{ cotton-cake plot). . .) ae ee Oe a
No manure (after barley— }
maize-meal plot). . .
No manure (after barley—
)
)

Manured |
once in the
rotation by 9 | {
feeding off (
roots with} | {
dec. Cot-<¢ 3 |
ton - cake cotton-cake dung plot).

and Maize- { No manure (after barley— ) |

A

_

Le 6, Orne | 3: 0 Oh 2e

|
|

artificial equivalent of}} 4 2 2 10/3 6 1 14

meal re-/| 4 artificial equivalent of} 4 1 2 14/3 13 3 22

spectively. maize-meal dung plot) .

No manure (after barley— ) 7 9
{ cotton-cake plot) Ee, 1S ee

Or

6 Pie sree’ Carex botloge— a 46 is eee eG
maize-meal plot). . .
Unmanured | (No manure (after barley—
since 1885.\7 |; artificial equivalent off 4 2 1 14/3 16 3 12

| ( No manure (after barley—
8. artificial equivalent of
( maize-meal dung plot).

os Lie 2 0 LQ” 2; 722

wow

j
( cotton-cake dung plot). )
|

Although in the barley crop of 1888 preceding the clover of 1889,
the manured half (plots 1, 2, 3, 4,) had shown much higher returns
than the unmanured half, whilst there was indication of this also
with the barley of 1889, the differences are not observable in the
above clover crops.

Wheat.—After ploughing up the previous clover-root, 8 pecks
per acre of Browick wheat were drilled late in October or early in
November in each year, and the crop was cut and harvested August
15-28 the following year. The results are given in Table IV.,
page 368.

In both years, and more especially in 1889, there is evidence of
the somewhat higher fertility of the plots comprising the manured
half of the rotation. Also in 1890 the superiority of the cotton-
cake to the maize-meal plots is indicated throughout. It might be
mentioned here that in 1885 when wheat was last grown on Rota-

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Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890, 369

tion 4, the average produce was 45 bushels. That the season mainly,
and not alone the exhausting effect of the crops grown and removed,
has caused the lowering to 25 bushels, is shown by the much higher
produce obtained on Rotation 1 in 1890,

Barley—This crop followed roots. Over one half of the
rotation mangel was grown without manure, and was carted off
the land entirely. On the other half swedes were grown with 3 cwt.
of mineral superphosphate per acre to insure a crop, and after
weighing the produce, a portion (viz. 25 tons per acre in 1888, and
7 tons per acre in 1889, as well as all the leaves,) of the crop was
removed from each plot, so as not to enrich the land too much, and
the remainder (about 6 tons per acre) was fed off by sheep during
the winter as follows :—

Plot 1, with 400 lb. decorticated cotton-cake per acre.

Plot 2, with 400 lb, maize-meal per acre.

Plots 3 and 4, without purchased foods, but to the barley were subsequently
applied artificial manures estimated to be equivalent to the cotton-cake
and maize-meal dung respectively.

The sheep had also a little wheat-straw chaff (1 cwt. per acre)
given to them when feeding off the roots.

After ploughing up the land, barley—8 pecks per acre—was
drilled in spring (March 16 in 1889, and April 2 in 1890), red clover
being sown over the plots earlyin May. The manures representing
the artificial equivalents of the cotton-cake and maize-meal dung
were applied to plots 3 and 4, the mineral portion at the time of
sowing the barley, and the nitrogenous portion (in the form of
nitrate of soda) when the corn was well up. The crop was cut and
harvested August 14-30 in each year. The results are given in
Table V., page 370.

It is the barley crop immediately following the consumption of
cake and meal on the land with roots that has given the best indi-
cation, so far, of differences of manurial value between the cotton-
cake and maize. But neither in 1889 nor 1890 is this as marked
as before. Where artificial equivalents to these foods have been
used the distinctions are clear, both in the plots of 1889 and of 1890.
The plots 1 and 2 of 1889 seem, however, to give anomalous
results, which may possibly be due in great part to the difficulty
of manuring evenly with sheep when going over the land.

With the exception of these two plots, there are the same dis-
tinctions that have been previously observed in favour of cotton-
cake and its artificial equivalent, as against maize-meal and its
equivalent—as also between the manured and unmanured halves
of the rotation.

Roots.— Mangel seed, 6 lb. per acre, was drilled over one half
(the unmanured) of the rotation, on April 29 in both 1889 and
1890, and on the manured half, 3 lb. of swede seed per acre were
drilled early in June with 3 cwt. of mineral superphosphate to
ensure a crop. The mangel produced a fair crop, especially in 1890,
the roots being ready to pull on October 10, but only by November 1,

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Field Hxperiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890,

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372 Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.

in 1889. The swede crop was pulled in 1889 on November 14,
the crop being heavier than usual, but in 1890 (rotation 4) the
swedes began to go off very much at the beginning of August,
‘“‘finger and toe” disease manifesting itself very badly, and ulti-
mately there was no crop at all on any of the four plots of this
rotation.

The results obtained are given in Table VI., page 371.

The very fair crops of mangel taken off this land, although no
manure whatever has been given to it since 1885, show that
there is still much in the soil which is eapable of removal by crops.
At the same time the failure of swedes on rotation 4 in 1890, while
mangel throve without manure, opens up an interesting question
as to the different nature of growth of these crops and the food
they respectively feed on in the soil, and their methods of obtaining
such food. It was on this same rotation (rotation 4) that the swedes in
1886 produced a very small crop, and the tops were entirely blighted.
Mangel, on the other half, produced however 17 to 19 tons per
acre.

C. FurtHer EXxpreriMeNts IN LANSOME FIELD ON THE CoMPARA-
TiveE MANURIAL VALUES OF DEcORTICATED COTTON-CAKE AND
MAIZzE-MEAL. © .

These experiments began in 1885, and consist of six plots. The
4-course rotation is adopted, and manure is used only once in the
rotation. In 1885 it was applied direct for the barley crop, but in
1889 the swedes grown in 1888 were fed off with sheep on all the
plots. Plots 1 and 4, however, received no further manure, but on
’ plot 2 the sheep had, as in the rotation experiments, 400 lb. per
acre of decorticated cotton-cake, and on plot 5 400 Ib. of maize-meal
per acre, while on plots 3 and 6 decorticated cotton-cake-meal and
maize-meal in quantity estimated to supply the same amounts of
manurial ingredients as the cotton-cake and maize-meal dung
respectively did, were severally spread as top-dressings just after
the barley was sown. This was about March 15, 1889. Clover seed
(red and white mixed) was sown among the barley early in May.
The barley crop was cut and harvested August 9-31, 1889, and the
clover crop of 1890 cut twice, viz. on June 20 and August 19, 1890.

The results for the two years are given in Table VII. opposite.

Both in the barley crop of 1889 and in the succeeding clover of
1890, the highest produce has been obtained from plot 3, to which
decorticated cotton-cake meal is applied direct as a manure. The
results of the duplicate plots 1 and 4 confirm the observation of
previous years that No. 1 more nearly represents the “ wnmanured
yield.” Maize-meal fed on the land has proved better than the same
spread as manure,

These experiments on the poorer soil of Lansome Field appear
likely to yield useful evidence to supplement the investigations in
Stackyard Field, where the rotation experiments are in progress.

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374 Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.

D. EXPERIMENTS ON PERMANENT PASTURE.

Four plots were laid down in Great Hill Bottom Field in 1886,
and two others, in 1888, with mixtures of grass and clover seeds at
varying cost, as follows :

Per acre

$s. d.

1886 Plot 1A 9,869,000 seeds without rye-grass, costing 20 10

- » 1B 14,968,000 ,, with 3 Fe Treame
“5 » 2A 14,394,000 ,, without a » 29 113
x » 2B 19,447,000 ,, with x 5 | oo eee

1888 ,, 3A 16,000.000 ,, without a = we She Ap

53 » 3B 8,000,000 ,, without Fe + 13... 2

One half of each plot is manured yearly with 5 ewt. per acre
decorticated cotton-cake-meal and mown for hay, the other is fed
off with sheep consuming the same amount of cake on the plots. In
1889 and 1890 the meal was sown in March on the halves to be
mown, and two cuttings were taken, the first near the end of June,
the second early in September. The sheep feeding off the grass
went over it four times in 1889 (beginning August 4, June 1, July
13, and September 10), and three times in 1890 (beginning May 12,
June 28, August 27), the first time without cake and afterwards
with it.

The produce of the hayed plots is given in Table VIII.

TaBLE VIII.—Propuce oF Hay PER ACRE IN
Great Hitt Borrom.

— Produce per acre

| Total produce

Plot of the three ee an i an

years 1886-88 | |

|

tonscwt.qr.lb. tonsewt.qr.lb. | tonsewt.qr. lb. = di:
la |} 8 18 2 2 91 0 | 2 8 3 10 | Without rye-grass, cost per acre . 20 10
In: |S: 2900 -38° | 2 15 Or 245] 32 -3 4 livin a ¥ af 6
Qa sa8-1. 6 Ss $6. 1450 2 8 O 10 | Without S 2 29 113
2B 9 4 0 2 2 AT a ie ye ae | ee] With ” ” 24 3h

| 1888
3A 2 10 20. ¥2 419 1 2 3 42 18 Thick seeding oy .26 0
So ded 00)! 25 5 ‘\osans 3 6 a. 93 | Thin BS x, 13 0

E. MisceLLaANgeous EXPERIMENTS.
1. Varieties of Oats.

Three varieties, vizi—‘‘ New Zealand,” ‘Cluster,’ and
“ American Triumph ” were sown side by side in Road Piece Field
in 1889 at the rate of 9 pecks per acre and manured alike. The
first two varieties were ready to cut on August 8, but the American
one not until August 22. The harvest results were :—

Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.

375

PRODUCE OF OATS PER E .
: ewe DRESSED Corn
Plots } acre Weight |
Weight Bushels per Straw, Chaff, &c
| Bushel |
ewt. qr. 1b. lb. | owt. qr. Ib.
1. New Zealand Oats . . 175.3) 10 45°93 43°5..|23 1 22
PEO Mlnsters Oats... +e |-21. O- 14 59'9 39°5 S016
3. “American Triumph” Oats | 17 3 26 59°17 34:04 | 39 3 26

Il. Varieties of Barley.

Two varieties of barley, ‘‘ Prize Prolific”
were drilled side by side in Butt Furlong on March 20, 1889, at the
rate of 8 pecks of seed per acre. The results at harvest were :—

and ‘‘Goldenthorpe,”

PropUCE Se PER | DRESSED Corn
Plots } acre amet 7 | r j
| Weight |
Weight | Bushels | per |Straw, Chaff, &e,
| Bushel
- fi
ewt. qr. Ib, lb. ewt. qr. Ib.
1. “ Prize Prolific” Barley T3e 2: es8 40 | 62 20 ele 22
2. “Goldenthorpe” Barley 18 2 2t 39-4 53°12 | 29) d

IIL. Experiment on Liming.

Three acres were selected early in 1889 in Lansome Piece, a
field which was believed to be in need of liming, as indicated b

previous swede crops showing a tendency to “ finger and toe.”

On

Jan, 23-25, 1889, two of the three acres were limed, the one with
four tons, the other with two tons of lime per acre, the third acre
being Jeft unlimed. The plots were again divided and manured as
shown in the following plan, swedes being drilled in—3 Jb. seed

per acre—on June 14.

MANURES PER ACRE.

oe) uJ
6 | 5 af Rey 3 2 Le
2 eS Se SSS SSS —_—ooo"_—~ |
4 tons lime per acre 2 tons lime per avre no lime
a FF ——— = —ax#—"—“
| 3 cwt. 5 cwt.
super- basic |
1 cwt. | 3 ewt. pen Gade 3 ewt. 5 ewt.
nitrate of | superphos- ey superphos- | basic
soda phate 1 cwt. J cwt. phate | cinder
| nitrate of nitrate of
soda soda |
9 8 7
4 tons lime per acre 2 tons lime per acre no lime

376 Field Experiments at Woburn mm 1889 and 1890.

The swedes were pulled and weighed on December 13, 1889.
The results were :—

Plot Manures used per Acre Gu Kaba

tonscwt. qr. Ib.

7 ) ( No mannre ts HE ASS ee ae LST

1 - Unlimed /5cwt.basiccinder ..... 13°43 ee

2 ) 3 cwt. superphosphate . . . 15", 8. 050

8 Noimanuren; ae see to eee 14. 56> 70) 0
2 tons 5 cwt. basic cinder . j

: , lime per {1 cwt. nitrate of poi ; At ee

| acre EB ewt. superphosphate '

4 1 cwt. nitrate of soda } ie 16 312

9 4 tons feo manure . . a rams Ly te SOMO

5 | lime per {3 cwt. superphosphate Sores OE ae ge 40)

6 ) acre \lcwt. nitrate ofsoda . . . 16eSRoele

Notwithstanding the liming there were on all the plots patches of
roots affected with “ finger and toe.”

From a comparison of the results it would appear that the
dressing of four tons of lime to the acre had not been effectual, but
that of two tons had produced decided benefit in each case. A
similar case of good resulting from the application of two tons of
lime per acre, and—for the first year at least—of no good being done
by four tons of lime, was observed in the experiments of the Royal
Manchester Liverpool and North Lancashire Society three years
back.

As between “basic cinder” and superphosphate there is no
definite evidence of superiority of one to the other, since wee
plots 4 and 6 the increase of crop produced over plots 1, 2, and 3
appears to be due to the nitrate of soda rather than to "the phos-

phatic element.

IV. Experiments on Potatoes with Box and Yard Manure
(made with different foods), and with artificial manure.

After the conclusion of the bullock-feeding experiments of
the winter of 1888-9, the dung was removed out of the boxes and the
open yard. It was thought that it might be interesting to keep
~ the different lots separate and grow with them a crop of. potatoes.
On one side of the boxes four bullocks had been feeding for 145
days on roots and hay with additional food as follows :—linseed
cake 2°88 lb., barley 4 lb., and decorticated cotton-cake 3°30 Ib. per
head daily ; on the other side four others had the same food except
that wndecorticated cotton-cake was substituted for decorticated,
Tn the yard, bean-meal was consumed instead of cotton-cake, but
the manure made here was of course of indefinite nature, and not
like that made in the boxes, the approximate composition of which

Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890. 377

could be ascertained. 12 tons of dung to the acre were used in each
case. Side by side with these an artificial mixture was tried, com-
posed as follows :—

3 cwt. mineral superphosphate | 8 cwt. per acre, costing

3 cwt, kainit FE
2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia J sanets UCR ante,

The potatoes (magnums) were planted on May 9, 1889, in Road
Piece Field, the manure having been in all cases applied to the
land previously. The crop was dug and weighed on September 26
and 27. The following were the results :—

Plot Manure per acre Produce per acre

a de f a q tons ewt. qr. Ib.
12 tons dung made from decorticated cot-

1 { ton-cake . ¥ & ahte DA2e
(| 12 tons dung made from undecorticated

\ cotton-cake . by ee ce een eer bb Pad eas

3 12 tonsfarm-yard manure ...... % WG-2. 8
3cwt. superphosphate. .......

4 3 cwt. kainit . Aa Shit okt 7 GOO 9843) 12

( 2 cwt. sulphate of ammonia .

By this it wiil be seen that the artificial manure produced the
largest crop, and it is worthy of note that there were no more small
potatoes in this produce than in any of the others. The most inter-
esting part of the experiment, however, is that which brings out
the superior manurial effect of the decorticated cotton-cake dung
—as against that from the undecorticated cake.

The composition of the farmyard manure used on plot 3 was
too indefinite to justify certain conclusions being drawn, but, as
mentioned, the animals in the yard had bean-meal fed to them
largely.

V. Lathyrus sylvestris.

A small plot 8 x8 feet was sown with the seed of this plant on
April 6, 1888, but it lay dormant until August, when the plant
began to come up. It gave no crop, however, until the next year,
when it was cut green on August 29, 1889, the yield being 35 Ib.
green crop, or, if calculated to the acre, 10 tons 13 ewt. 2 qr. 22 lb.
green produce per acre. This plot being so small, a larger one was
sown in April 1890. Although the seed duly germinated, there was
no crop fit to cut in 1890.

It should be borne in mind that the price of the seed was no less
than 2/. 2s. per lb., and that for sowing an acre as much as 50 lb.
of seed are recommended, an outlay of over 100/. an acre !

The produce of this same plot in 1890, also cut and weighed

reen, W138 :—

VOL. Il, T. S.—6 “ee

“ot ‘ 5

373 = Field Experiments at Wobyrn in 1889 and 1890.

Plot Produce of plot Produce per acre

lb. tons cwt. qr. Ib.
8x8 ft 1st cutting, July 16. . cg, te occ, 11 10 3 20
‘ 2nd cutting, September 12: Be rahe JE mer: ened by en

Motels: jo. 5a. 0h ek Op 16 14 0 27

In addition to the experiments here recorded there are in progress
experiments on the duration of the life of clovers, and of different
varieties of grasses and their respective yields. These are separately
reported on by the Consulting Botanist to the Society.

During the winter months feeding experiments both with bullocks
and with sheep were carried out at Woburn in 1889 and 1890. These
are separately recorded also.

Crawley Mill Farm is situated near Woburn, Bedfordshire ; the
soil is a very light reddish loam, about 9 inches deep, with a subsoil
of almost pure sand.

RAINFALL at Wopurn during 1889 and 1890, taken daily at
CrawLey Miti Farm.

Inches Inches
1890 1889 1890
Januahyieier os cclltsnnen|) LOB edo 7 JULY i. pois cok dies ae ey wae
February . « -» « «| 146 82 August eer tater ree iis) LZ
Marches site ha oie oore moto September... . w . yee cee ao

PApUU s yege’ xen ole | 243 1°6) October. se. |e
Mages oo ee eee 445 1°34 November. .s! 2° 2) So ea32
JUNG) THA OD teeta Olreahi6d December) .iisiiette: 83 0118

Total . . 2367..16°80
RAINFALL i 1886, 1887, 1888, 1889, 1890.

1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890.

Inches . ; . . : 25°05 15:04 23°94 23°67 16°80

Durine the Harvest Montus of AuGcust and SEPTEMBER
(ae RAINFALL was—

| 1886. | 1887. | 1888, | 1889 | 1890.
|

Inches . a . . : | 2°61 | 2°62 3°19 3°53 1:93

J. Auaustus VoELCKER.

379

FIELD EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN 188 AND
1890 BY LOCAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES,

Tue three societies which, in conjunction with the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, began in 1886 to take up experimental
work in the field continued their investigations during 1889 and
1890. These societies were the following :

The Essex Agricultural Society.

The Royal Manchester, Liverpool, and North Lancashire Agri-
cultural Society.

The Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture.

TI. Essex AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

(Abstract of Report of Mr. Bernard Dyer, B.Sc., F.C.8., F.LS.,
&e., Consulting Chemist to the Society, and Mr. E. Rosling,
F.R.M.S., of Melbourne, Chelmsford.)

In 1889, as in previous years, there were two sets of experiments :—

A. Continuation of the mangel experiments of 1888, by the
growth of oats (unmanured), in order to ascertain the after-effects
of the manures applied for the mangel.

B. Experiments in mangel manuring differing somewhat from
the previous experiments.

A.—In both 1887 and 1888 it was found that the heaviest and
most highly-manured mangel crop was followed by the best oat crop.
These results are practically confirmed once more by the experiments
of 1889.

As reported in 1888, there was a partial failure of the mangel
crop of that year, which, together with other circumstances, pre-
vented the drawing of satisfactory conclusions so far as the
manuring for mangel was concerned. Oats followed upon the same
land, and the following table (page 380) gives the summary of the
results for the two years.

From a consideration of these results, it appears that the use of
dung alone gave a return of less than half a ton of mangel (owing,
to a great extent, to failure of plant), and an increase of 124 bushels
of oats and 6 ewt. straw. The use of artificials without nitrate of
soda, in addition to dung, gave nearly 3 tons of mangel more than
dung alone, but not an appreciably larger oat crop Dressings of
artificials, including in each case 2 ewt. of nitrate of soda in addition
to dung, gave about 4 tons of mangel more than dung alone, 3
bushels more of oats, and 4 cwt. more straw. When the artificial
dressing added to the dung included 4 ewt. of nitrate of soda per
acre, the increase over dung alone was, on the average, nearly 6} tons
of mangel and 12 bushels of oats,

ot

380 Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890

; 1889
M 1 for Mangel in 1888

ae anures used for Mangel in 1888 Oats

Average yield per acre ange Gai, ee
tons cwt. qr. | bushels} tons cwt. qr.

1} Nomanure (2 plots) ... . 14 10 3 | 52:8 1 82
2 | Dung, 12 tons per acre . 14 19 0 | 65:3 1 16° 0
3 Dung, with artificials, excluding ni- 17 17. 0 | 656 1173

{ trate of soda (3 plots) . i

Dung, with 2 cwt. per acre nitrate

| of soda, and with or without 19 2) 2 k68ie Las" "Ss

other artificials (4 plots)

Dung, with 4 cwt. per acre nitrate )

5 { of soda, and with i Sei gt 21) > 160273 gligeO 1. a18).0
artificials (4 plots)

Nitrate of soda, 4 cwt. per sere

| with or without other artificials, y

but without dung .

17 19 2 | 663 Ie Te *@

[Vote-—The artificials other than nitrate of soda were :—
Superphosphate 3 ewt., basic cinder 4 cwt., guano 2 cwt., 4 cwt.,
and 6 ewt. per acre. |

The plots without dung, but with artificial dressings, each includ-
ing 4 ewt, of nitrate of soda per acre, gave, on an average, 3} tons
of mangel, about 105 bushels of oats, and 5 cwt. more fe. per
acre than the average of the unmanured plots. These results clearly
confirm the experience arrived at in the two preceding years on this
farm—viz., that the heavy manuring of mangel with artificials does
not injuriously affect the land for the next crop.

A table is given in the Report showing the cost of the manures,
and of the increase in crops due to them. Reckoning roots at 10s.
per ton, oats at 2s. a bushel, and straw at 2/. per ton, it appears that,
if dung be charged at 5s. per ton, the only profits shown in the two
years are where artificials were used, dung alone making a loss.
Dung and 4 cwt. nitrate of soda made a profit of 27. 1s. per acre;
dung and 2 ewt. guano, a profit of 3/. 4s. 6d. The heavy dressing
of 4 ewt. guano and 4 cwt. nitrate, in addition to dung, gave a loss.
On the undunged plots, 4 ewt. nitrate of soda alone gave a total
profit of 1/. 3s. 5d., the addition of phosphatic manures bringing the
profit up to 1/. 15s. 6d.

The results, taken with those of previous years, seem to point out
that dung, as regards its effect on the two crops, is too dearly valued
at 5s. per ton asa fertiliser ; although, as will be seen in the following
account of the 1889 mangel experiments, dung has, sometimes, other
and not less valuable functions than those of a mere fertiliser.

B.—The experiments on mangel were carried out on a gravelly
loam containing abundance of lime in the form of chalk-stones. It
was in another part of the field used for the experiments of 1887,
The manures were this time restricted to dung, Peruvian guano of
cheap quality, and nitrate of soda. The guano was applied before
sowing, and when 4 ecwt. of nitrate were used, 1 cwt. was sown”
before the seed, the remainder in three top-dressings of 1 cwt. each, at

by Local Agricultural Societies. 381

intervals of about a month. When 2 ewt. of nitrate only were
used, they were applied in two top-dressings.

There were three plots under each of six different systems of
treatment. The average results of each set were :—

Mangel

Manures per acre Yield per acre

tons cwt. qr.

No manure (mean of three plots) egies = OO

12 tons dung (mean of three plots). TOM LOR 2
12 tons dung and 2 cwt. nitrate of soda (mean

of three plots) : 14 0 8
12 tons dung and 4 ewt. nitrate of soda (mean

of three plots) E 15 i Syes
No dung: 6cwt. guano and 2 ewt. nitrate of soda

(mean of three plots). 14s 1G
No dung: 6 ewt. guano and 2 ewt. nitrate of soda

(mean of three plots) . - : ‘ 2 Lops 0

Dung alone gave an increase of 16} ewt. roots, as compared with
no manure. The addition to the dung of 2 ewt. nitrate of soda
raised the increase to 4 tons 6? cwt., while the addition to the dung
of 4 ewt. nitrate increased it to 5 tons 143? cwt. Roughly speak-
ing, the dung was, manurially, a failure ; but the addition of 2 ewt.
nitrate, at a cost of under 1/., gave 34 tons more roots, and that of
4 ewt. nitrate, at a cost of under 2/., gave nearly 5 tons more
roots than dung alone. On the undunged plot, the dung was re-
placed by guano and nitrate of soda—6 ewt. of the former, and
2 ewt. and 4 cwt. respectively of the latter. The increase in roots
in these cases did not cover the cost of the manures, though experi-
ence on this land renders it probable that the deficit will be more
than recovered in the oats of the next year.

But the most interesting feature in the Report relates to the
indirect value of dung under special conditions. When the
plant was in the seed-leaf it was overtaken by drought, which
punished chiefly the upper part of the field. The seedlings were
observed in many spots to flag and die off, this being traced to
an attack of grubs at the roots. The plant, in fact, died off to such
an extent that large patches were left in the field, which remained
bare all the season, and had to be excluded in weighing up the crops.
At the time (late autumn) at which I visited the field in con-
junction with the experimenters, it presented a curious and very
interesting appearance, by reason of the striking symmetry in the
areas of “‘gap” or bare soil, and the sharp way in which they
seemed to be almost ruled off ex bloc from the well-clothed areas, on
at least three sides of each. The experimental plots were situated
in the midst of a large field all cropped with mangel, and all
dunged, save for the undunged, experimental plots. The bare regions
referred to were almost sharply confined to certain of these un-
dunged plots—viz., all those in the upper half of the field ; while a
good plant grew and matured on the dunged plots lying between
them, and on the non-experimental, dunged ground above them and

382 Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890

on either side. It was impossible to doubt that the absence of the
dung was closely connected with the failure of plant, and its presence
with the comparative immunity from failure. As the actual cause
of the failure was grub, the advantage gained by the dunged plots
would seem to have been due to the more rapid and vigorous growth
of the dunged plant, or to the coming up and survival of more
seedlings. But whether this is to be attributed to a greater power
of holding moisture in dunged land, or to greater warmth caused by
fermentation, or to yet other causes, it is difficult to suggest. But
the experience was so striking as to lead the experimenters to advise
that, whatever results may be shown by mere artificial manuring,
no farmer, in the dry climate of Essex, should abandon farmyard dung
in growing mangel.. The rainfall for the year was only 21°42 inches,
The mangel experiments will probably be continued another year.

IJ. Toe Royat Mancuester, LiverPooL, AND NortH LANCASHIRE
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

(Abstract of Report of Mr. Alf. Smetham, F.1.C., &c., Consulting Chemist
to the Society.)

THE experiments, commenced in 1885, at Saltney, near Chester, and
in 1886, at Rostherne, on Lord Egerton of Tatton’s Estate, have
been continued on the lines indicated in the Report for 1888.!

At Saltney the experiments were devised with a view to deter-
mine the best and most economical mixture of seeds for one, two,
and three years’ ley, and for permanent pasture. The results of the
experiments on the plots laid down for one and two years have
already been described, and for practical purposes need no further
comment, except it be to note that Plots 8, 9, and 11, sown for two
years’ ley, have stood sufficiently well to serve for three years’ ley.

Two plots only were sown for three years’ ley, Plot No. 7 having
produced the larger crops in the first two years. This superiority
was fully maintained in the third year, as will be seen from the
following table :—

Dry matter per acre in produce. Total dry matter
per acre in three

1887 1888 1889 years’ produce,

ewt. qr. lb. ewt. qr. Ib. ewt. qr. 1b, ewt. qr. Ib.

Plot 6. gts: ae ae) 22 0 22 18 0 22 74 216
Plot. 7 oo 0 0 20 eal a0 4 iy Na 8 1°9

The cost of seeding being the same in both instances, the follow-
ing mixture (plot 7) stands out as the one that has proved best for
three years’ ley.

2 Ib. Italian rye-grass. | 2 lb. timothy.

5 lb. perennial rye-grass. 1 Ib. crested dogstail.
5 lb. cocksfoot. 4 lb. cowgrass.

3 lb. meadow fescue. 14 lb. white clover.
2 lb. meadow foxtail. 14 Ib. alsike clover.
1 lb. hard fescue.

1 See Journal, Vol. xxv,, s.s., 1889, p. 295,

a

by Local Agricultural Societies. 383

The five plots sown for permanent pasiure continue to make
good progress. Nos. 1 and 3 appear to be the best. Taking the
quality and the yield of grass together, No. 3 seems to be a more
serviceable mixture than No. 1. These mixtures are as follows :—

No. 1. No. 3.

; ———— eee
24 lb. Devonshire ever- || 2 lb. Italian rye-grass. | 41b. meadow foxtail.

green rye-grass. | 6 lb. cocksfoot. 3 lb. white clover.
4 lb. crested dogstail. | 5 lb. meadow fescue. | 1 Jb, red clover.
4 lb. wild white clover. | 3 lb. tall fescue. | 1 Ib, alsike clover.

3 1b. sweet vernal grass. | 3 lb. timothy. |

The costs of these mixtures were, in 1885, No. 1, 16s. 9d. per
acre, and No. 3, ll. 8s. 1d. per acre.

The wild white clover in No. 1 continues to spread very te pally:
Mr. Holland, the Society’s Botanist, in his report, speaks of its abso-
lutely perennial character.

At Rostherne the experiments on grasses, commenced in 1887,
are conducted in duplicate, with the exception that on one-half of
the field the seeds were sown with oats, and on the other with wheat.
Each of these plots was in 1888 divided into two equal parts, one of
which was grazed, and the other mown and converted into hay, In
1889 the hurdles were moved, so that half of the portions mown in
1888 should be grazed, and half of the portions grazed in 1888
should be mown. In 1890 the hurdles were moved back to their
original position again.

Thus, four divisions of the land were obtained :—

(1) One portion continuously mown.
ie < continuously grazed.

(Sys; - first mown, then grazed and mown alternately.

4) = first grazed, therf 3 mown and grazed alternately.
The ‘following table gives the results up tuo 1890.

RostHERNE.—WEIGHTS OF Hay PER AcRE, 1888, 1889, 1890.
Plots seeded down with Wheat in 1887.

| mown 1888 grazed 1888

Continuously mown | grazed 1889 mown 1889

Plot | mown 1890 grazed 1890

1888 1889 1890 | 1890 1889
ewt., ar. ewt, qr. 1b ewt. qr. ewt. qr. ewt. qr. Ib. :
A 47-0 EVE AR) Za 0 22 2 22 2 4
B 31 0 20 AiO VG Le 20 22 O Te 2070.
C 38 OO 28 Or. 0 i 0 v7 0 13) ON 0
D 34 2 510 eal Uemal, JE 0) 237 "0 a7 ge BAD)
Plots seeded down with Oats in 1887

SO oh B20 Oo 26 Ons Bin. O0 5), 3G..1. 0
29... 0 29 2 16 eect 0 7
J 33.02 37 1 0 2A On) 24 - 0 29 2 4
I ae ~«O 36 0 O Zon 0 26 «#40 25 ‘O86

384 Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890

It is noticeable that the mown portions of the field show con-
siderably thicker roots than the grazed portions. Lucerne and
sainfoin have almost entirely disappeared.

A comparison of the above figures shows very clearly the
deteriorating effect of grazing in the first year. The weights of hay
in 1889 were much less on the plots grazed in 1888 than where the
plots were mown each year. On the other hand, alternate grazing
und mowing, after mowing in the first year, has caused no falling off

of produce.
cost of seeding

per =

Ss. .

Plots A and L are for permanent pasture without rye-grass . . . 43 10
Bites. ees PA with \ Pei oo ih tee
creer Caen | » four years’ ley without _,, “1S p30: 46
eae Ses atk Dh Ais ye with s + hive 2a

Mixtures for two years’ ley were also sown in the same field.
The results have been :—

Sown with wheat

ee
Dry matter in 1888 Dry matter in 1889 Total in two years

ewt. qr. lb. ewt. qr. lb. ewt. qr. lb.
Plot E ; . 2900215 24 2 0 54 015
Plot F i eee ian pale: | 19 018 44 2 4

Sown with oats

$$
Dry matter in 1888 Dry matter in 1889 Total in two years

ewt. qr. lb. ewt. qr. lb. ewt. qr. lb.
Plot H : 7 £20 LOG DS) Lag 53. 3 =b
Plot G , 3 20) 26 20 3 21 Ue)

The mixtures were as follows :—
Plots E and H.—6 1b. cocksfoot, Plots F and G.—6 hb. Italian rye-
10 Ib. timothy, 2 lb. perennial | grass, 4 lb. cocksfoot, 2 lb. meadow
red clover, 2 lb. alsike clover, | fescue, 2 Ib. tall fescue, 2 Ib.
1 lb. white clover. Cost per acre, | timothy, 2 lb. perennial rye-grass,
13s. 8d. 4 lb. red clover, 14 lb. white
clover, 14 Ib. alsike clover, 1 Ib. tre-
foil. Cost per acre, 17s. 3d.

Tt will thus be seen that the plots in which the rye-grasses have
leen replaced by other grasses have yielded the largest quantities of
hay in both the first and second seasons. .

IIT. Norrotk CHAMBER of AGRICULTURE.
(Abstract of Report of Mr. F. I. Cooxe, of Flitcham, King’s Lynn.)

Experiments upon Wheat.

The experiments in 1889 and 1890 included an exact repetition
of those of 1888 upon wheat, which have been already recorded in
the Journal.! The wheat was grown after seeds, and in the ordi-
nary four-course rotation of the county. The main object in view.

' Vol. xxv, .8., p. 290.

by Local Agricultural Societies. 385

farmyard manure, the most economical to use for wheat. The trials
were carried out at Cawston, at Flitcham, and at Bolwick. The
Cawston land is a very poor, light, surface-soil of some 5 to 6
inches in depth, upon a sandy subioike that of Flitcham, a thin,
light, and hungry top-soil, upon the Upper Chalk ; that of Bolwick
a “deep and rich loam, resting upon a white and sandy subsoil.

The following table gives the most prominent results obtained
in 1889.

WHEAT AFTER Rotation SeEps, 1889.

= ; : Produce per acre
ace ol experi-
Plot Manures per acre ment | ee | am
bushels | ewt. qr. lb.
{ Cawston . .| 22:18 |21 0 13
1 | Nothing . Bolwick . .| 35°46 |30 0 10
"|| Flitcham ; || 27:50 | 20 0 10
Cawston.. .| 2629 |28 2 2
g |{* ewt. rape-cake (sown in{/ Roiwick . .| 40°62 |33 3 20
( Suton). . - - - + + +\\ Mitcham. ©} 27°96 [23 1 26
‘4 cwt. rape-cake . s}
4 |/1 cwt. muriate of potash Gown Flitcham . .| 34:53 | 30 0 10
in autumn) . .J
| (4 ewt. rape- cake. .
5 2 cwt. superphosphate . : Fi Cawston . .| 30°62 | 34 O 12
1 ewt. muriate of Rea (sown
in autumn) . )
4 cwt. rape- -cake (sown |
9 | autumn) . : Flitcham . .| 29:21 | 23 2 8
|) 1 cwt. ead of soda (sown in
( aprine)) 2) a".
14) 10 loads dung . Flitcham. .| 37:96 |28 2 8
\

The wheat at Cawston in no case gavea profit from the manures,
although the season could scarcely be called unfavourable for such
land. No manure proved thus the most economical of all.

The highest yield (nearly 31 bushels per acre), and the best
quality of grain, were obtained from 4 cwt. rape-cake, 2 cwt.
superphosphate, and 1 ewt. of muriate of potash (plot 5).

At Bolwick, with the exception only of the unmanured plots, and
those which received either superphosphate or potash, or both of
these minerals, the whole of the plots were levelled with the ground
before the wheat was ripe. In no case did the increase of produce
warrant the expenditure on the manures. .

At Flitcham, as usual, the most notable results were obtained
from applications of potash. Thus, whilst 4 cwt. of rape-cake
alone gave 28 bushels of grain, and the same rape-cake with nitrate of
soda and sulphate of ammonia 29 and 28 bushels respectively, the
addition of 1 cwt. of muriate of potash to the rape-cake, whether
with or without a dressing of superphosphate, produced 34 bushels
per acre of wheat. Or, in other words, 1 cwt. of muriate of potash,
costing 8s, 6d., judiciously applied, increased the yield of wheat by

386 Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890

6 bushels per acre. Farmyard manure, too, here*had much better suc-
cess than at the other stations. At all three stations, in 1889, much
more markedly than in 1888, the rape-cake proved itself a safer
medium for the application of the requisite nitrogen than the more
soluble nitrogenous manures.

The main results obtained in 1890 were :—

WHEAT AFTER Rotation SEEDs, 1890.

Place of Produce per acre

Plot Manures per acre experiment }

Head-corn Straw

bushels | ecwt. qr. 1b.
: Cawston . . 26°37 |"20) Le
1 INGGRIGP YT. lors ef caaeeean Bolwick . . 31:40 | 27

0 21
Flitcham . .| 25:93 | 23 3 20

Cawston= +5 30°31 |-30 2 4

2 \j4 ome rape-cake posits in 5 Bolwick . .| 3437 180 0 0
BEseeee) xe os ‘|| Flitcham ; || 2859 | 26 1 0

3 | 1 ewt. sulphate of ammonia. { Cawston . .| 29°06 | 30 : ge

Flitcham . .| 31°56 | 31

At Cawston the wheat stood up well, but both at Flitcham
and Bolwick it was much beaten down. MHere the best
money return was from using simply 1 ewt. per acre of sulphate of
ammonia. Rape-cake gave the same increase, but at a higher cost.
The land at Bolwick gave evidence of the beneficial use of mineral
manures, but in no case was there an adequate return for the
money. At Flitcham similar results to those at Cawston were
obtained, an outlay of 12s. for 1 cwt. per acre of sulphate of
ammonia producing an increase of 5 bushels of wheat and 7 ewt.
of straw per acre.

Experiments to test the Value upon Wheat after Rotation Seeds of
the unexhausted residue of Manures applied for Mangel in
1886, no Manure having been applied since that date, (Whit-
lingham Farm.)

Produce per acre, 1889»
Plot Manures per acre applied to
“eps eee Th Head-corn Straw
bushels cwt. qr. Ib. -
20 loadsdung . . shite 33°75 33 0 24
flO loadsdung . . Poraias bi
2 \ 2 ewt. nitrate of soda aoe - th ye
4 cwt. superphosphate . . st

6 2 , nitrate of soda . : 32°34 31 018

es) A Common’ salty. ce ne ee J :

When, in 1886, the very large dressing of twenty loads of dung
was applied to Plot 1 for mangel, but without giving a return in
the yield of roots at all adequate to the supplies of plant-food thus

Aa’

by Local Agricultural Societies. 387

given to the soil, it was determined to find how much of the unex-
hausted residue of the dung left after the mangel crop was removed
could be recovered in future crops. Three plots, accordingly, were
carried through the entire four-course rotation. The total results
obtained during the four years may be summarised as follows :—

RESULTS OBTAINED IN 1886, 1887, 1888, anp 1889.

| 1886 | 1887 | 1888 | 1889
Plot Manure used for mangel in 1886 Winged Barley (cen Wheat
| produce)
| tons bushels tons bushels
1 20leoadsdung. . ..- + | 28 43 | 4 332
Rilosdadung 5 + | 9 Ald L ‘
? 2 cwt. nitrate of soda. .f, ag tly 2 a
4 ewt. superphosphate, ah p 1 91
: { trate of soda, and salt . 4p | faa 8 324

The soil is of a light and porous nature, and to this, doubtless, is
due the apparently enormous loss of fertilising matter in the dung—
matter containing probably as much nitrogen as would be found in
12 ewt. of nitrate of soda, besides phosphates and potash. It is
never well to allow too much emphasis to be laid upon the results
of a single experiment, especially when the outcome is very unex-
pected. It may be well to observe, however, that the soil of the
three plots in question has all along given every indication
of evenness of character, and that the utmost accuracy has been
observed throughout the experiments, so that the record is a record
of fact, whatever may be the explanation.

These results find a parallel in the case of the Woburn experi-
ments upon the residual values of manures, and seem to indicate
that upon light lands any great amount of capital sunk in the soil
in the form of a heavy dressing of farmyard manure applied at one
single time is not likely to produce a return in future crops.

Experiments upon Barley (after Swedes carted off).

In 1889 one series was carried out at Bolwick, but, the un-
manured plots yielding very high returns, the influence of the
manures was not clearly marked. One point is worthy of notice—
that common salt had a weakening rather than a strengthening
effect upon the straw, the corn of the plots where it was used being
more laid than on the others.

In 1890 the experiment was repeated at Cawston, and a capital
barley crop was reaped.

The main results are recorded in the table on page 388.

The unmanured produce was high ; superphosphate and muriate
of potash—when without nitrogen—gave no increase ; but 14 ewt.
of nitrate of soda gave the most economical results of all, both in
grain and straw—15 more bushels of corn being obtained, at a cost

388 Field Experiments conducted in 1889 and 1890.

Plot | Manures per acre Head-corn Straw
| bushels ewt. qr. Ib.
1 Nomanure . . Sea Sees 32°61 20 3 26
1 ewt. nitrate of soda : s
ite 3 TSUperphosphate” 5 - >. We 6 Mee } pape 29 2 16
{e. ewt. sulphate of ammonia . . . .
6 superphosphate . ae mee 42°81 2h: 12
», lmuriate of potash san. Sa
8 | a a0 Hitrateofl'sodagay.. oti ee 47-03 29 3 8
f ik ” ’ aes oni ae = i =
9 {ai Smt ewhtt ae. 44:00. 2
je ae: superphosphate Si Ceha tes Sun .
a | UL muriate of potash ‘} gia a aad
Roots folded with sheep and a dressing :
14 { of 33 cwt. of fish salt . # 46:32 28 3 20

of about 14s. Nitrate of soda gave a better return than sulphate of
ammonia, and the addition of salt to nitrate of soda proved of no
benefit. No better result was gained by folding sheep on the roots
than with 1} cwt. per acre of nitrate of soda.

Experiments upon Mangel after Wheat. The Wheat had received
ten Loads per Acre of Dung (Bolwick Farm). The results in
1889 were :-—

Manures applied per acre |

1]

Plot | Super- Nitrate | Nitrate of | Muri |, Roots per acre | Tops per acre

hae jaro of soda roo Fy Dung : ek

phate soda | dressing) | potash |

ewt, ewt. ewt. ewt, ewt. | cwt. |tons ewt. qr. lb. | tonsewt. qr. Ib.
1 — — — — —| W112 8 410 2 8
2 4 3 if 1 — |— 21 6 1 4 ye fe oe)
3 _— 3 1 1 ——t) || 1 at ee D 2D) OO
4 — 3 2 2 — 10 || 23 19 2 8 5 16 ;oL74
5 4 3 2 2 — — | 24 14 1 20 414 1 4
6 — 3 2 2 —_ 20.17.2928 415 016
7 -— 3 1 1 — 10 |} 2411 2 4 6 3: 070
8 a — 1 1 1 —)/ 23 5 1 4 4 7 312
a) —— 19 — ine — 1 | yl eee 417 2 24

The soil is a deep, rich, and friable loam upon white sand.

These experiments were in exact repetition of several previous
ones, with the object, amongst others, of showing the value, if
any, of superphosphate for mangel, and the relative advantages of
common salt and muriate of potash. In the present: instance, and
for the first time in the history of the Norfolk experiments, the
effects of the superphosphate were clearly beneficial. And contrary
also to, at any rate, some former experience, the potash proved itself
more useful than the common salt. The most economical manure,
for the land and season, was a mixture of 4 ewt. superphosphate,
1 ewt. muriate of potash, and 2 ewt. of nitrate of soda, at a cost of
about 40s, per acre.

Reports of the Consulting Entomologist. 389

Further experiments carried out at Bolwick in 1890 on another
field, again showed a gain from the use of superphosphate for the
mangel crop. The Bolwick soil, however, as noticed in other ex-
periments, appears to be deficient in phosphates, and the question is
still open whether the beneficial effect of superphosphate shown here
would be found in other parts of Norfolk. The earlier experiments
of the Chamber pointed to the reverse.

Salt Experiments upon Barley.

These experiments were tried in 1890 at Bolwick and at
Whitlingham ; the land had in each case been half-folded with sheep.
The results were :—

PropucE OF BARLEY PER AcRE, 1890.

Locality | Plot | Manure per acre | Head-corn Straw
| bushels | ewt. qr. Ib.
Bolwick tlie 3 ewt. fish salt . 46-09 | 25 3 26
ee * | 2° | Nosalt.. Oh ape 5-71 30 3 11
pie 1 Sewteush salty.) . « 52°81 Jo, 122,
Whitlingham .{| 9 | No salt. | 49°37 - 2 10

These results point to no definite conclusion. At Bolwick the
corn was much more laid on the salt plot than on that without salt.
At Whitlingham rather more produce came from the salt plot, and
neither crop was laid much.

Experiments on permanent grass-land, begun some seasons past,
continued to show in 1889 and 1890 annual deterioration from con-
tinuous mowing, and the uselessness of artificial manures to prevent
this. Farmyard manure and folding of sheep gave decidedly the
more satisfactory results.

The Report of the Norfolk Chamber contains the record of
several other field experiments carried out during the two years,
and, in addition, that of the sheep-feeding experiments, which are
of much utility, and are therein set out in full detail.

J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER.

REPORTS, OF THE CONSULTING
ENTOMOLOGIST.
May 5, 1891.

Srxce my report of March 3 (page 168) the usual amount of ap-
plication has been made regarding farm insect pests, but far more
than has ever occurred before respecting various kinds of insects
seriously injurious in fruit growing. About 400 applications for my
Paris Green pamphlet have been received, and as in many cases a

390 Report of the Consulting Entomologist,

written reply as to points of orchard insect prevention was also
needed, the correspondence has been unusually large.

The crop attacks reported have been of the common kinds, as
of daddy-long-legs grubs, wheat-bulb-maggot, turnip-gall-maggot,
wireworms, clover-weevil-maggot, and the like, but rarely to a
serious extent, excepting with regard to wheat-bulb-maggot and
clover stem sickness, which may need a word.

This clover attack may be known (without any microscopic
examination for the eel-worms which give rise to it) by the
deformed growth of the infested plants. Many of the shoots will
be found to be short, swollen, and with their side shoots placed
almost close together as large swollen buds, or deformed in many
other ways, and often decaying away below at ground level. The
best remedy for this attack is a dressing of sulphate of potash

Fic. 1.—Wheat-bulb fly (7ylemyia coarctata) magnified, and lines showing nat. size ; maggots and
chrysalids, nat. size and mag.; mouth apparatus, and extremity of tail, with tubercles, mag.;
infested plant.

3 ewt., with sulphate of ammonia 1 cwt., per acre. This has been
found (especially in experiments at Rothamsted) to answer excel-
lently both in stopping attack and in giving a vigorous growth, the
good effects continuing to the second crop.

Where experimental clover plots have been destroyed by “stem
sickness,” clover succeeding on the same ground will be extremely
likely to be attacked, unless the ground is properly trenched.
Common digging, or even double digging, is not to be trusted to,
as thus the surface soil infested by eel-worms, and pieces of infested
shoot, are left near the surface to communicate the attack to the
next crop.

Wheat-bulb-maggot is now appearing to a serious extent in
various places, and it is very much to be wished that some experi-
ments could be undertaken as to its prevention, for it is the
cause of much loss almost yearly. The little yellowish maggot feeds

|
‘
t

May 5, 1891. 391

in the stalk or so-called bulb of the young wheat, and so destroys
the infested shoot, and then turns to a chrysalis, from which the
greyish two-winged fly comes out in a few weeks. At present
(unless by a good stimulating dressing the side shoots and the
plants not attacked can be pushed on so as to give some return), we
know of no means of lessening the heavy loss that occurs where
this bulb-maggot gains possession.

The attacks of willow-beetle have for some years caused so much
damage that I am now in correspondence, and also if possible
will have personal consultation, with a leading grower as to
measures which are reasonably practicable for clearing the pests on
a broad scale.

Inquiry has also been sent on the disputed question as to
whether moles were doing good or harm. I therefore suggested
in a case where they were in very great numbers, and running sur-
face burrows in corn land, that a dozen should be caught, and
examination made as to what they were feeding on. If this proved
to be wireworms or grubs injurious to the crop, it would probably
be best to leave the moles alone, otherwise it would be well to lessen
their excessive numbers.

The great attention that has been bestowed on prevention of
orchard moth caterpillars is proving of further service by drawing
observation to various other kinds of orchard infestation, which,
from inquiries sent me, appear to be less generally known about,
excepting by skilled and trained growers, than could be thought
possible.

One point is a confusion of the little reddish bark mites, or
acari, and their bright red eggs, with the “red spider,” so well
known as infesting leafage, especially of hops and wall-fruit trees.
As this misunderstanding draws off attention from measures to
check the really serious infestations, it is perhaps as well to men-
tion it.

Another attack, less understood than it should be, regarding
which inquiry is sent, is that of the woolly aphis, commonly known
as “ American blight.” This is easily recognised (Fig. 2) by the white
woolly patches, or even long tufts of white cotton-wool-like matter,
noticeable where the aphides congregate, and also by the diseased
knots on young shoots, and large, cankery, swollen and cracked
masses on older parts of infested trees. The attack may be easily
kept down by syringing and rubbing soft soap or some kind of soft
soap wash (or any other of a great number of applications which will
stifle the aphides) on to the infested trees, or into the cracked and
infested places. Also, as far as may be, pruning off infested shoots,
and smoothing down the large masses of cankered growth, so that
there may be no sheltering places for attack.

The black-currant gall mite (Fig. 3) has become a serious and
widespread trouble in bush-fruit farming. This Phytoptus ribis is a
microscopic mite, which causes the black-currant buds, instead of de-
veloping properly, to swell into mere small green abortive knobs.
On opening these lately I have found not only the minute cylindrical

392 Report of the Consulting Entomologist,

four-legged mite, but also that the eggs were plentifully present,
which shows the desirableness of breaking these buds off and

Fic. 2.—Woolly aphis ; infested apple spray, nat. size; wingless viviparous female and young
clothed with cottony fibres, above, and small egg-bearing female, beneath, the spray ; pupa,
with slight cottony growth ; all magnified.

destroying them. Cutting back the infested shoots, and burning
them, of course checks spread of attack, but in this case there is the
loss of the whole crop of the shoot,
instead of merely that from abortion
of a part of the buds. The best ap-
plication which has been reported is
that of a soft soap and sulphur wash.
This may be allowed to run down,
and thus choke infested nooks. This
attack is one needing special observa-
tion, for it is very injurious, and very
dificult to meet. From examination
of specimens lately sent me, I think,
however, that a dipterous parasitic
larva (that is to say, the maggot of a
Fic. 3.—Phytoptus (? species) enor. two-winged fly) is doing good Beryiee

mously mag. Infested black currant by feeding on the mites.

buds.

Very “reat interest is ed in
many parts of the country in the treatment for destroying orchard
moth caterpillars by spraying with Paris Green, and the Evesham
Fruit Experimental Committee are continuing to bestow very
careful attention upon methods of working the most serviceable
kinds of spraying implements, and other “details, I am myself
assisting, so far as lies in my power, both personally and by refer-
ence to official entomologists in the United States and Canada.

The only point in which we differ from the latter is that, whereas ~
in America the plum leafage is found to be more easily injured by

May 5, 1891. 393

spraying than the apple, here the reverse is the case. We find
that, while we do not advise more than 1 oz. of Paris Green in
20 gallons of water for apple leafage, the plum leafage will usually
bear a mixture of 1 oz. in 10 gallons. This strength, Dr. Lintner
writes me, would, in the United States, ‘bring every leaf off the
plums ;” but whether the difference is from climatic influence or
from difference in kind of plum we have not yet made out.

We are continuing to find the benefit of last year’s treatment.
TI have reports, from various places where the Paris Green spraying
was used on a large scale, of winter-moth caterpillars (up to date of
report) being comparatively absent, whilst over a district where (so
far as I am aware) little or nothing was done in this way I have
report of the caterpillars appearing in large numbers. In all my
communications I have been careful to point out that the experi-
ments were simply directed to checking the ravages of moth cater-
pillars, or insects which bite and swallow the leafage, and (on the
face of the thing) that the treatment did not appear likely to get
rid of the kinds of infestations which, like aphides, feed by piercing
down through the outer tissues and drawing up sap from below.
Nevertheless, I have a trustworthy instance sent me in which aphis
attack was cleared by this spraying, so that, though I would not on
any account advise its trial on hops, it may be worth while to
experiment more extensively.

A great improvement has been made in the manufacture of
Paris Green by grinding it much finer, consequently on which it does
not deposit so much as before when mixed with water ; also it can
be procured damp (as a paste), by which means much of the difficulty
of mixing the dry powder, and inconveniences from the powder flying
about in mixing, are avoided.

Amongst other insecticides, I am giving attention to a mixture
of soft soap and sulphur, made very nearly on a recipe which has
been found serviceable in South Australia, and recommended by the
late Mr. Frazer Crawford (the Government Inspector under the
Vine, Fruit, and Vegetables Protection Act) in his report, printed
by direction of the Hon. the Commissioner of the Crown Lands.
This Australian mixture has been found especially serviceable
against such attacks as aphis and mildew together, with red spider,
gall mites, &c., and likewise against moth caterpillars harbouring in
bark. I have so very often to recommend the use of soft soap and
sulphur washes as a preventive for insect attacks of various kinds,
that, if this mixture answers as well on continued experiment as
seems likely at present, it may save much trouble to be able to pur-
chase it.

Inquiry has been sent me, and also I have been in correspon-
dence with firms in various parts of the country, as to the desirable-
ness of issuing a mixture (or emulsion, as it is called) of soft soap
and Paris Green. I do not advocate this, partly because, so far as I
am aware, we have no precedents on acknowledged authority as to
the effects of the mixture according to any given recipe ; partly be-
cause, the strength of Paris Green in the mixture being possibly

VOL, I. T. s.—6 DD

394 Report of the Consulting Entomologist.

variable, much mischief to foliage might ensue ; and also partly
because, from chemical changes which would or might arise, the
aceto-arsenite or Paris Green might become another form of copper,
and the name of “ Paris Green Emulsion” be not accurate.

What the effects might be I cannot say, but in my own recom-
mendations I limit myself entirely to the use of Paris Green simply
mixed with water, or with the addition of a little flour, in the way
of which we have many years’ record as safe and serviceable.

In the apparatus for distribution of insecticides we are improv-
ing almost from week to week. With regard to largeand expensive
spraying machines, these are sufficiently before the public, but for a
convenient form where thereis no room for wheeled apparatus we still
find the knapsack known as L’Eclair (figured on page 232) answer
excellently. It throws a good spray to the height of about fifteen feet,
and by a very simple adaptation arranged by a co-operator of our
Evesham Committee, and which each operator could make for him-
self, the spray can be given an additional elevation, throwing it up
to twenty or twenty-five feet. I am now in correspondence as to
having the sprayers adapted by the manufacturers to give this
greater height.

As it is a great object to avoid extra expense, I may mention
that for greater heights we are finding that an ordinary garden
engine will answer perfectly well with the outlay of a few shillings.
A water-barrel on two wheels with sufficient pumping force (some-
thing of the nature of the kind known as the Farringdon Hop and
Plant Washer) answers well, with the form of sprayer known as
‘‘Stott’s” nozzle, attached by a piece of hose and a tap union. By
this apparatus a fine spray can be thrown to a height of forty feet,
and implements often at hand may be made available without
special outlay.

One more point is still greatly needing attention, namely, warble
extirpation. The great losses by this attack are constantly urged
on me, and I am doing all I can; but, unlike the orchard work, the
carrying out of operations rests not with well-instructed owners,
but in many cases with those who are wholly ignorant, and very
careless, so that something to meet this difficulty is greatly needed.

JUNE 2, 1891.

Since my report of the 5th of May, applications have been sent,
as usual, regarding various kinds of crop and orchard insect attacks,
but for the most part these do not need special mention now. But
amongst them, that of the wheat-bulb maggot, the larva of the
Hylemyia coarctata, has once again been doing such serious mischief
that I have been endeavouring to collect all the information I could
about it, and now beg to submit a special report on the subject.

I have received reports of the infestation being present at various
localities in Essex and Cambridgeshire, also round Bedford, at
Hertford, near Alford in Lincolnshire, near Dalton-on-Tees, and in
the district near Gloucester, and also near Tewkesbury,

June 2, 1891. 395

From Southminster, in Essex, the attack was reported as worse
than ever this year, many of the wheats being so bad that they had
to be ploughed up in some cases, and patched with oats in many
others ; and another note from Essex about the beginning of May
mentioned that what had been a full plant in the field attacked a
month before had then wasted down 50 per cent. in the infested
part, and was still going. From near Tewkesbury (to take a return
from the other side of the country) a correspondent who has
watched the attack for many years writes me that he does not ever
remember it so extensive as it is this season, and that he estimated
the loss on the clay-land fallow wheat at nearly one-half. Reports
from other localities also confirm these observations, and those of
previous years, regarding the great loss caused by the maggot in the
young wheat plant.

This attack appears to be steadily becoming more prevalent. It
was first regularly reported as a crop pest (though obviously present
before) in 1881, and in 1882 I reared the fly, so that we were able
to identify the infestation, but no further special notice of it
occurred until 1886. Since then we have had it in 1888-89-90,
and now again this year, and the attacks of 1888 and the present
season have both been bad.

The injury, as previously mentioned, is caused by a small maggot,
which feeds in the heart of the young wheat. This may be observed
beginning to affect the plant by the first days of April, or earlier.
The maggots change to the chrysalis state in or by the destroyed
shoots in May, or early in June, and the fly comes out, in this
country, as far as I have seen at present, at the end of June, or the
beginning of July. It is a little black and grey two-winged fly, not
at all unlike the common onion fly.

The reports given this season confirm the previous observations,
that the attack is mainly or often found after fallow, or on fields,
or portions of fields, where the surface has been exposed during the
preceding summer, as where patches of turnips have failed, potato
leafage been thin over the ground, or the crop dug early ; or, again,
where clover has failed ; and a special observation was sent of
where oat crop was cut very close to the ground (during a spell of
hot weather last summer), the infestation of the bulb maggot after-
wards following the line to which the close crop extended almost to
an inch.

The infestation may occur after many kinds of crops, but from
collation of the great number of observations which have been sent
me, it appears to me that its presence is very much influenced by
the state of the surface of the land, and likewise by the method and
date of the mechanical operations of cultivation of the surface of the
land, respectively in the summer, before or the time immediately
before the date of sowing.

Observations have been sent of the headlands not being attacked,
even to the difference showing as of a framing like that of a picture
of the vigorous wheat round the attacked crop. In one instance it
was noted that the saved headlands had been worked hard by the

pDD2

396 Report of the Consulting Entomologist.

trampling of the horses. Also in another instance (at Dalton-on-
Tees) it was reported to me on special inquiry, that in a field so
badly attacked that the wheat was gone altogether in some places,
yet the “head riggs” which had been trampled escaped attack
entirely.

The fact of open land favouring prevalence of attack is also
pointed to by greater infestation having been found where the soil
was hollow at the top of the ridges, by reason of the plough throw-
ing the slices together from opposite directions. Notes have also
been sent of land stirred by ploughing, scarifying, &c., in September
and October, having the infestation, whilst contiguous land not
worked quiet escaped.

From inquiries in one district, I found that some fifty years ago
it was the regular custom to roll fallow land after it was sown with
wheat in the autumn, to prevent it being turned out by the frost.
The loosening by frost is of course well known ; but on examination
being made in many fields of this district that were now said to be
“turned out,” it was found that in every instance it was the wheat-
bulb maggot, and not the frost, that had done the mischief. This
observation seems worth attention in connection wth the others
about “firmed ” soils, and, my reports being from well-known corre-
spondents, all details would be easily procurable.

Date of autumn sowing appears not to affect attack. I have
notes of maggot presence after sowing in October, November,
December, and January, and of a December sown crop being totally
destroyed, but I have no notes of the infestations having been-
found on spring-sown wheat, nor, on special inquiry, have I been
able to find that it has been observed. This is a point which it would
be useful to have precise information about.

Rank manures appear to increase the virulence of the attack. I
have notes of wheat after turnips manured with fish, and also after
cabbages manured with sprats and fed off by sheep, having to be
ploughed up, or being destroyed, and the attack is repeatedly men-
tioned as following feeding off by sheep. Also where pond mud
was used as a fertiliser the attack was very severe, the area precisely
corresponding with the portion of the field where the mud dress-
ing had been thrown. Some chemical manures, however, appear
possibly to do good. In one case of attack after dead fallow on the
greater part of a field, two portions of which had been in mangel,
a dressing of ten cwt. of superphosphate of lime to the acre gave a
vigorous wheat crop, with no signs of maggot.

I had hoped that we might have discovered locality of summer
brood in wild grasses, and especially in couch grass, but three years’
careful observations of a scientific correspondent have failed to
show presence of the pest in any grasses in ordinarily accessible
localities.

Therefore (so far as I am aware) we do not even know whether
there is a summer brood, and consequently we do not know whether
the autumn and winter attack is started by egg-laying of what may
be called the old flies, which have lived on from the middle of the

June 2, 1891. 397

summer, or of fresh flies from a summer brood of which we do not yet
know the locality—or (which observations so far seem to me most
to point to) from eggs laid in the land, the maggots from which, in
due season, attack the autumn and winter-sown corn.

Further observations are very much needed to give some basis
for generally practicable measures of prevention, as at present this
attack is a cause of great loss, more especially in the Eastern
Counties, not only to the extent of damaging the young wheat often
to the necessity of ploughing in or patching, but also, as shown
by the notes with which I was favoured for publication (see p. 51
of my 14th Report) by Mr. Michael Ellison, of Barber Woodhouse,
near Rotherham, is liable both to lessen the yield on attacked
plants which have survived to maturity, and likewise very much to
lessen the quality of the grain.

I should be glad to give any information in my power to any
applicant, and also to receive any, with a view to forming a more
complete report. Amongst the various points, anything bearing
on the preceding condition of the land as to cropping or fallowing,
and particularly any details regarding surface treatment (as harrow-
ing or scarifying, or rolling and trampling), would be desirable.

Amongst other crop attacks, inquiries have been sent regarding
the turnip-seed weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis) and the blossom
beetle (Meligethes aeneus), both of which are doing mischief. In
the latter case not only flowers of the cabbage tribe, but apple-
blossom buds also were found infested by the little dark-greenish
beetles. In this case, however, where the trees are only of a moderate
height, something may be done to lessen attack, at least in garden
treatment, by jarring the branches, so as to cause the beetles to fall
on tarred cloths or boards laid below.

Serious injury has been caused in raspberry plantations by a
small red caterpillar, agreeing both in appearance and habits with
that of the raspberry moth, the Lampronia rubiella. This turns to
chrysalis in the bud within which it has fed, or close to it, as in the
shrivelled young leaves around. It is now turning, or has lately
turned, to chrysalis state, and no time should be lost in breaking otf
and destroying all infested buds or shoots. Where this has been
already done, as it has very carefully on some plantations, the attack
next year may be expected to be much lessened.

Since writing the above, the first of my own specimens deve-
loped on June 1, from the chrysalis, and agreed in every respect
observable with the description of Lampronia rubiella. This is a
small moth, somewhat about the size of a clothes moth, with the
upper wings brownish, spotted with yellow, two of the spots on the
inner margin of the wing much larger than the others, and four on
the outer margin large enough to be noticeable, the others much
smaller, the under wings fuscous, the head yellowish, face somewhat
greyer.

I have received an application from the Secretary of the Falk-
land Islands Company regarding some kind of fly which is considered
to have heen recently imported into the Islands, and is proving yery

398 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891.

injurious to meat. As this matter is of considerable importance, I
am doing what I can about it. I have asked for specimens to be
sent over, and also for information what the cargo of the ship was
in which the infestation was supposed to be brought, and where it
came from.

Meanwhile, I have suggested a very simple arrangement, which
I know answers excellently out of doors, for attracting many kinds
of flies, which they do not escape from, and so without trouble are
destroyed ; and also one or two other arrangements which might be
expected to be of use, especially that all waste and rubbish at the
butcher’s should be collected at short intervals, and so treated that
the maggots should be destroyed. This seems all that can be done
at present ; when specimens and information arrive I will duly attend
to them.

ELEANOR A. ORMEROD.

QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE.

June, 1891.

THE following five cases have reference to purchases of linseed-
cakes which were sold with a guarantee of purity, but were
found on examination to be impure.

They exemplify the uselessness of such a guarantee as “95
per cent.,” or “ made from linseed of 95 per cent. purity” (ex-
pressions which can only be properly applied to the seed, and
not to the manufactured cake), and, indeed, of any guarantee
other than that of ‘ pure linseed-cake.”

1. Mr. Silvanus Brown, of Slipton, Thrapston, Northampton,
sent for analysis on February 3, 1891, a sample of linseed-cake.
The following report was returned to him on February 7 :—

’

Moisture , : : , : : . . 12:04
Oil” ys ; : . : : . . «|, 8°38
? Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 25°37 ,
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre. : . 38469 106-00
Woody fibre (cellulose) - 5 é : « _8'06
? Mineral matter (ash) . : ¢ ; , «OE
‘Containing nitrogen , . : » . 4:06
?Including sand, . . . . . 5:50

This cake has a considerable amount of sand in it. This ought not to

exist. The quality is low,

A second sample, sent on March 3 by Mr. Brown from the same

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891. 399

delivery, was found to contain 3°10 per cent. of sand. A five-ton lot
had been purchased on a basis of “95 per cent. purity.”

In reply to inquiries for further particulars, Mr. Brown wrote
that the merchant was a young man of business, and he would be
sorry to cause him any injury, but he had come to the conclusion

not to purchase anything of him in future.

2. Mr. G. C. Robertson, of Widmerpool, Nottingham, forwarded
for analysis on March 31, 1391, a sample of linseed-cake of which
two tons had been purchased from Messrs. Wright Bros. & Co., of
Hull (who are also the manufacturers), at 8/. per ton, carriage paid.
The order ran as follows :—

‘““Messrs. Wright—Two tons, Pure, 95 per cent. Linseed-cake.”

The words on the invoice were :—

“ Two tons 95 per cent. Linseed-cakes @ 82. = 161.”

The report on this sample was :—
April 6, 1891.

Moisture . 4 A : 5 > “ . A el LESG)

Oil . : : . ; ; : : é . 10°65
* Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) —. 27°56 \ 199.99
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 5 , . 8614
Woody fibre (cellulose) . . . : ; ; €25
* Mineral matter (ash) ; : ‘ ; . 6:60
1 Containing nitrogen . . 5 : . 4:41
2 Including sand , . ’ : : . 145

The cake is not pure; it has a considerable amount of foreign seeds,
among which spurry and platykop are most prominent, and rape is there
also. The cake is made from seed not properly cleaned.

Upon Mr. Robertson complaining, the following reply was re-
ceived from the vendors :—

G. C. Robertson, Esq.,

Widmerpool, Nottingham. April 24, 1891.

Srr,—We thank you for your favour of 22nd inst., with extract from a
report of Dr. Voelcker on the cake we last sent you. The linseed we use
for our 95 per cent. cakes (for we suppose you refer to the linseed cakes) is
bought with a guarantee that it shall contain not less than 95 per cent. of
pure linseed, according to the London Linseed Association’s certificate of
analysis of samples taken during discharge here by independent parties.
If, as is the fact, our cakes are made solely of such seed, we fully comply
with the guarantee we give; not, indeed, of absolute purity, which is well-
nigh impossible, but of a percentage of 95 of purity, which is considered
by practical men all that is reasonable. It is therefore immaterial to us
what Dr. Voelcker may allege to the contrary, except that such reports are
calculated to cause prejudice in the minds of consumers, though, at the
same time, they no doubt suggest (perhaps unintentionally) the need there
is that the watchfulness of the agricultural chemists should never be relaxed

400 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891.

nor their constant employment dispensed with by those who provide em-
ployment for them.—Yours obediently,
per pro Wricut Bros. & Co.,
W. WRrieHt.

On April 29 Dr. Voelcker wrote to Mr. Robertson as follows :—

If you will refer to my annual report in the number of the Journal
just published, you will find on page 162 remarks bearing upon the point
which the vendors write to you about, and their statement is no valid answer
to the complaint based upon my report to you.

The system under which linseed is purchased in no way relieves makers
from the duty of screening the seed properly before making it up into cake.

3. Mr. R. Burra, of Gate, Sedbergh, Yorkshire, R.S.O., sent on
April 6, 1891, for analysis, a linseed-cake, price 9/. 11s. 8d. per ton
delivered, known and invoiced as “ One and All” English Linseed-
cake. One ton had been supplied to him by the Agricultural and
Horticultural Association, Ld., Deptford, S.E. In his letter Mr.
Burra said it was ordered as “ pure Linseed-cake.” The following
report was returned ;—

April 16, 1891.
Moisture . : : 5 : : ; : . 13°40

Oil . ‘ ; : ‘ : 5 4 : . 13:46
* Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 25°12 199.99
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre : : . 82:74
Woody fibre (cellulose) . ‘ : : : cl aoe
? Mineral matter (ash) ; - sdhare i. ge
' Containing nitrogen . : . . . 402
* Including sard . : : - 2 . 2:50

This cake is not what a “ pure” one should be. There is too much sand
in it, giving it a gritty quality, while the weed-seeds have not been properly
removed in the screening. It shows considerable starchy matter present.

The vendors subsequently wrote :—

R. Burra, Esq. 186 Creek Road, Deptford, 8.E., April 21, 1891.

Dear Sir,—We duly received your favour of the 18th inst., and regret
to learn that the ‘One and All ” Linseed-cake is not up to our guarantee.

The matter came before the Council at the meeting yesterday, ahd we
beg to say that we will take the cake back, and throw it on the hands of
the makers, charging them with the expenses.

Any that you may have used we will make you an allowance on, and
we shall be pleased to send you cake from another contractor in exchange
for that returned.— Yours faithfully,

Epwarp OWEN GREENING.

4. Mr. Edward Hussey, of Scotney Castle, Lamberhurst, for-
warded on April 13 a sample of linseed-cake for analysis, which
was invoiced to him as “pure Linseed-cake” at 8/. 15s, per ton
delivered, the vendor being Mr, H. C, Wickham, of Ticehurst, Hawk-

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891. 401

hurst, and the manufacturers, Messrs. Brook & Co., Tovil Oil Mills,
Maidstone. The report on this cake was as follows :—

April 20, 1891.

Moisture . . : ° : . : : . 11:35
Oil . : . 13°16
1 Aibuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) - 2618 199.99
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre : . 3183
Woody fibre (cellulose). . . . «. « 1073 |
2 Mineral matter (ash) - d . 675
' Containing ni en. - ° : . £19
? Including san - 4 . : at £30

The cake is not properly free from impurities, such as rape-seed, earth-
nut, &c., and has high fibre and too much sand.

In correspondence it was elicited that the cake was guaranteed
to the vendor as being made only of the best Calcutta linseed,
bought on a basis of 96 per cent. purity.

5. Capt. J. H. Burstall, of Hessle Mount, Hull, sent on April 20,
a sample of linseed-cake. The following report was given :—

April 24, 1891.

Mcisture . = - - - : : = . 12°05
Oil . eal 2 6
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) - 28°31) 1099.00
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre - : . 31°65
Ww oody fibre (cellulose) . ‘ - : : a NA he
? Mineral matter (ash) : : : : . 860
1 Containing nitrogen. > : : - £53
Including sand. : : : : . 345

The cake is an impure one, containing a considerable quantity of weed-
seeds, chiefly spurry, and 34 per cent. of sand.

In reply to inquiries Capt. Burstall said :—
May 8, 1891.
Deaz Srr,—As one of the firm from whom I bought the linseed cake is
a personal friend I don’t wish to take any further steps. It was sold as
95 per cent., but not pure.— Yours faithfully,
J. H. BuRstatt.

The following case shows the danger of purchasing without
a guarantee of any kind.

6. Mr. William Lester, of Espley Farm, Hodnet, Salop, sent on
March 10, 1891, a sample which was invoiced to him as linseed-
cake, The following report was returned :—

402 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891.

March 18, 1891.

Moisture Py ‘ ‘ . . . e . 13°75
Gil |... . . 13:90
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) » 25°12 | 499.99
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . : . 26°65
Woody fibre (cellulose) . . 5 : 0 ole
? Mineral matter (ash) . : ' : . « 12°46
1 Containing nitrogen . ‘ . « 402
? Including sand . . . . » 575

The cake is an impure one, containing, besides starchy ingredients in
some quantity and also rape, nearly 6 perggimt. of sand, which is highly
objectionable.

Upon being pressed for information Mr. Lester wrote :—‘ The
agent has made a very considerable allowance on this cake. I had
no guarantee as to the purity of it, so I do not wish any further steps
taken in the matter.”

The following cases refer to dissolved bones.

7. Capt. H. Heaton, of Stetchworth Park, near Newmarket,
agent to Lord Ellesmere, sent on April 27, a sample of what had
been described to him as “pure Dissolved Bones.” On this the

following report was given :—
April 30, 1891.

Moisture “ . . oD
1 Organic matter and wale of eonibiaiacae - . 19:89
Monobasic phosphate of lime : a . 18:93

Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phos- | 99. :
phate) rendered soluble by acid (29°64) + 100:00

Insoluble phosphates . . ‘ . 11°46

Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, Te ge . . 87°74

Insoluble silicious matter. : ° ihe oa ((
1 Containing nitrogen ‘ . : : » 2°04
Equal to ammonia . ‘ . . » 2°48

This is not made altogether from raw avase and acid only, although it is
a good manure.

Twenty tons of this had been purchased at 7/. per ton less’ 5 per
cent. delivered.

The manufacturers in their circular described two different articles
under the name of ‘ pure Dissolved Bones,” viz. :—

No. 4.—Pure Dissolved Bones,— Made of steamed and raw bones dissolyed
with sulphuric acid.

No. 4a.—Pure Dissolved Bones.—An exceptionally high-class article,
made of raw bone meal only, dissolved with sulphuric acid, by a method
recently discovered by us, which enables us to produce a dry and finely
pulverised article without the use of any “ drier,”

It is understood in the trade that “pure Dissolved Bones”
shall consist of raw bones and acid only, and the term ought

-~ o-

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891. 403

not to be applied, as in the case under notice, to a mixture of
“ steamed and raw bones dissolved with sulphuri ic acid.”

It is desirable to put purchasers on their guard in respect
to this.

8. A large farmer in the West of England purchased, direct from
_ the manufacturers, 35 tons of ‘ Dissolv ed-bone Manure,” upon the
basis of a contract under which the firm in question supplied a
Farmers’ Club in the neighbourhood, and which contract read as
follows :—

The dissolved bone to be derived from raw bones ground before being
dissolved, must contain not less than 24 per cent. of soluble phosphate,
8 per cent, of insoluble phosphate, and 1 per cent. of ammonia.

The invoice, however, simply read as follows :—

{ 1 per cent. ammonia.
Dissolved Bone Manure + 24 per cent. soluble phosphates.
{ 8 per cent. insoluble phosphates.

The following report was sent upon the sample forwarded for
analysis :—
February 14, 1891.

Moisture, - . 15°57
1 Organic matter and water of combination . . 15°69
Monobasic phosphate of lime : . 1450
Equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phos- op. y
phate) rendered soluble by acid a ee
Insoluble phosphates. Pr eye
Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, & Ci te = . 30°65
Tasabablo silicious matter . ‘ : : . 561
! Containing nitrogen F ° . - - 0°83
Equal to ammonia . : . . ay 1:08

Though coming nearly up to the figures of the guarantee, this sample is
not what you state in your letter it should be, viz., ‘‘ wholly derived from
bones.” It contains other phosphate than obtained by dissolving pure
bones.

A long correspondence ensued, the purchaser claiming that he
had a right to expect ‘‘ pure dissolved bones,” and nothing else, the
vendors, on the other hand, contending that they had complied with
the guarantee and that the interpretation to be put on the clause of
the contract was, that ground raw bones must be wsed in the manu-
facture of the manure, and that only the ammonia need be derived
from the raw bones.

They pointed out further that the analysis of a sample made
from raw bones and acid only would not work out to the figures
contained in the guarantee, and further, that such a manure could
not be sold at anything like the price they quoted.

The vendors in a letter said :—

The interpretation we put cn this clause is that ground raw bones
must be used in the manufacture of the manure, which has been done; if,

404 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891.

however, as one might infer from Dr. Voelcker’s report, that bones and
nothing else should have been dissolved, we at once confess that such has
not been the case, neither can we admit that the contract is entitled to this
construction, as the analysis required makes this impossible. We quite
admit that the clause in question is open to almost any construction.

In reference to this case it is desirable to point out the
necessity of caution in framing contracts, and of insisting upon
the insertion upon the invoice of the words “pure Dissolved
Bones ;” for, though the statements of the manufacturers were
perfectly cor rect, the manure was not one which could be said to
properly conform to the description given in the form of contract.

The following case is an instance of low-class_ super-
phosphate being supplied :—

9. Mr. F. Reynard, of Sunderlandwick, Driffield, sent on April
21 a sample of superphosphate, 27 tons of which had been pur-
chased from an agent of a manure company, it being guaranteed to
yield 26 per cent. of soluble phosphate.

On analysis the sample proved to have only 16°59 per cent. of
soluble phosphate.

Mr. Reynard, not having used any, obliged the vendors to take
it back at their own expense.

The three remaining cases refer to more or less worthless
feeding stuffs and manures.

10. Mr. R. Neville-Grenville, of Butleigh Court, Glastonbury
sent on March 21 a sample of so-called “ Improving Meal.”
On this the following report was given :-—
April 2, 1891.

Water of combination . é . 3 3 ‘ aor
Sulphate of lime . : : : ° . 7820+ 100-00
Matter insoluble in acid, &e. F F ; . 110)

This “ Improving Meal,” as it is called, is very fine sulphate of lime
(gypsum). As you can get any quantity of gypsum “for about ll. a tdn, this
“meal” at 4/. 15s. per ton would be excessiv ely dear, even supposing it to
have any feeding value, which it has not.

The meal had been offered to a local miller by the vendors,
Messrs. James Arkell & Co., Gloucester, in accordance with the
following letter :—

Gloucester: March 7, 1891.

Dear Srr,—We are in receipt of yours, and have the pleasure of
handing sample of our Improving Meal, price 4/. lds. per ton at your
station, in bags lent free until emptied, for * ts of two tons and upwards,
We only supply one miller in a district, and have not sent any into yours,
so shall be pleased to supply you only there.

With the certainty of present high prices of barley, maize, &c., continuing,

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891. 405

you would find this a most serviceable article; some of our customers

express regret at not having had the opportunity of using it before, and

would not now be without any. Your order will be esteemed.—Truly,
James ARKELL & Co.

11. Mr. J. Redman, of Winterbourne, Swindon, sent on March
21a sample of meal for analysis, saying that it was “ Oat Sharps”
and was offered to him at about 4/. per ton.

The following was the report on the material :—
April 6, 1891.

Moisture. : : r e : . . 10°38
Ole. ss : ; . . : : - . 033
* Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 0°69 199.99
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . ; . 5481
Woody fibre (cellulose) ; : - - . 38040
? Mineral matter (ash) . : : - - Serres)
1 Containing nitrogen - : - ; om OrLk
? Including sand : : : r 5 . 284

This is nothing more than oat husks, and is almost entirely fibrous
material, having but little feeding value. The price asked for it is altogether
absurd, and I would not advise you to use it.

Mr. Redman did not purchase any of the meal.

12. Mr. J. C. Buckwell, of 3 New Road, Brighton, sent for ex-
amination on February 26 a sample of manure which was sold to
him as “Silicate Manure,” for vines. He had purchased two tons,
the price being 7/. per ton; the vendors were the Patent Silicate
Manure Co., Chemical Works, Hemel Hempstead, Herts. The fol-

lowing was the analysis returned :—
April 10, 1891.

Moisture . : - ; - : ; . 495
1 Organic matter. ; - ‘ . : ree is,
Sulphate of lime . : : - : ‘ . 22°95} 100-00
Oxide of iron, &c. : ; é : : . 280
Insoluble silicious matter . : ; = . 64:01
1 Containing nitrogen . - - : «) (0:89
Equaltoammonia ., 5 : . 108

This is little more than sand and sulphate of lime. It is scandalous
to charge such a price as 7/. a ton for a material like this,

Mr. Buckwell said that it was supposed to contain a very large
proportion of soluble silicates, and was strongly recommended for
vines. On examining the sample, Dr. Voelcker found that the
manure contained no soluble silicates at all, and wrote to Mr. Buck-

well as follows :—

To my report I may add that I have tested the manure carefully, and it
contains practically no soluble silicates at all, and the availability is just
about equal to that of ground flints, which, indeed, the manure sent by you
virtually is, together with some sulphate of lime and a little organic matter.

Whether 7/. a ton is a fair price for such a material or not I think my
report to you has clearly indicated.

406 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, June, 1891.

The circular sent by the company contained testimonials from the
gardeners to the following noblemen :—Lord de Ramsey, Earl De la
Warr, Marquis of Hartington, Duke of Hamilton and Brandon K.T.,
Lord Middleton, Earl of Radnor, Earl of Carnarvon, Lord North-
bourne, Marquis Conyngham, Duke of Rutland, Lord Stafford, Earl
of Effingham.

The following report was also contained in the circular :—

Rerort oN Mr. Pirrarp’s Parent SILIcATE MANURE.

Chemical Laboratory, 54 Holborn Viaduct, London :
September 1, 1888.

We have analysed a sample of the Silicate Manure invented by Mr.
Bernard Piffard, of Hill House, Hemel Hempstead. We find, as the result,
that this manure contains a very large proportion of silicic acid, much of
which is, no doubt, in a form capable of ready assimilation by vegetation.

The absolute necessity of a supply of silicic acid to cereals in particular
is well known. In this invention we have an ingenious endeavour to adapt
natural methods of conveying silicic acid in a suitable form to plants.

We are of opinion that this invention is based upon sound principles,
and it is very probable that the idea which guided Mr. Piffard in the
preparation of his Silicate Manure has led him to conclusions which will
prove of considerable importance to agriculturists generally.

(Signed) ArrHur Hitt Hassatt, M.D. Lond.
5 Epwin Gopwin Crayrron, F.C.S., F.1.C.

On Mr. Buckwell inquiring what the particular virtue of the
manure consisted in, he received the following letter from the manu-
facturers :—

THe Parent Sinicate Co.

The Chemical Works, Hemel Hempstead, Herts :
John C, Buckwell, Esq., Brighton. May 2, 1891.

Dear Srx,—In reply to yours of May 1 we beg to thank you for your
cheque and return receipt.

We are not surprised at Dr. Voelcker failing in his analysis to discover
the cause of an unsurpassing success. We have made many attempts to
get copies of the various analyses that have been made of our manure, but
have hitherto only succeeded in one instance, namely, that of Professor
Stein’s, the Danish State Chemist: his was totally wrong.

If you would kindly forward us Dr. Voelcker’s analysis we could better
judge whether he had detected the ingredients that its virtue is due to.

As regards the “ virtue” of the manure, that is detailed on the circulars
and attended to by the most responsible persons.

And if Dr. Voelcker asks to what that virtue is due, we must respectfully
decline informing him,

We have no objection to the Royal Agricultural analysing it, but we
decline giving an explanation.

We trust you will make your experiments without prejudice.—We are,
dear Sir, yours truly, B. Pirrarp, P. 8S. M. Co.

(Signed) R.A. Warren, Chairman.
June 2, 1891. .

407

REPORT OF EDUCATION COMMITTEE ON THE
RESULTS OF THE SENIOR EXAMINATION, 1891.

Tue Committee have to report that twenty-one candidates entered,
and thirteen actually competed, at the Society's Senior Examina-
tions which took place from the 12th to the 16th of May last, and
that of these thirteen competitors nine have satisfied the Ex-
aminers.

2. The following eight candidates, placed in order of merit, have
gained first-class certificates with the Life Membership of the
Society, the first four being entitled in addition to the prizes stated
below :—

1. Raost BuaitAt Pater, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester. First Prize of 251.

2. Epric Druce, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
Second Prize of 151.

3. James GunTER, Estate Office, Glasbury, Radnorshire. Third
Prize of 101.

4, JosepH Lister, Agricultural College, Aspatria. Fourth
Prize of 5l.

. Henry FrReperIcK Hitt, Agricultural College, Aspatria.

. Percy CHARLES Burton, The Elms, Pontyclown, Gla-
morgan.

7. Ernest ALLEN SrTaPLeDON, Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester.

8. Harry Austin Linpsay Younec, Loseley House, West
Horsley, Leatherhead.

3. The following candidate, having passed in Agriculture and in
- three of the four other compulsory subjects, is entitled to a second-
class certificate :—

oH

9. Ropert James Irvine, Blackhall House, Carlisle.

4. Of the compulsory subjects there were two failures in Agri-
culture, two in Chemistry, three in Book-keeping, one in Land Sur-
veying. There were no failures in Agricultural Engineering. Of
the optional subjects there were eight failures in Botany, one in
Geology, four in Anatomy, and one in Agricultural Entomology.

5. The Examiner in Agriculture (Mr. T. H. Thursfield) reports
that “the agricultural knowledge of the candidates had been
gained in very varied localities, and knowing from previous expe-
rience the probability of this, and having found a difficulty in making
proper allowance for it, the questions were set so as to be equally
suited to all comers. joing

“ Nearly the whole of the papers were satisfactory, and showed
very considerable knowledge, even where the candidate had evi-
dently not had the advantage of being practically engaged in Agri-
culture. The views expressed as to probable success in farming
were varied, but not encouraging to those about to embark in it.”

408 Report of Education Committee.

6. Only two candidates failed in Chemistry, whereas last year
no less than eight, or half of the competitors, proved unable to pass
in this subject. The Examiner in General Chemistry (Professor
Liveing) makes no comments upon the Examination; but the
Examiner in Agricultural Chemistry (Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker)
remarks that ‘‘ with one exception the papers have been very satisfac-
tory indeed, and, considering the number of candidates, there has been
a wonderful evenness of character throughout. All but one of the
thirteen candidates obtained two-thirds or more of the marks obtain-
able ; and one candidate lost only nine marks in the written and
two marks in the vivd-voce examination.”

7. The Examiner in Book-keeping (Mr. C. Gay Roberts) points

out that one candidate obtained full marks and observes that “ most
of the candidates succeeded fairly well in the journalising and post-
ing, but in drawing out the Profit and Loss Account and the
Balance Sheet many of them failed.”

8. The Examiner in Mensuration and Land Surveying (the
Rev. Professor Twisden) reports that “the first five questions [see
page 414] were in many cases correctly answered, and for the most
part in such a way as not to call for remark. In question 1, how-
ever, the answer was often found in Yards, though the form of the
question seems to suggest Chains and Links. In question 2, when
the first part has been answered, the second diameter might be seen
to be four and a half times the first. The answer was found, in all
but one instance, by a long independent process. Nearly all the
solutions of question 5 depended on the prolongation of a short line.
In question 6 the scale suggested is small, but this causes no diffi-
culty in drawing the diagram, and I should have expected that all
the candidates would have got so far as to make the plan ; but this
was by no means the case. In two or three instances, however, not
only was the plan drawn, but a very good approximation to the area
was also obtained in spite of the smallness of the scale. Question 7
was answered, on the whole, very well. There were, of course,
several mistakes in the work of one and another ; but in a good
many instances the form was rightly completed, and the section
correctly drawn. The calculation in question 8 proved to be beyond
the powers of the candidates, as was the case with a similar question
last year.”

9. The Examiner in Agricultural Engineering (Dr. William
Anderson) reports that, upon the whole, the work done this year is
better than last. He says :—‘“The sketching and drawing is again bad,
and points, I think, to a defect in the curriculum of the agricultural
and science colleges, because no less than ten out of the thirteen
candidates have had college training. The reason why I insist upon
the importance of drawing is because I am persuaded that it is the
best means of making the students acquainted with the details of
mechanism of the implements which they will have to use and keep
in repair. By way of illustration of my meaning I may mention
that twelve candidates attempted question 16—‘Sketch an ordinary
cartwheel and describe its various parts.’ ‘The answers were poor
in every case, and the state of knowledge is well illustrated by the

|

eee

ae es

-on the Senior Examination, 1891. 409

introduction to one of the answers, which was, ‘I know what a
cartwheel is, right enough, but I can’t sketch it ; it gets like a fly-
wheel.’ The questions which were dealt with in the most satis-
factory manner were those connected with Physics or those in which
some chemical knowledge was necessary. The information pos-
sessed by the students relating to the properties of ordinary building
materials is poor and seems to indicate that very little instruction is
given in this subject.”

10. Of the optional subjects only four competitors out of twelve
succeeded in satisfying the Examiner in Botany (Mr. W. Car-
ruthers, F.R.S.), and the papers are characterised by him as
“very poor, showing a want of accurate knowledge of Elementary
Botany.” The Examiners in Geology and Anatomy (Professor
Rupert Jones and Professor Simonds) make no comments upon the
quality of the papers submitted to them. The Examiner in Agri-
cultural Entomology (Miss E. A. Ormerod) reports that, “as a
whole, the candidates have very fairly correct views as to the effects
of good cultivation in lessening damage from insect attack, and in
some cases there are good replies as to prevention of Turnip Flea
Beetle attack, and also treatment of grass and clover land before
breaking up to clear wireworm. Warble attack they are also per-
fectly at home in the cure of. It is to be wished, however, that
they were more perfectly acquainted with the distinctions between
insects in their grub and caterpillar (7.e. larval) state, as this is im-
portant practically.”

11. The general result of the Examination shows a very satis-
factory proportion of successes, but more attention appears to be
necessary to the subject of Botany.

12. The following Table gives the marks assigned by the
Examiners to the work done by each candidate in the several
subjects.

} = leflfel/s)s
ls|.2/2|.|s ls l2 /2/21e/4
= = oe pe a = = as : 3 fo) m
iS} 82/88) 8s) 8o/5e/385/8)8)8) se] Z
Name of BU Ss |S) Ba] SR Fe es), FS) El] el sa] g
Candidate SUSE) Sslas/S3l/39/Bs/ S18) F189] s
oe) | ae os |e /nos | 8 a to a
3 Bel Bolas | ¥sS leet BE lsIifistess 2
|} o tos Sia ek os =] ae ie = = = = °
Pe q2i4a S = eal Ss 3 S to is)
;2>)] a] & Bf Sc. | oer a | at,
oy | > }a |S} a] sts
32 || 104| 65 + 1S -E 154} + |} +] 4+ | 75 +
*Burton, P. C 23 || 131| 65 | 132| 140/ 137| 152] + | 78/50) + | 885
*Drnce, E. 19 || 161 | 75 | 145] 200! 144] 138 | 4'|-66-|-50| 75 -| 1,054
*Gunter, J. | 31 || 158] 85 | 110! 105{| 100; 148 | 52] 83/60} 90 | 991
*Hill, H. F. 97 || 124 | 80 | 119} 120] 129} 170|°+ | 71} 55} 100. | 968
Pring, R. J | 21 |} 125 50 | 153 a 131 | 167 | 51 | 86 | 7 100 933
J. 15 || 193] 65 | 116] 115| 142} 125 | 51] 76| 70] 100 | 983
41 |} 143] 60 — + 104 | 150} + | 80| + | 60
*Patel, R. B. 25 || 137] 70-|-151} 185] 172} 162) 51] 79| + | 100 | 1,107
+ . . .fa6]} + | 55 | 143] 145] 143] 140] + | 88] 50] 50 | +
*Stapledon, EA. . || 19 || 121} 70 | 120| 115| 102; 160| + | 66|+ | 7 824
ter. “i ti | 60 | 134 | 130 | 150) eta.) 67)| 50) 75 |. +
Young, H.AT. . || 30 || 117} 55 | 119| 165| 159| 167|—|—|—| — | 782
REMARKS.

+ Second-class certificate. + Failed, not having obtained half the maxi-
a Optional subjects. mum marks in the subject.

VOL. Il. T. S.—6 EE

® First-class certificate and life membership. | — Did not attempt.

410 Senior Examination Papers, 1891.

13. In view of the fact that eight of the candidates who origin-
ally entered failed to present themselves at the Examination, the
Committee recommend that the deposits of such of them as were
not absent on account of ill-health be retained by the Society for the
present, They also recommend that in future the deposit paid by
an absent candidate should not be returned, unless such candidate
presents himself for examination within the two following years.

(Signed) Moreton, ;

June 2, 1891. Chairman.

EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS FOR THIS PAPER, 200.
Pass NUMBER, 100.

Tuesday, May 12th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m.

N.B.—It is hoped that all the questions will be answered. Nos.1,2,7,8
may be answered shortly. Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 should be answered as fully as time
will allow. Base all your answers upon the average conditions and prices of
the year 1890. Leave a margin to the left hand of your paper, and six lines,
at least, clear after each answer.

Assume that you intend to adopt Agriculture as an occupation and for a
livelihood, that you require a farm, and have the capital to stock it.

FARM.

Description.

1. State shortly the description of farm that with the present agricultural
outlook you would select; state your reasons and the points to which you
would pay particular attention in such selection. State how you would judge
of the climate and of the soil, and its capabilities of production.

Capital.

2. State shortly the acreage, the time of entry, the system of farming
-which you would adopt, the rent (to include tithe) at which you think such a
farm could be taken, the capital you would consider necessary for the farm
proper (apart from the house), and how you would allocate it.

Assume that you have been in occupation of such a farm for @ few years,
that it is in proper rotation and condition, and that you are farming it accord-
ing to the system stated above, Describe generally the management of the farm
for one year under the following heads, viz. :—

RECEIPTS FROM FARM,

Crops.

3. State the rotation and acreage of cropping, with the general manage-
ment of each crop respectively, both as regards arable and grass land, specify-
ing annual produce per acre and receipts from produce sold,

Senior Examination Papers, 1891. 411

Live Stock.

4, State number, description, and general management of the live stock
(farm horses included), giving annual purchases and ‘sales with prices and
amounts,

Dairy.

5 Describe the general management of the dairy (if any), and give annual
receipts from dairy produce sold.

EXPENDITURE UPON FARM.

Manual Labour.

6. State number, description, and wages cf labourers that you would
employ, specifying extra work and piece work, with prices, showing annual
expenditure upon manual labour.

Feeding Stuffs, Manure, Se.

7. State shortly the annual expenditure respectively upon cakes and
feeding stufis, manure, seed grain and other seeds, renewals and repairs to
implements, machinery, &e., tradesmen’s farm bills, rates, taxes, insurance,
&e.

SUMMARY.
Profit and Loss.

8. State shortly any other items, with the amounts, which should be
included under the head of farm receipts or expenditure, and show the
financial result of the year’s farming.

Vivi VOCE EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.
MaxtwumM NUMBER OF MARKs, 100. PAss NuMBER, 50.
Wednesday Afternoon, May 13th.

EXAMINATION IN BOOK-KEEPING.

MAxIMUM NUMBER OF MARKs, 200. Pass Number, 100.
Friday, May 15th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

Journalise the following transactions: post them into a ledger: make out
a Profit and Loss Account and a Balance Sheet.

On September 30, 1889, John Thompson receives from his father, Henry
Thompson, 4,000/., and agrees to pay him interest at the rate of 3 per cent.
annum.

He becomes tenant of a farm at a rent of 4007, a year, and pays the out-
going tenant for—

a ae
Horses a . et) a
Hay, Stray, and F eeding Stuffs ; 325 0 0
Live Stock, ze. Cattle, Sheep, Eee and
Poultry . - : 400 0 0
Implements E » - 150 0 0
Growing Crops, Tillages, and Manures pitts, O:..0
He deposits in the Bank . a . “2425 0 0

Lo

EE

412 Senior Examination Papers, 1891.

He draws cheques during the year for—

House expenses . : . : ‘ - “10606
Wages : : ° . . . « 880, 8,0
Rent . = 5 : ote £00 040
Rates, Taxes, and Insurance 7 c ; ip 5 50
Petty Cash < - : . : : 35 0 0
Seeds and Manures . - : : . 308 4 6
Horses = - ‘ . . ‘ ; 55 0 (0
Cattle - : C e é : . 60710 0
Sheep . . . : . » 740,15 20
Pigs . . . . . . . . 43 0 0
Implements : ‘ . ‘ . « GOR
Tradesmen’s bills F 964 6

His bills for Feeding Stuffs amount ‘to 3501. 98., and he pays 2007. on
account of them.
He receives and pays into the Bank for—

Batti. KOs

Corn sold . . . 4 : : + 9 4084 539
Cattle ,, . ‘ = : 5 E » 40610 0
LAER Bas MS . > 2 = - . 57 0 0
Wioolk: 5. 60 0 O
He sells 250 sheep at 35s. a head to

J. Matthews, and receives from him

3751. on account.
He sells to his Landlord 50 loads of Hay

at 31. 10s. and 20 loads of Straw

at 30s.

On Sept. 29, 1890, his valuations are :

Cattle unsold : 3 f . 633 0 0
Sheep ,, : S : : : 40200)
Pigs, s”. Sis.) fae ges g ae ae en
Poultry ,, . : : - ; . 7 00
Horses ,, ; 5 : : 4 «, AOD) ENG
Corn - . 4 , + ORO
Hay and Straw unsold. : F 2°. 226-020
Growing Crops and Tillages . : . 825 0 0
Foods purchased 5 F : : . . LSS OmD
Seeds and Manures . : , ° 7: FORO
Petty cashin hand . : ° . 6 De 2
Unpaid Tradesmen’s bills . : ‘ 28 7 4

Implements at cost price, less 8 per “cent,
for depreciation.

EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MAnks, 200. PAss NuMBER, 100.

A. GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Thursday, May 14th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

1. Give an account of the properties of nitrogen, and of its oxides.

2. Describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid, and explain the chemistry
of the process. Show, by examples, the chemical action of that acid on
different metallic oxides and hydrates.

3. Explain how you could determine the proportion of erclgihitint acid in
a sample of ammonium sulphate. How could you detect calcium sulphate
and sodium sulphate if they were mixed with the ammonium sulphate ?

Senior Examination Papers, 1891. 413

4. Show how to determine the amount of water vapour in the air at any
piven time and place. Point out the causes which tend to equalise the distri-
bution of water vapour in the atmosphere.

5. What gases are usually found in solution in rain water? How may they
be extracted? What circumstances increase the solubility of gases in water
Give examples.

6. Sulphurous acid, ferrous sulphate, and grape sugar are all reducing
agents: explain what this means, and give examples in illustration of their
reducing action.

7. Give some account of the occurrence in nature, and of the properties, of

_ alumina and its hydrate.

8. What are the grounds for regarding carbonic acid as a dibasic acid?
Calculate the weight of slaked lime needed to convert 1,000 grams of carbonate
of soda into caustic soda, and to convert a like weight of the bicarbonate also
into caustic soda. (Na=23, Ca=40.)

9. What is the relation between urea and ammonia ; and how may urea be
made to yield ammonia?

10. Explain the chemical relations of starch, sugar, and cellulose. Plants
produce such substances from carbonic acid and water under the influence of
sunshine: show on what principle sunshine is necessary for the result.

EXAMINATION IN CHEMISTRY.

MaxrmMuM NUMBER oF Marks, 200, PAss NUMBER, 100.

B. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

Thursday, May 14th, from 2 p.m. till 5 p.m.

1. The occurrence of chloride of sodium (common salt) in a soil may be
the cause of its infertility, so also may the presence of certain compounds of
iron. State whence these may arise, in wha* quantity the former (chloride of
sodium) is known to be injurious, and how they may be removed.

Account for the fact that, despite the above, both common salt and sulphate

of iron may be used as manures.

2. Take the case of a country which exports to a large extent its grain
crops, and returns only about one-quarter of the straw in the form of manure,
this being practically the only manurial source available, what would you say
should be the agricultural condition of the soil as regards its capability for
producing future crops? Explain in what ways natural richness or judicious
rotation might affect the result, at least temporarily.

3. What is an “oil-cake”?

What are the principal objections to the use of the term “ oil-cake,” and
why should farmers insist upon being supplied with “ pure linseed-cake”’?

4, Which are the principal “sugars” that are met with in agricultural
chemistry ? Give the chief occurrences and properties of each.

5. Discuss, quantitatively, the rainfall as a supplier of food to plants.
What causes may produce variations in its composition ?

6. Explain what differences a field may exhibit in the succession of crops
grown upon it, according as to whether it has been old pasture land recently
ploughed up, or has been for a long time arable. To what chemical causes
may these be due?

7. Give examples of the effects of high manuring on crops, as regards
quantity, maturity, and chemical composition.

8. What is animal charcoal? How is it produced, and to what does it owe
its purifying power? How does wood charcoal differ from it ?

414, Senior Examination Papers, 1891.

EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING,

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 200, PASS NUMBER, 100,

Tuesday, May 12th, from 10 a.m. till 1 p.m.

1. What is the numerical value of an acre, expressed (@) in square yards,
(0) in square chains, (c) as a fraction of a square mile?

A rectangular piece of land has an area of 9 acres 2 roods 37 poles; the
length of one side is 9°94 chains ; what is the length of the adjacent side ?

2. What is the number of yards in the diameter of a circular enclosure
whose area is one acre? (N.B. 7r=22.)

What would be the number of yards in the diameter if the area were
20 acres 1 rood?

3. Pieces of round timber, each 93 feet long, are cut into planks; in the
process the following cuts are made: 15 cuts 25 inches deep, 15 cuts 22 inches
deep, 3 cuts 13 inches deep, and 34 cuts 6 inches deep; what will be the
charge for the cuts, at 5 shillings a hundred square feet ?

4. A solid of irregular shape is found to weigh 75,423 grains in water, and
84,537 grains in air; find the volume of the solid, having given that a cubic
inch of water weighs 252°8 grains.

What would the calculated volume be if it were assumed that the weight
of a cubic foot of water is 1,000 ounces (avoird.) ?

5. A and B are two accessible points, not very far apart, separated by a
pond, or other obstacle; show how to lay down on the ground a line equal in
length to A B, using only tapes and pickets, and without producing any short
line, or measuring any angle.

6. ABCDE is a piece of ground enclosed by five lines; the following
lengths are measured, viz.: the sides, A B 2,875, BC 3,648, CD 4,020, DE
4,874, E A 3,578, and two diagonals, A C 6,126, A D 4,783; allin links. Take
the line A C to be three inches long and draw a scale; then, using the scale,
draw a plan of the ground, and find its area from the plan,

7. A, B, C, D, E, F are points in succession along a road, and the sur-
veyor is supposed to be going from A to F; he first puts his level at X, between
A and E, and afterwards at Y, between E and F'; the levelling staff is held
successively at A, B, C, D, E, F, and the following entries are made:

Station | Back Reading | Intermediate Forward | Distance
| 6-40 A i ye
— 13°21 — 300
x . — 3°78 — 650
= | 8-04 -—- 1,680
| -- — 12°92 2,179
| 3:15 — = as
Ayan 2's i i af 6-75 3,207

The distances are, of course, from A to B, B to ©, &e., and are in links.
Complete the form by entering rise, fall, and reduced level, assuming that A
is 20 feet above the datum line; and draw a section of the ground, using as a
horizontal scale 1 inch equal 5 chains, and as a vertical scale 1 inch equal to
10 feet. :

8. A, B, © are three points; from A to B is 1,200 yards, from B to € is
2,874 yards; at A, AB bears N. 23°18’ W., and at B, BC bears N, 72°47' E.;
calculate the distance from A to C, and the bearing of AC at A. Verify the
results by construction, using a scale of 1 inch eanal to 600 yards.

2 i

Senior Hxamination Papers, 1891. 415

EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING,

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 200, PASS NUMBER, 100,

Wednesday, May 13th, from 10 a.m, till 1 p.m.

N.B.—WNot more than half the questions should be attempted,

1. Explain what is meant by elastic limit and ultimate stress in
materials.

2. What conditions are to be observed in designing surfaces which are to
work on each other, as, for example, axles in their bearings, or the slide blocks
guiding the piston-rod cross-heads of steam engines on their slides ?

3. Describe the construction and the mode of graduating an ordinary
mercurial thermometer, and state what is meant by the absolute zero of tem-
perature.

4, Explain what is meant by “temperature,” by ‘specific heat,” and by
* latent heat.”

5. Explain the cause of the difference of specific heat of gases at constant
volume and at constant pressure.

6. Explain and illustrate by sketches the action of wind upon the sails of a
windmill.

7. Sketch an ordinary single-acting 3-inch hand suction and force pump,
such as is commonly used in wells or for domestic supply. Mark the principal
dimensions.

8. What is the usual method of freeing water from mechanical impurities
and rendering it fit for domestic use? Sketch and describe an installation to
yield 3,000 gallons per 24 hours.

9. Describe the process by which the potential energy in coal is converted
into useful work by means of a non-condensing steam engine.

10. A condensing steam engine is required to work up to 30 indicated

_ horse-power measured in the cylinder. Calculate the quantity of feed and of

condensing water required per hour. You may assume such boiler pressure,
temperatures of water, and efficiency of the engine as you think will probably
obtain in a good engine.

11. What is the difference between a gas and a petroleum engine?

12. Sketch carefully and dimension as far as you can a 12-inch metallic
piston.

13. Describe the system of steam ploughing by means of two engines and
a balance plough.

14, Sketch and describe a horse-hoe.

15. What is the use of a horse-rake? Describe its action, illustrating your
description by sketches.

16. Sketch an ordinary cart-wheel, and describe its various parts.

17. Describe a chaff-cutter, and illustrate your description by sketches, and
explain the safety appliances.

18. Show how two lay shafts, say 10 feet apart and crossing each other at
right angles, can be driven by a flat belt so that there will be no tendency of
the belt to come off. State whether the direction of revolution is a material
factor in the arrangement.

416 Senior Examination Papers, 1891.

EXAMINATION IN BOTANY.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 100. PAsS NUMBER, 50,

Friday, May 15th, from 2 p.m, till 4 pam.
Seven questions at least must be answered.

1. Describe the apex of the root and its method of growth; wherein does
it differ from the growth of the stem ?

2. What are the principal constituents of the ash of a plant, and how did
the plant obtain them ?

3. Explain: Endosperm, dicotyledon, glume, spore, hybrid, mycelium.

4. State the cause or causes of the death of a seed.

5. Describe the fruit and seed of wheat : what are the parts of the embryo,
and what are their different functions in germination ?

6. Describe the nature of hop mildew, and state what preventive or cura-
tive means you would employ in dealing with it.

7. What grasses and other plants are suitable for laying down permanent
pasture in a good and well-drained soil? Give your reason for the selection
of each specimen.

8. Describe in some detail one of these parasites—ergot, dodder, or broom
rape—giving its natural order, host plant, method of attack, resultant injury,
and suggestions for remedy.

9. Give the characters of the natural order Umbelliferw, and specify some
cultivated plants of the order, and some dangerous plants found in Britain.

10. Name and describe in systematic order the plants marked A and B.

EXAMINATION IN GEOLOGY.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 100. PAss NumBar, 50.

Saturday, May 16th, from 10 a.m till 1 p.m.

- 1. Describe some of the most common kinds of Granitic rocks, and state
Where they occur in the British Islands.

' 2. Iustrate by diagrams folding and contortion of strata, also unconformity
and overlap. What inferences, with reference to geological time, can be drawn
from these conditions of strata?

3. What are the main directions of strike and dip in the strata constituting
England? What Surface-features do you recognise in association with those
conditions ?

4, What Fossils would serve to show that a series of strata had been formed
under freshwater (river or lake) conditions, and what would show that they
had been formed in the sea?

5. What are the organic constituents and the chemical composition of
Peat? Describe the mode of its formation?

6. Mention the localities where Peat chiefly occurs in the British Islands.
State how it used to be made serviceable as a manure, and what it is used for
at the present day.

7. Describe in detail of what and how sands, clays, and limestones, respec-
tively, are formed in nature.

Senior Examination Papers, 1891. 417

8. Enumerate the chief Limestones of the British Islands, and state for
what purposes they are respectively used.

9. Draw a Geological Section across any part of the British Islands, and
describe it in detail.

10. Write a brief essay on the Physical Geography and Geology of any one
of the large Counties in England, Wales, Scotland, or Ireland. Give one or
more sketches or diagrams in illustration.

11. For any siz of the following Genera, state the Natural Order to which
each belongs, and mention one or more of its species, with the Geological
Formations in which they are found: Ananchytes, Anthracosia, Asaphus,
Baculites, Belemnites, Belinurus, Calymene, Cidaris, Coccosteus, Dalmanites
Dentalina, Diceras.

12. Name and describe four of the Specimens on the Table.

EXAMINATION IN ANATOMY AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MaRKs, 100. PASS NUMBER, 50.

Saturday, May 16th, from 2 p.m, till 4 p.m.

1. Given that the digestive organs of rnminating animals are more complex
than those of other animals, name the several divisions of the stomach of the
ox, and say in which digestion is effected.

2. On inspection of a small portion of each of these divisions, say how you
would recognise to which of them it belonged.

3. Describe in general terms the anatomy of the heart, making especial
mention, however, of the vessels which conyey the blood to and from it in both
the systemic and pulmonic circulation.

4, What is meant by the term of a standard pulse, and what is the average
number of healthy pulsations in the horse, ox, and sheep ?

5. Explain the difference which exists in the condition of the heart and
that of the arteries when their pulsatory action is felt.

6. State how the normal temperature of the body is maintained, and under
what circumstances it would become increased, or, on the contrary, dimi-
nished.

7. Name the several blood-vessels which unite to form the large vessel
that enters the liver for the secretion of bile, and give the name of the
vessel,

8. Say into what part of the intestinal canal the biliary duct enters, and
name the animal of the farm in which a gall-bladder does not exist.

9. Say on what the variation in the colour of the skin depends in pied
animals, and name the parts of the body where an accumulation of some of
the follicles of the skin exists, and give an illustrative example.

10. Name the divisions of the vertebral column, and state the relative
number of bones in each division in the horse and ox.

_ 11. Given that bones of the vertebra form a continuous cavity, say what
is lodged within it and name the chief function of such encased organ,

418 Senior Heamination Papers, 1891.

EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY,

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 100. PASS NUMBER, 50.
Friday, May 15th, from 4 p.m. till 5 p.m,

Candidates nill not be expected to answer all the questions in this paper, The
replies are to be as short as possible, and where the candidate is not acquainted
with the scientific name of an insect, the generally received English name will be
accepted.

1. Name some of the insect attacks most commonly injurious to turnips—
as to the crop in the seed leaves; or to the leafage generally ; or to flower or
seed ; or to roots,

2. Describe a few of the chief characteristics of attack of turnip flea-beetle,
or of some other common turnip attack.

3. State very shortly some of the measures of treatment of land before-
hand, or of treatment of the growing crop, which are useful for prevention or
remedy of attack of turnip flea-beetle.

4. Give some of the reasons why good cultivation of land, or stimulating
dressings, or sometimes date of sowing, act well in lessening amount of harm
from insect infestation.

5. Say what treatment you would think desirable before, and during course
of, breaking up old pastures or clover leys, in order to lessen amount of wire-
worm presence.

6. How can you tell the difference between various kinds of larvae, i.e.
between the maggot of a two-winged fly, and the grub of a beetle, or the
caterpillar of a moth or butterfly (speaking generally, and not noting excep-
tional cases) ?

7. Give examples of an order of insects, or of some special insects, which
are injurious only in the larval stage; or in both larval and imago (or
perfect) stage; or in all three stages, i.e. as larva, pupa, and perfect
insect.

8. How do insects breathe, or draw in air?

9. How would you apply the knowledge of method of inhaling air supplies
practically, as a means of checking attack, say of ox warble maggot, or of
aphides (or plant lice) in any stage ?

10. State, giving the scientific or popular name of the infestation, what it
is that causes the deformed growths known as “ tulip root” or “segging” in
oat plants, and as stem-sickness in clover. ’

11. Mention what kind of chemical applications have been found success-
ful both for prevention and remedy of tulip root and stem-sickness,

Hotes, Communications, and
‘Reviews,

HARVESTING THE SEED OF ROOT-CROPS.

THE root crop of the United Kingdom covers nearly 3,000,000 acres
annually, which necessitates the growth of at least three times as
many pounds weight of seed to sow the land once. During the last
few years there has been an almost unprecedented freedom from
the attacks of the turnip-fly and other injurious insects ; and, as
the seasons have been moist at the time of seeding, very few acres
have required re-seeding. It frequently happens, however, that for
a series of years a very considerable breadth has to be re-sown.
Seed-merchants have to be prepared for such an emergency, and it
thus becomes necessary to grow much more seed than is required for
sowing the land once. Roughly, at least 10,000,000 lb. of seed
are required annually, and this, at an average weight of 50 lb. per
bushel, means that 200,000 bushels of sound seed are required for
the home trade alone. In addition to this, however, a large export
trade has to be met.

The yield of seed is very variable, and, although 35 bushels are
grown with some frequency, 20 bushels is a good average yield of
turnip seed per acre, notwithstanding the high culture to which the
crop issubjected. The growing of this class of seeds is therefore an
important branch of agriculture.

By far the greater portion of the seed is obtained from small plants
produced in seed-beds sown in August and transplanted in the
autumn, or occasionally in February, when the land has been un-
favourable for the work earlier. Great care is taken to keep the
land free from weeds and generally in a high state of cultivation.
The earliest seed ripens in July.

The White Turnip is the first to ripen, and is closely followed
by the Hybrid variety. The Swede is generally from ten days to a
fortnight later. Kohl-rabi, Thousand-headed Kale, and Cabbage
come very soon after the Swede. Mangel is very much later, not
being fit to cut before September, and occasionally October.

The seed of the cruciferous plants is not allowed to become
thoroughly ripe before being cut, or great loss results, for when it is

420° Harvesting the Seed of Root-Crops.

perfectly ripe the seed falls out with ease, a mere shaking by the
wind being sufficient to dislodge a large proportion. As the plants
are set close together, varying from 40,000 to 60,000 per acre, and
as these grow into stout shrubs, 3 feet or 4 feet in height, which
throw out lateral branches so as to form a dense growth in which
the individual plants are almost lost, a considerable amount of pull-
ing is necessary to disentangle them, especially, as is often the case,
when the crop has fallen flat on the ground. The crop is therefore
cut at the time when the sap has commenced to leave the plants,
when the pods are turning yellow, and the seed has lost its greenness.
If cut too soon the seed does not ripen thoroughly, which is indicated
on threshing by the purple rather than the black colour of the
sample. If the land is weedy this crop must be cut sooner than it
otherwise would be, as the weeds tend to mat it together, causing it
to be more difficult to pull out the plants, and thereby entailing
great loss of seed. If the seed is not sufficiently ripe its germinating
powers are weak. Some judgment is therefore necessary in deter-
mining the best time for commencing to cut. . The cutting is gene-
rally done by the piece, and costs, according to the quality of the
crop, from 7s. to 10s. per acre, 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. being the usual
price paid. A short fagging-hook is most commonly used, and the
worker grasps the stems of the plants with one hand whilst he chops
with the other. The handful is then drawn out, and laid in bundles
or sheaves. It is, however, not usual to tie them, although this is
occasionally done.

The sheaves are left on the ground for a week or two, in order
to become thoroughly dry and ripened, and it rarely happens, even
under the most favourable conditions, that they are fit to thresh in
less than a fortnight. If threshed before absolutely dry, the seed
heats subsequently, and if not carefully handled is ruined. Whilst
on the ground the sheaves are turned occasionally, so that the seed
may be equally ripened throughout, and also to prevent the seed
from growing when the weather is wet. It is a very anxious time for
the farmer, as a strong wind, especially a whirlwind, often turns
the sheaves and knocks out many bushels per acre. A hailstorm
or heavy thunder shower will frequently knock out half the seed,
and in continued wet weather much of it begins to grow. Every
turning occasions loss, and as it becomes riper the loss is proportion-
ately greater. The best plan is to turn the sheaves while the dew is
on them, as the pods are tougher then. Turnip-seed shells out the
most easily, whilst Kale and Cabbage suffer least in this respect.

It is not usual to stack the sheaves, as much loss of seed is
inevitable during the moving, and there is great increase in the
expense. Nevertheless, it is sometimes found advisable to stack in
seasons when there is great absence of sunshine, for it is otherwise
impossible to get the seed sufficiently dry for storing without
leaving it subject to loss from the meteorological causes already
mentioned. The threshing is therefore generally carried out in the
field, and it is one of the busiest sights on the farm. All the seed
will not knock out unless it is absolutely dry, and though three-

Harvesting the Seed of Root-Crops. 421

fourths of the seed might fall out with the greatest ease the
remainder would be very obstinate. The threshing can only be
carried out whilst the seed-pods are quite free from moisture,
and there are few mornings sutfticiently free from dew for a start to
be made before 8 o’clock, whilst after heavy dews and mists thresh-
ing cannot be commenced before noon. So susceptible is the seed-

_crop to moisture that the effect of dew in the evening can be realised

by the workers on the threshing-cloths before it can be felt by hand,
or is shown on the shoes of those who are loading in the field. The
threshing-day is therefore a limited one, and one of ten hours’
duration is very exceptional. All available hands are gathered
together as soon as a start is considered advisable, and a piece of
ground is cleared of stumps and other inequalities, so that the
threshing-cloths may be laid down. For a moderately large set,
such as will be described below, two cloths, each 10 yards by
12 yards, carefully sown together so as to retain all the seed, are
firmly pinned down with iron pins. It is necessary that the sheets
should be stretched very tightly, or the forkings, rakings, and
brushings will be rendered troublesome.

The usual arrangement of hands is that there should be two sets
of loaders in the field, each composed of two pitchers and a lad to
steady the load, which is not piled very high. All of it is laid
inside the “raves” of the cart, or the seed would jolt out while in
transit to the cloths. Large seed-growers provide special carts for
carrying seed: these are made with long bodies, 12 feet to 14 feet
in length and 7 feet wide, the sides being hinged as in railway
trucks, so that they may be let down, and the load rolled out quickly.
Great care must be taken to pick up the sheaves in such a way that
the seed does not shake out. Ifthe fork is stuck carelessly into
the seed end, or if the sheaf is lifted with a jerk, there is much loss.
It must be slipped between the stems, and lifted with a smooth even
motion straight to the cart. The loads are taken to the cloth, and
are rolled on to it, the sole duty of one man being to empty. Two
men receive the material and immediately lay it in long wads,
nearly the full length of the cloth, and two iron rollers, each ridden
by stout lads, or by the master or his sons, are driven up and down
the wads twice, these being rapidly turned to receive a fresh rolling.
This rolling and turning are continued until the wad has crossed the
cloth, the rapidity being controlled by the ease with which the seed
comes out. The haulm is then stacked outside the cloth ; or, as is
often preferable, loaded on to carts for use elsewhere as stack-
bottoms. In all, five to seven men are engaged working the wads
across the cloths, and loading up the straw, all finding employment,
as at some periods there are two wads in working at the same time.
Besides these, three men are engaged in raking off the pods, and
another man in brushing the seed into a heap. The seed is then
put on to a coarse riddle 6 feet in length and 3 feet 6 inches in
breadth, and the coarse material is worked off, the seed being
then passed through the winnower to separate the chaff and dust,
this employing five or six additional hands. The seed is now

4.22 Farmers’ Accounts.

sacked up. About 130 bushels of seed may be thus threshed and
cleaned in the course of a good day’s work. If the seed is not
cleaned at the time, there is an excessive amount of labour involved
in bagging up and carting home, for, after the pods are separated, a
sack (of 16 pecks) would only contain about 5 pecks of seed.

About 25 hands all told are required for the entire operation, and
to those unaccustomed to the process it is surprising how rapidly
and systematically it is done. It compares very favourably with
the leisurely manner in which most of the work on the farm is
carried out. A slightly different process is sometimes contrived on
the cloths, when the wads, instead of being straight, are made
horse-shoe shape, and the seed is worked into the centre. The
riddling goes on here also, and the seed is worked towards the heel
of the shoe, finally passing out through the winnower, to be then
bagged up.

Mangel-seed is rather more expensive to cut, costing from 8s. to
10s. per acre. It is cut when a brown shade has spread over the
plant, but it cannot be left until the whole of the plant dies down ;
in fact, the plant has to be killed. The crop is not fit to cut until
September, and occasionally until October. 1t is cut with a fagging-
hook, and tied and shocked like wheat. After standing for some
few weeks it is stacked in narrow stacks, to prevent its heating, and
is threshed out by the steam threshing machine.

The price paid for the seed of root-crops has rendered its growth
unpopular, for, with the risks which attend it at all stages, it is
found to be a precarious enterprise. Some idea of the hazardous
nature of the crop may be gathered from the fact that insurance
companies, which insure against damage from hail, charge 15s. per
acre for turnip-seed and only 4d. for wheat. The low price of
wheat induced many new growers to take up the growing of seeds,
with the result that the price now paid is less than two-thirds of
what it was a few years ago. If wheat should maintain the
price it reached in May of this year, it is very unlikely that
farmers will be found to grow seed of root-crops at the present
prices. Wheat-growing is more reliable, and at current quotations

more profitable.
W. J. Mavpen,

FARMERS’ ACCOUNTS.

THE question of technical education for farmers now being con-
sidered and discussed is no doubt an important one, as scientific
training and more complete technical knowledge are necessary to
enable farmers to meet the altered state of prices brought about by
foreign competition. :

The ground-work of improved education should be the science
of arithmetic, now taught in every board school, The farmer

Farmers’ Accounts. 4.23

should learn first to keep a cash-book, and ledger, which would be
a true record of all his transactions, and from which profit and loss
accounts of a reliable character could be made. Until farmers put
this system into practice they can have no accurate knowledge of
how they are progressing or where losses occur. It is the keeping
of accurate accounts, with a proper cost-book, that enables our
manufacturers to compete successfully with unrestricted importa-
tions of every kind, It is the acknowledged and universally
adopted principle upon which competition is met, and farmers as
producers of commodities subject to this intense competition can
claim no exemption from the general rule if they wish to succeed
in their occupation. It will of course give them some additional
trouble, but this is a necessary consequence of increased compe-
tition which all producing industries have had to contend with.
Farm accounts of cosé are difficult to keep, but nevertheless they
can be kept, so as to be of great practical value. Balance-sheets
are easily made, and are necessary to show the net result of the
year’s transactions, but more than this is wanted. Profit and loss
accounts of cattle are aiso easily kept, when live weight is adopted
as a basis of calculation, but not otherwise, if the cause of loss is to
be ascertained.

Referring to the cattle trade, which is the largest and one of
the most important of agricultural industries, no satisfactory cost-
book (record of accounts) can be kept without introducing the
element of weight as the basis of calculation. It is the only fact
that can be ascertained on the subject, and my proposition is to
substitute this fact for a mere matter of opinion, the variations of
opinions being such that they cannot be represented by figures.

It is not sufficient for a banker’s account to show when losses
have been sustained, if it does not also show where and how they
have been incurred. It is this latter knowledge that is required,
in order that a repetition of the loss may be met, and if possible
avoided.

The proposition to base calculations on the live weight of cattle
is a perfectly practicable one, and not new; but in England the
proper means have not been provided for carrying it out. Farmers
are good judges of the quality and breed of stock best suited to
the land they occupy. This their experience teaches them. But
they want more accurate knowledge of the weight they are buying
and the weight they are selling, or in other words the quantity to
be bought or sold, which is a distinct question from quality, and
the answer to which can only be given them by the scales. A
weighing machine is as necessary an implement on a stock farm as
a plough on an arable farm, if any accurate knowledge of the size,
growth, and value of stock is to be obtained.

My own experience is that if the right kind of stock be selected,
they will put on 27 or 28 live stone (14 lb.) farm weight during
the period of summer grazing. I give from 20s. to 25s. worth of
cake in the two months before they are sold. The whole of this
27 or 28 live stones gain in weight is not the grazier’s to sell, as

424 Farmers’ Accounts.

cattle lose fully five per cent. in going to market and standing there.
There is therefore only 22 or 23 stone available for sale. If a
butcher comes to my farm I take him off five per cent. from the
farm weight, thereby reducing it to market weight. I consider
that if store cattle are to pay the grazier a fair profit, they should
be bought in the autumn at 1s. to 1s. 2d. a live stone less than the
average price of beef per live stone when they are sold, and if bought
about May 1, at 6d. a live stone less. An official record of live

weight prices of store cattle would therefore be a most valuable

uide.
F This has not been possible the last year or two, except in the
case of Canadian stores, which have been bought more in accordance
with the price of beef. Autumn buying of stores must depend
upon the means a farmer has of keeping them through the winter
without losing weight, and it is desirable that grazing farms should
have a little arable land attached, though details of this kind are
well known to all practical farmers. The price of stores will of
course always be subject to variations, but if farmers would accustom
themselves to take the weight of their store cattle at the time of
purchase, it would be a check upon their own judgment and would
help to check the great variety of prices often given for the same
class of cattle, in the same market, on the same day ; and in a
short time they would know what they could afford to give. The
live weight at the time of purchase would also be a valuable record,
as by taking the live weight when sold fat, it would enable the
graziers to see what their land had done, and also which breed of
cattle had fared best. All this is at present conjecture and matter
of opinion, but it would be far more satisfactory to have it as matter
of fact. The buying in of stores is a most important question to
all feeders of cattle. The smaller cattle of good quality under 90
stone alive at market make the most money and do not come so
much into competition with the American killed beef as does the
larger class of Shorthorns weighing 100 live stone and upwards.
With respect to the sale of fat stock, the quality and condition
will determine the price per live stone, and of this the farmers who
have fed the cattle will be the best judge. They will soon learn the
percentage of dressed meat the stock are likely to yield.. A mode-
rately well-fed animal will yield about 57 per cent., the better fed
animals as much as 60 or 61 percent. All cattle will of course vary
more or less in the percentage of meat they yield, which must be
arrived at by taking averages. If cattle are picked as they are ready
to be sold, a good judge will estimate their carcass yield to within
one or two per cent. Many butchers are very good judges and keep
accurate accounts of the live weight of the cattle they buy as well
as of the dead weight of meat they yield, and are perfectly able to
buy their fat cattle by live weight, and many do so. A farmer may
kill a test beast or two in average condition, and, taking the fasted
live weight and dead weight, this will be a guide to the percentage
of meat they are likely to yield. Or he may sell a few to a local
butcher by weight, and see them weighed, and in this way much

Some Remarkable Features in the Winter of 1890-91. 425

valuable information may be gained. In a short time the system
would become familiar, and no possible harm could result from
adding such reliable information to a farmer’s present knowledge,
as it would do away with one of the two great elements of uncer-
tainty that now exist, and assist his judgment in valuing the other.

WestTLEY RICHARDS.

SOME REMARKABLE FEATURES IN THE
WINTER OF 1890-91.

Tue abnormal character of the recent winter continues to be made
the subject of investigation on the part of meteorologists. In a
paper read before the Royal Meteorological Society on April 15
last, Mr. Frederick J. Brodie, F.R.Met.Soc., remarked that the
peculiarities in temperature were by no means the only features of
interest in a very extraordinary season. A cold winter is usually,
though not invariably, brought about by an undue prevalence of
anticyclonic ' conditions, and there has been no season within recent
years in which this characteristic was more strongly marked than
in that of 1890-91.

Barometric Pressure.—During the frost, which lasted from the
close of November to about January 21 or 22, the weather over
England was affected mainly by a huge high-pressure system which
_ extended over the Continent from Russia. In February the Russian
anticyclone gave way, but a new one advanced over France and

! As this term is of frequent occurrence the following elucidatory notes are
taken from the Hon. Ralph Abercromby’s Weather, pp. 7, 47: ‘‘ Within the
_ last twenty years a new treatment of weather-problems has been introduced,

by which the whole aspect of meteorology has been changed. By this method
a chart of a large area of the earth’s surface is taken, and after marking on
the map the height of the barometer at each place [at one and the same
time], lines are drawn through all stations at which the barometer marks a
particular height. Thus, a line would be drawn through all places where the
pressure was 30-0 inches, another through all where it was 29°8 inches, and so
on at any intervals which were considered necessary. These lines are called
isobars, because they mark out lines of equal pressure.”

“ An anticyclone is an area of high pressure surrounded by nearly circular
isobars. These are always a considerable distance apart, and extend over a
large area. The pressure is highest in the centre, and gradually diminishes
outwards, The air is calm and cold in the central portion, while on the out-
skirts the wind blows round the centre in the direction of the handsof a watch,
not exactly parallel to the isobars, but spirally outwards. Unlike a cyclone,
which is commonly in rapid motion, an anticyclone is often stationary for many
days together.”—Ep.

VOL, I. T. S.—6 FF

426 Some Remarkable Features in the Winter of 1800-91.

Germany from the south-westward, and as the borders of this
system extended northwards over a considerable portion of our
islands, the conditions over England remained, for the most part,
under the influence of high karometer readings. As a result of
the very marked persistence of anticyclonic weather it appears
that the mean pressure over the British Isles was above the average
in all three of the winter months. In December 1890 the excess
was slight in the southern parts of the United Kingdom, but large
(0°3 in. or more) in the north and east of Scotland. In January
1891 the difference from the mean amounted to between 0°10 and
0-15 in. over Great Britain, but to 0-20 in. in the south of Ireland.
The most remarkable difference was, however, in February,
when the mean pressure over the United Kingdom was from 0°3
to 0-5 in. above the average in all districts, the greatest excess
being found over England and the east of Ireland. At Kew
Observatory, the mean pressure for February derived from the hourly
readings of the self-registering barograph was no less than 30°474
ins., or 0-479 in. in excess of the average for the twenty years
1871-90, and 0-087 in. higher than in any month of the same ex-
tended period.

The effect of so constant a prevalence of anticyclonic conditions
upon temperature has been dealt with in Mr. C. Harding’s paper
on “‘ The Great Frost of 1890-91” (see page 196 of this volume of
the Journal). Its influence upon the winds, the weather, and the
rainfall of the winter were no less marked, and are deserving of
special notice.

Wind.—Firstly, as regards the wind, we find that over the
United Kingdom generally the winter was unusually quiet. Even
in the extreme west and north, where the weather was influenced
from time to time by low-pressure systems which advanced from
the Atlantic, the gales experienced were neither frequent nor severe,
while over England there was an almost entire absence of the
ordinary winter storms.

The influence of repeated anticyclonic weather during last
winter is shown very forcibly by the unusually high percentage of
calms in London, the actual value (22 per cent.) being more than
double the average, and considerably higher than in any othe.
winter of the past twenty years. The number of gales experienced in
the Metropolis was only two as against an average of seven, and of
severe gales there were absolutely none whatever. The weather
over this part of the country was, in fact, less stormy than any we
have had since the winter of 1875-76, when the number of gales
was equally small. In the seasons both of 1876-77 and 1884-85
there were in London six times as many gales as there were in
1890-91.

The prevalence of calm weather was, however, not the only inter-
esting feature. From an examination of the proportion of winds”
experienced from various points of the compass we learn that there
was a very large falling-off in the percentage of winds from between

Some Remarka! le Features in the Winter of 1890-91. 427

south and west, and a decided increase in the percentage of winds
from between north and east. Taking the points from between
south-east and west as representing the equatorial, or mild, winds,
we find that the total percentage during last winter was only 38, the
average for the previous twenty seasons being 61. Taking, on the
other hand, the points between north-west and east, as representing
the polar, or cold, winds, it appears that the total percentage was 40,
or 10 more than the average for the previous twenty years. Summing
up, therefore, the state of the wind as experienced last winter in
London, we find that when the weather was not absolutely calm, there
was an undue prevalence of breezes from some cold quarter. The per-
centage of winds from the southward did not amount to one half of
the average.

Fog.—The anticyclonic conditions which prevailed over England
so constantly throughout the winter were accompanied, as one would
naturally expect, by frequent fogs, more particularly over the inland
districts, and most especially of all in the neighbourhood of London.
The gloominess of the weather, as experienced in the metropolis, is
shown very forcibly by the subjoined table, which gives for the
whole of the past twenty winters the number of days on which
fog was reported, together with the average for the entire period,
and the actual number experienced in 1890-91.

Table showing Number of Days of Fog in London during each
Winter, 1870-71 to 1890-91.

No. of / No. of No. of No. of

Winter days Winter days Winter days Winter | days
of fog of fog | of fog of fog
1870-71 il 1875-76 22 1880-81 32 1885-86 33
1871-72 10 1876-77 9 1881-82 31 1886-87 | 39
1872-73 | 24 1877-78 22°} 1882-83 | 32 1887-88 | 20
1873-74 31 || 1878-79 | 23 1883-84 | 18 1888-89 | 32
1874-75 17 | 1879-80 43 1884-85 18 1889-90 | 32

Average number of days of Fog during the winter e ack
Actual number experienced in 1890-91 e . e e 50

It will be seen that not only was the prevalence of foggy weather
in London greater last winter than in any of the previous twenty
seasons, but that it amounted to no less than twice the average.
The nearest approach to so foggy a winter was in 1879-80, when
the number of days was 43, or seven less than that recorded
during the winter under discussion. In no other season was the
number anything like so great as it was last winter, and in three
of the seasons quoted the amount of fog was less than one quarter

of that experienced in 1890-91,

FF2

423 Some Remariable Feativres in the Winter of 189091.

Rainfall.In December the aggregate amount of rain was less
than an inch in all parts of England, with the exception of the
south-western and extreme northern counties, as well as in many
of the central parts of Scotland, while in isolated parts of the same
localities it amounted to less than half an inch. The amount was,
in fact, considerably less than the average in all districts excepting
the south coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where, owing to heavy
falls which occurred on the 5th and 18th, there was no great diver-
gence from the normal. In January the rainfall was far more
abundant than in December, but the amount over the country
generally was again much less than the average, the deficiency.
being most marked in the south-east of Scotland and the north-east
of England. The absence of rain in the months of December and
January was, however, quite insignificant as compared with the
remarkable drought of February. Over nearly the whole of England
the total amount of rain in the last-mentioned period was less.
than a tenth of an inch, the only districts in which this quantity
was exceeded being small and isolated portions of our north-eastern,
eastern, and south-eastern counties (and even in these localities
the aggregate fall was made up largely of water yielded by dew
and fog), and the counties of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and
Lancashire, where an appreciable quantity of genuine rain fell
during the early part of the month. In the neighbourhood of.
Dublin also the total amount was as small as it was over the
greater part of England ; but, farther to the westward, as well as in
Wales and the eastern parts of Scotland, it increased to between
one tenth and one half of an inch, while in the north of Scotland
it was in excess of the average. Over the United Kingdom generally
the month was in all probability the driest February ever ex-
perienced, and in many parts of England it was also the driest
month on record, the aggregate fall in some places being absolutely
nil,

As regards the winter as a whole, it appears that over by far the
greater part of England, with the eastern half of Ireland, and the
eastern, central, and southern parts of Scotland, the aggregate
rainfall was less than half the average, the only English localities
in which this proportion was exceeded being the south-western and
extreme southern coasts. In portions of Lancashire, the north-
eastern counties, and the central parts of Scotland, the amount was
less than 30 per cent. of the average, one of the smallest aggregates
being at Blackpool, where the winter rains did not amount to more
than one-fourth of the normal. Over the south and south-west
coasts of England, the western half of Ireland, and portions of
central and north-eastern’ Scotland, the proportion varied between
50 and 70 per cent. of the average, while in the north of Scotland
(though not in the Shetlands and Hebrides) the percentage ranged
between 70 and 90. In London the winter was not quite so dry
as that of 1873-74, but there can be little doubt that, taking
England as a whole, it was one of the-driest on record,

Lopping and Topping Trees. 429

Tt must not be forgotten, however, that the deficiency of rain
was by no means confined to the winter months. With the excep-
tion of the extreme northern and north-western portions of the
Kingdom, where heavy rains fell during October and November, the
autumn of last year was also unusually dry, this being more espe-
cially the case over the eastern, central, and southern parts of Eng-
land, where the aggregate amount for the season was in many
instances less than half the normal. Over nearly the whole of the
remainder of England, and also in the south-east of Ireland, the
ageregate for the six months was less than 70 per cent. of the
average ; while over a considerable part of Scotland, with the north
of England and the central parts of Ireland, it varied between 70
and 90 per cent. In the north-west of Ireland the proportion of
rain was more than 90 per cent., while in the north of Scotland, in-
cluding the Hebrides, it was in excess of the average. In London
the autumn and winter months were, as a whole, the driest on
record, and a similar remark applies to Oxford.

Tt will be seen in conclusion, remarks Mr. Brodie, that, irre-
spective of the prolonged frost, the season under discussion was
characterised by various features which distinguished it from
any other winter of recent years. Almost every element in the
weather was influenced to an abnormal degree by the remark-
able prevalence of high barometrical pressure, and if we were called
upon to define the season of 1890-91, we should have little hesita-
tion in giving it the name of the “ Anticyclonic” winter,

Ep,

LOPPING AND TOPPING TREES.

As many farm leases contain a clause to the effect that the tenant
may not “cut, lop, top, or crop” the trees (except pollards) on the
farm, it may be useful to report the following case, in which the
Court of Appeal recently decided that to “lop” a tree igs not the
same thing as to “top” one. The case (Unwin v. Hanson! ) arose
under the 65th section of the Highways Act, 1835 (5 & 6 W. IV.
ce. 50), under which magistrates have power to order trees which
overhang the highway, or damage it by excluding the sun and wind
from it, or which obstruct it, to be pruned and lopped so as to pre-
vent such damage or obstruction. The plaintiff was the owner of
land adjoining a highway, and he brought his action against the
defendant, who was the assistant-surveyor of the parish highways,

* Reported in the Zimes Law Reyorts, Vol. VII. p, 488,

430 Hay Harvest Forecasts, 1890,

for injuring his trees by improperly cutting them. The defendant
relied for his defence on the above-mentioned section of the High-
ways Act, 1835, and on a magistrates’ order made under it which
directed him to “lop and top” the trees in question. The plaintiff
contended that “topping ” and “ lopping ” trees were different ope-
rations, and that though the Act gave power to the magistrates to
order the trees to be “lopped,” it gave them no power to order
them to be “topped.” And so the Court decided,

The Master of the Rolls, in giving judgment, said that when
Parliament had to deal with matters relating to the general public
it used words in their ordinary and general sense, but when it dealt
with particular businesses or transactions, and used words which had
a particular meaning in connection therewith, the words so used must
bear such particular meaning. The Highways Act referred to
country matters, and had to be administered by country justices, and
it spoke of the ‘“lopping” of trees. It would be mere pedantry for
the Court to pretend not to know that “lopping ” was always under-
stood by people who had anything to do with trees as meaning the
cutting off the lateral branches, and that cutting off the head of the
tree was called “topping” it. “ Lopping” and ‘topping ” were
entirely different, and “lopping ” did not include “topping.” The
defendant therefore, when he “ topped ” the plaintiff's trees, exceeded
the power given him by the Act, which only authorised him to “lop”
them, and he must therefore be held liable.

S. B. L. Druce.

HAY HARVEST FORECASTS, 1890.!

Tuer results of the checking of the Hay Harvest Forecasts during
the haymaking period of 1890 show that, notwithstanding the
unsettled weather which prevailed during the summer months of
last year, the general percentage of success again reached 89, The
same degree of success was attained in 1889, which, to that date,
was the highest recorded. The largest general percentage (95) was
reached in Scotland, E., while the smallest (86) was in England, E.

The telegrams were sent daily between 3.30 p.m. and 4 p.m. on
each week-day for about five weeks, beginning on June 9, in the
Eastern and Southern districts of England, and ending on July 26
over the greater part of England, and about a fortnight later in most
parts of Scotland.

In addition to the usual recipients, telegrams were sent to six
other gentlemen at their own cost. Among them was Mr. J. Fergus-

1 Particulars supplied by the Meteorological Office,

Some Ielations of Biology to Agriculture. 431

SuMMARY OF RESULTs.

Percentages
Total
ial Gee Pienaar
Districts Names of Stations Lm ae » | centage
BB la8 |S El gh_ of
aS | & td | 63 | Success
ga a/R E
end N, Z | ib SON aaa Goete - | 62 | 35 ae) Sd,
|; Aberfeldy, Glamis, and sal! ony dh eieleses é
Scotland, E, ‘ Rothiemay j ; < 53 | 42) 5 95
England, N.E. . | Chatton and Ulceby . oS ldo ie olitit LOM 2h es
England, E. . | Rothamsted and Thorpe. | 54 | 32.) 13) |, D- 86
Midland Counties | Cirencester and Hast Retford | 50 | 42 | 6) 2| 92
j Reading, Maidstone, Down- ) epee! ~ ‘
England, 8. “| ton,and Horsham . a) 62 | 42 | 6 94
Stranraer, Islay, and Dum- Aes
Scotland, W. oes Sarge eel ly fl 60. | 28 | 12.| — | 88
England, N.W. . | Leyburn and Prescot . 47 | 38/12/ 3] 85
Tortworth, Clifton, Bridgend, ) 2
England, S.W. . |{° 905 Glastonbury? rf OR OSe"| ALA Lott Bs
Ireland, N.. hie ollie Hdgeworths- BB 037 | Ble 8) a2
~ ( Tralee, Kitkenpy, and Par-)| »
Ireland, S. . like Fie fase. iu 50 | 37) 9 4 | 87
Mean for all districts . a DSi SOnl bern ileh Sia loo

son, of Thetford, who remarks ; ‘‘ They (the forecasts) have been only
too true.” Sir Richard Paget, of Shepton Mallet, says: “As a
general rule they have been absolutely correct, and only very
occasionally has there been a slight error in direction of wind.”

SOME, RELATIONS OF ‘BIOLOGY .TO
AGRICULTURE.

Av the formal opening of the new building of the Biological De-
partment of the University of Toronto, advantage was taken of the
occasion to bring together some of the distinguished biologists. of
the North American Continent, each of whom delivered an address
upon that branch of biological research with which he was most
familiar. The intimate relationship between biology and agriculture
was aptly illustrated in several of the addresses, particularly in the
three dealing respectively with Pathology, the Sporozoa, and Scien-
tific Work.

Pathology as related to Biology.—Dr. W. H. Welch, professor of
pathology in the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, dealt with

432 Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture.

pathology in its relations to general biology. He defined biology
as the study of life in all its forms and activities, both normal and
abnormal. No branch of knowledge can exceed this in interest and
importance ; none has made greater advances during this century of
scientific progress. Pathology is that section of biology which deals with
the study of life in its abnormal forms and activities. It embraces
the investigation of the causes of disease, of the anatomical changes
produced by disease in the organs and tissues of the body, and of
the alterations in function resulting from disease; it therefore
constitutes the scientific basis of practical medicine. Preventive
and curative medicine is constantly making beneficent applica-
tions of pathological discoveries, and the most intelligent and effi-
cient treatment of disease is becoming more and more that which
is founded upon the most accurate knowiedge of its nature and
causes.

As an illustration of the achievements of modern pathology, it is
instructive to contrast the imperfect, meagre, and confusing infor-
mation of former times with the extent of our present knowledge con-
cerning one of the greatest of disease-scourges—tuberculosis. Merely
a few years ago, not only was the specific cause of tuberculosis un-
known, but there was no general appreciation of the fundamental
fact that this is one of the infectious diseases. The knowledge of the
frequency, and wide distribution, of tuberculous disease in other parts
of the animal body than in the lungs is an acquisition of modern
pathology. The pathological anatomy of tuberculosis, which not long
ago was one of the most confusing chapters in pathology, has been
made clear. The greatest addition to our knowledge of tuberculosis,
and, in fact, one of the greatest achievements of modern science, is
the discovery of the specific living germ which causes the disease in
question. It is now practicable to study, both within and without the
body, the form and properties of this germ, as well as the conditions
which are favourable and those which are hostile to its preservation
and development.

The points of contact between animal and vegetable pathology
are more numerous than might at first glance appear. The student
of animal pathology can draw many instructive lessons from such
subjects as the behaviour of wounds and parasitic affections in plants.
Too much, perhaps, is made of the separation between the pathology
of man and that of the lower animals. While there is a wide dis-
tinction in the dignity of the object of study, yet, from a scientific
point of view, this separation is of little account. Pathological
investigations of the diseases of animals constitute no less genuine
and valuable contributions to pathology in general than do similar
investigations of human diseases. The advancement in recent years
in the education and aims of those who devote themselves to the
study of animal pathology will serve to bring into closer relationship
the students of human and those of comparative medicine. Insist-
ance is laid on the fact that the pathologist, whose sole knowledge of
such a disease as tuberculosis is derived from the study of the dis-
order as it occurs in man, has a far less complete understanding of it

Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture. 433

than one who is familiar with the striking peculiarities of this affection
in cattle, sheep, swine, fowls, and other animals.

Especial importance necessarily attaches to the study of such dis-
eases as are communicable from animals to man, as, for instance,
glanders, anthrax, tuberculosis, many entozoic affections, &e. ; and, in
general, ‘these are the animal diseases which have received the most
attention from students of human pathology. The experimental pro-
duction of diseases in the lower animals affords an insight, to be
gained in no other way, into the causes, development, lesions, and
functional manifestations of many disorders. Experience, however,
has shown that grave errors are likely to be committed by experi-
mental pathologists who have no knowledge of the natural diseases
and conditions of the animals used for experimentation. Often, for
example, those studying the question of experimental tuberculosis
have mistaken for genuine tubercles the nodules produced by parasitic
entozoa, and have thus been led to form misleading conclusions.

An important and promising field of pathological study is to be
found in the infectious diseases of animals and of plants, not only on
account of the great economic interests often involved, but also be-
cause it affords a means of widening and deepening our conceptions
as to the causes, development, prevention, and treatment of infectious
diseases in general. Any pathologist who is at all familiar with the
remarkable and peculiar conditions, under which the so-called Texas
cattle fever of the United States develops and spreads, will realise
that the complete elucidation of all the etiological factors of this dis-
ease would not only contribute to the solution of a great economical
problem, but would also open fresh points of view in our conceptions
of infectious agents and their properties. It is not a small thing that
questions which were once considered to be wholly transcendental, as,
for instance, the doctrine of immunity against infectious diseases,
should have been brought within the working domain of experimental
pathology. The interesting studies of heredity by Weismann and
others pertain in part to pathology, and also illustrate Fovesery the
value of the comparative method of research.

The Sporozoa.—In discussing the pathogenic (i.e. disease-pro-
ducing) Sporozoa, Professor Ramsay Wright, of the University of
Toronto, stated that the Sporozoa are a group of low forms of
animal life, belonging to the sub-kingdom Protozoa, which, in
consequence of the universal adoption of a parasitic mode of life,
possess certain peculiarities of structure and reproduction which
mark them off quite sharply from the rest of the sub-kingdom.
The structural peculiarities consist chiefly in the absence of any
specialised organs for locomotion, or for the ingestion of food,
whilst the reproductive peculiarities are found in the formation of
large numbers of characteristic spores—whence the name Sporozoa,
given by Leuckart. They are all unicellular animals, occasionally
so large as to be visible to the unaided eye, but often—especially
those of pathological interest—quite microscopic. Four orders
are distinguished ; (1) Gregarinidia, (2) Sarcosporidia, (3) Myxo-

434. Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture.

sporidia, (4) Microsporidia. It should be clearly understood that
these organisms are in no way related to the Bacteria.

The Gregarinidia are best known in the form of minute worm-like
parasites in the intestines of insects and other invertebrate animals.
The Sarcosporidia (sa7a, flesh) are so named from the circumstance
that they are generally found in the muscular tissues of verte-
brate animals. They have long been known in the flesh of pigs,
sheep, and other animals, where they may occur in considerable
numbers without apparently affecting the health of their host.
When present in large numbers, however, they may give rise to
various symptoms, according to the group of muscles involved.
They are, moreover, not confined to the muscular fibre, for they
occur in the connective-tissue of the cesophagus (or gullet) of the
sheep, forming there tumours of considerable size. The third order
is not of agricultural interest. The Microsporidia include organisms,
the spores of which are so small that they have been mistaken for
Bacteria. They occur as parasites of the tissue-elements of insects,
and, in the form of the pebrine of the silkworm, have led to enormous
losses in silk culture in Europe. M. de Quatrefages calculated that,
in the first thirteen years after the outbreak of pebrine, France lost
40,000,000/. from the ravages of this sporozoon.

Of the Gregarinidia there is a group, the Coccidia, which are
true cell-parasites, though a brief free, or wandering, stage in their
career permits the young forms to invade new cells or new hosts.
The best known is Coccidium oviforme, from the liver of the rabbit.
It occurs in caseous nodules and cysts of the liver, which are full of
the parasites in their encapsuled stage (the so-called psorosperms).
Several cases are recorded in which man has been attacked by the
same parasite, and in one instance twenty cysts full of coccidia were
found in the liver. There seems to be little doubt that cysts of this
nature, full of caseous material, have often been misinterpreted in
the past, and closer attention in the future may establish that such
psorospermosis of the liver is not so rare as has been supposed. The
epidermal cells of the skin are also subject to attacks of Coccidia,
and Pfeiffer has given a detailed account of the forms which cause
a contagious skin-disease in poultry, and which were originally
described by Bollinger in 1873. The cells are invaded by the
Coccidia, and their nuclei are thrust aside as the parasite grows and
proceeds. to sporulation. The spores are at once capable ‘of propa-
gating the disease, which, therefore, may be artificially produced by
inoculation—and, ‘indeed, if planted on the mucous membrane of the
throat, instead of on the skin, the spores take on a flagellate, instead

of an ameeboid, form, but penetrate the epithelial cells and give rise.

to a diphtheritic condition, which is very contagious amongst the
poultry exposed to infection. Molluscum contagiosum and certain
other forms of skin-disease in the human subject are likewise attri-
buted to Coccidia, and it is probable that these organisms will be
proved to have a close relationship to the dev elopment of cancer.
Scheurlein’s bacillus of cancer has turned out on examination to
have nothing to do with the disease.

ee se

Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture. 435
Perhaps the most interesting of all the Sporozoa are those forms
which invade the blood-cells and, by the disintegration of these,
lead to serious disease. Such forms have been found in India in
the blood of mules suffering from an epidemic pernicious anemia,
the so-called Surra-disease. The comparative parasitology of the
blood is, however, yet in its infancy. Enough has been said §
show that not only Bacteria, but low forms of animal life, furnish
important pathogenic organisms, and that continued comparative
researches on the whole group of the Sporozoa are required to fill
up the gaps in our knowledge of those forms which are pathogenic
to domesticated animals.

Encouragement of Scientific Work.—Dr. Victor C. Vaughan,
professor of bacteriology in the University of Michigan, dwelt on
the necessity of encouraging scientific work. ‘Science is know-
ledge ; art is the application of knowledge. Science consists of
facts ; art utilises these facts. Science investigates ; art adapts.
Science is the foundation ; art is the superstructure. Science is the
mariner who sails out over the seas of ignorance, and discovers fair
islands and broad continents of truth ; art is the immigrant who
comes later, and tills the soil, and builds the cities.”

All living things consist of individual parts called cells. Some
of the lowest forms of life are simple free cells, and are termed
unicellular. In such cases, this single cell must perform all the
vital functions. It must digest, absorb, excrete: but its range of
functions is necessarily limited. In ascending the scale of organised
life, a multiplication and differentiation of cells becomes notice-
able. In the higher animals certain cells have for their sole function
the elaboration of the digestive juices, others are employed in
the separation of effete and poisonous matters from the blood and
their elimination from the system, and so on. Health is maintained
by the proper and correlative activity of these various groups of
cells.

Within the last fifteen years it has been clearly demonstrated that
the introduction of some of the lower forms of vegetable life, called
Bacteria, into the body of man and other animals produces disease,
The study of these micro-organisms has brought into existence and
developed the science of Bacteriology. A large amount of informa-
tion has already been accumulated in this field of scientific work,
so that the art of the preservation of health—hygiene—and the art
of restoration to health—medicine—have benefited by many valuable
practical applications of these scientific facts. There are numerous
problems to be solved concerning Bacteria. What chemical altera-
tions do they cause in the various media in which they grow?
What fermentations do they induce? Why is it that an alteration in
the environment so materially affects the virulence of some of them ?
Why is it that the bacillus of anthrax is so invariably fatal to certain
animals whilst others enjoy perfect immunity against the same
germ ?

Two factors enter into the causation of infectious disease. First,

436 Some Relations of Biology to Agriculture.

there must be susceptibility in certain cells of the body ; secondly,
the inciting cause is the specific micro-organism. Indeed, it might
be said that the primary cause lies in the tissue itself. Then there
is the ever-interesting subject of immunity against disease secured
by the use of sterilised culture of the various specific micro-organ-
isms. Is such immunity, which has already been obtained in a
number of diseases, due to a true vaccination, or is it simply due to
the establishment of a tolerance for a poison? How long will the
immunity thus secured continue ?

The study of food and drink by the bacteriologist has only begun.
In many of the infectious diseases the specific poison finds its way
into the body through the mouth. The chief source of infection
with cholera in India is the drinking-water, which is collected
during the rainy season in tanks that not only serve the inhabitants
for water-supply, but are also used as laundry and bath tubs. And,
in the western world, many towns discharge their sewage into bodies
of water from which they or other communities derive their supply
for drinking purposes. The risk of seriously affecting the health,
by eating food which has partially undergone putrefactive changes,
increases every year with the growing consumption of canned and
otherwise preserved food.
#3 Every important scientific discovery sooner or later finds its
practical application. What could have been more unpromising of
practical results than the discovery by Pollemler, in 1849, of micro-
organisms in the blood of an animal sick with anthrax? When
this observer reported that he had seen minute forms of life
in the blood, some said that the objects were bits of fibrin, others
that they were not real at all but due to defects in the glass, while
still others hinted very strongly that the defects really existed in the
observer’s brain ; but truth prevailed, and from that observation, or
discovery, as a starting-point, the science of Bacteriology has been
developed to its present importance, and, by virtue of the facts under-
lying this science, the spread of infectious diseases has been checked
in a manner that would never have been thought of in the past. It
was owing to knowledge, founded upon the discovery under notice,
that Asiatic cholera was arrested in New York harbour in 1888,
and prevented from spreading through the United States and

Canada, W. FREAM,

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 437

RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.

The subjects of Applications for Patents from March 16, 1891, to
June 6, 1891.

N.B.—Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the

applicant. ;
Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.

No. of \g $
Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
} 4651 BarretTT,C.F.. . Save-all or cartier for reaping-machines.

4741 BickERTON, R. & R. B. . Distributors for seed sowing.
4742 Buunt, A.H.P.. . Collecting and loading hay.
4937 Bout, J. A. (Moron) . Seeding-machines. ;
4944 Boutt, A. J. (Za Pierre) Seed-sowing-machines.

4946 Kine, A. 2 . Forks and hoes.
5984 Taytor, J. L.. 5 . Self-cleaning garden-rake.
5179 EDWARDs, W. * . Sowing grain. :
5206 Topp, F.E. . ° . Sheaf-binding harvesters.
5477 ZILLWOOD, A. = . Reaping and mowing-machines,
6966 LAKE (Reynolds) . . Hay tedders.
6074 Horn, W. W. (Schuett) . Dividers for mowing-machines,
6109 LAMPITT,C. . . Separating, &c., barley, &c,
6576 SLEEP, W. H. & R. i. . Ploughs.
6652 LEE, J.H. . : : ”
6653 LEE, J. H. ‘ . . . Disc-harrows.
6666 CoTTis,C. . . Horse-hoes.
6776 Biro, E. and anor . Hay-knife.
6842 BouLt (Moron) . . Seeding-machines.
6844 THOMPSON (I/cKay) . Plant-setters and seed-planters.
6891 FLOAT & GOWERs . . Chaff cutters.
7930 GULLAN . < : . Gathering corn, &c.
7012 MARSHALL, J. - . Potato-diggers.
7102 MANTLE, A. W. , . Mowers.
7196 BARKER, W. H. z . Harvesting-machines, ’
7847 AHNER, H. A. 4 - Machine for uprooting weeds, &c¢.
8187 DrAyDon and others. Turnwrest-ploughs,
8236 RoBERTsS, H. . . . Hay and straw elevators.
8247 Epwarps,J.R. . . Elevators for hay, &c.’
8553 Bouut (Severance) . Sheaf-binding harvesters.
8737 WILLIAMS, R. H. . . Ploughs.
8750 GrBBs, H. W. (Zassio) . Threshing-machines,
8788 CoomBs, E. T. ° . Harrows.
8931 Hattry,H. . “ . Horse-hoes.
8996 CHANDLER, T.H. . . Seed-drills.

9099 NicHOLSoN, W.N. . . Horse-rakes.
9111 ATTERTON & TILBROOK . Corn and seed-drills.
9141 Horn, W. W. (Selliss) . Hay-racks or ladders: °

438 Recent Agricultural Inventions.

No. - E , .
koantio. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
9195 Timmis,R. . » . Canvasses of sheaf-binders.

9302 WOOLDRIDGE, E. . . Potato-planter.

9322 Norton & MITCHELL. Sheaf-carriers of reaping-machines.

9364 HUXTABLE, J. e . Horse-rakes.

9406 Timmts, R, as . Reaping and mowing-machines.

9455 THompson, W. P. (Gayon) Spades, hoes, &e.

9586 Timmts, R. 7 i , Securing ends of canvas 11 skeaf-binders, &c,
9588 WEIR, C., ° s . Carriers for hay, &c., crops.

Stable Utensils and Fittings—Horse-shoes, &c,

4999 TEMPERLEY, J, . . Saddles,

5097 Tozer, A, : - . Harness and stable fittings,

5117 WoopMAN & JENKINS . Safety saddle-bars,

5148 Fincny, T. F. a . Horse-shoes.

5152 ScHuLz & STAHLECKER Curry-comks.

5176 BAyLis, J. H.. . . Horse-shoes.

5186 PANZER, C. A. . . Safety stirrup.

5459 BRowNeE-CAVE, R. H. C. Ointment for splints, curbs, &c.

5471 WoopDMAN & JENKINS . Stirrups.

5512 VoN EULENFELD . . Tightening device for saddle-girths.
5516 WITTEY, G. C. ‘ . Horse-shoes for asphalte pavements.
5541 CHART & DUFF - Combined nailed or nailless horse-shoe,
5686 RUSSELL & DownNING . Saddles.

5762 WARD & HURMAN . . Nose-bag for Lorses, &e.

5964 Easton, H. . . . Driving-reins.

6095 ProctoR & HARTLEY. Horse-shoes.

6176 HoLDSwoRTH& BULLARD Slipless horse-shoes.

6209 BricGs & PRIESTLEY. Nailless horse-shces.
6239 FISCHER, C. L. - - Quickly unharnessing fallen hcrses,

6523 BRowN & FRANKLIN __ . Horse-clipping machine,
6720 PAGE & MACDONALD _. Attaching horses to mangers,
6739 Horn, W. W. (Losker §
Church) . . . Riding-saddle.
6875 LoGaN, M. 5 - . Drain for stable-stalls. >
7017 CLIFFORD,S.E. . . Bits for bridles.
7021 TRENCH, F. C. 3 . Saddle-girths.
7029 FaTuers, T. H. : . Portable shoeing-forge for stable use,
711l JuTson & POUPARD » Nailless horse-shoes,

7176 McGILLIvRAY, J. . . Horse-shoes,

7439 TAYLOR, G.,and another . Horse-shoes.

7503 CorRMONT, C. F. H.. . Harness.

7621 GREENHALGH, A. , » Saddles,

7611 CONNELL, J. C. e . Harness,

7642 MENDEL, A. . . ’ 9

7681 CANNnoy, T. M. . + Administering medicines to horses, &e,

7844 RIMINGTON, M.F.. » Saddles,

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 439

No. of
Application.

8321 JACKMAN, J. . : . Measuring the withers and backs of horses,
8111 HmnsHAw, T. S. (Avil) . Stopping runaway horses.
8451 VON BRIESEN, O. . . Controlling restive and runaway horses,
8465 HoLpswortH &
BALLARD . . . Bits and reins,
8683 BARBER-STARKEY, . . Safety stirrups,
8741 LARDONNOIS, N. A.. . Quickly harnessing, &c., horses,
8773 Burton, J. . . Horse-shoe to prevent slipp*nz,

Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.

°
8828 ZACHARIAS, J. . . Ventilating horse-clothing,
9088 WINCER,C. . e . Harness saddles,
9619 CAWDLE, T. H. ° . Horse-clothing.
9649 GREEN, F. W. & SWAN,
Guay « . . . Harness attachments for road vehicles,
Carts and Carriages,
4974 Doyue, T. W.. . . Adjustable safety device for v2Licles.
6312 France, D. . F . Carts and other two-wheeled vehicles,
6595 Bout, A. J. (Gelhar) . Vehicle brakes.
6996 MurGATROYD, FE. . . Carts, carriages, &c,

9048 CoGaAN, F., and others . Lighting vehicles by electricity.

=
are } DAWSON, P. . . . Brakes or skids for waggons, caits, ke

9324 HUELSER, C. (Matthis) . Carriages.
9506 Hinn, N. H. . . . Carts,

Dairy Utensils, &c.

6241 WISE (Jonsson) . . Centrifugal milk separator,
6250 LAKE (Nilsson). . Facilitating the milking of cows.

7318 SprEs, A. » « .,. Churns,
7638 EYRE, J. W. &

GRAHAM , : . Securing milk cans to doors.
7828 Dunn, J. e F . Moulding butter and form‘ng into pieces of

given size and weight, &c.

7995 M1IrcHeELL, W. . . Milking machine.
8056 WILLIAMS, W. . Cheese cutter.
8240 Horn, W. W. (Wovd) . Cooler and strainer for milk.
5002 WALTERS, W.B. . . Pneumatic churn,
5019 WIsE, W. L. (Walters) . Churns.
8977 WELLMAY, E. S. T. . Driving churns.

9011 THompson. (L’ Huillier). Churns.

9422 LARSEN, A. C. . . Milk separators.

9534 JENKINS, A. . a Metal seal for milk cans.
9547 SHIELS & ELLIOTT. . Teats for milking machines.

.

Poultry and Game, &c., Appliances.

4737 MARSDEN, T. . . . Appliance for feeding birds,
4747 GARDINER, A. . . Exhibition and travelling pen.
5380 MARSHALL, J.B, . . Preserving eggs,

440 Recent Agricultural Inventions:

No. of

Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.

6123 MEAD, W. - : . Poultry coop.

6473 HaTuway, J. . 3 . Apparatus for carrying eggs,

8110 CASHMORE, C. 5 . Treating eggs in incubators.

8779 HUNTER, R. . ; . Pheasant coops.

8954 Parton W.J.G. . . Heat regulator for incubators.
Miscellaneous.

5306 Wiumot, A. T. , . Beehive.
5317 Bureon, C.& H. . . Shearing or clipping sheep, &c.
6015 Ropinson, G. & BAD-

GEn, A. . 5 . Securing horses, cows, &c.

6255 Dunn, J. & W. . . Cattle-food.
6704 Horner, LL.M... . Dog kennels.
7011 McDoNALD, A. . . Tethers.
7165 Bonne, C. R. . : . Measuring, &c., supply of oats to cattle,
7249 Day, J.H.& A.S.. . Drenching bottle.
Bore} RIPLEY, Ie 8 : . Dog-muzzles.
8789 Munns (Chapman) . Apparatus for watering stock.
9527 YATEs, T. . . . Combined sheep-rack and manger.

Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects Published
since March 14!

(with prices in parentheses),

Specifications of 1890.

3862 (4d.), 3988 (6d.), 4330 (6d.), 4376 (6d.), 4461 (8d.), 6319 (6d.), 6532 (6d.),
6551 (8d.), 6717 (6d.), 6767 (6d.), 6792 (6d.), 7064 (6d.), 7377 (114.),
7539 (8d.), 7588 (6d.), 7652 (8d.), 7746 (Gd.), 7778 (6d.), 7779 (6d.),
7813 (8d.), BO: (6d.), 8041 (Sd.), 8342 (8d.), 8323 (6d.), 8596 (1s. id.),
8650 (8d.), 9455 (8d.), 9187 (8d.), 9804 (8d.), 9955 (8d.), 10411 (6d.),
11437 (8d.}, 12648 (Sd.), 16412 (11d.), 17174 (Sd.), 20423 (4d.), 20700
(6d.), 20652 (Gd.), 21081 (6d.), 21223 (6d.), 21146 (6d.), 21298 (6d.).

.

Specifications of 1891.

959 (Sd.), 1346 (Gd.), 1487 (6d.), 1499 (6d.), 2291 (6d.), 3506 (6d.), 3598 (6d.),
3808 (6d.), 4453 (6d.), 5186 (6d.), 5249 (11d.), 5317 (8d.), 5512 (67),
6319 (6d.), 6473 (6d.).

1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store atanees
88 Cursitor Street, Lo:.don, E.C.

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOVAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
OF ENGLAND.

THE DONCASTER MEETING, 1861.

In selecting Doncaster as the place of its Country Meeting for
1891 the Royal Agricultural Society entered upon new ground,
never haying hitherto met within thirty miles of this famous
centre in South Yorkshire. It was, however, not the fault of
Doncaster that more than half a century should have elapsed
since the birth of the Society before it had an opportunity of
welcoming ‘the Royal-’ within its borders, for as long ago as
1848 it was one of half-a-dozen towns which extended an invi-
tation to the Society on the occasion of its first visit to the
county of broad acres—an invitation that was repeated in 1861,
when Leeds was the successful competitor.

The Society has met on four previous occasions in York-
shire—at York in 1848, under the presidency of the second Karl
of Yarborough ; at Leeds in 1861, under the presidency of the
late Earl of Powis; at Hull in 18738, under the presidency of
Earl Cathcart ; and at York, for the second time, in 1883, under
the presidency of the Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G.

THE SHOW-GROUND.

An extent of 80 acres of almost level ground upon Doncaster
Town Moor afforded an admirable site for the showyard. As will
be seen from the plan on page 443, the ground occupied a portion
of the area surrounded by the racecourse, whilst the entrances

VOL, Il. T. s—7 GG

442 The Doncaster Meeting, ©

were opposite the permanent Grand Stand. An extensive sweep
of greensward just within the entrance gates effectually pre-
vented any congestion of traffic. In laying out the ground the
Surveyor had utilised to the full the natural facilities which
were at his disposal. ‘The main central avenue was flanked
on either side by two lateral avenues, so that on entering the
yard the visitor had before him a choice of five distinct routes
past the implement shedding to the live-stock departments at
the farther part of the ground.

The showyard was about a mile from the town, and
the high road between Doncaster and the Town Moor—pro-
bably one of the best-known roads in England—left an
agreeable impression upon the minds of those who travelled it.
The trees which border it were in the prime of their foliage, the
roadway was maintained in excellent condition throughout the
week, and the broad footpaths enabled it to be devoted exclusively
to wheel traffic.

PRIZES AND ENTRIES.

Situated in the heart of the horse-breeding country, it was
anticipated that Doncaster would attract a great show of horses ;
and this expectation was amply realised. The number of horses
entered, 717, was considerably more than double the number
in the Plymouth catalogue last year. The sections which stood
out conspicuously in point of numbers were the Hunters, the
Shires, and the Hackneys. The Shires, indeed, were catalogued
in almost the identical number by which they were represented
at the Jubilee Show at Windsor, in 1889.

The locality in which the Show is held must necessarily
exercise an influence in determining the specific breeds of live-
stock amongst which competition shall, year by year, be inyited.
In comparing, in this respect, the Doncaster Meeting with
its immediate predecessor, there is no change to be noticed in
the horse sections. With cattle and sheep, however, it is dif-
ferent, and the Southern breeds specially provided for at’ Ply-
mouth had-to give place to Northern breeds at Doncaster. ‘The
cattle sections common to the two Meetings were the Shorthorns,
Herefords, Devons, Sussex, Welsh, Red Polled, Jersey, Guernsey,
Kerry, Dexter, and Dairy Cows. But the locally developed South
Devon (or South Hams) cattle, classed at Plymouth, could
obviously claim no place at Doncaster. On the other hand, certain
of the Scotch breeds—the Aberdeen Angus, the Galloway, and
the Ayrshire—to which Plymouth would have been Ultima Thule,
appropriately enough found a place at a Meeting held north of

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the spot to which Prince Charles Edward penetrated with his
ill-fated army a century and a half ago.

The influence of locality becomes more emphasised in
the case of sheep. Such longwools as the Leicester, the
Cotswolds, and the Lincolns, and such shortwools as the Oxfords,
Shropshires, Southdowns, Hampshires, and Suffolks, follow “ the
Royal” wherever it goes. These, at Plymouth, were supple-
mented by the “Horns” of Somerset and Dorset, the Devon
Longwools, the South Devons, the Dartmoors, and the Exmoors,
all of which were absent at Doncaster. In their place, however,
visitors enjoyed the opportunity of inspecting nearly 150 pens
variously occupied by Wensleydales, Border Leicesters, Cheviots,
Black-faced Mountain Sheep, Lonks, and Herdwicks.

A RETROSPECTIVE GLANCE.

It is instructive to glance back at the last Yorkshire Meet-
ing, held in the city of York eight years previously. On that
oceasion, in both the Shorthorn and the Hereford sections,
family classes were added. The Red Polled cattle appeared
under their old name of “ Norfolk and Suffolk,” whilst the
Aberdeen Angus cattle were catalogued as Polled Angus or
Aberdeen. No classes were provided for Guernsey, Kerry, and
Dexter cattle. Of sheep, the Lonks, the Herdwicks, and the
Suffolks had no distinctive place in the catalogue, and had to
seek refuges amongst the ‘‘ Other Long Wools” or the ‘‘ Other
Short Wools,” of which there were male and female classes of
each. In the pig sections, the Tamworths enjoyed no separate
classification in 1883, but they figured in the prize list for
“ Any Other Breed.’ There were no feathered exhibits at York,
whilst the cheese and butter competitions possessed in a high
degree the merit of simplicity. There was merely one class for
each, the former for a half-hundredweight of Yorkshire cheese
of any make, the latter for six pounds of fresh butter. <A
working dairy found no place in the programme, and there
was no provision either for butter-making competitions or’ for
* horse-shoeing contests. Classes for cider and perry, and for
jams and preserved fruit, were likewise unprovided eight years
ago.

” In the Implement Section prizes were this year offered for
combined portable threshing and finishing machines; for cream
separators, both hand and power; and for mechanical milking
machines. In 1883, the only competition in this department was
for the best equipped dairy, suitable for not more than 20 cows.
This year 94 implements were entered as “ new,” with the object

The Doncaster Meeting. 445

of securing the Society’s Silver Medal. This medal was awarded
for (1) an improvement in a weighing-machine for cattle, (2) a
manure distributor, (3) an improvement in a cream separator,
(4) a milking machine, and (5) a sheaf binder. In 1883, nine
medals were severally awarded for a butter worker and table
combined, a straw trussing machine, a straw yealming machine,
a steam plough, a wire rope for steam cultivation, a horse hoe,
a corn screen, a threshing machine, and a dredger.

Subjoined is a statement of the entries at the Doncaster
Meeting, together with those of the preceding eight years, in-
cluding the Show held at York in 1883 :—

Number of | Don- Ply- | Wind- |Notting-| New- Nor- | Shrews-| +...
animals | easter, | mouth, | sor, ham, | castle, wich, aed bury, Ee
entered 1891 1890 1889 1888 1887 1886 1884

Horses . : 717 333 996 546 500 493 438 407 611

Cattle = -} 669 642 1,644 644 626 681 539 579 462

Sheep - = 649 571 1,109 537 513 446 433 490 412

Pigs . : . 205 | 223 265 148 194 203 203 211 200

Total . . | 2,240 1,769 4,014 1,875 | 1,833 1,828 1,613 1,687 1,685
—_———| eee ee ee ee wes eeeeesers Soe

Poultry . : 789 695 861 343 405 191 325 — —

Shedding in Im-
plement Yard Don- Ply- | Wind- |Notting-| New- Nor- Preston, Shrews- York,

(in feet) [exclu- | caster, | mouth, sor, ham, | castle, | wich, 1885 bury, 1883
sive of open 1891 1890 1889 1888 1887 1886 1884
ground space]
feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet
Ordinary, . | 8,343 | 6,117 | 10,378 | 7,253 | 5,508 | 7,155 | 8,417 | 9,315 | 9,569

Machi i Z
esercoead vat 2,106 | 1,291 | 2,496 | 1,607 | 1,125 | 2,017 | 2,063 | 2,035 | 1,949

Special shed-
ding (includ- 7 =
Saad 2,024 | 1,670 | 2,728 | 1,883 | 1,584 | 1,640 | 1,520 | 1,554 | 1,618
models, &c.)

Total © . | 12,473 9,078 | 15,602 | 10,743 | 8,217 | 10,812 | 12,000 | 12,904 | 13,136

THE SHow.

The Implement Department was open to the public on
Saturday, June 20, and the entire yard from Monday, June 22,
to Friday, June 26. The Saturday was extremely hot and
briliant, and during the day most of the entries of live-stock
arrived and took up their allotted places. The weather record
of the Meeting was decidedly satisfactory. Sunday morning
was dull and overcast, but gave place to a delightful afternoon
and evening. Monday, the judging day, was cool and cloudy,
with an occasional burst of sunshine, followed by a light fall of
rain late in the afternoon. Tuesday morning was fine, but
heavy rain began to fall between 2 and 8 pP.m., and continued
for the remainder of the day—fortunately, it commenced too

446 - The Doncaster Meeting.

late to seriously interfere with the attendance of the paying
public. The three remaining days—Wednesday, Thursday,
and Friday—were bright and pleasant.

On the Sunday the usual custom was followed of holding
Divine Service on the Showground. Jt commenced at 11 a.m.,
by which time the large marquee was filled to overflowing, the
attendance being computed at about 800. The Rev. Canon
Tebbutt, M.A., vicar of Doncaster, officiated, and preached an
eloquent sermon from the text (Genesis xlvii. 3), “‘ What is your
occupation ? ”

Business commenced in earnest on the Monday morning,
when, at an early hour, the Honorary Director, Sir Jacob Wilson,
met the Stewards and the Judges of live-stock, and, having
briefly indicated the course to be followed, dismissed these gentle-
men to their respective duties. The attendance was larger than
usual for the five-shilling day, and this led to the various judg-
ing rings being well patronised by visitors, who manifested
keen interest in the proceedings, and in the announcement of
the awards.

On Tuesday the general meeting of members took place on
the ground; the chair being occupied by the Earl of Ravens-
worth, President of the Society. A report of the meeting is
given in the Appendix, page xcili. The band of the York-
shire Dragoons occupied the band-stand on this and the
remaining days of the Show, and played selections of music at
intervals. The performances were remarkably good, and proved
to be highly popular.

On the evening of the same day the Mayor of Doncaster
(Alderman Charles Stockil), to whose cheery and ever-ready
assistance much of the success of the Meeting was due, gave a
banquet at the Mansion House, Doncaster, to the Council and
officers of the Royal Agricultural Society. The Mayor, who
occupied the chair, having submitted the loyal toasts, proposed
that of “The Army, Nayy, and Reserve Forces,” to which Earl
Cathcart responded. The toast of “The Royal Agricultural
Society of England,” also proposed from the chair, was, in the
absence of the Earl of Ravensworth, acknowledged by the
Earl of Feversham, the President-elect of the Society. Before
resuming his seat his Lordship proposed the health of the
Mayor, with hearty acknowledgments of great kindness and
generous hospitality. The toast of “The Town and Commerce
of Doncaster” was proposed by Sir Jacob Wilson. Alderman
Smith, in responding, made allusion to the markets of Doncaster,
and to the importance of the town as an agricultural centre.

Wednesday, June 24th, was the red-letter day of the Don-

The Doncaster Meeting. 4.47

caster Meeting, being that selected for the royal visit. Their
Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales were stay-
ing at Wentworth Wodehouse as the guests of Karl litzwilliam,
and with their noble host and a large house party they drove
on to the Showground at noon. Lord Fitzwilliam’s yellow car-
riages turned out in the old style, four-in-hand, with numerous
outriders and mounted men; and the effect of the procession
along the central avenue was heightened by the brilliancy of the
midsummer sunshine. Luncheon was laid in the Royal Pavilion,
which formed so beautiful and conspicuous a feature in the
middle of the Showyard. The parade of live-stock in the great
ring was excellently arranged, particularly that of the cattle,
and was the subject of general admiration. The royal party,
which included the Duke of Clarence and Avondale and the
Princesses Victoria and Maud of Wales, did not leave the
ground till after four o'clock.

The “ people’s day ”—as fine a day, fortunately, as could
have been wished—was Thursday, when 57,580 people paid 1s.
each for admission. This number, large as it was, fell short of
the number on the corresponding day at York in 1883, and was
very decidedly below the corresponding numbers at Newcastle
in 1887 and at Nottingham in 1888.

The charges for admission were those which have usually
been adopted during recent years—2s. 6d. on the Implement
Day, 5s. on Monday, 2s. 6d. on Tuesday and Wednesday, and
1s. on Thursday and Friday. The experiment, tried at Plymouth,
of having three 1s. days and only one 2s. 6d. day, was not
repeated.

As will be gathered from an inspection of the subjoined

~ table, the aggregate attendance of paying visitors at Doncaster

occupies a fair average position amongst the totals of recent
years. It must be remembered that at Doncaster there is no
large local population to fall back upon. Had it been other-
wise, it can hardly be doubted that the fine weather would have
tempted the inhabitants of the neighbourhood to pass the turn-
stiles in their thousands, and thus to have largely increased the
total attendance.

Don- Ply- | Wind- |Notting-| New- Nor- Shrews- ae
Day of Show | caster, | mouth,| sor, ham, | castle, | wich, mer n, bury, York,
1891'| 1890°| 1889 | 1888 | 1887 | 1886 sea iy ber soem

Implement day . 344 194 493 1,826 1,209 148 394 194 300
Ist day (Mon.).| 2,681} 1,234 | 6,223 1,671 | 1,097 625 | 3,557 | 2,183] 3,012
2nd day (Tues.) | 12,331 | 10,008 | 18,809 | 11,103 | 11,331 8,074 | 21,713 | 11,211 | 15,768
3rd day (Wed.). | 18,530 | 39,308 | 24,690 | 9,057 | 12,020 | 10,894 | 19,318 | 13,474 | 21.820
4th day (Thurs.) | 57,580 | 32,371 | 32,965 | 88,832 | 77,410 | 42,774 | 34,302 | 49,374 | 63,097
5th day (Fri.) , | 20,034 | 14,026 | 44,493 | 35,438 | 24,305 | 42,394 | 14,908 | 17,690 | 24,120

Total. . |111,500 | 97,141 | 155,707 *| 147,927 |127,372 |104,909 | 94,192 | 94,126 | 198,117

+ Including 28,034 on the sixth day (Saturday),

448 The Doncaster Meeting.

In noticing below the various classes at the Doncaster
Meeting, they are taken in the catalogue order. The views of
the Judges of the respective sections are embodied, and, where-
necessary, quotations are given verbatim from the Judges’
reports. The names of Stewards and Judges, with the complete
list of Awards, will be found in the Appendix, page xcyii.

LicgHt Horses.

Thoroughbred Stallions.—This was not a competitive class,
being restricted to the three horses which won the three premiums
of 2001. each, offered by the Society, and special Gold Medals
provided by the Doncaster Local Committee, at the Spring
Show, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall, London, March 3
to 6, 1891. They were Mr. Thomas Carr’s Crom-A-Boo,
foaled in 1881, bred by Mr. J. Ridley; Mr. David Cooper’s
TIrinneus, foaled in 1878, bred by Mr. A. Harrison; and Mr.
Edwin Hodge Banks's Moss-Hawk, foaled in 1880, bred
by the owner. During the season of 1891, Crom-A-Boo
stood at Ripon, and travelled the district ; Iinneus stood at
Bainesse, and travelled to Bedale, Northallerton, Scotch Corner,
and Richmond; and Moss-Hawk stood at Driffield, and travelled
the district.

Hunters.—This section was arranged in 11 classes, the same
number as at the Windsor Meeting in 1889. Last year at
Plymouth there were six classes. At Doncaster the classes
were taken alternately by two sets of Judges, the one set
dealing with Classes 1, 3, 5, 7,9, 11; and the other set with
Classes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. For such a horse-breeding district,
the display of hunters was disappointing, and the quality
“did not come up to expectation, particularly in the younger
classes.”

Class 1, for hunter mare and foal, was good both in number
and in quality. Mr, Frank B. Wilkinson’s first-prize mare
Jessie, a fourteen-year-old bay, with remarkably neat fore-hand,
has a long showyard record. Next was placed Mr. Isaac D.
Dunn’s Atalanta, whose loins and quarters are faultless. Both
these mares possess exceptional merit. Mr, Frederick Blenkin’s
Princess Beatrice was third.

Class 2, for hunter mare or gelding, up to 15 stone, foaled
in 1885 or 1886, furnished some fine specimens of weight-
carrying hunters, Messrs. Bennet and Martyn’s first-prize
gelding Nimrod “ being especially a horse of merit.” ~

Class 8, for hunter mare or gelding, up to 12 stone, foaled
in 1885 or 1886, attracted a larger number of entries than any

The Doncaster Meeting. 44,9

other of the hunter classes, Nevertheless, although it included
several useful horses, there was, with the exception of Mr. J. F.
Laycock’s first-prize bay gelding Marquis, nothing to call for
special remark.

The four-year-old hunter geldings (Class 4) were deserving,
taken as a whole, of special commendation. The place of honour
was assigned to Mr. Andrew J. Brown’s Carrick, the second
and third prizes going respectively to Mr. Thomas Darrell’s
Wyedale and Mr. John Hadland’s Pilot.

The four-year-old hunter mares (Class 5) made but a poor
show, at the head of which was placed Messrs. Robinsons’ bay
mare Gone Away.

In Class 6, for three-year-old hunter geldings, Mr. Andrew
J. Brown’s first-prize winner, The General, “is a horse of excep-
tional merit, full of quality and strength, and a fine goer.”
The second- and third-prize winners, Mr. George H. Spraggon’s
Rocket and Mr. W. EH. Lawson’s Blaze, “show both quality and

ower.”
The smallest of the Hunter Classes was Class 7, for three-
year-old fillies. It was redeemed from mediocrity by the
presence of Mr. James Martin’s Dorothy and of Mr. Ernest
Chaplin’s Phebe.

Hunter geldings foaled in 1889 (Class 8) made a good dis-
play, and, with few exceptions, were conspicuous for their
growth. The substantial awards went, in order, to Mr. Thomas
A. Cornthwaite’s Gamester, Mr. Edmund Broumpton’s Marmion, .
and Mr. G. A. Walker’s The Dane.

In a commendable class of hunter fillies foaled in 1889
(Class 9), the prize-winners—Mr. W. Muzeen’s Modesty, Dr. S. P.
Budd’s Lady Scot, and, Mr. Rhodes Waterhouse’s chestnut filly
by Knight Templar—all promise to grow into valuable hunters.

Class 10, for hunter colts foaled in 1890, in which Mr.
Frank B. Wilkinson’s The Curate was first, ‘‘ was very disap-
pointing, and a long way below the average.”

Class 11, for hunter fillies foaled in 1890, at the head of
which was placed Mr. James Martin’s Mrs. O'Shea, was like-
wise not satisfactory. ‘A want of bone and substance” was
prominently noticeable.

Of the 33 prizes awarded in the Hunter Classes, 20 went to
Yorkshire exhibitors, whilst two went to Nottinghamshire and two
to Lincolnshire, nine other counties—Durham, Leicester, Middle-
sex, Norfolk, Northumberland, Somerset, Stafford, Warwick,
and Westmoreland—securing one prize each. In Classes 1, 4,
5, and 10 all the prizes went to Yorkshire exhibitors.

Coach Horses,—These were shown in seven classes, as against

450 The Doncaster Meeting. -

four classes at Plymouthin 1890. Class 17, for two-year-old coach-
ing geldings, was, however, vacant, thus reducing the effective
number to six classes. The display partook largely of a local
character, so that, of the 17 prizes awarded, 16 went to York-
shire exhibitors. All the prizes were offered by the Doncaster
Local Committee.

Of coaching stallions foaled in 1886, 1887, or 1888 (Class 12),
the Earl of Londesborough’s Prince Humbert showed more
quality than any of his competitors. Mr. George Burton’s
Lord Risby was second, and Mr. George Scoby’s Fortunatus was
third. The last-named is of “nice quality and well turned,
but undersized.”

Class 13, for two-year-old stallions, was the largest and the
best of the Coaching Classes. No difficulty was felt in awarding
the first prize to Messrs. W. and C. Harrison’s Sir James. Mr.
John Kirby’s second-prize stallion Kirby’s Peacock is a “ nice
level horse with fair action.” Mr. Thomas Carr was third with
Salisbury, ‘‘a very nice mover, and showed quality.”

Class 14, for coaching mare and foal, made up in quality
what it lacked in numbers. The first prize went to a grand
stamp of mare in Mr. Thomas Kelsey’s Phyllis, though she was
closely pressed by Mr. F. J. Pettinger’s Recherché. Mr. W.
Parkin-Moore’s Lady Rosedale took the third prize.

Of the three-year-old coaching geldings (Class 15), the
Judges say that some would have made good stallions, Mr.
John Kirby’s Llegance, Mr. F. H. Stericker’s Criterion, and
Messrs T. and R. Richardson’s Grimston were placed in the
order indicated.

Three-year-old coaching fillies (Class 16) made a small but
good display, at the head of which was placed Mr. John Kirby’s
Lady Mary. Of fillies foaled in 1889 (Class 18), Mr. John
White’s first prize, Ainsty Pride, “ is full of quality, a fine mover,
rather light on its back, and a trifle short in quarters.” The
second prize went to Mr. V. Prodham’s Grateful.

Hackneys.—The 128 entries in this section made an impos-
ing display, especially when compared with the 33 entries which
represented the breed at Plymouth. Of the 30 prizes awarded in
the ten classes, Yorkshire took twelve, Sussex six, Norfolk four,
Lancashire three, Nottinghamshire two, and one each went to
Derby, Hunts, and Kent.

Two classes were allotted to hackney stallions foaled pre-
viously to 1889. In Class 19, for stallions above 15 hands, Mr.
Richard Tennant’s first-prize horse, Connaught, to whom was
awarded the male championship, “‘is perhaps as good a type of ~
a hackney sire as is to be found in the kingdom at the present

The Doneaster Meeting. 451

time.” Mr. Frederick Childerhouse’s M.P. worthily filled the
second place, “ but did not quite go with the same dash.” Mr.
Alfred Lewis’s Tip Top Shot ‘‘is a very taking horse, but per-
haps not quite of the same hackney type as the other two.” In
Class 20, for stallions above 14 hands and not exceeding 15
hands, Mr. John Henry Smith’s Sensation 6th “is a young
horse of great promise; he shows plenty of quality, has fine
riding shoulders, and moves with plenty of freedom.” It is a rare
experience for Mr. Harry Livesey’s Evolution to find himself in
the second place, but the Judges were unanimous in giving the
younger horse the precedence. Mr. Seth Lofthouse’s Lord Rattler
was third. This class, as a whole, ‘“‘ was only just a fair one.”

Class 21, for hackney stallions foaled in 1888, was of
moderate quality, and calls for no specialcomment. Mr. Henry
Moore’s Caxton was placed first.

Class 22, for stallions foaled in 1889, was regarded by the
Judges as the best of the hackney stallion classes. It contained
many animals of high merit, auguring well for the future of
hackney breeding. The first prize went to Mr. F. Brough’s
Enthorpe Performer, ‘‘ a beautiful horse full of quality, a fine all-
round mover, and likely to develop into a hackney of the right
type.” He was placed in reserve for the male championship.
The second-prize animal, Mr. Benjamin How’s Broughton Reality,
“is a colt with much substance and goes with great courage,
and is adapted to do much good upon mares with.quality.” Mr.
William Yeoman’s third prize, Romulus, ‘is a fine slashing horse,
and only wants time to fill in and make avery valuable animal.”
Five other horses in this class were noticed.

Class 23, for hackney brood mare and foal, above fifteen hands,

was of superior quality. The prizes went, first to His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales for New York; second and third
to Mr. Harry Livesey for Countess and Lady Marton—all high-
class animals. Mr. Livesey’s mares were of a type that the
Judges preferred to the first-prize winner, but the exceptional
movement of the Prince of Wales’s mare secured her the first
place. It may here be mentioned that His Royal Highness _
made as many as seven entries in the horse classes.

Class 24, for brood mare and foal, above fourteen hands and
not exceeding fifteen hands, was well filled. The first-prize
animal, Mr. Harry Livesey’s Lily, “is a beautiful mare, and goes
with great force”; she was reserve to the same exhibitor’s
female champion. The second, Mr. F. W. Buttle’s Rosalind, “is
of the useful sort,” and “by her superior force of action” was
awarded precedence over Mr. Livesey’s Nellie 3rd.

Class 25, for hackney mare or gelding, above fourteen hands,

452 The Doncaster Meeting.

up to 15 stone, foaled in 1885, 1886, or 1887, was chiefly
remarkable for the first-prize animal, Mr. William Pope’s Nelly,
“a beautiful hackney with fine manners, and considerably ahead
of the others in the class.”

Class 26, for mare or gelding, above fourteen hands, up to
12 stone, foaled in 1885, i886, or 1887, though numerically
strong, was somewhat disappointing in merit. Mr. Richard
Wright’s Silver King was first.

Of Class 27, hackney fillies foaled in 1888, exactly the
reverse may be said; for though small in numbers it furnished
the champion hackney mare in Mr. Harry Livesey’s Lady
Keyingham, whilst the Earl of Londesborough’s second and third
prize filles, Vanity and Odd Stockings, ‘are good enough to
win in almost any company.”

The two-year-old hackney fillies (Class 28) made up a fair
class, at the head of which was placed Mr. James W. Temple’s
Lady Dereham.

Ponies were present in only half the number by which they
were represented at Plymouth.

Pony stallions, not exceeding fourteen hands (Class 29),
included quite a sensational animal in the first-prize winner,
Mr. Charles E. Cooke’s Cassius. Mr. G. H. R. Francis’s Lord
Barsham proved himself ‘a good all-round goer.” Class 30,
for pony brood mare and foal, not exceeding fourteen hands,
was of fair quality, Mr. Christopher W. Wilson’s Snorer being
of a thoroughly representative character. Class 31, for pony
mare or gelding, above thirteen hands and not exceeding
fourteen hands, was of poor quality. Class 32, for mare or
gelding not exceeding thirteen hands, was, on the contrary, good,
and the first prize went to Mr. William Pope’s Princess, ‘an
exceptionally fine mover.”

Harness Horses and Ponies, shown in harness with suitable
vehicles, comprised two classes for harness mares or geldings.
Class 33, exceeding fourteen hands, was made up of a very poor
lot, at the head of which stood Mr. Thomas Bentley’s Performer.
In Class 34, not exceeding fourteen hands, the leading honour
fell to Mr. William Pope’s thirteen-year-old mare Magpie, “ who
had the pace of the second prize’—Mr. Daplyn’s Norfolk Model
—‘‘ which is a very nice mare,”

Heavy Horses.

Shires.—These were three times as numerous as at Plymouth
last year, and the numbers only fell three short of the remarkable
entry at Windsor in 1889, Great merit was displayed through-

The Doncaster Meeting. 453

out the whole exhibit, but more especially in the young classes
of both sexes—a circumstance full of encouragement to the
breeders of Shires. Of the 21 prizes awarded amongst the seven
classes, six went to Lancashire, four to Warwickshire, two to
Essex, two to Huntingdonshire, and one each to the counties of
Leicester, Middlesex, Nottingham, Stafford, Worcester, and York,
and one to Scotland.

Amongst the three-year-old stallions (Class 35) were some
weighty animals, capable of doing good service for the breed.
The substantial honours went, in the order indicated, to Mr.
P. Albert Muntz’s Forest King (reserved for the male champion-
ship), the Cannock Agricultural Company’s Hartington II., and
Mr. Alexander Crawford’s Leake Pioneer. ‘These were selected
rather as sires than as what are often designated show-ring
animals.

A big class of two-year-cld stallions (Class 36) brought
forward some grand animals, including the male champion, Mr.
John Rowell’s Bury Victor Chief, which the Judges are of opinion
is the best two-year-old that has been seen since the commence-
ment of the Shire Horse Society. Mr. Charles E. Galbraith’s
Twilight was second, and Lord Middleton’s Silver Prince IT.
was third. Despite its general excellence, there were a few
animals in this class which had better have remained at home.

The yearling stallions (Class 37) were headed by a colt of
size and quality, in Mr. Walter Gilbey’s Saxon Conqueror, “ which
must make a grand horse.” ‘The second-prize winner, Mr.
Thomas Shaw’s colt, though of smaller size, is of high merit.
Mr. Peter Blundell’s Prince Harold, which was placed next, is
' of great substance. Many other animals in this class would
have taken prizes had they not been in such good company.

The mares and foals (Class 38) made a weak class, albeit
they furnished the female champion in Mr. Fred Crisp’s Starlight,
which secured the like honour at the Shire Horse Show held in
February last. She was worthily followed by a nice level roan
which moved well, Mr. Muntz’s Dunsmore Fashion. The Duke
of Portland’s Scarcliffe Kathleen was third. ‘The foals were a
mean lot.”

The three-year-old fillies (Class 39) found much favour in
the eyes of the Judges, who commended the whole class, ‘“ and
cannot say too much in their praise.” Two of the animals were
good enough for champions, and Mr. J. P. Cross’s Mavowrneen
secured the reserve card for the female championship. Mr.
John Conchar’s Flower of May was second, and Lord Winmar-
leigh’s Wagtail was third.

The two-year-old fillies (Class 40) included animals of

454 The Doncaster Meeting.

great size, but some of the best were slightly overdone. The
solid honours went, in order, to Messrs. H. and R. Ainscough’s
Aurora, Mr. James Blyth’s Blythwood Bountiful, and Lord
Hindlip’s Hindlip Lady.

The yearling fillies (Class 41) were of very good character
throughout. ‘A better animal than the first-prize filly (Mr.
T. Horrocks Miller's Marina) has been seldom met with at any
show.” Mr. John Rowell’s Bury Countess “ was of great merit.”
The third prize went to Mr. Walter B. Longton’s Cronton
Ladylike.

Clydesdales made up 57 entries, against 36 at Plymouth last
year, and 93 at Windsor in 1889. Of the Clydesdales in the
Doncaster catalogue, 830 were entered from Scotland, 23 from
England, and four from Wales. Of the 20 prizes awarded in
the seven classes, 14 went to Scotland, four to England and two
to Wales. The two champion prizes and the reserves were
secured by Scotch exhibitors.

In a small but good class of three-year-old stallions (Class
42) the first prize went to Mr. William Montgomery’s Breastplate,
and the second prize to Mr, William Graham’s Maccash,—“ both
first-class animals, having good feet and legs, free action, and
possessing all the characteristics of the breed.”

The largest class of Clydesdales was that for two-year-old
stallions (Class 43), which contained 13 entries, some of them
possessing remarkable excellence. Mr. William Renwick’s
Prince Alewander is a splendid type of the breed, and was se-
lected to wear the male champion colours. The reserve champion
card went to Mr. Andrew Montgomery’s Prince Patrick, an
admirable mover, and possessed of first-rate feet and bone. Mr.
A. Montgomery’s Macquhae took the third prize.

The yearling stallions (Class 44) quite maintained the
quality of the older classes. Mr. A. Montgomery’s Ross Mac-
gregor was placed first.

Class 45, for mare and foal, attracted some useful entries.
The prize-winners—Mr. William Graham’s Inzzie of Inchparks,
the Earl of Cawdor’s Bell, and Lord Polwarth’s Comfort—“ were
a first-class lot, and quite the stamp to propagate the best class
of Clydesdale horses.”

The three-year-old fillies (Class 46) furnished the female
champion in Mr. Sinclair Scott’s Scottish Snowdrop. The Karl
of Cawdor’s Decreto was second, and Mr. Patrick Stirling’s
Brenda of Kippendavie was third. ‘The second, third, and
fourth were also splendid specimens of the breed, any one of
which might have made a good first in any showyard, possessing
as they did plenty of size, and the best of bone, feet, and action,”

The Doncaster Meeting. 455

Of two-year-old fillies (Class 47) six came forward. Mr.
William Montgomery’s first-prize filly Crosby Rose “‘ was a very
superior animal, and was reserved for the cup.”

In an excellent class of yearling fillies (Class 48) the first
prize went to the Karl of Galloway’s Lillie Langtry, and the
second prize to Mr. Andrew Mitchell’s Muriel. These were of
exceptionally good quality, and the Judges considered that there
was very little difference between them.

Suffolk.—Though much nearer the home of the breed, Don-~
caster failed to attract as many entries of Suffolk horses as
Plymouth, the respective numbers being 56 and 41. With
four exceptions, all the 41 entries were made from the county of
Suffolk, which carried off 13 out of the 14 prizes awarded in the
five classes.

The three-year-old stallions (Class 49) were fairly repre-
sentative of the Suffolk breed. ‘‘As a whole they were rather
beyond the average size, and perhaps if the same bulk had in
most cases been closer to the ground the great characteristic of
the breed would haye been a more pronounced feature.” Mr.
James Toller’s Rainbow “is a wholesome kind of farmer’s cart-
horse, with no remarkable defect, uniformly built, and of great
size and power—enough so to recommend him to those who aim
at breeding London horses.” Mr. Horace Wolton’s T'rwmpeter
‘is perhaps rather more of the Suffolk stamp, but his somewhat
cross front and low heels are against him.” Mr. William
Eyveritt’s Warrior “is a very smart but undersized model of a
Suffolk horse.”

Of the stallions foaled in 1889 (Class 50) Messrs. I. Pratt
and Son’s Eclipse, “‘ though not particularly handsome, and with
less of the Punch type than in the two horses placed next to
him, affords little to find fault with,—his feet and legs are
good, and he moves very well.” The Duke of Hamilton’s
Wedgewood 2nd “is a somewhat overtopped colt, but of vast
width and muscular development.”

In Class 51, for mare and foal, whilst the Duke of Hamil-
ton’s Queen of Diamonds went at once to the front, the claim to
second place was warmly contested by Mr. W. Henry Hewitt’s
Juno and Mr. Horace Wolton’s Pearl.

The three-year-old fillies (Class 52) did not give the Judges
much trouble. ‘The first prize went to the Duke of Hamilton’s
Morella, ‘a grand, all-round good mare, big, handsome, and
truly made.” Mr. James Toller’s Violet, “a filly with almost
enough silver hairs to be called a roan,” was a fair second.

The two-year-old fillies (Class 55) furnished another winner
from the Duke of Hamilton’s stables in Queen of Trumps, “a

456— The Doncaster Meeting.

short-legged thick-built mare, with lumpy, upright, short
shoulders, which gave her fore-end a common look.” Messrs.
Wilson’s Darling, “too long and loose-made for a model
Suffolk,” was second. But for her fore-legs, Mr. Hume-
Webster’s The Miller’s Daughter might well have gone to the
front.

Agricultural Horses —These were rather more numerous
than at Plymouth, and were generally of great weight and size.
In Class 54, for geldings of any breed, foaled in 1887 or
1888, there were seven entries from Yorkshire and four from
other counties. Lord Wantage took the first prize. The three
entries in Class 55, which were all present, came exclusively
“ia Yorkshire, Mr. Henry Lawson’s Briton being placed

rst.

The report upon the results of the veterinary examination
of Stallions will be found in the Appendix, page Ixxxix.

CATTLE.

Shorthorns were in the catalogue to the number of 116,
which is about double the entry at Plymouth last year. Scot-
land sent 12 entries, but only from two exhibitors; Wales
accounted for four entries, and Ireland for one. The English
entries came from as many as 21 counties; Yorkshire being re-
sponsible for 21 entries, Nottinghamshire for 17, Cumberland
for nine, and Lincoln, Norfolk, and Northumberland for half-a-
dozen each. Of the 21 prizes awarded in the seven classes, six
went to Scotland (Berwickshire), besides the two champion
plates; 14 went to England (Wilts three, York three, Berks
two, Cumberland two, Notts one, Northumberland one, Rutland
one, Worcester one) and one to Wales (Carmarthenshire).

Shorthorn bulls, born in 1885, 1886, 1887, or 1888 (Class
56), made up a fairly numerous section of moderate quality, at
the top of which was placed Mr. Evan Jones’s three-year-old
roan Nugget.

In a good lot of two-year-old bulls (Class 57) the male
champion was found in Lord Polwarth’s Windsor Royal.
Amongst the yearling bulls (Class 58) were several very
promising young animals, with, however, “a tail” of moderate
ones. Here, Mr. Willingham Fowler’s Eryholme Prince 35th
received the reserve card for the champion plate.

Cows born before 1888 (Class 59), though but a small entry,
were all good. Lord Polwarth’s Wave of Indiana was first, and
his Wave of Loch Leven was second. ’

The three-year-old heifers (Class 60) made up a very good

The Doncaster Meeting. 457

class. The first-prize heifer, Lord Polwarth’s Truth, was
decorated with the female champion colours. Mr. William
Graham’s Windsor’s Beauty was second, and the Duke of
Northumberland’s Fairy Itosebud was third.

The best of the Shorthorn Classes was that for two-year-old
heifers (Class 61), and the Judges commended the lot. Lord
Polwarth’s Gladsome Wave was placed in reserve to the same
exhibitor’s older heifer for the championship. Her Majesty the
Queen was awarded the second prize for Rosalind, and Mr.
Deane-Willis was third with Lady Madge.

Yearling heifers (Class 62) made up a large class of mode-
rate quality, at the head of which was placed Messrs. Harrison’s
Fern 8th, followed by the Queen’s Rosemary and Mr. Deane-
Willis’s Vinolia.

Herefords, which were shown in six classes, appeared in
rather fewer numbers than at Plymouth. They led off with a
very grand class of aged bulls (Class 63), Mr. W. H. Cooke’s
Grove Wilton 4th possessing special excellence. The Earl of
Coventry’s White Boy “ is of great scale, but not so level as the
first-prize winner.” Mr. J. Hungerford Arkwright’s Spring
Jack “is smaller but of good type.”

Amongst the two-year-old bulls (Class 64), the first and second
prize animals—Mr. Arkwright’s Rose Cross 2nd and Mr. A. E.
Hughes's Ivronclad—are ‘‘remarkably good specimens of the
breed”; whilst Mr. Stephen Robinson’s third-prize bull Sterling
‘is not so perfect in form, but likely to make a good stock bull.”
The yearling bulls (Class 65) were a less satisfactory display than
might be expected at a “ Royal” Show.

Class 66, for cows born in or before 1888, contained three
- splendid animals,—the Earl of Coventry’s Ladywood, and
Mr. Thomas Fenn’s Bravura and Downton Fancy. “The
third-prize cow would have been placed first if she had not
had a black nose. The first-prize cow showed better cha-
racter and was more like a breeding animal than the second-
prize cow.”

The two-year-old heifers (Class 67) were a fine class, the
first and second heifers—Mr. Richard Green’s Diana and
Mr. E. 8. Godsell’s Sunbeam—being very superior animals.
Yearling heifers (Class 68) were a large class of good quality.
Mr. Green’s first-prize heifer Perilla “possesses great scale,
with quality and character.”

Devons were a long way from home at Doncaster, and they
were catalogued only to the number of 20 as against 52 at
Plymouth last year. With one exception the ten prizes awarded
in the four classes all went to West Country herds, and Sir

YOu, I. T. §.—7 . i HH

458 - ‘The Doncaster Meeting.

William Williams took all the first prizes. The exhibits
throughout manifested careful and judicious breeding, The
first and second prize animals in Classes 69 and 70, for bulls,
and the first prize animal in Class 72, for young heifers, dis-
played in a marked degree the correct type and true character
of the Devon breed.

Sussex cattle appeared in the same number at Doncaster as at
Plymouth. There was no competition in the aged-bull class, but
the Judges had no difficulty in awarding the first prize (Class 73)
to its solitary occupant, Mr. C. T. Lucas’s Golden Horn. In
Class 74, the prizes went to Mr. Joseph Godman’s Oxford Duke 4th,
Mr. Stewart Hodgson’s Rochester, and Mr. W. Stewart Forster’s
Gondolier—all very useful animals. ‘‘The younger bulls did not
show to the best advantage, as they were heavily handicapped b
being classed with animals so much older.” In Class 75, the
prize-winning cows were those of Mr. Hodgson, Mr.Forster, and
Mr. Louis Huth. All the heifers in Class 76 were commended,
the winners—Major Best’s Pearl, Mr. George White’s Ninon, and
Mr. Hodgson’s Crocus 3rd—being exceedingly good. The dis-
parity of ages made the Judges’ task a difficult one.

Welsh.—Of this hardy breed there were four exhibitors
and ten entries, all of the latter being present. Small as is this
number, it is more than double the entry of Welsh cattle at
Plymouth. Those at Doncaster all came from the Principality,
and were all good specimens of the breed. Lord Harlech’s first-
prize bull (Class 77) ‘is of great scale and shows strong consti-
tution.” Col. Henry Platt’s first-prize heifer (Class 78) “‘ would
do credit to any breed.” The same breeder’s Windsor champion,
Tudno, was placed second.

Red Polled cattle, though very much nearer to Hast Anglia,
only came forward in the same number as at Plymouth. Hence
the Judges say, ‘‘ We were much disappointed to find the com-
petition for this useful breed of cattle of so limited a character,
nor do we think the standard of merit at all equal to that of
many previous exhibitions.” The 29 entries were arranged in
four classes. Of aged bulls (Class 79) only four were shown,
and the first and second prize animals were of good type, the
former, Mr. J. J. Colman’s Bardolph, obtaining the champion
prize as the best Red Polled animal, and the latter, Mr. Tyssen
Ambherst’s Masher, getting the reserve. Amongst the young
bulls (Class 80) Mr. Colman’s The Gem was first; and though
there were but four entries ths competition was so strong that
the Judges recommended the award of a third prize.

Of the cows (Class 81) Ir, Harry P. Green’s Gleam 38rd
was first, but “some difficulty was experienced in making —

The Doncaster Meeting. 459

the awards, in consequence of animals of only a little over two
years old having to compete with elderly matrons.” In Class
82, several of the heifers scarcely presented the appearance of
breeding animals. Some of the younger ones were of good
type, but were rather small for theirage. Mrs. Elizabeth Perkins
took the first prize with Ivy 3rd.

Aberdeen-Angus, not represented at Plymouth last year, made
up 27 entries, in four classes, at Doncaster. Of these, 17 were
entered from English herds, and 10 from herds in Scotland.
As showing the extensive area covered by the “‘ Doddies,” it is
worth noting that, of the entries from England, Northumberland
sent five, Notts three, Yorks three, Bucks two, Durham two,
Lincoln one, and Sussex one. The Scotch entries were—
Aberdeen four, Inverness two, Perth two, life one, Ross one.
Of the twelve prizes awarded, Scotland took four, and England
eight. English exhibitors took all three prizes for the young
heifers (Class 86).

The display was of a distinctly meritorious character. The
aged bulls (Class 83) reached a very high standard, and Mr.
Arthur Egginton’s Hpsom was placed first. Class 84, for
young bulls, was well filled, and the place of honour was occu-
pied by Mr. James T. Cathcart’s Julius Cesar. ‘The cows
(Class 85) were of a quality which is rarely to be seen excelled
in public competition ; whilst the heifer class was most credit-
ably filled. In the former, the Marquis of Huntly’s St. Agnes
was first; in the latter (Class 86), Mr. Egginton’s Valentine 5th.

Galloways made a fine show. Of the 24 entries, six were
from the English side of the border. The aged bulls (Class 87)
comprised a couple of excellent specimens from the Duke of
Buccleuch’s herd. For young bulls (Class 89) the leading
honours went to Mr. James Cunningham. ‘The cows (Class 89)
were a meritorious lot, more especially the prize-winners—Mr.
Cunningham’s Maggie of Tarbreoch, the Countess of Carlisle’s
Vaudeville of Closeburn, and the Duke of Buccleuch’s Pride 4th
of Drumlanrig. In a goodclass of heifers the first prize went to
Sir Robert Jardine’s Lady Tidy 3rd of Castlenvilk, “a first class
animal, possessed of great substance and quality although only one
year old.” ;

Ayrshives.—The Scotch milking breed made a very small
show of half-a-dozen entries, equally divided into two classes. Of
three good bulls (Class 91) the first prize animal was Mr. Mark
J. Stewart’s Hover of Southwick—“ as good an animal as we have
seen this season in Scotland.” The cows (Class 92) were all
worthy of their prizes, Mr. Andrew Mitchell’s first prize cow,
Eleanor, being of good quality and very stylish.

HH 2

460 The Doncaster Meeting.

Jerseys.—There were 192 entries of this favourite breed, the
number being somewhat in excess of that in the Plymouth
catalogue. The quality of the individual animals was,as a rule,
very high. The 18 prizes awarded in the six classes were well
scattered, Herts taking four, Essex three, Somerset three,
Pembroke two, Yorks two, Bucks one, Cambridge one, Derby
one, and Dorset one. Of the 18 decorated cattle, 11 were
bred in Jersey, and 7 in England and Wales.

Amongst the aged bulls (Class 93), the Judges found that the
wide differences between the ages placed the older animals at a
great disadvantage, as the younger ones are almost invariably
more symmetrical. The first prize went to a bull of great
richness in Mr. J. W. Crookes’s Pomona’s Daily. Though of
similar type, Sir Reginald Graham’s Norton Nero was “not so
rich and not so good in setting on of tail.” Mr. W. E. Budgett’s
third-prize bull, Roseberry, possessed great length and quality.
These three bulls were none of them island-bred.

Of the yearling bulls (Class 94) the first-prize animal, Mrs.
McIntosh’s Penny Come Quick ‘“ has grand lines, a heifer-like
head, and great length, but isa trifle throaty.” Lord Rothschild’s
Gift, “not quite so good in line of rump and setting of tail,”
was second ; and Mr. Percival H. Fowler’s Bird, “ of great merit
but rather light in quarter,” was third. These winners were all
island-bred.

In Class 95, for cows in milk, born in or before 1887, the
first prize went to Mr. James Blyth’s Lady Safety, ‘a small
cow of true Jersey type, with splendidly shaped udder and fine
milking points.” The Earl of Londesborough’s Précoce II. is
“an excellent dairy cow, but shows a tendency to lightness in
the near-side quarter of the fore-bag.” Mr. William Arkwright
was third with Carillon, ‘a grey cow, rather undersized, but
of great milking capability ; not quite clean in throat.” There
was scarcely an animal in this class which did not possess con-~
siderable merit. The three winners were island-bred.

Class 96, for three-year-old cows, was the smallest of
the Jersey classes, the entries numbering twenty-five. The
substantial awards all went to island-bred cows. The first-
prize cow, Mr. Walter Barron’s Lady of the Lake 4th, carried
a remarkable udder, which was, however, slightly wanting
in colour. She was almost equalled by Mr. Blyth’s
Princess Alice, but the latter is “a little long on the leg.”
Mr. Joseph Brutton’s Mabel 21st is a yellow fawn of good
quality.

In the two-year-old heifers (Class 97), the winner was
Mr, H, J. Cornish’s Miranda, “ a bronze fawn of great beauty, ‘

The Doncaster Meeting. 461

with good head and horn, and good udder.” Mr. Brutton’s
Golden Lass 7th proved a little coarse in the hind quarters.
Mr. Baxendale’s Berberis isa home-bred heifer of great milking
quality, “‘ but a little ungainly in horn.”

The yearling heifers (Class 98) made the largest of the
Jersey classes, with 40 entries. ‘The first prize went to Lord
Rothschild’s Pontorson 2nd, “a grey calf with perfect outline,
good promise of udder, and well-placed teats. Mr. Edwin
Cash’s Mamie has great depth and quality, but is not perfect in
touch. Mr. J. W. Crookes took third prize with Bessie Blach.
These three heifers are all home-bred.

Guernsey.—In the four classes there was a total of 51 entries,
of which 46 went into the ring. The former number compares
with 72 in the Plymouth catalogue; but the distance of Doncaster
no doubt had its effect, and only five animals were entered direct
from the island. The quality of the display was, on the whole,
equal to the average of recent years. Of the 12 prizes awarded,
seven went to animals bred in Guernsey.

Several of the aged bulls (Class 99) possessed great merit,
and the first prize was awarded to Mr. Christie-Miller for Our
Prince. This bull was island-bred, as were also the second and
third, Mr. H. M. Ozanne’s Ringleader and Colonel Shakerley’s
Paradow.

Only five yearling bulls (Class 100) came before the Judges.
“This, in point of merit, was the weakest class in the section,
the animals being more or less inclined to throatiness.” The
winners were none of them island-bred.

Class 101, for cows calved in or before 1888, was of great
merit. Before finally making their awards the Judges had the
selected animals milked in order to assure themselves that the
udders when empty were still satisfactory. Sir Francis Monte-
fiore’s island-bred Hortuna was first, Mr. Julian Stephens’s island-
bred Muriel was second, and the Hon. Mrs. A. Baillie Hamilton’s
home-bred Romaine 3rd was third.

The two-year-old heifers and yearling heifers competed to-
gether in Class 102, and the contest resulted in the victory of three
island-bred animals, Sir F. Montefiore’s Volunteer being first.
This was the largest of the Guernsey classes, 21 animals coming
forward. ‘The Judges found great difficulty in making their
awards in consequence of having to compare yearling with two-
year-old heifers.” Asa matter of fact each of the winners was
nearly 23 years old. “The younger animals have very little
chance in competing with those a year older, many of which have
calved, or are near calving, and showing signs of udder develop-

”

ment.” Although the class was open to heifers ‘born in the

462 The Doncaster Meeting.

year 1889 or 1890,” the catalogue shows that more than two-
thirds of the entries were born in 1889.

Kerry and Dexter Kerry.—The aggregate entry of these breeds
was less than half as large as that at Plymouth in the preceding
year. Irish exhibitors were, on account of recent regulations,
absent ; but the English exhibitors represented as many as nine
different counties: Bucks, Cambs, Hants, Kent, Norfolk, Notts,
Oxon, Rutland, and Wilts.

Kerry bulls (Class 103) were “a poor class of six animals,”
in which Mr. Martin J. Sutton’s Kidmore Prince was first, and
Mr. Charles Adeane’s Blackamoor was second. ‘‘ Undoubtedly
the best animal per se was No. 1309 (the Duchess of Newcastle’s
Forest Shamrock) ; but if the rules of the Irish Kerry Herd Book
Society are to be regarded, especially in male animals—a point
open to question,—he was disqualified on such rules. The two
animals, first and second, were the only two of which mention
could be made.”

Kerry cows or heifers (Class 104) entered the ring to the
number of 11. It was a nice class on the whole, though
several animals were deficient in formation of the udder. The
first prize fell to Mr. Martin J. Sutton’s Peep, and the second
prize to the Marquis of Lansdowne’s Enda. “The first-prize
cow, although having more white than permitted by the Irish
Kerry Herd Book Society, could not be passed, as she is in
every other respect a very perfect specimen of a Kerry and a
dairy cow. The second-prize animal was a good typical Kerry,
and the other noticed cows were all thoroughly good speci-
mens.’

Amongst the Dexter bulls (Class 105) Lord Ashburton’s
Chang “ was easily first.” The second-prize bull, Mr. Sutton’s
Othello, and Mr. Swithinbank’s reserve, ‘‘ were very equal in merit,
there being very little to choose between them.” ‘The second-
prize animal, however, “ had the advantage in touch.”

Class 106, for Dexter cows or heifers, was a very strong
class, in which the solid awards went to Lord Ashburton’s
Queen Mab and Mr. Swithinbank’s Denham Lady Inmerick.
When seven out of the 16 had been drafted, the placing of the
others was a matter of considerable difficulty, and eventually the
Judges were obliged to ask the umpire to decide between the
first two animals—a task in which Mr. Robertson confessed
there was very little margin of choice.

“Tt is very clear,” say the Judges, “that if the presence of
white in Kerrys is to disqualify, as at present insisted upon by-
the Irish Kerry Herd Book Society, injustice will be done to
good individual animals, and great injury to the breed in general.”

The Doncaster Meeting. 463

Darry CattLe Mitkinc TRIALS.

Six prizes, amounting in the aggregate to 60/., were offered
for cows in-milk, of any breed or cross, the awards going to the
animals which yielded the largest quantity of milk at two
milkings, provided the quality of the milk did not fall below a
standard of 12 per cent. of solids and 3 per cent. of butter-fat.
The cows were divided into two classes (107 A and 107 B),
according as their live-weights, taken after being milked dry,
came above or below 1,100 lb.

The cows were milked dry on Monday morning, June 22,
in presence of the Steward of Cattle, Mr, C. 8. Mainwaring,
after which their live weights were taken on a platform weighing
machine, conveniently erected by Messrs. Avery, of Birmingham,
at the end of the dairy cattle shed, The weights then registered
were those for the purposes of the competition, and it was found
that of the twelve entries there was one absentee (No. 13872),
and that Division A comprised six, and Division B five animals.

The two milkings by which the competition was decided
were made on Monday evening, June 22, at 5 P.M., and on
Tuesday morning, June 23, at 7 aM. The milk yielded was
weighed, and samples were on each occasion taken for analysis,
and sent for examination to the Society’s laboratory.

The table on page 465 gives particulars as to the cows, their
live weights, the quantity and quality of the milk yielded, and
the consequent awards.

As distinguished from the competitions of former years it is
noticeable, reports Dr. Voelcker, that in only one case (No.
1374) did the quality ofthe milk given fall below the standard, and
even then only just below it. In more than one case it was
ascertained that the competitors had taken the precaution to
have the milk of their cows analysed before they were sent to
the Show, in order to know that the conditions would be
satisfied. It will be noticed, however, that in one or two
instances the quality of the Tuesday morning’s milk was below
the standard, though that of the Monday evening was well above
it. As the conditions did not specify that at each separate
milking the standard must be reached, the average quality of
the yield of the two milkings was taken as the determining
factor, and, as may be seen, in all cases except one (No. 1874) it
was reached.

In Division A the first prize was awarded to Dairyman’s
Pride, a roan cross-bred cow, five years old, belonging to a local
exhibitor, Mr. James Brammer. She had never been exhibited

464 The Doncaster Meeting.

at any show before this; but the owner, knowing the large yield
of milk the cow gave, sent her for competition, as the Show
was in the neighbourhood. This cow gave the extraordinarily
large yield of 724 lb. of milk at two milkings, a quantity
considerably in excess of anything recorded either at Plymouth
last year or at Windsor in 1889, the greatest yield from any
cow at the latter Show being 644 lb. Naturally the quality
was not high, but on the average of the two milkings it came
above the standard, showing 12-01 per cent. of solids and 3-07
per cent. of fat. This cow had calved on April 25, and the
owner stated that she only went dry for about four weeks. Bean-
and pea-meal, oats, and maize-meal, with a little linseed-cake,
were the usual additional foods. Mr. George Church secured
the second and third prizes in this division with two shorthorns,
one of them, No. 1368 (Miss Cope), being well known at milk-
ing competitions, and having shortly before won at the Oxford-
shire Show. However, she was here placed below her com-
panion, No. 13869 (Nancy), the latter having calved as recently
as June 2, while Miss Cope had calved on April 6. Bean-meal
and crushed oats, with, in winter, cotton- and linseed-cake, are
the additional foods Mr. Church uses. The Shorthorn cow
No. 1370 (Strawberry) only lost the third prize by a few ounces
less yield of milk.

It is worthy of note in this competition that, although there
were cows entered which weighed 1,300 lb. and 1,400 lb. live
weight, by far the greatest yield was given by the lightest cow
of all, her weight being only 1,127 lb., so that she narrowly
escaped being placed in the other division.

In Division B, although the yields do not equal the
Windsor returns in 1889, the quality of both morning and
evening milkings was extremely good, and in no case was the
standard not reached. Here, again, the first prize was won by
the lightest cow, and the second prize by the next lightest, the
heaviest cow of all only obtaining the third place. The first and
second prizes went to Jersey cows, the third to No. 13694, a
big cow of unknown breeding, belonging to Mr. George Church,
who thus secured three of the six prizes offered. This cow,
Flower, had taken a silver medal at last year’s Dairy Show.
The first prize cow, No. 1373 (Daystar 2nd), belonging to Mrs.
Swan, was a beautiful animal, and showed remarkable develop-
ment of the milk veins. She was no less than eleven years
old, and had calved on April 1. Mr. Salisbury Baxendale’s
four-year-old Jersey cow, Blossom, was second.

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466 Lhe Doncaster Meeting.

SHEEP.

Leicesters—It was hardly creditable to the breeders of
Leicester sheep that they should make a smaller entry at Don-
caster than at Plymouth. Excepting the first and second prize
pens in the ram classes, Leicesters do not call for any special
comment, though the Judges were pleased with the shearling
ewes.

Cotswolds.—Two dozen pens were entered, which again falls
short of the Plymouth entry. The quality was good. The two-
shear rams, for which Mr. Russell Swanwick was first and
second, gave much satisfaction; and the Judges noticed all the
pens that were occupied. The shearling rams, in which class
Mr. Robert Garne was first, were equally satisfactory. Of ram
lambs, Mr. Garne’s prize pens were “very good, but backward
in condition.” Messrs. Bagnall’s prize pens of ewes were
typical specimens of the breed.

Inncolns—The Lincoln breeders took advantage of their
proximity to the place of meeting, and entered to nearly twice
the extent of their display at Plymouth. The substantial
honours throughout went either to Mr. Henry Dudding or to
Mr. Robert Wright. The shearling rams were a specially
strong class, both in numbers and in quality.

Oxford Downs were shown in about the same strength as at
Plymouth. The two-shear rams made up a small but excellent
class, Mr. John C. Hady’s first-prize ram possessing exceptional
merit. Mr. John Treadwell carried away all the money offered
for shearling rams,—a good class in which 14 animals faced
the Judges. The ram lambs, in which Mr. Albert Brassey’s pen
was placed first, were so good that they were all noticed. Ina
capital lot of shearling ewes, Mr. Eady’s first-prize pen was
especially noteworthy.

Shropshires.—The cultivators of the West Midland breed of
sheep may look back with satisfaction upon their imposing
display at Doncaster. ‘Two sets of Judges took the Shropshires
in hand, the one set dealing with the rams, and the other with
the ram lambs and ewes. The J udges of rams ** congratulate
the breeders of Shropshires on the wonderful entry of 127 rams
in two classes, nearly all of which put in an appearance, some
from the most distant parts of the United Kingdom, both
Scotland and Ireland being most creditably represented. There
were 41 different exhibitors, plainly showing the still increasing
popularity of this breed. A considerable number of sheep in_
each class were sold in the yard at high figures for exportation
to America and the Colonies; at the same time we were pleased

The Doncaster Meeting. 467

to hear that some of the most valuabie sires were retained at
very remunerative prices to perpetuate the breed in this
country.”

Of two-shear rams there were 26 entries present. Mr.
George Lewis's first-prize ram is a typical animal of the breed,
with capital fore-quarters and good masculine head. Mr. A.S.
Berry’s second-prize ram, ‘‘though hardly so pleasing in cha-
racter, is a wonderfully straight good sheep with capital coat
-and skin.” The third-prize sheep, exhibited by Mrs. Barrs, is
“ of grand scale, with good lean flesh.”

The shearling rams made up an extraordinary entry of nearly
100 animals, many of them possessing exceptional quality. Mr.
W. F. Inge’s first-prize ram was a sheep of capital form and
character, standing square on his legs, “though we could have
wished him to have moved with greater freedom.” Messrs:
Bradburne’s second-prize ram, despite his being of nice character
and well on his legs, was “‘ hardly so pleasing in form or firm in
his coat.” The third prize went to a sheep of very much the
same type, and the strength of the whole class is shown in the
circumstance that as many as 23 animals were selected for
nominal honours.

Of ram lambs 17 pens were filled, and they made a highly
creditable show. Mr. Richard Brown’s first-prize pen “ was of
very good quality and size, and free from any defects in the
way of stubs or grey ears, &c.”’ The second-prize and reserved
pens were compact lambs of beautiful quality.

The class for shearling ewes produced some splendid speci-
mens of the Shropshire breed, and on account of their uniformity
of character some difficulty was experienced in adjudicating.
After a close contest the first prize was awarded to Mrs.
Barrs for a pen of great size and evenness. Mr. Inge’s second-
prize pen “ was not on quite so large a scale, but of beautiful
quality.”

Southdowns.—There were 81 pens entered at Doncaster,
against 75 at Plymouth. Last Anglian breeders took all the
four first prizes and an equal number of others, only three of
the eleven prizes awarded going to Sussex flocks.

The dozen entries of two-shear rams did not make up
a strong class, though the prize animals were good. The first
prize went to the Prince of Wales for “‘a remarkably true-made
sheep of excellent quality.” Mr. Colman’s second-prize ram
was “nearly of equal merit,” and the Duke of Richmond and
Gordon’s third-prize sheep “true to Southdown type.” One of
the Judges (Mr. Fulcher) suggests the abolition of classes for
two-shear sheep, and says “there can be little doubt that to

468 The Doncaster Meeting.

feed a ram for show after he has attained maturity seriously
impairs, and often totally destroys, his usefulness as a breeding
animal.”

Shearling rams made a creditable display. In placing the
first two animals, it was necessary to seek the opinion of an
umpire, the result being that the first prize went to Mr. Colman
and the second to the Prince of Wales.

In the class for ram lambs the first prize pen—also from
Sandringham—obtained its position on account of the lambs
being so well matched, this, combined with their quality,
more than compensating for some lack of size. Mr. Lucas’s
second-prize pen looked younger, but were a highly promising
lot. ‘‘ We were sorry to find several lambs disfigured by embryo
horns.”

The Southdowns were seen at their best in the female class.
“Seldom has such a splendid array of ewes been seen at the
Royal, and in appreciation of their merits we highly commended
the whole class.” The Duke of Hamilton and Brandon’s first-
prize winners, says Mr. Gorringe, ‘‘ were marvyellously symmetrical
and their quality was excellent;” whilst Mr. Fulcher reports:
‘< These ewes remind me of old Babraham days, when Southdowns
had more colour, size, and strength of constitution than those
of the present day.” The second prize went to Mr. Colman and
the third prize to Mr. Toop for “ pens of the highest merit.”

Hampshire Downs.—Of these, 50 entries were made—about
a dozen more than at Plymouth. Most cf the leading breeders
were represented, and the early maturing qualities of the breed
were much in evidence. For two-shear rams the first prize
went to Mr. Robert Coles for a very good sheep, Mr. Frank
R. Moore’s second-prize ram being a “ trifle high on the leg.”
Amongst the shearling rams Mr. John Barton took the first prize
for a massive sheep of good constitution. ‘Perhaps the best
sheep in the class took no honours, as he was so fat he was unable
to stand to be judged; he belonged to Mr. Henry Lambert.”

Ram lambs mustered in good force, and were very near to-
gether in several cases. Mr. Lambert came to the front with a
pen of lambs of high quality; whilst another pen of strong useful
lambs secured the second place for Mr. Barton. The shearling
ewes were an excellent lot, and besides the first and third prize
pens of Mr. William Newton and the second-prize pen of Mr.
Joshua Hast, several other pens were noticed.

Suffolks.—These black-faced sheep were shown in the same
number as at Plymouth. The Marquis of Bristol was first for
two-shear rams and for ram lambs, Mr. Edward Gittus being
first for shearling rams. The “gems of the Suffolks” on this

The Doncaster Meeting. 469

occasion were, however, the shearling ewes, for which the first
prize went to Mr. Joseph Smith for a pen of the genuine Suffolk
type, and the second to Messrs. Roberson and Gough for some
remarkably neat and well-grown ewes.

Wensleydales.—At a Yorkshire Meeting it was appropriate
that a section should be set apart for Wensleydale sheep, of which
41 pens were entered from nine different breeders. They
all hailed from that north-western district of the county of which
Thirsk, Bedale, and Kirkby Lonsdale are the centres. The dis-
play, taken as a whole, was fairly satisfactory, and furnished an
opportunity of seeing some typical specimens of the breed. In
a fair class of two-shear rams, Mr. J. O. Trotter's first-prize
sheep and Mr. John Heugh’s second-prize sheep were both good
animals. Mr. Heugh was the most successful exhibitor in
a large class of shearling rams. The ram lambs, though good
in quality, were, owing to the late spring, very backward in con-
dition. The shearling ewes were an exceedingly good class,—
the Judges “ have never seen a better.” Mr. Heugh was again
first, both for lambs and for ewes.

Border Leicesters naturally found a place at a North Country
meeting. There were 30 entries, of which 10 were from Scot-
land. The exhibitors numbered seven, Yorkshire providing four,
Cumberland one, and Scotland two. The Judges regarded the
display as ‘“‘an improvement on previous years, both in numbers
and quality.” There were three classes, and in each case
the first prize went to the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P.
“The class of old rams was a fair turn-out. ‘I'he competition
was closer in the shearling rams, some very nice animals being
shown. The show of shearling ewes was very good indeed
comprising some very fine specimens of Border Leicesters.” On
account of the number and*excellence of the exhibits the Judges
suggested a third prize in each class.

Cheviots—The three classes attracted 16 entries, sent ex-
clusively by two Northumberland exhibitors. The honours were
divided as equally as possible between Mr. Jacob Robson and
Mr. John Robson. ‘he old rams were a good class, the
shearling rams being not so meritorious. ‘ Part of the rams
were in the wool, unshorn, and part shorn. The Judges cannot
approve of this mixture, and would suggest that it would be
better if all were shorn.” There was a close competition amongst
the shearling ewes, and the class was very deserving of com-
mendation.

Black-Faced Mountain.—Twenty-six entries were made on
behalf of six English and three Scotch exhibitors. The old rams
were of high merit, an entry by Mr. J, Archibald being first. “The

470° The Doncaster Meeting.

animal carrying first honours,” say the Judges, “combines in a
high degree the distinctive qualities of this hardy breed, and
seldom, if ever, has a better appeared before us in a showyard,
north or south.” Mr. Sinclair Scott’s ram was placed at the
head of a fair lot of shearlings, and Mr. Donald T. Martin’s pen
was first in a very meritorious class of shearling ewes. The
Judges suggest that in future this breed of sheep should be
shown either in the wool, or clipped.

Lonks.—Of this local breed, seven entries were made, repre-
senting three flocks. Messrs. Walton Brothers took all three
first prizes. The first-prize ram was good in every way, and the
second one was well deserving of a prize. The two shearling
rams were also good, and the ewes were a first-rate class.

Herdwicks——Twenty-two entries from five flocks made up
this display. Mr. William Abbott’s first-prize ram showed not
only fine symmetry, but was destitute of black wool, which
often occurs in this breed, and which the Judges think very
objectionable. ‘The shearling rams were the best class; almost
every one deserved a prize, and there was great difficulty in
placing them. Mr James C. Bowstead took the first prize, and
Mr. Henry C. Howard the second. In a good class of ewes
Mr. Abbott’s first-prize pen excelled both in symmetry and in
wool. The Judges suggest that in future a third prize be given
in all classes. ‘The Herdwicks come a long distance, and can
live upon poor rocky mountain land, where no other class can
live.”

Pics.

Large White Breed.—There were only 33 entries, against
52 at Plymouth. Boars born in 1890 were “a very poor class,
with the exception of the first prize”—Mr. Sanders Spencer’s.
Boar pigs, for which Mr. Joseph Nuttall was first, displayed
“‘ great want of merit.” Breeding sows, on the other hand, made
‘a good class, one of the best in the Show ” ; the Hon. Mrs.
Meynell Ingram took the first and second prizes. In “a fair
class ” of sow pigs one of Mr. Spencer's pens was first.

Middle White Breed.—There were 26 entries, which was
about the same as last year. There were only two boars,
“neither good.” Boar pigs were ‘“‘very poor.” As to breeding
sows, “the winning pigs were good, but the class on the whole
was disappointing compared with former shows.” Of sow pigs
the first-prize pen was good, “but showing too much large
character ;” the rest were inferior.

Small White Breed—These were rather more numerous
than at Plymouth. For boars the Hon, D. P. Bouverie took

The Doncaster Meeting. 471

the first prize for an animal “true to type, but rather plain in
his head.” Boar pigs produced but a weak competition. The
breeding sows were fairly good, the first and second prize ani-
mals—Mrs. Meynell Ingram’s—being “of very even merit.”
The class of sow pigs was “ very poor.”

“The general exhibition of white pigs,” say the Judges, “ is
of a very disappointing character, both as regards number and
quality, and greatly inferior to former Shows of the Society.”

Berkshires, although entered to the extent of nine more pens
than last year, were “not so good as usual.” Boars were a
very moderate. class. The winner was a fairly good pig;
the second “‘a useful pig with a sow’s head.” Boar pigs made
a moderate class; “the winners were a nice even pen, but
not particularly well marked.” Breeding sows were a very
good class; Mr. Nathaniel Benjafield’s first-prize sow, “a
very good and typical specimen of the breed,” received the
champion prize. Sow pigs made a better class than the young
boars, the winners being level and neat. ‘Two useful pens of
pigs could not be noticed owing to an absence of the typical
white tail in one animal in each pen.”

Any Other Black Breed was very sparsely represented, the
four classes attracting but 13 entries, all from two breeders,
of whom Mr. George Pettit was the more successful. They
were an average show as compared with former years.

Tamworths came forward in about the same number as last
year. With the exception of the sow class they have been seen to
better advantage. Boars were a very moderate class, “ the winner
being only a fairly good pig.” Boar pigs were not a good class ;
‘the first-prize pen were typical of the breed ; second and third
prizes moderate.” The sows, for which Messrs. Norman were
first, were ‘a very good class indeed, the winner being a first-
class specimen of the breed ; all the winners were good, and we
find the black hair and spots are gradually disappearing.” Sow
pigs made a fairly good class, the winners being an even pen of
good colour and quality. A spotted pig rather spoilt the second
pen, and the third pen, though very even, were short of hair,

POULTRY.

It is the opinion of the Judges that, regarded as a whole,
the Poultry Section was superior to anything of the kind that
has gone before. The high quality of the display was rendered
the more remarkable on account of the late and disastrous
breeding time. The prominence given to the strictly useful
breeds as distinguished from the purely ornamental ones is

A72 The Doncaster Meeting.

justified in the results, for the flesh, egg, and early maturity classes
were specially well patronised and most creditably represented.
Dorkings were capital specimens, and there was a good
entry in most of the classes, a considerable number of the
exhibits being from the best yards of either colour. Old English
Game were highly meritorious in the adult classes, and afforded
excellent material for building up marketable and profitable
strains of farmers’ fowls. The chickens were less satisfactory ;
“the commercial essentials were all there, but juveniles of
the ‘old type’ are by no means attractive.” Indian Game ex-
hibited a distinct advance. The quality of the adult exhibits
of this fine table variety was excellent, and was exemplified
in size, proportion, and beauty. The display of chickens, both
cockerels and pullets, was beyond expectation,—“ judged solely
from a market standpoint, the whole 42 would have been a
startling exhibition for any West-end poultry shop.” Brahmas,
though less numerous than Dorkings, brought forward some
winners of great merit. Cochins were highly meritorious so far
as the winning birds were concerned. The chickens, however,
were exceedingly backward. Langshans were represented by an
exceptionally good lot of old birds, in nice condition. ‘The
chickens were well-grown and full of character. Wyandottes,
chiefly Silvers, had suffered much in plumage, owing to the
weather. ‘The adult males were superior to the hens, the latter
providing—save in the winners—nothing of conspicuous merit.
The chickens were a typical lot, and included a few birds of
exceptional promise. Plymouth Rocks had, in the old classes,
some of the best specimens in the country ; whilst the large entry
of chickens worthily upheld the reputation of this variety for
early maturity and hardihood. Scotch Greys were a failure, or
nearly so, both in numbers and in quality. ‘To account for this,
it is suggested that breeders are transferring their affections to
the Plymouth Rocks. Minorcas made up a very even, well-
balanced lot,—altogether a fine collection. What faults there
were had arisen from exposure, or as incidents of the breeding
season, or might have been due to “ fancy’s exacting conditions.”
Andalusians were quite a superior display. The adult birds
were present in great force, and exhibited the highest degrees
of beauty and usefulness. Chickens were neither so numerous
nor so good. Leghorns in the adult classes showed, excepting the
winners, nothing above medium quality. The chickens, mostly
of the white variety, formed, on the other hand, one of the best
sections of young birds in the Show. They were big smart
showy birds, combining the triple qualifications of early develop- ~
ment, capacity for laying, and beanty. Hamburghs were mostly

The Doncaster Meeting. 473

well shown, and several pens of chickens possessed high merit.
The Any Other Variety section produced very few entries, but
their quality was first class.

Ducks were fairly well represented. The distinctive cha-
racteristics of the Aylesbury and the Pekin were more con-
spicuously illustrated than for some years past, and the salutary
influence of the Waterfowl Club was visibly exemplified. The
successful exhibitors at Doncaster include some of the most pro-
minent breeders and improvers of these two varieties. Rouens
afforded signs of improvement in shape and quality, and the
advance in size and in early maturity was specially noticeable
in the young classes. The Any Other Variety section was dis-
appointing alike in numbers and in quality. ‘ There is certainly
an encouraging opening for the improvement of that useful
variety, the Cayuga, but we do not seem to have any pioneers
of this species.”

Geese furnished but small classes. These birds are naturally
early moulters, and it is possible that their rough condition in
June leads to the withholding of birds from exhibition at this
period. Breeders are, however, reminded that “ geese are judged
less by feather than by size, shape, and symmetry—a circumstance
that should conduce to larger entries at summer shows.”

Turkeys made up a fairly representative display, the great
improvement of late years in the Bronze Turkey being dis-
tinctly noticeable.

Table Poultry——The Judge in this section (Mr. Edward -
Brown) has furnished the following details :—

Although there were two fewer classes provided this year than was the
case at Plymouth, the entries show an increase of nine. This is entirely in
the chicken classes, for there were two couples fewer of table ducks. And,
further, the increase is found in the cross-bred sections, which were a
failure twelye months ago, when they numbered only three entries for four
classes, whereas at Doncaster there were 14 entries in two classes, and the
crosses were fairly well varied. The number of pure breeds exhibited was
3 couples both at Plymouth and Doncaster. The section attracted con-
siderable attention, and proved to be of great interest.

In order to make the Table Poultry department of as great value as
pessile, it was arranged that all the selected fowls should be weighed both

efore and after being killed, and the statistics given below may he very
helpful in noting the possibilities of early maturity. Prior to making these
selections every fowl washandled, and those with badly bent breast-bones
were rejected, as well as others which indicated their unsuitability for pie-
sentation as table fowls. Some of the ducks were not as clean-plucked as
could have been wished, but they were at an unsuitable age, having new
feathers just shooting out.

The following are my notes on the respective classes, together with the
weights of exhibits alive and dead :—!

EE a a aa ee
’ The live birds were weighed together ; dead separ itely.
VOL. U. T. S.—-7 : no ee : I]
\

474

The Doncaster Meeting.

Class 255. Pair of cockerels of 1891, of any pure breed. In this class
there were only four couples to compete, of which three were killed.

No. Alive.
630. Weight 9% lb. Indian Game,
medium size, excellent type.

633. 121 lb. Dark Dorkings, rough
and coarse, appeared to have
been fattened and gone off.

634. 10 lb. Dark WDorkings, nice-
sized frames, but short of flesh ;
good legs and feet.

Dead. Prize.
Weights (1), 4 lb. 15 02.3 (2)
3 1b. 15 0z.; very plump, well Ist
formed, good colour of fleshand
skin.
(1) 4 Ib. 15 oz. ; (2) 6 Ib. 2 07.5
large and fleshy, one spoiled by
tumour on breast, and bent
breast-bone.
(1) 41b. 9 02.; (2) 41b. 702.3 a
little coarse in skin, but a nice} 2nd
pair and fairly plump.

3rd

Class 256. Pair of pullets of 1891, of any puve breed. Seven entries, all
of which were sent, and six were selected for killing.

No. Alive.

635. 941b. Plymouth Rocks; well
forward, large, and handled
well for this variety of fowl.

636. 71b. 40z. Indian Game; well
forward, nice shape, and very
plump ; medium size.

637. 8lb. Silver Wyandottes, one
wearing 1891 ring; good size
and appearance.

639. 6lb.100z. Dark Dorkings ; very
small, nice legs and feet.

640. 83 1b. ‘Indian Game; tight-fea-

thered, hard condition, very
plump, excellent weight.

93 1b. Dark Dorkings; well for-
Wward, good size, shape, and
nice legs and feet.

641.

Dead, Prize.
(1) 4 1b. 60z.; (2) 41b. 8 oz. ;
very thin clear skins, capital 4st

colour of flesh; a beautiful pair
of chickens.

(1) 31b. 60z.; (2) 31b. 30z.;
very good colour, and well!3rd
fleshed.

(1) 31b. 10 02. ; (2) 31b. 13 07. ;
nice shape, but deficient in
quantity of flesh ; fair quality (>
of skin.

(1) 3b. 402.; (2) 2]b. 7 02.;
very small, ae coarse in skin. }
(1) 3 1b. 15 0z.; (2) 4 1b. 202.;
one slightly bent breast, and a
little dark in skin, but very
plump, and a fine pair.

(1) 41b. 402. ; (2) 4 Ib. 9 02. ; a
not fulfil promise ; coarse and | h.c.
dark in skins.

Class 257. Pair of cockerels of 1891, of a first cross from any pure =

Six entries, but one not sent.

No. Alive,

642. 71b. 4.0z. Indian Game and
Dorking ; fair size and plump-
ness, whitish legs.

644. 1021b. Silver Grey Dorking and
Indian Game; second biggest
birds in the chicken classes;
fleshy, and good shape.

646. 9lb. 60z. Indian Game and
Coloured Dorking; large, well
forwardchickens, handled well,
good legs and feet.

647. Indian Game and Coloured Dor-
king; the largest birds in the
chicken classes, but not se-
lected on account of badly
bent breasts. They were, how-
ever, killed by mistake.

- neat pair,

Three pairs were selected for killing,

Dead.

(1) 3b. 3 0z.; (2) 31b. 8 02.3 a

plump and well} 3rd
formed, but dark in flesh.

(1) 51b. 502.; (2) 41b. 12 02. ;
very long in body, rather
heavy thighs, somewhat
coarse in skin, but a fine pair
of chickens.

(1) 41b. 100z.; (2) 41b. 402;
capital size, very plump in-
deed, lovely colour of flesh
and skin, white legs.

(1) 51b. 8 oz. ; (2) 5 lb. 12 o2.;
very coarse in skin, and spoiled
by bent breast-bones. They
were also yellow in legs,

Prize.

,
2nd

Ist

The Doncaster Meeting.

475

"Class 258. Pair of pullets of 1891, of a first cross from any pure breeds.
Tn this exceedingly good class were eight entries, of which only five pairs

were sent.

No. Alive.

648. 74 1b. Langshan and Indian
Game; smallish but close and
compact, slightly feathered
legs.

6lb.120z. Dorking and Game
or Brahma was given as the
cross—evidently the latter,
from the slightly feathered
legs.

. Ti1b. Silver Grey Dorking and
Dark Brahma, small but neat,
well formed, slightly feathered
legs.

9lb. Silver Grey Dorking and
Indian Game ; good size, capi-
tal shape, well developed, one
slightly bent in breast-bone.

651.

653.

9 lb. Goz. Indian Game and
Coloured Dorking ; large and
good size, fine shape, one with
yellow and other with dark
legs.

655.

The entire class was selected for killing.

Dead, Prize.
(1) 3 1b. 20z.; (2) 3b. 7 02.;
thin skins and very plump, } 3rd
but dark in colour. )
(1) 3 Ib. 1 02.5 (2) 2 Ib. 15 02.5) |
coarse in skin and flesh. ie

(1) 3b. 30z2.;
small,

(2) 3Ib. 60z.;
fairly "fleshed, rather
coarse in skin.

(1) 4 1b. 50z.; (2) 3]b. 11 oz.
large and very plump, one]
beautiful in flesh and skin, }2nd
other bruised on breast and |
with bent keel.

(1) 41b. 1202. ; (2) 3 Ib. 1502. ;
long in bodies, large, and good
shape, thin transparent skins, ign

fine flesh, but slightly dark on
breasts.

Class 278. Pair of ducklings of 1891, of any pure breed. There were five
entries, of which four couples were on exhibition,

Alive.
765. 1031b. Aylesburys; of good type,
shapely, and good heads.

766. 1021b. Aylesburys; of similar
character, handled better.

767. 124 1b. Aylesburys; very large
and well fleshed, pale in beaks,
apparently been fattened.

768. 93lb. Pekins; of nice quality.

Dead.

(1) 4Ib. 7 0z.; (2) 5 Ib. 4 o7.
not very even in colour, mode- | h.c.
rate in flesh development.

(1) 5lb. 402.3; (2) 4 1b. 10 o2.;
nice colour, good bodies.

ie
ee
(1) 5lb. Toz.; (2)6 Ib. 2 oz. 3

Prize.

wonderfully ‘forward, and of
excellent colour, best in duck-
ling classes.
(1) 4 Ib. 90z.; (2) 4 Ib. 1 o2,;

like all Pekins, yellow but 3rd
even, rather bony.

Class 276. Pair of ducklings of 1891, of a first cross from any te: eeds,

Six entries, one absent,

No. Alive.

770. 91b. 100z. Rouen and Ayles-
bury ; not well developed.

771. 9lb. 60z. Rouen and Ayles-
bury; one white and one
coloured in plumage.

772. 101b. Rouen and Pekin; dark
plumage and bills, well deve-
loped.

773. 11lb. 20z, Pekin and Ayles-
bury; large and well formed.

Dead.
(1) 41b. 8 0z.; (2) 4 Ib. 1002. ;
coarse in skin.

Prize,

(1) 4lb. 30z.; (2) 4 1b. 5 oz. ;
coarse in skin.

disappointing, rough and}38rd
coarse.

(1) 5lb. 8 0z.; (2) 5b. 20z.;
very massive, well fleshed,

good colour, but coarse in skin.
y33

}
az
(1) 41b. 202.; (2) 41b. 14 02. :)
)
|

ae

476 The Doncaster Meeting.

Alive. Dead. Prize.
774, 8lb. 120z. Pekin and Ayles- (1) 3lb. 13 0z.; (2) 3lb. 12 0z.;
bury; small compact bodies, lovely colour, well fleshed, Ist
heavy for size. compact, and a perfect pair
but for size ; quality splendid.
It will be of interest to show the loss of weight of all the birds killed,
but as it was difficult to arrange for this to be done individually, the follow-
ing figures are for pairs :—

oe ore ib oe tee ae
630. Indian Game . c : : Pele ae 8 14 14
633. Dark Dorkings : : : 5 NEN 8G! Tal 23
634. Dark Dorkings : : 2 LOO meh 16
635. Plymouth Rocks a ae 8 14 10
636. Indian Game . c 5 : Re eo: [ay ih!
637. Silver Wyandottes . : - Deh w O) i eae, 9
639. Dark Dorkings : 6 10 5 ll 15
640. Indian Game . 8 § ch = al a
641. Dark Dorkings 9 12 8 138 15
642. Indian Game and Dorking at etd ea 6 “al 9
644. Dorking and Indian Game . OS ae Oy il 11.
646. Indian Game and Dorking oF a6 8 14 8
648. Langshan and Indian Game . (758 pe & 15
651. Dorking and Brahma . : ee 6.50 12
652. Dorking and Brahma . : yan ee: BS) 11
653. Dorking and IndianGame . erty Al) tome (0) 16
655. Indian Game and Dorking . Be ovat it
765. Aylesbury ducks . : : LO, 12 Sy al 17
766. Aylesbury ducks . c : = 10 a2 97 14 14
767. Aylesbury ducks . ‘ : 2 2s Ty 9. 15
768. -Pekin’ —: : D ee le 8 10 18
770. Rouen and Aylesbury 5 6 Qe 4l0 9. 2 8
771. Rouen and Aylesbury . c eels 37s 14
772. Rouen and Pekin . A : LOMO 9 30 16
773. Pekin and Aylesbury . - gl leas 10 10 8
774. Pekin and Aylesbury . : 5 teh | Anes Ce 19

It would be unadvisable to draw any general inference from the above
statistics, because, as the fowls were not drawn, the loss was merely that of
feathers and lower limbs. Still, it is interesting to note how small the loss
was with Indian Game and Indian Game crosses.

Tn conclusion, I would suggest to the Council of the Royal Agricultural
Society that two or more classes for fowls sent dead would be of great
service, and should be popular, filling a niche that is left open by the
present arrangement. As it is essential that fattened fowls should be killed
where they are fed, in that they rapidly lose weight and condition if sent
alive, no encouragement is given to those who fatten for market. Such a
class might be for capons or non-caponised fowls. I should further like to
suggest that the age of all fowls be stated, for some of the best fowls in my
classes at the Doncaster Show were just about three months old, while
others which did not look nearly so well were much older,

CHEESE.

The 56 entries of cheese fell a score short of the number
staged at Plymouth. Last year, in the three staple classes of
Cheddar, Cheshire, and Stilton, the cheeses had to be those of the

The Doncaster Meeting. 477

preceding year’s make; on this occasion they were to have been
made in the current year. Cheddar furnished a small show of only
seven entries, no doubt owing to the backwardness of the season.
One lot was disqualified on account of its weighing only 4532 lb.
instead of 50 lb. per cheese. Of Cheshire there were 10
entries, and the general quality was fair, many dairies being
rather soft. Stilton, six entries, was a fair show for the time of
year; the first prize was a very good entry, both in quality and
in flayour. The effort to encourage the local makes of cheese in
Yorkshire did not meet with much response, there being only
two entries of Cotherstone and six of Wensleydale. In both cases
the display was of so poor a quality that the first prize was with-
held. Cheeses of any other British make were of fair quality,
and compared favourably with some of the select classes.
Oream Cheeses were a limited show, and the hot weather affected
some of the exhibits. Of British Soft Cheese there were only two
lots, and neither was good enough for a first prize.

Regarded as a whole, the exhibition of cheese must be looked
upon as a poor one—a circumstance of which the withholding of
three of the first prizes is sufficiently significant.

BUTTER.

The entries were about the same number as last year,
although the classes were two less, no provision being made at
Doncaster for scalded cream butter and whey butter, which
together attracted three dozen entries at Plymouth,

Fresh butter, free from salt, was not a fine class. The
exhibits had evidently suffered from having been made four or
five days before being judged,—“ this invariably affects a pure
butter with no salt.” Class 290 comprised 92 entries, and,
as a whole, the quality was good, as, being slightly salted,
the flavour was preserved. Most of the entries of salt butter
had suffered through not having been properly protected. “We
would strongly advise the placing of these butters in well-glazed
See and then kept covered with an inch-and-a-half of strong

rine.”

CIDER AND PERRY.

The entries were only half as numerous as at Plymouth.
Still, the 28 entries of cider showed the interest the competition
excited though it took place in a non-cider country. Of these
entries, Devonshire contributed 10, Herefordshire 10, Glouces-
tershire fiye, and Somerset three, the laurels going to Glouces-
tershire,

478 The Doncaster Meeting.

There were but very few really good samples, and only one
of an exceptional character, Mr. Henry Thomson’s. “ This was
exhibited in two classes, cask and bottle, and bore evidence of
judgment in the selection of fruit and in the after-treatment.
Although rather crude in some respects, it contained all the
elements of a really fine cider, and was well worthy of a first
award in both classes.”

The old bottled cider class was so inferior that the Judge
could not recommend the award of any of the prizes. ‘The
samples were without flavour; several were in bad condition,
and had completely lost what little pretensions to character
they originally possessed.”

“Tf,” remarks the Judge, “cider-growers generally would
but discard local tastes and local prejudices, and study to raise
the quality of British cider, we should soon find a greater
national demand spring up, which would give an impetus to
fruit-growing, especially to the production of superior apples,
and furnish a substitute for some of the light wines now so
freely imported at great cost to the country. As to the com-
parison of good honest cider with cheap champagne, every
impartial critic would incline to the opinion that our own pro-
duct is by far the best, and certainly the most economical.
Despite the more sunny climates of some other apple-growing
countries, we have in our soil and temperature all necessary
conditions for the production of the finest cider the world can
provide. But to obtain this result it is urgently necessary to
use only the best fruit grown on suitable soil.”

There were but four exhibits of bottled perry—“ on the
whole fairly good.” ‘The first and second awards were given to
excellent samples, from quite opposite descriptions of fruit.

JAMS AND PRESERVED FRUITS.

In the Report of the Plymouth Meeting it was stated *re-
specting this section, ‘‘ The entries in these classes were disap-
pointingly few, but the Council have thought it best to continue
the prizes for another year, in the hope that more competitors
may be induced to come forward and to take an interest in jam-
making.’ Unfortunately, the entries at Doncaster—only four in
all—were less than half the number last year, whilst two of
the classes were entirely vacant. All the entries were placed by
the Judge, who reports that the quality of the exhibits leaves ~
nothing to be desired, and shows a vast improvement as compared
with the exhibits at the Jubilee Show at Windsor.

The Doncaster Meeting. 479

Hives anp Honey.

The four Judges (the Rev. J. F. Buckler, Mr. W. B. Carr
Mr. Jesse Garratt, and Mr. Walter Martin) who officiated in
this section, have sent the following report :-—

The Bee of the Show was this year admirably leid out, and
it would be di to suggest any improvement in the method of displaying
either the honey or the

The plan followed had the double advantage of allowing for the con-

of the various ariicles by bee-keepers and others specially

interested, while not interfering with free locomotion on the part of the great

body of visitors. The close proximity of the lecturing tent was also very

advantageous; indeed the whole arrangements of the department were most
creditable to the officials who had them in charze.

The entries in the more important classes were considerably better than
last year, notably in those for collections of bee appliances, observatory hives
stocked ak wth bees, and useful inventions; the exhibits in these three
classes about double the number staged at Plymouth. Referring to
Class 301 for obzervaiory hives, we would suggest the miroduction im next
year's schedule of a rule making it compulsory that “all hives exhibited
with living bees shall have facilities for and be staged so that the bees shall
hhaye free egress and ingress therefrom.” This would do away with the
ete of staging hives in which the bees are i
Eg age ag the Show contmues. Several hives of the Eee
were shown at Doncaster, and as usual caused the death of some hundreds
of the bees confined therein.

While bearing testimony io the general excellence of the workmanship
in most of the goods shown, we may confine our remarks to the consideration
of such articles in each class as possess some claim to originality, or improve-
ment on what has been shown before. Im this connection it was noticeable
that the terribly severe winter of 1890-9], and the consequent heavy
mortality among bees, has had some influence in encouraging the manufac-
iit 6 kiver cates cams, fix thes protection af een space tes
weather, both First and Second Prizes in Class 302 “ For the best hive for
general use” being awarded to hives of this type. In Class 304, for Honey

desired—a novelty m the shape of an “ extra cham gearing” similar io those
used on cycling machines, but we doubt if the advantage gained is worth the
eee et, many men preferrmg the simple and direct
action of a to the ceniral rod of the revolving cage. Class
erect tasted caplet caccicn, tho hight creed! bee inca tn
one with hangins-frames in which the sections were worked, instead of the
ordinary rack. The idea is not a new one, but the box shown claimed to

In the class for rapid-feeders, some good ones were shown, ard we are
observ: that makers are still endeavouring to improve this useful
the Apiary. In Class 312 for useful;inventions, there were fifteen
, from a commercial point of view, being a hive
are held together by a twin-dovetail joint almost
The idea of the designer is to have these
and sent out in the flat, so that bee-keepers may

their hives at home, and thereby save cost of labour and carriage.
no doubt that 2 firm and rigid joint is secured by the stout angle-

Ta
| laa
a

‘ ule

i

480 The Doncaster Meeting.

pieces on which the twin-dovetail is cut, and some ingenuity is displayed in
the adaptation of this angle-piece to the various parts.

The further development of this idea will be watched with some interest,
proposing, as it does, to make a radical change in hive manufacture. A
silyer medal was awarded to this exhibit, end also to the section box men-
tioned in Class 805, A new frame, with its top bar divided nearly, but not
quite, through the wood, so that the upper side of the bar affords no lodg-
ment for the wax moth, received a bronze medal.

Coming to the Honey Classes, the entries were numerous, but the lateness
of the season and the early date on which the Show was held, had a some-
what adverse effect on the quantity staged, and the compilers of the schedule
showed their wisdom in admitting honey of previous years in competition
with that of the current season. The difficulty, however, of judging old and
new honey in the same class makes it advisable to consider the desirability
of separate classes for each, so that they may be judged on their respective
merits.

It was gratifying to notice the amount of interest taken in the Bee Depart-
ment by farmers and the general public, as testified by the numbers passing
through this portion of the Show, and the large audiences attending the
lectures in the bee-tent.

THE BUTTER-MAKING COMPETITIONS.

The Dairy was, as usual, most complete in its arrange-
ments for the competition of butter-makers, though, as the
Judges remark, “the handsome. prizes offered, amounting to
64/., were worthy of a far larger number of entries, the more
especially as no entry fee is charged.” They add, “ When
new appliances are provided by makers, they should very
thoroughly prepare them for use. It takes several days to do
this, and some of the workers laboured under the disadvantage
arising from its not being done.”

Special care was taken to supply the competitors with
portions of cream identical in quantity and quality, as, unless
this is done, a very important part of the test—namely, the
weight of butter produced—is liable to be defective. In this
way 14 lb. of cream was given to each competitor.

In the first competition—open to the United Kingdom—
there were ten candidates (eight of whom were females), and all
competed. The second competition was for female members of
a farmer’s family not in service or working for wages, and in
this case thirteen competed. The third competition, restricted
to dairymaids in service who had never won a prize exceeding
1J. in yalue at any competition, and the fourth competition,
for dairymaids residing in the county of York, attracted but
three entries each.

In all the classes “ the work was generally good.” ‘The first
and second prize winners (Miss Evelina E. Fritchley and Mrs.
C. L. Horton) in the second competition “ did exceedingly good
work,”

The Doncaster Meeting. 481

The lectures and demonstrations given daily by Miss Maid-
ment were a source of attraction to large numbers of visitors,
whilst the scientific and practical discourses delivered by
Dr. Voeelcker and Mr. Rigby were listened to with great
interest.

Tae HorsE-SHOEING COMPETITIONS.

These contests were limited to shoeing-smiths in the county
of York, there being 14 competitors in Class 1 (Hunters) and 12
competitors in Class 2 (Agricultural Horses), though a larger
muster might have been expected.

Some excellent work was done in the Hunter class, The
time occupied in taking off a fore-shoe, preparing the foot,
making and fitting one fore-shoe and one hind-shoe and setting
on the former, varied from 29 to 39 minutes. The first-prize
winner, a really excellent workman, and, as the vivd voce exam-
ination afterwards proved, a man with a good knowledge of the
anatomy of the horse’s foot, made the best record as to time.
The 2nd, 3rd, and 5th prize winners passed a good vivd voce
examination, whilst the 4th prize winner and the two highly
commended competitors, though good workmen, knew but little
of the structure of the foot.

In the Agricultural Horses class the work was not excep-
tionally good. The time varied from 26 to 36 minutes. In the
vivd voce examination three of the prize winners showed a fair
knowledge of the foot, but the others examined knew nothing
of its structure.

“In recent years,” say the Judges, “a very decided im-
provement has taken place as to the treatment of the sole and
frog. They are not now pared and reduced in strength as they
used to be, but there is still far too much rasping of the nail of
the foot after the shoe has been put on. We noticed one com-
petitor who, after rasping and filing, finished up by polishing
the crust with emery-paper.”

Owing to the excellent selection of horses made by the
Assistant Steward in charge (Mr. Claude Pilkington), their feet
were uniformly good, thus giving every competitor the same
chance to show his skill.

CoNCLUSION,

Yorkshire has been well termed ‘“‘an epitome of England,”
and the Society may look back with satisfaction upon its Fifth
Meeting in our largest county. It was a fine-weather Meeting,
and, thanks to the hearty co-operation of the Local Committee

482 The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doneaster.

and the Doncaster Agricultural Society, it presented many
pleasant and agreeable features. If there was one attraction
that may on this occasion claim to have been supreme, it was
the Horse Ring. That this should have been so is what might
have been anticipated from the associations of the district. The
dense crowds of well-behaved and well-dressed people who
literally hemmed in the great ring—especially on the Wednes-
day and the Thursday—afforded an earnest demonstration of
the love which an Englishman has for a horse. Whatever other
claims it may have to live in the memo.y of those who visited
it, the Doncaster Show will long be remembered for its great
gathering of Hunters, and its magnificent display of Hackneys
and Shires. W. F Ream.

THE “TRIALS’ OF “THRESHIite
MACHINES. AT. DONCAS iia

At the Cardiff Meeting of the Society, in 1872, competitive trials
were held for two classes of Threshing Machines—

(1.) For the best Combined Portable Threshing and Finish-
ing Machine, to be worked by steam, and adapted for the
preparation of corn for market.

(2.) For the best Combined Portable Threshing Machine, to
be worked by steam, which has no corn screen or other apparatus
for sorting the grain for market.

In each of these classes there were no less than fifteen
competitors.

In the period which has elapsed since these trials, the second
class of machine has practically disappeared. The Council of
the Society, therefore, in arranging for trials of Threshing
Machines for 1891 decided that there should be only one class
of machine, viz., Finishing Machines, and they offered first,
second, and third prizes of 100/., 50/., and 25. for the best
“Combined Portable Threshing and Finishing Machine, to be
worked by steam, and adapted to the preparation of corn for
market (the width not to exceed 4 ft. 8 in. inside the frame, and
the width of drum not to exceed 4 ft. 6 in.).”

Whilst at the former trials no restriction was made as to
the size of the machine—the length of drum varying from 52? in.
to 57 in.—it was decided that on the present occasion the length
of drum was not to exceed 4 ft, 6 in., within which dimension

The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doneaster, (483
all machines used in this country would be included, and which
would also lead practically to uniformity in size of the machines.

The special features of merit in the machines were fully
discussed and the points of merit to be awarded for them
‘were decided upon ; and copies of these, together with the general
conditions, were published in April 1890, the entries being
made returnable on August 1, 1890.

The points representing perfection were stated in the
regulations as follows :—

Mlemmcaresning” 5 9. 6 «6 el tlCUllhCU CO
Clean shaking ‘ ’ - . : ' : eo)
Cavings free fromecorn. . . . 5
Chaff free from corn : ; Tikes : opp
Chaff free from cayings, seeds, and dirt . . . an ae
1Straw unbroken , ; 5
Corn uninjured : - - - : - oe olp
Cleanness of delivery from machines , , 3 AY:

(z.e., absence of lodgment).

1 Perfection of finishing - ; PO se

(z.e., screening or sorting).
Construction and convenience of working ., " 6
Power in proportion to results, . : a MES:
Eeonomy of attendance . . . ' . owe!
Price . ¢ ’ e ‘ ‘ ’ . e * 2
100

1Tn threshing the barley and oats, the points of straw unbroken will not
be given, but will be added to the points allowed for perfection of finishing,
making the number 10,

The trials were to be with wheat, barley and oats, and “ those
machines which appear tg the Judges of sufficient merit, after
preliminary trials with both wheat and barley, will be run for a
final trial, of not less than one hour with wheat, one hour with
barley, and half-an-hour with oats, in order to enable a more
correct and satisfactory judgment of their merits to be arrived at.”

Nine exhibitors originally entered for this competition, but
of this number four eventually withdrew, leaving five machines
to compete. The following is a list of the competing firms:
James Coultas; H. Foden, Sons, & Co.; W. Foster & Co.;
Gibbons & Robinson; W. ‘Tasker & Sons.

The arrangements for the trials were very similar to those at
Cardiff. A large temporary shed was erected, affording sufli-
cient space in its length to allow of three machines being got
into place for working simultaneously, as also for a fourth machine
for re-threshing the straw and cavings; this machine, with
combined trusser, together with the engine for working it,
was kindly lent by Messrs. Hornsby, of Grantham, The width

484 The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster.

of the shed allowed the delivery of the straw from the machines
under trial, and its transport for re-threshing, to take place
under cover. Along the length of the shed, in front of same,
a line of rails was fixed. On this were mounted on trolleys two
engines provided by Messrs. Davey, Paxman & Co., of Colchester,
for driving the machines under trial. One engine (a single-
cylinder engine) was used when necessary for the preliminary
trial, the other (a compound engine of the Newcastle Prize
type) was connected by a coupling shaft to the dynamometer,
which was also mounted cn the same trolley, and through which
the threshing machine under trial was driven, the exact amount
of power taken during the trial being thereby measured. The
trolleys could be readily moved to and fro by a rope and crab
into any required position for driving the machines.

At the entrance to the shed was a large weigh-bridge, lent
by Messrs. Pooley & Sons, on which each cartload of corn
was weighed as it came in from the stack. A small portable
weighing machine was used for weighing the threshed corn.
The stacks of corn were close to the shed, and were protected
by rick cloths. Fortunately the weather during the trials was
all that could be desired; but it would be advisable in future
trials to get all the ricks under cover, so as to avoid cartage
through the open, as, had the weather been wet, there must have
either been an interruption to the work, or a want of uniformity
in the corn served to the machines. The trials commenced on
Tuesday, June 16, the Judges being Dr. W. Anderson, C.E.,
F.R.S., Colonel Grantham, and Mr. S. Rowlandson.

The order (determined by lot) in which the machines were
tried was as follows:—(1) Foster, No. 4,156; (2) Tasker, No.
4,144; (3) Coultas, No. 607; (4) Gibbons, No. 4,142; (5)
Foden, No. 4,152. ‘This order is adhered to throughout the
tabular statements of the results of the trials.

An examination of these machines showed that they would
all be capable of getting through their preliminary trials; and
as there was an ample supply of corn, a slight deviation ‘m
procedure from that originally contemplated was adopted, it
being decided that each machine, having got through the
exhibitors’ preliminary trial, should at once go on to the hour’s
trial in wheat, to be followed immediately by the runs with barley
and oats. This effected a very considerable saving of time in
shifting from one machine to another.

It may be noted, in comparing the present trials with. those
of 1872, that whereas at Cardiff a given quantity of corn was
weighed out to the various machines for their several runs, on
the present occasion the duration of the trial was made the

The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster. 485

uniform element, being one hour each for wheat and for barley,
and half-an-hour for oats, the result being that each trial dealt
with more than three times the amount of corn used at Cardiff.

As soon as the machine to be tested was got into place, it
was first run idle up to the regulation belt speed of 1,884 feet
per minute. A preliminary trial of fifty sheaves or thereabouts
was allowed to each machine to enable the exhibitor to complete
all adjustments for working to the best advantage. The
results were not recorded by the Judges, though the run
afforded them the opportunity of observing special features to
be noted during the official trials which ‘followed. As soon
as the exhibitor had completed his adjustments, and the machine
was working satisfactorily, he declared the number of attendants
necessary for the trials, which in every case, save one, was four,
the exception being Messrs. Foden’s machine, worked by three
attendants. It should be here mentioned that the Society
found men for putting the corn on to the stages of the machines,
and for clearing away the full sacks, the straw and the cavings.
The exhibitors men fed the machine, attended to the spouts,
and looked generally to the working paris. It had been sug-
gested, probably as a consequence of a suggestion in the Cardiff
report, that at future trials it would be well that the feeding
of all the machines should be done by the same man. No doubt
this would be interesting, and, if it were done, the results pro-
bably might be very different ; but it is a condition which it would
be well-nigh impossible to carry out fairly. Obviously, an
inexperienced feeder could not be employed, and an experienced

_one must have gained his knowledge in working a machine
which, if not of the same make as one of those he would have to
work in the trial, must have been of a type more closely
resembling one machine than another. Consequently, with
every desire to deal impartially, he could not but work more
efficiently on the machine more closely resembling the one he
had been used to. There is, no doubt, a very great difference
in the way machines are fed, and with this fact no one should
be better acquainted than the makers; it should rest with them
to put the best feeders they can procure to do their work.

The machine, having quite cleared itself of corn, was stopped,
and, after everything was seen to be in proper order, it was
again started. Sosoon as it had acquired an uniform speed the
signal was given for the feeding to commence, the time of such
start being noted. Feeding was continued for the specified time
and then stopped, after which the machine was allowed to run
idle for ten minutes to clear itself. During the trials, notes
were taken by the Judges of all that occurred; not only were the

486 The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster.

samples of grain examined, but the straw, as it came from the
machine, was carefully scrutinised to see to what extent it was
broken. The cavings also underwent frequent examination with
reference to grain passed over with them.

The corn in the sheaf was, as already stated, weighed on its
way to the machine, whilst any corn not used within the specified
time was weighed back, and the net weight thus obtained was
taken. The various samples of corn delivered by the machine
were weighed separately, as was also any grain recovered from
re-threshing. During the whole of the trial the dynamometer was
keeping its record of the power used, and afterwards the machine
was run idle and the power taken in that condition was ascer-
tained. From these various observations the accompanying
tables have been compiled by the Society’s Engineers.

Table I. (page 488) gives in a tabular form a brief description
of the various machines.

Table II. (page 489) gives a record of the observations taken
during the official trial runs, together with the deductions made
from them.

Foster’s Machine.—Messrs. Foster were the first to start, and
haying got through their preliminary trial, they at once pro-
ceeded to their hour’s run of wheat. The total wheat in sheaf
served on to the machine was 6,826 lb., and this was threshed
without any interruption during the run; the products in grain
were 2,061 lb. of firsts, 100 lb. of seconds, and 17 lb. of thirds.
On re-threshing the straw and cavings, 24°5 lb. of grain were
recovered. The horse-power expended was 9:01.

Following on with their barley trial of an hour, 5,472 Ib.
of corn in the sheaf were served out, and the products in grain
were 2,544°5 lb. of firsts, 138°5 lb. of seconds, 18°25 1b. of thirds,
and on re-threshing 36°75 lb. were recovered. During this run
a slight interruption occurred owing to the fly-wheel of the
engine getting loose; but as this was in no wise connected
with the working of the machine, the full 8} minutes stoppage
was allowed. The horse-power measured was 8:4. :

The trial with oats followed, in which 3,708 lb. of sheaf corn
were served out, and the products were 1,501 Ib. of firsts, 34°25 Ib.
of seconds, 11°75 lb. of thirds, and 9 Ib. recovered by re-thresh-
ing. The horse-power was 9'5. ‘The power taken by the machine
running idle was 4°53 h.p.

The first trial in wheat having been made from the upper
portion of the rick, a second run of an hour with this machine
was made in wheat on June 19, with the following result : corn”
in sheaf served out, 5,125 lb.; products, 1,982°75 lb. of firsts,
88°25 |b. of seconds, 9°5 lb, of thirds, In this trial there was no

The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster. 487

re-threshing, but assuming the amount recovered to be in the same
proportion as in the first trial, there is a gain in the yield of
grain as compared with the weight of sheaf corn. !

The best corn in the wheat trials was too much broken, but
the straw and cavings were clean threshed. The machine made
a good sample of the barley, but did not separate the seconds
from the best corn in the oats as well as it might have done.

Tasker’s Machine.—Following on Messrs. Foster’s trials, the
wheat trial of Messrs. Tasker was taken on the evening of the
same day. The machine having been adjusted, 6,668 lb. of sheaf
corn were served out, the products being 2,518°5 lb. of firsts,
160-25 lb. of seconds, 43 Ib. of thirds, and recovered from re-
threshing, 12°25 lb. The horse-power taken was 7:27.

On the next morning the trial of this machine was resumed
with barley, when 6,008 lb. of sheaf corn were served out, the
products being 2,629°5 lb. of firsts, 327-5 lb. of seconds, 59 Ib. of
thirds, and recovered from re-threshing, 26:25 lb. The horse-
power was 7°68.

In the half-hour’s run with oats which followed, 3,052 lb. of
sheaf corn were served out, the products being 1,166°5]b. of firsts,
36:25 Ib. of seconds, 124 lb. of thirds, and recovered from re-
threshing, 3i1b. Horse-power 6°95. The power taken to run
idle was 4°0 h.p.

This machine separated the firsts, seconds, and thirds very
regularly. The straw and cavings were clean threshed, but in
the barley too much corn was left in the cavings. The oats
were very well threshed.

Ooultas’s Machine.—The next machine to be tried was that of
Mr. Coultas. The sheaf corn served out during the hour’s run was
6,972 lb., the grain products being 2,619-25 lb. of firsts, 31:5 Ib.
of seconds, 16°75 lb. of thirds, and 8°5 lb. of fourths; recovered
from re-threshing, 234 lb. The power taken was 8°15 h.p.

During the barley trial of one hour, 3,488 lb. of sheaf corn were
served out, and the grain products were 1,587 lb. of firsts, 107 lb.
of seconds, 51 |b. of thirds, 18-5 lb. of fourths, and recovered from
re-threshing 33'5lb. The power taken was 7°66 h.p.

For the half-hour run with oats, 1,692 lb. of sheaf corn were
served out, and the yield in grain was 801 |b. of firsts, 27 lb. of
seconds, 12 1b. of thirds, 91b. of fourths, and recovered by re-
threshing, 7°25 1b. The power taken was 8-42 h.p.

Tn all these runs the feeding and consequent running of the
machine were most irregular. Far too much of the best corn
was left amongst the seconds and thirds. The thirds nearly
equalled the seconds ; in fact, all the corn was badly separated in
the wheat trials, The barley was not as clean threshed as it

The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster.

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490 The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster.

should have been, but in the oats good work was made. The
quantity threshed was small compared with the other machines.

Gibbons and Robinson’s Machine.—On the morning of June
18, the trial of this machine was commenced, some little time
being expended in its adjustment. The following are the results_
of the three runs made on that day. During the hour’s run
with wheat 7,732 lb. of sheaf corn were served out, the products
being 2,849°5 lb. of firsts, 75 lb. of seconds, 54:5 lb. of thirds, and
recovered by re-threshing, 134 1b. The power taken was
11:05 h.p.

In the run with barley 6,476 lb. of sheaf corn were served out,
the grain products being 3,085°5 lb. of firsts, 186-5 lb. of seconds,
74°75 lb. of thirds, and recovered from re-threshing, 32°75 lb.

Of oats the sheaf corn served out was 2,996 lb., and the pro-
ducts in grain were 1,135-51b. of firsts, 25°25 1b. of seconds,
16°5 lb. of thirds, and recovered from re-threshing, 5 lb. .

A second trial with wheat was made with the following
result. The weight of sheaf corn served out was 5,852 1b.; the
products in grain were 2,190-25 lb. of firsts, 29°75 lb. of seconds,
21-25 1b. of thirds. The time occupied by this run was 353
minutes, and the power taken was 10-04 h.p.

In this trial the proportion of weight of grain to weight of
sheaf corn is almost identical with the first run in wheat. The
feeding was very indifferent, and an allowance of 84 minutes had
to be made consequent on the machine becoming choked.

The wheat-straw and cayings were clean threshed, the chaff
being remarkably free from dust and corn. Good work was made
in the barley trials, and the chaff from the oats was the best
the Judges had seen. The machine would have done more work
had the feeder been well served.

Foden’s Machine——On the afternoon of the 14th inst.
the trials of this machine were made. Commencing with the
wheat run of an hour, the amount of sheaf corn weighed out was
8,144 1b., the resulting grain being 3,102°5 Ib. of firsts, 101 lb.
of seconds, 21$1b. of thirds, and recovered from re-threshing
19 lb., the power taken being 10°44 h.p.

The quantity of barley in sheaf served out was 5,812 lb., the
resulting grain products being 2,7201b. of firsts, 105°5 1b. of
seconds, 24 1b. of thirds, and 234 1b. recovered from re-threshing.
The power taken was 10-07 h.p.

During the half-hour’s run with oats, the corn in sheaf
served out was 4,626]b., the resulting grain products being
1,712-25 1b. of firsts, 30°25 Ib. of seconds, 11 1b. of thirds, and
from re-threshing, 731b. The power taken was 11°35 hp.

A second trial with wheat was made, the duration of which

The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster. 491

was 27°75 minutes. During this time, 6,387 lb. of sheaf corn
was fed into the machine, the result in grain produce being
2,097 lb. of firsts, 82°5 lb. of seconds, 18°25 lb. of thirds. The
power taken was 9°34 h.p. This was a most remarkable
run, as no less than 230l1b. of corn per minute were fed
into the machine, without the slightest sign at any time of
choking, the machine running perfectly steadily.

In the previous trial the driving belt partially fouled the
base of the dynamometer ; this was rectified in the second trial,
which to some extent accounts for the reduced power, but it is
mainly accounted for by the absolute uniformity of feed.

The wheat was well threshed, but the chaff was not nearly so
clear of dust and weeds as Messrs. Gibbons & Robinson’s, A
very good sample of the barley was produced, and good work
was done in the trial with oats.

The enormous amount of grain threshed by this machine,
especially in the final run with wheat, was due, in a great
measure, to the extraordinary skill of both the feeder and the
server. These men were perfectly trained, and not a second
was lost, the feeding being as even as possible.

Note was taken in each instance of the setting of the drums
of the various machines for the different kinds of corn to be
passed through. The result showed that there was no uni-
formity of practice as to the setting : while one machine worked
different kinds of corn with the same setting, other machines in
some cases varied: the adjustment in opposite directions. It

_ would appear that the setting is regulated as much by the

manner of feeding as by the nature of the corn. To ascertain
the power taken to drive various parts of the machings, tests
were made with three of them running, in the first instance,
empty, then with the drum and fans only, and, lastly, with the
drum alone (see columns 16,17, and 18 of Table II.). The
drum takes about one half of the whole power of the machine ;
in the case of Gibbons & Robinson’s machine, it acquired even
more. ‘This is probably accounted for by the fact that, during
the official run, the bearings had got hot, and, although time
was given for adjusting and lubricating these before running
the machine idle, it would seem that the result was not as
satisfactory as might have been expected. The additional power
required for the other motions of this machine is low.

In Foden’s machine, the steadying effect of the large fan
over the drum was very noticeable.

The points awarded according to the regulations for the
various trials placed Messrs. Foden’s machine (No. 4152) first, and

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The Triala of Threshing Machines at Danoaster, 493

Messrs. Gibbons & Robinson’s (No, 4142) and Messrs. Tasker’s
(No. 4144) equal second, and it was decided to class the imple~
ments in accordance with these results.

The following is a detailed description of the three prize
machines.

Foden’s Machine.—The special feature of this machine (see
opposite page) consists in the employment of an exhaust fan for
the first and second dressing of the grain, as also for the eleva-
tion of the chaff and its delivery into bags.

The fan (D) is fixed on the left side forward. The grain and
other material, passing through the caving riddle (A), are led by a
return board (J) to a chaff riddle (C), which receives a shaking
movement, causing the grain to pass along the board to its edge,
and to fall over -it. Air is drawn through the riddle (C),
the lighter materials being carried into the centre of the fan,
and, passing through it, are delivered by the channel (J)
into sacks or through a canvas pipe 138 in. in diameter to a
convenient distance. The outer casing of the fan is perforated
to allow of the escape of dust from the chaff. The grain
passes through the riddle on to the return board (@), and
from this on to the lower riddle (H), which stops the larger
impurities and allows the grain to pass through on to a seed
riddle. Here the seeds are separated, the grain passing through
a spout to the elevator, which raises it to the upper part of the
machine, where it is delivered by means of a worm into the
awner. ‘The awner and smutter are in one apparatus, and con-
sist of a cylinder 13 in. in diameter by 9 in. long, roughened
inside by hemispheres of about 4 in. diameter, 1 in. pitch. With
this revolves a shaft whith carries three sets of four arms of
peculiar shape, which work through the grain, breaking off the
awns and disengaging the smut. These arms are in halves, and
can easily be replaced by others of different shape if necessary.
The grain passes from the awner by a door so adjusted as to
. offer a suitable amount of resistance, this being regulated by a

weighted lever. The grain falls over inclined louvre boards,
which have a vibrating motion imparted to them from a lever
and rods (Z", I) in connection with the shoe. Through these
louvre boards a current of air is drawn in by a special fan on the
spindle of the smutter; it takes an upward direction, carrying
with it the lighter corn and delivering it into a chamber, the
lip of which is adjustable, so as to vary, according to circum-
stances, the distance through which the light corn has to be
lifted. The strength of the blast from this fan can also be
regulated by a shutter which can be opened or closed from the

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The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster. 4.95

outside of the machine. The good grain passes along the louvre
boards into a passage which leads it into a rotary screen, which
separates it into its various qualities, when it is delivered through
shoots into the sacks. By adjusting suitable shutters the corn
can be sent down to the sacks without passing through the
smutter.

The machine was well framed, the bearings of the drum
spindle being arranged in a casting which fits in between the
verticals of the machine framing; the same casting contains the
adjustments of the concave, making a very compact and strong
arrangement; the main bearing pedestals are inclined at 45°.

In working, the machine was merely secured by quoins under
the hind wheels, yet it was remarkably steady, and on effecting
the various movements by hand it was evident that the balance
throughout was very good.

Needle lubricators, neatly protected by suitable sockets pro-
vided on the pedestals, are in use on every bearing of importance.

The safety arrangement over drum aperture seems adequate.
It consists of a rectangular hood, the top board of which
can be advanced over the aperture as may be desired, and the
feeding board is hinged so as to fold over the opening if
pushed against. The whole arrangement has its sides hinged to
the machine so that they can be put down flat for travelling.

Tasker’s Machine.—The drum of this machine (see opposite
page) is 214 in. diameter by 4 ft.6in.long. The blast is worked
by one fan (fF) alone, there being three directions in which the
air is delivered, as shown on accompanying diagram (M, M', M?),
which also clearly indicates the course taken by the grain during
the process of threshing and separating.

The protection to the drum opening is good in design;
a curved hood folds over the opening, by pressure either on the
feeding board or applied direct to the hood. The opening, how-
ever, appears to be too large, so that with its present setting
the protection will not be of much use.

The awner and smutter are in one, and consist of a conical
cylinder ribbed internally, and having working inside it four
arms terminating in bars of about 2 in. by } in,, set a little
spirally. The amount of work done can be regulated by altering
the delivery opening. The screen is of the ordinary kind,
except that the wires are of a V-section, the point of the V being
turned inwards. In working, the hind wheels of the machine
are secured by scotches, and also by a strap from the frame of
the machine to the rim of the wheels. The machine is lighter
than the others.

Gibbons and Robinson’s Machine.—This machine (see p. 496)

496 The Trials of Threshing Machines at Doncaster.

has some special features; the whole of the reciprocating parts are
driven by a single five-throw crank (D), which passes under the five
shakers and is connected to them by brackets (G) two feet long,

Sectional Elevation of Messrs. Gibbons & Robinson’s
Threshing Machine (Art. 4142).
Ry

which take a firm hold of each shaker. To the same brackets
are connected stiff ash connecting rods (2), which operate the -
shoes, which are supported in the usual way by vertical elastic
ash ties, but have also bolted to them rigidly the rods from the

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 497

crank pedestals, so that the intermediate cranks work the
upper shoe, and the three remaining, viz. the two outer and
the inner, work the lower shoe, the two sets of cranks being
placed opposite each other.

By this arrangement the shakers are practically supported in
the vertical sense by the shoes, and therefore need not bear
heavily (if at all) on the cranks; and the same connection pre-
vents the centrifugal force due to the rotation of the crank from
throwing the shakers upwards. In addition, and in order to
provide a stop for the end-on momentum of the shoes, each is
connected by stiff rods (N, ) to two pairs of vertical ash springs
(L, L) which have their lower ends firmly bolted to the rear axle
(M). These springs have a resisting power of about 210 lb.
When at the extreme of their play, the bending of them absorbs
the momentum of the shoes, and the power so stored is given out
again in the return stroke. The principle is the same as that
involved in the air-compressor of Willan’s Single-acting High-
speed Engine, or of the Worthington Compound Duplex Pump.

The arrangement in rear of the machine for the awner, second
riddle, and screen is very simple and complete. The whole
machine is well designed and well made, is strong, and runs very
steadily.

In concluding this Report, I feel it necessary to express the
obligations the Society is under to Mr. Milnthorp and his staff
for their very ready and willing assistance, which materially
lightened the work of the Stewards and Engineers, not a single
hitch having occurred throughout the trials.

W, ANDERSON,

mire ERIALS OF CREAM SEPARATORS
AT: DONCASTER.

THE trials under notice are undoubtedly the most important
of all those with mechanical Cream Separators which, up to the
present time, have been conducted in the United Kingdom. At
various shows of the Royal Agricultural Society, the Bath and
West of England Society, and the British Dairy Farmers’
Association, separators have been brought into competition, and
a prize or medal has from time to time been awarded to one or the
other; but, with hardly an exception, the competition has been of
a very limited nature, and in most cases the competing machines

4.98 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

have all been the exhibits of one firm, or at most of two.
Besides this, in no instance previously have the machines
been submitted to exhaustive trials; the power required to
do the work has rarely been determined or taken into ac-
count, and awards have been made more as the result of
general inspection than anything else. Now for the first time
an attempt has been made to combine the various points at issue.
For this purpose there were associated as judges, an engineer,
a practical dairy-farmer, and a chemical expert. Four entire
days were set apart, previous to the commencement of the Show,
for the trials.

It may also be said that though, since the introduction in
1879 of cream separators into England, great improvements
have been effected in individual machines, yet the prestige of
winning a prize at the ‘“ Royal” was sufficient to attract the
largest competition that has been brought together, and to
exhibit the latest novelties, so that the trial was one comprising
all the machines which are at the present time competing for
popular favour.

The present would appear, accordingly, a good opportunity
for reviewing the history of cream separators in England, and
for noting briefly the most important modifications that have
been introduced, and the principal machines that have been
brought forward.

PowER MACHINES.

It was at the great International Show of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society at Kilburn, in 1879, that a machine capable of
separating the cream from milk by means of centrifugal force
was exhibited for the first time in England. This was the
“Laval” centrifugal cream separator, the invention of the
Swedish chemist, Dr. de Laval. On that occasion it was
awarded a silver medal, and succeeded in separating 30 gallons
of milk in 52 minutes. Analyses of the skim-milk showed it
to have only ‘22 per cent. of butter-fat left in it, and 93 per
cent. of the butter-fat of the whole-milk to have been abstracted.
In a second trial ‘46 per cent. of butter-fat was found to be left
in the skim-milk, and in a third and later trial 31 per cent.
Seeing that the ordinary modes of skimming milk generally
leave about ? per cent. of butter-fat, the advance shown was
very great.

The “ Laval” separator is figured and described in vol. xv. -
of the Second Series of this Journal (1879), p. 705, and the
analytical results obtained with it by the late Dr, Voelcker are
given in vol. xvi. (1880), pp. 160-2.

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 499

At the Derby Show of the Society in 1881 three different
centrifugal cream separators were exhibited, viz. the “ Laval; ”
the “ Lefeldt,” a German machine constructed on the same
principle as the “ Laval,” but very cumbrous; and a Danish
machine, the “ Nielsen-Petersen,” which was destined to be a-close
competitor with the “ Laval.” The Danish machine differed
from the others in having an open instead of a closed cylinder,
and also in the method of skimming; further, it could deal with
a larger quantity of milk, and separated 65 gallons per hour,
Full descriptions and illustrations of both the Danish machine
and the “‘ Laval” are given in vol. xvii. of the Second Series of
this Journal (1881), pp. 639, 642-3.

The first competition among separators was held at the
Reading Show of the Society, in 1882, when a gold medal was
offered. Originally there were ten entries, but, owing to an
injunction that had been obtained for infringement of patent,
only four machines, the exhibits of two different makers and
representing two distinct principles, actually competed. These
were, the ‘“ Laval” (Swedish), and a machine by Heinr. Petersen,
known as the “ Hamburg Centrifugal Separator.” This latter
is figured and described in the Journal, vol. xviii. (1882),
p. 621. The Gold Medal was awarded to the ‘“‘ Laval” separator,
which, showing ;2; of a horse-power, separated 53 gallons of
milk in the hour, and left on an average ‘24 per cent. of butter-
fat in the skim-milk. The Hamburg machine required ;, of a
horse-power, and separated 80 gallons in the hour, the skim
milk containing in one case ‘26 per cent. and in another -41 per

cent. of butter-fat.

At the succeeding Shows of the Society, viz. York 1883,
Shrewsbury 1884, Preston 1885, and Norwich 1886, the
** Laval” (now exhibited by the Dairy Supply Company, and
capable of separating 60 gallons per hour), and the Danish
machine of Nielsen-Petersen, manufactured by Burmeister and
Wain, and exhibited by the Aylesbury Dairy Company, held
the field alone. ;

At the Annual Show of the British Dairy Farmers’ Associa-
tion in October 1884, however, these two machines had come into
competition, consequent on the offering of a Gold Medal by the
Association, and at the conclusion the medal was awarded to
the “ Laval” separator. The trial, however, was allowed not to
be thoroughly satisfactory nor complete; the time given was too
brief, and the power required for working was not tested. The
“Laval” separator left ‘67 per cent. of fat in the skim-milk,
the Danish machine ‘18 per cent. in one case and °32 per cent.
in another, Pare aes

At the Newcastle Show of the Royal Agricultural Society in

500 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

1887, an improved “‘ Laval” machine was shown, known as the
“Laval Al,” and capable of separating 90 gallons per hour;
also a “ Laval” worked by a steam turbine, and called the
“turbine cream separator.” ‘This latter is figured and described
in the Journal, vol. xxiv. (1888), p. 208.

At the Nottingham Show in 1888 a new machine, the first
of British construction, the ‘‘ Victoria,” was introduced. It was
exhibited by Freeth & Pocock, and manufactured by Watson,
Laidlaw & Co., Glasgow. The chief features of the “ Victoria”
were, that it was a self-skimming machine, emptied itself com-
pletely, and was easily cleaned. The wheels imparting the
motion were arranged on the sun-and-planet type. It met with
favourable notice from the Judges of Implements, and is figured
in the Journal, vol. xxv. (1889), p. 99. At this same Show
further improvements were exhibited, especially in the form of
“heaters” for warming the whole-milk before going into the
separator, and the skim-milk as well after separation. The
** Victoria” machine was also exhibited at the Newport show
of the Bath and West of England Society the same year; on,
trial, it left only ‘11 per cent. of butter-fat in the skim-milk.
The Danish (Nielsen-Petersen) and ‘‘ Laval Al” machines were
also exhibited here.

At the Windsor Show in 1889 the “ Laval Al” was again
exhibited, and also a new power machine, the ‘ Alexandra,”
manufactured by Koefoed & Hanberg of Copenhagen, and shown
by R. A. Lister & Co., Dursley. The “ Alexandra” is figured
and described in the Journal, vol. xxv. (1889), p. 530.

In a competition fora gold and a silver medal offered by the
Bath and West of England Society at Exeter in 1889, five
power machines entered, comprising the ‘Laval Al,” the
“Turbine Cream Separator,” the ‘‘ Victoria” (two sizes), and
Lister’s ‘‘ Alexandra.” The weights of butter produced from
equal quantities of cream were almost alike, and the skim-milk
in each case contained but little butter-fat. ‘The principal
results obtained were :— ’

“ Turbine

“Laval Al” er imal »|% basing “ace _— ” | © Alexandra”
Time occupied in
separating 300 | 20 mins. | 18 mins, | 39 mins. | 20 mins: 18 mins.
lb. milk .
Butter obtained on ;
Gaeta g 24 Ib. 8 oz. 24 Ib. 10 07.\24 Ib. 8 oz. |24 Ib, 83 0z./ 23 Ib. 113 o7.-
Butter-fat in skim- 15 per ‘10 per 16 per ‘08 per ‘17 per

milk ... ./{ cent. cent. cent. cent. cent,

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 501

The Judges, while allowing that there was very little, if
anything, to choose between the machines, awarded the gold
medal to the “Laval Al,” as showing the most important
points in practical working, and gave the silver medal to
Lister’s “‘ Alexandra,” for ingenuity and simplicity of construc-
tion.

Lastly, at the Plymouth Show of the Royal Agricultural
Society in 1890 the “ Alexandra ” separator was shown, with
an improvement in the shape of a “ heater ” for the milk before
passmg into the separator.

Hanp MACHINES,

These first made their appearance at the Newcastle Show
of 1887, when a prize was offered for a one-man-power
separator. Tor this, three machines entered, viz. a “ Laval”
vertical hand separator, a “ Laval” horizontal machine (both
the exhibits of the Dairy Supply Company), and a “ Danish ”
(Burmeister & Wain’s) hand separator (exhibited by the Ayles-
bury Dairy Company). The last-named was injured and did
not compete, so the prize was left to the two “ Lavals,” of which
the vertical one was adjudged the best, it separating 234 gallons
of milk in the hour, and appearing to be within the power of
one man, while the horizontal machine, probably through some
mal-adjustment, seemed to be beyond one man’s capability.
These machines were similar in principle to the power machines
already described, and merely smaller in size and different in
pattern. The vertical hand “ Laval” is described and figured
in the Journal, vol. xxiv. (1888), p. 199. The horizontal
machine was subsequently improved and is now known as the
“* Windsor.”

In the same year, at the Dorchester Show of the Bath and
West of England Society, the same three machines appeared.
Once more something went amiss with the Danish separator,
and, though in the trial there was little to choose between
the two “ Lavals,” the Judges gave the gold medal to the vertical
machine as being simpler and more easily cleaned than the
horizontal. Both machines are figured and described in the
Journal of the Bath and West of England Society, vol. xix.
(1887-8), pp. 6-8. The chief results were :—

| Vertical “ Laval” Vertical “ Laval” | Horizontal “ Laval”

|
[eee iar apr + agate
Gallons of milk separated per hour. . 25 gallons 35 gallons
Butter-fat inskim-milkk. ..... ‘14 OR Agana cent. ‘17 per cent,

502 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

At the Nottingham Show in 1888 there was no compe-
tition for hand separators, but the Judges of Implements re-
ported a decided advance to have been made in the machines
sent for exhibition, they now being well within the power of
a lad.

Two machines, viz. the Danish (Burmeister & Wain’s)
hand separator, and a yet smaller size of the vertical “ Laval ”
hand machine than had been shown before, and called the
‘“‘ Baby,” were on view. They are both figured and described
in this Journal, vol. xxv. (1889), pp. 98-9. The Danish
machine separated 15 gallons of milk per hour, and the “ Baby ”
12 gallons.

Two fresh machines were exhibited at the Jubilee Show at
Windsor in 1889, these being the “Star” hand separator
(exhibited by the Aylesbury Dairy Co.) and the “ Victoria”
hand separator of Freeth and Pocock. These are figured and
described in the Journal, vol. xxy. (1889), pp. 526-9. In the
former the novelty was, that the driving gear was fixed to
the top part of the frame of the machine. A sufiicient trial
could not be given to it at Windsor, and it was recommended
for re-exhibition at Plymouth, though it did not, however,
appear there. In a trial made at Windsor the “ Star” machine
left :15 per cent. of butter-fat in the skim-milk, and the
“ Victoria” +17 per cent.

Lastly, at the Plymouth Meeting, in 1890, the Danish hand
separator, now capable of separating 35 gallons per hour, was
shown, and was provided with a cream regulator. At the Bath
and West of England Society’s Show at Rochester,the same year
the ‘“ Alexandra” hand separator of Lister & Co. was first
shown.

This account brings us down to the present year, when the
following prizes were announced for competition at the Don-
caster Show of 1891 :—

Crass II; Cream Separator (power machine), First prize, 302. Second
prize, 20/7.

Crass III, Cream Separator (hand machine), First prize, 207, Second
prize, 102,

,

The entries received for the respective classes were :—

Bi Crass II,—Cream Separators, (Power Machines),

Goatees . 2

957 Freeth & Pocock, Wandsworth Road, London, 8.W. The
“ Victoria,” price 407, Skim Millc Elevator attached, 5/. extra.

1032 R, A. Lister & Co., Dursley, Glos, The “Alexandra,” No, 2,
price 49/,

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 503

-No in

Catal 4

1234, Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Reading Royal,”
price 45/. L

1235 Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Leviathan,” price
621

4293 H. ©. Petersen & Co., Copenhagen, Burmeister & Wain’s, Size B,
price 431, 5s,

Crass I1].—Cream Separators. (Hand Machines).

958 Freeth & Pocock, Wandsworth Road, S.W. The “ Victoria,” price

131. 10s.

1333 BR. A. Lister & Co., Dursley, Glos. The ‘ Alexandra,” No. 7, price
217. 12s. 6d.

1236 Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Baby,” price 12/. 10s.

1237 Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Windsor,” price 247.

1238 Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Alpha Baby,” price
167. 10s,

1239 Dairy Supply Co., Museum Street, W.C. The “ Alpha Windsor,”
price 287. }

4294 H.C. Petersen & Co., Copenhagen, Burmeister & Wain’s, Size X,
No. 1, price 237. 5s.

The names of the Judges were :—

R. Nevitte GRENVILLE, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somerset.
Tuomas Riepy, Sutton Weaver, viaé Warrington.
J. Aveustus VorELcKer, 12 Hanover Square, W.

All the entries duly made their appearance and were sub-
mitted to trial. It will be observed that in each class four
different makers and four distinct types of machine were repre-
- sented. These comprised really all which had been successfully
introduced previously, and also four new implements, one being
the “ Leviathan,” a power machine shown by the Dairy Supply
Co.; two hand machines of the same company, viz. the “‘ Alpha
Baby ” and the “‘ Alpha Windsor ;” and lastly the ‘‘ Alexandra”
hand separator of Lister & Co.—which was new to these Shows,
though it had been exhibited at the Bath and West of England
Society’s Show at Rochester in 1890. The “ Victoria,” “‘ Alex-
andra,” and ‘“ Danish” (Burmeister & Wain’s), among the
power, and the “ Victoria,” ‘‘ Alexandra,’ ‘“ Baby,” ‘“‘ Windsor,”
and ‘“ Danish ” (Burmeister & Wain’s) among the hand machines,
were much as they have been described and figured in the fore-
going references, and the “ Reading Royal” (power) is the
improved “ Laval,” now capable of separating 150 gallons per
hour. The real novelty consisted in the addition to the
“Laval” power machine and to the two “Layal” hand
machines, viz. the ‘“‘ Baby” (vertical) and ‘“ Windsor” (hori-
zontal), of an arrangement of discs, fitted into the drum of the

504 The Trials of Cream Séparators at Doncaster.

separator, the machines being now called respectively, the
“ Leviathan,” the “ Alpha Baby,” and the ‘“ Alpha Windsor.”

A series of separate thin sheet-steel discs placed one above
another are interposed in the drum, being loosely arranged
around the spindle on which they are, so to say, threaded, and
are kept about ;!; of an inch apart from each other by means
of projections stamped on them. In the “ Alpha Baby ” machine
there are twenty-six discs, each measuring 24 inches across the
top opening, and 4 inches across the bottom; the ‘“ Alpha
Windsor” has twenty-seven similar discs, but in the “ Levia-
than” there are fifty-six, and of larger size, these measuring
25 inches across the top opening and 9 inches across the bottom.
A sketch of a single disc is here given. By
the interposition of the discs the milk is
divided up into thin layers, and, each disc
acting itself as a miniature separator, the
separation is much more rapidly effected,

for, as demonstrated at the trial, the result

A inte dis Snesanl in iS practically to double the outturn. This

the “ Leviathan.” was the case in all three of the machines

to which the arrangement was attached.

Against this must be set the extra time and trouble required in

cleaning and re-adjusting the discs after each time of working,
and, of course, also the extra cost.

The trials commenced on Wednesday, June 17, and occupied
this and the three following days. The points to which the
attention of the Judges was specially directed were the
following :—

. Price.

. Power taken per gallon,

. Efficiency of separation.

. Means of regulating thickness of cream,

. Facility for dismantling and cleaning.

. Mechanical construction.

. Freedom from froth, both of skim-milk and cream,

STS Or C9 tS

7

In Table I. (page 506) are given the respect ‘ve prices, power
employed, number of revolutions, &c.; while in Table IT. (page
507) the particulars of the separation and its efficiency are stated.

The machines were all driven for testing by means of an
electric motor, actuated by a dynamo driven by a balanced
engine as ordinarily made by the Society’s Engineers, the power
being ascertained by the quantity of current used. This was _
read off by Mr. Prentice, one of the engineering assistants, by
means of delicate instruments. So delicate was this test that,
upon one of the exhibitors applying a pocket revolution indi-

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 505

éator to the countershaft of his machine, the extra power taken
by this small instrument was clearly shown. ‘There has always
been some difficulty in getting a good record of small powers
by existing dynamometers, and this plan seems to be a good
solution of the difficulties hitherto experienced. It was tried
by the Society for the first time on this occasion, at the sugges-
tion of Mr. Neville Grenville, and although some exhibitors
made an objection to it, through a technicality in the applica-
tion not quite agreeing with the printed conditions of the trial,
yet in the end it proved most satisfactory, and far superior to
the old hand dynamometer. The latter was also used for the
satisfaction of any objectors to the new system.

It remains to compare the results and to mention other
points which influenced the Judges in determining the destination
of the awards in either class.

Cuass IJ. Power Macares.

A measured run of from twenty to thirty minutes was given
to each machine on June 18, the separated products being
weighed and the skim-milk analysed. In other trials given
subsequently the power and other factors were determined. For
convenience of comparison the results of separation are stated
for the hour and in percentages, the temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit. The loss includes what was left in the drum
and bowl of the machine, and thus in giving the amount per

hour this has been multiplied, for there would in reality not be

more than one and the same quantity at the end of the hour than
after a lesser period.

No. 957, The “ Victoria,” price 401.—This machine separated
in the hour about 90 gallons, the smallest quantity of the five
competing machines. The power required was 1:91 h.p., which
was fair, but the efficiency of this machine was not so high as
that of any of the others. The number of revolutions was 7,500
per minute, and the temperature of separation from 92° to 96°
Fahr. The separation, however, was, along with that of the
“Reading Royal” machine, the most perfect, 97:2 per cent. of
the butter-fat of the whole-milk being removed, and only 0:11
per cent. of the fat being left in the skim-milk. The loss also
was very small, the bowl, as explained before, emptying itself
completely. In power of regulating the thickness of cream, all
the machines, with the exception of the Danish one, No. 4294,
were about on a par, and effected this fairly. The Danish
machine was decidedly superior in this respect. The “ Victoria ”

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508 The Trials of Cream Séparators at Doncaster.

took twenty-one minutes to dismantle and clean, and two
minutes to put together again; the bowl was rather difficult to
clean well. A good deal of vibration was noticed in the
running. A point in favour was the facility for elevating the

Mitk Can

Skim MiLkK

Fiaure.!.

JE i [ Zee
suit UTUAN UAT Bo)
JAE YS SNE I~
Ren BE RP

Fic. 1.—Section of the “ Victoria” Power Separator, 3

skim-milk after passing from the separator, this being a matter
of importance in large dairies. On the other hand this was the
only machine to produce any excessive frothiness of cream and
skim-milk.

No. 1032, The “ Alewandra,” No. 2, price 49/—This
machine separated about 1444 gallons of milk per hour, though
stated to be able to deal with 200 gallons hourly. The power
required was 1:162 h.p., and in this respect it came out best of all,
and only inferior to the “ Leviathan” in the matter of efficiency.
The revolutions were 7,000 per minute, and temperature of

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 509
separation 86° to 96° Fahr. The separ

ation was good, it stand-
ing next to the “ Reading Royal” and “ Victoria”: 96°7 per

LARGE WHOLE MILK
RECEIVER

&
HEATER

AAT * TT OT
Pe ll
MILK —
FEEDTIN |>rLoame |
& A
REGULATOR

S>

SQN
AOOHy»

WS

Gs

gs
Ss

A — INDIA-RUBBER RING

B _ WORM FOR DRIVING
COUNTING APPARATUS

COUNTING
APPARATUS
WITH

GONG

C — RENEWABLE STEEL
CENTRE

D-— STEEL BALLS

E- FOOTSTEP BEARING
AND OIL~HOLDER

WOOD BASE| * WoOD BASE
Dawson. Wimens CLieT.

Fic. 2.—Section of “ Alexandra” Power Separator,

cent. of the butter-fat in the whole-milk was removed, and
0°143 per cent, of fat left in the skim-milk, The loss was not

510 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

large. Dismantling and cleaning (which by the way was very
thoroughly done) took twenty-six minutes, and two-and-a-quarter
minutes to set up again. ‘This is a similar machine to that
described in the Report on the Implements at Windsor (vol. xxv.
Second Series, p. 530), but with some improvements in minor
details. It did its work well, is simple in construction, easy to
clean, and has one most noticeable feature which no other
separator had, in that it has not to be bolted down or fixed in
any way. Consequently, even when running at full speed, if
the belt (a thin cotton one) wants tightening, it is only neces-
sary to pull the machine and the belt is at once put to the right
tension. When finished with, it can be rolled away like a milk
churn, and no special foundations are wanted. These are matters
of importance in many situations, and show also how perfectly
well balanced the parts must be, a most essential point in high-
speed machinery. A separate contrivance, in the form of a
very simple centrifugal pump attached to the machine, enables
the skim-milk to be elevated after separation. Further reference
is made to this machine in the report upon Miscellaneous Imple-
ments (see p. 537).

To this separator the First Prize in this class was awarded.

No. 1234, The “ Reading Royal,” price 451.—This machine
separated 117 gallons of milk per hour, the stated capability being
150 gallons. The power required was 2°574 h.p., which gave
the worst result in this respect, and also only showed a higher
efficiency than the “ Victoria.” ‘he number of revolutions was
7,700 per minute, and temperature of separation 88° to 93° Fahr.

Separation was very efficiently performed, the best result being

obtained—viz. 97-4 per cent. of the butter-fat in the whole-milk
removed, and only 0:129 per cent. of fat left in the skim-milk.
The loss was large, but was due partly to a leak in the machine
during its first trial run. It took fourteen minutes to dismantle
and clean, and one-and-a-half minute to put together, this
being a good result, though the cleaning, &c., were not so
thoroughly nor so easily done as with the “ Alexandra.”

To this machine the Second Prize was awarded in’ this
class.

No. 1235, The ‘‘ Leviathan,” price 621.—This is the “ Laval”
power machine fitted with the steel dises referred to on p. 504.
It separated the enormous quantity of 351 gallons in the hour,
this result being close upon the 360 gallons it was stated to deal
with. In consequence of this, it necessarily requires constant

feeding and attention. ‘The power used was 1-296 h.p.; a result

next best to the “ Alexandra,” and the efficiency of this machine
was the highest of any. The revolutions were 6,000 per

:
|
|
|

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster, 511

minute, the temperature of separation 84° to 98° Fahr. The
separation, however, was not efficiently performed in comparison
with the others, for only 914 per cent. of the butter-fat in the
whole-milk was removed, and as much as 0°331 per cent. of fat
left in the skim-milk. This was the worst result obtained, and

ASS
CELL

SSW
rey

SMU REIS SENS

LET, TTT TTT

Fic. 3,—Section of “ Leviathan” Power Separator.

undue haste to get through the large amount the machine was
stated to deal with may have had to do with the imperfect
separation. The loss for such a machine was little. Dis-
mantling and cleaning occupied thirty-five minutes, and putting
together four minutes more. It could not be said to be easy to

512 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

clean, but the rapidity with which this separator got through its
work was wonderful. It is an excellent machine, and well fitted
for dairy factories of the largest kind, while the application of
the discs is a clever invention and in many cases well worth the
extra cleaning and care required in their use.

No. 4293, “* Burmeister and Wain’s” (Danish), size B, 431. 5s.
---125 gallons of milk were separated in the hour, 150 gallons
being the quantity stated. The power employed was 1:717 h.p.,
this being fair, but in efficiency the machine came out inferior
to the “ Leviathan” and the “ Alexandra.” The number of
revolutions was 4,000 per minute, and the temperature of
separation 88° Fahr. The separation was only better than in
the case of the ‘ Leviathan,” and inferior to the other three
machines, 92°9 per cent. of the butter-fat of the whole-milk
being removed, and 0°311 per cent. of fat being left in the
skim-milk, The loss in working was large, the drum holding
so much. This was the only machine that could really be
easily regulated to produce thick or thin cream at will whilst
in motion. This was done by withdrawing the cream tube so as
to take only the outer wall of cream, or, by advancing it, to take
a thicker shaving (to which the action may be likened) off the
cream, and thus more milk with it, thereby making the result-
ing cream of a thinner consistency. It occupied fifteen minutes
to dismantle and clean the machine, and six minutes to put it
together again. This separator was a fine strong machine, and
worked very well: to it was fitted ‘“Jénsson’s Intermediate
Motion,” which prevents the allowed maximum speed from being
exceeded. ‘This machine was able to elevate the skim-milk as
it came from the separator.

From the foregoing remarks on the several machines it
may be gathered that, in point of power required for working,
the ‘‘ Alexandra” machine was the best, and the “ Leviathan”
next best, while, in the matter of efficiency, these two machines
also stood before the others. Whereas, however, the separa-
tion effected by the “ Alexandra” and “ Reading Royal”
machines was excellent, the ‘‘ Leviathan ” and Danish machines
failed very considerably. or simplicity of construction, facility
of dismantling and cleaning, as also in its ready portability,
the “ Alexandra” had no equal, and, in the end, this machine
stood, in the Judges’ opinion, well ahead of its rivals.

Between the other machines there was but little to choose,

and better separation on the part of either the “ Leviathan” or-

the Danish machine might have put one of them in the position
taken by the second-prize winner, the “ Reading Royal,” which,

——-=

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 513

though inferior to them in respect of power required and efficiency,
effected much better separation, and, besides separating a quantity
sufficient for all but exceptional circumstances, was easier of
dismantling and cleaning than the “Leviathan.” The latter
was essentially a machine for a large factory, but otherwise it
was felt by the Judges that its extra cost, and the need of extra
attention, care and time in cleaning, &c., would not be warranted.
The Danish machine was an excellent one in construction, and
separated a large quantity of milk, but the separation was
inefficient, though the regulation of thickness of cream was best
done by this separator. The “ Victoria” gave separation of
high quality, but dealt with the smallest amount of milk, and
was the only one to produce excessive frothiness of cream.
Accordingly the Judges’ award was :—

First Prize of 30/. to R. A. Lister & Co., Dursley, for No. 1032, The
“ Alexandra” No. 2; price 492.

Sxconp Prizz of 20/7. to the Darry Supriy Co. for No, 1234, The “ Reading
Royal,” price 454,

Cuass III. Hanp MaAcuines.

These were tried very exhaustively, measured runs of from
twenty minutes to half-an-hour being given to the machines on
each of the three days, June 17,19, 20. The amount of milk
separated was the average of three runs, and at one of them
samples of the skim-milk were taken for analysis. The quantities
of milk dealt with being smaller than with the power-machines,
one and the same lot of milk could be used for all, and was,
after thorough mixing in a tank, given out to each machine
alike. The results are stated in the same terms as in the case
of the power machines—yviz. the separated products in pounds
per hour and in percentages, the temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit. The loss includes what was left in the drum or
bowl, and appears more when multiplied for the hour’s run
than would be the case in reality, as there would be only the
same amount at the end of the hour as after a much shorter
time.

No. 958, The “ Victoria,” price 131. 10s.—184 gallons of milk
were separated in the hour, with a horse-power of °15, which
was very fair, though, as with the power machine, when the
efficiency was considered, the result came out badly, and
inferior to all except the ‘‘ Baby.” Two-and-a-half minutes
were taken in getting up speed, the skim-milk came three-
quarters of a minute later, and the cream in one-and-a-half
minutes. The number of revolutions of the handle was 48,

514 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

the temperature of separation 96° to 100° Fahr. As regards
separation, this machine showed the best result, and that an
extraordinarily good one, for no less than 98°3 per cent. of: the
butter-fat in the whole-milk were removed, and the very low
percentage of ‘068 left in the skim-milk. This is the best
result obtained up to now in trials. The loss was low, the
machine nearly emptying itself. The thickness of cream could
be regulated well, though not so well as with the Danish
machine. On the other hand the cream and skim-milk were
decidedly frothy, a point not noticeable in the case of any of the
other machines. Dismantling and cleaning occupied twelve
minutes, and setting up again half a minute, the machine being
fairly easy to clean. The speed was got up by an ingenious train
of wheels of the sun-and-planet type.

No. 1033, The “ Alewandra,’ No. 7, price 211. 12s. 6d.—This
machine separated 33} gallons of milk in the hour, though stated
to be able to do 55 gallons. ‘The power required was *17 horse-
power, making the ‘“‘ Alexandra,” with the “‘ Windsor” machine,
the worst in this respect, and thus very different to the power
machine of corresponding type. Skim-milk came in three
minutes, and cream in four minutes after starting. The number
of revolutions of the handle was 38 to 42, and the temperature
of separation 86° to 92° Fahr. The separation was good, and
though only fourth in order of merit, less than ;5 per cent.
(095) butter-fat was left in the skim-milk, and 97°8 per cent.
of the total butter-fat in the whole-milk was removed. This
was the simplest machine to dismantle, clean, and set up again,
the first two operations occupying 13 minutes, and the last three-
quarters of a minute. The cleaning was very thoroughly done,
this not being the case with all the machines. Although stated
to be able to produce thin or thick cream as desired, there was
some defect in the machine, as it was not able to regulate this
at all.

No. 1236, The “ Baby,”
were separated by this machine, 15 gallons being its stated
capacity. The power required was ‘05 horse-power, but in the
matter of efficiency the result was the worst of the seven com-
peting machines. The skim-milk came in one minute, and the
cream in two minutes after starting; the number of revolutions
of the handle was 48 per minute, the temperature of separation
88° Fahr. The Sepang was most effectual, being next best
to that of the ‘‘ Victoria” ; 98-2 per cent. of the butter-fat was
removed from the whole-milk, and the very low percentage of-

075 of fat was left inthe skim-milk. The power of regulating
the thickness of cream was inferior, and only a slight alteration

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 515

could be effected. In dismantling and cleaning six minutes
were occupied, and half a minute in putting together again.
The cleaning was easily performed, though not quite so well
as with the “ Alexandra.” The construction of the “ Baby” is
practically that of the improved “ Laval” or “ Reading Royal,”
only in smaller compass.

No. 1237, The “ Windsor,” price 241.—This machine is a hand
“ Laval” of horizontal pattern, instead of vertical as in the case
of the “‘ Baby.” It separated a considerably larger quantity of
milk than the latter, viz. 324 gallons per hour. The price is, how-
ever, nearly double, and the machine in question required more
power to work. 23 horse-power was required. It took ? min.
after starting, for the skim-milk to come, and 1} min. for the
cream. The number of revolutions of the handle was 46 per
minute, the temperature of separation 88° Fahr. The separation,
perhaps owing in part to a leak that occurred in the machine,
was not as good as that of any of the other six machines, and
the loss from the same cause was much the highest. Never-
theless, though inferior to others, the separation could not be
called at all bad, for 96-2 per cent of the butter-fat was removed
from the whole-milk, and only ‘157 per cent of fat left in the
skim-milk. The thickness of cream could be regulated very
much better in this and the other horizontal machine than in
the corresponding vertical ‘ Lavals.” 12 mins. were taken in
dismantling and cleaning, and 14 min. in putting together
again. This was not so readily effected as in the vertical
separators. A feature in the construction was the employment
of a handle which could swing loosely to and fro, although the

' machine was still separating. This ingenious contrivance is of

value as eliminating a source of danger from a handle revolving
at a rapid rate when the hand power is removed, as it would be
at the end of separating, although the drum would continue to
revolve for a considerable time longer.

No. 1238, The “ Alpha Baby,” price 161. 10s.—This and the
next machine to be described, the “ Alpha Windsor,” are the
foregoing ones, Nos. 1236 and 1237, with the addition of the
arrangement of discs described already. The effect has been to
increase the quantity of milk separated, from 13 gallons per
hour in the “ Baby,” to 30 gallons per hour in the “ Alpha
Baby,” and this at an increased cost of 41. 10s. only. The
power required was ‘09 horse-power, the second best result, as
was also the case with regard to efficiency. After starting,
cream camein 1} min. The number of revolutions of the handle
was 50 per minute, the temperature of separation 88°-90° F.
Separation was well performed, though four machines showed

516 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

even better results, viz. the ‘‘ Victoria,” ‘“‘ Baby,’ ‘“ Alpha
Windsor,” and Danish machines. 97:7 per cent. of the total
butter-fat was removed, and only ‘087 per cent. of fat left in the
skim-milk. The loss was slight. As with the “ Baby,” regu-
lation of thickness of cream could not be well effected. Naturally,
owing to the interposition of the discs, cleaning could not be so
easily done either. It
occupied 11 mins. to
dismantle and clean,
and one minute to set
up again, but the clean-
ing was not done well.
Still, this and the cost
would appear to be
compensated for by the
larger amount sepa-
rated. The construc-
tion of this machine
was decidedly good,
and equal to any other,
To it an equal Second
Prize with the Danish
hand machine was
awarded.

No. 1239, “ Alpha
Windsor,” price 28/.—
This was the “ Wind-
sor” machine, No.
1237, fitted with the
arrangement of discs
for which a_ Silver
Medal was awarded by
the Judges of Miscel-
laneous Implements,
and which is figured
. on page 524. Instead
csr ets of 324 gallons being

Fic. 4.—Section of “Alpha Baby” Hand Separator. separated per hour, 55
gallons could here be

done. The expenditure of power was 0°12 horse-power, but
in respect of efficiency the best result was obtained with this
machine. Added to this, very effectual separation, and good
construction, with large quantity of milk separated, combined -
to place the “Alpha Windsor” in the first position. The
number of revolutions of the handle was 42 to 45, the tem-

\\

V v
Ny, s
ey t= |

a

6,

PRY Ze

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 517

perature of separation 89°-96° F. Only -081 per cent. of
butter-fat remained in the skim-milk, 97:9 per cent. (the
third best result) being removed from the whole-milk. The
loss during separation was small. Regulation of thickness of
cream could be well performed. Cleaning, owing to the discs,
took, of course, longer than in the ‘‘ Windsor.” The time
occupied in dismantling and cleaning was 214 mins., and in
setting up again} min. The construction of the machine was
very good, and the loose swinging handle referred to before was
attached. To this machine the First Prize was awarded.

No. 4294, “ Burmeister and Wain’s” (Danish), size X, No. 1,
price 23]. 5s.—This was a strong well-made machine, with open
cylinder, and the same in
principle as the power
machine No. 4293, already
described. It separated 36
gallons of milk in the hour,
and required ‘13 _horse-
power, showing a good
result as to power and
efficiency, though not
equal to either of the two
“Alpha” machines. The
number of revolutions of
the handle was 54, the _
temperature of separation @
much the lowest of any, «
viz. 68° to 72° Fahr. The
separation was excellent,
as, although standing only
fourth in order, 97:8 per
cent. of butter-fat in the
whole-milk was removed,
and only -099 per cent. left
in the skim-milk. In
power of regulating the
thickness of cream the
Danish hand machine was,
as was the case with the
power one, decidedly the

Fic. 5.—Section of Burmeister and Wain’s
best, and could produce Hand Separator

thick and thin cream at

will, without stopping the motion. The loss of milk stands
rather high, owing mainly to the large amount left in the
drum. Dismantling and cleaning occupied six minutes, and

518 The Trials of Cream Sepurators at Doncaster.

putting together again one-and-a-quarter minute. Cleaning
could be very easily done.

To this machine an equal Second Prize with the “ Alpha
Baby ” was awarded.

A perusal of the foregoing notes will readily show that, by
virtue of the large quantity of milk it could deal with, the
small expenditure of power and moderate cost of the latter in
relation to quantity separated, as also by the efficient separation
it achieved, the power of regulating thickness of cream, and
general good construction, the ‘‘ Alpha Windsor” obtained the
highest award.

Between the merits of the ‘“ Alpha Baby”™ and the Danish
machine the Judges could not discriminate, for, while the former
gave rather a better result as regards power and efficiency, yet the
separation and regulation of cream, as well as facility for clean-
ing, were superior in the Danish machine. The ‘“ Alexandra”
failed entirely in regulating the flow of cream, and did not show
the good result as to power that the ‘“‘ Alexandra” power
machine did in the other class. It was, however, the easiest of
all to clean. The “ Baby” machine failed principally in the
matter of efficiency, and in regulating the thickness of cream ;
the “ Victoria,” while giving the best separation, showed also
high cost for the power; and lastly, the ‘‘ Windsor” required
rather much power, and gave less efficient separation, with more
loss of milk.

The trials showed that the new improvement in the addition
of the discs was very effective, and constituted a distinct
advance, so that the extra care and cost would be warranted.
In the “ Laval” machines the horizontal type had the advantage
over the vertical, of separating a larger quantity, and of
regulating the thickness of cream better, while, on the whole,
the power required was no more and the separation as effectual.

The Judges accordingly made their awards in this class,as
follows :—

Frrst Prize of 307. to Datry Surrty Co. for No. 1239, The “ Alpha Wind-
ae rar C. Perersnn & Co. for No. 4294 “Burmeister &
Se | Wain’s if size x: No. 18 aie 231. 5s. er
Seeded between seein tae Co. for No, 1238, The “ Alpha Baby,” price
L . 10s,

The Judges desire to express their obligations to the
Steward of Dairying, the Hon. Cecil T, Parker, and to the Hon.
Alex. Parker, Assistant-Steward, for the help they rendered”
during the four days of the trials, and the provision by them of
all that was requisite for the proper carrying out of the same,

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 519,

NOTE ON THE EFFICIENCY OF SEPARATION.

The extent to which each machine was able to effect the
removal of the cream from the skim-milk was made an important
feature in these trials. Accordingly, weighed quantities of milk
were given out, its quality being tested by analysis, the resulting
products severally weighed, and the skim-milk subsequently
analysed to see how much butter-fat was left in it. In Table
IL. (p. 507) are given the results obtained. One item, however,
that under the heading “ Loss, &c.,” requires some explanation.
In this is included, not only what was actually missing, 7.e.,
lost by spilling or evaporation, but also what was left in the
drum or bowl of the separator. The trials varied in duration
from twenty minutes to half an hour, or, in the case of the
power machines, somewhat longer. Hence, in calculating the
quantities per hour, the amount left in the drum has been
reckoned more than once, although it is clear that had the
operation gone on uninterruptedly for the full hour there would
have been at the end only one and the same quantity as at the
close of the shorter run. This makes the loss appear higher
than it would otherwise be.

In two cases, No. 1237 (hand) and No. 1234 (power), there
was at the first of the trial runs a leak in the machine, which
caused an abnormally high loss to appear. This was remedied
at subsequent trials.

Hand Machines.—For testing the efficiency of separation,
one lot of milk was taken and thoroughly mixed in a large tank,

_ quantities beg weighed out from it to the different machines,

according to their capacities. The whole-milk gave on
analysis :—

Water ‘ . e ' . ° . 87-72

Butter-fat . : : - A : - 341
Solids-not-fat , ° ° ’ ° . 8-87
100-00

The observations and records as to quantity separated, &c.,
were taken from three different trial runs on June 17, 19, and
20 respectively. The variations of temperature shown in the
table are due to different temperatures being used in different
trials. The results show very perfect separation indeed. With
six out of the seven machines the percentage of butter-fat left in
the skim-milk fell into the second place of decimals, and, as will
be seen, practically 98 per cent. of the butter-fat in the milk
was extracted by them. The most perfect separation was that
effected by the “ Victoria” machine, and the result is the best

520 The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.

recorded so far in an exhaustive trial. The worst result was
that from the ‘“ Windsor” machine, but it is only fair to add that
at the time of trial there was a leak in this machine, and this
may have had to do with the separation not being so perfect.
As between the six other machines there was practically little to
choose. It is noticeable that the new arrangement of discs
employed in the case of the “‘ Alpha Baby ” and “‘ Alpha Windsor ”
machines, while nearly doubling the outturn, did not in any way
reduce the efficiency of separation; also that, taking these two
machines as representatives of the horizontal and vertical
patterns, the separation was equally good in either case. The
facility for regulating the thickness of the cream was observed
in separate trials. In this respect the Danish machine, No.
4294 (Burmeister & Wain) was decidedly the best, then came
the “ Victoria” and the two “ Windsor” machines. The two
“‘ Baby” machines were not so good, and the “ Alexandra”
decidedly the worst. The only machine that produced cream of
excessive frothiness was the “ Victoria.”

It may be interesting to append, for the purpose of com-
parison, the results, as regards efficiency of separation, obtained
at some previous trials :—

Percentage of Butter-fat left
in Skim-~
R.A.S.E., Bath and Bath and
Windsor, | West, Dor- | West, New:
1889 chester, 1887 port, 1888

per cent. per cent, per cent,
“Victoria” hand machine . . ; ‘hi — “=
“Star” hand machine . r 15 — —
“ Laval” horizontal hand separator -- “ily --
“Laval” vertical hand separator . ol — 14 —
Shallow pan system (hand skimming) -- “86 “40
Cooley deep system (hand skimming) -- 50 —-

The results now obtained, it will be observed, are vey con-
siderably superior.

Power Machines.—The trials took place on June 18 and Fan
20. Much larger quantities of milk being required, it was
impossible to obtain sufficient of one quality to deal it out alike
to each machine. Consequently, separate analyses were made of
the whole-milk in each case, as well as of the skim-milk. The
time of running was from half-an-hour to three-quarters. The
loss, as in the case of the hand machines, includes what. was left
in the drum or bowl, though, owing to the longer time of run--
ning, the results when stated per hour are more nearly the real
ones than with the hand machines, There was a leak in No,

The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster. 521

1234, “ Reading Royal” machine, on the occasion of the first
trial.

The results show the separation to have been good in the
case of three out of the five machines, but not so good with the
remaining two. ‘The degree of separation, however, is by no
means equal to that obtained by the hand machines. The
probability is that more complete separation could have been
effected had not the competitors been anxious at the same time
to separate the maximum quantity of milk the machines were
stated to be able to do. The best machines in respect of
efficient separation were the ‘‘Reading Royal” and _ the
“ Victoria,” then came the ‘‘ Alexandra.” Both the “ Leviathan ”
and the Danish machine (Burmeister & Wain’s) were inferior.
In ability to regulate the thickness of cream, the Danish machine,
however, stood decidedly first, the contrivance for effecting this
being very simple and eminently satisfactory. The others were
much ona par. As in the hand machines, the “ Victoria ” was
the only one to produce excessive frothiness of cream. By way
of comparison with former trials the following may be noted :—

Percentage of Butter-fat left in Skim-milk

Power machines

R.AS E., Bath and West, | Bath and West,
Kilburn, 1879 Newport, 1888 Exeter, 1889
* Victoria ” — “EL 18
“* Laval” : 22 — —
“Laval Al” . ‘ -- -- 15
“Josters”- : : — | — ATS

The results now recorded show accordingly a small improve-
ment in the case of the “ Victoria,” “‘ Alexandra,” and “ Reading
Royal” machines, but the other two machines have not separated
nearly so efficiently.

J. AuGcustus VOELCKER.

MISCELLANEOUS IMPLEMENTS
EXHIBITED AT DONCASTER.

Out of ninety-five Miscellaneous Implements entered at Don-

caster for the Society’s Silver Medals, under the designation of

“New Implements for Agricultural and Estate purposes,” all

but three were shown. A very considerable number of these

implements exhibited improvements of practical value, and there
VOL. I. T. Si—7 MM

522 Miscellaneons Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

was evidence of a marked effort in most instances to simplify
construction as well as to lighten the draught or power required
to work the machines. On the recommendation of the Judges
(Messrs. J. W. Kimber and W. J. Malden) four medals were
awarded at the Show to machines, or to principles applicable
to machines, which were considered to possess novelty and use-
fulness to a special extent, whilst one machine, recommended
for further trial, was also awarded a Silver Medal after its merits
had been subsequently tested. There were several others in the
Showyard which might have been thought worthy of recognition
had there been a somewhat less important award than the medal

to be conferred. The medals were awarded as follows :—
poet a Exhibitor, Nature of Implement.
57. W. & T. AVERY ‘ . Improved dial indicator for cattle weigh-
ing machine,

609. JamMEs CouLTAs . . Manure distributor.

1239. Darry Suppiy Co. . . Appliance for increasing separation in
Laval cream separator.

1325. Jonn GRay. Mechanical milking machine.

113. J. & H. Kerwortn & Co., Harvester and rear-discharge binder,
with low platform.

SILVER MEDALS.

Messrs. W. & T. Avery, Digbeth, Birmingham.—In the Dial
Cattle Weighbridge (Art. 57) exhibited by this firm, it was the
dial which more particularly attracted notice. Within the dial,
and towards the outer rim, are three separate circular sections,
each carrying figures from 0 to 9. When the weight is arrived
at these sections revolve, and the figures representing the
number of stones (14 lb.) are brought opposite an open slot in
the face of the dial, where they remain fixed, and as the figures
are 3 inches in height, the weight is boldly indicated. On the
insertion of a ticket in the slot at the side of the dial case a
printed impression of the weight is made, so that the actual
weight is recorded in a manner beyond dispute. The weigh-
bridge itself is specially constructed so that the working of the
dial does not impair the accuracy of the machine. The steel-
yard works without loose weights.

The custom of selling animals by live weight in the open
market is gradually extending, but it has not made the progress
that its supporters have desired, probably because the weights
recorded and announced have not been considered reliable.
With a dial, which can be placed in any convenient position,
so as to allow those surrounding an auction ring to see the
weight while the animal is still on the platform, this objection

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Donsaster. 523

is avoided; and it may be expected that the practice of selling
store animals by live weight will receive an impetus should this
machine come into general use.

Mr. James Coultas, Grantham—The Manure Distributor (Art.
609) is of decidedly novel design. Artificial manures are for the
most part heavy, and many of them have great powers of absorp-
tion, and are thus frequently in a moist condition when taken to

-the field for distribution. When substances which possess the

characteristics just mentioned are placed in a hopper or feed-box,
and especially when they are subjected to the jolting which
occurs when a yehicle is drawn across rough fields, they become
so consolidated that they will not fall freely through small ports
or openings, ard are therefore difficult to distribute with the

Fig. 1.—“Schlor" Patent Manure Distributor.

degree of accuracy required in the case of highly concentrated
manures.

In most machines revolving spindles carrying studs, or some
other form of stirrer, are used to keep up a constant flow of
manure to the outlets. This they do with varying success, but
if the manure is very moist or tenacious, they work it up into a
paste, and make the distribution unequal and unsatisfactory.
The difficulty of distributing moist manures is overcome in the
“ Schlor ” patent distributor (fig. 1) as shown by Mr. Coultas. The
feed-trough or manure box, made from 7 ft. to 10 ft. in length, is
carried between two travelling wheels, and directly over the box
is a revolving rake in the form of a spindle, along which a large
number of prongs or spikes are placed helically. By means of
gearing driven from the travelling wheels the rake is made to
revolve, and at the same time the manure is gradually forced up
to the top of the box, the bottom of the box being made to work

Mu 2

524 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

slowly and almost imperceptibly upwards, and to carry the
contents of the box with it. As the manure is brought in
contact with the spikes of the rake it is tumbled over the edge,
and falls in a continuous stream to the ground. The rake and
the box are worked in unison, and by altering the gearing the
speed at which both are moved may be changed, so that any
quantity between 70 lb. and 10 ewt. of a substance such as
nitrate of soda may be applied per acre. The speed is determined
by the pace of the horse, and as the substance does not change
its density or consistency the distribution is necessarily uniform,
and is practically perfect. The weight of the material does not
affect the evenness of the distribution, and the machine will sow
grass seeds, grain, superphosphate of lime, or nitrate of soda
equally well. The parts are few, and there is little likelihood of
the machine getting out of order. The price of the machine,
to distribute 7 ft. wide, is 20I.

The Dairy Supply Company, Iimited, Museum Street, W.C.—
The special feature in this case (Art. 1239) is an arrangement
of thin conical discs (fig. 2) which, when placed inside the
bow] of the cream separator, greatly increases the working powers
of the machine. The discs are fitted to the various forms of the
Laval Separator, and are attached to the spindle of the drum.

Fic. 2.—Arrangement of Dises in Separator.

They are made of steel, and, except that the base is cut out to
allow the spindle to pass through them, they resemble the
common patty-pan in shape. A number of discs are threaded
on the spindle, but, by means of grooves in each disc, they are
prevented from coming closely together, a space of one-sixteenth
of an inch being left between each pair. The spindle is passed
through the bowl, and is secured by means of a screw. The

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 525

effect of the discs is to laminate the milk, and thus render it
more easily acted upon by the centrifugal force than when it is
in a dense unbroken column. ‘The power required to work the
discs is exceedingly small, and though the arrangement adds an
additional part to be cleaned, there is nothing intricate about it.
An attendant possessing ordinary intelligence can at once under-
stand the construction, and, with a reasonable amount of care,
need find little difficulty in washing and adjusting it. The
extra trouble is but a slight drawback in comparison with the
great advantage obtained by the use of the discs, for they double
the working capacity of the bowl into which they are inserted,
and may, therefore, be regarded as one of the greatest improve-
ments ever applied to cream separators. They may be fitted to
machines of any size. ‘The cost of each disc is one shilling.

Mr. John Gray, Stranraer, Wigtown, N.B.—Nicholson and
Gray’s new patent Milking and Self-Registering Machine (Art.
1325) was subjected to several trials in the Showyard, as it was
entered for competition in Class 4, for Mechanical Milking
Machines. The work done was of such a satisfactory nature that
the Judges in Class 4 called special attention to it, and although
it was not entered as a new machine, there were novelties in its
design of sufficient value to render it worthy of the special
Showyard recognition of the Silver Medal. As a further trial
of this machine, under conditions more satisfactory than were
possible in a hot and crowded Showyard, has been ordered by the
Council, it is only necessary here to notice the chief novelties in
its design.

The cups do not embrace the teats of the cow closely, but are
held to the udder by suction, the cow’s teats being suspended
within them. The non-injurious character of the action which
takes place is shown by the natural condition in which the teats
are left after milking. Machines previously exhibited caused
the blood to be drawn down to the teat in such a manner that
the teat was left ina congested state, showing that an unnatural
pressure had been applied. This was further proved by the fact
that the milking properties of the animals were so seriously im-
paired, that in course of time they ceased to have any value as
dairy cows.

Messrs. J. & H. Keyworth & Co., 35 Tarleton Street, Liver-
pool, exhibited the ‘“‘ Adriance” Harvester and Rear Dis-
charge Binder, manufactured by Messrs. Adriance Platt &
Co., of New York, U.S.A. The machine differs from most
binders in use in that it possesses but one canvas apron, the
two vertical and the buttor canvases being dispensed with, and
their places taken by revolving sprockets to gather the grain,

526 = Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

with a revolving disc to shape the butts of the sheaf. The
delivery of the sheaf is effected by means of a discharger-fork,
which carries the sheaf to the back of the machine and deposits
it on its butt out of the track of the horses. The manner in
which the work is effected may be gathered from the accom-
panying illustrations. The grain when cut is received by the
platform apron, and carried by it to a series of revolving
sprockets and a revolving buttor disc placed in the rear of the
inner divider. These carry the grain upwards through a throat-
way on to curved ways or feeder-scrolls, which serve to support it,
and also to keep the sprockets clean and to prevent any winding
of the grain. Above the sprockets, the feeder-scrolls and the

Fe eas ey

Fsa, 3.—The “ Adriance’? Harvester and Binder,

upper compressor form the grain receptacle, in which the grain
remains until sufficient for a bundle has accumulated. In fig. 3
the parts are shown in the position in which the binding
mechanism is at rest, and the feeder-sprockets are operating to
feed grain into the receptacle. When sufficient grain accumu-
lates in the receptacle to raise the trip or bundle-sizer, it puts
the binder mechanism in motion, and the needle which is in
position above the receptacle, descends, enclosing the grain
within the cord, and at the same time moves towards the ‘binder
deck, which is on the opposite side of the feeder-throat from
the grain-receptacle. The needle is not forced through a mass
of packed grain, but one of the sloping sprockets marked with a

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster, — 527

star is timed to act with the needle and leave a clear way for
the point (see fig. 4), and the whole needle moves away from
the incoming grain, as shown in figs. 5 and 6. Fig. 5 shows
the needle about half-way in its movement carrying the bundle
to the binding-deck, which is close to the driving-wheel, and
beginning the wide separation of the grain to be bound from

CARWAS AFAOH

Fig. 4.—Section of the “ Adriance ” Binder.

Fie. 5.—Section of the “ Adriance” Binder,

that which is being fed into the receptacle. Fig. 6 shows
the bundle, B, fully compressed on the binding-deck in
readiness for tying. The side compressor, C, which relieves
the needle from strain, is shown in thiscut. The tie is effected
when both the needle and discharger-fork are relieved from
work and are returning to position, and while another bundle:

528 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

is gathering in the receptacle. The return of the needle is
not over the track of the downward movement, but over a
different course, the point following the dotted line shown in

Fig. 6.—Section of the “ Adriance” Binder.

figure 6 passing above the grain in the receptacle. This needle
motion, in conjunction with a special rocking binder-arm, is an
important feature in the separation. LHyery motion of the

Fic, 7.,—Discharger-fork of the “ Adriance” Binder. The dotted line shows the centre of
motion in turning the bundle.

needle and swinging binder-arm is controlled by one crank, and
harmony of movement consequently results. The discharger-fork, -
which is pivoted at the rear corner of the binder-frame, lifts
the bound sheaf from the deck, and, turning it completely over

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster, 529

endwise (fig. 7), delivers it gently on the butts in the rear of the
machine. The whole work is therefore effected without vertical
aprons, and the sheaf is never raised more than about 15 inches.
Vertical aprons formed the most convenient method of bringing
the corn to the sheafing and tying apparatus that had suggested
itself to makers of binders hitherto, but they are cumbrous,
and necessitate a multiplicity of working-parts, thus adding to
the intricacy of the machine, which from the variety of duties
it has to perform is necessarily complex. ‘The work of the two
extra aprons has not been thoroughly successful, as they fre-
quently cause stoppages through shrinking when they become
wet ; and they are liable to knock out ripe grain as it is being
carried up between them.

The ‘“ Adriance Binder” was tried on Mr. Milnthorp’s
farm on a heavy crop of green rye and did highly satisfactory
work, The draught was apparently light; and the cutting,
owing to the crank wheel being placed on a near level with the
knife-bar, was easy. The sheafing and tying were well done,
the separation being very clean. ‘The delivery of the sheaf
was gentle and little likely to thresh out the corn had it been
ripe, although a few ears were slightly turned up when the
sheaf was inverted, but apparently not to a serious extent. The
rather great width between the two travelling wheels might
prove an objection on uneven land, but taking the appliance as
a whole it showed itself to be capable of doing good work, and
the machines of the future will doubtless be designed without
the objectionable vertical aprons.

As the result of their examination of the ‘‘ Adriance”” Binder
in the Showyard, the Judges recommended its being subjected
to further trial later in the season, when ripe corn crops would
be available.

The Council having decided that it should be put to further
and more practical test, arrangements were accordingly made
for the trials to take place on Mr. Milnthorp’s High Ellers
Farm, near Doncaster, on August 31. The machine employed
was the one exhibited at the Show in June, where Mr. Miln-
thorp purchased it, and previously to the trial it had cut 100
acres of corn on his farm to his perfect satisfaction. It was
taken direct from ordinary work into the trial field.

The first trial was on a crop of wheat which was fairly thick
on the ground, stood well on three sides, and would have been
easy cutting except that the soil was so very loose that the
driving wheel could not obtain sufficient grip to drive the
machinery in places where the crop was particularly heavy.
The soil was as loose as we have ever seen it on the lightest

530 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

blowing fen-lands. As it was, the work was done very satis-
factorily, the sheafing and delivery being good, and the draught
extremely light.

The machine was then taken into a very heavy crop of barley,
than which it would be almost impossible to find a more difficult
piece of work. In many places, large patches had been laid for
weeks, and were rotting, while a young crop had grown through
from the roots. The ground was quite as loose as that on which
the wheat was growing, and there had been a sharp shower a
few hours previously, which made the straw tough, and hindered
separation, rendering it liable, moreover, to be pulled up by the
roots if there was the slightest block in the knives. A larger
divider was used for the heavy and fallen crops of barley and rye
than for wheat. Notwithstanding the difficulties which presented
themselves, the work was well done. The sheaf was neatly
gathered, and presented a uniform appearance all round, very
few ears being doubled back. As far as could be seen, no corn
was threshed out as it was being gathered or delivered.

The machine was next tried in a very heavy crop of rye,
6 feet in height, but leaning somewhat in one direction. The
crop was very ripe, and had become so interwoven on account of
many of the heads having doubled over that perfect separation
appeared almost impossible ; however, the work was well done
on three sides, but on the fourth side the separation was not
perfect—two, three, and occasionally more sheaves being linked
together. The sheaves were practically distinct, and each was
securely tied, but a few of the ears intertwined so that. they
were not delivered separately, although the cleverly constructed
delivery fork-proved itself to be a very: capable instrument.-

The work, viewed as a whole, was efficiently done, and clearly
proved that the upright aprons are not a necessity, and that
many intricate parts might be dispensed with without impairing
the efficiency of the machine. The lightness of draught was
very apparent, two horses working the machine with no signs of
distress. The driving power appeared somewhat deficient,
though this was partly due to the extreme looseness of the soil,
but doubtless it would be advisable to secure more power for
the heaviest English crops. The weight of the machine is
about 11 cwt.

The machine gains so much on the points of simplicity and
lightness of draught, that the Judges had no hesitation in re-
commending the award of a Silver Medal.

This completes the record of the awards of Silver Medals in

connection with the Doncaster Meeting.

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster, 531

Mr. Augustus C. Arter, Hilly-field Works, Barham, Canter-
bury, entered a Potato Planter (Art. 99) which is likely to prove
useful to those who plant their potatoes on the flat, as it is simple,
effective, and cheap. ‘The machine consists (fig. 8) of a hopper,
one side of which is concave, and the other a revolving cone
mounted on an axle ; theseare carried on an iron frame, to which
are fitted a beam and a fore-steerage. The cone, which is driven
by gearing attached to the travelling wheels, has a series of
projections, each of which is furnished with a needle bar. The
needle bar is fitted with three points; near the middle of the
needle bar are a stud and spiral spring, and at the back of the
cone is a fixed cam which actuates the needles. When one ot

Fic. 8.—Arter’s Potato Planter.

the projections enters the bulk of potatoes, the needle is held
back by the cam until a potato is driven up to the projection,
when it is impaled on the needle, and conveyed to the top of the
cone to the spout. Here it is released by the cam, which with-
draws the needle until it is flush with the cone, and the potato
falls into the furrow already made by a coulter to which are
attached small adjustable mould-boards, and which is fixed in
front of the spout. The machine is light in draught; has few
working parts which are likely to get out of order; is capable
of planting from three to four acres a day, when worked by a
boy to lead the horse, a man to steer the machine, and another
to keep the hopper filled ; and is guaranteed to deposit accurately
95 per cent. of the potatoes, though in the short trials we wit-

532 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

nessed, it did better work. The steerage is fairly good; the
potatoes can be planted at various distances apart, and the tubers
seemed to haye suffered little by being pricked. A simple
arrangement might with advantage be attached to cover in the
potatoes after they are deposited in the furrow, as it would
save the necessity of covering them in by other means, and extra
trampling by horses would be avoided. ‘This is an effective

Fic. 9.—Compressed Air Sheep-Shearer.

and labour-saving machine, and in those districts where labour
is scarce is likely to be found very valuable. Price 15/.

The Australian Shearer Co., Limited, 81 York Street, Sydney,
N.S.W., showed their Compressed Air Sheep Shearer (Art.
3906), which is undoubtedly a clever and useful invention.
The appliance is worked by compressed air, and embraces a
reciprocating double-pistoned engine haying a suitable air-valye

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 533

which controls its action. The piston is connected with a lever
which moves the cutter, the latter being made with several
teeth, as is usual in clipping machines. A small engine or
other motive power is required to work the air-compressor, and
to drive the air into the air-receiver. The air is then conveyed
by means of tubing (fig. 9) to the shearers, several of which may
be set in motion simultaneously. Shafting and belting are
thus rendered unnecessary, thereby making the apparatus more
portable and more easy to set up than when other kinds of
shearers are employed. The shearer (figs. 10 and 11) is attached
to flexible rubber tubing which permits the operator to work in
any position, and a small tap near to the shearer allows him to

>,

Fic. 11.—Shearer with cover removed, showing working parts.

put the machine in or out of gear at will. Although great speed
is attained, the shearer does not get hot, as the exhaust air keeps
all parts cool, thus materially increasing its durability.

It is essentially a machine for working on a large scale,
and the number of shearers which can be worked at one time is
practically unlimited, whilst one skilled man is sufficient to over-
look the operations of a large gang of workers, thereby render-
ing it unnecessary that all the men should be skilled in the use
of machinery, and making the machine more valuable, as it is
sufficient that the men should be able to hold the sheep ina
proper manner. The wool is cut off in an even manner all over
the sheep, and the skin is neither cut nor bruised. Moreover, as
the sheep is under the hands of the operator for a shorter time

534 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

than when the common hand-shears are used, it struggles less,
and is not so likely to sustain internal injury. There are few
flocks in England where it would be found necessary to resort
to such a wholesale system, as the shepherd can generally manage
to shear his sheep without causing much hindrance to his work at
shearing time, which is usually light as compared with that at
other seasons, for the sheep are generally ranging wide instead
of being close-folded. In those districts, however, where the
shearing is done by gangs of men who go round from flock to
flock, the machine might be found useful. It would be difficult
to conceive a machine which could be better adapted for getting
through a large amount of high-class work, and where flocks are
numbered by thousands, as in the Colonies and in Argentina, it

Fic. 12.:—Hornsby’s Petroleum Engine.

has already been found of great value, and will doubtless be
more used. The price per shearer is 10/. for not less than
twenty, including air receiver, and all apparatus except mdtive
power and air compressor.

Messrs. R. Hornsby and Sons, Linvited, Grantham, exhibited
a Petroleum Engine (Art. 3789), the chief feature of which is
its extreme simplicity, a point of no little importance in the
case of small engines placed in the hands of inexperienced
operatives.

The engine (fig. 12) is of the horizontal type with a trunk
piston, the cylinder being 7} inches in diameter by 10 inches —
stroke, the mean speed at which it is worked being about 220
revolutions per minute. In the Catalogue it is described as of

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 535

8 horse-power nominal, but it was explained that in future this
size of engine should be registered at 2} nominal horse-power.

The movements of the engine are as follows: On the
crank shaft, just outside the main bearing, is a pinion which
gears into a second one running at one half the number of
revolutions. On the second pinion is a cam-plate which at
every alternate revolution of the engine actuates a bell-crank
lever, one end of which is held up to the cam face by a spiral
spring; the other end of the lever works a small feed-pump,
the suction-valve of which is controlled by the governor, which
in rising “trips” it to a greater or less extent. A further
adjustment of the stroke of the pump is effected by a regulating
screw-stop acting on the bell-crank lever in opposition to the
spiral spring which brings the lever in contact with the cam
face.

This feed-pump takes its supply of oil from an oil chamber
in the bed-plate underneath the crank shaft, and delivers it into
a combustion box placed immediately behind the cylinder,
and it is this combustion box which is the special feature of the
engine. It consists merely of a cast-iron box communicating
directly with the back end of the cylinder. At starting, this
box is heated by means of an oil lamp and hand blast to the
requisite temperature for ignition of the oil, and when this is
done, the engine is turned round by hand for one or two revo-
lutions, and the heat generated by the recurring explosions
maintains the temperature for the continued ignition of the
charges of oil pumped into it. The air is admitted through
the ordinary inlet valve, and the exhaust valve is actuated by
a vibrating lever, passing along underneath the bed-plate, and
worked by a cam on the intermediate shaft carrying the
second pinion already referred to.

A trial of the engine was made, with a heavy mineral oil
of a specific gravity of 0°85, and with a reported flashing point
of 150° (the oil was tested previous to trial up to 135° without
flashing), with the following results :—

The mean brake horse-power = 2°9.

Total oil consumed in 2 hours = 10 Ib. 02 oz.

Oil per brake horse-power per hour = 1-54 lb., or 1:45 pints per
brake horse-power per hour.

The cost of the oil was stated to be dd. per gallon. Although
the consumption of oil per brake horse-power is in excess of

‘the result obtained in previous competitive trials at Plymouth,

it must be borne in mind that the engine now under considera-
tion was of much smaller power, and consequently so high an
efficiency would not be obtainable as in the prize engine on that

5386 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

occasion. Further, the engine is yet in a somewhat early
stage of development, and some details will no doubt be im-
proved upon. During the trial, however, the firing of the charge
was regular, and the combustion was complete. From its
extreme simplicity it should prove to be a very useful engine
for farm purposes.

Messrs. Harrisons & Co., St. Peter’s Works, Stamford, showed
their new Central-suspended Double-action Haymaker (Art.
2256). The novelty and advantages in the machine (fig. 13) are
that the forks are carried on the main axle without any inter-
mediate gearing, thus doing away with unnecessary parts, ensur-
ing the working of the tines at a uniform distance from the ground
when crossing ridge and furrow, and making it independent of the
position of the horse, thus obviating the necessity for an adjust-
ment to regulate the height of the tines, although means are pro-

(-ca

Fic. 13.—Central-suspended Double-action Haymaker,

vided for raising or lowering them if occasion demands it. The
gearing consists of an internal toothed wheel mounted on a sleeve.
The sleeve has a cross arm upon which are mounted two con-
necting pinions which are of the proper size to gear into the
bedding-fork pinion, and are arranged opposite to each other, the
thrust of one pinion taking up the thrust of the other pinion,
thus carrying the tedding-fork pinion and greatly reducing the
friction. ‘The reversing of the action of the machine is accom-
plished by first holding the internal wheel or revolving the
sleeve carrying connecting pinions, and then revolving the
internal wheel with the road wheel and holding the connecting
pinions fixed to the frame. The clutches for doing this are
simple, yet also form an effective ratchet to reduce the strain on
the tedding-forks when the machine is brought to a sudden
standstill. The construction of the machine is very simple, one

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 537

set pin releasing the whole of the parts, there being neither
keys nor feathers employed about it. ‘I'he small number of parts,
the directness of the action, and the general simplicity of the
machine, allow it to be constructed lightly without impairing
its strength, and consequently the draught is light. Its cost is
13]. 13s.

Messrs. R. A. Lister & Co., Dursley, Gloucestershire, exhi-
bited their ‘‘ Alexandra” Cream Separator (Art. 1032), which
was successful in gaining the first prize in the trials open to
power separators. The working of the machine is described in
the report of the trials (page 508), so that a brief description of
the separator will suffice here. A distinctive feature is that the
steel bowl is simply supported on the top of the spindle, the
upper end of which is rounded, and fits into a recess in the
bottom of the steel bowl. No matter in what position the
bowl is placed, directly the spindle attains anything like its
proper speed the bowl centres itself, and runs perfectly true,
thus avoiding all strain in the neck-bearing of the spindle,
and rendering it unnecessary that the frame should be placed
perfectly level, as the bowl finds its own centre. The bottom of
the driving-spindle runs in a foot-step in which are two ball-
bearings, so that the friction is small, and ‘the * Tubrication is
rendered easy and effective.

The neck-bushing is oiled in an ingenious mand simple
manner. The oil is conducted to the bottom of the bushing
with a small dish which is formed within it. It is next carried
upwards by a spiral groove cut in the bushing, and then over-
- flows, and is carried away in a dish formed on the top of
the bushing, and is led into an oil drip tin, so that the oil
is continually making a circuit of the bearing. The steel drum
is made of one solid piece of wrought steel, and the steel is
equal to a tensile strain of sixty tons to the square inch. The
machine is driven by a light endless cotton band one inch
wide, no belt-tightener being required, as the machine can be
easily shifted, and owing to its construction it can be placed
unfixed on any floor, without fear of its shifting its position
unless it is desired.

Messrs. Blackstone & Co., Limited, Rutland Engineering
Works, Stamford, have, in the construction of their Rutland
Mower (Art. 2901), adopted principles which enable the ma-
chine to cut out the grass from the bottoms of furrows. The
entire body of the machine containing the gearing is hung on
bearings, or brackets, or arms, fixed to the main axle, and
the hinge-beam, being as usual hinged to the hody, the
finger-beam is practically on a yBtversal joint, the move,
VOL, Il. T. =| NN

,

538 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

ments of which are controlled entirely by the leading wheel.
The finger-bar cannot be floated over a hollow, for it is quite
independent of the movements of the pole; neither can it drop
perpendicularly into it, as the leading wheel by which it is en-
tirely controlled will raise or depress the finger-points as occa-
sion may require, and so cause the fingers to follow the forma-
tion of the ground over which they are passing. The finger-
bar of an ordinary mower is held rigidly in one position by the
tipping lever, and, in coming to a hollow place, will be either
floated over it altogether or will drop perpendicularly into it.

The same makers have introduced an improvement (Arts.
2902-5) in the construction of turnip-cutter knives, which is
worthy of notice. The knives—Tipton’s patent—are made with
an acute angle, so that when the barrel revolves they strike the
roots with a point instead of with a broad edge, thus pinning
the roots, and preventing them from jumping about in the
hopper, thereby rendering the work more easy and more expe-
ditious.

Mr. Robert Maynard, Whittlesford Works, near Cambridge,
showed a useful novelty in his Chaff Presser and Bagger, which
is worked in connection with the chaff-cutter (Art. 4309).
After the chaff is sifted it is taken up an elevator (fig. 14) and
poured down two cylinders into the sacks. The elevator
is made sufficiently high to carry the chaff to the top of the
tubes, in each of which is a screw. The bags are slipped on
to the bottoms of the tubes, and the chaff as it falls into
the tubes is passed through the screws into the bags. As
there is resistance given by weights and breaks to a frame
which presses on the bottoms of the bags, the chaff is screwed
into the bags, which sink with the frame as the chaff presses
them down. When working, one bag is being filled whilst the
other is being taken off, and another empty bag hung in its place.
As soon as the one bag is filled, the chaff is turned into the other
by means of a flap which is worked by a lever handle. As the
chaff is compressed into half the space it would ordinarily
occupy, the advantage is easily seen; for it becomes more
portable, and the cost of transit is reduced, whether by rail for
great distances, or in carts from one portion of a large farm to
another. The merits of the hay and straw pressers are thoroughly
realised, and those who have large quantities of chaff to move
will doubtless avail themselves of a contrivance which stands in
the same relation to chaff as the former do to hay and straw. _

Mr. Walter A. Wood, 36 Worship Street, E.C., exhibited a
Single-apron Binder wherein many cumbersome and unnecessary
parts usually found in machines of older make have been dis-

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 539

pensed with, resulting in a lower machine, of lighter make, and
of more simple construction. Three aprons have been shown to
be unnecessary, and Mr. Wood has contrived to do the work with
one long apron. The machine is not such a striking novelty
as the “ Adriance ” (page 525), since vertical aprons are not dis-
pensed with, and the appearance of the machine is somewhat
similar at first sight to the machines in common use. The plat-
form apron is lengthened, so that it takes the place of the lower
vertical apron also, and the corn is carried up by this to the

Fic, 14.—Maynard’s Chaff Presser and Bagger.

sheafing platform, being kept in its place by means of an adjust-
able hinged rack, under which the corn runs in a continuous
stream ; the rack being a substitute for the upper vertical apron,
and less likely to thresh out the ripe grain. The buttor apron
is also done away with, the butting being ingeniously effected by
means of a device which pats the end of the sheaf, and thus
shapes it in the approved manner. ‘The apron is driven by
‘three rollers, each roller having its own driving-pinion, and is
“kept in as at the foot of the elevator by a long narrow guide,
“under which it passes, apparently with little friction. The back
NN 2

940 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

of the machine is open, and therefore permits crops of any
length to be cut.

The Trent Gas Engine Co., Limited, New Basford, Notting-
ham, showed a rapid and accurate Weighing Machine (Art.
3835) for weighing grain, cement, &c. It consists of a hopper,
a grain vessel for receiving the grain, and the weighing ap-
paratus, all carried on a small and convenient frame. While
filling, the grain vessel is securely locked in a vertical posi-
tion. Wheat, or other material to be weighed, enters by the ©
funnel-shaped mouth until the greater part of the charge
has run into the grain vessel, when a valve or flap closes,
and the remainder passes in thin streams, taking the place
of sprinkling by hand. ‘The discharged port is meanwhile
held closed by a flap hinged to the grain vessel, and resting
on it by its own weight. When the exact weight required
has entered, a second valve closes the inlet entirely, and
then, by its own weight, releases the grain vessel. The grain
vessel then rocks a few inches forwards and inwards, and, the
flap being held back by stops on the frame, uncovers the dis-
charge port, whereupon the wheat quickly runs out. The grain
vessel then at once returns to its original position, on its way
taking up the flap which closes the discharge opening. The
return of the grain vessel re-opens the inlet valves, after the
discharge opening has been closed, and records the weighing,
whilst a new weighing immediately commences.

The machine was worked in the Showyard by one of the
company’s gas-engines, and the greatest accuracy was obtained, a
small coin being sufficient to move the balance. The machines
are made to weigh from 2,100 lb. to 180,000 lb. of wheat per
hour, the prices being 20/. and 220/. respectively ; whilst there
are, in addition, seven intermediate sizes. They would, therefore,
be found very useful in granaries where considerable quantities of
corn are constantly received, or would be useful for weighing out
“feeds” of corn for horses in large stables. They would be
equally valuable for cement sellers, manure merchants, and =
dealers in dry, meal-like substances.

Mr. William Johnson, Castleton Pome Armley, ised, eX-
hibited his ‘ Stiff-Plastic ” Brick Making and Pr essing ] Machine
(Art. 3675), in which are complete arrangements for mixing,
pugging, moulding, and pressing. ‘The grinding-mill is fitted
with pulverisers, horizontal rollers, or perforated edge runner
mills, so that whichever is found most suitable may _be
worked. -The clay is served direct from the mill to the ma-
chine by means of a shoot, or by a shovel from a plat-
form, ‘The mixer and pug-mill are situated in one horizontal

EEE

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster. 541

line, the two operations being performed by means of an ar-
rangement of knives fixed on one shaft. The material is
delivered to the outer part of the open mixer, and is carried
forward by the knives to the pug-mill, from whence it is fed
into one of four moulds placed at right angles in a revolving
cylinder 18 in. in diameter. The cylinder remains stationary
while the mould is being charged. ‘The action cf filling the
mould automatically discharges the brick already formed, and is
a simple but effective contrivance. As the brick issues from
the cylinder it falls into a convenient position, and is fed by a
self-acting arrangement direct into the mould of the press. The
pressed brick is then automatically raised out of the press-mould,
and delivered in a suitable position for being loaded into a
barrow or other vehicle, and taken to the kiln. The output of
the machine is from 10,000 to 12,000 bricks per day of ten
hours, and the cost is 800/. The bricks are well finished.

Mr. Thos. Constuntine Fawcett, Whitehouse Engineering
Works, Hunslet, Leeds, exhibited his Brick Making and Pres-
sing Machine (Art. 3671), in which the pressure is applied to
the bricks by means of the toggle system of levers, which gives
two distinct differential pressures to each brick. The working
parts, which are all made of steel, are interchangeable and few
in number, and can all be seen while the machine is in work.
The machine is capable of turning out a good brick in a semi-
plastic or semi-dry state from fine clay, marl, shale, &c., when
passed through a mixing pan to incorporate the water with the
ground material. From 8,000 to 10,000 bricks can be made
per day with a reasonable amount of driving-power ; they are
easily delivered from an open-ended moulding cylinder, and are
automatically passed from it to the press, where they receive
the two pressures, and are then automatically delivered on to
the table ready to be taken away. The machine can be driven
from either side, and made to deliver the bricks on the side
that is most convenient. It is fitted to make fire-bricks and
glazed bricks. There is a special oiling apparatus, which con-
sists of a fan creating a current of air, which meets the oil
as it drops, and causes it to fall in a fine spray over the open
mould. ‘The work is done steadily and well, and there is every
— that the machine is very durably made. The price
is :

Messrs. E. Foden, Sons, & Co., Limited, Sandbach, showed
their Tandem Compound Traction Engine, with piston valves
(Art. 4153). This is an ordinary compound tandem engine,
the cylinders being placed close behind one another. The special
feature, however, consists in the arrangement of the slide valves,

542 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster,

which are of the balanced piston type, so that only one steam=
chest and one gland are required.

Steam is admitted through the starting valve into the space
between the pistons of the high-pressure valve, and from thence
into the high-pressure cylinder. After haying done its work
there, it exhausts on the outside of the high-pressure valve pistons,
and passes at a reduced pressure into the steam-chest containing
the low-pressure valves. The outer edges of these valves admit
the steam into the low-pressure cylinder, whilst the exhaust
takes place through the space between the valyes and passes
thence into the funnel. The high-pressure cylinder is steam-
jacketed, whilst the jacket of the low-pressure cylinder forms
the chimney base. Part of the waste heat from the tubes is
used in superheating the low-pressure cylinder and steam-chest.

The arrangement is very compact, a single crank with one
connecting rod being used, instead of a double-throw crank
with two connecting rods.

Messrs. Charles Burrell & Sons, Iimited, St. Nicholas Works,
Thetford, Norfolk, exhibited a new type of Compound Traction
Engine (Art. 4438), in which the cylinders, instead of being
placed as usual one alongside the other, are placed at an angle
one above the other. The pistons of each are connected to a
massive steel diagonal crosshead, guided, both horizontally and
vertically, by guide-bars. By connecting the pistons of the
engines in this way, the extra cost of the second connecting
rod and of a two-throw crank is avoided. Live steam from
the boiler can at pleasure be admitted into the low-pressure
cylinder should the engine get into a difficult place to start.
All the motions are very conveniently arranged, and the work~
manship throughout is of high class.

Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, Leeds, exhibited an Engine Road
Locomotive with patent block wheels (Art. 4139). The block
wheels (Messrs. McLaren & Boulton’s patent) furnished the
novelty, and may be briefly described as follows :—The wheels
are about 7 ft. in diameter, 16 in. on the face. The periphery
of the wheel is divided into 68 cells, each about 6} in. square
and 9 in. deep, into which hard wooden blocks are loosely fitted.
The grain of the wood points outwards, and each block is bound
with an iron strap, about ? of an inch fromtheend. The blocks
are bedded on an indiarubber, felt, or other pliable cushion, and
are loosely attached to the wheel by a bolt let into the wooden
block several inches, the head of which is covered by a wooden
plug; this bolt passes through the cushion and is secured on
the-inner rim of the wheel by a nut. As the wheel revolves, the
weight is brought to bear on part of three, four, or five blocks at

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster, 548

the same time, according to the inequalities of the road; the
eushions give way, the bolts are pushed up, and the blocks
adapt themselves to the surface of the road, so that instead of
the road material being cracked out or screwed out, as is often
the case with the ordinary form of driving-wheel, it is not dis-
turbed, and the cost of maintaining the road is not increased.

The inyention is one which affects machines chiefly used for
traction, and is therefore not of the greatest direct interest to
agriculturists ; but as the cost of maintenance of country roads
ultimately falls to a great extent on the land, itis not altogether
unworthy the consideration of those engaged in farming. Its
greatest value will be appreciated by municipal and other public
bodies responsible for the state of highways, and already many
of them have testified to its efficiency. Beyond the merit which
it possesses in saving the wear and tear on roads, engines fitted
with it are rendered more durable, for the cushions act as springs
which relieve the engines of severe shaking, and thus tend to
lengthen their lives, while helping to counterbalance the disad-
vantages of the extra 14 tons added to the weight of the engine,
and the additional cost of 100/., which is the price of a set such
as has been described.

Messrs. T. C. Darby and J. E. Stevenson, Pleshey Lodge,
Chelmsford, showed their new Steam Digger and Cultivator
(Art. 4292), which is a decided improvement on the machine
which has hitherto been known as the Darby digger. The old
digger had a broadside action, weighed 20 tons, and cost 1,2001.,
whereas the present machine has a rear action, weighs only
8 tons, and costs but 600/. By placing the tines in the rear,
the rollers are relieved of a great portion of the weight of the
machine, for the force required to make the tines enter the
ground naturally lifts the machine to some extent, and the
objectionable compression of the soil, which is the chief draw-
back to the popularity of digging-machines, is much lessened.
As the machine under notice has only two-fifths the weight of the
old one, it possesses an advantage which must prove beneficial
to the land worked. The price is so much reduced that it
comes within reach of many who would not care to risk the large
amount of capital required for the old machine. The piston-rods
are coupled up directly on to the digger-crank-shaft, thus
avoiding intermediate gearing-shafts and the fly-wheel. The
thrust of the tines is made at a very good angle. Another new
feature is the introduction of coulters placed immediately
behind the digging-forks; the soil is thrown sharply against
these coulters, and the bigger clods are broken; while the
coulters level down the surface so as to render subsequent work-

544 Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster.

ing more easy. The working parts are all conveniently under
the control of the driver, the steering being done by means of
hydraulic power, thereby relieving the steerer of all hard work.
Messrs. Charles Clay & Co., Stennard Works, Wakefield,
showed a Horse-rake (Art. 786) in which the clearing-rods are
so attached that they give active assistance in freeing the teeth
of their load, whereas in other machines they are rigid. The rods
are hinged to the framework on the main axle of the rake, and
by connecting-links with the leverage, so that while the teeth
are being raised the rods are depressed, thus pushing out and
delivering the load more quickly, and with a shortened action
of the levers. As the weight of the teeth is to some extent
compensated by the weight of the rods, there is a corresponding
decrease in the power required to work the levers. A simple
arrangement makes the teeth rigid if it is at any time desired.
The strength of the machine is not impaired by the new action,
aud the cost is the same as for the ordinary type, 10/. 10s.
Messrs. West & Co., Limited, Devons Road, Bow, E., showed
their Chaff-cutter, with which is combined an apparatus designed
to take out dust from chaff (Art. 3793). The apparatus is’
simple in construction, but achieves its object in a thorough
manner. The chaff from the chaff-cutter is conducted to the
hopper of the aspirator by means of an elevator, or may be
allowed to fall direct into it, according to circumstances, for the
apparatus may be fixed in almost any situation without de-
stroying its efficiency. A fan, driven from a pulley placed
conveniently above the chaff-cleaner, is placed inside the
trough, near to the end farthest from the hopper. The trough
is L-shaped, the shorter, vertical side being connected with
the hopper; the chaff falls down this vertical side to an
opening below, and during its descent it is acted upon by the
fan, which, while not sensibly affecting the chaff, frees it from
the dust which is mixed with it, the fine particles being -
withdrawn and deposited along the horizontal portion of the
trough. The chaff is controlled by slides during its progress
through the machine, which is so contrived that no gauze is
used, thus avoiding the risk of blocking, which is very great
when light particles are drawn up against small meshes.
Although chaff-cutters are made with efficient sifting appa-
ratus, which will take out much that is detrimental to animals,
there are light portions which are not eliminated by the sieves,
and can only be separated by means of a blast. Ordinary
blasts are wasteful, as they blow out particles of chaff as well as
dust, and they leave the barn or chaff-house in a dusty condition :
these two objections are avoided in Messrs, West’s apparatus,

Miscellaneous Implements Exhibited at Doncaster, 545

Dusty chaff, whether made so by fungoid or by other foreign
matter, is known to be injurious to animals, and horses are
particularly subject to ailments caused by it. If the dangerous
dung-ball does not originate from dust, it is greatly composed
of it; and it is a well-known fact that dust has a very bad effect
on horses’ wind. Therefore, as the chaff-cleaner frees chaff from
light impurities, its value may be readily appreciated by those
who have horses under their control. The apparatus may be
fitted to any chaff-cutter, and it varies in price from 8l. for
hand machines, to 20. for larger machines attachable to large
chaff-cutters.

Messrs. George Cotton & Co., High Town, Middlewich, have
introduced a simple and useful improvement in the construction
of milking-pails (fig. 15). Their Self-holding Milking-can (Art.

Fig. 16.
Self-hoiding Milking-cans.
1075) is made with two hinged rests or handles, which ‘are
curved so that they fit easily on to the legs of the milker, just
above the knees. The can is thereby suspended, and is kept
in position without any effort on the part of the milker, who is
much less hampered than when he is in the cramped position
which is enforced in using the ordinary pail. The rests not
only move up and down, but they slide along if it is required to
vary their position. A section of the pail shows that the two
sides are not placed at the same angle to the ground, but the
fore portion extends outward to make a bigger ‘ catching’ sur-
face, and at the same time forms a convenient lip for pouring
out the contents of the vessel. It is said that women engaged
in milking suffer by having to keep a long-continued grip on
the ordinary pail, and as the gripping is entirely obviated, there
is no reason why the complaint should exist any longer, for

546 Miscellaneous Iraplements Exhibited at Doncaster.

though there are such decided advantages in the new form of
pail, the cost is no greater than for pails of similar size but
of different construction. Fig. 16 represents the pail fitted with
a wire sieve, to keep impurities away from the milk.

Messrs. Fairbairn & Jones, Wyke, Bradford, Yorks, showed
a Sod and Turf Cutter (Art. 1028) which does its work more
simply and more easily than any implement we have seen. To
the fore portion of the frame, which is not unlike a lawn-mower,
is attached a roller divided into two cylinders; and between the
cylinders a revolving steel disc is fixed to make the vertical cut,
in a similar manner to the disc-coulter of the plough. At some
little distance behind the roller is a broadshare, shaped like a
V-hoe, 12 inches in width, carried on a stem which can be set
at any height to regulate the thickness of the sod. This share
makes the horizontal cut when the machine is drawn through
the land. On getting to the end of the draught the implement
is run back parallel to the first draught, and pares another
12 inches of turf. Twenty-four inches of turf are thus cut, and
the vertical disc has made two cuts resulting in a sod 12 inches
in breadth being cut out cleanly, and half a sod on each side
being also cut, so that after the first bout a sod 12 inches in
breadth is cut out at every draught. Other attachments for
stirring the sod and breaking it up may be fixed on the frame.
The cutting is done very easily and most perfectly, and it is
doubtless a valuable implement where large quantities of turf
are to be moved, but its application to strictly agricultural
operations is somewhat limited. It is priced at 7/. 10s., and
will pare 2 acres per day.

Messrs. Allan Jones & Co., Hatherley Works, Gloucester,
showed their new “ Hatherley ” Chicken-rearer (Art. 990), which
is worthy the attention of those who engage in poultry-rearing
by the aid of artificial appliances. The leading feature in the
‘“« Hatherley ” rearer is that a current of pure heated air is passed
through it, and all cold draughts are avoided. The foul’fumes
from the lamp cannot enter the partitions in which the chickens
are placed, thus ensuring their good health. All parts are neatly
and skilfully arranged, and the rearer is so simple that the most
inexperienced hand can superintend its management, whilst it is
an ornamental feature in a small farmstead. It sprice is 5/. to
hold 50 chickens, and 101. to hold 100,

The Judges desire to express their obligations to the
Stewards of Implements and to the Surveyor, through whose
courteous efforts the discharge of their duties was greatly
facilitated,

W. J. MALpEn,

547

-

THE FARM PRIZE COMPETITION OF 18o1.

THE very interesting and instructive custom of having a Farm
Prize Competition in connection with the Royal Agricultural
Society’s Annnal Meeting was continued for the year 1891 by
the offer of the Doncaster Local Committee of the liberal sum
of 3001., to be competed for by tenants holding occupations of
various sizes, divided thus :—

Crass 1.—For the best-managed ARABLE and Grass Farm of 200 acres
and upwards, of which not less than one-half shall be arable, First prize,
502. ; second, 30/.; third, 202.

Crass 2.—For the best-managed ARABLE and Grass Farm above 100
acres and not exceeding 200 acres, of which not less than one-half shell be
arable, First prize, 50/.; second, 30/.; third, 20J.

Crass 3.—For the best-managed ARABLE and Grass Farm above 40
acres and not exceeding 100 acres. First prize, 50/.; second, 30/.; third,
201.

. The Council appointed as Judges to inspect the farms:
Garrett Taylor, Trowse House, Norwich; and William Coulman
Brown, Appleby, Lincolnshire. It was intended that the first
visit should be made early in January, but the severe weather
caused a delay of quite a month.
_ The competition was limited to farms within the boundaries
of Yorkshire, and, as will be seen, that county, the largest by far
in England, contains farms as diversified and some of them as
well managed as any in the kingdom.
Even on the competing farms the greatest contrast possible
was observed by the Judges. The deep loamy soils at Catterick,
where the plough could and did reach ten inches, are almost
historic, situated in that noted Vale of Mowbray in which some
of the inhabitants believe, and perhaps rightly, the finest farms
of the kingdom are to be found.
Then, at the opposite corner of the county, at North Dalton,
a high wold country presented itself, where on many an acre
4 inches of soil at the most is all that can be turned over,
Indeed, the surface of some of the fields is nearly white, being com-
posed almost entirely of fragments of the prevailing chalk; and
yet, since the introduction of bone manures, &c., excellent
turnips and barleys are grown, with the assistance of large
flocks of sheep, which on such land were in good times reported
to “tread with a golden hoof.”
Regret was expressed in all quarters that the number of
entries should be so small. No representative put in an appear-
ance from the great Warp district, where thousands of acres of

548 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

potatoes are grown, of high quality, and much liked in the
London markets. Such immense sums are spent in manure,
both natural and artificial, and so great are the pains taken in
the working of this land, that market-gardening would be a
more appropriate term than farming.

The large growers plant as many as 300 to 400 acres, some
of them having their land absolutely clean, besides producing
such crops of wheat and clover after the potatoes as can scarcely
be equalled in any other district. Had the best of these holdings
been entered, they would have certainly come to the fore in the
competition.

The greater portion of this land has been artificially warped
by turning the muddy tidal waters of the Trent or Ouse upon
the land. In some cases many feet of alluvium are deposited
in the course of two or three years, the usual time taken for this
operation.

Contrary to what a stranger would expect, large floods
coming down from the upper reaches of the rivers only tend to
dilute the water, and reduce the quantity of warp, which is
deposited much more freely in dry summers.

The Judges found, even on their first visit of inspection, that
many pieces of land had been sown down to grass, generally on
the stronger farms, or on the heavier portion of them, but in only
a few instances had any attempt been made to use proper mixtures
of grass seeds. In reply to queries on this matter, the answer
usually was that one or two quarters of Penistone hay-seed had
been sown, with perhaps 7 or 8 lb. of mixed clover. The term
Penistone hay-seed in Yorkshire means the sweeping up of the
seeds from the bottom of hay barns, &c., and it is but fair to say
that it was at least a debatable point whether these or the
advertised prescriptions resulted in the best permanent pasture.

Very good swedes were noticed on several of the farms, one
hundred grown by Mr. Hutchinson weighing about 93 ewt.

In a few cases on the Prize Farms great judgment was
shown in the selection of manures containing the elements due
to each variety of crop, the very requisite analysis also being
often obtained to check the value of the bulk on arrival.

In many instances the Judges feared that much money had
been needlessly thrown away, by the misapplication of most
expensive fertilisers, and by their purchase under the vague
term of “Special” or some similar description, without the
least guarantee being given or asked as to their probable ingre-
dients, or their suitability for the crop.

Two little-known manures were met with, and were in each
case used in very large quantities; they were strange to the

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 549

Judges, so Dr. Voelcker was asked to report upon them, which
he kindly did, and the analyses, &c., are given below.

The first, ‘‘sud-cake manure,’ was found to be the solid
refuse resulting from the process of washing the foreign wools at
Messrs. Isaac Holden & Sons’ Mills, where there are about
60 tons per week to dispose of. Large quantities, a boat-load
or over, were spread upon the grass-land, and its frequent
application had no doubt in the course of years much improved
the face of the fields. Its condition was admirable for even
distribution.

The second sample, “fleshings manure,’ is a refuse from
tanneries or glue works, being composed of portions of skins
and hair, and also lime which had been used to loosen the latter.
This manure had a very good appearance, but was so very
difficult to spread and knock to pieces, besides having a most
abominable smell, that unless it can be put out in a better form,
its use will not become general.

Very large dressings on one farm were spread upon the
fallows and ploughed in. Two cart-loads were thrown on about
one rood of mixed seeds for mowing, and the visible result was
certainly very great, the produce appearing to be almost
doubled. It is but fair to say that the seeds had been pastured
somewhat too late, and no doubt the sheep would reject the
manured portion. The opinion resulting from the report of the
Consulting Chemist of the Society is not too favourable to the use
of such bulky and cheap materials, good straw manure being

_ recommended in preference if it can be obtained easily.

The composition of the two samples was given as :—

Fleshings Sud-cake
manure manure
Moisture . - - : ‘ : . 42:78 27:59
1 Organic matter - - : : . 3844 15°88
Phosphate of lime . - : : oo 119
Carbonate of lime . : ; oo 4:07
Sulphate of lime . : : : . 12:49 —
Oxide ofiron . : : ; : » Vas —
Sand . “ : - : - . 436 51:27
100-00 100-00
? Containing nitrogen : . i 1:52
Equal to ammonia . : ; : See 1°85

Amusing inquiries had occasionally to be made in the walks
through the fields in order to obtain a free translation of sundry
words used, the Judges, hailing from Norfolk and Lincolnshire,
as well as the Yorkshiremen, all giving and taking slight ex-
planations as required. For instance, a nice little shed in the
fields is a “ tuffil” ; then there was not sufficient room to “seal”

550 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

as many COWS as required in the “byre,” the liquid running
from the “ group ” * (ow as in south) into the ‘“‘soar” tank, the
solid ‘“‘manner” being spread on the “ forf” (fallows). Some
sheep, one hundred, or ‘“cloise” on that, required either to be
docked, clagged, belted, shirled, or dodded. 'That’s “us” black-
smith’s shop, where the hoes can be repaired with which the
“ poppies,” “ headaches,” “ red-weed,” “ wickens,” “ twitch” and
“couch” could be cut out, that operation being often termed ~
the “spring corn is going to be ‘louked’” (ou as above). In
the East Riding, round stacks are “ pikes,” and “ ketlocks ” or
“charlocks ” are there “brassicks,” the classical ring about the
latter word being interesting.

A list with particulars of each competing farm is given on the
opposite page. From the table it will be noticed that the tenures
are all yearly, and most of the occupiers have agreements
giving a portion of the corn acreage as following crop, or some
condition allowances in lieu thereof.

Owing to the very large sum required to pay the ee
on a farm, especially in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, many
exceedingly nice holdings had been unlet, and some were still
unoccupied, others again were only farmed by non-resident
tenants ; and it was painful to see very large and good houses
without the slightest attention paid to them, the gardens having
rubbish one foot high, or grazing sheep.

The remark was made by a well-known local man that
strangers were generally frightened by the excessive expense at
entry, and only tenants bred and born in the district could be
obtained.

The competitors used every endeavour to supply information
tending to show their profit or loss during the last few years,
but as complete accounts could not be obtained except in a few
instances, nothing can be published in tabular form that would
be interesting. It is but due, however, to say that Mr.
Merryweather in the second class, and the Messrs. Hinchcliff
in the third, presented in every particular such accurate and
complete accounts, coupled in each case with valuations at the
end of each year just as if they were leaving, that it was a treat
to examine them.

The books of one or two of the other prize-takers might be
mentioned, but in less high terms than the above. The
Judges, however, satisfied themselves on this point, as they were
bound to do, by the conditions under which each competitor
entered,

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» 002 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891,

Cuiass I.—First Prize Farm,

Occupied by Mr. Teasdale H. Hutchinson, The Manor Hout
Catterick, Richmond.

The honour of gaining the First Prize in the Farm Compe-
tition of the Royal Agricultural Society of England is a great
distinction, which any one might covet; but on this occasion
Mr. Hutchinson holds the proud and unique position of taking
the prize for the second time.

Eight years ago, in 1883, when the Royal Show was held at
York, a portion of the present holding, which has been in the
family’s hands more than fifty years, obtained a similar honour
to that now gained. Since that date 350 acres have been taken ~
from the same landlord, Sir John Lawson, Bart., of Brough
Hall, Catterick, and as the boundary fences were conterminous, —
the whole 600 acres have the appearance of having been under
one management all the time. The newer portion was taken in
1888 only, so about one-fourth of the arable land has in its turn
to go through Mr. Hutchinson’s drastic mill; and when once it
has passed through his fingers, explanations that he has only had —
this portion or that for four or five years are neither made nor
required.

Absolutely clean is a verdict one scarcely likes to pass as a
sentence on a farm, but here we give it. Yet, as every rule has
an exception, so it was in this case, for the senior Judge, after
dragging his colleague over miles of fallows, at last found one ~
solitary piece of twitch, and, holding it up, sarcastically asked
what it was. Great was his discomfiture when the competitor
with ready wit invited him to find another.

The Manor House was reached after a long drive of twelve
miles from Northallerton through that world-famed country,
containing such names as Warlaby and Bainesse and others,
the homes of the Booths and the Outhwaites, at once the very
cradle and meridian of a tribe of Shorthorns which has spread
over the whole world.

We were promptly conducted through a perfect maze of
buildings, the geography of which was not well learned after
three visits; the plans of the greater por tion of them are pives
in a former Journal.)

Mr. Hutchinson has now spent upwards of 2,500/. in im-
proving, altering, and building on his landlord’s premises, without
any security, and even without any agreement. These additions
are all carried out in the most substantial and permanent style,

+ Vol, XTX, s,s, 1883, Part IT, p. 657,

The Farm Prize Competition of FSot. 553

iinder his personal and direct supervision, which is much pre-
ferred to the work executed by the landlord with borrowed
_ capital, for which about 6 per cent. is charged, a like percentage
being paid on a large quantity of draining.

A minute description of the buildings, of which there are

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three sets of varying size, would be somewhat tedious, but a
striking feature is the large number of loose boxes required for
the accommodation of the horses and young bulls. In all, the
ventilation is perfect, a supply of cold fresh air coming in near
the floor, and the heated atmosphere escaping at the top.
Covered yards are also a great feature at Catterick, as in
VOL. Il. T, S—7 00

554 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

January the stock was all housed, with the exception of on
small open yard, much surrounded by buildings, and very warm,
containing 8 or 10 nice bullocks; and this was on the new por-
tion of the farm, where every yard has been attacked and roofed
in, besides a geneail pointing up and repair, which must haye
cost the tenant a good round sum.
A most useful and commodious shed, with asmall cake s
at_the end, was just completed, at some considerable distance
from the homestead, and will prove convenient either as shelter
in lambing time or for. cattle in summer, besides being an ad-
junct to the large arable field on the boundaries of which it is
built. Dutch barns are much advocated by Mr. Hutchinson, a
large one, 55 yards long, having still large stores of hay in it.
smaller one, 18 feet high, was nearly finished in June, and, being
boarded on one side, would perhaps be of use for stock at times
as well as for hay. "The cost of the above was 1201. and 301. re
spectively.
The requirements of a large head of stock necessitate
almost continuous help of steam for chaff-cutting, pulping, &.,
and the arrangement of the numerous and varied machines, with
their different convenient stores for chaff, corn, meals, &c., wa
most admirable.
An eight-horse portable engine is at work every day in
winter, and the driver deserves praise for the condition in which
it is kept, the glands and bearings being in perfect order, ¢
running as noiselessly as if fresh from the works.
The threshing machine, which is semi-fixed, is so arranged a
“to deliver and weigh up the corn in the barn, besides getting id
‘of the straw and refuse with the smallest amount of labour, which
is the case also with the chaff-cutting, pulping and grinding of
the corn, all for mixing in varying ‘proportions for the stock in
the yards and boxes contiguous.
__ Two large chaff cutters, one for horses the other for cattle, a
pulper, a pair of stones, a crusher that will serve for either oats
or linseed, a cake breaker, hoists, a saw table, and a grindstone
make up a list more for a factory than for a farm, and all are
worked by the engine. The waste steam is not lost, but is led
by a pipe and used to cook some of the food for the stock. More
expensively erected sets of barn machinery may be seen, but for
completeness and usefulness nothing better can be wanted.
The land is a little varied, but consists mainly of a nice work-
able loam, mixed in some places nearer the river Swale with a
perfect covering of round stones, tons of which have been removed,
only to make room for more. A portion stronger than the
and at the far end of the farm, has been laid down to grass

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 555

Mr. Faunce de Laune’s mixture, without rye-grass, large dress-
ings of bone meal being applied.

The application of farmyard manure to a previous crop a year
or so before still showed its effects in the new grass, there
_ being as a result a thicker and better plant. So large an area
_ of old pasture as 246 acres could but be of varied quality, some
_ being hilly and rather rough, on which was wintered a number
of young horses, receiving hay during the severe weather.
Another and exceedingly rich pasture contained over a score of
magnificent bullocks, receiving about a cake per day, half linseed
and half cotton.

On the racecourse and other fields large numbers of nice
two-year-olds were running, which had some of them been
brought for the covered yards to replace others that had gone
out at 271. each. More had been picked up in lots during the
autumn and winter, kept in store condition in the covered yards
at the new farm, and then were grazing and would be sold out
fat during the winter.

Proceeding further to the turnip fields, the hogs were seen,,
consisting of about 400 Leicesters and Border Leicesters, having,

besides cut swedes, about 4 lb. of cake with pease. They were evi-
dently in a very thriving condition.

Two hundred and twenty-five ewes, consisting of 80 pure
Leicesters and 145 Border Leicesters, were penned by themselves
on a piece of green globe
turnips, which had been
a grand crop, though the
winter had made sad
hayoc with it.

The whole of these
sheep, as also those graz-
ing on the seeds in the
summer time, were fenced
in entirely by galvanised
wire-netting, the great
objection to which usually
is that it sets badly owing
to being machine made,
and is often longer at
one side than the other;
the strands also run
length-way of the net,
aiding its tendency to sag down between the stakes, showing
badly by contrast with the taut appearance of a well-set hemp
net,

002

556 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

After repeated inquiry as to why Mr. Hutchinson’s wire net
always appeared such a good fence, it was found on the third visit
that the nets were all hand ae and the wires of extra thic cK
gauge, and the reason they stood so upright was owing to a wi
being worked from selvage to selvage, whereas in the machine
made net they all run longitudinally. Russell, Grassmarket,
Edinburgh, is the maker, who of course charges a little extra for
hand work, which will be amply repaid in the long run. The
illustration (fig. 1) is that of a single mesh.

The fallow land to be sown with swedes was being ploughed
ten or twelve inches deep, with a correspondingly wide furrow,
four grand horses being yoked to a chilled plough, or digger
as it is sometimes called, and making splendid work. These
implements, several sorts of which were on the farm, are much
liked, and nothing else could have produced such a result.

In returning through the stackyards, large quantities of
swedes were seen stored, the plan being to commence if possible
near a wall or a stack of straw, and make the heap approximately
three feet high, with a level top, over which is thrown a certain —
thickness of old straw or waste chaff, and no earth? We
were surprised to find that, after such a winter, all the
roots were sound. A small walled enclosure at the new farm,
we were informed, was used entirely for this purpose. No
doubt a certain amount of heat will be generated in a heap of
such a size, not sufficient to cause the swedes to rot, but evi-
dently quite ample to ward away the frost.

The enormous size of the swedes, both under the straw
and in the fields, arrested our attention, and Mr. Hutchinson,
after mildly suggesting 50 toms per acre, was requested to
weigh one hundred of the best, which turned the scale at
76 stones, or nearly half a ton.

A woman was trimming them in the fields at one penny per
100 yards of row, making good wages. An implement is at
times used to loosen the roots, somewhat similar to that figured
in the article upon sugar-beet cultivation in Austria. (See
p- 347.

M HateBineon has almost altered the face of the country
by stubbing up miles of fences in the arable land, besides clear-
ing away 80 or 90 trees in one part only, forming, as will be
seen by the plan, a much more workable holding. Wire netting
does not harbour vermin nor encourage rubbish, and with that
to aid him the tenant would almost like to have all in one field
only, except the grass, which of course must be divided by
fences,

An old wooden Dutch barn in the field, and a long piece

os,

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 557

of road, were deemed to be in the way and to offend the eye; on
our third visit the land they had occupied was growing swedes.

With regard to the cropping of the land, the ordinary four-
course system is departed from, and an extra crop of corn taken
here or there as thought expedient, the large amount of manure
used almost necessitating such a plan. As the very fullest crop
is always looked for, however, a slight top dressing is occasion-
ally required to reach Mr. Hutchinson’s idea of a good crop.

In 1890 the land was divided as follows; this season a few
more oats are grown :—

Roots, 99 acres. Oats, 54 acres.
Wheat, 51 acres. Clover, 68 acres.
Barley, 85 acres. Meadow mown, 22 acres.

Nearly the whole breadth of roots consists of swedes, the
land being manured with twelve loads of dung, which is turned
in with the chilled plough. Itis then ridged, the artificial manure
sown by hand, the rows are next split, and a finish is made by
sowing the swede seed by the Scotch drill. The quantity of
manure broadcasted usually is 2 cwt. guano, 2 cwt. bone meal,
2 ewt. rape dust, 1 cwt. kainit, 1 cwt. nitrate of soda. This
somewhat strong dressing is varied according to circumstances,
and according as dung is used or not in the rows.

The system, and the mode and time of sowing, resemble the
Scotch style of operations more than those in the Midland
Counties.

At the second visit, on April 28, the whole of the swedes
were sown on oneof thefarms. On June 15, many were singled,
as well as the mangel, and would no doubt by the aid of the
late rains result in as good a crop as last year’s.

Very good pieces of wheat were shown, which are usually
grown after oats, and top dressed if required, but, as will be seen
above, a much larger breadth of spring corn is put in than of
wheat. The barley, consisting of several well-known varieties,
was in splendid order, as well it might be, being sown after the
swedes, which, large as they are, cannot have nearly abstracted
all the manurial properties out of the land. The most successful
corn crop, however, grown on the farm is the oat, the soil and
climate no doubt suiting it admirably. Mr. Hutchinson only
grows one sort, saying it does better than any other; it isa
white variety, which he has had many years, and calls “‘ Catterick
Hero.” To judge by the sample inspected, as also by the ap-
pearance of the growing crop, which was such as is seldom
seen, a greater demand than even that now experienced will
spring up for such good seed.

Rather small quantities of seed are sown, 8 pecks only of

558 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

wheat and barley, and 11 pecks of oats, the distance of the
drills being nine or ten inches, thus giving plenty of room to
do any weeding required ; whilst the Judges could also, for the
same reason, see and say ‘that the corn was clean.

The sheep pastures on June 15 were well stocked, but the
strong clovers were completely master of the sheep, and looked
better than some pieces do for mowing ; rye-grass as a rule is
not used nor liked, but 14 to 16 Ib. of clover alone, viz., 6 lb,
white clover, 4 lb. red, 2 lb. alsike, 2 lb. cow-grass. A piece
for cutting green for the stock in the yard had been sown with
5 Ib. red, 5 lb. white, 5 lb. cow-grass, and 2 Ib. Italian rye-
grass, and was yielding a very heavy weight per acre, measurix
over two feet high as it grew.

The following is a list of all the stock on the farm, which
varied slightly at the other visits, in consequence of the sale of
some bullocks and fat hogs.

28 Cows in calf or in milk, | 10 Shire horses,

12 Heifers, bulled. 7 Clydesdales.

54 Fat bullocks 2} to 3 years old. 16 Hunters.

34 Heifers and bullocks, rising 2 | 1 Hunter brood mare in foal.

years, 1 Hack,
23 Yearlings and calves, 1 Pony.
6 Bulls, =
36 Horses.

157 Cattle.
80 Pure Leicester ewes in lamb.

145 Border Leicester ewes in lamb.
403 Hoggets.

8 Aged rams,

636 Sheep,

would require a special article for its description, instead of a
mere cursory glance such as this.

The herd of Shorthorns consists of upwards of 50 head of all
ages, entered and eligible for entry in the herd-book, from Lady —
Pately, now 16 years old, down to her own calf, which is the
fourteenth she has bred and reared. This cow is half-sister to

less than 750/. Lady Gray, a magnificent specimen of the herd,
is the dam of Lady Golightly, sold to go to South America for
500 guineas. = |
Lady Playful, Lady Alicia, Lady Louise, Lady Gray, and
Lady Golightly, have all been Royal winners, and with them th

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 559

champion prizes for the best female in the yard have been
obtained at Kilburn, Derby, York, Norwich, and Newcastle-
on-Tyne. Several grand calves in a nice box were bemg
reared by their mothers, one especially being noticed, a beauti-
ful roan heifer calf, out of Lady Adela, which, if brought forward
for show, would most likely make a mark in the ring.

The G tribe has at its head that fine cow, Glad Tidings, so
well known at the Royal and all the leading shows, where she
took prizes. A splendid bull out of her, Gay Hutchinson, is sold
to Warlaby, and now let out for hire to the Duke of Northumber-
land. A few representatives of other tribes are on the Manor
House Farm, notably some of Scotch blood, purchased of Mr.
Maw, Upper Mill, Aberdeenshire ; but they are not considered to
have the style and high-bred look of many of the favourite
G’s and Ladies.

The bull in use at the head of the herd is Sir Roger Studley,
a rich roan deep-fleshed bull from Warlaby, a fine representative
of that famous herd.

As the young bulls are in such demand, they are sold as soon
as they come to useful age, three being seen just before their
shipment to Sweden. Others have been exported to Australia,
France, Germany, and elsewhere.

Mr. Hutchinson, as every one knows, believes in “ pedigree,”
but if in his judgment any female in the herd does not possess
heavy flesh, and other good qualities, she is not retained, be the
blood ever so blue; and that “judgment” need not be ques-
tioned, when the prizes taken at the great shows, not only for
cattle, but also for horses and sheep, mount up in value to more
than 9,0001.

The noted flock of Leicester ewes is still kept up, and is in
as grand form as ever, prizes having been won at the Royal
since our visit to Catterick.

Since taking the new farm, a flock of Border Leicesters has
been added at great expense, 94. being given for a magnificent
ram, to which a friend sent 20 ewes, paying 20 guineas as the
fee. Sixty gimmers were also purchased, some of them costing
121. each, making altogether a good round sum paid for the
foundation of a flock. ;

The gimmer hogs kept for breeding were running on the
grass near the River Swale, and on looking through them it
was at once seen what an even lot they were. A few at a nice
figure have been sold to go to South America.

The different noted rams were usually in pens in a large
shed, where Chisholme, the old shepherd, was ready to do the
honours of showman. Prize cards from the different shows liter-

560 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

ally covered every beam of the building, some of the older ones
dropping off, but there are enough and to spare to fill up the gaps.

Mr. Hutchinson having been so successful with hunters, it
was found, as expected, that a good many were kept on the
place, and they often sell at a high figure, after being trained
by so noted a rider.

Seventeen horses for the farm were shown, consisting of ten
Shires and seven Clydesdales, many looking more like show .
animals, instead of possessing the appearance of having the hard
work to do on a large farm. Four were especially noticed just
after their dinner hour, going out to make such capital work with
the chilled plough as mentioned above. To notice one or two
more particularly, the Clydesdale mare, Milkmaid, has taken
more than 40 prizes at the great shows, and was purchased from
Lord Londonderry for nearly 3001.

The Shire mare, Orange Girl, has been exhibited twice, and
has taken two prizes, as also has Myrtle, by Bar None, a fine brown
mare, the dam of Clifton, sold at Lord Londonderry’s sale to
Mr. D. Riddle for 500 guineas. These and other mares have
good foals by their sides, by the best horses that can be found,
and as early as April 28 the mares had to leave their foals in
the box, and go out and take a share in the work.

A few pure-bred game fowls and Wyandottes were seen, as
also a fox terrier, Member, by that noted champion, Result,
for which it is said 1,000. was refused. Care and breeding are
thus continued down to the bottom rung of this prize ladder.

Crass I.—Srconp Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr. J. A. Staveley, North Dalton, Hull.

A very large tract of land in the East Riding of Yorkshire,
reaching down to the Humber, and again over the water in Lin-
colnshire, is underlaid entirely by chalk, which reaches to a
very great depth, and wells in many cases have to be sunk sixty
to eighty yards before water can be reached, necessitating special

umps and small horse-gears to supply the daily wants of large
herds of stock. A water-cart, and often a water-waggon with
two horses, may be seen at the noted pump in the market-place
at Barton-upon-Humber in the summer time, whilst one or two
others wait patiently for their turn.

This district is called the Wolds, and Mr. Staveley’s farm
is a good example of the system of tr eating such thin chalky soil
in both counties. Indeed, when walking over the large fields,
most of them fifty acres, one could easily fancy that it was the

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 561

neighbourhood of Caistor, in Lincolnshire, around which those
splendid Lincoln hogs are grown which congregate at the
Palmsun Fairs in such numbers.

To a stranger, the extremely thin soil, only in some cases a

NOLNIVG 49 eatinsavuot

2 ug
a3
7
ies
bared
ee
rs goal
es
3 =

few inches above the solid chalk, would appear of no value if
seen when being ploughed in winter for roots as deeply as
possible, and then only four inches, and that four inches com-
posed of small pieces of chalk. Instead of that, turnips can be

562 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

and are grown, and contrary to expectation, the immense body
of chalk causes a coolness of soil with a resisting power to
drought, unknown to those living on the oolitic limestone
formation.

North Dalton is a small village near Market Weighton, the
owner being Lord Londesborough, between whom and his
tenants a most excellent feeling prevails. A railway station
haying been very recently opened at Middleton-on-the- Wolds,
great ease is now felt in the delivery of corn, which formerly had
to be taken many miles to Driffield.

The size of the farm is 857 acres, eighty acres of this being
grass, and 767 acres arable. A modified four-course system
is followed, varied again at the high portion of the land, but
always having a good turnip crop in view to support the large
flock of sheep, without which these Wolds could not be farmed.

Great quantities of straw must of necessity be trodden
down in the winter, for which many large open yards are pro-
vided, one of them recently covered, 20 yards by 16 yards, at a
cost of 80/., with the usual interspaced deal boards.

The buildings, premises and fences were in very nice order,
having altogether a tidy appearance, yet showing none of that
extra preparation sometimes seen on a competing farm.

To obviate the scarcity of water mentioned above, large ponds
are made at great cost, no little skill being required to keep
them water-tight. A very good one, costing 30/., has been made
at the corners of four fields. After digging out to the required
size, a coating of lime is evenly spread, then a thickness of clay
well worked, after this another layer of lime followed by straw,
and over all plenty of chalk. The lime is used to prevent the
worms letting the contents flow out. Although the weather
was so dry, plenty of water had collected from the rainfall and
surface water, and had every appearance of remaining there
until required. .

The corn crop being such an important item on the farm,
its serious depreciation of late years has told heavily on the
receipts, and although the rent has been reduced from 1,150.
to 8341., yet, as will be seen by the gross value of the cereals
sold for the last 14 years, diminished rent only very partially
atones for so great a fall in prices.

Returns of Corn of all descriptions sold each year.

1877... . . £2701 | 188t. . . . . £2,087
IBYB... «ws 3008. | 188. ae
i oe ae 1886... (2
ies 3h.) Jos) Dee 1887 </> ul Dea
Pots os: 4) Tae 1886 .. esaly Done
re ee

im... : 208 9

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 563

The cropping is varied, as follows, on the Ardenfleets, or far
end of the farm, which is higher and thinner land than the rest:
after seeds with rye-grass, left down two or three years, oats are
sown, then turnips, manured in the ridges and phosphates
added, next barley with seeds. Or, if slightly better land,
_ elovers without rye-grass if followed by wheat, then turnips, and
oats or barley. On the village farm, wheat is followed by barley,
turnips, oats and seeds, the second crop of corn being omitted
at times, at others a crop of pease is inserted to freshen the land
for seeds and turnips.

The seed land is all manured after the ewes and lambs have
nearly finished, and is sown with various wheats, viz.: Hybrid
King, Square Head, Golden Drop, and sometimes mixtures of
the above. The barleys chosen are Golden Melon, Chevalier,
Prize Prolific, Awnless, and Goldthorpe, the last named being
a short-eared close-set barley, much sought after at present.
The oats include Tartary, Asia Minor, and Victoria. Fresh seed
in small quantities is periodically obtained and grown for use
the next year, thus providing change for all the different fields.

A little discretion is required in providing food for the
sheep in the autumn and winter, 15 acres of rape being first
grown for the lambs, followed by small breadths of Grey Stone,
Purple Mammoth, Red Globe, and White Globe; the main
breadths being occupied by the Green Globe, after which come
the hybrids and swedes. The first mentioned are most useful
for a time, but if ten acres too many be on hand, they soon
possess the qualities of a large sponge rather than of nice crisp
turnips,

Not much mangel is grown on the Wolds, but an acre or
so proves useful in the spring, gaining in quality what is lost in
size on such thin soil. If ridged the roots are sown 26 inches
apart in the row, and 2 feet apart if on the flat.

The artificials used this year for swedes consisted of 6 bushels
of bones, and 3 to 4 cwt. mineral phosphate, and a rather
smaller application for white turnips, all slightly reduced if
farmyard manure can be spared.

The ordinary plough of the district is used for ridging, but
with the addition of a small breast bolted to the near side, and
very good work was accomplished by this simple plan.

The turnip land was altogether in satisfactory order, and
will no doubt produce its full quota this season.

A piece of sainfoin, a plant quite at home on the thin chalk,
proves most useful in keeping health amongst the lambs in the
antumn, than which nothing can be better at that critical time.

Haying «0 little grass, great reliance is placed in the rota-

564 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

tion seeds, pains being taken in composing the different mixtures,
also in combining with others in the locality in purchasing seed
wholesale, saving thereby a good round sum per annum,

Different districts and modes of farming no doubt require
different seeds to be sown for grazing, but such great considera-
tion having been given by Mr. Staveley to this subject, it will,
I hope, prove useful to add the list of these as below. ©

For two or three years’ grazing with sheep (per acre) :—

= bushel Italian and perennial | 2 1b. Alsike.
| 31b. White clover.

Tye-grass.
2b. Rough cocksfoot. 3 lb. Trefoil.
21b. Timothy. 1b. Parsley.

3 lb. Red clover. | 11b. Rib-grass.

2 1b. Cow-grass.
Then, for one year, where wheat is not to be sown after, rye-
grass is used, to the extent of one quarter per acre, and—

53 1b. White clover. | 14 1b. Rib-grass.
2 lb. Red clover. 4 1b. Italian rye-grass.

21b. Alsike. 11b. Rough cocksfoot.
3 1b. Trefoil. 11b. Timothy.
13 1b. Parsley. | zs bushel of rye.

Two mixtures are given for grazing seeds when to be followed
by wheat. These are, per

No. 1. | No. 2.

6 lb. White clover. | 7b. White clover.

61b. Red clover. | 321b. Red clover.
101b. Trefoil. 13 Ib. Alsike.

11b. Parsley. | 11 Ib. Trefoil.

1lb. Rib-grass. 13 1b. Parsley.
= 13 1b, Rib-grass,
24 1b, | —

| 263 Ib.

Very nice close-bottomed leys were the result on the whole
farm, and a large number of sheep were being supported by
them.

An account is kept of the cropping of every field since 1877,
when the farm was taken ; but for the year 1891 the following
acreages are given :—

Wheat, 115 acres. Rape, 20 acres.

Barley, 122 acres. Tares, 3 acres.

Oats, 143 acres. Seeds, 181 acres.

Turnips, &c., 162 acres. Sainfoin, 16 acres. ;
Mangel, 3 acres. Grass, 85 acres.

The whole of the arable land is nicely managed, the corn
being well weeded and nearly clean, the turnip fallows in d
order, and altogether, with the large fields surrounded by smal]

the Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 565

trim hedges, the farm presented a very creditable appearance
on our June visit.

The serious drop in the value of corn mentioned above has
naturally caused Mr. Staveley to look more to stock, especially
sheep, and the returns sent to Government in June 1890 are
larger by nearly 200 than those for 1877. The very detailed
list of live stock handed in showed 34 horses, 20 of which
worked the farm, 88 cattle, 766 sheep, and 62 pigs.

The land not being suitable, Shire horses are not bred on
the farm, but one or two useful horses have to be bought now
and then, to supply the wear and tear caused by the working
‘of so much arable land. A small stud of Hackneys, eligible for
or entered in the stud-book, is, however, being commenced, and
a hunter at a good round sum is occasionally sold.

The cattle are most of them bred on the place, a very useful
bull being kept. Eden Butterfly, the one now at the head of the
herd, was purchased of Sir R. G. Musgrave, Bart., Eden Hall,
Cumberland, and its dam gave 24 quarts of milk in one day.

The bullocks are fed in the yards, presumably more to supply
good manure than much profit, but some very useful ones were
disposed of fat during our visit.

The cows are kept for dairy and breeding purposes, and
when dry run in the yards, receiving a little cotton-cake,
turnips, chopped oat-straw, and oat-straw ad lib. The new milk
is given to the calves for about 14 deys, then gradually reduced
to old with the addition of a milk substitute, the endeavour
afterwards being to keep them in good condition by a few roots,
ground oats, union cake, and a little linseed dust. They are
not allowed to go out during the first summer.

Sheep, more than cattle, on a thin Wold farm naturally adapt
themselves to the situation, and Mr. Staveley keeps them in
large numbers, the bulk being what he terms Improved Leices-
ters, a larger Leicester than the old-fashioned breed. A small
flock of Oxford Downs has been commenced, sheep of the very
best blood only being purchased or used, a two-shear ram from
Mr. Treadwell’s flock running with the ewes last season.

On our June visit, nineteen very useful rams were progress-
ing for sale in the autumn, and the 50 ewes had by their sides
_ 80 very forward lambs.

___ Nearly 300 ewes were running on the seed pastures, They
were of the Leicester breed, and had with them a very heavy
fall of lambs, which were not quite in such good condition as
their mothers, the latter being almost too fat, if anything.
Half a pound of cotton-cake per ewe is allowed, and the lambs,
when taken off, get a mixture of cake and oats,

566 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

The feeding hogs on the turnips in winter, which are
fingered after December 1, are allowed not often more than 4 Ib.
per head, consisting of + Ib. linseed or mixed cake, and + lb.
corn, maize being preferred when cheap enough.

Some of the old Leicester ewes are put to an Oxford ram,
and the nice mutton from the cross is much sought after by the
butchers.

A detailed list of the sheep of various breeds need not be
given, but it will suffice to say that on January 1 there were
776 altogether on the turnips.

A few customs of the East Riding might be interesting, and
would, no doubt, be noticed by a stranger, For instance, the
waggoners all have saddles, and it looked curious to see a Cam-
bridge roller being driven by a man up in the saddle, though I
will admit he was getting over the ground at a smart pace.

At the station a neighbouring farmer had sent four pole
waggons with four horses each for some trucks of ashes or refuse
from the towns, and it was a grand spectacle to see the four
waggoners mount their saddles and drive off.

The foremen on these Wold farms (and Mr. Staveley has
two) board the horsemen in their houses, and sometimes a boy
or two in the winter to work in the sheep-fold, receiving 7s. 6d.
per head per week, with 1s. extra for each man in harvest. A
garden is found, and 2. allowance for fruit and vegetables, 2I.
for stable lights, 11/. for ale at threshing and harvest, and the
produce of two cows. In one case the wife has 20/. for managing
the dairy, &c. She quite understood when granular form, butter
workers, and thermometers were mentioned. Payments are also
made for rearing poultry and for gathering eggs. Bedding and
requisites for the men are found, including cooking utensils,
plates, dishes, &c.

Mrs. Barron, at the village farm, is a typical example of an East
Riding foreman’s wife, and by invitation the large kitchen was
examined, with its long table, on which the men have their meals.

The day is commenced at 5.45 with breakfast, consisting of
beef and bread and boiled milk, followed by fruit pies, apple
or prune, in the absence of which preserves are used,

The dinner-hour varies, according as one yoke or two are
worked with the horses, but beef, preserve tart, soup, suet pud-
ding, with roast beef on Sundays, are given, and if one yoke is
worked the men take out a small bit of food for luncheon at
11 a.m. Supper is at 6.30, and is similar to breakfast.

Meat three times a day, "and plenty of it, is what the stalwart
men of the East Riding of Yorkshire are reared upon, and few
finer and stronger are seen anywhere,

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 567

The thatchers make a very neat finish of the round corn
stacks, called pikes, neither string nor pegs being used, but thin
straw ropes are worked and twisted in with the sheaves under-
neath.

The labour bill amounts to about 1,000/. per annum, Mr.
Staveley and his men being to all appearances on the best foot-
_ ing with one another, as he continually spoke well of them.

~ A certain income is made by the poultry, eggs and butter,
not to mention a few game-fowls, which are said to be worth
large sums, and have won prizes innumerable.

A very systematic record is kept of all the cropping, besides
complete flock-books, with the breeding of all the Oxford Downs
noted, whilst every item could be referred to at once when re-
quired for the Judges’ information. Altogether they had great
pleasure, and no hesitation, in awarding the Second Prize to
Mr. Staveley on this typical Wold farm.

Cxiass I.—Tuirp Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr. James Townend, Newton Farm, Doncaster.

This is a very nice farm near Doncaster, being only about
one mile from the station; indeed, as the crow flies, the back of
the railway works is merely a stone’s throw from the grazing
land next the river. Being so near a town, advantage is taken
of the supply of stable manure, also of the extra hands, which
appear to be plentiful.

The farm consists of 282 acres, of which 180 are arable and
102 grass, and is held under Lady Watson Coply, Sprotbro Hall,
at a rental of 3781. Since entering in 1882, very great improve-
ments have been made, Mr. Townend seeming to despise the
small enclosures into which the place was divided; enormous
lengths of old hedges have been stubbed, and new ones planted
when required, thus altering the size and shape of the fields
entirely. Trees also in large numbers, some of them of great
weight, have been felled, the local timber-merchant to whom
the landlady sold the wood being employed to load the enormous
roots on to his waggons and throw them into a large pit out of
the way.

Whether all this be judicious or not, considering that no
compensation would be allowed on leaving, yet the tenant has
the satisfaction of seeing a great improvement made, and if he
be content to spend the money, his landlady should be more so.

The new quick-thorn hedges were in splendid order, and had
almost grown up sufficiently to make a sheep fence.

568 The Farm Prize Competition of 189i.

The homestead, which is commodious for the size of the farm,
is on the south side of the high road, where also is most of the

grass land.
The land seems to naturally divide itself into three differeiit

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portions: first, the grass-land near the house and the river Don,
whose banks are occasionally known to be overflown, and being
rather muddy at such times the deposit left, if in summer, rather
foils the herbage, Otherwise, as at the April visit, a good piece

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 569

of pasture is to be seen on this low land, and proves useful, as
it runs right up to the yards, and the cows and horses can be
turned out by opening the gate.

The next square consists of beautifully cool loamy land,
admirably fitted for growing potatoes as well as turnips, wheat,
barley, and seeds, and if a little more pains had been taken in
weeding the spring corn (perhaps 5/. would have done it) the
Judges would have thought this a very successfully farmed por-
tion of the occupation.

The farther and hilly end is farmed differently, no potatoes
being grown as the limestone rock is near. Evidently the
tenant does not think this his best land, as not quite such
pains are taken in the cultivation, with the result that one or
two fields were very foul.

The corn crops at our June visit were looking very well, the
wheat after the potatoes promising a good yield, being stiff in
the straw, as is usual on such land after that crop.

A portion of seeds had been broken up on the hill, in which
the clovers had missed, and was sown with wheat in February.
Mr. Townend seemed to think it the best piece in the district ;
an application of soot had certainly given it a good colour, and
it looked well. The oats adjoining were a fair piece, and the
turnip land in the next field had been well worked, but was
not sown on June 18.

Altogether the crops on this hilly part looked fairly well,
but Mr. Townend had not used such energy as on the square

of land nearer home, in order to make the twitch, &., con-

spicuous by its absence.

The barleys on the lower portion were magnificent pieces,
sown after the sheep had eaten the swedes, and our only fear
was that the crop would be laid if a wet period followed.

The potato land was in very good order. It had been nicely
ridged and was very clean, the plants coming up with vigour
and strength. Although there were few weeds, the hoes were
being used round every set, loosening the soil, an operation
which always seems to make the tops grow apace.

Plenty of manure had been applied, and there was every
appearance of a good profit on this somewhat risky venture; for
instance, Mr. Townend happened to sell his crop at 50s. per ton
put on rails, and during the winter 120s. might have been
made. ‘The year previous trade was bad, and thousands of tons
were sold at 25s. or less, whereas luckily on this farm they
were.cleared early at 54s.

The seeds grazed by the ewes and lambs were a mattress of
white clover, 14 lb. being sown, with 2 lb, trefoil, 2 Ib. cow-

VOL, Il. T, S—7 PP

570 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

grass, and a small quantity of rye-grass. A nice plant was also
showing amongst the spring corn.

The grass ‘Jand near the house, before mentioned, is most
useful and of good quality, no doubt much of it being a deposit
left by the overflow of the river Don in past generations ; but
vast sums have been spent here by modern engineers, and to a
great extent have prevented the floods, which until a few years
ago rendered some of the streets of Doncaster impassable, and
periodically covered miles of country just beyond the Great North
Road.

Besides a small home paddock or two, a large grass field
adjoins Cusworth—about 38 acres, in which were running 42
steers and heifers, of various sorts and sizes, nearly all of which
had been bred or reared on the farm. Great improvement had
been made here, by tearing up old fences, putting drains in,
and sowing down five acres with two quarters Penistone hay seeds;
and seven pounds mixed clover seeds per acre with rape. After
five years this portion compared favourably with the old grass.

The live stock in January consisted of 18 horses, 58 cattle;
354 sheep, and 34 pigs.

Useful horses were working the farm, and two are sold each
year if possible.

The cattle, which were not a very even lot, were being kept
in store condition, ready to turn out in summer, calves being
bred and reared in very nice pens not too far from the kitchen,
and thus convenient for the disposal of the old milk. . ij

The sheep are many of them bought, seventy-seven Lincoln
ewes only being lambed on the place, ‘and these with others were
running in the seeds. They werea good lot of sheep altogether,
but numbers both of the ewes and lambs being lame, their
appearance was a little spoiled. In spring some remarkably
good hogs were being sold off the swedes, ~and were many -
them of ‘great weight.

Mrs. Townend — ably assists with the rearing of the ‘vale
and with the dairy ; but very low prices are made for the butter.
A little milk .is sold at elevenpence per imperial gallon on
Sundays to accommodate a neighbour, and it was thought,
being so near Doncaster, and having good grass, that a great
addition might be made to the income by running milk into the
town every day.

Mr. Townend is a cattle dealer as well as a farmer, attending
Wakefield market every Wednesday, and the profits on this
part of the business have no doubt been. laid out for some years in
the great improvements made on the farm, especially the better
portion, to which the tenant seems to give his chief attention.

irae

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 571

Cuass I. ComMENDED Farm,
Occupied by Mr. Smith EF. Parkin, Melton Brand, near Doncaster.
This is another of the farms easily reached from Doncaster,

and is on the limestone formation. It is a very nice cccupation, the
fields being fairly even in size and quality, but the grass land,

except a paddock or two, is a mile or more away, and not of very

first-rate quality when reached.

Mr. Parkin’s farm pupils, who rightly have to do a little
work when at Melton Brand, were pleasantly occupied in
taking the young cattle backwards and forwards, at the April
visit, until they got hardened and could stay out. ~Another
pupil was driving the engine when sawing rails, &e., for fencing
the fields.

The pupils, perhaps, learn more farming here than at many
places, owing to the system on which they a are taken being that
of paying more the first year, less the second, and much less
the third, in proportion to the amount of work ‘they do.

The on consists of 430 acres in all, of which 287 are arable
atid 143 grass. It is held under Mr. Montagu, Melton Park,

and has only been in the hands of the present tenant abont five

ears.
The buildings were in good order, their usefulness being
greatly enhanced by.a large covered yard, put up by the landlord,
who was also fixing a set of new gates and posts in the fields
where required.

A modified four-course system of farming is practised, but
about thirty acres of potatoes are planted instead of wheat on
the seeds, which necessarily causes other slight deviations.

Nice pieces of swedes were being eaten on the land in the
winter, and had 12 loads of manure with 5 cwt. of dissolved
bones, said to be bones and acid only, the white turnips being
treated with mineral phosphate instead.

In the June visit, on the first day of the Royal Show, the
swedes were nicely up, but, in common with much of this lime-

stone land, a very nasty crust had formed on the ridges, not

only at Melton but generally in the district.

On some of the farms a roller had been run on the ridges,
doing a little good; but Mr. Parkin has one of the Royal Prize
Turnip Drills, made by Yates, of Doncaster, who has so altered
the frame that side hoes can be attached behind, not only

rising and falling with the rollers, but following any ieee

in the straightness of the ridges.
The illustration of the drill (fig. 2) on the following page

epPe2

572 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

will better explain how the work is done. Not only was the
crust broken by the weight of the rollers, which can be adjusted,
but the patent side hoes had shaved the soil and weed off
much more closely than in the drawing, so closely indeed that
many plants appeared as if cut up, but on further examination
they were found to be intact. For those who sow many turnips
on the ridges, this is a most valuable yet simple implement.

A good breadth of potatoes is usually planted, perhaps thirty ~
acres, after the seeds ; one ton per acre of Magnums is generally

set, but a few Bruce and Reading Giants are being tried-as well
this year.

Mr. Parkin puts on 20 two-horse loads from the fold-
yard, also 7 cwt. per acre of potato manure, and 3 tons of
shoddy, which is largely used and much liked on the farm.
Men were busily engaged in hoeing round the plants, but it was
feared, unless wonderful weather ensued, that the Jand could not
be made clean. A London dealer had, unfortunately for the
tenant, bought the last season’s crop by the acre, and as potatoes
rose fully 100 per cent. he would no doubt secure large profits,

The list of stock returned included twenty horses, one being
a Shire stallion, bred by the Earl of Ellesmere, by which several
mares were in foal.

’

The Farm Prize Competition of 1801. 573

Eighty-nine head of cattle of all ages were in the yards,
some being tied up to feed. Others in the covered yard were
in rather poor condition, as their food had been reduced after
the loss of several by black leg.

The ewes and lambs ran on the seeds in the summer, and,
like others round Doncaster, had turned a little lame after clip
day. All the male lambs are kept as rams, being highly fed,
and producing great weight for the Manchester market in spring.
Some of the gimmers had been valued and sent to another
farm, which is held in partnership with a late pupil.

Mrs. Parkin and her daughters take great interest in the
dairy, priding themselves on their production of butter, and, with
the poultry and eggs, add a good round sum to the treasury,

Cuass I,

The remaining farm in this class is occupied by Mr. J. Lodge,
of Robin Hood’s Wall, near Doncaster, under Mr. Yarborough,
of Camps Mount, who also owns the second-prize farm in Class
If. The total acreage is 331 acres, 72 being grass, and as the
occupation is similarly worked to the two other farms in this class
near Doncaster, only very few remarks on it will be necessary.

The swedes, as on another competing farm adjoining, were
nearly all sound, which we also attribute to the magnesian lime-
stone. Twenty acres of potatoes are grown, and are well dunged,
receiving 44 cwt. guano, or 7 to 8 cwi. blood and bone manure,
Mr. Lodge luckily kept his potatoes until the spring, making in
the end a good figure per acre. The mangel was a very nice
plant, and although badly requiring singling, was the best
piece seen in the whole round.

Cuass II.—First Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr. Andrew Merryweather, Whiston, Rotherham.

This farm consists of 114 acres, of which 88 are arable and
the remainder grass. Two arable fields were not eligible for
competition, having been only one year in occupation,

The land is fairly light. Turnips and sheep, with barley as
the chief cereal, are the staple products of the farm, which has a
subsoil of gritstone, and clay in places.

No sheep are bred on the place, but are bought at the fairs,
In this instance 122 hogs came from the York fortnightly
market, costing 39s. each, and being a cross between a Scotch
ewe and Leicester ram, the produce being again crossed with
the Wensleydale, and these are called “Mugs.” They wera

574 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

doing well on swedes, with 3 lb. linseed cake and cut clover,
Mr. Merryweather feeds them off as fast as he can, and them
buys others in the spring for the seeds, which when ready are
treated likewise.

_ About 33 head of cattle were kept in the yards, consis sting
of a very useful Shorthorn bull, 14 cows or heifers in milk orin
calf, 4 bullocks feeding, and 15 others, including several calves
which were being reared at the house upon the old milk.

Butter is usually made and sold in the neighbourhood, a
little new milk being sometimes fetched from the door at three-
pence per quart.

Five horses are kept for the farm, including one filly two
years old.

In the stackyard a very good Dutch barn, 84 feet by 30 feet,
had been erected by the landlord at a cost of about 1301., the
tenant agreeing to pay interest at 6 per.cent.

The fallow land was all in very good order, and on one
piece, which was most beautifully ridged, a very good piece of
swedes and two acres of mangel were waiting to be singled.

Wheat, except one corner of a field which had turned out
with the frost, looked very well. The oats and barley had eyvi-
dently suffered from the long-continued dry weather, and would
no doubt have been better with a more genial spring.
~ A good crop of clover and rye-grass would be ready to mow
in a short time. It is customary to sow a little nitrate of soda
in one corner of the field, which is mown every day for use in
the yards, the rye-grass being much increased thereby, whilst
the clover certainly looked darker for it, and the tenant was sure
of a heavier cut. At any rate a great weight was grown per
acre, and considerably scoured some young beasts in the yard,
perhaps from the over succulence produced by the nitrate of
soda.

Large quantities of manure are fetched from Rotherham,
and used on the swedes and mangel at the rate of 12 to 14
loads per acre, together with 3 cwt. bone dust and 2 ewt. of
mineral superphosphate. Linseed and cotton-cake were used
to the extent of 150/.-worth in the year 1890-91, also about:
300 bushels of ground corn of various sorts.

Two pieces of good permanent grass are, one of them near
home, used to turn the cows and heifers into, whilst the other
at a little distance has a few two-year-old bullocks grazing, as
well as the horses at night.

More than 20 acres of the stronger portion of the farm Liaw
been at different periods during the last six years sown with
permanent grass seeds, some with mixtures supplied by the

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 575

great seed establishments, and others with one quarter of Peni-
stone hay seed and a few clovers. Very particular attention was
given to try to determine which pieces were the best, but after
walking them over at the three visits it was difficult to decide,
although the seeds in one case had cost perhaps nearly double
those in the other.

- In the course of years the farm will be much improved by
the addition of these new grass fields, especially as considerable
amounts of good manure are put on every other year, as well as
dissolved bones and mineral superphosphate sometimes.

Most admirable sets of accounts are kept, and Mr. Merry-
weather, being a valver as well as a farmer, goes over every field
separately, putting himself in the position as if he were leaving.
A few items which he kindly allowed to be taken from his note-
book may be interesting.

Particulars were shown of 9 acres 2 roods 22 poles of swedes,
mangel, white turnips, and cabbages, all well manured, being
charged against the incoming tenant at 1041. 9s. 1d., deductions,
however, being allowed thus: one acre white turnips drawn,
3l.; two acres mangel drawn, 8/.; two roods cabbages eaten on,
1l., and 5 acres 3 roods 20 poles swedes half drawn and half
eaten on, 171. 12s. 6d., making altogether 291. 12s. 6d., leaving
nearly 75/., a stiff sum of roughly 8/. per acre to pay for that
field on entry. Instead of the protracted valuations of following
crop the condition allowauces prevailing around Sheffield and
Rotherham are much more simple, up to 60s. per acre being

-awarded .according to the state of the field, in addition to
charges for seed, labour, &c.

Permanent grass, if properly laid down, commences at 60s.
per acre at the end of the first or second year, increasing 5s.
per acre per annum up to 5/., in addition to manures on the
three years principle if pastured, and two years if mown.

Ciass II.—Srconp Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr. John Stanley, Campsall, Doncaster.

The village of Campsall is most pleasantly situated six or
seyen miles north of Doncaster. The landlord of this farm, Mr,
G. B. C. Yarborough, who resides here at Camps Mount, takes
great and active interest in agriculture, especially assisting at
Doncaster with the recent Show, and with the Local Shire Horse
Society ; whilst anything that will benefit his tenants and neigh-
bours is sure to have his name associated with it.

This holding, which consists of 125 acres arable and 34
acres pasture, is of good red soil, overlying the magnesian lime-

Cr

76 The Furm Prize Competition of 1891.

stone, and is well adapted for growing turnips and barley, also
potatoes of very good quality. The fields, all of suitable size,
are in a ring fence, bounded on all sides by a road, and the
hedges uniform, with but few gaps. A good rent is paid,
especially considering the heavy payments customary on enter-
ing a farm in this neighbourhood.

Mr. Stanley, being a carpenter by trade, has worked his
way up to the position he now holds. After running a threshing
machine for hire a few years he was enabled to take this farm.

The yery small sum of 350/. was paid at the commencement,
but that was owing to the exceedingly bad condition, and cross
cropping had been practised. Had everything been well done,
perhaps double that amount might have been decided upon by
the valuers, and the competitor thinks this would have been to
his advantage, as he could have grown good crops at once.

Very tidy and compact buildings are situated at one end of
this farm in the village, containing sufficient accommodation for
the stock, as well as a new set of horse gear and chaff-cutter.
The landlord a short time ago put up a large covered yard,
the end of which adjoins the grass paddock, making a con-
venient place for young stock to run in and out of during the
summer.

A four-course system of farming is with slight variation
followed on the land: (1) turnips or potatoes; (2) barley;
(3) seeds grazed and mown, or pease; (4) wheat and oats. The
inclusion of a pea crop to a small extent in the rotation is
hazardous, but sometimes exceedingly remunerative. In a
good season, if the pods are ready just when others are, the
returns of the commission men are the reverse of pleasant; on
the other hand, if the crop can be thrown on the market either
very early or very late in the season, then a satisfactory price is
obtained, and at such times buyers come round and bid for the
lot by the acre, and pull them as well.

Hight acres last season yielded 76 bags per acre at 6s. per
bag, which amounts to a good sum. This year the haulm is
thin in one portion, so a passing buyer has only bid 10/. per
acre; but Mr. Stanley is holding out, as he can market them
himself if the price be not advanced. Labour is very plentiful
for the picking, women coming from all the district round,
and making very good wages at ‘the rate of one penny per peck
of nine pounds.

A little fresh seed had been purchased for one field, showing:
great superiority in the crop for the extra expense, although the
same variety, Laxton’s Supreme.

During the picking, men are following closely behind, heaping.

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 577

the haulm, which if in good order makes good stuff for the cattle

_ in winter. This crop being got off early, an opportunity is afforded
for cleaning the land ready for sowing with wheat.

In the winter, about 40 ewes are kept on the turnips, and

late in June 60 lambs were running with them on the seeds,

_ which afforded good pasture.

The lambs were an even lot, but the ewes were most of
them exceedingly fat. They looked in much better condition
than the lambs.

This fact was noticed on many of the farms inspected, and
may be a peculiarity of the season. My colleague, however,
thought the reason was letting the ewes and lambs feed together,
instead of allowing the lambs to run forward so as to get the
best of the feed, and the ewes following.

A large quantity of the “Fleshings” manure previously
mentioned (page 549) was spread over the whole of the fallow
land, some 113 tons being purchased this year, costing about
13s. per ton at the nearest station.

Besides this, 10 loads of manure are put into the ridges for
swedes, and 7 tons for white turnips, 5 cwt. of bone manure,
costing 6/. 15s. per ton, being sown with the seed.

The Judges were much struck with the keeping qualities of
the swedes on this and the adjoining farm, for although every
other competitor complained of damage done by the frost, yet
here the exception was to find one that was not sound. The pre-
vious treatment was considered, but as field after field, although
tilled differently, showed power to resist frost, the cause was put
down to the magnesian limestone on which this land rests; at
any rate, Mr. Stanley declares he will never store his swedes,
except a certain proportion for the cattle in the yards.

The potato land receives, besides 20 one-horse loads of dung,
from 5 to 6 cwt. of bone manure.

The potatoes, mangel, and swedes were showing fairly well
in June, but the rains and sun together had so operated that a
very nasty crust had formed on the land, which sadly needed
breaking both by horse and hand.

Nice pieces of wheat and oats were seen, the latter being
sown on seed land, which in the winter was being most beauti-
fully ploughed and pressed.

The barley on some of the turnip land did not look so well
as one would expect, being yellow and unkind, and perhaps a
victim of the ungenial spring.

The corn had been weeded once, and was going to be looked
over again, as that persistent weed the ketlock (charlock) was
showing itself afresh,

578 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

Crass JII.—First Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr. T. D. Strickland, Carlton Miniott, Thirsk.
The village of Carlton Miniott, in and around which lies

the farm in the occupation of Mr. Strickland, is two miles from
Thirsk station, and equally near the very good weekly auction of

fat cattle, sheep, &c. These very convenient adjuncts are well

taken advantage of by this competitor, as he not only sells a very
large quantity of fat beef and mutton at the mart, but—as
will be seen subsequently—he is constantly using the station
to export specimens of his pedigree pigs to foreign lands, as well
as to friends nearer home.

On our arrival at 8.25 a.m., we found the tenant himself
waiting, as promised, to drive us to the buildings and the
different fields, which might with profit be situated more
closely together, and nearer to the homestead.

The first glance at the premises showed that ‘ trim and tidy”
was the rule on this part of the holding. Many substantial and
permanent improvements also revealed themselves, and had
been done at the sole cost of the tenant.

_ Conspicuous among the latter was an excellent covered
yard—77 feet by 54 feet—the roof of which was made of inch
boards, with grooves near the edges, as described in the Journal,
(Vol. L., 3rd series, 1890, page 479), and supported by thick larch
posts. The sides of the yard were, in our opinion, too open, which
fact was proved, as during the March winds movable wooden
shutters had been added, greatly increasing the comfort of the
stock, whilst the interspacing of the roofing boards provided
ample ventilation. The total expense incurred in covering this
yard, including the bricklayer, joiner, and plumber, was
771. 10s.; the tenant having an agreement with his landlord

that an allowance would be made at the expiration»of the

tenancy.

An implement shed of ample dimensions had been erected
in the stackyard, the gates and fences about which and in the
fields were of excellent description and well painted.

Two other small sets of buildings very near to the station’

were used principally for the accommodation of the large number
of pigs of various breeds.

The home paddocks, consisting of about 10 acres, are not-so-
good perhaps as they will be, having only been laid down nine’

or ten years by a former tenant. They, however, get each year

a liberal allowance of compost, consisting of gas lime, road

scrapings, &c., also in the autumn 7 cwt. per acre of basic

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 579

slag, and this spring 3 cwt. of grass manure. The phos-
phate in the slag is said to have visibly added to the plant of
clover.

A somewhat excessive quantity of manure is used. The
mangel received per acre, in February, 7 cwt. salt, and later
30 loads of manure, whilst 24 cwt. of dissolved bones were
drilled with the seed. 14 cwt. of nitrate of soda will be sown at
two periods after singling.

For the swedes 20 loads of manure and 3 ewt. of special
dissolved bones were used. A large tonnage of roots should be
grown with these dressings, and even then they will cost a high
price per ton.

The land being rather light, it is not considered profitable to
grow wheat, so none is sown.

Except in one field, very good pastures of seeds were being
grazed by sheep, and a few steers; the latter for feeding in the
covered yard next winter. .

Seven pounds of white clover, 3 of red, 1 of cow-grass, 2 of
alsike, and 2 of Italian rye-grass, had been used per acre, and
dressed this spring with 2 cwt. dissolved bones and 1 ewt.
nitrate of soda. The latter would no doubt flush the rye-grass,
but would be of questionable utility for the clover. Similar
quantities have been sown again this spring, and a nice plant
is to be seen amongst the corn.

Without giving the number of stock at each visit, it may be
said that, on June 15, Mr. Strickland had 4 useful horses for the

farm, besides 3 others and a foal, 6 two-year-old bnllocks, 3

fifteen-month heifers, 3 cows, 121 feeding sheep, 20 Wensleydale
ewes with 30 lambs, 3 rams, and 138 pigs.

At the first visit, a dozen useful bullocks were having
one cake per day in the covered yard, with meal added and
roots ; these have all been sold at about 211. each. The hogs.
feeding on the swedes had, with the help of 1 lb. of mixed cake,
been nearly all sold by auction, twenty per week, at 48s. to 54s.
each clipped. These sheep were bought at York, being a cross
from a Bamshire! ewe and an Oxford or Hampshire ram, as those
are at present on the seeds.

. A small flock of 20 pure Wensleydale ewes are now run-
ning with 30 lambs, and it is intended to keep these pure by the
addition of the best blood. A ready sale for the rams in the
autumn is expected.

As many a fallen foe in the arena of the showyard knows

“.” Bamshire sheep are described in the Journal, Vol. XIX., Second Series,
1883, page 513, '

580 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

to his cost, Mr. Strickland’s piéce de résistance is the pig, a
a great portion of the above mixed farming, and very many
the buildings, are subservient to the raising of pedigree pigs for
sale for stock purposes. These are constantly being sent abroad
to Germany, Sweden, France, Canada, and South America, besides
our own country.

During our visits we usually saw something approaching 140
pigs of all kinds, consisting of 30 Large White sows, 20 Middle
White breed, and 10 Berkshires, 6 boars being kept of the best —
kind that can be got, one just purchased, Thirsk Champion 20th,
costing 211. 7s. 6d. at ten months old.

None of the pigs are sold fat, but merely in store condition ;
six were going in June to Germany at 6 guineas each; indeed,
although the J udges thought rather too many were kept, Mr.
Strickland manages to sell nearly all as fast as they can be
grown to a breeding age.

Prizes altogether, but chiefly for pigs, have been won since
1874 to the value of 4,3261., the sales of pigs alone in 1889
amounting to 1,3631. 18s. 1ld., and in 1890 to 1,9801,

Ciass III.—Seconp Prize Farm,
Occupied by Mr, William Walsh, Gilstead, near Bingley.

This tenant, who has been on his holding about twenty
years, renting it principally from Mr. F. S. Powell, M.P., of
Horton Hall, Bradford, makes milk his chief source of income,
and rightly so, as living only one mile from Bingley, or less,
there appears to be no difficulty in finding a good wholesale
customer, who fetches it twice daily from the door, at eight-
pence per gallon. Thus, railway rates, terminals, and the
chance of missing the early morning milk train, are not
troublesome points for the consideration of Mr. Walsh.

About 30 useful cows are generally kept, 24 of them in
milk; the rest are either being dried off previous to calving,
or are a small lot of purchased ones, which seem to be continu-
ally coming on to the farm, firstly to keep up the guarantee of
40 gallons per day, and secondly to turn an honest penny by
the sale of a good one now and then at a profit for the few weeks’
keep.

Two had thus been sold on our third visit for 271. and 231.
10s., and a very good type of animal they were, especially the
former ; a few such cows would improve many a herd.

_ A good Shorthorn bull is kept, and the present one has.
shes his quality by taking a third prize at the recent ae
show

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 581

Very liberal rations are given to force the supply of milk,
both summer and winter, this being necessitated by the large
number of stock of all kinds. When the cows are out at grass
(at the rate of one per acre) food is added as follows: } bushel
grains, 7 lb. bean or pea meal, and, early in spring to prevent
looseness, 24 lb. cotton cake per head.

In winter, besides long hay ad libitum in the racks, six or
eight good swedes are given three times per day, whole; also
2 bushel grains, 7 lb. bean or pea meal, and 25 lb. linseed,
cotton, or a well-known mixed cake, the latter being varied
according to the yield of milk.

A smal] quantity of locust meal is purchased as a condiment
for an ailing cow when required. Milk is consumed in larger
quantities on certain days of the week, as much is required to
make bread, and good bread is made in almost every home
around Bingley, new milk being greatly used, not so much
in preference to old, but that the latter cannot be obtained.
Mr. Walsh’s daughter was cross-questioned upon this interest-
ing point, with the result that Bingley and its neighbourhood
were considered a good field for the sale of separated milk,
which, as is proved very largely in Scotland, makes good
bread.

The sheep kept by Mr. Walsh upon his farm were certainly
a curiosity, if nothing else, to unaccustomed eyes, the barns
being divided into pens, and occupied by great old Lonk and
Leicester rams, and a few gimmers of the latter breed. Out

on the pastures 42 ewes were running with 59 lambs, all cross

bred in some way or other, and being pushed on with the help
of linseed cake, pease, and split maize, all being expected to be
sold as fat lamb.

Eight prizes had been taken at the Otley show for sheep;
indeed, a clothes-basketful of cards was on view, a few special
Windsor ones hanging on the walls.

Nearly all the grass land on the farm has been laid down
during the present tenure, with 8 to 12 bushels of Penistone
hay seed, and 15 lb. of mixed clover per acre, then liberally
manured by the use of 50 or 60 tons of sud-cake manure per
annum ; also on some of the fields 4 tons of lime per acre at
intervals of six or seven years. This and the large quantity of
purchased foods combine to much improve the new grass, which
had a nice bottom, and was full of clover.

The four-course system is followed on the arable land, oats
being grown after the seeds, and not wheat. Swedes, to draw
off, entirely occupy the fallows, manured with heavy dressings
fetched 53 miles from the stables of Bradford, 2s, 6d. per cart

582 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

being paid, and as many as 200 loads used in a season. | No
artificial manures of any kind are purchased.

Mr. Walsh is gradually getting the larger portion of the
farm down to grass, twenty-five acres only, or one-third, being
left as arable. It is composed of very small fields, scattered
around the village and on Gilstead Moor, a very objectionable
feature in one of them consisting of three shafts for the raising
of building and flag stones—very profitable, perhaps, for the
landlard, but spoiling the field for working.

A very good piece of mixed seeds, nearly ready for mowing,
was seen. Some of this is occasionally sold, making with a
portion of the straw 1501.

The oats were not looking too well, having grubbed, and a
portion having been resown with tares. Another part, evidently
in need of draining, was thus a more easy prey to the severe
late frosts of last spring.

As only a very small portion of the corn grown is sold,
being used for the cows and other stock, with the addition
of very large quantities of purchased foods, this competitor
curiously enough complains of the recent rise in the price of
cereals, instead of rejoicing as we on our corn farms do. But it
is quite natural, as 10/. to 12/. per week is often spent in hand
foods, the rise on which more than represents any ae
accruing from the sale of a few oats.

Ciass IfT.—Tuirp Prize Farm,

Occupied by Messrs. J. & W. Hincheliff, Lady Oak Farm, Eney,
Wakefield,

The two brothers who occupy this rather strong, capa
farm, live at Skelmanthorpe, a few miles away, but seem to take
great interest in agriculture, although they have a tallow-
chandlers’ business, w which occupies most of their time.

Like the Second Prize Farm in this class, nearly the whole
of the land is given up to the production of milk, and although
fifty-four acres are returned as arable and twenty-eight as gTass,
yet many of the fields have been and are sown down with per-
manent grass seeds, with a view, if a good plant be obtained, of
remaining so.

A minute examination was made of these new grass fields,
in different stages, and sown with different seeds. One on
entering the farm in 1885 was simply seeds, being lightly
resown with a fresh mixture well harrowed i in; a fair plant, ie
now, after six or seven years, still to be seen.

Other pieces were laid down with 2 qrs. of Penistone 1

hes

The Farm Prize Competition of 1891. 583

seeds, 4 lb. red clover, 4 lb. white, 4 Ib. alsike, 3 lb. cow-grass,
1 Ib. rib-grass, 1 1b. timothy, } bushel perennial rye-grass.

A farther field had a portion as above, then a seed-mer-
chant’s own prescription, another portion having a mixture
applied as below, and, although grazed the same as the others,
it seemed by far the best piece.

1 1b. Red clover. 10 1b. Cocksfoot.

83lb. White clover. 41b. Meadow fescue.
3lb. Alsike. 2 1b. Crested dogstail.
2b. Trefoil. 2 lb. Meadow foxtail.
1 1b, Rib-grass. 3 1b. Tall fescue.

2\ib. Timothy. - $b. Yarrow.

Another farm of 100 acres adjoining, and under the same
landlord, has been taken this spring, and containing as it does
soil more suitable-for growing turnips, nearly the whole of-the
Lady Oak occupation will be left down in grass, which will be
far better than attempting to grow roots, as at the best it is
very strong and unkind land for such purposes. The coal pits,
too, on the land do not improve the value from an agricultural
point of view, as the miners have footpaths in all directions, the
tenants complaining that in consequence a large sum has to be
expended in keeping stiles and hedges in repair.

On our first visit we found 24 cows tied in the stalls, with-
out much straw for their comfort, peat moss litter being used to
some extent. The resulting manure is taken out into a covered

shed, thus preserving its qualities.

No bull is kept, as each cow as soon as purchased at market
is fed not only for milk but for beef, most liberal and varied
rations being supplied, consisting of 8 or 10 Ib. of a well-known
meal, a few turnips, brewers’ grains, and chopped straw, over all
of which a soup consisting of oats and creed linseed is thrown
slightly warm. Large purchases are made of other foods, and
viven at different times as a change.

From the above it will be seen that the cows are in good
condition, aud as the yield of each falls to 8 or 10 pints per
day it is drafted off to the butchers, and generally at a price
equal to the original purchase money.

When running out on the newly-laid grass-land, a large
supply of purchased foods was still given to keep up the supply
of 40 gallons of milk per day, which is sent to Huddersfield at
9d. per gallon in summer and 10d, in winter, being forwarded.
by rail morning and evening from the station distant half a mile,
the rate per gallon being one halfpenny.

The Sunday morning’s milk is set up, and cream sold if
possible, or it is given to the calves, a few of which are fed to
consume the daily surplus milk, if any.

584 The Farm Prize Competition of 1891.

About 40 ewes were running on the grass-land at our
first visit, but in June they and their 54 lambs were mixed
with about 70 more belonging to and purchased for the new
farm adjoining. ‘The original stock was a cross between a
Border Leicester and a Cheviot,

The arable land, so strong and uninviting, does not look
in very good condition, the oats in some places having grubbed,
so that the system followed, of cropping the land as well as
possible once round and then sowing down to grass, is no doubt
the best way out of the difficulty. It is easy to believe that
the place has much improved during the present tenure of six
years,

Crass III,

The remaining farm in Class III. is situated at Barmborough,
near Doncaster, and is occupied by Mr. Samuel Kent, who must
be much troubled by the widely scattered fields, not to speak of
the strong tenacious clay soil which he has to fight against. The
land was not quite so clean in some places as it should have
been, although an excellent plant of swedes was just becoming
ready for the hoe. Some of the corn also was a good crop.

A piece of oats and peas mixed looked like yielding plenty
of grain, and if only it can be harvested in fine weather, a con-
stant supply of oat and pea straw will be available for chopping
during the winter, than which nothing can be nicer.

A very good yearling Shire colt was running in the home
paddock, but Mr. Kent was not quite sure if he could get it into
the stud-book.

A few cows are kept, and butter is sold; calves are reared
also, but being so near a large mining population, better
returns might be made by the regular supply of new milk, which
seems to command a good price in the neighbourhood.

Mr. Kent by hard work makes a living on this ungtateful
soil, and the Judges could only wish he had a better and more
compact holding.

CONCLUSION.

The above short account of the different farms cannot be
closed without recording the thanks of the Judges to each
competitor for his kindness in giving them every assistance in
their pleasant if somewhat hard work, and they now know by the
great hospitality they received what is meant by a real “ York-

shire welcome.”
W. C. Brown.

Official iReports.

THE COMPARATIVE FEEDING VALUES OF
DECORTICATED AND UNDECORTICATED
COTTON-CAKE.

A record of feeding experiments conducted at the Society’s Experi-
mental Farm, Woburn, in the years 1888-9 and 1890-1.

AN important question, but one upon which practical farmers are
not agreed, is, whether decorticated or undecorticated cake is the
better form in which to make use of the refuse cotton-seed for the
purpose of feeding stock. Both, it is admitted, are valuable
and economical foods, but some feeders miaintain that the unde-
corticated or common cotton-cake is the safer and better to use,
because it is free from the hardness and the indigestible lumps
which too often characterise the decorticated cake, and because the
husk left with it imparts a wholesome astringency tothe diet. Others
who have had experience of the decorticated cake are ready, on the
contrary, to maintain that, if reasonable precaution be exercised,
and the worst class of cake be avoided, there is no difficulty in
feeding with it, and that it will amply repay the trouble and givea
decidedly better result.

To aid in settling such questions is manifestly the work of an
experimental farm such as that which the Society, through the
generosity of the Duke of Bedford, is enabled to carry on at Woburn.
The results of trials made in two different years, in the one
case with Hereford cattle, in the other with Shorthorns, are now
given. It may be said that the past experience at Woburn has
been to show that, from the commencement in 1877 to the present
time, although decorticated cotton cake has been used every year,
and only the ordinary quality purchased that happened to be in the
market at the time, no difficulty whatever with, or harm resulting
from the use of, decorticated cotton-cake has been experienced
throughout.

ExpERIMENT of 1888-9.

The bullocks were eight in number, all Herefords, three years old,
and they cost, in October 1888, 177. 9s. each. The specially con-
structed feeding-boxes, holding in all eight beasts, were used. Four

VOL. II. T. S.—7 QQ

586 The Comparative Feeding Values of

bullocks, to be fed on decorticated cake, were kept in the left-han
boxes, and the other four, to be fed with common cotton-cake, int he
Laaaeage boxes. The bullocks were selected with care, there g
only 2 lb. difference between the total weights of each set of four.
The foods given to each lot were as follows :—

Left-side boxes. Right-side boxes.
Decorticated cotton-cake. , Undecorticated cotton-cake.
Linseed-cake. Linseed-cake.

Barley. Barley.
Roots and hay-chaff ad lib. Roots and hay-chaff ad lib.

Thus, the only difference between the foods was in the kind of
cotton-cake used in either case. Samples of the foods were taken
weekly, and the monthly portions analysed. The following table
gives the average composition of the foods throughout the whole time
of feeding :—

ticated | ticated |Linseed-] Barley,
cotton-| cotton- | cake | grittled

Hay-
chaff

Moisture . - 2 = - 964] 13°85 | 12°19} 18°55 | 15-06
a. . . | 14°82 463 | 10°95} 1°91; —

1 Albuminous compounds 5 44-31] 24-21 | 27-25) 10°74} 9-90
Sugar, starch, digestible fibre, &e. 20°56 | 30°76 | 33°53} 63-28 | 41-43
Woody fibre - = 4:42) 21°63 8-89] 3:12) 24:76
Mineral matter (ash) . - = 6-25! 4:92] 7:19] 2-40} 885

_— ee

100-00 | 100-00 {100-00 |100-00 |100-00 00-00

1 Containing nitrogen. e «| sve 3°87 | 437] 1°72

By making, as was done here, all the foods alike with one
exception, it enabled, as far as was possible, any difference in the
final weights to be attributed to the cotton-cake, the only varying
constituent. At the same time, it is undesirable in a feeding experi-
ment to bind animals down to eat this or that particular quantity of
food ; therefore, while the additional or artificial foods were inéreased
equally i in both cases, the bullocks were allowed to have both roots
and hay-chaff in the quantities which they would clean up well, 7.4.
practically ad Jibitum. The amounts given were, however, weighed
out to them, and any not consumed at the end of the day was
weighed back. The experiment lasted the somewhat long period of
145, days, viz. from December 20, 1888, to May 14, 1889, and was
divided into three portions, at the end of each of which, viz.,
February 20, March 28, and May 14, the beasts were weighed. The
— feeding with 4 Ib. of barley (grittled), 231b. of linseed-cake,
and 2 2 1b. of ‘either kind of cotton-cake per head daily. During the
second period the barley was kept the same, the linseed-cake in-
creased to 3 lb., as also the cotton-cake. In the final period
barley and linseed-cake were kept the same, but the cotton-cake wa
increased gradually until on April 14 it reached 5 Ib. per he

Decorticated and Undecorticated Cotton-calke. 587

‘daily. Mangel was substituted for swedes on March 28. The
quantity of roots consumed throughout was, on an average, 401b. per
head daily, and of hay-chaff 8? lb. to 91b. The water given was
also weighed ; more was drunk by the beasts taking decorticated
cake than by the others, the relation being, in the first and second
periods 351b. as against 25 lb., and in the third period 39 Ib. as
-against 32 lb. daily each animal.

At the conclusion of the experiment five well-known stock-
farmers of experience were invited to the farm, in order to place
their estimates on the eight animals previous to their being weighed.
A table of the results by the two methods, and showing how very
far wrong the estimates were, is given in a paper by Mr. Albert
Pell on “ Weighing Live-stock” (Journal R.A.S.E., Second Series,
Vol. XXV., Part II. (1889), p. 463]. The bullocks were weighed on
May 14, then fasted one day and the fasted live-weights again taken.
After this the beasts were slaughtered and the carcass weights re-
corded, all the operations being conducted by Mr. Fraser, the able
manager of the experimental farm at that time.

The following table gives the live-weights of each bullock and of
each set of bullocks at the commencement and at the end of the
various periods of feeding, and also the respective gains obtained :—

I.—Four Hereford Bullocks fed on Decorticated Cotton-cake
with other Foods (alike in both cases).

| oWeigttsat | weightson | Weightson | Weights Gato anes

No. | oper. 20, 1888” Feb. 20, 1839 | March 28 May it by oe
ewt. qr. Ib. ewt. qr. Ib. | ewt. qr. Ib. ewt. qr. Ib. ewt. qr. Ib.

1 9 3 26 1l 3 4 12 2 12 1S Eo 34h
2 10 0 22 1b 3% 0 12 0 22 13) -O-7 2 ones
eae vi Bi 42 Es O...0 ll 210 12 2 0 2 eG
4 9 0 0 10 114 i 0 12 teal rz PN it Ws

— | 38 3 4 44 318 | 47 2 0 BOT AE Eee fe25

Gain per head daily ) * Bhs oie
each period. || 276%. | 201Ib. 1-64 Ib. 2-21 Ib.

Gain per head daily during entire period, 2-21 lb.

Il.—four Hereford Bullocks fed on Undecorticated Cotton-cake
with other Foods (alike in both cases).

5 9 0 3 10 2 23 EO 1S [2a Oe 4 3 O21
6 eC, a ct i oy 11 314 12 1 14 2. (Ze
7 9 3 26 10 312 Wt 4 14 12.0 4 oe Ge
8 9 3 26 he oh SF tO O 12 210 2 212

|
|
|

38 3 6 44 1 3 46 118 490 4 | 10 026

Gain per head ei} 2-47 Ib. 1°65 lb.

each feriod . .
Gain per head daily during entire period, 1-97 lb.

1:56 Ib. | 1/97 lb.

588 ~ The Comparative Feeding Values of

The next table gives the respective fasted live-weights, and
carcass weights, with other particulars relative to the sale :—

I.— Decorticated Cotton-cake Lot.

rato nwelents Fasted live weights in / Careass Price realised
No lon Be ewt. qr. lb., also in Loss in weights Percentage! at 4s. 8d. per
; Mage, stones of 14 lb. fasting in 8lb. | of careass| stone dead-
y May 15. stones weight
cwt. qr. lb.| cwt. gr. Ib. st. Ib. | percent.| st. Ib. | percent, . a ‘
1 13 1 5-| 12 2 24=101 10 4-4 106 6 59°97 | 2418 4 :
2 1310) 7si 12) 10) 20= 997-46 68 104 6 61-43 | 24 9 0
3 12 2 0/11 3 12= 94 12 51 103 7 62°57 | 24 4 11
4 TEP WeLOl S14 87, 0 46 93 7 6166 | 2117 7 ;
ef 5:2 61:40
— |50 1 1] 47 2 14=381 0 average 409 2 average | 95 9 10
Il.—Undecorticated Cotton-cake Lot. ;
5 120 AS U0 2089) 16 (el 93 0) 5942 | 21 14 0
6 12) Dla) 3 309210 5-0 102 0 62:00 | 23 15 11
7 20a | ie 2t = Oe 0 47 98 1 61°14 | 22 17 10
8 14 PA NOs) TPA OR eb ie 0) 37 105 2 62°00 | 2411 1
i" 5-1 61:14
— |49 0 4] 46 2 2=372 2 average 398 3 average 92 18 10
st. 1b. Ss: ds
Gain of Lot I. over Lot Il.in carcass weight 10 7 Inmoney value 211 0
Gain per beast in Lot I. * x 2 63 sy 3 0 12 -9

Next are given the estimates of the carcass weights of the eight
animals, as made by the five farmers referred to before, also the
comparison of these estimates with the actual weights and prices
obtained :—

paces Farmer’s estimates of carcass weights
No weight, '
i8 Ib. stones A B Cc D Hes
st. 1b st. lb st. Ib. st. Ib. st. lb st. Ib. i
1 106 6 99 6 96 0 98 0 92 4 104 @
2 104 6 | 101 4 | 100 0 | 101 4 95 0} 110 0 ’
3 103. 7 98 0 98 0 98 0 95 0 ’ 105 0
4 93 7 95 3 94 0 91 0 87 4 98 0
5 93 0 98 0 95 0 99 6 92 4 96 0
6 102 0 100 5 100 U 96 2 95 0 107 0
7 98 1 92 6 90 0 89 2 87 4 88 0
8 105 2 98 0 97 0 98 0 95 0 96 0
Total of eight bullocks. .{| 807 5 784 0 770 771 6 740 804
Difference between actual 2 8
and estimated weights } 23° 6 375 357 67 5 3
Money loss which would
have resulted had the
eight bullocks been sold £e @.| £8 a) £e. 2S Soe eo
by estimate and not by _- 5610 3 815 7 8 7 8 | 15 16° 7) O26e
actual weight (calculated -
at 4s. 8d. per stone, the
price obtained)

Thus, from feeding four bullocks with decorticated instead of
undecorticated cotton-cake, a gain of 10 st. 7 lb. of carcass meat
resulted, or a money gain of 2/, Ils,

Decortivated and Undecorticated Cotlon-cake. 589

We must now see at what extra cost for food this was produced.
The prices of the additional foods used were :—

——o _

—_ eee | ginaing, oo. Total cost
Se 7a Sal ater Perey

Decorticated cotton-
seeake « ; .|6 9 Bperton| 410perton| 6 14 Operton
Undecorticated cot- é ‘

ton-cake : Gi.ae 6 ah 4 10 5 Gein 4 es
Linseed-cake . Dt. = 4. (On Sele (Gus
Barley . : i) De OG periqr. 2 6 per qr. (ON 208

of 448 lb.

The food consumed was as follows :—

1st period 2nd_ | 3rd period
62 ee period | 47 fee Tatal fond Average Cost of
Food Syenige oe a in whine Dad total food
ead) ieee bea: “Hea period of | daily consumed
daily daily daily ase
Ib. 1b. 1b. lb. lb. Ce ea
Lot I. (4 beasts)
Decorticated cotton- |
cake . : 273 3 4:29 1,918 33a feb lang
Linseed-cake . 5 2:73 3 3 1,674 2:88:47 - 30
Barley . . . + 4 4 | 2,320 t ii, ¥ow0
Roots 3 ‘ . | 40 40 40 23,200 | 40
Hay-chaft = . 8°73 9 9 5,154 8°88
Water. : «|. 36 34:22| 39°61 || 21,056 | 36:3
Lot IT. (4 beasts)
' Undecorticated cot-
ton-cake .. 3 273 | 3 4:29 1,918 SiS wea leit) (0)
Linseed-cake . x Mia | 3 3 1,674 2380 (oi
Barley . ‘ : 4:00 4 4 2,320 4 Tie Onae.
Roots. : . | 40°80 | 40 40 23,400 | 40°34
Hay-chafft - 3 873 | 9 9 5,154 8°88
Water . : . | 2495 | 26:05) 32:31 16,016 | 27°61

The only practical difference of cost in the foods of the two lots
is that between the two kinds of cotton-cake, and accordingly we may
briefly put it that the gain of 2/. 11s. on the four bullocks fed with
decorticated cotton-cake was obtained at the extra cost of 5s. 9d.
(51. 14s. 9d. minus 5/. 9s. Od.), or a net gain of 21. 5s. 3d. resulted
from the use of 1918 lb. of cake, equivalent to a gain of 2/. 12s. 10d.
on the use of one ton of cake. Thus, taking only the feeding value
of the cakes into account, and omitting all reference to manurial
value, it will be seen that, according to this experiment, decorticated
cotton-cake may cost 53s. per ton more than undecorticated cotton-
cake and yet produce an equal feeding effect.

I have calculated, further, the chemical composition of the
average daily diet in either case,

590 The Comparative Feeding Values of

Moisture . . . . . 64°90 65°56 ¢
_ Oil - : - - ° 152 “91 $
1 Albuminous compounds es : 6-35 5°50
Starch, sugar, digestible ae, &e. 18-91 19-48
Woody fibre . - ~ 518 601
Mineral matter (ash) . . . 2-64 2-54
100-00 100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . . . 1-08 “85
Albuminoid ratio . * about 1:4 126

Relative Manurial Value.—As the bullocks in the foregoing ex-
periment were kept in boxes, all the dung they made was saved. I
thought, therefore, it would add interest to the trial if the two lots
were kept separate and tried upon crops. Accordingly this was
done, and the manure was used for potatoes. The experiment is
described in the Journal, Third Series, Vol. IT., 1891, Part IL, pp.
376-7. Briefly, the results were :— |

Plot Manure per acre ' Produce of potatoes per acre

= | tons cwt qr. Ib.
1 12 tons dung made from decorticated cot- |

ton-cake . 5 § 13).15 59
2 12 tons dung made from. undecorticated
cotton- cake E 2 = : - i 7-6: 3

The superiority of the decorticated cake, both for feeding and
manurial purposes, was thus clearly brought out by the experiment.

Exprerment oF 1890-1.

The repetition of feeding experiments is not only desirable, but
frequently also very necessary for the elimination of accidental
factors which may have exercised an influence on the results
obtained. Besides, when an experiment has been repeated once or
twice, under varying circumstances, and the same result in the main
is arrived at, the broad general truth to be derived from.it is the
more firmly established. Seeing the importance of the result
obtained in 1888-9, it was considered desirable by the Woburn
Sub-Committee to repeat in 1890-1 the previous experiment with
decorticated and undecorticated cotton-cake upon bullocks. As
Hereford bullocks had been used before, Shorthorns were now tried.
The number of animals was also larger, for, instead of having “
four in each lot, it was intended to have nine ; and acco
only the feeding-boxes, but also the enclosed shed and the poms
yard were utilised. The yard, it may be mentioned, has shelter
provided at one end of it by a shed. Experiments have frequently
been made for the purpose of seeing whether any practical difference
has resulted from feeding in the boxes, in the shed, or in the open
yard, but no real difference has been traced, except that, of course,
in the boxes all the manure is carefully stored and no urine wasted or
superfluous litter used. Of the nine scrimalats beiiellcih d i
cotton-cake four were put in the boxes and five in the open yard,

Decorticated and Undecorticated Cotton-cake. 591

while four others in the boxes and five in the shed were fed on un-
decorticated cotton-cake. After about a month of feeding, however,
No. 1 bullock in the boxes, belonging to the decorticated cake lot,
developed a swelling in its neck which prevented it from eating its
food properly ; and, although the animal ultimately recovered and
nearly made up for lost time, it would not be fair to include it in
the experiment; therefore it is omitted throughout. In order
to avoid, as far as possible, upsetting the animals by weighing them
at the arranged intervals, the bullocks were purchased early in the
year (June 1890) and summered on the farm, being weighed several
times durmg the period in order to accustom them to being handlec.
They were 3-year-old Shorthorns when purchased, and cost 16/. 9s.
each, the average live- weight per head being 94 cwt. Throughout
the summer they only had grass and a little rough hay ; later, when
brought into the yards, the food of all was kept alike, so that they
started under equal conditions. The foods given during the experi-
ment were the same as in the 1888-9 experiments, viz. :—

Cotton-cake (Lot I. Decorticated cake. Lot II. Undecorticated cake.)
Linseed-cake

Barley (grittled)

ee pees to Feb. 15, then mangel) . , } Gd tahitents

The bullocks commenced feeding with 3 lb. of linseed-cake,
1 lb. of barley, and 2 lb. of cotton-cake per head daily. With the
view of bringing out any difference between the two kinds of cotton-
cake the above quantities of linseed-cake and barley were kept to
throughout, but the cotton-cake was gradually increased, viz. on
Jan. 11, 1891, to 4 lb., on Feb. 8 to 6 Ib., and on March 22 to
8 lb. of either cake per head daily. The experiment began on Dec.
11, 1890, and closed on April 11 and on April 18, thus lasting for
120 days and 127 days respectively. It was divided further into
periods of 40, 42, 38 (or 45) days, at the end of each of which
the bullocks were weighed. The foods consumed and the daily
average per head were :—

Total food

- Average per Cost cf tot:
Food se pain head daily food B iteer

Lot I. (8 beasts). Ib. 1 1b. Soh, Gs
Decorticated cotton-cake . 4,974 5:03 1G PAI" 9
Linseed-cake i i : 2,988 3 TI Te9
Barley . ° ‘ ° : 996 1 on Gi G
Roots . b ‘ ‘ i 40,096 40°5 —
Hay-chaff . . 7 . 16,008 16:2; —
Water . 5 Fi = : 50,176 508 —
Lot IT. (9 beasts).
Undecorticated cotton-cake 5,651 5:07 UB ll Toy « bs
Linseed-cake r 5 : 3,372 & DL OB}
La ~1,124 1 315 3
Roots , 4 is e " 42,675 29:2 —
Hay-chaff , ‘ : : 17,961 161 at
Water . P 5 a e 55,552 49:9 —

592 The Comparative Feeding Values of

The prices of the additional foods were :—

Delivered at Cost of cartage,
—— Feared iaiton ernning: rl Total cost
z £? Se" ds Se £s ad,

oe ae a 618 6perton | 6 6 perton 7 5 Oper ton
Cees isso. [80 ln
Linseed-cake | ROL EG: 5 0 ss 1-8 27 eth aig
Barley 1SeS sper quarter 2 Oper quarter | |-7 LO! SO) ae

of 448 lb.

From these prices it will be observed that, owing to market
changes, the decorticated cotton-cake cost 11s. per ton more than in
1889-9, and the undecorticated cake 17s. 4d. per ton less, there
being now a difference of 35s. per ton between the prices of the two
kinds of cake.

Samples of the foods were taken weekly and analysed monthly
as before.

The following tablé gives the average composition of the cotton-
cake used :—

Decorticated Undecorticate1

cotton-cake cotton-cake
Moisture , , 4 : . 9:04 14:44
Oil : : 5 . 12-41 5:18
1 Albuminous compounds : . 45°83 22:35
Digestible fibre, &c. . 5 . 21°54 31:38
Woody fibre : : ; » 20:05 21:51
Mineral matter (ash) . : oats 514
100:00 100-00
1 Containing nitrogen . - 033 3°58

The eighteen (subsequently only seventeen) bullocks were weighed
on Dee. 11, 1890, and divided into two lots of equal aggregate weight ;
they were weighed subsequently on Jan. 21, 1891, March 4, and
April 11 and 18. It being found impossible to dispose of so many
as seventeen or eighteen bullocks at one time, and have their carcasses
all kept separate, it was arranged to kill one half the number one week
and the remainder the next. Accordingly, eight bullocks were weighed
on the farm on April 11, then fasted for twenty-four hours and their
fasted live-weights recorded. They were given a.feed and sent
off by train to Oxford, being killed there on April 14 ; the several
quarters, after ‘‘dressing,” were carefully labelled and weighed
the next morning. Mr. Elliott, the manager of the experiiental
farm, was present all the time and saw to the whole work being
accurately carried out. The same procedure was followed with the
remaining nine bullocks on April 18 and succeeding-days.

In the following table are given the live-weights at the com-
mencement and end of each period of feeding, siti the “ee
gains i— ‘

.

%

Decorticated and Undecorticated Cotton-cake.

93

13)

I.—Fight Shorthorn Bullocks fed on Decorticated Cotton-cake,
with other Foods (alike in either case).

Weights at Flare een es
lo. commence- | Weights on | Weights on | Weights on bce on Gain in live-weight
ii ment, jJan. 21,1891) March 4 April 11 April18 |; Sate
Dec. 11, 1890 in 120 days | in 127 days
ee Ee a a (Se
ewt. gr. lb, | ewt. qr. 1b. | ewt. qr. 1b. | ewt. qr.lb. | cwt. qr. 1b. | ewt. qr. 1b. | ewt. qr. lb.
1 jin boxes} [10 1 14] | taken out of — — = = ae
| experiment
2 = fae jad 01 7 | AL- 9 99 = {Ise — Sag! 7
3 3 Mir OY ad? (O"29,) 13 2 7 = 14 114 = 3 114
BM lee 10) 3 Gp. 21 1 SL | 12 0 21 12 315 = 209 —_
4 |inyard| 10 318 | 11 3 5 | 12 314 | 13 120 = 22 2 —
15 a 10051 |. it 0 0,} 11 3 8 12 1a = 2 021 —
\6 rs Segiage a 819 | 1 2:16 | 19° 1 9 = 2 1 _
}7 ms Mie 7, alt 0 2, | 13 1 5 = 14 0 24 = S017,
a ba Seer | 10 6S) 'S) | 1k 3 0 == 12 314 — Se One
+ | te) st O16 | 98 2 9 | S 0 2°) 54 1 8 90.15. |e sala
at. y 105 110 210 4
Gain per head daily each }| 241b. 2-48 Ib. 2-28 Ib. 2°38 Ib.
_ period. e ‘ 2
| Gain per head daily during entire period, 2°38 lb,
II.—Nine Shorthorn Bullocks fed on Undecorticated Cotton-cake,
with other Foods (alike in either case).
5 linboxes} 10 115 |] 11 116 | 12 025 | 12 3 4 — OM a ats =
6 a ory || il 2 t9' |) 19° 0°95 = 12 316 = 219
7 3 1) $98 | 10 325 | 11 1 2 = 1 ied as Lobe 9
8 a foe || V1, 0.25. | 12 0 14 = 19) 5 = om
9\inshed| 9 126 | 10 026 | 11-026 | 11 214 — 2 016 =
10 a Pea). 10) 9:27) 4k (3) 16) |) 19: 2 18 — 1 3)28 =
11 is ete | i) Sap | 13, 0-19 | 13. 38 — Oy ob} Bet =
12 9 9 310 | 10 012 | 11 0 O = 11 219 = i 309
13 a Piss (Op |}, 10). 3) 14. |) 1h, 2.93 — 12) N58 = 2108
= 94 213 | 98 314 |106 310 | 80 326 | 62 0 0 904 919
- Pal tec ‘ 112 3 26 18 113
alin per hea: ally eac rm x = a
yaiaacee ‘I 1°33 1b. 2°36 Ib. 1:82 Ib. 1:84 lb,

Gaiu per head daily during entire period, 1°84 1b,

The fasted live-weights, carcass weights, and other particulars
are given in the following table :—

I.—Decorticated Cotton-cake Lot (8 bullocks).

Price realised

Live- Fasted live-weights in A Carcass
No.| weights ewt. qr. 1b., also in eee am weights in Eooeee Geb a pet
on farm stones of 14 lb, BEUIRE) |Bibastones |) 0- “arcae® stone dead:
weight
ewt. qr. lb, ewt.qr.Ib. st. Ib. per cent. st. Ib. per cent. £s. d.
2) 12 312 12 1292= 99 8 3°2 103 6 59°6 22° 9 9
3| 14 114 13 2 26=109 12 45 7 58°7 24 411
4| 12 315 Le, Lo 98. 3 47 97 6 56°9 21 3 9
14} 13 1 20 12 318=103 4 39 107 7 597 23 7 7
15 | 12 114 11 3 13= 94 13 41 96 2 579 2016 3
16) 12 1 9 Il 3 8= 94 8 41 97 4 589 21-2 7
17| 14 0 24 13 2 9=108 9 45 109 0 573 23 12 6
18| 12 314 11 3 26= 95 12 69 96 7 58°3 20 19 10
— |}10 110 100 2 13=804 13 45 820 7 584 17717 2
average average
ee Se eee ee

iy _ The Feeding Values of Ootton-cake.

Il. Undecorticated Cotton-cake Lot (9 Bullocks),

. Ae Siok : Price realised

wo] are, [Fastetdivereightsin) rossin | Caroest,| Peroontage | ‘at de per

on farm stones of 14 Ib. asung |g Ib. stones pee stone dead-
weight
ewt. qr. lb. ewt. gr. lb. st. Ib. per cent. st. Ib. per cent. £2. @
5 12 3 4 12 0 8= 96 8 5°59 96 7 57°3 20 19 10
6 12 316 12 2 4=100 4 2°8 103 3 58:9 22 7aAg
7 2 2 Wl 2 13= 92 13 61 94 0 57°8 20 7 @
8 12 2 93 12 0 0= 96 0 46 99 2 59:0 21 9 7
9 ll 214 i, 1G.t4—s89F 10 43 90 0 578 1910 0
10 12 218 11 "3 16=195)| 2 61 93 2 56°0 20 4
11 13 318 13 018=105 4 54 103 2 56-0 22 7 4
12 Il 219 EL 10 =2= 88F 3 55 90 6 58°8 1913 3
13 12 2 8 1 3. 20— 95 7 50 93 6 5671 20 6 3
—|112 3 26 107 1 12=858 12 5°04 864 3 575 187 5 7

average average

Average per head 2 . a" . = 96 0 { sap } 2016 0
Gain per beast in Lot I, over each in Lot II. . 6 5 = i oe

The cost of the decorticated cake consumed during the whole
period by the eight bullocks of Lot I. was 16/. 1s. 9d., or 20. Os. 3d.
per head, and of the undecorticated cake consumed by the nine
bullocks of Lot II. 137. 17s. 5d., or 17. 10s. 10d. per head. Thus it
will be seen that a gain of 1/7. 8s. 8d. per head was obtained at an
extra expenditure of 9s, 5d., leaving a net profit of 19s. 3s. on each
beast fed upon decorticated cotton-cake. In other words, each ton
of decorticated cotton-cake used would give an increased value of
31. 9s. 4d., supposing the prices of the two cakes to be alike. This
allows, therefore, of decorticated cotton-cake being 3/. 9s. 4d. per
ton dearer than undecorticated cotton-cake in order to produce an
equal feeding effect.

This result with Shorthorn bullocks is even higher than that ob-
tained in the 1888-9 experiment, when Hereford bullocks were used,
the allowed difference of cost between the two cakes being then ascer-
tained to be 53s. per ton.

Combining the two years’ results, and without putting too much
importance upon the particular money figures, it may, I consider,
be fairly maintained that, for feeding purposes alone, and omitting
manurial value (which would put the balance still more *in favour
of the decorticated cake), decorticated cotton-cake is fully worth
50s. a ton more than undecorticated cotton-cake.

J. Auaustus VOELCKER.

595

| REPORT OF THE CONSULTING ENTOMOLOGIST.

| Dramonp-sack Moru.—The observations on this pest are included

| in the detailed report (see page 596), of the recent attack.

Mancet Fry Lear Maccor.—In the earlier part of the summer—

_ that is, during June and July—one of the most important infestations

noticed has been that of the mangel fly leaf maggot, Anthomyia bete.
This was widespread. I had notes of it from Knowle, and from

| the district near Rugby in Warwickshire, and from the Banbury

}

|

district in Oxfordshire, as present in Herts and Cambridgeshire, as
very bad near Hawkhurst, Kent, and as injurious in Devon, and
especially hurtful over the North Devon district.

_ The first observations were sent me on June 22, and the amount
of harm done was described by various correspondents in June or
early in July as “considerable damage”; “scarcely a plant
escaped ” ; and “ total failure.”

_ Notwithstanding this infestation being one which occurs more
or less every year, the injury has in many cases not been recognised
as attributable to insect attack, and inquiries have been sent me as
to its being a newly-arrived trouble to mangel. It may make some
difference in future attention to preventive measures for it to be
more generally known that this patched and blistered state of
mangel leaves is not due to damage from frost or sun-scald, but
from the working of fly maggots in the tissues between the upper
and under sides of the leaf.

. These small whitish or greenish maggots feed for about a month
in the leaves, and then mostly drop from the leaves to the ground,
where they turn to chrysalids, in small oval chestnut-brown
chrysalis cases. From these the small grey-and-black two-winged
flies come out in about ten days or a fortnight, and proceed to start
new attacks by laying their white spindle-shaped eggs beneath the
mangel leaves. Thus attack may go on all summer.

The first burst of attack is usually much the worst, as the young
plants with their small supply of leafage fail most rapidly under the
injury.

i have advised all inquirers that the best treatment appears to
be the application of stimulating dressings, which may push on
healthy leaf growth, and replace the leafage killed by the maggots
as soon as possible. These may be chosen according to requirement
of the land, but I have especially drawn attention to the successful
use of nitrate of soda as a means of saving mangel much injured by
maggot ; as shown, amongst other instances, at Rothamsted last
summer.

Cutting off maggot-infested leaves, or pieces of them, and
destroying them, answers excellently in preventing local and im-
mediate recurrence of attack, but for the time being the removal of
oe in this way is as injurious as the loss through maggot

tes, el

596 The Diamond-back Moth.

Tare Mipce Gwar (?sp.).—By the help of plentiful specimens
sent me from a locality in Surrey, I have ascertained that the
stunted and deformed growth of the flowering heads of tares, which -
sometimes does a good deal of mischief, is caused by a small maggot
of the same nature as the red maggot of wheat ; that is, by the
maggot of a small two-winged midge gnat, or scientifically a cecido-
myideous larva. The full history of this, which I hope to procure,
may possibly throw some light on that of the clover seed maggot.

Turnip SAwrty.—A single report has been sent from a district
in Lincolnshire of a turnip attack, which I found to be that of
the turnip sawfly, Athalia spinarum. ‘This infestation is quite as
destructive in its nature as that of the caterpillars of the diamond-
back moth, but from the different habits of the grubs is far more
easily checked. These sawfly grubs are at first white or greenish-
white with black heads, and, when nearly full grown, are slate colour
with some paler stripes, &c. They may be very easily distinguished
from the diamond-back caterpillars, which have only four pairs of
sucker feet, by having seven pairs of sucker feet or prolegs beneath the
body (as well as the tail pair and the claw feet, which the moth-
grubs possess also). As these sawfly grubs devour the leaves, and
do not hide under them, there is no difficulty in reaching them.

All the ordinary treatment of dressings or mechanical measures
of sheep driving, or passing scufflers with boughs on them, &c., may
be used with every hope of success. Also the fact that the sawfly
caterpillars moult every six or seven days helps us greatly, as during
this operation it is necessary for them to hold on by the kind of
sucker feet at the end of the tail to something firm, to enable them
to draw themselves out of their old coat. If they cannot do this
they perish ; therefore any measures, such as those above mentioned,
which will dislodge the caterpillars are of service.

Fruir Insects.—Observation by the Evesham Fruit Committee
and other fruit growers both of the histories, and of practical
methods of suppression of various kinds of fruit insects, has taken
place during the last two months, but time does not allow details of
these now.

ELeAnor A, ORMEROD.

July 28, 1891.

THE DIAMOND-BACK MOTH.

On August 7, I was requested by Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secretary of
the Royal Agricultural Society, to prepare a paper on the recent
attacks of caterpillars of the diamond-back moth for the forth-
coming number of the Society’s Journal. Much information was
then in my hands with regard to the localities of the first-observed
appearance of the caterpillars during the preceding weeks, and the
destructive amount of attack to turnip leafage which’ had imme-

The Diamond=back Moth. 597

“diately followed. “Further information was, however, desirable as to
whether the subsequent damage and consequent money loss from
the attack had been to the extent apprehended, and also as to what
remedies had been tricd, what was their success, and generally
any information bearing serviceably on the matter from ob-
servers acquainted with the infestation, so as to be able to distin-
guish it trustworthily from that of turnip sawfly or other attacks
to turnip leafage.

With this object I at once arranged a short circular requesting
information on the following points :—

1. Any estimate of amount of loss, whether in acreage, mileage, or money
loss on crop.

2. Any measure found to answer in lessening amount of ravage, or loss
from its effects; as, for instance, effect of fertilisers, as nitrate of soda,
superphosphate, soot, lime, &c., given as dressings to push on crop; or any
dry or fluid dressings applied to the leaves to clear the grubs, and how

Fic. 1.—PLUTELLA CRUCIFERARUM.

1, Caterpillar; 2, eggs ; 3, diamond-back moth (all natural size) ; 4, 5, diamond-back moth,
at rest and flying (magnified).*

applied, as by strawsonizer, knapsack sprayer, &c.; also effects of any
mechanical measures, as taking horse-hoes, or scufflers with boughs on them,
through the crops; or use of “ sheep-driving.”

3. Opinion asked as to benefit of heavy rains.

4, Nature of land—also how cultivated (especially whether autumn
cultivated and whether ploughed deeply)—what manure was used, and was
salt used ?

5. Was weather observably wet or dry in previous autumn, so as to
cause difficulty in cleaning the land, and was any particular weed unusually
noticeable ?

6. Is this caterpillar found to especially frequent charlock ?

7. What kinds of birds are especially useful in clearing the caterpillars ?

This circular I forwarded to my correspondents, requesting to be
favoured with replies, and in the following pages I have embodied
(with due acknowledgment to the contributors) the chief points of
the information sent me regarding this year’s attack, and also of
the information previously in my hands.

This I have divided in the following pages under three headings.

' This figure is inserted by permission of Messrs. Blackie & Son, Glasgow.

598 The Diamond-back Moth.

The first refers mainly to recorded dates of previous appearances of —

the infestation, when occurring to an injurious extent, and also
gives description and life history of this Plutella cruciferarum <
Zeller) i in its different stages.

The second gives the observations of the appearance of the attack
at various localities duri ing the past summer, with dates of obserya-
tion and names of contributors, also some special notices of observa-
tions of flocks or great numbers of moths (in some cases certainly,
in some presumably, the diamond-back moth) at various places on
the eastern coast of England and Scotland shortly before the out-
break of the caterpillars.

Under the third heading I have placed the information sent in
reply to my circular—these replies being placed respectively under
headings of inquiries to which they refer—and to these notes the
initials of the contributors whose names are, for the most part, one
in the preceding section are appended.

Previous APPEARANCES OF THE Motu In Great Britain.

The first regularly recorded appearance of the caterpillars of
the diamond-back moth in numbers suflicient to be the cause of
serious ravage is, as far as I am aware, that noted by John Curtis!
as occurring in the neighbourhood of Petersfield, Hants, in August
1837. The writer notes, however (accompanying), that he has little
doubt that it was the same kind of caterpillar which did much
harm at a locality in Forfarshire in 1826. The next notice of severe
injury after 1837? appears to be that given in detail in 1851 by
Professor I. O. Westwood (still our highest entomological authority)
of bad attacks occurring in some parts of Cornwall, and also in
Nottinghamshire, and it was from the caterpillars causing the inland
devastation that Professor Westwood identified the attack and
drew the very characteristic figures accompanying his description. .

Later on, in 1854, Mr. Stainton (the special authority on
moths of this group?) mentions that “in 1851 this insect was
excessively abundant throughout the country, and from Southend in
Essex to Belfast the same enormous multiplication of the species
was observed. The turnip growers thought some new blight had
fallen on their crops, but fortunately subsequent years have not
shown a continuance of the inordinate numbers of this species.”

In Farm Insects of John Curtis (published 1860, with preface by
the author bearing date January 1859) no further reports of in-
jurious presence are added by him to his previous notice of this
insect, therefore presumably there had not been a further visita-
tion of it.

In 1883 I had observations of damage occurring at two localities
in Yorkshire, also near King’s Lynn, Norfolk, and “Harwich, Essex ;
and in 1884 I had again Observations of diamond-back presence

1 Journal R. A. 8. E., Vol. III. (1st Series), p. 71.
2 See Gardener's Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette, 1851, p. 484.
3 Stainton’s Zineina, p. 67.

|

:
7
i
1

|

:

The Diamond-back Moth. 599

from Yorkshire, in one case near Northallerton, in the two others at
the same localities as in the previous year, namely, near Market
Weighton, and Holme Hall, York. Attack was also reported, and
as yery bad, near Inverurie, Aberdeenshire, N.B.

In the present year the infestation has been more or less present
along the eastern coast, or eastern side of the country from Dover
up to Aberdeen, and I have also observations of its presence near
Fishguard, Pembrokeshire, near Newport, Salop, and near Lytham,
Lancashire ; and also in the island of Islay, on the West of Scot-
land ; and from general information it may reasonably be presumed
to be present at many other places, including localities in the west
and north of Scotland. Later on, that is about August 14, the
presence of the infestation was announced in Ireland, especially
along the eastern coast, and I had opportunity of identifying speci-
mens from Dunleer, co. Louth.

Tn this country, though it is rare to have bad attacks, yet the
insect is common and abundant in many places during the summer.
Elsewhere it is widely distributed—being injurious even in Cape
Colony. Nearer home its presence as a Continental pest may
prove an important consideration with regard to transmission of
wind-borne infestation. That moth attack can be so brought is
well known, as, to give a single instance, in the case of the silver Y

* moth, the Plusia gamma, which crossed over from the Continent in

the summer of 1879 ; but whilst in this case, from the size of the
moths, the flocks could not escape observation, with the little
diamond-backs there is no such necessity of observance, and their
appearance was little thought of until a reason for the vast appear-
ance of caterpillars came under consideration.

DESCRIPTION OF THE Motu.

The size of these moths is only about, or rather under, two-
thirds of an inch in the spread of the wings, and to ordinary obser-
vation when at rest they appear as brownish-grey moths, about the
size of furniture moths, but long and narrow in shape. When at
rest, and the upper wings laid along the back, with the edges meet-

-ing, the pale patterns along these edges form diamond-shaped marks,

whence the English name “diamond-back moth”; if seen side-
ways, the curved up extremity of the wings as shown at 3 and 4 in
the figure on page 597 is very striking.

On minute examinatioa it will be found that the front wings
are long and narrow ; greyish brown, darker towards the centre,
but marked with some small brown spots in front, a rather broad
whitish or ochreous-grey band runs along the hinder margin, with
three rounded projections on its front edge ; this band is usually
spotted with very small dark points, and in some specimens it is
considerably obscured by the ground colour on the hinder margin
leaving the three projecting parts alone conspicuous. The hind
wings are narrow and pointed at the apex, have a long fringe, and
are of apaleashy-grey colour. The body and legs are brownish grey,

.

the head and thorax grey or ochreous grey, antenne white, with
some brown or fuscous rings,

The moths lay their eggs for the most part on the underside of
the leafage of their food plants, and we see plainly that this is the
usual ravaging ground of the caterpillars ; still, they may be present
sometimes on other parts of the plants.

The caterpillars, when full grown, are about half an inch long,
and peculiar in shape, as they taper slightly towards each ex-
tremity. This is a marked characteristic. The colour is usually a
delicate green or apple green, but this is variable ; in younger state
the larva is often yellowish or greyish, with black head.

When near full growth the head is usually grey or yellowish,
marked with small black dots, and the next ring is remarkable for
the absence of the two dark patches often found in small caterpillars
of allied kinds, and instead has a number of very minute black
specks. The rest of the segments have a few black dots, each bear-
ing a bristle, but these cannot be made out without the help of a
magnifying glass. Each of the first three segments bears a pair of
claw feet, and there are also four pairs of sucker feet beneath the
body, and another pair (which are very noticeable from being set
out somewhat obliquely) at the end of the tail extremity. When
alarmed, the caterpillar lets itself down by a thread, and swings in
the air till it thinks fit to return by the thread to its previous locality. ~

How long the caterpillar feeds I do not find noted. The nearest
approach to time I find is the observation of Dr. Taschenberg
regarding caterpillars from eggs laid in May (or found feeding about
the beginning of June) spinning their cocoons about the beginning
of July. The cocoons are formed on the under surface of the leaf-
age of the food-plants, or on stems, or amongst seeds, &c.—in fact,
in any convenient place on or near the food-plant, and vary some-
what in appearance ; sometimes they are a mere open network of
white threads, sometimes thicker, and of a somewhat boat-shaped
form, in the former case the colouring of the chrysalis can be dis-
tinctly seen through the network. The characteristic colouring
when nearly mature is whitish with some black streaks. This was
very noticeable in some cocoons sent me by Mr. Moss of Feering,
Kelvedon, Essex, from which diamond-back moths very shortly
came out. In the early part of their formation the chrysalids may
be green or brownish ; there appears to be a good deal of variety
in this matter, so far as I can judge from the many specimens which
have passed through my hands this year.

The time spent in chrysalis state is also variable. Professor —
Westwood gives it as from 10 to 18 days, John Curtis as about 11
days, and Dr. Taschenberg as about three weeks. The first two
observations were from specimens presumably under shelter, and
the difference points to the effect which weather favourable to the
development of the insect may have in increasing the prevalence —
of this scourge. The second generation begins its ravages about
August, and the chrysalids from the last brood of the year remain
in chrysalis state through the winter.

609 The Diamond-back Moth.

The Diamond-back Moth. 601

The food plants of the diamond-back caterpillars are, by prefer-
ence, turnip, cabbage, and other cruciferous plants, including not-
ably what we know in England as “ Charlock ” (Sinapis arvensis, L.),
in Scotland as “ Runches” or “ Skellocks.” It also attacks, amongst
other weeds, “Jack-by-the-hedge” (Sisymbriwm Alliaria, Scop.),
a common hedge, or ditch-side plant of early foliage ; also the Hedge
Mustard or Flixweed (Sisymbrium Sophia, L.) ; and it is stated to
attack the Saltwort (Salsola Kali, L.), a plant to be found on sandy
shores, but on inquiry I did not find that this plant had been
observed as being infested in the past summer.

The specific scientific name appended to that of Plutella (namely
cruciferarum) is a very appropriate one, as it well describes the habits
of the caterpillar in mainly feeding on cruciferous plants, namely
those of the cabbage kind. The word Xy/lostella appended to
Cerostoma, by which synonym this moth was formerly known, refers
to the habit it was in early days of observation supposed to have of
feeding on the Lonicera Xylostewm, L., the upright or two-flowered
honeysuckle, a shrub to be found in thickets, and more especially
in Sussex.!

Here, however, it seems to me that there may have been some
confusion of species. As the case stands at the present day, the
Cerostoma Xylostella of Stainton’s Manual is distinguishable by
several clear characteristics from Plutella cruciferarum.

The moth of C. Xylostella, besides being rather broadly yellowish-
white along the hinder margin of the upper wings, “‘ has an extremely
narrow oblique white streak running half across the wing beyond
the middle.” Also the caterpillars are green with a broad red stripe
on the back and are tapering to the jead end, and make a firm cocoon.?

During my own investigations, I found a very few green cater-
pillars striped with brown or reddish brown which may possibly have

- been of this kind.

The only. parasite insect foe of the diamond-back caterpillars
appears to be a small Ichneumon fly, Campoplea, given by John
Curtis as paniscus of Gravenhorst. This is only about a quarter of
an inch in length, with ovipositor almost half the length of its body,
and somewhat under half of an inch in expanse of the wings, black,
with legs for the most part reddish, and with two pairs of transparent
iridescent wings. This insect is stated by John Curtis “to be
abundant in July upon almost every umbelliferous plant in fields
and hedges, feeding in the flowers, and searching for caterpillars for
the purpose of depositing eggs in them.”

PARTICULARS OF THE RECENT ATTACK.

The following notes chiefly refer to first observations in the
summer of 1891 of the diamond-back moth caterpillars, and the
ravages on turnip leafage immediately following, and are for the
most part given with date, also with name of sender and locality of

' Manual of British Botany, by Charles Cardale Babington, F.R.S.
? See Stainton’s Zineina, p. 70.

VOL. I. T. Si—7 RR

602 The Diamond-back Moth.

attack. Several are isolated observations, but where practicable,
they are arranged under the headings of their respective counties,
and these under the headings of England and Scotland, with some __
small amount of observation of presence of the infestation in Ireland. __

ENGLAND.

Yorkshive.—The first communication which I received regarding
presence of the caterpillars of the diamond-back moth was sent me
on July 2, from Long Whins, Hunmanby, Yorks, by Mr. Robt. W.-
Smith, as follows: “ Herewith I send you leaf of a turnip with
specimens of caterpillar which has on some farms in the neighbour-
hood entirely destroyed the turnip crop and is fast destroying it on
my own.” The specimens forwarded were much eaten from the
underside so as often to leave mere patches of the upper cuticle of
the leaf remaining, and sometimes even this was eaten through. The
caterpillars accompanying were of various tints, from yellowish colour
to apple green, and of various sizes from a quarter to full grown.

On July 22, specimens of turnip and cauliflower plants infested
by diamond-back caterpillars were forwarded by Mr. Thos. Brown,
Pocklington, Yorks, with mention that, according to report received,
scores of acres were similarly affected.

On July 21, report was sent from Spiker’s Hill, West Ayton,
Yorks, on the part of Mr. Thos. Darrell, mentioning that caterpillars __
(of which specimens showing them to be diamond-backs were
subsequently sent me) were eating up all turnips and swedes in
this locality.

On July 24, specimens were sent from Lebberton, near Filey,
Yorks, by Mr. John P. Darrell, with mention that the attack had
somewhat abated since the previous communication, as some nice
showers had fallen which seemed to strengthen the plant.

Mr. G. W. Clark, auctioneer and valuer, Great Driffield, Yorks,
(from whom, as will be seen further on, I had subsequently valuable
notes as to different amount of attack on different nature of land),
forwarded me diamond-back caterpillars on July 24 as specimens of
the pest that was making havoc of the turnips.

On July 25, Mr. Pippet, agent for Lord Herries, of Ever:
ingham Park, York, forwarded specimens of badly injured turnip
leaves, together with diamond-back caterpillars, and the observation
that the attack was ruining whole fields of turnips in the district.

On July 29, inquiry was sent me by Lord Auckland from
Edenthorpe, Doncaster, regarding the diamond-back caterpillar
which had been devastating fields in that neighbourhood ; and on
July 31, Lord Auckland further mentioned that on visiting one of his
fields that morning, he found great numbers of specimens, including
caterpillars, chrysalids, and moths, but the latter form was the most
numerous. Lord Auckland was good enough at the time to reply
to some of my inquiries, which answers are placed with those with
which I was afterwards favoured by observers in reply to my
circular.

The Diamond-back Moth. 603

On July 26, Mr. Frederick Reynard reported from Sunder-
landwick, Driffield, with specimens accompanying, that the cater-
pillars had been troubling him for the last fortnight, but were
considerably less in numbers than they were a week ago.

Lincolnshire-—On July 17 Mr. William H. West, of Holbeach
Marsh, Lincolnshire, forwarded me specimens of the caterpillar of
the diamond-back moth, with the observation that it was making
terrible havoc with the swede turnip in the district. Also that it
had appeared all at once on the previous Monday (July 13) and
had attacked all crops alike, whether ghey had been affected by the
ordinary turnip fly or not, and was likely to be most disastrous to
agriculturists.

On July 20, Mr. West further wrote that the swede crop in
the district was very generally affected, and that some of the cater-
pillars had then spun their cocoons ; and, on July 29, Mr. West
wrote me that the turnips on the best lands were outgrowing the
caterpillar.

The following note, sent me on July 20, is from a resident in
N.W. Lincolnshire, in the district between the small river Ancholme
and the Trent, on the oolitic limestone. As the sender did not
wish his name affixed, I give his communication simply as from
“N. Lines.” “My swedes and many more in the district are giving
way from multitudes of caterpillars on the underside of the leaf.”
The leaves sent were not very severely injured so far—and one of
the caterpillars appeared to be just on the point of spinning up.

Mr. J. Eardley Mason, writing from the Sycamores, Alford, Lincs,
on August 9, mentioned “ diamond-back moth larva everywhere, but
damage very various in amount—nothing like what is reported from
Northumberland ; some pieces have escaped altogether.”

On August 15, I was favoured with the following information by

-Mr. W. Frankish of Limber, Ulceby. This refers to joint ravages

of the caterpillars of the turnip sawfly and of those of the diamond-
back moth. Mr. Frankish wrote: “I have looked round my three
fields of turnips which were more or less attacked by the caterpillars
of one description or the other, but I have no doubt by both, and
find they have by no means recovered their lost ground. Theswedes
(fortunately only about eleven acres) are almost worthless, and now
cannot be at the best more than one-third of an average crop, and a
crop of common turnips next to them (thirty-eight acres) in the
same field cannot be more than haif a crop, while two other fields
of common turnips, fifty-nine acres, will possibly get two-thirds of a
full crop ; turnips sown before and after these fields, about 200 acres,
have not been attacked, that is to say to any serious extent.”

“The specimens I sent to you from Brigg Show were brought to
me there by a neighbour on an adjoining farm, but I have no doubt
we all had the two enemies, as the leaves were eaten in different
Ways : one almost entirely except the centre stalk ; the other leaving
all the fibre like gossamer almost, or coarse network, but it would
be impossible for me or anyone to separate the damage by different
caterpillars,”

RR2

Norfolk.—On July 21, Mr. Edward Atmore wrote from King’s
Lynn, Norfolk, mentioning the ravages of the caterpillars of P.
cruciferarum in the N. and N.W. parts of Norfolk, near the sea ;
also that on July 18, when in fields of turnips near King’s Lynn, he
observed these insects present in all stages—that is, egg, caterpillars
of various growths, chrysalids, and moths, and already the crops had
suffered so severely that unless something was done they seemed
doomed to destruction.

Report of very bad attack was sent by Mr. John Hammond,
M.R.C.V.S., from Bale, Dereham, on July 24. Cocoons as well as *
caterpillars were now present, and it was mentioned that “seme
hundreds and possibly thousands of acres are thus affected in the
neighbourhood, and almost every turnip in a field more or less
injured, threatening a serious loss to farmers.”

Some much injured leaves were sent from Horsey, Great Yar-
mouth, with the small green caterpillars, and the remark that these
attack the leaves from beneath and take off nearly all the crop, and
shortly after, on July 21, Mr. Rising wrote further, mentioning that
the caterpillars appeared only on the underside of the leaves which,
where they had been present, had the appearance of fine muslin.
This comparison, or the term “lace-work” applied elsewhere, well
describes the fine film, formed merely of the remains of the upper
cuticle of the leaf (supported by the chief veins), to which the leaves
are reduced in bad attacks of these caterpillars.

On August 8, Mr. C. C. Rising, writing from Oxnead Hall, Nor-
wich, mentioned that his turnips were very much injured by the
diamond-back moth attack.

Suffolk and Norfolk.—One of the most important of the first
notes of attack of the diamond-back infestation which I received
was sent me on July 18, with specimens accompanying, by Mr,
Ernest Clarke, Secretary of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, on the part of Mr. Garrett Taylor, Member of Council of
R.A.S.E., of Trowse House, Norwich. Mr. Clarke wrote me that
he was informed that the caterpillars were making fearful havoc
among the swedes—in fact, a field of thirty acres had been com-
pletely eaten away—and I was urgently requested to telegraph to
Mr. Taylor at the earliest moment, as there was as much harm being
done as if there was a swarm of locusts. ’

The infestation occurred in the parishes of Whitlingham
(Norfolk) and Corton in the N.E. of Suffoik, and on July 21 Mr.
Garrett Taylor wrote me: “ Youare quite right in stating that, when
the attack does come, it is apt to sweep the whole crop before it, and
this is what it has done at Corton, near Lowestoft. We have given
a heavy dressing of paraffin with the ‘Strawsonizer’ and some of
the smaller tenants have ‘scuffled’ the swede crops with boughs, and
having had some very heavy rains we are hoping that the crop will
now outgrow the attack, where it has not been so overwhelming as
in some parts of Corton.”

On July 30, Mr. Garrett Taylor wrote me further: “I think
the best remedy that has yet been found is a mixture of three-

604 The Diamond-back Moth.

The Diamond-back Moth. 605

quarters soot and one-quarter lime, and sown on the plants. Iam glad,
however, to say that the top dressing of nitrate of soda and salt that
I have given mine, combined with the heavy rains, has already
afforded an impetus to the plants ; so much so, I think they are
growing away from the little pests and will now do, i hope.”

Two days after, that is, on Aug. 1, Mr. Taylor reported further
“that the heavy rains appear to have killed all the caterpillars, and
very few cocoons are left on the leaves, but the roots are slow in

recovering. One of our tenants at Corton used a ‘scuffler’ (filled

with boughs) on some swedes which were not hoed out; this
answered very well, and the plants are now growing well.”

Later on Mr. Garrett Taylor favoured me with further valuable
information in reply to my circular, which is given subsequently
under the respective headings of inquiry.

The following observations are for the most part notes of isolated
local or district observations, but are recorded, as it is presumable
attack was more widely distributed, and in any case they are links
in the chain of evidence showing that the infestation was present
at greater or less intervals from Aberdeen to Dover, also on our
western coast, and not wholly absent inland.

Durham.—Mr. Rowland Burdon, of Castle Eden, forwarded
specimens of the moths and caterpillars on July 24, with the
following information : ‘‘I have a field of swede turnips close to the
sea—some 12 acres—almost every leaf of which is covered with these
caterpillars, and in the same state as the enclosed specimens—and
as there are quantities of these small moths flying about, I fancy
they are the source of the mischief.

“The attack only commenced a week ago—we had dry weather
till St. Swithin, and every day till yesterday since then has been
wet more or less. The swedes would be meeting in the rows in a
fortnight, but now look as if the whole field would be spoiit.”

Essex.—About August 7 very characteristic specimens of
cocoons were sent me which had been spun on seeds of a crop of
eress near Kelvedon. These gave me the opportunity of rearing
very perfect specimens of the diamond-back moths.

Kent.—On July 31, Mr. Montague Kingsford, of Littlebourne
near Dover, reported that he had found that day in a 3-acre piece of
Brussels sprouts, that a caterpillar had ravaged the leaves from
underneath, and had almost destroyed the plant. He also found
traces of it in a field of thousand-headed cabbage some distance from.
the Brussels sprouts. Specimens sent were for the most part spun up

Salop.—On Aug. 3, Mr. T. H. Ward, of Ellerton Grange, New-
port, Salop, in reference to previous communication regarding
caterpillars affecting the turnips, forwarded me specimens which
showed the attack to be of the diamond-back caterpiliars, then ravag-
ing the leaves, and also some of the damaged leaves accompanying.

The following note refers to observation of the caterpillars at
Treathro, Fishguard, Pembrokeshire. Mr. W. Reynolds, writing on
July 28, reported ; “Enclosed I beg to send you samples of turnip

606 The Diamond-back Moth.

leaves affected by some caterpillars, some of the worst part sent ;
the crop was sown early and is very forward, but the whole of some
three acres affected.”

Lancashire.—Specimens of the same kind of attack were also
sent me by Mr. Thos. Fair from the Estate Offices, Lytham, Lanca-
shire, with information sent shortly after (on Aug. 13) that three
statute acres of turnips had been rendered quite useless by the attack.

The above notes show the infestation as to some degree present
in the western counties, though later in date, and, so far as recorded,
at very few localities ; and thus the observations circle down the
east coast and up the western country till we return to the North of
England, where attack was excessively prevalent.

Northumberland.—On July 22, swede leaves so badly injured
by the caterpillars as to be “ muslined,” 7.e. reduced to a mere thin
film of the upper cuticle of the leaf, were forwarded me from
Goswick, Beal, R.S.O., by Mr. L. Morley Crossman.

A note was also sent me by Mr. Henry Annett, from the Cottage,
Widdrington, Northumberland, with caterpillars of the diamond-
back of various ages and colours, and also injured leafage, mentioning
that large areas of turnips were apparently being ruined in the
district by means of this caterpillar.

Samples of the diamond-back moth, as well as the caterpillars,
were forwarded me on July 24 from Waren House, Belford, by Mr.
J. Burdon Sanderson, with the observation that the caterpillars were
taking the swedes and turnips in this county wholesale, some fields
being almost left as if no turnips had ever been there. They were
also en some of the writer’s koh] rabi and drum-head cabbages.

At the same date as the above, Messrs. 8. Finney and Co.,
Newecastle-on-Tyne, forwarded diamond: back caterpillars with the
following account of the widespread ravage then going forward :—

“We beg to enclose you some specimens of a caterpillar which
the last few days has almost entirely eaten up the crops of turnips
and swedes ; it has also attacked cauliflower and savoy piants ; it
seems to extend all along the sea-coast to beyond Berwick-on-Tweed,
and to go inland above five miles; the first indication was the
appearance of small white winged insects, the size of the house
moth. It is painful to see large sturdy turnip plants riddled like a
sieve, wither, and dic.”

Information was also placed in my hands by Mr. Fenwick
Wilson, of Marden, Whitley, which is given under the headings of
the points referred to, with that of other contributors, in reply to
my circular, and also under headings of observations, of great
appearances of moths preceding attack.

SCOTLAND.

Berwickshire-—On July 21, Mr. Jas. Gibson, writing from Gun-
green, Eyemouth,* N.B., mentioned that an unusual’ pest had
recently fixed on the turnip crop in that particular part of Eastern

The Diamond-back Moth. 607

Berwickshire. He observed: “Until ten days ago the turnips
appeared quite healthy and promised to be an abundant crop, but
when walking through the fields at the end of the previous week
he observed a few of the leaves drooping, and on examination found
perforations caused by a small caterpillar.” A large number of
specimens were sent me, and about three-quarters of the under
surface of the leaves might be estimated as destroyed on those least
attacked, and amongst the caterpillars there was a larger proportion,
still young, than amongst other samples which had been sent me
from more southerly localities. Mr. Gibson noted that the crop

-was then disappearing by acres, and he feared would prove a com-

plete failure. Also that the damage was not confined to Mr.
Gibson’s own farm, but various holdings in an area of three miles
appeared to be similarly affected.

A few days later Mr. Gibson further mentioned: “ All round the
coast here the plague of caterpillars is very prevalent ; inland it
is not so bad,” and on August 8 Mr. Gibson mentioned that of one
of his fields of 20 acres, there would not be 5 acres altogether left,
and even these would not yield half a crop. Another field of 16
acres would not have more than 4 acres in the whole field.

On July 28, Mr. F. Norman, the Mayor of Berwick, reported
wide spread of the caterpillar scourge in the vast expanse of
turnips grown in the district, and noted the pitiable appearance
on the previous evening, the leaves of acres upon acres being quite
bleached, or frosted in appearance, from the light of the setting sun
shining through the epidermis, or upper film of the surface of the
leaf “which the caterpillars considerately leave intact.” He also
observed: ‘In this district the cocoon spinning has begun and is
fast proceeding.”

Haddingtonshire-—On July 23, Mr. John Begbie, writing from
Queenstonbank, Drem, a hamlet in N. Haddington, N.B., forwarded
me leaves of swedes and yellow turnips showing caterpillar attack
which had appeared a few days previously and already done much
damage. Mr. Begbie reported that the whole of that district along
the sea-coast from Dunbar as far as, say, about 13 miles from Edin-
burgh, appeared to be attacked, but inland he had heard of no
damage. Karly swedes and yellows were noted as having escaped in
some places.

Pifeshire.—The first publicly recorded observation of the appear-
ance of the diamond-back moth during the past season was, as far
as I am aware, that made by Mr. Andrew Balsillie, of St. Andrews,
and communicated by him at the time to the Scotsman newspaper.
Afterwards, on request for information, he wrote me that on the
very last days of June an extraordinary number of small grey-
brown moths were observed all along the eastern seaboard of the
county of Fife infesting the turnip fields. Their appearance was
coincident with a period of long-continued drought, and though the
plants had brairded, they were making exceedingly little progress.
On Monday, July 20, or as nearly as may be three weeks after the
appearance of the moths, both swede and yellow turnips presented

608 The Diamond-back Moth.

the appearance as if lime had been sown on them. On looking more
particularly, it was found that the plants were infested with small
green caterpillars which had eaten the under side of the blade,
leaving the thin film on the surface. In this way whole fields were
destroyed. In other cases portions of a field seemed to escape with
comparatively little damage.!

On July 20 (the same date at which Mr. Andrew Balsillie, of
St. Andrews, noted the great injury from caterpillar), Mr. David
Carswell, writing from Rathillet, Cupar, Fife, about nine miles west
of St. Andrews, forwarded me specimens of diamond-back caterpillars
with the observation that they were eating to a large extent a field
of his yellow turnips. The following day he wrote me that he -
heard in the market great complaints of this green caterpillar as
being all over Fife, and some fields eaten up ; likewise that when in
the field that morning he saw a great many white moths” which he
presumed were the progenitors of his caterpillars, and again on the
23rd (notwithstanding very heavy rains) the moths were still
about.

In the following observation, though from subsequent communica-
tion it was plain the attack was of diamond-backs, the little moths,
as I saw them at first, were indistinguishable as to species.

On July 7, specimens of moths were sent by Mr. John Lee, of
Coates, near Largo, Fifeshire, who mentioned that they were very
numerous, especially on the turnips which he had not singled, but
that no caterpillars were to be found even after careful search. On
July 25, Mr. Lee further wrote that caterpillars were very numerous
on the fields on which the moths had been seen flying.

On July 22, Messrs. Drummond added to previous communica-
tions regarding the diamond-back visitation : ‘‘ We have complaints
of it from east and north of Fife, of Kinross, and Forfarshire, in
nearly all cases from the districts near the Firths of Forth and Tay,
where the rainfall during the early part of the summer has been
less than in most parts of Scotland. Over a considerable part of
the area heavy rain has fallen since the beginning of the week, and
we hope to hear that it has interfered with the ravages of the cater-

illar.”
E On July 24, Messrs. Drummond further mentioned : ‘ Additional
specimens have reached us this morning, and we hear that there
are slight attacks in our own neighbourhood.” A communication
sent by Messrs. Drummond, of Stirling, to the Stiriing Journal of
July 24, gives another locality, and is of interest also as mentioning

1 Reasons for this are given under replies referring to effects of nature of
land.
2 White Moths.—The different colours and patterns of moths and butter-
flies are given by small coloured scales on their wings—the powder, as itis often
called, which remains after carelessly rubbing one of their wings on the
fingers. These scales are very easily rubbed off, and when the specimens are
old, or have been packed so as to shake about, it may very likely chance that
nothing but the whitish membrane of the wing remains, and the moth to a
general observer would appear to be white.

The Diamond-back Moth. 609

hot sunny weather preceding the appearance of the infestation.
Specimens received from the neighbourhood of Arbroath, of yellows
just singled, and of swedes almost meeting in the drills, exhibited
leaves almost riddled into lacework. A week ago, no one had
recognised the evil, and now large fields are being resown. The hot
sunny weather of the early part of the summer probably afforded
the favourable conditions which led to this plague.

Mr. David Crole, Junior, writing on July 24 from Letham,
Leyen, N.B., reported that within the last few days the turnip crop
on the farm had been attacked by the diamond-back caterpillars
and the leaves stripped and holed.

On the following day Mr. John Beveridge, writing from Kinnes-
ton, Leslie, Fife, also forwarded specimens of the same species of
caterpillar, and requested information as to means of remedy, with
the remark that he had twenty acres of turnips that seemed all
right a week ago, and now the plant was riddled and seemed in a
few days as if it would be entirely destroyed.

Mr. George Dun, writing on August 3 from Easter Kincaple, near
St. Andrews, mentioned that he had fifty acres of turnips badly
eaten by the caterpillars. Writing again on August 8, Mr. Dun
further mentioned that he noticed his turnips were attacked
three weeks previously, and the moths in droves, and that on the
preceding Wednesday (August 5) he again saw a large number of
moths, but not so many.

The following notes were forwarded me on August i9 by Mr.
John Duncan, of Kirkmay, Crail, Fife, N.B., and are of much
interest regarding plants, retarded in growth by drought or other
causes, being more susceptible of injury from the caterpillars than
those in vigorous health.

Mr. Duncan wrote as follows: “In this district (East Neuk of
Fife) the weather has been very dry, there only having been 6}
inches of rain for the first six months of the year. In July, when
the moth and caterpillar appeared, the turnips were at a standstill
for want of moisture, and I am of opinion that to this cause alone
can be attributed the attack, as vermin of some sort is sure to attack
a plant if it is unhealthy or not growing. As an example, I have a
field of swedes on cold-bottomed land which had never stopped
growing, and have therefore scarcely been touched except on the
two end ridges where the crop was not so vigorous, whereas another
field on very dry light land has been considerably damaged. Again,
six miles westward, where there has been more rain all the season,
the damage is not so great as in this corner. The moth is still very
plentiful, but as we have now had rain I do not fear a second attack.
I have often observed the same moth in previous years in walking
through old pastures and at sides of roads, hedges, &c.”

Forfarshire.—On application to Mr. James Swan, of Inverpeffer,
Carnoustie, county Forfar, N.B., who, if not the first to suffer under
the outbreak of diamond-back caterpillar, was, I believe, the first in
the county to note the sudden attack, I was favoured with the
following observations : “ We left off working—i.e. hoeing—yellow

- 610 The Diamond-back Moth.

turnips, on Tuesday, July 14, in a field, fearing nothing except that
we were parched with drought. Iwas absent for two days till Friday,
July 17. On Tuesday evening neither I nor any of my workers
saw any sign of danger or damage ; on Friday morning not a single
plant in ae acres was safe—ali oie leaves like lace. The next field
over the wire fence was swedes begun to meet in drills, and the
large broad luxuriant leaves were a pitiful sight, and in both fields
the caterpillar = in millions, and there were evidently two broods
at work, one 4 to 3 of an inch long, thickness, a knitting needle, the
other } to 3 inch long and small in proportion. In this field of swedes,
twenty acres, two acres had been sown a second time with yellow
seed ; and they grew so rapidly as to be thinned on the seventeenth
day after seeding, the quickest in my experience in fifty years. In
forty-eight hours not one plant left alive. Westward Ho! was the —
word, and passing two fields of wheat entered on twenty acres saved,
and these were so extra luxuriant that the moth failed to do so
much damage, but six acres yellow in west of same were all but
killed ; they are only now recovering. This evening I find a late
division of 93 acre yellow, all thinned a fortnight ago, not 100 plants
left, re-sown a week ago with rapeseed between the rows of turnips,
so that, should the turnips perish, the rape would be well started,
and I have to report a fine braird of rape growing everywhere,
whether sown over and among moth-eaten yellows, or where yellows
are clean away.”

Aberdeenshire—On July 31, specimens of caterpillars, with
attacked turnips, were forwarded to me from the Estate Office,
Haddo House, Aberdeen, by Mr. George Muirhead, agent of the
Earl of Aberdeen. It was mentioned that the turnips were first
found to be affected by the attack about ten days previously, and
that five of the six acres of the field in which they first appeared had
been completely eaten up so far as the leaves were concerned.

On August 5, Mr. James Harper, of Auchnabo, Slains, Ellon,
Aberdeenshire, mentioned the caterpillar had done him extraordinary
harm, and nothing did so well to get rid of it as a severe storm of
wind and rain from the north, after which the pest almost
disappeared.

Lsland of Islay, N.B.—Early in August, observation of diamond-
back attack was published as having appeared in Islay, and on J
making inquiry I was favoured on August 11 with the following
reply from Mr. R. Scot Skirving ng, of Foreland House, Islay, N.B., _
who also furnished me with corroborative specimens. “I have to- —
day seen a local farmer, and he says it has rapidly spread over the
whole island of Islay, its ravages being very severe in some places and
very slight in others. All I have personally seen are near the sea-
board by the Atlantic, and it certainly is worst there.”

The following communication regards appearance of the diamond-
back attack in the Island of J ura, which lies NE. of Islay on the
west coast of Scotland. Mr. Thomas Fraser, writing from Ardfin,
Jura (by Greenock), N.B., on August 21, mentioned: “It came
on our turnips (at least we observed it) the last days of July.

>

0 ee se

The Diamond-back Moth. 611

or the first few days we were a little anxious. The crop was well

forward, and as soon as the rain and cool weather came the moth
grew weaker, so much so that we did not apprehend any serious
damage from it for this season.” ‘The leaves, however, of swedes,
yellows, and field cabbage are riddled with their work,” 1c. work of
the moth in first stage, or caterpillars.”

IRELAND.

On August 14, Mr. John H. Franks, Secretary, Irish Land
Commission, Dublin, noted in a letter on other business : ‘‘ You may
be interested to know that the diamond-back moth has appeared
in many places in Ireland, especially along the Eastern coast.”

A few days after, on August 17, specimens of swede leaves from
Dunany, Dunleer, co. Louth, were sent me by the Editor of the
Farmer’s Gazette, Dublin, for examination. These showed unmis-
takable signs of diamond-back caterpillar ravage, and characteristic
cocoons were also sent, but the caterpillars were too much injured
to be quite surely recognisable. I therefore requested further supply
of specimens, and, on August 22, was favoured by Mr. W. J.
Bloomer, Land Steward, Dunany, Dunleer, co. Louth, with ex-
cellent specimens, both in caterpillar and chrysalis state, of the
diamond-back attack, with the following note :—

“T am requested by the Editor, Parmer’s Gazette, to send you
box with a small quantity of the moths, supposed to be the
‘diamond-back moth,’ which have done so much damage to my
turnip crop this season, but am happy to be able to say that the worst is
over, as theheavyrain of the past ten days (which was the heaviest rain
I have experienced for a great number of years) did a good deal to
stamp out the pest ; for had the weather continued dry up to now,
I wouldn’t have had a turnip left in the field ; and especially the
younger ones, a great number of which were completely devoured,
where the stronger ones only suffered from small holes through the
leaves. Iam happy to say that, after the heavy rain yesterday, it
took some time this morning to collect the small quantity sent you.
My turnip field is only a short distance from the sea, where it seems
we have suffered most, as I was speaking to some farmers from the
midland counties of the north, but they don’t seem to know any-
thing about the little moth they have heard so much talk about.

“T tried the experiment of the small knapsack spraying machine,
paraffin oil, and soft soap, under the direction of Commissioner
Wrench, Irish Land Commission Department, which, I believe, hada
good effect, but with heavy rain at the same time, I hardly know
which to give the most credit to. Iam thinking if another season
brings down the army of little diamond vipers upon us, I will try to
fight them in this way :—I will get a hose attached to my water-
cart, and continue to dash the water over the turnips in the form of
a heavy shower ; this I will continue until all the moths are washed
off, same as I see the heavy rain has done in the present case.”

The above notes, it will be seen, coincide with the main points of

612 The Diamond-back Moth.

the English and Scotch observations. The attack appeared near
the sea-coast, was most injurious to the weakest plants, and its effects
were checked best by heavy rains. Probably Mr. Bloomer’s simple
plan of dashing water at the plants by means of a hose would be
thoroughly serviceable.

Appearance of moths in great numbers at various localities on
the eastern coast about the end of June, and considerations pointing
to the probability of the infestations having been blown across the
ocean from the Continent.

On August 4 Mr. John E. Robson, of Hartlepool, Fellow of the
Entomological Society, and Editor of the British Naturalist, de- ~
scribed, in a letter sent by him to the Wewcastle Daily Jowrnal (pub-
lished on August 6), the enormous quantity of the Plutella crucifera-
rum, or diamond-back moth, which had suddenly appeared at Hartle-
pool on June 24, together with some other points which, coming from
a skilled entomologist, used to identify species and observe habits,
were very valuable, as they proved almost beyond possibility of
doubt that these vast numbers of moths were not developed on
land, but had been wind-borne from the continent of Europe.

On application to Mr. John Robson he was good enough to
write me more in detail as follows : “ As stated in the letter, I was
collecting at a little distance from the coast on the evening of June
24. Oni my return home my son gave me a specimen which he ha d
caught in the tennis court, and he described the numbers there as
being beyond all he had seen before. They were everywhere and
in large numbers. At night I crossed the ‘coal staiths’ for a
short cut, to where I wanted to collect; they were there in
thousands,—sitting on every coal waggon, on every bit of iron
railway plate, on the wooden palings, and rising like a cloud at
every step.”

Here Mr. Robson gave me long details as to what kinds of plants
grew in the neighbourhood (where there were any at all), and of
amount of town land, showing that it was absolutely impossible that
the moths should have been bred where they appeared.

The moths, Mr. Robson observed, appeared on June 24, and did
not increase in numbers, but in unsuitable places, such as Hartlepool,
they disappeared in two or three days, whilst further away a very
small number remained on the coast edge, but they caer spread
inland.

In his published letter Mr. Robson shows something of rate of
progress by mentioning that on the day of appearance at Hartlepool
he found none at Hezleden Dene, about one and a half mile from
the coast, and on June 26 they were swarming at this locality, having
penetrated thus far in two days.

Mr. Robson also brought forward the further considerations :
(1) For a long time previous to June 24 easterly winds prevailed,
which would greatly assist the moths in crossing the sea. (2) The
impossibility of so large a number of the insects passing through the
larval stage without being observed by either farmers, gardeners, or

The Diamond-back Moth. 613

entomologists. (3) Their appearance in such abundance in places
like Hartlepool, where there is no food at all for thelarve. (4) The
fact that their ravages were confined to the seacoast or to a re-
stricted distance therefrom. (5) The fact that on June 24 the
species appeared simultaneously in many places.”

Mr. J. Burdon Sanderson, of Waren, Belford, about two miles
from the coast of Northumberland, wrote me as follows: “My own
opinion is that the moth came from abroad somehow or other, as the
easterly winds were blowing steadily for some weeks, and the attack
seemed to be along the coast and up the Tweed. Whether this is
possible or not, I do not know. My brother-in-law at Chatton,
seven miles inland from Waren, saw an immense quantity of dead
moths along the road extending for some half-mile, evidently killed
by a heavy shower which had just fallen. This happened just before
the attack was noticed, and nothing was thought of what was to
follow. Since writing the above, I have just heard that on the
night of July 9 an immense cloud of diamond-back moths alighted
on the Longstone, the farthest of the Farnes, some five miles out to
sea ; this is on perfectly reliable authority, and seems to favour the
theory that they come from abroad.”

This appearance of diamond-back is confirmed by published in-
formation from Mr. H. A. Paynter, Solicitor, Alnwick, who men-
tioned that, being requested by Lord Walsingham to try to get him
some moths, he, Mr. Paynter, proceeded on July 10 to the Longstone
Lighthouse on the Farne Islands, where he found the rocks close to
the lighthouse covered with them. The lighthouse keepers informed
him that on the previous night such a great cloud of moths was
driven over by the north-east wind that they were obliged to keep
sweeping them off the lantern throughout the night in order to
allow the light to be seen at sea. Mr. Paynter sent some of these
moths to Lord Walsingham (who, it may be remarked in passing, is
a highly skilled entomologist), who identified them as “ diamond-
backs.”

The chief points of the above appeared in various papers. I
quote from the Agricultural Gazette for August 24, 1891.

Mr. Fenwick Wilson, of Marden, Whitley, also not far from the
Northumbrian coast, mentioned : “A common opinion exists in this
neighbourhood that the moth crossed over from the continent.
Some fishermen I have spoken to say that about the end of June
moths were about the shores in enormous quantities, and were
spoken of by them at that time. If it is possible for them to come
from abroad that very much supports the theory.”

Further north still the observation of a vast appearance of moths
on the sea coast was thus reported by Mr. Balsillie, of St. Andrews,
Fife : “On the last days of June an extraordinary number of small
greyish-brown moths were observed all along the eastern seaboard
of the county of Fife infesting the turnip-fields. Their appearance
was coincident with a long-continued drought, and though the plants
had brairded, they were making exceedingly little progress. On
Monday, July 20, or as nearly as may be three weeks after the

614 The Diamond-back Moth.

appearance of the moths, both swede and yellow turnips presen
the appearance as if lime had been sown on them. On looking more
particularly, it was found that the plants were infested with small
green caterpillars which had eaten the underside of the blade,
leaving the thin film on the upper surface. In this way whole fields
were destroyed. In other cases portions of a field seemed to escape
with comparatively little damage.

In the following pages the information given me in reply to my
circulars is divided and classed for convenience of reference under
the various headings to which the observations refer, the initials of
the sender being appended.

In the return immediately following, as conditions affected by
geographical iocality would affect the state of the crop, I have
arranged the notes, as before, under headings of countries and
counties. The subsequent observations are arranged alphabetically
according to the initials appended.

1. Any estimate of amount of loss, whether in acreage, mileage, or
money loss on crop. .

ENGLAND.

Yorkshire.—“ In this district (Lebberston, near Filey) the cater-
pillars have ruined the swede crop ; there will be only half a crop.
Turnips have not suffered nearly as much.”—J. P. D.

“In some localities [of the chief turnip-growing districts in
Yorkshire.—E. A. O.] the turnip seems nearly worthless, in others
half a crop, and the best where attacked, I should consider, will
only make two-thirds.”—G. C.

“JT have had no root-crop quite destroyed, but the estimated
produce per acre of kohl rabi has been lessened 75 per cent.,
swedes and white turnips 50 per cent., and yellow turnips 25 per
cent. Mangel quite untouched.”—R. W. 8.

“ Damage slight at present ; impossible to estimate.” —F, R.

‘“‘ Loss on swede turnip crop about one-third the white ; green
top and Lincolnshire red turnips have not been affected by the
moth.”—R. C., for Lord Auckland.

Lincolnshire.—“ Swedes damaged greatly here (between the
river Ancholme and the Trent), probable loss of 50 per cent. of
resulting food. Five per cent. of swede area only totally destxoyed.
White-fleshed varieties not much damaged here (oolite), but much
so on the Wolds” (chalk).—N. Lines.

Norfolk.—* Loss from this attack very considerable, especially
near this coast, N. and N.W. Norfolk, where both cabbages and
turnips were attacked.”—E. A. A.

“Tn early sown turnips the loss in yield is about 25 per cent.,
in Jater 15 per cent.”—C. R.

Norfolk and Suffolk.— ‘So far as Corton and Whitlingham are
concerned, taking the swede crop (which is the only one injured) at
6/. per acre as the maximum value of a full well-grown plant of

The Diamond-back Moth. 615

-swedes in Norfolk and Suffolk at Michaelmas valuations, the greatest
part of the Corton crop was entirely destroyed, while the remainder,
(with the exception of one piece which was sown very early, and
appeared to have been too forward for the caterpillar to attack)
cannot be more than one-third of a full crop under the most favour-
able circumstances. While the Whitlingham crop, being attacked
about three weeks later than Corton, the heavy rains coming at the
same time, washing in'a good dressing of nitrate of soda and salt,
appears to have at once stopped the ravages of the pest, but not

before they had checked the growth of the plants, so that under the
most favourable circumstances there cannot be much more than half
a crop.”—G. T.

Cheshire.—Near Sandbach. Estimate of loss per acre 10/.—S. 8.
| Laneashire-—Lytham. Three statute acres have been rendered
| quite useless.—T. F. ;
| Northumberland.—“In some cases in the district round Bam-
| borough the loss is the whole crop gone. I can hardly tell yet

what loss I have sustained in my turnips, as I hope they are coming
| round.”—J. B. 8.
“Thirty acres of turnips and swedes affected to the average
amount of 5/. per acre.”—F. W.
“ T have suffered no loss as I took means to remove the cater-
pillars before they had time to do any damage, except making
| holes in the leaves in some parts of the field.”"—W. P.

ScoTLAND.

| Fifeshire.—“ Evidences of the ravages of the caterpillar may be
seen at least six miles inland, and I should estimate that from a
third to a half of the crop had been destroyed.”—A. B.

“Crops which were far on have suffered very little, while those
which were later in the same district, and even on the same farm,
have been almost, and sometimes totally, destroyed ; so that an
estimate of loss is at the present time impossible. A 43-acre field
of swedes of mine looked miserable about the end of July, but now,
having been top-dressed with nitrate, and pushed on by moisture
and heat, it is looking, except in a few spots which were badly
bitten, a very fine crop.”—J. A. B.

“ Cannot give an estimate of my loss further than to say that it
has made my crop, where affected, four weeks later ; but on a farm
in this neighbourhood ” (East Neuk of Fife) ‘ one-third of the crop is
almost destroyed and part ploughed up, and the other two-thirds
- are much affected.”—J. D.

Fifeshire—Estimate of amount of loss about one-fifth [report
applies to the north of Fife—E. A. O.]. ‘‘Turnips have improved very
much of late, and it is difficult to estimate the loss, as so much depends
on the future, and whether or not we have early frosts. Land in the
highest condition and properly cultivated has suffered least.”—D. C.

“Tt is only in certain farms where whole fields have been
destroyed, and in the majority of farms in the east of Fife the

616 The Diamond-back Moth.

damage at the time looked to be more severe than it will now be,
owing to the fine growing weather which has forced the crop away
beyond the power of the caterpillars. I should therefore say that
the damage done will not amount to the fourth of the whole crop—
nearly this.”—J. L.

“T can form no estimate as yet as to the loss, the turnips are
growing so fast now that they may be a fair crop yet, except
about one acre out of twenty which is totally eaten up.”—J. B.

Forfarshire.—“ Over an area of 30 acres swedes 25 to 30 per cent.
of deficit must be recorded ; and over 30 acres yellows 15 are a total
loss, and only rape instead of the other 15 may make 50 per cent. _
of average. The money loss cannot at this early date be accurately
recorded.”—J. 8.

Aberdeenshire.—“ Twenty-four acres more or less destroyed,
about 10 acres totally destroyed to the value of 1007. Fourteen
acres estimated destroyed to about 3/. to 5/. per acre. This near
Slains.”—J. H.

Lanarkshire.— Loss in locality (neighbourhood of Glasgow) com-
paratively speaking ni/. Most crops of swedes contain a few cater-
pillars, but damage has been confined to very small patches or holes in
the leaves, entire stripping of the leaves being very exceptional.” —J.8.

Summary.—The above notes (for the most part) only give a general
estimate of damage from inspection of condition of crop at time of
report. Where it has been wholly swept off the amount of damage is
plain, otherwise so much depends on the weather of the coming
autumn that no certain return of amount of loss can be now given.

The observations, however, show the ruinous character of the
infestation. It will be seen that the amount of damage at date is
estimated by various observers as “considerable” ; ‘‘half a crop” ;
“nearly worthless” to half or two-thirds only being expected ;
crop lessened 75 per cent. or 50 per cent. ; a third gone. In money
estimate we have notes of 30 acres affected to the extent of 5/. per
acre ; and another return of loss of 10/. per acre ; another observer
notes the very important item of crop being thrown four weeks
later. And to this has to be added the coming losses consequent
on failure of one item in agricultural routine, especially in reference
to food for sheep and lambs.

2. Any measures found to answer in lessening amount of ravage,
or loss from its effects. .

‘Soot and also superphosphate have been used apparently with
good effect.”—-E. A. A.

“Soot and nitrate of soda have both been freely used in this
district (near St. Andrews, Forfarshire), but I am doubtful if either
had much effect upon the caterpillar. The remedy was attempted
too late, in fact just at the time the caterpillar was spinning its
cocoon. Beneficial, however, to push the plant into more vigorous
growth. In other cases scufflers with boughs were sent through the
fields."—A. B. ‘a

“J put on about 1 cwt. of nitrate and 1 ewt. of salt per acre. I

The Diamond-back Moth. 617

do not think this had any direct effect on the caterpillars, but
has helped the turnips very much. We have also been hand- and
horse-hoeing as close to the turnips as possible.”—J. B.

“T sowed 1 ewt. per acre nitrate of soda on 43 acres swedes and
10 acres yellows, and 2 cwt. soot on 1 acre swedes. All have come
away well, and done better in resisting or rather overcoming the
damage than what was not top-dressed. Scuffling I think has
helped crops which were far on by rough disturbance of the leaves.”
—J. A. B.

“ Nitrate of soda, &c. have been very beneficial ; do not know of
other remedies having been tried in this district.”—D. C.

“My son, on a farm of Lord Londesborough’s, tried nitrate of
soda with better result by far than his neighbours, who used soot,
lime, and other manures.”—G. C.

“The best mixture we used was 10 cwt. soot, 8 cwt. nitrate of
soda, with 1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia, mixed well and sown broad-
cast by hand, whilst the dew was on the leaves, 1 cwt. per acre ; we
also used scufflers with boughs on them through the crops ; also we
tried quicklime, gaslime, soot in equal parts, 1 ewt. per acre, with
3 Ibs. yellow flowers of sulphur added per acre, but the first mixture
proved best in checking the spread of the moth.”—R. C., for Lord
Auckland.

* [ have tried no fertilisers, but have no doubt but that nitrate
of soda would help to push on crop and thereby lessen the amount
of damage. On a light-land farm of mine in the next parish, my
grieve tied boughs to the front of a horse-hoe and brushed off
numbers of caterpillars, and the tines coming after buried them in the
earth. The fields so done have not suffered much.”—J. D.

“The method I found to answer best at the ieast cost was using
a scuffler with thorn boughs attached in front, and set so as to turn
the leaves completely over ; by so doing it broke the webs and let
the caterpillars down, and the scuffler buried them.”—J. P. D.

“ All the remedy I made use of was to keep going all the horse-
hoes and scufflers I had all day long. One of my neighbours tried
trailing a sheep net across his turnip field and then sowing lime, but
I do not think that his field has recovered more than mine ; he also
had a net hanging on his larger horse-hoe trailing on the plants
before the knives ; this acted well, but the pest was about over when
he tried this.” —W. F.

“Tried hot lime, also paraffin and soot, and none of them appears
to do good, as the caterpillars are fairly secured below the leaves.
The scuffling of the plants destroys them very much.”—J. H.

“ Brussels sprouts attacked. A part syringed with a preparation
of soft soap and paraffin, five pounds of former and five pints of
the latter to 100 gallons of water—result, caterpillars destroyed.
Remainder soot scattered on the under side of leaves—result as
above.”—M. K.

“Several farmers have put in boughs of trees in the scufflers. I
put in my ploughs a good firm bundle of wheat straw bent down at
the ends, so as to rub the under part of the leaves without damaging

VOL. Il. T. S—7 Ss

618 The Diamond-back Moth.

them, as the boughs are apt to do. No one that I am acquainted
with has applied anything but nitrate of soda—not with
the idea of killing the caterpillars, but to force the growth of the
turnip. So far as brushing them is concerned, I find they again
ascend the turnip from the ground, and if buried under three inches
of earth, at once find their way to the surface.”—J. L.

“In my case nitrate of soda has given vigour to the plants, this
doing good. Friends report boughs on scufflers advantageous.”
—‘N, Lines.”

“ By keeping the scuflers going with birch branches attached,
I had dusted with quicklime on the under side of the leaf, it did
not kill them ; going back next morning I found they had eaten
part of the leaf, lime and all, and were still as lively as possible. I
also tried paraflin and water, 1 to 50, put on by a garden syringe
with a very small rose ; the only effect Tcould see it had was keeping
the birds off that part ‘of the field."W. P

‘* Damage was done and caterpillars had disappeared before it
was known what they were, hence no measure was taken to destroy
them.” —F. R.

“The insects lying very lightly on the leaves, brush harrowing
once lightly would remove them, and the Strawsonizer with paraffin
would, I think, be thoroughly effectual, but as the action of the
eaterpillar is very rapid, careful observation and instant action on
their appearance is imperative ; if no Strawsonizer available, re-
peating the brush harrowing would, I think, answer equally.”
—C. C. R.

“ Nitrate and se 8 best stimulants, and unfailing in good
results—no dry or dust application, nor any chance of Strawsonizer
or sprayer. But practically over sixty acres no lime or water or
machines to overtake the work.”—J. Sn.

“‘T applied quicklime by hand on a windy day, as the wind was
blowing up the drills ; the lime got well under the plants and stuck
to the leaves, covering the under sides well; this did not kill the
caterpillars at all, but I think rather prevented their working, and
I hope checked them in spinning cocoons. I top-dressed the worst
with nitrate of soda, which stimulated their growth and thus helped
them, but what certainly did most good was scuffling with light
branches fastened across the scuffler. I consider the best treatment
was to keep constantly working among the turnips, scuffling or
running the small plough between the drills. I saw paraffin oil
applied on another farm, which I believe did little or no good ; a mix-
ture of arsenic and lime also applied with the Strawsonizer apparently
killed the caterpillars, but I did not see this done myself, so I can-
not speak positively about it.”—J. B.S.

“T tried 5 ewt. of dissolved bones per acre, put on each plant
by hand, without effect ; before applying the bones I tried sulphur
and lime (after scuffler with boughs on), fumigation with sulphur,
Paris green mixed with water, and Little’s non- poisonous sheep- -
all likewise without effect.”—R. W. 8.

Nitrate of soda at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre as a top-dressing

en a

|

:

The Diamond-back Moth. 619

to push forward the growth of plants is, I believe, very beneficial ;

it acted well for our turnips.”—S. 8.

“ Nitrate of soda and salt about four stones per acre of each,
sown down by hand along the drills, was very effective in setting
the plants growing, and a scuffler fitted with boughs was tried at
Corton and answered very well indeed ; as also did four to six
gallons of paraffin per acre applied with Strawsonizer. We should
have tried soot and lime had not the ravages been stopped, should
also have walked a flock of lambs backwards and forwards over the
plants, which I believe would be very beneficial and would act as a
scuffler would, and not injure the turnips.”—G. T.

* Only measure taken was heavy dressing with salt sown broad-
cast, which did not appear to do any good.” —F. W.

«“ Where stimulating manure (nitrate of soda) has been applied
swedes appear to have more vigour after severe attack has passed
away ; not tried any spraying.”—T. H. W.

Summary.—In the foregoing observations it will be found that
the remedies most approved of as satisfactory are nitrate of soda,
and use of scufflers, or of horse-hoes, Nitrate of soda, whether
by itself or occasionally together with soot and salt, is repeatedly
mentioned as having been beneficial. Salt alone is noted as having
done no good, but the fertiliser far more named as beneficial than
any other is nitrate of soda—and in some cases it is explained that
the benefit is not from any known action on the infestation itself,
but by keeping up the growth of the attacked plants.

The use of the scufflers has also been found very serviceable,
and on similar principles the horse-hoes have been found beneficial
by passing them through the turnips with light boughs, or in one
case a net attached in front ; the caterpillars are so disturbed that
many fall and many are destroyed, and the use of a plough with a
bunch of wheat straw, fastened so as to sweep the leaves before it,
has also been useful. Other applications are slightly alluded to, but
the above are what are chiefly reported as beneticial.

3. Opinions as to benefit of heavy rains.

“ All the early-sown turnips attacked by these caterpillars have
undoubtedly much henefited by sudden and heavy rains. In one
field at Thornham (Norfolk), on which the attack was bad, scarcely
a living caterpillar could be found after two days’ heavy rains.”—
EL A, A.

“ We were certainly fortunate at the time the attack was worst
in having heavy rains.”—A. B.

“The heavy rains we have had have done more good than any-
thing else. Even first showers after the attack began had a
eerie effect. My neighbours all concur in this opinion.”—

“ Heavy rains marked the first symptoms of a stoppage of damage,
but I think high winds and a lower temperature on the night of.
July 22, and during the last four days of that month, were also of
great benefit.”__J. A. B.

ss2

620 The Diamond-back Moth.

“ Heavy rains and cold nights did universal benefit.”—D. C.

“The heavy rains have been very beneficial, especially where the |
nitrate of soda mixture was used.”—R. C., for Lord Auckland.

“ Heavy showers, with an extremely low temperature on July 28,
destroyed great numbers.”—J. D.

“The heavy rains we had a week ago did an immense amount of
good, splashing the soil on to the under side of the leaf, and either
drowning them or settling them away,”—J. P. D.

“ The leaves up to about ten days ago [before Aug. 13—E. A. O.]
had been eaten quite bare; but after the heavy rain-showers of
last week they grew again.” —T. F. y

“The rains have done good in encouraging growth ofthe turnips, __
as had it been excessively dry the plants must have died.”—W. F.

“We had two wet cold days with high winds, and thereafterI
think the turnips were much clearer, and the caterpillars which
were left had not such a high vitality, and the crop appeared to be
improving.” —J. G.

‘TJ have no doubt that the weather does more to check the attack
than anything you can do. We had a week of very stormy weather,
and it almost cleared the plants.”—J. H.

“Tt is believed that the heavy rains have been chiefly instrumental
in clearing caterpillars.”—M. K.

“T do not think rain has any effect in killing them.”—J. L.

*‘ The benefit of heavy rains was so great that no further measures
were needed to get rid of the caterpillars.” —G. M.

“ Heavy rains, 1:73 in. and 2 in,. have done immense good, and
caterpillars now gone.”—‘“ N. Lincs.”

“The cold weather and heavy rains we had, during the week
ending August 1, killed great numbers.”—W. P.

‘Rain appeared to stop ravages when accompanied by wind.”—

“Heavy rain did most good falling on dry parched surface,
dashed the sand and mud on the under side of leaves, and made the
life of the caterpillar no sinecure.”—J. Sn.

** Rain did not kill, or even wash off the caterpillars in my case, but
as it kept the plants growing to a certain extent it did good.”—J. B. 8.

“T think that heavy rains do good by ‘soiling’ the under sides
of the turnip leaf, and making it rather difficult for the caterpillar
to work ; also by alarming them, or washing them off.”—R. W. 8.

“(August 11.) I am informed that recent heavy rains have
done much good, and, as a whole, the promise of the turnip crop in
the island is a very good one.” On August 13 it was further
reported : ‘ As rain at last came after months of drought, I do not
think the crops will suffer.”—R. 8. 8.

“Very heavy thunder-showers might shake the leaves and
cause the caterpillar to fall to the ground, but I believe a good
strong wind would disturb the plants a great deal more so, there-
fore would make it more difficult for the caterpillar to hold on to
the leaf, and a fluid dressing of soot and salt would, I think, destroy
the pest, and be a good fertiliser.”—S. 8. ,

The Diamond-back Moth. 621

« Every benefit to be derived from heavy rains ; in fact, I much
question whether the pest could be entirely destroyed by any arti-
ficial means without them.’’—G. T.

“Caterpillars appeared during very dry weather, which was
followed by very heavy rains and thunder-showers, but they had no
effect on caterpillars, which, in fact, did most harm during, and
immediately after, rains.”—F. W.

“ Heavy showers undoubtedly have done good.”—T. H. W.

SumMAry.—With only two exceptions, the above observations
concur in the beneficial effect of rain in checking the caterpillar
attack, especially when accompanied by a drop in the temperature,
and by high winds. A large part of the good done is presumably
by the moisture in the air and at the roots helping on growth, but
the winds and chillier weather would be directly injurious in
some degree to the caterpillars.

Cold rains in warm weather have been known in some cases to
be rapidly destructive to caterpillars, by causing a flux which soon
reduced them to empty skins, and the following few words with
which I have been favoured from Mr, Thos. Fraser point so forcibly
to something of this kind having occurred to the diamond-back
caterpillars under his observation that I give his remarks sepa-
rately.

Mv. Fraser, writing from Ardfin, Island of Jura, by Green-
ock, N.B., on August 21, mentioned: “I observe that the moth
is decaying or dying in the first stage now ; no doubt the result of
the heavy rain we had recently.”

4. Natwre of land, how cultivated, and what manwre was used.

“ At Thornham the soil is fairly good, bright, and light, with
chalk about two feet below. Land ploughed about three inches,
difficult to plough deeper there ; no manure used.”—E, A. A.

“Tn some cases whole fields were destroyed ; in other cases por-
tions of a field seemed to escape with comparatively little damage.

“ On inquiry into the reason of this, it was at once apparent that
it depended to a great extent on the nature and condition of the
soil, and the state of plant-growth at which attack commenced.

“ Early-sown turnips in good soil, both as regards mechanical
and manurial condition, survived the attack and continued to grow,
while on hard clay soils, and on back lying soils trending to the
north, and where the attack had commenced shortly after or during
thinning, the plants were entirely eaten up.

“There is no doubt that the best preventive is to have the land
in high-class condition. In a field, for example, which was well
done to, a portion which got an extra dressing, from the more
vigorous growth of the plant, seemed almost to have escaped.” —A. B.

“The land is alluvial deposit and sand. I farmed part of the old
bed of Loch Leven. It was five years in grass, oats last year, and
a ee in December rather wet, and not trenched again till

une 1,

622 The Diamond-back Moth.

“The turnip soil made with farmyard manure, and about 5 ~
of nitrate of soda and super—no salt.”—J. B.

* Land : generally black loam or whinstone ; some fields on wand
late sown, were worst. No difference obsepealile to any extent in
time or manner of ploughing. Manures: nitrate of soda, guano,
Liebig’s meat meal superphosphate, bone meal and flour, some cases
kainit, no salt.”—D. C.

“T travel thr ough the greatest turnip district in Yorkshire weekly,
and observed the ravage rot the pest very minutely. I found it to
vary very much, affecting the plant more on flinty soil on the wolds
than chalk. Also on low lands where there are different kinds of
soil in one field, say strong gravel and peat, affecting the gravel and
peat, and leaving turnips on strong land very little ‘hurt.”—G. ©. |

“Land sandy. Autumn cultivated ; we clean the land after wheat,
plough deep three times by crossing, then ridge ; farmyard manure,
twelve to fourteen cartloads per acre, with no artificial manure, or
six cartloads farmyard manure, with 3 cwt. dissolved bones per acre,
or the same quantity farmyard manure, and 4 cwt. concentrated
manure per acre.” —R. C., for Lord Auckland.

“ Attack noticed on J uly 17, in 25-acre field of swedes, lying 20
feet above sea level, within 500 ‘yards of the river Eden, where the
tide rises to daily, heavy loam in high condition. Sandy subsoil, 14
acres dunged in the winter, remainder in the drill, also treated with
best herring guano, superphosphate, and nitrate when the land was
drilled with turnips. On July 20 (that is, after attack was observed)
whole turnip crop of the farm dosed with dressings of superphosphate
and nitrate, sowed with two hands taking two drills at a time, so as
to protect the heart of the turnip from the caterpillar. Dressing,
with the help of heavy thunder-showers, appeared to start growth,
and on the 27th, turnip showed decided improvement.”—G, D.

“ As said before, crops on dry light land suffered most ; the land
was ploughed in autumn and early 7 winter, and worked and cleaned
before seed-time. The same manure was used for all turnip crops,
viz. farmyard manure, Ichaboe guano, and superphosphate of
lime.”—J. D.

* Our land is light wold land on chalk, but the attack was just as
bad on both sand and clay. Two fields of mine were autumn

cultivated, and one simply ploughed in the usual way. Kainit was
used (but no salt otherwise) with bone manure.” —W. F, a

“ The land is strong black land with a subsoil of white ore } it was
ploughed in the autumn to a depth of about 9 inches ; the field had
a light dressing of ordinary farmyard manure, and 1 acre had 24
ewt. of dissolved bones.” —T. F.

The following observation is well worth notice with regard to
non-injury to the caterpillars from being buried for a while together
with the leafage, which would both protect them from injury and
serve them for food. “I put on the setting-up ploughs, and entirely
covered up the turnips that I could not overtake. [This was
during experiment on badly-attacked crop—E. A. O.] This I did
in fair desperation. After being buried a few days, IT put on the

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:
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The Diamond-back Moth. 623

seufflers to level down the earth ; then the field workers with hoes
to uncover the blades or leaves of the turnips. When uncovered,
the leaves that had been buried showed the caterpillars upon them
quite lively, when I expected they would have been dead.”—J. G.

“Good black land in good heart is free from attack. Heavy clay
land is destroyed a good bit, especially where it is of a wet nature.
Light mossy land with a little gravel through it is entirely destroyed ;
nothing left but afew stumps. Manure used : about 20 square yards
of good farmyard dung with about 10 ewt. manure, composed of three
parts dissolved bones, three superphosphate, three sulphate of potash,
and one nitrate of soda ; the land was heavily ploughed.”—J. H.

* The land on which the turnips are worst is generally stiff but not
always, and those fields which are destroyed are generally those
which are not in a thriving state when they are attacked. The
depth at which the land in Fife is ploughed in stubble is from 6 to
8 inches ; the manure used is generally half dung and some light
manure. No salt.”—J. L.

“Oolite and on clay, worse on clay ; autumn cultivated and
ploughed 6 inches ; 1 ewt. bone dust, 3 ewt. mixed phosphates.”—
*N. Lincs.”

“ Part red clay, but mostly whinstone gravel ; all the land I have
turnip this year (100 acres) has been limed within the last four years
at the rate of 7 tons shell lime per acre. All my turnips are after
oats. The land was all ploughed during autumn and early spring
about 10 inches deep ; it all had two furrows, just before sowing.
Thirty acres of swedes had fifteen Joads farmyard manure, 5 cwt.
Thomas's phosphate powder, 2 ewt. kainit, and 1 cwt. nitrate of soda
put on the ridge and split in just before sowing ; 10 acres had the same
quantity of farm manure ploughed in during autumn, also the same
artificial per acre, and the ridges split before the seed was sown. After
having the caterpillars brushed off, I top-dressed the whole with
7 ewt. nitrate of soda and 2 ewt. salt per acre. Now it is scarcely

possible to tell anything has ever been on them, they are looking so

well.”—W. P.

“Fine alluvial, deep and lightly ploughed in different parts ;
superphosphate and salt used.”—C. C. R

“ Clay loam, previous crop oats, deep ploughed in autumn shortly
after harvest, crops ploughed end of January and twice afterwards.

Superphosphate only used, no salt or farmyard dung.”—F. R.

“ My land all natural turnip land, some with sand or sandy loams
and clay loams. First field attacked was twice scarified in the fall
of 1890 and all stubble and weeds raked off ; deeply ploughed 8
inches in February and again in May and dunged in drills. Where
rotted dung was applied the plants have outlived the attack ; where
courtyard dung, fresh, the plants all perished.”—J. Sn.

* Fine loam.—In one field I had rather a good instance of culti-
vation, as out of the field (which is about 3 acres) 2 acres were not
ploughed till just before sowing swedes (the field had been oats) ;
the rest was ploughed in winter ; the caterpillar was equally bad

on both bits where swedes were sown, but hardly did any harm to a

624 The Diamond-back Moth:

strip of early-sown yellow turnips between two lots of swedes.
Mauure used, farmyard and fish phosphate. The oat stubble was
ploughed about 8 inches deep, and was twice ploughed again before
drilling.”—J. B.S.

“Clay loam. Not autumn cultivated. Ploughed deeply in
autumn and twice in spring. Half of kohl rabi was farmyard
manured, but no difference is to be seen between the manured and
unmanured parts. Dissolved bones and half-inch bones were drilled
with koh] rabi and turnips. No salt was used.”—R. W. 8.

“ Nature of land, heavy, strong soil; spade-and-fork culture nearly
throughout. Dug in autumn to “the depth of 8 or 9 inches, gave
part a » light dressing of gaslime ; the heavy dressing would be at the
rate of 3 tons per acre, ~and the light one 1} tons per acre, about
December 19. Allowed it to remain on the top until March, and
where the heavier dressing was put very little destruction was done
by the caterpillars ; good litter manure was used at the rate of 12
tons per acre ; also specially prepared artificial manure of 5 ewt. per
acre ; 1 cwt. of salt per acre was part of the artificial manure.”—5. 8.

“‘The land at Corton is a strongish top soil on yellow clay, and owing
to the exceedingly dry weather up to October, and frost and snow
afterwards, was not ploughed or cultivated until latter end of February
or the beginning of March, and then only ploughed fleetly. In some
cases the manuring for swedes was town manure, fish refuse, with a
good proportion of salt mixed up together and put on at the rate of
ten loads per acre, while in others 4 cwt. mineral superphosphate
and 4 cwt. nitrate of soda were applied before the attack. At
Whitlingham the surface soil is a light soil on brick earth, and was
cultivated in the autumn and ploughed a good depth in the spring
before putting in the swedes. Some fields were manured with ten
loads farmyard manure and others with 4 cwt. mineral superphos-
phate per acre.”"—G. T

“ A.—Moderately strong ; was deeply ploughed in spring, twice
cross-ploughed, and well cultivated.

‘“‘B.—Manured with town manure on stubble and ploughed in
and heayily manured with fold manure in drills just before sowing
seed ; no salt used as manure.”—F, W.

if ‘Light brown sandy loam, autumn cultivated ; ploughed about 7 or
8 inches deep. Manure, bone meal, superphosphate, and slag; no
salt.”—G. W.

“ Friable loam, farmyard manure ploughed under deep in winter ;
a dressing of 5 ewt, steamed bones and 1} ewt. nitrate applied when
turnips were sown ; no salt used.”——T. H. W.

Summary.—In this section it is hardly possible to give a sum-
marised view of the information, in consequence of the various
natures and various combinations of the manurial applications, and
the various natures of the soils to which they were applied.

It is noticed in some cases that turnips under favourable cireum-
stances escaped with little injury, and several instances are given of
those on clay or over strong land suffering ; but for practical use
the above details would have to be worked out at length by com-

The Diamond-back Moth. 625

parison with each other, and in connection with the preceding and
following observations belonging to the same locality.

5. Character of weather and nature of weeds.

“Weather decidedly fine and dry last autumn ; lateness in
harvest caused difficulty in clearing the land.”—E. A. A.

“So far as I have observed there was nothing exceptional in the
weather during the autumn to account for the visitation.”—A. B.

_ “From March to June 1 very dry and cold, then very dry and
warm.”—J. B.

“ After the frost of last season the land was in fine order, and
turnip sowing was commenced about May 1; with a fair amount
of rain in that month, the early-sown fields got well away, though
for a time they were kept back by cold east winds. In June we
had only 0°28 rain; ... up to July 15, 0°65 rain fell, but in
such small quantities as to do only the growing turnips good. On
July 17 and 18 the caterpillars appeared and simply ate up all the
weakly plants, which had come away in patches, and did much
damage to fields which had stood still in June, not being far enough
on in the shaw to catch the rain and hoar.

“Heavy rain on the 2]st, 22nd, and a lower temperature
marked a change, and by the end of the month the caterpillars were
much fewer in number ; and now (August 15) are entirely away.”—
J. A. B.

Accompanying his long and careful report (of which space per-
mits me only to give the main points), Mr. J. A. Begbie (of Queens-
tonbank, Drem, Haddingtonshire) favoured me with meteorological
returns, bearing serviceably on considerations of weather effects,
and amongst these the greater warmth and the absence of any
sudden fall of temperature during the nights of July, 1891, are very
noticeable as compared with the observations of night temperatures
during July in the two previous years, namely, in 1890 and in
1889. In these three years the lowest readings taken of night
temperatures were :—

1889, for the most part between 43° and 51°
1890 = - J 21° * 8" b0"
1891, ” ” 46° ,, 54

The general temperature at the time of observation was thus
noticeably higher in 1891, and in this year it was only twice re-
corded in the month as sinking as low as 44°.

“ Never saw the land in finer condition for the growth of turnips :
it was all that could be desired.”—G. C.

“Weather was very dry the previous autumn, and the land in
this district was especially well cleaned.”—R. C., for Lord Auckland.

“ Weather here has been exceedingly dry for two years ; except
on two occasions no water has run off the surface.”—G. D.

“Previous autumn wet, but did not interfere with cleaning of
turnip break. No particular weed noticeable.”—J. D,

626 The Diamond-back Moth.

“The weather was wet in November, but subsequently ver
dry.” —T. F. r

“The weather was particularly dry ; my land was cultivated by
steam power. No particular weed observed.”—W. F. -

“The weather was observably wet in the previous autumn, but
had no weeds to clean, so the weeds could have nothing to do with
attack.”—J. H.

“ Here (Branton, Alnwick) we do not clean our Jand until just
before sowing ; the weather at the time could not have been better
for cleaning land. I never sowed my land in better order; th
were all sown by May 21, which is considered early in this district, -
There was no particular weed noticeable.”—W. P.

“Previous autumn very wet; the land was cleaned in
spring without any difficulty, and no particular weeds were notice-
able.” —J. Sr. =

* Fine autumn till October 20, after that till December 1 very
wet ; no particular weeds.”—J. Sn,

“There was nothing in the weather to prevent cleaning the land,
which is singularly free from any weed. We had an extraordinari
dry month in February.”—J. B.S.

* The first half of the autumn was dry (very) and the latter half
was very wet ; no particular weed was unusually noticeable.”—R. W.S8.

= Remarkably dry winter and spring; no particular weed.
—T. H. W. é

“Exceedingly dry up to October, and where stubbles were broken
up during harvest or immediately after (before the land got t
hard and dry for ploughing), gave farmers a good chance ad cleani
the land.”—G. T.

Summary.—The above observations show that in some ‘diate
autumn or winter weather was dry, in some wet, but this does not
appear to have affected agricultural arrangements so as to prevent
land being properly. cleaned and pr epared, nor to have caused any
special weed growth, and also does not appear to have affected
amount of caterpillar presence.

Where, however, there were heat and drought (as mentioned by
Mr. J. A. Begbie in this section, and by Mr. J. Swan on page 609),
coinciding with the appearance or observation of the caterpillars,
this proved most favourable to caterpillar ravage. These weather
conditions were favourable to the grubs and unfavourable far plant-
growth ; consequently, until the rains came the plants were almost
powerless to restore the devoured leafage. c

?

6. Whether this caterpillar is found to especially frequent char-
lock ?

“The caterpillar of P. cruciferarum certainly does frequent
charlock here. Hedge-mustard (Sisymbrium officinale) and
shepherd’s purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris) much frequented as food-
plants.” —E. A. A Fe

“ Yes,”—J, eve ‘B. ™

“No charlock,”—J. B. ta

The Diamond-back Moth. 627

“No, we cannot find it, but charlock is not abundant in this
district.”—R. C., for Lord Auckland.

“ Charlock affected.” —G. D.

“J have noticed charlock, but could never find any caterpillar
on it.”—J. P. D.

* Having no charlock, cannot say.”—J. D.

“ A caterpillar is said to have attacked charlock, of which there
are great quantities in some fields near here, but I cannot say which
variety.” —W. F.

“Tn regard to ‘charlock,’ I infer by this you refer to what we
in this country side (and indeed generally in Scotland) denominate
ranches, otherwise ‘wild mustard,’ and in some parts ‘skellicks.’
The insect feeds as greedily on it as on the turnip.”—J. G.

“This is undoubtedly the same caterpillar that frequents char-
lock. I have carefully examined it’ with the naked eye, and also
with the magnifying glass.”—J. H.

“The caterpillar seems to eat the charlock much in the same
way as the turnip, neither more nor less.” —J. L.

“ Charlock not grown here much.” —“ N. Lincs.”

“ Charlock and turnips suffered equally, mangel not at all; in
some fields have never known them on charlock before, and we
have plenty.”—R. C. R.

*“Scarcely any charlock on farm ; couch the chief weed.”—J. Sn.

“There certainly is a considerable amount of wild mustard
about our land. I did not notice the caterpillar on it, but cannot
say I looked carefully.”—J. B. S.

“There is charlock (yellow weed, wild mustard) in Islay, but
you may drive a summer's day and not see a specimen, so that plant,
- == 4 say, has nothing to do with appearance of the grub.”—

“No charlock in this neighbourhood.”—R. W. S.

“* Have no experience of charlock.”—G. T.

“Tn an early-sown field, where turnips (swedes) and charlock
came together, both seemed to suffer equally.

“Tn part of a late-sown field with only a little charlock in it,
where, owing to continued dry weather, the charlock came before
the turnips (yellow), the former was much more severely attacked
than the latter.”—D. W.

“ Affects charlock about the same as turnips.” —F. W.

Summary.—The above observations prove that the diamond-back
eaterpillars frequent charlock as a regular food-plant, although this
plant is by no means always mentioned in lists of the plants especially
liable to this infestation.

7. Kinds of birds especially useful in clearing the caterpillars.

“Cannot say that I observed any birds actually at work devour-
ing the larve.”—E. A. A.

“Have no doubt but that the starling and the sparrow have
assisted largely in mitigating the evil. Possibly the rook may

628 The Diamond-back Moth.

have also eaten a number of the caterpillars, but of that I am not
certain.” —A. B.

“JT have seen no birds near the field except larks.”—F. B.

“T am told that crows and starlings were seen among the cater-
pillar-eaten turnips. I must say I saw them there no more than
usual, and sparrows and smaller birds preferred the barley.”—
J. A. B.

“ Yellowhammer, wagtail, and linnet.”—D. C.

“The rook and the plover.”—R. C., for Lord Auckland.

“ T consider the starling the most useful bird we have in clearing
the caterpillars ; they have been very active of late, and very numer--
ous. Sparrows are too numerous, and are against the swallows.”
—G. D.

“ The starling is by far the most useful, and the rook to a cer-
tain extent.”—J. D. .

“The common house-sparrow has done a lot of good by picking
off the grubs.” —J. P. D.

“Crows have been all over the fields since May ; many starlings
appeared when we had the caterpillars, and I noticed many small
birds in the turnips, chiefly linnets.”—W. F.

“A great number of sea-gulls have frequented the field, and
also grey plovers.”—T. F.,

“T had noticed the crow paying particular attention to the
worst parts of the field, so I shot one of them to see what it had in
its crop, and found it full of caterpillars—hundreds of them.”—J. H.

‘Starlings and thousands of smaller birds might be seen feeding
on them.”—J. L.

“Starlings in flocks noted feeding.”—“ N. Lines.”

“There have been thousands of starlings, green and golden
plovers, gulls, chaf- and green-finches frequenting all my turnip
fields for some weeks, and I have no doubt they have cleared thou-
sands of caterpillars off daily during that time.”—W. P.

“ Cannot say, but should judge that sparrows, rooks, and wood-
pigeons are no use.” —F. R.

“ Fowls of all sorts followed the hoers and eagerly ate the cater-
pillars ; no birds specially noticed though looked for ; last winter
killed great numbers of blackbirds and thrushes.”—B. ©. R.

“Starlings, sparrows, chaffinches, and linnets very plentiful, and
all most industrious.”—J. Sn.

“ Birds did not come much to the turnips, but I believe peewits
and starlings are most useful.”—J. B. 8.

« Cannot speak of any birds being useful, as the caterpillars were
too few for the birds to be making a special raid on them.”—J. Sr.

“T think the starling. Infested crops have been much fre-
quented by rooks.”—R. W. S.

“Starlings and lapwings have done much good in clearing
caterpillars ; sparrows and rooks are occupied with early oats—no
time to spare for plist "FB, W.

Summary.—In 12 of the above 22 observations the starling i is
mentioned as serviceable. Sparrows are mentioned seven times ; once

The Diamond-back Moth. 629

with the observation that they “ preferred the barley” ; once that
they were “occupied with early oats-—no time to spare for cater-
pillars ” ; once the name only is mentioned, simply with the observa-
tion that “ sparrows are too numerous, and are against the swallows,”
and once that the reporter judged they were “of no use.” The three
other notes speak more favourably of their services. The observations
name many kinds of large and small birds as noticed, and appear
to point to assemblage of birds of the neighbourhood where great
presence of caterpillars attracted them,

CONCLUSION.

The full teaching given in the foregoing reports can only be
gained by careful working out of all the points of information, both
as to coincidence and also in comparison one with another.

In the summaries I have endeavoured to give some of the main
points, but just looking at the matter generally, it appears to me
(put very shortly) to stand as follows :—

I think the evidence clearly points to the infestation having been
wind-borne to this country, because we have certain record of the
appearance of great flocks of moths at various places on the eastern
coast shortly before the caterpillars made their appearance, and
where specimens of these moth appearances were submitted to
entomologists they were found to be diamond-backs. Also, the
observations show that there was no special amount of charlock (one
of the chief field-weed plants on which the diamond-back caterpillars
live), nor had weather been such as to prevent, either in previous
autumn or before sowing the turnips, a careful cleaning, which would
have got rid of food-plants of the pest. Further, it may be presumed
that, if there had been the great number of caterpillars at work in the .
strip of country from Dover to Aberdeen which would have been
requisite to produce our recent attack, something would have been
noticed of them then, just in the same way as the presence and
ravage have been noticed now.

The littie green caterpillars might easily have been overlooked,
but every farmer would have been quick to observe what had
happened to the leafage of the turnips.

Also we have, I think, evidence that the attack came with a
burst and gradually spread inland. This advance was found by Mr.
Robson, at Hartlepool, to be at the rate of 14 miles in two days.
In that time from the appearance of the moths at Hartlepool, he
found they had reached a locality where they were totally absent
two days before.

This appearance of the pests coincided in some cases certainly
with dry weather, good for the infestation, and bad for the plants
it attacked ; and that this weather was general may be presumed
from the many reports, which after a while followed the first notice
of ravage, that now rain had come attack and its consequences were
lessening.

Up to the past summer we have only had (so far as I am aware)

630 The Diamond-Back Moth.

a single previous instance of really widespread and severe attack
recorded of diamond-back moth ; and as we know that the insect is one
recorded to be ‘‘always present, and sometimes very abundant, amongst
cabbages and cruciferous plants,” there seems to me to be good
reason to hope that the attack is only one occurring seriously under
special coincident circumstances, as of great importation and favour-
able weather. If not, it is inexplicable why the attack (as is
customary with most of our common crop insects) should not have
been generally distributed.

The relative amount of attack to plants on different kinds of
soil, with different kinds of manurial preparations of ground, dates
of sowing, &c., should be carefully studied if results are needed.
The minute differences require too much space to enter on here, and
indeed in some cases the reports sent me were so carefully detailed
that I have with much regret not been able to insert the whole.

The most important part of all, namely, possibility of some
reasonable amount of remedial treatment, certainly does not lie
eyond hope. In this I have especially directed my attention to
use of applications and implements which are always at hand or
may be easily purchasable. ;

We all know that when plants are perishing from loss of leafage,
one great assistance to us is an application which will imme-
diately push on growth—and in the record of experiments nitrate
of soda is frequently mentioned as having answered well. For
removal of the caterpillar pests the use of scufflers or horse-hoes,
with light boughs before them, is frequently mentioned as doing q
much good.

:
>
Such remedies as these lie within the means of all agriculturists ;
and though, as with most other crop remedies, sometimes they
answer and sometimes they do not, yet (for one thing) it may
be expected that, in case the attack recurs, we should be ready, and
apply the remedies in such good time that they would succeed,
and (for another) that though very likely remains of this summer’s
guests may supply some amount of trouble for next year, yet so far
as I can form an opinion, it appears to me that unless under very
special coincidences, we have no cause to fear another such agricul:
tural visitation upon our coasts.
ELEANOR A. ORMEROD,

LN -

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July, 1891. 631

QUARTERLY REPORT OF THE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE

Juty, 1891.

1. Mr. P. Dalton, of Cummersdale Mills, Carlisle, sent for
analysis on May 6, 1891, a sample of Flesh, Blood and Bene
Manure, the price of this ‘being d/. 5s. per ton ‘for cash, delivered ;

21 tons had been purchased from the manufacturer, Mr. Dennis
Hughes, of Grinsdale Bridge Manure Works, near Carlisle. The
manure was ordered for top- dressing purposes. The following
analysis and report were given :—

May 15.
" Moisture ’ 21-75
1 Organic matter and water of combination . 22-43
Monobasic phosphate of lime 7:75
equal to tribasic phosphate oflime (bone phosphate) 100-00
rendered soluble by acid . (12-25)
Insoluble phosphates. . . » 5°54
Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, &e. : - . 33°75
Insoluble siliceous matter. . oth 2 °8-78
1 Containing nitrogen «» «+ + » w ‘92
equal to ammonia . . , . . » 1:12

Just about twice the price it should be.

An allowance of 5/. on the transaction was made by the vendor,
who explained that one of the ingredients in the mixing was not
what it should have been.

2. Mr. A. de Mornay, of Col d’Arbres, Wallingford, sent on
June 9, 1891, a sample of what he had purchased as Dissolved
Bones, the price being 5/. 10s. per ton, delivered, less 5s. per ton
discount in four months. Two tons of the manure had been bought
from the manufacturers, Messrs. Weedon Bros., The Chemical Manure
Works and Bone Mills, Goring, near Reading. The following report
was given on the sample :—

June 15,
Moisture . = - 13°98
1 Organic matter and ‘water of combination ° . 1531
Monobasic phosphate of lime . », 1629

equal to tribasic phosphate of lime (bone phosphate) :

rendered soluble by acid . : : - (17°69) 100-00

Insoluble phosphates. PA pppoe ee ES:
Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, &e, + - «+ 48657
Insoluble siliceous matter. . w nom GY: gto

1 Containing nitrogen . : ‘ 2 a:
equal to ammonia : T7

632 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July, 1891.

This should not be called dissolved bones; it is a mixture containing
comparatively little bone, and is a very inferior manure to dissolved bones.

3. Mr. F. E. Cotten Seer to Mr. F. Monckton, of Brewood,
Stafford, sent on June 22, 1891, a sample of Artificial Manure, of
which three tons had been purchased of Mr. R. Patrick, Bone and
Chemical Manure Works, Oldbury, near Birmingham, the price being
6. 10s. per ton, carriage paid. The following analysis and report
were given :—

July 2.
Moisture o c . 10°95
1 Organic matter and water of combination . ol:08
Monobasic phosphate of lime . 2) OS
equal to tribasic phosphate oflime (bone phosphate) 1000
rendered soluble by acid . . - (9:28)
Insoluble phosphates. : : . 673
Sulphate of lime, alkaline salts, &e. : : . 42:33
Insoluble siliceous matter. - : F > 408
1 Containing nitrogen. : : ; a SNS)
equal to ammonia : : . ; 5 ah!

The price asked is enormous; you ought, for cash, to get as good a
manure for half the price or but little more.

On complaint being made the vendor said a mistake had been
made in the truck of manure forwarded, and he charged the delivery
at the rate of 3/. per ton only, exclusive of carriage, making in all
an allowance of 9/. 4s. on the three tons delivered.

4. Mr. R. Richardson, of Arnold Grange, Skirlaugh, Hull,
sent for analysis, on June 6, 1891, a sample of Bone Meal, of which
15 tons had been purchased, at a cost of 6/. 3s. 4d. per ton, at the
Works. One ton had already been used, and the sample only re-
presented the 10 cwt. which were left

The following analysis and report were returned :—

June 13,
Moisture. : : : : : : - 10°95
1 Organic matter . 3 ‘ ; : : eeSeO
Phosphate of lime. . : : ; - 41°77 } 100:00

Carbonate of lime, &c. ; 4 : : « ess

Sand , 5 c - C : * ; . 8:25
1 Containing nitrogen . : : : . 3°25
equal to ammonia : - ; é - 394

This sample is not pure, being mixed with carbonate of lime and having
excessive sand. It is of low quality, Callens both in phosphates and in
nitrogen,

~ Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, July, 1891. 633

Mr. Richardson declined to give the vendor’s name, but said
that, though no guarantee had been given him, he had received an
allowance of 4/. on the last half-ton.

5. Mr. G. W. Finn, of Westwood Court, Faversham, sent on
June 4, 1891, a sample of American Linseed Cake for analysis, he
haying purchased about thirty tons of this cake from Messrs.
Wakeley, Rainham, Kent. It was known as “ Dean’s” Cake, the
price being 8/. 10s. per ton. The report given on this sample was as
follows :—

June 9.
Moisture . ; : : : : : . 1025
Gi «. 9:10
1 ATbuminous compounds (Hesh- forming matters) 27°75 100-00
Mucilage, sugar, and eet fibre . : 3154
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : - = LO%G6
* Mineral matter (ash) . A ¢ : ; 10°60
' Containing nitrogen . : : - a a
? Including sand . : : : - . 5°05

This is an impure cake containing over 5 per cent. of sand.

No allowance was made by the vendors. They sent Mr. Finn
the copy of an analysis of what they said was the same cake as sup-
plied to him. This was-as follows :—

Cory oF ANAtysiIs oF “ DEAN’s” Cake,

Water (lostat 212°F.).. - ; 7 9:20
Oil . - 10:60
1 Albuminous (flesh- forming compounds) - - 29-11 | 4 00-00
Mucilage, digestible fibre, &c. . ; : . 34:30
Indigestible (woody) fibre . 2 : : . 10°33
2 Mineral matter (ash) . : : : : - 6:46
* Containing nitrogen . : : E - 460
* Containing sand . : : - - 1LekO

This is a pure linseed cake, made from very clean seed.

(Signed) R. A. Waren,
July 28, 1891. Chairman.

Von. TT, S.—7 Gy

634

Hotes, Communications, and
‘Reviews.

THE RELATIONS OF- THE. DISEASESSG8
ANIMALS TO THOSE, OF MAM

Tus year’s session of the International Congress of Hygiene and
Demography will be memorable in the agricultural world from the
fact that, for the first time in the history of the meetings of the
Congress, there has been a section entirely devoted to what may
fairly be termed the interests of the community generally and of
agriculturists specially.

The President, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., in his opening
address struck the key-note: ‘The subjects,” he said, “that we
shall have to discuss are of the greatest and most immediate im-
portance to all classes of the community in every country, and I
think myself happy in having been honoured with the presidency of
the first assemblage of medical men, veterinarians, and agriculturists
who have ever met on common ground to discuss questions of the
profoundest interest to them and to the world at large.”

From the record of work done at these meetings there can be little
doubt that the objects kept in view by those responsible for the forma-
tion of this section (amongst whom certain Members of Council of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England took a prominent part) have
been fully attained, for there has been a freer interchange of ideas
and opinions amongst the different sections of practical and scientifi¢
men above mentioned than has previously taken place. The subject
has been approached from the point of view of those engaged in
practical agriculture, from that of the skilled veterinarian (both
British and foreign), and lastly from the side of the scientific hygienist
and medical officer of health ; and it is interesting to note, from the
whole tenor of the discussions, that all could agree that interests
which are sometimes held to be conflicting have really much in
common, and that what is best for the community at large is also un-
doubtedly best for the interest of cattle-breeders and of agriculturists
generally. It may be well, therefore, to give a short réswmé of the
more important facts that were brought out in the various discus-
sions—discussions which were carried on with such vigour and
animation, but withal with such courtesy and good temper, that

The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man. 635

all who took part in them were not only instructed or gave in-
struction, but were also equally gratified.

The intimate association between the recent advances in bac-
teriological science and practice and their relations to diseases of
animals and to general hygiene was fitly introduced in the discussion
on “The Prevention of Hydrophobia,” to which Dr. Roux, of Paris,
and Dr. George Fleming contributed most interesting papers. Dr.
Roux’s contribution, almost entirely statistical, was prefaced by a
valuable account of the Pasteur method, but the main interest centred
in the figures he was able to give. From 1886 to 1890, he said,
in all, there had been 9,465 patients treated in Paris ; of these 90 had
died, but the largest proportion of deaths was amongst foreign
patients—a fact that was ascribed to the late period at which treat-
ment was commenced after the patients had been bitten ; this was
especially well marked amongst English patients, of whom 389
had been treated. The mortality amongst patients bitten about
the head, if left untreated, was about 80 per cent., whilst of 710
persons bitten about the head who had been treated at the Pasteur
Institute only 24 had died, or 3°38 per cent. This was the most
interesting fact brought out in the whole paper, and one which
should be more convincing than any other statement or argument
could possibly be. As the treatment had become perfected the rate
of mortality had declined ; thus, in 1886 it was 1°34 per cent., whilst
in 1889 and 1890 it had fallen to 0:54 and 0°71 per cent. respectively.

Dr. Fleming, in his paper on “The Prevention of Rabies,” drew
attention to the fact that really the most efficient method of dealing
with this disease was by the destruction of rabid dogs ; the stringent
detention of wandering and ownerless dogs, which if not claimed
within a certain period should be destroyed ; efficient muzzling, and
the imposition of a dog-tax and registration, not in localised areas
only but throughout the country. Of course, it might be pointed
out that no muzzle will prevent a mad dog from biting when it gets
to the rabid stage, but an animal is as a rule not so dangerous
during this stage as in the morose preliminary period, during which
the disease should always be diagnosed and the animal put out of
its misery.

It has sometimes been suggested that all dogs should be
inoculated with anti-rabic virus; but it could be gathered from
Dr. Roux’s address that the inoculation is not so much protective
as antidotal, and he pointed out that in those cases where the
virus might remain latent in the system for months or even years,
the effect of the preventive inoculation might disappear before the
activity of the virus manifested itself, and that in this way some of
the fatal cases which have occurred at alate date might be accounted
for. Whatever measures are taken (and the simplest, such as leash-
ing and muzzling of dogs, careful registration, and the destruction
of ownerless dogs, are the best), they should be carried out stringently
throughout the kingdom, and not in districts only. If these were
strictly enforced we might soon be freed from this scourge. The
Pasteur treatment in the meantime must be looked upon as neces-

rr2

636 The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man.

sary, in order that the mortality amongst patients and dogs that
have the ill-fortune to get bitten may be diminished. As a pro-
phylactic treatment the outcome of Galtier’s labours can scarcely
yet be looked upon as completely successful.

At the same sitting Professor Brown gave an exceedingly inter-
esting demonstration on “ Animal Parasites,” and Professor Railliet,
of Alfort, gave an account of the “ Parasites transmissible from
Animals to Man,” which, when published, should prove of extreme
value to those who study medical or veterinary hygiene.

Professor Brown, before his demonstration, referred to Sym- -

biosis, Mutualism, Commensualism, and Parasitism, defining the
different shades of meaning involved in each term. The ,lemon-
stration included specimens of specially prepared and mounted
parasitic organisms, and photographs, all of which were projected by
means of a lime-light lantern on to a screen at the back of the hall.
There were included beautiful examples of trematode worms ; the
ordinary liver-fluke, both in the embryo state and in its adult
form ; cestode worms; various forms of tapeworms, with their
developmental cystic stages, including the forms met with in
the human subject, in dogs, sheep, &c.; nematode worms, or
round or thread worms, especially those forms found in the digestive
canal and in muscles; the whip-worm, the worm of trichinous
pork, &c. ; and the Acanthocephale, or thorn-headed worms.

Professor Railliet, after dividing the parasites transmissible
from animals to man into animal and vegetable, and‘external and
internal, and the external parasites into temporary and stationary,
said that the internal parasites were nearly all stationary. Some
common to man and animals, or living more especially in animals,
may develop accidentally in man (V'richina spiralis of measly
pork). Others are compelled to penetrate into the organism
of man in order to complete their life-history, so that they are
usually transmitted direct (Z@nia soliwm, the common tapeworm).
Indirect transmission may take place through the medium of food or
water which animals have polluted or infected by depositing ova or
embryos. Here two kinds were found—those in which the parasites,
living in the adult state in animals, are capable of attaining the
same state in man, as with the common liver-fluke ; and those
which, living in an adult state in animals (Tenia echinocgccus in
the dog), only develop in the larval stage in the human subject
(hydatid cysts).

Direct transmission is brought about by the consumption of the
flesh of infected animals, in which case the parasites living in the

larval state in animals become developed into their adult form in

man, as in the case of the tapeworms of measly pork and beef, and
in the T'richina spiralis of trichinous pork.

As to the means to be taken to prevent the spread of these
parasites, we ought in the first instance to avoid contact with

animals suffering from parasitic affections which we know to be

transmissible to ourselves, at the same time endeavouring to destro
the parasites and their progeny, not only in the animals themselves,
but also in all parts which may have been affected. In the seco

The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man. 637

ease, we must only consume suspected food and water after care-
ful examination, and after boiling, filtration, or other means of
purification, where necessary. Lastly, effective general sanitary
measures should be taken to complete the cordon of protection.

In the discussion on “ Food Poisoning,” it appeared to be the
general opinion that thorough cooking of all meat and the most
serupulous cleanliness and ventilation of places where cooked meat
was stored, sold, or otherwise prepared, with the adoption of every
possible protection against the introduction into them of ground-air,
or of morbific or unwholesome emanations, were the essential points
to be considered as regards prevention of tainting and meat infection.
The noxious properties of poisonous meat might be due to disease of
the animals or to food obtained from them ; inoculation of the
foods with specific pathogenic microbes might take place outside the
body of the animal from which the food was derived ; or, again, the
infection with saprophytic toxicogenic bacteria of food-stuffs, such as
meat and milk, might occur. We still have much to learn about
the sterilisation of milk and the destruction of certain organisms
which, introduced into this medium, appear to set up poisonous
fermentation, not only outside the body, but even after it has been
introduced into the stomach, for it is found that heating and
partial sterilisation of milk are not always sutiicient to destroy very
resistant organisms, which, even after introduction with the milk
into the stomach and intestines of children, may reinfect the milk
and give rise to those forms of diarrhcea so frequently met with.

Dr. Klein’s paper on “ Infectious Udder Diseases of the Cow in
Relation to Epidemic Diseases of the Human Subject” started a very
lively and interesting discussion, for although none of the speakers
whose opinions were supported by the authority of actual experiment
were able to confirm Dr. Klein’s results, yet these results are so
positively stated, and Dr. Klein has been able to produce such
definite diseases, that.the matter cannot at present be looked upon
as finally settled, and there is no doubt that, on the first outbreak of
diphtheria or scarlet fever which appears to be associated in any way
with an epidemic of vesicular eruption on the udders of cattle, the
whole question will be again opened up. It would be well, therefore,
as Professor Brown pointed out, that any such investigation should
be carried on by a committee comprised of representatives of the
Local Government Board and of the Board of Agriculture, with
the assistance of some independent authorities. Only in this way
can the matter be settled, as at present each section is convinced
that the other is absolutely at fault, and certainly we should say, with
Sir Roger de Coverley, “There is much to be said for both sides.”

Professor Ostertag, of Stuttgart, contributed one of the most
interesting papers of the meeting, on “ Milk Diseases and the
Regulation of Milk Supply.” As his remarks were extremely
practical, we may here summarise his conclusions. For sanitary
reasons he considers that the following kinds of milk should never
be allowed to be placed on the market: viz. (1) Milk which
without being necessarily prejudicial to health is still peculiar

638 The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man.

in colour, taste, or consistence, especially when the taste is
in any way nauseous; (2) any milk that is prejudicial to
health, or which on good grounds is suspected of being so. In the
first group he would class colostral, blue, red, and yellow milk, and
slimy or thready milk (all of which owe their peculiar properties to
the growth of micro-organisms), bitter, salt, or abnormal-smelling
milk, and milk that has been rendered impure by accidental con-
tamination with dirt of various kinds. In the second group would
come the milk of animals that have been fed on poisonous fodder,
or to which have been administered certain medicaments. Under -
this classification would come also the milk from animals suffering
from tuberculosis, malignant pustule, cowpox, aphthz, suppuration,
ulceration, &c.; the milk from animals affected with feverish
ailments or with different forms of inflammation of the udder ; milk
which might be infected by immediate contact with patients
suffering from typhus, cholera, &c., or through being kept in rooms
where such persons were lodged ; and, finally, milk might become
injurious and unfit for sale through being carried in unsuitable
metal vessels, from which injurious substances might find their way
into the milk. In order to guard against these dangers, he con-
siders that it is advisable: (1) That all dairy farms should be
licensed ; (2) that all animals kept for milking should be examined
by a veterinary surgeon at frequent stated intervals ; (3) that the
owners of dairy farms should be bound to supply good, undamaged
fodder to the cattle, and to give immediate notice of the illness of
any milch cow to the attendant veterinary surgeon, without whose
leave the milk from a diseased animal should never be allowed to be
sent to market ; (4) that the milking should be performed with
punctilious cleanliness, and that no person suffering from an infectious
disease should be employed for milking cattle; (5) the milk,
mixed, should be cooled and stored in special rooms, not in living or
sleeping rooms ; (6) milk should be transported only in suitable
vessels ; (7) during the prevalence of aphth, only milk that has
been boiled should be brought into market ; whilst all milk men-
tioned above, under headings (1) and (2), should be rigidly excluded,
and on the outbreak of any epidemic ina house where dairy farming is
carried on the sale of milk should be forbidden ; (8) the greatest
care should always be exercised in obtaining the so-called “ infants’
milk.” The regulations as to the feeding of cows, attention to
cleanliness in milking, and the cooling and proper transport of
the milk, should be strictly observed.

In the discussion that followed, the prevailing opinion seemed to
be that the introduction of general regulations was required, but that
the power should not be placed in the hands of local authorities, who
rarely took advantage even of the powers that they had, under the
Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, to enforce regulations with re-
gard tothe milk supply. These necessary regulations really resolved
themselves into (1) the registration of all dairy farms, cowsheds, and
milk-shops ; (2) efficient inspection of all such registered premises.
' Professor Brown hit the nail on the head when he gave it as his

The Relations of the Diseases of Animals to those of Man. 639

opinion “ that, for carrying out any efficient system of milk inspec- -
tion, and of inhibiting the sale of milk considered to be dangerous, a
system of compensation would have to be devised, so as to prevent
dairymen whose milk supply was stopped from suffering severe loss.”

As regards the inspection of meat and its relation to the preven-
tion of disease, the same difficulties are met with as in the case of
milk, and the same regulations and compensations must necessarily,
in the long run, be applied. In this matter we have much to learn
from Continental authorities, whose rules (modelled greatly on the
experience gained from the beneficent working of the Hebrew re-
ligious legislation, as regards meat and milk, on the health and
physique of the Jews) have even now been attended with most satis-
factory results.

Passing from the general to the special, the discussion on ‘‘ Tuber-
culosis” before the combined Sections IT. and ITI., under the presi-
dency of Sir Joseph Lister, came in very opportunely. That there
is grave danger arising from the use of tuberculous milk must
be accepted as proved without any shadow of doubt. As regards
infection of the digestive tract through ingestion of meat from tuber-
culous animals there was more variety of opinion; but from the
general tone of the discussion it was gathered that there undoubt-
edly exists a danger—a danger, however, which has been considerably
exaggerated, but one which requires that precautions should be taken
in order that stock-feeders, dairy farmers, and others should know
exactly what is expected of them, and in order, too, that public con-
fidence may be restored. Here, again, registration, inspection, wise
and well regulated confiscation, with some scheme of compensation
(either by assisted mutual insurance, which would be the preferable
form, as we might then rely that the slightly increased cost would
eventually fall upon the consumer, or out of local rates or Imperial
taxes), are required —a system of confiscation and compensation which
would prove equitable to breeders and cattle-dealers alike, and would
consequently secure their co-operation and support in rendering
effective any regulations that might be framed.

From the discussion on “ Actinomycosis ” it may be gathered that
this disease is not to be placed in the same category as tuberculosis.
Tt is seldom transmissible directly from animals to man or from man
to animals, and in many cases the appearance of actinomycotic wens,
of wooden tongue, and the like, appears to have little influence in
deteriorating the quality of the food derived from the infected
animals, except in the general way that all suppuration brings about
such deterioration. It was pointed out that the disease might have
a common origin for both animals and man, that it was generally
transmitted by means of fodder—especially by means of straw—
though it was generally agreed that we have still much to learn about
the history and development of the organism which appears to give
rise to the disease ; Mr. Goodall suggesting that a careful investiga-
tion of the diseases communicable from the vegetable to the animal
world would be productive of very fruitful results,

M. Chauveau’s and Professor Duguid’s papers on “ Anthrax” were

640 The Agricultural Holdings Act. q

especially interesting. They were the outcome of the work of two
scientific men who were amongst the earliest workers at the first
disease in which a micro-organism was constantly found as the
causal agent of a specific malady. From the discovery of the bacillus
of anthrax a new era in the study of contagious and transmissible
diseases may be said to date.

The work in this section throughout the Congress was intensely —
practical, and much of it affords promise of better times to come for
stock-owners, dairy farmers, and others. Indeed, one cannot but be
impressed by the fact that work which, carried out in connection with
the health of the human community, has lowered the death-rate so
enormously during the last few decades, should, when applied to the
breeding, rearing, and storing of cattle, be equally successful ; and
that the diminished death-rate or disease-rate must necessarily be
followed by a corresponding increase in the value and food-produe-
ing power of cattle.

G. Sims WoopHEAD.

THE AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS ACT.

Note upon a case relating to the power given to a landlord by this
Act to obtain a charge upon a farm for the amount paid to the
tenant for compensation.!

Tue Agricultural Holdings Act provides, by section 29, that ‘a
landlord on paying to the tenant the amount due to him in respect —
of compensation under the Act, shall be entitled to obtain from the
County Court a charge on the holding, or any part thereof, to the
amount of the sum so paid,” and that “the Court shall, on proof of
the payment, and on being satisfied of the observance in good faith
by the parties of the conditions imposed by the Act, make an order
charging the holding, or any part thereof, with repayment of the
amount paid, with such interest, and by such instalments, and with
such directions for giving effect to the charge as the Court thinks
fit.” The question at issue in the case now under consideration was
whether, under this section, the executors of a landlord who was
tenant for life of the farm, and who had died after the amount pay-
able to an outgoing tenant for compensation had been fixed, could
obtain a charge on the farm for that amount, they having paid
it to the outgoing tenant. After considerable difference of
opinion amongst the judges before whom the case was successively
tried, the Court of Appeal decided that the executors could obtain

1 Gough v. Gough, reported in the Times of April 15 and June 29, 189],
and in the Weekly Reporter, vol. xxxix. pp. 494 and 593. a

The Agricultural Holdings Act. 641

such a charge. The difficulty in the case was caused by the word-
ing, not only of the section which I have just quoted, which it will
be noticed speaks merely of “‘a landlord,” but also of the section
(61) which contains definitions of numerous words and expressions
used in the Act, amongst others of the word “landlord.” Such
definition runs thus :—“ Landlord in relation to a holding, means
any person for the time being entitled to receive the rents and
profits of any holding,” and at the end of the section there is this
clause : “ The designations of landlord and tenant shall continue to
apply to the parties until the conclusion of any proceedings taken
under, or in pursuance of this Act, in respect of compensation for
improvements, or under any agreement made in pursuance of this
Act.”

The facts of the case were as follows :—

Mr. Gough, as tenant for life of a farm, let the same to a tenant
from year to year. In March, 1889, the tenant gave notice of his
intention to quit the farm at Lady Day, 1890, and in January,
1890, served upon Mr. Gough notice of a claim for 130/. for unex-
hausted improvements under the provisions of the Agricultural
Holdings Act. On April 5 the amount payable by Mr. Gough to
the tenant was fixed by valuers appointed under the provisions of
the Act at 35/7. On April 8 Mr. Gough died, having up to that
date been in receipt of the rent of the farm as tenant for life, and
on April 24 his executors paid the 35/. to the tenant. They then
presented a petition in the Wells County Court asking for a charge
upon the farm in respect of the 35/. under seetion 29 of the Act.
The remainderman, or person who had at Mr. Gough’s death come
into possession of the farm, opposed the petition, and the County
Court judge held that the executors were not the “landlord”
within the definition given in section 61 of the Act, and were there-
fore not entitled to the charge.

From this decision the executors appealed to the Queen’s Bench
Division of the High Court, and the appeal was heard by Mr.
Justice Cave and Mr. Justice Vaughan Williams in January last.
Those two learned judges, after taking time to consider the case,
differed in opinion, the former holding that the County Court judge
was right and that the executors could not obtain the charge, while
the latter held that the County Court judge was wrong, and that the
executors could obtain the charge. Under these circumstances the
decision of the County Court judge held good, but the executors
had leave given them to carry the case to the Court of Appeal if
they wished todo so. This they did, and on June 26 last the case
came before the Court of Appeal, which consisted of the Master of
the Rolls (Lord Esher) and Lords Justices Bowen and Kay. All
these three learned judges were of opinion that the County Court
judge and Mr. Justice Cave were wrong, and that Mr. Justice
Vaughan Williams was right in the conclusion at which he had
arrived : viz., that Mr. Gough’s executors had the right to obtain
the charge they sought. The judgments of the Master of the Rolls
and of Lord Justice Bowen proceeded mainly upon technical

642 The Agricultural Holdings Act.

grounds, which would hardly be interesting to readers of the
Journal; but that of Lord Justice Kay contains somhe weighty
observations on the general scope of the Act of 1883, as well as the
technical grounds applicable to the case immediately before the
Court, and is therefore given, at some length. His Lordship
said :—

“ The Agricultural Holdings Acts give to the tenant rights which
“he did not possess before to claim compensation from his landlord
“for unexhausted improvements. Under the Act of 1875 it was pos-
“sible for the landlord and the tenant to contract themselves out of
“the Act. But the Act of 1883 went a step further and forbade that,
«and made the provisions of the Act binding onthe landlord. It is
“clear thatin the present case the executors were bound topay the 35/.,
“and they did pay it. Turning to section 29, I find that these
“executors, if they can be brought within the term landlord, are
“entitled to obtain a charge upon the land for this 35/. It was paid
“‘by them for unexhausted improvements of which the land would
“ get the benefit—that is, the land of the remainderman—and out of
‘which the estate of the tenant for life would get no benefit what-
“ever. Can it have been intended that under this Act the landlord,
“if he is alive, can obtain a charge on the land, butif he has died, his
“executors cannot obtain it ?—that they should pay out of his estate
‘*for improvements upon the land of the remainderman, and yet get
“no charge upon the land which has been improved? I said during
“the argument that it would be monstrous if the Act allowed such
“an injustice as that to take place, and I think that the language
“which I used is not too strong to describe such a result. It is
“incredible that the Legislature should have intended that the Act
“should have that effect. But is that the necessary construction ?

** Turning to the definition of the word landlord, I think that it
“is probable that the executors do not come within it, and I do not
“rely upon that. It is argued that in the Agricultural Holdings
“ Act, 1875, s. 4, ‘landlord’ is defined so as to include the executors,
“and that that is not so in the present Act, whereas in the definition
“ of ‘tenant’ the words including the executors are still retained.
“That argument is worthy of attention, but there is another differ-
“ence between these sections of the two Acts.” [His Lordship read
the clause in section 61 of the Act of 1883 which I have cited above,
and the corresponding clause in the definition section of the 1875
Act, and continued] :—‘“ These clauses are like and yet very un-
“like ; is not the reason for the alteration the fact that the exe-
“cutors of a landlord have been omitted from the definition of ‘land-
“lord ?’ so that although not within the definition, they may be
“within the designation as long as proceedings under this Act are
“goingon. It seems to me that it was a mistake to say that a land-
“lord should mean his executors, for the landlord’s interest often
“ceases entirely at his death, and such a definition might therefore
“ give rise to difficulties. But to say that the executors shall be in-
“cluded in the designation of landlord until the conclusion of pro-
“ceedings under this Act makes the Act intelligible ; for the proceed-

The Canker of the Larch. 643

“ings are not determined by the death of a landlord who is tenant for
«life of the property, nor until this application fora charge has been
“made and disposed of. The result is that, this being a proceeding
“under the Act, the executors, as parties to that proceeding, are
“within the designation of ‘landlord’ until the conclusion of the
«proceedings, and are entitled to this charge.”

S. B. L. Druce.

THE CANKER OF THE LARCH.

Tue conclusion arrived at by Mr. Carruthers in the last number of
the Journal (page 299) will, I think, be received with consternation
by landowners and others interested in planting operations. When
we are told that “it may deserve consideration whether it would
not be better to replace the larch by other trees suitable to our
climate and fitted for the purposes for which the larch has been so
long employed,” it is pertinent to ask if any known tree will answer
this description.

For general utility it must be admitted the larch has no equal.
Even the early thinnings possess a value which, though small, is far
greater than that of the young poles of any other description of tree ;
and, coming to maturity at a very early age, the timber is scarcely
surpassed, even by that of the oak, for toughness and durability.
These qualities are of special advantage to landed proprietors, and
without doubt more larch is used for fencing, gates, and other estate
purposes than any other timber. It is, moreover, the best material
for railway-sleepers, for cleading railway waggons, for boat building,
and for telegraph and scaffold poles, being far tougher and more
enduring than Baltic redwood.

Under these circumstances it behoves us to consider whether the
larch cannot be cultivated here in such a way that the losses arising
from this scourge may be minimised.

Mr. Carruthers gives excellent advice as to the means of detect-
ing the canker in the young plant, and the importance of rejecting
and destroying every specimen that is already attacked ; and I think
if this is done thoroughly, and the plantation is properly attended to
in its early years, we may keep the disease at bay.

It is a matter of common observation that the plantations in
which canker is most prevalent are those in which the soil is
wet and undrained, in which grass and undergrowth have not been
kept down in the early life of the plant, and which have not been

i sufficiently soon. These conditions favour the damp atmo-
sphere that, as Mr. Carruthers points out, is necessary for the germina-
tion of the spores. Plantations consisting of larch and pine, or of
larch alone, are also more subject to attack than those of larch and
hardwoods, for the same reason, while it is unusual to find diseased
specimens in larch trees scattered about in beech or oak woods.

644 American Farm Crops..

I therefore venture to suggest that planters should keep the
following points in view :—

1. Do not plant larch in wet, undrained soil.

2. Select plants free from disease.

3. Do not plant too closely. Four feet apart is quite near enough
in most cases and, in sheltered situations, five feet is preferable.

4, Plant hardwoods with the larch.

5.° Keep down the herbage. If hoeing is considered too expen-
sive, this can be effected by mowing with a short scythe.

6. Thin in good time. F

The last point is somewhat indefinite, but it may be elaborated
by saying that as soon as the branches of one tree press upon those
of another, so as to interfere with the healthy development of
sufficient foliage, thinning should be resorted to. A too early thin-
ning is a mistake from which a plantation will generally recover,
but if thinned too late the result is often fatal.

RosBertT ANDERSON.

AMERICAN FARM CROPS.

THE United States Department of Agriculture has recently issued
an “ Album of Agricultural Graphics,” which is in some sense a
companion to the “Album of Agricultural Statistics,” referred
to in the Journal last year (Vol. I, 3rd Series, p. 657,—a map
of the United States being given on page 659). The present
elaborately-prepared publication comprises a series of ten outline
maps of the United States, each of which illustrates, by means of
different shades of colour and peculiarities of mechanical drawing,
the average yield and value per acre of one of the chief farm crops
in every State or territory. The figures both of yield and value
are based on official returns, and with regard to both the average of
ten years is taken.

The mean results for the United States come out as follows :—!

|

Yield | Value per Yield | Value per

Crop per acre, acre Crop peracre} , .acre

bushels} £ s. d. || bushels} £ s. @.

Corn (%.e. maize) .| 241}1 19 5 | Potatoes. . . .| 762| 719 9

‘Wikteatvrtaniaetss sv 120M Qu) py Sell Ib.

Oats .... .| 266|1 14 O]] Tobacco. . . .|7271|1216 8

ee aes ok tok LE | ke 5 Cotton . ...-.| 1681 |) Siem

Bamley. = ngs), alse | ae oko D | tons

Buckwheat . . .| 12°8 1 adage Bo! | Hay’. .) See os aie 262

Ee
With reference to the yield per acre, it is observed in the short
report which prefaces, and to some extent summarises, the graphic

1 The values, which are of course given in dollars, have been here through-
out reduced to English currency.—R. H. R

American Farm Crops. 645

tations, that the past decade has been marked by several
years of drought, “which have reduced the rate of yield below the
average of the preceding decade, a period comparatively exempt
from dry seasons.” The years of sufficient rainfall show no diminu-
tion in the rate of yield.

The range of crop-production is very considerable. The yield

acre of maize varies from 9-4 bushels in South Carolina to
32-8 bushels in Nebraska. The statistician remarks in reference to
this crop that it is worth inquiring why the average yield per
acre for ten years is 32°7 bushels in New Hampshire, which pos-
Sesses a granitic soil, which is so far removed in fertility from the
ideal maize-bearing alluvium, and only 27-7 bushels in Illinois,
which is endowed with extraordinary fertility. Again, with regard
to wheat, the yield per acre is as low as 5°7 bushels in South Caro-
lina and Mississippi, and rises to 19°5 bushels in Colorado. In Great
Britain, it may be observed, the estimated ordinary average yield of
wheat is 28-80 bushels per acre, and the range is from 14-22 in
Anglesey, to 36-71 in the county of Edinburgh.

From the point of view of the British farmer, the most interest-
ing crop in the United States is that of wheat, because it is practi-
cally the only one which comes into direct competition with his own
produce. In view of the quantities of wheat and wheat-flour—
averaging some two million tons per annum—which the American
farmers have been sending to this country during the past decade,
it is of interest to observe what they have themselves been obtain-

jAverage| Average [Average Average
— yieldper| value per | | — Yield per, value per
acre acre acre acre

bushels |
Indiana. . . .| 131 |

New Mexico . .'|| 13°6

2 q
B.
i
an
bo

eT:

at

é

i e
AWOORNIDUARUIM OD

WAKRNWAAOASONSNW

;
.
.
call aged

bushels} £ 5. d. Ba &

Weeds ee} 1sG |. 312 . 7 | : 2) he
New Hampshire .| 144/ 316 0/| Illinois . . . .| 1384/2 7 2
Vermont... ./| 169 2 2 3) Wiscousm . . .| 120 (25%, 9
Massachusetts . ./| 16:3 465 Minnesota . . .| 125/118 9
Connecticut. . .| 166) 319 9 || FSW) ac cc: 2d tev Se olOG.| It, +6
Mew Yor: . . -}| 1447; 3 2 7} Missopri. . . .| 11-71 18. 5
New Jersey. . .| 129| 216 7 || Kansas . . ../| 139/119 2
Pennsylvania . .| 126 | 212 9/| Nebraska .. . ete i sor
Delaware. . . .| 116| 2 8 9 || Califomia . . .| 1251/2 3 1
Maryland. . . .| 122| 210 3|| Oregon . . . .| 163/210 1
Meama . ..e| : iis: SS WP Nevadss 208, Cir kee) o%6 G6
N.Carolina . . . ] 7 || Colorado . . .|} 19513 7 7
S.Carolina . . . bend 0 || Arizona. . . .| 138/213 0
eneIA . 2... ; 1 2 || Dakota. . . .| 1L9|111 4
Alabama... .| ‘ 1 & pidahas ss... | ECE. Oe
Mississippi . . .| 5° 1 4 || Montana . . .| 17613 0 4
T P - ane ae ; 1 3 se (9)
a ei cn : 1 1 Sia! ieibt x 2 1

ae he 1 9 i Bite 0|2 8

es z 2 1 in a Oo Ls
wee. P 1 ooo = NAG
ees ae x 3 9
aCe , 2 0 07

a 8 ee | es ee eee

646 American Farm Crops.

ing per acre for the produce which has tended so much to depress
the British corn markets in that period. The'table on page 645 shows
the average yield and return per acre for wheat, based on the results
of the past ten years, in each State and territory of the American
Union, except Louisiana, where no wheat is grown.

For the purpose of comparison I have worked out from the official
figures the average value per acre of the wheat-crop in Great
Britain in each of the past seven years, from which it appears that
the gross return in this country is nearly three times as much as
in the United States :—

Year i Yield per acre Price per quarter Average value per acre
bushels 3. d. ee d.
1884 29°96 35° 9 6 13 &
1885 31°31 32 10 6.9) #
1886 26°89 okey B | i ae
1887 32:07 32 «6 6 10 2
1888 | 28-05 oe, ee 5 il 7G
1889 29°89 — | 29 10 56 Wl4
18390 30°74 31 il G ‘2 @

Average value of wheat-crop per acre for seven years in 6
pe aie i ee ee ee a

As regards the other farm crops of which particulars are given,
a few brief notes must suffice.

Oats are grown in every State and territory except Arizona ;
the range of yield per acre being from 34-2 bushels in Illinois, te
9-5 bushels in North Carolina. Generally speaking, the Northern
and Western States grow much larger crops than the Southern States.
The value per acre ranges from 3/. 15s. 7d. in Nevada, to 19s. i
North Carolina.

Rye is grown in all the States except Arizona, Florida, Montana,
Nevada, New Mexico, and Wyoming. Colorado stands first, both
as regards yield and value per acre, the former being 17-1 bushels,
and the latter, 27. 13s. 3d. Tennessee gives the lowest value pe
acre (19s. 2d.), and South Carolina the lowest yield, 4-6 bushels.

Barley is not grown in Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Louisi
Mississippi, or Wyoming. In Maryland the crop has the highest
value per acre (4/. 5s. 3d.), but several other States have a better
average yield, the highest being 29-1 bushels, which is attained in
far-away Washington. It will be observed that barley gives a con-
siderably larger return per acre than wheat on the general average.
If we compare the figures for each of these crops for the various
States, this is still more noteworthy ; practically, it is only in a fe’
of the Northern States on the Atlantic coast—such as Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, &ec., that wheat
gives a higher return than barley. In no less than 31 out of

The Smut of Onions. 647

40 States in which barley is grown, its value per acre is greater
than that of wheat. The lowest return per acre from barley (in
Nebraska) is 1/. 1ls. 7d., whereas the return from wheat goes as low
as l/. 4s. 9d., and is less than thirty shillings in seven different
States. The lowest average yield of barley is 10°4 bushels in
Alabama.

Buckwheat is grown in 29 States. The average yield ranges
from 20°8 bushels in California, to 8-5 bushels in Tennessee, and the
average value from 3/. 5s. 4d. to 1l. 3s. 7d. in the same States.

respectively.

Potatoes are universally grown throughout the States. The
highest average yield per acre is 117-1 bushels in Washington, and
the lowest, 55 bushels in South Carolina. The average value per
acré ranges from 15/. 17s. 8d. in Nevada, to 6/. 7s. in Tennessee.

Tobacco is cultivated in 17 States. Massachusetts stands first,
both as regards the quantity and value of the crop. The average
yield per acre is there 1485-4 lb., and its value, 42/7. lls. 2d. The
lowest average yield is 480-8 lb., in North Carolina, and the lowest
average value is 9/. 4s. 4d.,in Maryland. It is rather curious that
Virginia, with all its tobacco traditions, stands, with the exception
of Maryland, lowest on the list, both as regards yield and value.

Cotton is only grown in 11 States. Louisiana stands highest,
with an average yield of 232-7 lb. per acre, worth 4/. 6s. 9d., and
Florida lowest, with a yield of 106-4 lb., worth 2. 6s. 6d.

Hay is, of course, a universal crop. The yield ranges from 1°39
tons in California and Oregon, to 0°93 tons in New Hampshire.
The value, however, bears but little relation to the yield. It is
highest in Massachusetts, where it makes 3/. 18s. 5d., although the
yield barely exceeds a ton, and lowest in Nebraska, where a yield
of nearly a third of a ton per acre more only makes 1/. Os. 1d.

R. Henry Rew.

THE SMUT OF ONIONS.

In the Annual Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experi-
ment Station for 1889 Dr. R. Thaxter gives a description of this
fungus, and also the results of experiments made by him with the
object of finding some means for its prevention.

The smut of onions (Urocystis Cepule, Frost) has only been
recorded as causing serious disease within comparatively recent years.

648 | The Smut of Onions..

4.
1t was probably observed first in Connecticut about 1860, since whicl
time it has spread very rapidly, and has also been noticed :
described by botanists both in the United States and in Euro e.
As to its previous history there is much uncertainty, as the fame zu a
has not, up to the present, been found on any wild species of Alliw
the genus of which (the onion) Al/iwm Cepa, is a member. §

The smut of the cultivated onion belongs to the same group o
fungi as that which includes the bunt of wheat (Tilletia Caries, To .)
and the smut of oats and barley (Ustilago carbo, Tul.) It appe:
on the seedling, first in the form of dark spots at different height
in the leaves, and commonly this occurs just below the knee ; late
longitudinal cracks form at one side of the spots, and this pari f
the leaf is observed to have become a dry fibrous mass cove
with a black sooty powder. Occasionally only the first leaf i
attacked, and falls, when the plant may recover and come to matu-
rity; but more frequently, as the leaves appear one after another
above ground, they are found to be affected in like manner to the
first, and if the plant be strong enough to resist the attack suffi-
ciently it may grow to a considerable size, and survive until the
time of harvesting. It will then be found, on pulling it up, that
not only has the disease attacked the leaves, but that the bulb also
has become more or less covered by black elevations running dow:
to its base. Such onions either dry up, or rot, soon after being
pulled. The black, smutty powder which thus forms on the leaves
and bulb consists of the spores of the fungus. Like the spores
of bunt and of smut of oats they are very minute, and do not measun
more than +543,, of an inch in diameter. e

In the more familiar cases of bunt and smut of our cereal crops
the disease is propagated by the spores adhering to seed (see Vol
xxiv. Second Series, page 397), whereas the spores which may become
distributed on the ground appear to have no further effect on crops
sown on that ground. The smut of onions, on the contrary, appears
to retain its power of attacking a second crop after being left in the
ground by a first, and Dr. Thaxter is of opinion that the risk of the
spores being carried on the seed is comparatively small. xperi-
ments, indeed, which were made by him render it extremely probable
that this is the case, and he recommends farmers to keep heir
agricultural implements very clean when used for tilling onion la a
in order to prevent the spores from being carried from one piece o
land to another.

How long the spores of the onion smut may remain dormant ii
the earth depends, no doubt, on the conditions of temperature ar
moisture in which they are placed, but it appears from the evidence
which Dr. Thaxter has collected that this may be certainly more

than five years.

i The young onion plant is attacked almost as soon as the seed g
minates, and consequently, v when considering the best way in whi
to apply a series of fungicides, the investigator was led to the Son.
clusion that to dress the “seeds would be of no use, and that the onl:
method would be to ensure their operation just at the time when tl

The Sinut of Onions. 649

seed was germinating, and in the experiments about to be described
the fungicides were sown in the drills with the seed.

The first series of experiments was made in boxes in a hot-
house, when in two cases sulphate of iron and sulphate of copper
were respectively sown with the seed ; in a third case the seed was
sown alone. Where the sulphates of copper and iron were applied,
they were, on one-half of each plot, sown on the drill, in the other
half im it. As a result, the application of sulphate of copper proved
to be almost as injurious to the young onion plant as to the smut, and
was quite worthless on this account. In the case of sulphate of iron,
where it was applied zm the drill it showed itself to be a fairly good
fungicide, without causing the disastrous results to the onion plants
which accompanied the sulphate of copper application ; when sown

|

| | Average Kein
| Number Average number weight per
of grams number of of sound row of sound
a ra used per plants per onions onions
| row | row May 11 pulled weighed
| August 6 August 9
Top-dressed with poate 4 a ’ :
HONE, Nc cs, io : 30 98°8 116 7
Seed ates Sih ea ) :
“Poi i i is — | 1002 84 a
Sulphide of sodiumin drills. 10 90°8 29°8 —
i aaa of sodium in drills . | Be 98-6 38°8 =
Eepeaighiteot patties in drills 20 732 | 11-2 2
Hyposulphite of sodium. . .) : a :
Airslaked lime... . .J| re 96 | 27 =
a : : a See
Flowersof sulphur. . . . .)| ~ )
Air-slaked lime . et SM so | 708
Flowers of sulphur. . . . .)| = . a
Air-slakedlime. . . .. .)) 2 1004 316 58-4
Sulphate of copper . ; : : *} | n Je
Eteeiediime. ..... J; 1 (14 174 ae
Sulphate of copper. . . . .) : 5 ; _
Minglakedlime. .... 4.3; © 842 10 re
Sulphate ofironindrills . . 20 72-2 BBG y | at
ee _ 2 a en |
Sulphate of iron 5° jee teen =
Air-slakedlime. . . . , ‘} 2 78:2 386 | =
Average of alternate r r aR 74 ae ar
mca. rows oe ps 94.3 13-5 | =
|
you, I. T, s.—-7 “UU

650 Recent Agricultural Inventions.

on the drill, however, the effect of the iron salt was-very much less
apparent.

The second experiment was made in a field on a farm which hae
been “wholly run out by smut in the previous year.” The seed
was sown in drills 10 feet long and 1 foot apart. Every alternate
row was left undressed for the sake of comparison, and the fungicides
were applied to series of five alternate rows. The results are re
corded in the table on the preceding page.

Although the author does not consider the results of these experi-
ments as at all satisfactory, there are, nevertheless, one or twé
conclusions which may be drawn from them :— ,

(a) The patent “Germinator” which has been recommended i
the United States as a preserver of seeds of all kinds, and is sate
to act effectually on “the globular-formed dust which participates

have but little effect on the smut of onions. The application of
sulphate of copper is, for the reason previously stated, equally
ineflicacious.

without slaked lime, and of flowers of sulphur and air-slaked li
and lastly of sulphide of sodium, appear to be all possessed of the
property of destroying the smut, and thus of protecting the young
onion plant during its early stages of growth.

J. W. LEATHER.

RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.

The subjects of Applications for Patents from June 18, 1891, to
Sept. 12, 1891.

N.B.—Where the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name 0
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of
applicant.

Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.

ent Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
9674 Burcess, W.J. . . Picking up potatoes from the soil.
9703 FIscHER, J. E. A. . Manure-distributing machine.

9841 Cookn, W. . : . Ridging and earthing ploughs.

9870 DArBy & SrEvyENSON . Implements for cultivating land.

9898 RiEGER,C. . 4 . Turnip-cutting machines, -
9978 YATES & BAsrorpd — . Plough beams,

10326 SARGEANT, T.C. . . Seed-drills,

11141 Hornsby & INNOCENT Steering-gear for dilto.

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 651

No. of
Application.

11431 Ropins, W.& A. . :

Name of Applcant.

11492 BAWDEN, R. «
11517 Perkins, J. E.S. ,
11850 PurRDON, J. . -
12088 Corton, G. A
12206 WeLLS, F. . .
12319 Topp, F.E.. .
12395 Epwarps, E. (Vawnan)
12399 STENNER,J.& R..
12608 BLACKSTONE, E. C.
12767 Hiw1, J. . - '
12874 Poot, W. H. .

12902 HowarpD & GIBBS
13176 Hour, J. : f
18240 Hancock, C. A. . ’
13306 ListER, H. B. & li.
13378 Briagas & WEST .
13380 GREAVES, J.E. .
18515 PERKINS, J. E,S. .
13548 WHITAKER, J.

13858 BurGesss, C. T.
13928 MARTH, O. P
13946 WILSON, A. . ri
18997 SAMUELSON .
14240 Hit, T. “ é
14671 TeLFonrD, S. . :
15046 HARDINGHAM

(Me Cormick)
15148 SABINE, T.

15151 MAynaAnp, R,

16158 Hr, T.
15313 EDDLESTONE, T,
15465 Sarnq@uant, T.C. . ¢

Title of Invention.
Machine for picking up corn and conveying it
to binding apparatus,
Ploughshares.

. Hay-making machines,

Scuffling hoe.
Hand-roller and sowing machine.
Wind screen for hay, &c. elevators,

. Sheaf-binding harvester.

Spreading manure and sowing seed.

. Hay tedder.
. Hay-making machine.

Mowing and reaping machines,

. Hay-collectors or horse-rakes,
. Harvesting machines.
. Tool for binding corn by hand.

Plioughs.

, Machinery for cleaning wheat.

Machinery for screening corn.

. Guards for mowing and reaping machines.
. Hay-making machines,
. Apparatus for sharpening mowing machine

knives.

, Reaping and mowing machines,

. Plough,

. Automatic feed-cutter,

. Hopper of “ Gardner ” turnip-cutters,

. Mechanical hay-maker.

. Self-balancing steel turnover horse hay-rake,

. Grain-binding harvesters.

Conveying straw, cavings, &c., from threshing
machines to attendant chaff-cutters.

. Bagging apparatus of portable combined chafft-

cutting engines,

. Ploughs.
. Mowing and reaping machines.

Harvesters,

Stable Utensils and Fittings—Horse-shoes, &c.

9845 BALLARD, W.W. . é
9873 SCHULZ and another .
9969 Asn, T,.
9994 Huauus, E. T.
(Kocehler) . A 7
10317 Fru, W.T. .
10501 ORPwWoop, W.L. .

.

Horse-shoes.
Curry-combs.
Ladies’ riding-saddles,

Elastic reins.
Horse-collars,

. Bits for pulling horses,

652

No. of

Application. Name of Applicant. Title cf Invention.
10564 WooLLaTT, T. L. . . Single gullet for saddle-trees.
10924 Boury and others . Bits,
11322 MeTaxa, E. . : . Detaching horses from carriage in cases
danger.
11547 WILLIs, F. . . . Beads of harness saddles.
11751 DAvies,G. . : . Stocks for farriery or veterinary purposes.
11997 RENNIE & CHRISTIE . Horse-shoes.
12105 Jackson & BootH ' . Composite horse-shoe.
12246 WILLIAMSON, H.W. . Automatic appliance for horses’ nose-bags.
12353 Joy, H. . : . . Safety horse-shoe.
12502 ELLiotT, R.P. . Folding stirrup-iron.
12704 WHEwAy,S.B. .. . Hames for horse-collars.
12764 CuHuRcH & KENT . Pneumatic horse-collar.
12835 NIEDERER, A. - . Horse-cleaning apparatus,
13263 DyMonpD, G. C. . Releasing traces of carriage horses.
13819 WHATLING, W. . . Horse-shoes,
13839 Grout, D. F. : . Harness tug.
13972 SHEPHERD, F ; . Releasing fallen horses from shafts or pole oj
vehicles. ;
13993 BARRADALE,I. . . Drain pipe or gutter for stables.
14266 Hum, M.& A. E. . Curative administration of electricity
horses.
14268 FuLrorp, W. - . Detached sliding pommel for ladies’ saddles,
* 14726 LAVENDER, G.L. . . Reversible horn for ladies’ saddles.
14863 HEERMANCE, DE W._. Saddles.
14955 HAstam,J.N. . . Footpads for horses.
15023 DEwsBurRy, R. . . Harness saddles,
15314 Morris, M. . . . Safety horse-collar to prevent slipping.
Carts and Carriages,
9827 Briaes & DUNN. . Wheels for carriages.
10486 Wriecut, W. . . Locking wheels.
14683 MALLET, C. . : . Whip sockets.
15007 Kimpton & HARE . Hinges for falling hoods of carriages,
15335 HAEGELE and another , Carriage lamps.
Dairy Utensils, &c.
9823 SANDERS, R. M. D. . Combination milk-vessel for transit
delivery of milk.
9910 Proctor, D. . . Milking-machines.
10259 SHIELS & ELLIOT . . Pulsating apparatus for use with teats
milking-machines.
10381 Gray, J, x - , Milking devices,

Recent Agricultural Taventions.

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 653

Peed an Name of Applicant, Title of Invention.

10492 LAIDLAW, J. . 5 . Centrifugal apparatus for testing samples of
milk. ;

11810 HARTLAND, W. H. H. . Cheese-cutter.

11875 NIELSEN, J. . : . Milking machines.

12092 HANSEN & CLARK . Centrifugal cream generators and churns used
therewith.

12127 Frrzparrick (Sinn) . Butter-making machine.

12293 Irons, J. W. : . Cheese-turning racks and shelves.

12549 Duncan, J. H. H. Production of butter.

12692 McMorran and

another - . . Milking apparatus.
13614 MARTINET, G. : . Churn.
14239 Noncott, F.H. . . Milk-pans.
14838 DuNcAN, J. H. H. . Cream separators.

14917 Perrer, J, B. : . Oscillating trough for use in cheese-making.

Poultry and Game, &c,, Appliances.

9886 WHITE, H. . ‘ . Feeding and drinking apparatus for poultry,
&e.

10879 Goop & Suaw . Self-acting egg-turning machine for incu-
bators.

12371 M@ELLInGen, T. G. . Poultry-plucking machines.

12645 SULLIVAN, W.H. . . Incubators.

13087 ELTon, A. M. 3 . Maintaining uniform temperature in incu-
bators.

13580 CASHMORE, C, : . Incubators.

14628 Witson, T. . : . Apparatus for raising of poultry, &c.

15415

15416} GLOVER & Deacon , Vapour incubator.

Miscellaneous.
10247 GIRAvD, B. T. f . Paving and draining of pigstyes, stables,
byres, &e.
10378 StuRZENEGGER, J. . Dog-kennels, &e.
10485 Jupr & EVERITT . Appliance to prevent goring in cattle,
10542 KELLY, FE. . : . Portable sheep-dipping apparatus.
1079£ LAwson, G. . : . Fixing show medals on prize-winning animals.
10954 McDoNALp, A... . Tethers.
11662 Krrr, W. : . . Cutting hedges.

12458 Horn, W. W. (user) . Compound for dehorning cattle.
12476 Morrart, J., and another Shearing and clipping wool.
12524 ANDREWs, L. 3 : ” ” ” ”
12773 RakE,G.S. . , . Feeding bees.

13212 TALLERMAN, D. . . Cattle food.

138505 McDonatp, A... . Tethers,

()

654 Recent Agricultural Inventions, — |

No. of

Application, Name of Applicant, Title of Invention,

13656 GILLIES, J. M. . . Beehives,

13746 HarvEy,G.A. . . Queen and drone excluder for beehives,
14840 BELL, E. W. . C . Sheep dip.

15091 FERGUSON, G.C. , . Beehive attachment.

15452 DAUPHINAIS, A. . . Device for hitching animals.

Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects Published
since June 16, 1891! ;

(with prices in parentheses),

Specifications of 1890,

8003 (8d.), 9589 (8d.), 10083 (8d.), 10126 (6d.), 10191 (6d.), 10238 (Sd.), 10412
(6d.), 10583 (6d.), 10973 (6d.), 11145 (8d.), 11568 (8d.), 11812 (8d.),
11822 (8d.), 11825 (6d.), 11957 (6d.), 12038 (6d.), 12339 (6d.), 12700
(6d.), 12709 (8d.), 12984 (4d.), 12988 (Sd.), 13096 (8d.), 13242 (8d.),
13246 (6d.), 13452 (6d.), 13513 (6d.), 13539 (6d.), 13632 (6d.), 13935
(6d.), 14027 (6d.), 14095 (6d.), 14303 (6d.), 14492 (8d.), 14495 (6d.),
14728 (6d.), 14772 (8d.), 14773 (6d.), 14782 (8d.), 14788 (6d.), 14968
(8d.), 15073 (6d.), 15157 (6d.),15376 (6d.), 15565 (8d.), 15628 (6d.), 15700
(6d.), 15968 (8d.), 16068 (6d.), 16492 (8d.), 16933 (6d.), 16944 (6d.),
17314 (6d.), 17535 (8d.), 19042 (4d.), 19399 (6d.), 20060 (6d.), 21068
(11d.).

Specifications of 1891.

5117 (6d.), 5762 (6d.), 5966 (8d.), 6015 (6d.), 6523 (6d.), 6842 (6d.), 6875 (8d.),
6930 (6d.), 7249 (6d.), 8171 (Gd.), 8236 (8d.), 8321 (8d.), 8331 (6d.),
8411 (6d.), $451 (6d.), 9619 (6d.), 9873 (6d.), 9885 (6d.), 11074 (62),
11291 (6d.), 11535 (6d.).

1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
88 Cursitor Street, London, H.C.

SPALiISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
AGRICULTURAL, INTERESTS.

Summary or AGRICULTURAL REetuRNS OF GreAtT BRITAIN For 1891,

Note —The Returns were collected on June 4 in the Years 1889, 1890, and 1891.
ACREAGE OF LAND IN GREAT BRITAIN UNDER—

Year Wheat Barley Oats | Potatoes Hops
Acres Acres Acres Acres Acres
1889 aus - 2,449,354 2,121,530 | 2,888,704 | 579,222 | 57,724
1890 ‘ - | 2,386,336 | 2,111,178 | 2,902,998 | 529,661 | 53,916
oF . - | 2,307,277 , 2,112,798 | 2,899,129 | 532,794 | 56,148
( 1,620 3,133 2,187
Increase — or 01 — or 0°6 or 4:1
Fite i per cent. per cent. oe cent.
|
ae (| 79,059 3,869 |
Decrease +} ori33 | or O1 — —
( per cent. | | per cent.
( 10,425
IT s 4 = r O-4 peat) =
— | ~ nea
compared a oe ee
ba (| 142,07 | 8,732 46,428 | 1,576
Decrease +| or 5'8 or 0-4 — or 8:0 or 2°7
( per cent. | per cent. | per cent. | per cent.
NUMBER OF CATTLE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
CATTLE
Year Cows and
heifers in 2 years old Under 2 Total
ape in ald above years old ouE
Ci
No. No: j ‘No. No.
1889 . | 2,433,639 1,453,859 | 2,252,057 | 6,139,555
1890 . | 2,537,990 | 1,439,119 | 2,531,523 6,508,682
1sol . 2,657,054 1,504,649 | 2,691,118 | 6,852,821
Increase in 1891 a “ " a aie pe ) gh ee
c t
eeedwith:1690 per cent. | percent. | per cent. per cent,
993-415 7 : ; ‘
Increase in 1891 S| pee mt eee (ae
ared with 1889 or 9°2 or 35 or 19°5 or 11-6
Pp a” \ per cent. | percent. | percent. per cent,

()

656 Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.

SuMMARY OF AGRICULTURAL Returns, &¢.—Continued.

NUMBER OF SHEEP AND PIGS IN GRW@AT BRITAIN.

SHEEP AND LAMBS

Yrar Pics
Sheep Lambs | Total
| No. No. N No.

0. |
1889... . . - «| 16,862,132 9,769,888 25,632,020 | 2,510,803
890). 1. = 2 wt | 165756568) || LOLb,89l 3) rear e bo 2,773,609
1891... . . « «| 17,786,941 | 10,945,617 | 28,732,558 | 2,888,778

1,030,373 429,726 1,460,099 115,164
or 61 or 4:1 or 5-4 or 4:2
per cent. per cent, per cent. per cent,

Increase in 1891 com-
pared with 1890.

—_—"

Tmorense (in. 1891 nal 1,924,809 | 1,175,729 | 3,100,538 377,970

pared with 1889 or 121 or 12:0 or 12.1 or 151

per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent.

TABLE SHOWING THE ACREAGE UNDER Hops IN ENGLAND, AS
RETURNED UPON JUNE 4,1N THE YEARS 1889, 1890, anv 1891,

Counrnis 1889 | 1890 | 1891 | Counts | 1889 1890 | 1891
ie = = | Ss <>
| acres | acres acres | | acres acres acres
Berks. . 10°| 41 | 10") Batop 992i) (eae 981} 112
Cambridge.) — | — 3 || Suffolk . | 29 251 20
Gloucester . 4 | 1a) 25 || Surrey . | 2,001 ) L874 | iene
Hants . .| 2,905 | 2,614 | 2,752 || Sussex . | 7,282 | 6,787 | 7,150)
Hereford .j| 6,850 | 6,077'| 6,560 || Worcester. | 2,939 | 2,925) 3,280
Kent . . 35,487 | 33,525 | 34,266 | SE
Notts. .| 16 lt 14 | Total . | 57,724 | 58,9611) 56,148

1 These acreages do not agree with those given in the “ Agricultura]
Returns” of 1890 (see Journal, Vol. I., 3rd Series, 1890, p. 672), owing to 3
acres in the county of Gloucester and 4 acres in the county of Suffolk having
been originally returned in error, and to the returns for parts of the counti
of Hereford, Salop, and Worcester having been originally made in hop aer
instead of statute acres, causing a reduction of 442 acres in Hereford, 12 in
Salop, and 133 in Worcester,

JOURNAL

OF THE

/ROVAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
| OF ENGLAND.

@HE SOURCES OF THE. NITROGEN. OF
OUR LEGUMINOUS CROPS.

ConrENTS.
INTRODUCTION . , : ; ¢ 5 : : “ . ° . 657
EARLIER EXPERIMENTS, WHICH DID NOT SHOW FIXATION OF FREE
NITROGEN . - ‘ : : : 4 : : 5 . 666
RECENT EXPERIMENTS, WHICH DO SHOW FIXATION OF FREE NITRO-
GEN - . : ‘ : . e r ‘ ~ . 669
THE VEGETATION EXPERIMENTS IN 1888. : ‘ . 670
THE VEGETATION EXPERIMENTS IN 1889, 1890, AND 1891 . . 678
DIFFERENCE IN THE EXTERNAL CHARACTER OF LEGUMINOUS ROOT-
NODULES i ; é F . A 3 is . ’ . 687
HOW IS THE FIXATION OF NITROGEN TO BE EXPLAINED? ., 4 . 689
OF WHAT IMPORTANCE TO AGRICULTURE IS THE NEWLY-RECOGNISED
SOURCE OF NITROGEN TO LEGUMINOUS CROPS? 4 5 . 696
INTRODUCTION.

Ir happens that the agricultural plants belonging to the great
family of the Lequminose are all included within the sub-
order Papilionacee. But as the terms Leguminose and legumin-
ous are better known in agricultural discussions they will be
adopted throughout this article. It will be seen farther on,
however, that the limitation which the use of the terms Papilio-
nacece and papilionaceous would imply, may possibly in the course
of future investigation prove to be more appropriate, especially
\y VOL, I, T, s.—8 = %

658 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

when the subject of the sources of the nitrogen of the plants
of the different sub-divisions is in question (see p. 687).

_ There can be no doubt that both the scientific interest and
the practical value of our leguminous crops depend very much
on the amount of nitrogen which they contain, and on the ©
sources of their nitrogen ; and especially on the great differences
in these respects between them and the representatives of the
other families of plants with which they are grown, either in —
alternation in our rotations, or in association in our meadows
and pastures.

It is well known that, under the conditions in which crops
are grown in ordinary agriculture, nitrogenous manures haye
very direct effects in increasing the produce of wheat, of barley,
and of oats, of turnips, of mangel, and of potatoes. This is the
case, notwithstanding that in the cereals the increased produce
consists characteristically of the non-nitrogenous substances
starch and cellulose ; in the root-crops of the non-nitrogenous
substance sugar; and in potatoes of the non-nitrogenous substance
starch. Leguminous crops, on the other hand, not only as a
rule accumulate much more nitrogen over a given area of land
under equal soil conditions, and contain a higher percentage of
nitrogen in their dry substance, than the crops above enumerated,
but there is abundant evidence that they also derive much
nitrogen from the combined nitrogen of the soil and subsoil, and
further that they probably take up much as nitric acid; yet it
is generally recognised in practical agriculture that direct nitro-—
genous manures have comparatively little effect in increasing the —
produce of such crops.

The influence of nitrogenous manures in increasing the pro-
duction of the non-nitrogenous constituents of our crops is very
strikingly illustrated by the results given in Table I. (p. 659).

The calculations are based on the average produce obtained
in the experiments at Rothamsted by the different manures—of
wheat over twenty years, of barley over twenty years, of sugar-
beet over three years, of mangel-wurzel over eight years, of
potatoes over ten years, and of beans over eight years.

As will be seen, the Table shows—the estimated amounts
of carbon, per acre per annum, in the total produce (grain and
straw) of wheat, and of barley, in the roots of sugar-beet and of
mangel-wurzel, in the tubers of potatoes, and in the total produce
(corn and straw) of beans, when each is grown by a complex
mineral manure without nitrogen, and also when grown with the |
same mineral manure with nitrogenous manures in addition.
Next is shown the estimated gain of carbon, that is, the increased |
amount of it accumulated in the crop under the influence of the —

|

a ee

The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops. 659

- TABLE I.—Zstimates of the Yield and Gain of Carbon, and of the Increased
Produce of Carbohydrates, per acre per annum, in varus st

| Carbon Carbohydrates
—--- | } | For 1 Ib.
Actual Gain Gain nitrogen
| in manure

oo 2 Ee

Wheat twenty years, 1852-71.

Ib Ib Ib Ib
Mineral manure . A A : - | 988 — | ee
z 4 » and 43 lb. nitrogen as 1.590 602 | 1.240 | 28-8
ammonia . ists |
Mineral manure and 86 lb. nitrogen as | a 2,999 1,234 | 2,550 | 99-7
ammonia . |
Mineral manure and 86 Ib. nitrogen as | } 2500) 1,512 3.140 36-5
nitrate se ee a ’ |

|

Barley twenty yeens, 1852-71.

Mineral manure . el 138 s- os fea | eet
- and 43 lb. nitrogen as | areal :
ee : 2,088 | 950 | 1,992 | 463

Sugar-beet three years, 1871-73.

Mineral manure . . Bk 3 1,123 | — f/f = pr
\ ay and 86 lb. nitrogen as \\ 2,600 | 1,477 | 3,188 37-1
ogee and 86 Ib. nitrogen as \ 3,031 | 1,908 4,052 47-1
eget: nurzel eight bid "8, 1876-83.
. ae : 759 | = tc lage =
eS .” and 86 Ib. nitrogen as 1 1,889 | 1,130 | 2,376 | pos
—— and S6b. nitrogen as rh 2,129 | 1,370 2,771 | 30:9
70 ce) 2 agin }
Potatoes ten years, 1876-85.
Mineral aeere:. ‘i se oat leet! 021 — | = | =
vz a nitrogen as bi7s3 | 762 4807 178
es and 86 lb. nitrogen as as i 1,752) 731 | 1,416 | 165

Beans eight years, 1862 and 1864-70

Mineral manure . 4 - : ° 726 _ | <= Sas
” » and 86]b. nitrogen as
eee he roeen a i nhs a |

x x2-

660 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

nitrogenous manures. The estimated increased production 6f
total carbohydrates, under the influence of the nitrogenous
manures, is then given ; and lastly, the estimated gain of carbo-
hydrates for 1 lb. of nitrogen supplied in manure. Such estimates
can obviously be only approximations to the truth ; but accepted
as such, they are of interest and of use, as conveying some
definite impression of the influence of nitrogenous manures on
carbon-assimilation, and on carbohydrate-formation.! :
It is seen that, independently of the underground growth,
the wheat was estimated to assimilate 988 lb. of carbon per acre
per annum, under the influence of a complex mineral manure —
alone ; and that the amount was increased to 1,590 lb. by the
addition of 43 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts, to 2,222 Ib,
by 86 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts, and to 2,500 lb. by
86 lb. of nitrogen as sodium-nitrate. Accordingly, as shown in
the second column, the increased assimilation of carbon was, by
43 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts 602 lb., by 86 lb. as
ammonium-salts 1,234 lb., and by 86 lb. as sodinm-nitrate
1,512 lb. 5
Reckoned in the same way, the increased assimilation of
carbon in the barley was, for 43 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-
salts, 950 lb. per acre; that is, one-and-a-half time as much as
by the same application in the case of wheat.
In the sugar-beet the increased assimilation of carbon, and
accumulation of it in the roots, was 1,477 lb. per acre by the
application of 86 |b. of nitrogenas ammonium-salts, and 1,908 lb.
by 86 lb. of nitrogen as sodium-nitrate. There was, therefore,
more increased assimilation of carbon and accumulation of it in
the roots of the sugar-beet, than in the grain and the straw of
wheat, by the same applications of nitrogenous manure.
In the mangel-wurzel the increased accumulation of carbon
in the roots was 1,130 lb. by 86 Ib. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts,
and 1,370 lb. by 86 lb. as nitrate ; that is, less than in the removed
crops (corn and straw) of wheat, and considerably less than in
the removed crops (the roots) of sugar-beet.
In the potatoes, reckoned on the increased production of
tubers only (the tops being left on the land), the increased yield”
of carbon by 86 1b. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts was 762 Ib.

1 The mode of calculating the amounts of carbon and of carbohydrates is”
as follows:—From the amount of dry substance in the crops the amounts ol ]
mineral matter and of nitrogenous substance are deducted, and the remainder |
represents approximately the amount of carbohydrates. The amount of car- —
bon in the nitrogenous substance is calculated; and then that in the car .
hydrates, on the assumption that, in the wheat, barley, and beans, starch
cellulose are the main products; in the sugar-beet and mangel-wurzel,
sugar, pectine, and cellulose ; and in the potatoes, starch and cellulose,

The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops. 661

per acre, and by 86 lb. as sodium-nitrate 731 lb. That is to

say, there was considerably less increased production of starch

in potatoes than of sugar in sugar-beet or mangel-wurzel, by
the same applications of nitrogenous manure.

Lastly, in the leguminous crop—beans, with its high yield
of nitrogen per acre, and the high percentage of nitrogen in its
dry substance—the increased assimilation of carbon under the

influence of nitrogenous manure was, comparatively, quite insig-

nificant. Thus, there was, by the application of 86 lb. of

nitrogen as sodium-nitrate, an increased assimilation of carbon

of only 266 lb. per acre; or little more than one-sixth as much
as in wheat, and little more than one-eighth as much as in sugar-
beet, by the same application.

Turning to the figures in the third column of the Table on
page 659, it is seen that there was a very greatly increased
production of the non-nitrogenous bodies—the carbohydrates—
by the use of nitrogenous manures.

Thus, by the use of 43]b. of nitrogen as ammonium-salts,
there was an estimated increase of 1,240 lb. of carbohydrates in
the grain and straw of wheat, and of 1,992 lb. in those of
barley. By the application of 86 lb. of nitrogen as ammonium-
salts, there was an increased formation of 2,550 lb. of carbo-
hydrates in wheat, of 3,188 lb. in sugar-beet, of 2,376 lb. in man-
gel-wurzel, and of only 1,507 lb. in potatoes; and when 86 lb.
were applied as sodium-nitrate, there was an increased produc-
tion of 3,140 lb. in wheat, of 4,052 lb. in sugar-beet, of 2,771 Ib.
in mangel-wurzel, and of only 1,416 lb. in potatoes; whilst,
compared with these amounts, there was in beans, by the same
application, an increase of only 474 lb. of carbohydrates.

The last column shows the estimated increased amounts of
carbohydrates produced, for 1 lb. of nitrogen supplied in manure,
in the different cases. Thus, when 43 lb. of nitrogen were applied
as ammonium-salts, 1 lb. of nitrogen in manure gave an in-
creased production of 28°8 lb. of carbohydrates in the grain and
straw of wheat, and of 46-3 lb. in those of barley ; when 86 lb.
were applied as ammonium-salts, 1 lb. gave an increase of 29-7 lb.
carbohydrates in wheat, 37:1 lb. in sugar-beet, 27°6 lb. in
mangel-wurzel, and 17:5 1b. in potatoes. Again, when 86 lb.
were applied as sodium-nitrate, 1 lb. gave an increase of 36:5 Ib.
carbohydrates in wheat, 47:1 lb. in sugar-beet, 32:2 lb. in
mangel-wurzel, 16°5 lb. in potatoes, and only 5:5 lb. in the
leguminous crop—beans.

Thus, then, we have the apparently anomalous result, that
the crops which are characterised by yielding a comparatively
small amount of nitrogen oyer a given area, by containing a com-

%

662 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

paratively low percentage of nitrogen in their dry substance,
and by yielding comparatively large amounts of the non-nitro-
genous products—starch, sugar, and cellulose—are especially
benefited by the application of nitrogenous manures, and under
their influence yield greatly increased amounts of those non-nitro-
genous bodies; whilst the leguminous crops, which contain a—
much higher percentage of nitrogen, and yield much more
nitrogen over a given area of land, under the same soil and
season conditions, are much less benefited by such manures.

Without attempting to give an adequate physiological ex-
planation of this curious result, some of the facts bearing upon
it may be briefly stated as follows: The non-leguminous crops
having comparatively limited power of accumulating nitrogen
under given soil conditions, they generally require nitrogenous
manuring ; the amount of nitrogen assimilated toa great extent
rules the amount of chlorophyll formed ; chlorophyll formation is
an essential condition of carbon assimilation; the amount of
carbon assimilated is the chief measure of the amount of pro-
duce; and since the more special or characteristic products of
the non-leguminous crops are the non-nitrogenous substances—
the carbohydrates, the natural result of the increased assimila-
tion of nitrogen, and the consequent increased luxuriance, is an
increased formation of the bodies which are their essential or
characteristic products.

The fact is, that whilst it can hardly be said that there remains
an unsolved problem i in the matter of the sources of the nitrogen
of our non-leguminous crops—of wheat, of barley, and of grasses, as
representatives of the great family of the Graminee ; of turnips,
representing the Crucifere ; of some varieties of beet, represent-
ing the Chenopodiacec ; and of potatoes of the Solanee—it must
be admitted to be quite otherwise so far as our leguminous crops
are concerned.

It is nearly a century ago since the question whether plants
took up, or evolved, free nitrogen became a matter of* experi
ment and of discussion ; and it is just about half a century since
Boussingault commenced experiments to determine whether
plants assimilate free nitrogen. From his results he concluded
that they did not; and those obtained at Rothamsted about thirty
years ago confirmed the conclusions of Boussingault. In fact,
we concluded that under the conditions of those experiments,
which were those of sterilisation and enclosure, in which there-
fore the action both of electricity and of microbes was excluded,
the results were conclusive against the supposition that, under
such conditions, the higher chloropliyllous plants can directly
fix free nitrogen, either by their leaves or otherwise, —

)

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 663

It may, in fact, we think, be concluded that, at any rate in
the case of our gramineous, our cruciferous, our chenopodiaceous,

| and our solaneous crops, free nitrogen isnot the source. Never-

theless, we have long admitted that existing evidence was insuffi-
cient to explain the source of the whole of the nitrogen of the
Leguminose ; that there was, in fact, a missing link !

_ According to some even recent experimenters, however,
gain of nitrogen is not limited to our leguminous crops;
and the modes of explanation of the gains which have been
observed are extremely various. Thus it has been assumed:
that combined nitrogen was absorbed from the air, either
by the soil or by the plant; that there is fixation of free
nitrogen within the soil by the agency of porous and alkaline
bodies ; that there is fixation by the plant itself; that there is
fixation within the soil by the agency of electricity ; and, finally,
that there is fixation under the influence of micro-organisms
within the soil, both with and without the accompanying growth
of higher plants.

_ Limiting our discussion here mainly to the question of the
sources of the nitrogen of the Leguminosce, it may be said that
this has been the subject of experiment and of controversy for
about half a century, and it is generally admitted that all the
evidence that has been acquired, on lines of inquiry until re-
cently followed, has failed to solve the problem. During the
last few years, however, the discussion has assumed a somewhat
different aspect. The question still is, whether free nitrogen is
an important source of the nitrogen of vegetation generally, but
especially of the Leguminose ; but whilst few now assume that
the higher chlorophyllous plants directly assimilate free nitro-
gen, it is nevertheless supposed to be brought under contribu-
tion in various ways; but especially by being brought into
combination under the influence of micro-organisms, or of other
low forms, either within the soil itself, or in symbiotic growth
with a higher plant.

Of all the recent results bearing upon the subject, those of
Hellriegel and Wilfarth with certain leguminous plants seem
to us to be by far the most definite and significant ; pointing to
the conclusion that, although the higher chlorophyllous plants
may not directly utilise free nitrogen, some of them, at any rate,
may acquire nitrogen brought into combination under the influ-
ence of lower organisms ; the development of which is, appar-
ently, in some cases a coincident of the growth of the higher
plant whose nutrition they are to serve.

It was in the Agricultural Chemistry Section of the “ Natur-
forscher Versammlung” held in Berlin, in 1886, when one of

“2
664 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. —
ourselves happened to be presiding, that Professor Hellriegel
first announced his new results. Quite consistently not
only with common experience in agriculture, but also with
the direct experimental results of ourselves and others, Hellriege
found, in his experiments, that plants of the gramineous,
the chenopodiaceous, the polygonaceous, and the cruciferous
families depended on combined nitrogen supplied within the soil,
On the other hand, he found that leguminous plants did not _
depend entirely on such supplies. His results were, indeed,
not only very definite, but it is seen that they had a special
bearing on the admittedly unsolved problem of the source of the
whole of the nitrogen of leguminous crops.

Hellriegel’s experiments and results may be briefly describee
as follows :—In 1883 he commenced a comprehensive series of
vegetation experiments in pots, in which he grew agricultural
plants of various families in washed quartz sand. To all the
pots nutritive solutions, but containing no nitrogen, were added.
To one series nothing else was supplied; to a second a fixed
quantity of nitrogen as sodium-nitrate was added; to a thi
twice as much; and to a fourth, four times as much. he
result was that, in the case of the Graminew, and some other
plants, the growth was largely proportional to the combined
nitrogen supplied, whilst in that of the Leguminose it was ne
so. In the case of these plants—that of peas, for example—it
was observed that, in a series of pots to which no nitrogen was
added, most of the plants were apparently limited in their
growth by the amount of nitrogen which the seed supplied.
Here and there, however, a plant growing under ostensibly the
same conditions grew very luxuriantly; and, on examination,
it was found that whilst no nodules were developed on the roots
of the plants of limited growth, they were abundant on those ¢
the luxuriantly grown plants.

In view of this result, Hellriegel, with his colleague, Dr.
Wilfarth, instituted experiments to determine whether, by the
infection of the soil with appropriate organisms, the formation
of the root-nodules and luxuriant growth could be induced ;
whether, by the exclusion of such infection, the result could be
prevented. To this end, they added to some of a series of ex-
perimental pots, 25 cubic centimetres, or sometimes 50 cubic
centimetres, of the turbid watery extract of a fertile soil, made
by shaking a given quantity of it with five times its weight of ee |
distilled water, and then allowing the solid matter to subside. —
In some cases, however, the extract was sterilised. In hoa a
which it was not sterilised, there was almost always lus
growth, and abundant formation of root-nodules ; bat

The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops. 665

sterilisation there was no such result. Consistent results were
obtained with peas, vetches, and some other Leguminose ; but
the application of the same soil-extract had little or no effect,
in the case of lupins, serradella, and some other plants of the
family, which are known to grow more naturally on sandy than
on loamy or rich humus soils. Accordingly, they made a similar
extract from a diluvial sandy soil, where lupins were growing
well, in which it might be supposed. that the organism peculiar

to such a soil would be present ; and, on the application of this

to a nitrogen-free soil, lupins grew in it luxuriantly, and nodules
were abundantly developed on their roots.

Further particulars of the experiments of Hellriegel and
Wilfarth, and also of the results and conclusions of Berthelot,
Dehérain, Joulie, Dietzell, Frank, Emil von Wolff, and Atwater,
as well as of some of the later experiments of Boussingault
which have a bearing on the present aspect of the question, wilt
be found in our paper in the Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 180
(1889), B. A short account is also given of the experiments
of Bréal, confirming the results of Hellriegel, in our paper in
the “ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” Vol. 47, 1890.

Thus, then, not only did Hellriegel and Wilfarth get nega-
tive results with plants of other families than the Lequminose, as
all experience would lead us to expect, but they obtained posi-
tive results with the Leguminose, in regard to the source of the
whole of the nitrogen of which experience showed that there
was a“ missing link.” Such results were obviously of funda-
mental and of far-reaching importance ; and it seemed desirable
that the subject should be further investigated with a view to
their confirmation or otherwise. Accordingly, it was decided to
take it up at Rothamsted, and it was hoped to commence experi-
ments in 1887, but it was not possible to do so until 1888. In
that year, a preliminary series was undertaken ; the investigation
was continued in 1889 and 1890, and is, in fact, still in progress.

It is proposed to give in the following pages some account
of the conditions and of the results of these recent experiments
made at Rothamsted, which do show a fixation of free nitrogen.
But, before doing so, it will be well to call attention to those of
the earlier experiments, which did not indicate any fixation; as
the well-defined difference in the conditions under which such
different results were obtained will bring clearly to view what
are the conditions under which fixation does, and what are those
under which it does not, take place. We shall thus, too, be the
better able to form some judgment as to the practical bearing

of the recent results,

666 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

EARLIER EXPERIMENTS, WHICH DID NOT SHOW FIXATION
oF FREE NITROGEN.

It has already been stated that the results and conclusions
of Boussingault were against the supposition that plants as-
similate the free nitrogen of the atmosphere. His numerous
experiments on the subject were commenced in 1837, and were ~
continued at intervals up to 1858. In all cases the substances
he used as soil were sterilised ; in some the supplied air was .
washed ; whilst in others the plants grew in limited air, or
were more or less protected. He experimented with a great
variety of plants—wheat and oats representing Graminee;
clover, peas, haricots, and lupins as Leguminose ; also garden
cress and sunflower.

In some of his earlier experiments, conducted in free air in a
summer-house, the leguminous plants, trefoil and peas, did in-
dicate some gain of nitrogen; but in all the subsequent experi-
ments there was generally either a slight loss, or, if a gain, it
was represented by only fractions, or low units, of milligrams;
the larger amounts being with Leguminose, in free air, under a.
glazed case. After twenty years of varied and laborious investiga-_
tion, M. Boussingault concluded that plants have not the power of
assimilating the free nitrogen of the atmosphere.

Experiments on the subject were commenced at Rothamsted
in 1857, they were continued for several years, and the late Dr.
Pugh took a prominent part in the inquiry.

The soils used were ignited, washed, and re-ignited pumice
or soil. The specially-made pots were ignited before use, and
cooled over sulphuric acid under cover. Each pot, with its plants,
was enclosed under a glass shade, which rested in the groove of a
specially-made hard-baked glazed stoneware lute-vessel, mercury
being the luting material. Under the shade, through the
mercury, passed one tube for the admission of air, another for
its exit, and another for the supply of water or solutions to the
soil ; and there was an outlet at the bottom of the lute-véssel for
the escape of the condensed water into a bottle affixed for that
purpose, from which it could be removed and returned to the
soil at pleasure.

A stream of water being allowed to flow from a tank into a
large stoneware Woulff’s bottle, of more than 20 gallons capacity,
air passed from it by a tube through two small glass Woulff’s
bottles containing sulphuric acid, then through a long tube filled
with fragments of pumice saturated with sulphuric acid, and
lastly through a Woulff’s bottle containing a saturated solution
of ignited carbonate of soda; and, after being so washed, the air

| The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 667

_entered the glass shade, from which it passed, by the exit tube,
_ through an eight-bulbed apparatus containing sulphuric acid, by

which communication with the unwashed external air was pre-
vented. Carbonic acid was supplied as required by adding a
measured quantity of hydrochloric acid to a bottle containing
fragments of marble, the evolved gas passing through one of the
bottles of sulphuric acid, through the long tube, and through the
carbonate of soda solution, before entering the shade.

In 1857 twelve sets of such apparatus were employed; in
1858 a larger number, some with larger lute-vessels and shades ;
in 1859 six, andin 1860 also six. Each year the whole were
arranged side by side, on stands of brickwork; in the open air.
The numerical results obtained in the experiments of 1857 and
1858 are summarised in Table II. (p. 668).

The upper part of this Table shows the results obtained
in 1857 and 1858, in the experiments in which no combined
nitrogen was supplied beyond that contained in the seed sown.

The growth was extremely restricted under these conditions, and
the figures in the table show that, neither with the Graminee,
the Lequminosce, nor the Polygonacece (buckwheat), was there in
any case a gain of three milligrams of nitrogen. In most cases
there was much less gain than this, or a slight loss. There was, in
fact, nothing in the results to lead to the conclusion that either of
these different descriptions of plant had assimilated free nitrogen.

The lower part of the Table shows the results obtained in the
experiments in which the plants were supplied with known
quantities of combined nitrogen, in the form of a solution of
ammonium-sulphate, applied to the soil. The effect of this
direct supply of combined nitrogen was to increase the growth
in a very marked degree, especially in the case of the Graminece.
The figures in the table show that the actual gains or losses of
nitrogen ranged a little higher in these experiments, in which
larger quantities were involved ; but they are always represented
by units of milligrams only, and the losses are higher than the
gains. Further, the gains, such as they are, are all in the experi-
ments with the Graminec, whilst there is in each case aloss with
the Lequminose, and with the buckwheat. The losses, if beyond
the limits that might be expected from experimental error, are
doubtless due to decay of organic matter, fallen leaves, &c.

It should be stated that the growth was far more healthy with
the Graminec than with the Lequminosce, which are, even in the
open field, very susceptible to vicissitudes of heat and moisture,
and were found to be extremely so under the conditions of enclo-
sure under glass shades. It might be objected, therefore, that
the negative results with the Legwminose are not so conclusive

668 The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops.

TABLE IIl.— Summary of the Results of Experiments made at Rothamsted, in
1857 and 1858, to determine whether Plants assimilate free Nitrogen. —

— In Seed, and

In Plants,
Manure, if Pot,and | Gain or
any. Soil.

gram. gram. gram.

Wheat . . | 0:0080 00072 | —0-0008

1857 Barley . . 0:0056 0:0072 +0:0016—

| Barley | | | 00056 | 0-0082 | +0-0026

ee Wheat . . | 0:0078 | 0:0081 | +0:0003
pune \ 1868 Barley . . | 0:0057 00058 | +0-0001
Oats. : . | 0-0063 00056 | —0-0007

1g5g. 41 (Wheat . . | 00078 | 0-007 0-000

ve Oats. . . | 00064 | 00063 | —0-0001

1857 Beans . .| 0:0796 00791 | —0-0005

Leguminose . F ;
lisss {Beams . . | 00750 | 00757 | +0-0007.

: (Peas. . .| 0:0188 00167 | —0-0021

Other plants. 1858 Buckwheat 0:0200 0:0182 —0°0018 |

Wheat . . 0:0329 0:0383 + 0°:0054
1857 Wheat 7 x 0:0329 0:0331 +0:0002
| Barley . . 0:0326 0:0328 +0°0002
Barley . . 00268 00337 + 0°0069

Peeks (Wheat . . | 0:0548 | 0:0536 | —0-0012 —
SROUEE« \ T8568. Barley 2) | SO Dte6 0-0464 | —0-0032
Oats ae 0-0312 0°0216 — 0°0096

(Wheat . . 0:0268 0:0274 +0:0006
1858 A! Barley . . 0:0257 0:0242 —0-0015
[oats AP sag 0:0260 0:0198 —0:0062

0-0227 00211 | 20-0016

1858 { Peas.
Clover . . 0:07 12 00665 —0:0047
Leguminose
1858A! Beans . . 0:0711 0:0655 —0:0056

Other plants . 1858 Buckwheat | 0:0308 0:0292 —0:0016

» These experiments were conducted in the apparatus of M. G. Ville.

still conclude, from the results of our own experiments, as
Boussingault did from his, that neither the Graminec nor the
Leguminose assimilate the free nitrogen of the air, a

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Lequminous Orops. 669

That, under the conditions described, the Lequminose, as

well as the Graminec, can take up and assimilate already com-

bined nitrogen supplied to them is well illustrated in the experi-
ments made in 1860 with Leguminose alone. The series com-
prised three experiments with white haricot beans: No. 1 with-
out any other supply of combined nitrogen than that in the seed ;
No. 2 with a fixed quantity of nitrogen applied as ammonium
sulphate, and No. 3 with a fixed quantity supplied as nitrate ;
also three experiments with white lupins: No. 1, as with the
haricots, without artificial supply of combined nitrogen; No. 2
with supply as ammonium sulphate, and No.3 asnitrate. Each
of these two descriptions of leguminous plant showed consider-
ably increased growth under the influence both of ammonium
sulphate and of nitrate—indeed, the growth was much more
satisfactory than in the earlier experiments. Still, owing to the
atmospheric conditions within the shades, as above referred to,
the plants lost both leaves and flowers, and were therefore taken
up earlier than they otherwise would have been. The analytical
results here again indicated no gain from free nitrogen, either in
the experiments without, or in those with, an artificial supply of
combined nitrogen—indeed, the losses were greater than the
gains.

Such, then, were the negative results obtained when plants were
grown under conditions of sterilisation and of enclosure. There
was, under such conditions, no gain from free nitrogen, in the
growth of either Graminece, Leguminosee, or other plants.

RECENT EXPERIMENTS, WHICH DO SHOW FixaTioN oF FREE
NITROGEN.

Tt was about the year 1876 that M. Berthelot called in
question the legitimacy of the conclusion that plants do not
assimilate the free nitrogen of the air, when drawn from the
results of experiments in which the plants are so enclosed as to
exclude the possibility of electrical action; and more recently
he has objected to experiments so conducted with sterilised
materials, on the ground that, under such conditions, the pre-
sence, development, and action of micro-organisms are excluded.
So far there is, however, nothing in the recent results, either of
M. Berthelot himself or of others, which can be held to invalidate
the conclusion which had been drawn from the results of Bous-
singault, and from those obtained at Rothamsted, that the
higher chlorophyllous plants do not directly assimilate free
nitrogen.

670 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops,

Let us now consider what are the results obtained, when the
conditions of growth involve neither sterilisation nor enclosure.

The Vegetation Experiments in 1888.

As already stated, it was in 1888 that the first of the recent
experiments on the ‘subject were made at Rothamsted. Thi
preliminary series comprised experiments with peas, blue lupins,
and yellow lupins. The peas were grown— d

Pot 1. In washed sand, with the ashes of the plant added ;
but with no supply of combined nitrogen beyond a small deter-
mined amount in the washed sand, and that in the seed sown.

Pot 2. In similarly prepared sand, but microbe-seeded witl
25 c.c. of the turbid watery extract from a rich garden soil.

Pot 3. Duplicate of No. 2.

Pot 4. In the rich garden soil itself.

Each of the two descriptions of lupins was grown—

Pot 1. In sand prepared as for the peas, but with lupin-
plant-ash instead of pea-plant-ash added.

Pot 2. In similar washed sand, &c., but seeded with 25 e.e.
of the turbid watery extract from a sandy soil where lupins had
grown luxuriantly.

Pot 3. In the lupin sandy soil itself.

Pot 4. In rich garden soil. 4

The twelve pots were arranged in a small greenhouse; and
distilled water, free from ammonia, was used for watering.

The sand employed was a yellow sand from Flitwick, m
Bedfordshire, such as is used by gardeners in the neighbourhood
for potting. The stones and coarser portions were removed by
sifting, the remainder was several times washed, first with well-
water, and afterwards with distilled; then dried in a water-bath,
and finally mixed with the plant-ash. It still contained
0-00266 per cent. of nitrogen.

The sandy soil from which the watery extract was made for
microbe-seeding the pots where lupins were to grow, and which
was used as the soil in experiment No. 3 with lupins, was ob-
tained from land which had been reclaimed from a common in
Suffolk, on which no corn crop would grow, but on which, when
subsequently sown with blue lupins, they grew as high as the
hurdles. Excepting that visible organie matter was removed
by sifting and picking, it was used as received, in which stai
it contained 0-0859 per cent. of nitrogen.

The garden soil contained 10-12 per cent. of moisture _
0-3919 per cent. of nitrogen, corresponding to 0°4360 per ec
on the soil dried at 100° C. at

The Sowrees of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops. 671

The pots used were made of glazed earthenware. They had

a hole half an inch in diameter at the bottom for drainage; and

another at the side, near the bottom, for aération, into which a
glass tube bent upwards, and lightly closed with cotton-wool to

exclude insects, was fixed. The pots rested on slips of thick

sheet glass, placed in basins of the same glazed earthenware as

the pots. 5
The plant-ashes used as mineral nutriment were prepared

_ by suspension in distilled water, adding sulphuric acid to the
point of neutralisation, evaporating to dryness, and gently re-

igniting.

The drain hole at the bottom of each pot was loosely covered

_ with a piece of thick glass, and 1 1b. of broken, washed, and
dried flint was then put in. The pots held from 7 to 9 lb. of

the yellow sand, from 6 to 7 lb. of the lupin sand, and about
42 lb. of the garden soil.

The soil-extracts supposed to supply the organisms were
made by shaking, in a stoppered bottle, one part of the garden
soil or lupin sand, with five parts of distilled water, and, after
subsidence, pouring off the turbid liquid, which was then passed
through platinum gauze to separate any floating matter.
Determinations of nitric nitrogen by Schleesing’s method, and
of total nitrogen by copper oxide, showed that the 25 c.c. of the
garden-soil extract used for microbe-seeding contained little
more than three-quarters of a milligram, and the 25 c.c. of the

_ lupin-sand extract little more than a quarter of a milligram, of

nitrogen—quantities which are quite immaterial considered asa
supply of combined nitrogen.

The seeds were selected for sowing and for analysis by
weighing three or four lots of a hundred each to ascertain the aver-
age weight per seed, and then a number of single seeds weigh-
ing within five milligrams of the mean weight were taken.

It was intended to commence the experiments early in the
summer; but owing to the pressure of other work the necessary

_ preparations were not completed until early in August. All the
_ seeds were sown on August 6, three accurately weighed seeds
_ being put into each pot.

From the first the peas germinated and grew well in each
of the four pots; but in each of the four of blue lupins, and in
each of the four of yellow lupins, one or more seeds failed, and
had to be replaced; and in some cases these also failed. It is
admittedly very difficult to secure healthy growth with lupins
in pots. One essential condition seems to be that the soil must
be kept open and porous; and it is also important that the
mineral matter added to the soil should be quite neutral.

672 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crop ;

In the experiments of 1888, the growth was not satisfactory
with either blue or yellow lupins ; but, as will be seen farther
on, it was so with yellow lupins in 1889. It would therefore
be a waste of time and space to go into the details, either of
the above-ground growth, the root-development, or the analyses :
of the lupins of 1888; and attention will be confined here to
the results obtained with peas in 1888, which, it will be seen,
afford very important indications.

As already said, the peas in each of the four pots germinated
and grew well. Those in the garden-soil were throughout the
most luxuriant. Pots 2 and 3 were each seeded with 25 c,c. of
the garden-soil-extract on August 13—that is, just a week after
the sowing of the seed.

For some time the plants in pot 1, in the sand without soil-
extract, showed more growth, and better colour, than those in
either pot 2 or pot 3 with the soil-extract seeding. It wag
fact, not until four or five weeks after the seeding “with the s
extract that the plants in pots 2 and 3 began to showil a
darker green colour than those in pot 1 without soil-extract.
The indication was, however, then so striking that, on Septe
ber 25, it was decided to count the leaves, and to. estims re
approximately, the relative area of leaf-surface of the plants in
the different pots. For this purpose the leaves were class fie
into those which were bright green, those which were changing
colour, and those which were withered. It will suffice to show
the number, and the estimated relative area, of the total leaves
in each case, on September 25, when the first counting and
estimates were made, on October 17, on November 14, and o
December 14, when the plants were cut. The following tabl e
summarises the results.

TABLE III.—PeEAs, 1888. Total number of Leaves, and Estimated rela
Leaf Surface, those of the Plants in Pot 1 (aithout Soil-extract Seeding), om
September 25, being taken az 100.

™

| Number of Leaves l Estimated relative Leaf Surface

}

tae aan el ca ane )
Pot1 | Pot? | Pot3 | Pot4 || Pot1 | Pot? | Pot3 | Potd
; | :

a

September 25 144 | 140 | 120 | 164 100 67 | 58
October17.... .| 188 | 200 | 184 | 216 143 «172 «| «158
November 14. . || 244 | 300 | 244 | 930 || 170 | 249 | 245
December 14°: .| 382 | 640 | 390 | 434 | 267 | 481 | 434

Thus, on September 25, after the plants in pots 2 and §
with the soil-extract seeding, had begun to show a darker gre

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 678

colour, they nevertheless showed both a less number of leaves,
and considerably less leaf-surface, than the plants in pot 1 with-
out the soil-extract. A possible explanation of the fact that the
plants with the soil-extract seeding remained so long in a com-
paratively backward condition may be that, in the early stages of
the development of the nodules and their contents, they rely
largely for their nitrogenous nutriment on the compounds of
nitrogen already within the plant, and so the development of the
higher plant itself is retarded. The figures show, however, that
from this date, the plants in pots 2 and 3, with the soil-extract,
gradually gained upon those in pot 1 without it, both in number
of leayes and in leaf-surface ; until, when the plants were taken
up on December 14, those in pots 2 and 3 showed 540 and 390
leaves, against only 382 on those in pot 1; and 481 and 4034 of
leaf-surface, against only 267 in pot 1. There is, therefore, clear
evidence of increased growth under the influence of the soil-
extract seeding.

In all the pots the upper portions of the plants obviously
developed at the expense of the lower, the leaves of which
gradually lost colour and withered, whilst the stems and leaves
of the upper portion increased in growth; those in pots 2, 3, and
4, continuing to vegetate and to maintain a bright green colour
to the last, whilst those in pot 1 showed more exhaustion, and
maintained much less colour. Probably owing to the lateness of
the season, there was no indication of flowering in any of the pots.

The four pots of plants were photographed on September 1,
September 22, October 6, and lastly on November 3, about five
weeks before the taking up of the plants.

As the roots had to be preserved without any loss for analysis,
the examination of them had to be very carefully conducted,
and was necessarily more restricted than if examination had
been the only object. After the above-ground growth had been
cut off, the pots, with their moist soil and roots, were kept in a
warm dry place until the examination commenced. The block
of soil was carefully turned out on to glazed cartridge-paper,
and notes were at once taken as to the distribution of roots so
far as ii was then apparent. ‘The sand or soil was then removed
little by little until the roots were left nearly bare. Further
notes were then taken, after which the remaining sand or soil
was removed as far as possible by washing in a beaker with a
little distilled water. The roots were then mounted upon paper,
and so photographed, and finally noted upon.

In order to stimulate and assist the observation of others, it
will be well to give some description of the development of the
roots, and of the nodules on them, of the various experimental

yOL. II. T, s,—8 xz

Ts

-

674 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops, —
plants, for, as will be seen, the differences in these respects are
very great with different descriptions of plant, and under #
different conditions of growth.

The roots of the peas in pot 1, with the washed and dried, but
not sterilised, yellow sand, showed a densely matted mass of fil re,
by far the greater portion of which was accumulated within the
top four inches ; and, notwithstanding there was no soil-extract
seeding, there were many nodules on the roots, but fewer, and
generally much smaller, than on those grown with the soil-
extract seeding. They were also less characteristically ac-
cumulated near the surface, and more distributed along the
root fibres. There were, however, some agglomerations of
nodules. Comparing this result with that obtained in 1889, with
a purer and sterilised sand, in which case there were no nodules,
there can be little doubt that the development of nodules, and
the fairly luxuriant growth in this pot without soil-extract
seeding, are to be attributed to the impurity and non-ste
isation of the sand.

The roots in pot 2, with soil-extract seeding, also showed
dense mass of fibre, which, however, extended from the top
the bottom of the sand, penetrated the layer of flints, and
distributed over the bottom of the pot. The roots were, in fact,
much more generally distributed and less accumulated within
the surface layers than in pot 1. The most developed root had
three large agglomerated nodules, each with some scores o}
protuberances, somewhat as ona raspberry or mulberry. The
other plants also showed similar nodules, but of a smaller
There were also a number of small clusters distributed over the
rootlets, but very few single nodules, differing in this respect
from the development observed in pot 1.

In pot 3, also with soil-extract seeding, each of the three
plants developed a mass of root-fibre extending throughout the
sand, but less near the bottom. There were large agglomerations
of nodules on the roots of each plant. There were, besides
many small clusters, and here and there single nodules. By
far the most of the nodules were within the top three ihches o}
the sand, but one considerable bunch was found as low as four :
inches from the surface. As in the other cases, the nodules
were grey, and much lighter in colour than the roots on which
they grew.

Each of the three plants in pot 4, with the garden soil, ha¢
a stouter main root than any of those in the other pots. From
the side branches there proceeded a large amount of fine root
fibres which extended throughout the whole soil, those from the
different plants being much interwoven. The roots extended
round the sides and along the bottom of the pot, much more

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 675

than in either of the other pots. There were three small clusters
of nodules on the roots of each of the three plants, one or two
small bunches, and here and there a single nodule. But the
clusters were much smaller, the total number of nodules was
much less, and they were more generally distributed over the
roots in this pot with rich garden soil than in either of the
others, even than in pot 1 without soil-extract seeding. The
root development was, however, as the description shows, much
greater than in either of the other pots. ‘There was, then, a
greater development of root and root-fibre, but a less develop-
ment of root nodules, in the garden soil, which itself supplied an
abundance of combined nitrogen, as well as other nutriment.

Upon the whole, the evidence relating to the peas clearly
shows that there was a greatly enhanced development of nodules
on the roots under the influence of the soil-extract seeding,
and, coincidently with this, considerably increased growth.

The nitrogen was determined in the sand and in the garden
soil, at the commencement and at the conclusion of the experi-
ments; also in the seed, in the above-ground growth (stems and
leaves), and in the roots, separately. The dry matter and ash
were also determined, in the seed, and in the produce grown.

It is of interest to remark (though the results are not here
given) that the above-ground produce of the plants in pot 1,
with the most restricted growth, and which from their pale
colour indicated nitrogen-exhaustion, showed a lower percentage
of nitrogen in its dry substance than was found in that of either
of the other pots. It may be added that the roots in pots 2 and
3, with the soil-extract, and with so much greater development of
nodules than on those in either pots 1 or 4, also contained a
considerably higher percentage of nitrogen in their dry substance.

The next Table (I1V.) shows the actual quantities of dry
substance and of nitrogen in the separated and in the total
products of growth.

TABLE IV.—PEAS, 1888.

Dry substance Nitrogen

|
|
|
aie | | |
In stems) In In stem: In
| aud (In roots) whole and |In roots whole
| leaves | plant } leaves plant

| grams. | grams.| grams.} gram, | gram. | gram.
Pot 1. Sand without soil-extract. . .| 7423 2°600 | 10°023 § 0:2153 | 0:0669 | 0-2829

Pot2. ,, with soil-extract ... . | 9368 2-409 | 11:777 | 0'4591 | 0°0770 | 0°5361
Pot 3. 9411 1748 | 11°159 | 0°3770 | 0:0587 | 0:4357
P

ot4, Gardensoll. 7. . 2 1) e | 12808 | 2°846 | 15654 | 05806 | 0-0794 | 0-6600

Pot 1} 0:0999 | 071096 | +0:0097] 0:0293 | 0:2822 | 0:2529 | 0°1292 | 03918 | 0:2626
Pot 2) 0:0999 | 0°0974 | —0°0025] 0°0298 | O°536L | 05063 | 01297 | 0°6335 0°5038
Pot 3) 0:0999 | 0:0848 | —O-0151f 0°0291 | 04357 | 04066 | 01290 | 0°5205 | 0°3915
Pots | 79989 | 7°9989 —

676 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

It is seen that there is more dry substance in the aboye-
ground growth, but less remaining in the roots, in pots 2 and 3 |
with the soil-extract, than in pot 1 without it. In the whole
plant there is about 10 grams of dry substance in pot 1 with-
out soil-extract, against about 113 grams in pot 2, and more
than 11 grams in pot 3, each with soil-extract.

The point of chief interest is, however, that there was in
one case more than twice, and in the other nearly twice, as
much nitrogen in the above-ground growth in pots 2 and 3 _—
with the soil-extract seeding, as in pot 1 without it. But there —
was much less difference in the amounts remaining in the roots
under the different conditions. Of nitrogen in the total vege-
table matter grown, there is, in pot 2 nearly twice, and in pot 3
more than 14 time, as much as in pot 1 without the soil-extract.
In pot 4 with garden soil, and with therefore full supply of
already combined nitrogen, there was more dry substance pro-
duced, and more nitrogen assimilated, than under the influence
of the soil-extract seeding.

The significance of the results relating to the nitrogen is,
however, more clearly seen in the next Table (V.), which shows
the amounts in the soil at the commencement and at the con-
clusion of the experiment, and the gain or loss; the amounts in
the seed, in the total products of growth, and the gain; the
total nitrogen in the soil and seed at the commencement, in the
soil and produce at the conclusion, and the gain. The Table
also shows, in the last column but one, the nitrogen in the total
products, reckoning the total initial nitrogen=1; and in the
last column, the amount in the plants, reckoning that in the
seed =1.

TABLE V.—PEAs, 1888.

Nitrogen

In sand or soil In seeds and produce Total

In seeds In total
sown | plants
|

At com-
Gain | mence-
ment

At com- Gain
mence- At con- (+) or
ment loss (—)

At con-|
clusion |

Gain

clusion

|
grams. | grams. fram, fram, gram, gram. grams. | grams. gram.

0°6299

0°0301 | 06600 | 06299 | 80290 | 86589

The first point to notice is that there is very little difference
in the amount of nitrogen in the sand or soil at the commence~ —
ment and at the conclusion of the experiments. There would,

.

The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leguminous Crops. 677

doubtless, be some fine root-fibre not removed at the conclusion,

so that where there is loss it is to be supposed that some of the

_ original nitrogen of the sand has contributed to the growth. In

the case of the garden-soil, with its high percentage of nitrogen,
it is, of course, not impossible that there may have been some

_ loss by the evolution of free nitrogen.

That there is at any rate no material gain of nitrogen in the
sand or soil would seem to be confirmatory of the conclusion
indicated by other evidence, that the fixation is not effected by

_ the organisms within the soil, independently of the symbiotic

growth of the nodules and their contents, and of the higher
plant to which they are attached, and to whose nitrogenous
supply they seem to contribute. Indeed, if the fixation had
taken place under the influence of microbes within the soil,

_ independently of connection with the higher plant, we should

| expect some accumulation within it, or we should have to con-

elude that the plant had availed itself of exactly the whole of
the nitrogen so brought into combination—a supposition for
which there would seem no reasonable justification.

Turning to the middle division of the Table, which shows
the nitrogen in the seed sown, in the total vegetable matter
grown, and the gain, and disregarding the changes in the soils,
which it has been seen may well be done, it will be observed
that, in the case of pots 1, 2, and 3, with sand, the gain in the
plants is so large as to be very far beyond the limit of any possi-
ble experimental error. This certainly cannot be said of some
of the experiments which have been conducted on other lines
in regard to the question of the fixation of free nitrogen.

The gain of nitrogen in these initiative experiments is, how-
ever, much less than in many of those of Hellriegel and Wilfarth,
and also much less than in subsequent experiments at Rotham-
sted. This is not to be wondered at when the late period of
the season, and the consequent character of the growth, are
borne in mind.

To refer to the figures, it is seen that, whilst the nitrogen
supplied in the seed was only 0-03 gram or less, that in the
products of growth was 0°2822 gram in pot 1, 0-5361 in pot 2,
0-4357 in pot 3, and 0°6600 in pot 4; and the gains were more
than } of a gram in pot 1, more than 4 a gram in pot 2, about
=" a gram in pot 3, and more than 2ths of a gram in
pot 4.

The third division of the Table shows the total nitrogen at
the commencement (in soil and seed together), at the conclusion
(in soil and total vegetable matter grown), and the gains.

But the significance of the results is more clearly seen in

678 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Lequminous Crops.

the last two columns. ‘The first of these shows the relation of
the amount of nitrogen in the total products (soil and plants
together) to the total initial nitrogen (soil and seed together),
taken as 1. Even in pot 1, with the impure and not sterilised
sand, but without soil-extract, there was, so reckoned, more
than three times as much nitrogen in the products as in the
soil and seed; in pot 2, with soil-extract seeding, there was
nearly five times as much; and in pot 3, also with soil-extract,

there was more than four times as much. In the case of pot 4, —

however, with garden soil, owing to the large amount of initial
nitrogen in the soil, the gain, though actually large, appears
when so reckoned but small.

It is in the last column of the Table, in which, disregarding
the nitrogen in the soils, which was so nearly the same at the
beginning and at the end, and reckoning the relation of the
nitrogen in the total products of growth to that in the seed taken
as 1, that the large amount of fixation is clearly brought to
view. So reckoned, the nitrogen in the substance grown to
that in the seed sown was: in pot 1, 93-fold; in pot 2, nearly
18-fold; in pot 3 nearly 15-fold; and in pot 4, nearly 22-
fold.

Here, then, under non-sterilised conditions—in fact, with suit-
able microbe-infection of the soil—there was very considerable
fixation of free nitrogen.

The Vegetation Experiments in 1889, 1890, and 1891.

Since 1888 more extensive series of experiments have been
made, on substantially the same lines as those already described.
In 1889 peas, vetches, blue lupins, yellow lupins, red clover,
and lucerne were sown; and in 1890 beans, white clover, and
sainfoin. Excluding the blue lupins, which failed, it will be
seen that the series included experiments with four annuals,
namely, peas, vetches, beans, and yellow lupins; also with four
plants of longer life, namely, white clover, red clover, sainfoin,
and lucerne. And, as will be seen further on, experiments
with the same four annuals, and the same four plants of longer

life, were commenced in 1890, of which some are still in pro- ~

gress, on somewhat different lines from those above referred to,
with a view to the investigation of some points of importance,
which the necessary conditions of growth and subsequent treat-
ment of the plants in the glass-house did not admit of.
Referring to the experiments in the glass-house, it may be
stated that for the lupins, the sainfoin, and the lucerne, specially-
made pots of glazed earthenware were employed. They were

7

i
iM

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 679

about six inches in diameter, and fifteen inches deep inside ;
that is, about twice as deep as those used in 1888, and again
in 1889 and 1890, for the peas, vetches, beans, white clover, and
red clover. These larger pots had holes at the bottom for
drainage, and slits at the sides, near the bottom, for aération.
Each of the pots, large or small, stood in a specially-made pan
of the same material. A quantity of broken, washed, and this
time ignited flint was put into the bottom of each pot. The sand
used was a rather coarse white quartz sand, from which the
coarser and the finer portions were removed by sifting, and more
of the finer by washing and decantation, first with well, and
afterwards with distilled, water. In defect of means for igniting
so large a quantity of material (several hundred pounds in all),
without running the risk of gaining more impurity than was
expelled, the portion retained for use was kept, in successive
lots, in a large water-bath, at nearly 100° C., for several days,
and then preserved in well-closed bottles. The results have
shown that the sand so prepared was sufficiently, if not abso-
lutely, sterilised.

In all the experiments commenced subsequently to 1888
the sand was mixed with only 0-1 per cent. of the plant ash and
0-1 per cent. of calcium carbonate.

There were four pots of each description of plant, excepting
in the case of the white clover, of which there were five. For
the peas, vetches, beans, white clover, red clover, sainfoin, and
lucerne, No. 1 was with the prepared quartz sand, without soil-
extract; Nos. 2 and 3 were with the quartz sand and garden soil-
extract added ; and No. 4 was with the garden soil itself; the
fifth pot of white clover receiving calcium nitrate instead of
soil-extract. Of the lupins (both blue and yellow), No. 1 was
with the prepared quartz sand, without soil-extract ; Nos. 2 and 3
were with lupin soil-extract added ; and No. 4 was with the lupin
sandy soil itself, to which 0-01 per cent. of the plant ash was
added.

The soil-extracts were added the day before the sowing of
the seed ; 25 c.c. in the case of the plants grown in the smaller,
and 50 c.c. in that of those grown in the larger, pots.

The seeds were selected and weighed as in 1888.

The analytical details relating to the experiments com-
menced in 1889, and subsequently, are not yet completed; nor
have those already available yet been arranged and published, so
that numerical results cannot be given here. The following
notes on growth and descriptions of the plants and their roots,
together with a general statement of the bearing of the analytical
data in some cases, will, however, convey a clear idea of the im-

680 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

portance and of the significance of the results which haye so far
been obtained.

The peas were sown on July 10, two seeds being put into
each of the four pots; and the plants were taken up on October
23 and 24. Photographs of the four pots of plants were taken
on August 3, August 20, September 27, and lastly on October
22; that is, the day before taking up. Unlike the result obtained —
in pot 1 in 1888 with impure and non-sterilised sand, the plants ~
of 1889, in the purer and sterilised quartz sand, showed
extremely limited growth. Before the end of July, those in both
pots 2 and 3, with soil-extract seeding, began to show enhanced
growth compared with that in pot 1, without the soil-extract ;
and, eventually, whilst the plants in pot 1 were only 83 and 84
inches in height, those in pot 2, with soil-extract, were 14 and
504 inches ; and those in pot 3, also with soil-extract, were 40}
and 394 inches high. In pot 4, with the garden soil, the
heights of the plants were 384 and 413 inches, or only about —
the same as in pot 3 with the soil-extract only. But the plants
in pot 4 were more vigorous, and whilst they flowered and seeded,
neither of those in either pot 2 or pot 5 did so, but continued to
vegetate, the upper parts apparently at the expense of the lower.

Then as to the root development :—In pot 1, without soil-
extract, and with extremely limited above-ground growth, it
was altogether much less than in either pot 2 or pot 3 with
soil-extract, or than in pot 4 with garden soil. Again, in pot 1,
without soil-extract seeding, the main roots descended some
distance before they threw out any considerable amount of root-
branches and root-fibre ; whereas, in pots 2 and 3, with soil-
extract, there was characteristically much more fibre distributed,
both in the upper layers and throughout the pot.

It is speciaily to be noted that, whereas in pot 1 in 1888,
with impure and non-sterilised sand, there was some development
of nodules, now, in the pure and sterilised sand, not a nodule was
observable.

In pot 2, with soil-extract seeding, one plant was very much
larger than the cther, and developed much more root. The
smaller plant had, however, several nodules on the main root,
near the surface of the soil, and a good many small ones distri-
buted along the fibres. Most of the nodules were more or less
shrivelled. The larger plant had a large cluster of nodules on
the main root, very near the surface ; and a very large number
of single nodules, mostly small, was distributed on the root-fibres,
quite to the bottom of the pot. Upon the whole those on the —
larger plant were less shrivelled. .

|
|
| The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 681

| - In pot 3, also with soil-extract, and with two tall plants, the
‘main roots extended to, and along, the bottom of the pot;
‘throwing off many side branches, with a very large quantity of
/fine fibrous root. The greatest distribution was, however, in the
a few inches of the soil. There were two clusters of nodules
‘on one of the plants, and three on the other, besides smaller
|bunches. A large number of mostly single small nodules was
‘also distributed along the roots. On one of the plants the
\largest cluster was on the main root, and on the other the
clusters were on the side branches.
| In pot 4, with the garden soil, and not higher plants, but
| more vigorous and more matured growth than with soil-extract
| only, there was a dense mass of root-fibre throughout the first
six inches of depth. There were numerous nodules, the majority
single and within the upper two or three inches of soil. There
| were also a few small bunches.
Thus, then, the limited growth in pot 1, without soil-extract,
was coincident with the entire absence of nodule-formation ;
and the increased growth in pots 2 and 3, with soil-extract,
was coincident with a very great development of nodules.
|In pot 4, with garden soil, itself supplying abundance of
nitrogen, there was also a considerable development of
nodules, but distinctly less than in either pot 2 or pot 3, with
soil-extract only.
Lastly, without soil-extract, and without nodules, there was no
| gain of nitrogen ; but, with soil-extract, and with nodule-formation,
there was much gain of nitrogen, there being many times as much
in the products of growth as in the seed sown.

__ The vetches were sown on July 10, two seeds being put into
each pot; and the plants were takan up on October 26. The
four pots of plants were photographed on August 3, August 20,
September 27, and lastly on October 25, the day before being
taken up.
| As with the peas, the plants in pots 2 and 3 with soil-extract
had, before the end of July, shown more growth than those in
pot 1 without it. Again, as with the peas, the vetches in the
_ pure and sterilised sand showed extremely limited growth. On
the other hand, those in pots 2 and 3, with the soil-extract, grew
to a great height—indeed, higher than those in pot 4 with the
garden soil. The heights of the plants were: in pot 1, without
soil-extract, 11} and 104 inches; in pot 2, with soil-extract,
523 and 67 inches ; in pot 3, also with soil-extract, 624 and 51
inches ; but in pot 4, with garden soil, only 53 and 36 inches.
But, as in the case of the peas, whilst the plants in pot 4, with

’

the garden soil, flowered and seeded, those in pots 2 and 3, with —
the soil-extract only, did not, but continued to vegetate, extend-
ing upwards, the higher and newer portions apparently at the
expense of the lower and older parts of the plant.

In pot 1, without soil-extract, and with very limited aboye-
ground growth, there was much less development of root than
in either pot 2 or pot 3 with soil-extract, or than in pot 4 with
the garden soil. The main roots descended to the bottom of
the pot, and threw out a number of side branches, but there was
a marked deficiency of root-fibre; and nota single nodule was
formed.

In pot 2, with soil-extract seeding, and very extended aboye-
ground growth, there was a dense mass of root and root-fibre, —
which distributed throughout the pot, though the greatest
accumulation was within the first three inches of depth. There
were numerous nodules, but considerably less in quantity than
on the corresponding pea roots. They were mostly single, and
the greater number were found in the lower layers, which is also
contrary to the result with the peas. They were, moreover,
generally exceedingly small. 7

In pot 3, also with soil-extract, and with very extende
above-ground growth, there was also an immense development
of root and root-fibre, through the whole area of the sand; the :
greatest accumulation being in the upper and lower portions of
the pot, with less in the middle. There were again many
nodules, but very small, and probably fewer than on the roots
in pot 2. All the nodules were single, and fairly distributed
over the whole root area.

In pot 4, with garden soil, and as with the peas, less extended —
but more vigorous and more matured growth than in sand wit)
soil-extract only, there was a moderate amount of root and
root-fibre, chiefly within the upper six inches of depth; bat .
there was altogether very much less of root development than in —
either pot 2 or pot 3, with the sand and soil-extract. Yhere were
many nodules, but all single and very small; and they appeared
to be flattened, as if exhausted of their contents.

Here, then, with the vetches, as with the peas, the very re=
stricted above-gr ound growth in pot 1, without soil-extract
seeding, was associated with very limited root development, and
with the entire absence of nodule-formation. On the other
hand, the greatly extended vegetative growth in. pots 2 and 3,
with soil-extract, was associated with an immense development
of root and root-fibre, and with the formation of numerous —
nodules. Again, in the garden soil, with its liberal supply of
combined nitrogen, there was much less development of roots, |

682 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Legummous Crops.

Lhe Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 683

and less also of nodules, than in the pots with soil-ex-

tract only.
| Lastly, without soil-extract seeding, and with no nodules, there

was no gain of mitrogen; whilst, with soil-extract, and with
| numerous nodules, there was considerable gain of nitrogen ; there
| being, with much less nitrogen in the seed, and about the same
| amount in the products, as in the corresponding experiments with
| peas, very many times as much nitrogen in the vegetable matier
| produced as in the seed sown.

As already said, the experiments with blue lupins failed.
| Those with yellow lupins, however, gave very striking results.

As in the case of the other plants grown in 1889, the yellow
lupin seeds were sown on July 10, three being put into each
pot. There were some re-sowings, some seeds taken out, and
eventually two plants were left in each pot. By the end of
July the plants in pots 2 and 3, with the lupin soil-extract
seeding, already showed more growth than those in pot 1 with-
out it. Photographs of the plants were taken on August 3,
August 20, September 27, October 28, and November 29; and
the plants were taken up on December 7.

The plants in pot 1, without soil-extract seeding, scarcely
appeared above the rim of the pot, one being only about 14, and
the other only 2? inches high. In pot 2, with lupin soil-
extract seeding, one plant was about 24, and the other 184
inches high; both spreading much beyond the width of the
pot. In pot 3, also with lupin soil-extract seeding, one plant
was more than 24, but the other little more than 8 inches high.

_ In fact, in both the pots, with quartz sand, ash, &c., and soil-
) extract seeding only, the plants developed considerably more
than those in pot 4, with the lupin-soil itself; one of these
: being only about 16 inches, and the other about 18} inches
high, and both less branching than those in pots 2 and 3.

_ Unlike the peas and vetches, the yellow lupins, with soil-
extract seeding only, flowered and podded freely. Thus, in pot 2,
one plant flowered only, but the other had nine small pods;
and in pot 3, one had four large and three small pods, and the
other a flower forming. There were also in pot 4, with lupin-
soil, on one plant five pods, and on the other, six. The
general result was that, in the quartz sand with lupin soil-
extract seeding, the plants not only produced a great deal more
vegetable matter than those in the lupin sand itself, but they as
freely flowered and seeded.

| In pot 1, without soil-extract, and very restricted above-
ground growth, there was coincidently very little root develop-

684 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

ment; the main roots descended far down the deep pot almost
without branching, but, at the bottom, a number of branches and
a mass of root-fibre were produced ; the root-fibres were fleshy
and succulent. No root-swellings or nodules were found.

In pot 2, with the lupin soil-extract seeding, and luxuriant
and maturing above-ground growth, there was, on the other
hand, a very great development of root. Branches were thrown
out throughout the whole length; and at their ends masses of
fleshy fibres were formed, which were thickly coated with root-
hairs. On the main root of one plant, about three inches down,
there was a large swelling or nodule the size of a field bean;
four inches lower there were three smaller ones on a side branch
ten inches down, there were three as large as peas; and lower
still, there was another small swelling, more like the nodules
found on other plants. The other plant had less root growth,
One and a half inch down there was a swelling the size of a small
pea; and between four and five inches lower there were three
swellings, one as large as a bean, and the others about the size
of a vetch seed. ‘These swellings on the lupin roots, which were
all on the main roots or thicker branches, were very different in
appearance from the nodules on the pea and vetch roots. They
were, as described, swellings, encasing the root where they grew.

In pot 3, also with lupin soil-extract seeding, the plant
which showed both great above-ground luxuriance and great
seed-forming tendency, developed an immense amount of branch
ing root, with a great deal of root-fibre, which extended through:
out the sand, but to a greater degree in the lower than in the
upper half of the pot. The main root was woody near the toy
The lower root-fibres were fleshy and thickly coated with roo
hairs. There were several swellings or nodules on the main
root below 5 inches; and lower down ona root branch there
were several swellings; there being in all twelve on this plant
The roots of the less luxuriant and less matured plant were
smaller and more meagrely developed; about 10 inches down
there were two bunches of small nodules, and three single
nodules; and a little lower on a side branch another small
nodule.

With regard to the great development of the root-hairs on
the fine fibrils of the roots of both pots 2 and 3, with quartz —

sand and soil-extract seeding, it may be supposed that this was —
an effort to acquire mineral nutriment, in quantity commensurate
with the large amount of nitrogen fixed, and of nitrogenous —
nutriment so rendered available to the plant. 1

In pot 4, with the lupin-soil itself, and less luxuriant above- _
ground growth, the distribution of root was also yery different

|

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 685

from that in pots 2 and 3 with the soil-extract only. The main
root, at a depth of 2 inches, threw out many thread-like branches,
at the end of each of which there was a bundle of fine fibre.
The lower fibres became thicker, and were white and fleshy ; but

_ they were without the marked development of root-hairs ob-

served in such abundance in pots 2 and 5. Most of the root
was within 6 inches of the surface, and there seemed to be none
below 14 inches. One or two inches from the surface there were
swellings on the main roots, which were less raised, but more

| spreading, than those on the roots in pots 2 and 3. There were

also, on one side branch, six very small nodules.
To sum up in regard to the yellow lupins: in the sterilised
quartz sand, without soil-extract seeding, the growth was ex-

_ tremely limited both above and under ground. Under the in-

fluence of the lupin soil-extract seeding, the above-ground growth
was not only very luxuriant, but the plants developed considerable
maturing tendency, flowering and seeding freely. The develop-
ment of the roots generally, and that of swellings or nodules on

| them, were also very marked. In pot 4, with the lupin-sand

|

itself, which would supply a not immaterial amount of combined
nitrogen, although the growth was fairly normal, it was, both
above ground and within the soil, much less than in the pots
with soil-extract only ; and the development of nodules was also
less. It is probable that the less growth in the lupin-sand itself,
than in the quartz sand with soil-extract, was largely due to the
much less porosity of the lupin soil, especially when watered.
Again, as with the peas and the vetches, so with the lupins,
without soil-extract seeding, there was very limited growth, no
formation of nodules, and no gain of nitrogen; but, with soil-
extract seeding, there was luauriant growth, abundant nodule-
formation, and, cvincidently, great qain of nitrogen. There was,
in fact, very many times as much nitrogen in the products of

— growth as in the seed sown,

The foregoing results with peas, vetches, and yellow lupins
are very definite and very striking. They are abundantly illus-
trative of the fact that under the influence of suitable microbe-
seeding of the soil, there is nodule-formation on the roots, and,
coincidently, increased growth, and gain of nitrogen beyond
that supplied in the soil and in the seed as combined nitrogen,
presumably due to the fixation, in some way, of free nitrogen.!

_ + MM. Schloesing jiJs and Laurent have shown, by growing Leguminosae
in closed vessels, and by the analysis of the air before and after growth, that
free nitrogen disappeared, in quantity closely corresponding to that gained in
growth ; thus establishing the fact that the source of the gain was free nitrogen
(Compt. Rend. cxi. 750).

686 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.’

As already said, experiments were also made with a fou
annual, namely beans; and with four plants of longer life—
white clover, red clover, sainfoin, and lucerne. With some
these the growth was not so satisfactory as with the peas, the
vetches, and the yellow lupins; partly owing to failure to
ensure suitable infection of the roots. With both clovers there
will doubtless be considerable gain, especially with the white
clover, which, however, is still growing.

In reference to the failure of growth in the cases where it
was apparently due to failure to obtain suitable microbe
infection, it has already been said that Hellriegel at first
found great difficulty in ensuring a good result with lupins,
serradella, and some other plants, among which was red clover;
and the failure to obtain good results at Rothamsted with both
blue and yellow lupins in 1888, and with blue lupins in 1889,
was doubtless mainly due to the same cause.

As bearing upon this curious and interesting point, it will
be well briefly to refer here to the experiments and results
Professor Nobbe on this subject.! He undertook an investigation,
in the first place to determine whether leguminous trees, as well
as our agricultural leguminous plants, were susceptible to
microbe infection and nodule-formation ; and secondly to ascer:
tain whether there is one nodule-forming bacterium, or wheth
many bacteria have the property—each description of plant, or
perhaps each group, having its special bacterium.

The plants he experimented upon were peas, yellow lupins,
and beans; also as trees, Robinia pseudacacia (locust tree),
Oytisus laburnum (laburnum), and Gileditschia triacantha (honey
locust). To each of these he applied microbe-seeding from
various sources; in some cases, only soil-extracts, and im
others pure cultivations, either from soil-extracts, or from the
root-nodules of different plants. When soil-extracts only were
used the results were somewhat irregular. For example, with
peas a better result was obtained by the use of Gleditschia,
Robinia, or Cytisus, scil-extract, than of pea soil-extract, With
Robinia, on the other hand, the best result was obtained with
Robinia soil-extract. But when pure cultivations were employed, —
the general result was that more effect was produced on any
particular description of plant by the bacteria obtained from the —
same description than by those derived from other descriptions.
Thus, with peas there was more produce, and more nitrogen
assimilated, by the application of pure cultivations of pea nodule
and pea soil bacteria, than by that of lupin nodule, lupin soil,

1 Versuche iiber die Stichstoff-Assimilation der Leguminosen. ¥. Nobbe,
E. Schmid, L. Hiltner, E. Hotter. Versuchs-Stationen, xxxix. 327.

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 687

inia nodule, or Robinia soil bacteria. On the other hand,
e Robinia nodule bacteria, which showed no action with peas,
marked effects on Robinia. Still, this did not apply in all
, there being sometimes more produce, and more nitrogen
ained, under the influence of the microbe infection from
other than from the same description of plant. In some
ases infection had more effect than manuring with ammonium-
alts or nitrate. Nobbe concludes, however, that the results can
eave no doubt that the pea and the Robinia bacteria have dif-
ferent physiological actions, which indicate, if not different
species or varieties, at any rate different race or nutrition modi-
fications.

Beyerinck also concludes that the various papilionaceous
bacteria differ more than he had formerly supposed. Thus, he
found that Vicia Faba, infected with the bacteria from Ornithopus,
produced no nodules; and he considers that the difference
between the bacteria of beans and serradella accounts for the
act that serradella had no nodules when growing in a garden be-
ween beans which had numerous nodules.

Of the three descriptions of leguminous trees upon which
Nobbe experimented, the Robinia and the Cytisus, which are
both of the papilionaceous sub-division of the leguminous family,
were susceptible to microbe infection, and nodule-formation on
their roots, and showed coincidently gain of nitrogen; but the
Gleditschia, which is not papilionaceous, but of the sub-order
Cesalpiniee, was quite indifferent to such infection, although
both soil-extracts and pure cultivations from various sources
were tried. On the other hand, it was found that the application
of calcium nitrate and ammonium sulphate gave considerably
increased growth. Nobbe observes that the roots of Gleditschia
have a very thick covering which it would be at any rate
difficult for the bacteria to penetrate; but whether the members
of this group generally behave differently from the Papilionacece
in this respect remains for future investigation to determine.
It is at any rate of interest to note that the only leguminous
plant outside the papilionaceous sub-order which has yet been
experimented upon has not been found susceptible to infection,
or to have nodules on its roots.

DIFFERENCE IN THE EXTERNAL CHARACTER OF LEGUMINOUS
ROoOT-NODULES.

The conclusion drawn from the evidence which has been
cited—that there are various nodule-forming bacteria—is at
any rate consistent with the descriptions which have been given

. 688 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Lequminous Crops,

of the plants grown at Rothamsted in 1889, which have shown

that the external appearance, and the distribution, of the root-
nodules were very different in the case of the peas, the vetches,
and the lupins. In that of the peas there were many of what
may be called agglomerations of nodules, and comparatively few
single ones distributed on the root-fibres. On the roots of the
vetches there were comparatively few agglomerations or bunches,
and more single nodules, pretty widely distributed along the
root-fibres. The lupin roots, on the other hand, showed tuber-
cular developments very different from those on either the pea
or the vetch roots. Indeed, at the period of examination—thaf
is, when the plants were nearly ripe—two apparently distinet
kinds were observed, one of which, the most prevalent, has been
spoken of as “swellings,” and the other as ‘ nodules.” The
“swellings” were chiefly on the main roots or the thicker
branches ; where they grew they encased the root entirely, and
they had a shining and presumably impervious skin. The
“nodules,” on the other hand, were chiefly single, small, and
distributed on the root-fibres.

Assuming that the so-called “swellings” (with their con-
tents) on the roots of the lupins were the bodies which had
exercised the functions of the ‘‘ nodules ” found on the roots of
the other plants, it is to be concluded that, after the very luxu-
riant growth, and the flowering and seeding, their function was
so far at an end, and they had become suberised. The other
bodies on the lupin roots, distinguished in the detailed deserip-

:

q
:
.

tion as ‘‘ nodules,” indicated too meagre development to have —

had much share in the great amount of assimilation that had
been accomplished. On the other hand, the “ swellings,” which,
as has been said, were all on the main roots or thicker branches,
were certainly very characteristic of the roots of the lupin plants
which attained the greatest growth; and, assuming that they,
with their contents, were really the effective bodies, it must be
supposed that they had been formed where they were found
whilst the root was still young, and had grown with its growth.
In favour of this supposition is the fact that the jmcreased
growth from the soil-extract seeding commenced quite early in
the life of the plants.

The nodules on the roots of lucerne growing in the field
were observed at different periods of the season in 1887, and
again quite recently on plants taken from the field for that
purpose. They are quite different in general external character
from those on any of the other plants that have been examined
at Rothamsted. Instead of being more or less rounded, they
have more the appearance of shoots or buds, much longer

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 689

than broad, sometimes single, but more often divided or
branched, there being generally two or three, and sometimes as
many as twenty, or even many more, in a bunch, joined at the
base. They have, so far, not been observed on the main root,
but only on the root-fibres, and less near the surface than
within the range of the subsoil. In some cases such a tuft or
bunch will be at the end of a fine fibre, by which it is connected
with the main root. As the season advances these bodies become
shrivelled, and are in fact empty shells.

_ Among the Leguminose growing in the mixed herbage of
grass land in 1868 nodules were observed on the root-fibres of
Lathyrus pratensis, especially near the surface of the soil; on
the ultimate root-fibres of Trifolium pratense ; and on the smaller
rootlets of Trifolium repens.

In the case of red clover growing in rotation on arable land,
an abundance of nodules has been found, both near the surface
and at a considerable depth. They are generally more or less
globular or oval. Some found on the main roots were more
like “ swellings ” than attached tubercles, not, however, encasing
the root, but only on one side. The greater number are, how-
ever, small and distributed chiefly on the root-fibres. Again,
on the plot of rich garden soil on which red clover has now been
grown at Rothamsted for thirty-eight years in succession, very
numerous nodules, chiefly globular and small, have been found
on the roots—for the most part within the first few inches of
soil, but some to the depth of a foot or more, diminishing, how-
ever, very much both in number and in size as the clayey subsoil
was reached.

_ Obviously much more evidence than the foregoing few
observations can supply is needed in regard to any difference
in character, or relative prevalence, at different periods in the
life and growth of the plant, and under different conditions of
soil, both so far as mechanical state and porosity, and richness
or otherwise in available supplies of combined nitrogen are con-
cerned, before any clear conception can be attained of the
connection between nodule-formation, luxuriance of growth, and
gain of nitrogen. The subject in various aspects is being
further investigated at Rothamsted, and some of the results so
far obtained will be briefly referred to farther on.

How Is THE Fixation oF NITROGEN TO BE EXPLAINED ?

Reviewing the whole of the results which have been brought
forward, there can be no doubt that the fact of the fixation of
free nitrogen in the growth of Leguminose under the influence

VOL. Il. T. S.—8 FZ

690 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguninous Crops, —

of suitable microbe infection of the soil, and of the resulting
nodule-formation on the roots, may be considered as fully
established. }

Admitting, then, the fact of fixation under the conditions:
described, the question still remains : How is it to be explained ?
Unfortunately, there is much yet to learn before a satisfactory
answer can be given. Obviously we must know more of the
nature and mode of life of the organisms which, in symbiosis
with the leguminous plant, bring about the fixation of free
nitrogen, before the nature of the action can be understood.
As to the mode of life of these bodies, we owe much to the ~
investigations of Marshall Ward, Prazmowski, Beyerinck, and
others; but the facts which they have established so far are in-
sufficient to afford an adequate explanation of the phenomena
involved.

It is a point of importance that it should be established, as
it appears to be, that in the development of the parasite the
cortex of the root of the host is penetrated, and so an intimate
connection between the two—indeed, a symbiosis—is set up.
Then there is abundant evidence that the nodules are very rich
innitrogen. Indeed, in certain stages of their development, their
dry substance may contain a much higher percentage of nitrogen
than that of any part of the growing plant itself; and, in some
cases at any rate, even higher than in that of the highly nitro-
genous leguminous seed.

Whence comes this nitrogen? The views of those who
have studied the histology and biology of the subject, without
reference to quantitative chemical data, do not seem to be very
clear or definite on the point. Thus, it has been assumed that
the bacteria acquire their nutriment, including their nitrogen,
from the protoplasmic cell-contents of the higher plant; and
that, on the other hand, the contents of the bacteroid cells are
resorbed. In other words, the plant utilises the substance of
the bacteroids. It is obvious, however, that, so far as the nitrogen
of the bacteria is derived from the plant itself, the latter is not a
gainer in a quantitative sense by its resorption.

It has further been assumed that the activity of the process
depends on the quantity of the nitrogenous compounds at the
disposal of the roots, the tubercles developing unhindered, and
becoming large and ty pical, in a soil rich in nitrogen, but attain-
ing no great ‘size in poorer soils. The source of the nitrogen of —
the bacteria is here supposed to be combined nitrogen in the
soil. The experimental results which have been described
clearly show, however, that the nodules may develop very plenti-
fully in a nitrogen-free soil, and that there may, under such

The Sources of the Nitrogen of ow Leguminous Crops. 691.

_ conditions, be great gain of nitrogen if only the soil be suitably
| infected. Nor would there be any such actual gain of nitrogen in

nitrogen-free soils, as there undoubtedly is, if the source of the
nitrogen, either of the parasite or of the host, were essentially
the supplies of combined nitrogen within the soil.

Further, one assumption is, that the organisms become dis-
tributed in the soil both during the life of the host and after-
wards, and that the fixation takes place under their agency
within the soil itself, rather than in the course of the develop-
ment of the bacteria in symbiosis with the higher plant.
Another assumption is, that the fixation takes place in the soil
itself under the influence of microbes existing within it, and
that the higher plant assimilates the resulting combined nitrogen.
As bearing upon these points, it may be observed that in the
experiments with peas in 1888 there was practically no gain of
nitrogen within the soil itself, which it may be supposed there
would have been if the fixation had taken place within it, and
the host had acquired its gain from the compounds there pro-
duced. Indeed, the evidence at present at command certainly
does not point to the conclusion that the gain of nitrogen by
Leguminose under the influence of microbe infection of the
soil, and nodule-formation, is due to fixation by organisms within
the soil itself, independently of the symbiosis. It is obvious,
too, that, so far as free nitrogen may be fixed by microbes within
the soil, independently of connection with a higher plant, the
resulting nitrogenous compounds should, directly or indirectly,
be available to plants generally, whether leguminous or non-
leguminous.

On this point it may be remarked that about thirty years
ago Boussingault concluded, from the results of vegetation ex-
periments made in 1858 and 1859 in mixtures of rich soil and
sand, that free nitrogen had been fixed within the soil by the
agency of mycodermic vegetation, and that the nitrogenous
products which remained within it were largely in the form of
organic detritus. Subsequently, however, he considered that
there was not satisfactory evidence that free nitrogen is fixed

* within the soil under the influence of the development of lower

organisms. Itis, nevertheless, of interest to observe that those of
his results in 1858 and 1859 which showed any material gain of
nitrogen, either in the vegetable matter grown, or in the soil,
were obtained with Leguminose, and that in the case in which

_ there was the greatest gain in the plants themselves, he records

that there were numerous tubercles on theirroots. In one other
case, in which, however, only sand was used as soil, and the
gain in the plant was but small, he also observed tubercles on

Vy A:

692 The Sowrces of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

the roots. In the other cases of gain no mention is made of
tubercles, and it may be that the roots were not so examined as
to determine whether they existed or not. It is, at any rate,
very significant, when viewed in the light of recently acquired
knowledge, that in all the cases of gain the plants grown were
of the leguminous family, and that in some of them nodules
were observed on the roots.

Again, Berthelot’s experiments showed fixation of free nitro-
gen by the agency of microbes within the soil, both in the

absence of higher vegetation, and also coincidently with the.

growth of non-leguminous plants. He further considers that
such fixation takes place to an extent which would be an im-
portant source of nitrogen to our crops. As referred to above,
Boussingault’s experiments of 1858 and 1859 showed fixation
within the soil which he then attributed to the agency of myco-
dermic vegetation. The fact of such fixation within the soil,
under the influence of lower plants, has also been confirmed by the
recent results of some other experimenters. Thus, MM. Schloesing
fils and Laurent have shown fixation in bare soil, and in soils
growing various non-leguminous plants, when certain Lichens
and Algze were developed, but not when their occurrence was

prevented. We believe that Hellriegel has also found fixation —

coincidently with the growth of certain Algz. Nevertheless, it
may be observed, that neither experience in practical agriculture,
nor the nitrogen statistics of soils and crops, points to the conclu-
sion that there is gain of nitrogen to any material extent by the
fixation of free nitrogen under the agency of microbes within
the soil independently of leguminous growth. It was our in-
tention to commence experiments on this subject at Rothamsted
in the past year (1891), but we have not yet been able to do so.
In 1888, however, Berthelot made numerous experiments
with Leguminose, and in many of them he found very large
gains of nitrogen; indeed, a much higher range of gain than in
his other experiments. That there should be large gain under
such conditions is quite consistent with the results which have
been recorded of the experiments made at Rothamsted in 1888
and 1889 with Leqununose, and with those previously obtained
by Hellriegel and Wilfarth. Further, these results of Berthelot,
like those obtained at Rothamsted and by others with legumin-
ous plants, are consistent with well-established facts of agricul-
tural production, and with the nitrogen statistics of soils and
crops, and serve with them to aid the solution of long-recog-
nised problems in connection with the growth of leguminous
crops. :
But, whether or not it may eventually be established that

t
iii man a

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Orops. 698

nitrogen is fixed, to any material extent, by microbes within the
soil, independently of leguminous growth, there is evidence that
in soils and subsoils containing organic nitrogen, lower organisms
may serve the higher plants by taking up or attacking and
bringing into a more readily available condition combined nitrogen
not otherwise, or only very slowly, available for the higher plants.
For example, it is probable that fungi generally derive nitrogen
from organic nitrogen ; and in the case of those of fairy rings
there can be little doubt that they take up from the soil organic
nitrogen which is not available to the meadow plants, and that
on their decay their nitrogen becomes available to the associated
herbage. ‘Then in the case of the fungus mantle, observed by
Frank on the roots of certain trees, it may be supposed that the
fungus takes up organic nitrogen, and so becomes the medium
of the supply of the soil nitrogen to the plant. More pertinent
still is the action of the nitrifying organisms in rendering the
organic nitrogen of the soil and subsoil available to the higher
plants. Jt may well be supposed, therefore, that there may be
other cases in which lower organisms may serve the higher,
bringing into a more available condition the combined nitrogen
already existing, but in a comparatively inert state, in soils and
subsoils.

But to return to the question of the explanation of the un-
doubted fixation of free nitrogen in the growth of leguminous
crops under the influence of suitable microbe infection, and of the
development of nodules on the roots of the plants.

As in the exact quantitative series of experiments made at
Rothamsted in 1888 and since, some of the results of which have
been given, the plants were not taken up until they were nearly
ripe, it is obvious that the roots and their nodules could not be
examined during growth, but only at the conclusion, when it is
to be supposed that the contents of the nodules would be to a
great extent exhausted. Another series was therefore com-
menced in 1890, and is still in progress, in which the same four
annuals—peas, beans, vetches, and yellow lupins—and the same

four plants of longer life—white clover, red clover, sainfoin, and

lucerne—were grown in specially-made pits, so arranged that
some of the plants of each description could be taken up, and
their roots and nodules studied, at successive periods of growth:
the annuals at three periods—namely, first when active vegeta-
tion was well established, secondly when it was supposed that
the point of maximum accumulation had been approximately
reached, and thirdly when nearly ripe ; and the plants of longer
life at four periods—namely, at the end of the first year, and in
the second year when active vegetation was re-established, when

694 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

the point of maximum accumulation had been reached, and lastly
when the seed was nearly ripe. Each of the eight descriptions
of plant was grown in sand (with the plant-ash), watered with
the extract from a rich soil; also in a mixture of two parts rich
garden soil and one part of sand. The pits with their plants
were exposed to the open air, but protected from heavy rain.

In the sand the infection was comparatively local and limited, —
but some of the nodules developed to a great size on the
roots of the weak plants so grown. In the rich soil the infection —
was much more general over the whole area of the roots, the
nodules were much more numerous, but generally very much
smaller. Eventually the nodules were picked off the roots,
counted, weighed, and the dry substance and the nitrogen in
them determined.

Taking the peas as typical of the annuals, and the sainfoin
of the plants of longer life, the general result was that, at the
third period of growth of the peas in sand, the amount of dry
matter of the nodules was very much diminished, the percentage
of nitrogen in the dry matter was very much reduced, and the
actual quantity of nitrogen remaining in the total nodules was
also very much reduced. In fact, the nitrogen of the nodules
was almost exhausted. The peas grown in rich soil, however,
‘maintained much more vegetative activity at the conclusion,
and showed a very great increase in the number of nodules from
the first to the third period ; and with this there was also much
more dry substance, and even a greater actual quantity of nitro-
gen, in the total nodules at the conclusion. Still, as in the peas
grown in sand, the percentage of nitrogen in the dry substance
of the nodules was very much reduced at the conclusion.

In the case of the plant of longer life, the sainfoin, there was,
both in sand and in soil, very great increase in the number of
nodules, and in the actual amount of dry substance and of nitro-
gen in them, as the growth progressed. The percentage of
nitrogen in the dry substance of the nodules also showed, even
in the sand, comparatively little reduction, and in the seil even
an increase. In fact, separate analyses of nodules of different
character or in different conditions showed that, whilst some
were more or less exhausted and contained a less percentage
of nitrogen, others contained a high percentage, and were doubt-
less new and active.

Thus, the results pointed to the interesting conclusion that,
in the case of the annual, when the seed is formed, and the
plant more or less exhausted, both the actual amount of nitrogen a
in the nodules, and its percentage in the dry substance, are
greatly reduced ; but that, with the plant of longer life, although

é

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 695

the earlier formed nodules become exhausted, others are con-
stantly produced, thus providing for future growth. The results
of this new series of experiments, taken together with those of
the quantitative series, serve further to show that there is inti-
mate connection between the gain of nitrogen by Leguminoscwe
and the development of nodules on their roots.

The alternative explanations of the fixation of free nitrogen
seem to be—

1. That, under the conditions of the symbiosis, the plant is
enabled to fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere by its leaves.

2. That the nodule-organisms become distributed within the
soil, and there fix free nitrogen; the resulting nitrogenous com-
- pounds becoming available as a source of nitrogen to the roots
of the higher plant.

3. That free nitrogen is fixed in the course of the develop-
ment of the organisms within the nodules, and that the resulting
nitrogenous compounds are absorbed and utilised by the host.

It certainly seems to us that the balance of the evidence at
present at command is much in favour of the third mode of ex-
planation. Indeed, there seems little or nothing in the facts to
lead to the conclusion that under the influence of the symbiosis
the higher plant itself is enabled to fix the free nitrogen of the
air by its leaves. Nor does the evidence point to the conclusion
that the nodule-bacteria become distributed through the soil
and there fix free nitrogen, the compounds of nitrogen there
produced being taken up by the higher plant. It seems more
consistent, both with the experimental results, and with general
views, to suppose that the nodule-bacteria fix free nitrogen
‘within the higher plant, and that the nitrogenous compounds
produced are absorbed and utilised by the plant. In other
words, there does not seem to be any evidence that the higher
chlorophyllous plant itself fixes free nitrogen, or that the fixation
takes place within the soil; but it is much more probable that
the lower organisms fix the free nitrogen. If this should eventu-
ally be established, we have to recognise a new power of living
organisms—that of assimilating an elementary substance. But
this would only be an extension of the fact that lower organisms
are capable of performing assimilation-work which the higher
cannot accomplish ; whilst it would be a further instance of
lower organisms serving the higher. Finally, it may here be
observed that Loew has suggested that the vegetable cell, with
its active protoplasm, if in an alkaline condition, may fix free
nitrogen with the formation of ammonium nitrite. Without
passing any judgement on this point, it may be stated that it has
frequently been found at Rothamsted that the contents of the

‘696 The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Leqguminous Crops.

nodules have a weak alkaline reaction when in apparently an
active condition—that is whilst still flesh-red and glistening.

It will be seen that the experimental results which haye
been brought forward constitute only a small proportion of
those already obtained, or yet to be obtained, at Rothamsted;
and it is hoped that, in the course of the further prosecution of
the investigations which have been undertaken, more definite
answers will be forthcoming to some of the admittedly still open
questions in connection with this interesting and important
subject.

OF WHAT IMPORTANCE TO AGRICULTURE IS THE NEWLY-
RECOGNISED SouRCE OF NITROGEN TO LEGUMINOUS CROPS?

The question yet remains :—What is the practical importance
of the newly-recognised source of nitrogen to the Leguminose,
considered in its bearing on the known facts of agricultural
production, and especially on the question of the sources of the
nitrogen, not only of leguminous crops themselves, but of crops
generally ? Unfortunately, as in the matter of the explanation
of the action by which the nitrogen is fixed, there is much yet
to learn before an adequate answer can be given. Still it is
desirable to report progress.

We have said that whilst experience, whether practical or
experimental, did not point to an unsolved problem in the
matter of the sources of the nitrogen of the agricultural plants
of other families, it was quite otherwise so far as those of the
Leguminose were concerned. It is true, that both agricultural
investigation, and direct vegetation experiment, have clearly
shown that Legwminose do take up much soil-nitrogen, and, at
any rate in great part, as nitrate. But it is admitted that, in
the case of some direct experiments bearing on the point, the
evidence was not such as to justify the conclusion that the
whole of the nitrogen had been so derived; and that hence
some other explanation of the large amounts assimilated was
needed.

It has been seen that the balance of experimental evidence is —
against the supposition that the higher plants themselves can —
assimilate free nitrogen. But, it is now established that, at any
rate in the case of some leguminous plants, they gain nitrogen
coincidently with the development on their roots of tubercular
bodies containing bacteria; and the evidence points to the con-—
clusion that it is the lower organisms, and not-the higher —
plants, that fix free nitrogen.

It has been stated that the characteristic nodules haye been —

».

—

| The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 697

found on the roots of various leguminous plants growing among
the mixed herbage of grass-land, and also on those of others
growing on arable land, in the ordinary course of agriculture.
There can be little doubt that, when such plants are growing in
' soil and subsoil containing an abundance of combined nitrogen,
| they will obtain some of their nitrogen from nitrates, or other
_ ready-formed compounds of nitrogen. It has further been sug-
| gested, that lower organisms may serve the higher, at any rate
in part, by bringing the combined nitrogen existing in the soil
_and subsoil in a comparatively inert state, into a more readily
available condition. An obvious difficulty in the way of the
| assumption, that much of the greater assimilation of nitrogen by
the Leguwminose than by other plants is due to a supply of nitric
acid by the nitrification of the combined nitrogen of the subsoil,
is that the direct application of nitrates as manure has compara-
| tively little effect on the growth of such plants. In the case of
the direct application of nitrates, however, the nitric acid will
percolate chiefly as nitrate of soda or nitrate of lime, unaccom-
panied by the other necessary mineral constituents in an ayvail-
able condition ; whereas, in the case of nitric acid being formed
by direct action on the organic nitrogen of the subsoil, it is
probable that it will be associated with other constituents, liber-
ated, and so rendered available, at the same time. But, so far
as the plants obtain nitrogen derived from the fixation of free
nitrogen, the question arises—under what conditions will this
_ supply come the more or the less into play ?
| In some of the experiments made in pots at Rothamsted,
_ the results of which have been given, there was a less develop-
ment of nodules on the roots when soil containing an abundance
of combined nitrogen was used, than when nitrogen-free sand
_ was employed. But the less growth, and the less formation of
nodules in the rich soil, was supposed to be due to clotting, and
therefore to defective porosity, especially after watering. On
the other hand, as already said, some experimenters have con-
cluded that the activity of the process depends on the quantity
of nitrogenous compounds at the disposal of the roots; the
nodules developing unhindered, and becoming large and typical
in soils rich in nitrogen, whilst in soils poor in nitrogen they
attain no great size.

In the later series of experiments made at Rothamsted,
those conducted in pits in the open air, to which brief reference
has been made, the general, though not the invariable, result
was, however, that there was a much greater number of nodules
formed on the roots of the plants growing in rich soil than on
those grown in sand. But whilst as a rule the individual, but

L

698 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops.

much fewer nodules on the roots grown in sand, developed to a
much greater size; the much larger number in the soil were
very much smaller. :

As to the greater number of nodules formed in rich soil
than in sand, the explanation may simply be that, as in the sand
the infection was dependent on the additions of rich soil-extract
only, the diffusion of the microbes would be only limited, and the
infection of the roots therefore only local or accidental ; whilst
the much greater size of the individual nodules may be due to
the want of power in the more weakly plant growing in nitrogen-
free soil to resist the free development of the parasite. On the
other hand, in the mixture of rich soil and sand, the microbes
would probably be distributed throughout it, and the roots
accordingly exposed to infection along their whole range. The
much less development of the individual but more numerous
nodules in the rich soil may be due to one of two very different
causes. It may be that although the more vigorous plants grown
in the rich soil could not resist the original infection, they were
able to resist the further development of the parasite ; or, it
may be, that with thé more vigorous growth the nodules were
more rapidly exhausted of their contents to feed the host: It
will be obvious that, on the former supposition, some of the
nitrogen of the restrictedly developed individual nodules may
have been obtained from the nitrogenous matters of the plant
itself derived from soil-nitrogen, in which case the gain from
fixation would be less than would otherwise be indicated. by
the great number of nodules produced; and in favour of this
supposition, which implies that in the early stages of the infeé-
tion the bacteria derive nitrogenous nutriment from the storés
of the higher plant itself, and only later from the fixation of free
nitrogen, is the fact of the observed ‘“ nitrogen: hunger stage”
so characteristic of plants for some time after infection, when
growing in nitrogen-free soil, probably indicating that during
that period the limited stores of the plant are being drawn upon.
On the second supposition, on the other hand—that the small-
ness of the nodules was due to their rapid exhaustion by the
host—if might be that more of the nitrogen of the nodules would
be due to fixation, and that hence a larger proportion of the
total nitrogen of the plant would be gain attributable to that
source.

Obviously more evidence is needed before a decisive opinion
can be formed, as to how far fixation of free nitrogen is an
essential coincident of nodule-development at all its stages of
accumulation, and how far therefore the amount of nodule-
formation may be taken as a fair measure of the fixation. ,

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops. 699

It is to be supposed that when nodules develop abundantly
‘on the roots of leguminous plants growing in soil rich in readily
available combined nitrogen, the nitrogen assimilated will be
| partly due to soil supplies of combined nitrogen, and partly to
fixation. ‘That there is gain when red clover, for example,
| grows luxuriantly on ordinary arable soil, common experience
can leave but little doubt. The evidence of fixation is, however,
undoubtedly much the clearer in the case of soils poor in nitro-
gen. Thus, in the cases of the experiments with peas, vetches,
and yellow lupins, growing in nitrogen-free but duly infected
sand, there being no other supply of combined nitrogen than that
in the seed sown, the proportion of the total assimilation due to
fixation was undoubtedly very large. It may safely be concluded,
indeed, that when luxuriant leguminous crops are obtained on
soils characteristically poor in available combined nitrogen, a
large proportion of the total nitrogen assimilated will be due to
fixation. It is, on the other hand, by no means so clear that,
when such plants are grown in soil rich in available combined
nitrogen, an abundant development of nodules is to be taken as
indicating that a correspondingly great proportion of the total
nitrogen assimilated is due to fixation.

There can, however, be little doubt that in the growth in
practical agriculture of leguminous crops, such as clover, vetches,
peas, beans, sainfoin, lucerne, &c., at any rate some, and in
some cases a considerable proportion, of the large amount of
nitrogen which they contain, and of the large amount which
they frequently leave as nitrogenous residue in the soil for
future crops, is due to the fixation of free nitrogen, brought into
combination by the agency of lower organisms. Evideuce is,
however, obviously still wanting, to enable us to judge decisively
under what conditions a greater or less proportion of the total
nitrogen of the crop will be derived—on the one hand from
nitrogen-compounds within the soil, and on the other from
fixation.

Incidentally, the question suggests itself—how far the
failure of red clover, or of other leguminous crops, may be due
to the exhaustion of the organisms necessary for nodule
development, and for the coincident fixation of free nitrogen ;
how far to the exhaustion of combined nitrogen, or of the neces-
sary mineral constituents, in an available condition, within the
range of the roots; or, as is sometimes the case, to insect
ravages depending on the condition of the soil independently of
an otherwise failing condition of the plant.

Assuming it then to be established that a greater or less,
and sometimes a considerable proportion, of the nitrogen of our

700 The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Leguminous Crops,

leguminous crops will be due to fixation under the conditions
supposed, it is obvious that such a fact not only serves to explain”
the source of the hitherto unaccounted-for amount of the
nitrogen of those crops themselves, but that it also affords an
explanation of the source of the increased amount of nitrogen
which other crops acquire, when they are grown in association —
or in alternation with Leguminosce. Lastly, the fact that herbace-
ous leguminous plants (also papilionaceous shrubs and trees, as _
shown by Nobbe) are susceptible to the symbiosis, and under
its influence may gain much nitrogen, serves to explain thé ©
source of some, at least, of the large amount of combined
nitrogen accumulated through ages in our soils and subsoils,
and also the comparatively slow exhaustion of their stores of
it, by cropping, drainage, and in other ways.

Referring now to some of the more directly practical aspects
of the subject, it may be observed that in Germany, Schultz,
Lupitz, has for some years farmed a considerable area of p
gravelly and sandy soil by growing leguminous crops—variou
clovers, lupins, serradella (Ornithopus sativus), &c., by means
kainit and phosphatic manures, and he has found the lan
thereby very much enriched for future cereal and other crops
He finds, however, that it is necessary to vary the description
of leguminous crop grown. In various parts of Germany, to
the system is gradually extending of growing lupins, serradella,
or other leguminous crops, especially on poor sandy soils, witha f
view to their enrichment in nitrogen. And on a large estate in
Hungary it was found that the results of the recent investiga-
tions indicating the fixation of free nitrogen in the course of the —
development of leguminous crops were being carefully studied
with a view to practical application.

In our own country Mr. Mason, of Eynsham Hall, Oxford-
shire, commenced in 1889 some experiments with various
Leguminosee on small plots; and in 1890 a considerable series
in specially-built tanks or pits, in which he has grown various
leguminous agricultural plants, as well as some leguminous
shrubs, with a view to the study of their root and nodule
development, and the connection of these with luxuriance of
growth, and gain of nitrogen. He has also devoted about 200
acres to the practical application of the recently acquired
knowledge in regard to nitrogen fixation. Stated in a few
words, his idea is, to reduce his area under roots, and to
grow instead mixed crops of Legwminose — beans, various
clovers, &c.—liberally manured with basic slag and kainit,
and to convert the produce in the first year into silage, and

The Sources of the Nitrogen of our Lequminous Crops. 701

in the second into hay. The land is thus occupied for two
ears, and the assumption is, that in this way highly nitrogenous
crops will be obtained with mineral but without any nitrogenous
anure, and that the land will be left in high condition so far
‘as nitrogen is concerned for the growth of saleable crops, such
potatoes, or grain, which require nitrogenous manuring. In
other words, the plan is, as he puts it, first to grow nitrogen-
uulating crops for home consumption, and afterwards
itrogen-consuming crops for sale. The experiment has been
in progress too short a time to judge how far it will be success-
ful in a series of years, or of rotations. It is at any rate pretty
certain that, to obtain luxuriant leguminous crops so frequently
as the plan supposes, it will be necessary that the description
of plant grown should be varied from time to time. It
has also yet to be determined to what extent the nitrogen
removed in the leguminous crops and made into silage or hay
must be returned to the land in the form of manure, or whether
part of the green crop itself should be ploughed in, for the after-
growth of the saleable crops.

There is, of course, nothing new in the fact that, after the
growth of a leguminous crop, such as red clover for example,
the soil is left in a higher condition for the subsequent growth
of a grain crop; and that, in fact, the growth of such a legu-
minous crop is to a great extent equivalent to the application
of a nitrogenous manure for the cereal. Indeed, history tells
us that more than two thousand years ago it was recognised
by the Romans that the occasional growth of plants of the
leguminous family had the effect of increasing the growth of
the gramineous crops with which they were alternated, and it
was stated that the effect was equivalent to that of applying
manure. Thus Varro says that, “Certain things are to be
sown, not with the hope of any immediate profit being derived
from them, but with a view to the following year, because,
being ploughed in and then left in the ground, they render the
soil afterwards more fruitful;” and the plants used for this
purpose were lupins, beans, vetches, and other legumes.

Now, however, that the character of the action is more
clearly understood, and it is certain that there is actual gain
of nitrogen from sources external to the soil itself, it seems
desirable that at any rate tentative trials should be made on
different descriptions of soil, with the view of ascertaining
whether more advantage cannot be taken of this source of nitro-
gen than our established practices of rotation at present secure.

The experimental results which have been brought forward
clearly establish that there is great gain of nitrogen under

702 The Sources of the Nitrogen of owr Lequminous Crops.

some conditions. It has also been clearly shown, that due in-
fection of the soil and of the plant is an essential to success
The evidence at the same time points to the conclusion tha
the soil may be duly infected for the growth of one deseriptic
or some descriptions of plant, but not for some other des
tions. The field experiments on leguminous crops at Rotham-
sted have further shown, that land which is, so to speak, quite
exhausted so far as the growth of one leguminous crop i
concerned, may still grow very luxuriant crops of anothe
description of the same family, but of different habits of growth
and especially of different character and range of roots. hi
result, though undoubtedly more or less due to other causes
also, is, nevertheless, in some cases doubtless dependent on the
existence, the distribution, and the condition, of the appropriat
microbes for the due infection of the different descriptions of
plant. In fact, it is pretty certain that success in any systen
involving a more extended growth of leguminous crops in 0
rotations will not be attained without having recourse to
considerable variation in the description of leguminous plan
grown. Another essential condition of success will pretty cet
tainly be the liberal application of potash and phosphat
manures for the leguminous crop. Then, the questions would
arise—how long the leguminous crop should occupy the land
to what extent it should be consumed on the land, or the manui
from its consumption be returned; or under what condition
the whole, or part, of it should be ploughed in? Lastly, it
probable that more benefit would accrue to the lighter and poorer
than to the heavier or richer soils by any such extended growth
of leguminous crops.

J. B. Lawes.

J. H. GILpBert.

THE NITRIFYING FERMENTS OF THE SOIL.

THE salt, or chemical, known as nitrate of lime may, without
hesitation, be described as the most important plant food con-
tained in the soil. Imagine, if we can, a soil utterly destitute —
of it, incapable of forming it, and not supplied by manuring
with any nitrogen-containing substance from which it can be
formed. Such a soil, however kind in texture, however W
situated, drained, and tilled, however well supplied with th
purely mineral ingredients of plant food, is not capable of
growing the barest pretence of a crop of corn, roots, or gras:

Or consider the actual and very common case of two soils, ge 4

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 703

‘and equally good in all other respects, but the one containing
within reach of the roots during a season’s growth twice as
much available nitrate as the other. If the latter will only
grow in a good season fifteen bushels of wheat per acre, the
former will yield thirty; should it contain half as much again
‘of available nitrate, it might even yield close on forty-five bushels.
Yet the quantity of this most important factor of a soil’s fertility
|present at any one time is, in relation to the mass of soil,
‘almost infinitesimal. Place a handful of soil in the hands of a
| chemical student, and, unless he employs the most refined and
delicate chemical tests, and adapts his plan of analysis specially
to detect this ingredient, he may miss it altogether. Indeed,
in some soils, and under some circumstances, as, for example, in
the soil of a field of grass in vigorous growth during a showery
June, or in a worked-out, sandy soil, after an autumn of per-
sistent rains, the most sensitive chemical test will barely detect
it. Sometimes there is less than one part, often less than ten
parts, in a million parts by weight of soil; sometimes there is
ten times as much as the larger of these quantities.

Small as are these proportions, the modern refinements of soil-
sampling and of analysis permit an accurate estimate to be made
in any given case, and to fix the ideas we may glean a few of
the results obtained in the Rothamsted laboratory on the soil of
the celebrated Broadbalk wheat field. Sampled in October, and
therefore containing the nitrate (if any) unconsumed by the
summer’s wheat crop, and that accumulated since its removal,
| the plot that had grown a crop of wheat yearly for forty years
| without manure showed! 15 Ib. of nitrogen as nitrate per acre
to a depth of twenty-seven inches; the plot growing wheat
every year with 14 tons farmyard manure per acre showed?
52:2 lb. of nitrogen as nitrate per acre to the same depth. The
soil of another field in fair condition, bare fallowed since the
harvest of the previous year, showed 60 lb. of nitrogen as nitrate
per acre to the same depth.

This mode of statement is no doubt the most convenient
from an agricultural point of view. It emphasizes the well-
ascertained fact that the commanding influence of nitrate of
lime on plant growth is a consequence of its supplying the
plant with nitrogen in an immediately available form wherewith
to build up the albuminoids of the protoplasmic contents of the
living cells which are the plant’s manufacturing organs, and

' Equal to 88lb. nitrate of lime, or 108 lb. nitrate of potash, or about 12
parts of the latter per million of soil.

2 Equal to 3061b. nitrate of lime, or 376 1b. nitrate of potash, or about 42
parts of the latter per million of soil.

704 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

eventually to supply the nitrogenous ingredients of the matured
plant or grain. About this there can be no doubt. A
nitrate in solution is readily carried through the roots into the
circulation of a plant; its presence in the leaves and stem can
easily be proved by testing their juice, and it is found to be
thus taken in and stored up until by the increasing demands
of the growing cells it is used up in forming new com-
pounds. Pari passu with this, the decrease in the nitrate
of the soil can be followed by the same tests, and (if the
experiment is conducted on a plant growing in a flower-
pot) at the end of the summer’s growth the soil will in many
cases be found to be pumped absolutely dry of this particular
ingredient. é
To say that nitrate of lime is the sole natural source of
nitrogen supply for any plant or class of plants would be
perhaps to put the case too strongly, but this much at any
rate may be said:—The illimitable supply of pure nitrogen
gas in the atmosphere is only available as food in a a
indirect way to a limited class of plants haying a special
manner of growth (e.g. the Leguminose) ; the great stock of
nitrogen locked up in the soil in the form of organic or
decayed vegetable matter (some hundred or a thousand times
greater in quantity than the nitrate) is not known to be
immediately available as food to any plant; and the ammoni
compounds of liquid manure, dung-heaps, guano and ammo-
niacal manures are certainly to a great extent converted into
nitrates by the time the plant makes use of them as nitrogenous
food. As to the lime present in the nitrate of lime, that must
be looked upon as an accidental rather than an essential or even
important concomitant of the nitrogen. Were potash the most
abundant base in the soil, nitrate of potash (saltpetre or nitre) —
would be the nitrate present, and plants would obtain a more ~
valuable food than even nitrate of lime. Were soda the most
abundant base, nitrate of soda would prevail, and would be the
salt absorbed by the plant to the same purpose as the lime salt. -
How well nitrate of soda supplies the natural deficiencies or the ~
annual loss of our tilled soils in nitrate of lime is shown by the
present annual consumption of 150,000 tons for this sole purpose.
Boussingault, the pioneer of the experimental method
in agricultural science, was well aware of the importance of
nitrates and of the reason of it, one of his earliest essays
bearing the title “ On the influence of Saltpetre on the develop-
ment of Plants.” As early as 1856 he had succeeded in
devising a method for estimating the nitrate present in soils,
and he gives us the result of testing over thirty samples. He

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 705

fund the nitrate in traces only, or in very small quantities, in
some forest and meadow soils and soils with growing crops ; in
very small quantity after very wet weather in autumn, and
immediately after the growth of a crop; in larger quantities in
fallow soils in a dry autumn, and in largest quantities after a
long spell of dry weather during the summer. In one case he
gives under 2 parts of nitrate per million in the soil of a hop field
in September after heavy rains, 600 parts per million in the same
soil in the following July after a long spell of dry weather, and
33 parts again in the following October. Whether his figures
are strictly accurate or not, the great fluctuation in this floating
capital of the soil was evidently quite familiar to him, and
subsequent observers have but confirmed the general tenour of
his results. Greedily absorbed from the soil by a growing crop,
easily washed out of it by the winter's rains, and accumulating
or being formed in the soil during warm and not too dry weather,
and especially in fallows—these were obviously the main deter-
mining circumstances of the fluctuations.

_ It is only natural that the mode of formation of such
a yaluable substance should be an interesting and promising
field of inquiry. To the natural process of nitrification, as
it occurs in the nitre-producing villages of India, Europe has
been, and still is, largely indebted for a supply of nitrate of
| potash wherewith to make gunpowder. ‘The heaps of nitre-
‘earth found near the sites of former habitations consist of house
jrefuse mixed with porous soil, ashes from the fires, urine, &c.
| After long-continued exposure to Indian warmth, lixiviation of
‘this nitre-earth with water furnishes a solution from which
_saltpetre is extracted by evaporation and crystallisation.

. In 1777, when France could not import saltpetre, the
Government caused to be printed “Instructions for the Esta-
blishment of Nitre-heaps,” which Boussingault makes the sub-
ject of one of his essays, and his observations and drawings
make it plain that before his time the practical conditions of
nitrification were well known. Heaps of soil mixed with ashes
and animal refuse, arranged in layers separated by loose straw
_kept under cover, freely exposed to air, and watered as often as
| possible with urine, turned and removed once or twice if practic-
_able, furnished in the course of some months a notable supply of
_nitre. If treated after the manner prescribed, we learn that about
_450 tons of material would in two years furnish about 43 tons of
| crude saltpetre. The watering with urine was to be stopped some
_months before the final lixiviation. Though earth was regarded
lee a purely mechanical agent, and any earth not too compact
| VOL, Il, T. S—8 3A

|

706 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

would serve, the best was known to be that already charged wi
nitrate, such as cave earth, manured garden soil, the earth j
the neighbourhood of stables and refuse heaps, &c. The nece
sary potash of course came from the ashes, the oxygen from th
atmosphere, and the nitrogen in Boussingault’s time was known
to be supplied by the urine and animal matter, and to be con-
verted by the putrefaction of these mto ammonia before under-
going oxidation and combination with the potash to ft
nitrate.

For the potash of the ashes substitute the lime of the soil,
and for the nitrogen of the animal matter that of the decaying
vegetable matter of the soil, which is slowly given off as ammo-
‘nia during the decay, and it is seen that the formation
nitrate of lime in soil proceeds on the same lines as that of
saltpetre in the nitre-heap. That the formation of nitrate i
encouraged by warmth, by moisture, by porosity of the soil, }
tillage and other operations favouring free admission of air, a
by the presence of lime or potash, was as well known fifty yea
ago as it is to-day. But the combination of the atmospher
oxygen with the nitrogen and hydrogen of the ammonia res
ing from decaying vegetation was then, and for very many yea
afterwards, supposed to be as purely chemical an action as th
combination of nitric acid, once formed, with lime or potas
produce nitrate of lime or nitrate of potash.

Not indeed until 1877, when the experiments of Schloesi

was any other opinion generally entertained, although
Pasteur himself had in 1862 suggested as probable th
the oxidation in this case, as in the familiar one of the
conversion of wine or beer into vinegar, might be due t
the action of a living ferment, and not to simple contact

with the air. Fifteen years after this suggestion the first
experiments confirming it were published, and not until the
present year, that is after the lapse of nearly fifteen yea
more, has the prediction been fully and completely verified by
the isolation and separate examination of at any rate twool
the species of organisms concerned in the process. So slow im
certain cases is the onward progress achieved by what we are
accustomed to regard nowadays as the rapidly advancing strides
of science! A short sketch of the hunt after these organisms
which followed on the publication of Schloesing and Mi
results will disclose some reasons for the slow progress in this
case and will be instructive in other ways. Much light has
been thrown on the obscure process of nitrification, and the
organisms at last identified as being the true agents are so sn

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 707

gular in their mode of growth as to differ from all living organ-
‘isms previously known.
_ When a chemical transformation is carried on by the agency
of a living ferment (as the fermentation of sugar into alcohol by
‘the yeast plant), the vital nature of the process is clearly pointed
lout by symptoms which a few very simple tests suffice to dis-
‘close. The symptoms which led to Schloesing and Miintz’
‘conclusion were the stoppage of nitrification by antiseptics, and
the power of provoking it in a suitable medium by simple inocu-
\lation with soil. Sewage, as is well known, contains ammonia,
jand one of the principal actions taking place when sewage is
|purified by irrigation or filtration through soil is the nitrifica-
‘tion of this ammonia. The French observers, experimenting on
the purification of sewage, were filtering it through a mixture of
sand and limestone. Not until twenty days did any nitrification
take place, but then the material nitrified the sewage completely
and continuously for four months. But on exposing the filter-
ing medium to the vapour of chloroform (which is fatal to
microbes) nitrification stopped, nor, after sweeping away all trace
of the chloroform by a fresh current of sewage, was the process
found to commence afresh, even after seven weeks’ trial. The
‘filtering column was then inoculated or seeded by pouring on it
| a few scruples of garden soil suspended in water, and eight days
after this the current of sewage was nitrified as at first.

This striking result determined Warington to take up the
study in the Rothamsted laboratory, with the immediate result
of proving that bisulphide of carbon and carbolic acid, two other

_antiseptics, are, like chloroform, inimical to nitrification, and
that darkness favours it, as it does many other bacterial pro-
cesses. He also showed that dilute solutions of ammonia salts
supplied with small quantities of plant food readily nitrify when
inoculated with garden soil or with a few drops of a solution in
which nitrification has commenced, but do not do so when this
inoculation is omitted.
| Experiments on such nitrifying solutions form the basis of
most of Warington’s investigations on the subject, which are
detailed in a series of connected papers appearing in the
Chemical Society's Jownal in 1878, 1879, 1884, and 1891, and
in papers dealing with separate aspects of the question appear-
ing in 1885, 1887, and 1888. Facts in abundance, all con-
firming the ferment theory of nitrification, were soon adduced
by him and by other experimenters. Thus the boiling of a
solution after inoculation is sufficient to prevent nitrification
altogether, and to stop it if it has commenced. Such a boiled
solution may be kept for years without change provided the dust
3A 2

708 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

x

of the air, which may carry in nitrifying germs, but does not
always do so, be simply excluded by a plug of cotton-wool.
Nay, the mere heating to 104° F. is fatal, and we infer that
at this temperature the active organisms are killed. The
temperature at which nitrification is most rapid is given by
Schloesing and Miintz as 98°-99° F. Cold, of several d
below freezing, as might be expected, is not fatal to the organ-
isms, but it entirely suspends their activity, which, however,
is manifested by a very slow nitrification at temperatures as low
as 38° F. Baked soil has no power of starting nitrification,
Traces of lead and mercury salts, salicylic acid, and most other
antiseptics are fatal to the process; and the absence of sufficient
quantity of some base, such as lime, potash, soda, ammonia, or
magnesia, will cause it to stop the moment the base is used up,
although it may be re-started at any time by adding a little of
any one of these bases in the form of carbonate. If added in
the pure or caustic state they may kill the ferment. "

As might be expected, not only ammonia salts but all nitro-
genous substances capable of yielding ammonia by putrefaction
or decay are eventually nitrified by the action of soil. Warington
records many experiments of this sort with asparagine, milk,
urine, rape-cake, &c., and the author has succeeded not only with
urea and gelatine but with such simple nitrogen compounds as.
ethylamine and sulphocyanates. Should, however, the nitrogen
compound be itself an antiseptic, it is not susceptible of nitrifi-
cation ; thus thiocarbamide, a compound containing precisely
the same elements and in the same proportions as ammonium
sulphocyanate, failed to nitrify. e

Many experiments were made by the method of inoculating
suitable ammoniacal solutions, to ascertain the distribution of —
the nitrifying ferments in nature. Warington, summing up
a number of trials, tells us that all samples of soil taken down
to two feet in depth provoked nitrification, but that over this
depth failures to nitrify increase in number, and at a depth of
six feet and over the soil has lost this power. From this and
other experiments it is certain that the first few inches of sur- —
face soil contain the ferments in vastly greater proportions than
the subsoil. From the soil these ferments get into waters, and
the power which rivers and wells possess of ultimately convert-
ing the ammonia of sewage into nitrate of lime depends on
their presence. The writer, examining in 1886 various samples
of river and well water, found that inoculation with one to five
drops of any of them was sufficient to bring about nitrification
in a suitable ammoniacal solution, but that rain water caught
in a perfectly clean vessel is destitute of the power,

The Nitrifying Verments of the Soil. 709

All these facts, and many others which there is no space to
letail, were perfectly congruous with the theory of a living nitri-
fying ferment or ferments, and, indeed, were not explicable on any
other theory. But they went no distance towards isolating this
ferment from the many species of microbes which inhabit the
soil, in order to study its form, mode of life and reproduction, and
its chemical activity in pure cultures like those of the yeast plant.
Though no success attended the earlier efforts, they rendered
it probable that the nitrifying power is not common to many
microbes, but probably confined to one or two distinct species.
|Experiments with some of the common moulds, with yeast, and
‘with the vinegar ferment were made by Schloesing and Miintz
with negative results. The same observers published in 1883
‘a short account of what they took to be the real nitrifying
| microbe (separated to some extent from its associates by suc-
icessive cultivations in suitable liquids), which they describe as a
small, nearly round micrococcus, but in the light of our present
‘knowledge it is certain that although they doubtless saw one or
‘more of the organisms producing nitrification, they could not

have accomplished the isolation of these in a pure state.
| Two unexpected facts which had cropped up were destined
to have an important influence in the solution of this problem,
although their true bearing was not seen until much later.
| Warington, and all after him who carried out nitrification in
liquid media, found the phenomenon to differ greatly in one
respect from what takes place in the soil and in natural waters.
For whereas, in soils and waters, we can rarely trace any inter-
mediate compound between the ammonia which is being nitrified
and the nitrate which is formed, the contrary is the general rule
with artificial solutions. In nearly all of these a nitrite (that is
a salt of nitrous acid containing an equivalent less of oxygen
than the corresponding nitrate) is at first formed; often no
nitrate is produced until the whole of the ammonia has passed
into the form of nitrite; and in some cases it was observed by
Warington and by the writer, that the action went no farther
than the production of nitrite, which remained permanent,
though as a general rule the nitrite eventually, and sometimes
with great suddenness, was entirely converted into nitrate.

Now, nothing is easier than to produce nitrites from nitrates
by abstraction of oxygen, and many different species of microbe
have been found to possess the power of doing this in the
presence of organic matter, which they can burn up by the
consumption of this oxygen. It was natural therefore for
Gayon and Dupetit to suggest that the nitrites formed in
artificial nitrification were really products of the reduction of

?

the nitrates at first formed by the action of these reduei
microbes, many of which are present in the soil. The writer
succeeded in” disproving this by showing that nitrates are not
reduced by the microbes of soil in the absence of organic
matter other than that in the soil, but that under the same
circumstances both nitrites and nitrates are freely produced
from ammonia. The production of nitrite therefore remained
as a usual characteristic of artificial nitrification not traceable
in the natural process.’ By varying the conditions, either
nitrite or nitrate could certainly be produced at will, even in
liquid media; a high temperature, a small dose of inoculating
material (soil or solution), a strong ammoniacal liquor, and a
deep layer of it, being favourable to nitrite production, whilst
with much soil, a low temperature, dilute solutions, and shallow
layers freely exposed to air, nitrates could be produced without
any intervening nitrite. But having once produced nitrite, we
could not at will determine its transformation into nitrate
except by re-inoculation with soil.

What was the meaning of this? Were there two organisms
or species, one stopping its work at the production of nitrite, and
the other carrying on the process? Or did the methods of cul-
tivation modify the activity of the nitrate-producing ferment and
render it unable to complete its natural work? These questions
could only be answered decisively by successful isolation of the
nitrifying ferments, the very existence of which some chemists
were disposed to doubt anew as time went by and no announee-
ment of their isolation appeared.

The other unexpected fact came out in 1886, when the writer
published experiments showing that nitrification had taken place
in solutions to which no organic matter had been added except
that in the drop of inoculating material; and this induced him
to state the question, “Is organic carbon essential to nitrifica-
tion?” In many other of his experiments the presence of organic
matter was seen to be distinctly antagonistic to any nitrificatior
provoked by the necessarily impure inoculations with soil, ordin-
ary waters, or nitrifying solutions, all of which contain abund:
ance of miscellaneous microbes, some of which are sure to flourisl
and take the pas of the nitrifying ferments in the organic mediun
provided. A little sugar, tartaric acid, or other carbonaceou
compound had hitherto been included by all experimenters iy
the cultivation media, for the purpose of supplying the nitrifyiny
organisms with carbonaceous food, it being the universall

710 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

! The writer has, however, found considerable quantities of nitrite in th
effluent from the soil filtering-beds of sewage farms, :

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 711

|received opinion at that time that only plants furnished with

green leaves or cells are capable of obtaining their carbon from
| the carbonic acid of the air, and that all fungi, microscopic or
| otherwise, destitute of green colouring matter, are compelled
to take their carbon from organic substances ready formed or
in process of decay. It certainly did not occur to the writer
that the nitrifying microbes could dispense with this supply
| of carbon altogether, but he believed the merest accidental
| traces to be sufficient, and especially recommended boiled pure
| well water, with the addition of a little potassium phosphate,
| as the most suitable medium for cultivations, containing as it
| does lime and all the necessary mineral food, with but little
organic matter, and that incapable of encouraging most
| foreign bacterial growths. This was actually the medium in
| which Winogradsky subsequently obtained his first approach
| to pure cultures.

The systematic attempt to cultivate the nitrifying bacteria
by the methods in vogue amongst bacteriologists for all hitherto
known microbes led in Winogradsky’s and other hands to some
remarkable results. The gelatine method of obtaining pure
cultivations of a particular microbe from a medium contain-
ing several is the one most often resorted to. In principle it
consists in inoculating a slab of solidified nutrient gelatine,
containing all materials most favourable for the sustenance of
bacteria, and carefully sterilised by heat and preserved in
sterilised tubes, with a thin streak of inoculating material on
the end of a clean platinum wire. On subsequently keeping
the slab in a warm chamber, the isolated spores introduced with
the droplet of liquid grow in isolated spots on the gelatine,
forming little colonies of microbes, readily distinguished one
from another by their appearance; on re-inoculating a suitable
sterilised solution from one of these colonies, a pure cultivation
of that particular microbe is usually obtained.

Heraeus, isolating in this way four species of microbe from a
nitrifying solution seeded with garden soil, and testing them by
inoculating them into fresh ammoniacal solutions, claimed
nitrifying powers for them all; he went even farther, and
claimed the same powers for several disease-producing microbes
which had been isolated by the labours of pathologists. It
seems certain that Heraeus did not produce real nitrification
with any of these, but mistook the traces of nitrous acid natu-
rally found in solutions exposed to the air for products of their
activity. Warington, examining in this way four organisms
isolated on gelatine from nitrifying solutions or soil, and twenty
others from other sources, failed to find any of them capable of

712 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

nitrifying. Dr. and Mrs. P. Frankland, who took up the
search on the same lines, obtained thirty-three distinct microbes
in pure cultures from air and water, but not one had any
nitrifying power. Adametz similarly isolated twenty-two, and
Frank, a number of organisms from soil, and tried them with
similar negative results. To these and other negative results
of other observers must be added the gelatine cultures of Wino-
eradsky, who has published during the last two years, in the
Annales de Institut Pasteur, the most searching and the most
successful series of memoirs on this subject, and has at
cleared away much of the mystery surrounding it. ;

Having formed the idea that the failures recorded were
possibly due to inability of the nitrifying organism to grow on th
gelatine slabs, Winogradsky proceeded to try whether by cu
yating successive generations in ammoniacal liquids favourable
to nitrification and unfavourable to other fermentations he could
not get rid of all organisms able to grow on gelatine, whilst still
preserving his nitrifying organisms intact. Very soon abandon.
ing organic matter as an ingredient of his liquid medium, and
using Lake Zurich water, with no addition but the ammonia
salt, a little potassium phosphate, and some magnesium carbon-
ate, he found, after successive inoculations extending over several -
months, that only five species which could be isolated on gela-
tine persisted in living in the medium employed, and not one of
these would start nitrification. But the carbonate of magnesia
at the bottom of the flasks had altered in appearance ; instead
of being powdery it had become gelatinous or flocculent, and
could not easily be shaken up with the liquid ; under the micro-
scope, particles of carbonate were seen to be invaded with masses
of an oval bacterium, and bits of this deposit, inoculated into
fresh solutions, were far more powerful in exciting nitrification
than a drop from the middle or surface of the liquid. Here,
then, was probably the nitrifying organism comparatively pure,
and on shaking up a little with water and inoculating gelatine
slabs with the mixture, it was found that only colonies of the
non-nitrifying microbes already ——— slowly grew a

of nitrification would not grow on ‘the celatine, and it was sti il
adulterated by others that would.
It was only at this stage that Winogradsky abandoned rr | ;
lake water in favour of the purest distilled water, and bani ‘ol
as far as possible, every trace of organic matter as affording f
for these foreign organisms. Specially purifying all his oe
terials from every trace of organic matter, he found that nitri-
fication went on as well and rapidly as ever, whilst even in

I __

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 713

second culture, four out of five of the foreign organisms had
| disappeared ; the fifth could not be got rid of, even by a series
| of cultures, and it remained the only organism in the liquid
that would grow on gelatine, and yet not the one producing
nitrification. :

By making use of the inability of the latter to grow on
gelatine, Winogradsky at last got rid of its one remaining
troublesome companion. Shaking a little of the deposit with
pure water, and dropping separate drops of this on a gelatine
slab, after incubation for ten days it was seen that some only of
the drops grew the colonies of the foreign microbe—and by
seeding an ammonia solution with a particle of deposit carefully
removed from one of the sterile drops, nitrification was produced
and a liquid obtained in which the nitrifying ferment was
allowed to grow until a sufficient quantity was obtained in a
pure state for examination.

Just before the announcement of this successful result, Dr.
and Mrs. P. Frankland also succeeded at last in isolating a nitri-
fying organism. A series of no less than twenty-four successive
cultures in ammoniacal solutions free from organic matter had
all given colonies of microbes on gelatine which had no nitrify-
ing power ; by combining the method of attenuation with that
of successive culture, however, i.e. by adding a few drops of the
medium to a body of water, and then seeding a fresh solution
with a drop of this liquid, they succeeded. By seeding succes-
sively with diiutions of >5455; qoolaw) tostsss Ke., a point
is always eventually reached where the inoculation fails to pro-
duce nitrification, and selecting always the weakest inoculation
which succeeds in nitrifying, it is possible to find that no foreign
organisms have been introduced. At length they found them-
selves with a nitrifying solution refusing to give a growth on
gelatine, but containing a nitrifying organism which seems
to agree with the description given by Winogradsky.

Only a month or two after this Warington succeeded, also by
the method of attenuation, in producing from cultivations made
in the absence of organic matter a similar result, the absence of
any growths on prepared gelatine being taken as a proof of the
absence of foreign organisms.

All these results made it clear that the exclusion of organic
matter from the cultivation media is vital to success in isolating
these organisms, and Winogradsky, in successive endeavours to
obtain a solid medium on which they could be grown in pure
colonies, was not successful with any gelatinising medium of an
organic nature. But by employing a purely inorganic jelly, .e.,
soluble silica, purified by long-continued dialysis, and caused to

- 714 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

set into a solid jelly by the addition of a little of the liquid to
be nitrified, he has achieved complete success. By stabbing or
spotting a sterilised slab of this with a wire dipped in a nitrify-
ing culture, it is found that the foreign microbes will not grow,
whilst the nitrifying. organisms will, and soon nitrification can
be detected all through the jelly (the writer has succeeded in
repeating this experiment). By this improved process the
organisms can be much more rapidly obtained from soil than by
any other, and also in greater purity, for, as Winogradsky has
shown, it is not a safe assumption that a liquid which will give
no colonies on gelatine after a few days’ incubation is absolutely
free from microbes other than the nitrifying ones. Grown ina
pure solution inoculated with a colony from the silica jelly, these
organisms are seen to consist of an oval or nearly round coccus
or bacillo-coccus, of varying size, reaching nearly =;j55 inch ~
diameter in the largest.

The antagonism of the nitrifying ferments to organic matter
has received from Winogradsky a most striking explanation.
He has shown that they obtain their supply of carbon in a
manner unique amongst known living organisms, namely, from
the carbonic acid of the carbonate of lime or carbonate of
magnesia contained in the soil or added to the liquids in which
they are cultivated. Indeed, these mineral particles are, in an
old nitrifying solution, seen by microscopic inspection to be
literally eaten or dissolved away by attacking masses of the
organism, which thus present a perfectly characteristic appear-
ance.

The importance of this discovery is very great ; it reveals an
entirely new property of living things, that namely of building
up from the carbon of min2ral carbonates and the nitrogen of
ammonia, the complicated albuminoid and other organic constitu-
ents of living cells. It appears that about thirty-five parts of
nitrogen in the form of ammonia have to be oxidised to a nitrite
for one part of carbon taken in as food by the ferment, and it is
the beat evolved by this large oxidation that furnishes the force
necessary to effect the decomposition of the carbonate. Wino-
gradsky speculates on the rdle these organisms may play in
nature in preventing the accumulation of the supply of carbonie
acid in the form of mineral carbonates (as is well known, chalk
and other carbonates of lime are formed in the first place by the
agency of life). Another fact of a remarkable nature soon
appeared.

The purified organisms of Frankland, Winogradsky, and
Warington, whether identical or not, agreed in this, that,
although they would entirely nitrify ammonia, they would con-

The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil. 715

_ vert it into a nitrite only and not into a nitrate; and therefore,

as Warington remarks, they had “ solved only half the problem
of nitrification.” The key to the remaining half was announced
by Warington in June of this year, and by Winogradsky in
July. Both have since published extended memoirs dealing
with the subject.

Although a particle of soil added to a suitable ammonia-
cal solution will convert the ammonia first into nitrite and
then into nitrate, and if sown in a suitable solution of
nitrite will easily convert that into nitrate, yet the effect of
successive cultures in these two different media is to bring
about a decided difference in the power of the ferment. After
a few cultiyations in ammoniacal liquids the power of affecting
nitrites is lost, as we have seen; but it is equally true that after a
very few cultivations in nitrite the power of affecting ammonia
is lost. By proceeding in this way with one of his old liquids,
using the method of successive cultivations in nitrite solutions
combined with that of attenuation or dilution, Warington has
produced a nearly pure cultivation of an organism, which as he
asserts, and as I have verified at his request, has absolutely no
power to oxidise ammonia, though easily converting nitrite into
nitrate. Winogradsky, by cultivating particles of soil in nitrite
until the power of attacking ammonia is lost, and then growing
colonies on gelatinous silica, has obtained in a pure state an
organism having the same properties, though not agreeing in
form with that found by Warington. This, however, is less
remarkable, since the nitrifying organisms separated by Wino-
gradsky from soils of different origin are by no means identical
in appearance, nor (and this is an important practical point) are
they by any means possessed of the same energy.

Amongst soils obtained from several parts of the world,
Winogradsky finds that one from Quito contains a nitric ferment
of quite exceptional energy. On the other hand, the European
soils of Zurich and Gennevilliers contain a nitrous ferment of
greater activity than those from exotic soils. The writer is
examining in the same manner some varieties of English soil.
According to Warington, pasture soil is much better “supplied
with the nitrous ferment, or worse supplied with the nitric
ferment, than arable soil. Many points in the action of these
ferments still require study, but we now know that the formation
of nitrates in the soil is accomplished in two stages, by two
distinct species of organism, the nitrous and the nitric ferments,
neither of which can do the work of the other, but the latter
waits to complete what the former began.

Doubt on this point is removed by the result of inoculating

bj

=716 The Nitrifying Ferments of the Soil.

soil sterilised by heat with pure cultures of the nitrous and the
nitric ferment. <A little ammonia added to the soil inoculated with
mitrous ferment is speedily oxidised to nitrite, which persists,
whilst ammonia added to the soil inoculated with nitric ferment
is not altered. On adding ammonia to soil inoculated with both
ferments it is oxidised to nitrate with scarcely a passing trace of
nitrite, just as we find happen in natural unsterilised soil.
Things happen differently in liquid cultures because of the re-
stricted supply of air. The nitrous ferment, which is larger,
much more conspicuous in development, and much more.
active in causing oxidation than the nitric ferment, hinders the
development and activity of the latter so long as there is any
ammonia present to attack. The nitric ferment, like the nitrous,
refuses to grow on gelatine, and thrives in liquids absolutely
free from organic matter. In all probability, though this has
not yet been directly established, it obtains its supply of carbon
from mineral carbonates in the same way as does the nitrous
ferment. When grown in quantity in a transparent liquid, it
coats the bottom of the vessel with an excessively thin, adherent
film of a bluish grey colour. This gelatinous layer is seen under
the microscope to be made up of masses of a very minute bac-
terium, ee length is greater than its width, but does not
exceed sotos Of an inch (Winogradsky).

The slow action of both ferments in comparison with botten
known ones is well worthy of remark. In pure cultivations
under favourable conditions an inoculation of the nitrous fer-
ment only developes in sixteen days sufficiently to oxidise + of a
grain of ammoniacal nitrogen per day. The nitrous ferment is
still slower—after an intensive culture of six weeks it was nitrat-
ing only } to } grain of nitrous nitrogen per day. We have
only space to add that from some experiments of Miintz on the
nitrification of nitrogenous matter in presence of sea salt, it
would seem almost certain that the Peruvian deposits of
crude nitrate of soda are the results of a gigantic nitrification
which formerly went on in the drying up residues of salt lakes.
The same observer has found in the earth of the nitrifying cave-
deposits of Venezuela a nitrifying organism which he describes
as three or four times the size of that found in French soil.

The practical point should not be lost sight of that nitrates
are destroyed much more easily and much faster than they can
be formed. A free supply of air above all things favours their
preservation, whilst the presence of organic matter in the absence
of air is certain, under natural conditions, to result in their
destruction. This work, too, is brought about by microbes, and
is a property common to a great number of different species,

Sale of Corn by Weight. 717

Some of these are capable of destroying in a few days as much
nitrate as is formed in months or years. Fortunately the
activity of these baneful species can always be kept in abeyance
by the aération of the soil brought about by drainage and good

tillage.
J. M. H. Munro.

SALE OF CORN BY WEIGHT.

THE advantages of the sale of live stock and other agricultural
commodities by weight have of late been prominently brought
under the notice of the farming interest in a variety of ways,
and I think it may not be inappropriate if, at the present
juncture, attention is drawn in the pages of the Journal to the
highly important subject of the establishment of a uniform
weight for grain, which a Select Committee of the House of
Commons was appointed last session to consider. The reference
to this Committee was as follows :—

To inquire and report upon the various weights and measures used for
the sale of grain throughout the United Kingdom ; the desirability of selling
grain by weight only or by measure and weight, and, in the event of either
being considered desirable, the extent to which either might be enforced ;
the desirability of the adoption of a uniform weight, either for the United
Kingdom or any part of it; if a uniform weight is desirable, the standard
to be adopted, and whether there should be one standard for all kinds of
grain; and, if not, what should be the standard for each kind.

Unfortunately the time at the disposal of the Committee was
too short to enable it, before Parliament rose, to examine
more than one witness, Mr. H. J. Chaney, the well-known
Superintendent of the Standards Department of the Board of
Trade. Nevertheless, so much information of value was brought
out in the course of Mr. Chaney’s examination, that it appears
worth while, even in the present incomplete condition of the
labours of the Committee,' to attempt to summarise the existing

' The pro forma report of the Committee, with the documents laid before it
has been published as a Parliamentary Paper, No. 347 of Sess. 1891 (Eyre &
Spottiswoode, price 6}d.). It contains, in addition to Mr. Chaney’s evidence,
(1) Returns from 1,500 inspectors, employed by the Standards Department, of the
weights used in the different districts of the United Kingdom. (2) A paper show-
ing the weight of a Winchester bushel of different grains as established by law,
in the different States and Territories of the United States,in pounds avoirdupois.
(3) Anote on the Winchester busheland heaped measure. (4) A memorandum
on the use of the instruments known as “Corn hoppers” and “‘ Chondrometers,”
the former for obtaining uniform measure, the latter for testing the quality of
grain, The former isin use in the City of London and in Scotland, and is

718 Sale of Corn by Weight.

state of the question, since it is one which is likely to attract

considerable public attention in the near future.

Both Mr. Chaney in his evidence, and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S.,
in a letter addressed to me as chairman of the Committee, and
published in its Proceedings, speak in favour of sales of grain
by weight. Mr. Chaney, answering a question of mine, says
that, ‘speaking generally, but with no desire in any way to
suggest legislation, as my own individual opinion, and not the
opinion of my department, I think there can be no doubt that

weight is better than measure” (Q. 29). And, in reply to a

further question by Mr. Seale Hayne, Mr. Chaney says,
“ Judging from one’s experience of what has happened in the
sale of other commodities, I have no doubt in my own mind
that it would be far better, and that it would avoid a great
amount of trickery, if all corn for wholesale purposes was re-
quired to be sold by weight only ” (Q. 124), Dr. Gilbert, summing
up theresultsof three elaborate memoranda which he had prepared
on different aspects of the question, observes, ‘“‘ The facts and
statements embodied in the [above] documents forcibly illustrate
the importance of adopting a uniform weight for the sale of
wheat, whether home grown or imported, and, mutatis mutandis,
for the sale of other descriptions of grain or corn.” Dr. Gilbert ex-
presses the opinion that the weights adopted should have reference
to long-recognised measures. ‘There would, of course,” he says,
speaking as a statistician, ‘‘ be some advantage in adopting some
uniform weight, such as the hundredweight, for all descriptions of
corn, especially if such weight sufficiently corresponded with the
recognised or adopted weights used in foreign countries. But
our hundredweight corresponds with 1-016 Zollverein centner,
and to 50°8 kilogrammes, or 2 cwt. to 101°6 kilogrammes; and
these differences, which amount to nearly 2 per cent., are too
great to allow of the use of the hundredweight and these foreign
weights interchangeably, 7.c., without allowance or calculation, in
international transactions or statistics.” His conclusion, therefore,
is in favour of a bushel of uniform weight for the sale of each
description of corn, whether home grown or imported. »

especially appreciated by the Army Service Corps, who use it at Woolwich. The
latter is a small instrument 10 inches long packed in a case, which any farmer
can use to test the quality of grain. (5) An account of experiments on the
vertical and lateral pressures of granular substances, by Mr. Isaac Roberts,
F.R.S., from the Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1883, Vol. XXXVI. No. 229,
in which he shows results contradictory to our knowledge of the laws govern-
ing the flow and pressures of fluids. (6) Papers by Dr. Gilbert and Sir John
Lawes, Bart., of Rothamsted, on the adopted weight per bushel of home and
foreign wheat, on the adopted estimates of the amount of wheat the imported
wheatmeal and flour represent, and the methods of obtaining and recording
the agricultural produce statistics —R. J. M,

|
:
!
j

es

Sale of Corn by Weight. 719

One weight and one measure were extended throughout
the kingdom by Magna Charta, the thirty-eighth and last
ratification of which was in the reign of Henry VI. In the
early Acts relating to the importation and exportation of wheat,

_ the quarter is used. The English standards were in use in
_ Treland as early as 1495, and successive Acts produced a result
| of uniformity which has lasted till the present day. Ninety-
_ seven per cent. of the Irish markets are found to use an uniform

weight, namely the hundredweight for wholesale, and, for retail
purposes, the stone of 14 lb.—the weight from which the hundred-

_ weight was obtained by three processes of doubling—whilst all

the Irish agricultural statistics are returned in hundredweights.
In Scotland, Mr. Chaney is of opinion that there is a larger
number of units in force than in England, owing to the fact
that the old Scotch standards are still occasionally referred to.
But the Corn Association of Glasgow, through which city pro-
bably more corn passes than through all the other towns of
Scotland put together, has been the first to meet, and to pass a
unanimous resolution in favour of the sale of grain by weight
only, that weight being the 112 lb. The Association of Royal
and Municipal Burghs of Scotland generally petitioned in
favour of a Bill I introduced this year to abolish measure, as
a means of paving the way for a uniform weight, or for drawing
attention again to the question. The grain markets of
Edinburgh, Stirling, and Ayr are next in importance to the
Glasgow market, after which the other towns, as I am advised,
are much on an equality as regards the sale of grain. I am in
hopes that the Highland Society, whe discuss such questions,
will aid us to the best knowledge of what the opinion of the
Scotch farmers on this question is likely to be. I am informed
they are mostly anxious to retain a bushel of 40 lb. weight for
oats, which probably may be a more correct weight than the
39 lb. bushel, made the standard by the Corn Returns Act of
1882, and which I hear the Board of Trade have resolved to
adopt as the Imperial weight per bushel for oats instead of 39 lb.
The Act of 1882 showed a kindly leaning to the farmers in
possibly underestimating the weight that might more generally
be required, in making the imperial bushel of wheat 60 Ib., of
barley 50 lb., and of oats 39 lb. * So little, however, did this
well-intentioned Act secure uniformity, that few people in country
markets know what the imperial standards are. When it is
considered that all the multitudinous weights of the country are
expected to be converted by the corn inspectors into measures
of these weights for the Corn Returns (which regulate, amongst
other things, the value of more than four millions’ worth of

a

annual incorie arising from tithe rentcharge), and that some
part, though a constantly diminishing and now a comparatively
insignificant part, of these Returns are made in measure only,
unaccompanied by any weight, the saving of trouble and the
sense of greater accuracy which would result from a uniform
weight is obvious.

The importance of a correct quotation of the price of corn in
the interests of the public generally was particularly insisted
on by the Select Committee (of forty-one members) who reported
on this question in 1834. This would appear to be almost a
truism. The iron trade formerly used three weights, but they
met and reduced these to one, and did so in the interests of the
employés. ‘The Committee of 1834 considered uniformity of
chief importance in the interests of the farmers themselves, as
well as of the public, and that the legislature should step in and
do what individuals, classes, or districts could not do for them-
selves. The tendency to sell by measure is found mostly in the
Eastern counties, which may have been the result of the corn
duties they so much regretted to see abolished. As, however,
these counties have had to pay a much larger amount of tithe
rentcharge than other counties, we might have supposed, if they
had been led to consider the importance of correct corn averages
in connection with tithe rentcharge, they would have felt
greater interest than the Midlands in having correct quotations.
Their alleged desire to sell the one cereal, barley, by measure,
however, appears to operate in a contrary direction.

The Scotch have a fiars court (this word meaning average)
to determine each year the annual value of grain in the county,
on which, as well as other products of the soil, varying in dif-
ferent counties, the minister’s salary is fixed. They experience,
therefore, no such dissatisfaction as we do when the tithe is
fixed on corn averages obtained in a way never likely to give
satisfaction to those who know that the same lot of corn is
returned sometimes as many as six times at Mark Lane, giving
a totally erroneous impression of the amount of grain in the
market, and tending to raise the average price unfairly,

The Select Committee of 1834, already referred to, made an
exhaustive inquiry into the weights and measures by which
grain was sold, two years before the passing of the Tithe Com-
mutation Act. That Act adopted the well-known plan of find-
ing the gross average money value of the tithes of each parish
for seven years ending Christmas 1835; secondly, of appor-
tioning the amount of that value upon the lands of the several
tithe payers; thirdly, of ascertaining how much corn can be
purchased with such amount, one-third of it to be laid out in

720 Sule of Corn by Weight.

Sale of Corn by Weight. 721

wheat, one-third in barley, and one-third in oats, at their average
price ascertained by the weekly official returns of the price of
corn in 120 markets the seven years preceding Christmas 1835 ;
fourthly, in every future year to make payable the price of the
same quantity of wheat, barley, and oats at the average prices
founded on a like calculation of the returns for the seven years
ending at each preceding Christmas. A similar system ap-
plicable to rent had been in practice in Scotland, and gave
satisfaction, because it fixed the amount of the rentcharge in
grain, whilst it allows of a variation in value according to the
average market price of the grain of which the rentcharge con-
sists. But the reason for choosing this principle for the com-
mutation of tithe, namely, that the.value of grain would be
found more constant than money, has proved, as Earl Grey, the
only survivor of those who passed the Tithe Commutation Act
of 1836, has confessed, a considerable mistake.

No consideration of using for tithe purposes the corn ave-
rages which then existed was present to the members of the
Committee of 1834. In their exhaustive report, occupying thirty
pages, the two feelings that predominate are, first, that the pub-
lic haye a right to know the true price of grain on which’ so
many transactions of life are based; secondly, that the farmer is
placed at a-disadvantage with the dealer who is experienced in
these weights, and from lack of equal knowledge does not get
the full price for his grain, and that if a uniform system might
be objected to by other classes as inconvenient, yet the interests
of the farmer should predominate to cause this to be done.

Mr. Talbot, when Secretary of the Board of Trade, moved for
a return of the different weights used in the markets from which
‘corn returns were made, and I moved in 1887 for a return of
the fiars prices in Scotland, and of the returns made from the
markets selected for making the corn returns, which showed a
remarkable number of “nil” returns, and the very small quan-
tities returned from other markets.

Mr. Chaney handed in to the Corn Sales Committee a sum-
mary of returns from the principal inspectors of weights and
measures throughout the United Kingdom, from which the
analysis given on page 722 has been made. With respect to
these returns, and the difficulty of their preparation, the follow-
ing explanation was given by Mr. Chaney :—

Tt is almost a matter of opinion with local officers as to what is the
meaning of weight and what is the meaning of measure. That difficulty
may also have arisen when the Corn (Measures and Weights) Returns were
made in 1870 and 1879. Hardly two officers agree as to what is weight,
and what is measure. In a sale by the bushel, for instance, the bushel is
merely the unit of measure ; the bushel is filled and its weight determined,

VOL. I, T. s.—8 3B

722 Sule of Corn by Weight. )

and the remainder of the corn is more often than not delivered by weight,
Some officers regard that as a sale by weight, other officers regard it as a
sale by measure, and in the preparation of the returns there is that difficulty
to deal with, for which reason we have introduced the term “ measured
weight,” which means that the corn is sold by the “ bushel ” or “ quarter ” of
a fixed weight. (Q. 44.)

No. of counties and towns in which Wheat |

Barley Oats

England 68 66 65

3 Wales 1 1 1

1. Sale by weight only . . .. . Scoblanc: 1B 14 4
Ireland 96 93 96

England 29 32. | 98

Wales — =—

2. Sale by measure only. oe tS hae flana 8 o 8
Treland 4 (f 4

England 66 65 68

3. Sale by weight or measure com- } Wales 16 16 16
bined, or by measured weight. Scotland 25 24 25
Ireland 1 — hj ae

The evidence given by Mr. Chaney before the Committee is,
from the nature of things, a little difficult to present in a
connected form ; but I do not know that the question could be
summed up more succinctly than in the following colloqu
between him and Mr. Mark J. Stewart, M.P., who took up the
examination of the witness after his answer to Mr. Seale Hayne’s
question No. 124, recorded in a previous paragraph.

Q. 125. I suppose you are aware that at least in Scotland the larger pro-
portion of the corn is sold practically by weight ; you sell so many bushels,
we will say, and the weight is guaranteed ?

A. Yes.

Q. 126. Of course if you did away with the bushel it would rather ecompli-
cate matters, would it not? IfIsay that I have 100 bushels to sell it is a
simple mode of expressing it, always with an underlying supposition that
that 100 bushels is sold by weight ?

A. I think it would simplify matters to separate the actual mechanical
weighing and measuring of the commodity from any consideration as to its
quality. That has been the mistake in past legislation, I think; I think an
order, for instance, should go for so many hundredweights or tons. The
question as to the quality is one that the purchaser and the seller would
see to.

Q. 127. The quality is generally determined by the weight, is it not ?

A, As in the case of other matters, bread, coal, gold, and so on, it is
determined by certain magnitudes settled between the buyer and the
seller.

Q. 128. How do you distinguish between measured weight and measure
and weight ?

A, Where the bushel of grain is required to have a given fixed weight,
that is, according to this return, a sale by measured weight ; but where the
order has been given by weight, the corn to be afterwards measured, as it

Sale of Corn by Weight. 723

sometimes is, that is measure and weight. The practice in Norfolk, for
instance, is sometimes to advertise corn for sale of a certain measure,
although it is subsequently sold by weight.

Q. 129. In your opinion it would be very desirable to have all corn sold
by weight rather than by measure and weight ?

A, My opinion, taken as I have already suggested it should be, is that it

‘would be desirable to have it sold entirely by weight.

Q. 180. I suppose you will admit that in a given district there is not
much difficulty, but that when you come to have more extensive dealings, for
example, Scotland with England, then all these different weights come to be
a very serious matter ?

_A. Very serious ; but I am sure that no legislation, even if any should be
attempted, would be successful unless it dealt with the whole of the United
Kingdom.

0. 131. But there would be a good deal of difficulty, would there not,
| attending a rapid change in the law ?

| A, I think this question needs discussion, and discussion might prepare
\the way for legislation. Farmers and dealers generally have expressed an
opinion in favour of weight, an opinion which the Board of Trade
listened to when they legalised the cental in 1879; but the bulk of the
people at large—as shopkeepers, who are an important class in the considera-
‘tion of this question—do not yet quite understand the difference between
measuring and weighing. The matter wants ventilating and discussing.

| As to the carrying out of uniformity, Mr. Chaney had
previously remarked (Q. 54) that if the legislature required all
corn to be sold by weight, local officers, as inspectors of weights
and measures, would require to see that the law was carried
out properly. With a view of seeing that it was so carried out,
they would have to make visits to shops and to farmers’
premises, and they would have to take proceedings in any case
| where corn was not sold by weight, or was sold contrary to the
\ statute. In the Bill which I introduced ‘ast session, I suggested
a fine as a means of reminding the public of their duties if it is
desired to have a uniform weight. This alarmed a few members
of the Central Chamber of Agriculture ; but I wish to point out
‘that the fine was to be levied on the dealer, not on the farmer,
which is the plan adopted with respect to corn returns, any
inspector having the power now to take proceedings against
jany dealer for not making returns. This is occasionally done to
remind localities of the law, but I think the knowledge that a
‘fine could be enforced would have strengthened the hands of
|farmers against those dealers who might confuse them by
| proposing to buy in different weights or measures to what they
_have been accustomed, of which a great point was made by the
Committee of 1834. All the best dealers now are above taking
this advantage, and consider the farmers themselves in backward
localities are the chief obstacle to a uniform system, by reason of
their inability to calculate in any other standard than the one
they haye been accustomed to.

3B 2

' 724 Sale of Corn by Weight. ¥

Having made inquiries from leading dealers in many parts —
of the kingdom, I must give them the credit of being generally
in favour of a uniform system, though they are supplied with
ready reckoners which, with little trouble, help them to caleu-
late from one standard to another. There is no reason, however,
why they should not be glad to be saved this unnecessary amount
of trouble. In Shropshire, the dealer requires 75 or 72 Ib.
to the bushel, but when farmers buy grain for seed, they
receive only 60 lb. to the bushel. Within fifteen miles of
Bridgnorth, a great barley district, part of it known by the
name of Wheatland, grain is sold by thirty different weights.

Sir Edward Birkbeck and the inspectors are at issue on the
extent to which barley is sold in Norfolk by weight, all agreeing
that barley is sold by measure for malting purposes, which does
not come within the purview of the Corn Sales Inquiry. This
point, however, I may observe, is to be the subject of further
official inquiry. Sir Edward asked Mr. Chaney (Q. 71) :—

How can weight be any criterion of value, when barley weighing 561b,
may be worth only 24s. a quarter, and another sample which weighs but
53 Ib. might be worth, for malting purposes, 10s. per quarter more ?

A, Weight alone is not sufficient ; both must be taken together; there is
always the difficulty of combining a quantitative test with a qualitative
test. When we speak of value that is the qualitative test ; when we com-
bine weight with measure for ascertaining the price of a bushel, that is the
qualitative test ; when we speak of weighing corn for sale that is quantita-
tive. A ton of corn is a quantitative expression ; but when we speak of a
bushel of 60Jbs. of wheat that is a qualitative expression. It is from that
confusion of terms that difficulty has arisen in the sale of corn; there is no
other commodity in which so much difficulty has arisen. Take the sale of
gold, which is rather an extreme case, but still so far an analogous one,
Gold is sold by the ounce ; a purchaser, if he wishes to know the quality of
it, asks whether it is 18-carat gold; but no difficulty has arisen in the case
of gold, because there has been no confusion between the quantitative and
the qualitative expressions.

Sir Edward asked how the corn inspectors get their informa-
tion. This comes from the dealers, not the farmers, who
have never been induced to take the trouble to give the in-
formation. Not one in twenty of the transactions in corn in the
smaller markets, or many of the larger, is ever given, as anyone
can satisfy himself if he chooses to make the inquiry.

Mr. Farquharson, who has taken a great interest in the tithe
question, asked the witness whether an arrangement could not
be made to sell by both weight and measure. To which Mr.
Chaney replied :—

No arrangement could be suggested which would meet the natural con-
ditions of every county and district throughout the United Kingdom. The —

natural weight of corn varies in every locality. If we suggested : i
say 60 1b, to the bushel, we know it could not be followed, as the weight

Sale of Corn by Weigit. 725

corn varies so considerably. We should put many to grave inconvenience
if we suggested as a magnitude one fixed weight per bushel. We are not
| dealing with a thing of a fixed quality which can be dealt with and manipu-
lated as gold is, but we are dealing with a natural thing, and we must take
it as we find it, and we cannot fix the weight of that natural thing (Q. 142).

Asked by Mr. Maguire to state the precise difference between

| measured weight and measure and weight, Mr. Chaney re-
| plied :—

Measured weight is where the seller is buying a definite weight per
bushel fixed at the time of sale. Buying by measure and weight is where
the seller is buying a fixed measure of grain, as 100 quarters, the grain

_ being subsequently delivered by weight; rather the converse of the other

:

:

|
‘
:
|

|

operation (Q. 169),

When the question of the proposed standard of uniform
weight is under consideration, the cental, and in connection
therewith the decimal system generally, naturally present them-
selves for discussion.

In 1853 a Committee of the House of Commons, of which
Mr. Ewart was chairman, met to consider the introduction of
the metric system into England, and reported in its favour.
Before this system was established in France, at the end of the
last century, the French Government proposed to the English to
haye a joint conference on a uniform system of weights and
measures for both countries. This offer, owing to the ill-feeling

_ then existing between the two nations, was unfortunately not

acknowledged, but a Committee of the House of Commons sat to -
consider the question in 1790. The result of a deliberation be-
tween authorities of both countries at that time would not only
have been of extreme interest, but would possibly have been
the means of effecting a uniform system throughout the world.
The opportunity, however, was lost. The metric system was
adopted in France, and has since been adopted by other foreign
Governments. The Select Committee of 1853 was followed by
a Royal Commission, whose inquiries extended over several
years. The decimal system at that time found its strongest
opponent in Lord Overstone, who drew up a series of questions
to be answered by the witnesses before the Commission. He
attacked the decimal system root and branch, pointing out that
960, the number of farthings in a pound, is divisible by nearly
twice as many divisors as 1,000, the numbers being really 27 to 15.

Mr. Lowe attempted without success to advance the decimal
system by a motion in the House, and it has since made little
progress in England. There is, however, a decimal system
association, comprising many leading men, and there have been
two International Conferences on the subject, one at Berlin and

‘726 Sale of Corn by Weight.

the other at Paris, at which Mr. Yates, Mr. Chisholm, a
Professor Leone Levi were the chief movers. The Select Co

Coinage Commissioners from 1857 to 1859, when their final
report was published, though further Parliamentary papers were
published containing correspondence on the subject till 1864,
Amongst them is a joint resolution of the Senate and House
of Representatives of the United States respecting the appoint-
ment of a suitable person to confer with the proper functionaries.
in Great Britain with a view to the mutual arrangement of the ~
coinage of the two countries, so that their units should be com-
mensurable. P

It is certain that whatever may be the merits of the decimal
system in facilitating calculations, and doing away with half the
rules of arithmetic, it has made very little progress since
time in this country. In 1870, at the request of Professor
Leone Levi, the Central Chamber of Agriculture appointed a
small committee, of which Mr. Pell, M.P., Mr. Read, M-P.,
Colonel Tomline, M.P., and myself were members, to confer
with a similar committee of the International Decimal Associ-
ation, comprising Earl Fortescue, Mr. Smith, M.P., Mr. Yates,
F.R.S., Mr. D’Eyncourt, Dr. Augustus Voelcker, and Professor
Leone Levi. This joint committee presented a lengthy report

measures in this country. At that time, and on more thai
one subsequent occasion, the Chambers of Agriculture
solved in favour of the adoption of the cental as the standard
weight. But the farmers of the Midlands, like the Corn Asso-
ciation of Glasgow, are in favour of the hundredweight. O
the cental question, I feel sure the Chambers did not represent
the smaller farmers, most of whom have and use the 56 lb. and
28 lb. weights. “a
In 1882 Mr. Rankin introduced a Bill with the object of
making the cental the uniform weight. Mr. Chamberlain, who
was then President of the Board of Trade, being interviewed, al
the same time, by two large deputations, one in favour of
cental and one equally strong in favour of the hundredweight,
requested them to try to agree together before they came to the
Government; but he subsequently added the cental to the list
of legalised weights in the Act of 1882, which fixed the
imperial measured weights for the convenience of other
weights for the corn returns. Since that time the cental can,
hardly be said to have made any appreciable progress beyond
Liverpool, where it is used for trade with America, where
the ton is a ton of 2,000 lb., and wheat is generally reckoned

Sale of Corn by Weight. 727

iE: believe, by the quintal, the quarter of the ton. ‘This, by the

way, confirms the remark made by Lord Overstone and his
friends in 1857, and repeated by Mr. Chaney in his evidence
of 1891, as to the tendency of the human mind to “ halving,”
that is to deal in halves and quarters, so that 3 as the
quarter of 12 is preferable to 2}, the quarter of 10, which in-
yolyes a fraction. Lord Overstone made light of the different
systems of foreign countries, as these, he said, mainly affect
merchants who can easily manage the calculations necessary for
international transactions. The statistician had not come to
the front so much in that day as since, when it is found utterly
impossible for him to compare with any correctness the produce
of countries like France, which make their returns in both weight
and measure, and others which make returns, some in weight,
and others in measure, without saying why they prefer the one
system to the other, or letting us know what the measure means ;
or again, to compare estimates of foreign produce with our own
agricultural statistics. In regard to these it may be observed
that an estimate of the produce is sent in by English farmers by
measure, without any intimation of what that measure means
in their locality, whilst the Irish farmers make their returns by
the hundredweight, which everyone understands. In regard to
cheese, however, the hundredweight aggravatingly appears as
120 lb., the reason being that it is convenient to reckon, because
1d. per |b. makes half a sovereign.

There are two remarks founded on the past experience of
those who have strongly advocated the introduction of the
decimal system into England which, perhaps, may be intro-
duced here. The one is that those who so strenuously exerted
themselves in its favour a generation ago were of opinion, I be-
lieve, that it would have been wiser to have made an attempt
first to decimalise the weights rather than the coinage of the
country, though from the unanimous opposition I have found to
the cental at Mark Lane, and the little progress this weight has
made beyond Liverpool, even in Lancashire, I do not think much
success would have been achieved with the English corn trade.
The second most obvious remark is that the French nomen-
clature of the metric system would never be tolerated in this
country except amongst statisticians and other scientific men.
To convince ourselves on this point we have only to consider
what would be the effect of our going to a country market and
asking for a kilogramme, or a half kilo, the half being the most
usual form in which the decimal system is used in business. I
draw attention to these points because it is important that there
should be no conflict again between the supporters of the

a

728 Sale of Corn by Weight.

decimal system and the hundredweight. To avoid this, the
Corn Sales Committee of the Central Chamber of Agriculture
have suggested for consideration whether uniformity might
not be attempted first through the hundredweight, as being
the weight more familiar to far mers, and then, conceding, as the
Glasgow Corn Association suggested, that the decimal system
may be theoretically the best, look forward to taking the
second step when education has advanced sufficiently for the
English nation to be convinced, which they are not at present,
that the time is ripe for a fur ther change.

We have to consider what the hundredweight has to recom-
mend its adoption beyond the fact that it, or the half hundred-
weight, is found in most farmers’ houses. Why did our fore-
fathers use a hundredweight of 112 lb., instead of 100 lb., asa
new country probably would? ‘The answer is that the oldest
weight was the stone of 14 lb., and the 112 lb. is a multiple
of 14. It is a great argument in favour of the more general use
of the hundredweight that imported grain is reckoned by the
hundredweight by the Board of Trade, though translated as well
into equivalent quarters, which are placed side by side with the
hundredweights in the official publications. Major Craigie
informs me that the register duty on wheat taken off by Mr.
Lowe, which produced a million and a half of revenue, was a
duty of 3d. a hundredweight, not 1s. a quarter, as often stated.

The Committee of 1854 stated fully the importance to the
community of correct and intelligible quotations of corn, on
which point all agriculturists are probably agreed. It reported
in favour of legislative interference to effect this. In 1881 we
have seen the competition was between two weights, the cental
and the hundredweight. The advocates of measure, or of
weight and measure, or of measured weight, put in no appearance
on the occasion of the two rival deputations to Mr. Chamberlain.
The unknown problem to men in the Midlands seems to be the
extent to which any of these principles are and will be supported
in the Hastern counties.

I believe the merchants and corn dealers in Norfolk prefer
buying barley by weight, but that the sellers prefer selling
malting barley by measure, because it is often light. The
dealer often decides whether it is to be sold by weight or
measure, as suits him. ‘his view in favour of measure may
be more or less common to five EHastern counties, but it is re-
stricted to only the one cereal, barley. As to the amount
of error to which measure and weight are’ respectively
liable, it may be taken from experiments recently made at the
Standards Office that the maximum probable error of measure-

Sale of Corn by Weight. 729

ment, without resorting to fraudulent practices, is 16 per cent.

‘The maximum probable error of weighing, without resorting to

fraudulent practices, is 6 per cent.

One point of difficulty in making a weight uniform was
suggested to be the need which would arise for farmers to obtain
new sacks. This, Mr. Chaney thought, would be a transitory
difficulty, and I have since ascertained from Mr. Wadham, of

the Great Hastern Company’s goods office, that they supply the

sacks to the Hastern counties farmers, for which the charge is
ld. a sack for one journey. If kept for a certain number of
days they charge 1d. a quarter, and 3d. per sack per week as
long as the grain remains with them. Not one in a hundred

| Eastern counties farmers are said to use their own sacks. They

can apply to a country station for any quantity.

Formerly wheat was carried at five quarters to the ton
irrespective of weight; barley six quarters, oats seven, malt 74,
beans and peas five. The result of this plan was that the com-
pany usually lost a sack (or a coomb) in wheat and in beans
and peas, and about asack in malt. ‘The fact, no doubt, is that
in some Eastern counties barley is sold by measure only, but it
is equally true that some is sold by weight. On this point, no
doubt, we shall hear much more, but it must be remembered

that the bears and bulls of the corn trade are very capable of
_ writing newspaper paragraphs to influence farmers and the trade.

My object in writing this article has been to remind those
who have expressed themselves in favour of a uniform weight
for grain, and have taken some steps in trying to secure it,
that an opportunity is at the present time afforded for making
another attempt to settle this controverted question. If agri-
culturists generally will be good enough to afford their con-
sideration to the inquiry commenced last session by a Committee
of the House, which I hope will be reappointed early next
session, and if farmers will deal with the question unitedly,
there is a fair likelihood of its settlement.

R. JASPER More.

ABORTION IN CATTLE.

ABORTION is the premature expulsion of the impregnated ovum,
the embryo, or the foetus before viability, by which is under-
stood the power to live when separated from the mother. After
viability, the untimely expulsion of the foetus is described as pre-

*

mature birth. The period of viability, as compared with the time
of gestation, varies considerably in different animals, and can
hardly be ascertained with positive accuracy; but the follow-
ing statements have been made in regard to this part of the
subject :-—

730 Abortion in Cattle.

Animal Period of gestation Viability at
13 He SR er Sees 11-12 months 10 months
Calne ete. Se ee os 9-10 3 5
ihambyand kids". 95. 2. 5 ee i Oe
EL Yi Se Spite cal amon Rogie 4 ue 3 a
IBD Ys separ tee Co ase 9 weeks 7 weeks
RGbCrM te Hel tet Naa eh et 55 days | 45 days
Re pith ate is vase Aee PASS eos ZONE

Abortion has attracted the attention of stock-owners and
veterinary surgeons as far back as agricultural and veterinary
records extend—unread and unregarded records, it would seem,
but which may with advantage be put before the readers of the
Journal in a concrete form.

First, it is important to note that the subject of abortion is
connected with the larger subject of embryology. Expulsion of
a mature ovum occurs at every period of cestrum. This minute
organ escapes from the ovaries into the Fallopian tubes, and
through them into the cavity of the uterus. Not meeting, inits
course, with the sperm-cell of the male, the dormant life is not
aroused into action, and the useless egg is cast forth as a waste
product along with the débris of the mucous membrane. Impreg-
nation of the ovum checks its course, developmental changes at
once begin, the embryo advances to the foetal state, and at a
certain moment the uterus begins to contract, and the young
animal is forced into the outer world. It is not known what
changes suddenly occur to cause the expulsion of the foetus, nor
why the period of parturition differs so widely in animals of
different species or families. If the exact cause were known,
it would perhaps be easy to solve the mystery of,premature
expulsion of the germ.

Investigations into the nature and causes of abortion, which
have been carried on for the last century by veterinarians over a
large portion of the civilised world, bring one fact out promi-
nently—viz., that abortion is a product of civilisation. Wild
races, so far as can be ascertained, enjoy an immunity from the
disease in the epizootic form. As the result of common
causes, 7.¢., violence, acute disease, exertion, excitement, or
fear, abortion may be classed with other accidents to which
animals are liable under all conditions of existence.

Abortion in Cattle. Ol

Epizootic abortion has steadily increased among our culti-
_ yated breeds of cattle. Cows of the highest type of artificial
| excellence are most likely to suffer, for two reasons :—
(2) Want of constitutional tone and power to resist disease
due to precocity of development.
(b) The use for breeding of pedigree cows, which repeatedly
fail to hold to their service.
On the first point, the writer may quote from an essay which
he wrote for the Bath and West of England Society’s Journal
in 1864 ' :—

Were animals bred and treated with more regard to a healthy condition
of the various organs, their liability to disease would be materially dimi-
nished and their power to resist it augmented, and the extraordinary losses
which are sustained every year in our country would no longer be a reflec-
tion upon our agriculture. The readiness with which animals yield to the
influence of epizootic maladies has long been a subject of remark, and we
do not underrate the virulence of the disease nor the importance of any
means which shall tend to prevent its importation when we insist that a
great part of the mortality is due to the predisposition of the animal’s
system permanently established by our methods of breeding and manage-
ment. .» « «

We are ready to admit that remarkable results have followed the efforts
to improve the breeds of stock, results not satisfactory in the main, but not
the less decided. We accept the proofs of what can be achieved by syste-
matic attention to a definite object ; but we do not the less contend that the
system has been carried too far. The principle has been all along that of the
railroad: the struggle to drive onward rapidly at all risks, even without
considering them. The cry has been for the animal that will be the first
ready for the carriage, the saddle, the dairy, or the butcher, and so far
the demand has been answered ; at what cost we have endeavoured to show.
Whatever respect may be accorded to our suggestions, we may at least ask
that the “forcing system” shall no longer exist under a false designation,
that men shall not in future speak of the artificial induction of disease, of
premature development, and of systematic degeneration under the imposing
terms CULTI¥ATION AND IMPROVEMENT,

Those words were written some twenty-seven years ago, and
they are repeated now by the writer with as firm a belief in their
truth as when he penned them in the first instance. Again, the
following passage is quoted from a small work which was written
in 1885, entitled Animal Life on the Farm,? in which, in a very
concise manner, the history of breeding and rearing of stock of
the highest type, under our present system of cultivation, is
given :—

Our “ bird's-eye” view of animal life under two very different sets of con-

* Precocity af Development considered in Relation to the Results of the
Present System of Breeding and Feeding. B.& W. Journal. Vol. XII. 1864,
pp. 56-58.

* Morton’s Handbook of the Farm Series, “Animal Life on the Farm,”
pp. 100, 101, and 102.

7"

ditions forced usto accept the fact that in Nature everything tends to the benefit
of the strong and the extinction of the weak. The sentence is, Fall out of
“correspondence with your environment,” and die ; “if life is worth having,
fight for it.” The outcome of this stern system is perfection of organisation
and perfect life. On the other side of the picture we saw the animal under
the ban of civilisation, having nothing to fight about—no life worth speak-
ing of to struggle for; compelled to take the food provided for it, with as
much fresh air as might be thought good for it; “ cabined, cribbed, con-
fined ”—a meat-making and manure-forming machine ; “a tub with a hole
in the bottom ” (these are the very words of a practical breeder and feeder
of stock)—* a tub with a hole in the bottom,” which must be filled up by
pouring into it quickly, because “the quicker you pour in, the less the
waste.”

As to the results of this system, the words of a well-known
stock-breeder, referring to what he called “baby beef,” may
be quoted with the account of the butcher who slaughtered the
animals themselves :—

Remarkably ripe, handsome carcasses of beef from bullocks under twenty
months old; lamb sold as mutton at seven and ten months old, of which the
butcher writes: ‘“ Never, during my experience of over forty years, have I
had any sheep equal to them in weight, quality, and flesh at their age.”

Another quotation from Animal Infe on the Farm may be
given in illustration of the effects of breeding from animals so
reared :—

Scientists are well aware that the most certain way to secure the
development of any artificial instinct or quality is to breed from parents in
which the instinct or quality is apparent. “ Like produces like ” is the prac-
tical breeder's sure maxim. Professor Huxley, on the side of science, expands
the maxim in these words, to which we shall have to refer more than once be-
fore we finish the subject: “The one end to which, in all living beings, the
formative impulse is tending—the one scheme which the Archzus of the
old speculators strives to carry out—seems to be to mould the offspring into
the likeness of the parent. It is the first great law of reproduction that
the offspring tends to resemble its parent or parents more than anything
else”—1z.e. resemble them in structure and functions—in good or
qualities—in excellences or defects. And, with the meaning fully grasped,
this sentence is an epitome of the science and art of breeding.

In regard to the second point, the cow which does not hold
to service is an animal in which the recurrence of cestrum is
accepted as proof that impregnation has not taken place. It is
at least very doubtful if this view is the correctone. The bull is
known perhaps as a sure stock-getter; in which case is it not
fair to suspect that the service has been effective each time, and
that the impregnated ovum has been prematurely expelled
(aborted), and that the cow has the susceptibility which leads
to abortion, and will transmit that tendency to her offspring, if
at length she becomes pregnant and brings forth a living calf?

Passing on to the consideration of the evidence which
veterinary authorities have collected on the subject of abortion,

732 Abortion in Cattle.

Abortion in Cattle. “180

‘one of the earliest writers (1786) on cattle, Clater, may be
referred to. This author writes in very general terms. He
‘speaks of abortion as one of the curses of the breeder, refers
‘to some of the common causes, and speaks also of the epizootic
character which the disease sometimes assumes. Even at that
‘early period, it was clearly recognised that the affection did
| present the character of a contagious malady.

Youatt, in 1834, enters into details; he refers to the suscep-

| tibility of cows above that of other animals of the farm. After
_ speaking of the common causes of sporadic abortion, accidents,

climatic changes, certain kinds of food, violence, and excitement,

_ he gives the history of a remarkable case which he quotes from
| the French veterinarian Chabert. A farmer at Toury, in France,

had abortion among his cows for thirty years, before it came
under the notice of this expert. On inquiry into the history of
this case, it appeared that, thirty years before, the farmer had

| purchased a cow from a distant part. The animal, on being

brought into his herd, aborted, and other animals followed.
Subsequently he lost a considerable number of calves in this
way. From time to time he had animals removed, and filled
up their places with fresh stock. Still, every year a certain
proportion of the in-calf cows aborted, and this continued
during the whole period of the thirty years which intervened be-
tween the purchase of the cow and the attendance of the veterinary
expert Chabert. The advice given was to get rid of the whole
of the stock, and start afresh. The farmer saw the reasonable-
ness of this suggestion, adopted it, and abortion entirely ceased.
This case was quoted in 1834, and it brings us very close
indeed to the results of the researches which have taken place
within the last few years.

Reference must next be made to a paper in this Society’s
Journal for 1851, written by Mr. Barlow.! This gentleman
was at the time a demonstrator of anatomy in the Edinburgh
Veterinary College, and there is no doubt that his untimely
death about 1855 robbed the veterinary profession of a very
distinguished ornament, and one of the most rising men of the
time. He gives an account of certain cases which came under
his notice, and writes a very able description of the causes,
symptoms, and methods of prevention. He starts with this
statement :—

From yarious inquiries which have been made, and from the statements
of travellers and other persons competent to speak on the subject, it seems

that among the vast herds of wild cattle inhabiting large tracts of country
on the continents of the Old and New World abortion is unknown.

* R.A.8.E, Journal, Vol. XII., Part I, Ist Series, 1851, pp. 64, 72.

734 Abortion in Cattle.

As to the symptoms of abortion, Mr. Barlow remarks that _

in many cases there are no warning symptoms. A little mass
of decomposed matter is found in the shed or field, and it is
known that the cow has slipped her calf. In certain instances,
however, there are premonitory signs, which bear a distinct re-
semblance to those which occur in ordinary parturition, in the
swelling of the external parts and indications of activity in the
udder, and a glairy discharge from the generative organs.

Before every act of abortion, and at whatever period it occurs, except
erhaps before the third or fourth week of gestation, there is a discharge of.
Bae, glairy fluid and mucus from the organs of generation.

This discharge has been made the subject of experimental
inquiry, and the conclusion is becoming firmly established that
in that discharge is contained the virus which is concerned in
the propagation of the disease.

M. Bouley, for many years the Director-General of the
veterinary schools in France, was a most distinguished scientific
observer, and in his Dictionary of Veterinary Medicine, published
in 1863—1.e., twelve years after Mr. Barlow wrote his paper—

he refers to the fact of abortion beginning with the introduction —

of a new cow—a very significant statement. He notes, in the

course of his description, all the various common causes which
give rise to abortion, and among these causes he speaks of imi- —

tation, which is a characteristic term based on a recognition of
the fact that when abortion takes place in a herd, the cows all
round will become extremely excited, will rush to the spot
where the foetus and membranes are lying, will sniff at them,
and will rush away again in a frantic state. It is a matter of
positive certainty that after this performance on their part a
considerable number of them will abort. _

M. Bouley names the other causes as mechanical, various
kinds of food, the use of powerful medicines, fear, and constitu-
tional tendency. For the term constituticnal tendency, “ here-
ditary ” would be the modern equivalent.

From M. Bouley we may pass on to Dr. George Fleming,
who in 1878 published a very valuable work on veterinary
obstetrics, which included all that had been written and doubt-
less all that was known on the subject up to that date.

Dr. Fleming quotes from Continental experts their different
views as to the causes of epizootic abortion, and points out that
some of them refer it to the action of particular plants. Thus,
they consider that rue, rye, savin, and ergoted grasses are

commonly concerned in the production of abortion on a suffi-
ciently large scale to merit the title of epizootic. Dr. Fleming

y

—
Abortion in Cattle. 735

ae quotes Zundel to the effect that if septic bacteria are
ytroduced into the vagina abortion follows. This statement is
orth of careful thought; because it is the first suggestion
et with that the introduction of morbid material will induce
e contraction of the uterus and probably cause the death of
e foetus by blood-poisoning as a consequence of this kind of
oculation. Dr. Fleming, at the conclusion of his article,
ffers the suggestion that abortion is probably dependent on a
cific virus.
| It remained for another writer, M. Nocard, ten years later,
o assert a positive opinion that this was the cause, and he
sdded to that assertion a statement that he had discovered the
irus on which the occurrence of this malady in the epizootic
rm depends.
The next author is Professor Axe, who, in 1885, wrote a
amphlet on the subject of abortion, giving a history of cases
hich had come under his own observation, and referring to the
heory of contagion, which, however, Professor Axe looks
pon as insufficiently sustained by the evidence. Although he
oes not deny that abortion may be contagious, his opinion on
he point is expressed in the following quotation ! :—
) Of abortion it may be said (1) that it is not known to be identified with
matter possessing contagious properties ; (2) that it has no fixed period of
incubation ; (3) that, except in occasional instances, it is unattended with
fever; (4) that one attack predisposes to a second, and is usually followed
by several in succession.

These are qualities which do not belong to contagious diseases
in general, and the question is still left open as to the disease
arising from the action of either septic organisms or organisms
possessing special pathogenic properties.

In this Society’s Journal for 1885,? there is an account by
the same author of an extensive outbreak of abortion amongst
pregnant ewes in Lincolnshire. It seems that, in the course
of his inquiry, Professor Axe examined 106 flocks, containing a
total of 51,475 ewes. Among all these flocks abortion had been
going on for some time. He describes the method of feeding
which had been adopted, and says that the use of food such as
turnips or other roots in an unripe and watery condition would be
caleulated to damage the system, and predispose the animals to
an from any existing causes. He sums up in the following
words :—

First and foremost [as a cause of the disease] stands th mischievous and

* Abortion in Cows: its Causes, Prevention, and T, reatment. By J. Wortley
Axe. Page 31. (A. Napier, Seymour Street, Euston Square, N.W.)
* R.A.S.E. Journal, Vol. XXI., Pt. I., 2nd Series (1885), p. 206.

736 Abortion in Cattle.

fatal practice of feeding pregnant ewes exclusively on unripe watery roots,
and especially on unwholesome filth-laden shells. Secondly, pain and
suffering caused by protracted “ foot-rot.” Thirdly, exposure to cold winds
and heavy continuous rains. Fourthly, fatigue arising out of the deep and
sticky state of the ground,

On the subject of sporadic abortion, a paper in the Journal!
by Mr. Clement Stephenson, of Newcastle, a gentleman not
only distinguished as a breeder of cattle, but as an eminent
veterinary surgeon, whose observations are certainly deserving
of the greatest respect, may be read with advantage. He
treats the subject of common causes, but speaks of sympathy
as one influence likely to cause an extension of the malady to
a herd, and he touches the question of ergoted grasses. He
says, however, that he has no personal experience in the matter,
but he thinks it quite reasonable, knowing the action of ergot
on the uterus at the time of parturition, to suspect at any rate
that it may have some influence in causing contraction of the
uterus at a period when the fcetus is not sufficiently developed
to be capable of living apart from its mother. But he does
not pay any attention to the contagion theory—in fact, at that
time it had not assumed such prominence in the public mind as
it has recently.

Following Mr. Stephenson in the Journal we haye a
medical man, Mr. Johnson, of Kirkby Overblow, in Yorkshire,
who adopted the theory of ergot as the cause of abortion,
Mr. Johnson’s view appears to be that the disease is decidedly
the consequence of consumption of ergoted grasses in the
majority of instances. One important remark he makes, viz.?:—

So universal is the belief in its infective properties that, where I
know the malady exists, or has been recently present, I have frequenth
had to use all my persuasive powers to assure such owners that “
am not a sort of detective sent by Government to prevent them spreading
the disease by sending their produce to market” before [ can get any infor-
mation on the subject.

That is important testimony to the view held by agriculturists
that the affection is most distinctly a contagious malady, and
that view has now been sanctioned by the highest veterinary
authorities.

There is no doubt that the popular idea of the effect of
ergoted grasses on the in-calf cow is based on the fact of
its influence at the time of parturition. No evidence, however,
has been advanced to prove that its action is manifested
before that time, and experiments which have been made by

1 R.A.S.E. Journal, Vol. XXI., Pt. II., 2nd Series, 1885, p. 499.
? R.A.S.E, Journal, Vol. XXII., Pt. Il., 2nd Series, 1886, pp. 462, 463.

i

| Abortion in Catile. 737

feeding in-calf heifers on ergot have generally failed. At the
Royal Veterinary College seven in-calf heifers were fed on grass
| in which ergot was abundant, and when the supply failed ergot
'was mixed with their food, but no effect was produced. Very
serious consequences have followed the consumption of rye-bread
| aliapaaeaind with ergot, and numerous persons have been
|fatally poisoned, but abortion was not among the characteristic
jsigns of ergotism in the human being. Among cattle, severe
outbreaks of ergotism in Kansas occurred some years ago, and
great fatality was occasioned, but cases of abortion were extremely
rare. Extensive outbreaks of abortion have occurred among
cattle at a season of the year when ergot does not exist, and
the worst that can be urged against ergoted fodder is that it
may occasionally act as an irritant poison and cause abortion in
the same way as other accidental causes may induce it from
time to time.

Next there is a very valuable paper by M. Nocard, whose
reputation is in itself a sufficient guarantee of the importance of
his observations. He was employed by the French Government
to make an inquiry respecting abortion which had prevailed
amongst the Nivernais breed for many years. Indeed, at the
time that M. Nocard commenced the inquiry, it was thought that
the whole breed would be extinguished.

Different views were held with regard to the disease among
the cows. Some experts decided that it was dependent upon
crossing with the Durham (or Shorthorn) breed, others that it
was due to the remarkable precocity of development of this
animal and its tendency to lay on fat, and it was also referred
by a number of veterinary surgeons to ergoted grasses. M.
Nocard deals with all these suggestions, and produces evidence
to show that they are entirely insufficient to explain the occur-
rence of the disease.

In regard to the presence of abortion in a herd, M. Nocard
evidently agrees with M. Bouley when he says that, as a general
rule, abortion appears as the ordinary result of the introduction
ofa pregnant cow newly bought. If this cow aborts, some of the
other cows in the shed are certain to follow the example. He
does not say at what distance of time, but he states as a well-

known fact that one case is followed by another. He refers further
on to those cases in which abortion occurs after such a late period
that the foetus survives for a few days, and on this point he
makes a most important remark :—

As to the calf that has aborted, it is generally dead at the moment of
abortion. Sometimes, however, it happens that the animals are expelled alive,
perfectly well formed and vigorous to all appearance. Nevertheless, in four

VOL, I. T. 8.—8 3C

738 Abortion in Cattle,

cases out of five, the first, second, or third day after birth they begin to
bellow in a peculiar manner. They cease to suck, are attacked with diay.
rhoea, and succumb in a few days, sometimes in a few hours. This peculiar
bellowing seems to be a sure prognostic of the death of the aborted al calf,

M. Nocard remarks that in cases where calves have been
born before the proper time, it has been noticed repeatedly that
the animals suffer as soon as they are born from diarrhcea, and
are generally dead within twenty-four hours. Those which live
over the two days always get on perfectly well afterwards,
He then goes on to refer to his researches with the idea in his
mind that the disease is distinctly contagious ; and he says,
among the aborted cows, even those which are pregnant for the
first time, there exist, in the cavity of the uterus behind the
mucous membrane and the membranes of the footus, and notably
in the crypts of the cotyledons, various micro-organisms which
are not found among pregnant cows that have come from a
country where abortion does not exist. His reference to these
micro-organisms does not include anything relating to their
morphology, but he says that they do not appear to exercise
any injurious action on the mucous membrane of the mother
either during the period of gestation, which is suddenly inter-
rupted by the process of abortion, or after abortion. The conelu-
sion at which he has arrived is that the disease results from
the action of a specific microbe contained in the uterine mem-
brane, in the intestines of the foetus, and in the discharges
which take place from the vagina. He goes on to say that, before
this proposition can acquire an absolutely affirmative character,
it is necessary that he should be able to produce the malady in
healthy cows by the inoculation of the pure culture of the
organisms, 7.e., by one or other of the microbes which he had
isolated, and, further, he adds that these experiments, being
indispensable for the definite solution of the question, are in
course of being carried on.

M. Nocard gives in his paper an account of his means of
prevention. He says that every week the floor of the cow-
stall should be swept and cleansed, and watered with a solution
of sulphate of copper, of about 1 ounce to a pint of water
(40 grammes to the litre). He formerly injected antiseptic:
into the vagina, but he has given up this practice as useless
Every morning care should be taken to wash with a sponge:
saturated with the following solution, the vulva, the anus, anc
the under surface of the tail of all the pregnant cows :— |

) Bulletin, Ministire de VAgriculture, Paris, N°, 8, Décembre, 1886, p. 949)

Abortion in Cattle. 739

isti water . - e . 20 litres, or about 20 pints
Distilled Pp
Glycerine . ‘ : : . :
Alcohol (of the specific gravity of 36)° . } DOD gearaMEs; isi) Bonneas
Bichloride of mercury . . 5 . 10grammes, ,, 24 drachms

Finally, he says that, in the case of an aborting cow, it is neces-
ary to isolate her immediately, and to deliver her at once with
: ° one %
the hand, destroying by fire or by boiling-water the foetus which

s delivered. tibet:
In reference to his latest method, which is the result of

further experience, M. Nocard observes :—

| I have eonsiderably simplified my methods. I have completely sup-
prone the vaginal and uterine injections, which provoke expulsive efforts.
My experience, already great, has taught me that a beast which has once
aborted will abort again or remain sterile. The best course is to isolate the
animal immediately after the abortion, and to fatten her for the butcher.
T he practical prophylaxis is reduced to a very simple method :—

1. The weekly disinfection of the cow-stall and drains behind the cows
with a solution of sulphate of copper, phenic acid,—7.e., carbolic acid, or cor-
rosive sublimate. x ;

_ 2. A daily washing, by means of a sponge saturated with the solution of
corrosive sublimate of the anus, the vulva, the perineum, and the tail. The
prescription used for this purpose is as follows :—

‘Rainwater. . «© «© «+ « 10 litres, or about 10 pints
) Corrosive sublimate . ‘ ‘ . 10 grammes, ,, 24 drachms
Hydrochloric acid : . ’ . $décilitre, ,,- 14 ounce.

His final remarks are—

As you will perceive, the procedure is very simple. It only requires
care, exactitude, and perseverance. In reality it is useless to hope to see
abortion cease immediately. During the first year it will be less serious;
but it will show itself still, for all cows which are infected at the moment
when the treatment is commenced will abort, almost as a certainty. But all
will cease as by enchantment from the second year, for this treatment
exactly followed prevents all new infection, The whole thing is essentially
an affair of patience,

This is the statement of a practical man; so that there is a
method, it seems, by which it is possible to check the progress
of the malady, even in its worst epizootic form, by proper dis-
infection of a simple kind, not demanding any great trouble or
scientific skill.

The latest authorities are Dr. Sims Woodhead, Professor
Macfadyean, and Dr. A. P. Aitken, who conducted an inquiry
in Edinburgh in 1887. They commenced by sending out a
number of questions for the purpose of obtaining information as
to the general treatment of the cows in which abortion was
going on; and they reported that

802

740 Abortion in Catile.

The inquiry has proved that the disease is prevalent throughout th
length and breadth of Scotland, and there appears to be a general opinion
that itis yearly becoming more common. However that may be, it is certail
that a great annual loss to cattle-breeders must now be laid to the score of
this disease. The inquiry has further shown that no breed can be said

have any special susceptibility to or exemption from abortion. We ha
learnt of serious outbreaks among Shorthorns, Galloways, Ayrshires, Polled
Angus, and Kyloes.'

The final results of the inquiry were not published until
1889, and the report includes a number of experiments
pregnant cows, and gives us some information in regard to the
organism.”

Experiment I.—A cow that had aborted a few days previously, and
which belonged to a herd in which several other animals had aborted duriz
the same season, was brought to the Veterinary College, and placed
loose box along with a pregnant cow. The two cows were kept togethe
for one month, but the result of the experiment was entirely negative.

Experiment II.—A pregnant cow, purchased from a stock in which no
cases of abortion had recently occurred, was introduced into a byre in which
a large number of cows had recently aborted. With the object of hastening
and insuring infection (assuming the disease to be of an infectious nature),
a plug of cotton-wool was inserted into the vagina of one of the recently
aborted cows, and left there for twenty minutes, after which it was wit
drawn, and inserted into the vagina of the experimental cow, and left th
for some hours. On the following day the proceeding was repe
Within one month from the date of introduction .this cow began to
the premonitory indication of impending abortion, but the act did not occur
until seventy days had elapsed, at which time nearly two of the normal
nine months of pregnancy had still torun. The calf was alive when ex-
pelled, but it survived for only a short time. Asis not uncommon in cases
of abortion, as ordinarily observed, the placenta was in this ins
retained.

Experiment III.—A cow, about six months pregnant, was introduced
into a byre in which a number of cows had recently aborted, and placed in
a stall immediately adjoining those in which the recently aborted animals
stood. In this case also the cow had been purchased from a stock free fron
abortion. In this experiment, instead of simply inserting a contaminated
cotton-wool plug into the vagina, a quantity of vaginal discharge n a
recently aborted cow was subcutaneously injected into the experimen
animal, the point of operation being the skin of the vulva. The me
taken for inoculation was mixed with sterilised distilled water, and it w
injected with a sterilised syringe. This cow calyed one month prematurel}
and the calf, although it survived, was very puny and unthriying; the
placenta was retained. a

Experiment IV.—A cow purchased from a stock free from ih

placed in a stall adjoining recently aborted cows in the byre in which the
preceding two experiments were carried out. This experiment, like

ke

' Transactions, Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Vol. XIX,
1887, p. 315. a
2 Transactions, Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Vol. L.,
Beries, 1889, p. 270. . "|

>.

q

| —
| Abortion in Cattle. 741

t I, was designed to test the effect of simple cohabitation, and there-

fore neither inoculation nor the introduction of vaginal discharge by means
f a cotton-wool pluz was practised. The result in this case was negative,
e cow calving at full term at the end of three months.

Experiment V.—Two Cheviot ewes, about two months off the time of

lambing, were inoculated in precisely the same manner as the cow of
i Ill. Thirty-eight days afterwards one of the ewes lambed a
dead lamb, and a day later the other ewe lambed a living but weakly lamb.

It ought to be mentioned that in this experiment a ewe that had aborted
on an adjoining farm was placed during the last fortnight along with the
two experimental ewes.

Experiment WI—Cotton-wool plugs, previously inserted in the
vagina of a cow recently aborted, were introduced into the genital passages
of two black-faced ewes, and left there for some time, and subsequently the
same procedure was repeated with a plug withdrawn from the vagina of an
aborted ewe. Thirty days after the first introduction of the cotton-wool

lug one of the ewes aborted, the lamb being dead and about one month
ore its proper time. The other ewe carried her lamb to full term.

Tn regard to the organisms, it appears that there were five
distinct forms, viz. :—

1. Diplo-cocei occurring in threes and fours and even in short chains,
each half of the dumb-bell being from half as large again to twice as large
as the micrococeus of erysipelas.

2. The organism was very like the coceus which Dr. Klein calls the
Streptococcus of scarlatina.

3. The organism was a bacillus nearly as broad as the Bacillus anthracis,
and four or five times as long as broad.

4. The organism was a long, thin bacillus, very like that of the Bacillus
subtilis, or hay bacillus; but it was considerably smaller than that organism,

and along with it there was no liquefaction.

5. In some of the earlier tubes there was found a short, thick bacillus,
but this organism was lost in the subsequent process of separation.

. The plan which these experienced gentlemen recommend for
preventing abortion is practically the system adopted by M.
Nocard—.e., rain-water containing common salt and bichloride
of mercury in solution. They, however, advise injection into
the uterus and vagina; whereas M. Nocard has decided that
this system is no longer desirable, and has abandoned it in
favour of the more simple plan to which I have referred.

in regard to further observations on the subject of abortion,
the inquiry should apparently take the direction of experiments
on cows and ewes (the latter being less subject to the disease
than the former), for the purpose of ascertaining whether or
not these five organisms, or any of them which have been sepa-
rated from the vaginal discharge, are capable of producing the
disease. It should also be a matter of inquiry as to the occur-
rence of abortion among cows which do not hold to the service
of the bull on several successive occasions. And, in all parts of
the country where abortion exists in the epizootic form, it is most

742 The Future of Agricultural Competition.
desirable that veterinary surgeons should adopt with scrupulous —
accuracy M. Nocard’s antiseptic treatment, and report the re- —
sults. It will be the important duty of the Royal Agricultural
Society to publish the results of these observations, and to advise —
that farmers in all parts, where herds suffer from epizootie
abortion, shall at once place their animals under veterinary —
treatment, which there is now good reason to believe will be
attended with success, only, however, as M. Nocard suggests,
as the reward of perseverance.

SUMMARY.

Cows which are bred and fed under highly artificial condi-
tions are more predisposed to suffer from abortion than those
which live under natural surroundings. Epizootic abortion is
contagious, and should be dealt with by isolation of the diseased
animals, and the regular use of disinfectants to the cows and
also to the sheds or stables in which they are kept. On farms
where abortion has been a frequent or constant occurrence for —
some time, the disinfection recommended by M. Nocard should —
be carefully and regularly adopted and continued for at least
two years. When a new outbreak occurs, i.e., in sheds which
have been free from the disease for some time, and especially
when a newly purchased cow is attacked, the animal should be |
at once removed, and the system of disinfection recommended 7
should be at once commenced, and continued until all the cows
have calyed, A bull which has served a cow soon after abortion
is likely to communicate the disease for some time to other
cows. Finally, it is necessary to remind the stockowner that
the plague of abortion is not likely to be completely extirpated
unless the preventive measures are steadily and accurately
applied as directed.

=

G. T. Brown.

THE FUTURE OF AGRICULTURAL
COMPETITION:

Ir has required all the courage derived from firm convictions,
based upon a great body of evidence, to enable any writer to
maintain, throughout the recent period of low prices and gene-
rally increasing agricultural imports, that the intensity of
agricultural competition was likely to abate in the near future.
Circumstances have combined to encourage the unreasonable
attitude of the great majority of critics upon this subject, so

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 743

:

shat when it was pointed out to them that our superabundant
‘mports were supplied to a great extent at a loss to the con-
sributors, it seemed a sufficient answer to exclaim—“ But still
they come!” Under such circumstances, it was of no avail to
insist that there was no more certain axiom in business affairs
than that which affirms that, in the long run, production ata
loss cannot be kept up. The reply was that the foreign and
colonial competitors of the British farmer, with vast areas of
Jand under cultivation, must go on producing the staple com-
modities at any price which they could obtain. Moreover, the
most ridiculous estimates of the cost of production in foreign
countries and British Colonies were put forth and generally
‘accepted, while the ruin of those interested in ‘“ mammoth”
farms and ranch companies attracted but little attention. It
happened, too, that the strain upon our foreign competitors,
when at its worst, was alleviated by favourable seasons, by a
great reduction of freights, by vast sums of money obtained from
gullible British capitalists, and by the fall in the gold value of
silver. These and other circumstances of less importance
explain why it was that some of the competitors of the British
farmer, though suffering quite as severely as he, were able to
keep up their supplies to our markets in undiminished or in-
creasing volume up to the end of 1890. But now there is
reason to believe that the tide of battle has turned, not only for
a single year, but for some years to come, if not permanently.
It will be seasonable, therefore, to present some of the facts and
arguments in support of this belief, in the hope that there is
now a better chance than there has been previously of their
receiving calm and thoughtful attention. In order to explain
the reasons for a hopeful view of the future, however, it is
necessary to point out the causes of the excessive competition from
which British agriculturists are still suffering.

By common consent the competition in wheat production
has been regarded as the most severe and important. A large
proportion of the most productive land in this country is better
suited to the growth of wheat than to that of any other crop, and a
great deal of it has been thrown out of cultivation, or reduced in
value by thirty to seventy-five per cent., in consequence of the
greatly reduced value of wheat in recent years. Even on mixed
soils which grow other cereals at least as well as wheat, or do
well when laid down in pasture, the wheat crop is a very use-
ful one in a rotation, and, if for its straw alone, its growth
must be kept up to some extent so long as it can be without
absolute loss. Besides, the prices of all cereals are affected
materially by those of wheat, and there is no doubt that a

744 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

restoration of moderately high prices for that grain would d
more for British agriculture than any other change in values, —
It was not until after 1874 that the average price of wheat fel
permanently below fifty shillings a quarter, except for one year.
1877, in which it was fifty-six shillings and ninepence ; and it wa :
not till after 1874 that the wheat acreage of the United King
began to decrease. In that year it was 3,830,767 acres, a
only slightly exceeded in any year later than 1860, and not greatly
before that date, so far as estimates can be relied on. Previous
to 1874 our net imports of wheat, including flour, had only onee
been up to 12,000,000 qrs.; but since that year they have im-
creased, with fluctuations, as the wheat area has declined and
the population has advanced, until they now range from about
19,000,000 to 20,000,000 qrs. The fall in the wheat area of
the United Kingdom, partly cause and partly effect of the in-
creased foreign supplies, is 1,438,522 acres, the crop of 189.
having covered only 2,392,245 acres. But in 1880 the average
price of wheat was still over forty-four shillings a quarter, an
the area of the crop in the United Kingdom was 3,065,895 aeres
while in the United States, Canada, and Australasia the acreag
had not begun to decline. It was in the natural order of thing
that British growers, with their heavy expenses, should be th
first to suffer from the fall in prices. The strain upon them ws
more severe at about that time than it had been before, or ha
been since, for rents had reached their maximum in 1879, afte
which they rapidly declined, while other expenses also have bee
greatly reduced. But in the United States the price of whee
on the farm had not regularly fallen below a dollar a bushe
It was nearly eleven cents over the dollar in 1879, only fiy
cents below in 1880, and more than nineteen cents aboye m
1881. Consequently, the area of the wheat crop was nearl
38,000,000 acres in 1880, the maximum np to that period, am
an acreage only twice reached in subsequent years before 1891
For all Australasia, too, the area in 1880 was 3,379,239 acre
which showed a considerable increase over the total of any pre-
ceding year. The total for Canada in 1880 is not ‘avails
but in 1881 it was 2,342,355, acres, which appears to have k
the greatest acreage grown in the Dominion in any year pre
vious to 1890, as a considerable decline took place for |
years, only covered by the recent increase in Manitoba and the |
North-west, if at all. In India and South America, too, there |
had been increases in the wheat acreage, as well as in Europe —
as a whole, and in some of the minor sources of supply.
There is no doubt that, in the ten years ending with 188
the growth of wheat in the world had extended much out
proportion to the increase of population. In the United

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 745:

‘the area under the crop was extended from 18,992,591 acres in
1870 to 37,986.717 acres in 1880, the increase being nearly
19,000,000 acres. This enormous increase alone would have
sufficed to make the supply of wheat redundant for a time; but,
_as already intimated, it was not by any means the whole of the
‘inerement. Unfortunately, the agricultural statistics of many
' countries are so badly or insufficiently collected that it is impos-
sible to ascertain the exact acreage of any crop in the whole of
) even the principal countries of the world for any given year.

Nothing could be easier, it might be imagined, than to collect
| statements of acreage when estimates of crops are collected ;
| yet in most European countries the latter are obtained every
_ year, and the former only at intervals, usually only in Census
| years. But the fact is that even official estimates of produce,
asa rule, are obtained chiefly by guess-work, whereas, to obtain
acreage, inquiry on every farm is necessary. ‘Thus it is that
the student of agricultural statistics is constantly checked in
his efforts to obtain precise information. There are no agricul-
tural statistics in any other country which are at once as prompt,
as complete, and as clear and well arranged as those of the
United Kingdom. In the following table I give the wheat
areas of all the countries for which I can obtain them for each
of the years 1870, 1880, and 1890, or within a year or two
of each of those periods.

AREA OF WHEAT Crops.

Countries 1870 _ 1880 1890
acres acres acres
United States . : 18,992,591 37,986,717 36,087,184
Canada - 1 1,646,781 2 2,342,355 § 2,450,000
Australasia A 1,187,134 2,753,629 3,877,748
United Kingdom c 3,773,665 3,065,895 2,483,595
France ; i ‘ 415,802,568 16,993,292 19,652,790
Russia - 5 28,743,390 6 28,947,011 7 28,882,440
Austria - 2,436,494 2,455,355 2,876,000
Hungary = § 4,986,019 5,955,731 7,351,000
Germany r ® 4,950,698 4,483,618 10 4,832,409
Italy . : nh 1 11,550,918 2 10,951,340 13 10,886,000
Sweden (including rye) 985,844 1,086,741 1,095,954
Tiolland a : 208,663 228,682 14 210,429
Totals . 95,264,763 117,250,366 120,685,549
Increase in ten years ending with 1880 . 21,985,603 acres
‘ i Pa 1890 3,435,183 ,,
1 1871, 2 1881.
® Area in provinces besides Ontario and Manitoba estimated.
$ 1Btl, 5 1872. © 1881. 7 1883-7,
© 1872. 1873. 10° 1889. 1 1874,
12 1879-83. Jar Tso 1 1887,

746 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

The year 1870 was before the days of agricultural statisties
for India. In 1879 the area of the wheat crop in that country
was 25,812,407 acres, and in 1890 it was 24,938,100 acres,
showing a reduction of 874,307 acres. This, with probable
decreases in some European countries for which there are no
statistics, and in Egypt, may be set against increases in the
Argentine Republic and probable increases in the Danubian
countries, Asia Minor, and Persia. It is possible that there
has been an increase in Russia since 1883—7 ; but there are no

figures for later years. Spain had 7,511,892 acres in 1857, but -

probably has a smaller area under wheat now. Egypt, in
1871, had 1,103,124 acres ; but as her exports to Europe haye
fallen. off oreatly in recent years, it is to be assumed that the
acreage has been reduced. I am indebted to Major Craigie for
the Austrian and Hungarian figures for 1890, and the Italian
figures for 1891; but he informs me that those for other
countries which I lack are not to be obtained. It is probable
that in estimating the Canadian area for 1890 for other pro-
vinces besides Ontario and Manitoba (the figures for which are
official) too little has been allowed for the decline of wheat-
growing in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces. In British
Columbia, however, there has presumably been an increase.

It will be seen that the increase in the wheat area of the
principal producing countries outside Europe during the decade
ending with 1880 was enormous, while that of European
countries was small. But when we come to compare the
figures for the next decade, we find that wheat-growing has
made but a slight proportionate increase, while the population
of all these countries together has increased by tens of millions.
What was the cause of this remarkable change? Unquestion-
ably it was the excessive competition in wheat production, which
affected growers in new countries as well as in old ones.

In 1882 the farm price of wheat in the United States fell to
88°4 cents a bushel, and the wheat area declined in the following
year. But in 1883 the farm price was 91 cents, and the acre-
age increased in 1884 to 39,475,885 acres, the greatest area
ever grown. ‘The excess over the previous maximum of nearly
38,000,000 acres, grown in 1880, was, however, in great measure
attributable to the exceptional mildness of the winter 1883-4,
which allowed of all the wheat sown being harvested, and so
coming into the statistical record; whereas, in most years, a
million or two of acres of wheat are winter-killed, or otherwise
destroyed, and ploughed up. But in 1884 the farm price fell to
65 cents a bushel, and the wheat area of 1885 was 34,189, 246
acres, partly owing to the fall in price, and partly "through

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 747

winter-killing. For the next three years prices continued very

low, the December averages being 77 cents, 68°7 cents, and

68°1 cents a bushel for wheat on the farm. These were ruinous
prices for American farmers, and in the old-settled States the

_ wheat acreage fell off to such an extent that all the planting on

new lands only about balanced it. An advance to 87:3 cents a

bushel in 1888 brought the wheat area once more above

38,000,000 bushels in 1889; but the price of the latter year
fell to 69-8 cents, and the area of 1890 was only 36,087,184
acres, or nearly two million acres less than it was ten years

_ before, while the population of the United States had grown by

121 millions. During the decade many millions of acres of new
land were settled, and wheat was grown there as a matter of
course, no other crop being regarded as so suitable to start with.
Yet, without dwelling upon the difference just shown, which
might be regarded as partly accidental, we see that the wheat
area was, at best, only stationary.

It would be wearisome to readers to have the details of the
changes of wheat area in the several States placed before them.
Nor is it necessary to go into detail. The broad fact of a
stationary wheat area, with a rapidly increasing population,
proves that, on the whole, wheat-growing was not found re-
munerative to American farmers after the market price fell
below a dollar a bushel, and the farm price lower still. Serious
depression was felt as early as 1884 in the greater part of the
country, as stated at the time by American authorities quoted
elsewhere,! to which readers desirous of details may be re-
ferred. By 1890, however, a turn in the tide had set in, for
the market price in the autumn of that year rose above a dollar,
and the December farm average for the whole country was 83°8
cents. This gave encouragement to growers, especially as they
began to hope for a permanent recovery of lost value; and for
the harvest of 1890 they increased their wheat area to something
over 39,000,000 acres, the exact area not having been given at
the time of writing.

Turning to the figures for Canada, we find only a trifling
increase, if any, in the wheat area for the ten years, in spite of
the settlement of Manitoba and the North-west, which has taken
place almost entirely within that period. Only 51,203 acres of
wheat were grown in Manitoba in 1881, while 746,058 acres
were grown in 1890. Yet the acreage in the older provinces
has fallen off so materially as nearly, if not quite, to balance the
increase in the newly-settled country, as already stated. In

* The British Farmer and his Competitors, Casselland Co, 1888.

"748 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

Ontario the area of the crop was less in 1890 than in 1883 by
about 350,000 acres, and itis known to have been greatly dimin-
ished in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces also. In 1891 about
41,000 acres of the lost acreage were recovered. ‘There is no
doubt whatever that the farmers of Ontario and other parts of
Canada have suffered severely from competition. The Toronto
Globe recently stated that the value of the farm lands of Ontario
had been depreciated 25 per cent. Probably this is an ex-
aggeration ; but the official records of value, according to assess-
ment, show a serious decline. In an article published on~
October 28, 1891, the Globe says:—‘‘ The position of a large
number of farmers, almost the entire class of renters, had become
so critical, because of short crops and low prices, that nothing
but this year’s good harvest has saved many of them from
the sheriff. For this they may give thanks. But their thanks-
giving can be for little more than that there has not come upon
them a finishing disaster. They could not have lived through
another bad year.” Last year, it is added, many of the
farmers did not pay a dollar of rent. ‘‘The landowners and
the loan companies will get about all the profit there is in the
harvest. They receive their rents and interest, while the
farmers have only the permission to continue for another year
their untiring work and grinding economy.” It is admitted
that the stress of past years has not borne so heavily upon
farmers who own land free of encumbrance; but these are said
to be much in the minority. The renting of land has become
much more common than it was, and is the prevailing system in
some large districts, owing to the exodus of young men and the
operation of the farm mortgage. There are, of course, farmers
in Ontario, Manitoba, and other parts of Canada, who have held
their own and even saved money during the bad times, just as
there are in this country; but all evidence shows that they are
the minority. The great Bell farm, from which we were told a
few years ae that wheat could be laid down in Liverpool with
profit at 22s. a quarter, has gone the way of nearly all other
“ Mammoth” farms in Canada or the United States, and is now
cut up into small holdings. British farmers have nothing to
fear from Canadian competition in wheat production. They can
undersell the farmers in the old provinces of Canada in British
markets, and in Manitoba and the North-west growers are and
always will be handicapped by the almost regular occurrence of
frost when their wheat is in its milky stage, and so in a condi-
tion to be spoilt for European markets.

In Australasia there was a great addition to the da area
in the decade ending with 1880, and a smaller but still con-

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 749

siderable one in the next ten years asa whole. But the total
_ for 1890 was smaller by about 100,000 acres than it was in
1887. Moreover, the figures for 1891 show a decrease, as com-
pared with those of 1890, in every Australasian colony; the
| total being 3,537,091 acres. Speaking for South Australia, the
| Adelaide Observer of August 31, 1891, said:—‘‘ Very many
_wheat-growers have arrived at the conclusion that wheat-grow-
ing by itself will not pay, and there are many hundreds of acres
being planted with vines and fruit trees ;” also that the farmers
“are deyoting their thoughts to sheep and other sources of
employment for their energies.” Similarly, in Victoria, the
Australasian says :—‘ We hear from several districts of an in-
creasing demand for sheep by farmers who have hitherto turned
their chief attention to grain. The low prices ruling for the

_ latter cannot fail to influence the character of Australian agri-

culture. Our farmers are evincing an inclination to vary their
risks, and eventually, no doubt, farms in this colony will be
assimilated more nearly to those in the United Kingdom.”

This unanimity of testimony in regard to the two principal
wheat-producing colonies of Australasia is all the more signifi-
cant from the fact that wheat in recent years has been very nearly
as high in price at the Antipodes as in England. Even in New
Zealand, wheat-growing has declined in recent years, the area
in 1882 having been 390,818 acres, and in 1891 only 301,460
acres. Between 1885 and 1888 there was arecovery ; but since
the latter year the acreage has fallen off by more than 60,000
acres. Agricultural depression in New Zealand has long been
notorious, and it has been equally severe in South Australia,
while in other Australasian colonies there has been only a ques-
tion of its degree. The Colonial Governments have been fre-
quently called upon to relax the very easy conditions upon which
they have leased land, to excuse payments due, and even, in
some cases, to provide seed for distressed farmers.

Statistics for India as far back as 1870 are not available.
But there is no doubt that the wheat acreage increased consid-
erably during the decade ending with 1880. There was a
further increase, too, stimulated by the trade with Europe, up
to 1886, when the area harvested was about 27,405,742 acres;
but the final report of the Revenue and Agricultural Depart-
ment for 1891 puts the total at only 24,773,000 acres, thus
showing a decrease of over 2,600,000 acres since 1886. ‘This is
all the more remarkable from the fact that the rupee prices of
wheat and other food grains in India have been exceptionally
high during the last five years. The apparent anomaly seems
to show that the Indian authorities who contend that the export

‘750 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

of wheat from India is not beneficial to the growers are right,
The ryots are in the hands of the money-lenders, and it is the
latter chiefly, together with the shippers, who get the benefits
arising from the trade with Europe. Hence is it that the ryots
are not keeping up their wheat acreage.

There are no satisfactory agricultural statistics for South
American countries. In the Argentine Republic the wheat
area has increased considerably in recent years, and exports to __
Europe in three of the last four years were much greater than
ever before. The total, however, has only once exceeded a -
million quarters, and has seldom been more than half that
quantity. In Chili there is no sign of wheat production doing
more than keep pace with growth of population. Exports in
1883 were greater than they have ever been since, and they have
fallen off greatly since 1888. Besides, whatever these countries
send to Europe is fully balanced by the imports of other South
American countries from the United States, and may be
regarded as so much deduction from the American surplus
which would otherwise be available for Europe.

British possessions not already mentioned, including South
Africa, are wheat-importing countries, and have been so in
years when the price of wheat was much higher than it is now
or is likely to be in the near future. They may, therefore, be
dismissed from consideration.

There are minor sources of the supply of wheat to Europe,
such as Algeria, Egypt, Persia, and Asia Minor, for most of
which no details as to acreage are available. On the whole
they do not appear to have increased their exports in recent
years, some having sent more and others less. In the countries
among them of which we know most, wheat-growing has not
been profitable since low prices. prevailed. This is stated in
reports on Algeria, and we know it to have been the case in
Egypt, because that country has reduced her exports of wheat
by 50 to 75 per cent. since 1883.

Seeing that, since 1880, the population of the world has
been steadily outpacing the wheat area, the question atises as
to why it is that the price of wheat has not risen permanently
before this time. The answer is not difficult. During the first
half of the last decade the excess of wheat production was not
fully overtaken by the increase of population, and during the
second half there were some extra good crops in Europe, with
generally fair or good ones in the United States. A steady rise
was confidently expected in 1888; but the Russian wheat
harvest proved phenomenally abundant, and as the haryest of
1887 had been a very good one, large stocks of wheat were

alee

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 751

| accumulated in Russia. There were excellent crops also in the
other principal producing countries of Europe in 1887 and
1888, and in India in the latter year. In 1889 Europe had a
harvest on the whole, though France was fortunate, and
hopes of improved markets revived ; but the American crop was
a great one, while reserves of old wheat in Russia proved to be
much greater than they had been supposed to be. Still, reserve
stocks in Europe became small by the end of the cereal year
1889-90, and the harvest of 1890 in America was a very poor
one. Again, however, Europe produced a large crop, France
haying the greatest on record, and Germany, Hungary, and
Ttaly much above average. Thus, during a time when, under
ordinary circumstances, the growth of wheat in the world would
not have been sufficient to provide the people with bread, an
exceptional sequence of productive seasons prevented scarcity.
At the end of the last cereal year, however, reserve stocks of
wheat in the world were probably lower than they have been
before in the memory of the oldest living member of the grai
trade, and, in spite of the phenomenal crop of the United
States, and extra produce in India and Canada, the extreme
shortness of the wheat and rye crops of Europe (rye counting
with wheat as a bread-stuff) has sent prices up considerably,
and will probably enhance them in much greater degree before
next summer.

Two other pomts must be mentioned in explaining why
prices kept low throughout a period of diminishing supplies of
wheat in proportion to consumption. One is the almost entire
cessation of legitimate speculation in England and America, so
far as it consists in holdimg stocks of wheat ; and the other is the
rapidity with which, by means of the electric cable and fast
steamers, grain can be conveyed from one country to another.
Under the comparatively new system of time-bargains millers
and merchants have no need to accumulate stocks, as they can
purchase at a fixed price, for delivery months hence, any

_quantity of wheat which they require. They thus insure
against any sudden and great advance in values due to tempo-
rary scarcity. They can, and do to a great extent, in America
especially, transact their business on the system of the racing
bookmaker, by trading in “options,” and paying or receiving
“ margins,” when they do not. desire to deliver or receive grain.
And if at any time receipts of wheat in this or another import-
ing country are falling off, the telegraph at once conveys the
news to exporting countries, and steamers laden with grain are
quickly on their way. These agencies tend to level prices, and
to keep them at a low level in periods of comparative scarcity,

“yb The Futwi'e of Agricultural Competition.

With respect to the future of competition in wheat produce
tion, the foregoing statements lead up to my conclusion respecting
it. My argument is that wheat-growing has not been generally
remunerative in any of the considerable producing countries,
with the possible exception of India (where the currency ques-
tion comes in), at such prices as have prevailed in recent years,
as proved by the fact that production has not kept pace with
population, but has, as a rule, been stationary or declining, while
population has been growing rapidly. Hence I conclude that
prices must range higher, as a rule (of course, with fluctuations),
in the future than they have ranged in recent years, in order to
induce farmers to extend the acreage of wheat. At the same
time, I am of opinion that a moderate rise in prices will induce —
growers in the chief producing countries, and especially in coun-
tries outside Europe, to enlarge the wheat area to a sufficient
extent. Fora time at least, it seems probable that an average
of 40s. a quarter in England will represent prices elsewhere high —
enough to induce the necessary extension. Whether a lower or
a higher average will be necessary in the next century will
depend upon many circumstances, such as the opening up a
new countries, the improvement of economic production and
transport, and the rate of increase in the world’s population.

Although I do not entirely agree with the conclusions of
Mr. C. Wood Davis, an American agriculturist and statistician,
whose writings have attracted a good deal of attention, it is worth
while to cite a few of his most important statements in support
of my argument. Adopting an exaggerated estimate of the
present wheat area of the world, Mr. Davis puts the increased
wheat production for the decade ending with 1890 at 62,000,000
bushels, against which he sets an indefinite but considerable re-_
duction of the rye acreage of Europe. But during the same
period, he says, the bread-eating populations of European
blood (including Americans, Colonials, &c.) have increased by
42,000,000, requiring increments of more than 170,000,000
bushels of wheat and 100,000,000 bushels of rye per annum.
So far as the details he gives can be checked, it appears to me
that he has not at all exaggerated his case in this retrospective
portion of it. But when he ventures into the field of prophecy,
I cannot accept his conclusions. After 1895, he contends,
America must either import bread-stuffs, cease to export cotton,
or lower the standard of living. Allowing for a diminishing
rate of increase of population, and a consumption of staples at
the present estimated rate per head, he brings out a- deficiency of
1,200,000 acres for 1895, increasing to 17,300,000 acres for —
1900, and to 50,000,000 acres by 1906. i? |

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 753

The weak point in this calculation is its want of allowance

‘or increased production per acre, and increased area to be made

wailable by means of irrigation of immense tracts of arid land.

Official statistics show that the area of land not settled in the
United States, apart from the arid tracts, is comparatively small,
and is rapidly vanishing. Mr. Carter, Commissioner of the
General Land Office of the United States, in his report for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1891, says :—‘ In the progress of the
settlement of the public domain, it has become a question of the
greatest practical importance how the thousands of people now

yearly seeking homes on the public lands from all quarters of
‘the Republic, and who may be expected to do so hereafter, are

to be provided with the homes for which they seek. Very little ©

‘desirable public land remains unappropriated outside of the
‘boundaries of what may be termed the arid region.” The Com-
/missioner goes on to cite the mad scramble for land which oc-
curred about two years ago when part of the Oklahoma Territory
_(an old Indian reservation) was thrown open, as a proof of the
scarcity of land on which crops can be raised without irrigation.
Since he wrote a still more striking corroboration of his remarks
has been given; for, in spite of the fact that numbers of the
settlers in the first portion of Oklahoma were known to have
suffered from severe destitution, on the opening of a further tract
in the same territory last summer, there was as mad a scramble
for quarter-sections of land as there was on the occasion just
mentioned.

Still, long before any considerable deficiency of acreage could
be experienced in a country which has been holding the leading
position among the producing countries of the world, prices would
have been forced up sufficiently to render irrigation and high
farming remunerative. Mr. Davis's prediction might be accepted
as true in a broad sense if he could prove that, during the next
fifteen years, unpopulated or thinly-populated countries are likely
to be able to produce wheat and other agricultural staples much
more cheaply than America can produce them. That he cannot
show this, at any rate as far as wheat is concerned, is indicated
by the fact that his own figures, if approximately correct, prove
that during the past decade of low prices the wheat acreage of
the world has increased by only 54 million acres (too liberal an
allowance probably), an addition far short of the extra area re-
quired to feed the increase in population. Moreover, he declares
that five conditions must prevail in any country to insure a great;
and speedy increase of grain production—favourable climate,
fertile soil, an unemployed area, sufficient population, and ample
means of transportation. Australasia, Siberia, and the River

VOL, II. T. S.—8 an

754 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

Plate countries, he adds, are the only great tracts in which
the first three of these conditions prevail. In making “this
statement he allows too little and too much; for there are other
parts of South America and tracts of land i _ Central Africa i in
which his first three conditions prevail, while it is too much to
say that the climate in La Plata or great portions of Australasia
is favourable to grain-growing, which is precarious without i irri-
gation. In Manitoba and the North-west of Canada there are
climatic disadvantages of a different kind, though scarcely as
formidable as drought in Australia and the River Plate, with :
rust and locusts added. But some of his conditions are —
in every undeveloped country.

In the United States, on the other hand, nearly everything —
would give way to et at a dollar a bushel (say 33s. a qua: 4
as the average farm price, or the equivalent of about 36s. j a
quarter at Chicago, or 39s. to 40s. at New York. At present 4
freights this would be equivalent to fully 46s. for American —
wheat in Liverpool, a price which would be contemporaneous
with an English average of about 40s. in a year of fair quality
and condition for our wheat. The wasteful system of rearing
cattle on ranges will soon disappear if grain sells well onoul
to afford a living profit to producers; and, as live stock ot
to be concentrated on less ground, improved farming )
necessarily take place in order to feed them, and they, in their —
turn, will increase the fertility of the soil. That America, before —
very long, will cease to be a great and regular food-exporting )

country is probable; but there is no reason to expect that it

will become a food-importing country in the near future. The —
average yield of wheat in the United States, which was only —
11-8 bushels an acre for the ten years ending with 1890, and —
only about 12°3 bushels for the like period ending with 1891,
might be doubled under favourable conditions, but only with
wheat at such a price that American competition would cease
to be formidable to growers in this country. The fair deduction —
from Mr. Davis’s statements is that the days of extremely cheap
agricultural production are drawing to an end, and that the
advantages which new countries have held over old ones are
growing less and less.

Other sources of considerable wheat supply outside Europe
are not likely to increase their exports at a lower price than
America will increase her supply. It has already been shown
that the wheat area of nearly all of them has been diminished
of late, and it is a fair assumption that their production will not
keep pace with population under conditions less satisfactory —
than will be necessary in the United States. In India, all —

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 755

| authorities agree, it will be all that can be expected if the pro-
| duction of food keeps pace with the rapid growth of population ;
| and India is the only great producing country outside Europe
| which appears to me to be able to compete on favourable terms
with America. Hence it may be concluded that prices will
require to be considerably higher than they have been in recent
| years in order to supply Europe with bread for her increasing
| population. As to European countries, it seems probable that
| they will be able to hold their own against outside sources of
supply in the production of wheat, but that they will be able to
do no more, at the most, than keep pace with the European
| population, and probably not so much. This means a continuous
supply from outside Europe of the large quantity at present
| required. The resources of the Russian empire are enormous,
no doubt ; but the extreme poverty of the people, the grinding
system of taxation, the ruinous exactions of money-lenders,
and the wretchedness of the farming tell against rapid develop-
ment.

It is to be borne in mind that an increase of several
millions of acres in the wheat area of the world is necessary at
once, in order to allow of production overtaking consumption.
After that has been accomplished, a yearly increase of some
millions of acres will be needed, unless the yield per acre is
greatly increased, to keep pace with the consumption ; and this
will not happen unless prices are fairly high. A moderate
rise may stimulate too rapid an increase of wheat-growing for a
year or two, so that prices may tall; but reaction would
soon set in under such circumstances, Lastly, then, as far as
this point is concerned, it is my firm conviction that such
extremely severe competition in wheat-growing as has greatly
reduced the wheat acreage of this country will not be experienced,
as a rule, in the future.

With respect to barley, it is to be observed that competition
has not been as severe as it has been in the case of wheat. In
the ten years ending with 1879, the yearly average ranged from
34s. to 40s. 1ld. a quarter, and it was not before 1881
that it fell below 32s. for along series of years. Since that year
the area of the crop in the United Kingdom has been reduced
by less than 364,000 acres, and our imports have increased by
barely the produce of those lost acres, or by less than 1,500,000
quarters. Since 1882 and 1883, indeed, there has been no
average increase in annual imports. It seems probable, then,
that the reduction in price has been less owing to foreign
competition in barley itself than to some other causes, such as
the great increase in the imports of certain feeding-stuffs, the

38D2

756 The Future of Agricultural Competition.
use of malt substitutes in brewing, and the reduced price of
wheat, which always rules the values of other kinds of grain to
some extent. ‘The principal increases in imports have come from
Russia, Roumania, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary, while France,
Holland, and Denmark have fallen behind. Countries outside
Europe send us very little barley. The United States, having
imported extensively from Canada, will have less than eyer to
spare under the new tariff. Canada may send us what she has
been accustomed to supply to the United States, if she can grow
sufficient of the two-rowed barley of good enough quality.
Some barley of excellent quality has been grown; but it is easy
to select a few choice samples in almost any country, and
one report states that a large proportion of the two-rowed
variety that has been produced is not good enough for our malt-
sters, while it would not pay to send any considerable quantity
of grinding barley to this country in the future, any more than
it has paid in the past. Apart from this question of Canada
as a new source of the supply of malting barley, the fact that
our imports have not increased during the last seven years
seems to show that our prices have not been such as to tempt
foreign growers to grow more barley to send us, and that there
is no reason to apprehend any great increase of direct competi-
tion. On the contrary, if more wheat be grown, as it must be,
the probability is that barley will be less cultivated. As far as
grinding barley is concerned, there may be greater indirect
competition, if the imports of maize continue to increase as they
increased in 1890, and if other feeding-stuffs keep up the
advance made in recent years.

It is curious to notice that, until 1890, there was no
marked addition to our recent supplies of maize. We imported
nearly 42,000,000 cwt. in 1878, and have never received so
much since, except in 1890, when the total was over 43,000,000
cwt. During the five years preceding 1890 we imported
about 2,000,000 cwt. per annum more maize than in the five
years preceding 1885. The principal contributors of the in-
crease were Roumania, Russia, and the Argentine Republic,
America having sent us less, although the area of the American
maize crop was extended by 12,000,000 acres in the ten years.
British farmers as a class would not desire to see the supply of
maize fall off, as they use it extensively for feeding purposes.
This year it has come in comparatively small quantity, and one
result has been a great advance in the prices of cake. As far _
as barley-growers are concerned, a reduction in maize imports
would Ebaby be beneficial ; but competition in meat produc-
tion would be harder to bear in consequence. Maize will be

|

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 757

more and more needed in America as a feeding-stuff, as the
stock ranges get broken up, and the crop is such a favourite
jone that its extent is not likely to be contracted unless wheat
‘becomes decidedly dear, especially as the former cereal flourishes
‘where the latter gives a very scanty yield. In South America,
| Africa, and the sub-tropical parts of Australia, too, maize does
' well where wheat is comparatively a failure, so that the wonder
‘is that its cultivation has not been extended even more than
| has been the case. Growers of grinding barley, then, cannot be
| comforted with the prospect of a diminished supply of maize, in
| the near future at any rate. At the same time, there is no reason
| to suppose that America, which at present sends us more than
| half the maize we import, will spare additional quantities in the
| future, for reasons which may be gathered from preceding
| remarks as to the greater home use expected, and the necessary
| addition to the wheat area.
Oats, like barley, kept up well in price until 1879, and did
| not fall below 20s. a quarter as a yearly average till after 1885.
_ There has not been any considerable reduction in the oat area of
_ the United Kingdom during the last ten years. The average
_ for 1876-80 was 4,170,325 acres, and for the five years ending
_ with 1890 the average was 4,231,404 acres. But since 1887,
when we grew 4,418,947 acres, there has been a fall to 4,137,790
acres for 1891. The area in 1887 was nearly the greatest
recorded, that of 1886 having exceeded it by only twelve acres.
But the average price fell to 16s. 3d. in 1887, and the area
dropped to 4,177,121 acres. As in the case of barley, the fall
in the price of oats does not appear to have been caused by
direct foreign competition in that grain. It is true that the
imports in 1887 were nearly a million hundredweights more
than in the preceding year; but that was not a considerable
proportion of our national consumption. In 1888 there was an
exceptional supply of foreign oats, amounting to
18,770,686 cwt.; but in the next year the supply fell off
by about 2,750,000 cwt., and in 1890 it was under
13,000,000. When the fall took place, the average annual
imports for five years had been a little less than in the preceding
five. Even for the last five years the yearly average imports
have exceeded those of the preceding five years by only
2,000,000 ewt. This quantity is equal to about 700,000 gqrs.,
which is not a very great addition to our total supply, seeing
that the home crop is over 20,000,000 qrs. It is the cheapening
of maize, barley, and other feeding-stuffs, rather than the addi-
tion to our imports of oats, that has caused the drop in the price
of that grain, partially recoyered in 1890, and more still in

758 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

1891. The only country which has greatly increased its supply
of oats to the United Kingdom is Russia; Sweden, Canada
and Denmark having fallen off greatly in recent years. m
America our supplies of oats are insignificant, although the acre-
age of the crop in that country has more than doubled since 1879,

So many English farmers are buyers of oats that the desire

price less important than it is with respect to other cereals,
Still, as our national pate of oats is much greater the

able, and it is comforting to growers to see that Russia is the
only country threatening them with any material increase of
competition. It is strange to find that the oat area of Russia
was only slightly greater for 1883-7 than for 1870-9. Possibly
there has been an extension during the last few years; but
there are no more recent statistics of area than those of the
series of years above mentioned. On the whole, seeing how
supplies from other countries have fallen off, the prospect is
one of diminishing rather than of increasing competition in
oats, and the chief danger of low prices seems to lie in a
possible increment in the supply of maize.
Seeing that beans and peas are nitrogen-accumulating crops, —
it is desirable that their lost acreage should be restored. Prices
are fairly high now, but have been low in recent years, and the
acreage of both crops has been considerably reduced. In 187
there were 550,613 acres of beans and 391,250 acres of peas in
the United Kingdom, while this year there were only 359,038
acres of the former cereal, and 204,972 acres of the latter. The
decline in the cultivation of beans has been steady, with slight
fluctuations up to the present year, but very slow since 1886;
while in peas there has been no considerable change since
that year, when, indeed, the area was exceptionally small,
and less than it was in 1890. During the last ten years our
imports of beans have increased, though not steadily. They
amounted to 2,577,133 cwt. in 1880, and to 3,344,918 ecwt.
in 1890, but were greater in 1883, 1884, and 1885 than they y
were last year. The principal increases have been in supplies —
from Morocco and Turkey, while Egypt, still the greatest ou
tributor as a rule, has fallen behind of late. No steady increase
has taken place in imports of peas during the last decade. |
Indeed, except for the extra quantities of 1887 and 1888, there
has been a falling off, the totals for the last two years having
been the smallest in the ten years’ record. It is strange
Canada, a country admirably suited for the production of peas,

R

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 759

and still the chief source of our imports, has diminished her
supplies. Apparently our prices have not been good enough.
‘America also has fallen back, while India in some years has
stood next to Canada, with Russia in the third place, and
Germany fourth. The small supplies from Morocco and Holland
have increased of late; but the only steady and important
increase has been in the Russian supply. Peas and beans, like
barley and oats, appear to have been cheapened “in sympathy
with” maize, cakes, and other important feeding-stuffs, rather
‘than from direct foreign competition, and this connection will
probably hold good in the future. Imports of linseed, cotton
| seed, oil-seed cakes, and miscellaneous feeding-grains have all
| inereased greatly during the last ten years, and much more
| during the twenty years ending with 1890. As to maize, it
has been pointed out that the increment, until 1890, had not
| been remarkable during the last decade; but in 1870 our
‘imports of that grain were only 16,756,783 cwt., and they
| were nearly the same in the following year, whereas in 1889
| they were 36,192,325 cwt., and, in 1890, 43,457,834 cwt.
| It has already been remarked that prospects as to the future
supplies of maize are doubtful, and this must also be said in
respect of cotton seed and linseed. But there is much more
reason to expect a large increase in the production of maize
than in either of these seeds, which may be regarded partially
as bye-products, their supplies being in great measure ruled by
the demand for cotton and flax, although the oils obtained from
them are valuable, and one, at least, is indispensable. If flax
were not grown partly for the seed alone, as in America, as well
as partly for the fibre alone, as in Ireland, the supply of linseed
would not keep pace with the demand, as the consumption of
flax, judging from our imports, has been about stationary for
the last decade. Supplies of cotton, on the other hand, have
steadily advanced, and presumably will grow with the popu-
lation. If wheat rises in value, beans and peas, like other
grain, are likely to go up more or less “in sympathy with ” it ;
but there seems to be no reason to expect a rise through the
falling-off of imported feeding-stuffs which compete with pulse.
The almost stationary imports of flax have been incidentally
alluded to, They were smaller in the five years ending with
1887 than in the previous quinquennial period, but have gone up
since that year, contemporaneously with a decline in our home
production. The question of flax culture is one for which there is
no space available to me on the present occasion; but it is my
opinion, after giving a good deal of attention to the subject,
that we could compete with the world in the supply of flax for

760 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

our own markets, if sufficient trouble were taken to render the 5
conditions of preparing and disposing of the fibre tolerably
favourable.
A rise in the prices of corn would in various ways affect the
production of meat. In the first place it would reduce the con-
sumption per unit of the population, unless wages in all classes
of industry advanced at least in equal proportion. It would
also increase the cost of producing meat, as all feeding-stuffs
would be dearer than they have been recently. But, as these
results would be felt everywhere, they would not materially affeet
competition. On the other hand, if corn-growing can be made
more remunerative than it has been for some time past, meat-_
producing, other things being equal, would also pay better; for,
the profit of the feeder in this country frequently, if not usually,
consists in the manure produced, and the more valuable the
érops grown by the help of the manure are, the greater is the
profit referred to. So far we have a probably diminished con-
sumption of meat per unit of the population, and an increased
cost of producing it, to set against the increased value of the
manure. How the balance would work out for meat production,
considered by itself, it is impossible to say; but as most pro-
ducers of meat are also growers of corn, there is no doubt as to
the advantage which they would derive, on the whole, from the
changes mentioned. But this is not all; for although a rise in
the cost of bread would probably diminish the consumption of
meat per unit of the population, the growth of population would
still give an increase of total consumption. Again, while in an
old country, like our own, the restoration to arable cultivation
of the land laid down in pasture during the last twenty years
would allow of more rather than less meat being produced, the
breaking-up of great cattle ranges and runs in new countries,
in order to grow more corn, would increase the cost of meat
production in a far greater proportion than the increase would
be with us. On the whole, then, so far as the changes mentioned
go, it appears to me that there would be a clear advantage to
producers of meat in this country. ,
There are, however, other considerations bearing upon the
future of competition in meat production, and, in order to bring
them into a clear light, it is necessary to give a brief retrospect
of past competition and its results. .
When comparing the imports of live stock and meat for
different periods of the last twenty years, the wonder is that
prices have kept up as well as they have. The case of breeders
may be dismissed at once, as they have seldom, if ever,-done
better—taking the class as a whole—than during the last three
or four years, although in 1891 they haye not obtained the

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 761

extraordinary prices of 1890. They have suffered more from
the diseases of live stock than from foreign competition.
In the price of meat, however, there has been a decline,
| although a smaller one than might have been expected. As our
| home production of meat actually fell off during the decade
ending with 1880, there was bound to be an increase of imports.
Tt cannot be said ‘that the decline in home production was due
to foreign competition during that decade, because prices
| advanced during the greater part of it. In the next decade,
on the other hand, when prices did fall, the home production of
meat became creater, chiefly owing to the revival of breeding
which followed the partial relief of breeders from losses incidental
to the prevalence of stock diseases. The following table gives
the numbers of cattle, sheep, and pigs in the United Kingdom
for the three periods dealt with in the preceding portion of this
article :-—

= 1870 | 1830 1890
Cattle é . - £ 9,235,052 9,871,153 | 10,789,858
Sheep - : z ‘ 32,786,783 | 30,239,620 31,667,195
Pigs . - 3,650,730 2,863,488 4,362,040

For 1891 we have further increases in cattle and sheep,
with a falling-off in the number of pigs, the numbers being

Tn i eer ocr
: ae No. } No.

Cattle 202,172 — | 389,724 642, 593
Sheep 669,905 941,191 358,458
Pigs . 96,172 51,131 4,036
: | me A es

Beef, fresh £ - | 12,035 727,392 1 851.593
Beef, salt . - : 203,713 290,564 274,726
Mutton' . = = a — 1,656,419
Pork, fresh 36,481 25,056 45,295
Pork, salt . 220,533 | 384,211 254,857
Bacon 536,844 | 4,387,082 3,790,570
Hams 30,320 947,566 1,209,446
Meat preserved . 83,081 | 655,800 734,811
Meat unenumerated . 34,300 149,010 103,881
Total dead meat ‘ 1,157,307 7,566,681 9,924,598
Deduct exports . 22,952 "488, 000 2 1,454,168
__ ae | | ee eee
Net imports ‘ 2 : 1,134,355 | 7,078,681 8,470,430

ewt.
Increase in net imports of dead meat for ten years ending 1880, 5,944,326
” ~ Pe Pm » 1890, 1,391,749

! Previous to 1882 mutton was included in “ meat unenumerated.”
* Exports of British and Irish meat, included in “ proyisions” yntil 1882,

762 The Future of Agricultural Competition. ,

11,343,686 cattle, 33,533,988 sheep, and 4,272,764 pigs. The
addition to our home meat supply derived from the increase in
live stock, however, falls far short of that derived from foreign
sources. The imports of the three periods are given on p. 761.

Poultry and game, the returns for which are in value only,
are not included ; nor are rabbits, which were not distinguished
prior to 1886, but were probably given with poultry and game,
in value only. In 1890 we imported 143,641 cwt. of rabbits.
I have worked out the weights of imported cattle, sheep, and
pigs for the years 1880 and 1890, in accordance with the esti-
mates of dead weight given some years back in the Agricultural.
Returns, and the results allow of the following comparison of
live and dead meat imports :—

— 1880 1890 Increase in 1890
ewt. ewt. ewt.
Dead weight of live stock . 2,849,290 4,039,000 1,189,710
Net imports of dead meat. 7,078,681 8,470,430 1,391,749
Totals A = 2 9,927,971 | 12,509,430 2,581,459

Prices were never higher than in 1875-8; or, indeed,
excepting 1879, I might say 1873-83. In the next table I
extract from the Agricultural Returns the ranges of prices in the
Metropolitan Cattle Market, per stone of 8 lb., sinking the offal,
for 1870, 1880, and 1889 (the latest year given) ; also averages
for periods which show more fairly the decline in prices :—

BEEF
sx a iss sae eae © &
1870 fly be eS: ato eto 1876-80. . . 4 btonume
1880 nal pe oe tO ell 1S8i- bes ae . 4 3, 0am
1889 AN # Deh 10 188629) Sep 29,49
Muvrton
1870 re 3 7to5 10 1876-80 . -. .. & “6itovumEm
1880 : : 55 6.,; 6 10 1881-5 - ae . 6 Tee
1889 36: 5 (6. 205 |forss6-9m. : 3 7,510
Pork ’
1870 ? ; 3 6tod5 6 | 1876-80 4 Otod 1
1880 ed 40S 1b RS Olen Reo 3°11 5,2
1889 Jey 2 206 , 4° *| 1686-97 eee 2 6,

The figures for 1870 include foreign animals ; but those for
1876-80 and all later dates are for British animals only.

estimated at a little less than the exports of that year. All but about 50,000

cwt. are exports of foreign and colonial meat, for which there were returns
in 1880,

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 763

Prices for 1890 will probably work out about the same as for
1889, as they were higher for about half the year, and lower
for the other half. The averages for 1891, I think, will be a
little higher for beef, but decidedly lower for mutton.

It is the lower quality of meat which has suffered chiefly
from foreign competition. For instance, while the average
for beef of first quality fell from 5s. 11d. per 8lb. in 1880 to ,
4s. 10d. in 1889, that of inferior quality dropped from 4s. 6d.
ito 2s. 4d. With mutton the contrast is still more marked, the
falls for the period being from 6s. 10d. to 6s. 4d. for first quality,
jand from 5s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. for inferior quality.
| tis hardly necessary to state that the principal sources of
the increased supplies of imported meat are America for live
‘cattle, beef, pork, bacon, and hams; and Australia, New Zealand,
and the Argentine Republic for mutton. Our imports of cattle
have fluctuated a great -deal, but reached their maximum in
1890, while, this year, they have declined greatly. Competition
from European countries has fallen off very much during the
last ten years, until, in 1890, supplies from these sources were
only about one-fifth of the total. This is only to a small extent
lowing to cattle-disease restrictions, for it is to be noticed in
poe of every important European source of supply, and the
‘decline has continued up to the present time in respect of
countries for which the restrictions have not altered in recent
years. Our prices have not lately been high enough for cattle
of the quality of the bulk of the former European supplies.
‘Still, our imports from the United States have so greatly
increased that, with a moderate increment in the Canadian
‘supply, the total, as already stated, was greater in 1890 than
ever before. This is not surprising, as the number of cattle,
other than milch cows, in the United States, increased from over
15,000,000 in 1870, to over 21,000,000 in 1880, and to nearly
387,000,000 in 1890.

_ Phe increase in Canada has been small, and the addition to the
imports from the Dominion is probably chiefly owing to American
cattle being to some extent shipped from Canadian ports. Im-
ports of fresh beef also reached their maximum in 1890, the
proportion received from other countries than the United States
being less than one-tenth, while it was much smaller in some
previous years. The supply of frozen beef from Australasia has
made some advance, but is still very small. It will be seen,
then, that, under existing conditions, the question of competi-
tion in beef-production is dependent mainly upon the ability of
American producers to keep up or increase their shipments.
Shippers have been greatly helped in recent years by the severe

depression which has prevailed in the American cattle markets, —
Cattle were so extremely cheap during the three or four years
ending with 1890, and cheaper than ever in that year, that,
although our prices were somewhat reduced, shippers were able
to enlarge their supplies. American papers have reported
heavy losses, and have sometimes declared that the export trade
of a season as a whole has been done at a loss. The balance-
sheet of one great company for seven months ending with
September 1890, now before me, shows a loss of over 6,000/.,
attributed mainly by the directors to the unremuneratiye
returns of the trade with England. But some men must haye
made the trade pay in the long run, or it would have declined
before the present year. Freights have been very low, and this
has helped shippers. This year, however, cattle good enough to
send here have become comparatively scarce and dear, and some
heavy losses are reported, while the supplies have fallen off toa
considerable extent. For the ten months ending with October,
our receipts of cattle from the United States were only
270,252, as compared with 325,430 for the corresponding period
of last year. Fresh beef, however, has increased to the extent
of about 37,000 cwt. for the ten months. 4
The days of very cheap beef-production in America are
drawing to an end. As many cattle may be fed on farms as
have ever been fed on farms and ranges together, when the
ranges are all divided; but they will be reared at a much
greater expense. For a time, moreover, it is probable that the
proportion of well-bred cattle will be reduced, as a high Ameri-
can authority states that the general quality of farm cattle sold
at Chicago is strikingly inferior to that of the range cattle,
although the best of the former class are the best of all. This
is not surprising, as small farmers, unless they combine, cannot
afford to purchase pure-bred bulls, as the ‘“ cattle kings” can.
The probability is, then, that competition in beef-production for
the future will be less severe than it has been in the past, unless
some new source of supply is opened up. But there are dangers
ahead which it would be foolish to ignore, such as the gradual
levelling-up in the quality of cattle in the Argentine Republic
and some other South American countries, the increase of breed-
ing in the North-west of Canada, and another change which, if
it be possible, might prove most injurious of all to British meat
producers. I refer to the discovery of a method of sending
meat from Australasia in a chilled, instead of a frozen, state. It
has been reported that a method of doing this has already been
discovered ; but the accuracy of the statement is doubtful, and —
perhaps the feat will never be accomplished. If it should be,

764 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 765

‘there is no doubt that our imports of beef from Australasia
| would increase enormously.
| Yo British breeders, it is hardly necessary to say that the
chief danger of the near future is the opening of this country
|to American stores. A few years hence, however, the effect of
}such a change, which would be disastrous to ovr breeding
| industry at present, would be comparatively small, as the era of
_ cheap production of store cattle in America is passing away.
| As far as live sheep are concerned, foreign competition is
| now trifling ; but supplies of frozen mutton have been growing
| greater and greater every year since they were started, and are
| growing still. Seeing that they amounted to over 1,300,000
| ewt. in 1890, the marvel is that they have not had a greater
| effect than they have had upon prices. It is true that we cannot
| tell how high prices would have been if no frozen mutton had
| been imported; but the probability is that if they had been
| much higher than they have been in recent years, supplies of
sheep and mutton from Europe would have grown, instead of
| declining, until a lower level of values had been brought to
pass. The fact appears to be that European producers of mutton
who used to send it to our markets, alive or dead, in consider-
| able quantities, have felt the competition of the frozen meat
trade more severely than British producers have suffered from
it, because it is low qualities of mutton which have fallen most
in value. But, as in the case of beef, if mutton can be sent to
us from Australasia and the River Plate in a chilled, instead of
_ a frozen, state, the results will be serious to British producers.
Apart from this consideration, there appears to be no reason to
suppose that our imports of mutton will increase materially
unless prices keep about up to their present level. The margin
of profit on frozen mutton, with freights and freezing charges
reduced to a minimum as they have been recently, is extremely
small. For the present year, indeed, it is doubtful whether
shippers have derived any profit, as the prices of frozen mutton
have been very low, and agents in this country have recom-
mended a diminution of supplies. Freights are more likely to
rise than to fall, and other expenses have been cut down so
severely of late that it is not easy to imagine how any further
economy can be effected. If corn-growing becomes more profit-
able than it has been in recent years, there will be another
assurance against the supply of frozen mutton becoming much
greater unless the prices of meat in this country are kept up to
a fairly high level.
So far as our flockmasters’ interests are affected by the
competition in wool, it is only necessary to state that the

CS

¥

766 The Future of Agricultural Competition.

number of sheep in Australasia was greater in 1890 than in
1889 by about thirteen millions, in order to show that there is
nothing comforting in the outlook. ‘

With respect to the future of competition in “‘ hog products,”
to use an American term, I confess that I am altogether uncer-
tain. The number of pigs in the United States increased from
26,751,000 in 1870 to 34,031,000 in 1880, and to 51,602,780
in 1890. Yet our imports of bacon reached the maximum in
1880, and those of salt pork in 1879; neither having been
nearly as great since. Hams alone reached the maximum in
1890, but have come in only one preceding year in greater
quantity than in 1880. For the first ten months of this year the
quantity was smaller than it was in the like period of 1890,
though the American supply was increased slightly. The open-
ing, this year, of three Kuropean countries—Germany, Franee,
and Italy—to American pork and bacon may help producers
in this country to some extent. The importation of live pigs is
practically extinct, only 347 having come to us in the ten
months ending with October. The greatest number received in
any year since 1860, and probably the maximum ever imported,
was 135,280, in 1865. There has been a talk of a great trade in
Russian bacon; but whether it will ever come to considerable
dimensions remains to be proved. So far as can be foreseen,
the course of competition in the future will continue to be mainly
dependent upon the possibilities of extended and cheap produe-
tion in America, and as the population of that country grows,
the chances are that exports will dwindle, especially if maize
becomes dearer. At the present time it is reported in American
papers that there will be less fattening than usual of pigs and
cattle alike during the winter if maize does not go down in
price.

It is not necessary to devote space to a lengthened consi- —
deration of competition in horses, because it is not breeders in
the United Kingdom who have to complain of it. The value of
our exports of horses greatly exceeds that of our imports, and
there is nothing in sight to reverse the proportion.

Turning to dairy products, the first fact which calls for
notice is a very striking one. Between 1876 (the first year for
which the total is given in the Agricultural Returns) and 1890
the increase in the number of cows and heifers in milk or in
calf in the United Kingdom was only 181,017. This year we |
have a further increase of 161,487; but in considering how

foreign competition has grown up to 1890, we are confronted
with the fact that, long before there was any complaint of de-
pression among our dairy farmers, they virtually mt

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 767

foreigners to contribute extensively to the supply of our increas-
ing population. The increase in cows has probably fallen short
of what it needed to be for supplying the growing consumption
of milk in the raw state, allowing the utmost for the improved
milking capacity of the cows. Moreover, there was only a small

' increase in the number of cows between 1876 and 1884, and
/ none at all between 1885 and 1890. It must be assumed that
_ the production of either butter or cheese, if not of both, is

smaller now than it was in 1876, because the consumption of
milk in its natural state has grown so greatly. For Great
Britain alone, the number of cows and heifers in milk or in calf
was 2,161,804 in 1870, and 2,537,990 in 1890, the increase
being 376,186, a very small one for twenty years. Our net
imports of butter, margarine, and cheese have been as follows :—

— | 1870 1880 1890

ew. ; cwt. ewt.
Butter . . ° 1,814,296
Margarine. . . } joni Saye 1,058,799
Cheese 4 “ + 1,016,087 1,764,094 2,036,824

—_——

Butter and margarine were not distinguished in the returns
before 1886; but it will be seen that, together, the net imports
of these commodities were more than doubled between 1870 and
1880, and that they increased by not far short of 600,000 ewt.
between 1880 and 1890. The decline in the increase in the
second decade shows that, during that period, our home supplies
increased to a small extent, unless there was a diminished con-
sumption per head of the population. Unfortunately there are
no satisfactory statistics of the prices of English butter in past
years, and those of imported produce, which are the most trust-

_ worthy for comparative purposes, are for butter and margarine

together upto 1885. Bearing in mind that margarine has been
coming in greater and greater quantity, as a rule, since it was

_ first introduced, the record of prices does not at all account for

the great increase in imports up to 1880. The average price of
the imports was exceptionally high in 1870; but in 1871 it was

_ 5, 4s., and between that year and 1876, when the average was

51. 17s. 1d., there was a regular advance. Then followed a
decline ; but still, in 1880, the price was 5d. more than in 1871,
and it was also higher in the next two years. As the increasing
proportion of margarine lowered the average, the price of butter
alone must have risen up to 1882. In 1886, for which year we
get the prices of butter and margarine separately, imported
butter averaged 5/, 5s. 5d, per cwt., and in 1889 it was 51. 6s. 3d.

9g

In 1890 there was a drop to 5/. 4s. 6d. No doubt this price for
butter only, compared with as much or more for butter and mar-
garine in earlier years, shows a considerable fall; but it does
not explain the increase in our imports up to 1884. If we take
the records of prices of Irish butter, we find that top prices were
never as high for any other series of years as they were from
1880 to 1884, or, indeed, from 1879 to 1885. Bottom prices
were lower than they had been as a rule for some years before
1879; but the averages remained high. Since 1885, however,
there has been a considerable fall, with fluctuations in different
years, the average for 1890 being the lowest, as far as the record
goes. For 1891, it is to be feared, the average will be lower still.
It is well known that spring and summer prices in
England have been very low for some years past; but the point
now under consideration is that we allowed foreigners to get a
good hold upon our markets at a time when butter sold remark-
ably well. The truth is that our dairy industry had been
scandalously neglected for many years before the recent revival
in it set in. Since then improvement has been rapid, and, with
dairy schools established, or about to be established, in every
county, it should be more rapid still in the future. If the fall
in the average price of English butter has been greater than
the fall in foreign butter, the fault is mainly one of an inferior
marketing system, for the best English butter is superior to any
that: we import, and its proportion is yearly becoming greater.
Why should fresh English butter be extremely cheap in the
summer, when, at the cheapest of times, none that is fit to be
eaten can be obtained at less than 1s. 4d. a pound in the suburbs
of London, while for the greater part of the year the price is
ls. 6d. to 1s. 8d.2 We are apt to attribute to foreign competi-
tion much that is really due to a wasteful system of distribution,
As to the future, [ see no reason why British and Irish
butter-makers should be beaten by Continental makers, who, at
present, are their chief competitors. The United States and —
Canada have been falling back in their supplies of butter in
recent years, having been cut out of our markets to a great
extent by Denmark, France, and Sweden. Among our Con-
tinental competitors France has made no steady progress, haying
sent us more butter in 1882 than in any subsequent year, while
Germany and Holland have contracted their supplies, though
the last-named country has favoured us with great quantities of |
margarine. Denmark and Sweden, on the other hand, have
made steady and great advances; but the Danes are dissatisfied —
with the prices obtained in our markets in 1890 and 1891. As
we raise the general quality of our butter, the opening for sup- |

|

768 The Future of Agricultwral Competition,

The Future of Agricultural Competition. 769

plies from Denmark, France, and Sweden will grow less. It is
only in organisation that the makers in these countries are
superior to our own; and that inequality we can remedy if we
take the necessary pains. If farmers in New Zealand and Aus-
tralia are satisfied with 21d. to 3d. a gallon for their milk, and
continue to supply the butter factories at these miserable rates,
their increasing export trade may grow to considerable dimen-
sions. New Zealand is one of the best countries in the world
for dairying, having pasture grass all the year round. But
hitherto butter has been sent to us from that Colony and Aus-
tralia only during the winter season, when it will keep well, and
when prices are high. Probably it could not be sent at a profit
in the late spring, summer, or early autumn.

Imports of cheese have varied in quantity considerably during
the last ten years, but reached the maximum in 1890. Nearly
all the increase is due to supplies from Canada, which have more
than doubled, while imports from the United States are smaller
than they were a few years back. Canadian makers have de-
served their success by supplying cheese of excellent quality.
On the other hand, the reputation of American cheese has suf-
fered greatly through the extension of the abominable practice
of extracting the cream, or part of it, from the milk, and sup-
plying its place with extraneous fats, making what is styled
“filled cheese.” Judging from the average values of imports,
the price of cheese has fallen since 1874, when it was 65s. per
cwt. The minimum was 42s. 9d. in 1879; but this caused a
great falling-off in imports, and the price rose to 57s. 4d. in
1880. After that year the average fell till it was only 44s. 4d.
in 1885, rising once more to 493. ld. in 1887, and falling to
46s. in 1890. The averages for British cheese have been higher,
no doubt, and the prices are quoted only to show comparative
values in different years. In hard cheese of the best quality
British makers are unrivalled, and in the supply of such cheese
they have no reason to fear future competition. Moreover, if
they would take the trouble, they might profitably engage in
the business of making some of the choice soft cheeses which we
now obtain from France.

The success of foreign competition in poultry and eggs is
partly owing to the mistaken contempt of British farmers for a
small, but. desirable, source of profit. The south of Ireland is
particularly well suited to the production of poultry and eggs,
the climate, as well as the great numbers of separate holdings,
being advantages which have been sadly neglected. The figures
given below show the increases of imports for the last two de-

VOL. I. T. S.—8 3E

770 The Future of Agricultural. Competition.

eades, though poultry and game are classed together, and yalnes
only are given :— s

at. 1870 1880 | 1890
Poultry and game ., . 158,482. 421,6457. 497,858/.
Eggs (thousands) . .| 430,842 | 747,409 1,234,949

The increase in imports of poultry during the last ten years
has not been great; but that of imports of eggs has been both
great and steady. Our system of distribution in respect of
poultry and eggs is a very bad one, the difference between the
prices paid by consumers and those received by producers being
inordinately great. An improvement in the marketing system
would greatly help home producers.

Growers of fruit in this country are now holding their own
well against their foreign competitors, and are likely to do so
better in future, as production under glass is increasing. With
the exception of apples, the imports of fruit consist chiefly of the
early produce of more sunny climes than ours, and it is only by
the more extensive use of glass houses that we can meet the
competition. Apples have come in greater and greater quantity,
as a rule, since 1882, when they were first separately returned.
Imports rose from 2,386,805 bushels in that year to 3,796,592
bushels in 1888, but have not been so plentiful since, because
the American crops have been deficient. This year, howeyer,
the supply is a large one. There are difficulties in respect of
planting fruit trees which cannot be entered into on the present
occasion. If they are surmounted, we can easily grow all the
apples we need. The system of marketing fruit, however, greatly
needs improvement.

Imports of hops have fallen off greatly since 1885, so that
the depression suffered by English growers recently cannot be
attributed to foreign competition. The growth of hops in Aus-
tralia has declined, and, although it has increased in America,
the increment in production, apparently, has not been much if
at all greater than that of the demand. The quality of English
hops is so exceptionally high that there appears to be no need to
fear the future of foreign competition in this product. |

On the whole, although there are possible dangers ahead
some of which have been noticed, while others may appea'
hereafter, there is good reason, in my opinion, to take a hopefu
view of the future of agricultural competition. One great fac”
tells unquestionably in favour of the producers of food: namely
that while the people to be fed are constantly increasing 1)

K

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 771

number, the area of land upon which the food can be produced
is a fixed quantity. It is true that the cultivated area goes on
inereasing, and must increase for generations to come; but we
have come to a time when the difficulties of opening up new
countries are much greater than they were twenty years ago.
The temperate zone is nearly all settled, while the growth of
common farm products in sub-tropical or semi-arctic regions is
attended with great risk. Farming will improve, in newly
settled countries especially, as in them there is the greatest
scope for improvement; and, consequently, the production of
food on a given area will grow greater than it is. But the
products will be obtained at an increased cost, so that the
needed increment will be forthcoming only under the impetus
of enhanced prices. For some time past the cultivators of the
soil have not had their fair share in the exchange of commodi-
ties and of the means of enjoying life. Although they have not
organised in trade unions, they have “ struck” nevertheless in
the most effective manner, by reducing the output of food with
which the world was glutted, and, in some countries, espe-
cially in America and our colonies, by flocking into the towns.
The result, I believe, will be a return of agricultural prosperity,
which will last as a rule, let us hope—though we cannot expect
it to be constant—at least as long as the one among us who
will live longest will be in the world to see it.
WILLIAM EH. Bear,

PROFIT-SHARING IN. AGRICULTURE.

THE subject of profit-sharing in agriculture has of late received
a considerable amount of public attention, and it is a noteworthy
fact that the Leader of the Opposition and the Leader of the
House of Commons have, within the last month, on two suc-
cessive days, given expression to their common conviction that
the system offers a better hope of strengthening the relations
between employer and employed, of remedying agricultural dis-
content, and of bringing about a moral and material improve-
ment in the individual circumstances of those engaged in the
production of wealth, than any other principle which has been
before the public. When statesmen of both political parties
speak of “ profit-sharing ” in terms so appreciative as those used
by Mr. Gladstone at Wirral on November 28, and by Mr.
Balfour at Huddersfield on November 30, the principle becomes

3B 2

As

“779 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

lifted out of the range of party politics, and may be discussed
impartially as a means-——and, as I venture to think, a very
potent means—for the improvement of agriculture in this
country.

There are two ways of wedding the labourer to the soil:
(1) by helping him to purchase a small holding through the
action of the State or otherwise ; (2) by allowing him to share
the profits which may be realised by the farm on which his
labour is employed.

In Northumberland, the material condition of the agricul-.
tural labourer is so far satisfactory that I cannot think of the
name of a single person of common-sense who has ventured to say
that the labourer’s position would be improved by being trans-
formed from a hind into a peasant proprietor. His condition,
in all material respects, when compared with that of the
owners and occupiers of very small holdings, is distinctly good.
Engaged from year’s end to year’s end at a regular upstanding

wage ‘of from 15s. to 16s. per week, from which no deduction i is
made on account of either holidays or sickness, enjoying, in
addition, the occupation of a good house and garden rent-free,
from 1,000 to 1,200 yards of potatoes, and the power on
many farms of having a cow kept for him throughout the year
at the rate of three shillings per week,! the agricultural labourer,
so far as his material condition is concerned, may well excite the
envy of the great majority of peasant proprietors: who, in return
for far greater toil, longer hours, and a more laborious existence,
are unable to command so large a proportion of those necessaries
and luxuries which go to make up the comfort of life.

1 So much importance is attached, and rightly attached, to the possession
of a cow by every household with a young family, that it may be intent
to those who are unacquainted with the customs of the North to know wha
are the privileges of a Northumbrian hind as regards a cow.

The farmer is ready, at the hind’s request, to provide a year’s keep and the
necessary accommodation for a cow, in return for the payment of 3s. or 48. a
week, For this sum the farmer allows the cow to run out at pasture in summer,
and in winter he gives the labourer a_ sufficient allowance of artificial
food.

The paeannee to the labourer of this arrangement is greater than may at
first sight appear. An average cow will give the labourer a gross income of 5s. to
6s. a week, or even more, and, over and above this, the hind has the skim milk
for his own use. He has, therefore, every inducement to try and obtain pos-
session of a cow. Many ‘of the Northumbrian hinds take advantage of this
privilege, when they have the money, to purchase a cow, and many more would |
do so if the necessary amount required to buy the cow could be obtained. On
the profit-sharing farms in Northumberland to which I am about to refer the
farm is prepared to advance to the hind, out of “ the reserve fund,” the money
required for the purchase of a cow, on arrangements being made to pay off the
loan by instalments, for which a lien on the cow and the undivided * bonus”
offer a sufficient security.—A. G,

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 773

I do not dispute that the proprietorship of a small holding
may be of advantage to a person who does not depend solely
upon it for the means of livelihood ; or that in the neighbour-
hood of towns, where there is a good market for the fruits of
spade-culture, and where favourable opportunities exist for the
obtaining of manure, the proprietorship of a small holding may
prove a good and paying business. But to suggest peasant
proprietorship as a means of improving the condition of the
Northumbrian agricultural labourer—as a means of restoring the
picturesque and much-regretted yeoman, who has been simply
flattened out by the pressure of economic forces—is to suggest
a remedy which is founded on nothing better than ignorance
and folly.

It is an economic truth, not less, but more, indisputable in
these days of improved machinery than in the days when Arthur
Young and McCulloch demonstrated the superiority of large over
small holdings for the purposes of profitable farming, that the
chances of profit rise in proportion to the size of a farm, its
size being regulated (1) by the amount of available capital that
can be obtained ; (2) by the amount of land which an individual
can manage in the best and most approved manner.

This being admitted—and it cannot be denied—it remains
for us to consider whether the potentialities which lie dor-
mant in the successful application of the profit-sharing system
to agriculture do not offer a better hope to the agricultural
labourer than anything which the State can be invited to do for
him,

Once it is admitted that large holdings yield greater profits
than small ones, the object of the agricultural reformer should
be to devise some plan which unites the advantages of the two
systems—some plan which is able to secure not only the
division of labour, the use of new and expensive machinery,
and the command of abundant capital, which can only be
obtained on large holdings, but the efficient individual labour,
which, on peasant proprietorships has, according to Arthur
Young, the power of transforming sand into gold.

It may be well to consider, before we proceed further, what
is implied by the term “ profit-sharing ” which Mr. Balfour puts
before us as an ideal to be aimed at.!

} “One method, and one method alone, appears to me to exist by which
all the benefits that people hope for from peasant proprietorship, and all the
advantages which are actually obtained by the system of large cultivation,
might be united. Only would this be possible if agriculture could be managed on
something like a co-operative system. The problem of our country districts
would, I believe, be solved if only we could associate the labourer with the
farmer. If only we could make them all sharers in the profits, as they are

774 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

It implies that the wage-earner shall share with his capit-
alist employer any profits which may remain, after labour and
capital have received their fair reward, after all the necessary
outgoings, such as rent, rates, and taxes eae been met, and after
a sufficient sum has Sean credited to the reserve waa deprecia-
tion fund. It means a partnership in the net profits, but nota
partnership in the management.

The object of the capitalist who applies the profit- -sharing
principle to the management of his business is to interest the
labourer in his work to such an extent as will cause him, of his
own accord, to do his utmost to prevent waste, to avert loss,
and to increase the efficiency of his own and of his fellow-
workers’ labour.

If the effect of the application of the profit-sharing principle
to an industry is to cause the worker to take an interest in the
economy and efficiency of his work, then, not only will the em-
ployer be likely to gain more than he will lose by the bonus he
may be called upon to divide among his labourers, but the very
fact that the labourers are all “sharers in the profits, as they
are sharers in the toil,” will help to establish a pleasant relation-
ship between employ er and employed which is in itself an
advantage of inestimable value.

The objection is frequently urged against the profit-sharing
principle that common fairness requires that any worker who
shares the profits of his capitalist employer should also share his
losses. The answer to this objection is conclusive.

The labourer in a profit-sharing business, where he has full
confidence in the honesty and ability of his employer, is nat
ally stimulated to show energy, punctuality, diligence, and
economy in his work by the prospect of a bonus on his wage. |
In good years it is only fair that he should receive increased |
remuneration for the better labour that he gives. In bad years,
when the balance-sheet shows a loss, the labourer—without any
deduction being made from his wage—is also a sharer of that loss,
for, although he has given better “labour, not only does he not
receive that extra reward to which his better labour entitles him,

sharers in the toil, I think we should have got to the end of our difficulties.
T am not going to suggest that as a plan of which I myself see the immediate
realisation. I know the insuperable difficulties which have occurred in apply-
ing the principle to manufactures ; and, though I do not despair of seeing it
applied both to manufactures and to agriculture, I have frankly to admit that
I do not think its realisation is one that we shall see in the immediate future. —
I put it before you as an ideal to be aimed at; I put it before. you as some-
thing which we should study; if so, it may be that we may reach it, and it
we each of us set ourselves to work in our own districts to solve this probl
I should not readily believe that the problem would be found to be insolub
—Mr, Balfour's speech at Huddersfield, November 30, 1891,

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 775

but he has to bear the disappointment which results from the fact
that the advantage to which he has perhaps been looking forward
for a year beforehand is not forthcoming.

Now, reason suggests, and experience has proved the sugges-
tion to be correct, that, if the profits of a farm are shared with the
labourers in such a way as to convince them that their interest
is bound up im the success of the farm, their labour will show
extra care and extra energy: there will be a diminution of waste
on the one hand and a more intelligent application of labour
on the other.

There are few agricultural experiments which have arrested
so much attention among educated men outside the agricultural
world as the very remarkable experiment of Mr. Vandeleur in
co-operative farming at Ralahine, co. Clare, during the years
1830-1833. A full account of the Ralahine farm is given in
Mr. Sedley Taylor’s book on “ Profit-Sharing,” in Mr. Pare’s
volume on “ Co-operative Agriculture,” and in a pamphlet by
Mr. E. T. Craig, the manager of Ralahine farm, entitled, “A
Remedy for Ireland.”

The most disturbed district in Ireland, in one of the most
disturbed periods of her history, conspicuous among other portions
of Ireland for the number of horrible murders and brutal outrages,
was rendered peaceful and contented in an incredibly short space
of time by the bold originality and enthusiasm of Mr. Vandeleur,
who, an ardent disciple of Robert Owen, resolved in 1830 to
apply the principle of co-operation to the cultivation of his estate.

At the time when Mr. Craig was called over from Lancashire
to organise the Ralahine farm on the co-operative principle, the
condition of that portion of County Clare in which Ralahine was
situated was as bad as it was possible to be. The “Terry Alt”
was in full blast, and the “ Lady Clare Boys” were in their
fiereest and most unrestrained humour. No soil could have been
more unpromising for an experiment which depended for its suc-
cess on mutual trust and goodwill between Mr. Vandeleur, his
agents, and the agricultural labourers.

The plan adopted was thus described in a paper read before
the British Association at Oxford in 1847 :—

“The plan adopted was the establishment of an association of labourers,
altogether without capital, to whom a certain quantity of land was entrusted
in common for cultivation; the landlord advancing the necessary stock,
farming implements, and providing dwellings, barns, and farm-buildings, &c.,
and receiving back the value of the rent of the land, and the interest at the
rate of 5 and 6 per cent. on the advances made and money expended, in the
= of the at the market price, the surplus to go to the common

mefit. The farm was cultivated by the labourers themselves, who were
paid in Labour Notes, which were payable in kind at a store on the pro-

+

perty ; such Notes being exchanged for money for the purchase only of such
necessary articles as the farm did not produce. Care was taken to exclude
objectionable characters by ballot of the members and, if necessary, by the
veto of the proprietor. The conditions of the holding were, that if the
stipulated amount of produce for rent and interest was not paid at the end
of the first year, or if the stock advanced deteriorated in quantity or value,
or the cultivation receded, then the proprietor should have power to take
back the farm into his own hands. The value of the produce required to
pay rent and interest was 900/. a year; the number of acres to be farmed
was 622—3826 of which were arable.”

776 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

The value of the experiment may be best appreciated by the
following quotation from Mr. Pare’s “Co-operative Agri-
culture ” :—

“<¢We formerly,’ said one of the labourers in speaking of their condition
when working under the direction of a steward, ‘had no interest either in
doing a great deal of work, doing it well, or in suggesting improvements, as
all the advantages and all the praise were given to a tyrannical taskmaster
for his attention and watchfulness. We were looked upon as merely
machines, and his business was to keep us in motion. For this reason it
took the time of three or four of us to watch him, and when he was fairly
out of sight, you may depend we did not hurt ourselves by too much labour;
but now that our interest and our duty are made to be the same, we haye
no need of a steward at all.’

“ Before the society was established the labourers conceived their own
interest opposed to that of their employers, and would attend to nothing
beyond their appointments for the passing moment. If a bullock broke over
a fence and trampled down the wheat, they would say, ‘It’s no business of
ours; let the herdsmen see to it;’ and thus the wheat was destroyed
because they got neither profit nor thanks for their extra trouble. They
conceived it to be their interest to encourage clandestinely the destruction
of property, believing that it would create a greater demand for their labour.
But after the society commenced, this order of things was reversed. A
single potato was by many of them very reluctantly wasted, for they found
that the conservation of the property was the saving of their own labour.
Thus the same faculty of mind—self-interest—produced opposite results
when surrounded by opposite controlling circumstances.”

If anything more were required to prove how great a trans-
formation was worked by the adoption of this principle, that
proof would be forthcoming in the resolution passed by the Rala-
hine labourers at the last general meeting of the association :—

“We, the undersigned, have experienced for the last two years con-
tentment, peace, and happiness, under the arrangements introduced by Mr.
Vandeleur and Mr. E. T. Craig. At the commencement we were opposed
to the plans proposed by them; but on their introduction we found our
condition improved, our wants more regularly attended to, and our feelings
towards each other at once entirely changed {rom jealousy, hatred, revenge,
to confidence, friendship, and forbearance.”

Unfortunately for Ireland, this most promising experi-
ment, which in two short years had benefited landowner and
labourers alike, had increased the rent, the rate of wages, and
the produce of the farm, and had caused “ drunkenness, disorder, |

|

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. “an

and want to give place to sobriety, peace, and comparative
independence,” was brought suddenly to an end in 1833 by the
| bankruptcy of Mr. Vandeleur, caused by heavy gambling losses.
The purchaser of Mr. Vandeleur’s Ralahine estate was a man of
| orthodox views, who ruthlessly put his foot upon a “new-
| fangled ” system, the virtues of which he was quite unable to
| appreciate.

But though the Ralahine experiment had proved in two
years that the temper and character of a district could be trans-
formed by the application of principles which made it to the
interest of the labourers that the farm on which they were
employed should prosper, there is no other instance, that I am
aware of, where a similar system, or even a modified plan of
profit-sharing, has been attempted in Ireland: a fact which is
much to be regretted when one reflects that the Ralahine ex-
periment accomplished—to quote Mr. Craig once more—‘ what
neither statesmen, soldiers, magistrates, nor political economists,
with all their science, gunnery, preachments, warrants, councils,
and coercion, could effect.”

It was wittily said, in the same volume from which these
facts have been gleaned, that an Irishman will either carry you
on his back or lay you on your own, as you may treat him.
The Ralahine experiment proved, to the common benefit of all
parties—of the landowner, of the labourers, and of the State—that
the same Irishmen who were thirsting for this latter satisfaction
competed for the former so soon as they understood that their
interests were bound up in those of their employer.

The other well-known text-book instances of profit-sharing
experiments in agriculture are taken from Germany, and I
cannot do better than quote from the description of the most
interesting experiment conducted by Herr Von Thiinen, on his
estate, Tellow near Teterow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which is
given by Mr. Sedley Taylor in his book on “ Profit-Sharing :—”

“To all his regularly employed workpeople occupying cottages on the
estate he assigned, over and above ordinary wages paid at the full rate
current in the neighbourhood, a share in the profits of farming.

_ “If after deduction of all outgoings the profits exceeded 825/., each parti-
cipant was to haye one-half per cent. of the surplus above this amount.
hen, on the contrary, the assigned limit was not attained, the deficit was
to be made good out of the next year’s surplus. The number of bene-
ficiaries, including bailiff, schoolmaster, cartwright, &c., was twenty-one.

“ The individual share in profits was not paid in cash, but credited to a
Savings account. On the sum therein standing, Herr von Thiinen paid 42
se cent. interest, which was handed over each year in the form of a cash

onus at Christmas, Only at sixty years of age could a participant draw
the capital sum accumulated for him. Should he die sooner, it passed to
his widow, subject in some cases to partial settlement upon children.

778 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. ,

“The above arrangement is still in force, with no important change, saye
that the sum above which participation begins is now 900/., instead of 825),
Herr von Thiinen’s son, and his grandson, Herr A. yon Thiinen, the present
proprietor, both had full power to abolish the system, but they preferred to
retain it.

“Herr A. von Thiinen expressed the following opinion of the general

results of the system followed at Tellow, in a letter to Professor Bohmert,
dated May 25, 1887 :—

“« The institution has approved itself and borne the fruits which my grand-
father hoped from it, at least with the majority of our people; exceptions
are, of course, to be met with here as everywhere. The share in profits
retains the people on the estate, as, if they quit it, they do not receive their
capital, but only the interest upon it. It creates common aims for the pro-
prietor and the labourers, and so brings about a better understanding
between the two parties. At the outset most of the people were, I believe,
somewhat dissatisfied because their share was not paid over in cash. But
by slow degrees, as the capital of individuals grew, they recognised the
excellence of the system on this point also, for with many of them the
interest which they receive in an ordinary year exceeds the share of profits
annually allotted to them.’ ”

Another most encouraging and hopeful experiment in profit-
sharing farming, mentioned in Mr. Sedley Taylor’s book, is that
started in the neighbourhood of Berlin in 1874 by Herr Jahnke.
He agreed to divide among the labourers half the net profits
which might remain after all the expenses had been paid, in-
cluding the remuneration that he was to receive for the use of his
capital and for supervision. ‘The result of this arrangement was
that each associated labourer received on an average 521. 3s. in
money during each of the three years 1872-75, a time when
the highest annual earnings of agricultural labourers in the
German Empire was 33/. 4s. This promising experiment was,
unfortunately, brought to an end in 1877, owing to the fact that
Herr Jahnke was boycotted by his neighbours, to whom his
experiments appeared most objectionable.

With these brilliant examples of what the profit-sharing
principle has accomplished in Ireland and Germany, it is a
matter for wonder that so few serious attempts have been made
to apply this principle in England.

I have not had the opportunity of finding out what profit-
sharing experiments are being conducted at the present time in
this country, for the short time at my disposal has made it im-
possible for me to treat this subject with the completeness it
deserves. But, judging from the notices in the press, it would
appear that, from one cause or another, there is an increasing
number of landowners who are taking in hand considerable
portions of their estates, and are applying to their cultivation
that principle which Mr, Balfour says is the ideal we should
ever keep in view.

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 779

Mr. Boyd Kinnear, in a letter to the Agricultwral Gazette of

November 30, states that some five or six years ago he was

obliged, owing to the drop in rents, to take some of his farms in
hand in the county of Fife. He felt that there was a want of a
bond of common interest between master and man. He, there-
fore, told his employés that he would give to them, in addition
to the wages current in the market, a bonus in the shape of a
percentage upon their wages, out of profits which might remain
after he had received a sum equal to the reduced rent which a
tenant would give, besides interest on his capital and a salary

| for superintendence and direction.

The profits ascertained after making these payments he

_ divides between his labourers and himself in the proportion of

the market value of their respective interests—theirs being

| represented by wages—his by rent and interest on capital.

The second year he was able to distribute a bonus of 3
per cent. on their wages; the third year one of 5 per cent.; the
fourth year a similar bonus. In respect of the current year, he
fears that, owing to the shortness of the crops on account of
summer drought, there may be a reduction; but he hopes that
the figures may gradually tend to rise, instead of fall, as time
goes on. Mr. Boyd Kinnear concludes his letter by observing :-—

“T cannot say that this system has made my servants work better, for I

have already said they worked faithfully and well before it. But it has, I
think, established a sympathy between us, a sense of joint interests, a feeling

_ of ‘being all in the same boat,’ a recognition that they are dealt with fairly

and equitably (possibly, perhaps, generously), which has brought an ample
reward in pleasant relations, anxiety to do the best to guard against any
mischances, and to fall in with my wishes as to any new methods or experi-
ments which I desire undertaken, I can turn my back, or even leave home
for weeks, with perfect confidence that the same care will be exercised (to
the best of the ability and powers of observation) asif I were present. And
as I cannot afford the luxury of a manager under me this item is a very
great comfort. In short, while we are still in the relation of master and
seryants, we have become in the best sense of the word co-operators—and I
think friends.”

Lord Wantage is also applying profit-sharing principles,
with considerable advantage to his employés, toa large Bonanza
farm of 4,900 acres in Berks: 1,900 acres of this large farm,
which has been formed by the gradual consolidation of several
smaller ones, are permanent pasture, the balance being arable.

Lord Wantage engages the labourers at the current wages
in the market, the only difference between the labourers on his
farm and other labourers being that on his farm he is in the
habit of distributing a portion of the profits among his em-
ployés, should they exceed a certain figure.

The farm accounts are audited by Messrs. Kemp, Ford & Co.,

OE ——SCS

_
780 Profit-Sharing tn Agriculture.

the well-known firm of London accountants, who have instruc
tions to charge the farm, first, with interest at 34 per cent., then
with rent and tithe, and to show what credit balance there is
after these charges have been paid. Without making any
engagement to share this net profit with the labourers, Lord
Wantage has, roughly speaking, set apart one-third, to be given
in the form of bonus.

The bonus given to each man on the farm for the year
ending Michaelmas, 1891, amounts to 3/., which is, as nearl
as possible, 10 per cent. on their wages. This is the fifth
bonus which Lord Wantage has been able to distribute.

In a letter received from Lord Wantage, he says—

“The bonus of 3/7. goes a long way towards paying the house-rent—in
many cases covers it—and in cases where father and sons live in the same
cottage it greatly exceeds it. But the advantage of the bonus is chiefly
found in the increased interest which it promotes in the men’s minds in the

work of the farm, and in the improved relationship between the labourer
and his employer.”

And his bailiff, Mr. Eady, writes—

“T am satisfied the system has done good amongst the labourers, and
makes them take an interest in all the operations of the year.”

Lord Spencer is likewise making an interesting experiment,
but upon more democratic lines. He has rented the Glebe
Farm at Harleston, 296 acres, as tenant from year to year, at
the yearly rent of 425/., and he provides the capital that is
required for stocking and working the farm. The labourers,
who are employed at the market rate of wages, are allowed to
haye a voice in the management through an elected consultative
committee, which has the right to confer with the manager on
all points connected with the farm.

On this farm, after the rent and interest at the rate of 4
per cent. have been paid, 75 per cent. of the profits are devoted
to a reserve fund, until the capital which has been advanced by
Lord Spencer has been repaid. This experiment began in
1886, and although since that time no profit has been made,
Lord Spencer is hopeful that the experiment will in time prove
a success.

On the Castle Howard estate, Lady Carlisle is applying the
métayage! system. The occupiers pay one-third of the proceeds

1 “ Métayage ” is defined by Count de Gasparin, a very famous French agri-
culturist, as “a contract by which, when a tenant has not capital or credit
enough to guarantee the payment of the rent and the advances of the owner,
the latter deducts the rent by proportional parts of the harvest of each year,
in such manner that the arithmetical mean of these annual portions repre-
sents the value of the rent.” It is, in fact, a method of cultivation in“ which
the soil is cultivated by an association between the owner and tenant (who

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 781

of all sales to Lady Carlisle, who pays the rent and taxes.
This one-third of the produce is said to amply cover the rent,
rates, and interest on the proportion of working capital (two-
thirds of the whole) advanced by Lady Carlisle. It is claimed
‘that by this arrangement the farmer is enabled to sell every-
thing that is desirable to market, whenever a favourable oppor-
tunity offers, instead of being obliged to dispose of stock and
produce when rent-day draws near, whether the markets are
favourable or not. He has every inducement to economise
| labour, because he has to pay for it out of his own pocket; he
-has every inducement to raise maximum crops, because the
larger the yield the greater his share. Lady Carlisle, having
an interest in every crop and in all stock sold, has every induce-
ment to encourage her partner. It is easy to see that any

‘improvement of a permanent character would result in an

increase of produce which each partner would share.
In Northumberland I am farming on the profit-sharing system

3,765 acres—1,290 permanent pasture, 2,475 arable. This

is called the “ métayer”), the products being shared between the two accord-
ing to arrangements previously agreed upon. Earl Cathcart, in his memoir of
Sir Harry Meysey Thompson in Vol. X. of the Journal (1874), happily de-
scribed métayage as the “ half-holder” system.

In reply to an inquiry, Mons. J. Laverriére, the accomplished librarian of
the Société Nationale d’Agriculture de France (the French Academy of Agri-
culture), writes: ‘“‘ The system known as métayage is as old as the world, having
been practised by the Romans. It is still frequent in Italy, Spain, and France.
Butif I mistake not, it is only in the latter country that an endeavour has been

_ made by new combinations to revive and modernise it. Attempts in this direc-

tion have been made during the last twenty or thirty years, which have caused
some stir. It is this, no doubt, which has given persons who are not au cowrant
with the history of métayage the impression that it had to do with co-operative
agriculture, or co-operative agricultural association in production, of the same

_ kind as the industrial co-operative associations of production as established in

England and some other countries. Attacked in France by the partisans of

_ farm tenancies at a rent, métayage has nevertheless constantly found enthu-

siastic defenders, even amongst our most illustrious agriculturists. Thus the
Count de Gasparin, one of our agriculturists as remarkable for his science as
for his technical experience, has devoted to métayage a special work published
about 1830. This can still, notwithstanding its age, be consulted with profit.
M. Leonce de Layvergne examined this method of cultivation in his “ Rural
Economy of France,’ the complement of his ‘‘ Rural Economy of England”;
and M. Emile de Laveleye, the eminent Belgian economist, has also studied the
subject. But it is especially the favourable results obtained by application of
this system to his domain at Theneuille (Allier) by M. Louis Bignon, that have
latterly restored to métayage a certain amount of popularity. Some interest-
ing particulars are given in this subject in a paper in the Memoirs of the
Société Nationale d’Agriculture de France for 1870-71. A further reference
is made, in the Memoirs for 1875, to métayage in the South of France.
Métayage is practised in Brittany, in the Beaujolais vineyards, in the ordinary
cultivation of the Dombes (Ain), and in the pastures of Limousin. It is a
system which has a certain elasticity, since it is applied in the most diverse
circumstances, and in localities so far distant from one another as the places
named above,”—Ep,

. 782 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

acreage is divided between three farms situated in different parts
of the county. One farm—Chevington Moor, of 403 acres—is a
heavy clay farm, thrown upon my hands in 1888 like a squeezed
orange, with all the fertility sucked out of it by bad and penur-
ious farming. Through generous applications of Newcastle
Corporation manure, this farm, which has not yet made a profit,
is gradually coming round; and I hope soon to be able to show
a balance-sheet which will be as satisfactory to the workers as
to me.

In the year 1886 I applied the profit-sharing principle to
the home farm at Howick ; since which time I have been able, ow
three occasions, to distribute among the employés a bonus of
sixpence in the pound on wages earned, as their share of the
profits, and the prospects of next year’s balance-sheet are, ab
this moment, encouraging.

In the same year I also entered into the occupation of Hast
Learmouth Farm, which is popularly known in Northumberland
as ‘The Profit-Sharing Farm,” and which has been the subject
in the local press of considerable recent controversy. The
outgoing tenant had insisted, as a condition of continuing
the occupation of the farm, upon an increased reduction o
rent, over and above the reduction of 8s, 8d. an acre (from
42s. 7d. to 33s, 11d.) to which the rent had fallen when he
entered the farm in 1882. His request not having been acceded
to, the management of the farm came into my hands. It isa
farm of 821 acres, 122 acres of which are permanent pasture
and the balance arable.

The nature of the soil is a good loam, and it enjoys the repu-
tation of being one of the best turnip and barley farms in North-
umberland. The knowledge of what had been done at Ralahine
and in the German experiments to which I have already referred,
coupled with a profound disbelief in the soundness of the “ three
acres and a cow ” proposals, caused me to gladly take advantage
of the opportunity, which the occupation of East Learmouth farm
afforded me, of making a good practical experiment of the way
in which the profit-sharing principle might operate to the
advantage of the agricultural labourer.

My first desire was, to establish the principle upon a basis —
which, from its obvious fairness and from the advantage which
it offered to both employer and employed, might tempt other
employers to apply it to their respective industries. It seemed
to me that the profit-sharing principle, to be absolutely fair and
unassailable from every quarter—whether capitalist or labourer,—
should demand that the net profits which might remain, after
labour had received its market rate of wages and capital its

q

| Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 783
fixed rate of interest, and other necessary deductions for depre-
ciation and reserve had been made, should be divided between
labour and capital in proportion to the money value of the
services rendered by each—i.e., if an industry were to pay
1,000. to the labourers for the use of their labour, and 5001.
| to the capitalist for the use of his capital, then two-thirds of
the net profits should go to labour and one-third to capital.
|'This principle, which I observe has been adopted by Mr. Boyd
Kinnear, was laid down by the late Monsieur Godin of Guise
} as one which was demanded by expediency no less than by
| justice. 4
The only consideration which prevented my applying to
East Learmouth this principle of division, which still appears
| to me to be the fairest principle which has yet been formulated,
_ was that in this particular instance of Learmouth Farm the
proportions would have been the other way, since, inasmuch as
the farm pays twice as much in the shape of rent and interest as
it does in the shape of wages, only one-third of the net profits
would have been available for the employés. I was afraid that
the prospects of advantage held out to them by this proportion
would have appeared so small that they would not have had
sufficient inducement to co-operate with me in the way I
wished in an endeavour to make the experiment a success.

So I thought the best way to accustom them to the principle
of profit-sharing, and to make them realise its advantages, would
be to adopt the simplest possible form of division, and, after the
fixed charges of rent and interest had been met and a certain
percentage of profits had been paid to a reserve fund, to divide
any surplus profits that might remain in equal proportions
between them and me, the half going to labour being divided
among them in proportion to the wages earned by each.

Acting upon this principle, I was able to give to the workers
for the year ending May 12, 1888, a bonus of Is. in the pound,
or an increase of 5 per cent. upon their wages. For the year
ending May 12, 1889, the profits only amounted to 291.,
which sum was placed to reserve, being too small to admit of
an appreciable bonus being distributed. For the year ending
May 12, 1890, the workers received a bonus of 1s. 14d. in the
pound, or an increase upon their wages of 54 per cent.

For the year ending May 12, 1891, the profits amounted
to 191/. In the division of this sum I adopted a somewhat
different plan. Before I proceeded to the division of profits
between labour and capital, I took 25 per cent., or 471. 18s. 6d.,
and added it to the reserve-fund. I next put aside another 25
per cent., or 47/. 18s. 6d., for the reward of management. This

Ls

was only fair, as there was no question of a doubt about the
fact that the satisfactory condition of the farm was due to the
admirable management of the bailiff, Mr. Fox. I accordingly
gave two-thirds of the sum allotted to the management, or
dll. 19s., to Mr. Fox, the manager, and divided the remainin:

one-third, viz., 15/. 19s. 6d., in equal proportions between the
steward and the herd.

I then proceeded, having placed 25 per cent. to reserve and
25 per cent. to management, to divide the remainder in equal
halves between labour and capital. 471. 18s. 6d. went in this
way to capital as increase of rent, and 47/. 18s. 6d. to the
labourers as increase of wages, thus enabling the labourers
to receive for the year ending May 12, 1891, a sum of ls. 3d,
on every pound earned, or an addition to wages of 6} per cent.

The net results of my five years’ occupation of Kast Learmouth,
from May, 1886, to May, 1891—a period which has experienced
one very bad harvest (that, namely, of 1888) and during which
the range of the average price of wheat, barley, and oats has
been lower than in any similar period since 1790—are as
follows :—

The rent of 1,431/. and interest on capital at the rate of 4
per cent. have been paid with unfailing regularity ; 1630. 5s. 11d.
has been given in bonuses to the employés on the farm,
148/. 2s. 7d. has been paid as additional interest on capital,
and a reserve fund has been formed which at the present
time amounts to 1821. 8s. 43d.

This Reserve Fund exists for the benefit of the farm :-

1. It will serve as a fund from which can be drawn in
bad years the sum required to make up the annual —
charges of rent and interest.

2. It will serve as a fund from which can be drawn
superannuation allowances for aged and disabled
servants who have grown old and feeble in the
service of the farm.

3. It will also serve as a fund, if the continued success
of the farm allows its resources to incréase, from
which money can be drawn when it is required for
any object which seeks to promote the general well-
being of the employés on the farm.

The legal position of the labourers towards me is the same
as that of every other agricultural labourer towards his employer.
They have no voice in the management of the farm, and no
power to interfere. But while I do not allow them to interfere
in any way with the management, the fact that I employ Mr.
Cleghorn—a most excellent accountant and the son-in-law of

784 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 785

the manager, and the son and brother of other employés on the
farm—to keep the books of the farm, and to draw up the annual
‘balance-sheets, is accepted by them as perfect and sufficient
security that their interests are properly safe-guarded.
| I pay them the current wages of the market, and reserve to
| myself the right to withhold from them the bonus in the event
of misconduct, and to dismiss them from the farm at the end of
every year. I have informed them that this is a right which
_I will unsparingly exercise whenever I am convinced that any
| of the hands have, by misconduct, or by careless and slovenly
| work, proved themselves undeserving of the privileges which
are only intended for those who show by their conduct that
| they are worthy to possess them.
The working of this experiment has been so satisfactory
| that I have added to East Learmouth the adjcining farm of
| West Learmouth, with an area of 942 acres; and from May 12
| last these combined farms have been worked as one undertaking.
It should be added that if the gross profits for any one year
| should fail to pay rent and interest on capital, the deficit must
| be made good out of the net profits of succeeding years before
_ any bonus can be distributed.
| It now remains to explain shortly the @ priori reasons why,
even if there were no reassuring examples, such as those to
which I have referred, it is desirable that landowners and
farmers should apply the profit-sharing principle to the cultiva-
tion of their farms. Its great virtue consists in this, that it
utilises a valuable waste human product, which in that part
of England with which I am best acquainted is at present absc-
lutely lost.

It was well said by Mr. Marshall, in his inaugural address
at the Co-operative Congress at Ipswich in 1887, that great as
were the fortunes which had been realised out of the waste
products of gas-works and soda-works, in the world’s history
there had been one waste product so much more important than
all the others, that it had the right to be called the waste pro-
duct. He was referring to the unused abilities of the working-
classes—to the latent, undeveloped, choked-up, and wasted
faculties for better work, which lie dormant and unused for lack
of opportunity, or of interest to awaken them and bring them
into life.

Those who are conversant with the inner life of the North-
umbrian hind are aware that one most unfortunate result of
the yearly labour contracts which obtain in Northumberland is
that the great majority of the agricultural labourers take no inter-
est in the business of their lives. Their only object when

VOL. II. T, S.—-8 oF

786 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

engaged upon their work is, to quote the language ot one of —
my own employés, “ to fetch the night.”

There is, of course, that incentive to good work wide comes
with the hope of rising in his profession and of becoming a
bailiff; but that is an incentive which appeals only to those who
are above the average of their fellows in character and effi-
ciency. ‘There is also the motive which causes every self-respect-
ing man to take an interest in his work—namely, that of satis-
fying his own conscience; but the men who give extra attention
to their work simply to satisfy their own high standard of duty are,
I fear, still in a very small minority, and I am speaking of the
great majority when I say, that under the present system which
prevails generally over Northumberland and the Lothians, there
is no sufficient incentive to cause a man to put brains and
energy into his work.

The relation between the amount of his wages and the pro-
sperity of the farm is so faint and remote as not to weigh with
him at all. It matters not to him whether the harvest be good
or bad; it makes no difference to his wage. So long as his
employer’s solvency is assured, it is no concern of his whether
the farm prospers or not. If he likes his: house,-his employer,
and his fellow-labourers, and he wishes to remain on the farm,
there is the natural inducement to work well enough not to be
turned off at the end of the year. But this inducement cannot
be said to be very powerful, for even when young men do not
prefer, after four or five years of full hind’s work, to leave
agriculture for the more stimulating company and excitement of
the towns, families seem to like the change and variety which
are provided by migrating from one farm to another every second
or third year. The consequence is that there is little or no
inducement provided by the healthy stimulus of self-interest for
the agricultural labourers to concern themselves about the
efficiency of their labour.

The fact that the success or failure of the farm on which
a hind is employed makes not one atom of difference to him
must have a most seriously depressing influence upon, him. It
must tend to make him profoundly indifferent as to the character
of his work. Instead of his faculties being constantly sharpened
by the spur of self-interest, they are not called into play. The
brain, for lack of exercise, loses half its power, the bright face
in time assumes the expression of settled vacancy, the arm
grows heavy and the step slow, and gradually the hind loses all
the glowing promise of his boyhood, as he develops the wooden
inefficiency of the automaton, and the qualities which _ have
earned for him the sobriquet of “‘ Hodge,”

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 787

his is the great fact to which landowners and farmere
should turn their attention. The greatness of loss occasioned
by the waste of brains and energy should urge them to inquire
vhether there do not exist methods by which it can be saved.

The common criticism in Northumberland of the Learmouth
cheme is that while a landowner may be able to give a bonus
+o his labourers, that act of generosity is not within the farmer's
seach. These critics have failed, through want of imagination,
pr want of thinking, to grasp the fact that just as the applica-
ion of manure to the soil brings into life and makes active
he dormant powers of the land, so the effect of the profit-sharing
orinciple, when it is so applied as to cause the labourers to
-ealise that half of the profits netted after a certain limit has
te reached belongs to them, is to save the waste of human
thought and energy, and thereby to create a fund out of which
he bonus can be paid.

Those who have a practical acquaintance with the details of
arming know from painful experience how serious is the loss
vhich is caused to a farm through careless and indifferent
abour. I have heard the remark from more than one farmer
hen talking of his labourers: “If the gateposts were 100 yards
part, they would run up their carts against one of them, sure
snough.” This example may be taken as an instance of the
oss which is occasioned in all the operations of the farm by that
vant of care which is caused by lack of interest. Where the
1eart is not in the work, there will be daily waste and daily loss
of opportunity. Where the heart is in the work—because
self-interest is in it also—we have the greatest security that
1uman ingenuity can provide, that every man will be a bailiff unto
limself.

It is, of course, difficult to assess the value of the difference to
. farmer between a good workman and a bad one. But it is
vident that loss and injury to the farmer follow the trail of the
areless man from morning untileve. ‘Take an illustration from
he field. In ploughing the lea to prepare an even and proper
eed-bed for the oat crop, as is the custom in the North, a
ad or careless ploughman may be the means of causing loss
—at the present price of oats—of from ll. to 2l. per acre.
f the land is ploughed correctly, each furrow slice will be of
miform thickness, and lie easily upon the other at the same
niform angle, “presenting crests in the best possible position
or’ the action of the harrow.”

.
ae weg eee ore

8r2

~ 788 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

If the land be ploughed in such a way as to give this result-
a task which requires a skilled hand, a correct eye, and a thoroug
command over the team of horses—an even seed-bed will
secured, no seed will be lost, and the crop will germinate a
ripen all at the same time.

If, however, by bad and careless ploughing, the ribbons ¢
soil turned over by the plough vary in their thickness, and in
the angles in which they fall upon each other, then much
seed corn is lost by falling in between the ridges and becomin
buried, and the seed which is not lost fallmg upon an uneyei
seed-bed germinates and ripens irregularly, with the result that
the crop will contain a large proportion of light and unprofitabl
corn.

Agricultural experts calculate that in this one farming
operation alone, a careless and uninterested workman may caus
loss to the farmer at the rate of from ten to twelve bushels «
acre. Again, instead of cutting the furrow clean out (thu

OP in the bottom and ploughing at an even dep

throughout, a careless hind may, by raising the right ha
“stilt” for greater ease, cause the bottoms of the furrows |

appear thus _Miiyiym , with the result that on

the right-hand side of every furrow the soil may only be 3 in. ¢
4 in. deep instead of 6 in. or 7 in., and by not keeping the dep
even throughout the length of the furrow, it will show in this way

|

eS

Again, in sowing corn, an unskilful man may scatter the
seed in patches instead of evenly, and by not paying attention
may overlap when walking up and down the ridges. , The corn
will come up too thin in some places and too thick in others.
Where too thick the straw will be weak and be more liable to

lodge, and the grain will in all probability be inferior in quality 4

It is unnecessary to follow the corn, crop through all its
stages, but it would be easy to show that at every point loses
the farmer is the consequence of careless and indifferent labour.
The careless man will break his plough and smash his reaper,
causing expense to the farmer and stoppage to the tillage opera
tions at a moment wheu minutes, owing to the changeablene

|

\f the weather, have a positively golden value, under circum-
tances where a careful hand would have gone on the “even
enour of his way” without a break or check.
_ And in the stackyard, as in the field, the same difference
yetween a good and bad worker will be easily observed. The
zood stacker will keep his stack well filled in the centre, and
will give his sheaves a slope up towards the centre, by doing
which he will make the stack perfectly water-tight, so that it will,
sven without a covering, point the rain which may fall upon it
as efficiently as ‘any umbrella. But to raise a stack like this
requires care and skill and trouble. A lazy and careless stacker
finds it easier to lay his sheaves in an almost horizontal
position; when the stack settles, the slope resembles the gradient
of the saucer not of the umbrella—the trend is downwards from
the circumference to the centre, not upwards: and the loss is of
course enormous.
_ In the management of animals, even those who know nothing
f farming operations will be aware that profit or loss will
depend in great measure upon the patience and care of the man
in charge. Every farmer knows of some valuable animal which
has been lost simply through the idle carelessness of the hind.
After a hot piece of work a favourite mare has been left to
“starve” too long in some position exposed to the north-east
wind, with the result that she dies of inflammation, and straight
fly 701. to 801. out of the pocket of the farmer.

At Howick, in the course of a not very long period, four or
five horses which have been employed in dragging fallen timber
out of the plantations have been lost through the carelessness
of the hinds, who neglected to make them fast, and thus allowed
them to fill their stomachs with the poisonous yew. The rule,
which now exists at Howick, that any man who loses a horse
through this cause, will also lose his bonus, will, it is hoped,
prevent a repetition of a similar calamity.

Enough has now been said to show how great is the loss
that may be sustained by a farmer, who is served by unintelli-
gent and careless labour. But while it is impossible to estimate
the damage done to a farmer by a careless man, or to measure the
increased value of the work of a labourer who realizes that his
interest is bound up in the farm, over that of a labourer who
has no interest in the produce of his industry, we have some
guide in the experience of large employers as to the diffesence
in the value of the labour of a man paid by the piece and of a
man paid by time.

Sir James Kitson, speaking of mechanics, says: “The man
paid by the piece will do one-third as much—or 33 per cent.

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 789

- 790 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

more-—than the man paid by time.” Sir William Gray, sk
builder at West Hartlepool, says: “ While a rivetter’ s day
is 6s. 8d., he can earn 11s. when paid by piece.” Aad
James Laing, of Sunderland, also speaking of rivetters, gives
it as his opinion that the man paid by the piece is 70 per ce nt
more efficient than the man paid by time.

According to the census of 1881, there were in the county
of Northumberland at that time 11 710 agricultural labourers, an id
in the whole of England and Wales, 870,798.

Supposing it were possible to apply to the farms of Northum
berland some principle which, when applied to the mechanical
and shipbuilding industries, increases the efficiency of labour
from 33 per cent. to 70 per cent., it will be seen at a glance
what is lost to agriculture by the want of such a system.
that we can increase the efficiency of the labourer, by admitting
him to a share in the profits, not by 70 or 33 per cent. , but only
by a modest 10 per cent., and we at once put upon the soil gl
Northumberland an increased force equal to 1,170 men, and o
the land of England and Wales an additional army of 87,0
labourers !

There is another feature to which I must shortly
because it supplies interesting evidence of the manner in Ww
when once a right principle is applied to industrial enterp
it haymonises in ways totally unexpected with existing soci
arr, angements. It is well known that the effect of moder
legislation has been to put into the hands of those household 7
who pay no rates and few taxes the power of rating the own
to any extent they please. When one class levies the taxes a
another pays them, all the conditions are at hand for the p pI
duction of injustice, turmoil, and discontent. Ep

The profit-sharing pr inciple helps to put this right. Ont
farms where the system is applied, the labourers are as
interested as any owner in the economy of local administra 01
or, rather, | should say, more deeply interested, inasmuch as th
pressure of the rate falls more heavily upon them in proportion
to their income than it does upon men of greater means. hi
will be evident when I point out that if no rates had been ley
off East Learmouth, the profits for last year would have be en
501. 6s, 1d. higher than they were. ‘There would have bean

121. 11s. 6d. more to reserve.

12]. 11s. 6d. more to management.
121. 11s, 6d. more to capital.

12/. 11s. 6d. more to labour.

In the distribution of profits, labour would have eel
entitled to 602. 10s. 1d. instead of 471. 18s. 7d., and each hin

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 791

instead of receiving a total, including bonus and wage, of
581. 17s. 2d., would have received 54/. 14s. Od.—an addition
of 16s. 10d. That is to say, the aforesaid hind paid the local

_ rates a sum of 16s. 10d., equal to about 4d. in the pound.

Supposing the local rates had been as high during the year

| ending May 12, 1891, as they were the first year after I entered

| East Learmouth farm, we should have been called upon to pay

to the rate collector 45/. more than we have actually paid. In

that case the hind in question would have paid an additional

| 14s. 11d., or 1/. 11s. 9d. in all, to the local rates, equal to 7d.
_ per pound upon his wage of 54. 14s.

I have now brought forward sufficient evidence of the success
which has attended past and present experiments in the applica-
tion of the profit-sharing principle to agriculture to induce some
landowners, I trust, to make further experiments on their own
estates. Itis for them to give the lead. There is nothing to
prevent tenant-farmers from applying the principle with equal
success to their own farms, but it is unreasonable to expect that
they will be the first to show the way. The principle requires
extremely accurate bookkeeping, and I regret to think that the
practice of scientific and accurate bookkeeping is among them
the exception and not the rule. I am glad, however, to believe
that the number of farmers who keep careful accounts of all
their farming operations is growing steadily year by year. It
is to be hoped that some of them, when a few more experiments
have proved that the profit-sharing system is as beneficial to
the employer as to the labourer, will be tempted to put the
principle into operation on their own holdings: but at present
they regard, and for some little time to come we must expect
that they will regard, a profit-sharing plan as something which
is not for them. Even if they felt so inclined, they might be
deterred from adopting it by the not unnatural dread that their
landlords, knowing what profit they make, might be tempted to
increase the rent.

Apart from this consideration, however, the tenant-farmer
argues that he is in a position of disadvantage compared with
the landowner in applying this principle. The landowner
who farms his own land can easily obtain what capital is
required at 34 per cent. to 4 per cent., because in his case the
interest on the borrowed capital is a first charge on the profits
of the farm—e.g., at East Learmouth the rent paid annually is
1,430/., while the charge for interest on the capital invested at
4 percent. amounts to only 200/. The security is obviously
first rate: it would not be easy to find a better. Money can

792 Profit-Sharing in Agriculture.

be obtained on mortgage at 34 per cent. where there is a 50 per
cent. margin. Here the cover is over 700 per cent. A fairly
solvent landowner, therefore, should have no difficulty in bor-
rowing for this purpose what money he requires at exceptionally
low rates of interest. But a farmer who has to pay his rent
before he receives any interest on the capital invested in the
farm is very differently situated.

The working capital of the farm is now degraded from an
exceptionally safe preferred position, to one that is highly risky,
and when the character of the risk is considered, no one will
dispute the right of the tenant-farmer to claim at least 10 per
cent. But just as the tenant is entitled to receive 10 per cent.
upon his capital, where the landowner is content to receive
4 per cent., because the tenant’s interest is a deferred and not
a preferential charge, so the landowner, when he takes a farm
in hand, ought to receive a higher rent than he can obtain
from a tenant in order to compensate him for the extra risk
he runs. :

The reason why landowners, as a rule, let their estates to
tenant-farmers, rather than farm them through bailiffs, is
that they prefer the luxury of a fixed and regular income of
a moderate amount, to the prospect of a higher income which |
in exceptionally bad years may disappear altogether.

The advantages which appear to dwell in the profit-sharing
system as applied to agriculture may now be summed up.

As far as the landowner is concerned, the facts I have quoted
show the advantage to him is no small one. Speaking from the
point of view of a landowner, I can say that, apart from the great
satisfaction which has accompanied the successful working out
of a progressive theory, my occupation of East Learmouth has
added immensely to the pleasures of proprietorship, the rights of
which I now enjoy far more fully than when the farm was leased
to another.

I have increased my income; I possess undivided sporting
rights over the farm; I have a most excellent and comfortable
farm-house, which I can occupy or let as I please; and last, but
not least, I feel absolutely secure against any possibilities which
future legislation, based on the lines of the Irish Land Acts, may
have in store for English landowners.

The advantages to the labourer are no less evident. The
fact that the labourer is trusted, and welcomed as a partner
in the profits of the farm, in itself lends a new complexion
to all the various duties which go to make up his working day.
He is conscious that a greater dignity attaches to his position,

Profit-Sharing in Agriculture. 793

that his status is improved, and as a consequence his labour is in-
vested with an attraction it did not formerly possess.

Neither can it be doubted that the knowledge that he and
his fellow-workers will share the benefit which the farm may
derive from his forethought, his energy, and his skill helps to
lift from off his work some of the burden which weighed it down
when he reflected that, however well and efficiently he might
serve his employer, no benefit would accrue to his fellow-workers
or himself.

In short, where the profit-sharing principle is successfully
applied, it lightens the task, it increases the wage, it gives
hope, it stimulates the faculties, and it frees the worker from that
paralysing atrophy which sooner or later asserts its sway over
men who have no interest in the produce of their industry, and
to escape from the fatal influence of which so many of the best
of the young hinds are leaving agriculture for the towns.

And if the profit-sharing system helps, by increasing the
efficiency of agricultural labour, to increase the gross produce
and the net profits of the farm ; if, further, it tends to impress the
agricultural labourer with a greater sense of the duties and re-
sponsibilities of citizenship by making him realise more vividly
his position as a ratepayer ; if, too, it helps to reconcile the agri-
cultural labourer to his life, and thus do something, however little,
to check the growing desire for employment in the towns, who
can measure the extent and volume of the benefit which the
State will derive from an enlarged application of the profit-
sharing principle to the agriculture of this country ?

I am aware that the form in which the profit-sharing prin-
ciple is applied to the farms which have been the subjects of my
reference is not the highest nor the final form. We may hope
that the day will come when the labourers will be not only
partners in the profits, but partners in the management—when
bodies of associated agricultural labourers will be the owners of
the land on which they work and of the capital which gives
them employment. But Natura non facit saltum: we go most
quickly along the road of progress by being content to make
sure of one step at atime. The first step forwards from the
present state of things is to invite labour to a partnership in the
profits. When the right time comes, labour will be admitted
to a partnership in the management as well.

ALBERT GREY.

794 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies

THE DUTCH AGRICULTURAL COLONIES,

CerTAIN advanced social reformers have lately been advocating
the employment of the destitute and criminal classes in farming
operations, apparently under the impression that the “submerged
tenth” will not only become expert agriculturists, but will make
the farm on which they are engaged a paying concern. The

system is by no means a novel one in Continental countries, and ~

in Holland especially it has had an extended trial of nearly
three-quarters of a century. An opportunity having occurred
of paying a visit to the agricultural colonies at Frederiksoord, in
that country, I made last September a somewhat detailed and
careful inspection of them, the results of which are summarised
in the following pages.

There is no poor-rate in the Netherlands, and the State does
not interfere in the matter, except when no relief is to be had from
private charity. In such acase, the pauper must be supported by
the commune where he is living ; but the communes usually grant
subsidies to the private societies de bienfaisance which exist in all
parts of the country, and which contribute the only organisation
existing in Holland for the relief of the poor and destitute.
The charitable institutions of Amsterdam are world-famed.
They are upwards of a hundred in number, destined for the
reception of sick, aged, and indigent persons, lunatics, foundlings,
widows, &c., and are all almost entirely supported by voluntary
contributions. One such society, the Maatschappij tot Nut
vant Algemeen, whose object is the education and moral
culture of the lower classes, has 16,000 members paying about
half a guinea per annum, and its sphere of operations extends
over the whole kingdom of Holland. Another society is the
Maatschappij van Weldadigheid (Benevolent Society), which is
of especial agricultural interest, because it seeks to prevent
pauperism by providing rural training and employment for
destitute but able-bodied and deserving persons.

The estates owned by this society are situated near

Steenwijk, on the heath-land on the borders of the provinces —
of Drenthe, Friesland, and Overyssel. After the conclusion of —

the great war in 1815, there was in Holland, as in other parts
of Europe, great distress and misery; and an official report of
the Dutch Minister of the Interior, dated December 28, 1816,

estimated the number of paupers in the northern provinces at —

over 190,000. In certain towns a third of the population
received relief. General John van den Bosch, a Dutch officer

The Dutch Agricultural Colonies. 795

who had spent some years in the Indies, conceived the idea of
employing the poor in fertilising and cultivating waste lands, on
a system with which he had become familiar in Java, upon
a Chinese colony near to his own farm; and having obtained
the support of several distinguished persons, Prince Frederick at
their head, he founded the Benevolent Society in 1818. The
annual subscription of members was fixed at 2/l. 60c. (about
4s, 4d.), in order to secure as wide a basis as possible. Within
twelve months the society had more than 20,000 members, and a
beginning of its programme was made by the purchase of
1,200 acres of heath-land, which were formed into a colony,
called Frederiksoord, after the president of the Society. On
this colony 52 families were installed in as many houses, with
about six acres of land attached to each. A second colony
with 50 houses was opened in January, 1820, the name of
Frederiksoord being extended to embrace both; and later in
the same year a third colony, as large as the other two together,
was opened, with the title of Willemsoord, after the then Prince
of Orange (afterwards King William II.) By the end of 1821
four new colonies were formed, and the name of Wilhelmina’s oord,
after the widow of Prince William V., was given to two of them.

Shortly afterwards the Society founded, in addition to the
free colonies above named, two beggar colonies at Ommerschans
and Veenhuizen, which it attempted to carry on in conjunction
with the others. The subsequent history of the Society is too
complicated to be told here,' but some of its difficulties are in-
dicated in the following account of its operations by the present
Director, Dr. Léhnis :—

The principal aim was to ameliorate the condition of the working-classes
by procuring them permanent work, as far as possible according to their
individual capabilities. Agriculture was the chief meaus of giving employ-
ment. The poor families who were sent to the colonies came out of the
towns, and were therefore unacquainted with farm work; but it was sup-
posed that they could learn it in a few years, and that they would be able
to supply their own wants afterwards. The founder of the Benevolent
Society, enabled by voluntary subscriptions, bought a large tract of waste
land in the northern part of Holland. Several hundreds of small farm-
houses were built, and it was supposed that the families who were placed
on the farms would fertilise and cultivate their 61 acres of land, with the
aid of an annual grant of money for a period of about five years, and that
they could subsequently live on the produce of the land, It will thus be

. A very clear and interesting account of the causes which led up to the
Society’s financial crisis of 1859 will be found in Mr. H. G. Willink’s
Report of 1889 to the Charity Organisation Society on “The Dutch Home
Labour Colonies,” (Kegan Paul, Trench & Co. Price 1s. 6d.) Some
valuable facts about the colony are also given in Pasteur Robin’s article, Des
Colonies Libres de Travailleurs en Hollande et en Allemagne. (Bulletin de la
Société Générale des Prisons, November 1886, p. 938, Paris: Imp. Chaix.)

796 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies.

seen that the idea was to make agriculturists of the poor of the towns, and
in the meantime to cultivate the waste land. It was, however, soon ap-
parent that these families could not so speedily acquire a knowledge of
agricultural operations, nor subsist upon the produce of their farms; and
this miscalculation resulted in great pecuniary difficulties. Several corpo-
rations and municipalities, and not least the Government and members of
the Royal family, endeavoured to save the Society. The Government con-
tracted with the Society that vagrants should be placed in the colonies, and
for this purpose large establishments were erected in the reformatory
colonies—Veenhuizen and Ommerschans. Several thousands of vagrants
were sent to these new colonies, a certain sum being paid for each indivi-
dual. In consequence of the bad results of farming, manufacturing industries
were commenced. The Government entrusted the Society with large orders
for cotton goods, at high prices; and in 1840 about 1,200 or 1,500 persons
were employed in weaving. Notwithstanding all these efforts, the affairs
of the Society became more and more involved, and in 1859 a composition
was made with the creditors. Since that time the reformatory colonies
have been in the hands of the State, and the free colonies haye been re-or-
ganised, and still remain in the hands of the Benevolent Society. Six large
farms of from 125 to 150 acres were formed, new manufactories were intro-
duced, the administration was simplified, and considerable attention was
deyoted to the growth of woodland.

Under the re-organisation of 1859, the Government took
over the whole of both the beggar colonies, land, buildings, and
all, as a going concern, and relieved the Society of about
460,0001. of debt. Since then the Society has continued with-
‘out hindrance its original function of providing agricultural
employment for destitute but deserving persons. It appears
now to be in a very flourishing condition, although the serious
diminution in the number of members (at the date of the last
report there were only 4,115 subscribers) cripples its usefulness.

Everything is done in Holland by district committees
(afdeelingen), of which for the Frederiksoord Benevolent Society
there are fifty-two, each with a chairman, secretary, and trea-
surer. he committees recommend families for admission to
the colony, the final selection being made by the Central Ad-
ministration, consisting of five honorary members and a paid
director, who resides at Frederiksoord. Each of the 4,000
members of the Society pays an annual subscription of 2/1. 60c.
(4s. 4d.), and the district from which a labourer is selected for
the privileges of the colony has to pay 142/. (1,700/.) for the
expenses of his installation. None but destitute cases are
admissible ; generally they are without relations. An acquaint-
ance with farm work, or with some trade or business, is indis-
pensable. Single persons are not ineligible for admission, but
families are preferred. A normal household consists of six
persons, four being children. If a family selected has’less than
four children the vacancies may be filled up by boarders.
Boarders (generally children) are also placed with families

The Dutch Agricultural Colonies. 797

having more than four children, where such a course appears
desirable.

The principle of the Society appears always to have been to
set before the colonist the prospect of becoming the absolute
master (within the limits of the regulations) of the land which
he occupies ; and with the object of encouraging him to a better
and more profitable cultivation of the soil, it offers to him the
inducement of becoming a “ free farmer ” after a certain period
- of earnest work. At first, however, he is a mere labourer in
the service of the Society on one of the six large farms which it
manages. He is paid at fixed rates for his work, the wages,
which are paid every Thursday, amounting to 1s. 2d. per day in
the summer and 10d. in winter. Most of the work is done by
the piece; and in these cases, of course, more money can be
earned. Permission is often given to the labourers to seek em-
ployment outside the colonies, but they are entitled to obtain
work all the year round. In the winter it is sometimes difficult
to procure them useful occupation, and therefore, in addition to
the six farms, several basket-making, mat-making, and weaving
establishments have been erected.

The children are required to attend school, and if the father
cannot earn enough for the wants of his family he receives for
some years a weekly supply of food, clothes, or money. The
labourers pay 7d. a week for the cottage allotted to them by the
colony, about a halfpenny (three cents) for each member of the
family for medical attendance, 2d. each to the clothing fund,
and 10 per cent. of the whole wages to a reserve fund. For
example: A family consists of man, wife, and four children.
- The man earns 6s. per week, and the wife and children, by
basket-making, sewing, &c., 3s., making a total of 9s. They
Py

8. d.
For rent of cottage . - : : ORC
For medical attendance, six persons at oad
- 3 cents. . : ‘ ; : O 34/2 92
Clothing fund, six persons at 2d. apie O J
Reserve fund, 10 per cent. of 9s. (say) . O11

Thus he has in hand 9s, less 2s. 9$d.=6s. 24d. per week for
food and other requirements.

Every three months the family can get clothes for the
money they have in the clothing fund, and every month they
can draw out their money in the reserve fund.

After from two to five years’ work, the labourer may, if
industrious and well-behaved, be promoted to be a free farm2r
(vrij boer)—~i.e., to become a tenant of one of the Society’s small

798 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies.

farms without any obligation to work for the Society itself,
This is a privilege ardently desired and diligently worked for.

There are 225 of the small farms, each consisting of 24
hectares (about 64 acres) and a cottage. The rent, which is
fixed by the Society, varies from about 3/. to 61. a year, accord-
ing to the quality of the soil. The actual freehold of the farm
cannot be acquired by the vrij boer, but he remains the tenant
of it, with good behaviour, for the whole of his life.

Upon becoming a free farmer the labourer receives from the
Society a cow, manure worth about 7/., four bushels of potatoes
for planting, a ton of hay, and a ton of straw, the cost of the
cow and manure being repayable by a small annual charge.
The free farmer is obliged to insure the cow in the Mutual
Insurance Company of the colony, and has to pay 10s. 10d. per
annum for medical attendance. Otherwise he works the farm
for his own benefit and as he chooses, though under the general
supervision of the Director, and subject to the restriction that
hay, straw, and manure must not be sold away from the colony.
He may also work for wages outside the colony if he likes; and
in summer some go into Friesland for the hay-making. The
rents are generally well paid, and whilst the lazy and improvi-
dent are not encouraged, the administration is as lenient as
possible with regard to arrears.

The dwellings and allotments of the farmer and labourer
colonists are erected upon a uniform plan, very much upon the
original pattern. Hach allotment is laid out in a rectangle,
having the house towards the road at one end, and the other
reaching 50 feet into the allotment. The cottages are all built
of brick, with glazed windows in the gables; and, as is customary
in Holland, attached to the opposite gable is a wooden erection
of the same breadth and height, under a prolongation of the
same roof, and from 20 to 30 feet long. The wooden annexe
contains a place in one corner for one or two cows, and serves
both as a lobby to the house and a general store or barn. The
houses consist of one living-room on the ground floor, about 15
or 16 feet square, fitted with box beds, and floored with tile or
brick, with an attic over it of the same size. Nearly all the
houses are now provided with a second small room floored with
timber.

Around each labourer’s cottage is from a half to one acre of
land, on which to cultivate potatoes and vegetables for the use
of the family. The colony gives the family on arrival a sheep,
which is kept for its milk. ‘The sheep is usually stalled in the
cowhouse, but when the weather is fine it is tethered to a rope,
and allowed to graze on a small piece of grass-land in the
labourer’s garden, or along the roads,

The Dutch Agricultural Oolowes. 799

The food and habits of life both of the free farmers and the
labourers are severely simple. ‘The poorest eat little but rye-
bread, potatoes, and milk. Those better off have eggs, bacon,
milk,andcheese. Beer is not forbidden, but is not much drunk,
as it is not sold in the colony. The colonists are not required
to don any particular kind of dress ; they can wear what clothing
they like, and buy it where they please. They appear to be
comfortable and contented, and their cottages are very clean and
tidy, though this is the almost universal rule in Holland.

Besides agricultural occupations, work is found for the
colonists in the Society's workshops, which also afford employ~
ment in the winter time, when there is less to do out of doors,
and it is difficult to keep the hands employed.

There are a forge and a carpenter’s shop, where several lads
are usually placed as apprentices, as well as weaving-sheds, and
two basket-factories of considerable size (founded in 1873).
Quantities of coffee-bags, sacks, coverings for cows’ backs (used
almost universally in Holland in the cold weather, and called
“ enveloppen”), and many other jute and coarse cotton fabrics
aremanufactured. Mats and baskets of all sizes and patterns are
made ; and of late years a considerable industry has sprung up
in the construction out of osier and bamboo of a great variety
of ornamental articles, which are sent all over Holland, and
even abroad.

An average of 50 workpeople are employed in the basket
trade. The goods sold annually amount to 1,600/. The osier
used is bought from outside, as numerous experiments have
shown that the cultivation on the estate does not give good
results. There is also a printing-office at Steenwijk, where a
certain number of lads are employed.

The Society attaches the greatest importance to raising the
condition of the children of the colonists, in order that they may

fit themselves for careers of usefulness outside the colony. The

cost of the ordinary schools on the estate is defrayed by the
Government as a part of the general scheme of free education in
the Netherlands. There are five national schools (rijhks-scholen),
with 15 teachers, where the usual curriculum is taught, besides
two carpentry and drawing schools for boys, and four schools
for sewing and knitting for the girls. A recent important ad-
dition to the educational facilities at the colony has been the
establishment of three large, handsome, and well-appointed
schools for agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, to which the
best of the pupils can proceed after they have gone through the
ordinary schools. For these schools the colony is indebted to
the generosity of the late Major F, U. L. von Swieten, The

300 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies.

first of the three was founded in 1884, and they are now at-
tended by about 40 lads. For the families of colonists the
teaching at these schools is wholly gratuitous, but strangers are
also admitted, and pay for their instruction and lodging
241. per annum.

The population of the colonies numbers about 1,800 persons,
consisting of 90 families of labourers, 220 free farmers, and 120
children and orphans boarding with the different families.

There are two Protestant churches and one Roman Catholic
church on the estate, and the pastors ot each are suitably pro-
vided for. ‘The medical service is under the charge of a doctor
livingat Frederiksoord. No public-house is allowed, and drunken-
ness is severely punished. A weekly court of justice is held,
presided over by the Director, assisted by the two sub-directors.
The punishments range from simple fines to confinement in
cells and expulsion, and the offences for which these may be
imposed are insubordination, disorderly conduct, drunkenness,
absence without leave, immorality, extravagance, and laziness.
In general, however, the conduct of the colonists is excellent.

The estates comprise about 5,000 acres of sandy and gravelly
soil, formerly covered with peat, which has long since been re-
moved ; and what was formerly beneath it is now left as the sur-
face soil mixed with vegetable matter. Of the total area,
1,250 acres are taken up by six large farms managed by the
Society itself with the work of the labourers ; 1,500 consist of
woods, and more than 1,500 are cultivated by the free farmers
and the labourers, the remainder consisting of roads, canals,
heath, and open spaces.

The cultivation of the land is of course adapted to the nature
of the sandy soil, but the processes are all primitive, as the
object is to find employment fora large number of people rather
than to economise labour by the use of machinery. The ordinary
course of cropping is (1) rye, (2) oats, (3) buckwheat, (4)
potatoes, but not always in this sequence. After the rye is
harvested, stubble turnips and spurrey are taken on portions of
the land the same year, and ordinarily a part of the ’ potato
course is sown with white turnips, and more extensively with
kohl-rabi. Only about one-tenth of the corn-breaks is sown
with clover and rye grass, as clover only sueceeds well when
sown once in every eight or ten years. On the highest land
broom is sometimes sown in the rye and allowed to grow the
next year, thus displacing a crop of oats; in the autumn it
is ploughed in green as manure, and is followed the next year
by potatoes. Of late years oreater attention than before has
been paid to the cultivation of root crops, such as turnips, kohl-

= 6 oa eh Ge ~ ee

The Dutch Agricuitural Colonies. 801

rabi, and carrots; and to fodder plants, such as vetches, clover,
and maize. The green fodder is ensiled either beneath the
ground, or in stacks by Blunt's apparatus. Potatoes are kept
in large low barns, partly dug out of the sandy soil, and roofed
with thick layers of turf.

In the year 1890, 168 acres of the Society’s six farms were
planted with rye, 61 with oats, 44 with buckwheat, 102 with
potatoes,! 57 with grass and clover, 17 with mangel, 5 with
beans, 14 with roots, 17 with fodder plants, 20 with peas, and 7
with various, while 331 acres were in permanent pasture. About
20 acres on the estate are devoted tomarket gardening. Vege-
tables, such as peas, beans, haricots, carrots, etc., and fruits,
such as apples, pears, plums, apricots, etc., are dried at a private
drying establishment on the estate (established in 1888), and
are sent all over Holland, where they are much esteemed.
About 56/. is spent annually on each of the six farms for
artificial manures, consisting of basic slag, kainit, and nitrate
of soda.

A feature of the cultivation that has received much attention,

cially since the establishment of the forestry school, is the
care of the woodlands. The greater part of these are planted
with firs, and the remainder with oaks. The land is dug a yard
deep by the spade, and acorns are sown in rows. After two or
three years the young plants are transplanted, and again after
a similar interval of time at wider distances. Here they remain
until they are about ten years old, when they are felled, the bark
being sold for tanning and the wood for fuel.

All the cattle on the farms are bred on the estate ; but bulls
for stud purposes are bought annually in Friesland. Milking
qualities are especially studied in the rearing of cows, and only
those are bred from which have been proved to give plentiful
and good milk. In the Annual Report for 1890 particulars are
given of the yields of milk of the 150 cows on the farms, from
which it appears that two gave over 1,000 gallons of milk in
the year. one over 900 gallons, five over 800 gallons, 11 over
700 gallons, 23 over 600 gallons, 27 over 500 gallons, 26 over
400 gallons, and 12 over 550 gallons, the remaining 43 being

under this standard. The average 5 yield is 575 gallons, and the
milk is stated to contain from two to four per cent. of butter-

§ In view of the interest which has recently been excited on the subject of
the preventive treatment of potatoes against disease, it may be worth mention-
ing that last season a portion of the potatoes on the estate was dressed with

\ Beutlize bordelaise, the first time at the end of June, and the second in the
_mWiddleof July. The result was that on the 80 acres so treated there was an
" jnerease i in the yield of from 36 to 72 bushels peracre. The cost of the two
dressings was about 10s. per acre.

j VOL. Il. T. s.—8 36

802 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies.

fat. All the milk produced is made into butter and cheese at
a central dairy founded in 1882, which is excellently fitted up
and managed.' The cheese, butter, and milk sold yielded 9101,
during the year.

The cattle pass the summer in the pastures, but are fed also
with grass, clover, maize, etc. In the winter they are kept in
the cowhouses, where they receive hay, carrots, peas, roots, oats,
silage, and oilcake. The cost of feeding each cow during
the winter varies form 7/. to 8/. The greater number of cows
calve in spring; but care is always taken to have some of the
cows in milk during the winter.

On the day of our visit there was a special parade of the
live-stock of the farm, and very fine specimens of the omni-
present Dutch breed the working oxen and milch cows were.
A giant subsoil plough with six oxen harnessed to it, and a
Frisian milch sheep with an udder almost as big as a cow’s,
were features which specially attracted our attention.

It is a little difficult to gather from the accounts a precise
statement of the financial operations of the Society; but it is
undeniable that the farming per se does not pay, and that it is
only the annual subscriptions of the subscribers, and donations,
that keep the colony afloat. Considering the circumstances
under which the colony was originally located on a barren
tract of land, and the nature of its work, it cannot, however, be
looked at purely from a financial point of view, but must be re-
garded as a philanthropic institution wasting infinitely less money
than some others nearer home that could be mentioned.

The criticism on the Society’s system which at once arises
to the mind is, that its benefits are restricted to so few people.
I had the advantage of travelling between Steenwijk and
Frederiksoord in a carriage with Monsieur Méline, a former
Minister of Agriculture in France, and the President of the
Hague Congress, Monsieur Tisserand, the well-known chief of
the French Agricultural Department, and Dr. Léhnis; and we
urged this point somewhat strongly upon the Director. Dr. Léhnis
agreed that the small number of fresh families admitted to the
advantages of the colony was a drawback ; but he pointed out
that so long as the Society took upon itself the care of the
families whilst they were on its property it was impossible to
turn them out. When a family was accepted, the husband as
well as the wife were entitled to remain during their lives in

' The system of feeding calves described in Mr. Jenkins’ Report of 1882 to
the Duke of Richmond’s Commission is no longer in vogue. All the milk of
the six farms is brought to the central dairy to be turned into butter and
cheese.

The Dutch Agricultural Colonies. 803

the undisturbed occupation of the cottage allotted to them,
provided their conduct was good. He did not seem to be
averse to emigration, but thought the Society would render a
very questionable benefit to its protégés if it compelled them to
leave the colony after a few years to make room for others.
He insisted very strongly upon the beneficent work of the
Society in educating the children of the colonists. He regarded
the highest and noblest duty of the Society to be the training
of the children to become useful citizens, and pointed to the
large number of well-arranged schools that had been instituted
to teach them trades and handicrafts. When the children were
started in life, the Society continued to look after the parents if
they were still living, and supported them entirely if they were
too old or infirm to work. This system was, he admitted, very
expensive, and restricted greatly the number of families that
could be relieved ; but he did not see how, under the general
principles of the Society’s work, it could be improved upon, nor
how the Society could now change its system.

The subject is one which it is perhaps beyond the scope of this
Journal to discuss at any greater length ; but it certainly appears
to an outside observer that the admission of only about six new
families a year, in face of an annual deficit on the working of
over 1,000/.,' merits the careful attention of those responsible for
the management of the institution.

For everything else concerning the Colony no one can
have anything but praise. he district committees are proud
of it, and interested in its work. Its devoted Director spares

_no pains, thought, or time to ensure its success. The colonists

look happy, contented, and prosperous, and the land (once a
desert) is now smiling with comparative plenty.

THE BeGGcaR CoLoNres.

The Beggar Colonies at Veenhuizen, near Assen, capital of the
Province of Drenthe, and at Ommerschans, in Overyssel, are
maintained by the Government as reformatories for vagrants,
drunkards, and other delinquents who are not actually criminals.
The estates comprise 12,500 acres, and, as stated above, formerly
belonged to the Maatschappij van Weldadigheid, by whom they
were sold to the Government. There arefour “colonies,” namely,
three for men and one for women, and there are about 2,000
male and between 400 and 500 female colonists. About 2,500

' It is only fair to say that 600/. of this deicit is represented by interest
ona loan contracted with a Mortgage Bank, which will be repaid in about
twenty years.

804 The Dutch Agricultural Colonies.

acres of the estates are in arable culture, and there are 11 farm-
steadings belonging to the “ colonies,” besides a large number of
farms which are at present let to tenants. The course of agri-
culture is designed to supply the wants of the “ colonies,” nearly
all the produce being consumed on them. ‘The course of crop-
ping pursued is: (1) rye followed by spurrey or stubble turnips,
(2) potatoes or oats, sometimes a little mangel or kohl-rabi in
place of potatoes. The root course is not always taken, and forms
a third year when it follows rye and precedes oats, with which
clover and seeds are sown, and remain down three or four years. —

The colonists are made to work at different trades, having
some relation to their previous occupation, some being agricul-
tural labourers, others bakers, tailors, blacksmiths, carpenters,
weavers, sack-makers, esparto-grass mat-makers, and almost
every other kind of industry that can be carried on without the aid
of steam power. Most of the products are used in the colony.
Thus the cloth woven (a rough kind of frieze of a khakee colour)
is used to make dresses for the men and women in the tailoring
department, but the esparto-grass mats are always sold. The
women are chiefly occupied as laundresses and seamstresses.
There are canteens where the colonists can buy certain luxuries
with the proportion of their earnings which they receive (a cer-
tain proportion being kept back until their term is expired) ;
these include various articles of food, and also tobacco, but no
intoxicating liquors. The reclamation of waste land is the chief
means adopted by the Government of the Netherlands for the
utilisation of the labour of vagrants and vagabonds at these
colonies, as also it is of other classes, both within and without
the pale of the law, at other institutions on the same lines.

ERNEST CLARKE.

Official ‘Reports.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL

TO THE
HALF-YEARLY GENERAL MEETING OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS,

HELD IN THE
Hatt oF tHE Royat Mepicat AND CHIRURGICAL Society,
At 20 Hanover Square, W,

ON THURSDAY, DECEMBER 10, 1891,

The Haru of FeversHAM (President) in the Chair.

Tue Council have to report that the List of Governors and Members
has undergone the following changes during the half-year which has
elapsed since the Anniversary General Meeting on May 22 last :—
5 new Governors and 351 Members heve joined the Society, 3 have
been elected Honorary Members, 3 have been re-instated as Mem-
- bers under Bye-Law 12, and 8 Members have qualified as Go-
vernors ; whilst the deaths of 11 Life Governors, 1 Annual Governor,
36 Life-Members, and 98 Annual Members have been reported. A
total of 3 Members have been struck off the books under: Bye-
Law 10, owing to absence of addresses ; 58 under Bye-Law 1}', for
arrears of subscriptions ; and 107 have resigned.

2. The Council regret to announce the death of five more of the
Foundation Members of the Society, elected before the Charter was
granted in 1840, viz.: Mr. Frederick Calvert, Q.C., of 38 Upper
Grosvenor Street, W.; Mr. R. Dawtrey Drewitt, of Arundel; Mr.
John Glover, of Tamworth ; Mr. Frederick Neame, of Luton, Sel-
ling, Faversham ; and Mr. Henry Smith, of Leamington. Amongst
other Governors and Members whose loss by death the Society has
had to deplore during the past half-year are the Duke of Cleveland,
the Earls of Clonmell, Dartmouth, Portsmouth, Westmorland, and
Wicklow, Viscount Combermere, Lord Methuen, the Right Hon.
W. H. Smith, M.P., the Hon. Payan Dawnay, Sir C. E. Dods-
worth, Bart., Sir Robert Fowler, Bart., M.P., Sir Prescott
Hewitt, Bart., Sir John Neeld, Bart., Sir J. H. Preston, Bart., Sir

806 Report to the General Mooting,

P. dE. Skipworth, Bart., Sir R. R. Wilmot, Bart. Sir John
Hawkshaw, F.R.S., Mr. Samuel] Bate of Leicester (a Member since
1843), Mr. G. H. Bond, M.P., Mr. Thomas Bowstead of Penrith,
Mr. John Clayton of Newcastle-on-Tyne (a Member since 1846),
Mr. E. L. Gatacre of Bridgnorth and Mr. Thomas Kesterton of
Sutton (Members since 1841), Mr. Lewis Loyd, Mr. Charles Magniac,
Mr. James Martin of Wainfleet, Mr. J. P. Stocker (who has gener-
ously bequeathed 100/. to the Society), Mr. W. Trethewy of
Tregoose, Cornwall, Lieut.-Col. T. Picton Turbervill (a Member of
the Council from 1874 to 1884), and Mr. James Williams of Abing-
don (a Member since 1842),

3. The Council have elected the following gentlemen as Honorary
Members of the Society, in recognition of their distinguished
services to European Agriculture :—

Professor Hermann HELLRIEGEL, Director of the Versuchs-
Station, Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany.

Monsieur Louis Passy, Perpetual Secretary of the Société
Nationale d’Agriculture de France, Paris.

Dr. C. J. Sickesz VAN DER CLoEsE, President of the Royal
Agricultural Commission of Holland, The Hague.

4. These and other changes bring the total number of Governors
and Members now on the Register to 10,973, divided as follows :

29 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the
granting of the Charter on March 26, 1840) ;
66 Governors paying an annual subscription of 5/. ;
83 Life Governors who have compounded for their annual
subscriptions ;
22 Honorary Members ;
6,966 Members paying an annual subscription of 17. ;
16 Members who, having paid annual subscriptions for 50
Years, have become Life Members ;
3,719 Life Members who have compounded for their annual sub-
scriptions ;
72 Life Members by Examination ;

10,973 Total number of Governors and Members ;
or a net increase of 45 Members during the half-year.

5. The Council think it desirable, however, again to urge upon
the Members that the maintenance of the Society’s operations on
their present scale depends upon a continued flow of new subscribers.
At least 500 new Members need to be elected every year to take the
place of those who die or retire. Each Member is therefore particu-
larly invited to interest himself in obtaining new subscribers to the
Society, and to suggest the names of any farmers or others inter-
ested in agriculture, in his district or of his acquaintance, who
would be likely to become Members. The Secretary will, upon
receipt of instructions, either write direct to the gentlemen

Thursday, December 10, 1891. 807

or will forward a supply of application forms to the nominating
Member. <A form of nomination is printed in each number of the
Journal.

6. The vacancy caused by the death of the late Earl of Powis has
been filled by the transference of Sir John Lawes, Bart. (Vice-
President), to the list of Trustees. Mr. H. Chandos-Pole-Gell has
been elected to the Vice-Presidency thus vacated, and Mr. J. Mar-
shall Dugdale of Liwyn, Llanfyllin, Montgomeryshire, to a seat
upon the Council.

7. The entries of live stock at the Society’s Country Meeting
held at Doncaster last June were larger by nearly 400 than at any
previous ordinary Meeting of the Society, despite the new rule
limiting to three the entries in the same class that could be
made by any Exhibitor ; and the number of Implements shown
was also above the average. The Show week was favoured (with
the exception of one afternoon) with fine weather, and everything
possible was done by the local authorities, the railway companies,
and others concerned, to make the Show a success. The Meeting
fully answered its primary object by bringing together a fine re-
presentative collection of live stock of the different breeds, and in
introducing to the notice of the public the latest developments
in farm machinery and appliances.

8. The large number of entries of live stock, especially of horses,
involved the Society, however, in an unusually heavy expenditure
for stables and buildings, which was not recouped by the entry
fees ; and, in consequence of the enormous quantity of timber to be
disposed of at the sales held after the Meeting, only moderate prices
were realised. The magnitude of the Show had also its effect in

“increasing the cost of administration of various other departments ;
and as the Prizes were about 500/. more than at Plymouth, the
total expenditure exceeded that of last year by about 2,800/7. On
the other hand, the receipts were 5,000/. miore than at Plymouth,
the chief items of this increase being 1,100/. for implement entries,
5007. for stock entries, and 2,750/. for receipts for admission.

9. As a final result, the accounts of the Meeting, as passed by
the auditors on November 16 last, show a profit of 1037. 17s. 8d., as
against a deficit of 2,197/. at the Plymouth Meeting. This result, as
the balance is on the right side, can hardly be described as _unsatis-
factory ; but, considering the special efforts that were made, parti-
ceularly by the railway companies, to attract visitors to the Show, it
is in some measure disappointing.

10. The Council have decided that the Warwick Meeting shall
open on Monday, June 20, 1892, and close on the following
Friday evening. The Implement Yard and the Dairy will be open
to Members of the Society and the public on the previous Saturday,
June 18. The last day for making entries in the Implement De-

808 Report to the General Meeting,

partment will be Friday, April 1 ; but post-entries, of agricultural
implements only, will be received up to Friday, April 8. For
Stock, Poultry, and Produce, the entries will close on Saturday,
April 30, wit_ | ost-entries at double fees up to Thursday, May 12.

11, The Council have already reported their decision to offer in
connection with the Warwick Meeting prizes amounting in all to
1207. for different descriptions of ploughs. Seventy-two entries
from eleven firms have been received for the competition, which
will be held in the neighbourhood of Warwick in the spring of
next year.

12. The prize-sheet for Stock, Poultry, and Produce has now
been definitely settled, and will be issued immediately. The prizes
given by the Local Committee include five classes for Hunter Mares

or Geldings, two classes each for Hackney, Pony, and Harness Mares —

or Geldings, two for Agricultural Geldings, two for Longhorn Cattle,
two for Shropshire Sheep, five for Goats, and one for Butter. The
Local Committee will also give Champion Prizes for Hereford Cattle,
and Oxford Down and Shropshire Rains.

13. The classes for Horses offered by the Society itself will
include Hunters, Coach Horses, Hackneys, Ponies, Shires, Clydes-
dales and Suffolks. The Council have decided that the regulation
requiring that no stallion shall be awarded a prize until a veterinary
examination has pronounced him free from hereditary disease shall
for the future be extended to brood mares.

14, In the Cattle Classes, prizes will be offered by the Society
for the Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, Sussex, Welsh, Red Polled,
Jersey, Guernsey, Kerry and Dexter Kerry breeds, as well as for
Dairy Cattle giving the greatest quantity of milk containing not
less than twelve per cent. solids, and three per cent. butter-fat. A
separate class has been added for Dairy Cows which shall have calved
not less than three months before the date of the Show.

15, The Classes for Sheep will include Leicesters, Cotswolds,
Lincolns, Oxford Downs, Shropshires, Southdowns, Hampshire
Downs, Suffolks, and Border Leicesters, with the local breeds of
Clun Forest and Welsh Mountain ; and those for Pigs will include
the Large White, Middle White, Small White, Berkshire, Black,
and Tamworth breeds. The Council have resolved to extend to Pigs
the regulations that all animals entered must be eligible for entry in
the Herdbooks of their respective breeds, and that no animals
which have been exhibited as Fat Stock at any Show shall be
eligible to compete for the Society’s prizes.

16. Prizes will also be given for useful descriptions of Poultry, -
including Table Fowls and Ducks ; for Cheese of 1892 make, and
Soft Cheese ; for Fresh and Salt Butter ; for Cider and Perry ; and
for Jams and Preserved Fruits made in 1891, The British Bee-

c

Thursday, December 10, 1891. 809

keepers’ Association will continue their Prizes for Hives, Honey,
and Bee Appliances.

17. Butter-making Competitions will be continued at Warwick
in four classes, five Prizes being offered in each class. There will
also be a competition of Shoeing Smiths practising in the counties
comprised in the district of the Show. The competition will be in
two classes, viz. for Roadsters and Dray Horses, and five Prizes will
be offered in each class. The Worshipful Company of Farriers have
generously offered, as before, to provide the First Prize in each of
these two classes, and to bestow the Freedom of their Guild upon
the two first-prize winners. The Registration Committee of the
Worshipful Company will also admit all the winners of prizes in
these Competitions to the official register of Farriers or Shoeing
Smiths free of charge.

18. Seven Prizes amounting to 300/. have been offered in three
classes by the Warwick Local Committee for the best-managed
Farms in the county of Warwick. The number of farms entered
for competition is twenty-six, and the Judges will start on their
first tour of inspection early in January.

19. At the request of the Royal Commission on Horse Breeding,
the Council have agreed to continue for another year the grant of
three premiums of 200/. each for Thoroughbred Stallions serving
Mares in the Society’s District F, in which the Country Meeting of
1892 is to be held. The Warwick Local Committee have promised

to bestow a Gold Medal upon the owners of each of the three

Stallions winning the Society’s Premiums, which will be competed
for at the same time, and under the same conditions, as the twenty-

_ two Queen’s Premiums offered by the Royal Commission on Horse-
_ breeding.

20. Memorials have been received from the Corporations of

_ Chester and Manchester inviting the Society to hold its Country

_ Meeting of 1893 in their respective cities. The customary Com-

_ mittee of Inspection has been appointed to report on the sites and

| other accommodation offered by each locality, and a final decision
as to the place of the Country Meeting of 1893 will be made by the

Council in February next.

21. As the Meeting of 1893 will be held in a district specially
Interested in dairying, it is proposed to offer in connection with
that Meeting prizes for Cheese made in 1892 in addition to prizes
for Cheese made in 1893, as well as increased prizes for dairy
| produce generally.

22. The scheme for the National Registration of Farriers or
Shoeing Smiths, in which the Society is associated with the Wor-
shipful Company of Farriers and the Royal College of Veterinary
_ Surgeons, is now in full working order ; and it is gratifying to find

that already 3,340 shoeing smiths have been placed upon the official

3

register of the Farriers’ Company. A vacancy on the Committee
caused by the resignation by Mr. Walter Gilbey has been filled by
the election of Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B.

23. The Council have appointed Mr. D. M. Storrar, F.R.C.V.S.,
of Abergavenny, as the Society’s Provincial Veterinary Surgeon for
Monmouthshire, in succession to Mr. G. Lewis, of Monmouth,
resigned.

810 Report to the General Meeting,

24. It is satisfactory to find that the strenuous and sustained
efforts of the Board of Agriculture to stamp out pleuro-pneumonia
in this country appear to be now meeting with considerable success,
The number of outbreaks, which in the preceding year reached 499,
fell to 295 in 1891. In the outbreaks which occurred in the course
of the current year, 1,188 cattle were slaughtered while affected
with pleuro-pneumonia. But in addition to these, the plan adopted
by the Board of slaughtering all cattle which had been in contact
with the disease or had been in any manner exposed to the risk of
infection necessitated the slaughter of a total of 14,322 cattle,
including those (1,188) which were affected.

25. Swine-fever began to increase rather rapidly about the end
of March, the maximum being reached soon after the middle of
May, since which the disease has decreased. At their meeting
held on June 3 last, the Council passed a resolution requesting the
earnest attention of the Board of Agriculture to the urgent neces-
sity of adopting more stringent measures to mitigate the severity

of this disease. é

26. There has been a slight increase in the number of outbreaks _
of anthrax this year as compared with last ; but it is satisfactory
to note that the area over which the disease is distributed has
not been extended. Husk or hoose (lungworm) has been rather
prevalent in some districts ; but the anticipated extensive outbrealt
of liver-rot (fluke) in sheep has not taken place. i

27. Some important investigations have been carried on in the De-
partment of Comparative Pathology at the Royal Veterinary College
during the year, especially in reference to contagious foot-rot among
sheep. Further experiments have been made to test the infectivity
of meat from tuberculous animals after various degrees of cooking.
Inquiries into the origin and treatment of husk in calves and lambs
have been continued, and recently special investigations have been
carried on in reference to abortion in cows in different parts of the
country. A paper on this subject by Professor Brown will appear
in the fortheoming number of the Journal.

28. At the request of the authorities of the Institutions concerned,
the Council have nominated the President of the Society for
the time being to act ex officio as the Society’s representative
upon the permanent governing body of the Imperial Institute, and
upon the Council of the British Institute of Preventive Medicine. —

“oO

Thursday, December 10, 1891. 811

_ 29. During the last six months 640 samples have been sent by
members to the Society’s laboratory for analysis, showing a falling
off to the extent of about 60 samples as compared with last year.
This is probably accounted for by the lateness of the harvest season.
The number of linseed-cakes especially has been considerably reduced,
but many more instances are now met with of purchases being made
in accordance with the Society’s recommendation to purchase these
under the guarantee of “pure linseed-cake.” It is satisfactory to
record that where this has been done, the articles supplied have, in

_ the majority of cases, been found good. Speaking generally, it may
be said that the quality of “linseed-cake” has improved, while that
_ of the nondescript article known as “oil-cake” has gone from bad
_ to worse.

the Feeding Experiments was one upon the relative Feeding-value
of Decorticated and Undecorticated Cotton-cake. The results of
two different years’ experiments are recorded in Part III. of the
Society’s Journal for the current year.. The other field experi-
ments are in progress as before. Fresh feeding experiments for the
winter of 1891-92 have recently been commenced. Of Local Agri-
cultural Societies, the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, the Essex
Agricultural Society, and the Lancashire Agricultural Society have
continued their experiments in conjunction with this Society.

31. The experiments undertaken at the request of the Board of
Agriculture for the purpose of determining the efficacy of sulphate
of copper as a remedy against the potato disease have now been
satisfactorily carried out in six different districts during the past
season, and a detailed statement of the results will appear in the

| forthcoming number of the Journal. The experiments of a single
| year do not supply data on which generalisations of any permanent
value can be based, but the experiments show that the “ Bouillie
Bordelaise” has not prevented the disease in any of the localities,
though it has decreased the amount of disease in the plots to which

30. At the Woburn experimental farm the most important of
| it has been applied, and has decidedly increased the yield of tubers.

32. The grass seeds examined by the Consulting Botanist during

| the year have been, with very few exceptions, satisfactory, but a
| large proportion of the clovers have contained the seeds of weeds,
and dodder has been present in an unusual number of the samples
of alsike. Some investigations have been made into the cause of
abortion, which seem to indicate that ergot is not the principal cause
of this malady. Several diseases injuring cultivated crops have.
_ been investigated, and suggestions made for their prevention.

|

) $3. The work of the Honorary Consulting Entomologist’s

Department continues steadily to increase. Miss Ormerod reports
that during the past season almost all the commonly known infesta-
tions have been more or less present, and that the experience of
the year has in no way justified the hope expressed by some

7

early in the season, that “the cold would have killed the grubs.’
The most serious and widespread attack has been that of the
Diamond-back Moth, a full report on which was published in the
September number of the Journal. Mangel Fly was more pre-
valent (especially in Devonshire) than in any years since its first
great appearance in 1880. The destructive infestation of the
Wheat Bulb Maggot was again seriously mischievous, mainly in the
Eastern Counties ; and Miss Ormerod, in her annual report for
1891, shows cause for thinking that the attack arises by maggots.
from eggs laid in the land during the summer. Considerable
attention has been devoted to the strig maggot in hops and to the
apple saw fly, and great advance has been made in knowledge of
practically useful insecticides, especially of Paris green, and in —
introduction of spraying machines for their application.

812 Report to the General Meeting,

34. As a result of the Examination for the Society’s Senior
Prizes and Certificates, which took place on May 12 to 16 last, nine
of the thirteen candidates satisfied the examiners ; and the following
competitors, placed in order of merit, gained First-class Certificates,
and thus became Life Members of the Society ; the first four being
entitled, in addition, to the prizes stated below :—

1. Raost Bratwsn Parer, Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester. First Prize of 25l, \

2. Epric Druce, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

Second Prize of 151.
3. James Gunter, Estate Office, Glasbury, Radnorshire. Third
Prize of 101. 4
4, Joseph Lasrer, Agricultural College, Aspatria. Fourth
Prize of 5l.

)

5, Hryry Frepprick Hix1, Agricultural College, Aspatria. ®

G. Percy Cuartes Burton, The Elms, Pontyclown, Gla-
morgan, Y

7. Ernest ALLEN SrapLepon, Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester.

8 Harry Avstrxy Linpsay Youne, Loseley House, West Horsley,
Leatherhead.

The following candidate, having passed in Agriculture and in
three of the four other compulsory subjects, was awarded*a Second-
elass Certificate :—

9. Roperr James Irvine, Blackhall House, Carlisle.

35. The Annual Examination for the Society’s ten Junior
Scholarships of 20/. each took place on November 10 and 11, when
forty-five candidates competed. Of these eighteen passed in all
four subjects (Agriculture, Chemistry, Mechanics, and Land
Surveying), and obtained the number of marks ° necessary t0
qualify them for the Society’s Scholarships and Certificates, in
the event of their complying, during the forthcoming year, with
the conditions of the Examination. Two other boys passed in
of the four subjects, but, not having obtained the minimum aggre- —

> 3

Thursday, December 10, 1891. 813

gate of marks, are ineligible for Certificates. Of the twenty-tive
other unsuccessful candidates, thirteen failed in one subject, seven
intwo subjects, four in three subjects, and one in all four sub-
jects. There were five failures in Agriculture, thirteen in Chemistry,
seventeen in Mechanics, and eight in Land Surveying. Of the
eighteen suecessful candidates, the first ten in the following list will
receive Scholarships upon complying with the Society’s regulations,
and the remainder will receive Certificates :—
; 1. Joun Roserr Woop, Aspatria Agricultural College.
2. James McCreatu, Maybole Public School, N.B.
3. Josppn Harker Newmay, Surrey County School.
4, Wittiam Arruur West py, Northampton Grammar School.
5. Grorce Witrrip ArMsrRonG, Aspatria Agricultural College.
6. Ernest Epercomse, Ashburton Grammar School.
7. sRnest CLayton, Aspatria Agricultural College.
8. Gwyn Rem Tuomas, Aspatria Agricultural College.
| 9. Joseru T. pe LA Moraes, Aspatria Agricultural College.
. 10. Joux Puppicomsp, Aspatria Agricultural College.

| 11. Norman Enpacorr, Ashburton Grammar School.

12. Wixrtam Mappticorr, Aspatria Agricultural College.

! 13. GzoreE DyKxes Porrzovs, Maybole Public School, N.B.
14. Henry Jonnson, Swanley Horticultural College.

15. Joun Henry, Dunn Foundation School, Crediton.

/ 16. Cuartes Henry Taytor, Surrey County School.

17. Frank Jackson Bapcocr, Ashburton Grammar Sehool.
} 18. Witrrip Giipert Bower, Surrey County School.

86. In the report to the last General Meeting, mention was

_ made of the intended preparation of a Text-Book which kad been
undertaken by the Society, in compliance with the many demands
that had been addressed to it for an elementary work on agriculture
adapted for use in rural and other schools and classes. The general
_ scheme of the work was settled by a Sub-Committee appointed by
_ the Council, and consisting of Lord Moreton (Chairman), Major
Craigie, Mr. C. De L. Faunce De Laune, Mr. D. Pidgeon, Mr.
Martin J. Sutton, and Mr. Charles Whitehead. The detailed pre-
| paration of the Text-Book was placed in the capable hands of Dr.
| W. Fream, and the proof-sheets have been submitted to and revised
| by distinguished authorities in each branch of the subject. The
_ book has now been completed, and will be published on the Ist
_ January next, under the authority of the Society, by Mr. John
Murray. It will consist of 450 pages, with 200 illustrations, and
it is hoped that it will be found fitted to become a standard work

) ! on the subject of which it treats. With the object of making it as
_ generally useful and available as possible, the Council have fixed
the publishing price at half a crown, which, spreading the expense

_| of production over a large number of copies, is as nearly as possible
_ the cost price.

By Order of the Council,

ERNEST CLARKE,
Secretary.

814

OUARTERLY’ REPORT’ OF "EAE CHEMICAL
COMMITTEE,

DECEMBER, 1891.

1. Mr. R. H. Newill sent on October 15, on behalf of the Earl of
Powis, Walcot, Lydbury North, Shropshire, a sample of linseed-cake, _
two-and-a-half tons of which had been purchased from Messrs.
Marston Bros., Bull Ring, Ludlow, agents for the manufacturers
Messrs. Earles and King, Liverpool. The cake was invoiced as
“E. & K. Linseed cake,” and each piece was branded with the na
of the makers ; the price was 9/. 10s. per ton delivered.

The following analysis and report was returned :—

October 22, 1891.

Moisture . . - : - : : ; . 1446
Oil . - ek o8)

1 ATbuminous compounds (Hlesh-forming matters) - 26:56 100:00
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre : : . 29:18 7
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : : : iy ooo

2 Mineral matter (ash). : - : | epee

! Containing nitrogen ; : . é » ee 7
2 Including sand : : . ; : . &85

This cake is impure, containing, as it does, nearly 6 per cent. of sand
The price, 97. 10s, per ton for a cake containing only 9} per cent» of oil—
even supposing it to have been a pure one (which this is not)—is very hig h

On complaining to Messrs. Marston Bros., the latter forwarded a
copy of a reply which they had received from Messrs, Earles’ anc
King, and which ran as follows :—

A 17 and 18 Exchange Buildings, Liverpool: October 31, 1891.

Dar Srrs,—-We are very sorry to hear of any complaint of our eake

The seed this season has been yery poor, and it is impossible to screen it a

~ we should like. We beg to point out that we give no. guarantee as to oil iz

our cakke—to anyone w ho will pay for it we will give as much as they. want

but we at once admit 6 per cent. sand is too much, and we will make

your friend 10s, a ton allowance on the two tons. This pays him for th

whole of the sand, and we will send you the money on hearing that our

proposal is satisfactory. Please let us have a sample of the cake.
Yours faithfully,

Earves & K1xo

Messrs. Marston Brothers, Ludlow.

Mr. Newill accepted the allowance of 10s. a ton offered.

2. The following case illustrates well the difficulties whic
may arise when linseed-cake, guaranteed as ‘‘ pure,” is mad
not by the vendors themselves, but for them under a contra

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891. 815

with the crushers. It shows how, with the best intentions on
the part of the vendors, mistakes may arise unless they take the
necessary steps to secure themselves against what is sent out on
their responsibility being below the guarantee they give :—

A member of the Society forwarded on October 27 a sample of
linseed-cake, four tons of which he had purchased at 9/. 6s. 3d. per
ton for cash, delivered, and which was described to him as “95 pure
linseed-cake.”

The vendors, though not themselves the manufacturers, had had
the cake specially made for them under a contract from the makers
in the same terms as those upon which they sold the cake.

When forwarding the sample to Dr. Voelcker for analysis, the
member also sent a piece to the vendors. They wrote in reply on
October 27 : “ We are a little disappointed in the appearance of the
samples, though we quite hope the analysis will come out up to our
standard.”

The following analysis and report was given :—

October 31, 1891.

Moisture . . - : - . : - Ae sya)
i. : : : : z d : é » ALIEOS
1 Albuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) » 3213 100-00
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . - 28:08
Woody fibre (cellulose) : . : 2 site» 26
2 Mineral matter (ash) - - : : . «O40
1 Containing nitrogen : : . 514
2 Including sand ; ; : sab

The cake is an impure one, containing a considerable quantity of raye
and other foreign seeds.

_ From the correspondence which ensued, it appeared that the
yendors employed contractors to make and brand cake for them, and
that, in order to save carriage, the cake was frequently sent direct
from the mills to customers without being seen by the actual
vendors. A winter contract was being carried out in this way, the
makers guaranteeing the purity and quality of the cake to the
vendors. The delivery sent to the purchaser was, however, made
from seed which had not been tested before the manufacture had
commenced, and which was subsequently found to contain more im-
_ purity—chiefly oleaginous seeds other than linseed—than it should
_ have had. Thereupon the crushers, according to their account,
stopped making the cake for the vendors from this seed, but the

four tons had been meantime despatched, and nothing more was
said about it until the purchaser complained. The crushers, on
receiving the sample, admitted that they could tell from the appear-
ance of the cake that it was made from the identical lot of inferior
seed. The vendors, on their part, accepted the entire responsibility
so far as the purchaser was concerned, and duly made an allowance
to him, expressing their regret, and explaining that they had not
heen informed, as they ought to have been, of the despatch of the

816 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891.

cake made from the inferior seed. The purchaser, while accepting
the allowance, pointed out the unsatisfactory nature of the reply of
the crushers, and the uselessness of guarantees between contractors
and sub-contractors, when neither party took any steps to ascertain
whether the conditions of the guarantee were being fulfilled, or to
see whether the cake sold to customers was really “ pure” cake as
stated to be.

3. Mr. E. L. Peel, on behalf of Lord Hastings, Melton Constable,
East Dereham, Norfolk, forwarded on November 2 a sample of
linseed-cake, which, after analysis, was reported upon as follows :—

November 6, 1891.
Moisture . : 2 c : ° : c = dbs

Oil . A - n ocates : : : : . 966

1 AJbuminous compounds (flesh-forming matters) . 28°31]
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre : : | 3662 L000
Woody fibre (cellulose) . : : ; : . 846
Mineral matter (ash) - - - : : . 5:40

1 Containing nitrogen . 2 é ; 4°53

This is not a pure cake, but contains considerable admixture of weed
seeds and starchy impurities.

The price of the cake was 9/. 5s. per ton on rail. The present
transaction consisted of one ton only, but large quantities had been
purchased from the firm before. Mr. Peel added that he believed
the vendors were not the makers of the cake, but only acted as
agents, and, being dissatisfied with the quality of it, he was anxiou
to have Dr. Voelcker’s opinion cn. it. :

The order was given for ‘‘1 ton linseed-cake,” but the dese

tion on the invoice was “1 ton <)> Riga cakes.”

see that the invoices correspond with the orders they give.

4. In reference to a case reported in the last Quarterly Report
(July 1891) of the Chemical Committee, and published on page 633
of the Jowrnal for September 30, 1891, Messrs. R. and J. Hewetson,
of 1 Catherine Court, E.C., have requested that a fuller explana-
tion of the case be given in a succeeding issue.

The Committee accordingly give in full the further correspond-
ence that has passed.

The case as previously reported read as follows :—

“Myr. G. W. Finn, of Westwood Court, Faversham, sent on June 4, 1891,
a sample of American linseed-cake for analysis, he having purchased about
thirty tons of this cake from Messrs. Wakeley, Rainham, Kent. It wa
known as ‘ Dean's’ Cake, the price being 8/, 10s. per ton. ‘The report giver
on this sample was as follows :— :

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891. 817

. June 9.
“Moisture . 5 . 5 - : . - - ; = - 10°25
Oil « . - 910
* Albaminous compounds (flesh- forming matters) ate - 2775 | 109-00
Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre . F : - . 3154)
Woody fibre (ceilulose) . - : = e p - 1076
= Mineral matter (ash) . 5 7 - > c - “ . 10°60
* Containing nitrogen = ° F * Bd - £44
> Including sand. - - - . - 505

“This is an impure cake, containing over 5 per cent. of sand.

“No allowance was made by the vendors. They sent Mr. Finn the copy
of an analysis of what they said was the same cake as supplied to him.
This was as follows :—

“Copy oF ANALYSIS OF ‘DEAN'S’ CAKE.

“ Water (lost at 212° Fahr.) . : = - ~ : - = eo
Oil ° - F : - 10°60 )
> Albuminous (Resh-forming compounds ae : ~ * - 2911 | 10000
Mucilage. digestible fibre,éc. . . . . S$, ce) SSL Fi
Indigestible (woody) fibre . : = a : . - ~ 710-33 }
= Mineral matter (ash) . - - F . ‘ ; - - 646
* Containing nitrogen : - : ~ . = - 460
= Containing sand. = : F P . 110

*This is a pure linseed-cake made from very clean secd.”

The following letter was received from Messrs. R. & J. Hewet-
son on October 30, and its receipt acknowledged on the same day :—

1, Catherine Court, London, E.C.; October 29, 1891.

Dear Sirs,—Referiing to our interview with Mr. Clarke on last Tues-
day, as to the insertion on page 633 of this quarter’s issue of the Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society, we now beg to enclose a copy of letter
received from Messrs. Wakeley Brothers.

As agents for the Dean Linseed Oil Co. we think it only fair to them
and ourselves that such a report should not go forth without a fuller
explanation of the facts of the case: it is clear the original sample was not
taken by Mr. Finn, nor have we any evidence to show it was a sample of
Dean’s cake at all.

. At any rate, when fair samples were taken the result was totally different,
and so far from the cake being impure, two analysts prove that it was made
from the usual 96 per cent. Calcutta linseed, and contained a high percentage
of oil.

We regret so long a time has elapsed, but our attenlion was not drawn
to the case until this quarter's edition was sent out.

Tf any further details are required we shall be glad to furnish them.

Meanwhile we trust you will be so good as to insert the exact circum-
stances of the case in the next quarterly issue of the Society’s Journal.

We remain, your obedient servants,
Rost. & Jno. HEweTson.

The Chemical Committee, Royal Agricultural Society.

(Enclosure in Messrs Hewetson’s letter. |

Rainham, Kent: October 28, 1891.

GENTLEMEN,—We have enclosed a copy of the three analyses, also the
original of Mr. Hughes. We do not appear to bave had any written
correspondence from or to Mr. Finn; if we had any it ismislaid. The facts
as under.
_ At Canterbury Market, Mr. Finn told us that he had our cake analysed,
and that it proved to be an impure cake, and asked us what allowance we
i VOL, U, T, 8,—8 WAR See 5H

-

818 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891

could make him. We answered him that as we thought cake would drop in
price we made him a special quotation, and could not make any further
reduction, and told him we had sold this cake for a great number of years,
and this was the first complaint we had ever received of the quality. We had
often received complaints of the price, but never of the quality, and asked
him to show us the analysis, which he first said he was not allowed to do,
but subsequently did. We asked him who took the cake he sent to be
analysed, and he said his man did. We then asked him if it was taken
in his presence, and he said it was not. We then saw you, and you got Mr. —
Hughes to analyse the same cake, or rather from the same cargo. We then —
showed this to Mr. Finn, and said as it differed so from his analysis we
should suggest that a cake should be taken by us from the parcel we had
delivered to him in his presence, and he said he thought it was only fair, and
accordingly our Mr. Percy went to his farm and took a piece of cake out of
one of the bags with Mr. Finn, and Mr. Finn sent it to Mr. Bernard Dyer,
and we think that the facts were not fully and plainly stated in the Agri-
cultural Journal.
Yours respectfully,
WakELEY Bros.
Messrs. Hewetson.

Analysis of Dean’s Calcutta Seed Linseed Cake.

VOELCKER. HUGHES, BERNARD DYER.
Moisture 10°25 | Moisture 9:20 | Moisture. . . ee
Olle i: Pas ae? sos ROU Cee 10:603)|5OUm eee - . 18
* AJbuminous com- » Albuminous com- * Albuminous com-

pounds (fiesh-form- pounds (flesh-form- pounds (flesh-form-
ing matters) . . . 27-75 ing matters) : 3291 ing matters) . . . 259
Mucilage, sugar, and Mucilage, sugar, and Mucilage, sugar, and
digestible fibre 31°54 digestible fibre 34°30 digestible fibre . . 3481
Woody fibre . . . . 10°76 | Indigestible fibre 10°33 | Indigestible fibre . . 763
* Mineral matter . . 10°60 | * Mineral matter 6-46 | * Mineral matter. 8:43
100°00 | 100-00 1
1 Containing nitrogen . 444 | ' Containing nitrogen . 4°60 | * Containing nitrogen . 471
a a sand 5:05 | ? 5 sand Hey |e ‘ sand . . 2:96
Thisisan impure cake, con- | Thisis a pure linseed cake
taining over 5 per cent. of | made from very clean seed.

sand.
June 9, 1891.

June 18, 1891.

July 4, 1891,

Messrs. Hewetson’s letter was laid before the Chemical Com-
mittee at its meeting held on November 3, when the Secretary w
instructed to reply as follows :—

Royal Agricultural Society of England, 12, Hanover Square, Londoh, W.:

November 6, 1891,

GunxtLpunn,—I laid before the Chemical Committee, at their meeting-held
on Tuesday last, your letter of the 20th ultimo, and am instructed to inform
you that they are in no way unwilling to publish the correspondence which
has been brought to their notice, if you think it desirable that this should be

done.

At the same time, the Committee must point out to you that when—as
stated in Messrs, Wakeley’s letter of October 28—a further sample was drawn
by them from the lot delivered to Mr. Finn, it was found on analysis to com
tain practically 3 per cent. of sand, which, as you are aware, is in excess
what a pure cake should contain, a

With reference to your remark, that “it is clear that the origin

Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891. 819

sample was not taken by Mr. Finn,” I am to inform you that a letter
received from that gentleman explicitly says that the sample forwarded to
Dr. Voeleker was taken out of the middle of a cake by himself.

From the three analyses quoted by you, it appears very probable that
the cake varied considerably in quality throughcut the bulk; and hence the
analyses would differ also. But it is to be noted that each of the two
samples drawn by Mr. Finn and Messrs. Wakeley respectively from the
delivery sent to Mr. Finn showed an excess of sand which should not exist
in a pure linseed-cake.

Yours faithfully,
ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
Messrs. R. & J. Hewetson.

The letter from Mr. Finn referred to in the foregoing was as

under :— ‘
Westwood Court, Faversham : October 31, 1891.
Dear Str,—The linseed-cake which I sent to you was taken out of the
middle of a cake by myself, and when Messrs. Wakeley heard I had
received a bad report one of the firm called on me and took a piece from
another cake exactly in the same manner; I could not say if it was from the
same Jot as yours, but it would certainly be cake that I had from them as
Dean’s Calcutta seed cake. It was sent to another analyst, who returned a
better report.
Yours faithfully,
G, W. Fixn,
J. Augustus Voelcker, Esq.

I believe Mr. Bernard Dyer had the second piece.

On receipt of the Secretary’s letter of November 6, Messrs.
Hewetson wrote :—

1, Catherine Court, London, E.C.: November 21, 1891.

GENTLEMEN,—On receipt of your letter of Ncvember 6, we wrote to Mr,
Wakeley as to his assertion that the first sample was not taken by Mr. Finn,
but by his man, and we now have his reply.

The facts are as under :—

‘“‘ Mr. Finn told me, when he first spoke to me about it, that his man
took the cake, and when I wrote to him reminding him of what he said at
that time, and that it was contrary to what he since wrote me in answer to
my query whether he or his man took the cake, he said he could not swear
whether he or his man took the cake, so he asked his yardmen, who said
that Mr. Finn took it.”

Our complaint is that the account given in the Journal is quite mislead-
ing, as the best analysis—that of Bernard Dyer—is left out altogether, and
the sample in this case was taken in the presence of Mr. Wakeley and Mr.
Finn, and sent by Mr. Finn to Mr. Dyer.

Also the report says: ‘They sent Mr. Finn the copy of an analysis of
what they said was the same cake as supplied to him,” thereby casting some
doubt as to its being the same cake.

We trust the Committee will see that some explanation is due, as it is
most unjust to the Dean Linseed Oil Co.’s cake—which is well known to be
the finest American cake that ts made—that such a report should go forth
uncontradicted.

We remain, Gentlemen, yours obediently,
topERT & JNo, HEwrETsoN,

The Chemical Committee, Royal Agricultural Society.
3H 2

820 Quarterly Report of the Chemical Committee, December 1891.

This letter was laid before the Chemical Committee at its meet-
ing held on December 8, when the Secretary was instructed to reply
as follows :—

Royal Agricultural Society of England, 12, Hanover Square, London, W.:
December 12, 1891.

GENTLEMEN,—The Chemical Committee bad under discussion at their
meeting on Tuesday last your letter of November 21, and they are quite
willing: to give publicity in the Society’s Journal to the full correspondence,
as desired by you.

The Committee would, however, point out that neither the analysis
made by Mr. Bernard Dyer nor any letter of explanation was before them ~
at the time the report was published, and this, notwithstanding the fact
that the vendors (Messrs. Wakeley Brothers) knew of the complaint made
by Mr. Finn about the cake, and had declined to give any allowance for it.

The Committee had no intention whatever of casting any doubt upon
the correctness of the copy of analysis given to Mr. Finn. ‘The statement
in their report was not a comment of their own, but was taken from a
letter by Mr. Finn to Dr. Voelcker, dated June 20, in which that gentle-
man wrote as follows :—

“The agents from whom I bought have sent me a copy of an analysis
which they say is the same cake, and which comes out better than yours, so
I have sent you a copy.”

I am, yours faithfully,
Ernest CLarkB, Secretary.
Messrs. R. & J. Hewetson.

December 8, 1891. R. A. Warren, Chairman.

SNOWSELL v. THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIE TW

Tue following transcript from the shorthand notes of the pro-
ceedings in this case, which was heard before Mr. Justice Wills on
Oclaber 30, 1891, was laid before the Chemical Committee at their
meeting held on November 3, and, on their recommendation, was
ordered by the Council to be published in the Journal :—

In the High Court of Justice : GUILDHALL:
Queen’s Bench Division. Friday, 30th October, 1891.

Before Mr. Justice WILLs.
SNOWSELL

v.

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Mr. Cock, Q.C., and Mr. A. T. Lawrence, instructed by Messrs.
TuorNpEyoroFt and Wutris, Agents for Messrs. TAynron Sons and
SrveTeR, of Gloucester, for the Plaintiff; and Mr, Lockwoop, Q.C., and
Dr. Brake OpcERs, instructed by Messrs. GARRARD JAMus and Worre,
for the Defendants,

Snowsell vy. The Royal Agricultural Society. 821

Transcript from the shorthand notes of Messrs, Hodges and Son, 87
Chancery Lane, W.C.

Mr. Cocx, Q.C.—Will your Lordship allow me to mention the next
case ?

Mr. Justice WILLs.—Yes.

Mr. Cocx.—My Lord, that is an action which has been brought

inst the Royal Agricultural Society of England by Mr. Snowsell for
libel. I do not know whether your Lordship has seen the Record ?

Mr. Justice Witts.—No.

Mr. Cocx.—Then, my Lord, I wish to state that I have had an oppor-
tunity of consulting with Mr. Lockwood, who represents the Defendants, the
Royal Agricultural Society, in this case, and if your Lordship will allow
me to make a few statements on behalf of Mr. Snowsell, for whom I appear
with regard to that case, I do not think it will be necessary to trouble your
Lordship, or the Jury, any further with it. Perhaps it will be a convenient
time to do so now, before another witness is called.

Mr. Justice Wuitts.—Yes. I think that is reasonable. You do not
want the Jury sworn, I suppose?

Mr. Cock.—Oh no, my Lord. We have arranged not to trouble the
Jury. This is an action which is brought by Mr. Snowsell, the Plaintiff,
who carries on his business as “ The Cotswold Association for the supply of
pure and unadulterated Artificial Manures and Feeding Stuffs,” against the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, in respect of certain correspondence
which was published in a Report of the Agricultural Society, which Mr.
Snowsell considered reflected upon him. It never has been his desire to
make money out of this litigation, but he has desired to have an opportu-
nity of stating publicly what his position is with regard to this matter. I
have read the papers in this matter, and my friend Mr. Lawrence has read
them also, and we entertain no doubt whatever that the course which was
taken by the Royal Agricultural Society of England was taken by them
with regard to the matters that were before them in accordance with what
they considered their duty to the public and to the Members of that
Society, and I do not desire to attribute the slightest blame to them,
but on the other hand I must say I think they took a course which it
was right they should take under the circumstances. But it is desirable
that I should now, on behalf of Mr. Snowsell, make one or two state-
ments in regard to the position in which he was placed and the matters
which have arisen. Mr. Snowsell, as I have told your Lordship, was a
seller of linseed-cake and other food for cattle. He was not a manufacturer,
but a person who dealt in it, and he supplied a certain quantity of this
linseed-cake which he had purchased to a Mr. Iles. Mr. Iles had that
linseed-cake analysed, and he was of opinion that it was not such a cake as
ought to have been supplied to him under the description under which it
had been supplied, viz., “ pure linseed-cake,” and he thereupon communicated
to the Royal Agricultural Society the result of the analysis which he had
had made of this cake, and a further analysis was made by another analyst,
and that was also supplied to the Agricultural Society. The Royal Agri-
cultural Society, finding that this cake had been on the market, thought
it their duty to publish this analysis and a certain correspondence relating
to it; and, as I said just now, I do not blame them for taking that
course. But the position Mr, Snowsell occupied in the matter was
this: he had purchased this cake from the same firm who had supplied
this cake for a great number of years. He had supplied it to his customers
in the ordinary course of his business. When he first began to buy it, he
hai had seyeral analyses made for the purpose of ascertaining what the

822 Snowsell y. The Royal Agricultural Society.

quality of the cake was, and those analyses were perfectly satisfactory. He
had supplied it, as I told your Lordship, to customers occupying first-rate
positions, and to other parties who had had analyses made themselyes,
and he had had no fresh analysis made, and he thought there was no
necessity for it, as everybody seems to have been satisfied. However, it
appears that, in consequence of some alteration in regard to the law of
adulteration, the manufacturers had altered the description of the cake
on their invoices, by leaving out in a sort of label the word “ pure.” But
Mr. Snowsell had not noticed this omission, and he had not noticed that
there had been any difference in the manufacture of this cake; but, un-
fortunately, there was, and this so far as I know was the first case in
which such matter was discovered. But when Mr, Iles discovered this, he
was naturally very much displeased with the cake which he had got, and he
thereupon made a complaint, and brought it before the notice of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and thus it was that they thought it right (the
cake being used for feeding purposes, and the matter being of the
greatest importance to the public) to bring it before them in their report. They
did not publish the letters which Mr. Snowsell had written to them,
and it is not for me now to say anything about it, because they thought
they were carrying out their duty in publishing the documents which
they did. Mr. Snowsell thought, as some of the documents suggested
that he had some knowledge of the change that had been made im the
cake, that it was his duty to himself and his customers to bring this
action against the Royal Agricultural Society. Accordingly, the matter has
now come into Court, and I, on behalf of Mr. Snowsell, have had an op-
portunity of making this statement, and Mr. Lockwood, representing the
Royal Agricultural Society, has met me very fairly, as I felt sure he
would, with regard to this matter; and therefore we agree that the
Record shall be withdrawn, and that there shall be an end of the
matter.

Mr. Locxwoov.—Perhaps your Lordship will allow me to say
on behalf of the Royal Agricultural Society for whom I appear, that
they have had no interest whatever in this matter so far as this indi-
vidual Plaintiff is concerned, nor, indeed, my Lord, are they in any way
concerned as to any disputes which may arise between this gentleman,
who appears to be a retail dealer, and the manufacturers ; they must settle
those disputes amongst themselves. The Royal Agricultural Society
consider they had a duty towards their members, and, indeed, to the
farming industry generally; but, as my learned friend has very frankly
stated that he recognises that what was done by the Royal, Society
was done in what they considered to be the performance of the duties
which were imposed upon them, it is not necessary for me to say any more
upon the matter, so long as it is recognised in public that what was done by
the Royal Agricultural Society was done in what they considered the public
interest.

Mr. Justice Witts.—The Record is withdrawn.

Mr, Lockwoop.—If your Lordship pleases.

LS

“ages of 14 and 18 took place on November 10 and 1i, 1891.

823

REPORT OF THE EDUCATION COMMITTEE
On the Results of the Junior Examination of November, 189t.

THE Committee have to report that the Examination for the
Society’s ten Junior Scholarships of 20/. each for boys between the

There were forty-five candidates from ten schools, and two candi-
dates unattached, making in all forty-seven entries, the highest total
reached since the examination was instituted in 1874. Two candi-
dates who had entered did not present themselves.

2. Of the forty-five actual competitors, eighteen have passed in
all four subjects (Agriculture, Chemistry, Mechanics, and Land
Surveying) and have obtained the number of marks necessary to
qualify them for the Society’s Scholarships and Certificates. These
will, in accordance with the regulations, be retained until the
winners of them shall have spent the ensuing year at school or
college, or with a practical agriculturist upon a farm. Two
candidates (one from the Devon. County School, and one from the
Surrey County School) passed in all four subjects, but failed to
obtain the minimum total marks necessary to qualify for Certificates.
Of the twenty-five other unsuccessful competitors, thirteen failed in
one subject, seven in two subjects, four in three subjects, and one in
all four subjects. There were five failures in Agriculture, thirteen
in Chemistry, seventeen in Mechanics, anc eight in Land Surveying.

?. The names of the successful candidates, with the number of

marks gained by each, are given in the following Table :—

|
& | = -
Bel aos
c 5} ; | 21°
=e Candidate Age School or College = if
st 2 £2
a Se
|
1 | Wood, J.R. . .| 17 | Aspatria Agricultural College .| 350) 99 127| 78 | 654
2) McCreath, J. . | 17 Maybole Public School, N.B. . | 340 | 138 | 118 | 5 | 647
3 | Newman,J.H. . | 17 Surrey County School . ~| 270 | 174 }.125 | 75 | 644
4 | Westley, W. A. .| 17 Northampton Grammar School | | 250 | 159 | 130| 98 | 637
5 | Armstrong,G. W.. | 16 Aspatria Agricultural College . | 285 | 107 152) 71 615
6 | Edgecombe, E. . | 16 Ashburton Grammar School . | 315 | 130 | 121) 42) GIS
7‘ Clayton, E. . . 17 Aspatria Agricultural Cofege ~./| 270/139) S83) 83 | 580
8 Thomas, G. R. . 15 Aspatria Agricultnral College .| 300/110) SO) 77 | 567
dela Mothe,J.T.. 17 Aspatria Agricultural College ./| 240 > 96 134) 85 | 558
Puddicombe, J. . | i6 Aspatria Agricultural College . | 280 | 107) 96) 73 556
11 | Endacott,N.. .|15 AshburtonGrammar School —. | 220 | 117 | 119 | 91 | 547
12 | Maddicoit, W. . | 16 Aspatria Agricultural College .| 220 | 117 | 122! 62 | 52h
13 | Porteous,G.D. . | 16 | Maybole Public School, N.B. . | 205 144 95 62 | 506
14 | Johnson, H. . . | 16 | Swanley Horticultural College 195 | 121 | 100} 88 | 504
15 Henley, J. . . | 17.) Dunn Foundation School, Crediton | 225 108 | 83] 67 | 483
16 | Taylor, C. H.. - | 16 | Surrey County School . - | 235 | 102 7a | 63 | 475
17 | Badcock, F. J. . | 14 Ashburton Grammar School | | 185 | 122} 75) 79 | 461
18 | Bower, W. G. - | 17 | Surrey County School . + «| 150 | 139 | 82 | 80 451

824 Report of the Education Committee on

4, The Examiner in Agriculture, Mr. Primrose McConnell, B. Se.,
reports that “the result this year is very much superior to that of
former years: there are very few failures, while the average of
marks obtained is very high, the honours being pretty evenly dis-
tributed among three or four of the schools. This is gratifying when
the fact is taken into consideration that the questions set refer as
far as possible to the details of practice not usually found in books,
so that the knowledge of these displayed indicates satisfactory
progress, when compared with the vague replies I have often had on
formér occasions.”

5. The Examiner in Chemistry (Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, B.A.
B.Sc.) reports that “two papers were extremely good. Following
these were seven very fair papers, but the remainder were inferior.
The majority of the papers showed evidence of particular points,
such as formule, specific gravities, molecules of water of crystal-
lisation, &c., having been ‘ got up’ very exactly, while many of the
more elementary facts were unduly neglected.”

6. The Examiner in Mechanics and Natural Philosophy, and in
Mensuration and Land Surveying (the Rev. Professor Twisden, M.A.),
reports that ‘‘the best work in the subject of Mechanics is not as
good as the best work of last year, and a good deal of the work, as
will be seen from the marks, is very poor. However, about a third
of the papers show that the writers have some knowledge of the
elements of the subject. Question 5 brought out a good deal of
ignorance, but the question was well answered seven or eight times.
Question 9 was well answered only three times, but this might,
perhaps, have been expected. Question 10 was often not attempted,
and was very seldom answered to any purpose. This was a weak
point in the examination. A curious mistake was made a good
many times, and by boys in more than one school, viz. the same
body was said to be acted on by gravity and: by its own weight, as
if these were two distinct and separate forces, e.g. in some answers
to the fourth question, Q was said to be acted on (1) by its own
weight ; (2) by gravity.”

7. In Mensuration and Land Surveying, Professor Twisden
reports that ‘‘the marking is proportionately much higher than in
Mechanics, and on the whole the work is very fairly g and
accurate. I may mention particularly that question 6, which
resembles a question ill done last year, was well done in many cases.
Question 1 was in most cases understood. In question 2 very few
found the area with a reasonable degree of accuracy, and many did
not find it at all) It may be well to notice that the question
requires the area to be found from the triangle that has been
previously drawn. This direction was seldom attended to. The
length of the third side was taken from the drawing, so that the
three sides were known, and from them the area was calculated by
the well-known formula. This method involves a very long caleu-
lation, and therefore is very liable to error. In fact, the result was

the Junior Examination of November, 1891. 825

seldom correct. Another instance of a perverse choice of long
methods occurred in the answers to question 3. Very few saw that
when the radius has been found, the area can be found by multiply-
ing half the radius by 1000. I may add that in the answers to this
question no attention was paid to the point that the area was to be
found true to the nearest square inch.”

8. The results of the Examination as a whole are above the
average of the last seven years, and may be considered as satisfactory,
especially as regards the large proportion of successes in Agriculture.
The Committee would, however, point to the fact that as many as
seventeen candidates failed in Mechanics, and that but for failure
in this subject five other candidates would have qualified for Certi-
ficates if not for Scholarships.

JoHN TREMAYNE,
December 8, 1891. Chairman.

EXAMINATION IN AGRICULTURE.

MAximuM NUMBER OF MARKS, 400. PAss NUMBER, 150,

Tuesday, November 10, 1891.

(Three hours allowed.)

1. Explain how draining improves land.

2. Describe the making of a bare fallow.

3. Describe the cultivation of the potato crop, from the preparation of the
land to the raising of the tubers.

4, Explain the influence of food on the quantity and quality of milk yielded
by a cow.

5. State some of the general points attended to in selecting rams for
breeding purposes.

6. State approximately the number of carts, ploughs, rollers, harrows,
corn-drills, horse-hoes, cultivators, reapers, mowers, and horse-rakes required
on a farm of 300 acres of mixed husbandry.

7. Sketch a good arrangement of the parts of a double cow-stall, giving
dimensions.

8. In milking a cow explain the advantages and disadvantages of the
stripping manner of milking, the squeezing or neivliny, and also the wet and
the dry methods. ;

9. Give a ration suitable for an ordinary working farm-horse for summer
feeding, and also one for winter.

10. Write a short pajer on the variations in the climate of different parts
of Great Britain, givin some details regarding rainfall, temperature, and
| elevation.

826 Junior Examination Papers, 1891.

EXAMINATION IN ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY.
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 200. PAss NUMBER, 75.

Tuesday, November 10, 1891.
(Three hours allowed.)

1. Describe two processes for the preparation of oxygen gas, Name the
principal properties of the gas. :

2. From what salt is nitric acid (HNO,) commonly prepared? From 100
grammes of the salt, how much of the acid can be obtained ?

3. What is meant by an element being mon-atomic, di-atomic, tri-atomic,
&c.?2 Give an example of each.

4. A solution contains chloride of barium, chloride of calcium, chloride of
magnesium: how would you prove the presence of the respective elements?

5. Distinguish between the asi (mineral matter) left—

(a) when wood is burnt.

(b) when bones are burnt.

6. A crystalline powder, purporting to be “blue vitriol,” is believed to
have some “green vitriol” mixed with it. Define the terms “ blue vitriol”
and “green vitriol,” and indicate how you might detect the presence of the
latter in the mixture.

7. How does sulphur occur in nature? Describe the allotropic modifica-
tions of sulphur, and say how they are severally obtained.

EXAMINATION IN MENSURATION AND LAND SURVEYING,
MAXIMUM NUMBER or Marks, 100, PASS NUMBER, 40.
Wednesday, November 11, 1891.

(Two hours alloned.)

1. What is meant when a plan is said to be drawn to a scale, the repre-
sentative fraction of which is ;;3;52

If the plan of an estate were drawn to this scale, how many yards apart
on the ground are two points, which are shown on the plan by two points 5°20
inches apart ?

2. Inatriangle A BC thesides A B and A Care respectively 5,275 and 4,160
feet long, and the angle B AC is 71° 10’; draw the triangle to a scale of 1 ine
equal to 1,000 feet ; note the length of BC, and the number of degrees inthe
angles B and C. Find also from the drawing the number of acres, &c.
the triangle. }

3. The circumference of a circle is 1,000 inches; find (a) the length of its
radius, (d) its area, working with sufficient accuracy to ensure finding its
area to the nearest square inch. (4r=3°14159.)

4. How many gallons of water are there in a pipe (kept full) a mile long -
and 3 inches in internal diameter? If water is delivered from the pipe at the
rate of 5,000 gallons an hour, with what velocity does the water move in the
pipe? (A gallon contains 277-274 cubic inches.)

5. A and B are two points 5,500 yards apart ; B is 37° to the north of east
from A: using a scale of 1 inch equal to 1,000 yards, find by construction how
many yards B is north, and how many yards it is east, of A.

6. A, B, C are three points in order on the ground; they are respectively
20 feet, 15 feet, and 18 feet above the datum line; from A to B horizontally
is 200 feet, and from B to C is 300 feet ; show the points and the slope of the
ground between them ina diagram, using 1 inch equal to 10 feet for a vertical
scale, and 1 inch equal to 100 feet for a horizontal scale. 4

The level is placed between B and O, and the back-reading of the leve
staff at A is 2 feet 7 inches; find the back-reading of the staff at B, and the
fore-reading of the staff at C. Draw a line on your diagram to show the Jin
along which the observer looks in taking the levels.

Junior Examination Papers, 1891. 827

EXAMINATION IN MECHANICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF MARKS, 200. Pass NUMBER, 75.

Wednesday, November 11, 1891,
(Three hours alloned.)

1. State where the centre of gravity is situated in the case of any two
simple figures.

Mention any one property of the centre of gravity of a body.

A ring can just slide freely along a rod (AB) of uniform density; the
weights of the ring and rod are equal; where must the ring be placed that
the centre of gravity of the whole body (i.e. of rod and ring) may be five-
eighths of A B from A?

2. Define the moment of a force with respect to a point.

Draw a square ABCD; in BC take a point O, such that BO is three-
fourths of BC, and suppose that the square can turn freely in the plane of
the paper about O; let forces P and Q act from A to B and from A to D
respectively ; if P is a force of 20 units, how many units must there be in Q
if the forces are in equilibrium? The forces being in equilibrium, what is
the magnitude of their resultant, and along what line does it act?

3. When a body is placed on a smooth horizontal table and left to itself,
what forces act on it, and what are the conditions of the forces being in
equilibrium ?

If the table stands on three legs, and the body is placed first at one point
on it, then at another, what change is produced in the forces that support
the table?

4. When is work done by a force, and how is the work measured ?

Two bodies (to be treated as particles) are connected by a thread; one of
them (P) is placed on a smooth horizontal table, the other (Q) hangs over
the edge; Q descends, drawing P along the table; what forces act on the
bodies respectively, and which of the forces do work?

5. In the last question let the mass of P be 20 lb., and let that of Q be
5 lb.; if Q descends through three feet, what is the kinetic energy of each
body in foot-poundals, and what is the velocity of either body in feet per
second? (g=32.)

6. A body is partly immersed in water; state the rule for determining the
magnitude and line of action of the resultant of the fluid pressures on it.

The specific gravity of a body is 0-8, and its volume is 100 cubic inches;
how many cubic inches of its volume are immersed when it floats in still water ?

7. Describe briefly the forcing-pump, and show in diagrams the valves
(@) when the piston or plunger is being raised; (b) when it is being forced down.

The plunger has a section of 36 square inches, and at each stroke is worked
through two feet: the reservoir is 100 feet above the plunger; find (a) the
number of foot-pounds of work done at each stroke, (0) the force exerted on
the plunger when the water is being forced up.

8. Define the freezing and boiling points of an ordinary mercurial thermo-
meter. In what sense can these points be regarded as fixed points?

Describe the graduation of Fahrenheit’s and of the Centigrade thermometer.

9. Define the mechanical equivalent of heat, and state its numerical value.

The mass of a body is 3 lb., and it is moving at the rate of 1,000 feet a
second ; what is the numerical value of its kinetic energy? If that kinetic
energy were converted into heat (¢.g. by impact), by how many degrees would
that quantity of heat raise the temperature of a gallon of water? (A gallon
of water weighs 10 1b.)

10. Describe briefly Watt’s Parallel Motion, and its application to the
steam-engine.

828

REPORT ON THE EXPERIMENTS WITH
BOUILLIE. BORDELATSE.

Tne experiments undertaken at the request of the Board of |
Agriculture, by the Royal Agricultural Society, for the purpose
of determining the eflicacy of Bouillie Bordelaise for the prevention
or cure of the ‘potato disease, have been carried out in six localities,
selected so as to represent the different conditions under which the
potato is cultivated in England. Three were chosen in the West—
one being on the farm of Mr. H. Hine at Pomphlett, Plymstock,
Devonshire, another on the farm of Mr. W. Marsh at Pen-y-bedd,
Carmarthen, and the third on the farm of Mr. Smith at Ludlow,
K<nutsford, Cheshire ; two were chosen in the East of England—_
one on the farm of Mr. Blagden at Epworth, in the north of
Lincolnshire, and the other on the farm of Mr. H. L. Cobb
Milton, Sittingbourne, Kent ; and the remaining locality was on the
farm of Messrs. Malden, at Cardington, Bedfordshire. To the
gentlemen named the Society are indebted for their efficient aid in.
carrying out the experiments, often at some inconvenience.

The assistance of Mr. Edmond Riley of The Weir, Hessle, Hull,
was secured to take charge of the practical carrying out of the
experiments. Under the direction of Mr. Whitehead and Dr.
Voelcker, Mr. Riley saw to the preparation of the mixture em
ployed, and to its proper application to the various crops, and i
his visits to the localities he observed the progress of the experiments.
The following report is largely based upon Mr. Riley’s statements
and letters. When the disease was supposed to have appeared
any of the stations, specimens of the affected plants were forwarded
to the Consulting Botanist, and the presence of the parasitic fungus
was determined by him or by his son, Mr. J. B. Carruthers.

The experimental plots were portions of large potato fields
which had been already planted. The varieties to be operated upon
were not selected by the Society, but the particular variety planted
by the farmer for his ordinary crop was made the subject of ex-
periment.

The Bouillie Bordelaise used consisted of 20 1b. of sulphate of
copper, 10 lb. of unslaked lime, and 100 gallons of water. The
sulphate of copper was put in a bag, which was suspended over
night in water until the sulphate was completely dissolved. The lime
freshly slaked with water and kept till it was cooled was poured
into the blue-stone solution through a sieve, which caught any
stones, hard lumps, &c. The liquid was kept continually stirred as
the lime was being added.

Mr. Riley warns purchasers of sulphate of copper against | a
spurious mixture supplied from Scotland, which on analysis was
found to be half sulphate of iron. The bright blue of the sulphate
of copper (blue-stone) enables one easily to distinguish it from

Report on the Experiments with “ Bouillie Bordeluise.” 829

green crystals of the sulphate of iron; a mixture of the two
sulphates reduced to powder has a very different colour from the
blue of the copper sulphate.

The “ Eclair” machine! was employed in distributing the mixture,
which it does in a fine spray, wetting, when properly applied, both
surfaces of the leaf.
The quantity of the
mixture applied varied
from 60 to 115 gallons
per acre, according to
the amount of foliage.
No difficulty was ex-
perienced in getting an
ordinary farm labourer
to use the Eclair satis-
factorily. The cost of
labour in applying the
mixture, including the
expenses of carrying
water, tubs, &c., to the
field, amounted to ds.
an acre for each dress-
ing, estimating the
day’s wage at 3s. The
mixture applied cost, on
an average, 3s. 6d. an
acre, the difference in
the price noted in the
Table being due to the
different charges for The “ Eclair ” Machine.
carriage. The total ex-
pense consequently came to, on an average, 8s. 6d. per acre for a
single dressing. This does not include the original cost of the Eclaiz,
which is sold in London for 35s.

The mixture was first applied early in July to the plots at each
station indicated by A in Table I. on page 831. These plots were
treated with the view of seeing how far early and repeated applica-
tions might prevent the disease in the plots, should it afterwards
attack the rest of the crop in the fields in which they were situated.
A second application was made after the middle of the month, still
before any disease had made its appearance. In two localities
(Kent and Bedford) the mixture was applied a third time towards
the middle of August, when the disease had made its appearance in
the fields.

The plots marked B in the table were treated with the view of
seeing how far a single application of the mixture might arrest or
cure the disease in potatoes which had already been attacked. One

* For a description of the ‘ “Kolait machine, see pages 232-3 of the present
yolume of the Journal, noe tt

830 Report on the Euperiments with “ Bouillie Bordelaise.”

hundred gallons were applied to the acre. In Bedfordshire this
dressing was applied on August 11, in Kent on the 12th, and in
Devonshire on August 14. The disease was later in its appearance
in Cheshire, where the “curative” application was not made till
August 28. No “curative ” application was made in Lincolnshire,
and the disease did not make its appearance in the field at Car-
marthen, and this locality is consequently excluded from the follow-
ing table.

No mixture was applied to the C plots at any of the stations,
Left undressed, they were employed as standard plots to test the
gain or loss from the application of the mixture to the neighbouring
dressed plots A and B.

The table shows a distinct improvement in the crops as the resul
of the application of the mixture, in all the localities except Cheshire.
The variety experimented on there was the “main crop,” which
Mr. Smith says is the most tender variety he grows, being blackened
by the first frost. Mr. Riley ascribes the exceptional result in
Cheshire to the injury caused to the plants by the application of
the mixture. It shrivelled up the leaves, turning them brown, and
it so affected the plant that it did not flower, though flowers were
abundant on the untreated crop.

The smallest gain in the produce was obtained in Devonshire,
where there was a heavy crop not seriously diseased. The principal
increase was in plot B, though it had a larger proportion of diseased
potatoes than either of the other plots. When Mr. Riley applied
the mixture to plot B on August 14, he observed that the plants on
plot A, which had been twice dressed (June 28 and July 15), ha
grown fully six inches since the last dressing, and that the new
growth had been attacked by the disease. An application of the
mixture a week before his visit might, he thinks, have preven a
the attack.

The largest proportion of diseased potatoes were met with in
Bedfordshire, and the mixture has here obviously benefited the
plants to which it was applied.

The most remarkable results were secured in Kent, where the
treated plots yielded much larger crops with a smaller proportion
of diseased tubers than the undressed.

The most obvious deduction from the table is that the applica-
tion of the mixture did not prevent the disease anywhere, but a
glance at the percentages of the diseased potatoes in the various
plots shows that the untreated plots suffered most heavily, though
in some of the cases the difference was very trifling. In Cheshire,
Devonshire, and Lincoln the amount of disease was very small, and
the differences scarcely appreciable. No deduction can be drawn
from them as to any influence on the disease from the application
of the mixture. It is somewhat different in the other two districts
—Kent and Bedford—where the attack of the disease was more
severe. In the untreated plot C, in Kent, 64 per cent. of diseased
potatoes were found, while in plots A and B only 14 per cent. were
present. In Bedford, plot C had 12 per cent, diseased potatoes,

831

Report on the Experiments with “ Bowllie Bordelaise.”

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832 Report on the Experiments with “ Bouillie Bordelaise.”

while in plot A there were only } per cent., but in plot B the proportion
rose to 55 percent. Further and more decided experiments are,
however, needed before trustworthy conclusions can be arrived at
as to the influence of the mixture on the fungus causing the disease.

It is, further, obvious from the table that the use of the mixture
has secured a larger crop. In each case, except Cheshire, there is
a distinct advantage, and in most of the plots a considerable gain
stands to the credit of the mixture.

The plots at Carmarthen were not attacked by the fungus caus-
ing the potato disease, but an obscure malady, locally called “ sea.
blight,” made its appearance suddenly. A small black spot showed
itself on the leaf, which rapidly spread, until in a fortnight every
leaf was dried up and dead. The dressing had a beneficial effect,
which showed itself in the dressed plot keeping green for some
weeks after the foliage of the potatoes in the rest of the field had
been destroyed.

TasLE IJ.—-RESULT OF THE EXPERIMENT
ESTIMATED PER ACRE.

AT CARMARTHEN,

x: ; = ; Total
ctua! . alue o cost of | Net
Plot weight Gain gain treat- | gain
ment
t. c. q. Ib.| t. ¢. ab.) & s. @. |\£) ss dS sae
Sandy, warp, or clay fj A]1010 1 4)2 5 220) 7 19 10 |017 6|7 28
Variety, “ Magnum Bonum” || ©} 8 4 2 12 _ _ _— —

A. Plot dressed. C. Plot not dressed,

The dressing had a marked effect in this single experiment, no
doubt due to what Mr. Riley observed, the continuance cf the plants
in active life for weeks after the untreated plants were all dead.

TasLe ITI.—SrrenctH AND QUANTITY OF Mixture EXPERIMENTS.

|

| Diseased Tubers £.
| per acre Sound Tubers per acre
Station Plot at aaa =
Actual | Per Actual Gain by | Value of | Cost of Net
| weight j cent. | weight | treatment gain tregtment. gain
t. c. qe Ib. | |} t.c.q.lb,] tcqlb | £5 da|/£ s d| fs a
KENT :— |
Loam on clay AE HO" WD al 9 11160 0/3 20 0|1017 0| 014 0 | 10NaRO
Varietu, “ Regents” ;1N/0 42 8| 24/9 60 0/0190 0] 2 2 0} O13 \Oseee
Plots M, N, and 0,}/ 0/0 3016] 12/8182 8/0 42 8} 015 0/ 01210} 0 32
dressed July 8 and 23 | P/012016; 65 | 8140 0 _ — _ -
BrpFonrp :— |
Gravelly soil |M/0 5224] 33/8 4812/018319)] 216 7) O14 0) ou
Variety, ** Daniel's” ( AT | 08 18.0) O 4:8) 7.18 1 4 /)'0 12 Je4 1 16 10 012 0; 1 410
Plots M, N, and 0,)}/0/|0 90 0] 51 /719224|0182¢84] 2 1 9) 0 1990)
dressed July 10and24\| P |1 00 0/1270 |7 60 0 — _- _ | _-

Treatment each

time of dressing lo: £5

” ”

» . 10 is
P, The plot for comparison, not dressed.

”
”

"

»

M. 15 1b. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, 100 gall. water—at 80 gall. per acre,
40

Report on the Experiments with “ Bonillie Bordeluise.” 8833

Experiments were made at Kent and Bedford with mixtures of
different strengths and applied in different quantities to the plots.
All the plots treated had the mixture applied twice, and both
applications were made before any disease appeared.

This table shows that the efficient drenching of the foliage
secured by applying 80 gallons of a weak mixture to the acre
is of more advantage to the plant than 40 gallons of a stronger
solution, and the advantage of a thorough application is further
confirmed by a comparison of the experiments in the same localities,
shown in Table I. The three applications of 100 gallons per acre
of the ordimary strength secured in Kent a crop of 12 tons 12 ewt.
as against 1] tons 16 cwt. in this experiment, and in Bedford 8 tons
18 ewt. as against 8 tons 4 cwt. These experiments teach that
whenever the mixture is applied it must be thoroughly done.

An experiment was made at Bedford with a mixture in which
the same quantity of sulphate of iron was employed instead of sul-
phate of copper, the other ingredients being in the same proportions
as in the Bowillie Bordelaise.

TasLe TV.—SvuLpPHATE OF IRON.

. | ae
Diseased Tubers |
ri per acre ; Sound Tubers per acre

|
Station |

Total i
Plot Actual Per Actual Gain of Value of , cost of | Net | Net
| weight cent.| weight dressing gain treat- | gain | loss
| | ment |
|
tc. q. lb tc. gb: |it.c, glb:| £ s. dll .s: dS is disee
onnenms =— (j|4/018 0 0 C18. SAO ANG S12) 13110 97. |) 1, iG) -oak —_—
ivelly soil Biji 2 0 0} 182|)7 4.1 |, 0S ae Tea 0, 6 10P 1 07:0 = oo
‘riety, “ Daniel's” | | Cc WES 2 24 ua 2 0 0| — — = laid

'
7

» ” » ” ” ” August 13.

This treatment has not decreased the amount of disease, but
plot A shows a somewhat larger crop.

It having come to the knowledge of the officers of the Society
that Mr. J. F. Honeyball of Teynham, near Sittingbourne, Kent,
was making some experiments with the Bowillie Bordelaise, he was
asked by Dr. Voelcker to supply the Committee with an account of
the results, and in reply he sent in the following communication.
His results generally confirm the conclusions drawn from the experi-
ments carried out by the Society.

Report on Experiments by Mr. J. F. Honeybail, at Teynham, Kent.

faving only in view the desire to satisfy myself as a potato grower of
the value of the Bordeaux mixture, I was not careful to apply the dressing to
plots of equal size of each variety, but the results obtained are sufficiently
remarkable and instructive to justify me in acceding to Dr. Voelcker's
request to furnish particulars for the use of the Committee.
VOL. Il. T. $.—8 31

834 Report on Hxperiments with “ Bowillie Bordelaise.”

The dressing applied on all the plots was one of 20 lb. sulphate of copper.
10 1b. of quick lime to 100 gallons of water. I made use of one of the
hop-washers we use in Kent, and with slight modifications this machine is
well adapted for the purpose.

The first application was made on July 28, to plots of Beauty of Hebron,
in which the disease had just appeared, and to Magnums, which were then —
perfectly free from it. On August 5, I treated the following varieties in
another field, viz.: Imperators, Sutton’s Abundance, and Chancellors, in —
which indications of disease were appearing. It may be interesting here to
note that the first disease I observed amongst the Imperators was on plants —
immediately surrounding one plant of Beauty of Hebron, and which being -
itself badly affected had contaminated its more hardy neighbours. ;

L have not given the weight of diseased tubers in the following table. In
the Beauty of Hebron plots, however, 12°5 per cent. of potatoes were affected
in the case of the untreated, as against 2°6 per cent. where dressed. These
were dug early, September 2, and we were therefore able to weigh the un-
sound tubers, but the other varieties were raised October 28 and 30, when
the diseased tubers had completely rotted away. The results obtained were
as follow :—

7
)

| |
5 ‘Size of Dressed plot Undressed plot Tnerease
Variety pol is

Per acre Per acre | percent

|
Ng 2

Per plot} Peracre Per plot

|

| |

| . g.lb.| t. ec. q.Ib. | c. gq. Ib.
0

c q. lb. |e t. c.q.lb.| t. c. q. Ib.
“Beauty of Hebron” | 20 (25 0 26) 10 1312 )231 20) 9 7120) 0 141 20 77
“ Abundance” , P 3 | 40 7) 1016218) 3116) 9 0322] 1435 2 245
“Chancellor” . . + 5 3 25) 1118 3 20} 4311) 913320) 2 60 0 | Baa
“Magnum Bonum”™' 5 68 1)10161 4) 4116) 7 02 8) 315 224 | hea
“ Tmperator ” : 8 |14 2 22} 1413 3 20;103 1) 1015020} 3183 0 | 366

» The Magnum plot was sprayed a second time on August 15,

In spite of the unfayourable weather following the applications,
prevailing throughout the month of August, the striking efficacy of the
remedy is apparent. The advantage is not wholly or even chiefly derived by
the prevention of disease in the tubers, but rather from the prolongation of
the life of the plant which ensues from the application. Instead of being
cut off when the crop is but half grown, time is allowed the plant to fully
develop its tubers, so that hardy and late kinds, such as Imperator and
Magnum, benefit more than the [Tebrons, which are much more susceptible
to blight. Hebrons were the only variety that suffered to any extent in the
tubers with me this season, although all the varieties had their haulms de
stroyed. Hebrons, if planted early, should, to a great extent, have obtaine
their growth before disease appears. The preservation of the bine in vigor
ous life accounts for the large crop we dug where the copper solution was”
used on the late varieties. : 4

It appears most important that the spraying should be very thorough.
There should be no stint in the quantity of the dressing applied, so that
every leaf if possible may receive its share. I am of opinion that it should
not be applied earlier than the period at which disease usually-appears. In
Kent we have it about the last week in July. Otherwise a second spraymg
may be necessary. ‘The lime should be kept in suspension by stirring the
liquid. When properly done it appears to me that one application wil
be found sufficient,

eon ————

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist. 834

The general outcome of the experiments appears to be that the
Bowillie Bordelaise has not prevented the disease in any of the
localities, but that it has decreased the amount of disease in the
plots to which it has been applied, and has decidedly increased
the yield of tubers. A single year’s work does not, however, supply
data on which generalisations of any permanent value can be based.

CHARLES WHITEHEAD,
December 8, 1891. Chairman,

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1891 OF THE
CONSULTING CHEMIST.

Tue past year has shown a falling off to some extent in the number
of samples submitted to the Consulting Chemist by members of the
Society. The total number of analyses made on their behalf for the
twelve months ending November 30, 1891, has been 1,358 as against
1,447 in 1890. The most marked reduction has been that in linseed
and other feeding cakes, whilst in manures there has been an
increase. A large numberof waters form part of the year’s total.

On February 1, I returned to my duties after a thirteen months’
residence in India, whither I had gone by the Council’s kind
permission, and after selection by Sir James Caird, for the purpose
of reporting to the Government of India as to the possibility of im-
proving the agriculture of that vast country by scientific means.
My report on that mission will very shortiy be ready, and meantime
I have contributed to the March number of the Society’s Journal
a paper on “Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.”

Perhaps the chief feature of the year, in so far as the more
immediate and every-day work of the laboratory is concerned,
has been the agitation for better protection against the fraudulent
sale of fertilisers and feeding-stufts. Although the crowded state
of business in the House of Commons compelled the postponement

of the Bill which Mr. Chaplin, as President of the Board of Agri-

culture, undertook to introduce, it is tolerably certain that this will
come on for discussion during next Session.

The Royal Agricultural Society will welcome a measure which
deals fairly with a matter of so much importance to the farming com-
munity, and which proceeds in the direction in which the Society
has for so long been working. Whether from this cause or from
others, it is satisfactory to note that, although the actual number of
linseed and other cakes sent for analysis has been less, there has been
a very general improvement, more especially in those cakes sold as
“linseed” cakes. Where members have adopted the advice given, and
haye asked for “ pure” cakes, and insisted upon the signing of the
form of contract note issued by the Society, it is but rarely the case
that purchases have been found to be inferior. This may, indeed, be

312

836 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist,

the reason that fewer members have thought it necessary to have a
confirmatory analysis made. It is also a matter of considerable
satisfaction that some firms have not hesitated to openly avow
their readiness to sell cakes according to the Society’s form of
guarantee.

On the other hand, where cakes have been purchased under the
vague description of “oil-cake,” it has been generally found that
these have gone from bad to worse, and have become more than
ever the media for conveying into stock the refuse sweepings and
dirt of the mills.

It cannot be said that any fresh special adulterant has been
brought to light this year, but mention may be made of an instance
where linseed-cake was found to have been adulterated with Bassia
(Bassia latifolia) seed, the husk of which has an intensely acrid and
hitter taste. This taste it imparts to the cake with which it is mixed,
and renders it avery undesirable one to use for feeding purposes. Also
it is well to mention, by way of caution, that more than one case
has been brought to my notice in which decorticated cotton-seed meal
has been found to contain the husk of castor-oil beans. In one
instance a number of animals had been killed by the use of this
meal, while many others were made very ill, though they finally
recovered. Besides containing the castor-oil husk referred to, the
meal was stale and distinctly acid.

FrEEpDInG Sturrs.

Linseed-cakes.—Until the month of October the price of linseed-

cake continued fairly regular—viz. from 7/, 15s. per ton to 8/. 10s,

for good-quality cake. In October, however, prices took a sudden
rise, consequent, partly on the low returns obtained for oil, and, more
immediately, on the prohibition of the export of linseed from

’

>

;
‘

Russia. From 8/. 10s. per ton the cost rose to 9/. 10s., 97. 15s., and

even 10/. per ton, As cotton-cake, both undecorticated and decorti-
cated, had also risen simultaneously—the latter, indeed, being hardly
obtainable— little relief for feeders of stock could be gained by the
substitution of cotton for linseed cake.

Occasionally an exceptionally hard-pressed and low-quality —

linseed- cake has been sent tome. Of sucha one I give an analysis (A)
in the following Table, placing in comparison with it those of two
high-quality cakes.

A B c
Moisture - : ° me ebay, 14:30 11°38
Oil - ; : - . 0s 15°30 20°96
1 Albuminous compounds . 35°50 25°50 83:19
l)igestible fibre, mucilage, &e. 37:10 30 64 24:13
Woody fibre . , : oo Se 7:96 — 630

Mineral matter (ash) , . 6:25 6°30 404 _

100-00 100-00 100-00

' Con(aining nitrogen . « 5°68 4°08 5°31

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist. 837

A was sold in December 1890 on the London Corn Exchange at
6/. 15s. per ton. The sender of the sample said his cows would not
eat it. I found it to be one of the hardest cakes I had ever ex-
amined, and considered that the farmer’s cows had shown much
discretion.

B was a perfectly pure cake, costing then (February 1891)
8/. 10s. a ton delivered, a not excessive price as the market stood at
the time.

C was an exceptionally rich and also pure cake, costing (April,
1891) 107. per ton. No one understanding these analyses, even
slightly, can fail to see that the inducement of a lower price may be
very dearly bought ; and to this I would add that the deprivation of
a linseed-cake of so much oil as was the case with the sample A
cannot be effected without rendering it excessively hard, indigestible,
and, it may be, even dangerous to use.

Cotton-cakes.—Undecorticated cake experienced in October 1891
a similar rise in price to linseed-cake, going from 4/. 15s. and 5/.
per ton to 5/. 15s. and 6/7. Once again I have to give a warning
against the use of certain foreign-made cotton-cakes. These are
mostly of the kind called “ Brazilian,” or are of Marseilles manu-
facture. They present a peculiar appearance, unlike that of well-
made English cake ; they are generally coated with a good deal of
hair from the horse-hair bags in which the seed is pressed, and the
husk is decidedly coarse ; often they are acid in character, and not
unfrequently bits of metal, iron nails, &c., are found in them. Such
was the case when a member of the Society recently sent me a
sample of this class of cake. He complained that four young calves
had died, and a valuable bull had been taken ill. On examining the
cake, pieces of sacking were found in it, and quite a small collection
of bits of oldiron. Another objection to undecorticated cotton-cakes

-still recurs from time to time—viz. the presence of cotton-wool, which

has not been properly removed from the seed. I have often drawn
attention to this, having had during my experience many clearly
proved cases of its having caused damage by collecting, together
with the fibre, in the stomachs of animals. I donot say that this is
bownd to occur where such a “woolly” cake is used, but I unhesi-
tatingly say it is likely to happen, and thus it must be always
considered dangerous. It is well known, however, that individual
animals, if fed cautiously at first, may accustom themselves to food
which, under other circumstances, or if too freely fed to them, would
prove injurious, or even fatal. Much depends, too, upon the indi-
vidual constitution and surroundings of the animal. Thus, in India
it is no uncommon sight to see the whole cotton-seed, with a quantity
of wool still adhering, fed to bulls and working bullocks. I well
remember being struck with this when I first saw it, and I could
not help wondering what might be the fate of our highly-bred bulls
at home if this were given to them. But one has to consider the
difference of the surroundings, the fact that in the one country the
cattle are kept for working, but not.in the other ; then, too, the dry
and hard nature of the usual food of Indian cattle and other

838 <Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist.

determ-ining features must be borne in mind. A member of the
Society sent me, soon after my return, a sample of cheap cotton-cake
which he had bought at 3/. 7s. 6d. per ton at his station. The cake
was old and full of cotton-wool, and in my opinion only fit for
manure. However, the sender assured me that his store sheep had
been feeding on it and seemed to be thriving. That they might
accustom themselves to it is quite probable, but experience fully
proves that it is highly injudicious to use such a food.

Cotton-seed Meal.—Several samples of whole seed, simply ground,
but with the oil not extracted, have been sent to me ; but in nearly
every case the meal has been open to the objection of having a lot
of cotton-wool left with the seed. They have generally contained
from 20 to 22 per cent. of oil.

Decorticated Cotton-cake.—In No. VII. of the Journal R.A.S.E.
(1891), I published an account of a two years’ experiment on the
comparative feeding values of decorticated and undecorticated
cotton-cake, the result in each case being distinctly in favour of the
former. I am pleased to notice that considerable attention has been
directed to these experiments, and it is only to be regretted that,
with its value now so fully acknowledged, the decorticated cake has
been so hard to get. From the middle of October up to the close of
November there was hardly any obtainable anywhere. The price of
it, which at the beginning of the year was 6/. 10s, per ton, rose in
October to 8/. 5s. per ton.

Earth-nut Cake.—This cake, made from the seeds contained in the
underground pod of Arachis hypogea, has been suggested as a substi-
tute for decorticated cotton-cake, especially when the price of the
latter rises, and when supplies of it are short. The seed is grown
largely in India, principally in the Madras Presidency. It is also”
grown in parts of Africa, America, &c. The oil is expressed by the
natives, and is used largely in the South of Europe for adulterating
olive oil. The pressed cake is used, partly for feeding cattle in
India, and partly for exportation. Up to the present not much has
reached England. Its tendency to turn sour and rancid
militate against its success, but it is intended to make a trial with
at the Woburn experimental farm. There are two kinds met with
the one consisting solely of the seeds, and called “ decorticated ”
cake ; the other made from the seeds and pods together, and called

.

Decorticated Undecorticated

cake cake -
Moisture . . F . : . >, SLO 9°80
Oi. . : A : : : ~ glee 6:50
1 Albuminous compounds . : : . 47°81 47°31
Digestible fibre, starch, &c. . - . 25:02 19:28
Woody fibre. : : : : . 486 10:26
* Mineral matter (ash) - : . . 695 6°85
100-00 100-00

1 Containing nitrogen . : : +» 765 TSR tgs

? Including sand . F ‘ . 2:85 2°85 :

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist. 839

“ yndecorticated ” cake. The price of the latter (7/. 5s. a ton) does
not, however, hold out particular inducements to buyers so long as
decorticated cotton-cake can be obtained. The analyses at the foot
of the preceding page are of a sample of the decorticated cake re-
ceived by me from India direct; and of one of the undecorticated
cake sent from the Argentine State.

Feeding Meals.— As an instance of what so-called ‘“‘feeding meals”
may sometimes be, I give the following case of one which was sent
to me by a member who stated that it was called “special feeding-
meal,” but that neither sheep nor cows would eat it. It cost 6/. 10s.
a ton, and was guaranteed to be “absolutely pure.” On analysis of
it I found it to contain no less than 6:10 per cent. of fine sandy
matter.

MANURES.

Passing from feeding materials to manures, it is well to remark
that the past season has been a very unprofitable one for manu-
facturers, and that while they have experienced keen competition
and less demand, farmers have, on the other hand, had the advant-
age of purchasing artificial manures at almost unaltered prices
throughout, and such as can hardly be remunerative to the mer-
chants. If farmers prefer to buy compound manures sold under
various descriptions, they must of course take their chance, or rely
on the reputation of the firms they deal with ; but for those wko
purchase such staple commodities as mineral superphosphate, bone-
meal, dissolved bones, sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, kainit,
&ec., there can be no complaint either as to any difficulty in procuring
these, or as to having to pay dearly for them.

Superphosphate (Muneral).--The price for this, of the ordinary
26-28 per cent. “soluble” quality, has been steady throughout—viz.
from 3/. to 3/. 5s. a ton. A few cases have occurred throughout the
year where low-quality samples, containing only 15 or 17 per cent.
of soluble phosphates, were met with ; but this has been quite the
exception.

Basic Slag or “ Basic Cinder.” —The quality of the samples sent to
me has been good in almost all cases. The results have been well
up to the guarantees given, and the samples have, as a rule, been in
a finely-powdered condition.

Dissolved Bones.—These, when sold under a guarantee of being
“pure,” have generally been found to prove so ; although somewhat
higher prices may have been asked, I am sure it will pay farmers
better to get such a material, and, if they so please, mix mineral
superphosphate with it, than to purchase the various mixtures sold
under the names of “ Dissolved Bone Compound,” “ Dissolved Bone
Manure,” &e., which contain a more or less uncertain amount of bone
in their composition, Manufacturers also are, I think, turning more
attention to the making of genuine dissolved bones in a form in
which it can be readily sown.

Bone-meal.—As is known, large supplies of bone-meal are

840 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist.

shipped from India, principally from the ports of Bombay, Karachi, —
and Calcutta, inasmuch as the religious prejudices of the natives
prevent them from making any serious attempt at utilising bones
as manure on their own lands. English firms have now established —
extensive mills in India for the purpose of grinding the bones which
are collected over the country, and for reducing them to the various
stages of fineness according to which they are graded and sold. It
was not to be expected that the English merchants would be left to
drive their profitable trade alone, and Parsee merchants and others
not hampered by religious scruples have carried on an active
opposition. Not content with the legitimate profits to be derived
from the trade, some of the native merchants have sought to increase
their returns by a practice which is unfortunately not unknown in
this country either—viz. that of resorting to adulteration. Before
leaving India I had the advantage, through the kindness of an
English firm (Messrs. Croft, Wells and Co., of Bombay, Calcutta,
and Karachi), of seeing the extensive mills they had erected near
Bombay, also of inspecting the enormous supplies of bones collected,
and of the methods of grinding and grading them. The arrangements
were very complete, and a high quality of bone was sent out. But
I also saw, on the day following, not here, but at one of the docks
outside Bombay, what I was not meant to see—viz. the practice of
adulteration of bone-meal with shell-sand, lime, &c., as carried on
by certain of the native merchants. It is true that I was somewhat
unceremoniously ejected from the premises when my true character
was suspected, but not before I had been able to effect my purpose
and had seen the heaps of sand and lime, and the mixture of these
with the bone-meal. So extensively has this practice been carried
on that the former good reputation enjoyed by Indian bone-meal
has suffered considerably. Here in England we are apt to speak
and think of the “simple” native, but experience has told others
besides myself that where there are any “tricks” to be learnt, the
native will not be behind the unscrupulous ones found among his
European brethren. Accordingly, it is well to point out that, in the
matter of Indian bone-meal, it is necessary for purchasers to secure
themselves by obtaining a definite guarantee, such as _ well-
known English importers give, and not to trust to the “simplicity ”
of the native. I append analyses of three different materials which
I obtained in India, and which are used for the purpose of adulter-
ating bone-meal in that country.

A B C
Sand . Hl ; ; 2 25e 28°65 30
Lime . a; 4 A 43:78 33:23 40°43
Magnesia. ; é ne 2:36 “= 20:00
Oxide of iron and alumina . 4°78 7.65 2°30
1 Carbonic acid : - . 29.64 24:64 28°55
Alkalies é ‘ : . 470 583 . 405
Water . ; ; , .. 820 4:37

100:00 100-00 100:00
' Equal to carbonate of lime 67°36 56:00 64:89

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist. 841

None of these samples contained any appreciable quantity of
phosphate of lime. B was virtually nothing but shell-sand, C was
quite white, and seemed much like finely powdered magnesian
limestone, whilst A appeared to be a mixture of B with some
amount of C.

The following is the analysis of a sample of Indian bone-meal
which was sent to me, and which I found to be low in quality,
owing to adulteration with some material kindred to the above, and
composed mainly of carbonate of lime and sand :—

Water : : ‘ ‘ : : ; vo bY
1 Organic matter . : : ; ; - : . 24:22
Phosphate of lime : . : : : . 46:24
Carbonate of lime, &c. : : : ; : . 15:43
Sand . : : : ; - : - - . 654
; 100-00

! Containing nitrogen F . : oe ee

Equal to ammonia . ; ; : on

A sample of pure Indian bone-meal, if as dry as this sample was,
would have contained probably 50 per cent, of phosphate of lime,
and about 45 per cent. of ammonia.

WATERS.

A Jarger number of waters have been sent to me for examination
than usual. Out of these, there is one case to which it is desirable
to refer, as illustrating the caution which it is necessary to observe
when sending up samples of water for analysis. Too often an old

spirit jar, provided with an old and generally badly-fitting cork, is used

for holding the water. A scum has frequently collected round the
inside of the jar, and is not easily removed, but it may nevertheless
taint the water, though the latter be good in itself. It is for this
reason that I infinitely prefer samples of water to he sent in glass-
stoppered Winchester bottles, holding half a gallon each. It is
then apparent whether a water be clear or cloudy, or whether any
sediment or scum be left on the bottle. The analyst must simply
report upon what he finds, and it is not everyone who can discrim-
inate (indeed, often it is quite impossible to do so) between a water
naturally pure but fouled by being put in a dirty jar, and one which
is naturally impure. A member of the Society sent me a sample of
water in a stone jar, and on analysis it showed :—

Grains per
gallon
Oxidisable organic matter . : : : : . 104
Free ammonia . ‘ ; ; ; . P . 0705
Albuminoid ammonia : ; : F - 006

figures which, standing by themselves, would lead a chemist to
suspect impurity of the water supply. There were, however, other

842 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist.

points in the analysis which I could not reconcile satisfactorily with
this conclusion. I suggested, therefore, that perhaps the jar had not
been properly cleaned, and that it would be better to send a fresh
sample. This was done, and the water was again analysed, giving
then the following results :—

Grains per
gallon
Oxidisable organic matter . : : : : Ae
Free ammonia . : , ; : 3 : . 003
Albuminoid ammonia ‘ j ‘ . 0015

These figures were very different from those first given, and were
quite consistent with the other parts of the analysis, as also with
the composition of a water from a pure drinking supply.

It has been my practice to conclude my annual report by giving
a few analyses of miscellaneous materials which have come under my
notice during the year. The following are some examples of thi
class.

Soot.—A sample procured with considerable care, so as to obtain
nothing but the fine soot itself, as deposited in a chimney, gave the
following high analysis :—

Water : - : : : : : : . 40
1 Ammoniacal salts and organic matter 5 5 » «2:62
Oxide of iron, lime, &e. ; ‘ : : . 13°36
Siliceous matter. . : F 2 : x « O84!
100:00

1 Containing nitrogen F 2 $ - 6:04

Equal to ammonia . : : 4 sie kiO

Deposit from Wool-cleaning.—In the water used for wool-cleaning
a considerable amount of deposit forms ; this, after drying, can be
used asa manure. Analysis of a sample gave the following :—

Water : 2 : : : : : - . ae
1 Organic matter . 5 . : . : : » 41:03"
Phosphate of lime ; : 2 : : ‘ “31
Oxide ofiron, &c. ‘ : ; ; : » CC AEE
Sand . ; : E : 5 : : . 49°40

100-00
! Containing nitrogen 4 . . . 264
Eaual to ammonia . . . Fi . 3d 21

More than half of this is sand and earthy matter, but still there
is over 3 per cent. of ammonia, and the material was in a nice dry
state. When broken up it would do well for mixing with artificial

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist. 843

manures for the purpose of diluting them, or for spreading on grass-
land. Of course it would not bear the cost of carriage to any

distance.
Cutlers’ Dust.—A sample of this, obtained from Rotherham, gave

on analysis :—

Moisture. : ‘ : : . ‘ ; . ood
1 Organic matter . : : 2 : : : . 3446
Phosphate of lime. : : - ‘ ‘ . 1064
Carbonate of lime : - P : : . 486
Metalliciron . , : . - ; : . 22:96
Sand . - im” ex : ; : : - . 21:15
100-00

! Containing nitrogen. : : . 2°46

Equal to ammonia . s ; “ . 2:98

3/. 15s. a ton, delivered, was the price asked for this, one which is
decidedly above its value.

Sulphate of Copper.—In connection with the experiments con-
ducted by the Society on the efficacy of Sulphate of Copper as
a preventive of Potato Disease, Mr. E. Riley of Hessle, Hull,
brought to my notice that, during his tour, he had come across an
instance of a farmer who was trying the remedy, but the sulphate
of copper he was using, instead of giving a bright blue solution,
formed a greenish coloured one. Mr. Riley therefore sent me up a
sample of the supposed sulphate of copper, and on examination I
found it io contain a very considerable admixture of the much
cheaper salt sulphate of iron (green vitriol). The two crystalline
salts had been ground up together, so as to allow the blue colour of
the copper salt to predominate. As there is a likelihood of the use
of sulphate of copper extencling, it is well to put farmers on their
guard against buying it when adulterated with sulphate of iron. If
purchase of ground-up powders be avoided the difficulty will not be
experienced, inasmuch as the large blue crystals of sulphate of
copper are easily distinguishable, when separate, from the green
ones of sulphate of iron, whereas, if ground together, the admixture
may not be apparent to the eye.

During the year I have contributed the following papers to the
Journal of the Society :—

No. V. Indian Agriculture in its Physical Aspects.

» Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1889 and 1890,

No. VI. Field Experiments at Woburn in 1889 and 1890.
» Experiments conducted by Local Agricultural Societies in 1889
and 1890.
No. VU. The Trials of Cream Separators at Doncaster.
The Comparative Feeding Values of Decorticated and Undecorti-
cated Cotton-cake.

No. VIII. Annual Report of the Consulting Chemist for 1891,

o The Sampling of Manures and Feeding-stuffs.

”

844 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Chemist.

I append the list of analyses made in the Laboratory during
past year.

’

List of Analyses made for Members of the Society, from December 1,
1890, to November 30, 1891.

Linseed-cakes 5 . 5 : , 5 . aT
Undecorticated cotton-cakes 5 5 : : : ie 2)
Decorticated cotton-cakes . 5 : : . 48
Compound feeding-cakes and meals. : 3 . 654
Rice-meals_. z C : : ; : 5 c 4
Cereals . : ‘ 5 d : a A : 8
Dried grains . 5 0 : - 2 , : : 4
Silage and hay . > Pia 0 5 c : 5
Butter, milk, and cream 5 ; : 2 : Fee
Waters : ‘ ; : ; : 4 A . 164
Superphosphates . é . 158
Dissolved bones and compound artificial manures . . 183
Bones and bone-meals . 2 : é r é > 090
Peruvian guano. : : é c 4 : Lael

Fish guano . : : : : : : 5 oi) eae
Shoddy . 3 5 5 : : : : > °| ee
Soot. 5 . c 5 : : : : : 8

Basic slag. 3 : : ¢ : : Beer!
Sulphate of ammonia . - 5 0 ; . Papel
Nitrate of soda. 0 : : : 2 F | 108)
Potash salts . 3 : : : ; : : GO
Lime . 5 : . : 5 : 5 #0 428
Refuse materials . C : - : 5 : 748
Soils. : : ; : 5 : : : -- odd
Miscellaneous : : 2 - 3 : ; ately
1,358
Analyses in connection with the Annual Country 40
Meeting
Analyses in connection with the Woburn experiments 63
and those of Local Agricultural Societies

Total . ‘ C - 5 ‘ . 1,461

J. Auaustus VOELCKER,

’

-

O_O EE OOO eins

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Botanist. 845

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1891 OF THE
CONSULTING BOTANIST.

Durine the past year 250 applications have been received from
members of the Society. These refer principally to seeds for laying
down pastures, but a larger proportion of inquiries have been made
than in previous years in regard to injuries to stock from poisonous
or dangerous plants, and injuries to crops from the attacks of
parasites.

SEEDS FOR PasTURE.

The quality of the grass-seeds, both as regards purity and germi-
nation, was on the whole very satisfactory during the past year. The
grasses most largely used appear to be timothy and cocksfoot. The
only impurity in timothy met with was some seeds of fiorin: its
germination was very high ; in no case did it grow less than 90 per
cent., while the average was 96 per cent. In the cocksfoot the
only seeds that were frequently found were those of Yorkshire fog,
but they never amounted to more than 3 per cent. The average
germination amounted to 84 per cent. This was reduced by sam-
ples which contained a considerable quantity of unripe seeds, with a
consequently low rate of germination. Nearly half of the samples
gave a germination of over 90 per cent.

The large fescues were free from weeds and from the seeds of
other grasses. The germination was most satisfactory, that of
meadow fescue giving an average of 94 per cent., and of tall fescue
88 per cent., after excluding an unsatisfactory sample composed to
a large extent of nearly empty glumes, and growing only 35 per cent.

The small fescues contained more impurities, the most promi-
nent being the small awned seeds of hassock-grass, one sample
containing as much as 8 per cent. of this undesirable grass. Hard
fescue gave a germination of over 78 per cent., while sheep’s fescue
was lower, giving no more than 74 per cent.

Meadow foxtail was generally free from hassock-grass. One
sample contained 6 per cent. of this seed. The germination aver-
aged 73} per cernt., when one sample is excluded, which was com-
posed mostly of empty chaff, reminding one of the samples frequently
met with some years ago, and grew only 35_per cent.

The meadow grasses were free from weeds and the germination
was satisfactory. The smooth-stalked meadow grass had an average
growth of 87 per cent., rough-stalked meadow grass of 79 per
cent., and wood meadow grass of 73 per cent.

Dogstail is deservedly going out of use. For pastures it is a
very poor grass. The seeds I examined were pure, and the samples
had an ayerage germination of 94 per cent.

846 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Botanist.

Tall oat grass is being more used. The seeds are pure, but the
germination has not risen above 62 per cent.

A considerable proportion of the rye grasses contained weeds,
chiefly ox-eye daisy, buttercup, and sorrel. The average germina-
tion of perennial rye grass amounted to 87} per cent., and of the
Italian to 90} per cent.

Some more decided effort should be made by the trade to supply
clovers more free from weeds than the samples one generally meets”
with. The great change that has been effected in the cleaning of
grass seeds might with advantage be extended to those of clovers.
They are at present the principal vehicles for introducing weeds into —
our fields. In the white clover, 73 per cent. of the samples exam-—
ined contained the seeds of weeds : in one case amounting to no less -
than 15 per cent. of the clover seeds. In red clover (including the
cow-grass of commerce) and alsike, 68 per cent. contained weeds.
In the alsike several samples had 10 per cent. or more of weeds.
The worst weed in clover is, of course, the dodder. Ten per cent.
of the samples of red clover contained dodder, while in alsike no
less than 32 per cent. had dodder seeds, and in one sample there was
as much as 45 per cent. of them. That clovers can be supplied
clear and free from dodder is evident from the fact that 32 per cent.
of red clover and alsike and 27 per cent. of white clover were quite
free from weeds. The average germinations were fairly good : the
white clover gave 88} per cent., red clover 92 per cent., and alsike
901 per cent. The samples of trefoil were more free from weeds.
The average germination of this seed was 905 per cent., while
lucerne was somewhat lower, being 85 per cent.

The samples of yarrow continue satisfactory, both in purity and
germination. There have been no weeds in the samples examined,
and the seeds have grown nearly 80 per cent. id

It should be remembered that some seeds soon lose their power of
germination, and it is consequently very undesirable to keep seeds.
In one parcel examined, which had been kept for two years, scarcely
a single seed of meadow foxtail in the mixture germinated.

Turnip SEED.

Cases of mixed crops produced from seeds purchased as pure
turnip seed have been brought under my notice. The seeds of
turnip so closely resemble those of cabbage and some allied crucife-
rous plants that it is most difficult for the purchaser to distinguish
such impurities. But the appearance of a large proportion of kale
or cabbage in a crop of turnips can be due only to the use of mixed
seeds. It is necessary that the purchaser should be precise in
designating the seeds that he orders, otherwise he may not be —
able, when the impurities appear in his crop, to recover the loss he-
has sustained from the merchant who did not supply what was

ordered.
7

Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Botanist, 847

Ereor,

Inquiries have been made as to the cause of abortions in
cows, mares, and sheep, supposed to be due to ergot. The Rey. C.
Wolley Dod, of Edgehill, Malpas, Cheshire, writes, “The greatest
losses in this neighbourhood generally take place when the cows are
not turned out, from November to February. I used to suppose the
ergot was in the hay, and that particular parts of the stack, or par-
ticular meadows, contained it in greater quantity. But observation
has led me to conclude that there is hardly any ergot at the time
the hay is cut. It appears here in August, and is most prevalent
in September. I think nine-tenths of the ergot here grows on
Lolium perenne, which is nota prevalent grass in the hay meadows.”
It is important to notice that the cases of supposed injury from
ergot took place in the winter when the stock were being fed in the
house, and chiefly on hay. Mr. Dod’s observation agrees with what
is known of the life of the parasitic fungus. Hay should be cut,
and as a rule is cut, when the principal grasses are in full flower,
and when the ergot, if present, would be extremely rare ; but no
meadow has all its grasses in flower at the same time, so it is to be
expected that the earlier grasses which are in fruit at the time of
cutting may have becn attacked by the ergot. If these grasses formed
a considerable proportion of the hay, ergot on them might be the
cause of abortion ; but this does not appear to be the case.

The hay used for food for cows on a farm near Burnham-on-
Crouch, Essex, was found to contain in a considerable parcel only
one fragment of ergot, showing the presence of the fungus in the
hay, but in such small quantity that the abortion could not be
attributed to this fungus.

Near Tunbridge Wells, Kent, the cows on a certain farm are
not liable to abortion, but on the same farm several brood mares
during 1890 and 1891 slipped their young. My correspondent sup-
poses that the freedom from attack among the cows is due to their
being given old land hay, in which there is no rye grass. His mares
were isolated from one another, and the boxes and stables thoroughly
disinfected, so that it was very improbable that the abortion was due
to infection or contagion. It was supposed to be due to ergot in the
hay, but that this was not the case was proved by a careful exami-
nation of portions both of the rye grass and clover hay, and of the
meadow hay, which showed that they contained no ergot. Moreover,
a parcel of the seeds and fragments that had fallen from the rye grass
in the hayloft was also free from ergot.

Some sheep at Adisham, near Dover, slipped their lambs in
March this year. A sample of the hay which formed part of their
food was examined, and it was found to be free from ergot and
from any injurious weeds.

The examination of the grasses in fruit in pastures during
autumn shows often a large amount of ergot. This is especially the
case in wet seasons, and in all seasons the ergot is more likely to be
found on the water grasses, or on those growing in low damp ground.

848 Annual Report for 1891 of the Consulting Botanist,

But the action of ergot on the involuntary muscles of the uterus in
the advanced stages of pregnancy is speedy. The influence of the
ergot on the involuntary muscles of the arteries, which causes gan-
grene, may be cumulative, but it certainly is not so in abortion. If
ergot be the cause, it must be due to a sufficient quantity being
taken with the food a short time before the abortion takes place,
And it is evident this could not have been the case in the instances
that have been investigated by me during the past, year.

WEEDs.

Inquiries have been made as to getting rid of Yorkshire fog,
which abounds in so many pastures. ‘This is a very difficult matter.
Yorkshire fog is a perennial grass, and consequently retains its hold
on the soil ; being usually rejected by stock it fruits freely, and the
seeds, protected as they are by a hard covering, are preserved from
injury, and when attached to the chaff are easily spread by the
wind. The result is that, where /it exists in a pasture, it not only
maintains its place, but increases, so that the bulk of some pasture
and hay-fields consist of this grass. On rich soils, and where it has
been well manured, it is eaten ; otherwise it is rejected, unless when
hunger and the want of other food compels the stock to eat it.

Several applications have been made as to the presence of garlic
in crops. The different species of Allium have a feetid and pungent
odour ; when eaten by stock this odour is communicated to milk,
cream, and cheese, and even the eggs of fowls which have picked up
the seeds in the fields are affected by it. The garlic appears in pas-
tures in the first part of the year, sometimes in great abundance.
After midsummer the weed has completed its year’s life, and withers
up, so that the pasture may be eaten without injury. But when
hay is cut early from a meadow containing garlic, the result is
the same as when the stock eat it in the pasture. These plants are
perennial ; the small bulbs, filled with a store of food which enables
the plant to grow vigorously in the spring, present the great diffi-
culty in getting rid of it. Any fragment of the bulb left in the
ground when an attempt is made to get rid of them by digging them —
up may produce a new plant. I have suggested hand pulling as
soon as the leaves appear, and continuing this throughout the grow- 2 :
ing season. This would exhaust the bulb, and though some of the _
plants would appear the following year, they would be weaker, and _
being again pulled this would probably destroy the garlic altogether. —

Some fields in the neighbourhood of Bruton, Somerset, planted —
in wheat, showed a luxuriant crop of garlic, the seeds of which, being _
collected with the wheat crop, imparted their taste and odour to the ~
flower, and rendered the wheat unsaleabie.

Insuries BY Parasitic Funai.

A field of clover in Northamptonshire, which looked well in
end of March, began to die off from an attack of Peronospora trife

Annual Report for 1891 of the Hon. Consulting Entomologist. 849

a minute fungus very close to that causing the potato disease.
Nothing can save the crop thus attacked, as the fungus lives on the
stem just above the root, and so destroys it that the communication
between the roots and the plant is interrupted. The ceasing to grow
clover on such a field for some years is desirable as the only way to
get rid of the spores of the fungus. A field of barley near Norwich
was attacked by the fungus which I described many years ago as
“straw blight.” My correspondent informs me that the seed was
drilled in March, the plant came nicely, and it looked a splendid
erop until the end of April. Then the field began to look patchy,
and in August ten acres in the field of fourteen produced a very
poor crop of starved and imperfectly filled ears. The injury here is
very much the same as that just noticed in the clover. The fine
threads of the fungus take possession of the lower joints of the stalk,
destroy the tissues, and stop the living connection between the roots
and the stem. The fructification of the attacking fungus has not
yet been observed, and my attempts this year to cultivate the
diseased straw so as to obtain the fruit were unsuccessful.

A similar injury was caused to a field of oats near Limavady,
Ireland. The plants sprang very well, and grew with apparent
strength and vigour until the beginning of July, when they began
to look sickly and then die off. This was caused by the microscopic
nematoid or eel worm (Zylenchus destructor) attacking the base of
the stem and eating up the tissues, and so stopping the connection
between the stem and the roots,

: Wa. CARRUTHERS,

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1891 OF THE
HONORARY CONSULTING ENTOMOLOGIST.

Durine the last twelve months applications regarding identification
of injurious insects, and methods of preventing their ravages, and
inquiries on points bearing on the subject as a matter of Agricultu-
ral Entomology, have continued without any break, as have also my
own careful endeavours to attend to all applications.

The number of letters received has been approximately between
twelve and thirteen hundred. These (besides inquiries and consul-
tation regarding nature, &c., of crop, fruit, and timber insect pests)
included also inquiries how to obtain, and how best to give, infor-
mation on crop insect considerations, especially in connection with
agricultural instruction under direction of the County Councils ; be-
tween two and three hundred letters regarding the use of Paris green ;
and also communications regarding warble prevention ; likewise
some amount of correspondence regarding attacks to Colonial

YOL, Il. T. s.—8 3K

850 Annual Report for 1891 of the

produce, as to Tea, Rice, Cocoanuts, &c., and a most extraordinary
and injurious outburst of flies, which proved on skilled identifica-
tion to be of the same kind as our English “ Blue-bottles,” in the
Falkland Islands. I have also been in correspondence with the
leading Official Entomologists in Canada and the United States
and elsewhere, as occasion required.

With regard to the crop insect attacks of the past season, I
should say that the year has been remarkable for almost all the
commonly known infestations being more or less present—that is
to say, that taking such crops as Turnip, Cabbage, Mangel,
Mustard, and to some extent Corn, most of the common attacks
were represented, and many kinds of fruit insects were also present.
Besides applications regarding these infestations, there were many
incidental inquiries respecting less well known and less injurious
insects. The experience of the year has in no way justified the
hope expressed by some early in the season, that “the cold would
have killed the grubs.” ‘

The great attack of the year has been that of the Dramonp-
BACK Motu (Plutella cruciferarum of Zeller), which I have already
reported on in the Journal of the Society (Vol. II. Part III. pp.
596-630) up to about the middle of August, when the worst was
over. Since then (that is, between the 6th and 25th of October) I
received reports from about fourteen different observers as to the
amount of recovery of their crops after the infestation.

From near Doncaster to sofar north as Berwick-on-Tweed most
of the observers noted the state by such expressions as “ suffered
little,” “capital crop,” “worked out satisfactorily,” or the more
doubtful commendation of “leafage good” or “ very vigorous leaf-
age ;” but on crossing the Border a decided loss on bulb growth was
noted.

In Berwickshire the farmers inquired of concurred in the view
of the turnips looking splendid, but being behind in bulbing, owing
to the check ; farther north, in Fife, two observers respectively re-
ported, in one instance that the turnips improved after the rains,
but in many instances were not bulbing well, and in the other that
the early turnips were a fair crop, but the later ‘‘ were a lot of leaves,
but the bulbs small.” Farther north still, from near Carnoustie, in
Forfarshire, the leafage was reported as “ extravagantly luxuriant,”
but the bulbs half size.

Attack of Mancen Fry (Anthomyia bete) was more reported
than in any year since its first great appearance in 1880, when it
was especially hurtful in Westmoreland and Cumberland. In the
present year the attacks appeared at various localities in the
Midland counties, and in the south and west, but more particularly
in Devonshire. The best methods of prevention and remedy have
proved, as before noticed, to be good cultivation beforehand and
(when the'attack is present) the application of stimulating dressings,
such as nitrate of soda, to carry the crop through the time whilst
the maggot is in the leaf. F

Honorary Consulting Entomologist. 851

Amongst the corn attacks few appear to have been at all
generally prevalent. Hesstan Fy has been very little reported, and,

where observed, noted as doing little
damage. Gout Fry was much less re-
ported than is usual, and Corn SawFiy
searcely at all. Corn APHIDES were
rather more than customarily present.
The destructive infestation of the
Wuear Burts Maccor (the larva of
Hylemyia coarctata) was, however, again
seriously mischievous, mainly in the east-
ern counties. This attack (in which the
damage is caused by the maggot feeding
in the “bulb” of the young wheat plant)
has for some years past caused serious
loss, and until the past season we have
not been able to ascertain in what form
it began on the plant. Now, however,
by collating last season’s information with
that previously sent, there appears proof
that the attack cannot be caused by the
wheat bulb flies laying eggs on the young

Mangel Fly.
Anthomyia bete, Curtis.

Mangel Fly, magnified; lines show-
ing spread of wings, nat. size;
pupa, nat. size and magnified.

wheat, and consequently setting on foot maggot attack, but arises by
maggot attack from eggs laid in the land during the summer.

Wheat Bulb Fly. Hylemyia coarctata, Fallen.

Wheat Bulb Fly (Hylemyia coarctata), magnified, and lines showing nat. size; maggots and
chrysalids, nat. size and mag.; mouth apparatus, and extremity of tail, with tubercles, mag. ;
| infested plant.

We cannot find, after three years’ watch (by an expert) on wild
grasses, in an infested district, that there has ever been any presence
of a summer brood on grass, nor have we knowledge of its being on.

38 x 2

852 Annual Report for 1891 of the

corn ; therefore, as we cannot after such long watch find a summer
brood, and the flies of the spring brood come out, and presumably also
die, early in the summer, it appears beyond all reasonable possibility
that the autumn and winter attack should be started by fly
attack.

In proof of the attack being from maggots in the ground, we
find, where a portion or portions of a field have been fallowed or
exposed to sun by failure of crop during the summer (in districts
liable to infestation), that on these portions the wheat bulb attack
(which notably follows fallow) is liable to be bad, while in the other
parts of the field which were protected from exposure the wheat is
safe. This difference, we find, may be traced even to a plough-line, or
precise coincidence of area of maggot attack in strips or patches to
where the ground was exposed to sun, and non-attack where it was
protected. Thus, it appears strongly to point to the attack being in
the ground, not coming on the wing, in which case the little flies
would distribute themselves more or less generally over the wheat
field, or at least not attack quite markedly with almost mathematical
precision and there stop. Various other points, which time does
not allow of insertion here, confirm this and give the key from
fields fallowed in patches to the great attacks. So far as I can
judge we have now the clue to getting the mastery of this destructive
attack which has long had everything its own way. f

If a few experiments could be tried on land considered likely to
be infested, by ploughing a small portion with a skim-coulter attached
to the plough, so as to turn down the top slice of the land with the
contained eggs and maggots, before late wheat was put in, we
should see whether the infestation could not be got rid of.

A deal of information has been sent in this year, and I should
be happy to give my best attention to any inquiry, for it is a very
serious attack.

Amongst other infestations we have now traced the Mire or
Acarus (Tyroglyphus longior) sometimes troublesome to hay in the
north to being present in the field under the “Cocks,” or “Tramps,”
and the history will probably be completed next season. The SrRig
Macacort, which has done a good deal of mischief to hops in some
places in Kent by destroying the central stem, or ‘“strig,” of the hop
cones, has proved, from specimens sent to me, to be the larva of a Ceet-
domyia—that is, a little grub nearly allied to the well-known “red
maggot” of wheat. These “strig maggots” fall from the hop cones,
and bury themselves in the surface of the hop hills. A peculiar and —
much deformed growth of the heads of tares has also proved from
specimens sent me to be caused by a cecidomyideous maggot.

Amongst fruit insects there has been opportunity for studying
the life-history of the AppLe Sawrty, which, when known of, might
easily be kept in check, but which probably has been doing a quite —
unnecessary amount of mischief, from the caterpillars not having
been distinguished from those of the codlin moth. Also various —
kinds of insects seriously injurious in great raspberry and currant
grounds have been serviceably brought forward by the Evesham

Honorary Consulting Entomologist. 853

Fruit-growers’ Experimental Committee, with which I am in com-
munication.

It is greatly to be hoped that this Committee may continue its
work, as, by the co-operation of the members, attention is at once
brought to bear on any previously unidentified attack which may
appear to a hurtful extent, and the results of action taken against
it be examined and reported on by the Committee.

The results of the experiments at Toddington with regard to the
extermination of Winter Moth infestation have been highly satis-
factory, and are now promising well for the future ; on November 5,
Mr. C. D. Wise wrote to me that up to date he had not heard of
more than six female moths being found throughout the plantations,
grease banding having been commenced a month before.

Paris green, used as a spraying for destruction of orchard cater-
pillars, may now, I think, be considered as established as a safe and

Mites (in Hay). Tyroglyphus longior, Gervais.

T. longior (from fig. by Fumoze and Robin): claw and sucker of Tyroglyphus, right-hand
side (from Murray’s “ Aptera”); claw and sucker on left-hand side, figured by author from life :
all magnified. Nat. length rather more than half the 25th of an inch.

serviceable remedy, when used according to the directions sent out.
But I am careful in the extreme in warning that the spraying should
not be applied to fruit or leafage, which can be used for food of man
or of farm-stock, within such a space of time as might allow even
possibility of bad effects. It may very likely be found to be a safe
application for turnip leafage (by-and-by); but at present, and
until we have trustworthy detailed reports of experiments as to
proportion used, weather at time of spraying, and amount of time
elapsing between date of spraying and consumption of the leaves
without bad effects, I warn, in all cases where I have opportunity,
of the risk of use.

Great advance has been made during the year in knowledge of
practically useful insecticides, and in the introduction or home manu-

—_ of spraying machines and other implements for their distri-
ution,

854 Report of the Judges on the Milking Machine

In reply to inquiries sent to me as to methods of Entomological
Agricultural instruction, I endeavour to point out that it is not
simply entomological science that is needed, in the sense of classi-
fication and the like, but knowledge of insects, especially of crop
insects, which will give capability of distinguishing them in their
different stages, and of methods of prevention which throw them
under the power not only of special measures, but also of ordinary
garden and farm treatment.

The above are only such short notes as may now be offered of

some of the year’s work, but if desired I would give information on ~

any of the year’s subjects in full detail,
ELEANOR A. ORMEROD,

REPORT OF THE JUDGES ON THE MILKING
MACHINE EXHIBITED AT DONCASTER.

Tue Royal Agricultural Society has made more than one attempt
to encourage the invention of an efficient milking machine, by

the offer of prizes of substantial amount at its annual Country —

Meetings. In connection with the Bristol Meeting of 1878, when
the Show was held in the centre of a famous dairy district,
prizes were given for a great variety of utensils used in dairying
(milk-cans, churns, butter workers, cheese tubs, curd knives, curd
mills, cheese-turning and churn-cleaning apparatus, milk coolers
and the like) ; and last on the list was the offer of a prize of 50J.
for “the best milking machine, to be tested during six consecutive
months of the spring and summer of 1879.” Unfortunately, no
competitors appeared for the prize, and the Judges, commenting on
this fact, observed :—

The Judges greatly regret that there was no entry in Class xiv. for the
best milking machine. He who successfully solves the difficulty will reap @
rich reward, The want of such a machine is the one missing link in dairy
management. Greater mechanical difficulties haye been overcome, and we
hope before many years to see the milking machine difficulty ptactically
solved.! ’

In 1882, at Reading, the offer of 50/. for the best milking
machine was repeated, but with a precisely similar result, for
although there was one solitary entry from a Copenhagen firm of a
machine which was priced at 3/., it was not exhibited at the Show.

Undeterred by this failure, and perhaps encouraged by the
description of a machine of the kind (known as the “ Murchland ”)
in the Journal for September 30, 1890 (Vol. I. Part III. page 645),
the Council offered two prizes of 20/. and 10/. for competition

‘ Journal, Vol. XV., Second Series, Part I (1879), p. 156.

i

etn el

Exhibited at Doncaster. 855

this year at Doncaster for the best milking machine, without
any restrictions as to working for a period after the Show. For
these prizes only one competitor, Mr. John Gray, of Stranraer,
Wigton, N.B., appeared, and the machine he showed was not the
“ Murchland,” but one invented by Mr. S. Nicholson, a young far-
mer of Kirkcudbrightshire, and known as “Nicholson and
Gray’s New Patent Milking and Self-registering Machine.”

The machine is an adaptation of the principle of suction by
creating a vacuum to draw the milk out of the cow’s udder. Its
construction is as follows :—An air-pump, driven by hand or power,
fixed on a small tank which acts as a vacuum reservoir, is connected
with a main of } in. dia. gaspipe, laid as most convenient through
the cow-stalls. At the partition between each stall is a branch
terminating about 3 feet from the ground, at the end of which
is a cock, very simply made with a rubber plug. From this point a
rubber tube is attached to a circular tin vessel of about 18 inches
diameter and 15 inches deep, answering to the milking-can. This
vessel has a closed top with one round opening about 4 in. diameter,
closed by a rubber disc, which, when the vacuum is turned on, is
securely held in its place by the pressure of the outside air. Through
this dise are two small metal tubes, to each of which is attached a
short length of rubber tube ending in a cross piece of metal tube.
On to each cross is slipped another short length of :u»ber tube, ter-
minating in the small end of a short piece of cow’s horn, at the large
end of which is a rubber ring, to form an air-tight joint between
the teat at its base and the horn.

_ To set the machine in operation, the pump is worked until about

fifteen inches of vacuum are formed. The horns are adjusted tothe

teats and the vacuum turned on to the pail by opening the rubber

cock, and almost instantaneously the milk begins to flow, as can be

seen by a slip of glass in the side of the pail. Two cows are milked

at the same time into each pail. The glass in the side of the vessel

has a scale of gallons marked upon it, so that the quantity yielded-
can easily be ascertained. To make sure that the cows are milked

clean, all the horns but one are removed and the remaining one

applied to each teat in turn.

There is certainly great cleanliness in this method, as no dirt
car possibly get into the milk, and for cows with sore teats there is
none of the squeezing or irritating pulling which takes place in
ordinary milking. As regards cleaning the apparatus, the short
lengths of tube through which the milk flows are readily cleaned
by a small cireular brush fixed ou wire, as was carefully noted by
us; so that this need not in any way be an obstacle to the use of
the machine.

The air-pump when milking one or two cows is easily worked by
a strong boy ; when four or six are being milked a small engine
should be used. A two horse-power engine would work any reason-
able number of machines. The attachment of the “milking-can”
can be made by any intelligent boy or girl, and the connection with
the suction tubes can be applied without danger or difficulty. After

856 Report of the Fudg2s on the Milking Machine
a little practice a boy with three of the milking-cans and connecting
tubes and horns could keep four or six cows milking at one time.
The machine was tried during the Show week on two cows hired
from a farmer in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, and was the
object of much attention from the visitors. One of the cows was a
decided kicker, but after a day or two got quite accustomed to the
machine. The other was much quieter from the first ; neither had
ever been tried with a machine before, and neither cow was in
full milk. We were well pleased with the apparent capabilities of
the system ; but with strange cows and in the noise and crowd of
a Showyard we felt the trial was neither fair to ourselves nor to
the exhibitor, and we therefore asked the Council to give us the
opportunity of seeing the machine on farms where it had been at
work for some months, to test its efficiency on a number of cows at
once, and inquire into its freedom from injury to their udders and
milking properties. Meanwhile we recommended the machine for
one of the Society’s silver medals, as a meritorious new invention
of agricultural value. ;
The desired permission to inspect the working of the machine on
the farms where it was regularly in use having been granted by the
Council, we made a tour of certain Scotch dairy farms in the early
part of October. ‘
On the evening of Oct. 9 we found the machine applied to the
standings of thirty cows at the Dunragit Creamery Farm Buildings,
and saw the machine attached and applied to the milking of fow
cows at once. We saw, too, how easily and rapidly the apparatus
was cleansed, and how quickly it was laid ready for the next milking,
by two of the ordinary “ milkers” on the farm. Next morning we
saw it applied and worked by Mr. Wallace of Auchenbrain on a
number of his own cows in an easy and natural way. We tes
them after milking by stripping, and found only the usual quantity
which comes after the best milker has done. In the afternoon we
drove from Glasgow to Messrs. Stevensons, Dairy Farmers, Sou
Farm, Cathkin, and found the machine in the hands of two brothers,
both practical and shrewd business men, wanting chiefly to get their
cows milked efficiently in the least time and at the least cost.
“They had had a machine at work during the year, had used it upon
more than half their cows (90), and had found it very helpful: They
had not had any bad effects to note upon udder or upon health or in
the ordinary milking capacities of their herd. There were some
cows, the hard milkers, they could not use it on with advantage,
nor could they upon those that held their milk.” We asked to
see it at work upon two such cows, and soon saw it was want-—
ing in power to do this. ‘We have tried this machine,” these
gentlemen seemed to say, “fully and fairly ; it does very well so
far, but it does not quite meet all our difficult cases. It is, however,
a great help, and we shall stick to it and hope to see it improved.”
When questioned as to any injury their cows had taken from its pees
their answer was emphatically—“ None ;” and this was the general
testimony. ;

Exhibited at Doncaster. 857

From here we drove to Newton Farm, where we called to see the
Murchland milking machine at work. Mr. Speir, the tenant, re-
ceived us very kindly, and under the direction of Mr. Murchland the
cowman applied the machine easily to several cows, one after another,
and it worked fairly well. One point of difference it had was that
it was worked by the vacuum obtained from a column of water (as
described on page 645 of the Journal for 1890). Otherwise the
principle was the same, but the details of application were different.
As the Murchland machine was not in competition with that shown
at Doncaster, we abstain from further comparison.

The chief defect in the Nicholson and Gray machine is the one
we noted at Doncaster. The pulsation of the action upon the cows’
teats, answering to the partial opening and shutting of the hand in
milking, is not powerful enough to keep the milk continuously
flowing as the quantity in the udder diminishes. The inventors say
they are adding an improvement which will effect this, and if this
were done it would bring the machine near perfection.

Ifa further improvement by which a little additional power to draw
the milk quicker could be gained, without bearing harder upon the
udder or the system of the cow, this machine would be very complete.
As it is, a little practice would bring it into more easy working,
and we have not observed any injury done to cows that have
been milked by it all the summer, nor do we see how injury could
come. We think it is sufficiently developed for the dairy farmer to
be advised to use it, and that after becoming familiar with its work-
ing, he will not willingly relinquish its use.

An efficient milking machine will supply a great and pressing
want in dairy districts, as there is a universal cry of the rapidly
increasing difficulty of getting good milkers. Although the Nichol-
son and Gray machine is not so complete as we could desire, yet we
think it fulfils the requirements laid down by the Society when
issuing its prize-sheet, and we therefore advise that the prize of 201.
be awarded to the exhibitor as an encouragement and a stimulant to
make it perfect.!

R. NEVILLE GRENVILLE.
November, 1891. Tuomas Ricsy.

} This recommendation was confirmed by the Council at its Meeting held
on November 4, 1891,—Ep.

858

Hotes, Communications, and
‘Reviews,

THE SAMPLING OF MANURES AND
FEEDING-STUFES.

ATTENTION has of late been directed somewhat specially to the preven-
tion of fraud in connection with the purchase of manures and
feeding-stuffs. This is largely due to the Government having ex-
pressed its intention of shortly introducing in Parliament a Bill on
the subject.

It is therefore a suitable opportunity, while urging the necessity
of resort to chemical analysis, to point out certain conditions which
ought to be observed in order that an analysis may be of full value,
and in its results be equally fair to both vendor and purchaser.

The conditions to which I would here refer are briefly these :—

Firstly : A sample sent for analysis should be fairly representa-
tive of the bulk from which it was drawn. ;

Secondly: Zhe sample should reach the analyst in the same
condition as at the time it was drawn ; in other words, it should
not suffer change during transit.

Little should be necessary to show that, in justice to the vendor,
the foregoing conditions should be observed ; nevertheless, vendors
of manures and feeding-stuffs are often not only put to considerable
inconvenience and annoyance, but may also suffer in reputation
through non-observance of such self-evident directions as the
above. Thus, a purchaser who has had, say, mineral superphosphate
guaranteed to him to contain 26 per cent. of soluble phosphate, may
take a handful out of the top of the first bag he comes to, and,
packing this up loosely in paper, may send it to a chemist for analysis ;
then, if he finds it turn out to have only 255 per cent. of soluble
phosphate, he will think himself perfectly justified in making a
claim on the vendor for the deficiency. So he would be, certainly,
if the sample were fairly representative of the bulk, but. frequently
this is not the case, and deficiencies often result from improper
sampling and careless forwarding of samples, rather than from any
fault of the vendor. Similarly, a farmer may break a bit off the
end of a single cake out of many comprising a delivery, and, if

The Sampling of Manures and Feeding-stuffs. 859

analysis shows any deficiency of quality, he will complain about it,
though a sample fairly drawn from the whole delivery may prove the
latter to be, on the whole, quite satisfactory.

While analysis, therefore, proves a useful and necessary check, it
should be supplemented by the observance of precautions which make
it equally fair to both vendor and purchaser.

It is to aid in arriving at a just conclusion that I append the
following general directions as to the taking of samples.

The sampling of manwres.—Manures are generally sent to the
farmer in bags, and if their composition were uniform throughout,
and the contents of one bag just like those of another, it would be
enough to draw a sample out of a single bag. But this is seldom
the case, and it may happen, e.g., with superphosphate, that, though
practically of the same quality, one part of the delivery has been
manufactured at a different time to another part. It is only fair,
therefore, to draw a sample, not from one bag only, but from several.
Té a purchase consists of six or any lesser number of bags, each one
should be opened and a portion drawn from each bag. If it consist
of a much larger number, then, a dozen bags, or certainly not less than
six bags, should be taken out from different parts of the delivery and
be set aside for the purpose of drawing a sample from them.
Having set these aside, the very best way with any ordinary
artificial manure, such as superphosphate, dissolved bones, bone-
meal, compound manures, nitrate of soda, kainit and other salts
(anything, in fact, that is ina fairly powdery and uniform condition,
and not bulky, or matted together like shoddy or similar refuse
materials), is to provide oneself with a special instrument which we
may call a “sampler.” This is an iron tool about 2 ft. 6 in. long,
very like a cheese sampler, and fitted with a wooden handle. It is
made of U-shaped iron, with the end sharpened and the edges
rounded, the diameter of the groove being about 1 in. The
accompanying cut represents such a sampling tool ;—

An instrument like this can be driven down into each of the
selected bags from top to bottom, and by tilting the bag, giving the
“sampler” a twist round and then withdrawing it, a section of the
entire contents of the bag can be obtained. This may be repeated once
or twice for each bag and other similar sections be taken from the
other bags. The different lots withdrawn must then be thoroughly
well mixed together. Any lumps should be broken down with a
shoyel, and if the heap is too much to form a conveniently sized
sample for sending for analysis, it should be reduced in amount
by repeated division and subdivision. This is best done by turning
over the heap and mixing it up carefully though quickly, flattening
down any lumps, and then dividing the heap into two halves ; one
half may be rejected altogether and the remainder again quickly

860 The Sampling of Manures and Feeding-stuffs.

turned over and mixed thoroughly, divided as before, and so on ag
may be necessary, until a quantity weighing only about three or
four pounds is left. Two well-fitting tins, each capable of holding
from 4 1b. to 1 Ib. of the material, Saonld then be filled from the
heap thus left. One of these should be wrapped up and sent by
post to the analyst, and the other be kept by the farmer for
reference. Instead of a tin, a wide-mouthed glass bottle with
well-fitting cork may be used, and this be enclosed in a wooden box,
and so be sent by post or rail ; or, the sample may be wrapped in —
tinfoil or in oiled silk, and be enclosed in a box or in a stout linen-
lined envelope. This latter is a very convenient form for nitrate of
soda, sulphate of ammonia, kainit, and similar salts. The tin is, on
the whole, the most satisfactory, as it is easy to send } lb. or 1 Ib. of
the manure in it, whilst if a bottle, or tinfoil, or oiled silk be used it
is not easy to send so large a quantity. Ifasmaller quantity be sent,
the final heap must be mixed still more carefully, and the sample be
taken from different portions of it. In no case, however, should less
than 4 oz. be sent as a sample, and when the material is at all
uneven in character, or lumpy, or of a mixed nature, it is not satis-
factory unless a | lb. sample, or in some cases as much as 2 lb, be sent.
The more uneven the manure the larger the sample must be ; the
finer and more even it is, the smaller may be the quantity to be sent
for analysis.

One caution further is necessary. Whilst care must be taken to
ensure a fair sample being drawn, care must also be exercised not to
let the portion that is being sampled lie about exposed too long.
The sampling must be done carefully but also quickly, or the material
may dry considerably during the process.

In the absence of a special sampling tool such as that described,
the best way is, after selecting several bags as directed, either to
turn them out one after the other on a floor, and, taking a few
shovelfuls from each, to mix these shovelfuls well together for one
sample, or (which is not so good) to drive a spade into each of the
selected bags, and, after a little mixing, to draw out from as near the
centre as possible a couple of spadefuls from each bag, subsequently
mixing these lots together, flattening the lumps down, and dividing
and subdividing the heap until only some three or four pounds are
left. From this the tins or bottles may be filled as mentioned before,
one sample being sent for analysis and the other retained for
reference,

There remains the special case of the sampling of bulky materials
such as shoddy, wool refuse, &c., which, as a rule, are sold, not in
bags but in bulk. In such cases a “sampler” is of little use, and
the only way is to take portions from different parts of the bulk,
or from the selected bags (if bags there be), and, setting these
portions aside, to quickly tear apart the matted wool, hair, &e.,
and mix the lots together as well as it is possible to do, but losing
no time so that the material may not dry unduly in the mixing.
The final sample must be taken from this by rapid subdivision
and remixing as before, but a considerably larger quantity must

The Sampling of Manwres and Feeding-stuffs. 861

be sent up for analysis than in the case of a material like
superphosphate. When taking portions from a manure delivered in
bulk, it is essential to draw them, not from one part only, but from
different parts, interior as well as exterior, for considerable differences
of moisture may be noticeable, and it is only by thus taking
from various parts that anything like an average sample can be got.
Shoddy, especially, is a material very likely to gain or lose moisture
according as the atmosphere is moist or dry, and so, both in selecting
and in sending samples for analysis, particular care must be taken to
have and to keep them in the same state as the bulk. To send a
sample of shoddy simply wrapped in a paper cover, or in a linen bag,
as is too often done, is to make an analysis quite worthless, and
unfair alike to analyst, purchaser, and vendor. The discrepancies
which are sometimes pointed to as occurring between the analyses
of different analytical chemists, and which are put down to want
of care or skill on their part, are, in a great number of instances,
due to samples having undergone change during transit, owing to
not having been sent in proper covers.

I might instance a case in which a farmer sent me a sample of
shoddy, merely wrapped up in brown paper. It gave on analysis
about 5} per cent. of ammonia, but had about 28 per cent. of moisture.
As the result came below the guarantee given him, the farmer sent
to two other analysts other samples which he had taken at the
same time and had since left lying about in paper. Their reports
showed respectively 6? per cent. and 7 per cent. of ammonia. On
re-testing, for my own satisfaction, the original sample which had
been lying about similarly, I obtained results practically agreeing
with the other chemists’ ; but then I found, too, that the percentage
of moisture, instead of being 28, was now only about 11 per cent., the
sample having dried to this extent meantime, and my original result
having been quite correct for the sample as it then was. There were
really no discrepancies of analysis, but only of the condition in which
the different samples came to the respective analysts.

As an instance of the injustice that may be done in the sending
of a sample that is not representative of the bulk, I may mention a
ease which recently occurred. It is well known that superphosphate
is liable to some extent to “go back,” as it is termed, upon keeping,
showing less soluble phosphate by 2 or 3 per cent., it may be, than
before. A farmer had deliveries sent to him monthly for a period
extending over six months, upon a guarantee of a certain percentage
of soluble phosphate. He took samples from each delivery as it
came in, but kept these lying about until all six deliveries had come
in, when he mixed them all together and sent up one sample for
analysis. Now this was not fair to the vendors, for the real question
was—what was the quality of each delivery as the contractor
delivered it? not, what would a sample test, some of which had been
lying about for six months or more, other of it for five months, and
so on ?

_ These examples will show the necessity, in the case of manures,
of attention being paid to the two conditions I have laid down—viz. :

862 The Sampling of Manures and Feeding-stuffs.

the first, that the sample sent be fairly representative of the bulk ;
the second, that it suffer no change in transit.

Feeding-stuffs.—W ith these, as with manures, similar precautions
must be taken for the obtaining of a representative sample, but the
changes that are likely to happen in transit are of but small conse-
quence, asa rule. In their place, however, comes in a necessary
caution as to the particular observance of the condition of a
delivery.

Those who have had experience in analysing feeding cakes know
that, even in a single cake, results differing to some extent one from
the other may be found, according as the piece which is taken for
analysis may happen to have been broken off the end, the middle,
or some intermediate part of a cake ; for, owing to the way in which
the crushed seed is packed in the oil-presses, it is impossible to get
the pressure equally distributed throughout. Some parts of the
cake, as everyone is aware, are generally thicker than others. The
oil is pressed out from the centre and runs away from the edges of
the cake ; finally, the edges are pared off allround. If a single cake
be taken, the best way is, either to send up for analysis half the
cake or to break a whole cake across the middle, and then off each of
the halves to take a strip about four inches wide also right across
the cake and from what was before the middle piece of the whole
cake. Thus two good-sized pieces, taken across the whole breadth
of the cake, will be obtained, and they can be wrapped in paper and
sent by post or rail. But even this is not fully satisfactory, for
sometimes a delivery of cake may vary ; more especially is this the
case with decorticated cotton-cake. Occasionally, too, some cakes of
a delivery may be a little mouldy or damaged, but a single cake of
this kind may not be fairly representative of the whole. It is quite
true that if a delivery of cake be guaranteed to be pure, every cake
of the whole lot ought to conform to that description, but when the
oil percentage or some other constituent, or the general condition
be in question, a fair sample of the whole should be taken. A
purchaser should, therefore, first look over the cakes comprising the
delivery and note any differences of appearance that may strike him,
or see whether all the cakes seem much alike. He should then select
samples from each different variety he notices, the number of samples
being in proportion to the number of cakes of each kind that make
up the bulk. Thus, if about half the delivery consists of darker-
coloured cake and half of lighter-coloured cake, an equal number of
cakes should be taken as samples to represent each sort. Three or
four cakes of each sort should be selected, or, if uniform throughout,
say, six cakes from the whole lot ; pieces should be broken out of
the middle of each as described before, and then these pieces be
passed through a cake-breaker. The broken “ nuts” or lumps must.
next be mixed up thoroughly, and then divided successively, just
as was advised in the case of manures, until only about a couple of
pounds weight are left. Two tins may now be filled with the cake,-
one for sending to the analyst, the other to be kept for reference.
Or, the pieces may be done up in a bag, or wrapped in stout

The Sampling of Manures and Feeding-stujis. 863
wrappers, or put in a wooden box, and then be sent by post or

The sampling of other feeding-stuffs such as meals or grain
can best be done by means of the sampling tool described before, or,
failing it, by taking shovelfuls from selected bags or from different
parts of the bulk, and intimately mixing them just as was advised
with manures. Such samples are best sent in tins.

The necessity of observing the condition of cakes and other
materials used for feeding has been alluded to. Seeing that the
health and well-being of cattle are concerned, all materials so used
should be in a fit condition for giving to stock. Thus, should any
part of a delivery be observed to be mouldy, or sour, or stale, or
any cake to be full of hard lumps, or to have cotton or hair attaching
to it, a note should be made of it at the time, and the analyst’s
attention be drawn to it. In such cases it is advisable that a good-
sized piece, say a quarter or half a cake, of the kind complained of
be sent separately to the analyst, and the extent to which it occurs
be mentioned to him. With decorticated cotton-cake, for instance,
it unfortunately often happens that there are hard, indigestible
lumps in it, which are not only not good food, but may be positively
dangerous to cattle unless finely ground up. This should be pointed
out to the analyst, and separate pieces of the cake should be sent
for his inspection.

The time for taking samples.—In justice to the vendor it is only
fair that samples, both of manures and feeding-stuffs, should be
taken as soon after their delivery as possible. In every case the
analyst’s certificate should be received before a manure is sown or
a feeding-stuff is given to stock.

Procedure in the event of the vendor wishing fresh samples to be
drawn.—Should a purchaser find that the analyst’s certificate shows
a manure or feeding-stuff not to come up to the guarantee given him,
he may inform the vendor of the result and complain accordingly.
If then the vendor should demand that a fresh sample be drawn,
the purchaser must allow this, and also give the vendor an op-
portunity of being present, either in person or through a represen-
tative whom he may appoint. In that case samples should be taken
in the presence of both parties with the same precautions as before
described, but it is advisable to draw three samples, each of which
should be duly packed up, labelled and sealed by both parties. One
of these is to be given to the vendor, who may send it for analysis
to whomever he may select, and the other two samples should be
kept by the purchaser for reference or future analysis if necessary.
But there is no occasion whatever at this stage for the purchaser to
go to any further expense in having the fresh sample analysed on
his behalf. This is a matter entirely for the vendor.

J. Aucustus VOELCKER.

864

EXPERIMENTS IN THE PLANTING @@
POTATOES.

CerTaIn statements as to the advisability of the late planting of
potatoes having appeared in some of the daily papers, and being at
direct variance with our personal experience in the cultivation of
potatoes on a large scale, it occurred to us to conduct some experi-
ments in order to find what would be the exact result of such an
investigation.

With that idea one side of an open field, which had previously
been prepared for potatoes, and upon the remainder of which a crop
of Imperators was subsequently grown, was set aside last year. The
Jand was excellently adapted for the requirements of the crop, being
well drained and of a uniform description of light loam, resting on
a gravel subsoil. An even dressing of about 15 tons to the acre
of good farmyard dung had been put on and ploughed in during the
autumn, and the land remained untouched through winter. In the
early spring the field received a thorough working, and was brought
down to a deep tilth. Drill-marks two feet apart were made right
through the land which had to be subsequently planted, and plots
of one pole each were carefully marked off.

The fourteen varieties of seed potatoes selected were of the or-
dinary seed size and had been grown on the farm in the previous
year ; they included those most favoured by growers and salesmen
as well as others not so well known. The Thorburn is an Ameri-
can variety hardly distinguishable from the Beauty of Hebron.
The Duke of Albany is of a type to which the Puritan and
White Beauty belong. The Village Blacksmith, though now
recognised as of no value as a field potato, created a sensation
some three or four years ago by its peculiarly dark and netted
skin. Daniels’ Advance, The Daniels, and Empire State have all
done well with us, the two latter being of special quality. Future
Fame, Stourbridge Glory, and The Bruce are varieties very similar
to the well-known Magnum Bonum.

After the first planting, the seed was turned over every other
week and the sprouts were destroyed in order not only to prevent
them from heating and exhausting their vigour, but also to ensure
that the different plantings should start their growth on equal terms.
Otherwise, had some been planted with unbroken sprouts, it is quite
possible they might have been above ground as soon as those planted
a month earlier. ‘Though the seed, generally, of the earlier varieties,
is often sprouted and greened for forcing under garden cultivation,
it is practically impossible, owing to the want of space and care re-
quired in handling, to effect this on a large scale in the field.

Though last year was generally regarded as a disease-year
throughout the country, the weather suited the potato crops in the
South Midlands, and there was no more than an average amount

Experiments in the Planting of Potatoes. 865.

of disease in this district (Bedfordshire), so that good crops were
the rule rather than the exception. The rainfall, though spread
out in many showers during June and July, was below the average,

ond the weather was exceptionally tine after July 20.

The first planting was done on March 31, two poles of each
variety being spaded in. After an interval of a month another
planting took place, a similar quantity of each of the fourteen varie-
ties being again spaded in. All that was done to the land, in addi-
tion to what had been done previous to the first planting, was to run
the horse-hoe up the drill-marks. This was only fair, as otherwise
the land would have become somewhat set, and the potatoes would
not have gone in so well at the later as at the earlier plantings ; for
this reason the horse-hoe was also used before each of the other
plantings. After another month—namely, on May 31—another
planting was made of all the varieties, but this time and subse-
quently only one pole of each lot was planted. A fortnight later
twelve of the fourteen varieties were planted ; and still another
fortnight later—namely, on June 28—the last planting was done,
and ten out of the fourteen varieties were set. It will be shown
subsequently that the plantings were carried late enough for the
purposes of the experiment. The potatoes were horse-hoed, hand-
hoed, and moulded up in the usual manner, as soon as the crop wa
sufficiently forward.

The accompanying table shows in a more concise form th
varieties selected, and some other particulars, including the fina
results.

Tt will be seen that, in accordance with the usual farm practice,
the earlies were planted at 24 in. from row to row by 18 in. from
set to set, that being about the usual distance when they are not
required for digging green ; whilst the mid-earlies and main croppers
were given a larger space in which to develop—namely, 24in. between
the rows and 2] in. between the sets. The potatoes were regarded
as ripened when the stems had entirely died down and no sap
remained. As it is practically impossible to fix this to a day or two
on some scores of sets, the date put down was that of the next
Saturday after the first day when no life could be perceived in any
of the stems on the plot. It will be noticed that though the plant-
ings occupied a period from first to last of 12 weeks 5 days, the
greatest difference between the time of ripening of the first planting
and that of the last planting of any one variety was only six weeks,
and this occurred in the first earlies alone. Of the mid-earlies only one
plot (White Elephant) made a difference of as much as five weeks,
and the longest interval on the main varieties was but four weeks,
and that on one variety (The Bruce) alone.

It seems only reasonable to expect the best results from those
plantings that had the longest time to develop in the ground, and
this is almost invariably the case; for we find that, of the 14
plantings made on March 31, 13 yielded more than those planted
a month later, whilst the fourteenth (Myatt’s Ashleaf) produced
an equal bulk. Of the same number planted on April 30, 13

VOL. I. T. S.—8 3L

Potatoes.

Experiments in the Planting of-

866

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867

Ezperiments in’ the Planting of Potatoes.

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868 Experiments in the Planting of Potatoes.

again were in excess of those planted on May 31, and one (White
Elephant) less. Of the 12 varieties planted on May 31 and June 14,
the whole 12 planted on the earlier date yielded more than those
planted later, and the whole of the 10 varieties planted respectively
on June 14 and June 28 yielded more on the first than on the —
second planting. So, in comparing these fifty instances of an earlier
with the next succeeding planting, we find that no less than 48
yielded heavier crops, one an equally heavy crop, and only one a
less crop—the weight including both seed and ware.!

That the date of the last planting, June 28, was backward
enough was proved by the very poor result obtained, the average
weight for the whole lot being very little over 26 cwt. per acre, or —
not twice the weight of the seed originally planted. In some cases,
notably those of The Bruce, Magnum Bonum, and Imperator, they
never grew with sufficient vigour to prevent their ripening before
those planted a fortnight earlier. We find that the average weight
per acre of those planted on March 31 was about 19 cwt. in excess
of those planted a month later, 465 ewt. above those planted on
May 31, 694 cwt. more than those planted on June 14, and no
less than 105 cwt. in excess of those planted last of all. Putting
their average value, one season with another, at the somewhat low
figure of 50s. per ton, the first planted exceeded in value the second
by 2/. 7s. 6d., the third by 5/. 16s. 3d., and the fourth by 13. 2s. 6d.
per acre.

It is often more or less impracticable to commence planting —
largely before the latter end of March, but these results point
emphatically to the necessity of getting the potatoes (particularly the
earlier varieties) in by the end of April, for though the falling-off of
19 cwt. per acre is considerable, yet up to that time there is still a
prospect of tolerably good yields ; but the further fall to 46} ewt.
of those planted on May 31 puts out of the question all idea of a
profit from those planted so late in the season as the last week or
two in May, the average of all varieties having fallen to about
84 cwt. per acre, and the later varieties, under these circumstances,
doing very much better than the others. But it was from the
subsequent plantings that by far the greater proportionate drop
took place, the yield of those planted on June 14 falling to 61 ewt.
and, as before stated, to 26 cwt. from the last planting.

The four first earlies planted on May 31 averaged rather less
than 67 cwt. per acre; the four second earlies—excluding those
light croppers the Village Blacksmith—averaged rather over 83 ewt.
per acre ; and the five main croppers averaged slightly in excess of
111 cwt. Asthere is no prospect of earlies, or even of second earlies,
planted so late, maturing sufficiently early to catch any special
price either when fully matured or when dug green, these results
would show the necessity of planting a main-crop variety when itis
imperative to plant at all so late in the season, as under hardly

1 “Ware” is the name used among growers, and in the London markets,
to denote all saleable tubers larger in size than seed potatoes.—ED. -

Buperiments in thé Planting of Potatoes. 869

any conceivable circumstance can a crop of 67 cwt. be expected to
pay, whereas 111 cwt. per acre, the yield of the late varieties,
should not be a losing crop.

Again, taking the plantings made on June 14, the average yield
of the first earlies had fallen to a little under 39 ewt., the second
earlies to 59 ewt., and the late varieties to 85 cwt. None of these
average results can pay ; but one variety, the Imperator, gave the
extraordinary yield of 134 ewt. per acre—more than 2} tons in excess
of any other variety, and which, had itnot been for the good results we
have repeatedly obtained with this variety from late plantings (for
instance, last year we planted twenty acres of them after May 20,
which averaged 7 tons per acre all round, and in some places ran
to more than 8 tons), we could hardly have believed to have been
possible. The poor results obtained from every variety of those
planted on June 28 show planting at that time, under any and all
circumstances, to be totally out of the question.

Of those that matured earliest, the two very similar varieties,
The Thorburn and Beauty of Hebron, fully ripened by August 16,
gave the best results, their respective yields of 7 tons and
6 tons 1 ewt. being considerably better than those of Myatt’s Ashleaf
and The Duke of Albany. The White Elephant and Empire State did
best in the order named of the second earlies, as there was disease
to the extent of one ton per acre in the latter, though it had an
advantage in ripening a fortnight earlier. The Imperator did by
far the best of the late varieties, but there is one important pre-
caution to be observed by growers of this variety, and that is to
mould it up deeply and thoroughly, as, owing to its late habit
of growth, it runs a considerable risk of being caught by an early
frost. We call to mind a field of thirty acres we grew in 1887
which was caught by a frost on October 25. Fortunately for us,
we had sold it during the previous week at 20/. 10s. per acre, to

be lifted by the buyer ; but the frost didso much harm to the tubers

that considerably more than half the bulk subsequently rotted in
the pits, while the effect of the chill on the remainder was to spoil
their cooking properties and reduce their price from 70s. to 40s. per
ton. Of the other varieties the Magnum Bonum with its yield of
8 tons to the acre did best, though on the second planting it
was beaten by both The Bruce and Stourbridge Glory.

The foregoing results, although detailed for one season only, are
thoroughly in accord with our experience as growers, for many
years, of more than one hundred acresannually. We may conclude,
therefore, with the following advice to growers: Plant the early
varieties of potatoes in March, or as early as possible in April.
Finish planting all varieties in April; but, if it is necessary to
plant in May, by all means employ a late variety. Of late varieties
choose Imperator if possible, and have them well moulded up.

GEORGE MALDEN,

870

FARMING WITHOUT LIVE-STOCK!?

It is hardly necessary to go back far into the history of agriculture
in order to encounter the belief, formerly undisputed, that the use
of dung is an indispensable condition in the maintenance of the
fertility of the soil. Farmyard manure was regarded as the source
of all fertility, because it was held to contain a certain principle
which cultivated soils lost in the process of time. In order to con-
ceive the possibility of preserving, and even of increasing, the fertility
of the soil without the intervention of dung, some knowledge of
the laws of the nutrition of plants was indispensable. Liebig
enunciated the principle that the action of manure was due to the
presence of certain ingredients, of which chemical analysis served to
indicate both the nature and the quantity. But he failed to make
the progress he otherwise would have done because he did not ade-
quately grasp the importance of the nitrogenous ingredients, for
he held the view that all plants draw their nitrogen from the air.
Subsequently it becaine recognised that the physical constitution of
soils underwent some modification when year by year they were
dressed exclusively with mineral manures, and that dung embodied,
over and above its directly nutritive ingredients, a substance capable
of maintaining in a desirable condition the physical properties of
soils. This substance is the organic matter, which, by a series of
changes, yields humic compounds..

What happens when these compounds are lacking in a soil has
been experimentally demonstrated by M. von Zimmerman, upon his
celebrated farm at Benkendorf, Saxony. A field was selected upon
loamy soil, and the following rotation was practised, the object being
to leave in the soil as little plant refuse as possible :—(1) Peas
or potatoes ; (2) wheat (square-head) ; (3) sugar-beet ; (4) wheat
(Rivett’s bearded) ; (5) sugar-beet ; (6) barley. For a period of
thirty years this field received none but chemical manures, and the
crops yielded almost as well as those grown upon adjoining land.
But the loamy soil, which, at the outset, was free-working and of
medium consistency, became extraordinarily difficult to work. So
much was this the case that the usual tillage operations proved
ineffective, and it became necessary to resort to special means.
The conditions, however, are not entirely the same in the vase of
sandy soils, in which the plants suffer from lack of cohesion amongst
the particles. It has long been known that humus imparts cohesion
to light soils, whilst it renders heavy soils more open.

The substances which enter into the formation of humus are
capable of being added to the soil either in the form of manure, or
of vegetable refuse, the latter consisting either of the residues of
erops left in the soil or of green manures. -Hence the needs of a
cultivated soil may be said to embrace :—

' Les Fermes sans Bétail en Allemagne, par M. de Malliard, chargé
d'une mission agricole spéciale.

?

Farming without Live-stock. 871

1. A sufficient quantity of nutritive ingredients in an assimilable
form.
2. The maintenance or improvement of the physical properties of
the soil by means of organic matter.

Any question as to the first of these is already completely solved.
In dung, the only chemical ingredients which need to be considered
are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The latter two are
obtainable in the markets in all possible degrees of assimilability.
A considerable variety of raw materials, or of by-products, which
contain one or other of these two ingredients permits of great lati-
tude in choosing the particular form in which each shall be applied.
In the case of nitrogen, howeyer, the problem is less simple. Although
nitrates or salts of ammonia may always have been employed with
success, at least upon soils of good quality, it is impossible to supply
sandy or light soils with their nitrogen in an exclusively mineral
form. The permeability of these soils is such that loss of nitrogen
in the form of nitrates in the drainage waters cannot be avoided.
Soils of this class are specially benefited by organic nitrogen,' such as
the nitrogen contained in the residues left by crops, or in leguminous
plants specially cultivated for the purpose. For such soils, nitrogen
offered in this form is preferable to that in chemical manures and
even to that in the ammoniacal salts of dung, for in both cases nitrifi-
cation proceeds too rapidly, and there is consequent loss through the
medium of the waters that drain away from the soil.

It appears therefore warrantable to assert that it is possible,
without any difficulty, to find substitutes for the nutritive ingre-
dients of dung, and that the latter need no longer be regarded as

~ indispensable ; also-that it is further possible, at least upon soils sub-

jected to a somewhat intensive treatment, to procure nitrogen by
sideration (see page 874).
On the other hand, it is less easy to dispense with the organic

matters of dung. By oxidation these yield, first humates, and after-

wards carbonic acid, the last-named discharging a very important
function in connection with the assimilation of nutritive ingredients
by plants. Its intervention is naturally the less called for the more
assimilable the form in which the manures are added to the soil, so
that, in such case, it would be possible to dispense with the presence
of organic matter. But there is no compensation for the absence of
the physical effect of organic matter upon the constitution of the soil;
hence the application of organic matter is absolutely necessary. It so
happens that it is precisely the plants, whose function it is to accu-
mulate nitrogen, that produce at the same time an enormous quantity
of carbonaceous matter ; moreover, even upon farms managed sans
bétail (i.e., without live-stock), there are usually working animals, so
that in practice the employment of dung becomes largely diminished
rather than completely suppressed.

Hence it appears that cultivation by means of chemical fertilisers
can be indefinitely continued only on the condition of supplying

* Organic nitrogen is defined as nitrogen in organic combination with carbon

872 Farming without Live-stock.

organic matter to the soil, its presence being indispensable to the
due maintenance of the physical properties of the latter. As a
matter of fact, it is supplied either in the form of crop residues left
in the land, or of green manures. To a certain extent, lime is
competent to bring into activity the products of decomposition of
organic matter.

The system of cultivation, based upon sideration and the em-
ployment of chemical manures, has passed beyond the tentative
stage, for it has been attended with full success in the case of
Schultz of Lupitz and his many imitators.

Let us pass now from the domain of theory to that of practice,
and learn what are the plants that may be utilised as green manures
upon light soils. Their function, it will be understood, is to ob-
tain for the soil those ingredients which are most lacking—nitrogen
and humus.

The first place belongs to the lupin. lt will grow almost any-

where, even upon calcareous soils, and upon fields freshly dressed with
marl. It is cultivated both as forage and as a catch crop. Hitherto
the yellow-flowered lupin has been preferred by agriculturists,
but, according to the recent experiments of Schirmer of Neuhaus, the
white-flowered lupin is the more advantageous to use.

The kidney vetch, or ladies’ fingers (Anthyllis vulneraria, L.)
“works wonders” upon light soils well marled, and already
moderately supplied with nitrogen and phosphoric acid. 7

One of the vetches, Vicia villosa, has yielded the best results
upon the farm at Neuhaus.

Serradella (Ornithopus sativus) is also capable of rendering

great service, provided it is allowed time in which to establish itself. _

The microbes discovered by Hellriegel, which give rise upon the

roots to the minute nodules “in which the atmospheric nitrogen is _

transformed into protoplasm,” are rarely present, at the commence-
ment of growth, in sufficient numbers. It is possible, however, to
inoculate the soil by means of samples of earth obtained from a
field where serradella has already been sizecessfully grown. Such
inoculation ought to be regarded as a necessary preliminary in

every new cultivation of leguminous plant. Failure in the —

practice of sideration is often to be attributed to the absence of
these microbes.

Species of Lathyrus (meadow vetchling) are likewise capable of
playing an important réle.

The various plants that have been enumerated furnish, in the
process of catch-cropping—independently of the root and stubble
residues, which may be estimated to form one-third of the weight of
the entire crop—a yield in dry matter varying from 2,500 to 5,000
kilogrammes, whilst dung, even at the rate of 10,000 kilogrammes
per hectare annually,! does not furnish the soil with more than
2,000 kilogrammes of organic matter.

1] kilogramme=2°2 lb.; 1 hectare=about 2} acres. In the figures
given, however, it is the proportions, and not the actual quantities, that are
signifieant.

a

Farming without Live-stock. 873

Green manuring, then, advantageously provides light soils at
once with nitrogen and with organic matter, and it is more econo-
mical than the use of dung. Moreover, the system of Schultz of Lupitz
is certainly preferable from a pecuniary point of view.

These practices are less suited to beet-root soils, submitted to a
system of intensive culture, on account of the rotations which are
followed. Sideration is, further, least satisfactory upon soils of
medium consistency, which should be dressed with dung, supple-
mented by chemical manures. The employment of lime would, in
ease of need, serve to make good for a time any deficiency of organic
matter.

In order to procure, in the case of strong lands, the humic matter
indispensable to the mellowing of the soil, it is necessary to have
recourse to processes of the same kind. M. Arndt, for example,
cultivated with great success, upon the system of Schultz of Lupitz,
the farm of Oberwartha, situated on very compact soil. His fields,-
which are in perfect condition, receive annually, in addition to the
plantes sidérées, such as have been named, 400 kilogrammes of basic
cinder, containing 20 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 600 kilo-
grammes of kainit, yielding 13 per cent. of potash [presumably per
hectare].

The lupin succeeds admirably at Oberwartha, and thus disposes
of the prejudiced view that this plant is suited only to sandy soils.
The white and blue flowered varieties have done best, the former
as a crop grown for seed, the latter as a crop suited to the poorest
soils, where other varieties of lupin refuse to grow.

Upon elevated lands, where rye is not cleared off the fields till
the end of July, and where early frosts would be liable too soon to
terminate the growth of the lupin, serradella is preferred. It is
sown broadcast in April or May, in the cereal crop. — If the latter is
spring sown, then one sowing is made to suffice for both corn and
serradella. M. Arndt inoculated his fields with microbe—le microbe
@ Hellriegel—in spite of which the serradella did not succeed upon
his very stiff soils, and it was necessary to resort to vetch and to
crimson clover (“trifolium”). This last-named plant, cultivated solely
in view of sideration, and sown in July and August upon land
which had been subjected to the merest stirring of the surface,
afforded in April and May an excellent green manure for potatoes.

To the plants already named may be added the melilot (Bokhara
clover), the extensively developed root-system of which offers, on
the one hand, the advantage of enriching the soil in organic matter,
and, on the other hand, the inconvenience of sending up in the
following year innumerable shoots which are difficult to extirpate.
It is sown in the autumn in a crop of rye.

According to M. Arndt, a great future is in store for Lathyrus
and certain wild forms of vetch.

Tf for any reason it is wished to suspend, or to avoid, the
cultivation of nitrogen-accumulating plants, it is competent to
fall back upon plants such as white mustard, which store up and
retain in the arable layer of the soil the nitrogen added in a

874. Farming without Live-stock.

mineral form, and therefore very soluble. According to Wagner’s
researches, a hectare of white mustard is capable, in the space of
some weeks, of combining in its organic matter the nitrogen of 800
kilogrammes of nitrate of soda.

From what has been said, and in view of the experiments of
M. Arndt, the conclusion is drawn that the system of sideration
employed by Schultz of Lupitz upon light soils is equally applicable
to heavy soils. All kinds of soils, particularly such as have been
but little favoured by nature, are capable of being rendered of
enhanced value by the aid of green manures.

From an economic point “of view it is, however, necessary te
take into consideration the facilities for marketing farm produce.
By reducing the live stock, the volume of the products which have
to be conveyed to market is necessarily enlarged. The application
of sideration must, therefore, to some extent depend upon the
density of population in the country, and upon the proximity of
towns, and of railways or canals,

In the foregoing translation of a communication (“Farms
without Live-stock in Germany ”), which appears in the Bulletin (No.
5, 1891) of the French Ministry of Agriculture, I have followed the
author pretty closely. The reader will have gleaned in the course
of the article that the process of szderation is involved in our familiar
practice of green manuring, when leguminous crops are employed
for the latter purpose. The word “sideration” (Lat. sidus, a
star) is presumably intended to convey the idea that the plants
concerned obtain their nitrogen from outside the solid part of the
earth—from, in fact, the atmosphere which envelopes it.

All the nitrogen-storing plants that have been named are, it will
have been observed, leguminous species. Only the kidney vetch
and “ trifolium ” (Lrifolium incarnatum, L.) are natives of Britain,
but the other species named are all capable of cultivation in this
country.

Not only, however, are these plants all leguminous species, but
they belong exclusively to one group of the Leguminose. Botanists
have separ rated the plants of the great natural order Leguminose
into three divisions, called respectiv ely the Papilionacer, the
Ceesalpiniee, and the Mimosee, All British leguminous species,
and all the leguminous plants mentioned in this paper, are members
of the division Papilionacez. Consequently, in this country, the
term leguminous is practically equivalent to papilionaceous. The
locust-bean is an example of the Czsalpiniew, and the “sensitive
plant” of the Mimosez.

Sideration suggests another development of the many- -sided

nitrogen question.
W. FREAM, *

}

Obituary. 875

OBITUARY.

THE DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G.
Born April 27, 1808: Died December 21, 1891.

By the death of the seventh Duke of Devonshire, not only is the
Royal Agricultural Society deprived of one of the very earliest of
its members, but the nation at large loses a nobleman of great dis-
tinction and remarkable gifts. Other biographies will do justice to
his commanding talents and his high position amongst his fellow-
countrymen ; the present notice must of necessity be confined to a
statement of the services which he has rendered to agriculture
during his long and useful life.

Born on April 27, 1808, he succeeded in 1834 to the earldom of
Burlington ; and in May 1838, at the age of thirty, he was one of
the very first who gave in their adhesion to the infant Society for
the general advancement of agriculture, which was then founded by
Ear! Spencer, the Duke of Richmond, and other notables of the time.
The Earl of Burlington’s name appears in the first list of Governors
and Members of the English Agricultural Society that was ever
published—and the only survivors of those first subscribers are now
Sir Harry Verney, Bart. (the nonogenarian “ Father of the Society ”),
Earl Grey, K.G., Lord Charles J. F. Russell, Mr. T. B. Saunders,

and Lord Winmarleigh.

The Duke has, ever since 1838, remained a Governor of the
Royal Agricultural Society, and at the meeting of the Council held
on March 6, 1890, he was, with other original members of the
English Agricultural Society, elected a Foundation Life Governor.

He first joined the Council on February 6, 1867, when, on the
motion of the then President (Mr. H. 8. Thompson), seconded by
Lord Tredegar, he was elected to fill the vacancy caused by the
promotion of Sir Edward Kerrison to be Vice-President. Not long
after, in April 1869, he was, on the motion of Mr. John Dent Dent,
seconded by Mr. H. 8. Thompson, elected a Vice-President to fill the
vacancy caused by the death of Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P.
At the very next meeting of the Council, held on May 5, 1869, he
was nominated as President for the year 1869-70, and he assumed
office after the highly successful Meeting held under the presidency
of H.R.H: the Prince of Wales at Manchester, retiring at the
Oxford Meeting of 1870.

The Duke’s year of office was, on the whole, a somewhat unevent-
ful one ; but during his presidency, the Council came. to the highly

876 Obituary. ; ,

important decision to publish quarterly cases of impure feeding:
stuffs and manures analysed in the Society’s laboratory, and the
system of farm competitions was started through the liberality of
Mr. James Mason, then High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, who offered
a piece of plate, value 100 guineas, for the best managed farm in
the locality.

The Oxford Meeting was also interesting as being the second
visit paid by the Society to the city where it held its famous first
meeting in 1839. On the earlier occasion, seven acres sufficed for
the Showyard, and the prizes amounted to 7907. In 1870, the Show
occupied 60 acres of ground, and the prizes for live stock amounted
to 3,130/., besides 395/. and ten silver medals for implements. The
entries of stock had increased from 266 in 1839 to 1,377 in 1870,
and the implements, instead of being described in one single octayo
page, with room to spare, numbered 7,851 entries, with 359 ex-
hibitors.

The Duke made on his Lancashire estate extensive reclamations
of land from Morecambe Bay ; but it is as a breeder of the highest
class of shorthorns that, as an agriculturist, he will be chiefly re-
membered. At his seat at Holker there has been for half a century
one of the choicest and highest bred Bates herds in the world. At
the public luncheon given on the occasion of his last sale on
September 5, 1889, His Grace, in responding to the toast of his
health, proposed by another distinguished shorthorn breeder, Sir
Nigel Kingscote, said—‘ It was now very many years since he first _
began to take interest in shorthorns. His first venture in that
line was in 1841. It had been his good fortune to have a first-rate
adviser in his agent, Mr. Drewry, and he had thus become possessed _
of a herd which he ventured to describe as one of very considerable
renown, and one highly esteemed amongst agriculturists, whether
in this country or other parts of the world, who took an interest in
shorthorns and appreciated the value of them accordingly.” J

Situated on the shores of Morecambe Bay, the fine soil and
climate of Holker, and its sheltered situation, render it one of the
best breeding establishments in the kingdom, and no pains have
been spared, either in the introduction of the best blood or in the
management of the animals. The bulk of the herd traces to a cow,
Oxford 15th, purchased when a heifer at Earl Ducie’s sale in 1853
for 200 guineas, and to Lady Oxford 5th, bought at the Havering
Park sale in 1867 for 600 guineas. The prolific nature of these two
cows, the excellence of their produce, and their great quality, have
given the herd a world-wide reputation ; and at the periodical sales
of the surplus stock they have realised extraordinary prices, and
have gone to all parts of the world.

The successive sales at Holker, over a period of forty years, give
the history of the development and rise of the breed ; for between
the first sale and that of 1878, there was a difference on the average
as between 25/. and 6647. On September 12, 1851, in order to lay
the foundation for a superior herd of cattle at Holker, the late
Mr. Strafford, the shorthorn auctioneer, sold the entire existing

Obituary. 877

stock. Holker at that time was difficult of access, there being no
railway, and the 56 head sold for 1,407/.—an average of 25/. 2s. 6d.
At the next sale, on September 9, 1864, Mr. Strafford was able to
announce that Holker was within half a mile of the Furness railway.
At this sale three females made three figures each—the six-year-old
* Countess of Barrington,” sold for 155 guineas to Mr. D. Reynolds
Davies ; her three-year-old daughter went to Mr. H. J. Sheldon for
135 guineas ; and Cleopatra 5th sold for 130 guineas to Mr. J. Logan.
Duke of Oxford 12th, two years old, sold for 210 guineas ; and Duke
of Oxford 14th, a yearling bull, was sold to Mr. J. Fawcett of
Sealeby Castle for 155 guineas. Thirty head sold for 1,984/. 10s.—
an average of 66/. 3s.

-The next sale was seven years after, in 1871, when a still larger
increase was obtained. Then 31 cows and heifers averaged 248/. 2s.;
12 bulls and bull calves averaged 2217. 1ls.; the 43 head sold
for 10,3497. 17s., or a general average of 240/. 13s. 10d., an advance
on the previous sale of 1747. 10s. 10d. a head. Three years later,
in 1874, at another sale, 28 cows and heifers averaged 4627. 8s. 3d.;
15 bulls and bull calves, 2367. 13s. 11d. ; 43 head made 16,4977. 12s.,
or a general average of 383/. 13s. 3d., an increase upon the last
sale of 142/. 19s. 5d. per head. This was the highest draft sale up
tothat day. Shortly before this sale a meeting of Shorthorn breeders
had been held in Willis’s Rooms to form a Society to purchase from
Mr. Strafford the copyright of Coates’ Herd Book, and to carry on
the Herd Book for the future. The Duke of Devonshire took the
chair at this meeting ‘“‘by general acclamation,” and was subsequently
elected the first President of the Shorthorn Society of Great Britain
and Ireland, which was the outcome of the meeting.

In 1878 there was another sale. This was the year after the
sensational Windermere sale, when the Hon. M. H. Cochrane ob-
tained 8,400 guineas for two Duchess heifers. Mr. Drewry rightly
anticipated a sale at which the zenith of prices for shorthorns
seemed to be reached, for eighteen cows and heifers averaged
7941. 11s. 2d., and twelve bulls and bull calves 4867. 7s. 9d. Thirty
head realised the large total of 19,922/. 14s., and the average was
6647. 1s. 10d., showing an increase in four years upon the average
of 2807. 8s. 7d. At this sale seven animals made four figures :—
“Grand Duchess of Oxford 21st” went to Lord Penrhyn for 1,550
guineas; ‘“‘Grand Duchess of Oxford 22nd” to Mr. McCulloch
(Australia) for 2,100 guineas ; “Baroness Oxford 5th” to Mr.
McIntosh for 2,660 guineas; ‘‘Grand Duchess of Oxford 38th”
to Sir John Swinburne for 1,450 guineas ; “Grand Duchess of
Oxford 30th” to Mr. S. P. Foster, of Killhow, for 1,600 guineas ;
“Duke of Oxford 44th” to Mr. H. A. Brassey for 1,650 guineas,
and “ Duke of Oxford 45th” to Lord Fitzhardinge for 1,500 guineas.
Between this sale and that held in 1883, no less than 10,000/. was
received at Holker from private sales.

The following Table shows the results of the seven sales held at
Holker during the time the herd has been in the able hands of Mr.
Drewry :—

878. Obituary.

Year © | Head sold | Average Total of Sale

| | £ $. d. £ Sa, Oe
1851 | 56 2 2 6 1,407 “O = @
1864 30 66 3 0 1,984 10 0
1871 43 240 13 10 10,349 17 0
1874 | 43 | 383° 43) 58 | 16,497 12 +0
1878! | 30 664. 1.10 | 19,922 14 . 0
1883 45 167 3° 7 7,524 6° O
1889 38 104 13 0 3,981 12 0

1 At this sale of 1878, nine ‘‘ Oxfords” went for 14,726/. 5s., or an average of
1,6362. 5s. apiece, six cows and heifers going at an average of 1,787. 12s. 6d.,
and three bulls at 1,333/. 10s. j

The scene at the last sale in 1889 was described by a writer in
the Field in language so picturesque that room must be found for it
as a vivid description of the surroundings amongst which the Duke
passed his life, and of the esteem in which he was held :—

In a paddock, in a pretty nook of that lake district of England where all
is pretty that does not deserve a higher epithet of praise, there occurred “in
the noon hour” of Thursday, September 5, a scene which will not be easily
forgotten by those whose good fortune it was to witness it. ‘The ground
slopes now this way and now that ; in spots the rock shows through ; and,
in spots, heavy-foliaged trees grow with sufficient luxuriance to prove that
what soil there is is good, and is in plenty too, if the roots can but pene-
trate to find it. All over the paddock were scattered some five or six
hundred people; among whom the red, white, and roan shorthorns (which
occupy the farm) were being paraded for inspection, showing gaily among
the sober-coated masses of spectators. Suddenly, by some whispered mess-
age from one to another, the cattle were left, and the company thronged in
a crowd to the exit and formed in two lines, down the middle of which
passed a figure very characteristic and noteworthy even in a period which

has produced many notable old men. The scene was Holker; the spot the”

field adjacent to the village school; and it was the aged Duke of Devonshire
who slowly passed along, whilst everyone’s hat was raised, to receive a
courteous acknowledgment in return. Is there, except Prince Moltke, in
Europe a man of more various fame? Some men thought of him as the
owner of a name of great traditions; of estates in many counties, liberal
and trusted in all; some remembered him as the sire of sons who haye made
great names in politics, and made even greater sacrifices for the nation’s
weal; some—as the occasion required—bore in mind that he was the
successful breeder for more than half a century of a variety of cattle of
which it is no extravagance to say that its fame goeth through the world.
Yet Nature is stronger than all beside. The grave face one looked upon,
the stooping figure, the eyes still full of light, were those not so much of a
man of rank and wealth—though there was ample evidence of both—as of
the student who has loved and followed learning for her own sake: of the
man who, nearly sixty years ago, was the first mathematician of his year
in the University of Cambridge; and is still her honoured Chancellor,

No words need be added to this picture to prove that in the
death of the Duke of Devonshire, the nation has lost one of its
noblest, most gifted, and most honoured sons.

ERNEST CLARKE,

879°

RECENT AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.

The subsects of Applications for Patents from Sept. 17 to
Dec. 16, 1891.

N.B.—When the Invention is a communication from abroad, the name of
the Inventor is shown in italics, between parentheses, after the name of the
applicant.

Agricultural Machinery and Implements, &c.

Ha. of Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.

Application.
15931 MARSHALL, J. - . Threshing machines.
15942 BAMLETT, A.C. ,. . Harvesters.

16007 % 3 ¢

”
16316 FAIRWEATHER, J. . Topping, tailing, and lifting turnips.
16357 SMITH, T.,& BAILEY . Crushing potatoes, turnips, &c.
16376 Gray, W. “ . . Gathering potatoes.
16588 BIRRELL, K. . : . Potato raising and gathering machine.

16618 Mann, HH. . F . Hay-making machine.
16619 Livonrus, O. Von. . Drilling and sowing machine.
16623 WHITE, F. J. : . Protecting cut crops from storms.
16841 Gray, W. : . Potato digger and gatherer.
17141 Hornssy and others . Harvesting machines.
17248 BoARDMAN, J. W.. . Potato-digging apparatus.
17370 Pearson, A.N , . Spraying implement for crops.
17894 KEANE, F. H. 5 . Mowing machines.
17984 Ler, F.W. . ® . Digging and screening potatoes,
18769 Drew, J.. é ’ . Elevators for chaff-cutters,
19082 HunTER,T. . 5 . Horse-hoes, &c.
19087 Martin, D., & BRITON,
sae as : . . Feeding cut hay, &c., into a chop-mixing
machine.
19236 Drury, J. . : . Self-binding reapers.
19882 RoGERSON & LINLEY . Root-washer.
19956 HornsBy, J., and others Sheaf-binding harvesters.
20348 PETTER, J. B. = . Root-cutting machines.
20872 SLEEP, W. H., and anr. Hay-tedding machine.
21131 Bouut (Hofherr) . . Filling sacks from threshing machines.
21419 BAMBER, J. . i . Pressing hay, straw, &c.
21734 Tom, J.P. . * . String reel and holder for binders,
21842 WALLER, A.D, .°- . Harrow.
21945 Picoyo,W. . . .Aspade plough.

880 Recent Agricultural Inwentions.

Stable Utensils and Fittings—Horse-shoes, &c.

No. of

Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.

16318 CHAMPION,J.B. . . Feed-bags for horses.

16325 PENDLETON, D. . . Horse-shoes.

16386 (Dix, Ha. : . Non-slipping horse-shoe.

16539 Burt, E. : : . Horse-feed nose-bag.

16561 BRICKNELL,S.E . . Hame tugs.

17061 PRITCHETT, G. E.. . Horse-shoes.

16998 KNIGHT, A. W. . F is

17242 D’ANVERS . : . Horse-shoes and shoeing,

17326 SmirH, H. G., & Rou¥sE. A hinge horse-collar.

17480 FRASER, J. . é . Saddles.

17710 SMAILL, J. . . . Disconnecting runaway horses from vehicles.
17797 Hut, J. & T. 2 . Horse-collars.

17945 DE PERROT, C. : . False collar for breast-plate harness.
18130 LEE, J. . , : . Woollen waterproofs for horses.
18225 WESTON, B.S. A . Safety buckle for stirrup leathers.
18260 INSTONE, A. E. : . Roughing or caulking horse-shoes.

18484 SMALLMAN, J. W.
(Power and others) . Safety stirrup.

18581 Macrea, C, A. : . Combined hames and horse-collars.

18652 ARTHUR, W.A. . . Saddles.

18932 McKENZIE, J. : . Horse-shoe.

190384 PAGE, M., & JACKSON. Fixing horse-shoes without nails.

19063 THomas, D. . : . Pads for preventing slipping in horses,

19890 Brown, J. W. 4 . Reins and bridles.

20093 PASSMORE & COLE . Fasteners for hames and collars,

20157 CARDoT, E. . : . Currycombs.

20289 REZELINS, J. . 2 . Pads for horses’ hoofs.

20347 SHEATHER, C. - . Pneumatic horse-shoe pads.

20538 CHALLINOR,C. . . Horse-shoes to prevent slipping.

60684 McQuaT, A.M. . . Nose-bags.

20765 BRIDGMAN, H. H.. . Non-slipping horse-shoes.

21226 HATFIELD, A., and ‘
others. : : . Equalising the draft of horses.

21415 HiGGiIns, and others . Horse-shoe calks.

21452 RUSSELL, A. C. : . Hames.

21458 PEAcocK & JACKMAN . Stirrups.
21462 RICHARDS, and others . Saddles.
21796 SmirH, T. G., and anr. . Ladies’ saddles.

21807 SANKEY. : F . Saddles.
21867 RUSSELL, A. C. : . Hames.

22205 WALLIS, J. . : . Splint for supgorting horses’ legs. F

Recent Agricultural Inventions. 881

Carts and Carriages.

No. of x. : 2 :
Application. Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
17970 MESNIL, J. . » , Axles and axle-boxes.

18925 DeAcon,O.D. . . Self-acting brake.

18982 Munro, D. R., and anr. Seats for dog-carts.
21721 CHALMERS, J. ‘ . Shifting, &c., cart bodies on their frames,
21726 MarTIN, H. . . . Improved skid for coaches, &c.

Dairy Utensils, &c.
17348 GRAHAM,A.T. . . Milk-can protector.

17489 LAVERTON, E. . Railway milk-churns,

18064 STRUTHERS & WEIR _.. Milking appliance.

18480 Gray, J. s : . Milk strainers.

19133 BRADFORD, T. : . Butter-working apparatus.

20250 CoTTon,G. . - . Railway milk-cans.

20555 Kerr, R.F. . : . Butter-printing machine.

20889 SHIELS,A. , ° . Automatically regulating the vacuum pressure

in milking machines.

20956 JOHNSTONE, W. . Detecting foreign fats in butter.

20959 SALENIUS . 5 . Centrifugal apparatus for use in butter-
making.
20989 Duncan, J. H.H.. . Manufacture of butter.

21372 CARNRBICK, J.. - . Manufacture of Koumiss compounds, &c.
21890 RIMELL,S. . . . Tool for working butter.

Poultry and Game, &c., Appliances,

~ 15903 WALKER, W. A.” . . Combined coop and feeder.
15955 MACKEAN & BOOTHBY . Preserving eggs.
i7717 Miuts, B. J. B. (De la
Vieuville) . . . Preserving eggs.
17968 TUNNARD, H.S. , » House, &c., for rearing chickens.
18631 SMITH,E. . . . Self-feeder for poultry and game,
18968 BowLEs, W.A. . . Poultry houses.
21144 Jones, C. A. , ‘ . Regulating the temperature in incubators.
21317 LoneGsHAW, J. 4 . Preserving eggs.
21619 Dove.as, T. , « , Appliance for feeding pheasants, &c.

Miscellaneous.

15827 Pavy, E.H. . . . Corn bins.
16289 Munpay,J. . . . Protecting turnips from fiy, &e.
18937 REDFERN, G. F. ( Wolse-
ley) . +» + » Sheep-shearing machines,
VOL. I. T. s.—8 3M

882. Recent Agricultural Inventions.

Peo es on, Name of Applicant. Title of Invention.
18978 LINGForRD, H. B. & E. . Apparatus for feeding calves.

20054 CoLE, W. . : . Facilitating the shearing of sheep.
20395 ROBERTSON, A. . . Sheep dip.

20520 BurGon, C. . : . Shearing and clipping machinery.
20952 CoLE, W. : : . Shearing sheep, clipping horses, &c.
21036 EDWARDS, E. 5 . Attaching, kc, animals in stables.
21367 JAcoB, F. : - . Apparatus for feeding young cattle.
21525 CANNON, W.J. . . Apparatus for dipping sheep, &c.

Numbers of Specifications relating to the above subjects Published
since Sept. 14, 1891!

(with prices in parentheses).

Specifications of 1890.

10622 (6d.), 12773 (6d.), 13680 (6d.), 14351 (6d.), 14797 (6d.), 15014 (6d.)
15046 (8d.), 15121 (4d.), 15369 (6d.), 15580 (4d.), 15935 (6d.), 16477
(6d.), 16561 (8d.), 16613 (6d.), 16751 (6d.), 17004 (8d.), 17234 (6d.)
17749 (8d.), 17891 (6d.), 17911 (6d.), 18071 (6d.), 18529 (6d.), 18586
(6d.), 18987 (6d.), 19168 (8d.), 19410 (11d.), 19731 (6d.), 19913 (8d.),
19971 (8d.), 20427 (6d.), 20443 (11d.), 20500 (6d.), 20579 (6d.), 20626
(8d.), 20696 (6d.), 20733 (6d.), 20837 (8d.), 21137 (6d.), 20399 (8d.).

Specifications of 1891.

152 (6d.), 307 (8d.), 313 (4d.), 338 (8d.), 362 (8d.), 487 (6d.), 831 (6d.), 850
(6d.), 1276 (11d.), 1468 (6d.), 1724 (1s. 7d.), 2720 (4d.), 3321 (8d.), 3498
(4d.), 4127 (4d.), 8553 (1s. 10d.), 8773 (8d.), 9195 (6d.), 9527 (8d.,) 9708
(1s. 3d.), 10963 (6d.), 12246 (4d.), 12371 (8d.), 12704 (6d.), 13654 (6d.),
13972 (6d.), 14319 (11d.), 17717 (4d.), 17968 (6d.), 18225 (6d.)

1 Copies may be obtained at the Patent Office (Sale and Store Branch),
38 Cursitor Street, London, E,C.

885

SIAtISTICS AFFECTING BRITISH
AGRICULTURAL: INTERESTS.

A summary of the Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, 1891
is given in Tables I. and II, on this and the foliowing page.

Taste I.-—Acreage under each kind of Crop, Bare Fallow, ana Grass
) as returned upon June 4 in the Years 1891 and 1890 in Giext
| Britain ; with Total for the United Kingdom.

UNITED KINGDOM,
| GREAT BRITAIN including IsLE OF MAN
| and CHANNEL ISLANDS

1891 1890 | 1891 1890

|
acres acres acres acres
ToraL AREA OF LAND AND WATER 56,786,199 | 56,786,199 | 77,799,793 | 77,799,793
Toran ACREAGE under ALL Kinps of 9 2 7 5
eect iuonend Gras Ga). I 32,918,514 | 32,768,335 | 48,179,473 | 48,045,755
Wheat . « « « | 2,307,277 | 2,386,336 | 2,399,245 | 2,483,595
Barley orBere . . . | 2112798 | 2111,178 | 2,298,978 | 2,300,994
Corn Oats “ 7 5 . * 2; 899,129 2,902,998 4,128,127 4,137,790
Crops, Rye . c . > 46,640 54,826 60,148 69,458
Beans . 4 A iS 354,702 358,413 359,039 362,242
eames, Mi bichv da 8+ 5 204,277 219,382 204,972 220,170
Toran . . . . | 7,924,823 | 8,033,133 | 9,443,509 | 9,574,249
Pataboos . 5 532,794 s0081 1, 296, 763 1,321,272
Turnips and Sw edes 5 . 1,918,535 1,947,598 2,227,050 2,251,220
GREEN Mangel. ' 354,704 331,288 406,930 378,313
Crors, | Cabbage, Kohl Rabi, & Rape 156,891 159,761 207,260 213,165
Vetches or Tares 4 228,258 233,071 234,210 239,310
Other Green Crops “ 106,387 96,149 138,440 130,865
ToraL . . . . | 3,297,569 | 3,297,528 | 4,510,653 | 4,534,145
For Hay . | 2,130,124 | 2,999,194 | 2,737,850 | 2,938,680

Cuover, SAINFOIN, and
GRASSES under

Rotation.
7 ToTaL . | 4,716,582 | 4,808,819 | 6,013,685 6,097,210

Not for Hay | 2,586,458 | 2.516625 | 3,275,835 | 3,158,530

For Hay 4,503,108 | 4,778,639 | 5,978,757 | 6,248,352

PERMANENT PASTURE {Not for Hay | 11,930,742 | 11,238'853 | 21'593.906 | 20,867,073

or Grass. Not broken
up in Rotation. (b)

Toran . | 16,433,850 | 16,017,492 | 27,567,663 | 27,115,425

Brae ~ 4 ; é c 1,801 2,455 76,477 99,326
HGrse. .. , Se ees 56,145 54,555 56,145 54,555
SMALL Prutt (c) 58,704 46,234 |(d) 60,138 |(d). 46,733
BARE FALLOW or Uncropped Arable Land 429,040 508,119 451,203 524,112

F @) Not including nursery grounds, woods, and plantations, or wn2nclosed mountain and heath
and

(b) Exclusive of wnenclosed mountain and heath land.

(c) Gooseberri berries, strawberries, and other small fruit, including what is grown between trees in
orchards, and also in market gardens.

(@) Not including Ireland.

884

TasLe II.—Number of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs as returned
upon June 4 in the Years 1891 and 1890.

Statistics affecting British Agricultural Interests.

GREAT BRITAIN

| UNITED KINGDOM,

including ISLE oF MAN

and CHANNED IsLAnps
1891 1890 1891 1890
rr
No. No. No. No.
Used solely for Agriculture 1,022,936 981,275
= Mares kee Horses : 401,257 393,915 Cannot be separately
ORSES ares kept solely for breed- distinguished.
aie | ing é : ri alee ee sees ae Site 7
Ponies), ee
Tefan Lae eee A -, 1,488,403 1,432,620 2,026,170 1,964,911
——— SS
= and Heiter in Milk 2,657,054 2,537,990 4,117,707 3,956,220
Other (s Years and above 1,504,649 1,439,119 2,473,808 2,361,424
CATTLE. Cattle. {Unger 2 Years 2,691,118 2,531,523 4,752,171 4,472,214
Sita. © FOR. Ld 6,852,821 | 6,508,632 | 11,343,686 | 10,789,858
1 Toe te ee old and above. - | 17,786,941 | 16,756,568 | 20,614,807 | 19,332,472
Under 1 Year old + | 10,945,617 | 10,515,891 | 12,919,181 | 12,834,723
SHEEP. E
TorTaL | 28,732,558 27,272,459 | 33,533,988 | 31,667,195
Pics. ° 2,888,778 2,773,609 4,272,764 4,362,040 :

Table showing the Estimated Total Production of Hops in the Years
1891 and 1890, in each County in which Hops were grown.

eee Acreage | Belinea

COUNTIES b

1891 1890 1891 1890 1891 |. 1890
cwt. ewt. acres acres ewt. ewt.
Berks . . : (Tf 58 11 11 7:00 5:27
Gloucester , : 130 22 25 211-}--5:20 2:00
Hants e sp f3;793) | Bost 2,749 2,614 5:02 731
Hereford . | 44,170 | 22,473 6,560 | * 6,077 6:73 3°70
Kent , . + | 271,347 | 175,008 | 34,266 | 33,525 7:92 5:22
Notts . . p 20 29 14 14 1°43 2:07
Salop . . F 577 336 112 298 515 3°43
Suffolk , . : 118 13 20 225 5:90 0:52 —
Surrey . e » | 14,212 9,025 1,955 1,874 127 4:82
Sussex . . . | 67,861 | 43,599 7,150 6,787 9:49 642
Worcester . » | 24,411 | 13,962 3,280 | 72,925 (44 4°77
Total , . 1486,716 | 283,629 |' 56,142 | 253,961 778 5:26

» This acreage does not agree with that previously published, owing to three acres in th
u _nty of Cambridge and three acres in Hants having been originally returned in error,

* See footnote on page 656 of the present Volume.

SLL

Aoval Agricultural Society of England.

(Established May 9, 1838, as the ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, and
Incorporated by Royal Charter on March 26, 1840.)

Patron,
(Letter from Secretary of State, dated March 6, 1840.)

HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

| President for 18901891.
| THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH.,

| Year when

pee | | Trustecs.

1879 H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., Marlborough House, Pall Mall.
1838-40! i ACLAND, Rt, Hon. Sir THoMAS DYKE, Bart., Killerton, Exeter, Devon-

1855 shire.

1858 Bripport, Genl. Viscount, K.C.B., Cricket St. Thomas, Chard, Somerset.

1861 CATHCART, Earl, 7hornton-le-Street, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

1861 DENT, JOHN DENT, Ribston Hall, Wetherby, Yorkshire,

1871 EGERTON OF TATTON, Lord, Tatton Park, Knutsford, Cheshire.

1863 KINGSCOTE, Col. Sir NIGEL, K.C.B., Kingscote, Wotton-under- Edge, Glou-

cestershire.

| a?) | MACDONALD, Sir ARCHIBALD K., Bart., Woolmer Lodge, Liphook, Hants.
~

| 1856 Powls, Earl of, Powis Castle, Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.

= }I RICHMOND AND GORDON, Duke of, K.G., Goodwood, Chichester, Sussex.
i] >
| 1869 | RrpLey, Sir M. W., Bart., M.P., Blagdon, Cramlington, Northumberland.

| Cice-Presivents.

1889 | H.R.H. Prince Curistian, K.G., Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, Berkshire.

art) |
ball CHAPLIN, Rt. Hon. HENRY, M.P., Blankney Hall, Lincoln.

| 1867 | Deyonsutre, Duke of, K.G., Holker Hall, Lancashire.

| 1876 FreversHaM, Earl of, Duncombe Park, Helmsley, Yorkshire.

| 1881 GILBEY, WALTER, Elsenham Hall, Essex.

| 1872 LATHOM, Earl of, Lathom Hall, Ormskirk, Lancashire.

1848 LAWEs, Sir JOHN BENNET, Bart., Rothamsted, St. Albans, Herts.

1865 Lopes, Rt. Hon. Sir MAssry, Bart., Maristow, Roborough, Devon.

1880 MOoRETON, Lord, Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, Oxon.

1874 SPENCER, Earl, K.G., Althorp, Northampton.

1881 THOROLD, Sir JoHN H., Bart., Syston Park, Grantham, Lincolnshire.

1870 WHITEHEAD, CHARLES, Barming House, Maidstone, Kent.

VOL. Il. T. S.—5 a

il

Year when

elected on

Council
1881

1862-66
1877
18380
1890
1871
1890
1886
1874
1883
1885
1887
1888
1886
1882
1879
1875
1879
1879
1889
1888
1876
1886
1874
1884
1886
1881
1886
1889
1888 -
1886
1871
1889
1874
1886
1886
1889
1889
1882
1891
1875
1883
1889
1890
1889
1882
1889
1889
1865

I

List of Council of the Society.

| Other Members of Council.
| *ALLENDER,G. MANDER, 31 St. Petersburgh Place, Bayswater, Middlesex,

eerie: J. HUNGERFORD, Hampton Court, Leominster, Herefora
shire.

| *ASHWORTH, ALFRED, Zabley Grange, Knutsford, Cheshire.
BEACH, JosepH, The Hattons, Wolverhampton, Staffordshire.
*BOWEN-JONES, J., Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, Salop.
BROUGHAM AND VAUX, Lord, Brougham Hall, Penrith, Cumberland,

| *CAIRD, JAMES A., Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.

| *CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H., Hopton Hall, Wirksworth, Derbyshire.
CLAY, CHARLES, Walton Grange, Wakefield, Yorkshire.

| *COVENTRY, Earl of, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, Worcestershire.

| *CRUTCHLEY, PERCY E., Sunninghill Park, Berkshire.

*DARBY, ALFRED, Little Ness, Shrewsbury, Shropshire.

|

*DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE, Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne, Kent.
EMLYN, Viscount, Golden Grove, Carmarthen, S. Wales.
Foster, S. P., Killhow, Carlisle, Cumberland.
FRANKISH, WILLIAM, Limber, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
*GORRINGE, HUGH, Aingston-by-Sea, Brighton, Sussex.
| GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE, Butleigh Court, Glastonbury, Somersetshire.
*HAMOND, ANTHONY, Westacre, Swaffham, Norfolk.
HORNSBY, JAMES, Stapleford Park, Melton Monbray, Leicestershire.
*HOWARD, CHARLES, Biddenham, Bedfordshire.
*MAINWARING, C.S., Galltfaenan, Trefnant R.S.O., North Wales.
*MARTIN, JOSEPH, Highfield House, Littleport, Isle of Ely, Cambs.
*MILLER, T. HORROCKS, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire
MUNTZ, PHILIP ALBERT, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire.
*PARKER, Hon. CEciL T., Zeeleston, Chester.
*PELL, ALBERT, Hazelbeach, Northampton.
PIDGEON, DANIEL, Walsingham House, Piccadilly, W.
PoRTLAND, Duke of, Welbechk Abbey, Worksop, Notts
RANSOME, J. E., Holme Wood, Ipswich, Suffolk.
RAWLENCE, JAMES, Bulbridge, Wilton, Salisbury, Wilts.
*ROWLANDSON, SAMUEL, Newton Morrell, Darlington, Yorkshire.
SANDAY, GEORGE H., Langdale Lodge, Clapham Park, Surrey.
*ScARTH, W. T., Staindrop House, Darlington, Durham.
*SMITH, ALFRED J., Rendlesham, Woodbridge, Suffolk.
Smiru, HENRY, The Grove, Cropwell Butler, near Nottingham.
| SPEARMAN, Sir J. L. E., Bart., Llansannor Court, Cowbridge, Giam.
STAFFORD, Marquis of, Lilleshall, Newport, Salop.
*STANYFORTH, E. WILFRID, Airk Hammerton Hall, York.
STRATTON, RICHARD, The Duffryn, Newport, Monmouthshire.
SuTTON, MARTIN J., Kidmore Grange, Caversham, Oxon,
| *TAYLOR, GARRETT, Trowse House, Norwich.
| *Tprry, JOSEPH P., Berry Field, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire.
_TREMAYNE, JOHN, Heligan, St. Austell, Cornwall.
| WARREN, REGINALD AuGustws, Preston Place, Worthing, Sussea. a
| WHEELER, E. VINCENT V., Vewnham Court, Tenbury, Worcestershire.
| *WILSON, C. W., Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
| *WILSON, Sir JAcoR, Chillingham Barns, Belford, Northumberland.

Keel

* Members of Council who retire by rotation, but who may be re-elected.

fl
7
.
-

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR 1891.

Finance Conimnittee,

Kinescors, Col. Sir NIGEL (Chairman). THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bart.
BRIDPORT, General Viscount. FRANKISH, W.
RIDLEY, Sir M. WuirTs, Bt., M.P. SanpDAy, G. H.

‘ouse Committee.
CHAIRMAN of Finance Committee.

PARKER, Hon. C. T.

THE PRESIDENT. WILSON, Sir JACOB.
BRIDPORT, General Visvount. ALLENDER, G. M.
Saurnal Committee.
CATHCART, Earl (Chairman) DENT, J. D.
EMLYN, Viscount. FRANKISH, W.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bart. PELL, A.
ASHWORTH, A. PIDGEON, D.
CAIRD, J. A. SuTTON, MARTIN J.

DE LAUNE, C. DE L. FAUNCE.

Chemical Committee.

SPEARMAN, SirJ.L.E., Bt. GRENVILLE, R. N.

WHITEHEAD, CHARLES.

EMLYN, Viscount (Chairman), ARKWRIGHT, J. H. PELL, A.

PARKER, Hon. C. T. BOWEN-JONES, J. SUTTON, MARTIN J.
ACLAND, Sir T. D., Bt. CAIRD, J. A. TERRY, J. P.
LAWES, Sir J. B., Bt. DE LAUNE,C.DEL. FAUNCE. VOELCKER, Dr,
. MACDONALD, Sir A. K., Bt. Dent, J. D. WARREN, R. A.

WHITEHEAD, CHAS,

MAINWARING, C. S.
ORMEROD, Miss E, A,
PELL, A

STRATTON, R.

THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. HOWARD, C.
Seevs and Plant Biseases Committee.
WHITEHEAD, CHAS. CAIRD, J. A.
(Chairman) CARRUTHERS, W.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. DE LAUNE, C. DE L.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H. FAUNCE.
BOWEN-JONES, J. HORNSBY, J.

Veterinary Committee.

THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H.
(Chairman) Cuay, C.

BRIDPORT, General Viscount. CoPE, A. C.

MorRETON, Lord. CROOKSHANK, Prof.

PARKER, Hon. C. T. DARBY, ALFRED

KINGSCOTE, Col. Sir NIGEL. DENT, J. D.

WILSON, Sir JACOB, FLEMING, Dr. GEORGE.

ALLENDER, G. M. FOSTER, 5S. P.

ASHWORTH, A. HAMOND, A.

AXE, Prof. J. WORTLEY. MASTER OF FARRIERS’

BEACH, JOSEPH. COMPANY.

Brown, Professor,
Stock-Prises Committec.

WHEELER, Ff. V. V.

MILLER, T. H.

PELL, A.

PRESIDENT OF ROYAL
CoLL. OF VETY.
SURGEONS.

SIMONDs, Prof.

SMITH, A. J.

TERRY, J. P.

WHEELER, FE. V. V.

WILSON, C. W.

SANDAY, G. H. (Chairman), SPEARMAN, Sir J. L, E., Bt.CRUTCHLEY, P. E.

H.R.H. Prince CHRISTIAN, WILSON, Sir JACOB.

K.G. ALI ENDER, G. M.
COVENTKY, Earl of. ARKWRIGHT, J. H.
BROUGHAM and VAUX, Lord.ASHWORTH, A.
Moreton, Lord. BOWEN-JONES, J.
PARKER, Hon, C. T, CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H,

DARBY, ALFRED.
Foster, S. P.
FRANKISH, W.
GILBRY, WALTER.
GORRINGE, H,
Howarp, C.

a2

iv Standing Committees for 1891.

Stock-Prises Committee (continued).

MAINWARING, C. S. Srmonps, Professor. Terry, J. P.
MARTIN, JOSEPH. Smita, A. J. TREMAYNE, J.
MInLer, T. H. Sm1ItH, HENRY. WILSON, C. W.
Munrz, P. A., M.P. STRATTON, R. The Stewards of Live
ROWLANDSON, §. TAYLOR, GARRETT. Stock.

Implement Committec.

FRANKISH, W. (Chairman) BEACH, JOSEPH. RANSOME, J. E.
BRIDPORT, Gen. Viscount. BOWEN-JONEs, J. ROWLANDSON, 8.
MOoORETON, Lord. CLAY, C, SanpDAy, G. H.
PARKER, Hon. C. T. GRENVILLE, R. NEVILLE. SMITH, A. J.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. HORNSBY, J. SMITH, HENRY.
WILSON, Sir JACOB. HOWARD, C. STRATTON, R.
ALLENDER, G. M. MARTIN, JOSEPH. The Stewards of Im-
ANDERSON, W. PIDGEON, D. plements.

General Boncaster Committee.

THE WHOLE CoUNCIL, with the following representatives of the LOCAL
COMMITTEE :—

DONCASTER, Mayor of, CHAFER, GEORGE. Woop, G. T.
FRANK, F. BAcoNn, CLARK, J. FIRTH. YARBOROUGH, G. B. C,

WHITE, JOHN.

Show-Pard Works Committee.

WiLson, Sir JACOB ASHWORTH, A. HowARD, C.

(Chairman) CLAY, CHARLES. Sanpay, G. H,
PARKER, Hon. C, T. FRANKISH, W. STRATTON, R.
ALLENDER, G. M. EORNSBY, J.

Committee of Selection.
CATHCART, Earl. (Chairman)CarrD, J. A. GRENVILLE, R. N.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, H. WARREN, R. A.
CRUTCHLEY, P. E.
And the Chairmen of the Finance, Journal, Chemical, Stock-Prizes,
and Implement Committees.

Gvucation Committee.
MoreEToN, Lord (Chairman). DELAUNE,U.DEL. FAUNCE.RANSOME, J. E.

EMLYN, Viscount. Dent, J. D. SuTTOoN, M. J.
KINGSCOTR, Col. Sir NIGEL. Foster, S. P. TREMAYNE, J.
ARKWRIGHT, J. H. MAINWARING, C. S. VOELCKER, Dr.
BOWEN-JONES, J. PELL, A. WHEELER, E. V. V.
CRAIGIE, Major, PIDGEON, D.

Batry Commiticr.

PARKER, Hon. C. T. ALLENDER, G. M. MAINWARING, C. 8.

(Chairman) ARKWRIGHT, J. H. ~ TAYLOR, GARRETT.
BRIDPORT, Gen. Viscount. ASHWORTH, A. VoOELCKER, Dr.
THOROLD, Sir J. H., Bt. DARBY, ALFRED,

*,* The PRESIDENT is a Member ex officio of all Committees, and the
TRUSTEES and VICE-PRESIDENTS are Members ew offciis of all Standing
Committees except the Committee of Selection.

Chief Officials of the Society, and Distribution of Members. Vv

| Chief OMicials of the Society.

Secretary and Dditor—ERNESt CLARKE, 12 Hanover Square, W.

Consulting Chemist—Dr. J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER, 12 Hanover Square, W.

Consulting Botanist—W. CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S., 44 Central Hill, Norwood, SE.
Consulting Entomologist—Miss E. A. ORMEROD, F.R.Met.Soc., Torrington House, Holy-
well Hill, St. Albans.

Consulting Veterinary Surgeon—Professor JAMES BEART Srmonps, St. John's Villa,
| Ryde, Isle of Wight.

Veterinary Tnspectors—THE OFFICERS OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE.

Ae sooty Engineers—EASTON & ANDERSON, LIM., 3 Whitehall Place, 8.W.

Surveyor and Superintendent of Works—WILSON BENNISON, 66 Ashley Road, Crouch
Hili, London, N.

Consulting Surveyor—GEORGE Hunt, Lvesham, Worcestershire.

Publisher—JOHN MuRRAY, 504 Albemarle Street, W.

Bankers —THE LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, St. James’s Square Branch.

| GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL
| AND OF GOVERNORS AND MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.

| NUMBER OF a
| Districts CouNTIES | Bh cat Mempers NaMus or MEMBERS oF CouNcrt,
gE ; | MEMBERS ebanen |
| | |
. | BEDFORDSHIRE. .| 140 1 | C. Howard.
| BUCKINGHAMSHIRE | 134 1 | Jos. P. Terry.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE .| 165 1 | Joseph Martin.
PRPs eee cee | 246 1 | Walter Gilbey, v.P.
| HERTFORDSHIRE .| 205 1 | Sir J. B. Lawes, v.P.
A | HUNTINGDONSHIRE | 56 —
| MIDDLESEX .. .| 609 2 G. M. Allender ; Dan. Pidgeon.
| |(H.R.H. the Prince of Wales,
NORFOLE:. . . .| 347 ° 4 K.G.,T.; Anthony Hamond;
| Garrett Taylor.
Lord Moreton, v.P.; M. J.
| OXFORDSHIRE ..| 157 2 { aarar
| SUPFOLE . . .°.| 246 2 J. E. Ransome; A. J. Smith.
| 2305 | — 14
| | Cumezrtanp . .| 190 9 j Lord Brougham and Vaux;
| ( §. P. Foster.
Jp J Domnam . . . .| 202 oe Sar eas
| ‘= = Sir M. White Ridley, T.; Sir
| | NORTHUMBERLAND | 317 2 { JacnbeWilsan Y»
| WESTMORELAND . 80 1 | C. W. Wilson.
. — 789|— 7
| DERBYSHIRE. . .| 192 1 H. Chandos-Pole-Gell.
LEICESTERSHIRE . 159 1 J. Hornsby,
: | | (Sir J. H. Thorold, v.p.; Rt.
| LINCOLNSHIRE . .| 311 3 | Hon, H. Chaplin, v.P.; W.
Cc, } | Frankish,
|NORTHAMPTONSHIRE| 179 2 Karl Spencer, v.P.; A. Pell,
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE | 259 2 H. Smith; Duke of Portland.
RUTLAND, : 36 —
—1136|— 9

vi Distribution of Members of the Society.

DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY—continued.

: Numprr or | % roe ae
DISTRICTS CouNTIES Coreen MemBers | NAMES OF MEMBERS OF COUNCIL —
OF
MEMBERS CouncIL
H.R.H. Prince
Deere = < { K.G.,V.P.; P. E. Crutchley,
CoRNWALL 157 1 John Tremayne.
Sir T. D. Acland, T.; Sir M,
DEVONSHIRE . 214 2 7p :
Lopes, V.P.
DORSETSHIRE 90 _
HAMPSHIRE | 232 2 sit fe . a Macdonald, 1. ;
D. C. Whitehead, v.p.; C. de L,
KENT | 460 2 { F. De Laune.
SOMERSETSHIRE. . 146 2 (Veet ee T.; R. Neville
SURREY. | 316 1 G. H. Sanday.
Duke of Richmond and Gor-
SUSSEX . 323 aes: don, K.G., T. ; i
j R. x Warren
WILTSHIRE Issey 1 J. Rawlence.
—— 2384 — 16
( Earl Cathcart, T. ; J. D. Dent,
E osceetee 778 6 T.; Earl of Feversham, V.P.;

See oars Stanyforth.
| GLOUCESTERSHIRE. | 310 1 | Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, T.
| HEREFORDSHIRE 165 1 | J. H. Arkwright.
MONMOUTHSHIRE . 43 1 R. Strattor.
{ . J. Bowen-Jones; A. Darby;
lS oe : { Marquis of Stafford.
F. { STAFFORDSHIRE. 283 1 Jos. Beach.
| WARWICKSHIRE. 254 1 | P. A. Muntz, M.P.
_ eae | Earl of Coventry; E. V.
| WORCESTERSHIRE .| 252 | 2 } Wheeler. ?
ie = Viscount Emlyn; Sir J. L. E.
| SouTH WALES . 197 | 2 ‘
1919 — 12 { Spearman.
Lord Egerton, T.; A. Ash
CHESHIRE': had : } worth; Hon. Cecil T. Park er.
Duke of Devonshire, K.G.,
G. LANCASHIRE . 452 3 v.P.; Earl of Lathom, V.P.;
| |\ H. Miller. .
| NortH WALEs . 230 jie (ee T.; C. 8. Mains
ee ——£. 1019) 2206 8:
SCOTLAND .... ; | 228
IRELAND. .. ° 166
CHANNEL ISLANDS a ele |e &6
FOREIGN COUNTRIES . . 165
HONORARY MEMBERS ... 19
———— 594 ;
GRAND TOTAL . . . | ——10924) — 72 c ‘
a lar

C. Clay; S. Rowlandson; -

ft

.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G.... Marlborough House,
Pall Mall, S.W., and Sandringham . ; - ‘
.R.H. THE DUKE OF EDINBURGH, K.G... isenas House,
St. James’s, 8.W. : ; 5
-R.H. THE DUKE OF Cameras, K. Geis (Giedeestor
House, Piccadilly, W. . F : A .
.R.H. PRINCE CHRISTIAN OF SCHIRSWIG- HorsrEr,
K.G....Cumberland Lodge, Windsor ‘ 5 4

‘Actanp, Rt. Hon. Sir T. Dyke, Bart...Killerton, Exeter . ‘
Autorort, Herbert John...Stokesay Court, Onibury, Salop
Antcrort, John D....108 Lancaster Gate,W. . 5 ¢ :
ALLENDER, G. Mander...Stammerham, Horsham : ‘ :
AmueRsT, W. A. Tyssen, M.P....Didlington Hall, Brandon
RKWRIGHT, J. Hungerford... Hampton Court, Leominster
SHBURTON, Lord...The Grange, Alresford, Hants. ., ’ ©

Barus, W. Hunter...43 Norfolk Square, Hyde Park, W. ‘
3aTH, The Marquis of...Longleat, Warminster . 5 hee ©
S3ATHURST, Earl...Cirencester House, Gloucestershire ; -
BATTEN, John... Yeovil : .
3xctTIvE, Earl of, M.P... paler Hall, ey Toncdales .
3ENN, Thomas G....Reigny House, Newton Reigny, Penrith .
30RTHWICK, Sir Algernon, Bart., M.P....Heath House, Hamp-
stead Heath, N.W. . ‘ : P ; . ‘
3rapForD, Earl of... Weston Park, Shifnal . Sy ee aie
: RASSEY, Henry A....Preston Hall, Aylesford . '
RIDPORT, Gen. Viscount, K.C.B....Cricket St. Thomas, Glee
ROOKS, Sir William Cunliffe, Bart....Barlow Hall, Chorlton-
cum-Hardy, Manchester . : . ‘ .
3Rowne, Alexander H. T....Callaby Castle, Mintriies: : '
ORTON, = -Rangemore, Burton-on-Trent , : ‘ ‘

apoaan, Earl...Culford Hall, Bury St. Edmunds . . .
CALTHORPE, Lord...Elvetham, Winchfield . n : ’
ALVERT, Bevieack, Q.C....88 Upper Grosvenor Street, W. ;
‘ATHCART, Earl...Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk . . . .
Jawpor, Earl of...Stackpole Court, Pembrokeshire . ' '
JHAPLIN, Rt. Hon. Henry, M.P....Blankney Hall, Lincoln .
JLIFDEN, Viscount... Holdenby House, Northampton : :
JuinTON, Lord...Heanton Satchville, Beaford, N. Deyon . .
‘LITHEROW, Colonel Edward J. S....Hotham Hall, Brough,

Vorkshite ' 5 . . . ‘
b Cuurton, John...9 Whitehall Pikes) s. Wists = ° ‘ '
co J.J., M.P....Carrow House, Norwich . < ' '
} PORBETT, abot M.P....Impney, Droitwich . ‘ : .

JoRNWALLIS, Fiennes S. W., M.P....Linton Park, Maidstone A
Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890,

List of Governors af the Society.

GOVERNORS OF THE SOCIETY.

Date of election
as Member

May 209, 1838
April 2, 1€62
June 1, 1859
Feb. 2, 1859

July 18, 1838

July 16, 1839

Mar. 13, 1878

Mayr. 7, 1860
July 5, 1865
Jan. Io, 1842

Noy. 7, 1888

Aug. 6, 1862
Feb. 13, 183g
Feb. 6, 1856
Noy. 17, 1841

April 3, 1867

Dec. 15, 1838
June 1, 1870
July 2, 1873

Date of election
as Governor

Feb. 3, 1864

Aug. 6, 1884

Aug. 6, 1862
Aug. 4, 1875
Mar. 3, 1875
Dec. 12, 1888
June 29, 1870
May 7, 1890
May 7, 1890
June 5, 1861
May 7, 1890
Mar. 5, 1890
July 6, 1853
Nov. 3, 1887
Mar. 5, 1890
July 1, 1868
Aug. 2, 1882
Dec. 12, 1888
Mar. 3, 1875
May 7, 1873
April 2, 1862
Aug. 7, 1872
Mayr. 6, 1872
June 25, 1890
Dee. 11, 1889
June 3, 1874
Mar. 5, 1890
April 3, 1867
Mar. 3, 1875
Noy. 2, 1870
July 3, 1889
April 2, 1890
Feb, 6, 1889
Mar. 5, 1890
Feb. 6, 1889
Feb. 4, 1891
July 2, 1884

+ Life Governor,

viii Inst of Governors of the,
Cotes, Charles Cecil... Woodcote, Newport, Salop_. c -
+CowPper, Earl...Panshanger, Hertford. , . .

CrooKsHaNnk, Prof. E. M....Saint Hill, East Giinctond

DaRn.eEY, Earl of...Cobham Hall, Gravesend . : -
D'Avmaxe, H.R.H. The Duke...Wood Norton, Ey edham . :
¢Danruocre, Earl of...Patshull Hall, Wolverhampton :
De Launtg, C. de L. Faunce...Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne
+DeEnT, John Dent...Ribston Hall, Wetherby f :
{Dersy, Earl of, K.G....Knowsley, Prescot . C 5 <
DERWENT, Lord...Hackness Hall, Scarborough .
*DeEvonsureeE, Duke of, K.G....Holker Hall, Grange, Eee
+Dickson-PoynDER, Sir J., Bart.... Hartham Park, Corsham, Wilts.
*DrREWwITT, R. Dawtrey...Peppering House, arrndel
+DunmorE, Earl of...Dunmore, N.B. . a
+Duruay, Earl of... Lambton Castle, Durham

EGERTON orf Tatton, Lord...Tatton Park, Knutsford
ELLESMERE, Earl of...Worsley Hall, Manchester
*XELLMAN, Robert H....61 North Street, Lewes
*EsseEx, Earl of...Cassiobury Park, Watford :

Evans, John Carbery...Hatley Park, Gam'ing:y, Cambs. .

Evans, Sir Thomas W., Bart. ..Allestree Hall, Derby

Eyre, George Bramston... Welford Park, Newbury, Be:xs

FEVERSHAM, Earl of... Duncombe Park, Helmsley 2 -

Fre, Duke of, K.T....15 Portman Square, W.

Fitzwituum, Earl, K.G....Wentworth Woodhouse, Botharkan |
* FLETCHER, John Philip...Darby Lodge, Sunbury-on-Thames .
+ FortEscuE, Earl...Castle Hill, South Molton : : *

FREAKE, Sir Thomas G., Bt....Warfleet, Dartmouth ’ . .
PURE MAND; LAW ws ‘ClGehester A 4
+FREEMAN-MiTForD, A.B., C.B.. ‘Batstord Pane Moretn’ in- 5 es

Marsh, Gloucester : .
+Fyrcne, J. Lewis...The Terrace, Frcehwater} fale of Wight

GruBEy, Walter....Elsenham Hall, Essex . A
Gin, Reginald B.E....Bickham, Roborough, S. Daa -
GitsTraP, Sir W., Bart....Fornham Park, Bury St. Edmunds .
*GLOVER, John...28 Lichfield Street, Tamworth . :
GoocH, Sir Alfred S., Bart... Benacre Hall, Wangford, Suffolk .
Grarton, Duke of.. Wakefield Lodge, Stoney Stratford
+GranT, Sir G. Macpherson, Bt....Ballindalloch Castle; N.B..
*GREAVES, William...Bakewell ; :
* Grey, Earl, K.G....Howick, Lesbury, Worthaniverland : 3
GrirriTHs, John James...Highbury Grange, Highbury, N. .
GwynnE, John...Kenton Grange, The Hyde, N.W.

+Harcourt, E. W....Nuneham Park, Abingdon . ‘ . .

+Harewoop, Earl of Harewood Hicase Leeds . . .
+HartTineToN, Marquis of, M.P....Hardwick Hall, Chesterfield .
Henry, Mitchell...Kylemore Castle, Co. Galway . ‘ e .
HERTFORD, Marquis of...Ragley Park, Alcester . ° . :

t+Heywoop, Sir T. Percival, Bart...Doveleys, Uttox ter ° .
* Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890,

Date of election
as Member

July 2, 1851
July 3t 1849
Noy. 2, 1887
Mar. 11, 1840

Mar. 6, 1872
Feb. 13, 1839
Dec. 11, 1839

July 19, 1843

Mar.

5, 1862

Feb. 19, 1840

April 5, 1854

Nov. 2, 1870
July 2, 1884
May 7, 1862
Jan. 10, 1840

April 1, 1863
Dec. 4, 1839

June 3, 1868

Noy. 7, 1877
Aug. .2, 1882

t Life Governor,

+Hoxtrorp, R.S...Western Birt House, Tetbury . : , -
Horurrerp, Lord...Hothfield Place, Ashford. : ‘

Houston, R. Archer...Bartlow, Cambridge - F
+Hutss, Col. Sir Edward, Bt...Breamore Ho., Heat hehrides :

JorcEy, E....Blenkinsopp Hall, Haltwhistle, Northumberland

Kemwsrr, Thomas...Runwell Hall, Chelmsford .

Kinescors, Col. Sir Nigel, K.C.B....Kingscote, Wotton- mien.
Edge, Gloucestershire.

+Knieut, Sir F. Winn., K.C.B.. Woly oe Higdses Reideeaieniee

Koutarur, H.H. The ‘Maharajah of... Kohlapur, India

+Latnom, Earl of...Lathom House, Ormskirk ;
f¢Lawes, Sir J. B., Bart...Rothamsted, St. Albans
| +LECONFIELD, Tinea: -Petworth House, Sussex
Lxex, William John...Lyme Park, Disley, Stockport. >
+LercresTER, Earl of, K.G...Holkham Hall, Norfolk . ; 3
{Leien, Lord...Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
+LonDESBOROUGH, Earl of... Londesborough Pk., Market Weikhton
+LonponveERRy, Marquis of, K.G....Seaham Hall, Seaham Harbour,
co. Durham . -
+LoNsDALE, Ear! of.. ERawthier Castle, Bonwit . i
Lopes, Rt. Hon. Sir Massey, Bart... Maristow, Roborough, Bev on
*Lovexace, Earl of...East Horsley Towers, Leatherhead
Loyp, Lewis...Monks Orchard, Bromley . - 4
Lucas, Sir Thomas, Bart...124 Kensington Palace oe W.
+LuTTRELL, Col. H. A. F., C.B....Badgworth Ct., Axbridge R. S. O.

MACCLESFIELD, Earl of...Sherburn Castle, Tetsworth : :
+Macponatp, Sir A. K., Bart...Woolmer Lodge, Liphook , :
+Manvers, Earl...Thoresby Park, Ollerton, Newark . 2 -
t+Marts, John...Bedford Lodge, Haverstock Hill, N.W. . :
+Marsortanks, Rt. Hon. Edward, M.P....Ninewells, Chernside,
N.B. - . . . . Ps :
Muppreton, Lord.. Birdsall iionee, York Aue CADET, Nag cea
Mitpmay, Francis B., M.P...Flete, Ivy Bridge, Devon ‘ :
*Moncx, J. Bligh.. ‘Caley Park, Reading . - ‘
+Moreton, Lord...Sarsden House, Chipping Norton, ee 5

+Mornison, Alfred... Fonthill eo Hindon, Wilts. . 7 A
+Movunt-Epecumsse, Earl of... Mount-Edgcumbe, Plymouth
+Muntz, George F'...Umberslade Park, Birmingham , : :
*Neame, Frederick...Luton, Selling, Faversham ‘ : :
NEELD, Sir John, Bart...Grittleton, Chippenham . . ‘
Normanton, Earl of...Somerley, Ringwood, Hants. . . .

*NortH, Rt. Hon. Col. J. Sidney...Wroxton Abbey, Banbury .
tNorrxBRook, Earl of...Stratton, Micheldever Station, Hants. ,

PaceEt, Lord Alexander...The Oaklands, Tarporley, Cheshire .
Prev, Edmund...Brynypys, Ruabon .« : :
*¥PinnNeEY, Col. William...30 Berkeley Square, Ww. ; aut bie :
tPortxanp, Duke of.. 3 Grosvenor Square, W. , 5 °
tPorrman, Viscount...Durweston, Blandford A -
tPowis, Earl of...Powis Castle, Welshpool . F =

® Wected a Foyndation Life Governor March 5, 1890,

. .

Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Date of election
as Member

Jan. 10, 1840
July 10, 1839
April 6, 1854

April 7, 1869

April 29, 1846
Noy. 5, 1862

Mar. 15, 1848
July 7, 1869
Aug. 8, 1838
July 31, 1849
Noy. 2, 1864
May 23, 1839
Nov. 6, 1861
Dec. 4, 1867
Feb. 13, 1839
May 8, 1839
July 6, 188r
Feb. 3, 1858
Mar. 13, 1839
Aug. 6, 1862

1x

Date of election
as Governor

Feb, 13, 1839
May 7, 1879
Mar. 5, 1890
June 13, 1838
Dec. 12, 1888
Mar. 5, 1890
July 1, 1874
June 15, 1842
Feb. 6, 1889
Noy. 6, 1872
Dec. 11, 1878
June 5, 1872
Aug. 4, 1858
Noy. 15, 1843
Dec. 1, 1858
April 2, 1890
June 3, 1885
July 4, 1883
May 7, 1884
June 26, 1838
Mar. 1, 1865
Dec. 12, 1888
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 5, 1890
Noy. 1, 1871
July 2, 1873
Mar. 5, 1890
July 31, 1889
Mar. 3, 1875
Dec. 12, 1888
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 3, 1875
July 3, 1861
Mar. 5, 1890
June 30, 1875
Mar. 5, 1890
Feb. 3, 1875
Mar. 3, 1875
Mar. 5, 1890
June 2, 1880
July 3, 1889
Mar. 5, 1890
Mar. 5, 1890
June 1880
Mar. 1890
July 4, 1855

t Life Governor.

xe Tast of Governors of the Society.

RAVENSWORTH, Earl of...Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead ,
REVELSTOKE, Lord... Membland, Plymouth - .
%tRicumMonp & Gorpon, Duke of, K.G...Goodwood, Gaia send
+R LEY, Sir Matthew W., Bart., M.P....Blagdon, Cramlington .
Rrron, Marquis of, K.G....Studley Royal, Ripon : . .
RotuscuHity, Lord...148 Piccadilly, W. 5 . ‘ ‘ ‘
RUSSELL, Lord C. J. F....Drakelow Lodge, Woburn .

+SauispuRy, Marquis of, K.G...Hatfield House, Herts . :
fSaut, Sir W. H., Bart....Maplewell, Loughborough . F é
SaviuE, Lord, G.C.B...Rufford Abbey, Ollerton, Notts. .
%*SaunDERS, T. B....The Priory, Bradford-on-Avon . .
+ScuRopER, Baron J. H. W....The Dell, Staines . ‘ ; :

+SEFTON, Earl of...Croxteth, Liverpool . : : : 7
*§Smmonps, Prof. James Beart...St. John’s Villa, Tene, I. Wa.
*Srmonps, W. Barrow...Abbotts Barton, Winchester . ‘ A
*SmitH, Henry...The Chestnuts, Leamington . ‘
+SmirH, Rt. Hon. W. H., M.P...8 Grosvenor Place, S. W. F c
{SmytuH, Sir J. H. Ga Bart...Ashton Court, Bristol , ‘
SOUBERBIELLE, Edouard...78 Cromwell Road, S.W. . ’ ‘
*SPARKS, William.. -Crewkerne , ‘ ‘ ‘
SPENCER, Earl, K.G...Althorp Park, Pine eee . . ‘
¢SraryLron, Major H. M....Myton Hall, Helperby, Yorks. . :
*¥STRaTTON, J. Locke... Turweston House, Brackley . ,

SUDELEY, Lord...Toddington, Winchcomb ,

SUFFIELD, Lord.. Gunton Park, Norwich . :
dSeraeniann, Duke of, K.G...Stafford House, St. ERED S. W..
tSurron, John Manners...Kelham, Newark . : 0 ‘ :
tSurron, Martin J...Kidmore Grange, Caversham, Oxon. . 5
+SWINBURNE, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne

+TaNQuERAY, John S...c/o W. Sweetland, 64 Jermyn St.,S.W. .
}+THOROLD, Sir John H., Bart....Syston Park, Grantham. '

TreDEGAR, Lord...Tredegar Park, Newport, Mon. . “ .
{+TuRBERVILL, Lt. Col. Picton...Ewenny Priory, Bridgend . .
7TweEEDMovuTH, Lord...Brook House, Park Lane, W. . c ‘

*VERNEY, Rt. Hon. Sir Harry, Bart....Clayden House, Winslow .

+WanrTacGE, Lord, V.C...Lockinge, Wantage . A : - c
+Wanrwick, Earl of...Warwick Castle, Warwick . , : i

WeEstMinsTER, Duke of, K.G...Eaton Hall, Chester . c ,
+WHITEHEAD, Charles...Barming House, Maidstone . ‘ -

WiiouGupy DE Broxg, Lord...Kineton House, Warwick .
WitLoucuey Dr Ersssy, Lord...Normanton Park, Stamford
+Winpsor, Lord... Hewel Grange, Bromsgrove
%WinMARLEIGH, Lord...Winmarleigh, Garstang .
%* Woop, James...Ockley Manor, Keymer, Sussex

+YeRBuRGH, Robert A., M.P...Billinge, Scarr, Blackburn . :

* Elected a Foundation Life Governor March 5, 1890, } Life Governor, § Honorary Member,

Date of election
as Member

Feb. 5, 1868
June 20, 1838
Apr. 7, 1869
Noy. 7, 1888
May 26, 1838

Feb. 5, 1868
June 13, 1838
Noy. 3, 1869
July 25, 1838
June 19, 1839
June 19, 1839

June 6, 1838
Dec. 5, 1860
July 11, 1865
May 13, 1839
July 1, 1868
May 1, 1878
May 1, 1867

Feb, 16, 1848
Aug. 5, 1868
Feb. 7,1872 Mar. 3, 1880
July 9,1845 April 2, 1890
May 10,1838 Mar. 5, 1890

June 3,1863 May 1, 1872
—_ June 1, 1859
July 3,1860 June 5, 1872
Apr. 1,1857 Feb. 6, 1889
— , Dec. ro, 1890
Mar. 3, 1869 May 5, 1875
_ Noy. 6, 1878
— May 12, 1838
Aug. 8, 1838 Mar, 5, 1890

_ Nov. J 1888

Jaist of Honorary Members of the Society. x1

HONORARY MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY.

‘ British Subjects or Foreigners who have rendered exceptional services to Agriculture or
Allied Sciences,” and who have been elected under Bye-law 8 as Honorary Members,

without payment of subscription.
pay w ? ) Date of election Date of election

as Ordinary as Honorary
Member Member

NDERSON, William,D.C.L., M.Inst.C.E....Lesney Ho., Erith, Kent Aug. 2,187: Noy. 6, 1889
lnown, Professor George T., C.B....3 St. James’s Square, S.W. . Dec. 3, 1862 May 1, 1878
ATRD, Rt. Hon. Sir J., K.C.B....8 Queen’s Gate Gardens, S.W. . July 2,1851 Feb. 5, 1890
)anNFELT, Carl Juhlin...Consul-General of Sweden and site

24 Great Winchester St., E.C. . 5 _ Feb. 1, 1871
LEMING, George, LL.D., C. B... -Catheart Sehies Tyrwhitt Buea

St. John’s, S.E.. : . . — Mar. 13, 1878
ILBERT, Dr. J. H., F.RB.S... ieeenandea, St. Rivers , . . — July 4, 1883
OFMAN, Dr....10 aeiaien Strasse, Berlin . 5 -- Mar. 4, 1846
(OHENBRUCK, Baron Arthur von...I ii caciemiecneaate 8, Naeem _ Noy. 5, 1890
\ECOUTEUX, M. Edouard...26 Rue Jacob, Paris . : = April 7, 1869
ASTEUR, Louis...Membre de l'Institut, 45 Rue Ulm, Pare 5 : _— Aug. 1, 1883
LAYFAIR, Rt. Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., M.P...68 Onslow Gdns., S.W. — July 6, 1842
ROSKOWETZ, Emanuel Ritter von, Sane -Kwassitz, Moravia. _— Noy. 5, 1890
Tomy eror, C, V., M.A.; Ph.D... era ene of Saaee:

Washington, U.S.A. . 5 : - . : = Dec. 7, 1887
ANDERSON, Dr. J. Burdon, F.R.S... Oxford : : _ May 1, 1878
CHLIEFFEN, Count.. ‘Schlieflenburs, bei Lalendorf, Mecklenburg,

Germany - : : — Dec. 12, 1883

monpDs, Prof. J. Beart.. ‘St. vohaes Villa, ead, Isle of Wight . July 25,1838 Apr. 3, 1849
‘HIEL, Dr. H....Privy Councillor and Director of the 4 ae

| ment of Agriculture, 17 Lutherstrasse, Berlin c -- Aug. 1, 1883
ISSERAND, Eugene...Directeur de 1’Agriculture, Miniatere ee

lAgriculture, 17 Rue du Cirque, Paris. : : . = Aug. 1, 1883
/ILMORIN, Henry L. de...4 Quai de la Mégisserie, Paris - . Aug. 2,1879 June 4, 1890

| ah :

:
| SUMMARY OF MEMBERS ON THE REGISTER,
DecEemeBer 31, 1890.

t

| 34 Foundation Life Governors (Members elected before the granting of the Charter
: on March 26, 1840).
|

:

'

64 Governors paying an annual subscription of 57.
82 Life Governors who have compounded for their annual subscriptions.
6,926 Members paying an annual subscription of 1/.
11 Members who, having paid annual subscriptions for 50 Years, have become Life
Members.
| 3,724 Life Members who have compounded for their annual subscriptions.
_ 64 Life Members by Examination.
19 Honorary Members.

10,924 Total number of Governors and Members at December 31, 1890.

)
l

( xii)

REPORT OF THE AUDITORS
ON THE RELATIONS OF LIFE COMPOSITIONS TO REVENUE,

We have, as requested, carefully considered the question of the manner |
in which the Life Compositions received from Members in future are to be
treated in the Society’s accounts. and also the contributions to the revenue
of each future year which should be made in respect of the Life Compositions
received in the past.

2. Annual Contribution io Revenue by Life Compounders.—A fter examin-
ing and discussing several alternative plans, we are unanimously of opinion
that the simplest, best, and fairest method will be to credit all Life Compo-
sitions received in and after 1890 to the Reserve Fund, and to debit that
Fund each year with the cost of providing the Life Members then on the
books with their privileges.

3. Net Cost per Member.—On the average of the last seven years (includ-
ing 1890), the net cost of providing Members with their privileges (exclud-
ing all contingencies and the shows) was 14s. per head. This cost may, in
view of the change of the Journal from a half-yearly to a quarterly publi-
cation, probably be larger instead of smaller in the future, but for the
present it may be taken at 14s. :

4, Life Members who compounded before 1890.—There were 3,825 Life
Governors and Life Members on the register on January 1,1890, Their
privileges for the year at 14s. per head would cost 2,6777. 10s. Each fut
year will, of course, diminish by deaths the claims upon the Society of the
Life Members who compounded before 1890 at the old rate of 10/., and
whose compositions were credited to the revenue of the particular years in
which they happened to be paid.

5. Life Compounders of 1890.—The total amount received for Life Com-
positions during 1890 was 1,895/. Of those who compounded in 1890, 1
exercised their privileges for that year, and the income of 1890 must be
credited with 93/. 2s. (135 x 14s.) on their account.

6. Life Members by Evamination—In the above calculations we haye
included the fifty-eight Members who have been granted the Life Membership
as a reward, having won {first-class certificates at the Annual Senior
aminations during the twenty-one years from 1869 to 1889, We recommend
that for the future a sum equal to what these Life Memberships would have
cost if paid for by the candidates themselves (z.c. 157. each) should be debited
to the Education Grant, and credited to the Reserve Fund, in order to provide
funds out of which the cost of the privileges of the Education Life Members:
elected after 1889 can be defrayed. We have so dealt in the accounts with
the six Life Memberships conferred in June 1890, as the result of the Senior
Examination held last May.

7. Prospective Claims of Life Members elected before 1890.—It may
useful, as giving an idea of the prospective claims upon the Society whi

Report of the Auditors. xiii

have to be met out of the present capital, to subjoin the following state-
ment, showing the number of years that the 3,825 Life Governors and Life
Members on the books on January 1, 1890, had already exercised their
privileges :—

| | ri x = ;
Year Members| Year | Meznbers Year |Members| Year | Members! Year | Members
| |

1838-40 35 | 1850| 17 | 1860 19 | 1870] 82 | 1880.) 127
1841 15 | 1851 | 23 | 1861} 41 | 1871 81 | 1881 | 96
1842 21 | 1852 | 13° | 1862 92 | 1872 87 | 1882 | 144
1843 10 | 1853 27 | 1863} 71 | 1873) 102 | 1883 210

1844 | 7 1854 29 1864 | 52 1874 86 | 1884 | 217
1845 22>) 1855) 21 | 1865 33 | 1875 | 148 | 1885} 136
1846 | 19 | 1836| 43 | 1866| 26 | 1876| 92 | 1886) 101
1847 | 12 | 1857 |" 29*| 1867 30 | 1877 |/7 93 | 1887 90
1848 14 | 1858 29 | 1868 46 | 1878 112 | 1888 | It4
1849 17 | 1859) 30 | 1869| 96 | 1879 | 262 | 1889| 506

|
}

The gross number of years during which these 3,825 Members had already
exercised their privileges on January 1, 1890, was 64,974, or 143 years on
the average. The experience of the last seven years (including 1890) shows
that the average period which a Life Member remains on the books is twenty-
six years. We might therefore have taken 113 years as the average remainder
of the lives of those who compounded before 1890, if the number that entered
year by year had been fairly regular; but as an unusually large number
entered in the year 1889, the total average must be raised to 122 years.
Some will live longer and some less than the average ; but, to provide for all,
we need such a sum as would yield 14s. for 3,825 Members for 12% years:
calculating interest at 23 per cent., 28,750/. is required. We desire to draw
special attention to the fact that the amount of the Society’s funded capital,
30,0007. New Consols (valued at 29,0627. 10s. on January ], 1890), was little
more than sufficient to meet the future cost of providing its Life Members
with the privileges which by its acceptance of their Life Compositions it has
contracted to give them.

8. Quinquennial Investigation suggested.—As the Life Composition has
been raised from 10/. to 15/., it is not improbable that there may in the future
be some change in the average duration of Life Membership. We think it
will be well, therefore, to follow the example of life insurance companies,
and at intervals of five years to re-investigate the two questions of (1) the
average duration of Life Membership, and (2) the annual cost of Members’
privileges.

9. Recommendation.—In framing the Statements of Account for the year
1890, which we herewith append with our certificate that they are correct,
we have followed the plan indicated above, as we are of opinion that the
Council and the Members generally wi!l thus be enabled to estimate more
closely the available income upon which’ they can properly count in a
particular year, and to see more clearly than before whether the Society's
assets and liabilities are increasing or diminishing ; and whether, therefore,
the Society is financially stronger or weaker at the end of each year's
operations,

j FRANCIS SHERBORN,
Signedy A. H. JOHNSON,
C, G. ROBERTS,
March 2, 1891,

oe | ROYAL AGRICULT
Dr.

£ is. Be £
To RESERVE FUND at December 31,1889 . . . . . 29,083 9 4

Toterest on 30,0007. Consols for one year . . « ¢ 804 7 8

Life Compositions received during 1890 . . . . 1,895 0 0
31,732 17 0
Less: Contributions to Revenue from 3,958 Life

Members*at-I4s,.¢ 1.6 i 6s, Oude) se POE
—— 250nzeee

To BOOKS and FURNITURE at December 31,1889 . . 2,989 9 O
To COUNTRY MEETING PLANT at December 31,1889 1,617 18 4

To MACHINERY at December 31,1889. . . . .. . 1,341 4 O

5,948 1L 4
Less: DEPRECIATION written off :
Books and Furniture (10 per cent. off
30060. 10s, 6d.))\. 9 6) e . tao lam
Country Meeting Plant (15 per cent.). 242 14 0
Machinery (10 percent.) ... .. 184 4 0
—— 68011 0
SS ie
To Net CASH IN HAND, December 31,1889 .. .. 3,074 7 2

Add: Balance at Credit of Ordinary Income and

Expenditure Account, as per statement(1) . . Se)

3,143 14 11
Less: Balance at Debit of Plymouth Show Account,

as perstatement(B) . . « «© ». » » - « « 2197 7 1 946 710

ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
WELTON, JONES & CO., Accountants.

$y 30,0007. NEW CONSOLS (23 per cent.) at cost .
Value on 31st December, 1890, at 95}3=28,7437. 15s. Od,
(Of this 30,0007. Stock, 1057, is held against Special

Prizes.]

xy BOOKS and FURNITURE (including 47/. 1s. 6d.

Furniture purchased in 1890). ....... . 2,732 17 6
By Cortney MNMTING PLANT . ... .. . e 1,375 4 4
PyeRECNV Ns ss kl ll Ul Uw COT CO OO
— 5,315 1 10
BypenGCe OD MBLORS - 3. 6 5 6 6 ew tl kw le 104 11 4
By CASH IN HAND, December 31, 1890:
Me ee a ws 786 1S 2D
PerGIeyanO GUTVEYOr. . «6 6 we ew tw cic ly a -
— 1,814 11 0
36,267 13. 6
feeeeoundry CRHNITORS . . 1.5. « 6 « 6 «© » 22918 O
Subscriptions paid in 1890, but belonging to 1891, and
carried forward . coe S40. Se See i OR Ce a en oe ey (ae)
Doncaster Show Account, carried forward to1891 . , 786 2 4
— 1,091 0 4

Memorandum:—The above Assets ate exclusive of the
amount recoverable in respect of arrears of Sub-
scriptions to the 31st December, 1890, which amount
to 7937,

£35,176 13 2

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 2nd day of March, 1891.

FRANCIS SHERBORN, |
A. H. JOHNSON, Auditors on behalf of the Society.
C. G. ROBERTS, '

“vi (4) STATEMENT OF ORDINARY

Srcome.

ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIONS :—

Governors; Received in 1889, but belonging to1890 . . . .

Subscriptions for 1890.

Members: Received in 1889, but belonging to1890 . . .
Subscriptions for 1890 . .. .

Subscriptions for previous years. . . . . . « «

LiFe COMPOSITIONS =
Contributions to Revenue (See Balance-Sheet)—3,958 Life Meni-

IBPRSiNtLaS, << at ce cease. fel al See Boke Pe

RECEIPTS FROM PUBLICATIONS :—
Ordinary Sales of Journal for 1890 (less Publisher’s charges) .

Ady risements in Journal, .., yeu ta 01. «0 eve eae e nate
Gales in Office of Back Numbers of Joumal . .). . .
Sale of Old Journals as waste. . .

Sales of Pamphlets and Lists of Members. . . . . . +

TEARORATORY PEERS 0 «0 Sel asene gn” ee wile gl Gene nee
RENTS FROM SUB“LETTING . - 6 «© 6 1 « 8 ow wo 8 ww

INTEREST ON BANK BALANCES «© + © © © © © © # © ww

ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
WELTON JONES & CO., Accountants,

7) 0 0
6,037 7 0

223 0 0

6,335 7

. 2

112 16 11
389 15 4
6115 5
113 10 0

66 6 3

XVll

Cxpendifure.
NERAL ADMINISTRATION :— Li son de feed.
Salaries of Secretarial Staff (including Faepersy, pasisines): - 2,104 13 8
Pensions to Officials . . ‘ : 199 0 0
Professional Charges (Auditors, &e. ) : ure ah 45 8 0
House Rent, Taxes, House Expenses, and Repairs. Sek pete 817. 9) 1
Binding and Purchase of Books... . Sele ae eee 89 2 3
Meee GIG SUALIODELY. 2 se kw 386 18 7
Postage , and Telegrams Aye ee ras aA ere ener 214 ASG
Carriage of Parcels, and Cabs . me Shee RE: geet 37 14 6
Advertising and Miscellaneous Office Expenses. Ste crane. Jey, a 94 9 9
—— 3,929 15 4
URNAL OF SOCIETY :—
Printers’ Bills for the four numbers of 1860 . . . . . . .. 1471 8 9
Wood Engravings and Illustrations. . . ........ #129 36
Literary Contributions and Assistance . . ....... 603 12 7
ieee, Packmp, and Delivery... 2. 1 we se hs 705 2 4
Miscellaneous Journal Printing . . . 2... . 10s 55 «9 11
Miscellaneous Journal Expenses: . . . .....2e. 49 9 8
—— 3,014 6 4
EPARATION, PRINTING, AND POSTAGE OF em TO SECOND .
SERIES OF JOURNAL. - -..... coec, COMME Bera S53 457 10 10
PC PMROPEIE ETS! 6. ee 6 kk 8 we se 29 15 10
miele; OF MEMBERS. - - - 2 2 es ew ew ww aba 163 1 O
| BORATORY :—
REMAP CH Sc ss ee le 988 0 0
Apparatus and Chemicals . Papert 86 10 6
Printing, Railway Travelling, ‘and Sundry Expenses Seer aa Th 2A
—-——_ 1,151 13 4
(HER SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENTS :—
Consulting Botanist’s Salary . - - - +--+ -++.-.-+- 206 0 0
Expenses of Inquiry into TETAS, Mote ct gt ac 48 14 0
Consulting Entomologist’s Salary . . . . . 1... es. 100 0 0
Grant to Royal Veterinary Collezes s) Sis. Be Ss 500 0 0
Medals for Proficiency in Cattle Patholog Vie ctisticne sl pie cl 214 0
—_——_ 81 8 0
UCATION PRIZES AND SCHOLARSHIPS :—
Senior Examination: Money Prizes, 55/.; Six Life Member-
; BhipsabVOl—I0K se ss eee 145 0 0
| Fees to Examiners. . Bae eae 60 18 0
Junior Examination : 10 Scholarships Be TA LY Ree 200 0 O
Feesto Examiners . . - ec arimce acs hy 15. 15...0
) Advertising op al SAS CN 12 6 5
cde ee ee es fe we kw ols 10 11 9
—_ - — 444 11 2
ECIAL EXPENSES :—
Further Contribution to Funds of Mansion House United Asso-
ciation on Railway Rates. . = Pot 50 0 0
Grant to Registration Scheme of Farriers’ Company . oh a = 50 0 0
Farm Prize Competition: Expenses of Judging . . . . . . Ae 309 211
Stallion Premiums, Gold Medals,and Expenses . . ... . Zoe WS: bee
PROUGEDCHOILUTE 5 5. 08) ch ew ow «» 1s
Jance carried to Balance Sheet . . . ». «© © © © © © © © ee 69 7 9

£11,228 17 11

Examined, audited, an found correct, this 2nd day of March, 1891,
FRANCIS SHERBORN,
A. H. JOHNSON, " sai on behalf of the Society.
C. G. ROBERTS, J

b

xviii ain PLY]

Dr. (B) STATEMENT OF
Correspond-
ries
ott .
1888. SUBSCRIPTION :— & Veta
2,000 From Plymouth Local Committee Se! le oon ake At eS
CATALOGUES :-
oe f] Extra Lines in Implement Catalogue . .....4.42-s 6010 6
(
Woodents:for New Implements: <\.0 5 1s susie aintenannae 510 0
r7500)) ) Advertisements ini@atalopues/. "6, 62) = |siis) eliwlnaiAicine
Fees FoR ENTRY OF IMPLEMENTS :—
3,542 Implement Exhibitors’ Payments for Shedding ...... 285915 0
166 Non-Members’ Fees for Entry of Implements . .....-. 134 0
Fees For Entry oF Live Stock :—
By Members :—1,445 Entries@5s. . 1... « «© «© 2 se 361 5 0
57 Post\Entriesi@ 105.75) <i ew ist ieee 2810 0
By Non-members :—248 Entriess@.. .......4.. 248 0 0
. 9 7
B30 8'Post'Hntries|@/2l. - 5 Ff 58 «tate 16 0 0.
395 Hees for Horse Boxes'andStalls “<3 0) se) tel
Fees ror ENTRIES OF PouLTRy:—
A By Members:—101 Entries 3). i" 00. ©. % eee 1212 6
1164

By Non-members :—564 Entries . . . . +. +. +s ss © us 5 0
Entries of Table Poultry, 26@1s,3@2s. ....... . 112 0

|
|
|
|

— OTHER EnTrRY Fees :—
| Non-Members’ Fees for Entries of Produce . . ......
19
/ Fees for Entry in Horse-shoeing Competition . ......

5 Deposits of Competitors forfeited . . ... s 2 5 .-+.. °° 4

MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS :—

8x Vines for non-exhibition of Live Stock . ... .. ee ll4 5 0
Fines due from previous Shows . . « 6 » « «© © © © « « ee Ce)
339 Premiums for Supply of Refreshments. . . . . «© « + « «
50 Premiums for Cloak Rooms and Lavatories . . . . « «© «.

8,060 Carried forward . . . .

xix

Cr.
Cost OF ERECTION OF SHOW-YARD :- £& s. d. Ss" de
) Timbers... . +e ee eee ee ee ee ee + 488817
Tronmongery, 118/. 6s. 9d.; Hurdles, 2647.6s.8€d. . s . 2. 382 13 5
enero Onesies Teal Ge. is es 6.0 vs > 6 «6. *! i 5913 0
| Bricks, Lime, Cement, Coals, &c. . . . 2. « »« © © «© « «© 87 & 2
| Canvas, Roofing, Cloth Felt, Baize,&c. 2... . 2... 1197 01
; Railway Charges, 3047. 2s. 11d. ; Horse Hire, 103/.8s.0d.. . . 407 10 1L
a Stationery, Postage,and Telegrams . ....:-..e- 62 6 2
| Insurance, 317. 2s.0d.; Sleepers, 297.0s.0d.. . » - ee se co 2 0
DEEL 6) 205 2 eile ne em OS
: Superintendent of Works: Salary and Expenses. . .... 65218 0
9,087 2 10
Less :—
ences = 5 Mel Ge ele es S607 0:8
Work for Exhibitorsand Purveyors . ... . 1,328
3,935 5 10
5,151 17 0
EXPENSES OF SECRETARY'S DEPARTMENT :- e
Expenses of Inspection Committee ..... +. 4121
12 | Secretary’s Journeys to Plymouth and Expenses... ... 1110 11
' Expenses for = 1211, 8s, 2d.; Sen of Catalogues, ) u72 0
93] 261. 3s. 10d. oS Se wee & ene e) | ca
; 200 5 0
| PRINTING -—
Printing of Prize Sheets, Certificates, Admission Orders, Parch-
nay Numbers, Circulars to Exhibitors, Prize Cards, Mem-+ 331 3 4
s’ Tickets, and Miscellaneous . . . . . . 2 « « a
2
e ee tein ry tte Tat. Sects ele e 14 3 6
emeaeerretriod 16) MCIINORS os a ts ee lw kw ee 42 8 6
5 Plans of Showyard. . ..... . Ae 2... 3ae
188 Implement Catalogues, 1607. 11s. 6d. ; — Game =n: 2s. oR: 199 13 6
236 Stock Catalogue, 2097. 12s. 0d.; Bound Copies, 237.1s.1ld. . . 232 13 11
18 Carriage of Catalogues toShow-yard . . . .....e-e 18 1 6
40 PRMEOA WALTON i. so! oss, Bl ee le 57 010
| : 895 14 1
| ADVERTISING, BILL POSTING, AND PLACARDING :— :
™75 | Advertising in Newspapers. . Rb 0 ene IP 108 10 0
559 | Advertising Show by Posters and Placards. . 2 2] ) ] 402 0 0
Yoo Printing of Postersand Placards ......s#s «e+e. 11717 6
———— 628 7 6
/
PosTacE, CARRIAGE, AND STATIONERY :—
| General Postage, &c., 70/. 4s. 4d.; Postage of Tickets to) 107 0 1
127 Members, 367. 163.7d. =>... » 2 : j
Stamp on OS acid with Corporation of A ae ree 3.0 0
—— 110 011
4,658 AMOUNT OF PRIZES AWARDED (for details see page xx). . . 4,485 6 0
Cost OF FORAGE FOR Live ST=cK:—
Hay, 1547. 0s. 6d.; Straw, 1857. lls. 10d.; Green Food,
880 { D49U 3s; Expences,1ll.5s.2d. .... +... . 1) 600 0 6
11,683 | Carried forward . 4 12,071 11 0
’
62

.

XX (B) SrATeMENT oF Ri

eo 6 2 a ‘©

Nottingham,
888. S fas
8,060 Broneht forward —..- ees ee Pau er ee oe eee
ADMISSIONS TO SHOWYARD :—
go paturday, June, 21 @) 2s Gd5)— . Fe) elie en a is 22.5 9
418 Monflay, June.23;,@ 5s. - 45 So) = SS ieee le) ee 308 10 6
1,388 Tuesday, June 24,@.2s.6d. . . «2 = 6 © © « © © ©» =) Agape ne
1,13 Wednesday, June 25,@ 1s..°.... 0 » s « © « « 5 (nls 5) aogier eee
4,418 Thumday, June26,@1s. 1... . . = % ste 26. 5 eee ee eens
1,824 Rriday Jone 27,\(@) Usc. iat Oe 6 sla nie 702 4 0
269
ee Season Tickets, @ 10s. 6d. . 6h. Slcetaclel, weet a
ENTRANCES TO Horse RING :—
31 Monday, June:23ati2s; . <a ns wa fe) «lie coon at 33 14
155 Tuesday, June 24, at 2s. . ee eae ee 198 1
i Wednesday, June 25, @ ls... 2.3) terse we te 128 1
154 Thursday, June 26, @ 1s. . we Ke Sasi lpy aS oe ne 100 11
96 riday, June'27,(@'1s. 2. so We 1s) 6) Vor aml iw oo 41 8
@. 47 |pDairy —
33 Receipts at Stand at Dairy... . . 6 6 se ala we © 33 9 6
47 Saleciol Produce at.Dairy . «se sis = © © enone 30 13 8

CIDER TRIALS :—
Admission of non-members to Trial Yard

a ee. we ee eee

584 SALE OF CATALOGUES, net proceeds AO ee «

PRIZES AWARDED :—

The total amount of Prizes given was distributed
as follows :—

Horses, 1,3457.; Cattle,1,6512. . . . .... 2,996 0 0
Sheep, 1,2352.; Pigs, 3761. . . . «e+ +s.» 421610 098
. Poultry, 20710 6 nc 2+ oS ae eeu ene 257 0 0
Wool, 167.; Cheese, 126/.; Butter, 1247. . . . 266 0 0
Cider and Perry, 35/.; Jams and Fruits, 15/. . 50 0 0
Butter-making, 297.; Horse-shoeing, 427... . 71 00
Implements, 1701.; Dairy Appliances, 5l.. . . 175 0 0
Contribution to Bee Department . ..... 40 00
Silver Medals . . 2 se 6 «.e os oe 760
5,472 6 0
Less :-—
Prizes offered by Local Committee . . . £461
a 4 Devon County eke. 291 ®
cultural Association a >
Prizes offered by Various Societies . . . 235
a 987 0 0
4485 & 0
45229 Debit Balance, carried to Balance Sheet

ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.
WELTON, JONES & Co., Accountants,

XPENDITURE AT PLYMOUTH MEETING, 1890 (cont.). xxi

ottingham,
= ee a eat tie
11,683 le ee lg Ae Sune Ae ie eo ee a 12,071 11 0

JUDGES' FEES AND EXPENSES :—
Judges of Implements, 1177. 8s. 6d.; Ditto for Lodgings, 251. . 142 8 6
Judges of Horses, 160/. 10s, 2d.; Cattle, 1407. 6s, 7d. ; Sheep,
| 1591. 6s, 2d.; Pigs, 477. 1ls.; Poultry, 287. 16s.; Wool,

559 6/.; Cheese, 17/. 19s.; Butter and Butter making, 271. ; 644 0 5
| Ditto for Lodgings, 5/.; Cider and Perry, 6/. 5s.; Jams
| and Preserved I'ruits, 87. 6s, 6d. ; ane ge led Ditto
for Lodgings, 102. . sp ota) ay, © tap an
20 Badges for Judges and GihenOticiaia’. %.i so" aa sa oun, = 1913 9
3t PIGERUTE Ne cies hs) a st Ue: «6 6 6 we 6 6 fe st 40 15 10
~ 846 18 6
EXPENSES OF ADMINISTRATION :—
| Stewards:—Lodgings, 82/. 1ls.; Housekeeping Sg ama 349 12 5
177/. 14s.; Personal and Railway Expenses, 89/. 7s. 5d
Assistant Stewards: :—Honoraria, 52/. 10s.; Railway Demarar: 128 8 6
| 371. 12s.; Lodgings, 38/. 6s. 6d. .
) | Secretary and Official Stay :—Houses, “367. 16s.; ‘Secretary's
| 608 Expenses, 137. 15s. 6d. ; Maintenance of Clerks, 367, lis. i} 102 13 1
Travelling Expenses, 151.68: 7d.
; Finance Office :—Superintendent of Turnstiles, Wil. 2s. : Money
Changer, 107. 10s.; Money emery 551, 133.5 ioe 100 1 0
Clerks, 162. i Se
| Awards Office :—Superintendent, ‘150.5 * Clerks, 301. €s. 8d. ; 60 8 2
| Award Boys, 15/. 1s. 6d. Yona « . one
| — 71 3 2
} General Management :— '
! | Superintendent of Yard . eiecmt, Fie ny alt Soe ce 34 8 4
’ 06 ( Foremen and Assistant Foremen. . . . seen (ty sige 121 6 4
| 7 Yardmen, Grooms, and Foddermen . Re ache PY ots 27713 7
{ | Door and Gate Keepers . ° ° o i6 59 9 4
Carriage Hire, 731. 17s. ; Horse Hire, 74. 9s. ME e's) ethan 148 6 O alta 3
| oe 641
| Veterinary Department :—Veterinary Inspectors, 57/7. 5s.;
74 Ditto for Lodgings, 107. ; Veterinary Assistants, 167. 8s. 2d. i 86 1 2
{ Yardmen, 1/, 10s. ; Utensils, 18s. :
Engineering Department :—Consulting Engineers ‘and Assist-
(| ants, 2497. 8s.1ld.; Ditto for Lodgings, 231. 18s. 6d.; Ditto 445 7 3
230; for Cider Trials, 197. 9s. 2d. ; Carriage, 307. 11s, 4d. ; Repairs
and Maintenance of Machinery, 1227, Os. rae aie
| 505 Police :—Metropolitan Police, 5177. 1s. 2d. Orderlies, 21. ere 619 1 2
—— 1,050 9 7
| Dairy :—Milk, 821: 3s. 4d.; Ice, 127. 10s. Od.; Dairy Staff, ) 202 1 0
104 | 591. 8s. 6d. ; Carriage, 327. 15s. Qa. ; Utensils, idl. 4s. 0d. of
9 | Expenses of ‘Analy sing Milk of Dairy COWRR sg) sis we s 11 15 11
| | - arene ne 213 16 11
| é ( Poultry :—Penning, Attendant and Food, 122. 1s. 2d.: Dead) 26 7 8
Tf Poultry, 8/. lls. 6d. ; Prize Cards, 5/. 15s... . a
| (| Horse Skoeing Hire of Forges, 51. ; Nails, Coals, &e., )
} aes Oo” i
| st | BedtveoldaGrauuimes LOF . 6 aw 0s ee el ee
GENERAL SHOW-YARD EXPENSE
| Hire of Furniture, 137. 4s. Ode: Siire of Chairs, 297, 4s. 0d. ; 43 9 0
Hire of Harmonium, l/. 1s.0d. *}
Tan, 231. 16s. 4d.; Disinfectants, 196.5 “ Telegraph, I. 16s. “8d. i} 3811 4
178 Newspapers, 193.4d, . Racca id 0 ioe
Band ot Royal Marines . . ay cleared tof aise eed 6 93 .6.8
St. John’s Ambulance Association : LLG O
Miscellaneous Payments :—Secretary, 17. Gs. Ta. : | Surveyor 22 9 4
REMC ATRETE 42 5, von. h, taeek ae sc
215 134
TRIALS OF ENGINES, Grist MILLs AND DISINTEGRATORS
(Classes 1 to 3) :—
Wagesto Workmen . 2 S500 . 5410 5
Laying Gas Main Cane cane CRT Yeh Ne ie mp. hy Ss ee 9. OL 0
Bricks, Ironmongery, Coal ; ths OL) Gs
Materials for Trials of Grist Mills and ‘Disintegrators . oe anes 8116 4
| Cost of Analysing Coal . ... ation Gi tee tot och ttm a r 1010 0
| Carriage and Petty Payments. . . 2... s+ eo ‘Se L Ons
| —-—— —s--«188 3 9
TRIALS OF CIDER-MAKING PLANT (Class 4) :-—
Hire of esa t 51. a Brestion of Shed, 147. 15s.; Travelling
and other Expenses, 81. 1s. 1d.; Apples, 91. 2s. 8d.: Carriage,

81. 17s. 8d,; Miscellaneous Expenses of Trials, Bl. 2s. 5d.5
Advertising, 12, 2s, 7d. S) ate sal) wl gh 2 anol ann 47 1 5

£16,051 16 0

Examined, audited, and found correct, this 17th day of November, 1890,
oe } Auditors on behalf of the Soctety.

( xxii)
TABLE SHOWING THE NuMBER OF GOVERNORS anp MEMBER
IN EACH YEAR FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SOCIETY.

<4

—— E
Year | Governors Members

onde President of the Year SS eel
Shomtot Life |Annual| Life ‘Annual Honorary
1839 | 3rd Earl Spencer . . . . .| — _ — — —_ 1,100
1840 | 5th Duke of Richmond . . .| 86 | 189 146 | 2,434 5 2,860
feet | Mr Philipreusey 23% % =) 915 a9 231 | 4,047 7 4,595
1842 | Mr. Henry Handley . . . .| 101 | 211 528 | 5,194 15 5,849
1843 | Earlof Hardwicke. . .. ./| 94 | 209 429 | 6,155 15 6,902 1
1844 | 3rd Earl Spencer . . . . .| 95 | 214 442 | 6,161 15 6,927
1845 | Duke of Richmond. . . . .| 94 | 198 527 | 5,899 15 6,783
18465) Gord Portman’... .ui.as-0 eneso2 emi 20 554 | 6,105 19 6,971
1847 || Harlof Bemont . 9... . . || OL | 195 607 | 5,478 20 6,391
1848 | Earl of Yarborough . . . .| 93 | 186 648 | 5,387 21 6,335
1849 | Earl of Chichester. . . . .| 89 | 178 582 | 4,643 20 5,512
1850 | Marquis of Downshire . . .| 90 | 169 627 | 4,356 19 5,261
1851 | 5th Duke of Richmond . . .| 91 | 162 674 | 4,175 19 5,121
1852'| Earliof Ducie. . . 2 « « «|| 93° | 156 711 | 4,002 19 4,981
1853 | Lord Ashburton. . . . . .| 90 | 147 739 | 3,928 19 4,923
1854 | Mr. Philip Pusey . . . . .| 88 | 146 771 | 4,152 20 5,177
1855 | Mr. William Miles, MP. oS) sh a4 795 | 3,838 19 4,882
iSp65\sLord Portman. |. « » « «| 8d | 239 839 3,896 20 4,979
1857 | Mr. E. Denison, M.P.... . .| 83 | 187 896 |3,933 | 19 5,068
1858 | Earl Beers . . oa ee Ole ass 904 |4,010 | 18 5,146
1859 | Duke of Marlborough . Pe hal aloieloe 927 | 4,008 18 5,161
1860 | Lord Walsingham. . . . .| 72 | 119 927 | 4,047 18 5,183
1861 | Earl of Powis. . eo we || cts 90 |1,113 | 3,328) 18 4,633
H.R.H. Prince Consort . re |
1862 le SS A aaa Sites } s3 | 97 |1,151/3,475| 17 | 4,898
1863 | Viscount Eversley . . . . .| 80 88 | 1,263 | 3,735 17
1864 | Lord Feversham. Si lee fe 45 | 1,343 | 4,013 17
1865 | Sir E. C. Kerrison, Bt., M. P. oe ae) 8L | 1,386 | 4,190 16
1866 | Lord Tredegar . . . Biel ik) 84 | 1,395 | 4,049 15
1867 | Mr. H.S. Thompson we etet ect mee 82 | 1,388 | 3,903 15
1868 | 6th Duke of Richmond . . .| 75 74 | 1,409 | 3,888 15
1869 | H.R.H. Prince of Wales. . .| 75 73 | 1,417 | 3,864 17
1870 | Duke of Devonshire . . . .| 74 74 | 1,511 | 3,764 15
1871 | Lord Vernon. . Silene 74 | 1,589 | 3,896 17
1872 | Sir W. W. Wynn, Bt., MP. ./| 71 73 | 1,655 | 3,953 14
1873 | Earl Catheart . . o aete! 62 | 1,832 | 3,936 12
1874 | Mr. Edward Hol! and . Re eon lew 58 | 1,944 | 3,756 12
L870) Wascount Bridport). .7 2 2 sil fo 79 =| 2,058 | 3,918 iL
TS760) Word Chesham’). i ts) 6 veoh ieee 78 | 2,164 | 4,013 il
1877 | Lord Skelmersdale. . . . .| 8l 76 | 2,239 | 4,073 17

1878 | Col. Kingscote, C.B. M.P... .| 81 | 72 |2:328/4,180| 26
1879 | H.R.H. Prince of Wales. . .| 82 72. | 2,453 | 4,700 26
1880 | Sth Duke of Bedford . . . . 83 70 | 2,673 | 5,083 20
1881 | Mr. William Wells .. ..| 85 69 | 2,765 | 5,041 19
1882 | Mr. John Dent Dent . . oie toe 71 | 2,849 | 5,059 19
1883 | Duke of Richmond & Gordon .| 78 71 |2,979 | 4,952 19
1884 | Sir Brandreth Gibbs . . . .| 72 72 | 8,203 | 5,408 21

1885 | Sir M. Lopes, Bt. M.P. . . .| V1 69 | 3,356 | 5,619 20
1886 | H.R.H. Prince of Wales . Syl ray G1 | 3,414 | 5,569 20
1887 | Lord Everton of Tatton . . .| 71 64 | 3,440 | 5,387 20

1888 | Sir M. W. Ridley, Bt. M.P. .| 66 56 | 3,521 | 5,225 16
1889 | Her Masestry Tne QUEEN. . te 58 | 8,567 | 7,153 15
18908 Lord Moreton 0... 5 «0 222 58 | 3,846 | 6,941 Avs
1890 | Earl of Ravensworth . . . . | 116 64 | 3,799 | 6,926 19
(Dec.)

* The figures for 1843 are taken from the December report, after the removal of the nam
members who had discontinued their subscriptions ; but it was reported in the previous May
1,436 had been elected during the preceding twelve months, bringing the then nominal tot '
7, ,285. In all other cases, from 1840 to 1890, the figures are from the reports of the Council to th
anniversary meeting on May 22, It should, however, be observed that the totals were occasional
affected by the necessary revision of the list.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Proceedings of the Council.

WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 4,

1891.

THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR,

Present :—

Trustees—H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales, K.G., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.,
Earl of Powis, the Duke of Richmond
and Gordon, K.G.

Vice-Presidents.— H.R.H. Prince
Christian, K.G., Mr. Walter Gilbey,
Earl of Lathom, Lord Moreton, Sir
John Thorold, Bart., Mr. C. White-
head.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. J. H. Arkwright,
Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Mr. J.
A. Caird, Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Mr.
Charles Clay, Earl of Coventry, Mr.
Percy E. Crutchley, Mr. Alfred Darby,
Mr. C. De L. F. De Laune, Viscount
Emlyn, Mr. William Frankish, Mr. R.
Neyille Grenville, Mr. James Hornsby,
Mr. C. 8. Mainwaring, Mr. J. Martin,
Mr. T. H. Miller, Mr. P. A. Muntz, M.P.,
Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell,
Mr. Daniel Pidgeon, Mr. J. E. Ran-
some, Mr. J. Rawlence, Mr. S. Row-
landson, Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. Alfred
J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Sir Joseph
Spearman, Bart., the Marquis of
Stafford, Mr. R. Stratton, Mr. Martin
J. Sutton, Mr. Garrett Taylor, Mr. J.
P. Terry, Mr. R. A. Warren, Mr. E. V.
V. Wheeler, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir
Jacob Wilson.

Professor Brown, C.B., Mr. E. W.
Voelcker.

Officers.—Mx. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus

Voelcker, Consulting Chemist; Mr.

Wilson Bennison, Surveyor.

The following representatives of the
Doncaster Local Committee were also
present :—Mr. Joseph Firth Clark, Mr.
I’. Bacon Frank, Mr. John White, Mr.
GT. Wood, Mr. G. B.C. Yarborough,
and Mr. George Chafer (Secretary of
the Local Committee),

Minutes of Special Council of
December 18, 1890.

The SECRETARY having read the
minutes of the last ordinary meeting
of the Council held on December 10,
and also of the Special Council (con-

vened by requisition) held on
December 18,

The Hon. CrEcIL T. PARKER
said he must enter a_ protest

against the action taken at the
Special Council in ordering the prizes
for two-shear rams, which had been
struck out at the last ordinary meet-
ing of the Council, to be restored to
the prize sheet, and in issuing the
prize sheet with those classes included.
He contended that they had exceeded
their powers in doing this, as under
Bye-law 27 all decisions at a Special
Council were subject to confirmation
or abrogation at the next ordinary
meeting.

The Duke of RICHMOND and
GORDON agreed that the course
adopted was not one that should be
regarded as a precedent, but main-
tained that the circumstances were
exceptional, the prizes in question—
which had been given by the Society

XX1V

for a great length of time—having
been struck out of the prize sheet by
the Stock Prizes Committee at their
December meeting, without any notice
whatever to those interested in the
breeds affected.

Viscount EMLYN and Mr. DENT
supported Mr. Parker’s protest; but
Mr. BowEN-JONES and Sir NIGEL
KINGSCOTE endorsed the views of the
Duke of Richmond and Gordon.

Earl CATHCART said that in signing
the requisition for the Special Council
he had acted ministerially only, as
further discussion seemed to be called
for, and he was always in favour of
the fullest inquiry.

The Duke of RICHMOND and
GORDON having replied to some of
the points raised in the discussion,
the motion for the confirmation of the
minutes was put from the Chair and
carried nem. con.

Apologies for Non-Attendance.

The PRESIDENT announced that he
had received a letter from the Earl of
Feversham, expressing his regret at
being unable to be present in conse-
quence of an important meeting of
his County Council that day. Lord
Egerton of Tatton and Mr. Foster
had also written letters of apology for
non-attendance; and a communication
had been received from Mr. Anthony
Hamond expressing his regret that,
owing to his absence abroad for
several months, he would be unable to
attend the next few meetings of the
Council.

The late Duke of Bedford.

The PRESIDENT said he had now a
very painful duty to perform in an-
nouncing officially to the Council the
death of the Duke of Bedford, one of
the Trustees of the Society, and per-
haps the most munificent patron it
had ever had. He felt sure that in
expressing his own personal regrets
at the heavy loss which the Society
and agriculture generally had sus-
tained by his Grace’s death, he was
echoing the feelings of every member
of the Council, and of every member of
the Society. He had had for many
years the privilege, the pleasure, the
advantage of his Grace’s personal
friendship. The Duke was a man—

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

unfortunately in these times too
—who was seen, but not heard. Hi
was always to be seen in his pla

and his place was wherever he thoug
it his duty to be. He was, perha
one of the most regular and punctual
attendants in the House of Lords;
and whether in the Committee rooms —
of that House, or in the House itself,
his well-known figure and his keen
and observant features would long be
missed in the place he formerly occu-
pied. But, though sparing in speech, —
he was readily accessible in council;
and he ventured to think that few of
those—-and there were many—who
had consulted him in life had reason
to regret it. His Grace’s great intel-
lectual powers, his extensive reading,
his knowledge of men and affairs, his’
great affability, his ready kindness
and keen wit, rendered his advice
immensely valuable, and his com-
panionship most agreeable. But it
was in his connection with that
Society that they in that room we
specially endeared and indebted to
his Grace. He had described the
Duke as a munificent patron, and he
thought that title was well deserved.
It was now fourteen years since his

the purpose of a model experimen al
farm, a considerable tract of land at
Woburn. Through the generosity of
his Grace, the Society had been
enabled, for a long course of years,
to conduct most important and valu-
able experiments, and to give the
results of them to the country. e
ventured to think that the knowledge

interest to the Society itself, and of
value to agriculture generally. Very
important. lessons had been learnt
from those experiments, and he woulé
remind them of what the world in
general was hardly aware, that his
Grace took the deepest interest in

expense was to be no object, and that
he would be willing to assist the ex-
periments in every possible way. The
site of the experiments was by no
means a favoured spot at first, but by
skilful culture and judicious applic a-
tion of manures scientifically applied
—operations largely guided sf the
late Dr, Voelcker—it was turned ini

Election of Governors and Members.

what he might fairly term a beautiful
agricultural garden. The Council all
felt deeply the loss of a generous
patron of the Society, and a large
circle of those associated with the
Duke in life deplored the decease of
a true and valued friend. He was
sure it would be the wish of the
Council that they should pass a reso-
lution of condolence with the great
and historic family of Russell at the
death of their chief.

The resolution, proposed by the
PRESIDENT, was then put and carried
unanimously, and his Lordship under-
took to communicate it by personal
letter to the present Duke.

Election of Governors and Members.

The election of the following two
Governors and 129 members was then
proceeded with :—

Governors.

CoRBETT, John, M.P.,..Impney, Droitwich.
Evans, John Carbery..Hatley Park, Gamlin-
gay, Cambs.

Members.

ANDERTON, H. F... Bolton Royd, Bradford.

ANDREWs, G...Bendon Villa, Bendon Valley,
Wandsworth, S.W.

APPLEBY, Arthur..Enfield, Accrington.

APPLEBY, Edgar.. Blackburn.

ARNOLD, J...Outwood Park, Gt. Packington.

ARNOLD, L...Old Farm, Gt. Packington.

ARNOLD, P.. Home Farm, Hints, Tamworth.

ASHWORTH, R... Bromley Cross, Bolton.

AsHwortTH, T. K...Hatley St. George, Cambs.

BAINBRIDGE, C...Clarefield, Harrogate.

Bate, H... Mill Street, Kidderminster.

BAR Low, T...Misterton, Gainsborough.

Barnes, W. A...Shirley, Birmingham.

Berarp, J... Warsop, Mansfield.

BELLAMY, E. F...The Moat, Newent, Glos.

BENNETT, H. T...Keyfield House, Swineflect,
Goole.

Berry, A...Dodington Hall, Bridgwater.

Brep, G. W...South Molton, Devon.

BisHor, W...Tetstill H., Cleobury Mortimer.

ea Major F. C...33 Roland Gardens,

42

Brirz, R...39 Mincing Lane, E.C.
BRADLEY, Joseph..Ebberston, York.
BrRoMLEY, Henry.. Ashwell, Oakham.
Brown, Joseph..Gainsboro’ Hill. Walsall.
Butter, J. R...Churchill, Kidderminster.
Carrwricut, Captain H. A...Eydon Hall,

Northants. :
CaTrett, T... Erdington, Birmingham.
Cosrop, C. H...Rosehill, Dodworth, York.
CoppineTon, F. H...East Park Road, Black-

Cooper, D... Warren Tower, Newmarket.
CoULMAN, W...Eastoft Hall, Goole.
toe J...Dunnimere Farm, Harlaston,

CROSLAND, R...Canford Estate Office, Dorset.

D'Arcy, W. K...Stanmore Hall, Middlesex.

Dives, W. A...Stone Crouch, Hawkhurst.

Dovrnwaity, W. C...Manor Farm, Fawler,
_ QCharlbury,

_

xXXV

Durr, Kedarnantte, Zamindar of Dhobetal..
Tangore Islands, Bengal, India.

Dyson, Arthur E...The Hollies, Timperley,

Epwarps, Thomas.. Aintree, Liverpool.

EGGINGTON, Oliver. .Earley Schools, Reading,

ErsweE.t, Alfred.. Barley, Royston, Herts,

Evans, A. L... Hatley St. George, Cambs.

Farrant, S...North Street House, Taunton.

FirZGERALD, Sir M., Bt...Severals Ho., New-
market.

Foster, F, D...The Hall, Thorne, Yorks,

Freir, W. F...Imperial Buildings, Ludgate
Cireus, E.C.

Fry, F. G...King’s Caple Ct., Ross, Hereford-
shire.

GrBzons, J.. 16 Water Street, Liverpool.

Gooppy, J... Darfield, Barnsley.

GREEN, T...The Bank, Pool Quay, Welshpool.

GreeN, Wm. Henry..Kersal Hall, Higher
Broughton.

HAtnm, F...Over Farm, Gloucester.

HAIRsINE, J...Metham, Howden, Yorks.

Hanson, J. F...15 Nether Hall Road, Don-
caster.

Harrison, C...Broad Heath, Presteign.

HEBBLETHWAITE, L... Whitefriar Gate, Hull.

HENGLER, W. B...Kent’s Green Ho., Taynton.

Hi, H...O!d Rock, Dymock, Glos.

HINcELEY, F...Barnhurst Farm, Wolverhamp-
ton.

HvpDLESTON, J. E... Hill Wood, Tenbury.

Humpurey, W. J...Acklam, Middlesbrough.

TAnson, Major J... Howe, Thirsk.

INGHAM, R. W...Sugwas Court, Hereford.

JACKSON, J...Elton Wold, Elton, York.

JOBLING, T. H...Stamford, Alnwick.

Jowett, J. A... Manningham, Bradford.

Kenniss, W., J.P... Killeen, Portarlington.

Krysey, J....0ver Peover, Knutsford.

KNIGHT, G. B...Pirton, Worcester.

LAKIN, A. O...Marbury, Whitchurch, Salop.

LARDNER, H. H...Freetown, Sierra Leone.

Lea, E. E... Netherton, Bewdley. :

Lucas, E...Home Farm, Baginton, Coventry.

MAKINSON, G...62 Market Place, Wigan.

MATTHEWSON, J...E. Moneylaws, Cornhill-on-
Tweed.

MAYALL, G...Stretton Vicarage, Ledbury.

MEESON, A. J... Rawreth, Essex.

MICKLETHWAIT, R. K...Ardsley House,
Barnsley.

MITrcHELL, J...Bolton Hall, Rotherham.

Munsy, E. C...The Hermitage, Oswaldkirk,
York.

Myers, W. H., J.P...Swanmore Ho., Bishop’s
Waltham.

Nasu, R. 8... The Noak, Maritley, Worcester.

NELLIST, J...The Crundalls, Bewdley.

NEWMAN, Rey. W. F...Hockworthy, Welling-
ton, Somerset.

NicHotson. J. E...Manor Ho., Lanchester,
Durham.

NI£LD, J...Woodhonse
Birmingham.

Nock, H. T...Oldbury, near Birmingham,

OLDFIELD, F. R...Sawcliffe, Appleby, Don-
caster.

OLIVER, M. J...Treneer, St. Teedy, Bodmin.

OPPENHEIM, H...Wytham Abbey, Oxford.

OTHER, T. J... Howgrayve, Ripon.

PARKIN, Alfred. . Doncaster.

PARTINGTON, E. S...Crumpsall Green,.Cheet-
ham Hill, Manchester.

Pearson, W. J...Stockton Court, Tenbury.

PICKARD, J...High Thorsby, Leyburn, Yorks,

PILKINGTON, L...Cavens, Dumfries, N.B

PLACE, J. M...Eriswell, Brandon.

POCKLINGTON, Col. F...Chelsworth, Suffolk.

RAINERI, Prof. Dr. John. . Piacenza, Italy.

Farm, Solihull,

XXV1

REDMAN, J. H... The Farm, Kidmore Grange,
Caversham, Oxon.

Rosrnson, A. S. F... Wantage, Berks.

RoGErR, Hugh..42 Poultry, E.C.

RUSSELL, Gen. Lord Alexander G...Ewhurst
Park, Basingstoke.

RUSSELL, Thomas. .20 Bucklersbury, E.C.

RYLAND, C. A. S... Barford Hill, Warwick.

RyYLANDSs, Dan..Stainfoot, Barnsley.

SAMPLE, C. H...Matfen, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

SAMUELSON, E...Anlaby, West Kirby,
Cheshire.

Savory, Right Hon. Joseph, Lord Mayor of
London.. Buckhurst Park, Ascot, Berks.

Suaw, J...Halder Road, Birmingham.

SmiTHson, R. H. D... Wiseton Grange, Bawtry,
Notts.

Story, Pryce E...Coppy, Denbigh.

Sturaeis, T...45 Broadway, New York City,
U.S.A.

Sryay, W...Moor House, Leyburn, Yorks.

TayLor, E. F...Bracon Ash, New Barnet.

TENNANT, Major J. T...69 Belgrave Road,
S.W.

THOMPSON, G... Wroxhall, Warwick.

THOMPSON, J... Beardwood Cliff, Blackburn.

Tuompsoy, R... Whalley, Lancs.

VERNON, Hon. and Rey. C, J...Grafton
Underwood, Kettering.

VOELCKER, FE. W...39 Argyll Road, Kensing-
ton, W.

WaINwnricut, J...Over Peover, Knutsford.

WALKLEY, H... Berkley House, Selliurst, S8.E.

Wetts, H. C., J.P...Broomfield Lodge,
Chelmsford.

WHITTING, F... King’s Col'ege, Cambridge.

WILKINSON, F. E...Scrooby, Bawtry, Notts.

WItson, P. H...Hadleigh, Suffolk.

WooprorDk, F. C...Grammar School, Market
Drayton.

WRENNALL, W...9 Harrington St., Liverpool.

Country Meeting of 1892,

The SECRETARY reported that the
Committee appointed at the meeting
of Council in November last to inspect
the sites and other accommodation
offered by the local authorities of
Warwick and Gloucester respectively
for the Society’s Country Meeting
next year had made their inspection
last week, and the customary formal
answers to the Society’s queries had
been signed by the Mayor and Town
Clerk of each place. Deputations
were now in waiting from both dis-
tricts to support their applications.
The Speaker of the House of Com-
mons had called at the Society’s
offices on Monday last in order to
express his regret that his Parlia-
mentary duties would prevent his
attending on that day, as he should
otherwise have made a point of doing,
to support the invitation given by the
local authorities of Warwick.

Invitation from Warwick.
The deputation from Warwick,
which was first received, consisted of

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

Lord Leigh (Lord Lieutenant of the
County), Lord Brooke, M.P., Mr. P.
Albert Muntz, M.P., the Mayor and
Town Clerk of Warwick, Mr. T. H.
G. Newton, Mr. Margetts, and Mr.
Fredk. H. Moore (Local Secretary).

Lord LEIGH, in introducing the
deputation, said they hoped most
sincerely that the Council would
select the town of Warwick for their
Country Meeting of 1892. It was
now thirty-two years ago since the
Royal Agricultural Society visited
their town, in 1859, when the Show
was one of the best that, up to that
time, had ever been held. He had had
then the honour of performing the
same function which was his pleasant
duty that day, viz., of introducing
the deputation. The railway accom-
modation of the district was ad-
mirable, and Warwick was in the
midst of a population which, within
a radius of forty miles, numbered a
million of people. He believed the
sites which they were prepared to
offer could not be surpassed in any
county of England. ‘They had the
magnificent park of Lord Warwick,
which was acknowledged to be one
of the finest castles and one of the
grandest parks in the kingdom, and
they had also the racecourse, on
which the Society held their Show in
1859, and which was considered a
very good site indeed. There was an
ample supply of water, and, indeed,
he did not know that there were any
of the Society’s requirements with
which they could not comply. He
earnestly hoped that their county
town would be selected for the So-
ciety’s Country Meeting of 1892.

The Mayor of WARWICK (Mr. J.
W. MANN) said that Lord Leigh
had mentioned the fact that Warwick :
was very central: it was, im fact, i
situated in the centre of England.
It was accessible from almost every i)
point, being served by the Great ‘
Western Railway by its main line ’
from London to Birmingham, and 7
also by’ the London and North- he
Western Railway. Leamington and
Warwick for this purpose formed
practically one borough. They had
four stations, and the accommodation
for traffic was ample. ‘The interest
of Warwick and its vicinity was very
great, and Warwick Castle was a

Country Meeting of 1892.

source of great attraction. The
Castle Park, he ventured to say, was
a site that could not be beaten. His
colleague, the Mayor of Leamington,
was unfortunately too unwell to at-
tend that day, or he would have been
present to have supported him in a
cordial invitation to the Society to
hold its next year’s Meeting in their
district.
. Mr. T. H. G. NEwron would like
to give two more reasons why War-
wick should claim the honour of the
Country Meeting of 1892. He found
on examination that of the counties
in the F district one Show had been
held in Gloucestershire, two in Shrop-
shire, two in Warwickshire, one in
Worcestershire, one in Staffordshire,
and one in South Wales. The finan-
cial results were most favourable for
Warwickshire. The total surplus for
their county was 4,800/., whereas at
Cardiff (1872) there was a deficit of
600/.,at Worcester (1863) 1,200/., and
for Gloucestershire and Staffordshire
deficits of about 2,0007. each. The
last five Meetings of the Society had
resulted on balance in a deficit of
some 6,0007., so that 1892 did not
seem an occasion on which the
Country Meeting should be held any-
where but in a county in which they
might hope to get a surplus. Al-
though he was perfectly willing to
admit that at Doncaster they had a
chance of securing a surplus, yet they
wanted two good chances, in order
that they might be sure of getting a
surplus between them. It was very
obvious that one necessary element
of success in a country show was the
population, which had already been
adverted to. He found that in the
area of forty miles from Warwick
there were no less than 422 railway
stations ; so that this Jarge population
had ample facilities for attending the
Show.

The PRESIDENT having thanked
Lord Leigh, Lord Brooke, and the
other gentlemen for their attendance
and explanations,

The deputation retired.

Invitation from Gloucester.

The Earl of Coventry introduced
the following deputation from the
city and neighbourhood of Glou-
cester, inviting the Society to hold

XXV11

its Show at Gloucester in the year
1892:—Lord Apsley, Lord Fitzhar-
dinge, Lord More‘*on, Lord Sudeley,
Lord Tredegar, Sir John E. Doring-
ton, Bart., M.P., Sir Hussey Vivian,
Bart, M.P., Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Mr. B. St. John Ackers, Mr.
Wilfrid Cripps, C.B., Mr. Fuller, M.P.
(Wiltshire), Mr. Granville E. Lloyd-
Baker, Mr. Alfred Thomas, M.P. (Car-
diff), Mr. T. Robinson, M.P. (City of
Gloucester), the Mayor of Gloucester
(Mr. J. J. Seekings), the Mayor of
Cheltenham (Colonel Thoyts), and
Mr. G. S. Blakeway (Town Clerk).

Lord FITZHARDINGE said that very
briefly he should ask them to favour
Gloucester by holding the Show of
1892 in their city, for the simple
reason that they had not been
honoured with a visit from the Society
since 1853, whereas their rival and
neighbour had been visited by the
Society in 1859. Since 1853 the
population of South Wales, which was
included in their district, had enor-
mously increased, and he felt sure
that if His Royal Highness the Prince
of Wales would only honour them
with his presence, the Welshmen
would turn out by thousands to do
him homage. That was the great
reason why Gloucester should have
the preference.

Lord SUDELEY said it was not
necessary for him to say more than
that they were in the centre of a very
large district. They had the most
ample railway accommodation. They
had two of the largest railway com-
panies running through their city,
and there was no doubt that they
would be able to bring a very large
population from the West of England,
from Wales, and from the North. In
Gloucester they had been very long
deprived of the presence of the
“ Royal” Society, and he thought that
a visit from them would do an enor-
mous amount of good to their agricul-
tural population. Moreover, they felt
quite sure that if the ‘ Royal” would
honour them with a visit they would
be able to make the Show pay.

The Mayor of GLOUCESTER (Mr. J.
J. Seekings) said he had great plea-
sure in appearing that day to present
to them a very warm invitation from
the ancient and historic city of Glou-
cester, from the town of Cheltenham,

Xxvlil

and from the county of Gloucester
generally, to hold the Show of 1892
in their city. They hada large and
satisfactory subscription list—already
amounting to 4,500/.—to which addi-
tions were daily being made. There
would be no difficulty in raising the
funds required by the Society, or in
complying with their requirements in
other respects. The point upon which
they laid great stress was the geo-
graphical position of Gloucester,
which was situated at a junction of
two important lines of railway.
Gloucester had in itself close upon
45,000 inhabitants, and Cheltenham,
which was only six miles off, had an
almost equal population. Bristol with
its 200,000 inhabitants, was close at
hand, and within what he might call
a half-crown railway fare was a popu-
lation of close upon amillion. They
felt they had special advantages in
respect to railway conveniences, as
they had two passenger stations in
Gloucester, and four goods stations,
as well as a siding within a few yards
of the proposed site. He thought the
Committee of Inspection who visited
Gloucester the other day would agree
that the site they offered was a very
eligible one. It was composed of
large fields, was pleasantly situated,
and was easily reached from the city.
There were main roads leading to it,
and attractive routes both from the
city and railway stations. Gloucester,
besides possessing the interesting
traditions of an old cathedral city,
had important industries, including
flour-mills fitted up on the most
modern principles. Many different
systems of farming could be studied
in the district, and they had, besides,
important agricultural institutions
like Cirencester College. There was
ample hotel and lodging accommoda-
tion in the two towns, particularly at
Cheltenham, which had been described
as a town of hotels and lodging-
houses, and as the “Garden Town of
England.” He claimed that these
were definite points of superiority over
any other offer received by the Society.
A comparison of the dates when the
last Show was held at Gloucester and
at Warwick showed that the Society
had not paid a visit to Gloucester
since 1853, but had been to Warwick
in 1859. South Wales, with its very

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

large population, was far mote
sible for Gloucester than for Warwi
which could only be reached by
changing. If the Council honoured
them with a visit next year, they
might be assured of a hearty welcome
from the district, on whose behalf he
had the privilege and pleasure of
presenting the invitation to the
Society to hold its Country Meeting
of 1892 in the city of Gloucester.

Sir Hussry VIVIAN asked leave to
say a few words on behalf of South
Wales in support of the invitation.
Their population was a very large
one. In Glamorganshire alone there
were 600,000 inhabitants, and the
population took a deep interest in
agriculture, which was manifested by -
their large attendance at the Shows
of local societies. They would be
sure to largely avail themselves of
the advantage of attending the Royal
Agricultural Society’s Show if held at
Gloucester, as that city was within
easy distance of the great centres of
population in South Wales. He did
not think, however, that the popula-
tion of South Wales would go in any
numbers so far as Warwick. He
therefore begged very earnestly to
urge the importance of holding the
Show of 1892 at Gloucester rather
than at Warwick. d

Lord TREDEGAR said that one of
the great objects of the Society was
the promotion of agricultural in-
terests; and as they had a great deal
to learn with regard to farming in
South Wales, he thought the Society
would be doing more good and would
be acting up to its principles in
deciding to go to Gloucester, which
was readily accessible to South Wales,
rather than to the Midlands, where
people were supposed to Enemy every-
thing.

The PRESIDENT thanked ina ‘depu-
tation for attending, and said the
Council were in the position of having
an embarras des richesses.

Lord CoventRY thanked the Coun-
cil for their courteous reception of
the members of the deputation, who
then retired.

Mr. MAINWARING having read the
report of the Committee of Inspection
on the various sites which had been
submitted to their inspection at War-
wick and Gloucester, the PRESID

Country Meeting of 1892.

declared the question of the choice of
a locality for their Meeting of 1892
to be open for discussion.

Mr. Munvtz, M._P., said that it would
not be necessary for him to enter into
the merits of the case, as these had
been fully explained by the deputa-
tion; but in moving that Warwick
Castle Park be selected as a site for
the Society’s Country Meeting of 1892
he did so rot so much in the interests
of his own county as in the interests
of the Society. The Society had had
a large number of deficits in the last
few years. He ventured to forecast
that the result of the Meeting, if held
at Warwick, would be a financial suc-
cess, as there was a very large popu-
lation concentrated in the immediate
vicinity ; and, besides, Warwick and
its vicinity was a point of great his-
torical interest to the population
throughout. the whole kingdom. He
had great pleasure, therefore, in mov-
ing—

That the Country Meeting of
1892 be held at Warwick Castle
Park, subject to the condition that
the usual agreement be entered
into with the Society by the Mayor
and Corporation at Warwick, such
agreement to embody the answers
to the Society's printed queries.

The Hon. Ceci T. PARKER se-
conded the motion.

Lord MoreToN moved as an
amendment that the Country Meet-
ing of 1892 be held at Gloucester.
This was seconded by the Earl of
CovENTRY.

After some remarks by Sir NIGEL
KINGscore, Viscount EMLYN pointed
out that it was a matter worthy of the
consideration of the Council, in decid-
ing the question, that the Lath and
West of England Society’s Meeting of
1892 had been settled to be held in
South Wales, at Swansea, which was
much closer to Gloucester than to
Warwick.

Lord Moreton’s amendment having
been put to the vote, there appeared
six votes for it and thirty-five votes
against it. Mr. Muntz’s resolution
was then put asasubstantive motion,
and was carried nem. con.

The deputation from Warwick hav-
ing been re-introduced,

The PRESIDENT acquainted them
with the Council’s decision, saying

oa

XxX1X

that the merits of the respective
places had been duly weighed, and
the Council had, by an overwhelming
majority, decided that their Country
Meeting of 1892 should be held in
the magnificent park which the Earl
of Warwick had so kindly placed at
the disposal of the Society.

Lord BROOKE, M.P., said that his
father, the Earl of Warwick, naturally
took the deepest interest in agricul-
ture, and it would be a proud moment
for them when the Society again
visited their borough. So far as he
himself was concerned, it would give
him the greatest pleasure to offer
them every hospitality in his power.

Lord LEIGH thanked the Council
for their kind reception of the depu-
tation, and for the decision at which
they had arrived. They intended to
do their utmost to make the Warwick
Show a very great success.

The decision of the Council was
communicated to the Mayor of Glou-
cester by letter, signed by the Presi-
dent, expressing the thanks of the
Council for the attendance of the
deputation from the city and county
of Gloucester, and for their kind offer
of support in the event of the Show
being held in their locality.

The reports of the several Standing
Committees were then presented, and
adopted, as below :—

Finance.

Sir NigeEL KInGscore reported his
election as Chairman of the year.
The accounts for the month ended
December 31, 1890, as certified by
the Society’s accountants, showed
receipts amounting to 1,6017. 3s. 3d.,
and expenditure 1,9617. 10s. 8d. The
actual balance at the bankers on
December 31, 1890, allowing for
cheques outstanding, was 1,7362. 13s.
1d. The accounts for the month of
January, 1891, showed receipts
amounting to 4,3007. 14s. 3d., and
expenditure 32671. 13s. 6d. The
balance at the bankers on January 31,
allowing for cheques outstanding, was
5,6697.13s.10d. Accounts amounting
in all to 1,0562. &s. were recommended
for payment. The quarterly state-
ment of arrears and property at
December 31, 1890, was laid upon
the table. The Committee recom-
mended that the names of two
governors, forty-one life members,

XXX

and seventeen annual members who
were deceased, forty-three who had
resigned, four whose addresses could
not be found, and six in arrears, be
struck off the register, together with
the members who ha‘ resigned during
1890 as at the end of that year.

Show of Thoroughbred Stallions.
On the motion of Sir NIGEL KINGs-
COTE, it was unanimously resolved —

That the Secretary be authorised
to issuetoany candidate for election
as anew member, who may make
application on or before Saturday,
February 28, a ticket of admission
to the forthcoming Horse Show at
the Royal Agricultural Hall, pro-
vided that the usual form of under-
taking has been previously signed
by the candidate, and that his
subscription for the current year
has been paid.

Subsequently, the Duke of RIcH-
MOND and GORDON, as Chairman of
the Thoroughbred Stallion Committee,
reported that ten entries had been
received for the three premiums of
2001. each, offered by the Society at
this Show, for stallions to serve mares
during the forthcoming season in the
county of York.

House.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE reported his
election as Chairman of the year.
Mr. E. S. Rodd, of Chardstock House,
Chard, had most kindly presented to
the Society a picture of a Devon cow,
painted by R. R. Scanlan; and the
Committee recommended that the
thanks of the Society be given to Mr.
Rodd for this gift. They also re-
commended that in future any
member desirous of using the reading-
room or library be required to enter
his name and address in a book to be
provided for that purpose in the
entrance hall.

Journal.

Earl CATHCART reported his elec-
tion as Chairman of the year. The
fourth number of the new series of
the Journal had been published on
December 31, and issued immediately
to members. The Committee pre-
sented their recommendations as to the
payments for literary contributions
to and printing of that number. The
new printing agreements authorised

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

by the Council at their last meeting
had been duly executed. Vario
requests for permission to reproduce
illustrations in the Journal had beer
granted upon the usual conditions,
In consequence of the recent severe
weather, the inspection of the York-
shire farms entered for competition
had been delayed until the end of
January. The Judges had now partly
inspected the farms, and would com-
plete their inspection in the course of
a few days. The Editor had sub-
mitted his preliminary proposals for
the contents of the next number of
the Journal, which had heen discussed
and provisionally approved. Various
suggestions for papers and notes had
been considered, ard directions given
thereon.
Chemical.

Viscount EEMLYN reported his elee-
tion as Chairman of the year. Notice
of the receipt of a writ in an action
against the Society by Mr. James
Snowsell, of Cirencester, for alleged
libel in connection with the publica-
tion of the Chemical Committee's
Quarterly Report for July, 1890, had
been communicated by the Society's
solicitors, and it had been resolved to
defend the action.

The Committee had also confirmed
and unanimously adopted the follow-
ing resolution, passed by the Woburn
Sub-Committee:

The Woburn Sub-Committee can-
not meet without recording their
deep sense of the heavy loss which
the Society has sustained by the
death of the late Duke of Bedford,
to whose munificence the establish-
ment of the Woburn Experimental

Farm was due, and who had gene-

rcusly borne the whole of the ex-

penses of carrying on the experi-
ments during the last fourteen years.

Return of Dr. J, Augustus Voeleker.

Viscount EMLYN announced that the
Society’s Consulting Chemist, Dr. J.
Augustus Voelcker, had returned from
his mission in India, and was present
among them that day. He was sure
the Council would welcome Dr.
Voelcker back to work, and would
be glad to know that the importan
inquiry which had been entrusted to
him by the Government of India h
been successfully completed.

The Woburn Experimental Farm.

The PRESIDENT congratulated Dr.
Voelcker upon his safe return home,
and hoped that he had derived much
benefit from his visit.

Services of Mr. E. W. Voelcker.

Lord EMLYN then said he was sure
that he expressed the feeling of all
who had been brought into contact
with Mr. E. W. Voelcker.as Acting
Consulting Chemist in saying that

‘Mr. Voelcker had thrown himself

heartily into the work of the Society,
and that his tact and ability in the
discharge of his duties could not be
too highly commended. The Chemical
Committee had had under considera-
tion the form which their recognition
of Mr. Voelcker’s services should take,
and on the whole it was thought
that the offer of the life membership
of the Society would be the most
useful as a compliment to Mr.
Voelcker. He had great pleasure,
therefore, in moving the following
resolution :—

The Council cannot allow their
connection with Mr. E. W. Voelcker
to cease without placing on record
their high sense of the very able
manner in which he has fulfilled the
duties of Acting Consulting Chemist
during the past year, and they re-
quest his acceptance of the privileges
of a life membership of the Society
in recognition of their appreciation
of these services.

Lord Emlyn’s motion having been
seconded by Mr. DENT and carried
unanimously,

Mr. VOELCKER said he could not
adequately express to the Council his
gratitude for the very high honour
that had been conferred upon him by
the adoption of the resolution of Lord
Emlyn. When he took the charge of
the Chemical Department of the
Society, he felt a very great respon-
sibility, but, at the same time, a great
privilege had been given to him. He
was very proud to think that the
Council, by their resolution, had
shown him that he had done his
duty. Without the cordial co-opera-
tion of every one with whom he had
been brought into contact, he would
not have been able to fulfil the duties
of the position. He thanked all the
members of the Chemical Committee,

XXX1

and especially Lord Emlyn, for their
kind help and assistance on every
occasion. In connection with the
Woburn Experiments, his especial
thanks were due to Mr. Charles
Howard for his generous counsel and
advice. To Mr. Clarke and to all
the officials of the Society he was
very greatly indebted. He should
always have the greatest pleasure in
possessing the life membership of the
Society, because it would give hima
feeling of permanent connection with
the Society, which he should value
immensely.

The Woburn Experimental Farm.

Mr. WARREN said he should be
glad to be permitted to state that he
had received a letter written on behalf
of the present Duke of Bedford saying
that his Grace was “ only too anxious
to carry on the Experimental Farm
at Crawley as it had been hitherto,
if the Royal Agricultural Society
would allow him to do so under their
kind guidance and advice.” Mr.
Warren said it was not fully known
to the general body of members of
the Society, and not even to all the
members of the Council, what a large
expense this experimental farm in-
volved. The late Duke had gene-ously
granted them a sum of from £800 to
£1,000 a year for the purposes of the
experiments. They would see, there-
fore, how great was the value of the
intimation of the present Duke that he
would continue to carry on the farm as
hitherto.

The PRESIDENT said that the sin-
cerest thanks of the Council were due
to the Duke of Bedford for his muni-
ficent offer. He felt sure they would
join in a most cordial expression of
gratitude for his Grace’s generosity
in continuing to defray the cost of ex-
periments of so much valuealiketothe
Society and to agriculture generally 4

A resolution in this sense was car-
ried unanimously, and the President
undertook to convey it to his Grace.

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

Mr. WHITEHEAD reported his elec-
tion as Chairman of the year. In
accordance with the request of the
Committee made at their last meeting,
the Consulting Botanist had brought
up a recommendation as to the issue

XXxXii

by the Society of diagrams of pasture
grasses and clovers. It had been
suggested that some diagrams by
Bauer, now in the Natural History
Department of the British Museum,
illustrating the various stages in the
growth of the wheat plant, which
were made under the direction of
Sir Joseph Banks about seventy years
ago, should be reproduced by the
Society and published with the dia-
grams of pasture grasses. It was
considered that such diagrams would
be of great educational value, and
would find a ready sale now that the
question of agricultural education
was receiving so much attention.
The Committee recommended, there-
fore, that the preparation of these
diagrams be commenced forthwith.
In addition to footnotes on the dia-
grams, Mr. Carruthers had under-
taken to write a pamphlet explanatory
of the diagrams for the use of ad-
vanced students. The Committee
had also under consideration the
question of the issue of diagrams
showing the nature and causes of
diseases affecting the potato.

Veterinary.

Sir JOHN THOROLD reported his
election as Chairman of the year.
Professor Brown had presented the
following report, together with the
annual report of the Royal Veterinary
College, which the Committee re-
commended for publication in the
Journal (see page 146). The subject
of Pink Eye in Horses had been dis-
cussed in reference to a note on this
disease by Professor Axe, written for
the Journal. The Examiners in Prac-
tical Cattle Pathology for the diploma
of the Royal College of Veterinary
Surgeons in 1890 had reported that
the following gentlemen, placed in
order of merit, had attained the
greatest distinction :—(1) J. EH. Row,
Veterinary Infirmary, Newgate Street,
Chester; (2) F. K. Place, 4, Parker's
Place, Exmouth. The Committee re-
commended that the Society’s large
medal be given in silver to Mr. Row,
and in bronze to Mr. Place. They also
recommended the appointment of
Mr. Lewis P. Rees, of 5, Lammas
Street, Carmarthen, as Provincial
Veterinary Surgeon for Carmarthen-
shire.

Monthly Council, February A, 1891.

Professo:, Brown’s Report.

PLEURO - PNEUMONIA. — During
the four weeks ended January 24,
outbreaks of this disease hve been
dealt with by the Board of Agri-
culture in the counties of Durham,
Essex, Lancaster, Surrey, York
(W.R.), Aberdeen, Ayr, Fife, Forfar,
Linlithgow, and Midlothian. -By
order of the Board fifty cattle
affected with pleuro-pneumonia in
various stages were slaughtered, as
well as 510 other cattle which had
been in contact with the diseased
animals, or otherwise exposed to
infection. :

ANTHRAX.-—Of this disease fif-
teen fresh outbreaks were reported
in the four weeks, in the counties
of Bucks, Cumberland, Hants,
Hunts, Lincoln (Kesteven), Norfolk,
Rutland, Somerset, York (W.R.),
Aberdeen, and Dumfries. In these
outbreaks thirty animals were at-
tacked, eight diseased animals were
killed, fifteen died, and five re-
covered. f

SWINE-FEVER.—This disease is
again decreasing, and has been so
for some weeks. In the four weeks
of November the outbreaks reported
in Great Britain amounted to 41],
or just on 103 per week. In De-
cember they fell to 343, or about
eighty-six per week, whereas in
January they still further declined
to 248, or sixty-two per week. In
these January outbreaks 1,968 pigs
were attacked, 864 diseased pigs
were killed, 900 died, 265 recovered,
and 412 remained alive when the
last published return was made
up.

RABIES.—There have been six
cases of this disease, all of them in
dogs, reported in the monthy one
of these occurred in Hants, two in ©
Kent, and three in York (W.R.).

Stock Prizes.

Mr. FrRANKisH reported the elec-
tion of Mr. Sanday as Chairman of —
the year. An offer by the British
Berkshire Society of a champion prize
of 107. at Doncaster had been ac-
cepted on condition that it should be.
for the best animal exhibited in
classes 171 (Boars farrowed in 1890)
and 173 (Breeding Sows). ‘

Reports of Committees.

Judges’ Selection.

Mr. FRANKISH for Mr. Sanday
(Chairman) reported that the Com-
mittee had selected a list of Judges
of Live Stock, Produce, and Imple-
ments, to be invited to act at the
Doncaster Meeting in June next on
the usual terms.

Implement.

Mr. FRANKISH reported his elec-
tion as Chairman of the year. The
Committee presented their recom-
mendations as to the appointment of
Judges for the trials of Threshing
Machines and Miscellaneous Imple-
ments at the Doncaster Meeting, and
suggested that in connection with the
Meeting for 1892 there should be
Trials of Ploughs and Diggers to be
worked by horse-power.

General Doncaster.

Mr. DENT, in presenting this re-
port, stated that the Committee re-
commended that the prices of admis-
sion on the several days of the
Doncaster Meeting be as under :—
Saturday, June 20th, 2s. 6d.; Monday,
22nd, 5s.; Tuesday and Wednesday,
2s. 6d. each day; Thursday and
Friday, 1s. each day. In view of the
small sale of season tickets which had
of late taken place in consequence of
the granting of free tickets to the
subscribers to the local fund, it was
not proposed that season tickets be
placed on sale at the Doncaster
Meeting. Authority had been given
for the necessary application to the
Home Secretary for the services of a
detachment of the Metropolitan
Police.

Showyard Works.

Mr. CLAY reported the election of
Sir Jacob Wilson as Chairman of the
year. Applications from the Doncaster
Agricultural Society for an office in
the Showyard, and from Mr. J. Firth
Clark for space for the exhibition of
warbled hides, &c., had been granted
free of charge. The forms of tenders
for refreshments at the Doncaster
Meeting had been considered and
approved. Offers from various firms
of appliances in connection with the
Showyard had been considered and
accepted.

you. Il. T. s.—5

XXXlil

Selection.

Earl CATHCART reported his elec-
tion as Chairman of the year.

The recommendations of the Com-
mittee as to the vacancy on the
Council having been read, it was
moved by Earl CATHCART, seconded
by Mr. ALFRED DARBY, and resolved
unanimously :—

That Mr. E. Wilfrid Stanyforth,
of Kirk Hammerton Hall, York, be
elected a member of Council to fill
the vacancy caused by His Royal
Highness Prince Christian of
Schleswig-Holstein, K.G., having
accepted the office of a Vice-
President of the Society.

‘Education.

Mr. DENT reported the election of
Lord Moreton as Chairman of the year.
The Committee had further considered
the question of the addition of the
subjects of fruit farming, dairying,
and forestry to the Society’s Senior
Examinations, together with a letter
on the subject of these examinations
from Dr. Dobbie, of the Bangor
University College, and a resolution
passed by the Agricultural Committee
of the Bangor College as to the
establishment of Intermediate Scho-
larships. The Committee did not
propose any immediate change in the
Society's system of examinaticns ; but
they thought it would be well that,
when the proposals of the various
County Councils as to technical edu-
cation had taken a more definite
shape, a conference should be con-
vened between the Committee and
representatives of the various teaching
institutions to consider what changes,
if any, were desirable in the Society’s
examinations, in order to fit in with
the teaching given for the examina-
tions of other bodies. The subject of
the preparation of text-books in
agriculture for the use of elementary
schools had been discussed, and it
had been eventually resolved that a
sub-committee, to consist of Lord
Moreton (Chairman), Major Craigie,
Mr. De Laune, Mr. Pidgeon, Mr.

~ Sutton, and Mr. Whitehead, should be

appointed to consider the whole sub-
ject and to report to a later meeting.
The Committee, having considered a
number of communications addressed

c

XXxX1V

to them on the subject of technical
education, had agreed upon a further
report (see page 155), which, with their
report of November 4 last, they sub-
mitted for the consideration and
approval of the Council.

Motion by Mr. Pell.

Mr. PELL, in moving ‘“ That the
Council approve of a Normal School
of Agriculture for Scientific Instruc-
tion,” said he was afraid that the
motion of which he had given notice
must take the character of an amend-
ment to the motion of Mr. Dent,
because if the Council committed
themselves to the acceptance and
adoption of the report, he was at
once barred from moving further.
The feature of the Education Com-
mittee’s report of November 5,!
which immediately concerned the
Council, was the disagreement with
the first recommendation of the
report on technical education in agri-
culture, prepared by the Joint Com-
mittee of the Central Chamber of
Agriculture and the Farmers’ Club.
That recommendation was “That
there should be established and main-
tained, at the cost of the State, a
central normal school of agriculture.”
On the whole, the Education Com-
mittee, in considering that report,
agreed to the recommendations with
the very striking exception of the
first one, and (one not so material)
of the sixth and last recommendation
of the Joint Committee. He entirely
agreed in the feeling of their own
Committee in not wishing to endorse
the sixth recommendation; but he
had a very strong opinion with regard
to the first. There was no occasion
to go over the ground again, because
the proceedings of the Council of
November 5 had been in print, and
had been before the public for three
months. He had first to ask the
Council for one moment to consider
the grounds which he had for taking
up his present attitude ; and secondly,
the position in which they found the
subject in the deliberations of that
Council. Probably that position was
the outcome of circumstances. Their
motto was “ Practice with Science,’’
and he thought science must not be

” See Vol. i. Pt. iv. (1890), page 851.

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

forgotten. How was science dealt q

with in the Council? It was dealt
with in two Committees — the
Chemical Committee and the Com-
mittee on Education. The greater
part of the time of the Chemical
Committee was taken up in dealing
with what he might call ‘* commercial
transactions.” Their time was occu-
pied in protecting members of the
Society from the fraud of dishonest
dealers in manure and feeding-stuffs,
To this Committee there was a Sub-
Committee, called the Woburn Sub-
Committee, That was distinetly a
scientific committee—a committee
which concerned itself with research,
in which, as they all knew, they had
received the most direct and valuable
assistance from the historic house of
Russell. There remained, then, the
Education Committee. The conside-
ration of the report of that very im-
portant committee had somehow got
to the bottom of the sack. It was, he
believed, almost the last report which
the Council dealt with in the arrange-
ment of its proceedings. The report
of November 5 had received the same
sort of treatment that this report had
met with. It was then decided that
the subject should be postponed for
further and more serious considera-
tion.

It was in order to give some
direct line to the way in which they

should broach the question that he —

had ventured to make the motion
which stood in his name. A great
many members of Council had en-
tirely misapprehended his motion.
They had taken it to imply a central
school established by the State, con-
trolled by the State, and maintained
by the State, and that what he had to
say referred to State establishment and |
control. Some, again, had thought that
in his motion was implied a farm—an
experimental, or what was called a
model farm—which was generally, as"
far as his experience went, a model
of all that they ought not to do.
Many members appeared to have left
the Council under the impression
that he was advocating State control
and a model farm. He should be
sorry for their having come to such a

conclusion; he only asked them to —

endorse his motion in the precise”
terms which he had proposed; * That —

i

a

———————— —————_————————

Technical Education in Agriculture.

the Council approve of a Normal
School of Agriculture for Scientific
Instruction.” He did not pose as a
scientist himself ; he had no scientific
knowledge; he did not know that at
sevyenty-one years of age he should
attempt to acquire it. He shared with
others, and especially with the manu-
facturing side of their community,
the firm conviction that their future
prosperity in agriculture, as_ their
prosperity in the great iron trade and
coal business, and in the other great
operations which England conducted,
must depend primarily upon science.

With reference to technical instruc-
tion, he had very grave doubts about
its being of service. The present
efforts were the result of the grant of
a good deal of Government money.
The popular idea was that the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer would renew
the grants ; that might or might not
be the case. Now the Royal Agricul-
tural Society, in furtherance of science,
had applied recently the same methods
it had applied in the improvement of
stock—the prize system. They allo-
cated 500/. a year to agricultural edu-
cation; it was given for the most part
in prizes. Acknowledging, as they
did, the advantage of scientific train-
ing, they had done but very little of
a direct and legitimate character in
the production of the pupil. He had
a list of the names of each institution
who furnished them with their so-
called scientific offspring—but which
he was rather inclined to term chance
children. Let them look at the list:
Maybole, Northampton, Portsmouth,
Norfolk, Devon, Ashburton, and Surrey
County Schools, &c. They were not
concerned with the curriculum or
syllabus of any one of these institu-
tions. It was sufficient for them if
they sent up candidates for their prizes.
He had seen, not long ago, a return of
what became of these young men.
Had they become agriculturists? The
greater part of them were nothing
of the sort. They had applied
their minds sufficiently to get their
scholarships and prizes, and tken
they went about their business all
over the world. He employed the
phrase “ normal school” in its techni-
cal sense—an establishment where
teachers of agriculture should be
trained and produced. It was not

xXxXxXV

sufficient to make a teacher a scien-
tific man, unless they conferred upon
him also the art of imparting his
knowledge to others—and that was
an art for which there was likely to
beademand. They saw already that a
number of new institutions—and some
older ones—were taking up the ques-
tion. He went to Bangor the other
day, and he was delighted with what
they were doing there. He had also
gone to Yorkshire, and was there
impressed with the idea that they
meant to take up the teaching of
agriculture. He could not expect any
support from the speech of the oldest
friend of education in that room—
Mr. Dent—but he was going to get a
little support from what Mr. Dent had
recently put into print. In that
supplementary report before the
Couucil there was this passage :—

There is now, however, a demand
for something beyond this. Weare
asked to provide competent teachers
who may instruct classes in colleges
or schools, or who may take their
teaching to the country villages
and towns, and so bring it home
to the people interested.

He thoroughly endorsed that, but
to have competent teachers they must
bring them up to be competent
teachers. Therefore he said and be-
lieved that they ought to do all they
possibly could for the production of
scientific teachers. Now the demand
for scientific teachers would be best
provided for by a normal school. He
did not propose the direct establish-
ment by the Royal Agricultural
Society of a normal school. He
merely said it was desirable that there
should be one. He would take, as an
example, the Yorkshire College at
Leeds, on the Council of which there
were many able men, not the least
able of whom was Mr. Dent. He
found that college in the pangs of
child-birth with a scheme for agricul-
tura] education. Now supposing the
thing came to its birth—and he had
no reason to doubt it—they had
another bantling. It might be a very
useful bantling for his purpose. He
should be very pleased if the Royal
Agricultural Society could identify
itself with this new scheme in York-
shire, which was in a very good cen-

eg

XXXV1

tral position, and if it ever saw the
light and was likely to go on well, be
to it something of a foster-mother.
There were other institutions, such as
Bangor, and it was possible that they
might ally themselves distinctly and
strictly with one of them. If his
motion were carried then they came
to details, and those details could only
be dealt with by a special committee ;
therefore he only asked the Council to
go with him to that extent. He knew
that the Society had not done all that
they should have done inthepast. Per-
haps they had done, however, all that
circumstances permitted, and all that
popular feeling required. There was
very much still to be done in the way
of scientific teaching ; they must en-
deavour to get the better of a most
dreadful conflict with the elements of
the soil and the air, and find out how
to get the most they could out of
them. For himself, he was content
to copy the best practice of his neigh-
bours; but an institution must take
higher views. Oxford had done so,
and Cambridge was about to do so.
He left those great institutions to
carry out their own work. Therefore,
should the Council feel inclined to
accept the views which he had ven-
tured to put forth, he proposed next
to move that a committee be appointed
to consider upon what lines the
scheme should be carried out.

Mr. DENT thought a word or two
would be expected from him in justi-
fication of the two reports, with the
preparation of which he had had a
good deal to do. He felt, if they
accepted this supplementary report
now presented, that they in no way
barred future action if necessary. If
it should be found in the course of
twelve months or so that the bodies
taking up agricultural education were
failing in what they were doing, and
were not likely to afford the means
for scientific agricultural teaching,
then Mr. Pell or any one else
might bring up, perfectly unfettered
by anything which might take place
that day, a motion in favour of a
normal school. But though he would
not go back into the history of the
educational struggles of that Society,
he could not but think the teaching
of agriculture inthe schools mentioned
by Mr. Pell had been a distinct advan-

Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

tage. What they wanted to do was
to spread a general knowledge of
agriculture throughout the country; —
they wanted to facilitate the educa-
tion of labourers as wellas of farmers,
The great difficulty, he had no doubt,
would be to get pupils to attend;
there were two difficulties—the want
of pupils and the want of teachers. —
That report sketched out how they
thoughtthe thing might work. Large
sums of money had been placed in
the hands of the County Councils ;
at present they might only assist
institutions in their own counties, but
if the Government carried the measure
which they had promised to introduce,
they would be able to use a portion
of the funds at all events in contigu-
ous counties, so that neighbouring
institutions might derive advantage.
His idea, as accepted yesterday by
the Education Committee, was, in-
stead of having a normal school to be
established with new buildings and
laboratories, that they should sub-
sidise existing institutions. He could
speak, and Mr. Rowlandson also, as
to the very practical scheme which
would enable them to receive the sons
of farmers at the Yorkshire College,
and to give assistance in the way of
providing lecturers to bring home the
matter to the small towns and villages
of Yorkshire, if it should be accepted
by the Technical Education Com-
mittees of the Ridings. His opinion
was that, until it was known what
were the actual resources of the
County Councils in regard to technical
education in agriculture, they had —
better advise that existing institutions
should be utilised. He thought very
much of the idea of grouping round
certain quarters, which was really a
decentralisation from headguarters.
It would be very desirable, when such
institutions were formed, that there
should be a conference of teaching
bodies, and that they should decide
upon the syllabus of their education.
The Society might then give up having
special examinations, and accept the
examinations of the teaching bodies ;
and might instead give premiums or
prizes, in the way suggested by the
North Wales College, to a higher class
of boys and young men, in order to
encourage them to continue their
agricultural studies, He did not

Technical Education in Agriculture.

think that Mr. Pell and himself dif-
fered very much in this matter. He
hoped the Council would not consider

that they were debarred hereafter from ~

taking up the question of a central
college; but, for the present, if they
accepted Mr. Pell’s resolution they
would at once pledge themselves to it.

Sir Nient Kina@score expressed his
approval of the report of the Educa-
tion Committee. It seemed to him
that Mr. Pell had spoken very much
in the lines of the report until he
came to that one subject—the esta-
blishment of a normal school. He
ventured to think that Mr. Pell was
premature about that. He thought
they should not pledge themselves to
anything of the kind until they saw
what would happen within the next
few months. He hoped the Council
would pause before they adopted Mr.
Pell’s motion, and that they would
adopt the report of the Education
Committee.

Mr. MAINWARING said that, at the
meeting of the Education Committee
last November, he had voted with
Mr. Pell; since that time he had been
permitted to join the committee of
the Bangor College. If they passeda
resolution of the kind proposed by
Mr. Pell, or if a central normal school
were establ'shed, they would not only
be taking the money of the State, but
the Bangor authorities and the au-
thorities of other institutions would
be placed in a secondary position.
Whereas, if they were ailowed to start
their present schemes, they would
soon be able to prove whether they
carried on their work satisfactorily.
If it were proved that a normal school
were desired, such an _ institution
might be formed. At the present
moment, he did not think that one
was required.

The PRESIDENT wished to point
out to Mr. Pell and to the Council
what an important matter his motion
really was as to the establishment of
anormal school. There were already
existing in the counties very consi-
derable means of training young men
to become teachers. He did not know
whether the Council were aware that
the Science and Art Department of
South Kensington assisted agricul-
tural science through the medium of
training colleges for teachers—the

¥XXvii

very point at present under discussion.
One of the alternative subjects which
teachers in training colleges might
take up was the principles of agricul-
ture, so that means for the training
of teachers did exist already. He
did not understand that anybody had
seconded Mr. Pell’s motion, but he
should like to say this: local action
was being taken all over the country,
and almost every County Council was
engaged in considering applications
for assistance. Until they know how
they would deal with all applications
from the many institutions, particu-
larly in the North of England, which
had applied for assistance, and until
they knew how much would be allo-
cated to agriculture, they really did
not know where they weie. The
principle upon which the County
Councils were acting appeared to be
to help those who helped themselves.

Mr. Pell’s amendment, not being
seconded, fell to the ground, and the
report of the Education Committee,
together with the Special Report of
November 5, and the Supplementary
Report submitted on the present oc-
casion, was received and adopted.

Dairy.

Mr. MAINWARING reported the
election of the Hon. C. T. Parker as
Chairman of the year. A letter had
been received from Miss Maidment
accepting the appointment of Dairy
Demonstrator at Doncaster upon the
terms proposed by the Council. The
Committee recommended for accept-
ance an arrangement with the rail-
way companies, for the payment by
the Society of a fixed sum per pack-
age for the carriage of poultry to and
from the Showyard at Doncaster.

Railway Rates.

Mr. FRANKISH said that the pro-
posals of the Board of Trade, with
reference to railway rates, were very
unsatisfactory to agriculturists. It
was necessary that traders should be
in a position to defend the agricul-
tural interest as well as they could.
He moved, therefore—

That an additional grant of 1002.
be made to the Mansion House
United Association on Railway
Rates, for the further defence of
agricultural interests.

XXXViil Monthly Council, February 4, 1891.

Mr. SuTTON seconded, and the mo-
tion was carried unanimously.

Suggestions made at General
Meeting.

The Council then proceeded to con-
sider the suggestions made by mem-
bers at the General Meeting held on
December 11, 1890, and agreed, on
the recommendation of the several
Committees concerned, to reply as
follows :—

Mr. GEORGE BARHAM: That a sum
mot exceeding 1,000l. should be ex-
pended by the Council, if necessary,
Sor the purpose of protecting the inter-
ests of English Agriculturists in refer-
ence to the proposed revision of rail-
way rates by the Board of Trade.

This has been dealt with by Mr.
Frankish’s motion referred to above.

Mr. W. Lipscoms: That greater
publicity should be given to the So-
ciety’s Junior Scholarships.

As stated by Earl Cathcart at the
General Meeting, the Society’s exami-
nations are recularly advertised in
the agricultural and educational news-
papers; and not long ago, when the
syllabus was revised, it was posted to
the head master of every grammar
school in the kingdom.

Mr. CHARLES LAURIE: That prizes
should be given for agricultural stal-
lions and mares, as well as for agri-
cultural geldings.

This matter has been considered
by the Stock Prizes Committee, who
do not recommend any present action
in the matter, as the question has
previously been under the considera-

tion of the Council on several occa-
sions, and the prizes for agricultural
horses are this year offered by the —
Doncaster Local Committee.

Mr. J. Kerstey FOWLER: That
attention should be given to the in-
struction of agricultural children upon
various branches of rural knowledge,
e.g., plants or insects that are valu-
able or injurious to the agriculture of
their districts.

The whole question of diagrams of
plants and insects, and of elementary
text-books on agricultural subjects,
is now engaging the attention of the
Education Committee.

Surgeon-Major INcE, M.D.: (1).
That the Society should hold ocea-
sional meetings for the discussion of
subjects of agricultural importance ;
and (2) that it should issue a weekly
Journal.

(1) Meetings of the kind referred
to were formerly held, but had to be
given up on account of the lack of
interest shown in them by members.
(2) The Council, having, after
consideration, decided last year to
produce the Journal at quarterly in-
tervals, are unable now to re-open
the matter.

Dates of Forthcoming Meetings.

Various letters and other docu-
ments having been read, the Counci
adjourned until Wednesday, March
4, and it was at the same time
ranged that the next following m
ing should be held on Wednesday,
April 8, as the first Wednesday
that month (April J) will fall
Easter week.

. <x)

WEDNESDAY, MARCH 4, 1891.

THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH

Present :—

Trustees.—Karl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Lord Egerton of Tatton,
Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., Sir
A. K. Macdonald, Bart., Duke of
Richmond and Gordon, K.G.

Vice-Presidents.— Earl of Fever-
sham, Lord Moreton, Sir John Thorold,
Bart., Mr. C. Whitehead.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr.
Joseph Beach, Mr. J Bowen-Jones,
Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Mr. Charles
Clay, Earl of Coventry, Mr. Percy
Crutchley, Mr.8. P. Foster, Mr. William
Frankish, Mr. R. Neville Grenville,
Mr. James Hornsby, Mr. Charles
Howard, Mr. C. S. Mainwaring, Mr.
Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H. Miller, Hon.
Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr.
Daniel Pidgeon, Mr. J. EH. Ransome,
Mr. 8. Rowlandson, Mr. G. H. Sanday,
Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr. A. J. Smith,
Mr. Henry Smith, Marquis of Stafford,
Mr. E. Wilfrid Stanyforth, Mr. Martin
J. Sutton, Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr. R. A.
Warren, Mr. E. V. V. Wheeler, Sir
Jacob Wilson.

Professor Brown, C.B.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist; Mr.
Wilson Bennison, Surveyor.

The following members of the
Doncaster Local Committee were also
present: The Mayor of Doncaster
(Mr. Alderman Stockil), Mr. F. Bacon
Frank, Mr. John White, Mr. G. T.
Wood, Mr. G. B. C. Yarborough, and
Mr. George Chafer (Secretary of the
Local Committee).

Letters of apology for non-attend-
ance were read from Viscount Emlyn
and Mr, Darby.

Introduction of New Member of
Council.

Mr, E. Wilfrid Stanyforth, of Kirk
Hammerton Hall, York, elected at

(PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

the last meeting to fill the vacancy on
the Council, caused by the acceptance
of the office of Vice-President by
H.R.H. Prince Christian, K.G., attended
for the first time, and was formally
introduced by Earl Cathcart, Chair-
man of the Committee of Selection,
who said he was sure from his know-
ledge of Mr. Stanyforth that he would
make avery useful Member of Council.

Election of New Members.

The minutes of the Council held on
February 4 last having been read and
confirmed, the election of the fol-
lowing overnor and 104 Members
was proceeded with :—

Governor.
SOUBERBIELLE, Edouard. .78 Cromwell Rd.,S.W.

Members.

Akers, E...Pentrebane Farm, St. Fagan’s,
Cardiff.

ALusopp, T...North Kilworth, Rugby.

ANDERTON, G. H...Kilpin Lodge, Howden.

BakeER, W...Lapal, Quinton, Birmingham.

Barton, J... Hopwas House, Tamworth.

BEDDALL, J. F...The Park, Marston, Ampthill.

BRNNETT, H.C. Leigh. . Thorpe Place, Chertsey.

BLAKEY, G. 8... Vienna, Austria.

Bootu, J...Northwick Hill Farm, Blockley,
Worcester.

Bosvit4, T. B...Ravenfield Park, Rotherham.

BREWIs, E. F...Bellasis Farm, Stannington,
Cramlington.

Brook, John Walter. . Lowestoft.

Brooks, W. J... Boughton Grange, Northmptn.

BROOKSBANK, B. H...Sandrock, Tickhill, Yrks.

Brymer, W. E...Ilsington House, Dorchester.

CARTWRIGHT, R. W...Cholmondeley, Whit-
church, Salop.

CLAYTON, T.. Park Hall Fm., Castle Bromwich.

CoRNEY, D...Wellington House, St. Mary’s,
Ramsey, Hunts.

CouLMAN, J. C...Bradholme, Thorne, Yorks,

Crews, C. T. D...Billingbear, Wokingham.

Crompton, J. R...Bury, Lancashire.

Crompton, Ralph... Bury, Lancashire.

Crook, A. W...Chapel Walks, Preston.

CroucH, J. H...6 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

CurREY, E. S...Erlwood, Bagshot.

DAnrGUE, T...Burneside Hall, Kendal.

DEAKIN, Edward.. Belmont, near Bolton.

Donk, F. W...The Warren, Horsham.

DRAK®, Richard..Sutton, Ely.

DRINKWATER, G. E...Handley Park Farm,
Norbury, Whitchurch, Salop.

Dunston, G...Hatfield, near Doncaster.

Epwarps, A. R,..Cambridge.

Forrest, H. P... Worksop, Notts.

x5

Foster, H...Newbegin, Filey, Yorks.
Gipson, S. W...F ynsford, Kent.
GouGu, W...Hengrave, Bury St. Edmunds.
GRanT, W. Maling.. Bhagalpur, Bengal.
GREENSLADE, S. P...The Elms, Utting, Maldon.
HamiiTon, J. C...Sutton, Ferrybridge, Yorks.
HARGREAVES, F...Green Bank, Pendleton.
HARGREAVES, P...Newbrook, Atherton.
Hantiry, C. M...Hexthorpe, Doncaster.
Haynes, H. 8... Upminster, Romford.
Hopeskw, J. T... Marbury Hayes Farm, Mar-
bury, Whitchurch, Salop.
Howanrb, J...Paget Hall, Gargrave, Yorks.
Hunter, Cavill.. The Lodge Farm, Worksop.
IsHERWOOD, S. jun...Shorefield, Dunscar,
Bolton-le-Moors.
JouretT, Pierre..Neuvillette’s Farm,
Chaumont-en-Vexin, Oise, France.
JonEs, W...Pen Porchell, Llannefydd, Tref-
nant, Rhyl.
LAKEMAN, J... Imperial Buildings, Leeds.
LANGDON, J. C., J.P... Parrock’s Lodge, Chard.
Legs, G. J. D... Woodhill, Oswestry.
Loker, H... Farringdon House, Southend.
Macuw, A. V...Gateford, Worksop.
Macy, G. V...Gateford, Worksop.
Mactnnes, Neil, J.P... Rickerby, Carlisle.
MACKINTOSH, Alexander. .Cambridge.
MALDEN, Walter J...Cardington, Bedford.
MARSDEN, Thomas. . Barnsley, Yorks.
MAUGHAN, J... Ingleby, Barwick, Yorks.
MOLYNEUX, Colonel Edmund.. Warren Lodge,
Finchampstead, Wokingham, Berks.
MorsHEAD. Sir Warwick, Bart... Forest Lodge,
Binfield, Bracknell, Berks.
Moss, F. J...Stainfield Hall, Wragby.
Moss, J...Checker House Farm, Retford.
Mutock, W. B. H...Bellair, Ballycumber,
Teland.
NELSON, T...Cockermouth Castle, Cumberland.
ORANGE, J...Bedlington, Northumberland.
OTRANTE, Duke d’..Elghammar, Bjérnlunda,
Sweden.
OXENDEN, P. D. N. Dixwell. . Broome Pk., Kent.
Prace, A. L., C.E...Thorne, Doncaster.
Peppar, W. S...Higham Hall, Bury St.
* Edmunds.
Pork, E. P...Loversall Hall, Doncaster.
Procter, W. A...Rylstone, Skipton-in-Craven.
RapcuiFFr, David Clarke. .Mold, Flintshire.
RAYNEs, Francis..Bawtry, Yorks.
RHODES, W...Lundholme, Westhouse, Yorks.
RiGHTON, E. G... Evesham.
Rosson, J... King Charles Croft, Leeds.
Rorpuck, W...Greylands, Horsell, Surrey.
Ross, Rev. J. C... Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
SHILTON, A. J...Science Institute, Reading.
SKENE, W. B...Christ Church, Oxford.
Smrru, H. J...Coldham Hall, Wisbech.
SmrtH, J...Sudlow Farm, Knutsford.
STANSFIELD, W...Marston Lodge, Leeds.
Srocxkin, Charles... Mayor of Doncaster.
Srong, A. E...The Stalls, Worcester.
Srupps, W... Weeping Cross, Stafford.
Trrr, H. 8... Faversham.
THORNLEY, W... Hurdle Hall, Bickenhill.
TouGu, A... Upper Mitton, Stourport.
TRAVIS, B...113 Queen's Road, Dalston, E.
WALKER, H. 8... Netherthorpe, Worksop.
Warner, A. E...Manor Lodge, Botley, Hants.
Wrppa.t, G. E...Thornton House, Brough.
Wuirr, John..Clanfield, Faringdon.
WHITEHEAD, Rowland..14 Old Square, W.C.
WILuiAMs, J... Merthermawr, Bridgend.
WI1son, C. M... Waldershaigh, Bolsterstone.
Wiuson, John..Bickenhill, Birmingham.
Wnhient, W. C...Catherine Street, Doncaster.
Wypy, Hon. l'.G...Glyullifon Park, Carnarvon,

par

a
5

Monthly Council, March 4, 1891.

YAtTEs, Ralph. . Malton, Yorks.
YEARDLEY, John.,. Model Mill, Sheffield.

The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below :—

Finance.

Sir NIGEL KineGscoTE (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month of February, as certified by
the Society’s accountants, showed
total receipts amounting to 1,003/. 2s.
4d., and expenditure amounting to
1,0562. 9s. 3d. The balance at the
bankers on the 28th February, allow-
ing for cheques outstanding, was
5,6162. 6s. 11d. Accounts amounting
in all to 2,0752. 1s. 10d. had been
passed, and were recommended for
payment. The Committee recom-
mended that the names of one
governor, three life members, and
two annual members, deceased, eigh-
teen members who had resiyned, and
nine in arrears with their subscrip-
tions, be struck off the register.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE also an-
nounced that the Auditors had com-
pleted on Monday their audit of the
Society’s accounts for the year 1890.
The final result was that, after writing
off the customary percentages for
depreciation, the Society’s assets
amounted at the 31st December,
1890, to 35,1762. 13s. 2d., as against
38,0562. 7s. 10d. at the end of 1889.
The Auditors had also presented a
valuable report on the relations of
life compositions to revenue, in which
they recommended that all life com-

positions received in future should be _

placed to the reserve fund, and that
out of this fund should be paid each
year the cost of providing with their
privileges the life members then on
the books.
the table, and suggested that it
might usefully be printed in the next
number of the Journal, with the
balance-sheet and other statements of
account (see pages xii to xxi).

Journal.

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) re-
ported the receipt of applications
from various institutions for free
copies of the Journal, as to which
directions had been given to the
Secretary. The Committee recom-
mended that breeders’ cards be ad-

He laid this report,uwpon —

Reports of Committees.

mitted to the advertisement pages of
the Journal at the same charge as
other advertisements. The Secretary
had submitted his proposals for the
articles in the forthcoming number of
the Journal, which were approved.

Chemical.

Mr. WARREN (in the absence of
Viscount Emlyn, Chairman) reported
that various details connected with
the Society’s laboratory had been
discussed and settled. The report of
the Woburn Sub-Committee had been
received and adopted. The Commit-
tee presented their Quarterly Report,
which, on the motion of Mr. WARREN,
was adopted and ordered to be pub-
lished (see page 157).

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) re-
ported that Miss Ormerod had pre-
sented a report which the Committee
recommended for publication (see
page 168). The Committee had re-
ceived samples of two new grasses
called respectively “ new late-flower-
ing cocksfoot” and Anthowanthum
amarum or “ mammoth sweet vernal,”
and they recommended that these
should be tried at Woburn under the
supervision of the Consulting Botanist.
A request had been received from the
Trish Land Commission asking the
Council to suggest the names of per-
sons in a position to give information
on the subject of Forestry, and the
Committee had given directions to
the Secretary as to the suggestion of
certain names of gentlemen in Scot-
land. They would be glad if Mem-
bers of Council would send to the
Secretary the names of any gentle-
men in England qualified to give as-
sistance in this matter.

Mr. WHITEHEAD pointed out that
Miss Ormerod in her report drew
special attention to the fact that the
hard frost and the severe weather
during the recent winter had not had
the slightest effect upon insect life.
It was commonly supposed that frost
had the power of killing insects, and
that, therefore, they would be free
from insect plagues during the next
season. He was afraid that their
hopes would be disappointed, and he
would advise all those who were
troubled with insect pests during the

xli

past year to take precautions for the
coming season.

Veterinary.

Sir Joan THOROLD (Chairman) re-
ported that a letter had been read from
Mr. Lewis P. Rees, of Carmarthen, ac-
cepting the post of Provincial Veter-
inary Surgeon for Carmarthenshire.
A form of petition to the President of
the Board of Agriculture on the sub-
ject of the-sale as British meat of
imported American cattle, and of the
present restrictions on home cattle,
which had been received from the
North-West Cattle Trade and Farmers’
Defence Association, had been ordered
to lie upon the table. The Farriers’
Company had reported that nearly
200 applications for registration had
already been received under tke
scheme for the National Registration
of Farriers or Shoeing-smiths.

Professor Brown had presented the
following report :—

Pleuro-pneumonia.—During the
four weeks ended february 21st
there were seventy-five cattle
affected with this disease slaugh-
tered in Great Britain in the
counties of Hants, Kent, Lancaster,
London, Surrey, Warwick, York
(W.R.), Forfar, Lanark, Midlothian,
Perth. and Renfrew. In the same
period 930 healthy cattle which
had been exposed to the risk of in-
fection were slaughtered in the
counties of Durham, Hants, Kent,
Lancaster, London, Surrey, War-
wick, Wilts, York (W.R.), Aberdeen,
Forfar, Lanark, Midlothian, Perth,
Renfrew, and Sterling.

Anthrax.—There were eleven
fresh outbreaks of this disease re-
ported in Great Britain in the
counties of Dorset, Northampton,
Notts, Warwick, York (E.R.), and-
York (W.R.). In these outbreaks
twenty-two animals were attacked,
two were killed, nineteen died, and
two recovered,

Swine Fever.—During the four
weeks 212 fresh outbreaks of this
disease were reported in Great Bri-
tain; 1,391 swine were attacked,
745 diseased pigs were killed, 601
died, 232 recovered, and 201 re-
mained alive when the return was
made up.

xiii

Rabies—In England nine cases
of this disease were reported in the
four weeks in the counties of Essex,
Hants, Kent, London, Middlesex,
and York (W.R.).

Stock Prizes.

Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported
that a letter had been received from
the British Berkshire Society agree-
ing to the conditions under which
their proposed champion prize of 10/7.
would be accepted by the Royal
Agricultural Society.

Judges’ Selection.

Mr. SanDAY (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had examined
the list of gentlemen nominated as
Judges, and that with very few ex-
ceptions the invitations had been ac-
cepted. They had given instructions
for the completion of the list.

* Implement.

Mr. FRANKISH (Chairman) reported
‘the Committee’s recommendation that
the trials of Threshing Machines
commence on Monday, June 15th, at
3 p.m. The Committee had con-
sidered and revised a proposed sche-
dule of prizes aad regulations for
Ploughs and Horse-diggers in 1892,
and they recommended that a copy
as amended be forwarded to each
member of the Council before the
next meeting.

Mr. HORNSBY said he desired to
make a statement to the Council,
as he had already done to the Imple-
ment Committee, relative to the
proposed prizes for Ploughs. Last
year, as they would remember, he was
placed in a very disagreeable position
with reference to the prizes for
Threshing Machines. He wished,
therefore, to say that as regarded the
proposed trials of Ploughs next year,
his firm must be held as being at
liberty to decide whether they would
compete or not, though he himself
would be ready, as a personal matter,
to give every assistance to the Council
in the settlement of the system under
which the Plough Trials should take
place, if it should be the decision of
the Council to have these trials.

Mr. RANSOME thought it would be
generally agreed that every Member
of the Council ought to speak ont

Monthly Council, March 4, 1891.

about a matter on which he
strongly. Itwas somewhat disag
able to him, but he felt that
would not be doing his duty unless
did speak out upon this question
the Plough Trials. The Council d
cided at the last meeting that there
should be trials for ploughs in connec-
tion with the Warwick Meeting, an¢
he supposed they could not
their resolution. He was very strongly
of opinion that theywere offering mone ¥.
for that which would result in very
little benefit. Ordinary Horse Ploughs
had been thoroughly tried at pas
Meetings of the Society, at Warwick,
Newcastle, Leicester, and Hull. I
prizes they might like to offer would
be of very little utility in bringing
out practical improvements ; it wou
therefore, be a very considerable
waste of money. If they wished to
offer prizes for ploughs, he would
like to move :— 7
That it be an instruction to: he
Committee in preparing the sche-
dule for the Plough prizes that
ordinary single and double-furrow
ploughs should not be included. —

He believed the Society could o: fer
prizes which would be much mor
valuable and of much niore benefit to
agriculture than these.

Mr. Ransome’s motion, not being
seconded, fell to the ground,
the report of the Committee
then adopted.

General Doncaster.

Mr. DENT reported that the a
Committee had appointed Mr. J.
Crouch, of 6 Hall Gate, Doncaster, a
Official Agent for the letras
houses and lodgings. The Commit
“recommended that the Band of t

Yorkshire Dragoons be engaged 1

play selections of music three times
a day on the Tuesday, Wednesda
Thursday and Friday of the Done:
Meeting. Arrangements had beer
made with the Vicar of Doncaster &
to the holding of the usual Sunda
Service previous to the opening of tht
Show, and the Archbishop of ¥ 01
had kindly consented -to preaemg

sermon on that occasion.

Showyard Works.

Mr. Cuay reported that the §
yard Works at Doncaster hall

.
eSCING

oe

Reports of Commuttees.

commenced, and that timber and
other materials for the works were
being received. The Local Committee
were laying down the sleeper roads
and water mains. The Surveyor’s
accounts had been passed, and various
recommendations as to payments were
presented. An offer from the Shap
Granite and Patent Concrete Com-
pany, Limited, to lay the flooring of
the dairy with their patent granite
concrete, free of charge, had been
accepted.
Education.

Lord Moreton (Chairman) an-
nounced that the Committee had
carefully considered a report pre-
sented by the Sub-Committee, to
whom had been remitted the subject
of text-books in agriculture for use
in elementary and _ continuation
schools; and they agreed with the
Sub-Committee in thinking that the
preparation of a text-book ought to
be undertaken by the Royal Agricul-
tural Society. They recommended,
therefore, that such a _ text-book
should be prepared under the auspices
of the Society, and should be pub-
lished with its authority.

Various letters and documents re-
lating to technical education in agri-
culture had been laid upon the table.
The following time-table for the
Senior Examination to be held next
May had been considered and ap-
proved :—

Tuesday, May 12.

Land Surveying . .. .10am.tol pm.

Agriculture(written paper) 2 p.m. ,, 5 p.m.
Wednesday, May 13.

Agricultural Engineering . 10 a.m.

Agricultural (vird voce)
Thursday, May 14.

Chemistry (General). .

» 1 p.m.
. 5, Op

. 10 a.m, ,, 1 p.m.
eee Ol. til.

Book-keeping Sw ane + xP oy Lp,

oe - . 2pm, ,,4p.m.

Agricultural Entomology . 4 p.m. ,, 5 p.m.
Saturday, May 16.

a 10 a.m, ,, 1 p.m.

EOIN Sw kw ww 2p.m. ,, 4 p.m.

In the course of the discussion on
this report, Lord MorETON said that
the Committee quite felt that the
price of the proposed text-book must
be kept as low as possible.

Mr. DENT said he would like to
suggest that after they had issued

xliii

this text-book the Society should
endeavour, if it could, to get out some
good reading-books. The text-book
would be a thoroughly scientific hand-
book to agriculture; but really the
reading-books which children had in
the elementary schools for the poorer
classes were most unsuitable. Books
that would give an interest to the
children in country life would be far
more useful. He remembered an old
book called “Eyes and no Eyes,”
which described what one could see
and learn in the country if oue used
one’s eyes, and how much one might
lose by not using one’s eyes. If such
reading-books were obtainable, they
would be a great deal more useful
than those now in existence; but, for
the present, the Society had enough
to do.

Country Meeting of 1892.

On the motion of the Hon. CECcIL
T. PARKER, seconded by Sir JAcoB
WILSON, the Society’s seal was au-
thorised to be affixed to the agreement
with the Corporation of Warwick as
to the Country Meeting of 1892.

International Agricultural Congress —
at the Hague.

The SECRETARY reported that he
had received a communication from
the Executive Committee of the
International Agricultural Congress
which would be held at the Hague
from September 7th to 12th next,
asking him to undertake for England
the issue of programmes and_ the
giving of information relative to the
Congress to those interested in the
subject. Permission to do this was
granted by the Council.

Dates of forthcoming Meetings.

Various letters and other documents
having been laid upon the table, the
Council adjourned until Wednesday,
April 8th, 1891 (instead of April Ist,
Easter Wednesday); and it was at
the same time arranged that the re-
maining meetings of the session
should be held on the following
dates :—Wednesdays, May 6th, June
3rd, June 24th (in the Doncaster
Showyard), and July 29th.

( xliv )

PRINCIPAL ADDITIONS TO THE LIBRA
DURING THE YEAR 1890.

[The name of the Donor, or the mode of acquisition, appears in italics
after the title of each work. |

AGRICULTURA, Ministero di, Industria e Commercio, Coltivazioni Sperimentali.

Vol I. vo.” Rome; 1889). 22.0. 0c.nescornvensise dene ast eee peeees Govt. of Italy
Annales Agronomiques. Vol. XVI. 8vo. Paris, 1890. ......... Govt. of France
——— de la Science Agronomiqne Francaise et Etrangére. Par L. Grandean.

Anneé VIL. Fasc..d. Svo: Paris, 1890) .<..c0.scseseeceenee eee Author
Annali di Agricoltura, 1890. 8vo. Rome, 1890 .............s2ee0e0 Govt. of Italy
Atlas der Urproduction Oesterreichs. Fol. Vienna............ Gort. of Austria

Atlas of the World. Library Reference. 4to. London, 1890......... Purchased

BARRAL, J. A., Dictionnaire d’Agriculture. Fasc. 21-23. 8vo. Paris, 1890.
Purchased

Bericht iiber die Thitigkeit des K. K. Ackerbau-Ministeriums, 1868; 1869 to
June 30, 1874; July 1, 1874, to June 30, 1875; July 1, 1875, to Dec.

31, 1876 ; 1877 to 1880; 1881 to 1886. Seven volumes. 4to. Vienna,
VATIONS Gates. (oun cdcncnccrssevesssseoennscpaehesncmee HL. Count von Falhenhayn
Bericht tiber die Verhandlungen und Beschliisse des internationalen land- und
forstwirthschaftlichen Congresses in Wien, 1890 ... Congress Committee

Board of Trade Journal. Vols. VIII., IX. 8vo. Lond., 1890. Board of Trade
Bunyard, G., Fruit Farming for Profit (up to date). 3rd Edit. 8vo.
Maidstone, 1890... .cccccsossesecressceresnsoacecats cues eve cnetee:taeeeeeeaame Author

CENSO Agricolo-Pecuario de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 1888. 8vo. Buenos
(Ayres, LESBO iis cs nocestecdncederseocscsteunecsease es teaeet eee Argentine Republie
Coghlan, T. A., The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales, 1888-9.

3rd Hd. Svo; Sydney, WSSOi:....:..c2.d-sncecececsctedecrsMomevsseeeeeey im Author
Comptes Rendus des Travaux de la Société des Agriculteurs de France,
Tome 2cXI...-8vo.~ Paris) 1890).......00.stecs devcntensescs stduceetas seam Socie
Congrés International d’Agriculture 4 Paris, 1889 .........ccseseeeeeee Purchased
Cotes, HE. C., Notes on Economic Entomology. Vol. I Nus. 3, 4.
Caleutbtay US9Oiseiatabds cot cee edetee cou dagabeneeceue eee een Trustees Ind. Mi
Day, William. The Horse, How to Breed and Rear him. 2nd Ed. 8vyo.
Tond:, - L890 25h dency bepatansedeas <staes somes Soscnss ee est pee taeeea ee Author
Dehérain, P. P., Travaux de la Station Agronomique de ]’Ecole d’Agriculture
de) Grignon;Ȣ8yvo.! Paris) "1889: cicess.s-setaeeroeenaaanee PP Ly, Author

ENCYKLOPAEDIE der gesammten Thierheilkund und Thierzucht. Herausge-
geben von Alois Koch. Vols. I.VIII. 8vo. Vienna and Leipzig,
LBBOKOL onc nscusciereandostenacssecos ssn vepnceeeste toetvan sn ececattean team Purchased

FLEMING, Dr. George, Horse-shoes and Horse-shoeing : Their Origin, History,

Uses, and Abuses. 8v0. Lond., 1869............scvsccnsssseseonss Purchased
Flock Books :— ;
Oxford Down Flock-Book. Vol. II. S8vo. London, 1890 ...... sone ne OCI!

Flock-Book of Suffolk Sheep Vol. IV. 8vo. 1890..........++00 °
Flock-Book of Wensleydale Long Wool Sheep. Vol. I. 8vo, .....+¢..S0¢

GAUWAIN, Législation Rurale. Svo, Paris, 1890......cssccereesseeel UM

Principal Additions to the Inbrary during the Year 1890. xlv

Giglioli Prof. E. H., Primo Resoconto dei Risultati della Inchiesta Ornitologica
in lalia. Parte Seconda. Avifaune Locale. Risultati della Inchiesta
Ornitologica nelle Singole Provincie. 8vo. Florence, 1890...... Author

Goltz, Dr. Theod. Freiherr von der, Handbuch der gesammten Landwirthschaft.
Tereeetn. Svo. Tubingen; 1890) oc ccccswseiwccesscoveervsseres Purchased

Grandeau, L., Etudes Agronomiques. Séries I.IV. (1885-89). 8vo. Paris,
He coud oe canceastelak squitadavlases veveiedebyns Publishers (Hachette et Cie.)

Greenwich, Royal Observatory, Results of the Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations, for 1887. 4to. Lond., 1889............... Roy. Observatory

Gresswell, J. B., and A. Gresswell. A Manual of the Theory and Practice of

; Equine Medicine. 2nd Edit. Revised by G. Gresswell. 8vo. Lond.,

PE ca cecandetecucscccestecsssasses Publishers (Bailliére, Tindall, and Cox)
—The Equine Hospital Prescriber. 2nd Edit. Revised by G. Gresswell.
Heo. chondon, 1890..........00.ccn+. Publishers (Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox)
HANDLINGAR och Tidskrift, Kongl. Landtbruks-Akademiens. Ar 1890.
MMBC CNG litie LOGO cess cccedce «ne nwsaramen veg cwecnsiecdneacdeucadwdnesens Akad.
Hartig, Dr. R., Timbers and how to Know them. Translated by W. Somer-
miles Ope. I2mo. Wdinburgh, 1890 ..... cc... ccccessseseve W. Somerville
Herd-Books :—
Herd-Book Argentino para la Raza Vacuna Shorthorn Perfeccionada. (Dur-
ea) Mol, I. 7Svo._ Buenos Ayres, 1889... ... 02.502. d.ccsendeoscese Society
Coates’s Herd-Book. Vol. XXXVI. S8vo. London., 1890...Shorthorn Soc.
Davy’s Devon Herd-Book. Vol. XIII. 8vo. Exeter, 1890............... Society
Frisian Herd-Book. Vol. XVI. 8vo. Leeuwarden, 1890....Consul Nethids.
Galloway Herd-Book. Vol. X. 8vo. Dumfries, 1890.................. Society
Guernsey Herd-Book. Vol. V. 8vo. Guernsey, 1890...............00 Society
Herd-Book of Hereford Castle. Vol. XXI. 8vo. Hereford, 1890...Society
North Wales Black Cattle Herd-Book. Vol. III. 8vo. Bangor...... Society
National Pig Breeders’ Association Herd-Book. Vol. VI. 8yvo. London,
EE Sosa ol aeVetvens sc cccresteredscccueevsudnee onteeesvaeaes Association
Polled Herd-Book. Vol. XIV. 8vo. Banff, N.B., 1890................08 Society
Red Polled Herd-Book. Vol. IV. 8vo. Norwich................cceceees Society
Wemsey Eerd-Book. Vol: X. 4to. Jersey, 1890............ssececeeoscsues Society

Register of Births of pure-bred Jersey Cattle. No.7. 8vo. London, 1890.
: Eng. Jers. Cattle Society
South Wales Black Cattle Herd-Book. Vol. V. 8vo, Carmarthen...Society
Sussex Herd-Book. Vols. 1—V. 8vo. Lewes and London, 1879_90...Society

Insect Life. Vols. II., III., Nos. 1-4. 8vo. Washington, 1889_90.
US. Depart. of Agric.

JAHREUCH der Deutschen Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft: Band 1-5. 8to.

aE MRER TEEN EOL a He oa. carctetcsels' Bc a cigtde «clase PCN Soe oN ota deee teas kalec' et Gesellschaft
—der K. K. Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft in Wien, 1889. 8vo. Vienna,
I on eas one ae aos sods os deca s dc esee ntact secesscasestcavsceiss Gesellschaft
Jahresbericht der Agrikultur-Chemie. Neue Folge, XII. 8vo. Berlin.
MB ile Coie Ua aslee cin seo due dep cachvadsaledstdeaecacstecsetcesboesases Purchased

—— der Kéniglichen Landwirthschafts-Gesellschaft zu Celle, for 1889. 8vo.
MTSU eso co ,105 2 sina ec cnieee vie Peg canienkcd ears cdweadcu see sumltuxtonae Verein

—— der ausfiihrenden Direktion des Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landwirth-
schaftlichen Generalvereins, for 1889. 8vo. Kiel, 1890 ......... Verein
Johnston, R. M. Tasmanian Official Record, 1890. 8vo. Tasmania, 1890
Author

KOBRESPONDENZ des Milchwirthschaftlichen Vereins. No, 34. 4to. Kiel,
I on D.Sc cookies ice ascvt<vevsnaceaesubeecacedectevene’ «ot sndiinnss Verein
Kramer, Dr. Ernst, Die Bakteriologie in ihren Beziehungen zur Landwirthschaft
und den Landw-Technischen Gewerben. 8yo. Vienna, 1890...Purchased

xlvi Principal Additions to the Inbrary during the Year 1890.

LANDWIRTHSCHAFTLICHE Jahrbticher. Band XIX. 8vo. Berlin, 1890.
Dept. of Agric.

Bd. XIX. Erginzungsbd. I.and II. 8vo. Berlin, 1890... Dept. of Agrie.
Larbalétrier, Prof. A., Manuel Pratique du Drainage des Terres Arables. 8vo.
IPALIS) UBOO Gea cetetetces cave cecess tenses as cae taummecagaecensalten oa cee eee Purchased
Lawes, Sir John B., Memoranda of Origin, Plan, and Results of Field and
other Experiments at Rothamsted, Herts. 4to. Lond., 1890 ... Author
Lippiza, Das K. K. Hofgestiit zu Lippiza, 1580-1880. 4to. Vienna, 1880.
Austrian Master of the Horse

Mackay, T., The English Poor. 8vo. Lond., 1889................:. John Murray
Mémoires publiés par la Société Nationale d’Agriculture de France. Tome
CXXXINI. By. (Panis, 1890 or. cesesnace danse ooieniie dans eeeeeeeeee Societ

Mittheilungen des Vereines zur Forderung des Landwicthschatslienem
Versuchswesens in Oesterreich. Heft V. 4to. Vienna, * 1890.
Dy. Max Ritter von Proshonetz

Morton, J. C., Labour of the Farm. 8vo. Lond., 1887 ............... Purchased
Mummery, A. F., and J. A. Hobson., The Physiology of Industry. 8yo.
Th @ily Ikstel). qectessscusosa6cboc ena'lse cvlansosiisfetssa clan |aanire dace John Murray

NOTES on Indian Economic Entomology. Vol. I., Nos. 3,4. 8vo. Calcutta,
D890 cskuswavaws vee sie leew gue cman + selcticasneen as cesbie: oe eaeeene Trustees Ind. Mus.

ORMEROD, Miss Eleanor A., A Manual of Injurious Insects, and Methods of
Prevention. 2nd Edit, /8vo.. Lond, 1890 “crapsaseeeeseenee nee Author
—_—— Report of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common Farm Pests
during the year 1889, with Methods of Prevention and Remedy. 13th
Report, Svo. Wond’; 11890) civ.-.vecees..ce-cedeseeeeaseaees aa weme ete Author

Parliamentary Papers :—

Agricultural Produce Statistics of Great Britain, for 1889. 8vo. London,

1890 ...cccsecceeeeeceeccnneeeserneneneeseeeeccescescessaseees Board of Agriculture
Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, &c., for 1890. 8vo. London, 1890. —

Board of Agriculture

Agricultural Statistics of Ireland, for 1889. Fol. Dublin, 1890......... Gort.
Army Veterinary Department, Annual Statistical and General Report, for
1889. Fol. London, 1890..<.0:i..5.0ss-seenccsesah vdveneeee cetenbeeeee Govt.

Board of Agriculture. 3rd Annual Report on Insects and Fungi injurious to
the Crops of the Farm, the Orchard, and the Garden. By Chas.

Whitehead. Svo. Lond., 1890..............sssecsessceeeess Board of Agric.
Commercial Further Reports on the Agricultural Departments of Foreign
Countries, Svo. Uond S90 vet. sscneccessevseenteemeaeeenean Purchased
Hop Industry, Report on the. Fol. Lond., 1890.......++:++000 Purchased

Horse-Breeding, Royal Commission on. Reports 1-3. With Minutes of
Evidence and Digest. Fol. London, 1888~—90...... Royal Commission
Pleuro-Pneumonia, Return relating to, of the last 3 years. Fol. Lond.,

TOO peace ccccsesccctcues en csned Cree cCepeaanaae tae iets Board of Agriculture
Potato Crop, Extracts from Reports upon the, made for the Irish Land
Commission, for 1890. Fol. Dublin, 1890 ................02veeeee Gort.
Reports on Broad Wheels, &c., Roads and Harbours, &c. 31 Reports. Fol.
Tons, LQO6=B Des sedcecSauiees vores vasbetevechwadeeecest anaemia Royal Society
Reports on Land Tenure in Foreign Countries. Fol. Lond,, 1870-72
Purchased

Special Report on Insects, Fungi, and Weeds injurious to Farm Crops. 8vo.
Dublin, 1890 ..2cs..nss cere» covets cerscucssc eames Trish Registrar- General

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1874-88. No. 26. 8vo.
Lond, L889. ccsssvecoedonctcecscavveesensnnvasneehna even ie See Board of Trade

Principal Additions to the Inbrary during the Year 1890, xlvii

Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Posses-
sions, Annual Statement for 1889. Fol. Lond., 1890... Board of Trade

Trade and Navigation Accounts for 1890. 8vo. Lond., 1890. Board of Trade
Veterinary Department, Annual Report for 1889. 8vo. Lond., 1890.
Board of Agriculture

Woods and Forests and Land Revenues of the Crown. Report for 1889-90.
Fol. Lond., 1889-90...... FRRAC OC GO DACRE CL COOGEE OED Purchased

Porticr, R., Scuola Superiore d’Agricultura. Annuario. Vols. I-V. 8vo.
Naples, 1878-85. Resoconto, for 1889-90. S8vo. Portici, 1890.

Roy. Agric. School

Powell, J. W., 5th and 6th Annual Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology.
Roy. 8vo. Washington, 1887-8................0cccceceencees Smithsonian Inst.
Protokolle der Sitzungen des Zentral-Auschusses der Kéniglichen Landwirth-
schafts-Gesellschaft, Zentral-Verein fiir die Provinz Hannover, zu
Melina tera Gln SvOr- Hanover, 1890.0... .cccscecscseccdcenecsreccass Verein

RELATORIO Annual da Estac&io Agronomica de Campinas em 1889. Sao Paulo,
Sra eceer aan vce aen tivo hay snssoesireinclenaatcen= at's Gort. of Brazl
Rinder Racen, Die Oesterreichischen, Herausgegeben vom K. K. Ackerbau
Ministerium :
Band I. Rinder der Oesterreichischen Alpenlinder, Von Ferd. Kaltenegger.
Heft I. Oberinnthaler und Lechthaler Typus. 8vo. Vienna, 1879.
II. Montavoner Typus und Landvieh im Vorarlberg. 8vo.
Vienna, 1880.
» II. Etschthal und Wippthal. 8vo. Vienna, 1884.
IV. Grau und Braunvieh in Italienisch-Stidtirol. S8vo. Vienna,
1889.
Band II. Rinder des Donauthales in Ober- und Nieder-Oesterreich. Von
Franz Zoepf.
Heft I. Ober-Oesterreich. Svo. Vienna, 1881.
II. Nieder-Oesterreich. S8vo. Vienna, 1884.
Baron Arthur von Hohenbruck
Rodiczky, Eugen, v., Studien tiber das Schwein. 8vo. Vienna, 1873 ...Author
— — A. Kassai M. Kir. Gazdasagi Tanintézet Evkényve az 1889, ik Evre. 8vo.
BR UMEUMETTTMM Cf vlondseiidod usec > cca aclaa sevice sic sv cunedecs cect acenesvacccactccceedees Author
Ronna, A., Les Irrigations. TomeTJII. 8vo. Paris, 1890 ............ Purchased

»”

”

SAUNDERS, Prof. W., Agricultural Colleges aud Experimental Farm Stations.
MOIST. NOSO! occas snacisosacses tosses casesececnneieaadcgasstcancuenos Author
Smith, F. A., Manual of Veterinary Hygiene. 8vo. Londor, 1887.
: Publishers (Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox)

Smith, Dr. R. M., The Physiology of the Domestic Animals. $vo. Philadelphia

PemIMMPI OUR NO soe c.g cen nes snc 506d uRsndenannnans desman anie saeetues soi Publisher
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. XXVI. Fol. Washington,
eM ertig chistes en cciatesies o vaciab ets se sislacse sacuiissisrden acts sadisceninents eden sees Institution

Statistical Year-Book of Canada, for 1889. 8vo. Ottawa, 1890. Dominion Govt.
Statistics of the Colony of Tasmania, for 1889. Fol. Tasmania, 1890.
Govt. of Tasmania

Statistique Agricole, for 1888. S8vo. Paris, 1889 ............ French Min. Agric.
Statistische Ausweise tiber die Approvisionierung der Stadt Wien im Jahre
Peete, VIENNA, US89) ........ccccceecescecsecesosscss Herr Joseph Zecha
Statistisches Jahrbuch des K. K. Ackerbau-Ministerium, for 1885-89. 8vo.
ISCO) oo cacscccscececccececeseccenccece HE. Count von Falhenhayn

Steel, J. H., Diseases of the Sheep. 8vo. London, 1890... Publishers (Longmans)
Stephens, Henry, The Book of the Farm. 4th Ed. Revised and in great
part rewritten by James Macdonald. Divs. IV., V. 8vo. Edin. and
Lond., 1890 ......... RPGR UNS cos’ acisoeanie vcs decameuemve teases ++ee.S ames Macdonald

xlviii Principal Additions to the Inbrary during the Year 1890. x

Stud- Books :— cs
Cleveland Bay Stud-Book. Vol. VI. 8vo. Saltburn, 1889 ....... . Society
Clydesdale Stud-Book. Vol. XII. 8vo. Glasgow, 1890 ........ Society
General Stud-Book. Vol. XVI. 8vo. London, 1889 ............... chased

Hackney Stud-Book. Stallionsand Mares. Vol. VII. 8vo. Norwich, 1890,

Social
Shire Horse Stud-Book. Vols. XI. and XII. 8vo, London, 1890-91.. Society
Suffolk Stud-Book. Vol. V. 8vo. Diss, 1890 ............ss.-ssesnecoesenss Assoc.

Yorkshire Coach Horse Stud-Book of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. III.
Sv0., “YOU, US90 non. connecsscensesveusswntseatewessteeaeeteas=s= eae Society
Surveyors’ Institution. Transactions and Professional Notes. London, 1890.
Inst.

Sutton, Martin J., Permanent and Temporary Pastures. 4th Edition. 8vo.
‘London, SOL sesseosechissssaetevta tase Author

TALPA, or the Chronicles of a Clay Farm. By Chandos Wren Hoskyns.
Sixth Edition. Svo." London; 1889i.20..c-...ssescoceseeaceetranree Purchased —
Thornton’s Circular. Vol. XII., Nos. 89, 90. 8vo. London, 1890.
John Thornton

Tryon, H., Report on Insect and Fungus Pests. No.1. 8vo. Brisbane, 1889.
Trustees Queensland Mus. —

WEIN, Dr. E., Agriculturchemische Analyse. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1889. Purchased
Wilckens, Prof. M., Nordamerikanische Landwirthschaft. 8vo. Tiibingen, 1890

Wright, John, Profitable Fruit-Growing for Cottagers and Small Holders of —
Land. 8v0. London, 1889 .........ssesesesseeesseseeeeseeessesseenetee Author

duction, Biompiodl Sketch, and Notes by M. Betham-Edwards.
2nd. Ed. 8vo. London, 1989". oe Publishers (George Bell § Sons)

US 90 xreeaancwensarosccs cp oooesspscisetocesccedarc sees aeons eeee tate eee Purchased
des landwirthschaftlichen Vereins in Bayern. Jahrgang LXXIX.
SV¥O.~ Munich, 1889.0... .cc..concevccosceseccecaseusartoenctieternenee ene meaom Verei

lo ee eee

The Society is indebted to numerous Government Departments, both at
home and abroad, to Boards of Agriculture, Agricultural Societies, and
kindred institutions, for copies of their Annual Reports, Journals, Proceed-
ings, Transactions, Bulletins, and other documents received regularly for the
Lnbrary in exchange for copies of the Journal, as well as to the Editors of
many agricultural and general papers for the current numbers of their pub-—
lications, which have been placed for reference in the Reading Room. ~

‘e

a

|

:

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Proceedings of the Council.

WEDNESDAY, APRIL 8, 1891.

THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH

Present :—
Trustees.—Eatl Cathcart, Ool. Sir
Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., Sir A. K.
Macdonald, Bart., Duke of Richmond
and Gordon, K.G.

Vice-Presidents— Earl of Fever-
sham, Lord Moreton, Sir John Thorold,

-Bart., Mr. C. Whitehead.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Mr.
J. A. Caird, Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell,
Mr. Charles Clay, Earl of Coventry,
Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. C. De L. F. De

~Laune, Viscount Emlyn, Mr. William

Frankish, Mr. James Hornsby, Mr.
Charles Howard, Mr. Joseph Martin,
Mr. T. H. Miller, Mr. P. A. Muntz,
M.P., Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr. Albert
Pell, Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr. S. Row-
landson, Mr. A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry

‘Smith, Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr. Gar-

rett Taylor, Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr. John
Tremayne, Mr. R. A. Warren, Mr. E.
VY. V. Wheeler, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir
Jacob Wilson.

Professor Brown, C.B.

Officers —Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Professor Simonds,
Consulting Veterinary Surgeon; Dr.
J. Augustus Voelcker, Consulting
Chemist ; Mr. Wilson Bennison, Sur-

veyor,

The following members of the

‘Doncaster Local Committee were also

present:—The Mayor of Doncaster
(Mr. Alderman Stockil), Mr. F. Bacon
Frank, Mr. Joseph Firth Clark, Mr.
John White, Mr. G. T. Wood, and

VOL. Il. T, S3.—6

(PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Mr. George Chafer (Secretary of the
Local Committee).

Apologies for Non-attendancé,

Apologies for non-attendance wete
received from H.R.H. Prince Chris-
tian, K.G., Mr. Ashworth, Mr. Gor-
tinge, Mr. Mainwaring, Mr, Scarth,
and Mr. Stanyforth.

Election of New Members.

The minutes of the Council held on
March 4 last having been read and
confirmed, the election of the fol-
lowing eighty-eight Members was
proceeded with :—

ALDAM, H...Bonbusk, Cuckney Mansfield,
ALLEN, T...Manghold, Isle of Man.
ARCHER, H...Drax Abbey, Selby, Yorks.
AUCKLAND, E...St. George's Terr., Doncaster,
BAKER, E. W...23 Cattle Market, Norwich.
Barton, B. F...Burley, Woolton Hill, New-
bury, Hants.
BaTHER, Major T. J. A...Great Ness, Salop.
BLAkg, G...Chittern All Saints, Codford, Wilts.
Bosover, Lady...St. Ann’s Hill, Chertsey.
Bostock, H...Walton Heath, Epsom.
Brices, A...Charlcot, Bedale, Yorks.
Broprm, F, G...51 Port Street, Evesham.
Brown, A...Tyldesley, Manchester.
BuRSTALL, Capt. J. H...Hessle Mount, Hull.
CHAMBERS, Ambrose. .Selby, Yorks.
CHAMBERS, A. M...T'apton Lodge, Sheffield.
CLarkk, C. B...Clayhidon, Wellington, Som.
CockILL, H...Green House, Doncaster.
CROSLAND, B.. . Richmond, Handsworth, Yorks,
Dawson, C...Lake Road, Landport.
Dopson, W., jun...Sprotbro’, Doncaster.
DUNKERLEY, C. C...Hurst Dale, Dunham
Massey, Cheshire.
Dutton, B...Baddiley Farm, Nantwich.
EvmuirstT, H. I...Round Green, Barns'ey.
ELMHIRST, J...Thorne, Doncaster.
EXETER, Marquis of... Burghley Ho., Stamford.
FAwcert, H...Belthorpe, near York.
FawWCceTT, W...105 Kirkstall Rd., Leeds,
FERNLEY, G. A... Westwood, Buxton.
FORRINGTON, J. T...Saxilby, Lincoln.

d

] Monthly Council, April 8, 1891.

Fox, Saiiisoh..Grove House, Harrogate.
FrrEsTON, T. A... Eastwell Hall, Melton Mow-

bray.
Gipson, E... Bally, near Doncaster.
GILLortT, John. .Conisborough, Yorks.
GREENWOOD, H. J...Birstwith Hall, Ripley,
Leeds.
Grocott, T...Eddleston Hall, Nantwich.

Hauirax, Viscount..Hickleton Hall, Don-
caster.

HAtt, S. M... Thorpe Salvin, Yorks.

Harris, H. F... Brooke House, Fleet, Hants,

HARRISON, F...King St., Thorne, Yorks.

Harwoop, J... Fen End, Knowle, Birmingham.

HENDERSON, J...Castle Hill, Bickenhill, Bir-
mingham.

Hervey, J. P. S...Dry Hill Park, Tonbridge.

Hi, W...Carlton, Barnsley.

Ho.tey, W...Rotsea Manor, Cranswick, York.

HorBERRY, T... Walkeringham, Gainsborough.

IsHAM, A. C...Tne Hollies, Clipston, Northants,

JACKSON, J. A...Tilworth Grange, Sutton-on-
Hull

JARVIS, J. M...The Springs, Ellesmere.
JARVIS, J...Tilstock Park, Whitchurch, Salop.
Jessop, W. de B...Overton Hall, Ashover.
JOHNSON, J. W...Riplingham Grange, Brough.
Kine, G.,. Elliotts, Penshurst, Kent.
Kinross, J...Sheepy, Atherstone.

LAnxon, W...Demense, Lostwithiel. .

Maun, G...Thorne, Yorks.

May, W. A...Oakfield, Carshalton Hill.
Murr, J. J. W... Hatfield House, Herts.
Mrirrr, H. G...Urswick, Ulverston.
NICHOLSON, B...Wath-upon-Dearne, Yorks.
Parson, J. J...Coombe Farm, Croydon.

» PELHAM-CLINTON-Hopr, Lord H. F. H...The

Deepdene, Dorking.
PoskitTtT, W. H... Birkin, Ferrybridge, Yorks.
Pratt, P. P...Brynllithrig Hall, St. Asaph.
RADLEY, G. W...Conisbro’, Rotherham.
Rate, F... Little Hutton, Winston, Darlington.
Ricuarps, J... Llynclys, Oswestry.
Rossis, John..The Asps, Warwick.
Roors#, John.. Douglas, Isle of Man.
SaLoMon, W. May..Throapham, Rotherham.
ScCHOLEY, T. C...Eastoft Grange, Goole.
ScRIVENER, E. B. L...Sibton Abbey, Suffolk.
Snores, J.,.Owston Ferry, Rotherham.
SrrTwELL, E. S. W...Horsley, Derby.
Situ, J...Blakelands, Bobbington, Stour-
bridge.

_ SNOWDEN, W. C. P... Hutton Moor, Thirsk,

SoLomoN, F... Barnard Castle.

Spear, J. R...Morthen, Rotherham.

Storr, J... Upper Morton Grange, Retford. _

“ SWENDEN, J...Great Smeaton, Northallerton.

TAYLOR, *A... Woodhall, Womersley, Ponte-
fract.

Taytor, T... Darrington, Pontefract.

THOMPSON, L...Stonnington, Sheffield.

Vonpy, J. W...East Kimmeragh, Bride, Isle

of Man.
WalILss, C. H... West Rounton, Yorks.
Wiuxrinson, W...Harthill, Kiveton Park,
Sheffield.

Wraag, T., jun... Loxley, ShefMield.

“WraGG, William N... Loxley, Sheffield.

4

The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below :—

Finance,

S'r Nickt Ktrascorr (Chairmin)
teported that the accounts for the

‘ber 12, 1883, that in future the limit

_be sufficient for the poultry and pro-
‘duce classes in the prize-sheet, In

.claims upon the Society's reso
for other important agricultural

‘could not properly assent to a s

“meetings.

_acceptance of the Society the original

month of March, 1891, as certified by
the Society’s accountants, showed total
receipts amounting to 2,548/. 18s. 4d.,
and expenditure amounting to
2,0751.5s.4d. The balanceat the bank-
ers on March 31 was 6,089/. 19s. 11d.
Accounts amounting in all to
2,5561. 2s. 1d. were passed, and were
recommended for payment. The
quarterly statements (1) of subscrip-
tions and arrears, and (2) of the
Society’s property, were laid upon the
table. The Committee recommended
that the names of one governor, six_
life members, and twenty-seven an-
nual members deceased, one governor
and twenty-nine members who had
resigned, eight members whose ad-
dresses_could not be found, and thir-
teen members in arrears of subscrip-
tion, be struck off the register.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE further re-
ported that the Committee had
again carefully considered the ques-
tion of the limitation of the Society’s _
prize-sheet for stock and produce, te
to which they had submitted repeated —
recommendations in the past. Th
desired to referto their Memorand
on the subject presented to Sir John
Thorold’s Committee on February +
1888, and to again express their :
herence to their resolution of Dec

of 3,500/. for prizes for live-stock
should not be exceeded. They tho
that an additional sum of 500/, should

view of the large and iner
jects, the Committee felt that they ‘

|
;
greater than 4,000/. being Soot ;

‘the disposal of ‘the Stock Prizes Com- —

mittee for prizes for stock, poultry, —
and produce at the annual “a

Presentation of a Portrait of Joho
Tull.

The SECRETARY read a letter esi ;

Mr. Martin J. Sutton, offering for the —

peintsne of Jethro Tull, which
een reproduced as a frontispiece
Earl Cathcart’s memoir of Tull,
pearing in the current number of
Journal. Mr. Sutton added that t

& é se

--— — - iw ll =

Reports of Committees. li

painting was supposed to be the only
portrait in existence of that celebrated
agriculturist. The picture was sold
by Mr. John Richards, F.S.A., on his
leaving Reading forty-five years ago,
to Mr. John Snare, the principal
bookseller and publisher of Reading,
and its authenticity as a portrait of
Tull was vouched for by the eminent
Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, F.R.S. On
the death of Mr. Snare the picture
passed into the possession of his
widow, from whom he (Mr. Sutton)
had purchased it.

Earl CATHCART moved that a
cordial vote of thanks be given to
Mr. Sutton for this valuable gift.
As he was interested in the matter,
he had been desired to say how
mmuch obliged the Society and the
Council were to Mr. Sutton. Mr.
Sutton had been most liberal on this
occasion, and he must say patriotic,
because he desired to safeguard the
portrait of one who in all probability
had done more for British agriculture
than any other man that ever lived.
He was sure that the Council would
join with him in a grateful expression
of thanks for Mr. Sutton’s gift.

_ Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE, as Chairman
of the House Committee, seconded
the motion, which was carried unani-
mously.
' Mr. Scrron thanked the Council
for the very kind way in which they
had received the picture he had had
the good fortune to ask them to
accept. Lord Cathcart had been, as
usual, far too kind. The fact was
that the picture would not have been
there but for his Lordship’s paper
appearing in the Journal, The
thought which arose in his Lord-
‘ship's mind, that Jethro Tull ought
to be commemorated in their Journal,
had brought about the discovery
of the portrait. Some had thought
that, as Tull was a Berkshire
worthy, the picture ought to be in
the Berkshire Museum. But Tull was
not a local or provincial character :
his work had been of national
use in agriculture, and the home
of their great national society
was, he (Mr. Sutton) thought,
the proper place for the portrait.
. He was very glad that all the
members of the Council thought so
too, and it wasa very great honour

for him to hare helped in the
discovery of the picture, and to
have presented it to the Society.
(Cheers.)

House.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE (Chairman)
presented various accounts for pay-
ment in connection with the house.
The Organising Committee of the
International Congress of Hygiene, to
be held in London next August,
having asked whether the Society
would be willing to place its Council
Chamber at the disposal of the
Congress for the deliberation of one
of the sections, the Committee
recommended that this request be
complied with.

Journal,

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) re-
ported that the first part of Vol. II.
of the Journal had been published
on March 31, and was now in
course of distribution to members.
The Committee had referred to the
Finance Committee various payments
in respect of the printing and postage
of, and literary contributions to, that
number. An application by the
Dowager Duchess of Bedford for
permission to reprint, in a volume of
memorials of the late Duke, the
Editor’s article on “ Agriculture and
the House of Russell” in the last
number of the Journal, had been
readily acceded to. The Committee
recommended that the offer of
the Secretary of the British Bee-
keepers’ Association to send regularly
to the Society’s reading-room the
“ British Bee Journal ” and the “ Bee-
keepers’ Record,” be accepted. with
thanks. The arrangements for the
next number of the Journal had
been discussed, and directions given
thereon.

Earl CATHCART, in reference to
the letter from the Dowager Duchess
of Bedford, said the Committee
thonght it very satisfactory that the
Editor’s paper was so highly appre-
ciated by the family, as it deserved
to be appreciated generally,

He had to proffer a request which
was so often made, viz., that they would
be very much obliged if members of
Council and members of the Society
would kindly suggest subjects

d2

lit

suitable for treatment in the Journal,
and also send short contributions on
farming practice for the ‘“ Notes”
section of the Journal.

Chemical.

Viscount Emuyn (Chairman) re-
ported that Dr. Voelcker had laid
before the Committee, in anticipation
of the next quarterly report, two
cases of gross fraud—one in which
oat-husks had been offered at 47. a
ton, and the other in whicha so-called
“improving meal,” sold at 42, 10s. a
ton, was found to consist merely of
sulphate of lime (gypsum). Various
questions arising out of correspond-
ence in the Chemical Department
had been discussed, and directions
given thereon. The Committee
thought it right to call the attention
of the Council to aletter addressed to
Dr. Voelcker by the Secretary of
State for India, in which Lord Cross
expressed his satisfaction that the
Government of India had cordially
acknowledged the character and
value of Dr. Voelcker’s work during
his deputation to India, and enclosed
the following extract from their
letter on the subject :—

We desire, in conclusion, to
express our satisfaction with the
manner in which Dr. Voelcker has
accomplished his difficult mission.
The intelligence, zeal, energy and
patience with which he has con-
ducted his inquiries and investiga-
tions have fully justified your
Lordship’s selection of him for the
task which he has so well per-
formed, and we are satisfied that
his suggestions and recommen-
dations will prove of considerable
service to our local governments
and administrations, as well as to
ourselves.

Lord EMLYN added that the Com-
mittee were sure that the Council
wouldshare with them the satisfaction
which they felt that Dr. Voelcker’s
services had received such deserved
recognition.

Lord EMLYN also presented the
report of the Woburn Sub-Committee,
which announced the conclusion of
the sheep-feeding experiments and
the approaching termination of the
bullock-feeding experiments,

Monthiy Council, April 8, 1891.

Seeds and Plant Diseasés,

Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) re«
ported that the diagrams of the wheat
plant, after Bauer, and the diagrams
of pasture grasses, were in process of
execution. The Secretary had been
instructed to communicate with the
Warwick Local Committee, asking
them, in dealing with the question of
farm prizes in connection with the
Warwick Meeting of 1892, to consider
the advisability of offering prizes for
fruit farms. A reference had been
considered from the Woburn Sub-
Committee as to the failure of alsike,
red clover, cow gias3, Poa pratensis,
and Poa trivialis in the clover and
grass experiments at Woburn. The
Committee recommended that the
plots should be re-sown with these
clovers and grasses.

Veterinary.

Sir Joun THOROLD (Chairman) re-
ported that courses of lectures on
horse-shoeing by Professor Pritchard
had been arranged, under the auspices
of the Worshipful Company of Farriers,
to be held this month at the People’s -
Palace, Regent Street Polytechnic,
and the Royal Veterinary College. The
Committee recommended that the re-
signation of Mr. G. Lewis, M.R.C.Y.S.,
of his office of Provincial Veterinary
Surgeon for the county of Monmouth,
be accepted with regret. ‘They pro-
posed that out of the sum unexpended —
of their grant for 1891, 502. be given
towards the expenses of the Inter-
national Congress of Hygiene, which
had a section specially devoted to the
relations of the diseases of animals to
those of man. }

Professor Brown had presented the
following report :—

PLEURO - PNEUMONIA. —- During
the five weeks ended March 28 seven-
teen fresh outbreaks of this disease
have occurred in Great Britain:
eleven of them in England, in the
counties of Bucks, Chester, Lancas-
ter, London, Salop, Warwick, and
York (West Riding); and six in
Scotland, in the counties of Aber-
deen and Edinburgh. In connection
with these outbreaks forty-thri
diseased animals were killed,
635 healthy cattle which had

Prizes for Ploughs at Warwick Meeting. liii

exposed to the risk of infection
were also slaughtered.
In Ireland, seventeen fresh out-
breaks of pleuro-pneumonia oc-
curred in the Dublin district, the
majority of them in the South
Dublin Union; twenty-seven dis-
eased cattle were killed, and 500
healthy ones, which had been in
contact, were also slaughtered.
ANTHRAX.—There were twenty-
eight fresh outbreaks of anthrax
reported in Great Britain during
the five wecks, in the counties of
Chester, Cumberland, Devon, Essex,
Hants, Lancaster, Lincoln (Kes-
teven), Norfolk, Northampton,
Notts, Rutland, Stafford, Suffolk,
Wilts, Worcester, York (North
Riding), York (West Riding), Ayr,
and Wigtown. In these outbreaks
fifty-five animals were attacked,
four diseased animals were killed,
thirty-seven died, and ten recovered.
SWINE-FEVER.—In Great Britain
424 fresh outbreaks of this disease
occurred, 2,119 swine were attacked,
917 diseased pigs were killed, 811
died, 180 recovered, and 371 re-
mained alive when the last return
was made up.
RABIES.—There were four cases
of rabies reported in England in the
five weeks; three of these were in
Lancashire, and one in Dorset.
Foot-ror IN SHEEP.—Experi-
ments having reference to the com-
munication of foot-rot from diseased
to healthy sheep were continued
during last autumn and winter. Two
diseased sheep were placed on grass
land at the Royal Veterinary College,
‘and three healthy sheep from a
different part of the country were
penned with them forseveral months,
with the result that the diseased
sheep recovered and the others
remained healthy.
Further experiments are now
_ being made. Two sheep affected
_ with what is considered to be the
_ typical form of the contagious dis-
| ease were presented to the College
by Mr. Whitehead. Another sheep
| with well-marked foot-rot was
| obtained from the neighbourhood

of Harrow. The two diseased
| sheep from Kent have been penned

since the middle of March with a
healthy sheep from Harrow, and on

April 4 three half-bred tegs from
Berkshire, from a flock which was
free from foot-rot, were added to
the pen. The diseased sheep from
Harrow is penned in another part
of the same meadow witha healthy
sheep obtained from the same dis-
trict. All the animals are under
constant observation.

Stock Prizes.

Mr. FRANKISH reported that various
letters respecting entries for the Don-
caster Meeting had been considered,
and directions given thereon. The
Committee recommended that a
special meeting be held next month
to consider a preliminary prize-sheet
for the Warwick (1892) Meeting.

Judges’ Selection.

Mr. FRANKISH also reported that
the list of Judges for the Society’s
Doncaster Meeting was now prac-
tically complete.

Implement.

Mr. FRANKISH (Chairman) reported
that about 12,000 feet of space had
been applied for in the Implement
Department at the Doncaster Meeting,
and that the Allotment Committee
at a preliminary meeting had given
directions as to the various points
arising out of the entries. Several
questions in connection with the trials
of threshing machines at the forth-
coming Meeting at Doncaster had been
discussed and settled. The Com-
mittee, having further considered the
regulations for the trials of ploughs
at the Warwick Meeting, a draft of
which had been previously sent to
each member of the Council, now sub-
mitted for the formal approval of the
Council the following proposed prize-
sheet and regulations :—

Warwick Meeting, 1892,
Prizes for Ploughs.

Prizes,
—_——
Class. 1st 2nd
£

1. For the best single-furrow plough
for light land’.7... +. +les een AO O

2. For the best single-furrow plough
for strong, land) 32 se) 10 5

3. For the single-furrow plough best
adapted for a press drill and
broadcast sowing . .... 10 5

4. For the best two-furrow plough, 10 5

liv Monthly Council, April 8, 1891.

Prizes.

Class. Ist 2nd
oP re,

5. For the best three-furrow p'ough 10 5

6. For the best digging plough for

light land. . 10 5
7. For the best digging plough | ‘for

heavy land, . 5
8, For the best one-w: ay plough . tO oS

REGULATIONS.

1. The trials will take place early
in the spring of 1892, on land se-
lected by the Society, in the neigh-
bourhood of Warwick.

2. The necessary arrangements
for the land required for the trials
will be made by the Society.

3. Notice of the place and date
of the trials will be posted to every
competitor as soon as they are fixed.

4. All ploughs for competition
must be delivered at the depot of
the trial-shed not less than three
days previous to the commencement
of the trials, or they will be dis-
qualified.

5. Each competitcr or his repre-
sentative will be allowed to accom-

' pany the ploughman, and assist
him in any way he may require.

6. The order in which the several
ploughs will be tested will be deter-
mined by the stewards, who will
decide by lot.

7. No competitor will be allowed
to enter more than two ploughs for
competition in any one class.

8. The points representing per-
fection will be as under :—

Single-Furrow Ploughs (Classes 1 to 3).
Price . 10

Mechanical qualities ‘and strength ere
Simplicity Ah ate!)
Draught relatively to work done os - 20
*Flatness of sole of furrow ai shee ee aa
Squareness of cut on land side . . . 5

Perfection of working and buryi ing
vegetation eel 8 020
Efficiency of skim coulter . im pi id
Total 100

‘Two and Three-Furrow Ploughs
(Classes 4 and 5).

Price §. . ea |)
Mechanical qualities ‘and str ength Seta
Simplicity are Sane
Draught relatively to work done epLataaie AO

Ease of management in work and in
turning. eae eae ee al kD
Facilities of transport ee wela emer
Flatness of sole of furrow . . my kt)

Squareness of cut on land side . . .

® This will not be considered in the case of
outries in Class 3,

Perfection of work and pe ing vegeta- ©
tion .

Efficiency of skim coulter .

ee

Total 120

Digging Ploughs (Classes 6 and 7),
Price

a 5 age
Mechanical qualities ‘and strength” «i 20
Simplicity . ee
Draught relatively to work done perma

Flatness of sole of furrow . s
}Perfection of work and barrage vege- .

tation .
Efficiency of skim coulter. ;

Total 100

9. The ploughs entered for com-
petition will, after the trials, be
retained in the possession of the
Society until the Warwick Meeting,
when they will all be exhibited
together in the showyard in a space
set apart by the Society for the pur-
pose.

10. Entries for the prizes must
be made on or before Saturday,
July 25, 1891, and must be accom-
panied by a deposit at the rate of
1l. for each plough entered. This
deposit will be forfeited if the
plough is not forthcoming at the
time appointed for the commence-
ment of the trials, but will in other
cases be refunded after the Warwick
Meeting.
Notre.—Should the Judges find any number

of exhibits to be of practically equal merit,

they are empowered to bracket them as equal,
and so divide the prize-money.

On the motion of Mr. FRANKISH,
seconded by Mr. MARTIN, these regu-

lations were approved, and ordered to
be issued forthwith.

General Doncaster.

The Earl or FEVERSHAM reported
that the preliminary programme o
the Doncaster Meeting prepared by
the Secretary had been considered and
provisionally approved. Arrange-
ments were in progress for the esta-
blishment of an ambulance station in
the showyard, and for retaining th
services of a detachment of the A
Division of the Metropolitan Police.
The Local Committee had recom-
mended Messrs. Hodgson & Hep-
worth and Messrs. Sanderson &
Stringer, of Doncaster, as agents for
the sale of cheese which exhibitors.
COO

+ Perfection of work to be: to make a good
seed bed; to do work best adapted for the
purposes of winter fallow,

Reports of Committees. ly

might desire to dispose of after the
Meeting. Various other matters con-
nected with the Meeting had been
discussed and dealt with.

Showyard Works.

Sir JAcoB WILson (Chairman) re-
ported that theshowyard at Doncaster
was inclosed with a high fence, and
the entrances had been erected. About
5,000 feet of shedding had been built,
and the grand stand, dairy, and re-
freshment rooms were also in the
course of erection. The Local Com-
mittee were laying the water and gas
mains, had completed the sleeper
road, and were levelling and rolling
some rough places in the yard. The
Committee had considered the tenders
received for the supply of refreshments
at Doncaster, and recommended the
following for acceptance :—

Shed No.1 . .
Shed No.2. .

Shed No.3 . ,
Shed No.4. .

Samuel Foster, Newark.
A, E. Brayshay, Leeds.
Bourne & Co., Dudley.
John Potter, Malton.
Shed No.5 . . Bodega Co., Limited.
Shed No.6 « . Alex. Stott, York.
Shed No.7 . . John Potter, Malton.
Shed No.8 . . Samuel Foster, Newark.
A letter had been received from
the National Telephone Co., Limited,
offering to provide telephonic com-
munication in the showyard, on the
condition that the Society granted
the Company permission to have a
central call office in the showyard.
The Committee recommended the ac-
ceptance of this offer. They also re-
commended the appointment of Mr.
Walker, of York, as auctioneer for
the sale of timber after the show,

Selection.

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) pre-
sented the recommendation of the
Committee as to a new member of
Council to fill the vacancy caused by
the resignation of the Earl of Jersey ;
and also their recommendation that
Earl Cathcart be asked to accept the
post of Steward of Horses for the
Doncaster Meeting, in the place of
Lord Moreton, retired.

_ Sir JAcoB WILSON said that their
present Steward, Lord Moreton, found
that he would be unable to perform
the duties of Steward of Horses at
‘Doncaster, and it was necessary to
elect in his place someone who had
had experience of the work, rather
than appoint a fresh Steward for the

purpose. Seeing that Lord Cathcart
took a very prominent part in bring-
ing the question of horse-breeding
before the country some years ago,
which resulted in a great increase of
interest in this subject, and noticing
especially that they were going to
Yorkshire, it was felt that they would
be doing that which would be most
agreeable to the locality, and certainly
that which would be agreeable to the
Council, in asking his Lordship to
undertake the duties of Senior
Steward of Stock.

Earl CATHCART was obliged to ex-
plain that he might possibly be
wanted in town part of the time of
the show, but, subject to that, he
would try to undertake the duties.

Education.

Mr. WHEELER reported that twenty-
one candidates had entered for the
Senior Examination, to take place in
the week commencing May 12 next.
The Sub-Committee on Agricultural
Text-Books had made further progress
with the proposed text-book for use
in elementary and _ continuation
schools sanctioned at the last meet-
ing of the Council, and had settled
the plan of the work. Copies had
been received of the Report of the
Cambridge Agricultural Education
Syndicate, which it was proposed to
circulate amongst members of the
Council! for their information. The
general question of technical educa-
tion in agriculture had been again dis-
cussed, andit had been resolved to re-
print Dr. Fream’s article on the subject
appearing in the last number of the
Journal, together with the two reports
of the Education Committee dated
November 4 and March 3 last, and to
send copies of the reprint to each
County Council for the information of
their Education Committees.

Dairy.

The Hon. Ceciu T. PARKER (Chair-
man) reported that the arrangements
made by the Secretary for the hire of
dairy utensils at Doncaster had been
submitted and approved. A further
letter had been received from the
Board of Agriculture on the subject of
examinations in dairying,and the Com-
mittee had requested their Chairman
to represent the Society in a proposed
interview with officials of the Board,

vi

Mr. PARKER added that he had
that morning, by appointment, paid a
visit to the offices of the Board of
Agriculture, and had discussed the
question with the Board’s officials.

Retiring Members of Council.

The annexed list was prepared of
the members of Council who retire by
rotation, but are eligible for re-elec-
tion, showing the number of attend-
ances at Council and Committee
Meetings of each of such members
during the past two years, in accord-
ance with Bye-Law No. 23 :—

aol}
= | Committees
Attendances at | 3 a)
Meetings of Council | 5 & Q
and Committeesfrom | & 2 Body a
April 1889 to March | S77 | O8 3
1891 inclusive Pe oseal as
of |G S 2
~
OH | a
ALLENDER, G. MANDER, )
31 St. Petersburgh j 15 D7 ea
Place, Bayswater. .
ASHWORTH, ALFRED,)
Tabley Grange, | 10 | 108 | 44
Knutsford, Cheshire .

BOWEN-JONES, Jey Ens: ) |
don House, Montford
Bridge, Salop . .

CairD, JAMES Ae
Northbrook, Michel.
dever, Hants .

if 16 1135 | 81
CHANDOS - POLE- Gta)

H., Hopton Hall,
Wirkswerth, Derby:
shire <
CovENTRY, Earl
Croome Court, nies
Stoke, Worcesters ire
CrurcnLery, Percy E. y|
Sunninghill Park, 18 50 29
Berkshire. . .
DanBy, ALFRED, Littie |
Ness, Shrewsbury ti aa 63 a
DE LauneE, C. DE L.
Faunce, Sharsted | |
Court, Sittingbourne, [ | 2 89 52
Went. 4%

GORRINGR, Hven, |

11 | 59 31

13 49 5

Kingston - by - Sea, 14
Brighton, Sussex. .

HAMonn, ANTHONY ) |
(elect 2d May 1, 1889), )
Westacre, Swaffham,

wens: cate
OWARD,
Biddenham, Bedfora.}| 10 | 108

|
| |

CuaRLes, 65

Galltfaenan, _Tref-
nant R.S.0., North 14 88
Wales. .

MARTIN, JOSEPH, Hi: eb:
field House, Little-

port, Isle of Ely, ia

j it 53
Cambs. . . |

MILLER, T. Horrocks,

Singleton Park, Poul- 54 | 19
ton-le-Fylde, Lane F

shire . neers. 3

="
o

Monthly Council, April 8, 1891. ii

ZR | Committees
Ei te
Attendances at 3 5
Meetings of Council eI 3
and Committees from as mo
April 1889to March || 34 | SS | g§
1891 inclusive 3/33] g
35 ,| Ss la

PaRkkR, Hon. Ceci T.,

ee Chester “ 16 119 70
ELL, ALBERT, Hazel-
beach, Northampton. } 13 96 S

RoWLaNDsON, SAMUEL
(elected May 22, }

1889), Newton Mor. ll 42 17
rell, =
(Yorkshire) as

Scarts, W. T., Stain-
drop House, Bann} 8 17 —
ton, Durham ...

SmrrH, ALFRED J., od
Rendlesham, Wood- | 17 66 43
bridge, Suffolk. . .)}

STANYFORTH, E. WIL-

FRID (elected Febru-

ary 4, 1891), Kirk ' 1 — =
Hammerton Hall, }

York ¥ =v. |

Toe ee } : ;
(elect y 22,/)}

1889), Trowse House, j | ll 37 =
Norwich. .

TERRY, Jos. = (elected
April 2, 1890), Berry
Field, Aylesbury, 7 | 38
Buckinghamshire. .

WIEsoN, C. W. (elected
May 22, 1889), Rig-
maden Park, Kirkby}|| 12 | 47 | 84
Lonsdale, Westmore- | | : ‘
JanG)s hws

Wisos, Sir Jacos, ;
Chillingham Barns, | | ,
Belford, North =| 19 jit |
berland . . . . iI ¢
International Agricultural Congress

at the Hague.

The SECRETARY submitted various
documents connected with this Con-
gress, which is to be held at the
Hague from September 7 to 12
next, including letters of thanks from
the President (M. Bauduin) and the
Secretary (M. Zillesen) for the assist-
ance rendered by the Society in mak-
ing the arrangements for the Congress
known in this country.

Miscellaneous.

The agreement for the holding of
the Country Meeting of 1892, sealed
with the seal of the Corporation of
Warwick, was laid upon the table, to-
gether with correspondence with the
Mansion House United Association 3
Railway Rates.

Other formal business having bee
transacted, the Council adjourned

yntil Wednesday, May 6 next,

( lvii )

WEDNESDAY, MAY 6, 1891.
THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present :-—

Trustees —HU.R.H. the Prince of
Wales, K.G., General Viscount Brid-
port, K.C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Lord Egerton of Tation,
Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B.

Vice-Presidents.—Right Hon. Sir
Massey Lopes, Bart., Lord Moreton,
Earl Spencer, K.G., Mr. C. Whitehead,

_ Other Members of Council.—Mxr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. J. H. Arkwright,
Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr. J.‘ Bowen-Jones, Lord
Brougham and Vaux, Mr. J. A. Caird,
Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell, Mr. Charles
Clay, Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Mr.
Alfred Darby, Mr. C. De. L. F. De
Laune, Mr. S. P. Foster, Mr. William
Frankish, Mr. Hugh Gorringe, Mr. R.
Neville Grenville, Mr. James Hornsby,
Mr. Charles Howard, Mr. C. 8. Main-
waring, Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H.
Miller, Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr.
Albert Pell, Mr. Daniel Pidgeon, Duke
of Portland, Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr.
G. H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr.
A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Sir
Joseph Spearman, Bart., Marquis of
Stafford, Mr. E. W. Stanyforth, Mr.
Richard Stratton, Mr. Martin J. Sutton,
Mr. Garrett Taylor, Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr.
John Tremayne, Mr. R. A. Warren,
Mr.E. V. V. Wheeler, Mr. C. W. Wilson,
Sir Jacob Wilson.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist; Mr.
Wilson Bennison, Surveyor.

The following members of the Don-
caster Local Committee were also
present: The Mayor of Doncaster
(Mr. Alderman Stockil), Mr. F. Bacon
Frank, Mr. John White, Mr. G. T.
Wood, Mr. G. B. C. Yarborough, and
Mr. George Chafer (Secretary of the
Local Committee).

Apologies for Non-attendance.

The PRESIDENT announced that
apologies for non-attendance had been
receiyed from H.R.H. Prince Christian,

K.G., the Duke of Richmond and
Gordon, K.G., the Earl of Feversham,
Viscount Emlyn, Right Hon. Henry
Chaplin, M.P., Sir Matthew Ridley,
Bart., Sir John Thorold, Bart., and
Mr. Walter Gilbey.

Election of Governors and Members. ~

The minutes of the Council held on
April 8 last having been read and con-
firmed, the election of the following
111 Members was proceeded with :—

APPLEYARD, Henry..Barlby Bank, Selby.

ARKCOLL, C. 8... Lime Park, Hurstmonceux.

ARMSTRONG, John.. Penrith.

Anrer, A. C..,Barham, near Canterbury.

BADDILEY, J. E,..The Norna, Blyth, Rotherham,

BAILEY, Joseph. . Holly Ho.,Scaftworth,Bawtry.

BARKER, G...Burn, near Selby.

Batt, Miss R. E...Angus and Mearns’ Dairy

School, Kirriemuir, N.B.

Bayuis, Arthur B.., Rotherham.

BEDDINGTON, H. E...15 Hyde Park Square, W.

BELL, H. C...The Deepdene, Dorking.

BELLAMY, G...Clap Gate Farm, Thorne, Yorks.

BELTON, E...Tadworth, Thorne, Doncaster.

Best, T. W...Harvest Hill, Cuckfield.

BETTERIDGE, H, D... Wallingford.

Brmkett, T. B...9 Park Place, Weston-s,-Mare,

Boortu, 8...Cresswell, Mansfield.

Brown, T... Hempstead, Hailsham.

Brown, T...Harworth Grange, Tickhill.

Butson, Col. W., E...Coxlease, Stonor, Henley-
on-Thames.

CADELL, G...14 Canning Road, Addiscombe.

CALVERT, F,..Ashton Park, Preston.

CAMERON, C.St. Clair. .St. John’s Ho., Lichfield.

*CAMPBELL, Rey. J...Laleham, Randwick,
Sydney, New South Wales.

CHALMERS, J. A... Laurel Farm, Felixstow.

CHAMBERS, J.. Normanton Inn Farm, Worksop.

CHAPLIN, F. J... Fulbourn, Cambs.

CHILLING WORTH, §, §...Forton, Hartlebury,
Worcester.

Crank, D. M...Anston, Rotherham.

CLARK, M. R... Harthill, Sheffield.

CLARK, M...Cusworth, Doncaster.

Cray, G, A...Holly Bush Hall, Burton-on-T.

Cox, G...Elmton Park, Chesterfield.

CRAVEN, T...Ashton-on-Mersey.

Crisp, F... White House, New Southgate, N.

CusHNEY, A... Pain’s Hill, Cobham,

DisRAELI, Coningsby..Hughenden Manor,
High Wycombe.

DRINKALL, W...Heaton-with-Otcliff,

DuGpALe, W...Meeson Hall, Wellington,Salop.

Duncan, J. H. H...39 Coleman Street, E.C.

*DuVAL, F, R,..53 Rue Francois lier, Paris,

Ener, T. L. K...Grant House, Southwell.

EveEratrt, J. J... Wildsworth, Gainsborough,

Foorp, T...Barton-on-Humber,

FRANKS, J. H...Dalriada, Blackrock, co. Dublin.

* Reinstated ynder Bye-Layy 12,

lyiii

GARNETT, J...The Grange, Bromley Cross,
Bolton.
Gipson, G...Fourstones, Northumberland.
Goopatt, T. B...Purewe!ll Cross, Christchurch.
Goopwitt, J... North Ings, Terrington, York.
GRAMMER, J...Calverton, Nottingham.
GREENE, T... Millbrook, Mageney, co. Kildare.
GRIFFITHS, William. .Oswestry.
HAnps, Sidney.. Hampton Lucy, Warwick.
Harrison, Wm... Leigh, Lancashire.
HuGHEs, Gen... Dunley, Bovey Tracey.
JONES, S. E,..8 Arkwright Rd., Hampstead.
KinceEr, E...Manton, Worksop.
Lawson, H...Manor House, Skirpenbeck,
Stamford Bridge, Yorks.
Lewis, A. H...Marbury Hall, Northwich.
Maas, H.S. J...40 Finsbury Circus, E.
MacuHly, H. V...Gateford Hill, Worksop.
McMorrin, J. T...Earls House, Durham.
MALLESON, P. R...Dixton, Winchcombe.
MARSHALL, J. W... Kirby Grindalythe, Yorks.
Miigs, F. A... Denne Hill Farm, Canterbury.
MILNTHORP, James.. Doncaster.
MITCHELL, Mrs. W. H...E!mdene, Kenilworth.
Morton, J, A...Puxton Ho., Kidderminster.
Mows Ley, T. E... Brockton Hall, Eccleshall.
NICHOLETTS, J. T... Manor House, Brent Knoll,
Somerset.
NICHOLSON, W...Brisley, Norfolk.
OGDEN, Tom P... Wimblington, March.
PaRLour, Wm.,.,Dalton-on-Tees, Darlington.
PATRICKSON, Hugh..Kirklinton Park, Carlisle.
Petcu, John P,..Liverton Lodge, Loftus.
Pup, D. W...Whiteacre, Coleshill.
Price, T. S...Glencairn, Coventry Park, S.W.
PROTHERO, F. E... Malpas Ct., Newport, Mon.
RHODES, S... Prospect Ho., Morley, Leeds.
RoBERTS, S8...Queen’s Tower, Sheffield.
Rospents, T...41 Ranelagh St., Liverpool.
Rsk, John D...Great Stukeley, Huntingdon,
SANDBACH, S. H...Cherry Hill, Malpas.
ScRIVEN, J... Normandy Villa, Shipley.
Snrpson, Wm... Daintree Ho., Ramsey.
SKELTON, J...Costhorpe, Worksop.
Smuiru, J. H...37 St. George’s Place, Barnsley.
STABLES, J... Hickleton, Doncaster.
SrANDRING, W...Chapel Street, Epworth.
STANFORD, Alan. . Beaumont Hall, Colchester,
STEPHENS, J...19a@ Coleman Street, E.C.
STERICKER, F, H... Westgate Ho., Pickering.
Srrick, Col...Bar Hill Ho., Madeley, Staffs,
SWAN, Mrs. Emily..Stonefield, Lincoln.
TAYLOR, V. T...Middlewood Hall, Barnsley.
TEMPLE, J, W...Leyswood, Groombridge.
TENNANT, R...Kirkburn Grange, Driffield.
THOMPSON, F. M,.. Doncaster.
THRUSTON, E. H... Pennal Towers, Machynlleth.
TRICKETT G. J...Crook Ho., Ardsley, Barnsley.
WaALyrs, J. H...Burton Bandalls, Loughborough,
WESLEY, J,..Grove Ho., Stretham, Ely.
WHEELER, H. C...Downton, Wilts.
Whipp, W. W...Siddows Farm, Clitheroe.
WHITTOME, E.,.Ramsey, Huntingdon.
WE, D. de C... Wickersley Grange, Rother-
lam.
Woop, B. D...Lytton House, Stevenage.
Woop, Guy..The Lodge, Ardsley, Barnsley,
Wceop, W...Sookholme, Mansfield.
Woo..ey, F...,Amerton, near Stafford,
Wraaa, F, W.,..17 Church Lane, E.

Nominations of New Members.

On the motion of Sir NIGEL
KINGSCOTE, seconded by Lord
BrRIDPorT, it was unanimously re-
solved :—

Monthly Council, May 6, 1891.

That the Secretary be authorised
to receive nominations of members,

and to admit them to the privileges ~

of membership for the Doncaster
Show, on condition that they sign
the usual contract and pay their
subscription for the current year.

The reports of the several Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below :—

Finance,

Sir NIGEL KINGSCcOTE (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month of April, 1891, as certified by
the Society’s accountants, showed
total receipts amounting to 4,2017.
2s., and an expenditure amounting to
2,5991. 7s. ld. The balance at the
bankers on April 30, allowing for
cheques outstanding, was 7,691/. 14s.
10d.. Accounts amounting in all to
2,3871. 33. 5d. were passed, and were
recommended for payment. :The Com-
mittee recommended that Mr. Frankish
and Mr. Sanday be appointed Stewards
of Finance at the Doncaster Meeting.
A letter addressed to the Council by
the Mansion House United Association
on Railway Rates, asking the Society
to guarantee a sum of 500/. towards
the expenditure which the Association
is incurring in defending agricultural
interests before the Joint Committee
on the Railway Rates Provisional
Order Bills, had been considered, and
the Committee recommended that a
furtberand final grant of 100/. (making
3007. in all) be made to the funds of
the Association. The Committee re-
commended that the names of eight
life members and sixteen annual
members who were deceased, seyen
members who had resigned, ten whose
addresses could not be found, and
forty-three in arrears of subscription
be struck off the register; ‘also that
two members be restored to the list
under Bye-Law 12.

House.

Sir NigeEL KrnGscore (Chairman)
reported that the picture of Jethro

Tull, presented to the Society by Mr. —

Sutton, had been cleaned and the
frame repaired, and that it was now
hung up in the Council room. The
question of the proposed increase in
the assessment of the parish of St,

ee oe ee ae

Reports of ‘Committees.

George, Hanover Square, had been
considered; but the Committee did
not recommend any action thereon at
present.

Journal.

Earl CATHcART (Chairman) re-
ported that the arrangements for the
next number of the Journal had
been discussed, and directions given
thereon. Applications from the
Royal Meteorological Society and
Professor Simonds for permission
to reprint articles from the Journal
were granted under the usual condi-
tions. A letter had been read from
the Meteorological Office as to the
results of the Hay Harvest Forecasts
in 1890, and the summary of these re-
sults had been ordered to be published
in the next number of the Journal.

Chemical,

Mr. PELL (in the absence of Vis-
count Emlyn, Chairman) presented
the recommendations of this Com-
mittee as to correspondence arising
in the Chemical Department. The
Pheenix Oil Mills Co., Limited, of
Liverpool, had expressed in a
letter enclosing an advance copy of
their circular their intention of sell-
ing linseed cake in future on the
form of contract recommended by
the Society. Satisfaction was ex-
pressed at this step taken in accord-
ance with the Society’s suggestion to
agriculturists. Dr. Voelcker had

‘mentioned to the Committee a case

in which unsound decorticated cotton-
seed-meal was believed to have
caused the death of twenty sheep.
He had also brought to the notice of
the Committee an instance of a so-
called vine manure being supplied to
a member of the Society at a price of
71. per ton, which proved on analysis
to be little more than ground-up
flints and sulphate of lime.

On the motion of Mr. PELL, Mr.
E. W. Stanyforth was added to the
Committee,

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) pre-
sented a report from Miss Ormerod,
which the Committee recommended
should be published with the pro-
ceedings of Council (see page x). A
letter had been read from the Board of

lix

Agriculture, asking whether the Society
was possessed of results of any ex-
periments conducted in this country
for the purpose of testing the efficacy
of applications of sulphate of copper
as a remedy against potato disease,
and, if not, whether it would be
feasible for the Society to undertake
a series of specific experiments of
this nature in four or five distinctive
and typical parts of England, during
the summer of 1891, and, if necessary,
in succeeding seasons. It had been
resolved to recommend that the
answer of the Council should be that
the Society considered such experi-
ments feasible, and that it would be
willing to organise and conduct them
for the Board of Agriculture, if the
Board should think it desirable. If
this reply were approved by the
Council, the Committee further re-
commended that their Chairman (Mr.
Whitehead), Lord Moreton, Mr. De
Laune, Mr. Carruthers, and Dr.
Voelcker (with power to add to their
number) be appointed a Sub-Com-
mittee to draw up a scheme, and to
make the necessary provision for the
conduct of any experiments that
might be arranged in conjunction
with the Board of Agriculture.

Mr. WHITEHEAD, in moving the
adoption of the report, said he thought
he should briefly allude to the im-
portant communication which had
been received from the Board of
Agriculture with regard to the
conducting of experiments with sul-.
phate of copper for the prevention of
the potato disease. He sincerely
trusted that the Council would eniter-
tain the proposition made by the
Board, and allow such experiments to
be conducted by the Sub-Committee
recommended by the Seeds and
Plant Diseases Committee, in con-
junction with the Board of Agri-
culture. He ventured to think that
this was one of the most important
questions that had, recently at all
events, been brought before that
Council. It was a question of
national concern. The Society had
already instituted experiments in
1872, with regard to the prevention
of, or the discovery of a remedy for,
this fell disease, which had ravaged
their potato crops in this country
now for nearly fifty years, without

Ix Monthly Couneil,-May 6, 1891.

any check or remedy being found
against it. He thought it was a
question that should be investigated
thoroughly and completely by that
Society.

The remedy, as he ventured to
think, had been found in this sul-
phate of copper treatment—z.e., what
was called in France “ Bouillie
Bordelaise,” a solution of sulphate of
copper mixed with lime and a certain
proportion of water. In 1878 a new
fungus made its appearance in the
vineyards of France; not the ordin-
ary Oidium Tuckeri, the fungus
which had ravaged the vineyards for
nearly fifty years, but another and
much more serious disease, caused by
Peronospora viticola, which was
closely allied to Peronospora infestans,
a fungus that caused the potato dis-
ease, which had been called by De
Bary Phytophthora infestans. This
remedy of sulphate of copper was
found out in the most peculiar man-
ner. It was customary in France to
treat grapes growing by the road
sides with sulphate of copper and
lime to keep off pilferers and marau-
ders, as grapes so treated would
naturally not be pleasant. It was
noticed that grapes treated in that
way were free from this new vine
fungus Peronospora viticola ; and ex-
periments were made. with it in
various parts of France. In 1886 M.
Prillieux reported to the Société
Nationale d’Agriculture de France
that the sulphate of copper treatment
was perfectly efficacious for the cure
of vine mildew, and he recommended
that the Bouillie Bordelaise mixture
should be used in exactly the same
way for the potato disease. Experi-
ments since 1886 had been conducted
in different parts of France, notably
by M. Aimé Girard, for the last three
years. The results of these experi-
ments appeared in the “ Annales
Agronomiques,” and in the Bulletins
of the Société Nationale d’Agriculture
de France. It was clearly shown that
the treatment of sulphate of copper
had heen most efficacious as a pre-
ventive, and also, in some degree, as
a cure for the potato disease when
actually established upon the plants,
There was no doubt that the mixture
had proved a preventive against the
disease, and when applied, as such,

no sign or trace of potato disease had
been found. Similar experiments
had been made in Belgium for the
last two years at the State Agricul-
tural Institute at Gembloux by M,
Péterman, Director of that institution,
The results of M. Péterman’s experi-
ments were equally satisfactory with
those of M. Aimé Girard in France,
He also arrived at the conclusion that
sulphate of copper not only prevented
and arrested the disease, but that sul-
phate of iron, which was a much
cheaper mixture, was equally effica-
cious. No doubt there would be
further reports upon this subject.

An experiment had also been tried
in Ireland at the suggestion of the
British Board of Agriculture, and
although the directions to carry out
these experiments in Ireland were
given very late indeed, so that the
application could not be made until
the end of August, Mr. Carroll, who
had carried out this experiment in
five or six different parts of Ireland,
reported that the effect was certainly
satisfactory. Experiments had been
carried out in America with similar
satisfactory results. He trusted that
the Council would allow the experi-
ments to be made as suggested in the
Committee’s report. It was not
likely that the cost of these experi-
ments, which it was proposed should
extend over three years, would exceed
3002. at the rate of 100/.a year. He
wished to give notice that day that
he should move at the next meeting
of the Council that a grant of 300/.
should be placed at the disposal of the
Seeds and Plant Diseases Committee,
if required by them, for the purpose
of these experiments. The Seeds and
Plant Diseases Committee believed
that the Board of Agriculture might
contribute a very considerable part
of the expense, but he trusted that
the Council would give their sanction
to a money grant from the Society's
funds, if it should prove requisite. ~

Earl CATHCART, as having had in
former times a good deal to do with
potato disease, seconded the adop-
tion of this report. The subject had
been brought before the House of
Lords on Monday ; it was then stated
that experiments had been made with
a view of curing this disease of the
potato, The treatment was, how-

—* =

Sulphate of Copper as a Remedy against Potato Disease. \xt

ever, in no sense a cure; it was
prophylactic—fungicide, inasmuch as
designed to destroy the spores which
promote the disease. He wished to
say for the Journal Committee that
this was no new matter to them, for
the subject was brought forward in
the Journal in December of last year.
The composition of the remedy known
as “Bouillie Bordelaise” was given
in the Society’s Journal as 6 lb. of
lime, 6 Ib. of sulphate of copper (i.e.,
common blue vitriol, the blue-stone
of commerce), and ten gallons of
water. It was said that this applica-
tion must be repeated as occasion
required. He had inquired as to the
expense of the material; and found
it given as from 177. to 25l. per ton
for the blue-stone.

Mr. ASHWORTH said that, as the
mixture should be applied during the
early growth of the potato, and as
the matter was of the greatest in-
terest,’ it seemed a pity to delay
operations for a month. Could not
the Sub-Committee be empowered to
commence at once, without waiting
for the passing of the grant at the
next meeting of the Council ?

Mr. WHITEHEAD said the treat-
ment was mainly preventive, and
should be applied as soon as the
plants were about 2 ft. high. It was,
therefore, of great importance that
the question should be settled at once,
and that action should be taken as
soon as possible. This year, however,
the potato plants were very late, and
he thought that there would be no
harm done if the matter were post-
poned until the next meeting of the
Council, under the circumstances of
the late season. Asto the preventive
or curative properties, there were
proofs on both sides. It was un-
doubtedly preventive, and it might
cure the fungus if it had not got to a
certain stage. Most interesting ex-
periments had been made by French
chemists with regard to this, especi-
ally by M. Schlesing, who treated
the leaves of the vine with sulphate
of copper, as well as with the
“‘Bouillie Bordelaise.” He sowed
germs of fungus upon the leaf so
treated, and they did not germinate
at all. He sowed some at the same
time upon leaves not treated with
sulphate of copper, and these germs

immediately or
minated.

Mr. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL said that
in 1888 he passed about three weeks
during the early part of the vintage
in the Médoc district, and had the
opportunity of seeing the different
vineyards. Nobody could have con-
ceived the difference between those
not treated, those partially done, and
those well done. The difference
between them was perfectly incon-
ceivable. He had talked to a great
many owners and managers of vine-
yards, who were strongly in favour of
the remedy.

Earl CATHCART asked if the Board
of Agriculture intended to circulate
a leaflet on the subject.

Mr. WHITEHEAD replied that a
leaflet was now in preparation, and
would, he believed, be issued in a few
days.

Mr. STRATTON suggested that
leaflets with an epitome of the evi-
dence which had been placed before
them that day should be circulated
with the next number of the Journal.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE said that if
it was only a question of finance that
would stop the experiments, he
thought he might say, on behalf of
the Finance Committee, that they
would not place any obstacle in the
way.

Earl CATHCART said it was thought
that tne Board of Agriculture would
contribute largely towards the ex-
pense.

The SECRETARY pointed out that
if it were the unanimous wish of the
Council to grant the money for the
experiments, they had power under
the bye-laws to vote it at once.

Mr. DENT then formally moved,
Lord BkRouGHAM and VAuxseconded,
and it was unanimously resolved
that a sum not exceeding 3007. should
be placed at the disposal of the
Seeds and Plant Diseases Committee,
for the purpose of the experiments
proposed.

The PRESIDENT said that it wasa
sufficient proof of the importance of
the subject that questions had been
asked in both Houses of Parliament,
and that satisfactory answers had
been given by Her Majesty’s Ministers,
He took the opportunity, in putting
the motion for the adoption of the

soon after ger-

lxii

report, and of the report of the Con-
sulting Entomologist appended to it,
to draw attention to the great value,
as object lessons, of the diagrams of
injurious insects prepared by Miss
Ormerod.

The report of the Committee was
then unanimously adopted.

Veterinary.

Mr. DENT (in the absence of Sir
John Thorold, Chairman) submitted
the following report presented by Mr.
Cope :—

PLEURO - PNEUMONIA. — During
the four weeks ended April 25,
there were thirteen fresh outbreaks
of this disease in Great Britain re-
ported to the Board of Agriculture,
five of which were in England, in
the counties of Chester, Lancaster,
and York (W. R.), and eight in Scot-
land, seven of which were in Mid-
lothian and one in Lanarkshire. In
dealing with these outbreaks the
Board of Agriculture slaughtered
eighty-five diseased cattle, and 557
which had been exposed to the
risk of infection. In addition to
this the Board authorised the
slaughter of fifteen other cattle
whick were suspected of being af-
fected with pleuro-pneumonia, but
which were found free from that
disease on post-mortem examina-
tion. In Ireland fourteen fresh
outbreaks of pleuro-pneumonia oc-
curred in the four weeks; twenty
diseased cattle were killed, and one
died, while 399 healthy contact-
cattle were slaughtered.

ANTHRAX.—There were eigh-
teen fresh outbreaks of anthrax
reported in Great Britain in the
four weeks, in the counties of
Devon, Dorset, Leicester, Lincoln
(Lindsey), Middlesex, Notts, Somer-
set, and Suffolk in England, and in
Aberdeen, Forfar, Kirkcudbright,
Linlithgow, and Perth in Scotland;
thirty-one animals were attacked,
twenty-five of which died, and
four remained alive when the last
published return was made up.

SWINE-FEVER.—In Great Britain
568 fresh outbreaks of this disease
were reported ; 3,066 pigs were at-
tacked, 1,323 diseased swine were
killed, 1,265 died, 211 recovered,
and 578 remained alive on April 25,

Monthly Council, May 6, 1891.

RABIES.—There were four casés.
of this disease in the month, in the
counties of Essex, London, Surrey,
and York (W. R.)

Correspondence as to an epizootic
outbreak in Yorkshire amongst lambs,
and as to scab in sheep had been laid
upon the table. A discussion had
arisen on the subject of abortion in
cows, and it was agreed to recom-
mend that a communication should
be addressed from the Society to the
Royal Veterinary College, asking
whether in the opinion of the College
the time had not now arrived for a
further investigation into the causa-
tion of this disease, and, if so, whether
the College were prepared to recom-
mend what action should be taken,
Mr. Stanyforth had been added to
the Committee.

Mr. DENT said there was a very
strong feeling in the agricultural
werld that this matter of abortion in
cattle was almost as serious as any-
thing which affected the herds of
this country. (Hear, hear.) Inspite
of all the enquiries that had been
made, no satisfactory information
had been obtained as to the nature of
it, or as to the means of prevention,
The Veterinary Committee were un-
animously of opinion that the Society
should consult the Royal Veterinary
College as to whether any means
could be adopted against it.

Stock Prizes.

Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) presented
the recommendations of this Com-
mittee as to certain proposed entries
for the Doncaster Meeting, which
they advised should be declined.
The Committee had given preliminary
consideration to the Stock Prize-sheet
for the Warwick Meeting, and after
considerable discussion of the several
suggestions, it had been decided to
put the draft Prize-sheet into type
for further consideration at the next
mecting.

Judges’ Selection.

Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported
that all the gentlemen mominated as
Judges in the several departments of
the Doncaster Meeting had signified
their willingness to act, and that the
Umpires had been selected by the
Committee,

i

Reports of Committees.

Implement.

Mr. FRANKISH (Chairman) reported
that the total amount of space allotted
in the Implement Department at the
Doncaster Meeting was as follows:
Ordinary shedding, 8,343 ft. ; special
shedding, 2,106 ft.; machinery-in-
motion, 2,024 ft. Total, 12,473 feet
run. ‘The Committee recommended
the acceptance of the offer of Messrs.
Hornsby and Sons to provide, free of
cost to the Society, an engine and
threshing-machine, with trusser at-
tached, for the purposes of the
Threshing- Machine Trials,

General Doncaster.

Mr. Dent said before he proceeded
to the-business of the General Don-
caster Committee he was allowed by
the gracious permission of His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales to state
that the Prince and Her Royal
Highness the Princess hoped to visit
the Society’s Show at Doncaster.
(Loud cheers.) When his Royal
Highness’s arrangements were com-
pleted, it would be made known to
the members on which day of the

‘show they would be able to be pre-

sent.

The PRESIDENT said he was sure
the Council would allow him on be-
half of the Society to express the
great gratification and pleasure of
the members of the Society at the
announcement which they had just
heard. His Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales took on every occa-

-sion the deepest interest in all their

national industries, but perhaps in no
industry did he take more interest
than in that of agriculture. He felt
that he could not let that opportunity

. pass without expressing their great

gratitication at learning His Royal
Highness’s gracious intention to be
present at the Royal Show at Don-
caster. (Cheers.)

Mr. Dent then reported that the

* General Doncaster Committee had

considered and approved the pro-
visional programme for the Doncaster
Meeting, and had altered the time of
the cattle parade on the Wednesday
of the show from 11 a.m. to 12 noon;
the final details to be settled by the
Honorary Director and the Secretary.

~ Applications had been received from

Ixiit

the Shire-horse Society, British Berk-
shire Society, Shorthorn Society,
Hunters’ Improvement Society, and
Hackney Horse Society, to hold meet-
ings in the Doncaster showyard, and
had been granted on the usual condi-
tions. The Secretary had been
instructed to communicate with the
Vicar of Doncaster as to the arrange-
ments for the preaching of the
sermon at the Sunday service, in
view of the lamented decease of the
Archbishop of York. A letter had
been received from the St. John
Ambulance Association, undertaking
the ambulance arrangements in the
showyard. The Committee consid-
ered it desirable that a lecture on
horse-shoeing should be given in the
shoeing-shed on the Wednesday
afternoon of the show.

Show-yard Works,

Sir JAcoB WILSON (Chairman) re-
ported that the Implement Yard at
Doncaster was now completed and
the stands allotted ; that the entrances
and offices were in a very forward
state ; a large number of horse-boxes,
cattle-sheds, refreshment-rooms, &ce.,
were built ; and that the works gener-
ally were wellin hand. The Local
Committee had laid the water-mains,
and were now finishing the services
about the Yard. The levelling was
almost complete, and only a few
holes about the Yard required filling
in. The Committee had approved
certain additions to the Royal Pay-
ilion at Doncaster, according to the

-plan submitted by the Surveyor. They

recommended that an office for re-
ceiving milk in the Show-yard be
erected at Doncaster in a similar
manner to that at Plymouth,

Selection.

Karl CATHCART said the time had
come when the subject of the choice
of a President for the next year must
be considered. The Committee of
Selection were unanimous on the sub-
ject, which had been discussed by
them at two meetings. They thought
it would be agreeable that the noble
Lord whose name they submitted
should be nominated in his own
county of York, and that it would be
desirable and advantageous for the

Ixiv

Society to have the services of the
Earl of Feversham as President for
the ensuing year. He, therefore,
moved “ That the Earl of Feversham
be recommended to the General
Meeting as President for the ensuing
year.”

This was seconded by Lord EGER-
TON OF TATTON, and carried unani-
mously.

On the motion of Earl CATHCART,
seconded by Viscount BRIDPORT, the
farl of Ravensworth was elected a
Trustee in the room of the late Duke
of Bedford.

On the motion of Earl CATHCART,
seconded by Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE,
Lieutenant-Colonel Curtis-Hayward,
of Quedgeley, Gloucester, was elected
a member of Council, in the room of
the Earl of Jersey, resigned.

Education.

Lord Moreton (Chairman) re-
ported that Dr. Fream’s paper and

the Committee’s reports on Technical
‘Education in Agriculture had been
reprinted and circulated amongst the

County Councils, as ordered at the
last meeting, and the Secretary had
submitted a number of letters re-
ceived in response to the Society’s
circular. A communication had been
received from the Charity Commission,
submitting copies of the scheme for
the future administration of the
Foundation of Dauntsey’s School and
Almshouses at West Lavington, as
approved by Her Majesty in Council.
The Committee recommended that
their Chairman, Lord Moreton, be ap-
pointed the Society’s Representative
Governor upon the Foundation, as
provided by Clause 3 of the scheme,
and in accordance with the Council’s
resolution of February 5, 1890.
Memorials had been considered from
authorities at the Oxford and Cam-
bridge Universities, asking if the
Society would support an application
to the Board of Agriculture to grant
a sum of 10/. or 15/. a head to a
limited number of graduates, to
enable them during the ensuing
spring and summer to visit some of
the best farms and agricultural in-
stitutions of the country, under the
guidance and with the assistance of
a qualified person, to be selected by
the Royal Agricultural Society or by

Monthly Council, May 6, 1891.

the Board of Agriculture. It had béen
resolved to recommend that the
Secretary be instructed to state in
reply to these memorials that, in the
opinion of the Council, it would be
better, before taking such action as
was proposed, to wait until the scheme
for scientific teaching in agriculture
at the Universities making the appli-
cation should have been finally
settled.

A formal resolution for the election
of Lord Moreton as the Governor re-
presenting the Society on the Found-
ation of the Dauntsey Agricultural
School was proposed by Mr, DENT,
seconded by Lord EGERTON | OF
TATTON, and carried unanimously, and
the remainder of the report was also
adopted,

Dairy.

The Hon. Cecrn T. PARKER (Chair-
man) presented the recommendations
of this Committee as to various
matters coniiected with the Dairy
Department at the Doncaster Meet-
ing. It was proposed to arrange for
the giving of lectures on dairy
matters by Dr. Voelcker and Mr,
Rigby during the Show-week.

Retiring Members of Council,

A list (see p. lvi.) of the 25 mem-
bers of Council who retire by rotation
was laid before the Council in
accordance with Bye-Law 23 (ce).

Country Meeting of 1898,

On the motion of Sir JAcoB WIL-
SON, seconded by Mr. 8S. P. Fosrer, it
was resolved that the Country Meet-
ing of 1898 be held in District G.,
which consists of the counties of
Chester and Lancaster, and of North
Wales.

Miscellaneous. ”*

A letter of thanks was read from
the Organising Committee of the
International Congress of Hygiene,
thanking the Society for its grant
of 50/7. towards the expenses, and

various other letters and documents —

were laid upon the table.
The report from the Council to the

General Meeting to be held on Friday, —
the 22nd instant, having been pre-

pared, the Council adjourned till
Wednesday, June 3rd, at noon,

( Ixv )

WEDNESDAY,

JUNE 38, 1891.

THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR,

Present :—

Trustees. —General Viscount Brid-
port, K.C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Colonel Sir Nigel Kings-
cote, K.C.B., Sir A. K. Macdonald,
Bart.

Vice-Presidents—Earl of Fever-
sham, Right Hon. Sir Massey Lopes,
Bart., Lord Moreton, Sir John
Thorold, Bart., Mr. C. Whitehead.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. Alfred Ashworth,
Mr. Joseph Beach, Mr. J. Bowen-
Jones, Lord Brougham and Vaux,
Mr. J. A. Caird, Mr. Charles Clay,
Lieutenant-Colonel J. F. Curtis-Hay-
ward, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. C. De L.
Faunce De Laune, Mr. S. P. Foster,
Mr. William Frankish, Mr. James
Hornsby, Mr. Charles Howard, Mr.
C. S. Mainwaring, Mr. Joseph Martin,
Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. Daniel Pidgeon,
Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr. G. H. Sanday,
Mr. W. T. Scarth, Sir J. L. E. Spear-
man, Bart., Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr. John
Tremayne, Mr. R. A. Warren, Mr. K.
V. V. Wheeler, Sir Jacob Wilson.

Mr. A. C. Cope, of the Board of
Agriculture.

Officers.—-Mr. Ernest Clarke, Sec-
retary and Editor; Professor J. B.
Simonds, Consulting Veterinary Sur-
geon; Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker,
Consulting Chemist.

The following members of the
Doncaster Local Committee were also
present: The Mayor of Doncaster
(Mr. Alderman Stockil), Mr. J. Firth
Clark, Mr. F. Bacon Frank, Mr. John
White, Mr. G. T. Wood, Mr. G. B. C.
Yarborough, and Mr. George Chafer
(Secretary of the Local Committee).

Apologies for Non-Attendance.
Apologies for non-attendance were
announced from H.R.H. Prince Chris-
tian, K.G., the Duke of Richmond
and Gordon, K.G., the Earl of
Coventry, Viscount Emlyn, Hon.
Cecil T. Parker, Sir Matthew Ridley,
VOL. ll. T. s.—6

Bart., M.P., Mr. Walter Gilbey, Mr.
Henry Smith, Mr. E. W. Stanyforth,
and Mr. Garrett Taylor,

Death of the Earl of Powis.

The minutes of the last Council
meeting, held on May 6, having been
read and confirmed,

The PRESIDENT said it had already
been his painful duty as President to
announce to the Council the loss by
death of one of the Trustees of the
Society, the Duke of Bedford, and
it now devolved upon him to report
officially to them the death of another
of their most distinguished colleagues,
the Earl of Powis, who had been a
member of their body for the long
period of thirty-five years. Elected
as a Member of Council in June, 1856,
Lord Powis speedily took an active
share in all the different departments
of the Society’s work, and in 1860, he
was elected President for the year
1860-61. His Presidential year was
marked by the most successful show,
both in point of attendance and
finance, that had ever been held up to
that time; and members of Council
who were present at their meeting
held in March, 1890, would remember
his vivid description of the scene at
the turnstiles at the Leeds Show of
1861. At the end of that year his
Lordship was elected a Trustee of the
Society. and had held that position
ever since. Lord Powis was an
original member of the Education
Committee, which had had recently
so important a development; and up
to the end of his useful life, he took
the greatest interest in the cause of
agricultural education. Acting upon
what he felt confident would be their
unanimous wish, that the Council
should be officially represented at
Lord Powis’ funeral, he (Lord Ravens-
worth) had requested their colleague
Mr. Mainwaring, who shared with
Lord Powis the representaticn of
Wales, to be so kind as to act for the
Society in that capacity; and in the

é

Ixvi

immense assemblage which followed
his Lordship’s remains to the grave,
Mr. Bowen-Jones, another of their
members, and a life-long tenant on
the Powis Estate, was also included.
He was sure that every member of
the Council would feel that by the
death of Lord Powis they had lost
one of their most distinguished and
honoured colleagues, one who had
served the Society long and well, and
who had devoted himself unsparingly
to its interests.

The PRESIDENT added that he re-
gretted also tec announce the death,
at the age of eighty-three, of one of
the original members of the Society,
Mr. R. Dawtrey Drewitt, of Arundel,
who was elected a member on March
11, 1840, and as such was made a
Foundation Life Governor on March
5 of last year.

Election of New Members.

The election of the following 70
Members was then proceeded with: —

BAckHousgs, OC. R...Ainderby Hall, Yorkshire,
BAILuisz, G. S...Doward House, Monmouth,
BAyNEs, T... Bainbridge, Bedale.
Bricut, R...30, High Street, Leominster.
+BurtoN, P. C...Pontyclown, Glamorgan,
CARMICHAEL, T. D. G...Castle Craig, N.B.
Carrer, T... Burnham, Doncaster.
CARTWRIGHT, F. W...Martin Common, Baw-
try.
CHARLES, T. R...7, Gloucester Rd., Weymouth,
CHETWYND, A...Longdon Hall, Rugeley.
CuLAy, James..Beckingham Hall, Notts.
CRAWFORD, P...Carruchan, Dumfries, N.B.
DeEwEY, J...The Farm, Waltham Cross,
DRINKWATER, G... Kirby, Douglas, I. M.
t+Druck, Edric..R. A. College, Cirencester.
ELwIs, J. 0...Avenue House, Doncaster.
Estcourt, Miss E...Standen, Newport, I. W.
Firs, H. L...Sudborough, Thrapston.
Fisuer, E. A. M. T...Welby Warren, Gran-
tham.,
Fircu, C. F...Whittles Hall, Essex.
Forrescus, J. B., Boconnoe, Lostwithiel.
GARSTON, Capt. E. J...Prizet, Kendal.
GILL, H. 8,.. Woodhayes Hall, Sale.
GILL, W. P... Woodhayes Hall, Sale.
GoopwiLL, R...North Ings, York.
tGunrer, J...Glasbury, Radnorshire.
Harnison, W. H...Grassendale Park, Liver-
ool.
Henp, T...Scothorne Manor, Lincoln.
HIckMAN, W. H...Broome, Stourbridge.
+H, H. F... Agricultural College, Aspatria.
HOoupEN, A. J... Doncaster.
Herxes, C. J. G...Pettings House, Ash, Kent,
JAcKSON, N. B...Acomb, York.
JENNINGS, R...Rossington Grange, Doncaster,
Kitcuty, ©. S...Spring Lodge, Knottingley.
KircuinG, Robert... Hungate, Pickering.
KnIiGut, Frank..Yarnhams, Alton, Hants.
LAITHWOOD, James..Congleton.

} Life Member by Examination,

Monthly Council, June 3, 1891.

tLisTER, J...Agricultural College, Aspatria,

LITTLEFAIR, J. H...Bonis, Shap.

MAYNARD, W., Jun...Alma House, Romsey,

MEAKIN, L. J... Needwood Side, Tatenhill.

paper ee? J. W...Flanshaw Mills, Wake-

eld.

Musson, R. D...Mayfield, Clitheroe,

Myort, C. G...The Oxhay, Biddulph, Staffs.

NALper, F...East Keal Hall, Spilsby,

NEWBORN, R...Haxey, Bawtry, Lincs.

OrmonD, W. G...Shenley, Bletchley.

OWEN, W.S...Cefngwifed, Newtown, Mont.

PARSONAGE, T... White Gate, Malpas.

PATEL, R. B...R. A. College, Cirencester.

PINNOCK, William.. Wantage, Berks.

PLATT, George. . Eaton, Tarporley.

PRITCHARD, W. E.G...Ceniarth, Machynlleth.

READER, I...Brenchley, Kent.

Ropinson, A. M...Shirley Lodge, Milton,
Cambs.

Suiack, A.S...Skirwith Hall, Culgaith, Carlisle,

Smiru, E... Wavertree, Liverpool.

SMITH, J... Hampton-in-Arden, Birmingham,

SmirHEs, J. T...Eveley, Liphook.

SPILMAN, G.,. Broughton Vale, Brigg.

{STAPLEDON, E. A...R, A. College, Cirencester,

THOMPSON, O. B... High Jervaulx, Bedale.

TREVITHICK, H. H...Tolroy, Hayle, Cornwall.

TURNER, Thomas. . Regent Square, Doncaster,

Waup, G. C... Bradford, Yorks.

Nemes J,..Garland Hall, Crowley, North-
wich.

WuitLow, J...Appleton, Warrington.

Witson, D. B...Seacroft Hall, Leeds.

TYounG, H. A. L,.. West Horsley, Leatherhead.

New Member of Council.

Earl CATHCART, as Chairman of
the Committee of Selection, intro-
duced Col, Curtis-Hayward, the newly
elected Member of Council, and the
PRESIDENT said they were very glad
to welcome Col. Hayward as one of
their number.

Their reports of the various Stand-
ing Committees were then presented
and adopted as below :—

Finance,

Sir NigeEL Kin@scorTE (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month of May, 1891, as certified by
the Society’s accountants, showed
total receipts amounting to 1,983/.
19s. 11d., and expenditure amounting
to 2,387/. 13s. 8d. The balance at
the bankers’ on May 30 was 7,288/.
1s. 1d. Accounts amounting in
all to 6,157/. 7s. 1ld. had been
passed, and were recommended for
payment. The total receipts up to
May 30, in respect of the Doncaster
Meeting, were 5,916. 9s. 4d, as
against 4,277/. 13s. 3d. at Plymouth. —

A statistical statement as to the -
number of members elected during

t Life Member by Examination.

Reports of Committees. Ixvii

the Society’s jubilee year, who still
remain on the Society’s books, had
been submitted, and ordered to be
entered upon the minutes. The
statement showed that of 2,745 mem-
bers elected during that period, 81
per cent. had paid all their subscrip-
tions to date, 10 per cent. still owed
subscriptions, 2 per cent. were dead,
and only 7 per cent. had resigned, or
had been struck off for other reasons.
The Committee recommended that
the names of eighteen members who
were deceased, and nineteen who had
resigned, be struck off the Society’s
books.

Season Tickets for Doncaster Show.

Sir JAcoB WILSON raised the
question of granting to members of
the Society the privilege of purchas-
ing season tickets for their friends,
who might be attending the Doncas-
ter Meeting with them; and after
some conversation, in which Mr.
DENT, the Earl of FEVERSHAM, Sir
NIGEL KINGSCOTE, the PRESIDENT,
and Mr. PELL took part, it was agreed,
uponthe motion of Sir JACOB WILSON,
seconded by Mr. DENT, that season
tickets, entitling to admission and
readmission at any time the show is
open to the public, be issued by the
Secretary to members fortheir friends,
at the price of half a guinea each.

House.

Sir NiceL Kinescote (Chairman)
presented the recommendations of the
Committee as to certain necessary re-
pairs in the Society’s house, and the
Tepainting of the general offices.

Journal.

Earl CATHcartT (Chairman) re-
ported that the arrangements pro-
posed by the Editor for the next
number of the Journal had been
considered and approved. Various
suggestions for articles and notes in
the Journal had been discussed, and
directions given thereon. The Board
of Agriculture, having consented to
place at the disposal of the Society
10,000 copies of their recent pamphlet
on experiments in checking Potato
Disease, the Committee recommended
that a copy be sent to each member
with the next number of the Journal,
and that the action of the Board in

the matter be duly acknowledged.
Applications from the Melbourne
Public Library and the Newcastle-on-
Tyne Public Library to be placed on
the free list of the Journal had been
granted.

Chemical.

Mr. WARREN presented the re-
port of this Committee, which dealt
with various matters arising out of
the Chemical Department, together
with the Quarterly Report of the
Committee and the report of the
Woburn Sub-Committee. The Wo-
burn Sub-Committee had reported
their visit to the Experimental Farm
and Fields on May 21, when they had
found everything in capital order.

Mr. WARREN said that Sir John
Lawes attached considerable impor-
tance to the fact of the Stackyard
Field having been formerly ancient
pasture, although it was more than
sixty years ago that it was broken up.
This seemed to call for the special
attention of the agricultural chemists
as to whether it would not be a very
great gain if they could find out how
to nitrify the soil artificially, so that
it would give off its nitrogen gradu-
ally as when nitrified by nature, in-
stead of applying nitrate of soda,
which was so fugitive that one or
two crops exhausted the effect of it.

Mr. PELL thought it was due to
Mr. Elliott, the Manager of the Wo-
burn Farm, and to those interested
in the management of the experi-
ments there, that he should express,
on the part of himself and his col-
leagues who visited the farm on the
21st ult., the greatest satisfaction at
the careful way in which the work was
being carried out. In his judgment
there was nothing left to be desired,
so far as attention could secure eftici-
ency in the conduct of the experi-
ments.

On the motion of Mr. WARREN,
seconded by Mr. DENT, it was unani-
mously resolved that the Quarterly
Report of the Chemical Committee be
received and adopted, and be pub-
lished in the usual manner. (See
page 398.)

Seeds and Plant Diseases.
Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) re-
ported that a letter had been received
e2

Ixvili

from the Board of Agriculture, con-
veying the thanks of the Board for
the Society’s prompt response to the
invitation to undertake experiments
with potatoes, and intimating that
the Board would be prepared to pro-
vide a sum not exceeding 1007. during
the current financial year to defray
the expenses of the investigation.
Mr. Carruthers had submitted the
proof of a coloured diagram, with ex-
planatory notes, illustrating the
potato disease, prepared by him for
the Irish Land Commission. The
Committee recommended that 1,000
copies of this diagram be printed for
the Society as a first edition, and
sold at the rate of 6d. each. A
report had been submitted by Miss
Ormerod on the wheat bulb maggot,
which the Committee recommended
should be published. (See page 394.)

The Sub-Committee on Potato
Experiments, appointed at the last
meeting of Council, had held two
meetings on May 12 and June 2,
and the following report from them
had been adopted by the Seeds and
Plants Committee :—

Report of Sub-Committee on Potato
Experiments.

1. The Sub-Committee propose
that experiments on potatoes with
sulphate of copper be carried on
during the ensuing season in the
following six districts: Devon,
“South Wales, Lancashire, Lincoln-
shire, Kent, and Bedfordshire.

2. That in each district a plot of
8 acres be set apart on a selected
farm, 1 acre to be treated with
sulphate of copper, applied early
as a preventive; 1 acre to be
treated later, should the disease
make its appearance thereon; and
1 acre to be left without treat-
ment.

3. The application of the dress-
ing to be made in every case under
the direction of a skilled person,
to be appointed by the Society.
The Committee recommend that
Mr. Edmond Riley, of The Weir,
Hessle, Hull, be charged with the
superintendence of the application
of the dressing.

4. During the period of growth,
the experiments to be inspected by

Monthly Council, June 3, 1891.

the Consulting Botanist of the

Society.

5. The produce when dug up to
be separated and weighed, under
the superintendence of a person
appointed by the Society.

Mr. WHITEHEAD added that the
Committee were greatly indebted to
Monsieur Paul Aubert, of St. Hilaire,
St. Florent, France, who kindly at-_
tended on the 2nd inst. and gave
useful information upon points neces-
sary to be observed in the prepara-
tion and application of the “ Bouillie
Bordelaise” mixture.

Mr. F. BACON FRANK, as a member
of the Doncaster Local Committee,
asked whether it was intended to
carry out experiments with potatoes
in the county of York, in which there
were some of the largest . potato
growers in the Kingdom.

Mr. WHITEHEAD replied that the
Sub-Committee had very carefully
considered the question of the locali-
ties for experiment, and they thought
that six districts would be quite
enough. One of those districts was
Lancashire, not very far from York-
shire, and he thought that that would
be sufficient as representing a large
potato district. Various offers of
land for the purpose of the experi-
ments had been received by the
Committee, and he ought perhaps
to state that it was proposed to take
the Isle of Axholme as the part of
Lincolnshire to be experimented
upon.

Mr. Howanrp asked whether the
potato itself had been dressed, or
whether it was attacked by the
disease afterwards. It was a com-
mon practice to dress wheat and
barley before sowing, as the fungus
was thought to be on the seed itself.
It was still not too late to plant
potatoes, and he thought it desirable
that experiments should be made on
this point.

Mr. WHITEHEAD replied that ex-
periments had been made in the
United States, by pickling the potato
as they pickled wheat, with sulphate
of copper or blue-stone. The results
were not satisfactory, and the disease
was not checked. The fungus, or the
fungus in that stage, was in the —
potato, and could hardly be affected
by an external application of sul.

Report of Veterinary Committee.

phate of copper, which would not
reach the fungus within. The fun-
gus ascended with the growing stalk
of the potato, and would not pro-
bably come into contact with any
sulphate of copper dressing that had
been applied. This, of course, would
not affect the oospores or “rest”
spores in or on the ground. The idea
had not been entertained by the
Sub-Committee because it seemed to
be contrary to scientific opinion.
The Sub-Committee would, however,
carefully consider Mr. Howard’s re-
marks, and if it were possible to
make any addition to their experi-
ments they would do so, though he
feared that it was now too late.

The PRESIDENT asked whether the
dressing of the potato in the same
way as wheat or barley, with such a
strong mixture, would affect the fruc-
tifying qualities of the root itself.

Mr. WHITEHEAD replied that there
would not be the least danger, even
if the potato were a cut-seed and not
a whole-seed potato. Such a treat-
ment would be likely to be more
effectual in the case of cut-seed
than whole-seed; but he questioned
whether it would be efficacious at
all, because a potato-tuber was an
altogether different thing to a seed
of corn, besides which, the fungi that
attacked the two kinds of crop were
quite distinct.

Veterinary.

Str JoHn THOROLD (Chairman)
stated that Mr. Cope (for Professor
Brown) had presented the following
report: and that a Parliamentary
Return, showing the number of out-
breaks of swine fever during the
past three years had been laid upon
the table :—

Pleuro-pneumonia.—-During the
four weeks ended May 23, twenty-
three outbreaks of this disease were
dealt with by the Board of Agri-
culture in seven counties in England

- and two in Scotland, viz. Kent,
- Lancaster, Middlesex, Northamp-

ton, Northumberland, York (N.R.),
York, (W.R.), Aberdeen, and Mid-
-lothian, In these counties ninety
cattle affected with the disease
were slaughtered, sixty-six in Eng-
land and twenty-four in Scotland ;
in addition to these 538 healthy

lxix

cattle, which had been exposed to
the risk of infection, were slaugh-
tered, 356 of these were in England
and 182 in Scotland.

There were during the four weeks
fourteen cattle slaughtered which
were suspected of being affected
with pleuro-pneumonia, but which
were found, on post-mortem ex-
amination, to be free from that
disease. ‘

For the corresponding period of
last year, there were forty-one
fresh outbreaks, in which 176
diseased and 804 healthy cattle
were slaughtered by the local au-
thorities.

The following Table shows the
number of outbreaks of this disease,
with the number of animals killed
between September 1, 1890, when
the Pleuro-pneumonia Act came into
operation, and the 23rd of May
last, as compared with the corre-

. sponding period for the years 1889-

90 :—
1890-91 1889-90
Outbreaks . ap ake 269

Diseased cattle slaughtered 834 1,192
Healthy cattle in contact
slaughtered . - 8,012! 4,083

Anthraw—During the four weeks
fourteen outbreaks of anthrax were
reported in Great Britain, in the
counties of Berks, Bucks, Essex,
Kent, Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln
(Kesteven), Lincoln (Lindsey),
Northumberland, Suffolk, York (W.
R.), Aberdeen, and Midlothian. In
these outbreaks sixty-five animals
were attacked, nine of which were
killed, forty-one died, five recov-
ered, and thirteen remained alive
diseased when the last return was
made up.

Swine fever —This disease con-
tinues to increase in Great Britain.
There were 688 fresh outbreaks
reported in the four weeks, as
compared with 568 in the pre-
ceding four weeks; 4,038 swine
were attacked, 2,004, or less than
half these diseased pigs were killed,
1,587 died, 226 recovered, and 744
remained alive diseased when the
return was made up.

* In addition to the 8,012 healthy contact
cattle slaughtered in 1890-91, 153 cattle sus-
pected of being affected with the disease were
also slaughtered, but were found to be free
from it, although affected with other diseases,

lxx

Rabies.—There were eight cases
of rabies in dogs reported, viz.,
one in Lancaster, one in London,
one in Middlesex, one in Somerset,
and four in York (W.R.).

Considerable discussion had taken
place upon the recent large increase
in the number of outbreaks of swine
fever, and it had been agreed to
submit the following resolution for
adoption by the Council :—

Seeing that swine fever is largely
on the increase, and that the
measures at present in force are
inadequate to check, much less
suppress it, the Council would
earnestly direct the attention of the
Board of Agriculture to the urgent
necessity of adopting more strin-
gent measures to mitigate the
severity of this disease.

The attention of the Committee had
been drawn to a communication,
addressed by the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland, to the
Board of Agriculture, as to the

’ exhibition in England and Scotland
of cattle exhibited at the Royal
Dublin Society’s Show, held at Dublin
last March, within, or in close prox-
imity to, a district scheduled under
the Pleuro-pneumonia Order. The
Committee were of opinion that no
animals which were now in, or which
had been exhibited in, a scheduled
district should be admitted to the
Royal Agricultural Society’s Show at
Doncaster, and that if any snch
animals had been entered, their
owners should be informed of this
resolution, the entries cancelled, and
the fees returned.

The Committee recommended ‘the
appointment of Mr. D. M. Storrar, of
Abergavenny, as the Society’s Pro-
vincial Veterinary Surgeon for Mon-
mouthshire, in succession to Mr.
Lewis, resigned.

A letter had been read from Sir
Joseph Lister, Chairman of the
Executive Committee of the British
Institute of Preventive Medicine,
seeking the Society’s support in an
application to the Board of Trade for
a licence to the Institute enabling
them, as a “charitable institution
not working for profit,” to omit the
word “limited” from their proposed
title, and asking that the President

Monthly Council, June 3, 1891.

and Council of the Society might be
officially represented at a deputation
in support of the application which
was appointed to wait upon Sir
Michael Hicks-Beach on the 5th
instant. The Committee recom-
mended that the Secretary be in-
structed to express the approval of
the ,;Council in the object of the
application made by the Institute,
but that they were not able to take
part in the proposed deputation. ~—_

Swine Fever,

Mr. DENT, with reference to the
proposed resolution as to swine fever,
said the question was whether the
Council were prepared to make any
definite recommendations to the
Board of Agriculture on the subject.
There was a very general feeling in
the Veterinary Committee on the
previous day that if any more was
going to be done, some far more
stringent measures should be adopted
than were in force at the present
time. There was a strong feeling
amongst those who had anything to
do with the subject, practically, that
they should stop for some considerable
period throughout the United King-
dom all markets for swine. There
was no doubt that the disease was
principally contracted by animals
being taken to markets which could
not well be cleaned, and which were
always more or less centres of in-
fection. In addition to that they
must carry out a more stringent law
of slaughter and compensation. In
certain districts of the West Riding
of Yorkshire every collier had a pig,
and in the neighbourhoods of Shef-
field, Barnsley, and Ripon the disease
was always more or less existing in
the pigstyes of the colliers—places
very ill-adapted to the kéeping of
swine. But he questioned whether,
even if they resorted to slaughter,
they would ever thoroughly eradicate
or stamp out the disease in localities
of the kind. Looking to the li
impression made upon the disease
and the carelessness and recklessness _
of pig-owners and pig-dealers, and
people connected with the trade, he
should be inclined rather to strike the
disease out of the Contagious Disease
(Animals) Act altogether, and let —
proprietors of pigs take their o

Swine Fever.

risk. There would always be more or
less disease amongst pigs whilst they
had the law unequally administered
in different parts of the country,
The visits of the veterinary surgeons
and the inspection of the districts
were a very serious inconvenience to
the pig trade. Farmers at that mo-
ment would tell them that pigs
were worth nothing, and that they
were almost unsaleable. If they
were really prepared to go to the
Board of Agriculture saying that
they must strike at the root of the
evil and adopt these more stringent

tions in the way of the keeping
of pigs, they would have a serious
outcry all over the country, and he
could not support such a resolution.
He should feel much more inclined
to strike swine fever altogether out
of the list of contagious diseases.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE could not at
all agree with Mr. Dent. Everyone
admitted that swine fever was be-
coming a serious scourge. If they
gave compensation they got more
swine fever than really existed. He
did not think that the Council should
express an opinion beyond saying that
more stringent regulations should be
adopted. But it was his own very
strong view that it would be a very
great step towards getting rid of the
disease if, as Mr. Dent said in the
first part of his remarks, all fairs and
markets for pigs were stopped for a
certain period. At the present moment
his experience was that in markets
where auctions were held once a fort-
night or once a month on turf,
cobbles, or stones, the dirt between
them could not be cleansed away;
those places could not be properly
disinfected, and therefore the disease
kept breaking out from time to time.
He thought the Council would do well
to call the attention of the Board of
Agriculture to the matter by a general
resolution, and he hoped that the
remarks made there would reach the
ears of the Minister of Agriculture, in
order that he might see how to deal
withthe question. The responsibility
lay with the Board of Agriculture.

Mr. BoWEN-JONES was disposed to
think that it was premature to ask
the Board to take action, because un-
less they imposed the most stringent
measures they would not produce any

Ixxi

effect at all upon the disease. It was
well known to the Council that the
Board of Agriculture had in hand the
question of the extermination of
pleuro-pneumonia, and in his opinion
that was quite as much as they could
thoroughly accomplish at the present
time. When the disease was extir-
pated—as he had no doubt it would
be under the present system of manage-
ment of the Board of Agriculture—he
thought swine fever might be taken
in hand, but till then he did not be-
lieve that the Board would be able to
cope with the two diseases. Nothing
short of the stoppage of fairs and
markets throughout the kingdom, and
slaughter with compensation from the
Imperial Exchequer, would enable
them to combat swine fever any more
than pleuro-pneumonia. He, there-
fore, thought it rather premature to
approach the Board except in general
terms. He wished it to be distinctly
understood that he only offered these
observations on the general ground
that he thought it was not the oppor-
tune time to ask the Board to deal
with the question. If the terms of
the resolution only called the attention
of the Board to the matter in a general
way, he did not object to its adop-
tion.

Mr. Howarp said Mr. Dent was
quite correct in stating that the stop-
page of fairs and markets would very
much interfere with practical business
throughout the country, and that it
would be unpopular. It appeared to
him desirable that the county authori-
ties should take this matter up. They
had tried it,in Bedfordshire, and had
not given any compensation for some
time past. At that moment they
were free from swine fever. There
was a very prevalent impression
amongst farmers and practical men
that a great many cases reported were
not swine fever at all. He did not
mean to say that because they stopped
compensation that that had had the
effect of stopping swine fever, but
it made owners more particular as to
the way in which they kept their pigs,
instead of allowing them to wallow
in filth and dirt, which was a certain
and prolific source of the disease,

Mr. MARTIN quite endorsed what
had been said by Mr. Howard so far
as the Isle of Ely was concerned,

lxxii

They did not pay compensation, and
they had not one case of the disease.

After some further discussion, the
resolution of the Veterinary Committee
in regard to swine fever was carried
by sixteen votes to three.

Entries of Stock from Districts Sche-
duled for Pleuro-pneumonia.

Sir JOHN THOROLD then explained
the recommendation of the Veterinary
Committee in regard to the proposed
exclusion from the Doncaster Show
of animals exhibited at the Royal
Dublin Society’s Show last March.
There was no doubt that, if this had
been a scheduled district in England,
the animals would not have been per-
mitted to go to their show, because
the Board of Agriculture had expressly
declined to give a licence for the
removal of any animals from such
districts. But the Privy Council in
Ireland were independent of the Board
of Agriculture in England, and they
had given those animals a licence to
enter the scheduled district and to go
back again to England. The Veter-
inary Committee thought that the
Council should mark their feeling
that it was extremely undesirable to
admit to the show any animals from
any district which had been scheduled
for pleuro-pneumonia, and, therefore,
they proposed that resolution.

Mr. HowARrD pointed out that the
animals referred to were now being
exhibited throughout the country.
The question was whether the Royal
Agricultural Society would do what
other societies had not done. It ap-
peared to him that the mischief, if any,
had already been done, and that it was
now too late for the Society to take
action in the matter.

Mr. DENT said the matter came
before the Veterinary Committee
upon a letter received from the High-
land Society, with a copy of their
minute on this question. It certainly
appeared to all the members of the
Veterinary Committee that as that
Council had been perpetually im-
pressing upon the Board of Agri-
culture the necessity of dealing
uniformly and _ stringently with
pleuro-pneumonia, and that the rules
and regulations made should be ap-
plicable to every district, they would
only be acting consistently in passing

Monthly Council, June 3, 1891.

the resolution proposed. He under-
stood that the Board of Agriculture
had published an Order called The
Scheduled Districts Order, and that
when they declared the district
scheduled as a_pleuro-pneumonia
district, no animal could move out of
it unless for slaughter, without a
special licence. What he understood
was that certain exhibitors sent cattle
into a scheduled district in Ireland,
and that the authorities in Ireland
gave those people certificates to en-
able them to remove their animals
back again to England. They had
not sufficient information to know on
what they based their certificate, but
apparently the authorities considered
it safe for those animals to go back
again. The feeling of the Committee
was that the Council, having been so
urgent in pressing the Board of
Agriculture to deal uniformly and
stringently in the matter, ought not
to encourage the exhibition by the
Royal Agricultural Society of any
animals that had been in a scheduled
district in England or in Ireland.
He agreed with Mr. Howard that in
all probability there was not much
danger from those animals, but their

exhibition would be at least a legal

infraction of the rules that had been
laid down, and the question was
whether they should in any way en-
courage what might be a relaxation
of them.

Mr. TERRY remarked that, suppos-
ing those animals had been in a
scheduled district, they had been
taken to other shows, and they had
been in contact with other animals
that would be exhibited at the Royal
and at other shows all over the
country.

Mr. PELL said the two things were
quite distinct. If other shows had

already exhibited those animals, that

was no reason why the society should
do so and carry the disease further
over the country than it might have
been carried already. The fact of
their adopting the resolution would
have its full effect next year.
Breeders of cattle would take very
great care not to exhibit their animals
in a country which had different Jaws
to their own and in which they would
run the risk of infection.
very strongly in favour of passing the

He was |

un

i

"|

Reports of Committees.

resolution, though it might not, as
far as the disease was concerned,
have effect this year. It would,
however, be a most valuable caution
next year.

Remarks having also been made by
Mr. Foster and Lord Moreton,

The PRESIDENT, before putting the
resolution, said he hoped and trusted
that the Council would pass it for the
sake of their own consistency. It
was not fair that they should act
with strictness in one matter and not
in another.

The resolution was then put and
carried, no one voting against it; and
the report of the Veterinary Com-
mittee was then formally adopted.'

Stock Prizes.

Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported
that in some instances considerable
difficulty had been experienced in
obtaining the necessary official Herd-
book importation certificates for ani-
mals in the Jersey classes entered as
eligible for entry in the Island Herd-
book, and the Committee recom-
mended that in cases where the
regulations had not been complied
with, the entries should be refused.
The question of the veterinary in-
spection of stallions at the Doncaster
Meeting had been considered, and the
Committee recommended that it be
an instruction to the Society’s veter-

1 The following circular was addressed by
the Secretary on June 11 to all intending ex-
hibitors of cattle at Doncaster :—

Royal Agricultural Society of England,
- 12 Hanover Square, London, W.,
June 11, 1891.

Sir—As numerous inquiries have been ad-
dressed to me with reference to a resolution
passed by the Council at their last Meeting,
having for its object the exclusion from the
Doncaster Showyard of Cattle concerning
which there is any risk of Pleuro-pneumonia,
Iam instructed to explain to you that it is
the intention of the Society not to allow any
Cattle to be exhibited at Doncaster which are
at present in the Districts scheduled for
Pleuro-pneumonia by the Board of Agriculture
or the Irish Privy Council, or have been ex-
hibited at Shows held within those Districts.

Exhibitors who have entered cattle for Don-
easter which come within the terms of the
above resolution, and who have not already re-
ceived a letter from me on the subject, are
requested to communicate With me at once,
either by letter or telegram, in order that such
entries may be omitted from the official Cata-
logue, and that the entry fees paid in respect
thereof may be returned.

Iam, Sir, your obedient servant,
; ERNEST CLARKE, Secretary.

inary inspectors that the following
diseases should disqualify a stallion,
under Regulation 41 of the prize
sheet :—Roaring-whistling, ringbone,
unsound feet, navicular disease,
spavin, side-bone, and cataract.

The Committee had further con-
sidered and amended the draft prize
sheet for the Warwick Meeting, which
they proposed to consider again after
the recess.

Judges Selection.

Mr. SANDAyY (Chairman) reported
that, in view of the number of entries
in the Shropshire sheep classes being
too large for one set of judges, the
Committee had decided that there
should be two sets of judges.

Implement.

Mr. SANDAY (for Mr. Frankish)
presented the report of this Com-
mittee, which dealt with various
details as to the trials of threshing
and milking machines at Doncaste:,
and of ploughs at Warwick next year.

General Doncaster.

Mr. DENT reported that the draft
programme of the Doncaster Meeting
had been submitted and approved ;
and announced that the visit of Their
Royal Highnesses the Prince and
Princess of Wales would take place
on the Wednesday of the Meeting,
when they would witness both the
cattle and the parades. The Commit-
tee recommended that a lectnre on
Farriery, by Professor Pritchard, be
given in the shoeing forge on Thurs-
day, at 2 p.m. Applications from
the National Pig Breeders’ Associa-
tion, and from Mr. George Barham,
on behalf of implement exhibitors,
for permission to hold meetings in
the large tent in the showyard, had
been granted on the usual conditions.
A letter had been received from the
Vicar of Doncaster stating that he
had been unable to arrange with the
Archbishop Designate of York, or
with the Bishops of Beverley and
Hull, to preach on the Sunday before
the Show, and it had been unani-
mously agreed to ask the Vicar to
preach himself.

Showyard Works.

Sir JAcoB WILSON (Chairman) re-
ported that the whole of the Imple-

lxxiv

ment Yard was completed, that a
number of exhibits were in position,
and that others were daily arriving.
The horse-boxes and stock-sheds and
other departments were in a very
forward state.

Selection.

On the motion of EARL CATHCART,
seconded by Mr. MAINWARING, Major
W. T. E. Fosbery, of Warwick, was
unanimously appointed the Steward
of Forage for the Warwick Meeting
of 1892,

Education.

Lord MoRETON (Chairman) pre-
sented a detailed report (see page 407)
by the Education Committee on the
results of the recent senior examina-
tion, from which it appeared that
twenty-one candidates entered, and
thirteen actually competed, at the
examinations which took place from
the 12th to the 16th of May last, and
that of these thirteen competitors
nine had satisfied the examiners.

The Committee had given careful
attention to the question of the issue
by the Society of a further series of
twenty-four diagrams of injurious
insects, prepared by Miss Georgiana
Ormerod. Miss HE. A. Ormerod had
had a ‘personal interview with the
Committee, and, on behalf of her
sister, offered to present the copy-
right of the diagrams to the Society,
upon the understanding that the out-
of-pocket expenses incurred in the
production of the diagrams be re-
funded by the Society. The Com-
mittee advised the Council to arrange
with Miss Ormerod for the transfer-
ence to the Society of the diagrams
in question upon the terms proposed,
and recommended that the thanks
of the Society be given to Miss
Ormerod and her sister for their
generosity in the matter.

Lord MoRETON, in presenting this
report, said he desired to draw the
attention of the Council to the fact
that two of the prize-winners at the
Senior Examination were young men
under age. Mr, Edric Druce, who
had won the second prize, had a
hereditary connection with the So-
ciety. His great-grandfather and
grandfather had both been original
members, and had served on the
Council; and his father was the

Monthly Council, June 8, 1891.

Honorary Secretary of the original
Education Committee of the Society
appointed a quarter of a century ago,
and was well known to them all as the
Secretary of the Farmers’ Club. Mr,
Edric Druce now joined the Society
at the age of nineteen, under the
most honourable circumstances, and
he was believed to be the first in-
stance in their experience of a fourth
generation of uninterrupted associa-
tion with the Society. Mr. Lister,
aged 15, the fourth prize-winner, was
the youngest candidate who had ever
won a prize in their Senior Examina-
tion. He was the son of a miner,
and, as a scholar of Aspatria, gained
one of the Society’s Junior Scholar-
ships last November, coming out at
the top of the list. He had now fol-
lowed up this success by gaining a
position in the Senior Examination,
which must be regarded as highly
creditable to himself and to the in-
stitution by which he was prepared.

Suggestion made at General Meeting.

The Council then considered the
suggestion made by Mr. Frederick
King at the General Meeting on
May 22, viz., That more attention
should be paid by the Society to the
education of the agricultural labourer.
It was decided that the answer
of the Council should be that the
Education Committee had already in
hand the preparation of an agricul-
tural text book for use in elementary
schools in rural districts, and that
they did not consider it advisable for
the Society to take steps in the ex-
tensive direction suggested by Mr.
King.

Miscellaneous,

A letter from the Imperial Insti-
tute, asking the Council to nominate
a representative upon the permanent
governing body, was considered, and

it was, on the motion of Earl CATH- —

CART, seconded by Lord Bripport,
resolved to nominate the President
of the Society for the time being to
act ex officio in this capacity.
Various other matters having been
dealt with, the Council adjourned till
Tuesday, June 23, at 2.30 p.m., in
the Showyard at Doncaster; and it
was at the same time arranged to
havea daily meeting of the Council on
the other days of the show at 1 p.m.

i ee

|
Members—Mr. J. A. L. Beasley,

C Texe’)

Proceedings at 52nd Anniversary Meeting of
Governors and Members,

FRIDAY, MAY 22, 1891.
_THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present :—

Members of Cowncil.—H.R.H. Prince
Christian, K.G., Earl Cathcart, the
Earl of Feversham, Messrs. G. Mander
Allender, James A. Caird, Percy. E.
Crutchley, C. De L. F. De Laune,
Henry Smith, John Tremayne, and
C. W. Wilson.

Governor —Mr. Thomas G. Benn.

Honorary Member.—Professor G. T.
Brown, C.B.

Captain John C. Best, Messrs. Horace
F. Cox, Thomas Dunn, Captain E.
Pennell Elmhirst, Messrs. Edwin
Foden, Frederick King, Colin{MacIver,
W. Newzam Nicholson, Frank Proctor,
R. Henry Rew, A. Seth-Smith, G. F.
Sheppard, W. Tinning, Sir W. Vincent,
Bart., Messrs E. W. Voelcker, Jonas
M. Webb, &c.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
ae and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
_ Voelcker, Consulting Chemist.

i
}
|

The SECRETARY having read the

_ Bye-Law governing the transaction
| of business at the anniversary meet-
ings, it was moved by Captain ELM-

HIRST, seconded by Captain BEst,
and unanimously resolved that the
Earl of Feversham be elected Presi-
dent of the Society for the year ensu-
ing the Doncaster Meeting.
| The Earl of FEVERSHAM, in ex-
pressing his sincere thanks for the
high honour the Society had conferred
upon him, in electing him President
for the year ensuing the Doncaster
Meeting, said he need not remind
| them that the Royal Agricultural
Society had carried on for more than
fifty years a great and _ benefi-
cent work in this country; and he
_ might say that it had been the pioneer

if not the originator of all those great
improvements which had taken place
during that period.

At their Annual Exhibitions, inven
tions calculated to assist the farme:
had been exposed to public criticism
and brought to the test of practical
experience. So well had the Society
acted up to its motto of ‘“ Practice
with Science ” that the result, he did
not doubt, had been “ Progress with
Safety.” It was not too much to say
that, under the auspices of that great
Society, British Agriculture had been
greatly improved, and that it had con-
ferred upon the important industry in
which they were engaged, and there-
fore upon the country at large, im-
mense benefits. To havehad a share,
however small, in the great work of
that Society was, he thought, a source
of satisfaction to every member of it,
and to every one who was engaged in
its work. (Hear, hear.) And to be
called upon to preside over its delibe-
rations was an honour which, he need
not say, he should highly value. In
again thanking them, he would only
express the hope that he might be
able, in the discharge of the duties of
the Presidential Chair, to follow in
the footsteps and to imitate the ex-
ample of his able and distinguished
predecessors, in a manner which should
meet with their approval and merit
their confidence and esteem. (Cheers.)

The Trustees and Vice - Presidents
were then re-elected by show of hands,
the Chairman making sympathetic
reference to the losses sustained by
the deaths of the Duke of Bedford
and the Earl of Powis, two of the
Society’s Trustees.

The election of twenty-five Mem-
bers of Council was next proceeded
with, and the President appointed

Ixxvi General Meeting of Governors and Members, May 22, 1891.

Mr. Horace Cox, Mr. Edwin Foden,
and Mr. Jonas M. Webb, to act
as scrutineers of the voting-papers.
These having been duly collected, and
the report of the scrutineers thereon
received, it was announced that the
twenty-five Members of Council who
retired by rotation had been duly re-
elected.

The SECRETARY haying read the

Report of the Council to the Meeting.

(see page x), its adoption was moved
by Mr. THomAS G. BENN, seconded
by Mr. G. F. SHEPPARD, and carried
unanimously.

On the motion of Mr. JouHn
TREMAYNE, seconded by Mr. J.
HERBERT TAYLOR, a vote of thanks
was passed to the auditors (Messrs.
A. H. Johnson, Francis Sherborn and
C. Gay Roberts) for their services
during the past half-year.

In response to the usual inquiry
from the Chair as to whether any
Governor or Member had any remark
to make or suggestion to offer that
might be referred to the Council for
consideration,

Mr. FREDERICK KING drew atten-
tion to the question of the educa-
tion of agricultural labourers. He
advocated the establishment — by
means of the funds of the Society, the
funds of individual members of the
Society, and the funds of the County
Councils—of Model Farms in the
vicinity of the Metropolis and such
places as Birmingham, York, or Man-
chester, where intelligent boys from
country parishes might undergo a
system of training by the most emi-
nent lecturers and teachers; so that
after finishing their course they might
return to their native villages to im-
part “at the blacksmith’s corner”
some of the information they had
gained. He said that great efforts had
been made by Members of the Society
for the benefit of those who could help
themselves, and he urged that some-
thing should be doneto helpthose who
were incapable of so doing.

No other Member desiring to offer
any remarks, Mr. NewzAam NICHOL-
son moved a vote of thanks to Lord
Ravensworth for his able conduct in
the Chair, remarking, in regard to
what had been said by the previous
speaker, that he had great faith in
the County Councils; he thought that
they would no doubt take energetic

and useful steps toward the advance-
ment of the education of agricultural
labourers.

Sir WILLIAM VINCENT seconded the
resolution and remarked that the
Surrey County Council, of which he
was a member, were giving attention
to the question of Technical Educa-
tion; and he was very much in hope —
that the better education of the agri-
cultural labourer would be one of the
prominent branches of thesubject that _
they would take into consideration.

The vote of thanks was then put by
the SECRETARY and carried unani-
mously.

The PRESIDENT in replying con-
eratulated the Society upon its choice
of a President for the ensuing year.
He thought they had selected a
nobleman—a very old friend of his
own—who would maintain the honour
and dignity of that great Society as his —
predecessors had always endeavoured
to do. He was quite sure that Lord
Feversham, himself a practical far-
mer, and a most successful competitor
at the Society’s Shows on many
occasions, took a great interest in the
Society, and in what he hoped and
believed was a growing industry in
this country. The question raised by
Mr. King would receive the consider-
ation of the Council, but he did not
think that it would be within the
scope of the Society to undertake any
measures on a large scale for the
education of the agricultural labourer,
seeing that enormous sums were voted
by Parliament towards elementary §
education in this country. After q
adverting to the establishment of
agricultural sides in rural schools, his -
Lordship drew attention to the —
recently-issued pamphlet of the
Board of Agriculture on sulphate of —
copper as a means of checking the
potato disease, and to the increased
intelligence now required from the
agricultural labourer in the applica-
tion of remedies such as these, as well
as in the other operations of agricul-
ture. It appeared to him that the
Board of Agriculture was working
admirably and most industriously for
the improvement of the great indus-
try which it was created to pramote.
In thanking them very cordially for —
the vote of thanks which they had —
passed, he had now only to declare —
the Meeting at an end.

ROVAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

esate einen

Proceedings of the Council,

Bees DAN, JUNE. 23,

1891,

(IN THE SHOWYARD AT DONCASTER).

GENERAL VISCOUNT BRIDPORT, K.C.B. (TRUSTEE), IN THE CHAIR,

Present :—

Trustees.—General Viscount Brid-
port, K.C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B.

Vice-Presidents.—Mr. H. Chandos-
Pole-Gell, the Earl of Feversham,
Sir John H. Thorold, Bart.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
Mander Allender, Mr. Joseph Beach,
Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Lord Brougham
and Vaux, Mr. James A. Caird, the Earl
of Coventry, Mr. Percy E. Crutchley,
Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-Hayward,
Mr. C. De L. Faunce De Laune,
Viscount Emlyn, Mr. W. Frankish,
Mr. Hugh Gorringe, Mr. R. Neville
Grenville, Mr. Charles Howard, Mr. C.
S. Mainwaring, Mr. Joseph Martin,
Mr. T. Horrocks Miller, Mr. Albert
Pell, Mr. Daniel Pidgeon, Mr. J. E.
Ransome, Mr. S. Rowlandson, Mr. G.
H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr.
Alfred J. Smith, Sir J. L. E. Spear-
man, Bart., Mr. E. Wilfrid Stanyforth,
Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr. Garrett
Taylor, Mr. Joseph P. Terry, Mr. Jokn
Tremayne, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir
Jacob Wilson.

Professor Brown, C.B.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-

tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist.

The minutes of the last Council
held on June 3, and of the Special
Council held in the Showyard on June
22, were read and confirmed. The
proceedings at the Special Council

VOR, i T) S.—7

included resolutions in reference to
protests on account of alleged false
pedigrees of horses; the granting of
an application from the Agricultural
Engineers’ Association for permission
to hold a meeting of their members
in the large tent in the showyard;
and decisions as to various other
matters of detail in connection with
the Show.

Election of New Governors and
Members.

The election of the following four
Governors and forty Members was
then proceeded with :—

Governors,

CuANDOs-POLE-GELL, H...Hopton Hall, near
Wirksworth.

Muncaster, Lord,.. Muncaster Castle, Raven-
glass, Cumberland,

OsWALD, Lord St... Appleby Hall, Doncaster.

Powis, Earl of.. Powis Castle, Welshpool.

Members.

AFFLECK, Sir Robert, Bart...Dalham Hall,
Newmarket,

BELLasis, Capt. R. Oliver. .94 Piccadilly, W.

BINvDER, H... Kimberworth Park, Rotherham.

BLACKETT, E. C,..63 West Smithfield, E.C.

BLAYDES, T. J... Epworth, Doncaster.

Brett, J...Banks House, Bingham, Notts.

CieEasby, W...Islebeck Grange, Thirsk.

DARLINGTON, B... Barrow Lodge, Chester,

De Boissiku, F...Chateau de la Forét, par
Moulins, Allier ; France,

DE Mornay, H...30 Chesterton Road North, W.

Drury, John..Leam, Eastoft, Goole.

Duny, T. D...Grovehill, Beverley.

Fixcu, Mark..Rowsham, Aylesbury, -

FRANKLIN, W...105 Burngreave Road, Sheffield.

GLEW, R...Keadby, near Doncaster,

GrotH, Chev. L. A...3 Tokenhouse Build-
ings, E.C.

HEATON, K...Plas Heaton, Trefnant,

Herries, Lord.,Everingham Park, Yerk.

/

Ixxviii Monthly Council, June 23, 1891.

Huot, J. M,..The Holmes, Epworth, Doncaster,
Horne, F...Hinnington, Shifnal.

Honosy, T. C...Crowle, Doncaster.

Hunt, A. R...Culpho, near Ipswich.

Hutton, Col. G. H... Thorney Hall, Newark.
InMAN, Charles.. Woodsetts, Worksop.

Jams, L... Womersley, Pontefract.

Manrtyy, R. E, P...Sherborne, Northleach.
Maw, R...The Curlews, Crowle, Doncaster.
Moscrop, A... Todwick Grange, Kiveton Park,

Sheffield.
Nicuot, T... West Shields, Tow Law, co, Dur-
am.

Ortiry, W. H...Ranskill, Bawtry.

Pickup, P. R... Darrington, Pontefract.

Sasry, J. H...16 Whitehall Place, S. W.

SANDERS, R. M. D...Sanders Park, Charleville,
co. Cork.

SmiTH, W. W...Blacktoft House, Howden.

STANIFORTH, W...Todwick, Sheffield.

STANLEY, Joseph.. Radford, Leamington.

TayLor, Mrs...Misterton, Notts.

TAYLOR, Thomas..Epworth, Doncaster.

TREMAINE, Charles H...Castle Street, Laun-

ceston.
WARWICK District SHIRE HORSE SOCIETY...

Leamington.
Finance.

Mr. Sanpay for Sir Nigel Kings-
cote (Chaimman), reported that ac-
counts amounting in all to 3,205/.
10s. 9d. had been passed, and were
recommended for payment. The
Committee recommended that the
entry fees for cattle entered but not
sent by exhibitors who had shown
other cattle ‘at the Dublin Spring
Show, or who could not send their
animals in consequence of their being
in scheduled districts, be returned to
their owners.

Journal.

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) re-
ported that the June number of the
Journal had been printed off, and
that copies would be issued to mem-
bers in the course of a fewdays. He
laid upon the table several copies of
the new number. The Committee
recommended the payment of various
accounts for printing and for literary
contributions in connection with the
Journal. An application by Dr.
Raineri, of the Giornale di Agricol-
tura, Piacenza, for permission to re-
print in Italian Dr. Crookshank’s
article on the tubercle bacillus, ap-
pearing in Part I. of the Journal this
year, had been granted on the usual
conditions.

In presenting this report Lord
CATHCART remarked that the Journal
was due to appear on June 30, and
he thought it was very creditable to
their Journal arrangements that they

had issued this number notwithstand-
ing the preoccupations of the Show,
and that the copies would be de-
spatched to members by the very day
of publication.

Veterinary.

Sir Joun THOROLD (Chairman) re-
ported that the Secretary had laid
upon the table a statement of the
action taken by him to carry out the
resolution of the Council, passed on
the 3rd instant, with reference to the
exclusion of cattle from scheduled
districts. This action, and the issue
of the Secretary’s circular of the
11th instant, had been approved. An
acknowledgment by the Board of
Agriculture of the resolution of the
Council relating to swine fever had
been laid upon the table.

The following report had been pre-
sented by Professor Brown :—

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.—Since the
last meeting of the Veterinary
Committee the pleuro-pneumonia
returns for the three weeks ended
June 13 have been published in the
London Gazette. During this period
fifty-seven cattle affected with the
disease were slaughtered, by order
of the Board of Agriculture, in the
counties of Lancaster, London,
Middlesex, Northumberland, and
York (West Riding), in England;
Aberdeen, Forfar, and Mid-Lothian,
in Scotland. In addition to the
above, 735 healthy cattle, which
had been in contact with the dis-
eased animals or otherwise exposed
to the risk of infection, were
slaughtered by order of the Board,
as were also eight cattle suspected
of being affected, but which were
found on post-mortem examination
to be free from pleuro-pieumonia,
although suffering from other forms
of lung disease. Three outbreaks,
involving nearly 400 cattle, were
reported within a few days of each
other. The first of these was on
the Knavesmire, at York; the
second in the county of Middlesex;
and the third in London.

SWINE-FEVER.—This disease still
continues widely spread, and more
or less prevalent in nearly every
county in England, The fresh out-
breaks have recently been about

|

Pleuro-pneumonia.

180 per week, while the number of
swine attacked weekly has been
rather over 1,000, about half of
which have been slaughtered; the
greater part of the remainder died ;
a few recovered; but week after
week some 600 or more diseased
pigs have been left alive, actively
reproducing the virus of the disease
to infect others.

Pleuro-Pneumonia.

The Earl of FEVERSHAM said he
wished to refer to the large number
of cattle which from time to time
were reported from the Veterinary
Committee as having been slaughtered
in consequence of outbreaks of pleuro-
pneumonia. He thought it would be
very desirable if they could have—
and no doubt it was given in some
form, probably by the Government—
statistics from time to time as to
the number of healthy cattle, as well
as cattle affected with the disease,
that had been slaughtered in the
country. He knew that compensa-
tion was given by the Government,
but at the same time it was a serious
loss to the country. It was desirable
that they should not only have
monthly reports, but quarterly or
half-yearly returns.

Mr. DENT stated that 8,000 animals
had been slaughtered by order of the
Board of Agriculture in six months;
150,0002. had been paid in compensa-
tion, of which only 60,0002. had been
secured as salvage. He was glad to
find that the views he had held for
many years were beginning to receive
some support, and was charmed to
think that the President for next year
was so seriously alarmed. The Board
of Agriculture appeared determined to
“stamp out” the disease of pleuro-
pneumonia by killing all the cattle in
the country. On the Knavesmire 263
animals reported to be affected with
the disease were slaughtered, yet only
one was said to be affected with
pleuro-pneumonia. In the neighbour-
hood of Ripon seventy-nine animals
were slaughtered, of which only one
was reported to be affected. It was
really a very serious matter. Most of
the animals killed were heifers or
cows in-calf, One friend of his had
sixteen cows under experiment for
cross-breeding, every one of which

Ixxix

was slaughtered in-calf. Fourteen
others, four-year-old milch cows,
nearly due to calve, had also been
ordered to be slaughtered. What
encouragement was there to farmers
to breed stock if they were to run
the risk of having all their breeding
animals—cows and heifers—swept off
in this wholesale fashion? He (Mr.
Dent) had been in a minority of one
for a long time; but he was very
delighted to think that he would
have a recruit in the person of the
President. Before long there would
be a tremendous outcry on the part
of breeders and farmers in England
at the sacrifice that was being made.
They must not have the idea that
they were going to stamp out the
disease by slaughtering. Compara-
tively no impression was being made
upon the centres of the disease,
notwithstanding the rate at which
cattle were being slaughtered at the
present time.

Lord FEVERSHAM explained that
he did not wish Mr. Dent to think that
he was opposed to the system of
slaughter. He should like some sta-
tistical account showing the extent
of the disease—if the monthly reports
could be condensed into one return
for the six months.

Sir JOHN THOROLD, in answer to
Lord Feversham, read the return
which had been presented to the
Veterinary Committee by Professor
Brown on June 3, showing the
number of animals killed between
September 1, 1890, when the Pleuro-
pneumonia Act came into operation,
and May 23 last, from which it ap-
peared that the number of diseased
cattle slaughtered had been reduced,
but the number of healthy cattle in
contact slaughtered had been 8,012,
as against 4,083 (see page lxix).

Sir JACOB WILSON said he did not
think his friend Mr. Dent ought to
claim any crecit for the part he had
taken in the matter, or feel any great
pleasure at the justification of the
support he had given to the non-
slaughter principle by what had taken
place lately. But, on the other hand,
he ventured to think that the Board
of Agriculture might feel justified in
what they had done, because they
were quite within the estimate they
laid before the House of Commons

f2

lxxx

last year, when they anticipated the
possibility of everything that had
taken place. It was impossible to
stamp out pleuro-pneumonia in any
specified period, in the same way as
foot-and-mouth disease. If anybody
would without prejudice read the re-
port of the Departmental Committee
upon that point, and the evidence
given by those who had had the
largest experience in this and other
countries, they would come to the
conclusion that no guarantee could be
given of the disease being stopped
within the period of the life of any
animal alive, whilst pleuro-pneumonia
was prevalent in this country. Even
at the time of the passing of the
Act, they knew that it must take at
least two or three years. The Board
were justified in their action by the
evidence from Holland and elsewhere
abroad. They knew what happened
there. As soon as animals were
turned out to grass they had no means
of localising and isolating them as
they had in winter, and so the disease
was sure to spread. But if they
waited for another period during the
winter, when they could once more
get them into their stalls, there would
be a much better chance of dealing
with the disease. It was not sur-
prising that the disease should break
out in a large enclosure like the
Knavesmire. Few people cared about
the matter until it affected them-
selves. He ventured to say that if
they were to canvass the breeders in
the showyard in contradistinction to
the feeders of Irish cattle, and those
who had unfortunately been at the
Dublin Show, they would find that
they were supporters of the policy
adopted by the Board. Considering
what had taken place in other
countries, and after the experience
they had gained, it would be deplor-
able if they failed to give the Board
of Agriculture the support it deserved
in the exertions it was making to get
rid of the disease. (Applause.)

The report of the Veterinary Com-
mittee was then adopted.

Showyard Works.

Mr. FRANKISH presented the report
of this Committee, including a state-
ment of the Surveyor’saccounts, The

Monthly Council, June 23, 1891.

Committee had authorised Mr. Benni-
son to include in the sale of wood
after the Show the iron gates formerly
used for the sheep pens.

Selection.

Earl CATHCART (Chairman), having
read the recommendations of this
Committee, moved the following reso-
lutions :—

(a.) That Sir John Bennet Lawes, -
Bart., Vice-President, be trans-
ferred to the list of Trustees ;

(4.) That Mr. H. Chandos-Pole-
Gell be elected a Vice-President, in
the room of Sir John Lawes;

(c.) That the Honorary Member-
ship of the Society be conferred
upon Monsieur Louis Passy, Secré-
taire Perpétuel de la Société
Nationale d’Agriculture de France,
in recognition of the distinguished
services which he has rendered to
European Agriculture.

These resolutions were seconded by
the Earl of FEVERSHAM, and carried
unanimously.

Mr. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, in reply,
thanked the Council very sincerely for
the honour they had done him, and
said that he should use his best
endeavours to forward the welfare of
the Society as far as his powers would
permit.

Nomination of a General Warwick
Committee.

On the motion of Sir JACOB WILSON,
seconded by Mr. FRANKISH, a General
Warwick Committee was appointed,
to consist of the whole Council,
together with the following represen-
tatives, nominated by the Mayor of
Warwick :—Lord Leigh, Lord Brooke,
M.P., Lord Ernest Seymour, the
Mayor of Warwick (Mr. J. W. Mann),
the Town Clerk of Warwick (Mr.
Brabazon Campbell), the Mayor of
Leamington (Mr. Joseph Hinks),
Major Fosbery, Mr. J. W. Margetts,
and Mr. T. H. G. Newton, with Mr.
Frederick H. Moore as Local Secretary.

Miscellaneous. -

A letter from the United States De-
partment of Agriculture asking for a—

Votes of Thanks in connection with Doncaster Meeting, 1xxxi

full list of pure breeds of horses,cattle,
sheep, and swine, together with the
names of the respective books of
record established for each breed,
was referred for consideration and
report to the Stock Prizes Com-
mittee.

A communication having been re-
ceived from the Charity Commission,
stating that the scheme for the ad-
ministration of the Seckford Hospital
and Woodbridge Endowed Schools
had been approved by Her Majesty
in Council, it was resolved, on the
motion of Mr. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL,
seconded by Mr. SANDAY, that Mr.
Alfred J. Smith, of Rendlesham,
Woodbridge, be appointed the So-
ciety’s Representative Governor, in
accordance with Clause 6 of the
scheme.

A variety of matters relating to
protests and infringement of regula-
tions having been considered, and
directions thereon given to the Stew-
ards and the Secretary, the Council
adjourned until Wednesday, July 29
next, at 12 Hanover Square, at
noon,

FRIDAY, JUNE 26, 1891.

Votes of Thanks,

At a Special Meeting of the Council
held on the last day of the Show,
June 26, it was unanimously resolved,
on the motion of Sir JACOB WILSON,
that votes of thanks for assistance
rendered in connection with the
Doncaster Meeting be given to Messrs.
Beckett and Co., the Local Bankers
of the Society; to the Borough
Police; and to Messrs. Hall and
Armitage, of New Wells, Wakefield,
for the furniture used in the Royal
Pavilion.

It was also resolved, on the motion
of Sir JAcoB WILSON, that letters
should be written conveying the ap-
preciation of the Council of the very
efficient services rendered by (1) the
detacbment of the A Division of the
Metropolitan Police, under command
of Chief-Inspector Wren; (2) the
officials of the St. John Ambulance
Association, in charge of the Ambu-
lance Station; (3) the officials of the
Great Northein Railway for the fa-
cilities afforded by them.

( lxxxii )

WEDNESDAY,
THE EARL OF FEVERSHAM

Present :—
Trustees——Earl Cathcart, Colonel
Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B., Earl of
Ravensworth.
Vice-Presidents.—Mr. H. Chandos-
Pole-Gell, Sir John H. Thorold, Bart.,
Mr. C. Whitehead.

Other Members of Council.—Mr-. G.
M. Allender, Lord Brougham and
Vaux, Mr. J. A. Caird, Mr. Perey E.
Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J. F.Curtis-Hay-
ward, Mr. C. De L. F. De Laune, Mr.
William Frankish, Mr. Joseph Martin,
Mr. T. H. Miller, Hon. Cecil T. Parker,
Mr. Daniel Pidgeon, Mr. James
Rawlence, Mr. 8. Rowlandson, Mr.
G. H. Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr.
A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Mr.
E. W. Stanyforth, Mr. Garrett Taylor,
Mr. J. P. Terry, Mr. John Tremayne,
Mr Re AS Warren, Mr Ey V: V.
Wheeler, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir Jacob
Wilson.

Professor Brown, C.B.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist.

The following members of the
Warwick Local Committee were also
present :—Lord Brooke, M.P., Lord
Ernest Seymour, the Mayor of War-
wick (Mr. J. W. Mann), the Mayor of
Leamington (Mr. Joseph Hinks), the
Town Clerk of Warwick (Mr. Bra-
bazon Campbell), Mr. T. H. G. New-
ton, and Mr. Frederick H. Moore
(Secretary of the Local Committee).

Apologies for Non-Attendance.

Letters of apology for non-atten-
dance were read from Viscount
Emlyn, Lord Egerton of Tatton, Mr.
Joseph Beach, Mr. C. Clay, Mr. John
Dent, Mr. James Hornsby, and Mr.
C. 8. Mainwaring.

Remarks by Retiring President.

The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of Council held on June
23, and of the Special Councils held

JULY 29, 1891.

(PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

on June 25 and 26 in the Showyard
at Doncaster, having been read and
confirmed,

The Earl of RAVENSWORTH said he
desired to take the opportunity, as
the outgoing President, of expressing
his high sense of the value of the

services and assistance which had
been rendered to him by the whole of
the Society’s staff. He wished to
express his gratitude to Sir Jacob
Wilson, to the Secretary, and to the
whole of their admirable staff for the
assistance which they had rendered to
him during his year of office as Presi-
dent. (Hear, hear.)

Election of New Governors and
Members.

The election of the following three
Governors and eighty Members was
then proceeded with :

Governors.
ASHWORTH, Charles E...The Heath, Knuts-
ford.
BEDFORD, Duke of.. Woburn Abbey, Beds.
Norro.k, Duke of, K.G...Norfolk House, S.W.

Members.

ARKWRIGHT, J. P... Hatton House, Warwick.

ASHLEY, Rt. Hon. E... Broadlands, Romsey.

BIckLeY, E. K... Ellesmere, Salop.

Bouton, Rey. J. B...Badsworth, Yorks.

Brace, D.,.Southwaite Hall, Carlisle.

BreEtTT, H...Londonthorpe, Grantham.

Brockx.Lenurst, H. D...Acomb Hall, York.

BryDON, J...Millburn, Darlington.

BUTTERFIELD, R...Nafferton Hall, Hull.

CHAPMAN, P. N...Moor Hall, Leamside, Dur-
ham.

CHEETHAM, W. J...Rawdon Hill, Arthington,
Leeds.

CLAYTON, P... Bosley, near Congleton. f

Coorg, S. V...Betaghstown, Naas, Co. Kildare,

Cores, Col. C. James.. Pitchford, Shrewsbury.

Cotron, Col. the Hon. R. $...Somerford, Bre-
wood, Staffs.

CroMAR, J ohn, Kirklington, Southwell.

CurL, Thomas. -Sedgeford, Lynn.

Curtis, T...Park Hill, Swallownest, Rother-
ham.

Dawson, R...8 Duke Street, St. James's, S.W.

DeEwuurst, G...Radholm Laund, near Clithe-
roe, Yorks.

Dmock, J. D...Soham, Cambs.

Doxson, A... Williamsgill, Temple Sowerby,
Penrith.

Doynz, C. M,.. Wells, Gorey, co. Wexford.

—EE

Election of New Governors and Members.

FirzGEraup, W. H. W...Chacombe, Banbury.

FuLLEeRTON, J. S. H...Thrybergh Park,
Rotherham. .

GoprFrey, E...Owston Ferry, Rotherham.

? GRANT, A. H...Monymush, Aberdeenshire.

HAtkon, W...Luddington, Lincs.

Harrison, W...Beckingham, Gainsborough.

Harvey, G. W...Londonthorpe, Grantham.

HATHAWAY, J., jun. .Shenstone Pk., Lichfield.

Heap, H. R...Ciltalgarth, Bala.

HEATON, P...Stetchworth Park, Newmarket.

HEATON, R. G...Chatteris, Cambs.

Hincucuirr, J...Skelmanthorpe, Huddersfield.

Hixcucuirr, W...Skelmanthorpe, Hudders-
_ field.
Hive, J. H...Pomphlett Farm, Plymstock,

Devon.
HOo..anpd, W...Broken Cross, Macclesfield.
Hoop, S. F...Nettleham Hall, Lincoln.
Hows, D...24, Albert Road, Southport.
Hueues, G. M...King’s Wick, Sunninghill,
Ascot.
Hunt, A... The Grange, Croydon.
HuTcHENCE, J... Royal Albert Farm, Lancaster,
INGLEBY, John..Tadcaster, Yorks.
Kay, H. M... Whalley, Lancs.
Kaye, J...153, Stafford Street, Sheffield.
1 KniGuHts, Robert, Harleston, Norfolk.
Laks, F. C... Rayne Foundry, Braintree.

Lea, J. S...Far Forest Vicarage, Rock,
Bewdley.
Leacock, J. M...13, Courtfield Rd., §. Ken-

sington, S.W.

Legs, E., M.P...South Lytchet Manor, Poole.

Lugs, W. R...Heathcete, Warwick.

Lxstik, Major John..Kiltybegs, Carrickma-
cross, co. Monaghan.

LIVERSEDGE, H.,} junr...Partington Hall,
Howden.

Loyp, E. H...Langleybury, King’s Langley.

Loyp, Mrs. Lewis..Monk’s Orchard, West
Wickham, Kent.

MackerertH, H...Ashton-with-Stodday, Lan-

ca
Mercer, T...Tithebarn Farm, Kirkby,
Liverpool.
Moons, T....Spen Moor Farm, Radcliffe, Man-
chester.

PENROSE, W...Camoyhall Street, Helston.

Pierson, C. E...59, Cadogan Square, S.W.

Port, G., junr...c/o Watson, Laidlaw, and Co.,
Glasgow. :

Repton, G. G... Odell, Bedford.

Rosr, J. W...Aughton, Rotherham.

Sacre, H. M...Gorstella, Broughton, Chester,

SELBY, J... Epworth, via Doncaster,

Sessions, H... Russell House, Gloucester.

Surpson, J. M...Blackden House, Holmes
Chapel, Cheshire.

Ssairu, J. H... Brierley Hill, Dudley, Worcester.

SouTHERN, J... Weeford Park, Tamworth.

STRICKLAND, W. A...Abbey Farm, Whalley,
Lancashire.

Tatpot, Miss..Margam Park, Port Talbot,
Glamorgan.

THORNLEY, H. E...Radford Hall, Leamington.

Torr, G. C... West Carr, Thorne, Doncaster.

VICKERMAN, J...Fairlea House, Huddersfield.

Wapr, E...Brantingham Thorpe, Brough,
Yorks,

WATANABE, H...Ushigome, Shirokanecho No.
29, Tokio, Japan.

Warey, H...Town Hall, Manchester.

Wuson, G. H,..Eryl Anan, Bala.

Wricut, T...Haylebarrow Farm, Norton,
Sheffield.

* Reinstated under Bye-law 12,

Ixxxili

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE said that
the Council would observe amongst
the list of new Governors the name of
the Duke of Bedford, and would be
gratified to learn that his Grace had
taken up the Governorship of the
Society which had been held by the
head of the House of Russell ever
since the Society was founded in
1838. The Council would be aware
that his Grace had (when Marquis of
Tavistock) expressed a wish at the
end of last year to retire from his
position as a Member of the Council.
They had all received that announce-
ment with extreme regret; but it
had not, for obvious reasons, been
possible to approach his Grace with
a request to withdraw his resignation
until his recent return to public life.
He (Sir Nigel) had, however, written
to the Duke within the last few
days, expressing the very strong
wish of the Council that his Grace
would consent to remain a member of
their body; and he was happy in
being able to inform the Council that
the Duke had written to say he
placed himself in their hands, and
would be most glad to put his services
at the disposal of the Society in any
way they might think fit. (Hear,
hear.)

Earl CATHCART (Chairman of the
Committee of Selection) expressed the
pleasure of the Committee, and he
was sure of the Council generally, at
learning that through the good offices
of Sir Nigel Kingscote, to whom they
were greatly indebted for his action
in the matter, the Society would con-
tinue to have the advantage of the
association with it of the Duke of
Bedford, both as a Governor and as a
Member of Council. Under any cir-
cumstances the Council would desire
to retain his Grace as a member of
their body, but there was a special
reason why the Duke should sit at
that board, in view of his munificence
in connection withthe Woburn Experi-
mental Farm. :

The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented
and adopted, as below :—

Finance,

Sir NI@EL Krinescore (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the

lxxxiv

month ended June 30, 1891, as certi-
tied by the Society’s accountants,
showed receipts amounting to 2.2411.
19s. 1ld., and expenditure to 7,476/.
lls. 9d. The balance at the Bankers’
on June 30, allowing for cheques
outstanding, was 2,053/. 9s. 3d. The
accounts for the period ended July
25, 1891, were also presented. They
showed receipts amounting to 11,8362.
8s. 2d., and expenditure to 1,886.
9s. 9d., with a balance at the bank,
allowing for cheques outstanding,
of 12,0052. 7s. 8d. Accounts relating
to the recent Doncaster Meeting,
amounting in all to 11,6711. 6s. 4d.,
and relating to the ordinary business
of the Society, amounting to 3,083/.
Os. 4d., had been passed, and were
submitted for payment. The quar-
terly statement of subscriptions,
arrears, and of the Society’s property
had been laid upon the table. The
Committee recommended that the
names of one Foundation Life Gov-
ernor (Mr. Frederick W. Calvert, Q.C.,
elected a member on _ February
13, 1839), eight life members, and
twenty-nine annual members who
were deceased, seven whose subscrip-
tions were in arrear, and thirty-nine
who had resigned (eighty-four in all)
be struck off the Society’s books;
also that three members be reinstated
under Bye-law 12.

On the motion of Sir NigEn
KINGSCOTE, it was unanimously re-
solved :—

That, in view of the desirable-
ness of winding up the accounts of
the Doncaster Meeting as early
as possible, authority be given to
the President, the Chairman of the
Finance Committee, and the Secre-
tary to issue, during the recess,
orders on the Society’s Bankers for
the payment of accounts connected
with the Meeting, such accounts to
have been previously submitted to
and passed by a Steward of
Finance.

House.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE (Chairman)
presented the recommendations of
this Committee as to the various
repairs and the repainting of the
Society’s offices. Mr. Walter Gilbey
had been added to the Committee.

Monthly Council, July 29, 1891.

International Congress of
Hygiene.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE asked that
he might be allowed at that juncture
to draw the attention of the Council
to the International Congress of
Hygiene, which was to sit in London
the week after next. As the Council
might be aware, he had undertaken
the duties of President of one of the
Sections—viz., ‘‘The Relations of the
Diseases of Animals to those of Man,” -
in which papers of great value and
interest to agriculturists would be
read. Copies of the programme had
been laid upon the table, and he need
hardly say that they should welcome
the presence at their discussions of
any member of the Council or of the
Society.

Journal,

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) pre-
sented the recommendations of this
Committee as to various payments
in connection with the printing of
the Journal, the Doncaster catalogue
and awards, miscellaneous printing,
stationery, books, &c. The Com-
mittee recommended that Mr. White-
head’s article in the current number
of the Journal on “ Methods of Pre-
venting and Checking the Attacks of
Insects and Fungi” be reprinted, and
issued by the Society as a sixpenny
pamphlet. William Chisholme haying
been recommended by the Judges of
Farms for a certificate of dis-
tinguished merit in the discharge of
his duties as shepherd for twenty-six
years on the farm of Mr. T. H.
Hutchinson, the Committee recom-
mended that the usual certificate be
awarded to him, accompanied by a
gratuity of 27. The Secretary had
submitted a list of prizes proposed to
be given by the Warwick Local Com-
mittee for Farms, in connection with
the Country Meeting of 1892, together
with the draft regulations. These
had been considered, and referred to
the General Warwick Committee.
The proposed arrangements for the
next number of the Journal had been
considered and approved. An appli-
cation for free copies of the Journal
from the Division of Records and
Editing of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture had been granted. —
The Committee had approved of —

Ravages of the Diamond-back Moth Caterpillar.

various purchases which had recently
been made for the Society’s library,
including a first edition of Jethro
Tull’s “ Horse-hoeing Husbandry ”
(A.D. 1733), Wren Hoskyns’ “ Talpa,”
“A Short Inquiry into the History of
Agriculture,” and “ Occasional Papers,”
and Pontey’s ‘‘ Forest Pruner.”

Chemical.

Mr. WARREN presented the report
of this Committee, which dealt with
various matters of detail in connection
with the Society’s Laboratory and
Chemical Department, and also the
usual Quarterly Report of the Com-
mittee. The Committee recom-
mended that the Duke of Bedford be
added to the Woburn Sub-Committee.

On the motion of Mr. WARREN,
seconded by Mr. WHITEHEAD, the
Quarterly Report was received and
adopted, and ordered to be published
in the usual manner (see page 631).

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) stated

that the report of the Sub-Com--

mittee on potato experiments had
been received and adopted. This
report announced that two dressings
of sulphate of copper had been
applied to the experimental plots at
each of the six stations: the first
dressing from June 29 to July 13,
and the second from July 15 to
July 27. Experiments were being
conducted on two of the plots, viz.,
Cardington and Sittingbourne, with
various strengths and quantities of
the sulphate of copper mixture, with
the view of ascertaining the effect
upon the plots so treated. In one
case, at Cardington, an experiment
with sulphate of iron instead of
sulphate of copper had been added.
Sir Jacob Wilson had attended the
Committee, and submitted specimens
of swedes infested with the cater-
pillars of the Diamond-back Moth
(Cerostoma xylostella C.), and reported
a great amount of damage to turnip
crops in his county through the
ravages of this insect. He stated
some of the measures which had been
adopted against it, amongst which a
mixture of soot and lime, applied dry,
appeared to be the most efficacious.
A report on the same subject had

lxxxv

been also received from Mr. Hornsby.
Miss Ormerod had presented her re-
port, which the Committee recom-
mended should be published with
the proceedings of the Council (see
page 595).

The Diamond-back Moth Caterpillar.
Mr. WHITEHEAD said that Miss
Ormerod’s usual monthly report was
on this occasion peculiarly interesting
on account of the details which it
gave of the new and unprecedented
attack of the Diamond-back Moth in
various eastern parts of England and
Scotland. The report gave details of
the outbreak, it described the history
of the insect, and it gave practical
suggestions as tothe means of prevent-
ing and checking its ravages. Miss
Ormerod pointed out that this was
almost a new attack in England.
Curtis in his “ Farm Insects” spoke
of it as happening forty years ago, in
1853 and 1854. It was also dangerous
in some comparatively small degree
in England and Scotland; but never
before had there been such extra-
ordinary damage caused by this insect
as it was reported to have done, and
unhappily was still doing, in the
eastern parts of England and Scotland.
Broccoli, cabbages, swedes, turnips,
cauliflowers, being cruciferous plants,
were all attacked. One gentleman
had written from St, Andrews, Fife,
that his wallflowers (which are also
cruciferous plants) had been attacked
too. At the present time the attack
was entirely on the eastern coast. It
had been suggested that the moths
had been driven from foreign countries
by the wind; others, with more pro-
bability, suggested that they had
been enticed by the cruciferous plants,
which were generally found on the
sea-shore, and therefore they appeared
in these myriads. The remedy sug-
gested by Miss Ormerod was to put
powdered soot and lime on the plants
when the dew wasupon them. Other
remedies had been suggested and
carried out. Mr. Hornsby had stated,
in an admirable report which he had
presented to the Seeds and Plants
Committee, that dry materials, chiefly
soot and lime, in the proportion of
three parts of soot and one of lime,
put on by the strawsonizer (whose
powerful fan seemed to drive the

lxxxvi

powder right into the plants) had
proved the most efficacious. This
was a most important point, because
these caterpillars got in between the
tissues of the plants, and unless the
powder was driven forcibly against
them it had not the power of check-
ing the attack.

Sir JACOB WILSON said that, as his
name was mentioned in the report of
the Seeds and Plants Committee in
connection with the insect now ravag-
ing the turnip crops, probably he
might be permitted to say a few
words. It was something like three
weeks ago since his attention was
first directed to this matter. The
caterpillars were found upon a turnip
crop immediately adjoining the sea
shore on the east coast of Northumber-
land upon very strong land at Gos-
wick, near Beal. His advice at this
time was that where the turnips were
comparatively young the best treat-
ment would be an immediate dressing
of nitrate of soda, with some superphos-
phate to give vigour to the plant.
From a letter he had received that
morning, he was glad to find that
this treatment had had a good effect.
The letter stated that turnips dressed
with nitrate and superphosphate
seemed to be doing fairly well, the
roots were swelling in spite of the
attack, and the caterpillars were now
disappearing, and perhaps a good rain
would drive them off altogether.
That was satisfactory as far as it
went. Extensive experiments had
been made elsewhere in the hope of
discovering something to destroy
these caterpillars. Anything more
deplorable than the effects of the
attack during the last week or fort-
night he could not conceive. There
had been every prospect of a large crop
of turnips in Northumberland: now
in many cases it was a waste desert,
presenting the appearance of a field
of gossamer. It was only in the case
of the younger plants that they could
hope to save a crop at all. He be-
lieved that if the turnips could be
dressed immediately after they had
been thinned, much good might be
done. At this stage, and owing to a
loss of support, the plant fellsomewhat
on toitsside, making it possible to catch
the turnip both above and below the
level. The result of experiments

Monthly Council, July 29, 1891.

with paraffin and soapsuds, and lime
afterwards, went to show that the
dry dressing was much more effica-
cious than the wet dressing. Lime
was the basis of the treatment they
would have to adopt. The best, he
believed, was in the proportion of one
part of lime to three parts of soot,
because the soot gave also some
renewed vigour to the young plant.
He believed that a great deal of the
turnips would have to be ploughed up.

The great question for the farmers ©

was, What was to be done with the
land? They must either sow late
turnips or rape. Both those plants,
being cruciferous, were equally liable
to the attack of this caterpillar, there-
fore it was a very serious question
indeed as to what they should do with
their land. The results were simply
ruinous. He had information that
morning that the sale of lambs in the
north during the last few days had
been very seriously affected. Before
this outbreak it was likely that they
would fetch high prices in consequence
of the prospects of a good crop of
turnips. This was an opportunity
not to be missed by the Department,
which was authorised to look after
the interests of agriculture. He be-
lieved that the Board of Agriculture
would rise to the occasion, and not
miss the opportunity of investigating
this matter, and thus do a little for
the British farmer. He would sug-
gest that the Council should not leave
that room without expressing their
opinion that the Board of Agriculture
should be invited to investigate this
subject. He ventured, therefore, to
submit for their consideration the
following resolutions, which he trusted
the Council would see their way to
pass unanimously, with the view of
strengthening the hands of the Board
of Agriculture :—

1. That this Council learn with
extreme concern of the serious losses
to agriculturists incurred by the
ravages of the Diamond-back Moth
on turnips, swedes, and other crops,
and beg to express an earnest hope
that the Board of Agriculture will
institute an immediate and complete
inquiry into the causes of the out-
break, and into the steps which
should be taken to prevent its
spread,

- fe ae

Ravages of the Diamond-back Moth Caterpillar.

2. That a copy of the above reso-
lution be forwarded to the Board of
Agriculture, with a promise of any
assistance which the Society and its
Officials can afford in making the
inquiry suggested.

Earl CATHCART suggested whether
inquiry should not be made as to
whether a similar attack had taken

in Continental countries, such
as Holland and Belgium.

“Sir JACOB WILSON said that along
their sea coast a curious phenomenon
had been observed. Within a mile of
his own place the road had been
covered with a shower of these white
moths. F

Mr. GARRETT TAYLOR seconded Sir
Jacob Wilson’s resolution, and gave
particulars of an outbreak at Corton,
near Lowestoft, where 200 acres of
swedes had been completely destroyed.
In an attack upon his own farm, he
had applied a dressing of paraffin
with nitrate of soda afterwards and
superphosphate. They had had some
heavy rain, and he thought his crops
would get over it.

The Earl of RAVENSWORTH thought
it might be of interest, and possibly
of use, if he gave one or two historical
data in regard to this matter. It
seemed that this moth first appeared
in 1851, when it spread from Essex
to Belfast, in the North of Ireland.
It then appeared again in 1863.
Then there was a lapse of twenty
years between that outbreak and the
subsequent outbreak, which appeared
in 1882. And now, in 1891, they had
this very serious outbreak again.
These were historical facts, which he
believed could be tested. He would
refer to what had been written on a
previous occasion—viz., a work en-
titled “Insecta Britannica” (1854),
by a gentleman named Stainton. It
was from that source that the infor-
mation was derived that the attack
spread from Essex to the North of
Ireland. He observed that Mr.
Donkin, a gentleman well known in
Northumberland, stated that it was
very prevalent and doing great in-
jury in the Vale of the Coquet, a long
way from the sea. There was great
doubt about the effect of any appli-
cation as a remedy. There seemed
to be an animal provided by nature
itself which affected the grub. He

i a

thought it would be very interesting
if they could ascertain whether this
parasite was found upon the cater-
pillars or moths.

Sir JAcoB WILSoN’s resolutions
were passed unanimously, and copies
ordered to be sent to the President of
the Board of Agriculture.'

Mr. WHITEHEAD thought he might
say, without any breach of confidence,
that the Board of Agriculture were
intensely interested in this very im-
portant matter. The President was
particularly interested himself in it,
and was taking every possible pains
to devise some means of increasing
their knowledge of the subject, and
to find some remedies for checking
the present attack. The Board had
already in hand a leaflet giving a
full history of the imsect and the
methods of checking its progress,
which would be distributed that

1 The following is a copy of the reply of the
Board of Agriculture, dated July 30, 1891 :—

Sir,—I am directed by the President of the
Board of Agriculture to acknowledge your
letter of yesterday's date, conveying resolutions
adopted by the Council of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England, expressing a hope
that the Board will institute an inquiry into
the causes of the appearance of the Diamond-
back Moth, and of its ravages on turnips and
other crops, and into the steps which should
be taken to prevent its spread, and offering
the assistance of the Society and its officers in
carrying out the same.

In reply, I have to inform you that the
Board have already directed an inquiry to be
made in those districts where the Diamond-
back Moth has been most prevalent, viz. :—
Norfolk, Lincolnshire, Yorkshire, Northumber-
land, the Lothians, Fifeshire, and Forfarshire.
The inquiry has already commenced, and re-
ports from those districts are expected very
shortly. The Board have also given instructions
that experiments shall be conducted in some
of the worst districts, and they will be com-
menced in Norfolk and Northumberland, it is
hoped, not later than Saturday next, and in
other districts subsequently if it should be
necessary.

From all the information which has at
present reached the Board the ravages of the
pest appear to be unusually serious in the
districts which have been affected, and at
present but little seems to be known either as
to its origin or the remedies which can be most
efficaciously applied.

Iam to ask you to convey to the Council of
your Society the thanks of the President for
their offers of assistance in dealing with this
matter, of which he will readily avail himself
should the necessity arise.

I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
(Signed) RicHarp Dawsoy,
Assistant ‘.
The Secretary,
Royal Agricultural Society of England.

j ras

afternoon throughout the whole of
the infested districts by means of
the Post Office. Inspectors were
being appointed who would be in-
structed to visit the infested places,
and make elaborate reports of the
outbreak, adding methods of preven-
tion and remedial measures which
might have been found successful.
He could assure the Council that
every effort would be made by the
Board of Agriculture on that occa-
sion. With regard to what fell
from Lord Cathcart, he (Mr. White-
head) did not believe that those
moths were driven across the sea.
The information which Lord Rayens-
worth had given was very interesting,
and he was very much obliged to the
noble Lord. The Board of Agricul-
ture would be especially grateful to
the members of the Council for intel-
ligence as to where the attack existed
(naming, if possible, the individual
parishes), in order that they might
make inquiries, and give every possi-
ble information.

The subject then dropped, but the
Secretary was instructed to afford all

ossible assistance to the officials
of the Board of Agriculture in the
inquiry about to be instituted.

Veterinary.

Sir JoHN THOROLD (Chairman)
presented the following report from
Professor Brown :—

PLEURO - PNEUMONIA. — During
the ten months from September 1,
1890, when the Pleuro-pneumonia
Act came into operation, to the
end of June 1891, 240 outbreaks of
this disease were dealt with by the
Board of Agriculture ; 11,452 cattle
were slaughtered, of which 1,036
were found affected with the dis-
ease.

In the corresponding period of
1889-90 there were 291 fresh out-
breaks ; 6,891 cattle were slaugh-
tered by the local authorities, of
which 1,493 were said to have been
affected with the disease.

In the three weeks ending July
18 there were twenty-four fresh
outbreaks reported; 807 cattle
were slaughtered by order of the
Board of Agriculture, of which
forty-five were diseased.

The recentincrease in the amount

Monthly Council, July 29, 1891.

of pleuro-pneumonia is chiefly, if
not entirely, due to infected or
diseased cattle sold by a dealer in
Southampton, and distributed all
over England. The Board of Agri-
culture have traced and slaughtered
over 150 cattle sold by this man
since the beginning of the year,
with the result that pleuro-pnen-
monia has been found among them
on no less than thirteen different
premises.

ANTHRAX.—During the four
weeks ended July 18 there were
twenty-one fresh outbreaks of
anthrax in Great Britain, in the
counties of Devon, Essex, Kent,
Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln, Salop,
Somerset, Suffolk, Sussex, and York
(West Riding), in England; and
Aberdeen and Dumfries, in Sco
land. Of twenty-eight animals
attacked, one was killed and the
remainder died.

SwiNE FEVER.—This_ disease
still continues to be very prevalent
in many parts of England; there
were 633 fresh outbreaks in the
four weeks, and 3,615 pigs were
attacked, 1,813 diseased pigs were
killed, 1,332 died, 377 recovere
and 767 remained alive when the
last published weekly return was
made up.

A letter, dated July 14, had been
read from the Governors of the Royal
Veterinary College stating, in reply to
the Society’s communication on May 7
last, that on notice being sent to
the College of any outbreak of abor-
tion in cattle, a special investigation
would at once be undertaken, 2a
suggesting that the members of the
Royal Agricultural Society should be
invited to notify the Principal of the
College of any outbreak of ‘the disease
occurring among their cattle, so
he might immediately be able to in
tute an inguiry. The Committee
desired to direct the attention of
members of the Council and of mem-
bers of the Society to this commur
cation, and to point out that the cos
of any investigation which might be
undertaken would be borne by the
College. A letter was read from Mr.
Walter Gilbey, tendering his re
nation as one of the Society's six
representatives upon the Genera

Reports of Veterinary and Stock Prizes Committees. Ixxxix

Registration Committee of the Wor-
shipful Company of Farriers, in con-
sequence of the pressure of other en-
gagements. The Committee recom-
mended that Mr. Gilbey’s resignation
be accepted with regret. At the re-
quest of the Committee, Sir Nigel
Kingscote had undertaken to act as
one of the Society's representatives
upon the Registration Committee, in
succession to Mr. Gilbey.

The Committee were of opinion
that a horse-shoeing competition
should be held in connection with the
Warwick Meeting of 1892, limited to
shoeing smiths in District F’, consist-
ing of the counties of Gloucester,
Hereford, Monmouth, Salop, Stafford,
Warwick. Worcester, and of South
Wales. The Secretary having report-
ed that the issue was exhausted of
Professor Brown’s pamphlet on the
Structure of the Horse’s Foot and
the Principles of Shoeing, the Com-
mittee recommended that it should be
reprinted after revision by the author.

Stock Prizes.

Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported
that the Committee had further con-
sidered a protest made in respect of
a Shire stallion exhibited at Don-
easter, which at the Council meeting
held in the showyard on June 22 was
referred to the Shire Horse Society.
Aletter was read from the Shire Horse
Society stating that they had investi-
gated the pedigree of the stallion in
question, and were satisfied that the
breed of the dam was incorrectly
stated in the Stud-book, and that the
entry had therefore been cancelled.
It, however, remained for the Editing
Committee to consider a corrected
pedigree which had been submitted
for the re-entry of the dam in Vol.
XIII. Pending the decision of the
Shire Horse Society, the Committee
recommended that the cheque for the
prize awarded to the animal be with-
held.

A report, under Rule 41, had been
tead from Professor Brown on the
subject of the special examination
of Stallions at Doncaster, giving the
following results :—-

Sixteen Coaching stallions were
examined, four of which were un-
sound. The diseases were ringbone
and whistling,

Twenty-four Hackney stallions
were examined, one of which was
unsound.—Sidebones.

Five Pony stallions were exam-
ined.—All sound.

Twenty-four Shire stallions were
examined, four of which were un-
sound.—Whistling and sidebones.

Fifteen Clydesdale _ stallions
were examined, one of which was
unsound.—Roaring.

Nine Suffolk stallions were ex-
amined, all of which were sound.

A question as to whether exhibitors
should be made acquainted with the
particular nature of the disqualifica-
tion of their animals was considered,
andit had been decided that the reason
of disqualification should not be given.
It had also been decided that in
future Rule 41 should apply to brood
mares as well as to stallions. The
Committee recommended that in
future no person who had been
expelled from any breed society for
fraudulent practices should be per-
mitted to exhibit at the Society’s
Meetings. A resolution from the
Hunters’ Improvement Society offer-
ing gold medals for brood mares had
been read, but the Committee were
unable to recommend the acceptance
of the offer. Several letters on the
subject of fines imposed by the
Stewards at Doncaster, andalso forthe
non-exhibition of animals, had been
read, and it was decided to enforce
the regulations as to payment,

An application from the United
States Department of Agriculture,
asking for a full list of English pure
breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and
swine, had been considered, and the
Committee recommended that the
following list of pure breeds as
recognised by the Royal Agricultural
Society of England be sent to the
Department, with the name and
address of the Stud- or Herd-Book
Society of each breed, where such
existed :—

HORSES.
Thoroughbred, Exmoor, Cleveland,
*Hackney, New Forest, Shire,
fPonies— Welsh, Clydesdale,
including Shetland, Suffolk,
English, Highland,

Dartmoor, Coaching,

* To be classed as a Hackney, an animal
must be over 14 hands,

t To be classed as a Pony, an animal must
not exceed 14 hands, y

xe Monthly Council, July 29, 1891.

CATTLE.
Shorthorn, Longhorn Highland,
Hereford, (nearly ex- Ayrshire,
Devon, tinct), Jersey,
South Devon Red Polled, Guernsey,
(or Hams.), Aberdeen- Kerry,
Sussex, Angus, Dexter Kerry.
Welsh, Galloway,
SHEEP.
Leicester, Suffolk, Somerset and
Border Leicester,Cheviot, Dorset
Cotswold, Black-Faced — Horned,
Lincoln, Mountain, Dartmoor,
Kentish orRom- Herdwick, Exmoor,
ney Marsh, Lonk, Welsh Moun-
Oxford Down, Ryeland, tain,
Southdown, Devon Long- Limestone,
Shropshire wool, Wensleydale,
Down, South Devon Clun Forest,
Hampshire or Hams., Roscommon.
Down,
PIGS.
Large White, Small Black Berkshire,
Middle White, (Suffolk or Tamworth.
Small White, Essex),

Mr. GARRETT TAYLOR gave notice
that he would move at the November
meeting that separate classes be given
at Warwick for heifers calved in 1890
and 1891 in each of the following
breeds, viz., Devon, Sussex, Welsh,
Red Polled, and Guernsey.

Implement.

Mr. FRANKISH (Chairman) pre-
sented the recommendation of the
Committee that a further trial of the
mechanical milking machine, ex-
hibited at Doncaster, should take
place, and reported that the Com-
mitee agreed with therecommendation
of the Judges, that Messrs. J. and H.
Keyworth and Co.’s harvester and
rear discharge binder should be
further tried on Mr. Milnthorp’s
farm at Doncaster or elsewhere on
wheat, barley, and oats. The report
of the Judges of misce)laneous imple-
ments on the new implements entered
for Doncaster had been considered,
and directions given for withholding
the deposit in cases of non-exhibition
and absence of novelty or improve-
ment. The Committee reported that
seventy-two entries of ploughs for the
competitive trials at Warwick next
spring had been received from eleven
competitors. The entries of two firms
received too late had been declined.
An application from the Northumber-
land Agricultural Association for the
loan of the Society’s dynamometer
had been granted on the usual terms,

?

General Warwick. 7

The Earl of RAVENSWORTH re-
ported that the Committee had had
under consideration the date to be
suggested for the holding of the War-
wick Meeting of 1892, and had una-
nimously resolved that the Show be
held from Monday, June 20, to
Friday, June 24, the implement
yard and dairy being open on the
previous Saturday. The Committee
had also considered the regulations
for the prizes, amounting to 300/., pro-
posed to be offered by the Local Com-
mittee for the best managed Farms,
any portion of which is in the County
of Warwick, and had with some modi-
fications approved them. The final
date of entry for these prizes was
fixed for Saturday, October 31, 1891.
The Regulations for the Farm Prize
Competition had been fixed as fol-
lows :—

Farm Prizes in connection with
Warwick Meeting.
CLAss 1. For the best managed
arable and grass farm of over 259
acres, of which not less than one-
third shall be arable. First Prize,
807. Second Prize, 402, Third Pri
202.
CLAss 2. For the best managed
arable and grass farm of over 15€
acres and not exceeding 250 ac’
of which not less than one-thir
shall be arable. First Prize, 607.
Second Prize, 402.
Cass 3. For the best manage
arable and grass farm of over 50
acres and not exceeding 150 acres.
First Prize, 407. Second Prize, 207.
CONDITIONS OF ENTRY.
1. The competition in all three
classes is limited to tenant farmers
paying a bond fide rent for at least
three-fourths of the land in their
occupation, ‘
2. In assessing the proportior
of arable and grass land on the
occupation, the Judges are instructed
to consider as permanent pasture all
land that has been laid down te
pasture for ten years,
3. Competitors must enter ;
competition all the land in their
occupation in the district.
4. Competitors must have had the
land in their occupation for not le
than two years,

Farm Prizes in connection with Warwick Meeting.

5. The last day of entry is Satur-
day, October 31, 1891. The En-
trance-fee is 17. to members of the
Society, and 2d. to non-members.
Members of the Warwickshire Agri-
cultural Society will be allowed to
enter on the same terms as members
of the Royal Agricultural Society.

6. Competitors are requested to
send a tracing of the plan of their
farms with their certificate of
entry, and to have ready for the
Judges on their first visit a correct
list of the stock on their farms.

7. The Judges are instructed to
take into consideration cases in which
competitors occupy land when
agents for their landlords, and are
likely to derive undue advantage from
that dual position.

8. The Judges will be instructed
to withhold the prizes in the absence
of sufficient merit in any of the

_ competing farms.

9. The Judges will be instructed
especially to consider—

1. General management with a
view to profit.

2. Productiveness of crops.

3. Quality and suitability of live
stock, especially that bred
upon the farm.

4. Management of grass land.

5. State of gates, fences, roads,
general neatness, and state of
cottage or cottages so far as
tenant is liable.

6. Mode of book-keeping followed
(if any). ©

7. Management of the dairy and
dairy produce, if dairying is
pursued,

8. The duration of the tenancy.

10. The Judges are authorised to
recommend to the Council the award
of certificates to any really deserv-
ing persons employed on any of the
competing farms for distinguished
merit inthe discharge of their duties,
such recommendations to be accom-
panied by a certificate of good char-
acter and length of service from the
competing farmer. The number of
certificates so granted may not ex-
ceed three in the case of a farm
entered in Class 1, two in the case
of a farm entered in Class 2, and one
in the case of a farm entered in
Class 3.

xci

Date of Warwick Meeting, 1892,

It was then formally moved by Sir
JACOB WILSON, seconded by the Hon.
CrcIL T. PARKER, and resolved, that
the Country Meeting of 1892 be
held from Monday, June 20, 1892, to
Friday, June 24, inclusive, and that
the implement yard and dairy be
open on the previous Saturday, June
18. The final dates for the receipt
of entries for this Meeting were at
the same time fixed as under :—Zm-
plements, §c.: Friday, April 1,
1892; post entries at double rates,
Friday, April 8. Live Stock, Poul-
try, and Produce: Saturday, April
30; post entries at double rates,
Thursday, May 12.

Showyard Works,

Sir JAcoB WILSON (Chairman)
reported that the whole of the build-
ingsin the Showyard at Doncaster had
been levelled to the ground, and a
greater portion of the Society’s plant
removed to Warwick. Three days’ sales
of materials had been held, and the
concluding sales would take place on
the four last days of this week. The
Surveyor had presented a plan of the
Warwick Showyard, which had been
approved.

Sir JACOB WILSON said he wished
to express the great indebtedness of
the Society to the Great Northern
Railway Company for the readiness
with which they met all the Society’s
requirements at Doncaster. They
furnished the Society with a great
deal of accommodation, not only in
the supply of innumerable sleepers
required in the Showyard but inmany
other matters. He thought the Coun-
cil should specially recognise these
endeavours on their behalf, and in ad-
dition to the formal vote of thanks
passed in the Showyard, he begged to
move a special vote of thanks to the
Great Northern Railway Company
for the great assistance rendered by
them in connection with the Don-
caster Meeting.

The Earl of RAVENSWORTH cecond-
ed this motion, which was carried
unanimously,

Selection,

Earl CATHCART (Chairman) pre-
sented the recommendation of the
Committee as to filling up the vacancy

xell

on the Council caused by the election
of Mr. Chandos-Pole-Gell as a Vice-
President, and reported that letters of
thanks had been received from Sir
John Lawes and Monsieur Louis
Passy for their election as Trustee
and Honorary Member respectively.

Education.

Mr. PIDGEON submitted various
recommendations of this Committee
as to schemes under the Endowed
Schools Acts, for which the Society
was asked to nominate representa-
tive governors. The Committee had
had under consideration the arrange-
ments for the publication of the
series of thirty coloured diagrams
prepared by Miss Georgiana E. Orme-
rod, in conjunction with her sister,
the Society’s Consulting Entomolo-
gist, and recommended that they be
published in five sets of six each:
(1) Common insect attacks; Insects
affecting (2) Various kinds of crops;
(3) Particular crops ; (4) Fruit crops;
(5) Trees—at a cost of 7s. 6d. per set,
or 12s. 6d. varnished and mounted on
canvas, with roller: single diagrams
being supplied at 1s. 6d., or 2s. 6d.
mounted. It had been arranged that
an allowance of 25 per cent. from
these prices should be made to
members of the Society. The dia-
grams would be issued through the
well-known firm of map and diagram
publishers, Messrs. W. and A. K.
Johnston, of 5, White Hart Street,
E.C., and Edinburgh, through whom
could also be had (at 1s. each) Mr.
Carruthers’ new diagram on the po-
tato disease, containing ten coloured
illustrations of good and diseased
potatoes and potato leaves, and
descriptive letterpress, with hints for
growers.

Dairy.

The Hon. Ceciu T. PARKER (Chair-
man) reported that the Committee
had considered a report from the
Judges of milking machines at Don-
caster, suggesting a further trial of
Messrs. Nicholson and Gray’s machine,
and had referred it to the Implement
Committee, with a recommendation
that the suggestion should be carried
out. Various details in connection
with future arrangements for the
produce and poultry classes had been
considered,

Monthly Council, July 29, 1891.

International Agricultural Congress
at The Hague.

The SEecRETARY laid upon the
table various documents relative to
this Congress, which is to be held
at The Hague from September 7 to
12 next, together with letters from
eminent Dutch authorities, offering
all possible facilities to any repre-
sentatives of the Society who might
be visiting the Congress. It was
agreed that, in addition to the Secre-
tary, any members of the Council who
might be attending the Congress
should do so as official delegates of
the Society.

Suggestions at General Meeting.

The suggestions made by members
at the general meeting in the Show-
yard at Doncaster as to railway
accommodation were considered, and
it was decided that no action could
at present be taken with regard to
them.

Country Meeting of 1893.

Invitations from the Corporations
of CHESTER and MANCHESTER invit-
ing the Society to hold its Country
Meeting of 1893 in their respective
cities were read, and the thanks of
the Council therefor ordered to be
sent. The further consideration of
the invitations was deferred until
after the autumn recess.

Miscellaneous,

Various letters were read fro
societies and others, thanking t
Society for the use of the large te
in the Showyard. A communicati
from the Agricultural Engineers’ As-
sociation in reference to Implem
Exhibits was ordered to be referred:
to the Implement Committee for con-
sideration.

Date of nezt Meetings.

The date of the general meeting of
governors and members in December
next having been fixed for the
Thursday of the Smithfield week —
(December 10), at 20, Hanover
Square, and the usual holidays have
ing been granted to the Secretary and
Clerks, the Council adjourned over |
the autumn recess until Wednesday,

November 4, 1891, at noon. |
¢

( xcili_ )

Proceedings at General Meeting of Governors
and members,

HELD IN THE LARGE TENT IN THE

SHOWYARD AT DONCASTER.

TUESDAY, JUNE 28, 1891.
THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present on the Platform:
Trustees —General Viscount Brid-
port, K.C.B., Earl Cathcart, Mr. J ohn
Dent Dent, Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B.

Vice-Presidents—Mr. H. Chandos-
Pole-Gell, the Earl of Feversham, Rt.
Hon. Sir Massey Lopes, Bart., Sir
John H. Thorold, Bart.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
Mander Allender, Mr. Alfred Ash-
worth, Mr.Joseph Beach, Mr. J.

| Bowen-Jones, Lord Brougham and

Vaux, Mr. James A. Caird, Mr. Charles
Clay, the Earl of Coventry, Mr. Percy
E. Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-
Hayward, Mr. Alfred Darby, Mr. C.
De L. Faunce De Laune, Viscount
Emlyn, Mr. S. P. Foster, Mr. W.
Frankish, Mr. Hugh Gorringe, Mr.
James Hornsby,Mr. Charles Howard,
Mr. C. S. Mainwaring, Mr. Joseph
Martin, Mr. J. E. Ransome, Mr.
Samuel Rowlandson, Mr. G. H.
Sanday, Mr. W. T. Scarth, Mr. Alfred
J. Smith, Mr. Henry Smith, Mr. R.
Stratton, Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr.
Garrett Taylor, Mr. C. W. Wilson,
Sir Jacob Wilson.

Members of Doncaster Local Com-
mittee.—The Mayor of Doncaster (Mr.
Alderman Stockil), Mr. Joseph Firth
Clark, Mr. G. B. C. Yarborough, Mr.
George Chafer (Secretary of the Local
Committee).

VOL. Il. T. S.—7

Officer’s,—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist.

There was also in the tent a large
attendance of the general body of
Governors and Members.

Awards of Farm Prizes.

The first business of the meeting
was the opening of the sealed awards
of the Judges of farms, which the
SECRETARY read as follows :—

Class 1.—Arable and grass farm
of 200 acres and upwards, of which
not less than one half is arable :—

First Prize, 50l., Teasdale H.
Hutchinson, Manor House, Cat-
terick.

Second Prize, 301., J. A. Staveley,
The Manor House, North Dalton,
Hull.

Third Prize, 201., James Townend,
Newton, Doncaster.

Commended, 8. E. Parkin, Melton
Brand, Doncaster.

Class 2.—Arable and grass farm
above 100 acres, and not exceeding
200 acres, of which not less than
one half is arable :—

First Prize, 50l., Andrew Merry-
weather, Whiston, Rotherham.

Second Prize, 301., John Stanley,
Campsall, Doncaster.

g

xciv General Meeting of Governors and Members,

Class 3.—Arable and grass farm
above 40 acres, and not exceeding
100 acres :—

First Prize, 501., Tom D. Strick-
land, Carlton Miniott, Thirsk.

Second Prize, 301., W. Walsh,
Gilstead, Bingley.

Third Prize, 201., Joseph and
William Hinchcliff, Lady Oak Farm,
Emley, Wakefield.

Presentation of Stallion Medals.

The PRESIDENT next presented
the Gold Medals awarded by the
Society through the Doncaster Local
Committee to Mr. Thomas Carr for
Crom-A-Boo, Mr. David Cooper for
Linnezus, and Mr. E. Hodge Banks
for Moss Hawk.

Vote of Thanks to Mayor and Cor-

poration of Doncaster.

Earl CATHCART then said it was
‘his very agreeable duty as Senior
Steward of Stock to move, “ That the
best thanks of the Society be given
to the Mayor and Corporation of
Doncaster for their cordial reception
of the Society.” His Lordship said,
as Senior Steward of Stock, he had
been connected with the heavy-
weights. He himself was only a
light-weight, and he should find it
difficult to carry upon his shoulders,
metaphorically, the weight of obliga-
tion they were under to the Mayor
and Corporation of Doncaster. To
see the interest which Doncaster had
taken in the Society, they had only
to look at the decorations in the town
on their way to the Showyard. He
reminded them that they were on
classic ground. If they could recall
the shades of the grand horses that
had appeared on the Doncaster race-
course, they would have in their minds
a noble procession. He had the
honour to propose a vote of thanks
tothe Mayor and Corporation of Don-
caster.

Sir W. GrtstrapP (Suffolk) se-
conded, saying he lived in a distant
part of the country, and it was a
great source of satisfaction to them
that they could come to that great
Meeting and have their exertions
fructified by the Society. Every
facility was given them in their visit,
and he hoped that the Corporation
would receive gratification from the

favourable circumstances of fine
weather and a good Meeting.

The motion haying been carried
with acclamation,

The Mayor of DoNCASTER (Mr,
Alderman Stockil) returned thanks
for the cordial manner in which the
vote had been proposed and passed,
assuring them that when it was first
suggested, and when they knew, that
the “ Royal” of England was coming
to Doncaster, they made up their
minds to make the Meeting a great
success. He thought the prospect
they had before them was a sure sign
that their exertions had been re-
warded. But they had had most in-
valuable assistance from all the
officials connected with them ; and he
would not be doing his duty to
his colleagues if he did not bear
testimony to the indefatigable exer-
tions of their ex-Mayor (Mr. Joseph
Firth Clark). He believed that all
the town hailed the visit of the
Society with pleasure. He could as-
sure the Society that all their hopes
would be realised if the Meeting were
a great success to the Society itself.
(Cheers. )

Vote of Thanks to Local Committee. —

Mr. JAMES A. CAIRD, as Senior
Steward of Implements, moved a vote ~
of thanks to the Local Committee for
their exertions to promote the success
of the Meeting. The Local Com-—
mittee had had a good deal of hard
work, and they had done it uncom-
monly well. The ground had been
well looked after, and it was to be
hoped the Show would be a great
success. :

Sir JACOB WILSON seconded, say-
ing that if he might add his own
personal thanks to the Ldeal Com-
mittee he should only be doing that
which his heart dictated. In his —
capacity as Honorary Director it had
been his duty to pay frequent visits
there in making the arrangements for
that great Meeting, and he could only —
say that, with the experience of a
quarter of a century, he had never
known their wishes more thoroughly
anticipated,

The vote of thanks haying been
unanimously accorded,

Mr. G. B.C. YARBOROUGH, in reply,
said that though their work had been

a

.

Tuesday, June 23, 1891.

hard it had been comparatively light
because the Society was so admirably
organised. It had been a labour of
love to all of them, from first to last.
He hoped that at the end of the week
the Council and the members of the
Society would be so wellsatisfied that
they would begin to think of paying
them another visit before very long.

Suggestions by Members.

The PRESfDENT having put the
usual inquiry as to whether any
member had remarks to make or
suggestions to offer for the considera-
tion of the Council,

Mr, C. F. Hope (York) referred to
the railway facilities in connection
with the Show, and complained that
the Companies this year had refused
to issue weekly contract tickets from
places within two or three hours’ run
of Doncaster.

Mr. HENRY DE VITRE (Berks)
asked if the Council were satisfied
with the arrangements of the railway
companies as to the conveyance of
cattle. Beyond putting on a vacuum
brake, the Great Western Company
had done nothing to improve the ac-
commodation for cattle traffic.

Mr. NATHANIEL BENJAFIELD
(Dorset) said that the South-Western
Railway had only six cattle vans, and
they could therefore imagine the
difficulty of getting one. He always
thought the railway companies should
be condemned instead of thanked.

Vote of Thanks to Retiring President.
Sir Henry Smrpson (Windsor)

then moved that the best thanks of

the Society be given to the Earl of
Ravensworth for his services as Presi-
dent during the past year. He was
sure that his resolution would be
received with the same unanimity
and enthusiasm as those which had
been already presented to them. Lord
Ravensworth had worthily sustained
the reputation which previous presi-
dents had made for the Society in
whatever capacity he had been called
upon to represent it.

Mr. FREDERICK REYNARD se-
conded, and the motion having been
put by the SEcrETARY, was declared
carried unanimously amidst loud
cheers,

xcV

The PRESIDENT, in reply, returned
his most heartfelt and grateful thanks
for the honour they had paid him.
He wished to tellthem all that what-
ever humble duties or services he had
been able to perform had been most
willingly undertaken. The real fact
of the matter was that the post he
had had the honour for a year to
occupy was practically a sinecure.
So admirable was the subdivision
of labour between the members of
Council, those admirable committees,
and the eminent, practical, and busi-
ness-like men who presided over them,
that the duties of the President had
been very light. No one, perhaps,
had had a better opportunity than
their President of knowing what the
work of that great Society was.
Having had a considerable experience
of public life, he knew of no society,
no body of public men in this country,
who did so much useful work with
such little expenditure of time and
talk as the “ Royal” of England. Of
course no body of human beings could
hope to please everybody, but what
the Society had always attempted was
to do its duty without favour or
predilection. He congratulated them
on account of the present prospects
of the Show, which promised to be a
very great success. They had been
met in their arrangements by the
Mayor and Corporation with that love
ef hard work which he believed
characterised the North of England.
He trusted that they would be able
to set down the records of the old
Town Moor of Doncaster as one of
the most brilliant Meetings they had
ever had. His Lordship concluded
by renewing his expression of thanks
for the honour that had been paid
him, and by assuring them that any
future services that he could render
to the agricultural community of
England would be most readily and
heartily given. (Applause.)

President for 1891_92,

Mr. N. L. COHEN (Surrey) moved
“ That the Earl of Feversham do take
the chair as President after the con-
clusion of the present Meeting.” He
thought that although some things in
that exhibition might be the subject
of criticism, the bulk of the members
of the Society who attended its Shows

g2

xevi General Meeting of Governors and Members, June 23, 1891.

year by year must feel that, whatever
were the locality chosen, the foresight
of their officers, the wisdom of their
Council, and the great public spirit
invariably shown—inasmuch as it
was the universal attribute of Eng-
lishmen—always ensured an indubit-
able success. Those attributes, that
wisely-directed energy, and that pub-
lic spirit could not be more happily
illustrated than by the Earl of Fever-
sham. They did not need that he
should tell them that the Society
might well be congratulated upon
having for its chief next year a noble-
man who was so competent to for-
ward in any direction that which
was decided by the wisdom of the
Council.

Mr. IsAAc Rovucu (Middlesex) se-
conded, and the motion was carried
unanimously.

The Earl of FEVERSHAM, who was
received with loud cheers, thanked
the meeting sincerely for the honour
they had done to him. He esteemed
it a very high honour to follow in the
footsteps of those who had occupied
that chair, and of his noble friend
whom he had known for so long in
both Houses of Parliament, and who,
as President, had upheld the dignity
and the position of that Society so
well. He would not detain them
upon that occasion, because he knew
that they must be anxious to go into
that famous Showyard, of which, he

thought, every member of the Society
must be proud. If they wished to
consider for a moment what the
Society had done, the great work
which it had accomplished, and which
it was carrying on in the country,
they had only to look round the Show,
and he thought that the agriculturists
and farmers of this country, and of
that great county in particular, would
find a lesson of the greatest service to
them. Next year the Society would.
visit the ancient and famous town of
Warwick, and he was happy to think
that there was a connection between
that great county of York and the
county of Warwick. In Warwickshire
at that moment they were famous for
their breed of Shorthorns, and those
Shorthorns were originally from the
banks of the Tees. To compete with
the cattle of that district Yorkshire-
men would have to take the very best
animals they could, and he hoped
they would do so. They had seen
some evidences of what Yorkshiremen
could produce in the field that day.
He thanked them forthe distinguished
honour they had done him, and he
need not say how much he appreciated
it.

The PRESIDENT then promised that
attention should be given by the
Council to the remarks that had been
made on the subject of railway ac-
commodation, and declared the busj-«
ness of the meeting at an end.

(xem, )

DONCASTER MEETING.

JUNE 20 TO 26, 1891.

PRESIDENT :

THE EARL OF RAVENSWORTH.
Ravensworth Castle, Gateshead.

OFFICIALS :

Honorary Director.
Sir Jacos Wi1soy, Chillingham Barns, Belford, Northumberland.

Stewards of Live Stock.

Earl CATHCART, Thornton-le-Street, Thirsk.

C. S. MAINWARING, Galltfaenan, Trefnant, R.S.O., North Wales.
J. BOwEN-JONES, Ensdon House, Montford Bridge, Salop.

E. V. V. WHEELER, Newnham Court, Tenbury, Worcestershire.

Stewards of Implements.

J. A. CATRD, Northbrook, Micheldever, Hants.
Percy E. CRUTCHLEY, Sunninghill Park, Ascot.
DAN. PIDGEON, Walsingham House, Piccadilly, W.
Steward of Dairying, Poultry, and Produce.
The Hon. Ceciu T. PARKER, Eccleston, Chester.

Steward of Forage.
CHARLES CLAY, Walton Grange, Wakefield.

Stewards of Finauce,

W. FRANKISH, Limber Magna, Ulceby, Lincolnshire.
G. H. Sanpay, Langdale Lodge, Clapham Park, Surrey,

Secretary.
ERNEST CLARKE, 12 Hanover Square, London, W.

JUDGES OF IMPLEMENTS.

Implements, &c., competing for Prizes. Class 4 (Milking Machines),
Class 1 (Threshing Machines). 5 ! :
Gol. GeAWrHam, West. Keal Hall, R. NEVILLE GRENVILLE, Butleigh
Spilsby. Court, Glastonbury. F
SAMUEL ROWLANDSON, Newton Mor- | Tuomas Rigby, Sutton Weaver, vid
rell, Darlington. Warri
Wa. ANDERSON, C.E., D.C.L., F.B.S., arrington.
Lesney House, Erith.
Classes 2 § 3 (Cream Separators).
Sateen GRENVILLE, Butleigh
‘ ourt, Glastonbury. J. W. Krave .
T. RIGBY, Sutton Weaver, Cheshire. mn, Hyheld, Abingdon,
_ J. AuGustus Vortcker, B.A., B.Sc., Berks.
Ph.D., 12 Hanover Square, W. W, J. MALDEN, Cardington, Bedford.

Miscellaneous Implements,

xcvill

List of Judges at the Doncaster Meoting.

JUDGES OF STOCK, &e.

HORSES.

Hunters.— Classes 2, 4, 6, 8, §* 10.

J. B. Cookson, Meldon Park, Mor-
peth.

JOHN CooPER, East Haddon, North-
ampton.

Earl of LONSDALE, Barley Thorpe,
Oakham.

Hunters.— Classes 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, §' 11.

Earl of CovENTRY, Croome Court,
Severn Stoke, Worcester.

J. MAUNSELL RICHARDSON, Ulceby,
Lincolnshire.

Coach Horses, and Harness Horses and
Ponies.— Classes 12-18 ; 33 § 34.

T. Rogpson, Wold House, Driffield.

C.W. WILSON, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby
Lonsdale.

Hackneys and Ponies.— Classes 19-32.

ALFRED ASHWORTH, Tabley Grange,
Knutsford.

JOSEPH MorRTON, Stow, Downham.

GEORGE Rogpson, Shires House,
Easingwold.

Shire and Agricultural,

Classes 35-41 ; 54 § 55.
HENRY BULTITAFT, Bedwell Hey, Ely.
Epw. GREEN, The Moors, Welshpool.
J. Morton, West Rudham, Swaffham.

Clydesdale.— Classes 42-48.

ANDREW RALSTON, Glamis, Forfar.
JAMES WEIR, Sandilands, Lanark, N.B.

Suffolk. Classes 49-53.
HERMAN BIDDELL, Hill House, Play-
ford, Ipswich.
J. STURLEY NUNN, Rushbrooke, Bury
St. Edmunds.

CATTLE,

Shorthorn.— Classes 56-62.
L. C. Curisp, Hawkhill, Alnwick.
GEORGE DREWRY, Holker, Carke-in-
Cartmel.
JAmeEs How, Broughton, Huntingdon,

Hereford.— Classes 63-68.
F, Evans, Bredwardine, Hereford.
RICHARDS. OLVER, Trescowe, Bodmin,
Devon and Sussex.— Classes 69-76.

T. A. ABpBorr, Old Paddockhurst,
Worth, Crawley.

RicHARD HAmsHAR, Bolney Place,
Hayward’s Heath.
S. P. NEWBERY, Plympton St. Mary.

Welsh.— Classes 77 § 78.

F. Evans, Bredwardine, Hereford.
JOHN WILLIAMS, Gwernhefin, Bala,

Red Polled.— Classes 79-82.
CHAS. HOWARD, Biddenham, Bedford.
Jos. P. TERRY, Berry Field, Aylesbury,

Aberdeen-Angus.— Classes 83-86.
ROBERT WALKER, Altyre, Forres,N.B.
WILLIAM WHYTE, Hatton of Eassie,

Meigle, N.B.

Galloway and Ayrshire.
Classes 87-92.
ANDREW ALLAN, Munnoch, Dalry.
ANDREW MONTGOMERY, Nether Hall,
Castle Douglas, N.B.

Jersey.— Classes 93-98.

C. B. Dixon, Wood Hayes, Westridge
Road, Southampton.

J. F. HALL, Sharcombe, Wells, Som.

Guernsey.— Classes 99-102.

C. MIDDLETON, Marton, Middles-
borough.

J. W. Moss, Feering, Kelvedon, Essex.

Kerry and Dexter Kerry.
Classes 103-106.
G. MANDER ALLENDER, Stammerham,
Horsham.
JAMES E. BUTLER, Waterville, Co.
Kerry.

SHEEP,

Leicester, Cotswold, and Lincoln.
Classes 108-119.
J. J. GODWIN, Troy Farm, Somerton,
Oxon.
E. RILEY, The Weir, Hessle, Hull.
HENRY SMITH, The Grove, Cropwell,
Butler, Notts.
Oxford Down.— Classes 120-123.
J. B. ELuis, West Barsham, Walsing-

ham, Norfolk.
N. Srruq@or, Adderbury, Banbury,

Shropshire, (Rams),
Classes 124 § 125,
JosEPH BEACH, The Hattons, Wolver-
hampton. c
P. A. Evans, Sherlowe, Wellington,
Salop.

List of Judges at the Doncaster Meeting. ~~ —— xcix

Shropshire. (Ram Lambs and Ewes). Tamworth.— Classes 179-182.
Classes 126 § 127.
AMES R. RANDELL, Chadbury, Eve-
J. E. Farmer, Felton, Ludlow, | pie asl mama f->
C, R. KEELING, Congreve, Penkridge. | Jouy A, Smt, Wootton, Wawen, Hen-
Southdown.— Classes 128-131. ley-in-Arden.

THoMAS FULCHER, Elmham Hall,

Dereham, Norfolk. POULTRY.
HuGH GoRRINGE, Kingston-by-Sea, Classes 183-280.

Brighton. D. BRAGG, Southwaite Hall, Carlisle.

E. BRown, 16 Woodberry Grove, N.

. a and Suffolk. M. Leno, Cox Pond Farm, Hemel
ses 132-139. <ieaisiedal
M. ARNOLD, Westmeon, Petersfield. J. W. LuDLow, Vauxhall Road. Bir-
GEORGE PETTIT, The Firs, Friston, mingham. , 2
Saxmundham.
PRODUCE.

Wensleydale.— Classes 140-143.

RoBERT Carp, Catgill House, Skip- Cheese.— Classes 281-288.

ton, Yorks. WILLIAM KiNG, Beast Market Hill,
JAMES PICKARD, Thoresby, Redmire, Nottingham.
Yorks. P. W. STONE, 105 Victoria Street, S.W.

Butter.— Classes 289-291.
GEORGE GIBBONS, Tunley Farm, Bath.
JAMES Hupson, Ludgate Hill, E.C.

Cider and Perry.— Classes 292-295.
WILLIAM GAYMER, Banham, Attle-

borough.

Jams and Preserved Fruits.
Classes 296-299.
FREDERIC LAURENCE, 8 Somerfield
Terrace, Maidstone.

Hives and Honey.— Classes 300-314.

Rev. J. F. BUCKLER, Bedston Rectory,

Border Leicester.— Classes 144-146.
W. Forp, Fenton Barns, Drem, N.B.
ANDREW Woop, Brocksbushes, Cor-

bridge-on-Tyne.

Cheviot.— Classes 147-149.
JOHN ELLIOT, Hindhope, Jedburgh.
H. H. Scott, Lesbury, Northumber-

land.

Black-faced.— Classes 150-152.
ROBERT PATERSON, Birthwood,
Biggar, N.B.
T. A. STEPHENSON, Newbiggen,
Blanchland, Northumberland.

SS

Birkenhead.
Lonk and Herdwick. W. B. Cagr, Orpington, Kent.
' Classes 153-158. JESSE GARRATT, Meopham, Kent.
JoHN INGLEBY, Austwick, Lancaster. | WALTER Martin, Wainfleet.
JOHN IRvING, Shap Abbey, West- COMPETITIONS.
moreland.
Farms.
PIGS. W. C. Brown, Appleby, Doncaster.
White.— Classes 159-170. GARRETT TaYLoR, Trowse House,
Joun ANevs, Whitefield, Morpeth. legos op f
JOHN BARRON, Borrowash, Derby. Butter-making.
Captain HEATON, Worsley, Man- | GEORGE GIBBONS, Tunley Farm,Bath,
chester. T. RieBy, Sutton Weaver, Cheshire.
Berkshire and Black. Horse-shoeing.
Classes 171-178. J. D. BARFORD, F.R.C.V.S., 57 Above
JOHN A, Sru, Wootton, Wawen, Hen- Bar, Southampton.
ley-in-Arden. CLEMENT STEPHENSON, F.R.C.Y.S.,

G, M. SExTon, Stone Lodge, Ipswich. Sandyford Villa, Newcastle.

OFFICIAL REPORTER.
W. FrEAM, B,Sc., LL.D., 12 Hanover Square, London, W,

C14.)

AWARD OF PRIZES AT DONCASTER,

ABBREVIATIONS.

I., First Prize. II, Second Prize, III, Third Prize, &c. R.N., Reserve
Number. H.C., Highly Commended, Com., Commended.

Unless otherwise stated, each Prize Animal in the Classes for Horses, Cattle,
Sheep, and Pigs was ‘‘ bred by Exhibitor.”

HORSES.

Thoroughbred Stallions.

Winners of the Three Premiums of £200 offered by the Society, and
the Special Gold Medals offered by the Doncaster Local Committee,
at the Sprine Sow, held at THE Roya AGRICULTURAL HALL,
Lonvon, March 3-6, 1891.

A, THoMAS CARR, May House, Droitwich, for Crom-A-Boo, brown, foaled
1881; s. Camballo, d. Euphrosyne by The Miner, g. d. Gaily by Weatherbit ;
bred by J. Ridley, Manor House, Bedale. Has stood at Ripon, and travelled
the district during the season of 1891.

B, DAVID Cooper, Bainesse, Catterick, Yorks, for Linneus, grey, foaled 1878;
s. Strathconan, d. Sweet Violet dy Voltigeur, g. d. Cowslip by Oxford;
bred by A. Harrison. Has stood at Bainesse, and travelled to Bedale,
Northallerton, Scotch Corner, and Richmond during the season of 1891.

C. EDWIN HopGE BANkKs, Highmoor, Wigton, Cumberland, for Moss-Hawk,
chestnut, foaled 1880; s. Blair Athol, d. Vergiss-mein-nicht by The Flying
Dutchman, g.d. Forget-me-not dy Hetman Platoff. Has stood at Driffield,
and travelled the district during the season of 1891.

Hunters.
Osta" Class 1.—Hunter Mares and Foals. [17 entries, 1 absent.]

logue
16 I. (£20.)—F. B. WILKINSON, Blyth Spital, Rotherham, for Jessie 60, bay,
foaled 1877 [foal by Discord], breeder unknown; s. Bolivar, d. by
Poynton.
6 II. (£10.)—I. D. Dunn, Keyingham, Hull, for Atalanta, bay, foaled 1882
[foal by Southampton], bred by C. H. Hart, Dunnington Lodge, York;
s. Cramoisi, d. Achievement by Knowsley.
1 III. (£5.)—FReDERIOK BLENKIN, Burstwick Old Hall, Hull, for Princess
Beatrice 249, chestnut, foaled 1883 [foal by Jarnac]; s. Bay President,
d. Empress by Theobald.
17 R.N. & H, C._—¥. B. WILkrinsov, Blyth Spital, Rotherham, for Petticoat.
H. C.—G. E. Cuarke for No. 3, Lady Grey; Carr, JoHN DAnBy for
Noa, 4, Melrose; Joun Lert for No, 9, Coquette,

,

Hunters. - cl

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 2.— Hunter Mares or Geldings, foaled in 1885 or 1886.!
[18 entries, 4 absent.]

WEIGHT CARRIERS UP TO 15 STONE.
19 I. (£40.)—BENNET & MarRTYN, Blo’ Norton Hall, East Harling, Norfolk,
for Nimrod, bay gelding, foaled 1886, breeder unknown.

24 II. (£20.)\—WmM. Brown, Sunley Court, Kirby Moorside, for Ringlet,
chestnut gelding, foaled 1886, bred by J. Smith, South Holme, Slingsby ;
s. Conductor, d. by President Junior.

26 III. (£10.)—P. S. Danby, Church Farm, Offchurch, Leamington, for
Gambler, bay gelding, foaled 1886, breeder unknown; s. Blue Blood.

29 R. N. & H. C.—MAsor LANGLANDS, Biddenham, Bedford, for Hildegarde,
H. C.—JoHN HADLAND for No. 27, Royalist; JoHN LETT for No. 30.
Hilarity.

Class 3.— Hunter Mares or Geldings, foaled in 1885 or 1886.!
[27 entries, 10 absent. ]

LIGHT WEIGHTS UP TO 12 STONE.

48 I, (£30.)—J. F. Laycock, Wiseton, Bawtry, Notts, for Marquis, bay
gelding, foaled 1885, bred by The Marquis of Waterford, s, Zingaree,
d. Cigarette.

67 II. (£10.)—J. H. Stokes, Gt. Bowden Ho., Market Harborough, for Gem,
brown mare, foaled 1886, breeder unknown; s. Lethario, d. by Ascetic.

37 III. (£5.)—A. J. Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, for Nimrod,
brown gelding, foaled 1886, bred by John Hyland, The Castle, Carrick-
on-Suir ; s. Savoyard, d. Kattie Darling by Artillery.

39 R. N. & H. C.—A. J. Brown, for Irish Leader, foaled 1885.

Class 4.—Hunter Geldings, foaled in 1887.1
[19 entries, 3 absent.]

65 I. (£40.) A. J. Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, for Carrick, bay,
bred by Mr. Hanley, Cashel; s. Hillingdon, d. by Dr. O’Toole.

68 II. (£20.)—THomAs DARRELL, Spikers Hill, West Ayton, York, for Wye-
dale, brown, bred by F. Baker, Headon Lodge, Brompton, York; s.
Camelot, d. by King Caradoc.

69 III. (£10.)—Joun HaDLAND, Norwood, Beverley, Yorks, for Pilot, grey,
bred by E. Newhouse, Ancliffe Hall, Westmoreland; s. Carthusian,

66 R.N, & H.C.—P. S. Dany, Offchurch, Leamington, for The Swell,

Class 5.—Hunter Mares, foaled in 1887.' [14 entries, 3 absent.]
90 I. (£30.)—T. F. & W. J. Ropinson, Nuthill, Preston, Yorks, for Gone Away,
bay ; s. Tally Ho, d. by Guicowar.

94 II. (£15.)—F. B. WILKINSON, Blyth Spital, Rotherham, for Miss Robson,
brown, breeder unknown; s. Macaulay.

91 III. (£5.)—J. H. SANDERSON, Summer House, Barnsdale, Doncaster, for
Duchess, bay; s. Knight of the Forest.

86 RB. N.& H.C.—Joun Lert, Cleveland Stud Farm, Rillington, for Clarissa,

.. Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

“cli Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”

Class 6.— Hunter Geldings, foaled in 1888.! [19 entries, 3 absent, ]

99 I. (£20.)—A. J. Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, for The General,
chestnut, bred by The O’Grady, Kilballyowen Bruff, Co. Limerick; s,
Clanronald, d. by Old Victor.

110 II. (£10.)—G. H. SPRAGGON, Nafferton, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, for Rocket,
chestnut; s. Storm Signal, d. dy Old Victor.

108 III. (£5.)—W. E, Lawson, Hazon, Acklington, Northumberland, for
Blaze, chestnut, bred by H. O, Annett, junr., Widdrington, Northumber-
land; s. Fitzroy.

100 R. N. & H. C—A. J. Brown, for The Colonel, grey, s. Clanronald.

Class 7.—Hunter Fillies, foaled in 1888. [9 entries, 2 absent.]
121 I. (£15.)\—JAmrs MARTIN, Wainfleet, for Dorothy 319, chestnut; s.
Fabius, d. Yorkshire Lassie 141, by The Mallard,

118 II. (£10.)\—ERNEST CHAPLIN, 24 Chester Street, S.W., for Pheebe Vol. IV.,
brown, s. Outfit, d. Peahen.

117 III. (£5.)—A. J .Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, for Wexford
chestnut, breeder unknown; s. Hunting Horn, d. by Gunboat.

123 R. N. & H.C. EDwiIn WARDLE, Linton Spring, Wetherby, for Mintdrop,

Class 8.—Hunter Geldings, foaled in 1889.1 [21 entries, 4 absent.]

129 I. (£15.)—T. A. CORNTHWAITE, Clawthorpe Hall, Burton, Westmoreland,
for Gamester, bay, bred by T. Barrow, Ambleside ; s. Carthusian, d. by
Cleveland Hero.

127 II. (£10.)—E. BroumPTon, Rowton, North Skirlaugh, Yorks, for Marmion,
chestnut; s. Lambton, d. Lady Williams Jy y Haphazard.

142 IIL. (£5.)—G. A. WALKER, Danes Hill, Retford, for The Dane, brown;
s. Rainbow, d. by Merry Scotland.

125 R. N. & H. C._—Wm. ARKWRIGHT, Sutton Scarsdale, for Knight Errant.
138 H. (—HuGu PATRICKSON, Kirklinton Park, Carlisle, for Sunlight,

Class 9.—Hunter Fillies foaled in 1889. [14 entries, 1 absent. ]

156 I. (£15.)—WM. MuzEEN, Douthwaite Lodge, Kirby Moorside, for Modesty,
chestnut ; s. Spendthrift, d. Madam dy George Osbaldeston.

148 II. (£10.)— Dr. 8. P. Bupp, 8 Gay St, Bath, for Lady Scot, grey, bred by
: T. Keynes, Blandford ; s. Scot Guard, d. Jane 193 by Vinegar Hill,

158 III. (£5.)—RHODES WATERHOUSE, Skellow, Doncaster, chestnut; &
Knight Templar, d. Queen of Hearts dy Grandmaster.

151 R. N, & H.C.—Carvt. Joun DANBy, W. Hartlepool, for Lady Normanby.

H. C.—Joun BEAcH, for No. 145, Clematis; G. & J. Copiine, for
No. 150, Bonny Girl ; JAMES ManrrIn, for No. 155.

Com.—R. BELLWooD for No. 146; Rev. C. J. Bowen for No. 147,
Brunette; Ricu. & Ropr. CHATTERTON for No. 149, Bay Leaf; R,
ENGLAND for No. 152; G. Kenprew for No, 153, Lady Brink ; JOHN
Lert for No, 154, Vanity Fair,

1 Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

Coach Horses. cll

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 10.— Hunter Colts, foaled in 1890.! [22 entries, 5 absent. |
180 I. (£15.)—F. B. WILKINSON, Blyth Spital, Yorks, for The Curate, brown,
bred by R. Fawcett, Appleton Wiske ; s. Lord Derby, d. by Bass Rock.

173 II, (£10.)—W. ©. P. SNowDEN, Hutton Moor, Thirsk, for Strathmore,
. grey; s. Linneus, d, Stella by Bradgate.

168 III. (£5.)—Lorp MIDDLETON, Birdsall House, York, bay; s. Escamillo,
ad. Venus by Merry Sunshine.

165 RB, N.—G. Lancaster, Kilton Hall, Brotton, York, for Butter Scotch,

Class 11.—Hunter Fillies, foaled in 1890. [11 entries, 3 absent. ]

) 188 I. (£15.)—JAmuEs Martin, Wainfleet, for Mrs. 0’Shea, bay; s. Fabius,
d, Home Rule 353 by Minstrel.

| 189 IZ. (£10,)—CHaR.Es MInEs, Tatenhill, Burton-on-Tr., forLady Connaught,
bay; s. Connaught, d, Princess 247 by Pero Gomez.

181 III. (£5,)—A. J. Brown, North Elmsall Hall, Pontefract, for Lady Macaulay,
chestnut ; s. Macaulay, d. by Lord Athol.

' 187 R.N. & H. C.—Joun LETT, Cleveland Stud Farm, Yorks, for Queenie.

Coach Horses.

Class 12.—Coaching Stallions, foaled in 1886, 1887, o7 1888.!
[19 entries, none absent. |

206 I. (£20,)—EaArt or LONDESBOROUGH, for Prince Humbert 1443 Y.C.S.B.,
bay, foaled 1888; s. Prince Victor 376, d. Lady May 186 dy Paulinus 343.
' 195 II, (£10.)—Grorer Burton, Thorpe Willoughby, Selby, for Lord Risby
1402 Y.C.S.B., bay, foaled 1888, bred by H. Donkin, Wyton, Hull;

s. Prince of Wales 371, d. Lady Ida 78 by Risby 404.
210 III. (£5.)—G. Scony, Beadlam Grange, Nawton, Yorks, Fortunatus 962
- C.B.S.B., bay, foaled 1888, bred by Rt. Hon. James Lowther, M.P.;

s. Luck’s All 189, d. Fortuna 56 by Fidius Dius 107.

| 203 R.N.—R. Kirconine, Hungate, Pickering, Yorks, for Present Times 1434.

Class 13.—Coaching Stallions, foaled in 1889.! [28 entries, 5 absent. ]

220 I. (£20.)—W. & C. Harrison, Barneby Ho., Bossall, Kirkham Abbey, for

| Sir James, bay; s. Lord Chief Justice 1244 Y.C.S.B., d. Lady Bird Il. 73

; by Candidate 64. ;

| 223 II. (£10.)\—Joun Kirpy, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorks, for

/ Kirby’s Peacock, bay, bred by John Gilleard, Crayke, Hasingwold ;
s. Wonderful Lad 536 Y.C.S.B., d. by Cromwell.

218 III. (£5.)—THomas Carr, Kirk Smeaton, Pontefract, for Salisbury, bay;
| s. Sultan 667 C.B.S.B., d. Lille by Ebor.

213 «xR. N. & H.C.—Wm. Becket’, Deighton, Escrick, York, for Avondale.

H. €.—Gro. Burton for No. 217 Harold; Jonn Lert for No. 231 Ril-
lington Symmetry.

Com.—W. Hutcuinson for No. 221, Councillor; A. E, PEASE, M.P., for
No, 233, Rumpus,

* Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

Civ Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor."

Class 14.—Coaching Mares and Foals.' [6 entries, 1 absent. ]

240 I. (£20.)—T. Kn isey, Hook House, Howden, for Phyllis 120 Y.C.S.B., bay,
foaled 1885 [foal by Baron Rothsay 981]; s. Lord Beacon 262, d. Jewel 64
by Prince of Wales 371.

243 II. (£10.)—F. J. Perrincer, Hollins Grove, Easingwold, for Recherche,
140 Y.C.S.B., bay, foaled 1879 [foal by Wonderful Lad 536], bred by H,
Pettinger, Hollins Grove; s. Paragon 337, d. Jess by Cromwell.

242 III. (£5.)—W. PARKIN-Moorz, Whitehall, Mealsgate, Carlisle, for Lady
Rosedale, 391 C.B.S.B., bay, foaled 1882 [foal by Freedom 833], bred by
W. Strickland, Gill Bank, Rosedale, Pickering; s. Emperor 387, d. by
Brilliant 42. ;

241 R. N. & H. C.—W. Parxkin-Moorgs, for Broxa 311 C.B.S.B.; s. Emperor,
zi4 H. C.—C, Rogpinson, Tollesby Farm, Middlesborough, for Portulaca 439
C.B.S.B.

Class 15.—Coaching Geldings, foaled in1888.' [7 entries, none absent]

249 I. (£15.)—Joun Kirpy, Button Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorks, for
Elegance, bay, bred by J. Gamble, Kelfield, York; s. Wonderful Lad 536
Y.C.S.B., d. by Prince of Wales 371.

251 II. (£10.)—F. H. Stertckrer, Westgate Ho., Pickering, for Criterion,
brown, bred by J. Rutter, Long Newton, Darlington ; s. King Otto, d. by
Luck’s All 189 C.B.S.B.

250 IIL. (£5.)—T. & R. RIcHARDSON, Deighton, Escrick, York, for Grimston,
bay, bred by R. Jackson, Beechwood House, York; s. Wonderful Lad 536
Y.C.S.B.

247 R.N, & H. C.—C. H. Hart, Dunnington Lodge, York, bay.

Class 16.—Coaching Fillies, foaled in 1888,! [5 entries, none absent, ]

252 I. (£15.)\—Jonn Errpy, Burton Fields, Stamford Bridge, Yorks, for
Lady Mary 265 Y.C.S.B., bay; s. Liverton C.B.S.B., d. Flora 45 Y.C.S.B.
by The Earl 474.

254 II. (£10.)—F. J. Purtinepr, Hollins Grove, Hasingwold, for Finette,
bay; s. Wonderful Lad 536 Y.C.S.B., d. Recherché 140 by Paragon 337.

256 III. (£5.)—W. WHITE, Hutton Grange, Askham Bryan, Yks., for Hutton
Countess, bay; s. Prince Robert 1151 Y.C.S.B., d. by Palestine 613.

255 R. N. & H. C.—T. & R, RICHARDSON, Deighton, Escrick, York, for May. ~

Class 17.--Coaching Geldings, foaled in 1889, [1 entry, absent.]

Class 18,—Coaching Fillies, foaled in 1889.! [7 entries, 1 absent.]
263 I. (£10.)—Joun WuitsE, The Grange, Appleton Roebuck, Yorks, Ainsty
Pride, bay; s. Captain Sykes 1002 Y.C.S.B., d. Jenny 59 by Progress.

261 II. (£5.)—VALENTINE PRODHAM, Allerston, Pickering, for Grateful, bay;
s. Fayourite 581 Y.C.S.B., d. Gratitude 54 by Field Marshal 161,

258 R. N. & H. C.—E. & R. Durron, New Parks, Shipton, for Georgiana.

* Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee. |

Hackneys. ev

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor."]

| Hackneys.

Class 19.—Hackney Stallions, foaled before 1889, above 15 hands.
[7 entries, 2 absent. ]

271 I. (£20, & Champion, £15. 15s.'!)—R. TENNANT, Kirkburn Grange, Drif-
field, for Connaught 1453, chestnut, foaled 1884; s. Denmark 177, d.
Fanny 114 by Fireaway 249.

265 II. (£10)—F. CuinpERHOUSE, Attleborough, for M.P. 1852, chestnut,
foaled 1887, bred by R. Wortley, Suffield; s. Candidate 920, d, Franchise
1119 by Robin Hood 677.
| 269 III. (£5.)—Atrrep Lrwis, Heacham, Lynn, for Tip Top Shot 1937,
| chestnut, foaled 1886, bred by W. Dodd, Gayton; s. Great Shot 329, d,
|. Taffy 1832 dy Fireaway 265. ,

Class 20.—Hackney Stallions, foaled before 1889, above 14 and
not exceeding 15 hands. [9 entries, none absent. |

’

| 278 I. (£20.)\—J. H. Smrrn, Shipton, Market Weighton, for Sensation 6th

: 3265, chestnut, foaled 1887, bred by G, M. Stephenson, Goodmanham

Grange, Market Weighton; s, Confidence 163, d, May Flower 765 by Lord

Derby 2nd 417,

| 274 II. (£10.)—H. Livesry, Rotherfield, Sussex, for Evolution 2058, chest-

nut, foaled 1886, bred by J. Rutter, Cambridge; s. Reality 665, d. Zazel

3391 by Hue and Cry Shales 379.

275 Ill. (£5.)—SretH Lorruouse, Steeton Grange, Tadcaster, for Lord
Rattler 2566, brown, foaled 1887; s. Lord Derby 2nd 417, d. Beauty 591
by Sir Charles 768.

279 R.N. & H. C_—_D. R. Sowrrsy, Midland Street, Hull, for Tip Top 1936.

} H.C.—D. Hopxinson, for No. 272, High Sheriff 2nd; W. Hurst, for

No, 273, Rokeby.

_ Class 21.—Hackney Stallions, foaled in 1888.2 [13 entries, 1 absent. |
| 289 I. (£15,)—H. Moors, Burn Butts, Cranswick, Hull, for Caxton 2398, bay ;
s. Fireaway 249, d. Poll 3rd 274 by Fireaway 242.

| 285 II. (£10.)\—G. M. GAs, Atwick Hall, Hull, for Sir Alfred 2nd 2690, bay ;
| . 8, Wildfire 1224, d. Judy 2nd 684 by Fireaway 249.

| 284 III. (£5,)—R. Forp, Chevet Grange, Wakefield, for Blaze 2nd 2376, bay,
;

bred by C. Reader, Sancton, Brough; s. Pioneer 1088, d. Jenny 680 by
Fireaway 249.

| 288 R. N. & H. C.—A. Lewis, Heacham, Lynn, for Confident Shot 2415.

| H. €—J. W. Moornouse, for No, 290, King Bruce; J. RHODES, for
: No. 291, Excelsior,

Class 22.— Hackney Stallions, foaled in 1889.2
| [16 entries, 2 absent. ]

294 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.')—F. BrouGu, Market Weighton, for
Enthorpe Performer 2973, bay, bred by C. Mitchell, Enthorpe, Market
Weighton; s. Matchless of Londesboro’ 1517, d. Peg 3171 by Superior 1410.

ee I ee

* Gold Medal given by the Hackney Horse Society for the best Hackney Stallion,
* Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

evi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

303 II. (£10.)—B. How, Manor Farm, Broughton, Hunts, for Broughton Reality
2862, bay; s. Reality 665, d. Fanny 2nd 2740 by Baronet.

309 III. (£5.)\—Wm. YEOMAN, West Cottingwith, Yorks, for Romulus 3249,
chestnut ; s, Connaught 1453, d. Elegance 2028 by Prince Alfred 1325.

307 R.N.& H. C._—R. Tennant, Kirkburn Grange, Yorks, for Grand Fashion 2nd,
302 H. C,—T. HALL, Hanging Grimston, Yorks, for Garton Duke of Connaught.
Com.—Exors. OF LATE T. Crompton for No. 296, Houndales; Wm.
FEATHERBY for No. 299, General Boulanger; W. P. Kirpy for No.

304, Cardinal 4th,

Class 23.—Hackney Brood Mares and Foals, above 15 hands.
[12 entries, 1 absent. }

310 I. (£15.)—H.R.H. Tue Prince or WALES, K.G., for New York 1296
chestnut, foaled 1887 [foal by Star of Mepal 1920], bred by Wm.
Flanders, Mepal, Ely; s. Reality 665, d. York 370.

314 II. (£10.)—H. Livesry, Rotherfield, Sussex, for Countess 2652, black,
foaled 1885 [foal by Evolution 2058], bred by W. Askwith, Callis Wold,
Yorks; s. Highflyer 1648, d. Callis Lass 610 by Denmark 177.

315 III. (£5.)—H. Livesey, for Lady Marton 1204, chestnut, foaled 1885
[foal by Evolution 2058], bred by R. Botham, Marton Grange, Sowerby ;

s. Denmark 177, d. by Foston Fireaway 288.
320 R.N. & H. C_—W. WATERHOUSE, Starborough Castle, Kent, for Brunette,
H. C.—F. W. BuUTTLE for No. 311, Rosabelle; 8S. CAMPION, for No. 312,
Jane; D. HopKinson for No. 313, Golden Belle.
Com, —_'THE EARL OF LONDESBOROUGH for No. 316, Fireirons ; H. MooRE
for No. 318, Modesty; Sranp Stun Co. for No. 319, British Queen;
W. WATERHOUSE for No. 321, Cactus.

Class 24.—Hackney Brood Mares and Foals, above 14 and not
exceeding 15 hands. [18 entries, 3 absent. |

333 I. (£15, & R.N. for Champion.!)—H. Livesry, Rotherfield, Sussex, for Lily
219, chestnut, foaled 1882 [foal by Evolution 2058], bred by A. Fewson,
Hedon, Hull; s. Lord Derby 2nd 417, d. Polly 279 by Charley 129.

324 II, (£10,)—F. W. Burrux, Thirkleby, Wharram, Yorks, for Rosalind 842,

bay, foaled 1881 [foal by Rufus 1343], s. Duke of Connaught 595, d. Jessie
682 by Sir Charles 769. ;

332 III. (£5.)—H. Livesny, for Nelly 3rd, 800, chestnut, foaled 1883 [foal
by Evolution 2058], bred by W. Rickell, Warter, Pocklington ; s. Denmark
177, d. Nelly 257 by St. Giles 687. ‘

338 R.N. & H. C.—W. WaAtrERuouszE, Starborough Castle, Kent, for Caprice.

331 H. C.—H. Livesey for Lady Alice ; s. Lord Derby 2nd, 417.

336 Com—JouN ROBINSON, Skerne, Wansford, Hull, for Lady Jane.

Class 25.—HHackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 hands, up to 15
stone, foaled 1885, 1886 or 1887.?
[11 entries, 2 absent. |

346 I. (£20.)—Wm. Porn, Downham Market, for Nelly 2349, bay mare, foaled
1885, bred by J. Bealby, Wisbech ; s. Confidence 158, d. Kitty by Shales.

349 II. (£10.)—T. Ropers, 41, Ranelagh St., Liverpool, for Statesman,
chestnut gelding, foaled 1886, bred by Mr. Staveley, N. Dalton, a 8
Confidence.

2 Gold Medal given by the , as ney Horse Society for the hest Hackney Mare,
2 Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

Ponies, cyli

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

344 III. (£5.)}—JouHn LAyNeE, 5 Lea Road, Gainsborough; for Lady Ethel,
brown mare, foaled 1886, bred by J. Clark, Holme-on-Spalding Moor; s.
Performer Junior 1082, d. Poll No. 737 Inspected F. 8. by Fireaway 249,

342 R. N. & H. C.—Mrs. ArtHur Frewson, Hedon, Hull; for Sir Robert.

345 H, C.—H. Livesey for Hedon, bay gelding.

Class 26.— Hackney Mares or Geldings, above 14 hands, up to 12
stone, foaled in 1885, 1886, or 1887.! [19 entries, 1 absent.]

368 I. (£20.)—R. Wricut, 74 Regent Road, Salford ; for Silver King, grey
' gelding, foaled 1886, breeder unknown ; s. Confidence 158.

| 366 II. (£10.)—T. Roserts, 41 Ranelagh St., Liverpool; for Graceful, bay

mare, foaled 1886, breeder unknown; s. Merryheart, d. by Denmark.

358 III. (£5.)—ArTHUR FEWwsoNn, Hedon, Hull; for The Swell, chestnut
gelding, foaled 1886; s. Confidence 163, d. Lily 219 by Lord Derby 2nd.

| 351 R. N. & H. C—Joun BENTLEY, Skerne Road, Driffield, for Queen Esther.
- 356 H. C.—Sim Humpurey F. DE TRAFFORD, BART., for Lady Landseer.

360 Com.—Mrs. R. Kirpy, Elmswell Hall, Driffield, for Duke of Portland.

Class 27,—Hackney Fillies, foaled in 1888.! [9 entries, 1 absent. ]

374 I, (£15, & Champion, £15 15s.)—H. Livesey, Rotherfield, Sussex, for Lady
Keyingham 2925, chestnut; s. Danegelt 174, d. Dorothy 2016 by Lord
Derby 2nd 417.

375 II. (£10.)—THE EARL OF LONDESBOROUGH, for Vanity 2490, bay; s.
Candidate 920, d. Coquette 1059 by Pluto 590.

376 III, (£5.)\—THE EARL OF LONDESBOROUGH, for Odd Stockings 3152,
chestnut, bred by W. H. Smith, High Field, Bubwith, Yorks; s. Prince
Alfred 1325, d. by Highflyer 1648.

371 R. N. & H. C.—C. E. Cooks, Litcham, Swaftham, for Florence 2069.

370 H. C.—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., for Star of Denmark 3286.

Class 28.— Hackney Fillies foaled in 1889.' [13 entries, 1 absent.]

391 I. (£15.)—J. W. TEMPLE, Leyswood, Groombridge, Kent, for Lady Dereham
2891, chestnut, bred by H. Livesey; s. Ritualist 1542, d. Dorothy 2016 by
Lord Derby 2nd 417.

390 II. (£10.)—Wm. Seru SmitH, Albert St., Derby, for Sweetest 3307,
chestnut; s. Connaught 1453, d. Columbine 1057 by Dorrington 184.

380 III. (£5.)—A. W. Hickiine, 34 Regent St., Nottingham, for Fair
Confidence, bay, bred by lL. Rodwell, Bagthorpe Hall, Norfolk; s,
Confidence 158, d. Jessie 273 Inspected F. S. by Model 1054.

383 RB. N, & H. C.—H. Livesey, for Lady Mayfield, brown; s. Confidence 158.
382 H. C.—H. Livesey, for Linda; s. Connaught 1453.

Ponies.
Class 29.—Pony Stallions, not above 14 hands. —
[5 entries, none absent. |

393 I. (£15.)\—C. E. Cooxn, Litcham, Swaffham, for Cassius 2397, chestnut,
foaled 1888 ; s, Cadet 1251, d. Belle 5th 406 by Confidence 158.

* Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee.
* Gold Medal given by the Hackney Horse Society for the hest Hackney Mare.

evili Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Doncaster,

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”] ;

894 It. (£10.)—G. H. K. FRANcts, Mattishall, Dereham, for Lord Barsham,
bay, foaled 1887, bred by C. S. Leeds, North Barsham, Walsingham; s,
Confidence, d. Ada No. 416, Inspected F.S,

392 R. N, & H. C.—Butcuer & THomAs, Bedminster, Bristol, for Eclipse,

Class 30.—Pony Brood Mares and Foals not above 14 hands,
[6 entries, none absent. |
402 I, (£15.)—C. W. Witson, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, for Snorer —

2456, bay, foaled 1879 [foal by Little Wonder 2nd 1610]; s. Sir George
778, d. The Pet.

400 II..(£10.)—J. 8. Jackson, Wetheral, Carlisle, for Rhoda, grey, foaled 1877
[foal by Little Wonder 2nd 1610]; s. Judge, d. Rhoda.

397 III. (£5.)—D. Cooper, Bainesse, Catterick, for Lady Bute 378, black,
foaled 1875 [foal by Danegelt 174], bred by Mr. Ward, Narbeth; s,
Christmas Carol, d. Welsh mountain pony.

401 R. N. & H. C.—Tom MITCHELL, The Park, Eccleshill, Yorks, for Olivette.

Class 31.—Pony Mares or Geldings above 13 hands and not above
14 hands.! [6 entries, 1 absent. | ‘

408 I, (£10.)—RIcHARD WRIGHT, 74 Regent Road, Salford, bay mare,
foaled 1886, breeder unknown. F

407 II. (£5.)—C. W. Wison, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, for Mad-
cap 1238, bay mare, foaled 1887, bred by G. Bowhill, Suton, Wymondham;
s. Confidence 158, d. pony mare.

404 R, N. & H. C.—Joun LAYNE, 5 Lea Road, Gainsborough, for Baronet,

Class 32.—Pony Mares or Geldings, not above 13 hands.'
[11 entries, none absent. |

415 I. (£10.)—Ws. Porr, Downham Market, for Princess 750 Inspected F. §.,
bay mare, foaled 1885, bred by D. Goodman, Little Snoring, Norfolk;
s. Model.

410 II. (£5.)—G. E. FRANKLIN, St. Leonard’s House, Derby, for Lady Mona,
brown mare, foaled 1886, breeder unknown.

411 R.N. & H.C.—J. Goopwitt, North Ings, Terrington, Yorks, for Gladys.
H, C—Masrrer Hecror MorTret, for No, 414, Bob; Stanp Stun Co., for”
No. 419, Rattler.

Harness Horses and Ponies.
(To be shown in Harness with suitable vehicles.)
Class 33.—arness Mares or Geldings, of any age, above 14 hands."
[9 entries, 2 absent. ]

420 I.(£15.)—T. BentTLnEY, Driffield, for Performer, chestnut gelding, foaled
1887, bred by R. Kirby, Elmswell, Driffield ; s. Skipsea Performer 1568.

425 II. (£10.)\—C. Fowurr, Lincoln, for Flower of Denmark 1115, roan mare,
foaled 1885; s. Denmark 177, d. Bonnie Belle 1028 by Fireaway 252. a

» Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee,

Shire Horses. cix

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”"]

426 III. (£5.)—A. H. MrtTos, Castleton House, Clifton, for Duchess of Port-
land, brown mare, foaled 1883, bred by Mrs. Kirby, Elmswell Hall, Drif-
field; s. Fireaway 249.

422 B. N. & H. C.—F. W. Burtie, Thirkleby, Wharram, Yorks, for Marmion,

Class 34.— Harness Mares or Geldings, not above 14 hands.'
[9 entries, 2 absent. }

435 I. (£15.)}—Ws. Pore, Downham Market, for Magpie 228, black and white
mare, foaled 1878, bred by Mr. Cooke, Litcham, Swaffham ; s. Confidende
1743, d. Spot 237 by Premier.

430 II. (£10.)}—H. Daptyn, Hindringham, Walsingham, for Norfolk Model
2358, bay mare, foaled 1887, bred by J. Mann, Hempton, Fakenham; s.
Model 1054, d. Mrs. Mann 3114 by Little Wonder 409,

437 II. (£5.)—G. Warren, Strawberry Fields, Woolton, Liverpool, for My
Queen, bay mare, foaled 1884, breeder unknown.

432 RB. N.& H.C—A. H. Mitton, Castleton House, Clifton, for Lady Elsie,

Shires.

Class 35.—Shire Stallions, foaled in 1888. [26 entries, 6 absent. ]

457 I. (£20, & B, N. for Champion.*)—P. A. MunTz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby,
for Forest King 9395, brown, bred by Col. H. Platt, Gorddinog, Llanfair-
fechan ; s. Carbon, 3523, d. Gladys by What’s Wanted 2332.

440 I. (£10.)—CanNock AGRICULTURAL Co., LtD., for Hartington IT. 9523,
brown, bred by J. L. Luddington, Littleport, Ely; s. Hatherton 4443, d,
Welcome Blackbird by Matchless 1538.

443 III. (£5.)—A. CRAWFORD, West Leake, Loughborongh, for Leake Pioneer.
9776, bay, bred by E. Bryan, Newton, Alfreton; s. Duke of Hitchin 3063,
d. Brisk by Champion 437.
450 B. N. & H. C.—H. W. Grimes, Scarcliffe Grange, for Searcliffe Bronze.
452 H. C—Joun Happison, for Everton Benefactor (late Champion).
Com.—Lorp BELPER, for No. 439, Leake Donovan; J. ForsHaw, for
No. 445, Aluminium.

Class 36.—Shire Stallions, foaled in 1889. [34 entries, 5 absent.]

494 I. (£20, & Champion, £15 15s.7)—Joun RowE Lt, Bury, Huntingdon, for
Bury Victor Chief 11105, black; s. Prince Victor 5287,d. Bury Daisy by
Chatteris Le Bon 3023.

478 Il. (£10.)—C. E. GALBRAITH, Ayton Castle, N.B., for Twilight, brown,
bred by B. J. Heanes, Sutton St. James, Wisbech; 3. King John 4502, d.
Flower dy Kilham’s Thumper 7479.

485 Ill. (£5.)—Lorp MIDDLETON, Birdsall House, York, for Silver Prince II,
12283, grey; s. Northwood 4593, d. Silver Queen by Thumper 2136.

487 RB. N. & H. C.—P. A. Montz, M.P., for Dunsmore Barrier.

. C.—J. aml for No. 476, Layton Echo; G. HARRISON for No. 483,
Everton Laddi

Com.—J. P. aites, for No. 472, Catthorpe Sandow ; Sr Wm. EDEN, Bart.,
for No. 475, Challenger.

Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committ
> = Gold Medal given by the Shire Horse Society for the best Shire Stallion,

VOL. Il. T. 8.—7

cx Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 37.—Shire Stallions, foaled in 1890. [31 entries, 8 absent.]

511 I. (£20.)\—WALTER GILBEY, Elsenham Hall, Essex, for Saxon Conqueror,
bay; s. Norman Conqueror 7940, d. Tinsel by King of Trent 3175.

524 II. (£10.)\—THomAs SHAW, Winmarleigh, Garstang, bay, bred by J. Bond,
Mere Brow, Tarleton, Preston; s. Akbar 4821, d. by John o’ Gaunt 2601.
502 III. (£5.)\—PeTER BLUNDELL, Ream Hills, Weeton, Kirkham, for Prince
Harold,! black, bred by T. Charnock, Houghton Tower Farm, Hale, Liver-
pool; s. Harold 3703, d. Hale Lofty by Cromwell 2415.
513 R. N. & H. C.—T. LownpDEs & SON, Castern Hall, for Castern Harold.
H. C.--A. C. DuNcoMBE, for No. 507, Calwich Marksman; F’. W. PARK,
for No. 517, Headon Guardsman. ;
Com.—WmM. ARKWRIGHT, for No. 500, Scarsdale Deceiver; A. C. Dun-
COMBE, for No. 506, Calwich Masterman; P, A. MuntTz, M.P., for No.
515, Dunsmore Bismark. ;

Class 38.—Shire Mares and Foals. [9 entries, 3 absent. ]

530 I. (£20, & Champion, £15 15s.*)—FRED CRISP, White House, New South-
gate, N., for Starlight, black, foaled 1882 [foal by Knight Errant 6805],
bred by T. Williamson, Out Rawcliffe, Garstang; s. Sir Colin 2022; d.
Williamson’s Mettle by Honest Tom 1105.

534 II. (£10.)—P. ALBERT MuntTz, M.P., Dunsmore, Rugby, for Dunsmore
Fashion, roan, foaled 1887 [foal by Ringleader II. 8099], bred by R. Capes,
Meathop Farm, Grange-over-Sands; s. Vulcan 4145, d. Kit by Champion.

536 III. (£5.)—THE DUKE OF PORTLAND, Welbeck Abbey, Notts, for Scarcliffe
Kathleen, brown, foaled 1885 [foal by Bar None 2388], bred by W. H.
Dicken, Mickleover, Derby; s. Lincolnshire Boy 3188, d. Smiler by Honest
Prince 1058. :

532 R. N.—M. DuRHAM’S TRUSTEES, Thorne, Doncaster, for Princess Ida.

Class 39.—Shire Fillies, foaled in 1888. [17 entries, 2 absent.]

541 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.?)—J. P. Cross, Catthorpe Towers, Rugby,
for Mavourneen, bay; s. Harold 3703, d. Kate by Active 51. ;

540 II. (£10.)—JoHN ConcHar, Wylde Green, Birmingham, for Flower of
May, chestnut, bred by R. N. Sutton-Nelthorpe, Scawby Hall, Brigg; s.
Chance Shot 4960, d. Flower Girl by What’s Wanted 2332.

554 III. (£5.)\—LorD WINMARLEIGH, Winmarleigh, Garstang, for Wagtail,
bay; s. Vulean 4145, d. Bessie by Luck 1424.

545 R. N. & H. C.—WALTER GILBEY, Elsenham Hall, Essex, for Harebell.

H. C.—Wmn. ARKWRIGHT, for No. 538, Scarsdale Auburn, and No. 539,
Scarsdale Creole; GroRGE HARrrison, for No. 547, Everton Charmer;
J. WAINWRIGHT, for No. 552, Bowden Empress.

Com.—Sir HuMPHREY DE TRAFFORD, Bart., for No, 542, Tamarind;
J. FLINN, for No. 543, Dunsmore Berry; C. EH. GALBRAITH, for No, 544,
Gitana; A. GRANDAGE, for No. 546, Yorkshire Lassie; JouN NIx, for —
No. 549, Duchess; JOHN PARNELL, for No, 550, Royal Poppy; LorpD
WINMARLEIGH, for 553, Wellbern.

Class 40.—Shire Fillies, foaled in 1889. [23 entries, 8 absent.]

556 I. (£15.)—H. & R. ArnscouGH, Burscough, Ormskirk; for Aurora, bay,
bred by J. Lofthouse, Chipping, Preston; s. Maharajah 3207, d. Venus by
Nonpareil 1649. d

» A protest agaiust any award being made to this horse is under consideration.
* Gold Medal given by the Shire Horse Society for the best Shire Mare or Filly.

Clydesdale Horses. xi

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

559 II. (£10.)—James BiytH, Wood House, Stansted, for Blythwood Bounti-
ful, bay, bred by John Blunt, Breedon-on-the-Hill, Ashby-de-la-Zouch; s.
Harold 3703, d. Bonny Lady dy Royal Albert 1885.

570 III. (£5.)—Lorp Hinv.ip, Hindlip, Worcester, for Hindlip Lady, bay,
bred by the late Hon. E. Coke; s. All Here 4829, d. Comfy by Charter.

563 R.N. & H. C.—J. ForsHAw, Carlton-on-Trent, Newark, for Claribelle.

H. C.—H. & R. ArnscoueGH, for No. 555, Alfresco; Wm. ARKWRIGHT, for

No. 558, Scarsdale Sparkle; Str WM. EDEN, Bart., for No. 562, Flasher.

Com.—Wwa. Hurst, for No. 571, Lady Lincoln; JoHN PARNELL, for No.
573, Lady Cresswell.

Class 41.—Shire Fillies, foaled in 1890. [24 entries, 6 absent. ]

596 I. (£15.)—T. H. MrLuER, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, for Marina
bay ; s. Mohammed 6173 or Moloch 6174, d. Mermaid by Lincoln 1350.

598 II. (£10.)—JoHN ROWELL, Manor Farm, Bury, Huntingdon, for Bury
Countess, bay, bred by Trustees of the late Earl of Dysart; s. Warrior
2689, d. Witham Violet by King Charles 3775.

594 III. (£5.)—W. B. LoneTon, Cronton Hall, Prescot, for Cronton Ladylike,
brown, bred by C. J. Bowers, Uttoxeter; s. Premier, 2646, d. by Drayman.

590 R. N. & H. C.—T. HArpDy, Mere Hall Farm, Knutsford, for Mere Duchess.
H, C.—H. W. Grimes, for No. 589, Scarcliffe Amazon; J. HOGGARTH, for
No, 592.
Com.—Wm, ARKWRIGHT, for No. 578, Scarsdale Amazon; M, DURHAM’S
TRUSTEES, for No, 583, Princess Maud; MyLEs WOODBURNE, for No. 601,
Thurston Mary.

Clydesdales.

Class 42.—Clydesdale Stallions, foaled in 1888.
[3 entries, none absent. |

604 I. (£20.\—W. MontTcomeury, Banks, Kirkcudbright, for Breastplate
8489, brown, bred by Wm. McDowall, Dalchest, Kirkholm, N.B.; s. Aim
Well 4216, d. Nell of Dalchest 9918 by Blue Ribbon 1961.

602 II. (£10.)—W™a. GRAHAM, Eden Grove, Penrith, for Maccash 7997, bay,
bred by R. & T. Sproat, Culdoch, Kirkcudbright; s. Macgregor 1487, d.
Rowena 6770 by Druid 1120.

Class 43.— Clydesdale Stallions, fouled in 1889. [13 entries, 3 absent. ]

614 I. (£20, & Champion, £25.') Wm. RENWICK, Meadowfield, Corstorphine,
N.B., for Prince Alexander 8899, bay, bred by A. Black, Craigencrosh, Stony-
kirk, N.B.; s. Prince of Wales 673, d. Jeanie Black 8100 by Darnley 222.

612 IL. (£10, & R. N. for Champion.')—A. MontGomERy, Nether Hall, Castle

Douglas, N.B., for Prince Patrick 8933, brown, bred by W. H. Ralston,
Culmore, Stranraer; s. Prince of Wales 673, d. Elia 7741 by M‘Camon.

_ 613 TIT. (£5.)—A. Monrcomery, for Macquhae 8827, bay, bred by S.

Campbell’s Trustees, Rattra, Borgue; s, Macgregor 1487, d. Nannie of
Rattra 1075 by Superior 837.

606 B. N. & H. C.—Lorps A. & L. Ceci, Orchardmains, for Crown of Royalty.

* Given by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best Clydesdale Stallion.
. h2

exit Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 44.—Clydesdale Stallions, foaled in 1890. [8 entries, 2 absent.]

624 I. (£20.)—A. MoNTGOMERY, Nether Hall, Castle Douglas, N.B., for Ross
Macgregor, bay, bred by J. Finlay, Ross, Kirkcudbright; s. Macgregor 1487,
d. Jess 1236 by Prince of Kelvin 656.

621 II. (£10.)—Str Joun A. HAY, Bart., Kingsmeadows, Peebles, N.B., bay;
s. Prince of Albion 6178, d. Lady Gallant by Top Gallant 1850.

622 III. (£5.)—JouHN KERR, Red Hall, Wigton, for Royal Conqueror, brown; s,
Royal George 8205, d. Kate Macgregor 6325 by Macgregor 1487.

619 R. N. & H. C.—GALBRAITH Bros., Croy Cunningham, New Killearn, N.B.
623 H. C.—THE MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY, K.G.

Class 45.—Clydesdale Mares and Foals. [7 entries, none absent.]

628 I. (£20.)—Wm. GRAHAM, Eden Grove, Penrith, for Lizzie of Inchparks
9698, bay, foaled 1886 [foal by Lothian King 6985], bred by John Parker,
Inchparks, Stranraer; s. Belted Knight 1395, d. Inchpark Nell 5688 by
Lord Lyon 489.

626 II. (£10.)—EARL OF CAWDOR, Stackpole Court, Pembroke, for Bell, brown,
foaled 1887 [foal by Flashwood Again 7716], bred by A. McDowal,
Harlaw, Balerno, N.B.; s. Obedience 2313, d. Maggie of Harlaw 6574 by
Abbey Prince 2.

631 III. (£5.)—LorD PoLWARTH, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, N.B., for
Comfort, brown, foaled 1887 [foal by Goldenberry 2828], bred by A.
McDowall, High Milton, Port William, N.B.; s. Lord Dunglass 2961 or
Westfield Chief 6390, d. Maggie II. of Milton 2636 by Lord Derby 485.

627 R. N. & H. C—GALBRAITH Bros., for Topsman’s Princess 8403.
629 H.C_—THE MARQUIS OF LONDONDERRY, K.G. for Rhoda,
632 Com.—R. S. Scort, for Scottish Pearl,

Class 46.—Clydesdale Fillies, foaled in 1888.
[9 entries, none absent. |

640 I. (£15, & Champion, £25.1)—R. 8. ScorT, Craigievar, Skelmorlie, N.B., for
Scottish Snowdrop, brown, bred by John M’Caig, Challoch, Stranraer; s,
Prince of Wales 673, d. Duchess II. of Challoch 7500 dy Darnley 222.

633 II. (£10.)—THEr EARL OF CAwpor, Stackpole Court, Pembroke, for
Decreto, brown, bred by J. Drew, Doonhill, Newton Stewart, N.B.; s. Flash-
wood 3604, d. Diana 7179 by Macgregor 1487.

641 III. (£5.) Patrick STIRLING OF KIPPENDAVIE, Kippenross House,
Dunblane, for Brenda of Kippendavie, brown; s. Knight Errant 4483, d.
Nelly 7861 6y Sir Gordon 4018.

639 R. N. & H. C.—Lorp PotwARrtTH, for Connie Nairn.

634 Com,—Lorps A. & L. CuoiL for Chrystabel.

»

Class 47.—Clydesdale Fillies, foaled in 1889. [7 entries, 1 absent.]

646 I. (£15, & R. N. for Champion.'.)—Wm. MontTGomery, Banks, Kirkeud-
bright, for Crosby Rose, bay, bred by R. B. Brockbank, Crosby, Maryport;
s. Sirdar 4714, d. Jewel 8136 by Challenger 1088.

647 II. (£10.)—Lorp PoLwARrtH, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, for Maggie
IV., brown, bred by A. & A. Mitchell, Alloa; s. Sirdar 4714, d. Maggie
III. 8976 by Corsewall 1420. >

» Given by the Clydesdale Horse Society for the best Clydesdale Mare or Filly,

:
:
:

Suffolk Horses. exiii

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

643 III. (£5.)—Lorps A. & L, Cecit, Orchardmains, Tunbridge, for Carissima,
bay; s. Claymore 3522, d. Darling 1093 by Topsman 886.

642 R. N. & H. C._—Lorps A. & L. CECIL, for Carillon; s. Claymore 3522.

Class 48.—Clydesdale Fillies, foaled in 1890. [10 entries, 3 absent.]

652 I. (£15.)—Eart or GALLOWAY, K.T., Garliestown, Wigtownshire, for Lillie
Langtry, brown; s. Flashwood 3604, d. Maritana 8406 by Premier Lyon.

656 II. (£10.)—A. MITCHELL, Barcheskie, Kirkcudbright, for Muriel, brown,
bred by Wm. Watson, Ochterlony Mains, Guthrie, Forfar; s. Prince
Lawrence, d. Pet 6852 by Stanleymuir 1536.

654 III. (£5.)—Wm. GRAHAM, Eden Grove, Penrith, for Crosby Jewel, bay,
bred by R. B. Brockbank, Crosby, Maryport; s. The Claimant 7318, d,
Jewel of Parkhead 8136 by Challenger 1088.

657 BR. N. & H. C.—A. MontTGomERY, Castle Douglas, N.B., for May Queen.
650 H. C.—Lorps A. & L. CECIL, for Queen Bess; s. Lothian King 6985.

Suffolks.

Class 49.— Suffolk Stallions, foaled in 1888. [8 entries, 1 absent. ]

664 I. (£20.)—JamzEs TOLLER, Blaxhall, Wickham Market, for Rainbow 1922
chestnut; s. Toller’s Verger 1550, d. Re-echo 1581 by Prince Imperial 1239.

665 II. (£10.)—Horace Wo.tton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for Trumpeter
1915, chestnut, bred by Mr. Juby, Whatfield; s. Leiston 1415, d. Duke
2536 by May Duke 1256.

661 III. (£5.)—Ww. Everitt, Levington, Ipswich, for Warrior 1938, chestnut 5
s. Everitt’s Levington Prince 1771, d. Brag by Rodney 161.

660 R. N. & Com.—Wo. Byrorp, for Alderman; 659 Com. for Surprise.

Class 50.— Suffolk Stallions, foaled in 1889. [12 entries, 4 absent. ]

673 I. (£20.)—I. Pratt & Son, Foxboro Hall Farm, Melton, Woodbridge, for
- Eelipse 2010, chestnut, bred by E. Capon, Aldeby ; s. Cupbearer III. 566,
a, Grace 335. by Viceroy 570.

669 II. (£10.)—DukrE oF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park, Wick-
ham Market, for Wedgewood 2nd 2045, chestnut, bred by B. A. Posford,
Falkenham, Ipswich; s. Smith’s Wedgewood 1749, d. Diamond by Wolton’s
Royalty 1339.

671 Ill. (£5.)—W. H. Hewirr, West Hill, Copdock, Ipswich, for Windsor
Chieftain 2025, chestnut, bred by R. Wrinch, Harkstead, Ipswich; s.
Chieftain 1354, d. Juno 1500 by Cupbearer III. 566.

677 BR. N.—ALFrRep J. Smitu, Rendlesham, Woodbridge, for Democrat 2044,

Class 51.—Sujfolk Mares and Foals. [6 entries, none absent.]

680 I. (£20.)—Tur DUKE oF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, for Queen of Diamonds 1859, chestnut, foaled 1883 [foal
by Wanderer 1463], bred by T. Hayward, Ringshall; s. Vanguard 1327, d.
by Suffolk Emperor 618.

681 Il. (£10.)—W. H. Hewirt, of West Hill, Copdock, Ipswich, for Juno

1500, chestnut, foaled 1881 [foal by Walton’s Emperor 1611], bred by
G. & A. Rope, Leiston; s. Cupbearear III, 566, d. Maggy.

Cxiv Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.’*]

683 III. (£5.\—Horack Woxton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for Pearl
1621, chestnut, foaled 1881 [foal by Pride’s Pilgrim 1707]; s. Wolton’s
Prince Royal 1338, d. Ruby of Newbourn 1053 by Monarch 1348.

682 R. N. & Com.—J, HUME- WEBSTER, of Marden Deer Park, for Mettle.

Class 52.—Suffolk Fillies, foaled in 1888. [6 entries, 3 absent.]

686 I. (£15.)—DUKE oF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market, for Morella 2375, chestnut, bred by C. A. Kersey, Monewdon;
s. Cupbearer III. 566, d. Lucy 1175 by Hurren’s Bismark 729.

690 II. (£10.)—JAmES TOLLER, of Blaxhall, Wickham Market, for Violet 2453,
chestnut ; s. Wantisden Duke 534, d. Virtue 1597 by Cupbearer III. 566.

688 R. N.—W. H. Hewitt, West Hill, Copdock, Ipswich, for Nettle 2347.

Class 53.—Suffolk Fillies, foaled in 1889. [9 entries, 3 absent.]

691 I. (£15.)\—DUKE OF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park, Wickham
Market, for Queen of Trumps 2702, chestnut, bred by C. Austin, Brandeston
Hall, Wickham Market ; s. Cupbearer III. 566, d. Queen of Diamonds 1859
by Vanguard 1327.

696 II. (£10.)—W. E. §.& P. H. Witson, Hadleigh, for Darling 2699, chestnut;
s. Chieftain 1354, d. Duke 2260 dy Captain 1833.

693 III. (£5.)—J. HUME- WEBSTER, Marden Deer Park, Surrey, for The Miller’s
Daughter 2608, chestnut, bred by M. Biddell, Playford; s. Sultan 1727,
d. Miller 1183 by Colonel Snap 1432.

698 R. N. & Com.—H. Wot Ton, Newbourn Hall, Woodbridge, for Matchett.

Agricultural Horses.

Class 54.—Agricultural Geldings of any breed, foaled in 1887
or 1888.! [11 entries, none absent. ]

708 I. (£15.) Lorp WantTAGE, K.C.B., V.C., Lockinge, Wantage, brown,
foaled 1887, breeder unknown.

704 II. (£10.)—Viscount GAuWwaAy, Serlby Hall, Bawtry, for Golden Star,
chestnut, foaled 1887 ; s. Hydrometer,

700 III. (£5.)—J, T. Brown, Althorp, Doncaster, for Althorp Samson, bay,
foaled 1888, bred by E. Ellis, Bentley, Yorks; s. Samson.

707 R. N. & H. C—ArtTuurR PEASE, Hummersknott, Darlington, for Briton,
701 H. C.—T. CroysDALE, Whitley Bridge, Pontefract, foaled 1888.
Com.—S, FAIRBAIRN for No. 703; R. H. WRiGHTSON for No. 709.

Class 55.—Agricultural Geldings of any breed, foaled in 1889."
[3 entries. ]
713 I. (£15.)\—Henry Lawson, Skirpenbeck, Stamford Bridge, Yorks, for

Briton, chestnut, bred by J. D. Lawson, Sutton-on-Forest, Easingwold;
s. Rule Britannia 5430, d. by Bar None 2388,

712 II. (£10.\—Hrnry Lawson, for Baron, chestnut, bred by J. D. Lawson;
s. Bar None 2388.

711 RB. Ni—Wm. Hurst, Sandal, Wakefield, for Prince William.

Se ee oneal

Prizes given by the Doncaster Local Committee.

Shorthorn Cattle. CXV

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

CATTLE.

Shorthorns.

Class 56.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in 1885, 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[16 entries, 4 absent. ]

721 I. (£20.)\—Evan Jonus, Manorayvon, Llandilo, for Nugget 59534, roan,
born July 6, 1888; s. Bright Cymro 54039, d. Golden Hope dy Golden
Treasure 51346.

728 II. (£10.}—RosBerr THompson, Inglewood, Penrith, for Merry Beau
56180, roan, born Mar. 13, 1887; s. Beau Benedict 42769, d. Fair Millicent
2nd by Brilliant Butterfly 36270.

724 III. (£5.)—Lorp PotwartH, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, N.B., for Com-
mander 54116, roan, born Apr. 20, 1885; s. King Stephen 46559, d. Wave
of the Ocean dy Rapid Rhone 35205.

725 R. N.—Lorp PoLwARrtH, for Gunboat, red and white, born Feb. 16, 1888.
H. C.—A. M. Gorpon, for No. 719, Star of Morning; THE DUKE OF
PoRTLAND for No. 727, King George.
Com.—Mrs. ATKINSON for No. 714, Baron Ingram; TRUSTEES OF SIR
R. G. MusGRAVE, Bart. for No. 723, Daybreak.

Class 57.—Shorthorn Bulls calved in 1889. [24 entries, 3 absent. ]

745 I. (£20 & Champion, £25.!)—LorD PoLWARTH, Mertoun House, St.
Boswells, N.B., for Windsor Royal, roan, born May 19; s. Royal Riby
52056, d. Wave of the Ocean (vol, xxxvi. p. 599) by Rapid Rhone 35205.

752 II. (£10.)—H. WILLIAMS, Moor Park, Harrogate, for Major 59419, red
& white, born Jan. 23, bred by H.M. the Queen, Windsor; s. Field Marshal
47870, d. Molly Lind 2nd dy Goldfinder 47967.

740 III. (£5.)—R. & G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, York-
shire, for Duncan Grey, roan, born Aug. 8, ored by Wm. Scorsby, Knapton,
Rillington ; s. Merryman 2nd 54719, d. Red Rosette 3rd (vol. xxxv. p. 551)
by Blairmore 49156.

746 R. N.—THE DUKE OF PORTLAND, Welbeck Abbey, Notts, for Donovan.
H. C.—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G. for No. 731, Lord Fauntleroy ;
H. J. SHELDON for No. 749, Duke of Brailes 15th.
Com.—HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN for No. 730, Field Officer; J. B. GREEN
for No. 738, Cherry Duke; THE DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND for
No. 743, Royal Rover; Wm. TRETHEWY for No. 750, Pol.

Class 58,—Shorthorn Bulls calved in 1890. [83 entries, 10 absent. |

762 I. (£20 & R. N. for Champion..)— WILLINGHAM FowLzER, Exton,
Oakham, for Eryholme Prince 35th, roan, born Apr. 10; s, Lord Broughton
56029, d. Zeal 36th (vol. xxxvi. p. 402) by M.C. 31898.

_ 760 II. (£10.)—F. J. SAVILE FoLJAMBE, Osberton Hall, Worksop, for Claude

Melnotte, roan, born Jan. 8; s. Feudal Chief 51251, d, Pauline 28th (vol.
xxxiv. p. 352) by Bright Prince 49191.

758 III. (£5.)—J. DEANE-WILLIS, Bapton Manor, Codford, Wilts, for Baron
Bridekirk 8rd, roan, born Jan. 3, bred by J. Barnes, Wigton; s. Prosperity
54876, d. Bridekirk 8th (vol. xxxvi. p. 273) by Red Prince 46960.

* Piece of Plate value £25 given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Male Shorthorn,

exvi ss Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

(Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhtbitor.""]
772 R. N. & H. C.—THE DUKE OF NORTHUMBERLAND, for King Alfred.
H. C.—HeER MAJESTY THE QUEEN for No. 754, Fairfax; THH DUKE of
NORTHUMBERLAND for No. 773, Village Chief.
Com.— MASKILL & STRICKLAND for No. 769, Field Marshal 2nd; THE
DUKE OF PoRTLAND for No. 777, St. Serf; H. J. SHELDON for No. 781,
Duke of Barrington 34th,

Class 59.—Shorthorn Cows (in-milk or in-calf), calved before 1888.
[7 entries, 1 absent. |

792 I. (£15.)—Lorp PoLWARTH, Mertoun House, St. Boswells, N.B.,for Wave
of Indiana, red & white, born Feb. 13, 1887; s. King Alfonso 49803, d.
Wave of Pacific (vol. xxxvi. p. 526) by Rapid Rhone 35205.

791 II. (£10.)—Lorp PoLwartuH, for Wave of Loch Leven (vol. xxxvi.
p. 599), red & white, born Feb. 14, 1886, calved Jan. 19, 1891; s. King
David 43417, d. Wave of Pacific by Rapid Rhone 35205.

787 III. (£5.)—C. W. BRIERLEY, Rosedale, Tenbury, for Marchioness of
Waterloo 6th, roan, born Aug. 21, 1886, bred by W. H. Tremaine, Sher-
borne, Northleach; s. Earl of Oxford 51185, d. Waterloo Marchioness
(vol. xxix. p. 730) by Duke of Waterloo 3rd 23801.

789 R.N. & H. C.—J. B. GREEN, Low House Farm, Silsden, for Strawberry 12th.
Com.—F. J. SAVILE FOLJAMBE for No. 788, White Rose; JoNAS WEBB

for No. 793, Waterloo Cherry.

Class 60.—Shorthorn Heifers (in-milk or in-calf ), calved in 1888,
[9 entries, 2 absent. |

801 I. (£15 & Champion £25.'!)—Lorp Potwartu, Mertoun House, St. Bos-
wells, N.B.,for Truth (vol. xxxv. p. 526) red & white, born Apr. 12, calved.
Feb. 3, 1891; s. Sir Arthur Irwin 44016, d. Timbrel dy Prince Stuart 45421,

798 II. (£10.)—WM. GRAHAM, Eden Grove, Penrith, for Windsor’s Beauty,
roan, born Feb. 19, calved-Jan. 8, 1891, bred by R. Thompson, Inglewood,
Penrith ; s. Model 53322, d. Home Beauty 3rd (vol. xxxii. p. 593) by
British Sovereign 36285. ;

800 III. (£5.)—Tur DUKE oF NORTHUMBERLAND, Alnwick Castle, for Fairy
Rosebud (vol. xxxv. p. 506), roan, born Mar. 29, calved March 1, 1891;
s. King Hal 49808, d. Studley Rosebud by Royal Studley 45548.

802 R, N. & H. C.—RoBeErt THompson, Inglewood, for Baroness Millicent.

799 H. C.—TueE EARL OF LISBURNE, Crosswood, Aberystwith, for Fair Helen.
Com.—F. J. SAVILE FOLJAMBE for No. 796, Pamela; A. M. GorpDon for

No. 797, Marietta.

Class 61.—Shorthorn Heifers, calved in 1889.
[19 entries, 6 absent. ]

,
815 I. (£15 & R.N. for Champion.')—Lorp PoLwArTH, Mertoun House, St.
Boswells, N.B., for Gladsome Wave (vol. xxxvi. p. 594), roan, born Apr.
17; s. Patrician 54785, d. Crystal Wave by King Stephen 46559.

803 II. (£10.)—HrrR MAJESTY THE QUEEN, The Prince Consort’s Shaw Farm,
Windsor, for Rosalind (vol. xxxvi. p. 240), roan, born Feb, 12; s. Field
Marshal 47870, d. Ruth 201st by Star of Britain 48786.

805 III. (£5.)—J. DEANE-WILLIs, Bapton Manor, Codford, Wilts, for Lady
Madge, red, born Mar. 22, bred by Wm. Duthie, Tarves; s. Norseman
56233, d. Lady Marjory 3rd (vol. xxxiv. p. 327) by Field Marshal 47870.

* Piece of Plate value £25 given by the Shorthorn Society for the best Female Shorthorn,

eS Se

|
.

Hereford Cattle. exvii

[Unléss otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

811 R. N. & H. C.—Wm. HosKEN & Son, for Lady Blithfield 6th.

H, C.—J. DEANE-WILLIS for No. 806, Rose of Collynie; THE DUKE OF
NORTHUMBERLAND for No. 814 Lady Lucy.

Com.—F. J. SAVILE FoLJAMBE for No. 808, Feudal Rose; R. & G.
HARRISON for No. 809, Rosemary ; F. C. STARKIE for No. 816, Merry
Millicent ; THomMAS STOKES for No. 817, Gladys Rose 3rd; and No. 818,
Gladys Waterloo; RICHARD STRATTON for No. 819, Cowslip 18th ; Jonas
Wess for No. 821, Prima Donna.

Class 62.—Shorthorn Heifers, calved in 1890. [27 entries, 8 absent. ]

834 I. (£15.)—R. & G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, York-
shire, for Fern 8th, roan, born Jan. 14; s. Prince Magnus 56333, d. Fern 7th
(vol. xxxvi. p. 436) by Donald 52725.

822 II. (£10.\—HrER MAJESTY THE QUEEN, The Prince Conscrt’s Shaw Farm,
Windsor, for Rosemary, roan, born Jan. 10; s. Field Marshal 47870, d.
Ruth 210th (vol. xxxvi. p. 240) by King Bolivar 48096.

829 III. (£5.)—J. DEANE-W1LLIs, Bapton Manor, Codford, Wilts, for Vinolia,
roan, born July 2; s. Challenge Cup 57029, d. Viola by Asteroid 49023.

844 R. N. & H.C._—R. Srratron, The Dufiryn, Newport, Mon., for Jubilee Gem.

830 H. C.—J. DEANE-WILLIs for Carnation.

Com.—D, Cooper for No. 827, Lady Yarborough, and No. 828, Lady
Agnes; JONAS WEBB for No, 845, Cherry Oxford 13th; H. WILLIAMS
for No, 846, Maritana.

Herefords.

Class 63.— Hereford Bulls, calved in 1885, 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[8 entries, 1 absent. ]

850 I. (£20.)—W. H. Cooks, The Green, Shelsley Kings, Worcester, for Grove
Wilton 4th 13846, born Mar. 12, 1888; s. Grove Wilton 3rd 11295, d.
Leinthall Symmetry dy Downton Grand Duke 5878.

851 II. (£10.)—Tur EARL oF CovENTRY, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for
White Boy 13534, born Feb, 17, 1887; s. Good Boy 7668, d. White Rose
3rd by Patriot 5494.

849 III. (£5.)—J. H. ARKWRIGHT, Hampton Court, Leominster, for Spring
Jack 14191, born Jan. 2, 1888; s. Hilarity 8734, d. Lively 10th by Conjuror.

853 R. N. & H. C—RAtpuH PALMER, for Bombardier 12869.
Com.—R. EDwarps for No. 852, Shaftesbury; JAMES RANKIN, M.P., for
No, 855, Royalist ; J. A. Rouus for No. 856, Veracity.

Class 64.—Hereford Bulls, calved in 1889. [8 entries, 3 absent.]

858 I. (£20.)—J. H. ARKWRIGHT, Hampton Court, Leominster, for Rose
Cross 2nd 14865, born Jan. 21; s. Iroquois 3rd 13147, d. Curly 23rd by
Rose Cross 7237.

860 II. (£10)—A. E. Huaues, Wintercott, Leominster, for Ironclad 14628,
born Jan. 12; s. Hiero 7707, d. Lofty by Rudolph 6660.

863 III. (£5.)—StEPHEN RoBINsoN, Lynhales, Kington, for Sterling, born
Feb. 23 ; s. Rose Stock 6651, d. White Spark 3rd by Horatius 5390.

862 R.N. & H. C_—James RANKIN, M_P., Bryngwyn, Tram Inn, for Forester,
857 Com,—Hrr Masesty THE QUEEN, for Matadore, born Feb. 17.

exviil Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 65.—Hereford Bulls, calved in 1890. [14 entries, 5 absent. |

867 I. (£20.)—A. E, HUGHES, Wintercott, Leominster, for Albion, born Jan, 5,
bred by N. F. Moore, Pantalls, Sutton, Herefordshire; s. Bruce 13646, d.
Milenda by Recorder 7205.

873 IL. (£10.)—JamzES RANKIN, M.P., Bryngwyn, Tram Inn, for Blucher, born
Jan. 21; s. Bear 10974, d, Blush by Cicero 11077.

876 III. (£5.)—H. W. Taytor, Showle Court, Ledbury, for Sanfoin, born
Feb. 8; s. Admiral 12797, d. Echo by Franklin 6961.

875 R. N.—H. W. TAYuor for Hero, born Jan. 21.

Class 66.—ZHereford Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved
before or in 1888. [6 entries, none absent. ]

879 I. (£15.)\—THE EARL OF COVENTRY, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for
Ladywood, born Jan. 2, 1887, calved Jan. 25, 1891; s. Adelbert 8185, d.
Lady Spencer by Monkton Lad 5646.

882 II. (£10.)—THoMAS FENN, Stonebrook House, Ludlow, for Bravura (vol.
xxi. p. 339), born May 17, 1886, calved Feb. 9, 1891, bred by the Earl of
Coventry ; s. Good Boy 7668, d. Bertha by Commander 4452.

881 III. (£5.)—THoMAS FENN, for Downton Fancy (vol. xx. p. 315), born
Jan, 9, 1888, calved Oct. 13, 1890; s. Bourton 11005, d. Lady Buttercup
by Moonraker 3rd 6077.

880 R. N. & H. C.—R. EDwArps, The Sheriffs, Kington, for Sheriff’s Sunlight.
883 Com.—REES KEENE, Llanvihangel Court, Chepstow, for Choice Bangham,

Class 67.—Hereford Heifers, calved in 1889. [8 entries, 2 absent. |

891 I. (£15.)—RicHARD GREEN, The Whittern, Kington, for Diana (vol. xxi.
p. 364), born Apr. 1; s. Whittern Grove 10843, d. Duchess 5th by Corsair.

890 II. (£10.)—E. S. GODSELL, Stroud, for Sunbeam (vol. xxi. p. 366), born
Feb. 10, bred by R. Green, Kington; s. Washington 2nd 11834, d. Silver
Weed dy Rose Stock 6651. :

887 III. (£5.)\—THE EARL OF COVENTRY, Croome Court, Severn Stoke, for
Golden Fleece, born Jan. 27; s. Rare Sovereign 10499, d. Golden Fortune
by Adelbert 8185.

888 R. N. & H. C.—T. Fenn, Stonebrook House, Ludlow, for Downton Hermia,

Com.—Co.L. R. BRIDGFORD, C.B., for No. 886, Philomel ; THoMAS FENN
for No. 889, Fine Lady.

“Class 68.—Hereford Heifers, calved in 1890. [18 entries, 6 absent. ]

899 I. (£15.)—RicHARD GREEN, The Whittern, Kington, for Perilla, born
Jan. 8; s. Whittern Grove 10843, d. Miss Perfection by Lord Wilton.

894 II. (£10.)—Con. R. BrripGrorpD, ©.B., Kinnersley, Hereford, for Sybil,
born Jan. 10; s. Torro 7313, d. Dairymaid (vol. xxi. p, 237) by Ruby 6659.

903 III. (£5.)—RALPH PALMER, Lodge Farm, Nazeing, Waltham Cross, for
Lucifer, born Feb. 6; s. Crown Prince 8464, d. Lightfoot by Rose Stock.

901 R. N. & H. C—Hunry Haywoop for Truth; H. C. for No. 900 Sequel.
Com.—HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN for No. 893, Bessie; REES KEENE for
No. 902, Blanche Ravenspur; JAMES RANKIN, M.P., for No. 908,
Damsel 2nd,

j

Sussex Cattle. cxix

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Devons.

Class 69.—Devon Bulls, calved in 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[5 entries, 2 absent.
915 I. (£15.)—Str WM. WILLIAMS, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Captain 2204,
born Oct. 14, 1887; s. Foreman 1968, d. Georgina.
911 II. (£10.)}—Joun Howse, Stamborough, Washford, Taunton, for Sham-
rock 2311, born June 11, 1887; s. Druid 1317, d. Lily 4th 6206 by Lily’s
Robin 1582.

913 R, N. & H. C.— ALFRED C, SKINNER, for Duke of Pound 16th, 2391.

Class 70.—Devon Bulls, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[9 entries, 3 absent.]
924 I. ye) Srz Wm. WiL.tAms, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Pretty

Middling, born Oct. 18, 1889, bred by the late Viscount Falmouth; s.
Lord Wolseley 2063, d. Quadrille, by Sirloin.
$22 II. (£10.)—J. C. Wint1AMs, Caerhays, St. Austell, for Doncaster, born Jan.
16, 1890; s. Duke of Flitton 17th 1544, d. Dowager 8784 by Bravo 1686.
921 III. (£5.)—Jonn TREMAYNE, Sydenham, Lew Down, Devon, for Lovely
Laddie 2612, born Mar. 3, 1889; s. Bravo 1686, d. Lovely Lady 7247 by
Sir Michael 1646.

919 RB. N. & H. C.—Joun Howss, Stamborough, for Lord Stamborough.
Com.—JoHN FaRrTHING for No. 917, Robin’s Tempter, and No. 918, Pro-
lifie’s Duke.

Class 71.—Devon Cows or Heifers (in-mill or in-calf ), calved
before or in 1888. [3 entries, none absent. ]
927 I. (£15.)}—Smm WM. Wiwiiams, Bt., Heanton, Barnstaple, for Flame

3rd 9932, born Mar. 2, 1887, calved Jan. 6, 1891; s. Eclipse 1728, d.
Famous 4th dy Lord Stowey.

926 II. (£10.)—ALFRED C. SKINNER, Pound Farm, Bishop’s Lydeard, Som., for
Rosebud 10447, born Feb. 9, 1888, calved Jan. 24,1891; s. General Gordon
1974, d. Moss Rose 8th 7017 by Lord Stowey 1601.

925 R. N.—ALFRED C. SKINNER for Duchess 17th 8988, born June 14, 1886.

Class 72.—Devon Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[7 entries. |
934 I. (£15.)—Sim WM. WILLIAMS, Bt., Heanton, Devon, for Fiction 2nd 11108,
born Apr. 9, 1889; s. Foreman 2nd 1969, d. Fiction by Duke of Flitton 17th.

930 II. (£10.}—Joun FARTHING, Currypool, Bridgwater, Som., for Prolific
13th 11409, born June 28, 1890; s. Baronet 1897, d. Prolific 2nd 6286.

929 III. (£5.)—Tue Eart or DARTMOUTH, Patshull, Wolverhampton, for
Dasher 10687, born May 17, 1889; s. Lord Stowey 1601, d. Dairymaid.

933 BR. N. & H. C—A.rrep C. SKINNER, for Lady Passmore 7th 11015.
H, C.—HeER MAJESTY THE QUEEN for No. 928, Gossamer ; JOHN FARTH-
a tec} No. 931, Robin’s Duchess 9th; JoHN HowssE for No. 932, Cows-
) :

Sussex.

Class 73.— Sussex Bulls, calved in 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[2 entries, 1 absent. |

936 I, (£15.)\—C. T. Lucas, Wamham Court, Horsham, for Golden Horn 754,

born Apr. 14, 1886; s. Goldsmith 391, d. Lavant 4th 2881 dy Robinson
Crusoe 36

cXxx Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 74.—Sussex Bulls, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[10 entries, 1 absent. ]
941 I. (£15.)—JosEPH GopMAN, Park Hatch, Godalming, for Oxford Duke 4th

1014, born Feb. 20, 1889; s. Oxford Duke 708, d, Noble Lady 2911 by
Napoleon 38rd 396.

942 II. (£10.)—J. Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, for Rochester
1114, born Mar, 28, 1889; s, Silversmith 849, d. Peace 2nd 2916 by Royal
Kilburn 401.

940 III. (£5.)—W. S. ForstTER, Gore Court, Maidstone, for Gondolier 1001,
born Apr. 19, 1889; s. Careful 741, d. Tidy by Berry.

943 R.N. & H. C—J. StEwartT Hopesov, for Silversmith 2nd 1115.
946 H. C.—Lovuis Hutu for Lord Beckley 18th, born May 18, 1889.

Class 75.—Sussea Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved before
or in 1888. [7 entries, 2 absent. ]

951 I. (£15.)—J. Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, for Peace 6th
4108, born Jan. 13, 1887; s. Prince Rufus 515, d. Peace 2nd 2916 by Royal
Kilburn 401.

949 II, (£10.)—W. S. ForsTER, Gore Court, Maidstone, for Black Eyes 4388,
born Aug. 5. 1888; s. Goldsmith 391, d. Surprise 3116 by Archduke 381.

952 III. (£5.)—Lovuis HuTH, Possingworth Manor, Waldron, for Virgin 23rd
4448, born Dec. 31, 1887;.s. Lord Beckley 6th 700, d. Virgin 8th 2723 by
Sir William 471.

950 R, N, & H. C.—W. S. Forster, for Damsel 4712, born April 18.

Class 76.—Sussea Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[13 entries, 4 absent. |

955 I. (£15.)—Magor Bust, Park House, Boxley, Maidstone, for Pearl 4625,
born Jan. 1, 1889; s. Goldsmith 391, d. Alice by Mr. Wickham’s bull,

965 II. (£10.)\—GroRGE WHITE, Hunton, Maidstone, for Ninon, born Mar,
24, 1889; s. Ruby 2nd 721, d. Nelly by Sweet William 369,

960 III. (£5.)—J. Stewart Hopeson, Lythe Hill, Haslemere, for Crocus 8rd
4808, born Jan. 4, 1889; s. Silversmith 849, d. Crocus 2nd 2349 by Here-
ford 263.

957 R. N. & H. C.—W. S. Forstsr for Pixie 4704, born Mar. 23, 1889.
H. C.—T. BANNISTER for No. 954, Limehurst Ruby; JosEPH GODMAN, for
No. 958, Noble Lady 7th; Louris HurH for No. 961, Lilly 14th; C. T.
Lucas for No. 962, Verity 3rd, and for No, 963, Cora,

Welsh.

Class 77.—Welsh Bulls, calved in 1888, 1889, or 1890.
[5 entries, none absent. |
967 I. (£10,)—Lorp HARLECH, Glyn, Talsarnan, for Master Tom, born Jan. 4,
1889; s. Tichborne 160, d. Rosebud by Black Prince 4.

970 II. (£5.)—Cou. Henky PLATT, Gorddinog, Llanfairfechan, for Roger 199,
born June 15, 1888; s. Molynog 196, d. Princess Joan by Welsh Duke 3rd 59.

971 R. N. & H. C.—Masor SANDBACH, Hafodunos, Abergele, for Sir Mona.
Com.—W. E. OAKELEY for No, 968, Baron of Tan-y-Bwlch ; Cou, HENRY
PLATT for No, 969, Llwarch,

Red Polled Cattle. exxi

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor."]

Class 78.— Welsh Cows or Heifers, of any age (in-milk or in-calf).
[5 entries, none absent. }
976 I. (£10.)—Cot. Hanry PLATT, Gorddinog, Llanfairfechan, for Blodwen
2nd, born Mar. 4, 1889; s. Bromfield 191, d. Blodwen by Grand Duke 22.
975 Il. (£5.)—Cou. HENRY PLATT, for Tudno 588; born May 8, 1887, calved
Apr. 6, 1891; s. Ap Gwilym 70, d. Princess of Wales 81.

972 RB. N.& H. C.—W™a. E. OAKELEY for Famous 300; H. C.—for No. 973,
Model, and for No. 974, Kitty Oakeley.

Red Polled.

Class 79.—Red Polled Bulls, calved in 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[4 entries, none absent. ]

978 I. (£15 & Champion, £10 10s.')—J. J. Couman, M.P., Carrow House,
Norwich, for Bardolph 977, born Jan. 23, 1886; a. Falstaff 303, d. Silent
Woman 2537 by Rufus 188.

977 I. (£10 & BR. N. for Champion.')—W. A. TyssEN AMHERST, M_P., Didling-
ton Hall, Brandon, for Masher 1232, born Apr. 9, 1887; s. Morella 895,
d. Didlington Davy 2148 dy Davyson 7th 476.
979 RB. N. & H. C,—Lorp Hastines for Disturbance; and Com. for No. 980,
Viceroy.

Class 80.—Red Polled Bulls, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[4 entries. ]

982 I. (£15.)—J. J. CotmMAN, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, for The Gem
1832, born Apr. 24, 1889; s. Iago 1025, d. Rosella 4333 by Falstaff 303.

983 IL. (£10.)—Mrs. PERKINS, Saham Hall, Watton, for Saham Davyson 2nd
2038, born Apr. 17, 1889; s. Davyson 15th 652, d. Handsome of Broom
Hill 2866 by Cortes 645.

981 IIL. (£5.)—W. A. TyssEN AMHERST, M-P., Didlington Hall, Brandon, for
Red Shirt 2014, born May 28, 1889, bred by T. Fulcher, Elmham; s.
Frantic 1381, d. Violet 3rd 4427 by Lancer 689.

984 BR. N. & Com.— Mrs. PeRKINs for Mr, Pickwick 1953, born Jan. 18, 1889.

Class 81.— Red Polled Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved
before or in 1888. [10 entries, 2 absent.]

990 I. (£15.)—H. P. GREEN, Caistor Hall, Norwich, for Gleam 3rd 4925, born
Dec. 10, 1888, calved May 3, 1891; s. The Viking 959, d. Gleam 4564 by
Roundhead 564.

986 IL. (£10.)—W. A. TyssEN AMHERST, M.P., Didlington Hall, Brandon, for
Poppety 2nd 4289, born Feb. 22, 1887, calved Feb. 24, 1891; s. Didlington
Davyson 2nd 657, d. Poppinette 2455 by Davyson 3rd 48.

989 IIL. (£5.)—J. J. Couman, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, for Buttercup
3908, born Feb. 13, 1887, calved Feb. 12, 1891; s. Falstaff 303, d. Brunette
2044 by King Charles 329.

985 BR. N. & H. C.—W. A. TysSEN AMHERST, M.P., for Emblem 27892.
991 H. C_—DvUKE or HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., for Best of Battersea’s.
993 Com.—R. H. Mason, Necton Hall, Swaffham, for Empress 3rd.

* Given by the Red Polled Society for the best Red Polled animal exhibited,

cxxii Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor,”]

Class 82,— Red Polled Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[12 entries, 2 absent. ]

1005 I. (£15.)\—Mrs. Perkins, Saham Hall, Watton, for Ivy 3rd 5563, born
Mar. 27, 1889; s. Davyson 15th 652, d. Ivy 2262 by Othello 532.
1002 II. (£10.)—A. G. Lucas, Ashlyns, Berkhamsted, for Donna Anna 5410,
born Jan. 5, 1889; s. Don Carlos 659, d. Annie 1985 by Bounty 460.
1003 III. (£5.)—R. HARVEY Mason, Necton Hall, Swaffham, for Ruthless
5939, born Jan. 25, 1889; s. Erebus 841, d. Ruth 3129 by Starston Duke.
998 R. N. & H, C.—H. P. GREEN, Caistor Hall, Norwich, for Ultrada 2nd.
H. C.—J. J. COLMAN, M.P., for No. 997, Dorena; and Com. for No. 996,
Twin Sister. Com.—THE DUKE OF HAMILTON AND BRANDON, K.T,,
for No. 999, Keepsake.

Aberdeen-Angus.

Class 83,—Aberdeen-Angus Bulls, calved in 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[4 entries. |

1008 I. (£15.)—ArTHUR EGGINTON, South Ella, Hull, for Epsom 7507,
born Dec. 23, 1888, bred by Sir G. Macpherson Grant, Bart., Ballindalloch ;
s. Plutarch 5632, d. Elfin 3795 by Elcho 595,

1010 II. (£10.)—CLEMENT STEPHENSON, Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
for Albion 6525, born Feb. 3, 1888; s. Souter Johnny 1615, d. Abbess 3rd
3616 by Blue Beard 648.

1009 IIL. (£5.)—J. D. FLETCHER, Rosehaugh House, Inverness, for Prince of
Euston 7851, born Mar. 7, 1888; s. Euston of Ballindalloch 3716, d,
Pride of Altyre 5th 5593 by Black Watch 1242.

1007 R. N. & H. C—MaAJsor DENT, Menethorpe, Malton, for Knight Errant,

Class 84.—Aberdeen-Angus Bulls, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[10 entries, none absent. ]

1014 I. (£15.)—J. T. CATHCART, Pitcairlie, Auchtermuchty, Fife, for Julius
Cesar 7637, born Apr. 21, 1889; s. Norfolk 3082, d. Lady Jane Grey
10065 by Monarch 1182.

1019 II. (£10.)—CLEMENT STEPHENSON, Sandyford Villa, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
for Albert Edward 7293, born Jan. 31, 1889; s. Souter Johnny 1615, d.
Abbess 3rd 3616 by Blue Beard 648.

1020 III. (£5.)—Joun STUART, Stone Hurst, Ardingly, Sussex, for Financier
of Ballindalloch 8328, born Dec. 16,1889, bred by Sir G. Macpherson Grant,
Bt., Ballindalloch; s. Plutarch 5632, d. Lady Flush 12438 by Erroll 2723.

1013 R. N. & H, C.— Rev. C. BOLDEN, for Esmond of Ballindalloch.

1016 Com.—J. D. FLETCHER, for Ameer of Rosehangh.

Class 85.—<A berdeen-A ngus Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf ),
calved before or in 1888, [7 entries, 1 absent. ]

1023 I. (£15.)—THE Marquis OF HUNTLY, Aboyne Castle, N.B., for St, Agnes
13839, born Jan. 1, 1887, calved Mar, 29, 1891; s. Frederick The Great
4680, d. St. Anna 8768 by Wedgewood 2409,

1022 II. (£10.)—THE MARQUIS OF aye for St. Agatha 13838, born Jan,
2, 1888; s. Frederick The Great 4680, d, St. Anna 8768 by Wedgewood.

Galloway Cattle. exxili

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
1027 III. (£5.)—OweEN C. WALLIS, Bradley Hall, Wylam-on-Tyne for Maria
of Haughton 12th 12306, born Jan. 22, 1887, bred by the late R. O.
Farquharson, Haughton, N.B.; s. Arbiter of Glenbarry 3432, d, Maria
of Haughton 6th 6839 by The Black Knight 1809.
1025 R. N. & H. C.—P. STrRLING or KIPPENDAVIE, for Fenella of Kippendavie.
1026 Com.—OweEn C. WALLIS for Althea 11917,

Class 86.—Aberdeen-Angus Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[6 entries, 1 absent. ]

1030 I. (£15.)—ARTHUR EGGINTON, South Ella, Hull, for Valentine 5th 14867,
born Mar. 28, 1889; s. Fuschius 3762, d. Valentine of South Ella 11091
by Edile 2709.

1032 Il. (£10.)—THE DUKE oFf PORTLAND, Welbeck Abbey, for Blue Stocking
15715, born Jan. 22, 1889, bred by the Earl of Strathmore, Glamis Castle,
N.B.; s. Alister 1939, d. Blanche of Glamis 6176 by Elcho 595.

1029 III. (£5.)—T. Dixon, Jun., Leadhill, Stocksfield-on-Tyne, for Lady
Florid 15055, born May 28, 1889, bred by Sir G. Macpherson Grant, Bt.,
Ballindalloch ; s. Errol 2723, d. Lady Florence 2985 by Ballimore 741.

1033 R, N. & H.¢,—P. STIRLING OF KIPPENDAVIE, for Ruby 6th of Kippendavie,

Galloways.

Class 87.—Galloway Bulls, calved in 1886, 1887, or 1888.
[2 entries. |
1034 I. (£15.)—Tue DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, K.T., Drum-
lanrig Castle, N.B., for Bosphorus 4693, born Feb. 8, 1888; s. The Squire
of Drumlanrig 3737, d. Pride of Drumlanrig by The Baron of Drumlanrig.
1035 II. (£10,)—THE DUKE OF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, K.T., for
Vich Ian Vohr 4121, born Feb. 17, 1886, bred by F. E. Villiers, Closeburn
Hall, Thornhill, N.B.; s. John Highlandman 1905, d. Forest Queen of
Closeburn dy Sim of Whitram.

Class 88.—Galloway Bulls, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[4 entries, 1 absent. ]

1036 I. (£15.)—JAMES CUNNINGHAM, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, for Macdougall
2nd of Tarbreoch, 5064, born Apr. 29, 1889; s. Harden 1151, d. Maggie of
Tarbreoch by Scottish Borderer.

1037 II. (£10.)—JAamEs CUNNINGHAM, for Cedric of Tarbreoch 5060, born Jan.
3, 1889 ; s. Scottish Borderer 669, d. Tarbreoch Lizzie 3rd by Harden 1151.

1038 ITI. (£5.)\—Siem RoBEeRT JARDINE, Bt., M.P., Castlemilk, Lockerbie, for

Black Douglas of Castlemilk 5002, born Aug. 26, 1889; s. Bard of Castle-
milk 4416, d. Lady Isabella Douglas of Nether Hall by Robin Gray.

Class 89.—Galloway Cows or Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved
before or in 1888, [8 entries, 2 absent. ]

1046 I. (£15.)—JAmzEs CUNNINGHAM, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, for Maggie of
Tarbreoch 8613, born Mar. 17, 1884, calved Feb. 16, 1891; s. Scottish
Borderer 669, d. Maggie of Blackpark by Sandy of Lairdlough.

1041 II. (£10.)\—Tum CounTESs OF CARLISLE, Naworth Castle, Brampton,
for Vaudeville of Closeburn 8134, born Jan. 3, 1884, calved Noy. 24, 1890,
bred by F. E. Villiers, Closeburn Hall, Thornbill, N.B.; s. John High-
landman of Closeburn 1905, d. Fancy of Closeburn 3794 by Statesman 630,

cxxiv Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor,”}

1040 Ill. (£5.)\—THr DUKE oF BUCCLEUCH AND QUEENSBERRY, Ka
Drumlanrig Castle, Thornhill, N.B., for Pride 4th of Drumlanrig 10337,
born Jan. 20, 1887, calved Feb. 28, 1891; s, Squire of Drumlanrig 3737,
d. Pride of Drumlanrig by Baron of Drumlanrig.
1042 R. N. & H. C.—CounTEss oF CARLISLE, for Vendetta 2nd of Closeburn,
-Com.—JAMES CUNNINGHAM for No. 1044, Lady Stanley 10th; Lorp
PoLWARTH for No. 1047, Emerald of Nether Hall,

Class 90.— Galloway Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[10 entries, 1 absent. |

1056 I. (£15.)—Str RoBERT JARDINE, Bart., M.P., Castlemilk, Lockerbie, ~
for Lady Tidy 3rd of Castlemilk 11962, born Jan. 31, 1890; s. Liberator
3850, d. Lady Tidy by Garnet of Hardland.

1052 II. (£10.)—JAMES CUNNINGHAM, Tarbreoch, Dalbeattie, for Seottish
Queen 11524, born June 22, 1889; s, Harden 1151, d. Lizzie 4th of
Breckonhill dy Scottish Borderer.

1057 III. (£5.)\—Sir ROBERT JARDINE, Bart., M.P., for Jenny Duke 5th of
Castlemilk 11499, born Apr. 28, 1889; s. Liberator of Balig 3850, d, Jenny
Duke by Duke of Drumlanrig.

1054 R. N. & H, C—JAMES CUNNINGHAM, for Mary Graham 11595.

1050 Com,—THE CoUNTESS OF CARLISLE for Vaudeville 3rd of Closeburn.

Ayrshires.

Class 91.—Ayrshire Bulls, calved in 1888, 1889, or 1890. [3 entries. ]

1060 I. (£10.)—MaArk J. Stewart, M.P., Southwick, Dumfries, for Hover of
Southwick, white with spots, born Feb. 3, 1889; s. Hover o’ Blink 892, d.
Eva of Drumlanrig 666 by Prince Charlie.

1059 II. (£5.)—Marx J. STEWART, M.P., for Blooming Heather 1918, white
with dark spot, born Mar. 1889, bred by R. Osborne, Drumjoan, Ochiltree ;
s. Craigs of Kyle 1793, d. Nancy of Drumjoan by Hover o’ Blink 892,

1058 R. N. & H. C.—ANDREW MITCHELL, for Lord of the Isles 1873.

Class 92.—Ayrshire Cows or Heifers of any age (in-milk or in-calf ),
[4 entries, 1 absent. ]
1062 I. (£10.)\—ANDREW MITCHELL, Barcheskie, Kirkcudbright, N.B., for
Eleanor, brown & white, born Apr, 20, 1889, bred by Mrs. Mair, Shalloch,
s. Traveller 1441, d. Bardy.

1064 II. (£5.)—ANDREW MITCHELL, for Beauty of Barcheskie, brown &
white, born Mar. 26, 1886, calved June 10, 1891, bred by ‘T. Barbour,
Parkthorn ; s. The Doctor 1646, d. Rosy 1st by Brownhill.

1063 R. N. & H. C—ANDREW MITCHELL, for Louisa 1st of Barcheskie,

Jerseys.

Class 93.—Jersey Bulls, calved in 1887, 1888, o7 1889.
[32 entries, 8 absent. ]
1078 I. (£15.)—J. W. Crooxkzs, Hayston Hall, Haverfordwest, for Pomona’s
Daily (Sup. vii. p. 40), brown, born April 24, 1889; s, Pomona’s Boy
2774, d. La Presse by Forget-me-not 1596,

Jersey Cattle: €xxv

{Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

1080 II. (£10.)—Sir R. GRAHAM, Bart., Norton Conyers, Ripon, for Norton
Nero, black, born June 26, 1889; s. Fan’s Nero 2433, d. Diana bj Nero du
Coin I.H.B. 463.

1073 III. (£5.)—-W. E. BupGeEr', Stoke Bishop, Bristol, for Roseberry, brown,
born Aug. 20, 1888, bred by T. H. Weetman, Atherstone; s. Magnum
Bonum 1792, d. Roseleaf by Milk Boy 561.

1090 R. N. & H. C.—LorpD RoTHScHILD, Tring Park, Herts, for Columbus.

H. C.—Wmn. ARKWRIGHT for No. 1065, Marmalade; JAMES BLYTH for

No. 1068, Runner, and No. 1070, Grouville’s Champion; JOSEPH

Brurron for No. 1072, Vulean; Epwi1n CAsH for No. 1075, Augerez

Nelson, and No. 1077, Grouville's Mannikin ; THE EARL OF LONDEs-
BOROUGH for No. 1084, Bacchus.

| Com.—W. BARRON for No. 1067, Viola’s Boy ; EDWIN CASH for No. 1076,

| Rosa’s Wonder; A. E. MCMULLEN for No. 1087, Reigate; R. J.

STREATFEILD for No. 1093, The Baron.

| Class 94.—Jersey Bulls, calved in 1890. [32 entries, 7 absent.]
- 1115 I. (£15.)—Mrs. McIntosn, Havering Park, Romford, for Penny Come
. Quick I.H.B. 1469 H.C., grey, born Feb. 24, bred by J. T. Michel,
Beaumont, St. Peter’s, Jersey; s. Hillside Lad I.H.B. 1163, d. Brown
Flower 1.H.B. 2645 by Royal Khedive I.H.B. 628.

) 1123 II. (£10.);—Lorp Roruscui.D, Tring Park, for Gift, brown, born March
30, bred by J. T. Michel, St. Peter’s, Jersey; s. Sir Thomas I.H.B. 1125,
d. Marleybone I.H.B. 3493.

) 1105 III. (£5.)—P. H. FowueEr, Watford, for Bird I.H.B. 1482 P.S.H.C., grey,
born Feb. 10, bred by C. De Gruchy, Trinity, Jersey; s. Taunton Hero
; 1166 P.S.H.C., d. Bay Leaf 2nd 1450 P.C. by Guénore’s Pride 347 P.S.H.C.

| 1114 RB. N. & H. C.— EArt or LonpEsBorovues, for Grouville’s Dairyman.

| H. ¢.---J. R. CorBert for No. 1101, Jacky ; FowLER & DE LA PERRELLE

{ for No. 1107, Cloth of Gold; A. E, McMULLEN for No. 1117, Rosy’s

; Carnot.

Com.-—J. W. Crookes for No. 1103, Milkyway, and No. 1103A, Rosy’s
Crown; J. E. Groom for No. 1108, Irving; THz Hon. Mrs. CEcIL
Howakrp for No. 1112, Hophornbeam; THr EARL oF LONDESBOROUGH

| for No. 1113, Darius ; A. E. MCMULLEN for No. 1118, Lord Doncaster ;

and for No. 1119, Wolseley’s Romeo; LoRD ROTHSCHILD for No. 1124,
President.

Class 95.—Jersey Cows (in-milk), calved before or in 1887.
[26 entries, 2 absent. |

;

| 1129 I. (£15.)—James Biyru, Wood House, Stansted, for Lady Safety, fawn
| & white, born Jan, 10, 1886, calved June 3, 1891, bred by E. Vardon, St.
| Martin’s, Jersey ; s. Royal Khedive 2863, d. Safety I.H.B. 2338.
|

1143 II. (£10.)—Eart or LonpESBOROUGH, Londesborough Park, Yorks,
for Precoce II. (H.H.B. vol. iv. p. 537), fawn, born Feb. 20, 1883, calveé
May 11, 1891, bred by T. Mourant, Trinity, Jersey; s. Colonel Hardy
2343, d. Precoce I.H.B. 3442 F.S.C.
| 1128 IIL. (£5.)\—Wmn. ARKWRIGHT, Sutton Scarsdale, Chesterfield, for Carillon
1.H.B 7470 F.S8., grey fawn, born Aug. 16, 1885, calved Apr. 26,1891, bred
| by J. A. Gibaut, Trinity, Jersey; s. Egeon I.H.B. 420 F.S., d. Concorde
2772 ¥.S. by Brown Prince 130 F.S,

| VOL. Il, T. 8.—7 Z

exxvi Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

1137 R. N. & H. C.—J. W. Crooxgs, for Golden Crown I.H.B. 6524 F.S.
H. C.—Wm. ALEXANDER, JUN., for No. 1127, Graceful Maid; JAMEs
BLYTH for No. 1130, Phillippa; T. L. Brown for No. 1132, Columbine;
JOSEPH BRuTTON for No. 1133, Bay Leaf 4th; H. J. ConnisH for
No. 1135, Linda’s Belle, and No. 1136, Young Rosebay; THE Hon,
Mrs. Ceci HowArp for No. 1141, Hips; R. J. STREATFEILD for No.

1149, Lucy.

Com.—JAMES BuyTH for No. 1131, Sweet Secret; J. W. CRooxKus for
No. 1138, Light of Grouville; G. W. Hastinas, M.P., for No. 1140,
Lady Hardy; Mrs. A. F. Perkins for No. 1145, Wigton; Lorp
ROTHSCHILD for No. 1146, Alfriston Duchess, and for No. 1148,
Brebis 3rd; Mrs. SwAN for No. 1151, Amoureuse ; C. J. H. Towmr for
No. 1152, Belle Bergére.

Class 96.—Jersey cows (in-milk), calved in 1888.
[25 entries, 7 absent. ]

1154 I (£15.)—W. Barron, Sefton Park, Slough, for Lady of the Lake 4th,
grey fawn, born Feb. 8, calved May 18, 1891, bred by P. F. Le Gresley,
St. Owen’s, Jersey ; s. Leonidas I.H.B. 881, d. Lady of the Lake 4188.

1157 II. (£10.)—JAMES BLyTH, Wood House, Stansted, for Princess
silver grey, born Feb. 20, calved May 29, 1891, bred by J. T. Mich
St. Peter’s, Jersey; s. Pollux I.H.B. 871, d. Alice 4th I.H.B. 526.

1159 III. (£5.)—JoseruH BRuTTon, Yeovil, for Mabel 21st, brown, born J;
15, calved May 14, 1891, bred by W. J: Labey, Grouville, Jersey; s.
Sultanne’s Favourite I.H.B. 873, d. Mabel 3rd 179 by Sans Peur 201.

1158 R. N. & H. C.—T. LoApDER BRowy, Hallfield, Chard, for Brookhill Vi
H. C.—W. ALEXANDER, JUN., for No. 1153, Beauvoir Favourite; H.
CoRNISH for No. 1160, Little Mecca ; THz Hon. Mrs. CEcIL HOWARD
for No. 1165, Honewort ; LoRD ROTHSCHILD for No. 1175, Wigton

R. J. STREATFEILD for No. 1176, Leah.
Com.—JAMES BuiyrTH for No. 1156, Jersey Skater 4th; FOWLER & DE
LA PERRELLE for No, 1161, Florida; A. E. McMULLEN for No. 1168,
Pride 2nd; MAISONETTE DATRY Co. "for No. 1170, Linda’s Belle 2nd,
and for No. 1171, Quiver; LorD RoTHSCHILD for No, 1173, Chanson-
ette ; R. TANFIELD for No. 1177, Daisy. '

Class 97.—Jersey Heifers (in-milk or in-calf), calved in 1889.
[37 entries, 8 absent. ]

1189 I. (£15.)—H. J. Cornisu, Thornford, Sherborne, for Miranda, brown,
born Feb, 1, calved June 5, 1891, bred by IF. Le Brocq, St. Peter's, ©
Jersey ; 8. Lord Nelson 1.H. B. 900, ‘d. Slipper I.H.B. 2862.

1186 II. (£10.)—Josrru Bruton, Yeovil, for Golden Lass 7th, brown, born |
Feb. 4, bred by J. P. Marett, St. Saviour’s, Jersey ; s. Sultanne’s Fayourite
I.H.B. 873, d. Golden Lass I.H.B. 5711.

1182 III. (£5.)—S. BAXENDALE, Bonningtons, Ware, for Berberis, whole
colour, born Apr. 16, calved Apr. 6, (Sor ae Young Neptune 1847,
dad, Bracken by Jersey King 1705.
1199 R. N, & H. €.—G. W. HAstinas, M.P., for Good Rose.
3. C.—W. ALEXANDER, JUN., for No. 1178, Albertina, and for No. 1180,
Jenny Lind 2nd ; James BLyTH for No. 1183, Burma 2nd, and for No.
1184, Laura Hardcastle ; H. J. Cornisu for No. 1190, Success ; J. E.)
Groom for No. 1198, Victorine ; THE HoN. Mrs, Ceci, Howarp for
No. 1202, Zara; Mrs. McIn'rosn for No. 1203, Lady Musgrave 3rd;
C.J. H. Towmr ‘for No. 1214, Badier's Louisa,

Guernsey Cattle. exxvii

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

Com.—W. ALEXANDER, JUN., for No. 1179, Circassienne; R. BARRINGER
for No. 1181, Minnehaha; JAMes BuiytTH for No. 1185, Miracle 3rd;
W. E. BupceEtTtT for No. 1187, Fairy II, and for No. 1188, Prima
Donna II; P. H. Fow.er for No. 1194, Sybyl; FowLer & DE LA
PERRELLE for No. 1197, May Queen 2nd; A. E. MCMULLEN for No.
1206, Maid of the Mill; MaisoNneTTE Darry Co. for No. 1209, Nubia;
R. J. STREATFEILD for No, 1212, Scilla, and for No. 1213, Seamew.

Class 98.—Jersey Heifers, calved in 1890. [40 entries, 3 absent.]

1250 I. (£15.)—Lorp ROTHSCHILD, Tring Park, for Pontorson 2nd, grey, born
May 5; s. Pandora’s Boy, d. Pontorson 1H.B, 1875 P.S.H.C. by Happy
Cetewayo I.H.B. 2499.

1223 II. (£10.)—Epwin Casu, St. John’s College, Cambridge, for Mamie,
grey fawn, born June 1; s. Castor, d. Mabel 8. by Wolseley’s Glory 2nd.

1226 Ill. (£5.)—J. W. Crookes, Hayston Hall, Haverfordwest, for Bessie
Black, fawn, born Aug. 26; s. Rosy’s Carlo, d. Black Bess 2nd by Perrot
I.H.B. 342 P.S.

1227 R. N. & H. C.—J. W. CrooxEs, for Daisy Chain, fawn & white; s. Poster.

H. C.—W. E. Bupcert for No. 1221, Beauty 7th; J. W. CRooxeEs for
No. 1226, Bessie Black; THE EARL OF LONDESBOROUGH for No.
1238, Castanet; MaISONETTE Darry Co. for No. 1244, Mysterious
Girl 6th; Mrs. A. F. Perkins for No. 1248, Freya; Mrs. STARKIE
for No. 1252, Groufille.

Com.—R. BARRINGER for No. 1215, Lilly Bligh; W. BArRon for No.
1216, Lily’s Joy; JosePH BRuTTON for No. 1220, Jealousy; W. E.
BupDGETT for No. 1222, Daisy 4th; H. J. CorNisH for No. 1225,
Cosey; THE EARL OF FEVERSHAM for No, 1231, Ruby 34th; G. W.
HASTINGS, M.P., for No, 1232, Fiery Cross 3rd ; THE Hon. Mrs. CEcIL
Howarp for No. 1234, Hempseed; A. E. MCMULLEN for No. 1242,
Little Handy 8rd; LokD ROTHSCHILD for No. 1251, Young Butterfly ;
Mes. STARKIE for No. 1253, Grouville’s Fancy; R. J. STREATFEILD
for No. 1254, Sensitive.

Guernseys.

Class 99.— Guernsey Bulls, calved in 1887, 1888 or 1889.
[11 entries, none absent. ]

1256 I. (£15.)—W. CHRISTIE-MILLER, Broomfield, Chelmsford, for Our
Prince 424 E.G.H.B., fawn & white, born Jan. 30, 1889, bred by J.
Druce, St. Martin’s, Guernsey; s. Sir Francis, d. Oasis 2nd.

1262 II. (£10.)—H. M. Ozanne, Lilyvale, Castel, Guernsey, for Ringleader
590 P.S., R.G.A.S., fawn & white, born Nov. 12, 1889; s. Advantage 463
P.S., R.H.B., d. Unity 1576 F.S., R.H.B., by Golden Fleece 214.

1264 III. (£5.)—Cot, H. W. SHAKERLEY, Fairlight, Hastings, for Paradox
352, pale fawn & white, born Feb. 21, 1888, bred by P. Martel, Mare,
Castel, Guernsey ; s. Marc Antony 386 P.S., R.G.A.S., d. May Rose 2nd.

1258 R. N. & H. C_—Co.. ALEX. C. MACLEAY, for Papageno 351 E.G.H.B.

1261 Com.—Sir F. MonTEFIORE, Bt., Worth Park, Crawley, for Lord Worth.

Class 100.— Guernsey Bulls, calved in 1890. [7 entries, 2 absent.]

1268 I. (£15.)—W. A. GLYNN, Seagrove, Seaview, Ryde, for The General,
orange fawn & little white, born Feb, 15; s. Hopeful 25 E.G.H.B.
d. Fairy 3rd 106. 7

12

xxviii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitot."]

1267 II. (£10.)—TuHe Hon. Mrs. A. BAILLIE HAMILTON, Combs, Stowmarket,
for Jesse 2nd 406 E.G.H.B., fawn & white, born Aug. 8; s. Loyalist 103 —
E.G.H.B., d. Jessie 5th 82 E.G.H.B. by First Lord 93 E.G.H.B.;

1271 III. (£5.)—Sir F. Monvreriors, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, for
Emperor 399 E.G.H.B., fawn & white, born Aug. 18; s. Black Prince 291,
d. Florey 1291.

1266 R. N.—THE Hon. Mrs. A. BAILLIE HAMILTON, for Remus 431 E.G.H.B,

Class 101.—Guernsey Cows or Heifers (in-milk), calved before
or in 1888. [9 entries, none absent. ]

1278 I. (£15.)—Srm F. Monrertore, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, for Fortuna
758 E.G.H.B., orange & white, born Apr. 18, 1886, calved May 4, 1891,
bred by A. Rintoul, jun., Junior Carlton Club; s, Hopeful 26, @,
Blossom 21. ;

1279 II, (£10.)—JULIAN STEPHENS, Grove House, Finchley, for Muriel 1132
E.G.H.B., orange fawn & white, born Sept. 12, 1888, calved Noy. 28,
1890, bred by H. Abrahams, St. Peter’s Port, Guernsey; s. Climax 14
E.G.H.B., d. Whitey.

1273 III. (£5.)—THE Hon. Mrs. A. BAILLIE HAMILTON, Combs, Stowmarket,
for Romaine 3rd 270 E.G.H.B., red fawn, born Oct. 22, 1882, calved May
24, 1891; s. Prince of Vauxbelets, d. Romaine 2nd by Bijou.

1277 R. N. & H. C.—W. A. GLYNN, Seagrove, Seaview, Ryde, for Honesty 2nd.
H, C.—THE Hon. Mrs. A. BAILLIE HAMILTON for No. 1274, Polly 2nd;
P. H. FowLeEr for No. 1275, Beauty de la Maison d’Hant.

Class 102.—Guernsey Heifers, calved in 1889 or 1890.
[24 entries, 3 absent. |

1297 I. (£15.)—Sr1r F. MonTEFIORE, Bart., Worth Park, Crawley, for Volum-
teer 1769 E.G.H.B., fawn & white, born Jan. 1889, bred by T. Mahy,
Capelles, Guernsey ; s. Fréluquet 40 P.S., R.G.A.S., d. La Grosse Roup
1790 R.G.AS. ;

1298 II. (£10.)—H. M. OzANNE, Lilyvaie, Castel, Guernsey, for Lillie of the
Forest 2nd 2182 R.G.H.B., red & white, born Jan. 25, 1889, bred by Jd. @.
Browning, Carrefour, St. Andrew’s, Guernsey; s. Fréluquet 400 P.S.,
Lillie of the Forest 858 P.S.

1288 III. (£5.)—FoOWLER & DE LA PERRELLE, Southampton, for Queen of th
Fields 3873 G.H.B., lemon & white, born Jan. 27, 1889, bred by T. Ma
Guernsey ; s. Rydall 214, d. Jessie des Landes 3231].

1304 R. N. & H. C.—R. TANFIELD, Cherry Burton, Hull, for Dairy Maid 2nd.

H. C.—P. H. FowLer for No. 1287, Alpine Rosette; FowLeR & DE LA

PERRELLE for No. 1289, Lady Evora; H. M. OZANNE for No. 129
Evening Star.

Com.—W. CHRISTIE-MILLER for No. 1285, Vesta 28th, and No. 1286

Vesta 29th; Cou. A. C. MacLEAy for No. 1292, Iolanthe 2nd, and fe

No. 1293, Esther,

:

Kerries,
Class 1038.—Xerry Bulls, calved in 1888, 1889 or 1890.
[8 entries, 2 absent. ]

1311 I. (£10.)\—Martin J. Surron, Kidmore Grange, Caversham, for
Kidmore Prince, born June 5, 1890; s; Moonlighter 2nd 92, d, Flora’
by Shann-an-Scoup.

Dairy Cattle. Cxxix

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”’]

1306 II. (£5.)—CHARLES ADEANE, Babraham Hall, Cambridge, for Blacka-
moor, horn May 17, 1890; s. Shiplake Knight 104, d. Blackberry 2nd 161,

Class 104.— Kerry Cows or Heifers, of any age (in-milk or in-calf),
[17 entries, 6 absent. |
1828 I. (£10.)—Martin J. Surron, Kidmore Grange, Caversham, for Peep
732, age unknown, calved Feb. 22, 1891, breeder unknown.

1824 II. (£5.)—THE Marquis or LANSDOWNE, Bowood, Calne, for Enda 368,
born 1887, breeder unknown.

1321 R. N, & H. C.—H. Foarp Harris, Brooke House, Fieet, for Maynooth,
H. C.—H. Foarp Hargis for No, 1820, Carton; MArtriy J, Surron for
No, 1330, Flora,

Dexter Kerries.

Class 105,—Deater Kerry Bulls, calved in 1888, 1889 or 1890.
[11 entries, 3 absent. |

1331 I. (£10.)—Lorp ASHBURTON, The Grange, Alresford, for Chang 1154,
born Oct., 1888, bred by Richard Barter, St. Ann’s Hill, Cork.

1339 II. (£5.)—Martin J. Sutton, Kidmore Grange, Caversham, for Othello
17, born Apr. 26, 1889; s. Paradox 18, d. Rosemary 4.

1341 R. N. & H. C_—HAROLD SwITHINBANK, for Denham Lord Lurgan,

1334 H. C.—H. D. D. BETTERIDGE, for Gladiator, born 1888.

Class 106.—Dewter Kerry Cows or Heifers of any age (in-milk or
in-calf). [22 entries, 7 absent. |
1343 I. (£10..—Lorp ASHBURTON, The Grange, Alresford, for Queen Mab
1150, born May 1883, calved Jan. 18, 1891, breeder unknown.

1362 II. (£5.)—HARoLD SWITHINBANK, Denham Court, Bucks, for Denham
Lady Limerick, born about 1885, calved Mar. 25, 1891, breeder unknown.

1361 RB. N. & H. C.— Martin J. SuTToN, for Peach 161, born 1884.

H. C.—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., for No. 1342, Arum; Lorp
ASHBURTON for No. 1344, Lady Kilmorna, and for No. 1345, Mavour-
neen; MARTIN J. SUTTON for No. 1359, Pride of Erin, and for No. 1360,
Red Rose; HAROLD SWITHINBANK for No, 1363, Denham Lady Lisburn.

DAIRY CATTLE.

«Class: 107.—Dairy Cows, in-milk, of any breed or cross, giving the

greatest quantity of milk containing not less than 12 per cent.
Solids, and 3 per cent. Butter Fat. [12 entries, 1 absent. ]

Class 107a.—Cow, of 1100 Jb. or over, live weight.

1366 I. (£15.)—J. BRAMMER, Wheatly, Doncaster, for Dairyman’s Pride (cross-
bred), roan, born July 9, 1886, calved Apr. 25, 1891, breeder unknown.

1369 II. (£10.)—GrorGe CHURCH, Road Farm, Willington, Bedford, for

Nancy (Shorthorn), red, born about 1886, calved June 2, 1891,

1368 III, (£5.)—Grore@r CuuRcH, for Miss Cope (Shorthorn), roan & white,
born about 1886, calved Apr. 6, 1891, breeder unknown,

CXXX Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 107b.— Cow, wnder 1100 1b., live weight.

1373 I. (£15.)—Mrs. Swan, Stonefield, Lincoln, for Daystar 2nd (Jersey),
grey fawn, born Sept. 8, 1880, calved Apr. 1, 1891, bred by W. A. Peel,
Rickmansworth ; s. Dysart 1068, d. Daystar.

1364 II. (£10.)—S. BAXENDALE, Bonningtons, Ware, for Blossom (Jersey),
whole colour, born July 11, 1887, calved May 2, 1891; s. Wolseley’s
Glory 2nd 2169, d. Bloom by Young Neptune 1847.

1369A III. (£5.)—GEoRGE CHURCH, Road Farm, Willington, Bedford, for
Flower, born about 1886, calved May 25, 1891, breeder unknown.

SHEEP.

Leicesters.

Class 108.—Leicester Two-Shear Rams. [8 entries, 1 absent. |

1379 I. (£15.)—T. H. HurcuHinson, Manor House, Catterick, born Mar. 1889.
1381 II. (£10.)—E. F. JorpAN, Eastburn, Driffield, born Apr. 1889.

1380 III. (£5.)—T. H. HUTCHINSON, born Mar. 1889.

1377 R. N. & H. C.—R. & G. HARRISON, born Apr. 1889.

1382 H. C.—H. F. JoRDAN, born Apr. 1889.

Class 109.—Leicester Shearling Rams. [13 entries, 4 absent. ]

1391 I. (£15.)—T. H. Hutrcainson, Manor House, Catterick, born Mar. 1890.
1387 II: (£10.)—R. & G. Harrison, Underpark, Lealholm, Grosmont, Yorks,
born Mar. 1890, bred by J. & D. Linton, Bedale.

1385 III. (£5.)—Joun Dowson, Danby Castle, Yorks, born Mar, 4, 1890.
1393 R.N.—E. F. JoRDAN, Eastburn, Driffield, born Apr. 1890.

Class 110.—Pen of Three Leicester Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[9 entries, 1 absent. ]

1403 I. (£10.)—E. F. JorDAN, Eastburn, Driffield, born Mar.
1404 II. (£5.)—Mrs. PERRY-HERRICK, Beau Manor Park, Loughborough, born
about Mar. 16.

1397 R. N. & H.C.—J. B. GREEN, Silsden, Yorks,1401 H.¢€.—T. H. HuTCHINSON.

Class 111.—Pen of Three Leicester Shearling Ewes, of the same flock,
[6 entries, 1 absent. |

1407 I. (£15.)—E. F. JorDAN, Eastburn, Driffield, b, Apr. 1890, & 1408 II, (£10.)
1409 III. (£5.)—Mrs. Prrry-Herrick, Beau Manor Park, Loughborough,
born about Mar, 16, 1890.

1406 R. N. & H. C.—R. & G. HARRISON and H. C. for No. 1405, born March.

Cotswolds.

Class 112.—Cotswold Two-Shear Rams. [7 entries, 1 absent. |

1415 I. (£15.)—R. SwANWICK, R. A. C. Farm, Cirencester, born Feb.14, 1889,
1416 II, (£10.)—RussELL SWANWICK, born Feb, 14, 1889.

EL

Inncoln Sheep. CXXxi

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

1413 ITI. (£5.)—R. Garne, Aldsworth, Northleach, born Mar. 1889.
1411 BIN. & H. C.—G. BAGNALL & Son, Westwell Manor, Oxon., born Feb. 1889.
1414 H.C.—R.GaARNE. 1412 Com.—G. BAGNALL & Son.

Class 113.—Cotswold Shearling Rams. [9 entries, none absent.

1421 I. (£15.)—R. GArnz, Aldsworth, Northleach, born Feb. 1890.
1419 II. (£10.)—G. BAGNALL & Son, Westwell Manor, Burford, born Feb.
1424 III. (£5.)—RussELL SWANWICK, R. A. C. Farm, Cirencester, born Feb
1422 R. N. & H. C.—R. GARNE, Aldsworth, Northleach, born Feb. 1890.

H. C.—RussELL SWANWICK, for Nos. 1425 & 1426, born Feb. 1, 1890.
1423 Com.—R. GARNE, Aldsworth, Burford, born Feb. 1890.

Class 114.—Pen of Three Cotswold Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[5 entries, 1 absent. |

1428 I, (£10) & 1429 II. (£5.)—R. GARNE, Aldsworth, Northleach, born Feb.
1431 RB. N. & H. C.—R. SWANWIOCK, R. A. C. Farm, Cirencester, born Feb. 14.

Class 115.—Pen of Three Cotswold Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[3 entries. ]
1432 I. (£15.)—G. BAGNALL & SON, Westwell Manor, Burford, born Feb.

1433 II. (£10.)—G. BAGNALL & SON, born Jan. 1890.
1434 RB. N. & H.C.—G. BAGNALL & SoN, born Feb. 1890.

Lincolns.

Class 116.—Lincoln Two-Shear Rams. [7 entries, 1 absent.]

1437 I. (£15.)\—Henry DuDDING, Riby Grove, born abt. Mar. 14, 1889,
bred by J. Needham, Uttoft.

1441 II. (£10.)—RoBERT WRIGHT, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, born Feb. or
Mar. 1889, bred by Tom Caswell, Pointon.

1435 ILI, (£5) & 1436 R.N.& H.C.—HEnry DupDDING, born abt. Mar. 14, 1889,

1438 H, C.—G. T. MELBOURN, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, born Mar. 28, 1889.

Class 117.—Lincoln Shearling Rams. [29 entries, 2 absent. ]

1470 I. (£15.)—RoBeERT WRIGHT, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, born Feb. or Mar.
1449 II. (£10) and 1460 III. (£5.)—Hrnry Duppine, Riby Grove, Grimsby
born abt. Mar. 14, 1890.
1463 R.N. & H. C.—Joun PEARS, Mere, Lincoln, born Feb. 1890,
H. C.—WoM. HeEssELTINE for No. 1459; WM. RoE for No. 1467; Roper?
WRIGHT for No. 1469.
Com.—HENRY DuppiNG for No. 1451; WM. HESSELTINE for No. 1460,

Class 118.—Pen of Three Lincoln Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891,
[11 entries, 3 absent. |

1475 I. (£10) & 1473 II. (£5.)—H. Dupp1N«, Riby Grove, Lines, b. abt, Feb. 14.
1479 B. N. & H. C_—Joun WestrorE, Morden Hall, Royston, born January,
H, €.—T. Brown for No, 1472; JoHn Pears for No. 1478.

Cxxxli Award of Inve-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 119.—Pen of Three Lincoln Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[10 entries, 1 absent. ]
1490 I. (£15.)—RoBERT WRIGHT, Nocton Heath, Lincoln, born Feb. or Mar,
1484 II. (£10.)—Henry DupDING, Riby Grove, Grimsby, born abt. Mar, 14,
1491 III. (£5.)—RoBertT WriGut, born Feb. or Mar. 1890.
1485 R. N. & H. C.—HENRY DuDDING, born abt, March 14, 1890.
H, C,— HENRY GOODYEAR for No. 1486; JoHN PEARS for No. 1489.

Oxford Downs.
Class 120.—Ox/ford Down Two-Shear Rams. [4 entries, 1 absent. }

1492 I. (£15.)—Joun C. Eapy, Irchester Grange, Wellingborough, for Cam-
bridge Swell, born abt. Feb. 15, 1889; s. Favourite 157, d. by Bicester 121.

1495 II. (£10.)—Jonun TREADWELL, Upper Winchendon, Bucks, for Royal
Plymouth, born Feb. 1889; s. Brassey’s 22 (217), d. by Royal Preston 128.

1493 R. N. & H. C.—CHARLES HowArD,)Biddenham, Bedford, for Biddenham 8,

Class 121.—Oford Down Shearling Rams. [20 entries, 6 absent.]

1513 I. (£15.)—JoHn TREADWELL, Upper Winchendon, Bucks, born about
Feb. 14, 1890; s. Irchester Vicar 373, d. by Young Freeland 107.

1514 II. (£10.)—Joun TREADWELL, born Feb. 1890; s, Grand Lord 639, d, by
Young Comet 122.

1515 III. (£5.)—JoHn TREADWELL, born Feb. 1890.

1512 R.N. & H. C.—G. SrreeEt, Maulden, Ampthill, for Maulden Prince Royal, —

1501 H. C.—A. BRAssEy, Heythrop Park, Chipping Norton, born Jan. 20.
Com.—ALBERT BRASSEY for Nos. 1502 & 1503; CHARLES HowARpD for

No. 1504; FREDERIC STREET for No. 1510,

Class 122.—Pen of Three Oxford Down Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[7 entries, none absent. |

1518 I. (£10.)—A. BRAssEy, Heythrop Park, Chipping Norton, born Jan. 14& 15.

1516 II, (£5.)—Grora@r ADAms, Pidnell, Faringdon, born abt. Jan. 13; 8.
Burser 2nd 587, d. by Fyfield Duke.

1517 R. N. & H. C—GrorGE ADAMS, born abt. Jan. 13; s. Burser 2nd 587.

Com.—ALBERT BRASSEY for No, 1519; W. J. P. READING for Nos.
1520 & 1521; FREDERIC STREET for No. 1522.

Class 123.—Pen of Three Oxford Down Shearling Ewes, of the same
Jjlock. [8 entries, none absent. ]

1528 I.(£15.)—J. 0. Eapy, Irchester Grange, Wellingborough, born abt.Feb. 15,
1890; ss. Favourite 157 & Young Cultivator 540, d. by Irchester Comet 691.

1527 II. (£10.)—ALBrrRt BRASSEY, Heythrop Park, Chipping Norton, born
Jan. 16 and 18, 1890; s. Compton Ist 244.

1523 III. (£5.)—Grora@s ADAMS, Pidnell, Faringdon, born abt. Jan. 13, 1890;
s. Burser 2nd 587, d. by Fyfield Duke.

1529 R. N. & H. C.—FrepeEric STREET, Somersham Park, St. Ives, Hunts,
born about Feb. 14, 1890; s. Somersham Duke 473.
Com.—GrorGr ADAMS for Nos. 1524 & 1525; JoHN TREADWELL for
No, 1530,

iia

Shropshire Sheep. cxxxiii

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.’”’]

Shropshires.

Class 124.—Shropshire Two-Shear Rams. [29 entries, 3 absent. ]

1548 I. (£15.)—GrorceE Lewis, Ercall Park, Wellington, Salop, born Mar. 10,
1889; s. Time Keeper 3763, d, by Call Again 1382.

1535 II. (£10.)—A. S. Berry, Pheasey Farm, Gt. Barr, Birmingham, for
Barr Chief 4357, born Mar, 1889.

1532 III. (£5.)—Mrs. Barrs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone, born Mar. 1889.
1541 R. N. & H. C.—D. Burrar, Corston, Coupar Angus, for Baron Dundee.
H. C.—Joun HArpine for No. 1545; W. F. Ince for No. 1546, Pride of
Thorpe; A. E. MANSELL for Nos. 1549 & 1550; GEORGE THOMPSON
for No. 1558, Lord Rowington.
Com.—A. BRADBURNE for No. 1538, Knave of Diamonds; R. P. COOPER
for No, 1543, West Pride; W. F. [INGE for No. 1547, Noble Patron.

Class 125.—Shropshire Shearling Rams. [98 entries, 15 absent. ]

1597 I. (£15.)—W. F. Ince, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, born about Feb. 18.
1573 II. (£10.)—T. & S. BRADBURNE, Astwood Hill, Redditch, born Mar. 10,
1890 ; s. Precentor.

1562 III. (£5.)—Mrs. MARIA BArRs, Odstone Hall, Atherstone, born Mar.
1629 R. N. & H. C.—E. Nock, Brockton House, Shifnal, born Mar. 1890.
H. C.—Mrs. Barrs for Nos. 1560 & 1561; A. S. BERRy for No. 1563 ;
DAviD ButTaR for No. 1581; R. P. COOPER for No. 1587; G. GRAHAM
for Nos. 1591 & 1593; W. F. INGE for Nos. 1598 & 1599; A. E.
MANSELL for No. 1611; P. A. MunTzZ, M.P., for No. 1623; J. L. NAPER
for Nos. 1626 & 1627; H. TOWNSHEND for No. 1654; M. WILLIAMS
for No. 1656.
Com.—G. CooKE for Nos. 1588 & 1584; G. GRAHAM for No. 1592; JoHN
HARDING for No. 1594; A. E. MANSELL for No. 1610; P. A. Muntz,
M.P., for No. 1624; G. THompson for No. 1651, Superior.

Class 126.—Pen of Three Shropshire Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[24 entries, 7 absent.]

1663 I, (£10.)—R. Brown, Ruyton-Eleven-Towns, Shrewsbury, brn. Mar. & Apr.
1681 II, (£5,)—GrorGE THOMPSON, Mousley End House, Wroxall, born Mar.
1; s. Lord Rowington, d. Bonny Face by Georgius.

1667 R.N. & H.C.—R. P. Cooper, Shenstone Ct., Lichfield, born Feb. and Mar.
H, C.—T. & S. BRADBURNE for No. 1661; W. F. InGE for No. 1670;
A. E. MANSELL for No. 1674. Com.—GrorGE LEwIs for No. 1671.

Class 127.—Pen of Three Shropshire Shearling Ewes, of the same
flock. [31 entries, 8 absent. |

1683 I. (£15.)—Mrs. MARIA BARRS, Odstone Hall, Atherstone, born Mar. 1890

1694 II. (£10.)—W. F. InGE, Thorpe Hall, Tamworth, born abt. Feb. 20, 1890.

1687 III. (£5.)—T. & S. BRADBURNE, Astwood Hill, Redditch, born Mar. 10,
1890; s. Precentor.

1693 R. N. & H. C.—G. GRAHAM, Oaklands, Birmingham, born Mar. 1890.
H. C.—J. BowEN-JONES for No. 1685; W. F. Ince for No. 1695; T. S.
Minton for No. 1700; P. A. MuntTz, M.P., for No. 1702; E. Nock for
No. 1703.
Com.—B, H. BRooKSBANK for No, 1688 ; GrorgE Lzwis for No, 1696,

CXXXIVv Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.
[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”’]

Southdowns.

Class 128.— Southdown Two-Shear Rams. [12 entries, 3 absent.]

1714 I. (£15.)—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., born Mar. 1889.

1715 II. (£10.)—J. J. CoLMAN, M.P., Carrow House, Norwich, born Feb. 26.

1721 III. (£5.)—THr DUKE OF RICHMOND AND GORDON, K.G., Goodwood,
Sussex, born Feb. 1889.

1718 R. N. & H. (.—THE DUKE OF HAMILTON AND BRANDON, K.T.

Class 129.—Southdown Shearling Rams. [35 entries, 4 absent. ]

1731 I. (£15).—J. J. CoLMAN, M.P., Carrow Ho., Norwich, born Feb. 27, 1890,
1725 II, (£10.)—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., born Mar. 1890.
1730 III. (£5.)—JAMES BLYTH, Wood House, Stansted, born Feb. 1890.
1755 R. N. & H. C.—Sirn Wm. THROCKMORTON, Bt., Buckland, Faringdon.
H. C.—J. J. COLMAN, M.P., for No. 1732; A. DE MuRRIETA for No. 1733;
A. HeaAsMANn for No. 1741; THz DUKE OF RICHMOND AND GORDON,
K.G., for No. 1752.

Class 130.—Pen of Three Southdown Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[14 entries, 5 absent. |

1760 I. (£10.)—H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G., Sandringham, born Mar,
1769 II. (£5.)—C. T. Lucas, Warnham Court, Horsham, born Feb. 14.
1765 R. N, & H. C.—EDwWIN ELLIS, Summersbury, Shalford, Guildford.

H. C.—J. J. CoLMAN, M.P., for No. 1763 ; WM. Toor for No. 1773.

Class 131.—Pen of Three Southdown Shearling Ewes, of the same
flock. [20 entries, 6 absent. |

1783 I, (£15.)—THE DUKE OF HAMILTON AND BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park,
Wickham Market, born Feb. 24, 1890,

1778 II. (£10.)—J. J. CouMAN, M.P., Carrow Ho., Norwich, born Feb. 1890.

1793 III. (£5.)—Wm. Toop, Aldingbourne, Chichester, born Feb. 7, 1890.

1780 R. N. & H. C.—A. DE MuRRIETA, Wadhurst Park, Sussex, born Feb.

H. C.—H.R.H. THE PRINCE oF WALES, K.G., for Nos. 1774 & 1775;

JAMES BiytTH for No. 1776; A. DE MuRRIETA for No. 1779; EDWIN
Evuis for No. 1781; A. HEASMAN for No. 1784; GEORGE JONAS
for No. 1787; C. T. Lucas for No. 1788; THE DUKE oF RICHMOND
AND GORDON, K.G., for No. 1791; Siz WM. THROCKMORTON, Bt., for
No. 1792.

,

Hampshire Downs.

Class 182.—Hampshire Down Two-Shear Rams.
[7 entries, none absent. ]

1795 I, (£15.)—R. CoLEs, Boreham, Warminster, for Little Wonder, born Jan.
1799 II. (£10.)—Frank R. Moore, Littlecott, Upavon, Marlborough, for
Alton, born Jan. 1889.

1796 III, (£5.)—NRopert Cougs, for Victor III., born Jan. 1889.
1798 R. N, & H, C.—H. LAMBert, Babraham, Cambridge, for Prize-fighter.
Com.—T, FowrLuL Buxton for No. 1794, Little Hero; J, Hast for No.
1797; F. R. Moore for No, 1800.

Suffolk Sheep. CXXXV

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 133.—Hampshire Down Shearling Rams. [18 entries, 2 absent. ]

1801 I. (£15.)—Joun Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, born Jan. 1890.

1810 II, (£10.)—Henry LAMBERT, Babraham, Cambridge, born Jan. 1890.

1807 III. (£5.)—Rogert Cours, Boreham, Warminster, for Middleton, born
Feb. 1890; s. Victor II. 35.

1813 R. N. & H. C.—H. Le Roy Lewis, Westbury Park, Petersfield, born Jan.
H. C.—RosBert Cones for No. 1808; WM. NEwTon for No. 1816.
Com.—T. FowELL Buxton for No. 1802, Young Hero; RoBERT COLES

for No. 1806, Victor IV.; HENRY LAMBERT for No. 1811; WM. NEWTON
for No, 1817, Baron Huddlestone.

Class 134.—Pen of Three Hampshire Down Ram Lambs, dropped in
1891. [16 entries, 3 absent. ]

1826 I. (£10.)—Henry LAMBERT, Babraham, Cambridge, born Jan.
1819 II. (£5.)—JoHN Barton, Hackwood Farm, Basingstoke, born Jan.
1830 R. N. & H. C—Wwm. NEwTon, Crowmarsh Battle, Wallingford, born Jan.
H. C.—T. FowELL Buxton for Nos, 1820 & 1821; F. R. Moore for Nos.
1828 & 1829.
Com.—JosHvuA East for No. 1825; E. WHALLEY-TOOKER for No, 1833.

Class 135.—Pen of Three Hampshire Down Shearling Ewes, of the
same flock, [9 entries, 2 absent. |

1841 I. (£15.)—Wa. Newton, Crowmarsh Battle, Wallingford, born Jan.

1837 II. (£10.)—J. East, Longstock House, Stockbridge, born Jan. 1890.

1840 III. (£5.)—Wa. NewTon, born Jan. 1890.

1838 R. N. & H. C.—F. R. Moorr. H. C.—C. & T. Couzs for No. 1835.
Com.—A. M. Ropinson for No. 1842; E. WHALLEY-TOOKER for No. 1843.

Suffolks.

Class 136.— Suffolk Two-Shear Rams. [7 entries, 1 absent.]

1846 I. (£15.)—THE MARQUIS OF BRISTOL, Ickworth Park, Suffolk, for Duke
of Tuddenham III. 961, born Feb. 10; s. Duke of Tuddenham II. 647.

1848 II. (£10.)—T. L. Roperson & W. GouGH, Hengrave, Suffolk, for The
Friar 1148, born Feb., bred by E. Gittus, Snailwell; s. Quite Royal 769.

1845 III. (€5.)—Tur Marquis oF BRISTOL, for Van Dyke V. 1159, born Jan,
22, 1889; s. Van Dyke II. 539.

1844 R. N. & H. C.— THE MARQUIS OF BRISTOL, for Van Gwynne Royal IV.
Com.—EDWARD GITTUS for No. 1847, Sailor; J. SmiTH for No. 1849.

Class 137.—Sujfolk Shearling Rams. [9 entries, none absent. ]

1854 I. (£15.)—Epwarp GirTtus, Snailwell, Cambs, for Sailor II., born Feb,
1890; s, Sailor 1112, d. by Bismark V.

1851 II. (£10.)—THE Marquis or BrisToL, Ickworth Park, Suffolk, for Van
Gwynne Royal VI. 1644, born Jan. 10; s. Van Gwynne Royal III. 1163.

1857 III. (£5.)—T. L. Roperson & W. GovuGH, Hengrave, Suffolk, for
Moulton, born Feb., bred by H. Northend, Moulton; s. Don Carlos 956.

1855 R. N. & H. C.—Epwarp GiTTUvs, for Quite Royal II., born Feb. 1890.
Com.—THE MARQUIS OF Beistou for No. 1852, Van Gwynne Royal VII.,
and No. 1853, Van Dyke VII.; T. L. Roperson & W. GouGH for No.
1856, King of the Black Face; JosEPH SMITH for No. 1858.

CXxxvi Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”"]

Class 188.—Pen of Three Suffolk Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891,
[8 entries, 2 absent. |

1861 I. (£10.)\—THE MARQUIS OF BRISTOL, Ickworth Park, Suffolk, born Jan,
1863 II. (£5.)—EDWARD GITTUS, Snailwell, Cambs, born Feb.

1864 R. N. & H. C.—T. L. RoBerson & W. GouGu, Hengrave, Suffolk.

1865 H. C—JosEPH SMITH, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon, Woodbridge, born Feb.
1866 Com.—JOSEPH SMITH, born Feb.

Class 139.—Pen of Three Suffolk Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[8 entries, 1 absent. ]
1874 I.(£15.)—J. Smiru, Thorpe Hall, Hasketon, Woodbridge, born Feb. 1890.

1873 II. (£10.)—T. L. RoBERSON & W. GouGH, Hengrave, Suffolk, born
Feb., bred by Roberson & EKaton, Hengrave; s. Hengrave Pride 690.

1868 III. (£5,)—THE MARQUIS OF BRISTOL, Ickworth Park, born Jan. 1890.
1871 R, N. & H. C—-EDWARD GITTUS, born February, 1890; s. Sailor Prince.
Com.—THE MARQUIS OF BRISTOL for No. 1869; T. L. ROBERSON &
W. GouGH for No. 1872; JOSEPH SmiTH for No. 1875,

Wensleydales.

Class 140.— Wensleydale Two-Shear Rams. [8 entries, 1 absent. ]
1881 I. (£15.)—J. O. TRovTER, Holtby Grange, Bedale, for Champion 122, born
Apr. 1, 1889; s. Abelard 3, d. by Ridley.

1877 II. (£10.)—Jonn HervuGu, Mudd Fields, Bedale, for Thumper, born
abt. Mar. 20, bred by Miss E. Willis, Carperby, Bedale; s. Sir Thorsby.

1876 III. (£5.)—F. Hruau, Newton-le-Willows, Bedale, for Ruffler IV. 191,
born Mar., bred by J. Pickard, Thorsby, Bedale; s. Lord of the Manor 54.

1883 R. N. & H. C.—T. WILLIs, Carperby, Bedale, for Lord of the Valley.
1879 Com.—M4Jor JoHN I’ANSON, How Hall, Thirsk, for Sheen 192.

Class 141.— Wensleydale Shearling Rams. [18 entries, 3 absent. ]
1887 I.(£15.)—Joun HEvuGH, Mudd Fields, Bedale, born about Mar. 6, 1890,
bred by W. Heugh, Newton-le-Willows; s. Thorsby III. 91 d. by Thorsby I.

1889 II. (£10.)\—Jonn HeEvau, for Number 2, born about Mar. 8, 1890; s.
Number 1, d. by Thorsby I.

1897 III. (£5.)—JoHN O. TRoTTER, Holtby Grange, Bedale, born Mar. 30,
1890; s. Masham I. 57, d. by Ridley.

1886 R. N. & H. C.F. Hevcu, Newton-le-Willows, Bedale, for Ruffler.
1898 Com.—JOHN O. TROTTER, Holtby Grange, Bedale.

Class 142.—Pen of Three Wensleydale Ram Lambs, dropped in 1891.
[8 entries, 1 absent. ]
1904 I. (£10.)\—JoHn Hrvau, Mudd Fields, Bedale, born March; s. Datchet
30, d. by Thorsby I.
1906 II, (£5.)—A. TroTTER, Dantzic House, Bedale, born Apr.; s. Dantzic 28.

1909 R. N. & H. C—THoMAS WILLIS, Carperby, Bedale, born Apr. ; ss. Lord of
the Valley, Titan 74, & Sir Wilfred 63, dd. by Westward Ho 79, Thor's
Hammer 73, Thorsby 72.

1908 Com,—J. O. TrorrsR, Holtby Grange, Yorks; ss. Sitting Bull & Abelard,

Cheviot Sheep: exxxvii

[Unless dtherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor]

Class 143.—Pen of Three Wensleydale Shearling Ewes, of the same
flock. [7 entries, none absent. |
1911 I. (£15.)\—Joan HeucGH, Mudd Fields, Bedale, born about Mar. 10,
1890; s. Number 1 63.

1912 II. (£10.)—Joun HeEvGH, born about Mar. 10, 1890; s. Thorsby III. 91,
d. by Thorsby I.

1914 III. (£5.)—Wm. Ruopes, Lundholme, Westhouse, Kirkby Lonsdale, born
about Mar. 11, 1890; s. Sterling 69 or Swinethwaite 71.

1915 R. N. & H. C.—TuHomas WILLIs, Carperby, Bedale, born Mar. & Apr,

Border Leicesters.

Class 144.—Border Leicester Rams, Two-Shear and Upwards.
[9 entries, 1 absent. |

1917 I. (£10.)—TuE Rt. Hon. A. J. BALFouR, M.P., Whittinghame, Preston-
kirk, N.B., born Mar. 1889.

1922 II. (£5.)—Exors. oF ROBERT FENDER, Northfield, Coldingham, Berwick,
born Feb. 3, 1887.

1918 R. N. & H. C.—TuHE Rt. Hon. A. J. BALFour, M.P., born Mar, 1889,
1919 Com.—DAvID CooPER, Bainesse, Catterick, born Mar. 1889.

Class 145.— Border Leicester Shearling Rams.
[14 entries, 2 absent. ]

1926 I. (£10.)—Tue Rt. Hon. A. J. BALFour, M.P., Whittinghame, Preston-
kirk, N.B., born Mar. 1890.

1929 II. (£5.)—Exors. OF ROBERT FENDER, Northfield, Ccldingham, Ber-
wick, born Mar. 3, 1890.

1936 R. N. & H. C,—_J. TWENTYMAN, Hawkrigg House, Wigton, born Mar.

1930 Com.—ExoRrs. OF ROBERT FENDER, born Mar, 6, 1890.

Class 146.—Pen of Three Border Leicester Shearling Ewes, of the same
Slock. [7 entries, 2 absent. ]
1940 I. (£10.) and 1941 II. (£5.)—THERr?. Hon. A. J. BALFOUR, M.P., Whit-
tinghame, Prestonkirk, N.B., born Mar. 1890.

1942 R. N. & H, C.—Exors. or ROBERT FENDER, Northfield, Coldingham.
1944 Com.—JoHn TWENTYMAN, Hawkrigg House, Wigton, born Mar, 1890.

Cheviots.

Class 147.—Cheviot Rams, Two-Shear and Upwards,
[6 entries, none absent. |

1949 I. (£10.)—Jacoz Rozson, Byrness, Otterburn, born Apr. 1889,
1952 LH. (£5.)—Joun Rosson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr, 1889,
1947 R. N. & H. C.—Jacos Rogson, born Apr, 1888,

1950 Com.—JoHN Rosson, born Apr, 1888.

exxxviill Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]
Class 148.—Cheviot Shearling Rams. [6 entries, none absent. ]

1956 I. (£10.)\—JoHN Rosson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr. 1890.
1953 IL. (£5.)—JacoB Rosson, Byrness, Otterburn, born Apr. 1890.
1954 R. N, & H. C.—JacoB Rosson, born Apr. 1890.

Class 149.—Pen of Three Cheviot Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[4 entries, none absent. |

1961 I. (£10.)—JouNn Rosson, Newton, Bellingham, born Apr, 1890,
1959 II. (£5.)—Jacos Rogson, Byrness, Otterburn, born Apr. 1890.
1962 R. N. & H. C_—JouN Robson, born Apr. 1890.

Black-Faced Mountain.

Class 150.—Black-Faced Mountain Rams, Two-Shear and Upwards.
[9 entries, 2 absent. |

1963 %(£10.)—J. ARCHIBALD, Overshiels, Fountainhall, N.B., born Apr. 1888.
1966 Li. (£5.)—W. McCRrackEN, Greenleighton, Cambo, for Prince III., born
Apr. 10, 1889; s. Prince II.

1964 R. N. & H. CJ. ARCHIBALD, born Apr. 1888.

Class 151.—Black-Faced Mountain Shearling Rams.
[9 entries, 2 absent. |

1980 I. (£10.)—R. S. Scot, Craigievar, Skelmorlie, N.B., born Mar.; s.Sixty-
eight.

1974 ci (£5.)—W. McCRACKEN, Greenleighton, Cambo, born Apr. 2, 1890.

1976 R. N. & H. C.—R. RAWLInson, Docker Hall, Kendal, born Apr, 15.

Class 152.— Pen of Three Black-Faced Mountain Shearling Ewes, of
the same flock. [8 entries, none absent. |
1984 I. (£10.)—D. T. MARTIN, Girgenti, Irvine, N.B., born Apr. 1890.

1986 II. (£5.)—R. RAWLINSON, Docker Hall, Kendal, born Apr. 1890.
1982 R. N. & H. C.— Wm. GRAHAM, Eden Grove, Penrith, born Mar. 1890.

Lonks.

Class 153.—Zonk Rams, Two-Shear and Upwards, [2 entries.]

1990 I. (£10.)—WALTON BRotHERS, Rawtenstall, Lancs, born Mar, 1888,
bred by T. Hargreaves, Rawtenstall.

1989 II. (£5.)}—JosEPH BLACKBURN, Holling Hall, Trawden, for The Pride of
Trawden, born Mar. 15, 1889; d. by Old Champion Peggy.

.

Class 154.—Lonk Shearling Rams. [2 entries.]

1991 I. (£10.)\—Watton BroTuers, Rawtenstall, Lancs, born Mar, 1890, bred
by Joseph Blackburn, Trawden.

1992 II, (£5.)—WALTON BROTHERS, born Mar. 1890,

Large White Pigs. CXxxix

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 155.—Pen of Three Lonk Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[3 entries. |
1994 I, (£10.)—WALTON BROTHERS, Rawtenstall, Lancs, born Mar. 1890, bred
by various breeders.

1993 II. (£5.)—Mrs. W. C. DAwson, Weston Hall, Otley, born Mar. 14;
s. Jumbo.
1995 R. N. & H. C.—WALTON BROTHERS, born Mar. 1890,

Herdwicks.

Class 156.—Herdwick Rams, Two-Shear and Upwards.
[9 entries, 1 absent. ]
1996 I. (£10.)—Wwa. Axnzort, Hart Head, Rydal, Ambleside, for Prince Victor,
born Apr. 1889, bred by H. C. Howard, Greystoke, Penrith.

1999 II. (£5.)—JAmeEs C. BowsTEAD, Chapel Hill, Mardale, Penrith, for Aries,
born in Apr. 1888, bred by the representatives of the late Hugh P. Holme;
s. Ruffler, d. Hailstorm dy Gladstone.

2002 R. N.& H. C.—Joun RotueERy, Lorton, Cockermouth, for Prime Minister.

Class 157.—Herdwick Shearling Rams. [8 entries, 1 absent.]

2008 I. (£10.)—James C. BowsTEAD, Chapel Hill, Mardale, Penrith, for
Harterfell, born Apr. 1890, bred by late Mrs. J. C. Bowstead; s. Scaw-
fell, d. Princess Maude by Ruffler.

-2009 II. (£5.)—H. C. HowArp, Greystoke Castle, Penrith, for Cain, born Mar. 16.
2005 R. N. & H.C.—W. Axpsort, Hart Head, Rydal, for Duke of Cumberland.
2010 H. €—HeEnry C. HowAkp, born April, 1890.

Class 158.—Pen of Three Herdwick Shearling Ewes, of the same flock.
[5 entries, none absent. |
2013 I. (£10.)—Wm. Axpgort, Hart Head, Rydal, Ambleside, born Apr. 1890,
bred by Exhibitor & John Rothery, Lorton.

2015 II. (£5.)—HEnry C. HowARD, Greystoke Castle, Penrith, born Apr,
2014 RB. N. & H.C.—J. C. BowstTEApD, for Molly Dearest, Molly Sweetest, &
(Molly Fairest.)

PIGS.

Large White Breed.

Class 159.—Large White Boars, farrowed in 1890.
[7 entries, 1 absent. |
2024 I. (£10.)—SanpERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, for

Holywell Bath, born Jan.1; s. Holywell Jackie 989, d. Holywell Jewel
2324 by Holywell King 509.

2018 II. (£5.)—IsAac BEARDSLEY, Handley Farm, Shottle, Belper, for
Sampson IV., born Jan. 13; s. Jarvo, d. Silver Queen.

2021 III. (£3.)—THE GUARDIANS OF PRescor UNIoNn, for Prescot VIII.,
born Feb. 21; s. Prescot III. 1381, d. Whiston II. 1864,

2023 R, N.—SAnpeRs SPENCER, for Holywell Doncaster, born Jan. 1

exl Award of Iive-Stock Prizes at Doneaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.’"]

Class 160.— Pen of Three Large White Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[8 entries, 1 absent. ]
2029 I. (£10.)—JosEPH NUTTALL, 19, Longfield, Heywood, born Jan. 8, 1891 ;
s. Ben II. 927, d. Sarah.

2028 II. (£5.)—D. R. DAYBELL, Bottesford, Nottingham, born Jan. 1, 1891;
s. Cestrian Rover, d. Bottesford Lass VI.

2026 RB. N.—RICHARD BODDINGTON, Colebrook Hall, Shirley, Birmingham,

Class 161.—Large White Breeding Sows, farrowed before or in 1890.
[10 entries, 5 absent. |
2035 I. (£10.)—Hon. Mrs. MEYNELL INGRAM, Temple Newsam, Leéds, born
Apr. 23, 1888.

2034 II. (£5.)—Hon. Mrs. MEYNELL INGRAM, born Nov. 10, 1888, bred by
Thos. Strickland, Thirsk Junction.

2033 III. (£3.)—A. E. Dyson, The Hollies, Timperley, Cheshire, for Cestrian
Giantess, born Nov. 6, 1888, bred by F. A. Walker-Jones, Mollington,
Cheshire ; s. Madman III. 745, d. Miss Hough II. 1270.

2040 R. N. & H. C.—SANDERS SPENCER, for Holywell Virago II. 2348.
2039 Com.—SANDERS SPENCER, for Holywell Shrimp X.

Class 162.—Pen of Three Large White Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[8 entries, 1 absent. |

2048 I. (£10.)—SANDERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, born
Jan. 3; s. Holywell Plymouth (vol. vii.), d. Holywell Squeak by Holy-
well Dairyman II. 1305.

2047 II. (£5.)—THE GUARDIANS OF PRESCOT UNION, born Jan. 4; s. Prescot
VI. 1387, d. Whiston V. 2624.

2044 III. (£3.)—RIcHARD BODDINGTON, Colebrook Hall, Shirley, Birmingham
born Jan. 2; s. Colebrook King (vol. vii), d, Colebrook Lass (vol. vii.)
by Walsall Jack.

9050 R. N. & H. C.—SANDERS SPENCER, for Holywell Valentine I, II. and III.

Middle White Breed.

Class 163.— Middle White Boars, farrowed in 1890.
[4 entries, 1 absent.]

2053 I, (£10.)—SANDERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, for Holy-
well Count, born June 20; s. German Baron 825, d. Straight Locks 2684
by Holywell Swell 591.

2052 R. Ni=JosEPH NUTTALL, Heywood, born Jan. 16; s. Hero, @. Snowdrop.

Class 164.—Pen of Three Middle White Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[5 entries, none absent. ]

2059 I. (£10.)—SanpERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, born
Jan. 14; s. Holywell Slasher (vol. vii.), d. Holywell Rose 2682 by Holywell
Swell 591. :

2058 II. (£5.)—SANDERS SPENCER, born Jan, 14; s. Holywell Slasher (vol.
vii.), d. Holywell Rose 2682 by Holywell Swell 591.

2057 R. N.—SANDERS SPENCER, born Jan, 4; s, German Baron 826,

Small White Pigs. exli

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize anima! named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 165.— Middle White Breeding Sows, farrowed before or in 1890.
[10 entries, 4 absent. ]
2065 I. (£10.)—JosEPH NUTTALL, 19 Longfield, Heywood, born Jan. 6, 1888;
s. Billy, d. Lancashire Sall.

2068 II. (£5.)—SANDERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, for
Holywell Rose 2682, born Mar. 7, 1888; s. Holywell Swell 591, d.
Holywell Duchess 882 dy No. 1 181.

2060 III. (£8.)—A. E. Dyson, The Hollies, Timperley, Cheshire, for Cestrian
Princess, abt. 3 years old, bred by the Earl of Ellesmere; s. King
William, d. Lady Worsley.

2067 R. N. & H. C.—SANDERS SPENCER, for Holywell Rissole.

Class 166.—Pen of Three Middle White Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891,
[7 entries, 1 absent. ]
2070 I. (£10.)—C. E. DUCKERING, The Cliff, Kirton Lindsey, born Jan. 3.

2076 II. (£5.)—SANDERS SPENCER, Holywell Manor, St. Ives, Hunts, born
Jan, 4; s. German Baron 825, d. Holywell Choice 1380 dy Holywell Swell,

2074 R. N. & Com._THE GUARDIANS OF PRESCOT UNION, born Jan. 3,

Small White Breed.

Class 167.—Small White Boars, farrowed in 1890,
[4 entries, none absent. |
2077 I. (£10.)—Tue Hon. D. P. BOUVERIE, Coleshill House, Highworth, born
May 9, bred by Lord Moreton; s. Earl of Chester, d. Spot I. by Rodney.

2079 Il. (£5.)—J. & T. OLDROYD, Newsam Green, Leeds, born July 12; s.
‘ Uncle Tom II., 7. by Lister’s Hero.

2080 R.N.& H. C.—THE CouNTESS OF RADNOR, Longford Castle, for The General.

Class 168.— Pen of Three Small White Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891,
[4 entries, 1 absent. ]
2083 I. (£10.)—TueE Hon. D. P. Bovuveris, Coleshill House, Highworth, born
Jan. 2; s. King William, d. Shaftesbury by Prince.

2083 II. (£5.)—TuHE Hon. D, P. BoUVERIE, born Jan. 3; s. King William, d.
: Spot III. dy Prince.

2081 R.N.—W.A. Tyssen AMHERST,M.P., born Jan. 20; s.Gilbert, d. Bertha 2732,

Class 169.—Small White Breeding Sows, farrowed before or in 1890.
[9 entries, none absent. |
2089 I. (£10.)—Hon. Mrs, MEYNELL INGRAM, Temple Newsam, Leeds, born
May 10, 1889.
2088 II, (£5.)—Hon. Mrs. MEYNELL INGRAM, born May 10, 1889.

2087 III. (£3.)—Hon. D. P. Bovuveris, Coleshill House, Highworth, born
May 14, 1890; s. Coleshill Farmer, d. Susan by Prince.

2092 R. N. & H. C—TuEe CounTESS OF RADNOR, for Longford Beauty.

2091 H. C.—TuHr GUARDIANS OF PRESCOT UNION, for Whiston Toy.
Com.—Wm. A. TyssEN AMHERST, M.P., for No. 2085, Brilliant: J

- NUTTALL for No. 2090, Clara, ei

VOL, Il. T. S.—7 k
. |

exlii Award of Live-Stock Prizes at Doncaster.

(Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

Class 170.—Pen of Three Small White Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891,
[3 entries, 1 absent.]

2096 I. (£10,)—TaE GuAnDIANS OF Prescot UNION, born Jan. 6, bred by
Oldroyd Bros., Newsam Green, Yorks; s. Uncle Tom II. by Uncle Tom

251, d. by Hero III. 631. i
2095 R. N. & Com.—Hon. D. P. BoUVERIE, born Jan. 3; s. King William.

Berkshire Breed.
Class 171.— Berkshire Boars, farrowed in 1890. [16 entries, 5 absent]

2103 I. (£10 & R. N. for Champion.')—E. BuRBIDGE, South Wraxha
Bradford, Wilts, born Mar. 13; s. Ransome 2675, d. Mary Jane.

2111 I. (£5.)—W™m. Prxnock, Littleworth House, Wantage, for Farmer's
Friend, born Feb. 21; s. Longstop 2819, d. Taynton IV. 1218.

2105 III. (£3.)—Sm Humpurey F. DE TRAFFORD, Bart., Trafford Park,
Lanes, for Barton Royal, born Feb. 14, bred by Wm. Pinnock;
Longstop, d. Taynton Poetess 2384.

2099 BR. N.—NATHANIEL BENJAFIELD, for Commander, born Mar. 27.

Class 172.—Pen of Three Berkshire Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891,
[7 entries, 1 absent.]

2117 I.(£10.)—Sim HUMPHREY F. DE TRAFFORD, Bart., Trafford Park, Lanes.
born Jan. 14; s. Barton Royal, d. Barton Kate.
2116 Il. (#5.)—A. E. W. DaArsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury, born Jan. 27; #
Sir Andrew, dd. Parthenon and Punchetta.
2115 III. (#3.)—A. E. W. DaAgsy, born Jan. 27 ; s. Sir Andrew I1., d. Parthenon.
2113 B, N.—NATHANIEL BENJAFIELD, born Jan. 27; s. Blunt IL. 2315.

Class 173.— Berkshire Breeding Sows, farrowed before or in 1890.
[22 entries, none absent. ]

2123 I. (£10 & Champion £10.')}—NATHANIEL BENJAFIELD, Shorts Greer
Farm, Motcombe, Dorset, for Her Majesty, born Dec. 3, 1889; s. Maydu
1251, d. Mayoress 1411.

2121 Il. (#5.)—Wa. A. Barnes, Mona Cottage, Shirley, Birmingham, for
Rosalind Augustus II. 3258, born Jan. 8, 1890; s. Western Augustus
2856, d. Rosalind Augustus 2074.

2140 II. (£8.)—Wm. Prxnock, Littleworth House, Wantage, for Belle o
Wantage, born Feb. 24, 1890; s. Longstop 2819, d. Taynton IV. 1218. _

2137 R.N. & H. C.—J. W. Kimber, Fyfield Wick, Abingdon. an
H. CA. E. W. Dany for No. 2128, Phlox; A. S. GrpsoN for

2133, Conny IT.
Com.—EDWARD BURBIDGE for No. 2126, Freedom; A. E. W. DARBY
for No. 2129, Polyanthus; A. E. Dyson for No. 2131, Cestrian Lady
H. P. GREEN for No. 2134, Virginia I.

Class 174.—Pen of Three Berkshire Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[10 entries, 1 absent.]
2148 I. (£10.)—R. E. Horwoop, Drayton Beauchamp, Tring, born Jan. 0
s. Benjafield 2556, d. Terrick Lady 2555.
2146 IT. (£5.)—Sm Humpuney F. DE TRAFFORD, Bart., Trafford Park,
born Jan. 14; s. Barton Royal, d. Lancashire Queen.

* Given by the British Berkshire Society for the best animal exhibited in classes 171 and 173.

¢
,

Tamworth Pigs. exlili

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]
2144 III. (£3.)—A. E. W. Darsy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury, born Jan, 27 &
31; s. Sir Andrew I., dd. Parthenon and Punchetta.
2150 RB. N. & H. C.—T. S. MINTON, Montford Bridge, born Jan. 16 & 19,

Any Other Black Breed.

Class 175.— Boars, farrowed in 1890. [3 entries.]
2153 I. (£10.)—THE DUKE OF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park, Wick-
ham Market, for Common, born Feb. 18; s. Dartmoor, d, Countess 610.
2152 Il. (€5.)—Tue DUKE OF HAMILTON AND BRANDON, K.T., for Parson,
born Apr. 30; s. Dartmoor 913, d. Topsy.

9154 BR. N. & H. C:—GrorGE PETTIT, Friston, Saxmundham, for Doncaster.

Class 176.—Pen of Three Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891. [3 entries. ]
2156 I. (£10.)—GrorcGE PETTIT, The Firs, Friston, Saxmundham, born Jan. 7;
s. Duke 1195, d. Primrose 2124.

2157 IL. (£5.)—GEoRGE PETTIT, born Jan. 25; s. Danger, d. Rose.
2155 R. N. & H. C.—THE DUKE OF HAMILTON AND BRANDON, K.T.

Class 177.—Breeding Sows, furrowed before or in 1890.
[3 entries, 1 absent. ]
2160 I. (£10.)—Grorce Pettit, The Firs, Friston, Saxmundham, born Jan.
24, 1890; s. Duke, d. Patty.

2159 II. (£5.)—Tur DUKEOF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., Easton Park, Wick-
ham Market, for Chance, b. Sept. 1, 1888; s. Tommy 455, d. Princess 618.

Class 178.—Pen of Three Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[4 entries, 1 absent. ]
2163 I. (£10.)—GrorcE PETTIT, The Firs, Friston, Saxmundham, born Jan. 7;
s. Duke 1195, d. Primrose 2124.

2164 II. (£5.)—GrorGE PETTIT, born Jan. 25; s. Danger, d. Rose.
2162 B.N. & H. C—TuHE DUKE OF HAMILTON & BRANDON, K.T., born Jan. 30.

Tamworth Breed.

Class 179.— Tamworth Boars, farrowed in 1890.
[10 entries, 2 absent. ]
2166 I. (£10.)—R. BoppineTon, Colebrook Hall, Shirley, Birmingham, for

Colebrook Squire (vol. vii.), born June 23; s. Earl “Winterton 1583, d.
Whitacre Princess 2936.

2170 oy (£5. )—J. H. JORDAN, Clifford Hill, Stratford-on-Avon, born May 24;
Royal Winner, d. Clifford Red Rose.

2171 nL (£3.)}—Wm. H. MitcHELL, Elmdene, Kenilworth, for Elmdene King,
born June 6; s. Samson III. 1639, d. Nana.

2169 BR. N. & H. c—J. H. JoRDAN, born May 14; s, Wallace II.

‘Class 180.—Pen of Three Tamworth Boar Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
& [8 entries, 1 absent. ]

I. (£10.)—THomaAsS Tompson, Holt Hall, Whitacre, Birmingham, born
Jan. 5; s. Uncle John (vol. vii.), d. Mainspring III. (yol. cari

exliy Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster.

[Unless otherwise stated, each prize animal named below was “ bred by exhibitor.”]

2179 II. (£5.)—JoHn NorMAN, JUN., Cliff House, Tamworth, and JosEPH
NorMAN, Nether Whitacre, Coleshill, born Jan. 25; s. Tomato 1659, d.
Red Rose 2066.

2181 III. (£3.)—D. W. Purp, The Ashes, Whitacre, Coleshill, born Jan. 3;
s. Noah, d. Dorridge Rosa 2790.

2180 R. N.—Joun NORMAN, JUN., and JOSEPH NORMAN, born Feb. 2.

Class 181.— Tamworth Breeding Sows, farrowed before or in 1890.
[26 entries, 2 absent. |

2198 I. (£10.)—JoHn NoRMAN, JuN., Tamworth, and JOSEPH NORMAN, Nether
Whitacre, Coleshill, for Plymouth Heroine, born Jan. 2, 1890; s. The
Swell 1657, d. Sally 564.

2187 IL. (£5.)—R. BoDDINGTON, Colebrook Hall, Shirley, Birmingham, for
Colebrook Belle, born Jan. 2, 1890; s. Shirley II. 1645, d. Whitacre
Queen, 2938,

2197 III. (£3.)\—JoHn NORMAN, JUN., and JOSEPH NoRMAY, for Cliff Beauty,
born Novy. 5, 1889; s. Tomboy 1185, d. Nottingham Heroine 2048.

2196 R. N. & H. C.—W. H. MitcHeE.u, for Elmdene Queen.

H. C.—R. Ippotson for No. 2193, Knowle Queen; W. H. MrrcHEeLn
for No. 2195, Elmdene Princess; G. T. WHITFIELD for No. 2206,
Colebridge Belle.

Com.—LoRD AUCKLAND for No. 2184; D. W. Puiuip for No. 2199, Grand
Duchess ; THOMAS WATSON for No. 2205, Whitacre Queen IV.

Class 182.—Pen of Three Tamworth Sow Pigs, farrowed in 1891.
[13 entries, 3 absent. |

2213 I. (£10.)—RoBERT IBBOTSON, Knowle, Warwickshire, born Jan. 2; 8,
Royal George, d. Dorridge Duchess.

2218 II. (£5.)—D. W. Purp, The Ashes, Whitacre, Coleshill, born Jan. 4;
s. Noah, d. Dorridge Ruby 2794.

2211 III. (£3.)—EGBERT DE HAMEL, Middleton Hall, Tamworth, born Jan. 9;
s. Middleton Masher 2189, d. Middleton Madcap 2864.

2221 R. N. & H. C—TuHomaAs Tompson, Holt Hall, Whitacre, Coleshill.

2216 H, C.—JouHN NORMAN, JUN., and JosEPH NORMAN, born Jan, 11,

2214 Com.— ROBERT IBBOTSON, born Feb, 12.

PO. Us T Rae

By ‘ Cock,” “Hen,” “ Drake,” “ Duck,” “Gander,” and Goose” are meant
birds hatched before January Ist, 1891; and by “Cockerel,’s “Pallet,”
“Young Drake,” and “ Duckling,” are meant birds hatched in 1891, before

June Ist,
FOWLS.
Dorkings.

Class 183.—Colowred Dorking Cocks. [8 entries, none absent. ]

6 I. (£2.)—Wwm. 8S. PINSENT, Rose Hall, Newton Abbot.

1 Il. (£1.)—JAmurs CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries, N.B. 1890.

3 III. (10s.)—Tnomas Huusk, Bank Quay, Middlewich, Cheshire. 1889.

2 R. N.—R. B. Currets, Ashenden, Tenterden, Kent. 1890.

5 H, (—Herzertr Papwick, Thorney, Emsworth, Hants, 1889. F

> |

- Dorking Fouts. exly

Class 184.—Colowred Dorking Hens. [11 entries, none absent. ]

17 I. (£2.)—W. S. Prxsent, Rose Hall, Newton Abbot.
14 IL. (41.)—G. E. B. MuzEEN, Douthwaite Lodge, Kirby Moorside. 1889.
16 III. (10s.)—HERBERT PADWICK, Thorney, Emsworth, Hants. 1888.
13 BR. N. & H. C.—Joun MIL1s, Higher Ending, Rochdale, Lancs.
H. C.—JAMES CRANSTON for No. 10; ARTHUR C. MAJor for No. 12;
G. E. B. MuZEEN for No. 15.

Class 185.—Colowred Dorking Cockerels. [7 entries, 1 absent. ]

24 I, (£2.)—WwM. 8. PINSENT, Rose Hall, Newton Abbot.

26 II, (£1.)—Lapy WILsoNn, Chillingham Barns, Belford. Jan.

22 III. (10s.)—R. B. CurTeEIs, Ashenden, Tenterden. Mar. 1.

- 20 B. N. & H. C.—R. Berry & Son, 16, Ash Grove, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 12.
21 Com.—JAMES CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries.

Class 186.—Coloured Dorking Pullets. [11 entries, 3 absent. ]

34 I. (£2.)—W«M. S. PrysenT, Rose Hall, Newton Abbot.

27 Il. (£1.)—R. Berry & Son, 16, Ash Grove, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 12.
30 III. (103s.)\—ANDREW CRICHTON, Glamis, N.B. Jan. 2.

37 BR. N.—Lapy WILSON, Chillingham Barns, Belford. Feb.

Class 187.—Silver Grey Dorking Cocks. {17 entries, 2 absent.]
38 I. (£2.)—PETER BLUNDELL, Ream Hills, Weeton, Kirkham, Lancs,
46 Il, (£1.)—Arruour C. Magor, The Firs, Langley, Slough.
42 IIT. (10s.)—O. E. CRESSWELL, Morney Cross, Hereford.
40 R. N. & H. C.—JAMES CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries. 1889.
H. C.—O. E. CRESSWELL for No. 43; J. PETTIPHER for No. 47; Mrs,
WACHER for No. 52; LApDy WILSON for No. 54. ’

Class 188.—Silver Grey Dorking Hens. [12 entries, 1 absent.

56 I. (£2.)—JAMES CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries. 1889.

61 II. (£1.)—Arruvr C. Masor, The Firs, Langley, near Slough, Bucks.

_ 58 ITT, (10s. &59, RB. N.& H. C.)—O. E. CRESSWELL, Morney Cross, near Hereford.

H, C.—PETER BLUNDELL for No. 55; JAMES CRANSTON for No. 57;
ARTHUR C. Major for No. 60: R. Retcu for No. 62; Mrs. WACHER
for No. 64.

- Class 189.— Silver Grey Dorking Cockerels. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
67 I. (£2.)—JameEs CLunNAS, 76, High Street, Elgin.
70 II, (£1.)—J. M. StocKeRIDGE, Minster Thanet, Kent. Jan. 2.
69 III. (10s.)—ANDREW McRkEA, Clifton Hall, Ratho, N.B. Jan. 23.
68 BR. N.—JAaMeEs CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries.

Class 190.— Silver Grey Dorking Pullets. [8 entries, 1 absent. ]
77 1. (£2.)\—Anpbrew McREA, Clifton Hall, Ratho, N.B. Jan. 25,
74 I. (£1.)—James CiunAs, 76, High Street, Elgin.
75 III. (103.)—James CRANSTON, Tinwald House, Dumfries.
73 BR. N. & H. C_—_ James CuunAs, 76, High Street, Elgin.
76 H, C.—JAmeEs Cranston, Tinwald House, Dumfries,

Class 191.— White or any other variety Dorking Cocks.
[5 entries, none absent. |

81 I. (£2.)—0. E. CrEsswELL, Morney Cross, near Hereford. White.

83 II, (41.)—A. E. W. Darpy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White.
85 III, (10s.)—Josern PerrieHEeR, Woodway House, near Banbury. White.
B, N—A. EB. W. Darpy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White,

exlvi Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster,

Class 192.—White or any other variety Dorking Hens.
[5 entries, none absent. |

86 I. (£2) & 87 II. (£1.)—0O. EF. CRESSWELL, Morney Cross, Hereford. White.
III, (10s.)—A. E. W. DARBY, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White.
R. N. & H. C.—JosEPH PETTIPHER, Woodway House, near Banbury.
89 H, C,—A. E. W. DArRBy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White.
Class 193.— White or any other variety Dorking Cockerels.
[5 entries, none absent. }

95 I, (£2.)—JosEPH PETTIPHER, Woodway House, near Banbury.

91 II. (£1.)—Wm. Burn, Phoenix House, Whitby, Yorks. White. Feb. 10.
94 III, (10s.)—H. J. GooDALL, The Priory, Melton Mowbray. Cuckoo. Feb. 26.
93 R.N. & H. C.—A. E. W. Darby, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White.

92 H.C,— FREDERICK CHATFIELD, Brampton Crofts, Appleby. White. Jan.11.

Class 194.—White or any other variety Dorking Pullets.
[3 entries. |

97 I, (£2) and 96 II, (£1.)—A. E. W. DArRBy, Little Ness, Shrewsbury. White.
98 III, (10s.)—H. J. GOODALL, The Priory, Melton Mowbray. Cuckoo. Feb. 26.

Game.

Class 195.—Old English Game Cocks. [17 entries, none absent. |

101 I, (£2.)—Joun Brouau, 22, London Road, Carlisle. Feb. 15, 1890.
109 II, (£1.)—McHArrin & Lomas, Silloth, Cumberland. May 29, 1890.
102 III, (10s.)—Joun Brouen, 22, London Road, Carlisle. Feb. 15, 1890.
113 R.N. & H. €.—C. W115, Jun., Burgh-by-Sands, Cumberland. Ap. 18, 1889.
H. C.—Wm. LewtTuwaite for No, 108; Miss NorRMAN for No. 110; A.
Hi. WILson for No. 114.

Class 196.—Old English Game Hens. [15 entries, none absent. |

120 I. (£2.)—JoHN GRANAM, Mungrisdale, Greystoke, Penrith. 1888.
127 II. (£1.)—Tnomas Roper, Wetheral, Carlisle.
116 III. (10s.)—EpwWaArD BARNES, Godalming, Surrey. Over 1 year.
128 R.N. & H. C.—J. W. Simpson, Abbey Town, Silloth, Cumberland.
H. C.—Joun BrovuGu for No. 117; Rev. H. W. Hurron for No. 123;
Wm. LEWTHWAITE for No. 124; McHArrigp & LomAs for No. 125; J.
W. Simpson for No. 129.

Class 197.—Old English Game Cockerels. [10 entries, 1 absent. |

131 I. (£2.)—Joun BrouaGn, 22, London Road, Carlisle. Jan. 18.

138 II. (£1.)—Miss Norman, Moor Park, Kirkbampton, Carlisle. Jan, 10.
134 ILI. (10s.)—J. CRAIGHILL, Warwick Bridge, Carlisle. Feb. 8.

136 BR. N, & H, C.—McHarriz & Lomas, Park House, Silloth. Jan 38& Feb. 10.

Class 198.—Old English Game Pullets. [9 entries, 1 absent. ]

141 I. (£2.) & 142 II, (£1.)—Jonn Broven, 22, London Rd. Carlisle. Jan. 18°
147 III. (10s.)—McHarriz & Lomas, Park House, Silloth. Jan. 3.
143 R, N. & H. C.—Brovuan & JAcKson, 22, London Road, Carlisle. Feb. 2.

Class 199.—Jndian Game Cocks. [9 entries, 2 absent. }

52 I, (£2.)—Joun FRAYN, St. Stephen’s, Launceston, Cornwall, 1889,
8 II (£1.)—G. T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester.
5 III, (10s.)—A. H. HAWKEY, Wadebridge, Cornwall, 1890,

Other French Breeds. exlvii
a
151 R. N. & H. C.—Wo. Brent, Clampit Farm, Callington. Over 1 year.
H. C.—Assor Bros. for No. 150; JAMES FRAYNE for No. 153; Dr.
GOODALL for No. 154.

Class 200.—Jndian Game Hens. [8 entries, 1 absent.

164 I, (£2.)—A. H. HAWKEY, Wadebridge, Cornwall. 1890.

161 II. (£1.)—JouN FRAYN, St. Stephen’s, Launceston. 1889.

162 III, (10s.)—JAMES FRAYWNE, Piper’s Pool, Launceston.

166 R. N. & H. C—Geo. T. WuIrriELpD, Colebridge, Gloucester.
H. C.—WM. BRENT for No. 159; JoHN Cross for No, 160.

Class 201.—J/ndian Game Cockerels. [13 entries, 1 absent.]

‘172 I. (£2.)—JouN FRAYN, St. Stephen’s, Launceston.

178 II. (£1.)—A. C. West, Goodleigh, Devon. Jan. 28,
167 III. (10s.)—R. & H. ABBoT, Hingham, Norfolk. Jan.
176 R. N. & H. C.—Tom HAwkeEy, Wadebridge, Cornwall. Jan.
H. C.—Mrs. T. Broox for No. 169; JAMES FRAYNE for No. 173; G.S.
WYNN for No. 179. Com.—Joun Spry for No. 177.

Class 202.—Jndian Game Pullets. [12 entries, none absent. ]

187 I, (£2.)—A. H. Hawkey, Wadebridge, Cornwall. Jan.

184 II. (£1.)—Joun FRAyN, St. Stephen’s, Launceston.

182 III, (10s.)—Mrs. T. Brook, Vine Street, Winkleigh, Devon,

190 R, N, & H. C.—G. T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester. Jan. 3.

Houdans.

Class 203.—Zoudan Cocks. [3 entries. |

194 I. (£2) and 193 II. (£1.)—S. W. Tuomas, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea.
192 III, (10s.)—Rery. G. T. Laycock, Terwick Rectory, Petersfield, Hants.

“

Class 204.—HHoudan Hens. [7 entries, none absent. ]

200 I, (£2), and 201 II. (£1.)—S. W. Tuomas, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea,
195 III. (10s.)—Rev. F. Cooke, Clungunford Rectory, Salop. 2 years.
196 R. N, & H. C,—J. Hru1, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithiel. 3 years.

199 H. C.—Rey. R. 8. Mircuison, Barby Rectory, Rugby.

Class 205.—Woudan Cockerels. [4 entries. ]
202 I. (£2)—Ray. F. Cooke, Clungunford Rectory, Salop. Jan. 1.
204 IT. (#1), and 208 III. (10s.)—J. Hin, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithiel. Feb.
13 & Jan. 1,
205 R. N.—Rey. Ricuarp S. Mircmison, Barby Rectory, Rugby.

Class 206.—Houdan Pudlets. [5 entries, none absent. |

208 I. (£2.)—J, Hitu, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithiel. Feb. 13.

206 II. (£1) and 207 III, (10s.)—Rery. F. Cooker, Clungunford Rectory,
Salop. Jan. 1.

209 R. N.—J, Hitt, Bridgend Mills, Lostwithicl. Jan, 1,

Other French Breeds.

Class 207.—Cockis. [6 entries, none absent. ]

215 I. (£2,)—Francis VAupy, St. Heliers, Jersey. Mar. 1889.
211 Il. (41.)—J. H. Broprick, The Attleburys, Water Orton,
(French Créve and Créve Coeur.)

exlviii Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster.

214 III. (10s.)—S. W. THomAs, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea. (Créve.)
213 R.N. & H. C_—Jos RAWNSLEY, Langley Farm, Bingley. (Créve.)
216 H. C.—FRANcIS VALPY. Mar. 1890.

Class 208.—Hens. [8 entries, none absent. ]

219 I, (£2.)—D. Hastinas, Darvel, Ayrshire. June 1889.
220 IL. (£1.)—F. MitcuHe.1, Shay Grove, Crosshills.
218 III, (10s.)—J. H. Broprick, The Attleburys, Water Orton. (Créve Coeur.)
222 R. N. & H. C.—S. W. THomas, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea. (Créve.)
H. C.—J. H. Broprick for No. 217 (Créve Coeur); Jos RAWNSLEY for
No. 221, (Créve).
223 Com.—FRANCIS VALPY, Mar. 1890.

Class 209.—Cockerels. [2 entries.]
226 I, (£2) and 225 II. (£1.)—FRAncIs VALPY, St. Heliers, Jersey. Feb.

Class 210.—Pullets. [2 entvries. |
228 II, (£1) and 227 III, (10s.)—FRrANcIS VALPY, St. Heliers, Jersey. Feb,

Brahmas.
Class 211.—Brahma Cocks. [5 entries, 1 absent. |

229 I, (£2.)—JoHN BROOKE, Heaton, Bradford, Yorks.

232 II. (£1.)—G. H. Woop & R. W. WEBSTER, Iver Heath, Uxbridge, 1890.
230 III. (10s.)—T. R. SipG@wick, Hovingham, York.

231 R.N,. & H. C.—S. W. TnHomas, Glasfryn, Cockett, Swansea,

Class 212.—Brahma Hens, [8 entries, 1 absent.|

235 I, (£2.)—W. R. GARNER, Dyke Bourne, Lincs. 2 years.
240 IT. (£1.), and 239 III. (10s.)—G. H. Woop & R. W. WEBSTER, Iver Heath,
Uxbridge. 1889 & 1890.
234 R. N. & H. C—Joun Brooks, Heaton, Bradford, Yorks.
H, C.—T. S. May for No. 236; T. R. Stpawitx for No. 237 ; Mrs. STANY-
FORTH for No, 238.

Class 213.—Brahma Cockerels. [7 entries, 1 absent. ]

247 I, (£2.)—Rev. H. Burton, Fauls Vicarage, Whitchurch, Salop. Jan. 9.

248 II. (£1.)—J. TAYLoR, Alsager, Stoke-on-Trent. Jan, 2.

243 III. (10s.) and 242 R. N.—ALFRED ASHTON, Kermincham Lodge, Holmes
Chapel, Cheshire. Jan.

Class 214.—-Brahma Pullets. [8 entries, none absent. |

I. (£2) and 250 II. (£1.)—ALFrrep AsuTon, Kermincham Lodge, Holmes
Chapel, Cheshire, Jan.

bo
—
(i=)

254 III. (10s.)—Rev. H. BurtToN, Fauls Vicarage, Whitchurch, Salop, Jan. 1.
256 R, N. & H. C.—J. TAyuor, Alsager, Stoke-on-Trent. Jan. 2.

255 H. C.—W. R. GARNER, Dyke, Bourne. Jan. 3.

251 Com,—Dnr. P, L. Benson, Steeple Claydon. Jan. 5.

Cochins.
Class 215.—Cochin Cocks. [11 entries, 3 absent. |

262 I.(£2.)—Mrs. Kiru Powr1t, Elm Lodge, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
264 II. (£1.)—G. H. Procter, Flass House, Durham, 1889.
266 III. (10s.)—G. H. Woop & R. W. WesstER, Iver Heath, Uxbridge. 1890,
265 R. N. & H. C—Mnrs. Scriven, Normandy Villa, Shipley, Yorks. =
H, C.—H. J, Goopaut for No, 257; G. H. Procter for No, 263.

Wyandotte Fouls. exlx

Class 216.—Cochin Lens. [8 entries, 3 absent. ]

272 I. (£2.)\—G. H. Procter, Flass House, Durham. 1889.

271 II. (£1.)—Mrs. Kirz PowE.u, Elm Lodge, Chesterfield.

273 III. (10s.)\—G. H. PrRocrrer, Flass House, Durham. 1889.

274 R. N, & H. C.—Mrs. Scriven, Normandy Villa, Shipley, Yorks.

Class 217.—Cochin Cockerels. [9 entries, 1 absent. |

279 I. (£2.)—H. J. GOODALL, The Priory, Melton Mowbray. Jan. 8.
284 II, (£1.)—Tom SowERsy, Elm Road, Cleethorpes, Lincs. Jan. 5.
282 III, (10s.) and 281 R. N.— Mrs, Scriven, Normandy Villa, Shipley, Yorks.

Class 218.—Cochin Pullets. [9 entries, 2 absent. |

293 I. (£2) & 292 II. (£1.)—Tom Sownrrsy, Elm Road, Cleethorpes. Jan. 5.
289 III, (10s.)—Mrs. Scriven, Normandy Villa, Shipley, Yorks.

285 R.N. & H.C.—A. Asuton, Kermincham Lodge, Holmes Chapel, Ches. Feb.
290 H, C.—Mrs. Scrtvren, Normandy Villa, Shipley, Yorks.

Langshans.

Class 219.—Zangshan Cocks. [14 entries, 1 absent. |

299 I, (£2.)—Puitiip MARrsH, Bedminster, Bristol. March, 1889.

301 II. (£1.)—F. O. Piercy, The Elms, Lowthorpe, Hull, 1889.

298 III. (10s.)—Rryv. G. T. LAycock, Terwick Rectory, Petersfield.

305 R. N. & H. C.—RALPH WAITON, Tickhill, Rotherham. Jan. 25, 1890.
H, C.—J. A. HEwerson for No. 295; F. O. PrERcy for No. 300. ®
Com,— REV. G. I. LAycock for No. 297 ; WM. WILLIAMS for No. 306.

Class 220.—Langshan Hens. [14 entries, none absent. ]

313 I. (£2.)—Ruy. G. T. Laycock, Terwick Rectory, Petersfield, Hants.
320 II. (£1.)—J. W. WALKER, Oxford Lodge, Henley-on-Thames. 1889.
316 III. (10s.)—F. O. Piercy, The Elms, Lowthorpe, Hull. 1890.
310 R. N. & H. C.—J. A. HEwertson, The Hall, Wawne, near Hull.
H. C.—Rev. G. IT. LAycock for No. 312; PHILLIP MARSH for No. 314.

Class 221.—Langshan Cockerels. [5 entries, none absent. |

325 I, (£2) and 326 II, (£1.)—F. O. Pirrcy, The Elms, Lowthorpe, Hull. Jan.
322 III. (10s.) and 323 R. N.—Rry. G. T. Laycock, Terwick Rectory, Peters-
field, Hants. Jan. 5.

Class 222.—Zangshan Pullets. [7 entries, none absent. |

831 I, (£2.)—-F. O. Pimrcy, The Elms, Lowthorpe, Hull. Jan.

329 II. (£1) and 330 III. (10s.)\—Rery. G. T. Laycock, Terwick Rectory,
Petersfield, Hants, Jan. 5.

328 R. N.—A. CuAsn, Ewell, Surrey, Feb. 7.

Wyandottes.

Class 223.— Wyandotte Cocks. [15 entries, 1 absent.]

846 I. (£2.)\—G. T, WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester.
339 II. (£1.)—Mrs. FRANKLIN, Syston Old Hall, Grantham. Mar, 1890.
338 III. (10s.)—Ruy. F. Cooxn, Clungunford Rectory, Salop. May 1890.
334 R. N..& H. C—Appot Bros., Hingham, Norfolk. 1890.
H. C.—ReEy. G. T. Laycock for No. 341; W. H. Mrip@ury for No, 3 42;
Mrs. PARKE for No. 344; G. I, WHITFIELD for No. 347,

gl! Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster.

Class 224.— Wyandotte Hens. [15 entries, 1 absent. |

349 I. (£2.)—ABsor Bros., Hingham, Norfolk. 1890.

361 IL. (£1.)—G. Squipp, Danny Lodge, Hassocks, Sussex. Apr. 1890.
353 ITI, (10s.)—Mrs. FRANKLIN, Syston Old Hall, Grantham. 1890.
358 RN. & H. C,—Mrs. E. Otiver, Fletton, Peterborough. Apr. 1890.

Class 225.— Wyandotte Cockerels. [9 entries, 1 absent. |

371 I. (£2.)—Mrs., SARA H. SANDFORD, Whitchurch, Salop. Jan. 8.

368 II. (£1.)—Mrs. FRANKLIN, Syston Old Hall, Grantham. Mar. 13 or 19,
365 III, (10s.)—C. H. BANToFT, Whinbergh Park, East Dereham. Jan. 30,
364 R. N. & H. C.—Anszor Bros., Hingham, Norfolk. Jan.

367 H. C.—Rey. F. Cooke, Clungunford Rectory, Salop. Jan. 1.

Class 226.— Wyandotte Pullets, [11 entries, none absent. ]

380 I. (£2.)-—Mrs. FRANKLIN, Syston Old Hall, Grantham. Mar. 13 or 19.
382 II. (£].)—Mrs. Sara H. SANDFORD, Whitchurch, Salop. Jan. 8.

377 III. (10s.).—Wm. ByGort, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lincs. Jan. 2,
373 R.N.& H, C.—Appor Bros., Hingham, Norfolk. Jan.

Plymouth Rocks.

Class 227.—Plymouth Rock Cocks. [14 entries, 1 absent.]

391.1. (£2.)—L. & S. JAcKson, Manor Farm, Ringway, Altrincham.
386 II, (£1) & 887 III. (10s.)—R. BUTTERFIELD, Nafferton Hall, Hull. 1890.
392 R. N. & H. C.—Sypnry F. JAckson, Bourne Place, Bexley, Kent.
390 H. C.—JoHN HARTLEY, The Knowle, Morley, Yorks.

394 Com.—J. H. PEACE, Northfield, Knowle, Warwick. June 1890.

Class 228.—Plymouth Rock Hens. [14 entries, 1 absent. ]

401 I. (£2.)—Joun Harruny, The Knowle, Morley, Yorks.
399 II. (£1.)—R. BUTTERFIELD, Nafferton Hall, Hull. 1890.
398 III. (10s.)—R. Burrerrievp. Nafferton Hall, Hull. 4 years.
407 R. N. & H, C.—J. H. PEAcr, Northfield, Knowle, Warwick. June 1890,
400 H. €,—Joun HAnpon, Old Tow n, Kirkby Lonsdale,
Com,.—J. H. PEACE for No. 406; R. W. WEBSTER for No. 411.

Class 229.—Plymouth Rock Cockerels. [20 entries, 2 absent.]

424 I, (£2,)—Jonun Harpon, Old Town, Kirkby Lonsdale. Jan. 16.
428 II (£1.)—Wm. PARKER, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale. Feb. 2.
415 III. (10s.)—R. J. BRowNING, Quedgeley, Gloucester. Jan. 3.
419 R.N. & H.C.—W. Evrrineron, Weasenham, Swaffham, Norfolk. Feb. 14.
H, C.—R. BUTTERFIELD for No. 417; J. W. HAuL for No, 423; *REy. Fy
Luoyp for No. 426.
Com.—R. GARLICK for No, 422; Miss Stuart for No, 430; J. WHEELER
for No. 431.

Class 280.—Plymouth Rock Pullets. [20 entries, 1 absent. ]

442 I, (£2.)—L. & S. JACKSON, Manor Farm, Ringway, Altrincham.

445 II. (£1)—L. Hl. & J. Nurrer, Burton, Westmoreland. Jan. 3.

433 III. (10s.)--C. H. BANTorr, W hinbergh Park, E. Dereham., Feb, 7.
446 R, N. & H. C,—Wo. PARKER, Rigmaden Park, Kirkby Lonsdale, Feb.
432 H.C,—J. W. ADLINGTON, 451 Com,—J. WHEELER,

Andalusian Fouts. cli

Scotch Greys.

Class 231.—Scotch Grey Cocks. {2 entries. |

453 I. (£2.)—D, HASTINGS, Irving Bank Cottage, Darvel, N.B. June 1890.
452 II, (£1.)—JOHN CARSWELL, Airth Mains, Larbert, N.B. May 1890.

Class 232.—Scotch Grey Hens. [3 entries. |
454 I. (£2,)—Joun CARSWELL, Airth Mains, Larbert, N.B. Apr. 1889.
456 II. (£1.)—W. 8. MITCHELL, Castle Orchards, Airth, Larbert, N.B.
455 III. (10s.)—D. HAstrncs, Darvel, Ayrshire. June 1890.

Class 233,.—Scotch Grey Cockerels. [No entry.|

Class 234.—Scotch Grey Pullets. [1 entry.]
457 II. (£1.)—Wo. 8. Mrrcnett, Castle Orchards, Airth, Larbert, N.D.

Minorceas.

Class 235.— Minorca Cocks. [10 entries, 1 absent. ]

461 I. (£2.)—A. Lewis, Cornhill, Bridgwater, Somerset.

459 II. (£1.)—JoHN GLANFIELD, The Riffel, Torquay. Aug. 1890.

464 III. (10s.) & 465 R. N. &H.C.—A.G. Pirrs, Highbridge. Apr. & May, 1890.
467 H. C.—LApDy WILSON, Chillingham Barns, Northumberland. 1890.

Class 236.—Winorca Hens. [23 entries, 2 absent.|

472 I. (£2.)—Suret. Cotton, Market St., Ikeston, Derbyshire. June 28,1890.

477 II. (£1.)—F. MiTcHE.L, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.

469 III, (10s,.)—H. ALLEN, Railway Parade, Bridgwater. Apr. 18, 1890.

478 R.N. & H. C.—T. NIGHTINGALE, 76, Aberdeen St., Birmingham. May 5,
H. C,—T. FoTHERGILL for No. 474; W. H. Stoyet for No. 488.
Com.—Scorr Ropinson for No. 485.

Ciass 237.—Minorca Cockerels. [10 entries, none absent. |
494 I. (£2.)—J. W. CROSSMAN, Worlaby Hall, Brigg. Jan. 14.
495 II. (£1.)—HAwkuurst PouLtTry YARrpDs, Bridgwater, Som. Jan. 2.
600 IXI. (10s.)—Wm. STrRiIBLING, Colnbrook, Slough. Jan. 30.
496 R.N. & H. C.—J. W. LABEY, East Lynne, St. Luke’s, Jersey. Jan. 21.
Com. —ABbot Bros. for No, 491; F. MircHEuu for No, 498.

Class 238.— Minorca Pullcets. [8 entries, none absent. |

603 I. (£2) and 502 II. (£1.)—R. BUTTERFIELD, Nafferton Hall, Hull. Jan
505 III, (10s..—HAWwkuHuRST PouLTRY YARDS, Bridgwater, Som. Jan, 2.
508 BR. N. & Com.—F. O. Prprcy, The Elms, Lowthorpe, Hull. Jan.

Andalusians.

Class 239.—Andalusian Cocks. [8 entries, none absent. |

512 I, (£2.)\—_JAmMnEs GREENWOOD, Exley Head, Keighley.

614 II, (£1.)—E. Murraut, Manor Heath, Hast Morton, Yorks. Mar. 1890.
510 ITI. (10s.)—Rev. E. R. O. Bripgeman, Blymhill Rectory, Shifnal.

511 R.N. & H. C.—D. Burrerriep, 3, Laythorpe Ter., Hast Morton, Yorks,

Class 240.— Andalusian Hens. [12 entries, none absent. |

523 I. (£2:)--R. Lirtin, Jun., Rokeby Cottage, Glossop. May 1890.
517 II. (£1.)—Aznpor Bros., Hingham, Norfolk, 1890,

4

526 III. (10s.)—G. 8. OLDHAM, Sherington, Newport Pagnell. Apr. 1890.
524 R. N. & H. C.—E. MERRALL, Manor Heath, East Morton, Yorks. Mar. 1890,

H. C.—ReEv. E. R. O. BRIDGEMAN for No. 518; J. GREENWOOD for No.
520; Rev. R. T, THORNTON for No. 528,

eli Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster.

Class 241.—Andalusian Cockerels. [5 entries, none absent.]

531 I. (£2.)—J. GREENWOOD, Exley Head, Keighley. Jan. 4,
532 II, (£1.)—E. MERRALL, Manor Heath, East Morton, Yorks. Jan. {
. 529 IIT. (10s.)\—Axpsor Bros., Hingham, Norfoik. Feb.

530 R.N.& H. €.—D. BUTTERFIELD, 3, Laythorpe Ter.,E. Morton, Yorks, Jan, 2,

Class 242.—Andalusian Pullets. [8 entries, none absent. ] ;

535 I, (£2.)—D. BUTTERFIELD, 3, Laythorpe Ter., E. Morton, Yorks. Feb, 2.
539 II, (£1.)—E. MERRALL, Manor Heath, East Morton, Yorks. Jan.

541 III. (10s.)—-Rev. R. T. THoRNTOoN, Ravensdale, Tunbridge Wells. Feb,
536 R. N. & H. C.—J. GREENWOOD, Exley Head, Keighley. Jan. 4.

Leghorns.
Class 243.—Leghorn Cocks. [8 entries, 1 absent. ]

546 I, (£2.)—H. D. Lapps, Swanley Junction, Kent. Apr. 1890.

547 II. (£1.)—F. M1tcHE.LL, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.

548 III. (10s.)—JosrpH PRIDE, Thorverton, Devon. Apr. 1890.

545 BR. N, & H. C._—Joun Hurst, South Terrace, Glossop. Apr. 1890.

Class 244.—Leghorn Hens. [6 entries, 1 absent. | :

1 I. (£2.)—Joun Hurst, South Terrace, Glossop. Apr. 1850,
4 II. (£1.)—WaAbDE Bros,, Silsden, vid Keighley.

0 III. (10s.)\—Joun Burry, 40, Aireview St., Silsden, Yorks.
2

Class 245.—Leyhorn Cockerels. [12 entries, 3 absent. ]

565 I. (£2.)—Mrs. Sinkins, Aldermoor House, Southampton, Feb. 1.

558 II. (£1.)—R. BUTTERFIELD, Nafferton Hall, Hull. Jan.

566 III. (10s.)—TriLuirson & NIxon, 56, Keighley Rd., Silsden, Yorks. Jan, 2.
557 R.N. & H. C—J. Berry, 40, Aireview Street, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 3.
564 H. C.—Mrs. SHAw, Brooklands, near Halifax. Jan.

567 Com.— WADE Bros., Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 15.

Class 246.—Leghorn Pullets. [14 entries, 1 absent. ]

575 I. (£2.)—M. Jackson, High Green Farm, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 16.

581 II. (£1.)—WADE Bros,, Silsden, vid Keighley. Jan. 15.

580 III, (10s.)—TiLiirson & NIxon, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 2.

569 R. N. & H. C.—Joun Berry, 40, Aireview Street, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 3.
570 H. C—R. BUTTERFIELD, Nafferton Hall, Hull. Jan,

572 Com.—H. Fry, Silsden, Yorks. Jan. 6. : ’

Hamburghs.

Class 247.—JZamburgh Cocks, any variety. [9 entries, 1 absent.]

586 I. (£2.)—Rev. G. T. Laycock, Terwick Rectory, Petersfield, Hants.
588 II. (£1.)—FREDERICK MITCHELL, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.
589 III. (10s.)—H. Prcxuus, Earby, Leeds (Silver Spangled).
583 R. N. & H. C—Rerv. 8S. ASHWELL, Finmere Rectory, Buckingham (Silver
Spangled). Mar. 1890. :
H. C.— Rey. 8. ASHWELL for No. 582; Rey. G, T. LAycock for No,-587 ;
LADY WoLsELEy for No, 590,

Table Fowls. clili

Class 248.—Tamburgh Hens, any variety. [10 entries, 1 absent. ]
596 I. (£2.)—F. MITCHELL, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.
598 II. (£1.)—R. Rimmer, Churchtown, Southport (Black). Jan. 10, 1890.
597 III. (10s.)—H. Pickus, Earby, Leeds (Silver Spangled).
592 R.N. & H. C.—A. HARRowING, The Old Hall, Ruswarp, Whitby.
H. C.—Rev.G. T. Laycock for No. 595; Miss Stuart for No. 599 ;
LADY WOLSELEY for No. 600.

Class 249.—J/amburgh Cockerels, any variety. [7 entries, none absent. |
602 I. (£2.)—M. Jackson, Silsden, Yorks (Gold Pencil). Jan. 16.

604 II. (£1.)—H. Pickwunrs, Earby, Leeds (Silver Spangled). Feb. 14.

603 Il. (10s.)—F. MircrEeLu, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.

Class 250.—Hamburgh Pullets, any variety. [6 entries, none absent. |

609 I. (£2.)\—F. MrrcuE.u, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley.
610 II. (£1.)—H. Pickuxs, Earby, Leeds (Silver Pencilled). Feb. 14.
608 III. (10s.)—C. A. KEMBALL, Earls Acre, Plymouth (Black). Jan, 2.

Any Other Variety.’

Class 251.—Any other variety, Cocks. [6 entries, 1 absent. |
618 I. (#2.)—Jos RAWNSLEY, Langley Farm, Bingley (Poland).
619 II. (£1.)—G. T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester (Aseel).
617 III. (10s.)—J. POWELL, Myrtle Royd, Bingley (Black Spanish). Mar. 4, 1890,
615 R.N. & H. C.—F. MircueEt., Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley (Polish).
616 Com.—Mrs, W. H. Mircuet, Elmdene, Kenilworth (Orpington).

Class 252.—Any other variety, Hens. [5 entries, 1 absent.]
622 I. (£2.)—J. PowELL, Myrtle Royd, Bingley (Black Spanish). Mar. 4, 1890,
621 Il. (£1.)—F. MrrcHELL, Shay Grove, Crosshills, vid Keighley (Polish).
624 III. (10s.)—G T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester (Aseel).
623 R. N. & Com.—Jon RAwns.ey, Langley Farm, Bingley (Spanish),
Class 253.—Any other variety, Cockerels. [2 entries. ]

625 I. (£2,)—F. HARVEY, North St., Lostwithiel (Spanish Whitefaced), Jan. 2.
626 II. (£1.)\—J. W. LABeEy, E, Lynne, St. Luke’s, Jersey (Orpington). Feb. 1.
Class 254.—Any other variety, Pullets. [2 entries. ]

627 I. (£2,)—F. Harvey, North St., Lostwithiel (Spanish Whitefaced), Jan 2.

628 II, (£1.)—J. W. LABEy, Hast Lynne, Jersey (Orpington). Feb. 1.

Table Fowls.

Class 255.—Pair of Cockerels of 1891, of any Pure Breed.
[6 entries, 2 absent. |
630 I. (£2.\—Wa. BRENT, Clampit Farm, Callington (Indian Game),
634 IL. (£1.)—J. WHITE, Worlaby, Northallerton (Coloured Dorking). Feb, 16,
633 III. (10s.)—W™. STANFORD, Steyning, Sussex (Coloured Dorking),

Class 256.—Puir of Pullets of 1891, of any Pure Breed.
[7 entries, none absent. |

635 I. (£2.)\—J. W. Apuineton, Kirk Langley, Derby (Plymouth Rock
Barred). Jan. 14 & 28.
640 I. (£1.)—J. FRAYNE, Piper’s Pool, Launceston (Indian Game).
IE aE ee a
* Bantams excepted,

cliv Award of Poultry Prizes at Doncaster.
é

636 III. (10s. —Wa. BRENT, Clampit Farm, Callington (Indian Game).
H. C.— Wma. ByGort, JuN., for No. 637; WM. STANFORD for No. 641.

Class 257.—Pair of Cockerels of 1891, of a First Cross from any P:
Breeds, [6 entries, 1 absent. |

646 I. (£2.)\—Lapy WILsoy, Chillingham Barns, Belford (Indian Game
Coloured Dorking). Jan. 10.

644 II. (£1.)—Mrs. SrANyForTH, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York (Silver G
Dorking & Indian Game). Feb.

642 III. (10s.)—Miss M. DOLBEN, Ipsley Rectory, Redditch (Indian Game &
Dorking). Jan. 7.

Class 258.—Pair of Pullets of 1891, of a First Cross from any Pu
Breeds. [8 entries, 3 absent.]

655 I, (£2.)—Lapy Witson, Chillingham Barns, Belford (Indian Game
Coloured Dorking). Jan. 10. -

653 IL, (£1.)—Mrs. STANYFoRTH, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York (Silver Grey
Dorking & Indian Game). Feb.

648 III. (10s.)\—RALPH ARTHUR, Torbrian Rectory, Newton Abbot (
shan & Indian Game). Mar. 8.

651, H, ¢,—Puturr B. Govett (Dorking & (Game or) Brahma),

DUCKS.

Aylesbury.
Class 259.—Aylesbury Drakes. [11 entries, 2 absent. ]

658 I. (£2.)—H. Dicey, The Burne, Birchencliff, Huddersfield.

656 II. (£1.)\—Brown & HIckKs, 52, Kingsland Road, Bristol.

666 III. (10s.)—W. WESTON, 31 Mount Street, Aylesbury. 1889.

665 RB. N. & H. C.—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Ulceby, Lines.
639 H. C.—T. G. HouLToN, South Killingholme, Ulceby. 1890.

662 Com.— Mrs. M. A. E. Parsons, Langton, Tunbridge Wells. 1889.

Class 260.— Aylesbury Ducks. [8 entries, none absent. |

669 I. (£2.)—H. Diesy, The Burne, Birchencliff, Huddersfield. 1888.
667 II. (£1.)—Brown & Hicks, 52, Kingsland Road, Bristol.

673 III. (10s.)—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Ulceby.

670 BR. N. & H.C.—T. G. HouLTon, South Killingholme, Lines. 1890.
668 H. C.—W. ByGorTt, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby. Mar. 1890.

Class 261.—Aylesbury Young Drakes. [8 entries, 1 absent.]

676 I. (£2.)—H. Dicey, The Burne, Birchencliff, Huddersfield. Mar. 7.
681 II. (£1.)—W. WEsTON, 31, Mount Street, Aylesbury.
680 IIL. (10s.) & 679 B. N.—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Uleeby.. Mar.

Class 262.— Aylesbury Ducklings. [8 entries, 1 absent. ]
684 I. (£2.)—H. Diesy, The Burne, Birchencliff, Huddersfield. Mar. 7.
689 IL. (£1.)—W. WESTON, 31, Mount Street, Aylesbury.
687 III. (10s.)—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Ulceby. Mar. 12.
683 RB. N.—Ws. ByGort, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lines. March 9,
688 Com.—R. J. SERGEANT. Apr. 2.

Rouen.

Class 263.—Rouen Drakes. [12 entries, 2 absent] “a

695 I. (£2.)—T. G. HovutTon, South Killingholme, Uleeby.’ 1889. ;
701 Il. (£1.)—T. WAKEFIELD, Lowton, Newton-le-Willows, Lancs.

Ducks. cly

702 III. (10s.)—Lapy WILSON, Chillingham Barns, Belford. 1887.
697 R. N. & H. C.—G. H. Procter, Flass House, Durham.

H. C.—Ww. Bya@ort, Jun., for No. 691 ; F. E. RICHARDSON for No. 698.
692 Com.—W™mM, ByGort, JuN.

Class 264.—Rowen Ducks. [15 entries, 1 absent. |
703 I. (£2.)\—Wo. BrcGorr, JUN., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lines. 1890.
706 XI, (£1.)—T. G. HouLToN, South Killingholme, Uleeby, Lines. 1889,
708 III. (10s.)—G. H. Procrerr, Flass House, Durham.
715 R. N. & H. C.—T. WAKEFIELD, Lowton, Newton-le-Willows, Lancs.
H, C.—Wo. ByGort, Jun., for No. 704; Rev. F. CooKE for No. 705 ; LADY
WILSON for No. 716.

Class 265.—Rouen Young Drakes. [6 entries, 1 absent. ]

718 I. (£2.)—Wwm. ByGort, JuN., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lincs. Jan. 3.
722 I1.(£1) & 721 III. (10s.)—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Lines. Mar.12.
720 R. N.—T. G. HouuTon, South Killingholme, Ulceby.

Class 266.—Rowen Ducklings. [6 entries, 1 absent.]
727 I. (£2) & 728 IL. (£1.)—R. J. SERGEANT, Thornton Abbey, Lincs. Mar. 20.
724 III. (10s.)\—Wm. Byeort, Jun., Rye Hill Farm, Ulceby, Lincs. Jan. 3.
726 R. N.—T. G. Hovuuton, South Killingholme, Ulceby.

) Pekin.
Class 267.—Pekin Drakes. [6 entries, none absent. |
732 I. (£2.)—Brown & Hicks, 52, Kingsland Road, Bristol.

730 IT. (£1.)—T. ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes. Apr. 1889.
735 III. (10s.) and 734 R. N.—F, Davis, Woolashill, Pershore.

Class 268.— Pekin Ducks. [6 entries, none absent. |
739 I. (£2) and 740 II. (£1.)—F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore.

738 III. (10s.)—Brown & Hicks, 52, Kingsland Road, Bristol.
741 R. N.—H. Wituers, Ashley Road, Bristol. July 23, 1890.

Class 269.—Pekin Young Drakes. [7 entries, none absent. ]
743 I. (£2.)—T. ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes. Mar.
744 II. (£1.)—Brown & Hicks, 52, Kingsland Road, Bristol. Apr. 30.
742 III. (10s.)—THoMAS ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes. Mar.
745 R.N. & H. C.—F. DAvis, Woolashill, Pershore.
746 H. C.—F. Dayis. 747 Com—tT. I. HORSLEY.

Class 270.—Pekin Ducklings. [7 entries, none absent. |

749 I. (£2.)—THomas ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes. Mar.
752 II. (£1) and 753 III. (10s.)—F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore.
750 R.N.—THoMAS ALLEN, Crookwood, Devizes. 755 Com.—G. T. WHITFIELD,

Any Other Useful Breeds.

Class 271.—Drakes. [4 entries, none absent. |
756 I. (£2.)—Mrs. BAYLDoN, Oaklands, Dawlish (Cayuga).
759 IL. (£1.)—Lapy WILSON, Chillingham Barns, Belford (Cayuga). 1890.
757 III. (10s.)—F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore (Cayuga).
758 R.N.—T.H.StTRrNcer, Bunce Court, Otterden, Kent (Musck). Feb. 5,1889.

Class 272.—Ducks. [2 entries. ]

760 I. (£2.)—F, Davis, Woolashill, Pershore (Cayuga).
761 If. (£1.)—Lapy Wi1soy, Chillingham Barns, Belford (Cayuga). 1890.
~ :

clvi Award of Prizes at Doncaster.

Class 273.— Young Drakes. [1 entry.]
762 II. (£1.)—F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore (Cayuga).

Class 274.—Ducklings. [1 entry.]
763 II. (£1.)—F. Davis, Woolashill, Pershore (Cayuga).

Table Ducks.
Class 275.—Pair of Ducklings of 1891, of any Pure Breed.

[5 entries, 1 absent. ]
767 I. (£2.)—H. G. WESTON, Aylesbury, Bucks (Aylesbury).
766 II. (£1.)—Mrs. Scosy, Sinnington, Pickering, Yorks (Aylesbury). Apr. 20.
768 III. (10s.)—G. T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Gloucester (Pekin). Mar. 16,
765 H. (C.—MRs. MITCHELL, Elmdene, Kenilworth (Aylesbury). Mar, 24.

Class 276.—Pair of Ducklings of 1891, of a First Cross from any
Pure Breeds. [6 entries, 1 absent. ]
774 I.(£2.)—G. T. WHITFIELD, Colebridge, Glos.(Pekin & Aylesbury). Mar.
773 II. (£1.)—H. G. WEston, Aylesbury (Pekin & Aylesbury).
772 III. (10s.)—Mrs. STANYFORTH, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York (Rouen
Pekin). Apr. 1.

Geese.

Class 277.—Ganders. [6 entries, 2 absent.]
778 I. (£2.)—JoHN KERR, Red Hall, Wigton (Toulouse). 1888.
775 II. (£1,)—R. & H. ABgort, Hingham, Norfolk (Embden). 1889.
780 III. (10s.)—S. SuTCLIFFE, St. Cross, Winchester (Toulouse). June 20,
779 R, N.—J. H. PEACE, Northfield, Knowle, Warwick (Toulouse),

Class 278.—Geese. [5 entries, 2 absent. ]
783 III. (10s.)—J, H. PEACE, Northfield, Knowle, Warwick (Toulouse).

Turkeys.

Class 279.—Turkey Cocks. [9 entries, none absent. ]

788 I. (£2.)—E. KENDRICK, JUN., Wexford House, Lichfield (American Bronze

784 II. (£1.)—AxBsot Bros., Hingham, Norfolk (American Bronze). 1890.

787 III. (10s.)—H. T. GooDENOUGH, Ronkswood House, Worcester (America
Mammoth). May 24, 1889.

792 R.N. & H. C.—LApy WILSoN (Bronze Cambridge). 1889.
H, ¢.—J. W. Liu for No. 789; Mrs. MitcHELL for No. 790.
Com,—J. DONALD for No. 786,

Class 280.— Turkey Hens. [8 entries, none absent. ]
795 I. (£2.)—H. T. GoopENOUGH, Ronkswood House, Worcester (Ameri
Mammoth). May 24, 1889. ;
799 II. (£1.)—Lapy WI1LsoN, Chillingham Barns (Bronze Cambridge). 18
798 III. (10s.)—Mrs. WARD, Bearnett House, Wolverhampton (Bronze).
800 R. N. & H. C.—LApy WILSON (Bronze Cambridge). 1889,
796 H. C,—-E. Kenprick, Jun., Lichfield (American Bronze). -

S

Cheese. elvii

FARM AND DAIRY PRODUCE OF THE UNITED
KINGDOM.

Cheese.

Class 281.—Zhree Cheddar Cheeses, not less than 50 1b. each, made
im 1891. [7 entries. ]

5 I. (£15.)—Cox & HALL, Manor Dairy, Wroughton, Swindon.

' 7 II. (£10.)—S. J. Martin, Waddon Farm, Lamyatt, Evercreech, Bath.
4 III. (£5.)—H. Cannon, Milton Clevedon, Evercreech, Bath,
6 R. N.—WM. GILMAN, Cheese Factory, Rocester, Staffs.

Class 282.—TZhree Cheshire Cheeses, not less than 40 1b. each, made
in 1891. [10 enéries.]

13 I. (£15.)—Wo. Durton, Brindley Hall, Nantwich.
15 II, (£10.)—T. HouLBROOKE, Calverley Farm, Tarporley.
9 III. (£5.)—I. A. Brown, Ridley Hall, Tarporley.
16 BR, N. & Com.—R. Mutuock, Guy Lane Farm, Waverton, Chester.

Class 283.—Six Stilton Cheeses, of 1891 make. [€ entries. ]

19 I, (£15.)—Mrs. FAIRBROTHER, Beeby, Leicester.

21 II, (£10,)—H. Morris, Manor Farm, Saxelby, Melton Mowbray.

20 III. (£5.)—AtbBert HULL, Frisby House, Billesdon, Leicestershire.

18 BR. N. & Com.—JouN Baker, Willoughby-on-the-Wolds, Loughborough.

Class 284.— Three Cotherstone Cheeses, made in 1891, [2 entries. ]

24 II. (£5.)—Tuomas Brown, Marske, Richmond, Yorks.
25 III, (£8.)—Mrs. WALTON, Oak Villa, Cotherstone, vid Darlington.

Class 285.— Three Wensleydale Cheeses, made in 1891, [6 entries. ]

26 II, (£5.)—T. Browy, Marske, Richmond, Yorks.
28 III. (£3.)—T. F. Kine, Edgley, West Witton, Bedale.
29 R. N,—J. PioKARD, Thoresby, Redmire, Bedale.

Class 286.—Thiree Cheeses of any other British make, made in 1891,
[16 entries. ]

-35 I. (£15.)—H. Cannon, Milton Clevedon, Evercreech, Bath.
36 II. (£10,)—Cox & HALL, Manor Dairy, Wroughton, Swindon.
44 III. (£5,)—R. Muttoox, Guy Lane Farm, Waverton, Chester,
83 IV. (£8.)—I. A. Brown, Ridley Hall, Tarporley.
43 R, N, & Com.—S, J. MARTIN, Waddon Farm, Lamyatt, Evercreech, Bath,

Soft Cheese.

Class 287.—Ziree Cream Cheeses. [7 entries. ]

48 I. (£3.)—E. Broven, Wyndyate, near Scarborough,

52 II. (£2.)—C. C. Tupway, The Cedars, Wells, Somerset.
61 Ill, (£1.)—T. J. Orner, Howgrave, Ripon.

50 R. N.—E, FLANDERS, 84, Regent Street, Derby.

VOL. Il. T. S.—7 l

—-

clvili Award of Prizes at Doncaster.

Class 288.— hice British Soft Cheeses, other than Cream, made from
Milk, no extra Cream added. [2 entries. |

56 II. (£2.)—C. R. VALENTINE, Dun Cow Dairy Farm, Ludlow, Salop.
55 III, (£1.)—C. C. Tupway, The Cedars, Wells, Somerset.

Butter.

Class 289.—7hree pounds Fresh Butter, absolutely free from salt, made
up in pounds. [75 entries. |

CLASSES 289 AND 290.
Five equal Prizes of £5 each. Five equal Prizes of £3 each,

65 (£5.)—Jamus Buytu, Wood House, Stansted, Essex.
73 (£5.)—G. C. CornER, Murkey Hill, Middleton Tyas, Richmond, Yorks.
96 (£5.)—Ruy. J. G. B. Kyiaut, Middleham Rectory, Yorks. j
98 (£5.)—THE EARL OF LONDESBOROUGH, Londesborough Park, Yorks.
119 (£5.)—LizvT.-CoL, LIONEL TILLOTSON, Silkmore, Stafford.
90 (£3.)—Mrs. Hopwoop, Ketton Mall, Stamford.
108 (£3.)—F RED. C. PAINE, Hengrave, Bury St. Edmunds.
127 (£3.)—Wm. WHISTON, Blakelow Dairy, Macclesfield.
128 (£3.)—Rey. S. H. WILLIAMS, Gt. Linford Rectory, Newport Pagnell.
130 (£3.)—WM. WINTER, Highberries, Carlisle.
116 R.N, & H. C.—Mrs. STANYFORTH, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York.

H. C.—F’. ALEXANDER for No. 58; CATHEDRAL Darry Co. for No. 70;
THE COUNTESS OF CRAWFORD for No. 74; Mrs. Duron for No. 78;
J. HANSON for No, 87; D. LONG WILt for No. 99; Lizut,.-CoLt. RAMSDEN
for No. 112; Mrs. RowsortTom for No. 115.

Com.—J. Brurron for No. 68; J. CARTER for No. 69; W. CHRISTIE-
MILLER for No. 72; CAPT. GREENWOOD for No. 85; Hon. Mrs. Cuctu
Howanrp for No. 92; Miss A. H. ILLINGWortH for No. 94; J. F.
Laycock for No. 97; Mrs. SwAn for No. 117.

Class 290.—Zhree pounds Fresh Butter, slightly salted, made wp im
pounds, [92 entries. |

141 (£5.)—JAmeEs BiyTH, Wood House, Stansted, Essex,

153 (£5.)—G. C. CorNER, Murkey Hill, Middleton Tyas, Richmond, Yorks.

177 (£5.)—Mrs. HOWELL, Ethy, Lostwithiel, Cornwall.

182 (£5.)—Rev. J. G. B. Knraut, Middleham Rectory, Yorks.

188 (£5.)—Mrs. T. H. MILLER, Singleton Park, Poulton-le-Fylde, Lanes.

147 (£3.)—THE CATHEDRAL Datry Co., Exeter.

196 (£3.)—JAMES OKELL, Park Farm, Barrow, Cheshire.

2C0 (£3.)—JOHN P, PHILLIPS, Penerley Farm, Beaulieu, Hants.

206 (£3.)—Mrs. STANYFORTH, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York. ’

222 (£3.)—WM. WINTER, Highberries, Carlisle.

145 R.N,. & H. C.—Josepn Brurron, 7, Princes Street, Yeovil.

H. C.—T. ALLAN for No. 136; Miss E. J. Bopy for No. 142; J. CARTER
for No. 146; Mrs. DuckirT for No. 160; Mrs. GostLing-Murray for
No. 166; Mrs. Horwoop for No. 174; Hon. Mrs. Ceci Howarp for
No. 176; Miss8S. Leaacorr for No. 184; Timm EARL or LONDESBOROUGH
for No. 185; D. LONGWILUL for No. 186; J. MILNTHORPE for No. 190;
¥. C. PAINE for No. 197; GARRETT TAYLOR for No. 209; C. C. TuDWAY
for No. 212; WM. WHISTON for No. 218.
Com,—J. CANNON for No. 148; W. Curistre-MiLueEr for No. 149; Mrs.

CoLuINGs for No, 152; CAP’. GREENWOOD for No, 169; J. HANSON for
No. 170; Miss ILLincwortu. for No. 179; WM, WorruinGron for
No, 224,

ees ee

Jams and Preserved Fruits. clix

Class 291.—One Key or other Packaye of Salt Butter, not less than
14 lb. in weight. [21 entries. |

229 I. (£6.)—Tue CATHEDRAL DAtry Co., Excter.

230 II. (£3.)—G. C. Corner, Murkey Hill, Middleton Tyas, Richmond, Yorks.

238 III. (£2.)—Mrs. EMity Sway, Stonefield, Lincoln.

239 IV. (£1.)—GARRETT TAYLOR, Trowse House, Norwich.

233 R. N. & H, C,—EL.is POWELL JONES, Plas Llanynys, Denbigh.

CIDER AND PERRY.

Class 292.—Cask of not less than 18, and not more than 30, gallons
of Cider, made in the Autumn of 1890. [9 entries. |

252 I. (£5.)—HENRyY THomMsoN, Southends, Newent, Glos.
248 II. (£3.)—W. H. Borrine, St. Cyres, Exeter.
251 III. (£2.)—W™m. RENDELL, Netherton Manor, Newton Abbot.

Class 293.—One Dozen Bottles of Cider, made in the Autumn of 1890,
[12 entries. |

262 I. (£5.)—H. Tuomson, Southends, Newent, Glos.
266 II. (£3.)—JoHn WATKINS, Pomona Farm, Withington, Hereford.
259 ITI. (£2.)—EDWIN PALMER, West Clyst, Exeter,

Class 294.—One Dozen Bottles of Cider, made in any year before
1890. [7 entries. No award.]

Class 295.—One Dozen Bottles of Perry. [4 entries. ]

277 I. (£5.)—Jonn WATKINS, Pomona Farm, Withington, Hereford,
276 II. (£3.)—D. PHELPS, Tibberton, Gloucester.
274 III. (£2.)—Jouwn Bosuey, Lower Lyde Farm, Hereford,

JAMS AND PRESERVED FRUITS.

Class 296.—-Collection of Whole Fruit Jams. [2 entries. |

278 I. (£5.)—JonAs SAVILLE & Sons, 11, Worthington Street, Bradford.
279 II. (£3.)—T. G. TICKLER, N. Lines. Fruit Preserving Works, Grimsby,

Class 297.—Collection of Boitled Fruits. [2 entries.]

281 I, (£5.)—TnHr WORCESTERSHIRE PRESERVING Co., LTpD., Evesham.
280 II. (£3.)—T. G. Ticker, N, Lincs. Fruit Preserving Works, Grimsby.

Class 298.—Collection of Preserved Fruits. [No entry.]
Class 299.—Collection of Dried or Evaporated Fruits, [No entry.]

x

clx Award of Prizes at Doncaster,

HIVES, HONEY, AND BEE APPLIANCES.

Class 300.— Collection of IHives and Appliances. [7 entries. |

283 I. (£5,)—-G. NEIGHBOUR & SON, 127, High Holborn, London, WC.
285 II. (£2 10s,)—W. Dtxon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds.

Class 301.—Observatory Hive stocked with Bees and Queen.
[7 entries. |
293 I. (£1.)—G. NEIGHBOUR & Son, 127, High Holborn, W.C. Price £7.

294 II. (15s.)—W. Dixon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds. Price £4 5s.
292 IIT. (103.)—W. C. WALTON, Muskham, Newark. Price £5.

Class 302.—Frame-hive for General Use, unpainted. [10 entries.]

297 I. (£1.)\—G. NeIGHBOoR & SON, 127, High Holborn, W.C. Price £1 4g.
305 II, (15s.)—C. ReDsHAW, South Wigston, Leicester. Price £1 4s.

304 III. (10s.)—C. REDsHAW, South Wigston, Leicester. Price £1.

298 H. C.—G, NEIGHBOUR & SON, 127, High Holborn, W.C. Price £1 5s,

Class 303.—J/ost Complete and Inexpensive F'rame-hive for
Cottager’s use. [11 entries. |

313 I. (£1.) and 314 II. (15s.)—C. RuepsHaw, South Wigston, Leicester,
Price 10s. 6d, & 12s. 6d. respectively.
309 IIT. (10s.)—W. P. Mrapows, Syston, Leicester. Price lis,
H. C.—G, NEIGHBOUR & Son for No, 308. Price 12s.; A. C. JEMIESON
for No. 310. Price 10s. 6d.

Class 304.—oney Lxtractor. [4 entries. |

318 I, (15s.)—W. P. Mreavows, Syston, Leicester. Raynor Extractor with
patent backing. Price £1 10s.

317 II. (10s.)—G. Ner@uBour & Son, 127, High Holborn, W.C. Price £1 15s.

319 H, C.—T. LowTHE, Riseholme, Lincoln, for the “ Unique.” Price 21s,

Class 305.—Puir of Section Racks, completely fitted for use and
interchangeable. [8 entries. |
822 I, (15s.)—G. NEIGHBOUR & Son, 127, High Holborn, W.C. Price 8s. 6d.

328 II. (10s.)—C. RepsHAw, South Wigston, Leicester, Price, per pair, 78.
323 H, (,—G. NEIGHBOUR & Son. Price 7s.

Class 306.—/?apid Feeder. [6 entries. ]

334 I, (10s.)—C. REDSHAW, South Wigston, Leicester. Price 3s,
330 II. (5s.)—G. NEIGHBOUR & Soy, 127, High Holborn, W.C. ‘Tin-lined
Feeder. Price 6s. 6d.

Class 807.—7welve Sections of Comb Honey. [20 entries. ]

346 I. (£1.)—SELLS & Son, Uffington, Stamford.
349 II, (10s.)—W. Woop.ey, World’s End, Newbury.
353 III, Seema CiHRISTIE-MILLER, Broomfield, Chelmsford. :

‘ Prizes given by the British h Boo aeagenh Association,

Hives, Honey, and Bee Appliances. elxi

Class 308.—Six Sections of Comb Honey. [18 entries. ]

366 I. (£1.)—J. GREENHILL, 11, Gramburn Road, Wimbledon.
368 II. (10s.)—W. WooDLEy, World's End, Newbury.
872 III. (53,}—W. CHRISTIE-MILLER, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

Class 309.—Run or Extracted Honey, in jars not exceeding 2 Ib, each.
[17 entries. }

378 I. (£1 10s.)—A. J. CARTER, Newfields, Billinghurst.
373 II. (£1.)—Caprr. St. G. ORD, Farnham House, Bury St. Edmunds.

. 887 ITI, (10s.)—C. T. OVEETON, Crawley, Sussex.

Class 310.—Granulated Honey, in jars not exceeding 2 Ib, each.
[8 entries. }

390 I. (£1.)—Carr. St. G. OrD, Farnham House, Bury St. Edmunds.
394 II. (10s.)—W. Dixon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds.
397 III. (5s.)—J. T. Harveyson, Lichfield Grove, Finchley.

Class 311.— Pest and most Attractive Display of Honey, in any form.
[9 entries. ]

460 I. (£2 103.)—W. Dixon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds.
399 II. (£1 103s.)—Miss Cooper, St. Nicholas Square, Leicester.
Class 312.— Useful Inventions Introduced since 1889, (15 entries. |

Silver Medal of British Bee-Keepers’ Association.

409 G. NEIGHBOUR & SON, 127, High Holborn, W.C.: for Improved Section

Crate.
411 P. HARBORDT, 50, Gt. Charlotte Street, Liverpool.

Bronze Medal of British Bee-Keepers’ Association.
413 W. P. MEADOows, Syston, Leicester: for New Registered Frame.

Certificates of British Bee-Keepers’ Association.

412 W. Dixon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds : for Swarming Arrangements.

420 C. REDSHAW, South Wigston, Leicester: for Patent Glass Sections. In
Observatory Racks for Skeps, kc. Frame Hives.

Class 313.— Model of a Tent Suitable for Lectures, with Manipulations
of Bees, at Agricultural and Horticultural Shows. [1 entry.]

422 (Silver Medal)—P. HARBOoRDT, 50, Gt. Charlotte Street, Liverpool.

Class 314.— Most Interesting and Instructive Exhibit of any kind

@

connected with Bee-culture not mentioned in the foregoing Classes.
[3 entries. |

a
_ +423 IL. (10s.)—W. Dixon, 5, Beckett Street, Leeds: for Case of Specimens,

elxii Award of Prizes at Doncaster.

IMPLEMENTS.

Class 1.—Combined Portable Threshing and Finishing Machines,
to be worked by Steam, and adapted to the preparation of corn
Sor market. [5 entries. |

4152 I. (£100.)—E. FopEn, Sons, & Co., Sandbach.
4142 | Prine and Third ( (£37 10s.)—GIBBONS & ROBINSON, Wantage.

4144 J yigca “Wy | (£87 10s.)—W. Tasker & Sons, Andover.

Class 2.—Power Cream Separators. [5 entries. |

1032 I. (£30.)—R. A. ListER & Co., Dursley (Alexandra No. 2).
1234 II, (£20.)—Datmy Suppiy Co., Limp., Museum St, W.C. (Reading
Royal). ;

Class 3.—Hand Cream Separators. [7 entries. |

1239 I. (€20.)—Datry SupriyCo., Limp., Museum St., W.C.(Alpha Windsor).

1238 ) Seeona (Cee SUPPLY Co., Limp., Museum St. W.C. (Alpha
| Prize Baby).

4294 J divin pecees C, Prerrersen & Co., Copenhagen (Burmeister &
Saas Wain’s Size X, No. 1).

Class 4.— Mechanical Milking Machines. {1 entry.|

(Recommended for further trial.)

Silver Medals.

Awarded for articles entered as “New Implements for Agricultural or
Estate Purposes.”

57 W.& T, Avery, LIMD., Digbeth, Birmingham: for Improved Dial Indi-
cator for Cattle Weighing Machine.
113 J. & H. KEywortu & Co., 35, Tarleton Street, Liverpool: for “ Adriance”
Harvester and Rear Discharge Binder, with Low Platform.
609 JAMES CoULTAS, Perseverance Iron Works, Grantham: for “Schlor”
Patent Manure Distributor.
1239 Darry Suppiy Co., Liwp., Museum St., W.C.: for appliance for
increasing separation in Laval Cream Separator.
1325 JOHN GRAY, Stranraer, Wigtown, N.B.: for Mechanical Milking Machine.

BUTTER-MAKING COMPETITION.

Class 1.—Open to the United Kingdom. {10 entries. ]

I. (£6.)—Mrs. I’. A. Mupp, Slade House, Thornthwaite, Ripley, Yorks.
II, (£4.)—Miss ADA Frost, Slater's Bank, Whaley Bridge, Cheshire.

III. (£3.)—Mrs. C. L. Horton, Crumley Heath, Little Leigh, Northwich.
IV. (£2,)—R. Dunnine, T horpe Audlin, Pontefract, Yorks.

V. (£1.)—Miss E. E. Frrrcuuey, Sweet Home, Austerfield, Bawtry, Yorks.
R. N. & H. C.—Mrs. FANNY Corner, Murkey Hill Farm, Richmond, Yorks.
3 Com.—W. A. CHAPPELL, Worleston, Nantwich.

10 Com.—Miss A. C. PERKINS, Oak Dene, Holmwood, Surrey.

Por) oo Bla}

Class 2.—Female Members of a Farmer's Family not in Service or
Working for Wages. [13 entries. |

14 I. (£6.)—Miss E. E. Frrrcuiny, Sweet Home, Austerfield, Bawtry, Yorks,
17 II. (£4.)—Mrs. C. L. Horron, Crumley Heath, Little Leigh, Northwich,

c
‘

a
4

a

Farm Prize Competition. clxiil

III. (£3.)—Mrs. F. A. Mupp, Slade House, 'Thornthwaite, Ripley, Yorks.
IV. (£2.)—Mrs. F. Corner, Murkey Hill Farm, Richmond, Yorks.

V. (£1.)—Miss F. L. PARKER, Austerfield, Bawtry, Yorks.

R. N. & H. C.—Mrs. ISABELLA PAINE, Hengrave, Bury St. Edmunds.

16 H. C.—Mrs. A. HOLLAND, Potter Hanworth, Lincoln.

11 Com.—Miss E. A. CHAPPELL, Mollard’s Farm, Gawsworth, Macclesfield.
15 Com.—Miss LILLIE HANsoN, Botham Hall Farm, Longwood, Huddersfield.

whee
Rw os

Class 3.—Dairymaids in Service who have never won a Prize exceed-
ing ll. in value at any Competition. [3 entries. ]
24 I, (£6)—Miss POLLIE CooPEr, Blakelow Dairy, Macclesfield.

-25 IL. (£4.)—Miss HLizABEnra HueueEs, Plas Llanynys, Denbigh.

26 IIL. (£3.)—Miss JANE TAIT, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York.

Class 4.—Dairymaids residing in the County of York. [3 entries. |

28 I. (£6.)—Mrs. F. A. Mupp, Slade House, Thornthwaite, Ripley, Yorks.
27 IT. (#4.)—Mrs. I. Cornzer, Murkey Hill Farm, Middleton yas, Richmond.
29 III. (£3.)—Miss JANE Tarr, Kirk Hammerton Hall, York,

HORSE-SHOEING COMPETITION.
L{MITED TO SHOEING-SMITHS IN THE COUNTY OF YORK,

Class 1.—WHunters, [14 entries. ]

10 I. (£6.')--THomas LANCASTER, Heath Common, Wakefield,
14 IL. (£4.)—WILLIAM STEWARD, 60, Norfolk Street, Sheffield.
9 III. (£3.)—THomas B. HorNER, Allwoodby Gates, vid Leeds,
11 IV. (£2.)—JAMzES NoRMAN, Smyth Street, Wakefield.
13 V. (£1.)—W1L11AM STEAD, Slaidburn.
3 H. C—RoBeRT BELLAMY, 9, Artisan View, Heeley, Sheffield.
8 H. C.—JoHN BuRLEY HoRNER, Wigton Moortown, Leeds.

Class 2.— Agricultural Horses. [12 entries. |
23 I. (£6..)—BrensAMIN SANDERSON, Northfield, Thorne, Doncaster,
17 Il. (£4.)—JosEern F. CHAPPELL, 23, Porter Street, Sheffield.

21 III. (£3.)—GrEorGE ALFRED OADzEs, Cross Hill, Crowle, Doncaster.

15 IV. (£2.)\—Joun RoBert BAKER, Carnaby, Hull.

19 V. (£1.)—RoBerT Hopgson, Warrengate, Wakefield.

24 H. C.—TuHomas Simpson, Acklam, Middlesbrough.

25 H. C_—Henry JOHN WATKINS, 183. Wellgate, Rotherham.

FARM PRIZE COMPETITION,?
FOR THE BEST-MANAGED FARMS IN THE COUNTY OF YORK.

Class 1.—Arable and Grass Farm of 200 acres and upwards, not less
than one-half being Arable. [5 entries, }

1 I, (£50,)—TmAspALu H. HurcHrnson, Manor House, Catterick,

4 II. (£30.)—JoHn ALFRED STAVELBY, The Manor House, North Dalton, Hull,

6 III. (£20,)—James ''owNEND, Newton, Doncaster.

3 Com.—SmITH Eyre PARKIN, Melton Brand, Doncaster.

* Given by the Worshipful Company of Farriers, in addition to the Freevom ov rHEtr GUrny,
* Prizes giyen by the Doucaster Local Committee,

7

- d
i

clxiv Award of Prizes at Doncaster.

Class 2.—Arable and Grass Farm above 100 and not exceeding 200
acres, not less than one-half being Arable. [2 entries.]

6 I. (£50,) ANDREW MERRYWEATHER, Whiston, Rotherham.
71 (£30,)—JoHN STANLEY, Campsall, Doncaster.

Class 3.—Arable and Grass Farm above 40 and not ocala 100
acres, |4 entries. |
10 I. (£50.)—Tom D, STRICKLAND, Carlton Miniott, Thirsk.
11 Il. (£39.)—WILLIAM WALSH, Gilstead, Bingley.
8 III. (£20.)—JoserpH & WM. Hincuc.ter, Lady Oak Farm, Emley, Wakefield.

The Council have awarded a certificate of distinguished merit, accompanied
by a gratuity of £2, to WILLIAM CHISHOLME, for 26 years’ faithful service
as shepherd on the farm of Mr. Hutchinson at Catterick.

PRIZES OFFERED BY DONCASTER LOCAL COMMITTEE.
Srock, £865; Farms, £300.

HORSES.
Prizes Prizes
——— —— aan
1st 2nd 3rd Ist 2nd 3rd
££ £ | Class &£ £ €
Class HUNTERS, 25 Mareor Gelding, above 14 hands,
2 Mare or Gelding, up to 15 st., 1986, or 1887” gee pe - 20 10 be
foaled 1885 or 1886. - 40 20 10 | o¢ MareorGeliineinn hentia
3 Mare or Gelding, up to 12 st., ‘elding, above 14 hané =H
e foaled 1885 or 1886. é aan e101 8 up to 12 st., foaled in 1885,
4 Gelding, foaled 1887 . : 40 20 10 | of » aid a 1887 1888 | “ie 0 -
5 Mare, foaled in 1887. . .80 16 65 | 53 sn’ somteq swagnn cl ema of
6 Gelding, foaled in 1888. 20) PLU) PD ae ca : -15 08
8 Gelding, foaled in 1889. -15 10 54 PONIES.
10 Colt, foaledin1890 . . .15 10 5 | 3) Mare or Gelding, above 13 and
not over 14 hands . * 10 6 =
COACHHORSES. Mare or Gelding, not above 13
12 Stallion, foaled in 1886, 1887, or hands =. - 10 oo
1888 5 ams : a + 5 HARNESS HORSES AND PONIES.
iu Mare and F ay ar * "39 10 «35 | 33 Mare or Gelding, of any age,
16 Gelding, foaled in 1888 2.15 10 '5'|) 9, | SvOvea nen eae 15 1058
16 ‘Willyfonled in 1888...) «25-20 75. |e oes Pe ielding, not above 14 oa
17 Geliling, foaled in 1889. 10 «5 = ands: ne
18 Filly, foaled in 1889. . .10 5 = AGRICULTURAL HORSES,
54 Gelding, of any breed, foaled in
HACKNEYS, 1887 or 1888 4 15 20
21 Stallion, foaled in 1888. -15 10 5 elding, of any breed, foaled in
22 Stallion, foaled in 1889 . ~ 15: 10 5b 1889, i. re a ath -15 10 6

CHAMPION PRIZES.

Champion and other Prizes offered by various Sooieties, through the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, at the Doncaster Meeting.

HORSES, | Rep Poniep Socrery:
Hackxry Horst Socrery: | Best Red Polled animal: £10 10s,
Best Hackney stallion, and best TH: uckiiey
jnare : Gold Medals Yalue £15 15s, each. PIGS.

Siittn Honse Soctrry: festa. & =~ chy
Best Shire stallion ant best Shire maze or | Biitistt BeRKsme Socteryt

filly : Gold Medals value £15 1ds. each. | Best Berkshire Yearling boar or sow, fatrow
bireeresiiae Horse Soctery : before or in 1890! £10,
Best Clydesdale stallion aud best Clydesda‘e ah
mare or filly : £25 each, Hov'se-shoeing Gompétition,
CATTLE, Tite Wonsutrrvn Compaxy or Fanninltst
Suontnowy Socmry: The two. first Prizes in both Classes, val
Best Shorthorn, male and female ; Pieces of £6 each, together with the Freedom of t

Plate yalue £25 each, { Guild,

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

Proceedings of the Council.

WEDNESDAY NOVEMBER 4, 1891.
THE EARL OF FEVERSHAM (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present :—

Trustees.—Ear] Cathcart, Mr. John
Dent Dent, Lord Egerton of Tatton,
Colonel Sir Nigel Kingscote, K.C.B,
Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.

Vice-Presidents—Mr. H. Chandos-
-Pole-Gell, Mr. Walter Gilbey, Lord
Moreton.

Other Members of Council.—Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. J. H. Arkwright,
Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr, J. A. Caird, Mr. Charles
Clay, Earl of Coventry, Mr. Percy E.
Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J. F. Curtis-
Hayward, Alfred Darby, Mr.
William Frankish, Mr. Neville Gren-
-ville, Mr. Anthony Hamond, Mr. C. 8.
Mainwaring, Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr.
T. H. Miller, Hon. Cecil T. Parker,
Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. Daniel Pidgeon,
Mr. James Rawlence, Mr. G. H. San-
day, Mr. A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry
Smith, Marquis of Stafford, Mr. H. W.
Stanyforth, Mr. Martin J. Sutton,
Mr, Garrett Taylor, Mr. J. P. Terry,
Mr. John Tremayne, Mr. R. A. Warren,
Mr. EK. V. V. Wheeler, Mr. C. W. Wil-
son, Sir Jacob Wilson.

Officers —Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist; Pro-
fessor J. Beart Simonds, Consulting
Veterinary Surgeon ; Mr. Wilson Ben-
nison, Surveyor.

The following members of the War-
, Wick Local Committee were also pre-
‘sent :—Lord Brooke, M.P., Lord
_Ernest Seymour, the Mayor of War-

VOL, Il. T. S.—8

wick (Mr. J. W. Mann), the Town
Clerk of Warwick (Mr. Brabazon
Campbell), Major Fosbery, Mr. J. W.
Margetts, Mr. T. H. G. Newton, and
Mr. Frederick H. Moore (Secretary of
the Local Committee).

Apologies for Non-Attendance.

Apologies for non-attendance were
read from the Duke of Richmond and
Gordon, K.G., the Earl of Ravens-
worth, Viscount Emlyn, Sir John
Thorold, Bart., and Mr. Faunce De
Laune, in consequence of other en-
gagements; and from Mr. Stratton
and Mr. C. Whitehead, in consequence
of ill-health.

The Fire at Sandringham House.

The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of the Council, held on July
29, having been read and approved,

Mr. DENT, as perhaps the oldest
member of the Council present, asked
permission to intervene in order to
request the President to express to
their colleague, His Royal Highness
the Prince of Wales, the deep sym-
pathy of the Council on the occasion
of the late fire at Sandringham. All
those who had had the honour, with
himself, of receiving His Royal High-
ness’s gracious hospitality at the time
of the Norwich Show, carried away
with them when they left, not only
the happiest remembrances of the
kindness of the Prince, of the Prin-
cess, and of their daughters, but also
the feeling that they had been stay-
ing at what they might call a model

m

elxvili Monthly Counsil, November 4, 1891.

in which they were doing practical
good. He hoped the Society would
see their way to continue the grant,
at all events for another year.

Mr. DENT said he must enter his
protest against this matter being
sprung upon them without notice.
It was a most irregular proceeding,
involving the suspension of the bye-
laws, which did not allow them to
make a grant of this character with-
out notice. No notice had been given
to any member of the Council of the
resolution now proposed. Until he
came into the room a quarter of an
hour ago, he had no idea that the
matter was going to be brought for-
wardagain. Precisely the same thing
happened last year, and he protested
azainst matters of this kind being
brought before the Council without
proper notice being given to every
member.

Sir JAcoB WILSON said that the
best answer he could give to Mr. Dent
was that the Royal Commission only
sat on Monday last, and that their
letter was written immediately after-
wards. They would remember that
last year a resolution was carried by
thirty-one votes to two in favour of
making the grant, on condition that
the Royal Commission should bear
all the expenses beyond the 600/.
That had been carried out. At that
time an effort was being made to in-
duce the Government to augment
their grant, and every possible in-
fluence had been brought to bear
upon the Treasury, but they had de-
clined to increase the grant. He was
not prepared to say that those efforts
would not be repeated, and perhaps
with better success hereafter; but
that would not meet the present case,
as it was very urgent that, if possible,
the prize sheet should go out before
December. The fact remained that
there was a district in England to
which the Society would go next
year, but for which the Royal .Com-
mission with the funds at their dis-
posal could not provide premiums to
thoroughbred stallions. Extensive
evidence had been taken by the Com-
mission from the best authorities,
and the question was always asked,
“What amount ought they to give
for each premium?” For every
answer which gave 1502, as the

amount, at least four gave 200J. He
well remembered when the matter
was first being considered in that
Council. They started with the idea
of giving 3002. for each horse. Event-
ually the premium was fixed at 200/.,
as, whilst it was not thought good
enough to reward a man by giving
him 1501. for the services of his horse,
2002. was sufficient to tempt him to
co-operate in the scheme. This year
they had several horses which pre-
viously served mares at 102. 10s., that
were now serving at the Royal Com-
mission fee of 2/7. in consequence of
being supplemented by this sum, He
found that generally those who
thought that a smaller sum -would
suffice were those who were not very
much interested in horses personally,
or else were wealthy owners of stal-
lions who did not regard the money.
The Commission were in the position
of not being able to supply stallions
for the district which was represented
by the Society next year. He thought
he might say that they would still
make a fresh effort to induce the
Treasury to give them a further
grant; but, in the meantime, a great
and good work was being done, as
anyone might see by the report show-
ing the mares served and foals pro-
duced. He should be very sorry to
see a change in the system, which
was working so well throughout the
country.

Lord EGERTON OF TATTON did not
contest the usefulness of these prizes.
He thought it was desirable to have
these premium stallions every year;
but what they felt there was that,
coming from a public body such as
the Royal Commission, the matter
ought to be dealt with in a formal
manner. It was against the bye-laws
of their Society that a grant of that
amount should be voted without due
notice being given, as had already
been mentioned. The Government
had acknowledged, by the grant they
had already given, that they were to
a certain extent responsible for the
system.. It was ceriain that as long
as the money was found by the So-
ciety the Treasury would not find it;
but if they said that they had a
great many other objects in view,
the Government, as they had already
recognised their responsibility by

Reports of Committees.

finding the larger proportion of the
fund, would find the money for the
whole. If the Society were held re-
sponsible for that part of the country
in which they held their Show, the
Government and the Treasury were
equally responsible for the whole:
and, as long as they did not make
the Treasury feel that they were
responsible, the onus would be thrown
upon the Society. There was besides
a technical objection on the present
occasion ; but, whatever course might
be adopted, he trusted that it would
not form a precedent for the future.
Mr. GILBEY pointed out that in

former years, before the present sys-

tem of giving premiums was started,

the Society used often to give prizes
_of substantial amounts at its annual

Meetings for thoroughbred stallions.
Everyone connected with the Society,
and the writers of all the official
reports, had condemned the old sys-

.tem as more or less waste of money.

As they did not now give prizes for
thoroughbred horses at their summer
Shows, the sum of 600/., which they
were now asked to vote, was not all
an additional expense to the Society.

The PRESIDENT said he should be
sorry if the grant were not made.
At the same time he recognised the
force of the objection raised in regard
to the bye-laws, and he thought that

-if the vote were passed that day, it

should be upon the strict understand-
ing that the bye-laws should be ob-
served in the future.

After some further discussion, a

_motion by Sir JACOB .WILSON (se-

conded by the EARL of COVENTRY)
for the suspension of Bye-law 41, was

_ carried, and Lord Coventry’s motion

for the grant of 600/. was passed nem.
dis.
House.

Sir NigrL Kine@scoTe (Chairman)
reported that during the recess the
cleaning of the general offices and
various other repairs of the building

_ sanctioned by the Council had been
completed to the satisfaction of the

Surveyor. Various accounts for re-
pairs and office requirements had
been submitted and passed.

Journal.

Earl CATHCART (Chairman)’ re- _

ported that Part IIJ. of Vol. IJ. (third
series) of the Journal had been

elxix

published on September 30, and duly
issued to the members. The Com-
mittee recommended the payment of
various amounts in respect of literary
contributions to and the printing of
this number. The Secretary had
reported the issue during the recess
(1) of the reprint as a sixpenny
pamphlet of Mr. Whitehead’s paper
in the June Journal on “ Methods of
Preventing and Checking the Attacks
of Insects and Fungi,” and (2) of a
second edition of Prof. Brown’s pam-
phlet on “The Structure of the
Horse’s Foot.” Various works on
agriculture which bad been purchased
for the Library during the recess
were laid upon the table. The Com-
mittee reported that twenty-six
entries had been received for the
farm prizes offered by the Warwick
Local Committee. They recommended
that two Judges be appointed to
award the prizes, and that two visits
of inspection be made: one about
January, and the other shortly before
the Show. The Committee had con-
sidered the proposed articles to apy ear
in the next number of the Journal,
and had given directions thereon. A
suggestion by Mr. Frank Proctor,
C.K,, for a paper on Steam Digging
had not been adopted.

Chemical.

Mr. R. A. WARREN reported that
Dr. J. W. Leather had tendered his
resignation of the post cf Senior
Assistant in the Laboratory, conse-
quent upon his election to the
Professorship of Chemistry in the
Harris Institute, Preston. The Com-
mittee had accepted with regret Dr.
Leather’s resignation, and expressed
to him their appreciation of the
services that he had rendered the
Society during the last five years.
The Council were aware that an
action had for some time been
pending, in which Mr. James Snow-
sell sued the Society for damages in
respect of a report presented by the
Chemical Committee on July 30, 1890,
and published in the Society's Journal.
The case came on for trial on Friday
last, October 30, and was withdrawn
on the terms stated by Counsel. An
account of the proceedings was laid
before the Council, and the Committee
recommended that it be printed as a
separate report (see page 820). ‘

clxx

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

The PRESIDENT then said that
before the report of the Seeds and
Plants Committee was brought up, he
desired to make a short statement to
the Council. It would be in their
recollection that a resolution was
passed at their last meeting on July
29, urging the Board of Agriculture
to make an inquiry into the ravages
of the Diamond-back Moth, and
promising any assistance which the
Society and its officials could afford
in making such inquiry. That reso-
lution was passed, he need not say,
in all good faith, no difficulty being
anticipated in carrying it into effect.
Miss Ormerod, however, declined to
co-operate in the inquiry, basing her
objection on the ground that by the
terms of her appointment she was not
under obligation to do so. They must
admit that the resolution, so far as
Miss Ormerod was concerned, was witra
vires: but she had in the past been
so ready and anxious to comply with
the wishes of the Council that they
could not have foreseen the objection
which she raised. Miss Ormerod,
under a misapprehension as to the
intentions of the Council in passing
the resolution, thought it necessary to
send in her resignation. He felt sure
that the Council would not desire
that their association with one for
whom they entertained such great
respect, and who had rendered such
valuable services to the Society, should
be severed on account of this diffi-
culty. (Hear, hear.) The Secretary,
with his (Lord Feversham’s) full con-
sent, had therefore endeavoured to
remove the misapprehension, and, he
was happy to say, with success. A
settlement which was, he thought,
honourable to all parties had been
arrived at, and the Seeds and Plants
Committee would bring up a recom-
mendation on the subject, which he
hoped might receive the unanimous
approval of the Council, and would
put matters on a sound and satis-
factory footing forthe future, (Hear,
hear.)

Mr. MAINWARING said that he had
been asked to take the chair at the
meeting of the Seeds and Plants Com-
mittee, held on the previous day, in
consequence of the unavoidable ab«
sence of Mr, Whitehead, through con-+

Monthly Council, November 4, 1891.

tinued illness. He was sure he was
only expressing the general feeling of
the Council in hoping that Mr. White-
head might soon be restored to his
usual health. (Hear, hear.) The
Secretary had submitted a corre-
spondence which he had had with
Miss Ormerod as to the resignation
which she had desired to tender of
her post of Consulting Entomologist,
At the request of the President, the
Committee had given careful consi-
deration to the conditions under
which Miss Ormerod was willing, if
desired by the Council, to resume her
association with the Society, and they
recommended that the original ar-
rangement made with Miss Ormerod
in 1882 be reverted to, and that she
be reappointed as Honorary Consult-
ing Entomologist, substantially on
the same conditions as at the outset, —

The adoption of the report of the
Seeds and Plants Committee was then
put from the chair, and carried unani-
mously. Mr. Frankish was added to
the Committee.

The SECRETARY read a letter, dated
November 2, which he had received
from Miss Ormerod, stating that she
would feel herself honoured by re-
association with the Society, and that
she fully authorised him to accept
such re-association on her part, if the
Society thought fit to desire it.!

1 The following is a copy of Miss Ormerod’s |
letter subsequently received, dated November
891 :—

2

'
Drak Sir,—I have learned with much grati-
fication of the desire of the Council that I

should resume association with the Royal
Agricultural Society as its Honorary Consult- {
ing Entomologist,

I therefore beg to signify to yourself as
Secretary my acceptance of the office on the
terms and conditions laid down in the minutes
of the Seeds and Plants Committee, dated the
3rd instant. 7

To my formal acceptance I beg to be allowed
respectfully to add the expression of my great
satisfaction in being reunited with the Society, —
and with the expression also of my own deep
regret for anything on my part which through
misapprehension or want of knowledge of
business has added to the temporary aitculiyy '
I beg to offer my cordial and sincere tha
for the friendly and kind consideration shown —
me in the arrangements of my re-associatio

I am, dear Sir, yours very truly, =e

(Signed) ELEANOR A, ORMEROD,
Honorary Consulting Entomologist
of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England.
Ernest Clarke, Esq. i
Secretary of the -_
Royal Agricultural Soclety,

Report of the Veterinary Committee.

Veterinary.

The Hon. CEcIL T. PARKER said
that various letters as to liver fluke in
sheep had been received; and, as
Professor Simor-ds’s pamphlet on “The
Rot in Sheep” had long been out of
print, the Committee recommended
that inquirers should be referred to
the articles on the subject which have
from time to time appeared in the
Society’s Journal.

For the Horse-Shoeing Competition
at the Warwick Meeting next year,
the Committee recommended that five
prizes of 6/., 47., 37., 27. and 17. respec-
tively, be offered in each of two classes,
viz. for Roadsters and Dray-horses:
the competition to be limited to Shoe-
‘ing-Smiths in the Society’s District F,
consisting of the counties of Glou-
cester, Hereford, Monmouth, Salop,
Stafford, Worcester, Warwick, and of
South Wales. The Committee had
discussed and settled the detailed re-
gulations and times of the Competi-
tions, and recommended that they
should be incorporated in the prize-
sheet as usual. They did not propose
the continuance of a class for the ex-
hibition of systems of horse-shoeing
not in common use. A letter had
been received from Sir Joseph Lister,
President of the British Institute of
Preventive Medicine, inviting the
Council to nominate a representative
upon the Council of the Institute.

- The Committee recommended that the
President of the Society for the time
being should be appointed a Member of
the Council of the British Institute of
Preventive Medicine, in accordance
with No. 8 of the Institute’s Articles
of Association. The Committee gave
notice that at their next meeting they
would ask for a grant of 600/. for the
coming year, of which 500/. to be given
to the Royal Veterinary College and
100/.to bereserved for generalpurposes,

Professor Brown had presented the
following report : —

PLEURO - PNEUMONIA. — During
the eight weeks ended October 24,
there were sixteen fresh outbreaks
of this disease in Great Britain,
barely one-fifth of the number in
the corresponding period of last
year. These sixteen outbreaks oc-
‘curred in the counties of Hants,
London, Middlesex, Surrey, and

clxxi

York (W. R.) in England, and Mid-
lothian in Scotland; eighty-two
cattle affected with the disease and
876 healthy cattle which had been
exposed to the risk of infection
were slaughtered by order of the
Board of Agriculture. Besides the
cattle slaughtered in these genuine
outbreaks of the disease, thirty-
seven suspected animals were
slaughtered and found free from
pleuro-pneumonia, but affected with
other diseases. In Ireland during
the eight weeks there were nineteen
outbreaks: twenty-two cattle af-
fected with the disease, 762 healthy
cattle in contact, and eleven sus-
pected cattle were slaughtered.

ANTHRAX.—There were thirty-
three outbreaks of anthrax reported
in Great Britain in the eight weeks;
they occurred in the counties of
Cumberland, Derby, Gloucester,
Lancaster, Leicester, Lincoln (Hol-
land), Notts, Somerset, Sussex
(East), Warwick, Wilts, and York
(W.R.), in England; and Aberdeen,
Banff, Kirkcudbright, Linlithgow,
and Perth, in Scotland. In these-
outbreaks forty-one animals were
attacked, three diseased animals
were killed, thirty-three died, and
one recovered.

SWINE FEVER.—There were 793
fiesh outbreaks of swine fever re-
ported in Great Britain during the
eight weeks, 4,556 swine were at-
tacked, 1,757 diseased pigs were
killed, 2,027 died, 618 recovered,
and 564 remained alive when the
last published return was made up.

RABIES.—Only five cases of this
disease were reported in eight
weeks; they occurred in the coun-
ties of "Essex, Herts, Lancaster, and
Surrey.

ABORTION IN CATTLE.—On the
subject of abortion several inquiries
have been undertaken in different
parts of the country. In some cases
the unsanitary conditions of the
farm have afforded an explanation
of the occurrence of abortion; but
generally there have not been any
circumstances to which special im-
portance could be attached as pos-
sible causes, In one instance only
the history of the herd supported

_M. Nocard’s theory of thecontagious

clxxii Monthly Council, November 4, 1891.

character of the disorder. Thesub-
ject will form part of the next an-
nual report from the Royal Veteri-
nary College.

LIVER FLUKE IN SHEEP, &C.—
Liver rot, or fluke disease, has
existed in some districts since the
heavy rainfall, but the time has
passed for any extensive outbreak
of the disease to occur. It may,
however, be well to advise flock-
masters to take the precaution to
supply sheep, especially breeding
ewes, with artificial food mixed with
salt, a sprinkling of which over each
ration will be grateful to the ani-
mals, and may to some extent arrest
the invasion of the parasites. In-
vestigations in reference to the
origin of the lung worm, and also
as to the contagious nature of foot-
rot in sheep, have been continued
during the year, and will be dealt
with in the annual report of the
College.

Pleuro-Pneumonia.

Mr. Dent hoped that Professor
Brown would have been there that
morning, because he had asked him
yesterday whether he would favour
them with information as to the re-
sult of the year’s work with regard to
pleuro-pneumonia. The report of the
Veterinary Department for 1890 did
not come out until September, and
then it contained the proceedings for
only four months of last year. No
doubt he could obtain an idea of the
figures by hunting up the monthly
reports which had been presented to
the Veterinary Committee; but he
had hoped that they might have had
the particulars that day. It was only
fair to the public and to men, who,
like himself, did not exactly agree
with the policy of the Board, that
the fignres relating to the slaughter
of animals should be made known.

Abortion in Cattle.

He (Mr. Dent) was sorry to find
that the veterinary professors and
the veterinary surgeons were not in-
clined to go into this question of
abortion in cattle. They said that
everything was known about it.. He
could not believe that everything was
known either of this disease or of any
other. A friend of his had had

something like sixteen cases of abor-
tion ina smallherd. Hethought the
veterinary professors ought to showa
little more interest in a subject which
was of so much importance to the
agricultural community. He was not
at all satisfied with the suggestions
they made on the subject.

Colonel CuRTIS-HAYWARD said he
quite agreed with Mr. Dent as to the
subject of abortion in cattle. He
thought they knew very little about
it. In the part of the country in
which he lived (Gloucestershire), some
interesting inquiries had been made
by a gentleman, who had asked for
all cases of abortion in cattle to be
reported to him. He had found that
at one farm at which abortion oc-
curred, the whole of the herd was
disposed of, anda fresh lot of animals
were brought upon the farm, not-
withstanding which abortion again
occurred upon thatfarm. Previously,
there had never been abortion upon
the farm until it was unlet for about
a year, when cattle were allowed in
on tack. During that time animals
aborted. That seemed to lead to the
idea that abortion got upon the
herbage. He did not believe that
it was ergot, yet it appeared to get
upon the herbage in some way or
other. It was generally considered a
certain cure to get rid of the whole
herd. But here was a case in which
the whole herd was disposed of and
yet abortion again appeared in the
fresh herd.

Mr. A. J. SmitH asked whether
the same bull was used for both
herds.

Colonel CurtTIs-HAYWARD: No,
the herd was entirely changed.

Stock Prizes. ’ .
Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) said that
as the Council of the Shire-horse
Society had decided that Mr. Peter —
Blundell’s stallion “ Prince Harold,”
to which the third prize was awarded
in Class 37 at the Doncaster Meeting,
was ineligible for their stud-book, the
animal was disqualified under Regu- —
lation 45, and they therefore recom-
mended that the third prize in Class
37 be awarded to the reserve number,
Messrs. Lowndes and Son’s ‘ Castern
Harold.” The third prize sow, No.
2,060, in Class 165, Mr. Arthur

Reports of Committees.

Dyson's “Cestrian Princess,” had
failed to comply with the regulations,
and was therefore disqualified from
receiving the prize. The Committee
recommended that the third prize of
32. be therefore awarded to Mr.
Sanders Spencer for “ Holywell Ris-
sole” (Reserve Number). Various
letters with reference to stock entries
had been considered, and directions
given thereon. The Committee had
arranged a preliminary prize sheet
for the Warwick Meeting, which
would be printed and sent out to all
members of Council before the
December meeting, when the Com-
mittee would bring up a formal mo-
tion for its adoption.

Implement,

Mr. FRANKISH (Chairman) stated
that the report of the Judges on the
trials in Scotland of the Mechanical
Milking Machine shown at Doncaster
(see page 854) had been presented by
Mr. Neville Grenville, and that the
Committee concurred with the Dairy
Committee in recommending that tke
prize of 20/. be awarded to the ex-
hibitor, Mr. John Gray. The further
trial of Messrs. J. and H. Keyworth
& Co.’s Adriance Harvester and Rear-
discharge Binder had been carried
out at High Ellers, Doncaster, on
August 31, and the Committee en-
dorsed the recommendation by the
Judges of the award of a Silver
Medal to that implement. The
draft prize sheet and regulations for
the exhibition of Implements, &c., at
the Warwick Meeting, had been con-
sidered and approved, and ordered to
be issued. The Committee recom-
mended that the Senior Steward of
Implements (Mr. Crutchley) and Mr.
Joseph Beach be requested to make
a selection of land necessary and
suitable for the purposes of the trials
of Ploughs at Warwick next spring.

General Warwick.

Mr. DENT reported that the fol-
lowing twenty-six entries had been
received for the farm prizes, amount-

ing to 5001. offered by the Warwick
. Local Committee :—

CLAss 1.—For the best managed
-arable and grass farm of over 250
acres, of which not less than one-

elxxiil

third shall be arable. First Prize,
807. ; Second, 40/,; Third, 207.

CUBBERLEY, Epwarp A...Moor Hall,
Aleester, Redditch.

Grimes, W. HOWLETT, JuN...Long Itch-
ington, Ragby.

HAWKES, JOSEPH.. Bearley
Stratford-on-Avon,

HAWKES, RicHarp J...Newbold Farm,
Leamington,

JAMES, JOHN..Whitchurch Farm, near
Stratford-on-Avon.

Grange,

Lucas, Ezra..Home Farm, Baginton,
Coventry.

PALMER, JOHN..Hampton-on-Hill, War-
wick.

THORNLEY, Henry E...Radford Hall,
Leamington.

Toonr, J. PARKER..High Cross, Lutter-
worth.

CLAss 2.—For the best managed
arable and grass farm of over 150
acres and not exceeding 250 acres,
of which not less than one-third
shall be arable. First prize, 60/.;
Second, 402.

BuAke, E. Tuckrer..Park Hall Farm,
Salford Priors, Evesham.

BouRNE, GEORGE..Drakenage
Kingsbury, Tamworth.

CoLEs, RICHARD..Offchurch, near Lea-
mington,

Danby, Puiiie §...Church Farm, Off-
church, Leamington.

DENNY, JOSIAH..Budbrook, Warwick.

DEWHURST, Ropoyson..Shelford House,
Burton Hastings, Nuneaton.

FRANCIS, THOMAs F..Grove Farm, Tach-
brook, Leamington.

PRA?T?T, CHARLES A... Rushford, Evesham.

Prrve, JOHN R... Lillington, Leamington,

WHEELER, CHARLKS..King Stone Farm,
Long Compton, near Chipping Norton.

Farm,

CLASS 3.—For the best managed
arable and grass farm of over 50
acres, and not exceeding 150 acres.
First Prize, 407.; Second, 204.

IppotTson, Ropert..The
Knowle, Warwick.

Hawthorns,

Mericu, JoHN EAGLE..Eastern Green,
Coventry.

SANSOME, GEORGH..Salford Farm, Eve-
sham.

Sit, Epwarp J...Bidford, Stratford-on-
Avon.

SPENCER, ANNA BOLTON, and SAMUEL K..,
The Mount, Black Hill, Snitterfield,
near Stratford-on-Avon.

THORNTON, CHARLES..Curdworth, near
Birmingham.

Wiuwpay, Lerwis..Dunton, Minworth,
Birmingham.

Various matters of detail con-
nected with the Warwick Meeting
had been discussed. The Committee
recommended that arrangements be
made for a band during the Show
week,

elxxiv

Showyard Works.

Mr. CuAy reported that the whole
of the Society’s plant at Doncaster
had been cleared away and stored
under temporary sheds built for that
purpose in the Castle Park, Warwick,
and that all the old materials had
been sold; but in consequence of the
very large quantity of timber to be
disposed of, only moderate prices had
been realised. The Surveyor had pre-
sented a complete detailed statement
of the cost of the various works in
the Showyard, which showed, after
deducting the amounts realised by
sale of materials and those received
from exhibitors, a total cost of
5,9247. 1s. 2d. Four tenders for the
supply of timber at Warwick had
been received, and the Committee
recommended that Messrs. Wade,
Sons, ard Co.’s tender be accepted.
The Committee recommended the ac-
ceptance of the following tenders:
(1) Messrs. Walter Hill and Co. for
the advertising of the Warwick Show;
(2) The Bodega Company, for the
supply of wines, &c., at the annual
Shows in their pavilion; and (3)
Messrs. Merryweather and Sons, of
Fire Engines at Warwick.

Selection.

The recommendations of this Com-
mittee having been read, Earl CATH-
CART (Chairman) moved that Mr. J.
Marshall Dugdale, of Llwyn, Llan-
fyllin, vid Oswestry, be elected a
member of Council in the room of
Mr. Chandos-Pell-Gell, elected a Vice-
President.

Mr. MAINWARING was very glad to
second the motion. Mr. Dugdale
had for a long time taken an active
interest in the agriculture of the dis-
trict where he lived, and would make
a useful member of the Council.

The motion was carried unani-
mously.

Earl CATHCART gave notice that
the Committee proposed at their
next meeting to bring up nomina-
tions for vacancies now existing in
the list of Honorary Members.

Education.

Mr. PipGEON reported that ar-
rangements had been made for the
Society's Junior Examinations to be

Monthly Council, November 4, 1891.

held on the 10th and 11th instant,
and that forty-seven candidates had
been entered from ten schools. The
ten successful candidates at last
year’s examinations having duly com-
plied with the regulations, the Com-
mittee recommended the payment of
the scholarships forthwith. The Com-
mittee had authorised the supply by
Messrs. W. and A. K. Johnston of
portfolios for holding sets of the
Society’s diagrams at a cost not ex-
ceeding 9s. in cloth or 15s. in half-
morocco. The Secretary had been
authorised to arrange for the next
Senior Examination, the date of
which was provisionally fixed for
May 10 to 14, 1892. The Committee
gave notice that at their next meeting
they would move for the renewal of
their annual grant of 5007.

Dairy,

The Hon. Crecin T. PARKER
(Chairman) reported that the Judges
had made a further trial of the milk-
ing machine entered in Class 4 at
Doncaster, and the Committee re-
commended that the prize of 202. be
awarded to Mr. Gray of Stranraer.
They recommended that Mr. Stany-
forth be added to the Committee.

The Committee had considered the
following resolutions passed by the
Council of the English Jersey Cattle
Society :—

1. That a champion dairy prize
of 501. be offered to the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, to
be awarded for the best dairy cow
exhibited at their Show in 1892,
subject to a butter test by the
churn.

2. That the Royal Agricultural
Society be invited to receive a
deputation consisting of the Pre-
sident, Viscount Hampden, the
Vice-President, Mr. Hugh C. Smith,
and the President Elect, Mr. J. F.
Hall, from the English Jersey
Cattle Society on the subject.

The Committee could not recom-
mend the adoption of the suggestion
of the English Jersey Cattle Society,
in consequence of the practical diffi-
culties which they foresaw in carrying
out a butter-test by the churn, as
desired ; but they left the Council to
decide whether they would receive

Country Meeting of 1893.

the proposed deputation. The Com-
mittee had arranged a schedule of
prizes for dairy produce, for poultry,
and for butter-making competitions,
which they had referred to the Stock
Prizes Committee for inclusion in the
draft prize-sheet for the Warwick
Meeting. Letters suggesting that
prizes should again be offered for
cheeses made in the year previous to
the Show had been considered, As
the Country Meeting for 1893 wonld
be held in a Dairy District, the Com-
mittee recommended that notice be
given of the intention of the Council
to offer in connection with that
Meeting prizes for cheese made in
1892, in addition to prizes for cheese
made in 1893. They desired also to
give notice of their intention to move
that increased prizes for Dairy pro-
duce be offered in connection with
the Country Meeting of 1893, and
that at their next meeting they would
move for the renewal of their annual
grant of 1002.

Sir Niget KINGscore said that
whilst the Council would be anxious
not to appear discourteous, it did not
seem to him that any practical ad-
vantage would result from the at-
tendance of the deputation, if, as he
understood, the Dairy Committee
were unanimous in their recommend-
ation,

Mr. MAINWARING supported this
view; and the Secretary was in-
structed to write to the English

- Jersey Cattle Society saying the

Council regretted they could not
entertain their offer.

International Agricultural Congress
at The Hague.
On the motion of the Hon. CECcIL
T. PARKER, seconded by Mr. C. S.
MAINWARING, cordial votes of thanks

clxxv

for assistance rendered during the
recent visit of the Society’s repre-
sentatives to Holland were unani-
mously passed to Her Majesty’s
Minister at The Hague, the Minister
of Waterstaat, the President and
Secretary of the Executive Committee
of the International Agricultural
Congress, the Consul for the Nether-
lands in London (Mr. H. 8. J. Maas),
and others.

Country Meeting of 1893.

Invitations from the Corporations of
Chester and Manchester inviting the
Society to hold its Country Meet-
ing of 1893 in their respective cities
were further considered, and on the
motion of the Hon. Ceci T. PARKER,
seconded by Mr. GARRETT TAYLOR,
the Committee of Selection were in-
structed to bring up at the next
meeting a recommendation as to the
appointment of a Committee of In-
spection to visit the sites and other
accommodation offered by each

locality.

Chicago Exhibition, 1893,

The PRESIDENT reported that he
had been requested by the Royal
Commission for the British Section of
the Chicago Exhibition of 1893 to
act as Chairman of a Committee for
Agriculture which the Commission
were desirous of forming, and he
hoped that he should have the assist-
ance of his colleagues on the Council
in regard to the questions coming be-
fore that Committee.

Date of next Meeting.

A variety of other matters having
been dealt with, the Council ad-
journed until Wednesday, December 9
next, at noon.

( elxxvi )°

WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 9, 1891.
THE EARL OF FEVERSHAM (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present :—

Trustees—H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales, K.G., Col. Sir Nigel Kingscote,
K.C.B., Sir A. K. Macdonald, Bart.,
Duke of Richmond and Gordon, K.G.

Vice-Presidents—Mr. H. Chandos-
Pole-Gell, Mr. Walter Gilbey, Sir J.
H. Thorold, Bart., Mr. Charles White-
head.

Other Members of Council —Mr. G.
M. Allender, Mr. J. H. Arkwright,
Mr. Alfred Ashworth, Mr. Joseph
Beach, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, Lord
Brougham and Vaux, Mr. J. A. Caird,
Mr. Charles Clay, Earl of Coventry,
Mr. Percy E. Crutchley, Lieut.-Col. J.
¥. Curtis-Hayward, Mr. Alfred Darby,
Mr. J. Marshall Dugdale, Mr. S. P.
Foster, Mr. William Frankish, Mr.
Charles Howard, Mr. C. 8. Mainwar-
ing, Mr. Joseph Martin, Mr. T. H.
Miller, Hon. Cecil T. Parker, Mr.
James Rawlence, Mr. Samuel Row-
landson, Mr. G. H. Sanday, Mr. W.
T. Scarth, Mr. A. J. Smith, Mr. Henry
Smith, Sir Joseph Spearman, Bart.,
Marquis of Stafford, Mr. E. W. Stany-
forth, Mr. Martin J. Sutton, Mr. Gar-
rett Taylor, Mr. John Tremayne, Mr.
R.A. Warren, Mr. C. W. Wilson, Sir
Jacob Wilson.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist; Mr.
Wilson Bennison, Surveyor.

The following members of the
Warwick Local Committee were also
present :— the Mayor of Warwick (Mr.
J. W. Mann), the Mayorof Leamington
(Mr. John D. Barbour), Mr. J. W.
Margetts, Mr. T. H. G. Newton, and
Mr. Frederick H. Moore (Secretary
of the Local Committee).

Apologies for non-attendance were
received from H.R.H. Prince Christian
of Schleswig-Holstein, K.G., Earl
Cathcart, Viscount Emlyn, Lord
Moreton, and Mr, John Dent Dent.

The minutes of the last monthly
meeting of the Council, held on
November 4, having been read and
approved,

‘The PRESIDENT read from Sir Fran-
cis Knollys a letter communicating
the thanks of His Royal Highness the
Prince of Wales for the Council’s
expression of sympathy on the occa-
sion of the late fire at Sandringham
House.

New Member of Council.

Mr. MAINWARING, in the regretted
absence of Earl Cathcart, Chairman
of the Committee of Selection, on
account of ill-health, introduced Mr.
J. Marshall Dugdale, the newly-
elected member of Council, and the
PRESIDENT welcomed Mr. Dugdale
as one of their number.

Election of new Governors and
Members.

The election of the following five
Governors and ninety-nine Members
was then proceeded with :—

Governors.
DartTMovurTH, Earl of..Patshull, Wolverhamp-

ton.

NEELD, Sir Algernon W., Bart...Grittleton,
Chippenham.

PortsMouTH, Earl of..Hurstbourne Park,
Whitchurch, Hants.

RUTLAND, Duke of, K.G...Belvoir Castle,
Grantham.

SmirH, Hon. W. F. D., M.P...3, Grosvenor
Place, S.W.

Members.

Ancuer, A. G... Downton, Wilts.

Atkins, Thomas H,..Solihull Lodge, Shirley,
Birmingham.

Bain, J... Knoydart, Isle Ornsay, N.B.

BALDWIN, S...King’s Norton, Birmingham.

BARLOW, ie - Darley, Derbyshire.

BARRINGTON, R. M...Fassaroe, Bray, co. Wick-
low.

BENNETT, T. H...Cobham Court, Surrey.

BERNERS, CO, H... Woolverstone Park, Ipswich.

BETHELL, S. W... Wick Ho., Downton,

BICKNELL, N. L...Gurteen, ‘Shinrone.

Bourke, W, “e L...Worsley Old Hall,
Manche:

Broomey, J.. Being Hill, Llandudno.

CHARRINGTON, U.S .Fernside, Wimbledon
Common.

Cunisty, J, F... Upton, Alresford,

é eel) RD in

Election of New Governors and Members.

Cornwe t, P. 0...25 & 26, Crosby Buildings,
EC.

Crort, F. E...5, Water Lane, E.C.

CrortT, J. R...5, Water Lane, E.C.

CUBBERLY, E. A...Moor Hall, Alcester.

Corrtis, J...9, Old Jewry Chambers, E.C.

Cust, B. M... Ellesmere.

Dax, T. B...Balderton, Newark.

DALTON, R, A... Whoberley Hall, Coventry.

DEANE, W. J... Longraigue, co. Wexford.

Dewuorst, G. L... Woodleigh, Knutsford.

Dirmas, F. B... Downton.

DopsworrTH, Sir M. R. S. Bt...Thornton,
Watlass, Bedale.

DvuGpDALE, S...Blyth Hall, Coleshill.

Evans, T...Penyrheol Farm, Rumney, Mon.

FisHER, H. 0... Tymynydd, Radyr, Cardiff.

a T. R...Manor Farm, Gayden, War-
wick.

Gerry, C. R. W...St. Neot’s, Hunts.

GooDENOUGH, H. T...Roukswood House, Wor-
cester.

GuRDON, Sir W. B., K.C.M.G., C.B...Grundis-
burgh Hall, Woodbridge.

Hartwoop, A...Lower Broughton, Manches-
ter.

Hams ie, H. S...8, Halkin St. West, S.W.

HAWESLEY, G. W...Sheffield.

Heytespory, Lord..Heytesbury, Wilts.

HICKLING, A. W...34, Regent St. Nottingham.

Hicks, F. J... Allensmore, New Cross, S.E.

Hosson, G...Harperley Mills, Lintz Green.

HogGoveE, T. Wilson.. Vermont, Bournemouth.

HOLLAND, G. A. M,..Potter Hanworth, Lin-
coln.

Howumay, J. F...Ivy Cottage, Knutsford.

Hoop, Hon. V. A. Nelson..12, Wimpole St. W.

Hops, J...Mossley Hall, Congleton.

Hvetrt, J. H...25 & 26, Crosby Buildings, E.C.

Hutton, Rev. H. W... Vicars’ Court, Lincoln.

Hutrov, R...Charlecote, Warwick.

Inyks, A. C. M...5, Water Lane, E.C.

Kine, E...Claremont, Ripon.

Loa Vet. Col. J. D., C.B...5 King Street,
Ss.

LAzAr, Prof. Paul..Budapest, Hungary.

LEATHER, J. W., Ph.D... The Harris Institute,
Preston.

Lone, W. E...Hurts Hall, Saxmundham.

LorD, G... Norbury Booths, Knutsford.

LouGH, T...5 Newton Grove, Chiswick.

McCAUSLAND, W... Victoria Street, Belfast.

MAGHERAMORNE, Lord..,Magheramorne, co.
Antrim.

Marnriort, C. W... Upham, Bishop’s Waltham.

MEABL, F...Oakleigh, Alderley Edge.

NEALE, C...Kneeton, Bingham, Notts.

NEEDAAM, G. A...Ripley, Yorks.

NIcHOLsoN. J...Shernden Farm, Edenbridge.

NokEt, Col. E. A...Outwoods, Derby.

NORMANBY, Rey. the Marquis of.. Windsor.

OLIPHANT, G. A, J... Rushford, Christchurch,
Hants.

OsBorNE, F. B...Chipping Campden, Glos.

PaRkER, Rev. Sir W. H., Bt... Melford Hall.

PARLANE, W...Rusholme, Manchester.

Pet, A. J... Wilburton Manor, Ely.

Pinkney, T...Carr View, Sleights, Yorks.

Preston, Sir H. J., Bart...Beeston Hall,
Neatishead, Norwich.

Prior, R. H...Comer Lodge, Bedford.

READER, T...Brenchley, Kent.

Reape, F... Whitnash, Leamington.

READING, W. J. P... Langford, Oxon.

“REMINGTON, J. S... Ulverstone.

Rosson, C. R... Union Club, S.W.

Rooper. W. 0... Roade, Northants.

Rose, W...Ballbrook Ho., Withington.
SAMUELSON, E... Bodicote Grange Banbury.

elxxvii

SHARKEY, R...64 Clarendon St., Leamington.
Sir, A. E...Iverley Farm, Staffs.
SMiTu, D. F...Parham, Wickham Market.
STEERE, L. S...Jayes, Ockley, Dorking.
Syneer, A. H...Glanmore, co. Wicklow.
THORNICROFT, J...Metchley Park, Edgbaston.
TOLLEMACHE, Lord. .Peckforton, Tarporley.
TREVELYAN, Sir W. J., Bt... Nettlecombe Ct.
TuRNER, G. H...Littleover, Derby.
WALKER, C. H...Stonely Hall, St. Neot’s.
WALLACE, W...Graham Square, Glasgow, N.B.
WALLIS, W. L...The Wish, Eastbourne.
WATERHOUSE, W...Starborough Castle, Kent.
WEATHERBY, E. .M...Oatlands Park, Wey-
bridge.
WHITWORTH, F...94 & 96 King St., Manches-
ter.
WILLIAMS, S... Penybont, Corwen.
WRIGHTSON, R. G... Hurworth-on-Tees.
Yates, S...The Headlands, Didsbury, Lancs.

The reports of the various Standing
Committees were then presented and
adopted as below :—

Finance,

Sir NIGEL KiIn@scoTE (Chairman)
reported that the accounts for the
month ended November 30, 1891, as
certified by the Society’s account-
ants, showed receipts amounting to
2,4252. 10s. 3d., and expenditure
amounting to 1,9197. 13s. 6d. The
balance at the bankers on November
30, allowing for cheques outstand-
ing, was 3,448. 7s. lld. Accounts
amounting in all to 2,158/. 15s. 9d.
had been passed, and were recom-
mended for payment. The balance-
sheet of the Doncaster Meeting, as
passed by the auditors on November
16, showed as a final result a credit
balance of 1037. 17s. 6d. The Com-
mittee recommended that Lloyd's
Banking Company, Limited, of War-
wick, be appointed local bankers for
the Warwick Meeting. A bequest of
1007. had been made to the Society
under the will of the late Mr. J. P.
Stocker. The Committee recom-
mended that the names of four life
governors, seven life members, and
eighteen annual members deceased,
sixteen members resigned, one whose
address could not be found, and forty-
four in arrears of subscription, be
struck off the register. The Com-
mittee hac held twelve meetings
(including three special) during the
year, and had made nine reports.

Legacy to Society of 100.

Sir NIGEL KINGSCOTE said the
Council would observe that a bequest

clxxviil

of 1007. had been made to the Society
under the will of the late Mr. J. P.
Stocker,who had been a member of the
Society for nearly forty years. He be-
lieved this was almostthe first instance
of a bequest having been made to the
Society by a member, but he hoped
the example might prove contagious.

House,

Sir NigeL KinescotTe (Chairman)
reported that, at the request of the
authorities, a loan had been made to
the Victorian Exhibition of the
plaster model of the third Earl
Spencer, and of three lithographs and
placards relating to the first Meeting
of the Society held at Oxford in 1839,
The Committee had met seven times
and made seven reports.

Journal,

Mr. WHITEHEAD reported that the
final arrangements for the next
number of the Journal had been con-
sidered and approved. Various sug-
gestions for articles and notes in the
Journal had been discussed. A re-
quest from Messrs. Spottiswoode and
Co., for an increase of their charge
to members for the binding of the
Journal, from 2s. to 2s. 3d. per vol-
ume, on account of the increase of
wages in the book-binding trade, had
been acceded to. Applications from
Miss Ormerod for permission to re-
print from her report on the diamond-
back moth, and from the Conserva-
toire National des Arts et Métiers,
of Paris, for the use of blocks illus-
trating the report on the compound
engines tried at Newcastle in 1887,
had been granted on the usual condi-
tions. The Committee had met nine
times and made nine reports.

Chemical.

Mr. WARREN reported that the
annual report for 1891 of the Con-
sulting Chemist had been received,
and would appear in the next number
of the Journal (see page 835), The
draft Quarterly Report of the Com-
mittee had been considered and
adopted. A letter from the Nether-
lands Chamber of Commerce, refer-
ring to a resolution passed at the
International Agricultural Congress
at The Hague, on the subject of the
adulteration of food, and suggesting

Monthly Council, December 9, 1891.

the formation of an International
Convention, had been considered,
The Committee had given a general
approval of the proposal, and recom-
mended that it should be brought to
the notice of the Board of Agricul-
ture. ‘The Committee had met eight
times and made eight reports.

On the motion of Mr, WARREN,
the Quarterly Report of the Chemical
Committee was adopted by the Coun-
cil, and ordered to be published in
the next number of the Society’s
Journal (see page 814).

Seeds and Plant Diseases.

Mr. WHITEHEAD (Chairman) pre-
sented the report of the Potato Sub-
Committee on the experiments with
“ Bouillie Bordelaise,” which had been
conducted during the past season
(see page 828). The Committee re-
commended that a letter should be
addressed to Mr. E. Riley, expressing
the Society's appreciation of the
satisfactory manner in which he had
conducted the experiments. The
annual reports for 1891 of the Con-
sulting Botanist and Hon. Consulting
Entomologist were submitted, and
were recommended for publication in
the next number of the Journal (see
pages 845 and 849). The Committee
had met seyen times and made seven
reports. 2

Proposed International Fruit
Exhibition in 1892,

The SECRETARY read a letter from
Sir James Whitehead, seeking the
Society’s support to a proposed Inter-
national Fruit Exhibition in London
next year, and asking the Council to
nominate a gentleman upon the Pro-
visional Committee.

Mr. WHITEHEAD thought it would
be a graceful act on the part of the
Society to support Sir James White-
head in this matter, and he hoped the
Council would encourage fruit-grow-
ingin the mannersuggested. It seemed
to him that the proposed exhibition
would both directly and indirectly
encourage the growth of fruit in this
country, by showing farmers and
others how satisfactorily fruit could
be grown and packed by other nations.
Especially with regard to apples was
it most desirable to level up to the
colour and quality of the apples pro-

Report of the Veterinary Committee. clxxix

duced in Australasian countries and
other parts of the world. On those
grounds he ventured to hope that the
Council would agree with the request
of Sir James Whitehead, and appoint

member to serve on the Committee.

Mr. SuTron seconded the motion,
saying that he thought nothing could
be more important at the present
time than to do something to make
the orchard of every farmhouse a
more paying concern than it was at
present. It would be a good result
of the holding of such an exhibition
if that portion of the land which was
set apart for fruit were made to yield
a substantial return for the labour
expended upon it.

The resolution was then unani-
mously passed; and on the motion of
Sir JACOB WILSON, seconded by Mr.
CHANDOS-POLE-GELL, Mr. Charles
Whitehead was appointed as the
Society’s representative to serve upon
the Provisional Committee.

Veterinary.

Sir Joun THOROLD (Chairman) re-
ported that Professor Brown had
written for the next number of the
Journal an article on the subject of
Abortion in Cattle (see p. 729). At
the request of the Committee, Pro-
fessor Brown had undertaken to
include in his paper a note upon the
effect of ergot in relation to abortion.
Of the 6007. granted to the Committee
for the year 1891, 5527. 14s. had been
expended, and the Committee moved
for a renewal of the grant, 500/. of
which was intended to be allocated
to the Royal Veterinary College for
the study of comparative pathology
and bacteriology. They had met
nine times and made nine reports
during the year.

Professor Brown had presented the

following report :—

PLEURO - PREUMONIA.—In the
course of the twelve months during
which the Pleuro-pneumonia Act
has been in operation. September
1890 to September 1891, 295 out-

also killed. To these may be
added 243 cattle which were sus-
pected to be suffering from disease,
making a total of 14,565 cattle
slaughtered by order of the Board.

In the course of the earlier part
of the twelve months the disease
existed in thirty-four counties in
Great Britain—viz. twenty-five in
England, and nine in Scotland, but
during the last month of the
twelve, viz., August, it was con-
fined to seven counties in England
and one in Scotland.

In the past three months, Sep-
tember, October, and November,
there were only twenty-six out-
breaks of pleuro-pneumonia in
Great Britain, and these were con-
fined to seven counties in England
and one in Scotland. In the corre-
sponding period of last year, when
the Board of Agriculture began
the work of stamping out the dis-
ease, there were 116 fresh out-
breaks.

ANTHRAX.—During the month
of November there were twenty-
five outbreaks of this disease in
Great Britain. They occurred in
the counties of Dorset, Durham,
Kent, Leicester, Surrey, Sussex
(East), Warwick, Wilts, York,
(W.R.), and Aberdeen. There
were forty-nine animals attacked,
one of which was killed, thirty-
eight died, and four recovered.

SWINE FEVER.—This disease is
now and has for some time been
decreasing. In the month of No-
vember there were 284 outbreaks
reported, an average of seventy-
one per week, whereas in October
the outbreaks averaged eighty-
eight per week. The number of
swine attacked in November was
1,874. There were during the
month 860 diseased pigs killed,
934 died, 277 recovered, and 371
remained alive when the return
Was made up.

Stock Prizes,
Mr. SANDAY (Chairman) reported

breaks of the disease occurred;
1,188 cattle affected with pleuro-
pneumonia were slaughtered, and
13,134 cattle which had been in
contact with diseased beasts or

__ otherwise exposed to infection were

that a memorial received from the
Highland Cattle Society and others,
either breeders of or interested in
Highland cattle, asking for classes
for that breed at the Warwick Meeting
had been further considered, in con-

clxxx

nection with an offer of prizes by the
Warwick Local Committee for four
classes of Highland cattle. <A letter
had also been received from the
Polled Cattle Society on the subject
of prizes for the Aberdeen-Angus
breed at Warwick. After considerable
discussion, the Committee had unani-
mously resolved that no prizes could
be offered in connection with the
Warwick Meeting for Scotch breeds
of cattle. The Committee could not,
therefore, see their way to recom-
mend the acceptance of the prizes by
the Local Committee. An offer of
a champion prize by the Red Polled
Society for the best Red Polled bull,
cow, or heifer exhibited had been
accepted with thanks. The Com-
mittee having now finally revised the
prize sheet and regulations for the
Warwick Meeting, recommended
them to the Council for approval and
issue forthwith. They also recom-
mended that the Chairman be em-
powered to accept any champion
prizes from breed societies which
might be offered before the prize
sheet was printed, and which com-
plied with the regulations of the prize
sheet. The Committee had met seven
times, and made seven reports.

Mr. SANDAY added that since the
meeting of the Committee an offer
had been received from the Short-
horn Society of two champion prizes
of 251. each for the best male and the
best female Shorthorn exhibited at
Warwick ; and this offer was accepted
with thanks.

Mr. ASHWORTH announced that
the British Berkshire Society had
voted a champion prize of 10/. for
the best Berkshire pig exhibited in
the boar and sow classes. This offer
was also accepted.

An offer made on behalf of some
breeders and feeders of Kerry or
Dexter Kerry cattle of the prize
money for an additional class of
Kerry and Dexter heifers under three
years of age, was declined.

In moving the adoption of the
draft prize sheet for Warwick, Mr.
SANDAY said that since the meeting
of the Committee a suggestion had
been made which seemed a very valu-
able one, that no pigs which had been
exhibited as fat stock at any show
should be eligible to compete for the

Monthly Council, December 9, 1891.

Society’s prizes; and he therefore
moved the addition of a regulation
to this effect.

Mr. ASHWORTH thought the pro-
posed rule was a most imporant one,
and he strongly supported it.

Mr. GARRETT TAYLOR pointed out
that notice had not been given to
exhibitors, and moved as an amend-
ment that the new regulation be post-
poned until the show of 1893.

Mr. C. W. WILSON seconded the
amendment, which on a division was .
lost by nine votes to fourteen. .

The prize sheet, with the addition
of the proposed new regulation, was
then formally approved and ordered
to be issued.

Implement.

Mr. CRUTCHLEY reported that a
selection of land suitable for the pur-
poses of the plough trials next spring
had been made, and the Committee
recommended that the Local Com-
mittee be requested to complete the
arrangements for securing the land
selected. Other arrangements for
the trials were in progress. The Com-
mittee had met seven times and made
seven reports.

General Warwick.

Sir JoHN THOROLD reported that
the Local Committee had nominated
as agents for the sale of dairy produce
Messrs. Thacker and Christmas of
Warwick (for cheese), and Mr. T.
Palmer, of Hampton Lodge, Warwick,
(for butter and table poultry); and
as agents for lodgings Mr. T. Sallaway,
Jury Street, Warwick (for Warwick),
and Mr. C. C. Garner, Baddesley
Lodge, Leamington (for Leamington).
The Local Committee had agreed to
provide a gold medal for each of the
three thoroughbred stallions»for which
the Society were giving premiums
during the ensuing season.

Showyard Works,

Sir JAcoB WILsoN presented the
report of this Committee on various
matters of detail connected with the
showyard. The Committee had met
nine times and made nine reports.

Committee of Selection. -

Mr. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL reported
the recommendations of this Commit-

Reports of Commiitees.

tee:—(1) That the Committee of
Inspection for the Country Meeting
of 1893 be constituted of the Presi-
dent, Sir Nigel Kingscote, Sir Jacob
Wilson, Mr. Bowen-Jones, Mr. Crutch-
ley, Mr. Hornsby, and the Secretary ;
and (2) that Mr. Christopher Wilson
be elected a Steward of Stock, Mr.
Rowlandsona Steward of Implements,
and Mr. Darby the Steward of Dairy-
ing. They also presented their recom-
mendation for the election of two
distinguished foreign agriculturists
as Honorary Members of the Society,
viz. :—Professor Hermann Hellriegel,
Director of the Versuchs Station,
Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany, and Dr.
C. J. Sickesz van der Cloese, President
of the Royal Agricultural Commission
of Holland, The Hague.

Election of Honorary Members.

The first and second recommenda-
tions of the Committee having been
adopted, Mr. CHANDOS-POLE-GELL
formally moved and Mr. CHARLES
WHITEHEAD seconded, the election
of Professor Hellriegel, and the Hon.
CrEciL T. PARKER moved and Mr. C.
S$. MAINWARING seconded, the elec-
tion of Dr. Sickesz. These resolutions
were carried unanimously, and the
Diplomas of Honorary Membership
were then sealed with the Society's
seal and signed by the President and
Secretary.

Education,

Mr. TREMAYNE reported that of
the forty-seven candidates from the
ten schools entered for the Society’s
Junior Examination on the 10th and
11th ultimo, forty-five actually presen-
ted themselves, and of these, eighteen
obtained the number of marks neces-
sary to qualify them for the Society’s
scholarships and certificates. The
Committee presented a report on the
results of the examinations for publi-
cation in the Journal (see page 823),
A question raised by an intending
competitor as to whether a candidate
who had gained the first-class certif-
cate in the Senior Examination might
again compete had been discussed,
and it had been decided to reply in

_ the negative, and to insert a regula-
_tion to this effect in the next issue of
syllabus. The text-book which
Committee had undertaken to

nOn, i, T.s.—8

a

clxxxi

prepare, in compliance with the many
demands that had been addressed to
the Society for an elementary work
on agriculture adapted for use in
rural and other schools and classes
was now completed, and would be
published on January 1 next, under
the authority of the Society, by Mr.
John Murray, at the price of half a
crown. Of the 500/. granted to the
Committee for the year 1891, they
had expended 4662, 6s. 2d., exclusive
of the cost of the twenty-four insect
diagrams recently published and the
expenses of the text-book. They
moved for a renewal of the grant for
the year 1892. The Committee had
met seven times and made seven
reports.
Dairy.

The Hon. Crecin T. PARKER
reported that the Committee had
considered a letter from Viscount
Hampden, President of the English
Jersey Cattle Society, urging addi-
tional reasons why the Society should
give prizes for dairy cattle, subject to
a butter test by a churn, as to which
the Council had decided at their last
meeting that such prizes could not
be received. The Committee recom-
mended that the Secretary be in-
structed to inform the English Jersey
Cattle Society that the Council had
again considered the matter, and
were still of opinion that the practical
difficulties which they foresaw in
carrying out a butter test by the
churn prevented any satisfactory
conclusion being arrived at. The
Committee had expended all the
1007. granted to them for 1891, and
moved for a renewal of the grant for
1892. The Committee had met six
times and made six reports.

Standing Committees for 1892.

The following Standing
maittees were appointed for
viz -—

Com-
1892

Finance. | Stock Prizes.
House. Implement.
Journal. | General Warwick.
Chemical. | Showyard Works.
Seeds and Plant Dis- Selection.

eases, Edueation.
Veterinary. i Dairy.

The present members of the Finance,
House, Journal, Chemical, Education,
and Dairy Committees, and (with one

n

elxxxii

or two exceptions) of the Seeds and
Plant Diseases, Veterinary, Stock
Prizes, Implement, and Showyard
Works Committees were re-elected.
Mr. Ashworth was added to the Seeds
and Plants Committee, Mr Caird to
the Implement Committee, Mr.
Marshall Dugdale to the Education
and Dairy Committees, Col. Curtis-
Hayward to the Veterinary and Dairy
Committees, Mr. Martin Sutton to the
Woburn Sub-Committee, and Mr.
Stanyforth to the Showyard Works
Committee. To replace Messrs. Caird,
Chandos-Pole-Gell, and Warren, who
retired from the Committee of Selec-
tion by rotation, Messrs. Ashworth,
Tremayne, and Garrett Taylor were
elected.

Committee for Selection of Judges,

On the motion of Sir JAcoB WIL-
SON, seconded by Mr. 8. P. FOSTER, a
Committee was appointed to recom-
mend Judges of Stock, Poultry, and
Produce at the Warwick Meeting,
such Committee to consist of the
members of the Stock Prizes Com-
mittee and the Stewards of the several
departments, and to sit for the first
time in February next.

Mr. Foster raised the question as
to the appointment of two judges in-
stead of three, and referred to other
matters in connection with the judg-
ing. He would like the Committee to
receive an instruction from the Coun-
cil to appoint two judges only.

Sir JAcoB WILSON objected to any
such instruction being given before-
hand to the Committee, and said it
was quite competent for Mr. Foster
to raise the question in Committee,
when it could be discussed.

The DUKE of RICHMOND AND
GORDON agreed with Sir Jacob Wil-
son in thinking that the matter should
be left to the Committee, without
instructions from the Council.

Mr. GILBEY concurred in this view,
though, having acted both as an ex-
hibitor and judge at past shows, he
was strongly in favour of two judges
instead of three. He suggested as
a way out of the difficulty that three
judges should be nominated, but that
only two should judge, the third not
going into the ring unless called
upon,

Monthly Council, December 9, 1891.

Mr. MARTIN thought the Society
should publish the names of the
judges in the prize sheet as other
societies did, and moved a resolution
to that effect. This was supported
by Mr. C. W. WILSON, but eventually
the motion was by leave withdrawn.

After some further discussion on
Mr. Foster’s suggestion, in which the
Duke of RICHMOND and GORDON,»
Sir NigeL Kine@scots, Sir JACOB.
WILSON and others took part, a mo-
tion to pass to the next business was
carried.

Country Meeting of 1893.

The invitations received from the
Corporations of Chester and Man-
chester, inviting the Society to hold
its Country Meeting of 1893 in their
respective localities, were further
considered, and the SECRETARY read
a number of resolutions and memorials
from various town councils and other.
bodies in support of each application.
These were referred to the Committee
of Inspection already appointed, with
instructions to bring up at the meet-
ing of the Council in February next
a report on their inspection of the
sites and other accommodation offered
by each locality.

Miscellaneous,

Letters were read (1) from Mr.
Richard Stratton, resigning his seat
on the Thoroughbred Stallion Com-
mittee; (2) from M. Méline, Presi-
dent of the Commission Internationale
d’Agriculture, asking for contributions:
towards the expenses of the Com-
mission; (3) from the Science and
Art Department, transmitting par-
ticulars of an agricultural exhibition —
to be held at Philippopolis, from
August 2nd to October 31st, 1892;
(4) from the Mansion House Associa-
tion on railway rates,

Date of next Meeting.

The report of the Council to the
general meeting on the following day
having been prepared, and other
business transacted, the Council
adjourned over the Christmas recess:
until Wednesday, February 3rd,
1892.

( clxxxili )

Proceedings at thalf-pearly Mecting of
Governors and Members,

HELD IN THE HALL OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL AND CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY,
20 HANOVER SQUARE.

THURSDAY, DECEMBER 10, 1891.
THE EARL OF FEVERSHAM (PRESIDENT) IN THE CHAIR.

Present :—

Members of Council.—Col. Sir Nigel
Kingscote, K.C.B. (Trustee), Sir John
H. Thorold, Bart. (Vice-President),
Sir Jacob Wilson, Messrs. G. Mander
Allender, J. Bowen-Jones, Lieut.-Col.
J. F. Curtis-Hayward, Messrs. J.
Marshall Dugdale, S. P. Foster, Wm.
Frankish, Charles Howard, C. S.
Mainwaring, T. H. Miller, Albert Pell,
G. H. Sanday, Henry Smith, E. Wil-
frid Stanyforth, Martin J. Sutton,
and C. W. Wilson.

Members.—Sir G. Macpherson-
Grant, Bart. (Governor), Sir J. Heron-
Maxwell, Bart., Messrs. Ralph Arnold,
R. C. Assheton, George Barham, John
Barron, H. W. 3B. Berwick, George
Blake, Professor Brown, C.B., Thomas

Charnock, Horace F. Cox, Major
Craigie, Messrs. J. Kersley Fowler,
George Gibbons, H. Foord Harris, J.
Harris, C. H. Hooper, C. F. Hope,
Frederick King, R. Jasper More, M.P.,
Ralph Palmer, Clare Sewell Read,
E. Riley, J. E. Scotson, W. Scotson,
Thomas Stirton, G. F. Strawson,
George Sutton, W. A. G. Taylor,
Howard Thomas, John Thornton,
Jonas M. Webb, &c.

Officers.—Mr. Ernest Clarke, Secre-
tary and Editor; Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker, Consulting Chemist.

The half-yearly Report of the Coun-
cil (see page 805) having been taken
as read, the SECRETARY gave a brief
synopsis of its contents.

Mr. CLARE SEWELL READ, in mov-
ing the adoption of the report, said
he did so with much pleasure, because
it appeared to him that their great

national Society had not suffered
from the reaction of its Jubilee year,
but had renewed its earnestness and
increased its strength. With regard
to pleuro-pneumonia, he was very
glad to say that, although one or two
members of the Council had cast
some doubt upon the value of the
efforts made by the Board of Agri-
culture for the suppression of that
most virulent disease, the Board was,
he believed, on the fair road to suc-
cess. In his own county the course
adopted had been a complete and
entire success. No county had for-
merly suffered more than Norfolk
from this disease, and they had de-
clared for years and years that they
received a considerable proportion of
that disease from Ireland. Since the
Pleuro-pneumonia Act had been faith-
fully and fairly put in force in Ire-
land, they had not hada single case of
pleuro-pneumonia in Norfolk: not
one case since last September twelve
months. In the previous year the
Norfolk County Council had paid no
less than 5,0002. for the animals
slaughtered. They, in Norfolk at
least, had reason to be satisfied with
the experiment. He quite acquiesced
with the suggestion of the Council to
the Board of Agriculture that more
stringent measures should be adopted
in regard to swine fever, because he
believed that the varying and con-
flicting orders issued by the various
local authorities, although extremely
costly to the ratepayers of every
county where that disease existed,
resulted in the squandering of money.
He hoped either that the Board of
Agriculture would make those autho-
n 2

elxxxiv Half-Yearly Meeting of Governors and Members,

rities more reasonable, or else be
pleased to take the whole manage-
ment into their own hands as they
had done in the case of pleuro-pneu-
monia. He was quite sure that this
would be for the good of the country,
and would give great satisfaction
throughout the kingdom. After ex-
pressing his great gratification that
the small difference which existed
between the Entomologist and the
Society had been cleared up, he form-
ally moved the adoption of the report.

Sir JOHN HERON MAXWELL se-
conded, expressing his pleasure as a
north countryman that amongst the
eighteen candidates who had passed
the Junior Examination no less than
nine were from the north, whilst
amongst the ten who would receive
scholarships no less than six were
from the Aspatria Agricultural Col-
lege; and one from the other side of
the border, at Maybole. When so
much was being done for technical
education, this was very creditable,
and was another evidence that they,
the north countrymen, were not be-
hindhand.

Mr. RALPH PALMER, with reference
to the large amount of credit which
the last speaker claimed for north
countrymen, and especially for the
Aspatria College, pointed out that
two years ago, when there were fifty-
one boys in that college, more than
half came from the south of the
Thames.

Mr. FOSTER wished to say, as he
said last year at that meeting, that it
was entirely owing to the grant given
to the college by the Board of Agri-
culture and their predecessors that
Aspatria had been able to achieve the
results it had. Whilst the last speaker
was perfectly right that many of
their boys came from the south, it
was gratifying to think that although
they were southern born they were
northern educated.

The report was then unanimously
adopted.

Vote of Thanks to Auditors.

Mr. W. Scotson then moved the
usual vote of thanks to the Auditors
(Messrs. Francis Sherborn, A. H.
Jobnson, and C. Gay Roberts), and
their re-election for the ensuing year.

Mr, GEORGE GIBBONS, in second-

ing, took the opportunity of express-
ing his pleasure at the proposal of
the Council to offer increased prizes
for Dairy produce in the year 1893,
and pointed out the immense im-
portance of stimulating the dairy
industry and of improving the tech-
nical education of those interested in
it, seeing that an annual sum of
twenty million pounds was paid by
this country for foreign produce. He
also referred to the subject of pleuro-
pneumonia, insisting upon the wisdom
and importance of prohibiting the
importation of animals from any
country that was not known to be
free from the disease.

The vote of thanks was passed
unanimously.

Suggestions for Consideration of
Council.

In response to the usual inquiry
from the Chair as to whether any of
the members present had any ques-
tions to ask or suggestions to offer
for the consideration of the Council,

Mr. GEORGE BARHAM expressed
regret that no reference had been
made in the report to railway rates.
He regretted this the more because
the Mansion House Committee had
issued their Report, in which they
thanked the representatives of the
Society for the services they had
rendered. He did not know anything
that affected the value of land or of
agriculture more than their railway
rates. Althoughthey had gained agreat
deal by the action taken before the
Joint Committee, yet there were many
things to be done, and he thought it
behoved the Society to keep a watch-
ful look-out for the future, and to
study the matter in every possible
way in the interests of agriculturists.
One other point was the railway rates
in connection with the implement
exhibits at the Shows. Their Council
had very great power; and when they
were deciding the locality of the Show,
that was the time for them to ap-
proach the railway companies and
ask for advantages for those who
largely made the success of the Show.
Owing to the joint action of that
Society and other agricultural bodies
not very long since, exhibitors were
given half-rates for the return of imple-
ments and live-stock from the Shows.

Thursday, December 10, 1891.

He was told that all claims for acci-
dents, &c. only applied when full
rates were paid. He thought some
improvement should be made in that
respect. Then the implement ex-
hibitors were under an immense dis-
advantage because they were com-
pelled to pay full rates for their
servants both going to and returning
from the Show. In the case of ex-
hibitors of stock they were able to
have one or two men carried free with
their animals. The implement ex-
hibitors were unable to take advantage
of excursion tickets, inasmuch as their
employés had to attend the Show, in
many cases, days and weeks before
the Show opened, and they did not
return until some time afterwards.
Mr. Barham also criticised the trials
of cream separators which took place
at Doncaster this year, saying that
the Society’s trials should be so ex-
haustive and complete that agricul-
turists who had to buy a machine
should know which was the best one.
Mr. C. F. HOPE made suggestions
in regard to increased facilities for
passenger traffic to the Shows through
the issue by railway companies of
contract tickets, and, as an agricul-
tural lecturer, suggested the granting
of facilities for photographing prize
animals in the showyard, to be used
as illustrations of approved points.
Mr. J. K. FOWLER suggested that
the system of steam cultivation should
again be brought to the front. Some
years ago, he was very much inter-

ested in the subject as a tenant farmer,

and had his own set of tackle. Since
that time there had been improve-
ments made, and he thought the time
had now come when the Society
should give some opportunity for the
inventors of those most valuable im-
plements again to come into competi-
tion. The subject was now being
talked about by the Farmers’ Club;
and he thought it quite right that the
Society should consider it them-
selves. He also referred to an inter-
esting article by their Secretary in the
Journal for June, on “ Sugar-Beet Cul-
tivation in Austria,” and called atten-
tion to the fact that this country, espe-
cially Ireland, could produce immense
quantities of sugar from Silesian beet.
He had visited Ireland, and found
that the climatic influences of that

clxxxv

country and a great part of England
could be shown to be available for the
production of sugar, as well as in
Holland, Belgium, and a great part
of the Continent. It was not perhaps
known to the general public that 75
per cent. of the sugar consumed in
England was beet-root sugar, and
only 25 per cent. was cane sugar.
We paid Germany, France, Austria,
Belgium, and Holland 15,000,000/.
sterling per annum for a product
which he was quite confident could
be grown in this country. It was
time, therefore, that that Society
should see whether this great indus-
try could not be developed. It was
possible that a committee might be
formed to get all the information
they could on this important subject.
It would be said that the bounty
system was difficult to overcome:
within a few months that would be
materially altered; but one of the
great reasons why the governments
of the Continent offered these bounties
was not so much as a fiscal operation
as for the improvement of the agri-
culture of the country. The immense
improvement in the fertility of the
soil around which beetroot culture was
carried on was quite sufficient induce-
ment for the governments of the
Continent to offer a bounty.

Votes of Thanks to Chairman.

Mr. R. JASPER MoRE, M.P., in pro-
posing a vote of thanks to the Presi-
dent for presiding over the meeting,
said that in these days they in London
heard a great deal of those who were
at both ends of the agricultural
ladder, the great landlords in the
House of Lords, and the agricultural
labourers. They did not hear so
much as they could wish of the
farmers. The best chance these had
of being able to make their opinions
felt in London, and of drawing at-
tention to their needs, was when they
were met by one of the great land-
owners in the chair. _He ventured to
thank his Lordship for presiding over
them on that occasion, and he con-
gratulated the Society on the great
advantage of having the -chairman-
ship of the noble Lord during the
past year. He knew his Lordship
chiefly as being a breeder of Short-
horns, but he begged that he would

clxxxvi Half-Yearly General Meeting, December 10, 1891.

not the less deign to accept that vote
from him (Mr. More) because he came
from a county famous for Herefords
and sheep.

Mr. J. K. FOWLER seconded the mo-
tion, which was carried unanimously.

The PRESIDENT thanked the meet-
ing very much for the kind way in
which they had received the vote,
which had only been too flatter-
ingly and handsomely proposed and
seconded by his friends Mr. More
and Mr. Fowler. It afforded him
great gratification to assist in any
way he could the great cause of agri-
culture which they all had at heart,
and he felt proud at having been ap-
pointed to the high position of Presi-
dent of the Royal Agricultural Society.
He only feared that he might not be
able to do justice to the important
duties which devolved upon the Presi-
dent of that great Society. With re-
gard to what had been said by Mr. Read
on the efforts made by the Board of
Agriculture to stamp out pleuro-pneu-
monia, which had, he was happy to
say, been so successful, and with re-
gard to the further efforts which
should be made to stamp out that
terrible disease of swine fever, he
need not say that the Council were in
cordial agreement with the speakers,
and would give every assistance in
their power to the Board of Agricul-
ture. He rejoiced tothink that every
part of this island had been success-
ful in obtaining the scholarships and
certificates at the Junior Examination.
He was glad that there should be
that friendly rivalry between the
north and the south to which refer-
ence had been made, and he hoped
the result might be that it would add
to the science as well as the practice
of agriculture in this country. With
regard to the question of railway
rates and facilities for the car-
riage of stock and implements, he
must remind Mr. Barham that a
Railway Act had passed Parliament
very lately, and that of course the
Council could not regulate the rates,
though they might express their
wishes and opinions to the Railway
Companies. With regard to photo-
graphic apparatus in the showyard,
he thought it would at once be seen
that if any one gentleman were al-
lowed to bring in «his camera
others would expect the same privi-

lege, and he was afraid it would
rather interfere with the facilities of
the public in getting about the Show.
As to what Mr. Fowler had said in
reference to the cultivation of the
beet-root for sugar and the operation
of the bounty system, he always
thought that Englishmen had gener-
ally found out what the soil of their
country was best suited to produce.
He could not help feeling that if beet-
root for the manufacture of sugar
could have been made profitable, it
would have been grown in this country.
With regard to the bounty system,
Englishmen did notlookto the Goyern-
ment for bounties, but liked to rely
upon their own energies; and that
was the source of the strength and
success of their country in the various
industries which they had carried on.
He would not now refer further to
these suggestions, which would no
doubt receive the attention of the
Council, but before he sat down he
wished to propose a vote of congratu-
lation upon an event which had been
received with the greatest satisfac-
tion and pleasure by all classes of the
country. He referred to the ap-
proaching marriage of the Duke of
Clarence. (Cheers.) The Duke was a
member of that Society; and he (the
President) was sure they would not
wish to separate that day without
offering their hearty congratulations
to His Royal Highness. It had been
thought better that a resolution of
this kind should be proposed at a
general meeting of the members.
of the Society rather than at the
Council meeting held on the previous
day, since he felt sure that the whole
of the members of their very large
and important Society would wish
to have the opportunity of adding
their voices to the universal chorus
of congratulation with which the
announcement of this auspicious
event had been greeted by all classes.
(Cheers. )

Mr. CLARE SEWELL READ said he
hoped he might be allowed the privi-
lege of seconding the resolution of
congratulation, especially as the
Duke was President of the Norfolk
Agricultural Society for this year.

The resolution was passed by accla-
mation, and the meeting then termi-
nated.

( clsxxvii )

PRIZE LIST

FOR

WARWICK MEETING, JUNE 18 to 24, 1802.

Total value of Prizes offered (exclusive of Champion Prizes and Medals
offered by Breed Societies), £5,018, of which amount £845 are contributed by
the Warwick Local Committee.

HORSES (£1,265).
i |

Prizes
St
oun MUNTERS. ota | WARNES HORSES rma
& £ £ | Class Fe
1 Mare and Foat . .20 10 5 | 21 Mare or GELptve, of any
2 Mare or GELDING, up to age, above 14 hands! .15 10 -
15 st., foaled 1886 or 87! 25 15 10 22 Mare or GELDING, of any
3 Mare or GELDING, up to age, not over 14 hands!. 15 10 -
12 st., foaled 1886 or 871 25 10 5
4 Mark, foaled in 1888! rs ae SHIRE.
Bene, aed ned; | | 28 SzAuzsos, foaled in 1889 . 20 10 5
"ist 45 10 5 | 24 STAELION, foaled in 1890 . 20 10 5
7 Fnxy, foaledin 1689 15 10 5 a pepe norman Gr es
’ ere =e ARE AND FoAL . 2 5
8 Fivty, foaled in 1890 15 10 5 | 97 Firty, foaledin 1889 .15 10 5
28 Fitzy, foaled in 1890 -15 10 5
: COACH HORSES. 29 FILty, foaled in 1891 -13 10 5
9 SraLtion, foaled in 1888,
1389, or 1890. . 615 105 | Ti we Cold oes ys ofeard tee
M ARE AN 1 . 5 5 S/are orse Soctety or e€ bes we
s oe we? | Stallion and Mare or Filly.
HACKNEYS. )
11 Sratzroy, foaled in 1888, ) CLYDESDALE.
1889, or 1890, above 15 30 SraLtion, foaled in 1889 . 20 10 5
hands - 5B 10,5 31 Srattioy, foaled in 1890 . 20 10 5
12 SraLtiox, foaled in "1888, | 32 Mare anp Fost. - 20 10 5
1889, or 1890, above 4 33 Frity, foaled in 1889 -15 10 5
hands and not over 15 34 Fiiry, foaled in 1890 « 15 10.55
3 hands. : = -15 10 5 Two Champion Prizes of £25 eaeh, for
ee Pe a 5 | bet Clydesdale Seale cod Bees We
14 ceca ema Tad vox, = ° Filly, are offered by the Clydesdale Horse
above 14 hands and not —s
over 15 hands e -i5 10° 5
15 Mare or Getprice, above 2 — = =
14 hands, up to 15 stones, 35 STALLION, foaled in 1889. 20 10 5
foaled in1886,’87,or’88115 10 5 36 SraLuion, foaled in 1890 . 20 10 4
16 Mare or GELDING, above 37 Mare AnD Foat -2@ 10 5
14 hands, up to 12 stones, 38 FILy, foaled in 1889 715 10 5
foaled in 1886, ’87,or’881 15 10 5 | 39 FILty, foaled in 1890 -15 10 5
PONIES. AGRICULTURAL HORSES.
17 Sraiioyn,not overi4hds.15 10 5 40 GexprNe foaled in 1889, got
18 Broop E AND Foat, by a Stallion registered
not exceeding 14 hands. 15 10 5 in the Shire Horse Stud
19 Mare or GELDING, above Book! , ; : -10 5 &
13 hands and not over 14 41 Gevprne foaledin 1890, got
hands! aes 10. b= by a Stallion d
20 Mare or GeELprNG, not in the Shire Horse Stud
exceeding 13hands! .10 5 ~ | Booki oa % 44OGH =

3
.

1 Offered by the Warwick Local Committee,

clxxxvill

Prize List for Warwick Meeting, 1892.

CATTLE (£1,361).

Prizes

SHORTHORN. ———
Class 1st 2nd 3rd
Se ae

42 Butt, calved in 1886,
1887, 1888, or 1889 2d) 105
43 Buut, calved in 1890 Pees Bh is
44 Butt, calved in 1891 2 15) <10 5

45 Cow, in-milk or in-calf,
calved previously to1889 15 10 5

HEtrer, in-milk or in-calf,
calved in 1889 . oD 0 5.
47 Heirer, calvedin1890 .15 10 5
48 Huerrer, calvedin 1891 .10 5 —-
Two Champion Prizes of £25 each are
offered by the Shorthorn Society of Great
Britain and Treland for the best Male and

the best Female Shorthorn.

HEREFORD.

49 Butt, calved in 1886,

1887, 1888, or 1889 .15 10
50 Butt, calved in 1890 ib 0
51 But, calved in 1891 pio 70
52 Cow in-milk or in-calf,

calved previously to 1889. 15 10
53 Hetrer, in-milk or in-calf,

calved in 1889 . rps Wired A)
54 Hetrer, calved in 1890 .15 10
55 Herrer, calvedin1891 .10 5

Two Champion Prizes of £15 each, for
the best Male and the best Female Hereford
are offered by the Warwick Local Com-

mittee.
DEVON.

56 Buut, calved 1887, ’8, or’9 15 10
57 But, calved in 1890 gP ilsye a
58 Butt, calved in 1891 210) um gm
59 Cow or Hetrrer, in-milk

or in-calf, calved pre-

viously toorin 1889 .15 10 5
60 Herrer, calved in 1890 .15 10 5
61 Hetrer, calvedin1891 .10 5 -

SUSSEX.
62 Butt, calved 1887, ’8,or’9 15 10 5
63 BuLu, calved in 1890 ley. aly
64 BuLt, calved in 1891 5 -
65 Cow or Herrer, in-milk
or in-calf, calved pre-
viously to or in 1889.15 10 5
66 Hetrer, calved in 1890 .15 10 5
67 Herrer, calvedin1891 .10 5 -

LONGHORN.
68 Butt, calved in 1888, 1889,
or 18901. s -10 - -
69 Cow or HeIrer, of any
age, in-milk orin-calf!.,10 - —-

WELSH.

70 Buu, calved 1887, ’8,or’9 10 5 -
71 But, calved 1890 or 1891 10 5 —-
72 Cow or Hetrer, in-milk

or in-calf, calved pre-

viously toorin1889 .10 5 -
73 Herrer, calvedin1890 .10 5 -
74 Herrer, calved in 1891 .10 5 -

46

foo oOo Cvs O71

oor

Prizes
RED-POLLED. ———~
Class 1st 2nd 3rd
Sie
75 Butt, calved 1887, ’8, or’°9 15 10 5
76 BULL, calved in 1890 -15 10 5
77 Butt, calved in 1891 - 10 “oS

78 Cow or Heirer, in-milk

or in-calf, calved pre-

viously to orin 1889 .15 10 5
79 Heirer, calved in 1890 .15 10 5
80 Heirer,calved in 1891 .10 5 —

A Champion Prize of Ten Guineas is
offered by the Red-Polled Society for the
best Red-Polled animal exhibited.

JERSEY.

81 Butt, calved in 1888,

1889, or 1890. . . 15 10S
82 Butt, calved in 1891 -10 be
83 Cow, in-milk, calved pre-

viously to or in 1888 .15 10 5
84 Cow,in-milk, calvedin 1889 15 10 4
85 HEIFER, in-milk or in-calf,

calved in 1890 : - 15 10
86 Heirer,calvedin 1891 .10 5 =

GUERNSEY.

87 Butt, calved in 1888,

1889, or 1890 . - 15, AOR
88 Bu Lt, calved in 1891 -10 6 =
89 Cow or HEIFER, in-milk,

calved previously to or

in 1889 . : : . 1h 10s
90 Herrer,calved in 1890. .15 10 5
91 Herrer, calvedin 1891 .10 5 =

KERRY.
92 Butt, calved in 1889, 1890
or 1891 . A . 10 Joe
93 Cow or HEIFER, of any
age, in-milk or in-calf .10 5 =

DEXTER KERRY.

94 Butt, calved in 1889, 1890,
or 1891 . 4 -10 6 =

95 Cow or HEIFER, of any
age, in-milk or in-calf .10 5 =

DAIRY CATTLE.

Cows, in-milk (of any breed or cross)
giving the greatest quantity of milk contain-
ing not less than 12 per cent. solids and 3
per cent. butter-fat.

96 Cow which has calyed not

less than three months

before the date of the

Show . 10 ia
97 A. Cow, of 1,100 Ib. or

over, live weight, irre-

spective of date of caly-

ing.» otiiee eel
97 B. Cow, under 1,100 Ib. =
live weight, irrespective
of date of calving . .10 7 6

1 Offered by the Warwick Local Committee.

o

Prize List for Warwick Meeting, 1892.

SHEEP (£900).
Classes
98—101 Leicester . :
102—105 Cotswold . A ae
106—109 Lincoln . e
110—113 Oxford Down .
114—119 Shropshire (6 classes) .
120—123 Southdown . . °
124—127 Hampshire Down -
128—131 Suffolk a"
132—134 Border Leicester (3 el. )
135—136 Clun Forest (2 classes)
137—138 Welsh Mountain do.

In each of the above breeds (except
Border Leicester, Clun Forest, and Welsh
Mountain) the following prizes will be
offered ; Ist 2nd 3rd

For Prizes see below

Two-sHEAR RAM . 6 10
SHEARLING RAM... 15 «10 «5
Pen or Turee Ram Lames,

dropped in 1892 . 210) 5 =
Pen or THREE SHEARLING

Ewes, of the same flock 15 10 5

A Champion Prize of £10 is given by
the Warwick Local Committee for the best
Oxford Down Ram, and of £15 for the
best Shropshire Ram.

For the Shropshire breed, two addi-
tional Classes for Pens of Five Ewes,
which have suckled lambs up to June 15,
(£15, and £10, Class 118), and for Pens of
Five Ewe Lambs (£15, and £10, Class 119)
are offered by Goan Warwick Committee.

GOATS (é (£35).

Ist 2nd 3rd

Class ao
139 He Goat, over 1 year ! By Bed,
140 SHE Goat over2 years!. 4 2 1
141 SHE Goat over 1 year and

under 2 years 1 A re ee
142 Mare Ki! . ° Aten) il
143 Femae Kip! (Le apes

Two Silver Medals are offered by the
British Goat Society for the best Male and
the best Female Goat or aa exhibited,

t PIGS (£432).

144—147 Large White
148—151 Middle White
152—155 Small White
156—159 Berkshire .

tl
For Prizes
see below

160—163 Any Other Black Breed
164—167 Tamworth
In each of the above breeds the follow-

ing prizes will be given :—
Ist = 8rd

> £ £
Boar, farrowed in 1891 . 10 Gees
Pen or TurEE Boar Pics,

farrowed in 1892 . LOSE bees
Breepine Sow, farrowed pre-

viously toorin 1891 .10 5 38

Pen or Turex Sow Pics, far-
rowed in 1892 . aeLO\ nbn S
A Champion Prize of £10 is given by
the British Berkshire Society for the best

Berkshire Pig in Classes 156 and 158.

clxxxix

POULTRY (£272 10s.).

FOWLS.

Prizes are offered for the best Cock,
Hen, Cockerel, and Pullet respectively, of
each of the fol!owing Breeds :—

Classes & 8
168—171 Dorking, Coloured . 30 15 10
172—175 Dorking, Silver Grey 30 15 10
176—179 Dorking, White or

any other variety . 30 15 10

180—183 Game, Old English . 30 15 10
184—187 Game, Indian . . 30 15 10
188—191 Houdan . 5 — 30) LOO
192—195 Other French . . oO La 10

196—199 Brahma . 5 . 30 15 10
200—203 Cochin . 5 . 30 15 10
204—207 Langshan . ° . 30 15 10
208—211 Wyandotte : - 80 15 10
212—215 Plymouth Rock . 30 15 10
216—219 Scotch Grey . . 30 15 10
220—223 Minorea . ° - 80 15 10
224—227 Andalusian. - 30 15 10
228—231 Leghorn . = . 30 15 10
232—235 Hamburgh < . 30 15 10
236—239 Any other variety

(Bantams excepted) 30 15 10

Table Fouls.

240 Pair of Cockerels of 1892,

of any pure breed . . 30 15 10
241 Pair of Pullets, ditto. . 80 15 10
242 Pair of Cockerels of 1892,

first cross from ak pure

breeds . . 30 15 10
243 Pair of Pullets, ditto . . 30 15 10

DUCKS.

Prizes are offered for the best Drake,
Duck, Young Drake, and Duckling respec-
tively of each of the following Breeds :—

244—247 Aylesbury . 30-15 10
248—251 Rouen . 30 15 10
252—255 Pekin i ‘ . 30 15 10
256—259 Any other Useful
Breed . 5 . 30 15 10
Table Ducks.
260 Pair of Ducklings of 1892,
of any pure breed . - 30 15 10
261 Pair of Ducklings of 1892,
of a first cross from any
pure breeds 30 15 10
GEESE.
og SAO
262 Gander. Sit eer Ae
263 Goose. ° . ° » ae 0
TURKEYS.
264 Cock . 7 . . . 2 11H
625 Hen Su . ae eZ ee

cxe

PRODUCE

Prizes

- ——_—.
Class Coes 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
£ & £
266 THREE CHEDDAR . -40 5 3
267 THreE CHESHIRE . ~4LO) 4 age
268 Srx. STiLTon . - SLO ay 83
269 TurEE of any _ other
British make e 710% (0 me
270 THREE CREAM fs 19° ere. WL
BUTTER.

Four of 5/. each
271 2 lbs. FrEsH Bor- Wour otal cack
TER, slightly salted Ronmcileench

272 6 lbs, FresH Rutrer,! 1st 6/., 2nd 51,

8rd 31, 4th 12.

273 ONE KEG OROTHER PACKAGEOF SALT
Burrer, 1st 5/., 2nd 31. 3rd 2U., 4th 11,

CIDER AND PERRY. dat aad 3rd

££
274 Cask of Ciper, made 18915 3 2
275 One Doz. Crinrr, made 18915 3 2
276 One Doz. Ciprr, made before
1891 . ‘ F A ROMS ane
277 One Doz. Perry. ° 0. 2
JAMS AND PRESERVED FRUITS
278 WHOLE-FRUIT JAMS . ale Ve It
279 BorrLep Fruits £ Och 2 al
280 PreseRvED Fruirs for
Dessert é a 5 pee a
281 DriepD or EVAPORATED
Fruits for Cooking . ore2L

1 Offered by the War

Prize List for Warwick Meeting, 1892.

(£236 15s.).
HIVES, HONEY, &c.
Offered by British Bee-keeper’s Assocn.

Prizes

CO
1st 2nd 3rd

Class & OS 8
| 282 CollectionofHives &e.. 100 50 -

283 OssErvATorY Hive . 20 15 10
284 FraAmME Hive : ~ 20) 1b AG
285 FRAME Hive for

Cottager’s use . . 20 15 10
286 Honey Extractor . 15 10 -—
287 ParrorSecrionRacks 15 10 5
288 Rapip FrepErR . Se On Sms
289 12 Sections of Comp

Honey, about12lb. . 20 10 5
290 6 Sections of Comes

Honey, about 6 Ib. . 20 10 5
291 Run or Exrracrep

Honey, wbout 121b.. 20 10 5
292 12 Sections of ComsB

Honey, about 12 lbs.

gathered in or before .

1891 . 4 3 a AOE Oo
293 Run or ExrracrEeD

Honey, about 12 lbs.

gathered in or be-

fore 1891 . . « 207 10" 36
294 GRANULATED Howry,

weight about 12]lb. . 20 10 5
295 Display of Honry 50 30 10
296 Usrrut INVENTIONS) Special Prizes

introd. since 1890.| according to
297 Other Exhibits . -) merit.

wick Local Committee.

IMPLEMENTS (£120).

(Entries closed).

1 Sincte Furrow Proven for £ £
light land . OP
2 StincLE Furrow PxLoven for
strong land S . - 10 5
8 SincLE Furrow Priovar best
adapted for a Press Drill and
Broadeast Sowing. . «10 5
4 Two Furrow PLoven Py oO! 5
5 Turee-Furrow Pioven . 10 5
6 Diceine PLoven for light land 10 5
7 Dicerne Pioven for heavy land 10 5
8 Onze Way PLouGH . is selOr5
FARMS (£300).
(Entries closed).
1 ArAbLEandGrAssFarm £ £ £
of over 250 acres !. 80 40 20

2 ARABLE AND GRASS

Farm, above 150 and

not exceeding 250 acres! 60 40
8 ArABLEand GRASS Farm,

above 50 and not ex-

BUTTER-MAKING
COMPETITIONS (£64).

Crass 1. Open to United Kingdom.
Crass 2, Female Members of a Farmer’s
family not in service or working for wages.
Cuass 3. Dairymaids in service who
have never won a prize exceeding 11.
Cuass 4. Dairymaids residing in the
Society’s District I’.
Prizes: Ist 61,
4th 20,

2nd 41,

8rd 31,
5th 12, in each class, E

HORSE-SHOEING
COMPETITIONS (£32).
(Limited to shoeing-smiths in the Society’s

District F.)
Crass 1, RoApsrers.
Crass 2. Dray Horsns.

Prizrs;: ist 61, 2nd 41, 8rd 81,

ceeding 150 acrest . 40 20

4th 21, 5th 1/, in each. class.

Last Day of Entry for Stock, Poultry, and Produce, APRIL 30, 1892,
(Post Entries at Double Fees up to THURSDAY, MAY 12.)

The Regulations for these Prizes and for the Evhibition of Implements,
Se. (for which entries close April 1, 1892) on application to the Secretary

of the Society, at 12 Hanover Square, London, W,
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