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JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE FIFTH.

18405.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LIBL ARY
4 Y IRK
SUPA MICAL
GAKDEN,

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLY,

'
ur

VOj

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE
AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Tuaer, Principles of Agriculture.

London: Printed by WiLt1am Clowes and Sons, Stamford Street.

“MAR 17 1915

CONTENTS OF VOLUME V.

ARTICLE PAGE
I.—On the Farming of Essex. = Robert ais of Writtle.
Prize Report . ‘

II—On the Jersey, misnamed ee Cow. By Colonel Le
Couteur, of Belle Vue, in the Island of Jersey - 43

Ill.—Further Account of the Tussae Grass. Ina Despatch from
the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Communicated
by Lord Stanley A : : . - 50

1V.—An Essay on the Comparative eet ee in the Employment
of Horses and Oxen in Farm Work. By James Cowie,
of the Mains of elena ty Laurencekirk, N.B. Prize
Essay F ° . - 52

V.—The Farming of Cheshire. By William Palin. Prize ee 57
VI.—Method of Growing Beans and Cabbages on the same Ground.

By the Earl of Lovelace . F Sle
VII.—On the Improvement of Cold and aa Soils - the pp
cation of Burnt Clay. By Charles Randell - 113

VIIL.—1. On the Influence of Water on the Temperature of Soils.
2. On the Quantity of Rain-Water and its Discharge by
Drains. By Josiah eee caciere Engineer to the

Society . = . - 19
1X.—On Preparation for the Wheat Crop in Cornwall. By J. H.
Tremayne . ° : : 2 . 158

X.—Farming of Wiltshire. By Edward Little, of Lower Sheldon
Farm, Chippenham. Prize Report : . 161

X1.—Observations on the Natural History and Ee thiay: of the
Insects called Wireworms, affecting the Turnips, Corn-
Crops, &c.; also of their Parents the Elaters or Beetles,
called Skip-jacks, Click-beetles, &c. By John Curtis,
F.L.S., Corresponding Member of the Tuperl and Royal
Georgofili Society of Florence, &c. Paper VI. . 180

X1J.—On the Building of Coley for + soma By John

Grey a 4 . 237
XIII.—An Essay on Fat and Muscle. By W.F. Karkeck, Veterinary
Surgeon, Truro. Prize Essay . 3 . 245
XIV.—Experiments with Salt and other Manures wey Bis Pa
and Wheat. By John Hannam . : 267
XV.—On the Agriculture of Norfolk. By Barugh Almack . . 307
XVI.—On White Mustard. By George Jesty : : : . 358
62

iv : CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE
XVII.—On the Growing of White Mustard as a Green Crop for
Sheep. a John ied ties of F. H. Dickinson,

M.P. . : . 360

XVIII.—Report on the Exhibition of Insider at the Soutli-
ampton Meeting in 1844. By Josiah Parkes, Con-

sulting Engineer to the Society : . . - 361
XIX.—On the Allotment eg By oe Henry E. Sones
Bart. +. . . ‘ . 391
XX.—Trial of several Artificial Nani By William Miles,
is. Nie 5 < . 394
XXI.—Some Account of the Process of f Warping. By Ralph
Creyke . : . 398

XXII.—On the occurrence of ‘Phoenone in Eavannae By
Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Chemistry, &c., Oxford ; 4 Captain ‘Widdrington,
RN., F.RBS,, F.GS., &e. & .

XXIII.—Instance of the advantage of pre in at
dition to Draining. By George Turner .. é - 418

XXIV.—A few Remarks on the large Hedges and Small Enclo-
sures of Devonshire and the adjoining Counties. ‘By
John Grant, Surveyor and Land Agent. A . 420

XXV.—On the Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils,
whether of Colour, neers or Me ini By
John Arkell . . 429

XXVI.—On the Use of Bones as a Maite with Sulphuric
Acid , : ° . - 443—468

1. Experiments at the Home etl of Gordon Castle, Momence in
1848, with the effect on the crop in 1844. From the President,
His Grace the Duke of Richmond.

2. On the Use of Bones with Sulphuric Acid. By E. Wagstaff.

3. On Bones with Sulphuric Acid and other Manures. By R. W.
Purchas.

4. Report by the Committee appointed by the Morayshire Farmer Club
to examine the Experiments made by Candidates for the Pre-
miums offered for the Growth of Turnips by new Manures—
Season 1843. Communicated by the President, His Grace the
Duke of Richmond.

5. On the Action and Application of Dissolved Bones. By John
Hannam.

XXVII.—Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Corn-Crops, many of them
improperly called Wireworms ; including Ground-bee-
tles, Chaffers, or May-bugs, also the Caterpillars of a
Moth and Saw- fly, and the Larve of some minute Flies,

By John Curtis, F.L.S., Corresponding Member of the
Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of Florence; of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of edie 9 &e.
Paper VII. . . . . - 469

XXVIII.—On Peat Charcoal as a Manure for T rey! By W.
Uppleby " ; é ° - 507

CONTENTS. Vv

ARTICLE PAGE
XXIX.—On the Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.
By John Burke, Jun. : 3 - 5 . 508

XXX.—On the Cultivation of Flax. By G. Nicholls, Esq. - 547
XXXI.—On the cheapest Method of making and burning Drain-
ing Tiles. By T. Law Hodges. : : 2 5ol

XXXIIL—On the Indications which are practical Guides in eae
ing of the Fertility or Barrenness of the Soil. By
John Bravender, F.G.S., a. Cirencester.
Prize Report . ° : a 2 559

XXXIII.—Addition to Mr. Hannam’s Paper on Sulphuric Acid, 1, &e, 594

MiscELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND Notices :—

I,—Experiment on Manures. us Sir William pHauthents, Bart.

- . 4 - - : - 217
II.—On the Bathing of Lambs as a Cure for the Scour, By
Richard Fisher : “ > . ere)
III,—Experiment on the Use of Charcoal as a re By the
Earl of Essex : : . ° . . 280

IV.—On White Carrots. By Sir Charles Burrell, Bart. = = 201

V.—Statement of the Situation of the Labourers in the Village
of Saxby, on the Lincolnshire Wolds. By John Horsley 282

VI—Chesterman’s newly-invented Portable Steaming Apparatus,
for Steaming Potatoes or any other Vegetable Roots for

Cattle . 3 : C 3 . . . 283
VII—Extract of a Letter from Governor Grey, dated niet:
South Australia, December 18, 1843 . - - 284

VIII.—On the Italian Rye-grass. FromJoshua Rodwell . . 284
TX.—Mode of procuring Water for Irrigation in Affghanistan . 287

X.—On the Analysis of Guano. By Andrew Ure, M.D., F.R.S.,
&e. é : F P 5 : ; ° . 287

XI—Thin-Sowing of Wheat . : : . ‘ ° . 597
XII.—On Grafting Turf. By B. Baker . . : : » 600

XTII.—On the Application of cen of Ammonia to Wheat.
. By John Barton . . s : : . 601

XIV.—On Socket Drain-Pipes. By H. Dixon . “ : . 603

XV.—Experiments on the Use of old Hop-bines as Manure in
Hop-Gardens. By Sir John M. Tylden : - - 604

XVI.—Trial of - idiaetcina and uae Manures. By Edward

Strouts . 6 Fi A ° < . 605
XVII.—On Medical “ab bela for Sick Trees. By Sir C. Lemon,
Bart. M.P.- . ‘ 4 ‘ = 5 . 606

b3

vi ; CONTENTS.

ARTICLE

» PAGE

XVIII.—A Plan to prevent the Waste of Manure in Rivers which
flow through Towns. By W. wi sar Esq., B.A., Oriel

College . ; ;

XIX.—On the Hainault Scythe
Rose, Bart. .

XX. Fane S ie. sis of Soi By ae Ure, M. D., F.R.S.

XXI.—On Stacking Sainfoin. By iis Earl of Essex .

XXII.—Experiment on Manures. By Isaac Everitt

APPENDIX.

By the Ri at Han Sir G. H.

.

Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England

Honorary Members .

General Meetings of 1844-5. . °
Statement of Receipts and Payments

Report of the Council] (General Meeting, May 22, 1844) .

Prizes for the Shrewsbury Meeting .
Prizes for Essays and Reports -
Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations . °

Report of the Council (Giiean Mesias Dee. 9, 1843)

Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England

Honorary Members - . .
Statement of Accounts . F °

Award of Prizes at the Southampton Seale
Commendations . . : :
Prizes for the Shrewsbury Meeting, 1845 .
Essays and Reports on Various Subjects.

Rules of Competition for Prize Essays ‘
General Meetings of 1845 ° : :

LIST OF PLATES.

Plate J., Insects affecting Turnips, Corn Crops, &c., to face page
» K., Insects affecting the Corn-Crops, to face page

Plates (2) of Agricultural Weeds, to face page

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.

Report of the Council (General Moe Dec. 14, 1844)

Statement of Receipts and Pipanaale at Southampton

- 610
> Gil

- 614
- 622
. 623

xli
xvi
xlvii
xlvili
ly
Mviii
1xiii
Ixvi
lxviii

. 236
- 506
57

The Binder is desired to place all the Appendix matter, with Roman
numeral folios, at the end of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents—
which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Part or Volume.

THE

JOURNAL
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE FIFTH.
1844.

PART I.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLIV.

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPLISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REPORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTERe TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE

AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.
Von TuarR, Principles of Agriculture.

London: Printed by Wrtuiam CLowes and Sons, Stamford Street,

CONTENTS OF PART I., VOLUME V.

ARTICLE PAGE

I—On the Farming of Essex. By Robert Baker, of Writtle.
Prize Report . : - ‘ : . : °

II.—On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow. By Colonel Le
Couteur, of Belle Vue, in the Island of Jersey ; - 43

III.—Further Account of the Tussac Grass. In a Despatch from
the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Communicated
by Lord Stanley . ‘ . - : . 50

IV.—An oe) on the Comparative Advantages in the Employment
of Horses and Oxen in Farm Work. By James Cowie,
of the Mains of ag ee gS Laurencekirk, N.B. Prize
Essay . ; ° - 52

V.—tThe Farming of Cheshire. By William Palin. Prize eats 57
VI.—Method of Growing Beans and a on the same Ground.

By the Earl of Lovelace . . 112
VII.—On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy 8 Soils by the Appl
cation of Burnt Clay. By Charles Randell 113

VIII.—1. On the Influence of Water on the Temperature of Soils.
2. On the Quantity of Rain-Water and its Discharge by
Drains. By Josiah Faas nee gs Bea: to the

Society . 119
IX.—On Preparation for ‘hs Wheat Crop in Cornwall By J. H.

Tremayne . - 158
X.—Farming of Wiltshire. By Edward Little, of Lower Sheldon

Farm, Chippenham. Prize Report . : > JGL

XI.—Observations on the Natural History and POR: of ‘te
Insects called Wireworms, affecting the Turnips, Corn-
Crops, &c.; also of their Parents the Elaters or Beetles,
called Skip-jacks, Click-beetles, &c. By John Curtis,
F.L.S., Corresponding Member of the Imperial and Royal
Georgofili Society of Florence, &c. Paper VI. . - 180

XII.—On the Building of ae for ee " John

Grey : 5 87)
XILI.—An Essay on Fat ‘i insete: By w. F. Reariese: , Veterinary
Surgeon, Truro. Prize Essay . : . 245

X1V.—Experiments with Salt and other Manures Coa oS Bares
and Wheat. By John Hannam . . 267

MisceLLAnrous ComMMUNICATIONS AND NotICcEs :—

I.—Experiment on Manures. By Sir William Heathcote, Bart., af
. . . . . e J . . 2

iv CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE
II.—On the Bathing of Lambs as a Cure for the Scour. By

Richard Fisker 3 7!)
III.—Experiment on the Use of Charcoal as a Manure. Bia the Earl

of Essex ° ‘ : : ~ : - 280

IV.—On White Carrots. By Sir Charles Burrell : ° . 281

V.—Statement of the Situation of the Labourers in the Village of
Saxby, on the Lincolnshire Wolds. By Mr, John Horsley 282

V1.—Chesterman’s newly-invented Portable Steaming Apparatus,
for Steaming Potatoes or ed other citation angi for

Cattle . : . 283
VII.—Extract of a Letter from Governor Grey, als: Adelaide, South
Australia, December 18, 1843. 5 5 . 284
VIII.— On the Italian Rye- ave Siehan aes Sate From Joshua
Rodwell . : : . 284

1X.—Mode of procuring Water for Irrigation in Affghanistan . 287
X.—On the Analysis of Guano. By Andrew Ure, M.D., F.R.S., &c. 287

APPENDIX.
Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England i
Honorary Members . . ; . : ; . ii
Report of the Council (General Meeting, Dec. 9, 1843) « . - iil
General Meetings of 1844-5 . : - 5 : F : ix
Statement of Receipts and Payments . : : ; x
Report of the Council (General Meeting, May 22, 1844) c : xii
Prizes for the Shrewsbury Meeting . ; : : ; npmwee.tb.<
Prizes for Essays and Reports’. : : : ‘ , + XxXiv
Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations ; : : ; S + XxXvii

DIRECTIONS TO BINDER.
The Binder is desired to place all the Appendix matter, with Roman
numeral folios, at the end of the Journal, excepting Titles and Contents—
which are in all cases to be placed at the beginning of the Part or Volume.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY
| OF ENGLAND.

I.—On the Farming of Essex. By Rosert Baker, of Writtle.
Prize Report.

Essex is exceedingly well situated as an agricultural county, not
only from its neighbourhood to the metropolis, but also as being,
upon nearly one half of its whole boundary, surrounded by the
German Ocean and the River Thames, whence the inland navi-
gation is materially advanced by the Stour, Colne, Blackwater,
Crouch, and other rivers, intersecting or bounding it, and by an
extension of the Blackwater, by the Chelmer inland navigation to
Chelmsford ; by the Colne to Colchester, as well as by the Stour
(dividing Essex from Suffolk) ; by the Crouch to Battles Bridge,
and by various canals from the Thames to Stratford and its
vicinity.

Perhaps no other county has such excellent roads, not only turn-
pike, but even parish highways, which are almost equal to the
turnpike roads in other counties.

The soil in Essex varies so greatly, that as much difference of
system is required in its culture as between counties remotely
situated. The principal substratum is chalk passing beneath
nearly the whole extent of the county, and cropping out at Saffron
Walden northward, and at Grays Thurrock, upon the Thames,
southward, at which latter place are extensive lime works. Upon
the chalk rests the London clay, a strong tenacious soil lying from
100 to 300 feet in thickness, also cropping out about three miles
south-east of Chelmsford, and extending towards the south; upon
which, diluvium consisting of beds of tenacious clay, loam, gravel,
sand, and various other strata rest, either in beds uninterrupted
for considerable space, or in every variety of admixture in the

MOL. V. B

2 On the Farming of Essex.

same field; in the valleys near the principal rivers fine alluvial
soil abounds.

As the system of cultivation pursued upon these different va-
rieties of soil differs so greatly, I shall divide them into classes,
and shall mention various parishes and farms that come under
each denomination of soil: conceiving that the system pursued in
the cultivation forms the main intention of these essays.

Division of the County.

Ist. Subsoil—chalky clay, with good depth of soil lying direct
upon the clay, or upon beds of strong loam intervening.

2nd. Subsoil—chalky clay, or strong tenacious loam; London
clay, or beds of gravel and sand in alternate veins, running for the
most part from north to south, but near the large rivers parallel
with the same; rich alluvial soil resting upon tender loam, ab-
sorbent.

3rd. Subsoil—London clay, with more or less of yellow clay,
and sand in admixture with various loams forming the upper soil.

Rich alluvial soil, mixed with greater or lesser proportions of
sand or gravel, forming those portions called the light lands of the
county.

First, or Chalky-Clay District.

This comprises a large portion of the county, and taking Dun-
mow as the centre, extends to Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire,
Epping, and nearly to Chelmsford; although the general cha-
racter is subject to occasional variation in parts of the district.

The parishes of Stebbing and Dunmow, together with all that
district called the Roothings, are comprised under this head.

The system of cultivation that has been long pursued is that
called the crop and fallow system, by taking fallow and grain
crops in alternate years ; or by what is termed the four-course shift,
having equal proportions of fallow, barley, clover, peas or beans,
and wheat in each year.

By the former mode.
First year—Fallow.
Second year—Barley.
Third year—Fallow.
Fourth year— Wheat.
By the latter mode.
First year—Fallow, with turnips or cabbages in small portions.
Second year— Barley.
Third year—Clover or peas, beans or tares.
Fourth year— Wheat.

This soil requires comsiderable attention in management, as it
becomes tenacious and compact if trodden or ploughed whilst in a

On the Farming of Essex. 3

wet state, and does not recover this poaching (as it is termed) until
again pulverised by frost. The nature of the soil almost of neces-
sity precludes the growth of green winter crops for cattle, not
from the soil’ being incapable of producing them, but because the
damage caused to the land by removing them in winter is so great
as almost to prevent their being grown to advantage ; and it is only
within a few years that the attempt has been made; but since
early swede turnips and mangold-wurzel have become more fre-
quent in cultivation on clay land, they have to some extent been
introduced into these districts, and upon some of the soils of
deepest staple succeed well; white turnips are also grown to some
extent, and of late the cattle kept, which are few in comparison
with those upon districts of lighter land, have advantages beyond
their predecessors of the last century; for at that period barley-
straw formed almost the only staple of cattle food from November
to May, not only for neat stock, but for horses also. A better
system of management is now generally introduced ; the growth of
root crops, the yard feeding of sheep in winter, and the consump-
tion of green crops in summer, added to a system of burning the
soil (now prevalent throughout the district), has, in many instances,
changed the nature of the soil, and in no part of the kingdom can
any be found that will make a greater return for high farming. The
application of manure, whether from the farmyard or otherwise,
increases not only bulk in straw, but quantity and quality also in
the grain, and, from the retentive nature of the soil, manure conti-
nues to benefit for several years after its application.

The soil is, from the great quantity of calcareous matter it con-
tains, particularly adapted for the growth of barley, which for
quality and malting properties is not excelled by any in the king-
dom. This barley is principally sold to maltsters at Stortford,
Sawbridgeworth, &c., and is sold in London under the denomina-
tion of Ware malt, taking that name from Ware in Hertfordshire,
a market town standing in a district of similar soil.

The wheat grown in this district is mostly of the coarser de-
scription, and is either the common red or brown wheat in all its
varieties, or the revit or bearded wheat, of which there are also
several varieties; the latter is of a coarse description, but more pro-
ductive than either of the varieties of common wheat, and succeeds
the others in ripening ; it was at one period in repute for making a
description of flour called “ cowens,”’ used by the bakers for
making up their dough, and also by millers for mixing with other
descriptions of wheat, as might be requisite in particular seasons,
as from its lateness in coming to the sickle it has not unfre-
quently happened that whilst: the earlier wheat has been affected
by wet harvests, this variety has escaped, in which case it becomes
valuable; the price it produces at market has also of late years

B2

4 On the Farming of Essex.

approached nearer to the price of red wheat, and from being more
productive in the proportion of one in five, the value of the de-
scription of land of which we are treating has been enhanced pro-
portionably. ;

The varieties of red wheat principally grown are the Syer,
golden drop, American, Burwell, Russell, and Smoothy ; the two
last are new varieties, having the character of some of the preced-
ing. The Syer is a variety producing an abundance of straw.
The golden drop, wheat with long and also very stiff straw, not
easily lodged, and very productive in dry seasons. The Burwell, a
variety of fine red wheat grown at Burwell in Cambridgeshire,
from whence its name; and the Russell and Smoothy, a close
compact-eared wheat of the American character, and also very
productive upon the best descriptions of land. White wheat is
grown of good quality, but only to a limited extent.

Peas are grown to some extent, and are frequently sown with
oats as food for horses. This crop is denominated bullimong,
and probably answers on some descriptions of soil ; but the prac-
tice should be exploded, as the land cannot be so much benefited
as it would be by taking the crops separately in proper succession.

Beans are not much grown, but upon the more heavy tenacious
clay soils they are produced with success; whilst upon the chalk-
clay subsoils, with thin staple, they do not succeed so well as peas;
the latter also are grown in limited quantities.

Clover is grown only once in six or eight years, for if sown
oftener, it is apt to fail in plant; and even when in plant it is not
very productive, unless highly manured, which is done upon the
young plants in the autumn; in that case it is mostly afterwards
mown; but the usual practice is to feed with sheep through the
summer, or to feed close until the lst of June, when the stock is
removed, and the clover is reserved for seed, producing from two
to eight bushels per acre; four bushels may, however, be consi-
dered an average crop. The expenses attendant upon thrashing
and preparing for market are so great as frequently to leave the
producer a loser; these expenses being, upon an average, about
4s. to 7s. per bushel of 70lb. weight.

Tares or vetches are grown to a considerable extent, as the
comparative scarcity of pasture land renders it imperative upon
the farmer to produce artificial green crops as a substitute for
grass in summer, and hay in winter, as well as for the improve-
ment of the land by feeding with sheep or folding in yards in the
summer months.

Small patches of pasture land (for the most part) only are to be
found upon farms in this district; but in the vicinity of Ongar,
Epping, and Harlow, nearly one half is of pasture, excellent in
quality, though not productive in quantity. Dairying was formerly

On the Farming of Essex. 5

very prevalent in this district, but is now almost discontinued, the
suckling of calves and grazing having in a material degree super-
seded it; but the butter, when produced, is of fine flavour and
quality, and bears a high price in the London market.

The system of management pursued appears well adapted to the
district, as abundant crops of barley and wheat are produced upon
the system of alternate naked fallows ; and although it may appear
not so profitable, still when put into competition with the four-course
shift, less difference, upon calculation, becomes apparent than
might be at first supposed ; this arises from the greatly diminished
expenses of cultivation, as by a continuous system of farming upon
this principle weeds become almost eradicated, and in many por-
tions of the district under good management are hardly to be found
in the eddishes, with the exception of the yellow charlock, which
appears in the barley crop, and, in the spring, sometimes prevails
so much as to render the fields one continuous mass of bright
orange colour, undoubtedly injuring the crop, but certainly not to
the extent that a casual observer would imagine.

The system as carried out is upon ridges of four furrows only,
five of which ridges in width make about a rod, or 3 feet 34 inches
each. These, in the first instance, are what is termed sized ; that
is, if the land is harrowed or scarified down flat, the ploughman
sizes them by going one bout, or by once going and returning up
the field; which an experienced hand can effect with the utmost
precision. ‘The next operation is called four-furrowing ; the ridge
being ploughed in a neat compact manner with two bouts or four
furrows : these, again, are either struck down with two furrows, as
in the first instance, and again four-furrowed, or four-furrowed in
succession, the tilths being given at intervals of about one month,
and from three to four altogether during the summer ; three and
half (or twice four- furrowed, and three times struck or sized) con-
stituting what is termed a clean summert’s fallow.

The land lies in this state either (as it is termed) upon the
round ridge ploughed with four furrows, or upon the flat ridge
ploughed with two furrows, until the following spring, when in
the month of March it is either scarified and dmilled, or the barley
is sown by three operations, and partly ploughed and partly har-
rowed in with a very light pair of harrows. Four ploughs and a
pair of harrows, with one seedsman, will put in from five to six
_acres per day, and the neatness with which it is executed exceeds
description, as upon an acre scarcely a clod of two inches’ dia-
meter can be seen, and the finest tilth imaginable is produced by
the action of the frost during the winter.

When the scarifier is adopted, the drill becomes necessary, and
as this mode in the majority of seasons succeeds best, it is now be-

6 On the Farming of Essex.

coming exceedingly prevalent, as the land is not so likely to re-
unite should excessive rain succeed, nor so liable to be affected by
drought should dry seasons follow. A saving is also effected in
expense and seed; the former mode requiring four bushels per
acre, but the drill requiring only three bushels per acre. The
produce may be estimated from four to six quarters per acre, and
five quarters may be taken as the full average crop of the district.
ve difference in expense by the two modes would stand as fol-
ows :—

First Mode.
ae
First year making the fallow, three whole tilths,
and one strike, at 8s. Kk ; oR Sra,
Two harrowings , ‘ ° : 01 4
Seed tilth 0 8 0
Harrowing . 2 0. 1 8
Seed, four bushels . 016 O
Sowing 07044
£2 15 O
Second Mode,
By the scarifier, as follows :—
First year fallow . . . ; a pe
Scarifying er ee
Harrowing . , . O. O48
Seed, three bushels .. (O12
Drilling ° -) Oo zee

|
|

th
~
a
wo

Gain by latter process, 7s. 6d. per acre.

The barley is seldom interfered with until the following har-
vest, the clean state of the land not requiring the hoe, and the
yellow charlock usually appearing in such quantities as to defy it ;
but by a perseverance for a succession of years in hand-weeding
it out of the crop, it may be entirely eradicated, and has upon
some farms belonging to and occupied by the owners been thus
got rid of, but as leases are not sufficiently extended so as to
repay the tenant his expense in effecting so desirable an object, it
is seldom attempted.

In the third year the same routine of fallowing again takes
place, and the wheat is ploughed in beneath the furrow, and left
without harrowing, an operation effected at so little expense as to
put those lands beyond comparison in that respect with any
others in the kingdom, as the whole operation of ploughing and
putting in the seed does not exceed 8s. 9d. per acre; the quantity
of seed mostly sown is 24 bushels per statute acre.

On the Farming of Essex. 7

zea Midl,
Brought down making fallow . ° tite. Oy 4
Seed tilth ‘ 0 8 0
Sowing and preparing seed 0: Be Gis O-e8ii9
Water-furrowing, &c. e200. 3
Weeding . : PT |: Pea 3
24 bushels of seed at 50s. per qr. : Pa ee prs 3
£214 8%
Add two years’ rent : one boro
Rate . : : Or 80
Rent-charge ‘ is ee ae at Uh
Harvesting with beer ‘ zit; OWIDEWO
Thrashing 4 quarters at 3s. «9.0; 1265/0
Marketing and carriage. sniOgiGeu0
£6 18 8h
Brought down . 618 8%
Incidental fencing, windrows, &e. Os v
Draining 3/. per acre for 14 Eder th 0 0
10 per cent.
Interest of capital, 2 years 012 0
£8 1 8h
Produce of 4 quarters . : JeOrsonne

Leaving 1/. 18s. 4d. for implements, wear and tear, assessed and
property tax, and for 2 years profit.

It is usual after the fallow in the fifth year to introduce clover,
which is sown either at the time of sowing the barley, or about
one month afterwards, at the time of rolling the land with a light
roller, to make the surface smooth for the better enabling the
mowers in the succeeding harvest to mow off the crop evenly; the
clover is usually fed with horses and sheep, and, from the absence
of other pasture, frequently with cows and other neat stock.
Upon the better descriptions of land the clover is mown for hay,
but upon the poorer soils the crop is of the meanest description,
the stalk of the clover becoming of a dark purple colour, or, as
the farmers term it, ‘‘red-shanked ;” and upon such lands the
crop is almost valueless, as neither sheep nor horses will eat it
readily, as it is supposed a bitter flavour is imparted from the soil,

_to which they have an utter aversion, and will starve in the midst
apparently of plenty. ares, both winter and spring, are grown
for green food, but are considered not to improve this description
of soil, making it so light and porous that neither wheat nor
barley succeeds well after them. Beans are sometimes taken, and
peas at this time, and upon the land most suitable (such as has
sufficient depth of staple) succeed tolerably well. The estimate

8 On the Farming of Essex.

upon the best lands cannot, however, be taken at more than 32
bushels per acre, and upon the inferior lands at about 18 bushels.

The routine of farming presents so little variety upon soils
cultivated upon this system, and the active management is reduced
into such narrow limits, that during the winter months it very
little engages the attention of the farmer beyond that of merely
attending to the thrashing and marketing his grain, and carrying
out his draining, which, however, requires his close inspection, for
unless this department is well looked to (being task-work), the
labourers will not execute it properly; and instead of benefiting
their employer, will for the sake of the trifling difference in wages
that they can thus obtain, produce more mischief than they effect
good. The best mode is to let the cutting of the drains by task-
- work, for which from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per score rods is paid; a
confidential man is employed to fill and complete them, for which
he is paid by the day ; but upon small occupations this department
is undertaken by the farmer himself, or his sons, who attend in
the afternoon, and, after having seen that the drains are properly
cut, commence fillmg them with wood and straw. It is presumed
draining has been carried on in this district longer than in any
other part of the kingdom, evidence of its having been prac-
tised for upwards of one hundred years being found from old
entries of labour paid; but the supposition is that it has been
in use from about 1700, that is, nearly 130 years after Tusser
published his “500 Poyntes of Husbandry,” in which work he
makes no mention of the practice. The process as carried out is
simple and effective, and of little expense in comparison with that
practised in other districts; several methods are prevalent, of all
of which sufficient notice will be taken to show their comparative
merits,

The oldest and still most prevalent mode is by ploughing out
the drains transversely to the ridges, or rather diagonally of the
field, taking care to give them sufficient fall or draught for the
water. They are usually ploughed parallel to each other at dis-
tances varying from 5 to 7 yards apart, those soils where the
greater quantity of chalk abounds not requiring them to be so
near to each other as where the stiffer loam prevails. The plough-
man first opens his work with a larger and stronger description of
plough than the common foot plough used in the district for
ordinary purposes ; this he does by ploughing out four furrows,
commencing on the outside, leaving what is called a baulk in the
middle, which. is also ploughed out by two furrows more; the
plough is then brought back in the bottom of the last ploughed
furrow, and by one or two operations a depth of 6 or 8 inches is
obtained. Sometimes a second plough is used of peculiar con-
struction, having a narrow ground and light breast, which takes

On the Farming of Essex. 5

out the last furrow clean; the next operation is to plough out
the leaders or main drains at the lowest end of the transverse drains,
and an opening to about every 100 rods of common drain is made
into the ditch surrounding the field (which it is necessary to have
well made previously to commencing the operation) ; these necks,
as they are termed, to the main drain or leaders are cut into the
open ditch, on whichever side of the bank it may happen to be: the
workman then proceeds to dig out the main drain, which he does
with a spade about 10 inches long and about 34 inches wide at the
point; a boy follows with a small shovel and casts out the loose
mould; after having completed a few rods, he is followed by an-
other drainer, or he returns and with another spade longer and
narrower than the last cuts out the next spit or lower part of the
drain, either leaving a shoulder or not on each side, as may be re-
quired ; but for the ordinary mode of filling no shoulder is left, but
the drain is cut with the utmost precision, not perpendicular but
slanting about 3 inches; the drain is cleaned out with a scoop,
termed a hoe, and when the drainer arrives at one of the drains
that enter the leader, he commences upon it by necking it in, be-
fore taking out all the soil on each side of the point of intersection.
This he does to prevent the edges being broken down by the
operation, and thus proceeds with all the drains successively, taking
care not to open more of the main drain than he requires to en-
able him to proceed with the cross drains. The main drains are
usually dug out to a depth of 22 inches, and the cross drains
20 inches beneath the ploughing, so that their depth is about
26 and 30 inches respectively. After his work has proceeded,
so as to enable him to fill in with the materials necessary, which
consist of wood covered with straw, or with thorns and straw,
or straw alone, either twisted into long bands or not, or, in
the absence of either, stubble gathered from the field; but the
work is considered best done when proper wood is selected, of
which the common hazel-nut wood and sallow are best, or thorns
that are long, clear, and straight; he then commences at the
point where he left digging, and puts in the wood compactly and
neatly at the bottom of the drain, cutting it into proper lengths,
and weakening it “with a cut half through at the crooked parts
so as to enable him to fill” the drain about 3 inches high, keeping
the largest wood at the top and pressing it down closely piece by
piece with a small crotch-stick, the ends of the last put in lengths
lying upon those put in first, so that the whole may gradually
overlap the last, as at B, that running water may meet with no
obstruction by the ends of the pieces of wood meeting it, which
would be the case if the fillmg commenced at the part first dug.
The workmen prefer the latter mode, and unless watched closely
will adopt it, as it gives them less trouble; but an inspection of

10 On the Farming of Essex.

the two modes in the annexed diagram will show the superiority
of the first-described plan :—

Position of wood.

A :
Bottom of Drain =S Bottom of Drain => Daa ie

Course of the water from A to B.

After the wood is placed, the straw, which should be long and
straight, is placed upon the top about 3 inches thick, and firmly
trod down by the workmen passing along upon it, putting it down
at the sides of the drain, with both hands at the same time, which
he effects as he walks along. The drain is then filled in with the
' soil that was taken out, unless it is stiff, tenacious loam, which is
cast aside and supplied by the upper surface-soil; but if the soil
is white chalk-clay, it is best to put it direct upon the straw, as it
forms an arch more substantial than soil of a porous quality.
Some persons have the wheel of a heavily loaded cart drawn
along the drain, whilst others condemn the practice altogether ;
but my own observation has led me to approve of the plan, unless
the soil should be of an extraordinarily stiff character. Care
should be taken to put larger wood at the ends of the main drains,
so that they may be afterwards easily found; and to prevent
rabbits, moles, rats, and other vermin destroymg them, which
they will do unless great care is taken to prevent it; but the
better plan is to fill them for about 3 feet with 2-inch earthen
pipes, by which security is obtained against such accidents.

Other methods are prevalent, and one most in use is by having a
piece of wood, about 6 feet in length and three inches in depth, and
made to fit the bottom of the drain in width; this is wetted, and
placed at the bottom of the drain, upon which the soil taken out is
rammed to the thickness of 3 or 4 inches. By the assistance of a
lever attached to a chain fastened to this plug, as it is termed, it
is drawn forward as the work proceeds, and thus a hollow drain
is left, equal to about 3 inches diameter, which answers extremely
well upon sound chalky clay soils, but should never be adopted
upon very stiff loams, as the ramming of such descriptions of soil
would cause it to become so compact as to prevent the water
finding admission into the drains at all. These two methods are
more prevalent than any others, and indeed are almost the only
ones adopted in this district ; and, if well executed, will continue
to act well for fourteen or twenty years. It is necessary that the
drains should be cut transversely with the stetches, to prevent
the horses, during wet seasons, treading them in, which they most
certainly would do if the drains were cut in the direction in which
the horses walk during the ploughing of the land.

Another system is introduced with excellent success; viz., by

On the Farming of Essex. ll

the windlass mole-plough, which presses out a drain, of about 23
inches in diameter, at ]2 or 14 inches below the depth ploughed ;
exactly as for the spade drains. So the leaders or main drains
are mostly dug as before described, and filled with wood and
straw, and are made either before the ditches are mole-ploughed
or not; but it is most important to have men to work upon them
during the same time the ploughing is going on, for should heavy
rain fall before the main drains are cut, it would destroy the
ploughed drains altogether by the deposit that would be left after
the water had drawn off. A mole-plough drawn by twenty
horses is also used ; but the windlass mole-plough, from its steady
action, and requiring but. two horses, succeeds better. Drains
effected in this way are found to run well for ten to fourteen
years upon the chalk clay, but upon loamy soils they soon close in,
by the loam, after a short time, again uniting and filling up the
drain.

The cost of the two operations differs so much in amount, that
the latter mode is superseding the former to a considerable ex-
tent—very much depriving the labourers of winter work, which
was provided in a great measure by the former mode.

The cutting and filling the drains 22 inches deep costs from
3s. to 4s. per score rods; but, probably, on sound clay, not
exceeding the former sum. About 8 score rods are put in each
acre; this, at 3s., would be 24s. per acre ; if wood and straw are
used, about 24s. more ; but if thorns or haulm only, about half
that sum. The labour in cutting drains, and for hire of mole-
plough horses and driver’s time, will not exceed 15s. per acre
for the same quantity of drains. The charge for the man and
plough is from 8d. to 12d. per score rods, or about 6s. per acre
over and above the additional sum for the horses’ time and for
cutting the main drains. - 3

When the land is regular in descent, and all the drains run in
one direction, the better way is, in the second ploughing of the
fallow, to put the stetches in the direction of the drains, and to
make them of the same width as the drains require to be
from each other; thus nearly all the labour may be saved of
ploughing out the drains, and again ploughing them in after the
operation, as the merely ploughing of the stetches will effect that
object in the ordinary way; care should, however, be taken
_ always to plough over the drain as soon as it can be done, for in
the event of heavy rain falling the drains would be injured by the
soil washing into them; and care should be taken to prevent the
drains uniting with the main drains at less than an angle of 60°,
as the accumulation of soil carried down by the water would be
prevented escaping when the drains are first made, and probably
spoil them altogether.

12 On the Farming of Essex.

The process of burning the soil for purposes of manure being
peculiar to this district, it will not be out of place to give a de-
~ scription of it here.

Two methods prevail—the one the burning in large masses,
and the other in small heaps; and two descriptions of soil are
collected for that purpose, the one consisting of the green strips
of uncultivated land lying round the sides of arable fields, which
are dug up in spits, about 8 inches in depth, and partially dried
by the sun and air before burning ; by the other, the whole sur-
face of the field is ploughed up, with as thin a furrow as possible
from a grass, sainfoin, lucerne, or other layer, upon which a large
quantity of vegetable matter has accumulated, this, being partially
dried by exposure during summer, is collected into heaps con-
taining about 4 square perches, and by a process peculiar to
the district is burned so as to be reduced about one half in bulk ;
the ashes and unconsumed matter being carefully spread after-
wards as manure for the succeeding crops. The labourer com-
mences by placing some large pieces, by which he frames an
artificial furnace, open to the windward side ; he then places some
dry stubble and ordinary wood or thorns upon the top, and par-
tially covers with some of the driest of the collected earth; the
fire is then applied, and as it progresses the whole is speedily
covered with the earth, and by degrees the remaining earth. is
applied; taking care not to allow the fire to burn through to the
external surface of the heap without applying a fresh supply of
the earth, and at the same time avoiding laying it on too thickly,
so as to press down the heap closely in the first instance. With
attention and assistance, many of these fires are kept burning at
once, night and day, until the whole field is gone over ; and, with
proper skill and attention on the part of the workmen, very little
escapes the action of the fire in the first instance, but should any
escape it is collected and carried forward to the next succeeding
row and there consumed. It is difficult to burn the earth col-
lected from around the sides of fields in the same manner, and the
heaps are therefore increased to a larger size, the same process
only being necessary of constantly applying fresh matter wherever
the fire is seen bursting through, for should that be the case to
any extent, unless fresh wood is applied and relighted, the fire of
the whole soon becomes extinguished. The objection to burn-
ing in large heaps arises from the strength of the fire being so
much increased as to burn the earth ved, and sometimes almost as
hard ‘as brick. Attempts have been made in districts where
grayel is scarce to burn it for the purposes of road making, but
the action of the frost soon reduces it to its original state, so as to
make it in the end totally useless, unless a coating of gravel is
afterwards applied.

On the Farming of Essex. 13

The advantages attending this process have long been can-
vassed by agriculturists; the objections taken by landlords and
their agents are, that by continual repetition it reduces the staple
of the soil, and by concentrating the salts and other matter enables
the tenant to avail himself of all their fertilizing properties at
once, to the injury of his successors; but on the other hand it is
contended that, as the application of the system enables the tenant
to produce excellent crops of vegetables upon a soil where none
were originally grown, he is enabled to keep an increased quantity
of stock, and thus more than repay by manure what he had ex-
hausted by the fire. It is not the intention here to discuss the
question, but to state a few facts that elucidate the point; the
process undoubtedly when carried on in small heaps does not
waste the soil as much as when in large heaps; the direct advan-
tages are the destruction of the coarse vegetable matter it con-
tains, thus preventing the injurious effects from wireworm and
other insects, by killing their larve, the production also of a clean
surface, and the being enabled at once to bring the land into
cultivation for rape, turnips, mangold-wurzel, and cabbages, all
of which succeed well after burning without the aid of farm-
yard manure. The land to which the ashes are applied be-
comes for several years afterwards more easy to pulverize; and
the first grain crop succeeding the application is frequently in-
creased in quantity and quality 20 to 25 per cent. Barley cer-
tainly partakes of the benefit more than any other crop, and the
clover generally succeeds well afterwards.

These are all advantages; and as to the disadvantages they
cannot be met better than in the statement of Mr. Litchfield
Tabrum, formerly of High Roothing, Bury, an extensive clay-
land farm: for upwards of twenty-five years the system was
carried out by him in the most perfect manner, and the sums
paid for labour were very great; but from the fact of the number
of sheep and neat stock being increased six-fold at the latter por-
tion of his term, and the productiveness of the farm so greatly
increased as to induce the succeeding tenant to give a very con-
siderably increased rent, we may infer that the advantages far
outbalanced all those objections raised against its practice ; and
from the high eulogiums passed upon the system by Mr. Tabrum,
and the success that attended his exertions throughout, added to
_his afterwards carrying out the same process upon his succeed-
ing occupation with equal success, no one acquainted with him,
or the facts attendant, can doubt of the benefit to be derived
from his course of practice: other experienced farmers in the
district, of whom Mr. Saltmarsh, of High Easter, stands most
prominent, carry out the system with the same advantages. One
point I omitted to mention is, that the quality of the barley as well

14 On the Farming of Essex.

as quantity is considerably improved, and 2s. per quarter is the
lowest estimate at which such improvement can be calculated ;
the soil containing a large portion of chalky matter is partially
converted into lime, potash too is formed from the combustion of
the inert vegetable matter, and other salts are generated, con-
ducive to the increased production of crops of vegetables and
grain. The cost of producing this manure is less than that of any
other description equally beneficial to the land; it is produced
upon the spot where it is required without the expense of car-
riage, and the whole outlay does not exceed in any case 40s. per
acre. The burning into ashes is paid for either by the cubic
yard or at so much per heap; for digging and burning 5d. to 6d.
per cubic yard of ashes is paid, and in some cases 7d.; for burn-
ing in heaps of 4 perches each, of which there are forty to the
acre, 8d. per heap, and the use of a horse, or donkey, and cart.
Upon land containing a greater proportion of silica the cost is in-
creased, as the waste is greater than where pure clay abounds, as
each heap will then contain about 13 to 2 yards, and 60 to 80 yards
will be given to each acre: when carted on from large heaps from
40 to 50 yards per acre are usually applied, but this depends upon
circumstances; when applied for turnips the ashes are sometimes
spread in drills and ploughed in as other manure. It has been
suggested and proved that if the finest portions are sifted from the
coarser, and drilled in with the turnipseed, the crop will be more
benefited than by adding a larger portion in the ordimary way.
Some farmers combine the ashes with bone-dust and otber arti-
ficial manures with decided advantage ; and setting all other con-
siderations aside, the process assuredly induces a clean system of
culture, and finds much useful employment for the labourers, not
the least important consideration at this time.

The live stock kept in this district varies with the opinion of the
respective occupiers; and from Essex being but in a limited
degree a breeding county, all the varieties of Welch, Scotch, and
homebred inferior short-horn cattle are found. In this district
especially, the Welch breeds are preferred and used ; as cows they
are considered better adapted than any other kind. The polled
Suffolk cow is also kept, and is well adapted for either dairying or
for suckling calves for the London markets. These calves are
brought from London and other dairying districts when about
7 days old, and are sold from 15s. to 40s., and sometimes as high
as 45s. each; they are usually kept on milk alone for 10 weeks,
leaving a profit of about 4s. 6d. per week in the summer, and
from 5s. to 5s. 6d. in the winter months; but of late the trade has
been greatly depressed and the profits materially reduced. A cow
is considered to pay well if she produce a net profit of 87. yearly ;
but unless the pastures are good few reach that amount, as the

On the Farming of Essex. 15

suckling-calves have lately been bought in at a much higher rate
than formerly.

The fattening that is carried on is effected with the help of
mangold-wurzel and swedish turnips ; but second-rate animals are,
for the most part, usually fed, being kept upon straw and a
few turnips the first winter, grass in summer, and sold off in the
autumn, or fattened in the early part of the ensuing winter.

The sheep are principally Hampshire Downs, with some
Sussex Downs, and half-bred Down and Leicesters, but the former
answer best and are most extensively kept. Wether lambs are
purchased in the autumn and are kept either in the yards or
pastures during the winter, and in the ensuing summer either
folded upon the fallows or fattened upon the clover; in the
former case they are sold in the ensuing autumn or winter, fed
upon turnips, oil-cake, or beans. Hampshire Down ewes are kept
on small farms for producing early lambs for the London markets,
and the ewes themselyes are also sold for the shambles in the
autumn ; the average cost of the ewes per head being about
24s.; the return, including the wool and lamb, from 50s. to 55s.
Lambs are purchased at about |8s. each ; and if fattened from the
clover, produce about 30s. to 32s. each, including the wool ; those
sold for stock realise about 25s., inclusive of wool ; but as by the
management alone the profit may differ from 20 to 30 per cent.,
no estimate but a general one can be given. Breeding sows
and swine are kept upon most farms, and are of the Essex
variety, known as the half-black breed; but not of that descrip-
tion introduced as the Essex breed by Lord Western and Mr.
Fisher Hobbs (these, being of modern introduction, have not be-
come prevalent at present); but a larger description of distinct
black and white colour, the space over the shoulders being, for
the most part, white, with full hanging ears, excellent mothers
and prolific, producing from eight to fourteen at each litter, which
grow quickly, and at three months old are sold for the London
market and large distilleries; at ten months old they average
about 180 lbs. each. : :

The implements used in this district are not peculiar ; cast-iron
foot-ploughs with wooden beams and handles, in using which the
horses are driven abreast with hemp-reins, or by the voice of the
driver ; in some instances wrought-iron shares are still in use; the
ploughs for the most part being lighter and narrower than those
‘used in the other districts of the county. The ploughmen are
very expert, and have no difficulty in performing the work to the
amount of a full acre per day. In the spring months from 1} to
1} acres are usually effected upon the fallowed lands ; the labour
to the horses being at that season of the most trifling nature, and

16 On the Farming of Essex.

those best calculated to walk quickly are selected as best adapted
to effect the work.

Common harrows made with wood, and iron teeth, are most
prevalent, not only here but throughout the county. They are
extremely small, so that six of them form a set, being fixed to-
gether with iron couplings and attached to long or short whipple-
trees, by a chain and swivel ; two of these harrows cover a single
ridge of four furrows; four cover an eight-furrow stetch, consisting
of two ridges bouted into one; and the six covering the three
ridges ploughed as one stetch of twelve furrows, each ridge being
3 feet 34 inches, and each harrow being only | foot 7 inches wide,
having two sides running parallel with four or six cross-bars
united to the sides with a tenon inserted into a mortice.*

Rollers peculiar to the district are used, the one a small-bellied
roller about 4 feet long, without a frame; the other a similar
roller, double the length, with a frame ; the first is used for rolling
four-furrowed ridges, and the latter eight-furrowed ridges: the
common roller peculiar to the other parts of the county is of dif-
ferent dimensions; the double roller with joints, to enable the
horses to walk in the furrow, and having one shaft fixed to each
roller, is of modern invention, and supersedes both the other de-
scriptions upon stetches of all sizes and of different planes, as the
roller, from being attached by joints adapts itself, as it proceeds,
to every description of stetch it passes over.

Root-ditching, as it is termed, is prevalent throughout this
district ; this is performed by cutting a drain about 20 inches in
depth, parallel with the banks round the fields, about 10 feet from
the hedges ; by thus dividing the roots that protrude from the trees,
great injury to the crops is prevented ; otherwise, in dry seasons
especially, they affect the crops to an astonishing degree for seve-
ral perches from the fences, especially where ash-timber abounds.
Here, however, pollard oaks, with now and then a clump
of elm and ash thinly scattered, are the extent of our timber.
The fences are also weak, with low banks (thence the repute as a
hunting district), of which the live portions are principally black-
thorn and hazel. Fences more recently planted consist of white-
thorn quick, placed upon the face of the bank in single or

* An objection, however, exists as respects harrows made upon this
construction, for, from the sides throughout being parallel, and a space
being allowed for each harrow to work independently, the tines are apt to
leave the edges of the furrows uncut in straight lines; this is obviated by
increasing the length of the foot-chains of each harrow gradually from side
to side of the whole width, and, instead of being fixed at the middle of the
front bar, each is fixed more towards one side than the other, by which
the harrows, when drawn forward, move diagonally, and thus more fully
effect the object of thoroughly pulverizing the surface

On the Farming of Essex. 17

double rows, with a ditch in front from 4 to 5 feet in width ; those
fences are closely cut about once in eight years; and of part of the
materials is formed a hedge after the ditch has been scoured out
and the soil placed upon the top of the bank.

Upon some of the thin-stapled lands of this district sainfoin is
grown with success, and affords excellent crops for hay for several
successive years of from 20 to 35, or even 40 cwt. per acre ; the
process is, late in April to drill upon the same land on which
barley has been sown about 5 or 6 bushels per acre of new seed,
which is generally done acrossways of the stetches; the sainfoin
comes on in the following year, and after the crop of hay is taken,
produces an abundant second crop, which is fed with cattle and
sheep. It is necessary to the produce of this crop that the land
be thoroughly drained, and that it have a top-dressing in the
autumn, of which coal or wood ashes, or soot, are said to be su-

erior to farmyard-manure ; it succeeds well upon all land having
chalk or chalk clay as the subsoil, and is a great acquisition to
farming in districts where lands are too poor for clover and arti-
ficial grasses.

This division, comprising fully one-fourth of the county, is
important as a wheat and barley growing district. The soil is
more certain as to an average annual return, being less affected
by either wet or dry seasons than most other districts, and in the
latter producing crops good in quality as well as quantity.
Many portions are cultivated at as little expense as in any other
district in the kingdom; but from the crops being produced only
in alternate years, and the quality of wheat being coarse, less profit
is derived than from more fertile districts.

The amount of wages throughout this district ranges from 2s.
to 3s. lower per week than in many other districts in the county..
The labourers’ cottage-rents are, however, fully 1s. per week lower
than elsewhere; and, for the most part, larger gardens are at-
tached to the cottages. Flour of a coarser description is eaten, and
some privileges are enjoyed as regards fuel, which makes the dif-
ference not so great upon comparison as it appears at first sight—
the wages at the present moment being from 8s. to 9s. per week ;
poor-rates from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per acre (3s. 9d. may be taken as
the mean); surveyor’s rates, 10d.; church-rate, 2d.; tithe rent-
charge from 5s. up to 6s. per acre; rent from 15s. to 22s. per
acre (the average certainly below 20s. per acre). Throughout
this district, the farm premises are ill arranged: large barns,
sheds, and waggon-lodges, being placed inconveniently, and de-
tached from each other—the accumulation of water from their
thatched roofs falling into yards having large hollows and excava-
tions made by constant scooping out the clay from time to time
as the manure is carted out, so that a person unacquainted with

VOL. V. Cc.

18 On the Farming of Essex.

their inequalities is liable to be engulfed in them, as the surface,
being covered with the accumulated barley-straw, exhibits all
smooth to the eye; and it is only by the rising of the water and
sinking of the straw that he is awakened to the situation he is
placed in. This, however, has been remedied by the more spirited
occupiers, but still prevails to an extent deserving their attention,
as, upon a moderate estimate, one-fourth of the most valuable
properties of the manure is thus annually lost.

The farm-buildings are commonly timber-built, and thatched.
The external walls are either common weather board cut from
elm timber, or clay daubing upon lath—the clay being suited to
this kind of work and very durable, and when whitened over with
lime having a neat appearance; the white gable-ends of the
buildings and houses shining in the sun’s rays give vigour and
relief to the landscape.

Second or Mixed Soil District.

I shall now proceed to the second or eastern division, com-
prising all that portion described as consisting of gravel, with beds
of loam, chalky clay, and alluvial and diluvial strata, in successive
order or abruptly displaced.

I shall commence with the land lying upon the banks of the
Chelmer, which, to an extent of about 2 miles northward and
southward, may be taken as a tolerable specimen of the other
portion lying upon the Stour and Colne, and extending from Col-
chester to Harwich.

The tender loam or.brick earth subsoil, lying nearest the river,
is In some instances uncommonly fine, and well adapted for the
growth of almost every description of vegetable and grain crops.

The higher portions of Danbury, Baddow, Tiptree, &c., con-
stitute a division remarkable for its abrupt varieties of subsoil,
consisting of strong clay, gravel, sand, loam, and beds of pebbles
lying alternately in successive strata in the same field.

This portion of the county is remarkable for its fine timber,
the hedgerows abounding with elm, oak, ash, and maple; but
from the fields being small they cause incredible damage to the
crops by their roots extracting the nutriment, and shading them
from the sun, compensating only by the beauty afforded to the land-
scape bythe multiplicity of tints and variety of foliage displayed.

The beauty of the country, as viewed from these elevated points,
is unsurpassed by any other in the kingdom ; and the salubrity of
the air contradicts the opinion that Essex is an unhealthy county,
portions of it alone having been liable to that accusation, and
those portions being now rendered healthy by the drainage that
has been effected, as well as by the abundance of fresh spring-
water which has been procured from artesian wells,

On tlie Farming of Essex. 19

Rich meadow land abounds upon the banks of the rivers, but
the quantity requisite towards the proper cultivation of the arable
land is below rather than above the average ; still the defect is well
supplied by artificial grasses. Many portions of this division are
farmed in a very superior manner: many farms, almost entirely
arable, maintain a sheep to every acre the greater portion of the
year, with bullocks or cows in proportion of from 5 to 10 to every
100 acres during the winter months. The system of bare fallows
is almost exploded in this district, except upon the heavier de-
scriptions of land, unfit for the growth of turnips or green crops.
The prevailing system will be best described by stating the rota-
tion and application upon a farm already in cultivation, commenc-
ing after the wheat crop has been taken off.

Immediately after or during harvest the stubble is collected un-
less the wheat has been mown, and the land receives one, two, or
more deep ploughings, if time allows, and if the soil be gravelly.
Rye is sown upon a very fine tilth, produced by more than one
ploughing, and sown upon the surface or drilled fleetly, and lightly
harrewed in; or if the soil is loamy, tares are sown, mixed with either
rye or winter oats, or both. The rye is partly mown for horses
and cattle early in the spring, being cut into chaff with proportions
of hay and straw, and a part is fed off with sheep ; the land being
further improved by carting mangold-wurzel on the field to feed
with the rye, with the addition of oil-cake or other artificial food.
The land is again quickly ploughed once or twice, and well scari-
fied. A crop of swede or white turnips is then taken, half of
which is usually drawn, and the remainder fed off with sheep;
and the land is either ploughed, and sown with wheat, or remains,
as most usually is the case, until the following spring, when it is
either ploughed or scarified, and drilled with oats or barley. The’
clover is sown with this crop, and is either mown for hay, and the
after-crop fed off with sheep, er fed early, and left to stand for
seed, or fed altogether through the summer with horses, pigs,
and sheep; or, in lieu of the clover, peas or beans are grown,
_ which are hoed well as long as weeds can be extracted without
injury to the crop. If clover has been taken, it is ploughed up in
October, and the land sown, dibbled, or drilled with wheat, which
is carefully weeded, and reaped or mown at the following harvest,
when the same mode of cultivation is repeated; or the land re-
ceives a partial fallowing in the autumn, and is sown with mangold-
wurzel. ‘This is succeeded by barley or oats. If clover was taken
in the previous course, beans or peas are now taken, and wheat
succeeds; and eats sometimes follow, if the wheat has succeeded
clover: thus by alternating the crops, giving frequent ploughings
and manuring, a regular succession is kept up of green cattle
<rops intervening with the grain crops, giving the omer possible

c

20 On the Farming of Essex.

return from the land, but certainly not without a corresponding
outlay in labour.

The usual system, however, is what is termed the four-course
shift, which, in eight years, will stand thus—sometimes, how-
ever, oats are taken after wheat with good success, and are allowed
in the covenants of leases to the extent of one field only—

lst. Turnips, 5th. Mangold-wurzel or Swedes,
2nd. Barley, 6th. Oats or Barley,

3rd. Clover, 7th. Peas or Beans,

4th. Wheat, 8th. Wheat.

If oats are taken in succession after wheat it would be done in
the fifth year, and the course of cropping would then proceed as

described.
The probable result will be, upon well farmed land, as fol-

lows :—

ist, ‘Turnips...... ++++++++ manured 15 to 24 tons per acre.
2nd. Msarley.jecie stiectaste soe 3 40 to 48 bushels per acre.
3rd. Clover ..... ae Sn a 13 to 12 ton per acre.
AG WWinGat ss ¢ igi src %ie sveakec¥oys - 28 to 32 bushels per acre.
5th. Mangold-wurzel ...... . * 20 to 30 tons per acre.
Gill, SROAUSi ete, osseyclele, 01°00 seeks ms 48 to 56 bushels per acre.

anova ct eisie seis 40 to 48 bushels per acre.

ith. Peas or Beans (precarious) __,, 28 to 32 bushels per acre.
8th. Wheat..... sac eats ae 3 . 28 to 30 bushels per acre.

This would be the probable result upon good farms with high
cultivation ; upon second-class farms, 4 bushels less of wheat, 6 of
barley, and 8 of oats would be grown; the average of the district
may be taken as the mean between the two quantities.

A covenant of lease and custom prevails not to allow clover to
be mown twice in one year. This should be exploded, as the
land is not injured by two mowings ; and if the hay from one crop
is expended, it is more than equivalent in return of manure than
if the whole was fed by sheep.

Little can be offered, in a general description of the cultiva-
tion of a county or district, beyond that of merely stating the sys-
tem of cultivation carried out by the best farmers, who, from long
experience and practice, in most instances succeed better than a
stranger who introduces a new system; for it happens that
strangers rarely succeed so well as those who from their youth
have been identified with a particular locality. This is especially
true as regards this county, as very few farmers from distant
counties, who have come under my notice, have succeeded here.
And so it is as regards winter fatting; upon the clay and reten-
tive soils it is very true that fine crops of turnips can be very
frequently produced, but this is always at the expense of a large

On the Farming of Essex. 21

quantity of manure; and the injury done to the land by carting
off, or by treading heavily with sheep during the winter months,
and more especially by suffering crops of turnips, rape, cabbages,
or other food of like nature to remain late upon the land, for ‘the
use of early-lambing ewes and other stock, does deteriorate it to
such an extent as nearly to exhaust the manure for the next crop,
which is exemplified sometimes bya portion of the field remain-
ing in fallow and producing crops 20 per cent. better than that
from which the green crops have been taken.

To obviate this should be the especial care of the farmer; and
perhaps in no other county in England is the mean so well pre-
served. From the soil being variable, some fields upon every
farm are not adapted to the cultivation of turnips, whilst, on the
other hand, mangold-wurzel may be produced with less expense,
and is more valuable both in the quantity and quality of the
food; and as this root is much cultivated, it will not be out of
place to allude to the system pursued in its cultivation before
we proceed further. There are three varieties of this valuable
root generally in use: the long red, having a long clear root,
growing from 12 to 18 inches in length, of a pale red colour, and
bright green leaves, with beautiful veins of red ; another variety
of red, similar in colour but of a globular form, tapermg down-
wards and approaching near to the shape of a turnip, with leaves
exactly similar to those of the long variety before described; a
third variety is like the last in shape, but of a pale orange colour,
with lighter coloured leaves, and orange coloured flesh. There is
also a long variety of this colour ; but from being less productive
than the red varieties, it is not grown extensively.

In comparing the merits of the three varieties, much depends
on the quality of the soil upon which it is grown; for upon the
heavy clay lands, and in dry seasons, the long kind is by far the
most productive variety, but upon lighter soils the globe succeeds
best; and in the experiments made by the writer in several
seasons, upon weighing the roots the proportion was as follows,
and with very little variation as to the number of roots in the dif-
ferent seasons :—

Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.

90 roots of Long red upon the es Les Ml 475 435 536

rows 2 feet 4 inches apart. .

83 roots Globe red, ditto.......... re 435 400 375
92 roots Globe orange, ditto.............-. 375 330 436
PG OTADEC, GUO iss, a5 b's 26 oy de oo 415 375

These experiments were wneite in successive years, upon good
sound wheat land, with tenacious subsoil of strong loam lying

upon chalk clay, well drained and manured; seasons moderately
moist.

22 On the Farming of Essex.

The process of cultivation pursued is, after the crop of wheat
or barley is cleared, to plough up the land immediately, and give
two or three deep ploughings and harrowings before the winter.
The land is then put upon small ridges from 2 feet to 2 feet
6 inches wide ; but the size usually adopted is such as to allow
the cart-wheels to pass up two furrows without injuring the ridges.
The land is suffered to he in this state until the following spring,
unless a suitable opportunity offers to carry on the manure in
the winter months during frost, and afterwards plough it in... If
this is not accomplished, and the weather permits, one ploughing
er more is given in the spring before carting on the manure,
unless the land should be in a sufficiently clean and pulverized
' state from the previous ploughings and harrowings given before
the winter. The quantity of manure applied is about 18 loads,
of 30 bushels each, of good compost that has been partially re-
duced, so as to be easily ploughed in. If the manure is not suf-
ficiently decomposed, the roots do not sueceed so well during
drought, should it ensue in the following summer. After the
manure is carefully spread in the bottom of the furrows, the land
is ploughed, lightly rolled, and the seed* either dibbled or drilled
as soon after as can be, and again lightly rolled, unless the
weather should be very moist, when it is considered best to leaye
the drills only lightly covered. In dibbling as well as drilling care
should be taken not to deposit the seed more than one inch in
depth, putting it in either with a small dibble, or by pressing it
in with the thumb and fore finger alone, at a distance of one foot
apart, and inserting from two to three seeds in each hole, and
filling the holes by punching the soil in with the back of a hoe.
From 3s. to 4s. per acre is paid for this, and if well performed,
a plant may be almost insured.

The drill is, however, preferred as more expeditious and certain,
especially in dry seasons ; as, from the seeds being contained in a
hard capsule, from three to five in number in each, and from being
deposited thickly in the row by the drill, a plant is more certainly
obtained, and the plant can be left more regularly, in a majority
of eases, than when dibbled. Mice as well as wireworm are
very destructive to the seed and young plants, and a larger pro-
portion is therefore the more necessary to ensure success. The
plants also grow more rapidly when they come thickly ; therefore
not less than 3 lbs. of seed should be deposited upon each acre,
care being first taken to ascertain that the seed has not been pre-
viously destroyed by mice, which is sometimes the case, and which
an inexperienced eye would not detect.

As the plants appear, the greatest attention should be paid to

-* The time of sowing is from the beginning of April to the middle of
May.

On the Farming of Essex. : "aa

keep them clear of annual and other weeds ; and as soon as they
have reached from 2 to 3 inches in height, they should be singled
out, leaving the largest plants at each place at distances of at least
1 foot apart. The ridges should then be well hoed, and the fur-
rows horse-hoed, and at each repeated hoeing the earth should be
drawn by the hoe from the roots, until, by the end of the summer,
the ridges will have become level. Early in November the roots
should be pulled and the leaves twisted off, care being taken not
to leave them exposed to frost after pulling, as the portion ex-
tracted from the ground would, in the event of a single night’s frost
occurring, be so much injured as to rot after being collected.

The roots are either stored in outhouses or in buildings having
thick external clay or brick walls, and thatched, or put into a row
or clump about 8 feet in width, and brought up to a point, placing
the crowns outwards (when finished similar to the roof of a house),
about 5 feet high, and then covered with straw and earth, leaving
the top open for some time to allow the heat arising from fer-
mentation to escape.

I have been the more particular in describing the culture of
this root as practised, from its importance as an article of food for
cattle and sheep in the later spring months; for, unlike every
other vegetable at that period, it continues to improve in quality
during the whole time it is kept, and is most in perfection in the
months of April and May; nor should it, if possible, be used
before February, after vegetation has commenced, as, from that
period, the root has a more beneficial effect upon the animals to
whose use it is applied. The quantity grown is from 20 to 30
tons per acre; the cost of cultivation may be estimated as fol-
lows :—

Labour, $c. Leal Se he

3 deep Ploughings, R vPO
3 Harrowings, - 0 3 0
Making ridges, . _ 0 6 0
Carting and labour to manure, 1 0 0
Manure, F : 214 0
Ploughing ridges, 0 6 O
Rolling, . - : 5 0 1 0
Drilling, . 4 - Rs ° 0,3. '0
Seed, 4 : : 5 0} 4°50
Singling, 2s. 6d. and 4 hoeings, L5s., ON gle Ae
Pulling, carting, and stacking, 015 0
ST 16" 6

The rent and other charges bringing it very little under 10/. per
acre.

The process pursued to obtain this root upon the heavy clay
lands of best quality is not nearly so expensive. Upon a clean

24 On the Farming of Essex.

wheat eddish, the manure, in a green or raw state, is carted-on in
October ; the land is then ploughed once only, and in the spring
is scarified, and the seed drilled, the same process as in the other
case being afterwards pursued.

The system pursued to obtain swede turnips is carried out
exactly the same upon the heavier soils, the ridge-culture being
best adapted for that description of root. The ridges, however,
are narrower, but the process of manuring, &c., is the same: the
seed, from 2 to 3 pints per acre, is drilled from the first week in
May to the middle of June ; the more gravelly the soil the later
the seed is putin. It is especially necessary that the seed should
be deposited immediately upon the furrows being turned, and the
moisture secured by a light roller. The latest sown turnips are
almost invariably the best in quality; and, provided the land
is in sufficient tilth and well manured, the first week in June is
sufficiently early for sowing. The roots are pulled before Christ-
mas, carted and stored, or are collected in heaps and consumed,
wholly or in part, upon the land, either by fatting sheep in the
winter, or by ewes and early lambs in the spring. The customary
plan is to cart one moiety wherewith to feed stalled or other oxen,
and to feed the remainder upon the land from troughs, after
having been sliced, in addition to oil-cake, in quantity of from one
half to one pound each per day, giving them the oil-cake in the
morning with some cut chaff, or reserving a part for the night.

The cost of producing an acre of swede turnips will stand as
follows :—

—

coocoooerNocoor kb
—

AOAARCHKRARWA a

cecoocoooocoooeoo gs

Four ploughings,

Four harrowings, .

Once scarified, : :

One ploughing for manure on ridges,
Manuring as before, - 3 - ‘
Labour on ditto, : . ° ‘
Ploughing on ridge,

Ditto repeated,

Hoeing twice, : °

Pulling, A

Carting and storing,

This appears a large sum; but the fallowing and cleaning ap-
ply to the crops through the three succeeding years, from the
same field, to the growth of which the turnips also conduce in a
material degree.

The system of drawing half, and feeding the remainder with
corn or oil-cake, is decidedly the best management on this soil,

On the Farming of Essex. 25

as a good crop is taken from the land, and the feeding the re-
mainder is equivalent to a dressing of the best manure.

When, however, feeding is intended, the turnips are drilled
‘upon the wide stetch, such being always the case upon light land ;
the sheep are not so liable to loss from being cast in the fur-
rows, and the land retains the moisture better upon the latter
system than upon the ridge-culture. The crops of turnips suf-
fering severely in dry summers in this district, the utmost care is
requisite to guard against drought.

White turnips are grown exclusively upon the light gravelly
and sandy, as well as dry loamy land, and are sown from the 12th
to the 25th of July. A finely pulverized soil is necessary, and
manuring highly, to produce a crop. The hoeing taking place in
the harvest month is more expensive, and seldom costs less than
from 10s. to 12s. per acre. As many as eight ploughings are
sometimes given before this crop is put in, and rarely less than
six or seven. ‘The whole crop is mostly consumed by cows and
sheep; but from its liability to mjury by frost, is precarious, and
is generally grown as an auxiliary to other turnip crops ; the pro-
duce from 500 to 800 bushels per acre.

' The common drum head cabbage is grown for sheep, as also
the thousand-head cabbage for spring feeding. These are mostly
planted in large ridges manured with 29 loads per acre ; from 6000
to 7000 plants per acre are transplanted in June, the cabbages
weigh from 10 to 30 or even 36 lbs. each; the average weight may
be taken at 12 or 15 lbs. each. The last-mentioned varieties are
used during severe frost or snow, and are mostly consumed by the
flocks and neat stock,

White carrots have been grown in limited quantities hitherto,
but from the experiments made, are most abundant in produce,
upwards of 30 tons having been produced to the acre ; the culti-
vation however is exceedingly expensive, and the obtaining a plant
very uncertain.

The new artificial manures have hitherto been used to a limited
extent, nor has their introduction been attended with those results
that were anticipated ;—the soils of Essex are not so capable of
deriving advantage from bone manure as those of Norfolk and
Suffolk, and but little advantage has arisen from its application.

In the early part of this report, connected with the growth of
root crops, the proportions of arable and grazing land were ad-
verted to. The excess of root cultivation upon any farm is not
attended with such profit, as when moderately carried out. Upon
farms of 200 to 300 acres of arable, from 50 to 60 acres of fallow
are made,—about one-half or 2-3rd parts of this is applied to the
growth of root crops: by so doing, a better division of the labour
takes place, as by growing tares, &c. The making the fallows

5 On the Farming of Essex.

upon that portion is best effected in the latter part of the summer,
whilst the fallowing for the early turnips requires the full force of
the farm to prepare the soil for their reception ; and also as regards
the manure, a portion can be reserved for the grain crops; and
the successful result of a well filled stack-yard is better secured by
having some clean fallowed lands for barley, as well as by giving a
better opportunity to eradicate couch or twitch grass, and other
root-weeds, especially thistles, so prevalent in the soils of this
county; and whatever theorists may affirm to the contrary, it is
impossible to farm land so profitably in any other way, as by de-
voting a portion to thorough-draining and fallowing in each suim-
mer: the land is inyigorated by the continual exposure to the air,
and will produce as much under this rotation as can be produced
by any other mode, however expensively it may be carried out.
The writer of this article has through many years made, as well as
seen, repeated experiments to supersede fallows entirely with
green crops, but believes it as impossible to succeed without them
upon this soil, as for the animal powers to be kept always in full
operation without sufficiency of time allowed for their renovation,

The subsoils of Essex perhaps are more prolific of root-weeds
than those of many other counties, chalk excepted. The common
thistle, the bind-weed, or, as it is termed, sheep-bime, a species of
thistle, called gut-weed, and couch or quitch grass, exist in the
subsoil to a degree, that it is absolutely necessary, for their eradi-
cation, that an exposure in summer, by repeated ploughings and
scarifyings, should take place, and this can only be effectual in the
early spring and summer months whilst vegetation is rapidly pro-
ceeding ; and although much may be effected in the autumnal months
towards their eradication, it cannot be effectually performed after
the grain crops are removed: the roots having at that period be-
come hardened, and containing more woody fibre, and the sun
daily losing power, the moisture is retained in a greater degree, so
as to bafile the efforts of the farmer to eradicate them. The suc-
cession of grain crops, in alternate years, is of sufficient frequency
to ensure success, and to allow the land to be kept up to its pro-
ducing point; and as upon lighter soils excellent crops of turnips.
can be obtained upon the fallowed land, equal in value to the infe-
rior grain crops, no other system, I am convinced, can be adapted
better to the cultivation of these descriptions of soil than that
which is at present followed and is secured by conditions in most
of our leases.

The expending of the turnips in many instances is imperfectly
carried out; and it is upon the larger occupations only that they
are turned to the best account, either by sheep-feeding one por-
tion upon the land with corn or oil-cake, or by consuming the
remainder in yards with bullocks or cows.

On the Farming of Essex. 27

Stall-feeding, however, is carried out upon the larger farms
with great spirit, but unfortunately, of late, with little profit ;—
the great advance of price that has taken place in lean stock (espe-
cially that of a superior character), and the depression upon the
meat markets, has so reduced the profits, as to have rendered it
impossible for some time past to stall-feed oxen with any ad-
vantage to the grazier.

The system pursued is to purchase lean animals at the autumnal
fairs in our neighbourhood; the Scotch and Welch varieties, Here-
fords and Durhams, are generally selected. Welch cattle are
usually kept the first winter and spring upon a small quantity of
turnips given in fold-yards with straw, are then fed upon grass,
and finished with turnips in the early part of the ensuing winter.
The Scots, especially the polled galloways, are either stall-fed in
houses or in yards ; and, with proper management, are fattened in
about four months. The turnips are mostly sliced, and about 3
bushels of swede or 4 bushels of white turnips, with the addition
of 5 lbs. of oil-cake per day ; and during the latter portion of the
time the oil-cake is increased to 7 or 8 lbs. to animals weighing
from 80 to 100 stones of 8lbs. And the cost of bullocks of this
description has varied from 10/. to 12/. each, which have been
sold out at from 151. to 20/. each. The usual calculation was for
the bullock to double its value, and then it was considered fairly
to repay the expense and trouble taken to produce it. The
Hereford variety is much appreciated, especially heifers, which
are purchased forward in calf, which having fattened, they are
then put forward themselves, and are frequently sold within the
year.

As Essex is not a breeding county, it may be expected that
every variety of stock should be found in it, which is really the
case ; the smaller farmers generally keep the inferior varieties, con-
sisting for the most part of the Welch or Irish breeds. The High-
land varieties are grazed upon the marshes the first year, and are
mostly finished off in the second with turnips, or mangold-wurzel
andoil-cake. The Galloway Scots, Shorthorns and Herefords are
stall-fed the first winter.

Cows of every description are kept, but short horns have only
lately been introduced on the best pastures. Suffolk polled cows
are greatly approved, and the North and South Wales varieties,
upon the farms of inferior or heavy quality of land. The produce
of a cow is estimated at about 8/. per annum for suckling calves,
and 12/. for dairying.

Labourers are plentiful throughout this district; and as the
harvest commences earlier than in the north-western district, har-
yestmen proceed from thence and assist in this division for a week

28 On the Farming of Essex.

or fortnight, so that it is not unusual for farmers who have capital
at command to reap all their wheat crop in the first week of
harvest. Although reaping has been the general practice, it
has of late given way to mowing with a common scythe cutting
towards the standing corn, not only on account of the increased
quantity of straw obtained, but also from the land being left
clean for the cultivation of the succeeding crop, without the ne-
cessity and expense of first cutting and carrying the stubble.

Little fagging or bagging, as it is here termed, is performed
except in the vicinity of the metropolis, where it is practised with
some success.

The ricks are mostly made square or oblong, and are placed
upon frames with stones or iron piers and caps; but little skill is
displayed in the setting them up, and the neatness of the ricks in
other counties puts those of Essex in the background. The price
of reaping varies according to circumstances; the average may be
taken at 8s. per acre, with one gallon of ale and one of table beer
in addition. Harvest work is done either by the month or at so
much per acre; allowing each man from ten to twelve acres, the
amount given in money yaries from 9s. to 11s. per acre, producing
5]. as the compensation; the labourers receiving, in addition, eight
pints of ale, or six pints of strong beer, and four of table beer
per day. Insome cases malt is given to the amount of three
bushels, and 4lbs. of hops to each man, with the use of brewing
utensils and casks, and from one to two meals, exclusive of the
horkey or harvest-home supper, during the month.

If the weather proves fine, the labour is mostly performed
within the month; but sometimes wet weather protracts the
harvest, to the great injury of the labourer as well as of his
employer.

Oats are generally mown, and if stout are placed in bands, and
suffered to lie exposed for a “day or two without binding ; they are
then bound, and mostly put upon stacks to prevent the liability of
their being heated; but more generally they are suffered to lie
in swarth until ready for carting. A general error in management
is prevalent as regards this crop, which is frequently suffered to
remain so long as to allow the best portion of the grain to shed, to
the extent sometimes of six bushels per acre. Oats should always
be cut before they are quite ripe; the straw is improved thereby
so as to become nearly as valuable as hay; and the late oats, if left
by the thrashers adhering to the straw, usually come into account
when properly applied to the feeding of stock or cutting into
chaff: the average produce may be taken at 6 quarters per acre.
The black tartarian are considered the most prolific, and are more
gencrally grown than any other variety; the straw, however, is

On the Farming of Essex. 29

inferior to that of any other kind ; all the varieties of white oats
are also grown with success, of which the Dutch brew is con-
sidered the most productive.

Barley is invariably mown, and in wet weather is much ex-
posed ; it is, however, considered best not to turn over the swarths,
but merely to lift them lightly, and to leave them upon what is
termed the outing, made at the commencement of the preceding
swarth by the mower putting his scythe in a sloping direction down-
wards, leaving the stubble higher, which prevents the barley from
coming into contact with the earth, so that it is thus not so easily
sprouted. The average crop of barley in this district may be
taken at 5 quarters per acre ; for although here and there a piece
may be found producing in good seasons from 7 to 8 quarters per
acre, this is not of frequent occurrence.

Beans are grown on the heaviest descriptions of soil. They are
an excellent preparatory crop for wheat; and Essex is notorious
for their excellent culture, as such is the nicety pursued in
hoeing them that, where well managed, scarcely a weed can be
found after the last hoeing is given. The seed is either drilled
or dibbled, the latter effected by the man using two dibbles, and
walking backwards with children following to deposit two beans
in each hole. Sometimes, but not frequently, they are dibbled
by a single dibble, the man dropping the seed as he proceeds.

Dibbling with two dibbles can be done at a lower sum per
acre than by any other mode ; from 4s. to 5s. per acre is the usual
price, and with a single dibble 4s. are paid; but they are not so
thickly deposited, neither are the rows so near together. The
drill is very frequently used, and for small-sized beans as well as
peas is an admirable implement, but hardly ever succeeds so well
as dibbling well carried out. This crop may be taken at from
3 to 5 quarters per acre; but upon heavier and more tenacious
soils double that quantity is frequently grown.

The cost of cultivation of the bean crop may be taken as
follows :—

ea &
Dibbling 0 4 6
One ploughing and harrowi ing O.LEs 3
Three clean hoeings 012 0
Reaping ¢ - a i 0 8 6
Carting 3 . : Oo 2G
Thrashing 4 quarters ; . O° Te
Marketing and carting out . 0 6 0
Seed, 3 bushels : 5 5 Of 1D HO

30 On the Farming of Essez.

Asa preparation for wheat no other erop is considered so bene-
ficial excepting clover.

Peas, grey, white, and blue, are extensively grown; they are
mostly drilled after the barley crop, and thus become, like beans,
the intervening crop between the barley and wheat crops. They
are usually drilled in rows 9 inches apart, with about 3 bushels of
seed to the acre, and are generally hoed twice, at an expense of
6s. per acre. The produce is uncertain, but in good seasons will
be from 4 to 6 quarters per acre. The former quantity may be
taken as a full average crop. The expenses will stand as fol-
lows :—

ts og
One ploughing 0 9°
Three harrowings 0 2 3
One rolling 0. ky@
Harrowing . : . 0... 00,4
Hoeing : . 0 4:0
Ditto . : : : 0 2 0
Cutting and harvesting. 0 9 O
Thrashing and marketing . 012 0
Seed : : : 0 12.8

£211 9

Garden peas are extensively grown for the London seedsmen,
who find the seed, and pay from 40s. to 50s. per quarter for the
produce (1844), after again deducting their seed. This is a very
precarious mode of cropping, as the peas so grown are frequently a
delicate or dwarf variety, and are consequently more hazardous to
obtain a full plant than of the grey peas or other long-straw
varieties ; and also suffer the weeds to rise amidst the crop, thereby
injuring the land to an extent that frequently overbalances the
difference obtained in price. —

The wheat crop may be variously stated; but, taking a suc-
cession of years, 30 bushels per acre may be considered an ave-
rage crop.

The wheat-plant is mostly hoed by hand, at an expense of 4s.
per acre, in March and early in April. The cost of harvesting is
about 10s. 6d. per acre, which, with the ale, amounts to ls. 6d.
more; thrashing by hand from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per quarter ; and
the straw binding of 36 trusses to the load, and 36 Ibs, to the
truss, for market, ls. to 1s. 6d. per load.

Clover seed, both Dutch and red, as well as trefoil, are grown
in this district with success. The quantity of the former may be
taken at from 3 to 5 bushels to the acre as an average crop, and
of the latter from 6 to 7 bushels per acre. Wheat generally
succeeds it, but not so well as when the cloyer is mown for hay,

On the Farming of Essex. 31

the late period of sowing giving opportunity to the slug, which
frequently destroys the plant of wheat altogether.

The poor, highway, and church rates average about 5s. per
acre; the tithe rent-charge about 6s. per acre, and the wages
of agricultural labourers from 10s. to 12s. per week.

Thatching is paid for by the square of 100 feet, upon buildings
from 4s, 6d. to 5s. are charged for labour only requiring about 20
trusses to the square.

The labourers pay high rents for cottages; from 32. 10s. to 5d.
per annum are paid, and even more in the vicinity of large towns,
without the advantage of gardens, and sometimes with insuffi-
ciency of room. Excellent cottages, however, are common
throughout this district, and are built chiefly of brick, or lath and
plaster, containing three or four rooms of about 10 or 12 feet
square.

The quantity of waste land is limited, but is good in quality,
might be easily brought into cultivation, and would be of especial
benefit if enclosed and cultivated.

Upon the whole the north-eastern part of Essex may challenge
competition with the best farmed districts in the kingdom ; and
although great variation of soil takes place upon every farm, the
farmer turns this to advantage by producing crops suited to all his
purposes. He has ground adapted to the growth of turnips, man-
gold- wurzel, cabbages, tares, grasses, lucerne, and every descrip-
tion of grain upon the same farm.

The farm-houses and buildings are for the most part substantial,
and ornamented with neat gardens and choice evergreens taste-
fully planted and maintained, and upon some estates a great
outlay has taken place in this respect. Buildings in brick and
slated throughout in the most substantial manner, have been’
erected at an expense beyond the mere capabilities of the estate
to repay. The estates of the late Dr. Cline, Lord Petre, Sir
Henry Smith, and others, have excellent specimens of buildings in
the modern style; whilst numerous instances are to be found of
buildings of older date improved so as to render them everything
a tenant requires or could even wish for.

The buildings are mostly situated adjoining to excellent roads,
and much care has been taken from time to time to make the
farms upon large estates complete by an exchange of lands. The
proportion of pasture is, however, small; but excellent artificial
pasturage is produced for one or two years, and, so far, is more
productive than the old grass lands; but after that period it
becomes of little value for several years, until at last the na-
tural grasses have arisen and become fully established. The seed
usually applied is the Pacey and Italian rye-grass, mixed with
white and red clover and trefoil, and in some cases sheep-plantain.

32 On the Farming of Essex.

The Italian rye-grass is of modern introduction, but such are its
qualifications and superiority over common rye-grass, that it bids
fair to supersede it altogether upon the better descriptions of soil.
All other varieties of rye-grass remain inactive, from the time of
the first feeding or mowing, until the succeeding autumn ; but the
Italian rye-grass is not only much earlier, more productive, and
better liked by the cattle, but it shoots quickly after being fed or
mown, and advances so rapidly that two crops of seed can be
taken in the same summer, or it can be fed until the middle of
May, and a crop of hay or seed be afterwards taken. Inocu-
lation by turf to procure permanent pasture has been practised
with the utmost success; and when turf can be obtained is de-
cidedly the least expensive mode (taking the immediate advan-
tages into consideration) : the remote benefit is beyond all com-
parison, as pasture is at once obtained equal to the old pastures in
the district. The operation is simple, and the mode of producing
it so easily understood, that a little explanation will enable any
one readily to effect it. The land selected is usually that which
has been previously fallowed and manured, and from which swede
turnips or mangold-wurzel have been taken, the time selected
being early in November. The land, being first reduced to a
level and well-pulverized surface, is ploughed as the work pro-
ceeds by what is termed back-striking, so as to enable the work to
proceed without carting upon the late-ploughed soil. Turf that
has been taken up by a plough from a good pasture of similar
quality, cut into small pieces about 1 inch square, is then depo-
sited at equal distances, leaving a space about 3 inches apart from
centre to centre. This is either stamped down with the heel or
with a rammer ; and, when all is disposed, is rolled with a heavy
roller, and the work is complete. Some persons sow grass-seeds
and clover in the following spring; but it is considered by those
most experienced not advisable. The turf of itself will spread
better if no intervening grass is present, and will, if properly
carried out, at once form a permanent pasture. Some, however,
dibble in wheat or oats ; and sufficient may be grown to defray the
whole expense ; but it is questionable if the grass will proceed
so well; it is, however, but fair to state that this has been the
practice of the writer, and with the fullest success. The pasture
from whence the turf is taken will be but little injured if a light
covering of earth mixed with lime or dung be spread, and har-
rowed across so as to fill the interstices from which the turf has
been carted, which consist of long stripes about 24 inches wide,
and from 2 to 3 inches in depth. Mr. Wedlake, of Hornchurch
(the late spirited inventor and improver of‘agricultural implements),
invented a complete apparatus, consisting of a plough and machine
for cutting the turf into small pieces, so as to cover more space.

On the Farming of Essex. 33

These implements are still manufactured by his widow, of whom
they may be obtained. The cost of inoculation may be taken at
from 40s. to 50s. per acre, which must depend upon the distance
of carting the turf, &c.

The rent of land in this district varies from 20s. to 30s. per
acre ; in the vicinity of London and near towns it is far above that
amount. The rich marshes by Plaistow let from 4. to 5/. per
acre, and the arable land from 2/. to 3/.; but, as the object of this
essay is rather to generalize than to particularize, the rent may
be taken at 25s. average upon such lands as are adapted solely to
farming purposes. The tithe is for the most part commuted into
rent-charge,* and varies from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. per acre, and rather
falls below than exceeds that sum. The tithe compositions from
5s. to 6s. per acre. Poor rates 3s. 6d.; surveyor’s rate 10d.; and
church rates 2d.: making 4s. 6d. per acre altogether, inclusive of
the county and police rates, which are invariably paid from the
poor rate. The new poor law has effected a decrease of poor rate
equivalent to about 15 per cent. in some parishes, whilst in other
parishes, especially those situated in populous districts, it has
increased ; but, upon the whole, the working of the bill has been
beneficial upon the labourers, in producing more order and regu-
larity, and by generally improving their habits ; and from having
become more independent of parish assistance they are generally
more assiduous and attentive to the interests of their employers.

Field cultivation is but little carried on in this district by wo-
men ; during the summer months they are engaged in hoeing and
weeding; in some particular instances they are employed in
drawing turnips in the autumn, and in potato planting in the
spring. The usual amount of their wages is from 6d. to 8d. per
day, for which they work about as many hours; but when suffi- |
cient men can be obtained, their employment is limited, except in
the vicinity of London, upon the garden lands.

Third, or Heavy Clay District.

I now proceed to treat of the third division of the county, com-
prising the Dengey Hundred district, as well as all the heavy
clay lands lying towards the south-east, resting upon a subsoil
consisting of London clay, exceedingly retentive of moisture, and
of expensive cultivation, but, under proper management, pro-
ducing excellent crops of wheat, beans, and oats.

This land is farmed, for the most part, upon the six-course
shift of husbandry, except upon the poorer descriptions; there
the four-course, as before described, is adhered to; the only dif-
ference in the mode being, that, after the wheat crop has been

_ * By a recent examination of twenty parishes, the average rent-charge
is found to be a little below 6s. per acre.
VOL. Vv. D

34 On the Farming of Essex.

taken, it is succeeded by beans, which are thoroughly hoed and
cleaned, and again sown with wheat. The rotation will be better
understood by describing it throughout :—

Ist. Fallow. 4th. Wheat.
2nd. Oats. 5th. Beans.
3rd. Clover. 6th. Wheat.

Barley is sometimes grown upon the best and driest lands, and,
since the introduction of chalk largely into the’soils, with good
success.

The first and leading principle in the cultivation of this land is
carried on by the application of chalk.* This, in every instance,
upon the first application, effects an astonishing change in the
soil, enabling it to produce valuable crops for many years after-
wards, without the assistance of any additional manure; but as
nearly all the land has been already chalked over, it is now applied
as an adjunct to other manures, and to render the land porous,
and less tenacious; and from the facility with which it can be
obtained by water-carriage, is, either as chalk or lime, in constant
application upon all well-cultivated farms.

The expense of cultivating this description of land is very
great. Three powerful horses are used for several of the first
ploughings upon the fallows, and frequently upon land for corn
crops. The horses are large and fine, yet two of them, with much
extra food, are still unable to effect more ploughing, upon the
average, than three-fourths of an acre per day. The horses re-
quire the best description of food to enable them to perform their
work; and as much as 3 bushels of oats and beans are allowed
weekly, with good cut clover hay ; and taking the limited quantity
of work performed, with the extra cost of horses and keep, into
consideration, the expense of horse labour is increased fully ene-
third over that of any of the other districts.

The fallows are attended with immense expense, having fre-
quently eight clean ploughings, and in no case less than six, some
of which are effected with three horses, and are ploughed to a
depth of five or six inches. The estimated value of the ploughings
is not less than from 10s. to 12s. each per acre, with scarifying or
crab-harrowing with four horses between the ploughings, besides
a great deal of cross-ploughing, each time, to the numerous water-

* The chalk is carried at from one to four or five miles’ distance from
the water. About fifteen cart-loads are considered a full dressing per
acre. Each load, containing 40 bushels, costs 6s. at the wharf: and for
carting one mile costs 3s. 6d. ; two miles, 5s.; three miles, 6s. ; and so on,
for any greater distance. But the expense precludes its being used at
more than five or six miles from the water: at a greater distance lime is
substituted, at the rate of two waggon-loads per acre ; each load costs 32s.
at the kiln.

On the Farming of Essex. 35

furrows, which average from 20 to 40 perches per acre, and are
dug out with a spade at a cost of 10d. to ls. per score rods, when-
ever the land is sown with wheat; and the stetch-furrows, at a dis-
tance of every 7 feet, are also ploughed out deeply after the corn
is sown, so as to effect a ready passage to the water from the sur-
face, as it has been found difficult to render land of this descrip-
tion dry by under-draining, on two accounts: one of which is, that
the land is so tenacious that it is impervious to the water unless
the drains are made with cockle-shells or shingle, with or without
drain-tiles or pipes below the shells; the other is, that the soil, in
dry summers, shrinks to such a degree as to form wide fissures or
cracks from 2 to 3 feet in depth, and thus destroys the drains
altogether. The system, as pursued by surface-draining, appa-
rently fully effects its object, as excellent crops are produced, un-
equalled by any others in the county.

The prevalence of couch or twitch grass in these lands renders
it difficult to farm them without clean fallows at least once in six
years, as it is impossible to eradicate it by short fallows, since it
extends to such a depth in the subsoil as to require very deep
ploughing to reach it, which deep ploughings would not be ne-
cessary for the crop alone. It is customary of late to drill the
land that has lain through the winter exposed to the pulverizing
effects of the frost without an additional ploughing, by first scari-
fying the surface, and then drilling in the barley or oats, for which
operation a scarifier peculiar to the district is used, that is ad-
mirably adapted to the purpose. The lands scarified are con-
sidered to resist weather better, as well as drought, should it
follow ; and the crops are decidedly superior than from ploughing,
without entailing that expensive operation upon the occupier.

Clover generally succeeds well if plants can be obtained, but.
the difficulty in that respect is even greater on this land than
upon others in the county, and has of late rendered the returns
from the wheat crop considerably less on that account.

The wheat grown in this district is of excellent quality, and
with genial seasons very productive; but the uncertainty of a full
plant, either from prevalence of black grass, or the destructive
effects produced by the slug, in a great measure counterbalances
its productiveness. From 1826 to 1832 the slug had been so
destructive that a vast proportion of the tenants were ruined, and
many of the farms fell into the landlords’ hands. From 1832 to
1842 a succession of good seasons followed, but the crop of the
latter year was almost destroyed by the wet seed-time and winter,
and some farmers barely obtained a return of their seed. I men-
tion this to show the precarious nature of these lands, although
they do in some seasons produce from 40 to 50 bushels per acre,

D2

36 On the Farming of Essex.

under favourable circumstances, The average growth, however,
cannot, in my opinion, be taken higher than 34 bushels per acre.
The variety of wheat grown is the white velvet, or rough chaff,
which is especially adapted to the soil. Red Syer and the golden
drop, as well as all the varieties of white wheat, are grown with
success, but the rough chaff forms the principal growth. It is not
long, but stiff in straw, and is not easily lodged; and the quality
is superior to that of any other description, and mvyariably pro-
duces (with the exception of Talavera wheat) the best price in the
market, frequently weighing 66 lbs. per bushel.

The bean crop is a most important one in this district, and per-
_ haps in no other part of the kingdom are such fine crops produced.
The management is also excellent. The beans, for the most
part, are dibbled by a man with a single short dibble, so as to
enable him to make the hole and deposit the beans (two in each
hole) as he proceeds, following the plough as each furrow is
ploughed ; three men thus completing the work of one plough
every day. As soon as the beans are well above-ground, they
are harrowed, and afterwards well hoed. Two more hoeings, at
proper intervals, mostly complete the operation. This is done at
a cost of about 12s. per acre. The beans are cut in harvest. and
tied with yarn tyers or straw bands, and frequently yield from 7
to 8 and even 10 quarters per acre. The average will perhaps
fall rather below 54 quarters per acre than exceed that quantity,
as the seasons affect this crop almost equally with wheat. Horse-
hoeing is partly applied, and in some cases successfully, but it is.
considered with little reduction of expense.

Oats come next under consideration, which are, in congenial
seasons, very productive. From 7 to 10 quarters, and even more,
per acre are frequently g grown. The average, however, cannot be
taken at above 7 quarters, and this upon the fallowed lands.
Barley is grown in limited quantity, but abundant crops are
sometimes produced upon the fresh chalked lands, being also of
excellent quality. The usual proportions of tares and some peas
are produced ; but as beans supersede the latter they do not come
under especial notice. Upon the lighter soils, however, excellent
crops are produced.

The crops peculiar to this district are white and brown mustard,
coriander, canary, and caraway, of which notice will be taken sepa-
rately. Mangold-wurzel has of late been introduced, and very
fine crops are obtained.

White mustard is sown broad-cast as early in the spring as it
can safely be, so as to prevent injury from frost, and is generally
sown upon land in clean order, and having abundance of tlth;
one hoeing is given, and but little is afterwards required in its

On the Farming of Essex. oF

cultivation. The annual weeds and surplus plants are hoed out,
and the crop is cut and harvested in the field, the produce being
from 30 to 40 bushels per acre.

The brown mustard, once so prevalent in these districts, is
mostly prohibited being sown by the covenants of leases; for if
once sown it becomes a fixed tenant, and further impoverishes the
soil; and whatever the succeeding crop may be, it usurps a domi-
nion—sometimes to such an extent that the bean crop has been
sacrificed to its prolific growth. Upon first broken-up land it is
still attempted, the first crop frequently nearly realising the fee-
simple value of the land upon which it is sown. Ass it is almost
prohibited from cultivation, it will be needless to advert to it
further. :

Coriander and caraway are grown extensively in this district.
The mode of cultivation being particular, it will be remarked
upon, especially as the cultivation of coriander, in connexion with
caraway and teasel, is rather singular, and merits notice. It was
formerly the plan to sow a treble crop, of which teasel formed one,
and was harvested in the second year; but since the introduction
of a substitute by machinery has taken place in the woollen manu-
facture, its use has been much dispensed with, and it has conse-
quently not of late been introduced into Essex cultivation. About
the beginning of the month of March the seeds of the coriander
and caraway are sown in the proportions of from 10 to 12 lbs. of
the former to 12 or 14 lbs. of the latter—the land being previ-
ously well harrowed, and the seed afterwards well harrowed in ;
and here some difficulty presents itself in the management. The
caraway-seed is very much smaller than that of the coriander, and
as the practice is sometimes to sow before well harrowing, it then
becomes deposited too deeply ; but should the land be, on the other
hand, in very full tilth, by sowing after well harrowing, the corian-
der-seed may not be sufficiently covered by the harrowing; and it
is therefore suggested that the coriander-seed should be first sown
after harrowing, and the caraway drilled after the process of har-
rowing has been partly carried on. In about eight or ten weeks
the plants will be strong enough for hoeing, which it is important
to complete as soon as possible. They will require about four
hoeings, one of which is given at Michaelmas, and cost, with har-
vesting, about 50s. per acre. As it is necessary this work should
- be carried out by workmen who well understand it, they are
therefore better paid than men in ordinary cases: besides, it re-
quires especial care, and occupies much time to execute the work
properly. Workmen are to be found who undertake the labour
and divide the profits with the farmer, allowing him the rent as a
deduction; and he, upon the other hand, finding horses to per-
form what work is necessary. Perhaps no crop is more variable

38 On the Farming of Essex.

in price and quantity than this, varying as it does from 7 to 20 cwt.
per acre, but from ]0 to 12 cwt. is considered a good crop. The
coriander is also equally productive and precarious, varying from
6 to 20 ewt. per acre, and prices ranging about in the same pro-
portions. It is therefore not surprising that some individuals
have realised their fortunes by the cultivation of crops of this cha-
racter. In the harvesting, great care is requisite to prevent the
seed shedding in the field. To remedy this, cloths are used to
receive and convey it to the thrashing-place, which is always in
the field. The crop is liable to injury from late frost and cater-
pillar, and is therefore very precarious.

Canary is also much grown in this district. It is sown in Apmil,
and produces about the same quantity per acre as wheat. The
thrashing is expensive, but the straw and chaff are much approved
of for horses and cattle. The price is exceedingly capricious,
varying from 40s. to $Os. per quarter. Canary is usually sown in
the place of barley or oats, and is considered to pay, upon an aye-
rage, from 1/. to 2/. per acre more than either of those crops.

The islands of Essex, upon the south-eastern coast, being
composed of rich and deep alluvial soil, as well as portions of
Rochford Hundred, are well adapted to the growth of the last-
mentioned crops, as well as of every other kind of grain.

That portion of the county comprising Rochford Hundred is
reputed the most fertile; but to it unfortunately, as well as to
Dengey Hundred, a prevailing idea is attached of an unhealthy
character—a considerable breadth of marsh prevailing throughout
the whole district. Ague at one period ravaged it; but such has
been the effect of cultivation and drainage, added to an abundant
supply of water by what are termed artesian wells, that this por-
tion of the county has of late become almost as healthy as other
parts on higher elevations. The supply of water, by means of
the wells alluded to, is obtained by merely boring through the
tenacious London clay from 100 to 300 feet, until the chalk
stratum is tapped. Pipes are introduced as the work proceeds,
and the water immediately rises to the surface, and continues to
flow—giving a supply not only to the homestalls of farm premises,
but, by keeping it up in the marshes during summer, contributing
a benefit to the grazier of incalculable amount, and has in a great
degree rendered that portion of the county healthy.

The woodlands are extensive, but the produce has materially
fallen in value during the last twenty years. The introduction of
foreign timber in buildings, and of iron and network for folding
sheep, has diminished the demand for poles. The supply of coal
by water-carriage has also so much reduced the produce in value
that unless an abundance of timber prevails few woods afford a
rental exceeding 8s. per acre, whilst the greater part do not yield

On the Farming of Essex. 39

half that amount; and as the tithe commutation has now fixed the
sum to be paid, it is presumeda large proportion will be grubbed
in a short space of time.

One great drawback to cultivation arises from the small enclo-
sures, added to the great number of timber-trees and pollards
in the hedgerows. In small enclosures, under 5 acres, the deteri-
oration that ensues to the crop is very great; the shelter afforded
to birds and vermin, and the injury caused by the trees excluding
the sun and air, and the roots extracting the nutriment and
moisture, in many cases depreciating the produce from 10 to 20
per cent.

The roads being well maintained, give facility to improvements
not found in many other counties, which the navigation also further
enhances. These advantages have been made available by the
spirited manner in which cultivation is carried out; and in many
divisions it is not excelled, if equalled, by any other part of the
kingdom ; and, considering that leases are not general, it exhibits
a confidence between landlord and tenant highly commendable.
The proportion of farms under lease is below a moiety. These
are held, for the most part, on terms of fourteen years.

The wages of labourers differ considerably in various districts,
being fully one-third higher in those districts near London and
towards the sea-coast. Those in the first described portion of
the county vary from 8s. to 9s. per week; in the last described,
the prevailing amount paid is 10s. to 12s., with wheat averaging
50s. The workmen are expert, particularly the ploughmen, who
may fairly challenge any other county in the kingdom. The
ploughs used are nearly all swing-ploughs, with cast-iron breasts
and shares, and of various shapes, adapted to the nature of the
soil, and worked by two horses abreast. :

In conclusion, the soil of this county may be considered, for the
most part, fertile, and with good cultivation yields excellent crops.
The average of the wheat crop may be assumed at 28 bushels per
acre, barley at 36, oats at 40, beans at 32, and peas at 28. It is
impossible, where so much variety of soil exists, to state with
precision, but the above may be taken as a fair criterion.

APPENDIX.

- Tue system of farming in this county, as well as in others, is varied
according to the opinion of the cultivators; and without contending for
the superiority of any system, I will state the course of cultivation pur-
sued by Mr. King Viall upon several farms lying upon the borders of
this and the neighbouring county of Suffolk. The land consists of three
varieties of soil, being for the most part heavy land, as it is called in
that district—a term, by the bye, that conveys no distinct idea of the

40 On the Farming of Essex.

quality of a soil, being rather adapted to distinguish land which consists
mostly of clay from that which consists of gravel or sand. This portion
of the farm consists of a chalky clay subsoil, having a considerable
quantity of marl intermixed, with a tolerably deep staple of vegetable
mould (combined with the clay) lying upon the surface, and is of that
description of soil described in the first part of this essay. A second -
portion lying between the above-described land and the river is clay
mixed with alluvial deposit, and loam and gravel prevailing more or less
as a subsoil, of which the surface in some degree partakes, having a
deeper staple than the first described portion of the farm, it is adapted
to the growth of Swede turnips and mangold-wurzel. The remainder of
the farm, in the proportion of about 10 acres to each hundred of arable,
consists of meadow- ground liable to be flooded during winter, and some
- small enclosures of pasture adjoining the premises, which are situated
nearly central to the farm, a hard road running through and dividing
the strong clay-land from the turnip-land and belt of meadow-ground.

The system pursued is an expensive one, and requires great activity
and experience to carry it out effectually, as in addition to the manage-
ment of the land, a competent knowledge of the purchase and sale of
sheep and cattle is involved, which is rarely combined with superior
knowledge of cultivation in one individual. The land is all adapted to
the growth of wheat, beans, barley, and oats, which are the crops pro-
duced in fair proportions in each year, every part of the farm being in
crop at the same time.

To commence with the turnip-soil (or the last-described portion of
the farm), the land is ploughed up as early as possible in the autumn,
and receives one, two, or more ploughings, as opportunity offers. In
the early part of the winter such portions as require draining are tho-
roughly drained with pipes of two inches’ bore, having the opening
heart-shaped—the widest part of whichis placed downwards—upon the
top of which stone is placed to about 3 inches in depth, consisting
principally of small flints and pebbles, picked from the surface of the
land; as soon as the land is sufficiently dry it receives two deep cross-
ploughings early in the spring, is rolled and harrowed until a fine tilth
is produced, and is then formed into ridges, or small stetches, 37 inches
each in width, which is thus effected: —A straight furrow is first
ploughed, and a double-breasted plough is then used, having a marking
instrument attached, which consists of a small straight tough pole fixed
at right angles from the beam of the plough by means of a hook, and
placed as far back as possible, so that it does not derange the operation
of the plough whilst working; at the end of this stick an iron is
fixed exactly the width of two of the intended ridges, which is con-
nected diagonally by a chain with the whipple-tree of the horse; this,
as the plough proceeds, marks out the next furrow, occupying the
space of two ridges. The work thus proceeds followed by a similar
plough, or by the ploughman returning, who by passing his plough
down the middle of this space divides the stetch of 6 feet 2 inches
into two smaller ones of 37 inches each, the marker still defining the
distance at which the plough should be held; the ridges being formed,
are ploughed off with four furrows to each, and then every fifth ridge is

On the Farming of Essex. 4]

drawn out to enable the manure to be carted on without injuring the
form of the ridge. After the manure is carted on, at the rate of 16
loads of 40 bushels each, the ridges are then ploughed by four furrows,
leaving a small baulk in the centre so as to divide the ridge into two
spaces for the manure, which from being partially decomposed is easily
spread in this double furrow; the land is then ploughed at four furrows
to each ridge, and the manure being covered in, is rolled and harrowed,
and is again rolled with a light roller. The turnips are then drilled—
two rows upon each ridge 11 inches apart, at the rate of 4 pints to the
acre, thus standing at alternate spaces of 11 inches and 26 inches be-
tweeri the rows. As soon as the turnips appear, they are singled out by
boys and women at 15 inches apart, and are left standing diagonaily
with each other; they are then carefully and deeply hoed with a heavy
hoe, and the furrows are kept clean with the horse-hoe, but the turnips
are invariably set out by hand and never by the hoe, the deep hoeing thav
is given being considered a main point in the system over and above that
pursued with the common light turnip-hoe: and the singling by hand
is assisted by a small measured stick 15 inches in length, enabling the
children employed to set the turnips out regularly and diagonally, so
that when finished they stand thus * :

In the months of November and December the turnips are all pulled,
avoiding the use of hooks or cutting instruments for trimming them,
merely wringing off the tops and dislodging the greater portion of the
earth attached to the fibres without cutting them. The turnips are then
carted to the respective fields where they will be required for winter
use, and one moiety of them is left in the field for using there; those
left are put into heaps of about 40 bushels each, are thatched over with
straw, and the earth shoyelled up and placed round the heaps to the
top, which ends in a point. Those taken from the field are carted to
the headlands of other fields where they will be required, which are
principally those upon which wheat was grown in the preceding year
after clover. The old hurdles used for folding are then selected for this
purpose ; one is placed first at the end across the space to be occupied —
by the turnips, and two more are put at right angles, forming a space
made by the double row of hurdles, in which the turnips are placed,
taking care to cart them when dry, and adding more hurdles lengthwise
until sufficient space is obtained, and the turnips are disposed of in rows
about 7 feet wide and 4 feet in height. The turnips are then protected
‘by the earth being dug up and placed on both sides, leaving air-holes at
about 4 or 5 feet distance, level with the surface of the land, which may
be formed as the work proceeds by introducing small faggots tied
loosely, or by any other mode, leaving the sides of the whole open so as
freely to admit air, and extending across from side to side, which is of
especial importance towards the preservation of the turnips, as they
might otherwise get into active fermentation, which when it takes place
frequently destroys the greater part of them. The top of the heap is
then covered with barley-straw and thatched, and thus the turnips are
preserved from injury by frost and game during the most severe wea-
ther, and will remain in excellent condition until May following, very
little impaired by keeping. The application of them is by feeding them

42 On the Farming of Essex.

upon the eddishes, and upon the land upon which they are grown by
sheep in fold. The turnips are all sliced, and the sheep are regularly
fed in troughs, having a new fold every day, and with from $b. to 1 lb.
each of oil-cake per day. The sheep, for the most part, consist of lambs
of the last year, and cost from 16s. to 20s. each—these in the following
spring are shorn and sent to market, and produce from 30s. to 32s.
each ; the fleeces from the half-bred Leicesters weighing each about
63 lbs., and selling from 12d. to 16d. per lb.

Mangold-wurzel is grown upon the clay-land; the method of cul-
tivating, elsewhere adverted to, (with one exception, that of growing
upon 3-feet ridges) is carried out upon this farm, and the roots are
used in conjunction with the turnips in the manner above stated,
being all sliced and fed in troughs, and the quantity increased as the
season advances, and the turnips become diminished. It is by this
management that the land is maintained in a condition to produce crops
without clear summer fallowing, and the hoeing becomes thus an im-
portant item in the farm management and expenditure, which, from
being well carried out upon this farm, I shall advert to particularly.
Gangs of boys from ten to fifteen years of age are constantly employed,
at wages from 4d. to 8d. each per day; with every ten or more boys a
man is placed, who is made responsible for their properly executing the
work, and also for their application. Narrow hoes are used in preference
to wide ones. The wheat, beans, and peas first receive attention, and are
all thoroughly hoed and weeded at a cost of about 3s. to 4s. per acre;
the boys also dibble in the mangold-seed, and single the plants of both
that and the turnips ready for the hoe, weed all the Lent corn, each
being furnished with a glove, and then assist in making the hay, shaking
it out with their hands without using forks; the smallest are then re-
leased for the month of harvest to follow gleaning, and the largest are
all kept to various work, such as hoeing and cleaning the turnips, and
assisting in the harvest-work as required, but always accompanied by
the man. As the season advances, the pulling and carting of the turnips
again occupies them, and it is only during the depth of winter that the
smallest are not employed. Frequently two or three gangs of from ten
to fifteen in each gang are at work; the light hoeing is thus executed at
a less cost than could be effected by men, and the boys are at the same
time taught early to work and to become industrious. The system pur-
sued as regards the corn-crops is as follows :—The land from which the
turnips were taken, after having been folded with sheep, is immediately
ploughed, provided the weather is dry enough, and remains until the
following spring, when it is scarified and drilled with barley. The
eddishes to which the turnips have been carted are also folded over with
sheep, and are ploughed early and drilled with oats. The land sown
with barley is also sown with clover-seed by a machine of peculiar con-
struction, but admirably adapted. In the following year the land that
had been in oats is ploughed two or three times in the autumn, and
formed into 3-feet ridges, as before described for turnips, manured, and
drilled with beans, three rows upon each ridge; these are well hoed
during the summer. The clover succeeding the barley is reserved for
hay, or fed until the middle of May, and both white and red varieties

On the Farming of Essex. 43

are then carefully weeded, rolled, and left for seed. The land in beans
is in the next year drilled with wheat or barley, and that in clover is
drilled with wheat. In the fourth year that portion of the wheat suc-
ceeding the clover is folded upon again with turnips as before, and in
the succeeding year is sown again with oats; and that portion succeed-
ing the beans is fallowed, and sown with mangold wurzel and Swede
turnips. Thus a continual system of labour is kept up, occupying at
the rate of six men to each 100 acres, with boys in addition at the rate
of two men more: excellent crops are thus produced, the wheat ave-
raging upwards of 4 quarters, the beans upwards of 5 quarters, the
barley’6 quarters, and the oats 7 to 8 quarters per acre. The produce
of the clover in seed also forms an important item in the returns, and
gives a vast deal of employnient in the winter-months; it is about 4
bushels of red and 6 bushels of white clover per acre. The neat stock
consists of cows, which are used for dairy purposes, are fed upon grass in
summer and oil-cake in winter, which is given in the cow-stalls three
times in the day ; those not in milk eat the blades of turnips occasionally,
but the turnips are principally expended with the sheep.

The horses are of the light Suffolk breed, and fed in the summer upon
grass, clover, and tares, and in the winter upon cut chaff or hay, and
oats at the rate of 2 bushels to each horse throughout the whole year,
with 2 trusses or 1 ewt. of hay each in the winter.

A considerable quantity of artificial manure is also used. Guano is
most approved. Ground bones are also used, as well as rape-cake, and
the kiln-dust from the malt-kilns, which is drilled between the barley.

A system prevails upon this farm, as well as upon other portions of the
county, of applying the white chalk clay as a fertilizer to the surface:
this is dug from pits, and upon fresh ploughed land has a very bene-
ficial effect, acting as the chalk does upon the strong clay-lands, and

tending towards the production of excellent crops, especially of wheat
and barley.

11—On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow. By Colonel .
Le Covurevr, of Belle Vue, in the Island of Jersey.

Tue breed of cattle, familiarly known throughout Great Britain
as the Alderney, and correctly termed in the article Cattle, of the
‘Library of Useful Knowledge,’ “the crumpled horned,” was
originally Norman, it is conceived, as cows very similar to them
in form and colour are to be seen in various parts of Normandy,
and Britany also; but the difference in their milking and
creaming qualities is really astonishing, the Jersey cow pro-
ducing nearly double the quantity of butter.

The race is miscalled “ Alderney,” as far as Jersey is in
question ; for about seventy years since Mr. Dumaresq of St.
Peter's, afterwards the chief magistrate, sent some of the best
Jersey cows to his father-in-law, the then proprietor of Alderney ;
so that the Jersey was already at that period an improved, and
superior to the Alderney, race. It has since been vastly amended
in form, and generally so in various qualities, though the best of

44 On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow.

those recorded at that period gave as much milk and butter as the
best may do now.

Ten years have elapsed since the attempt was first made by fixed
rules to improve the form and quality of the Jersey cow. A few
gentlemen, presided over by the then Lieutenant Governor, Major-
General Thornton, selected two beautiful cows, with the best
qualities, as models. One of these was held to be perfect in her
barrel and fore-quarters; the other equally so in her hind-quar-
ters. From these two the following points were laid down to be
the rule for governing the judges in all the cattle-shows of the
Jersey Agricultural Society.

The accuracy of this arrangement is proved by the fact that no
deviation from it has been made, the experience of ten years
having only added to the scale the points for general appearance
and condition.

Scale of Points for Bulls.

Art. Points.
I.—Purity of breed on male and female sides, reputed for having

produced rich and yellow butter. k
II.—Head fine and tapering, cheek small, muzzle fine and
encircled with white, nostril nigh and open, horns
polished, crumpled, not too thick at the base, and
tapering, tipped with black; ears small, of an SRE

colour within, eye fulland lively . 8
IlI.—Neck fine and lightly placed on the shoulders ; 3 chest
broad, barrel hooped and deep, well ribbed home to the

hips 3

IV. cata eka from the withers to the setting of the tail, at

right angles to the tail. Tail fine, hanging two inches

below the hock . s 3
V.—Hide thin and moveable, mellow, well covered with soft
and fine hair of a good colour : 3
VI.—Fore arm large and powerful, legs short and straight, ewell-
ing and full above the knee, and fine below it. 2

VII.—Hind quarters from the huckle to the point of the rump,
long and well filled Ups the ver not to cross behind in

walking . : Ph es
VIII.—Growth ‘ : : : é A ; kat |
IX.—General appearance . : , : zg ‘ beene

Perfection i ; E i +2528

No prize shall be awarded to a Bull having less than 20 points.

Scale of Points for Cows and Heifers.
I.—Breed, on male and female sides, 2 dan for et
rich and yellow butter .
I].—Head small, fine, and tapering ; eye full and lively —
Carried forward . ‘ al” eth

‘On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow. 45

“Art. Points.
Brought forward ; 4
Muzzle fine and encircled with white ; horns polished
and a little crumpled, tipped with black ; ears small, of
an orange colour within 8
IIlI.—Back straight from the withers to the seuing of the tail ;
chest deep and nearly of a line with the belly. oe
IV.—Hide thin, moveable. but not too loose, well covered with
fine and soft hair, of good colour. 2
V.—Barrel hooped and deep, well ribbed home, having but
little space between the ribs and hips; tail fine, hanging
2 inches below the hock ‘ 4
Vi.—Fore legs straight and fine, thighs full and long, close
together when viewed from behind; hind legs short,
and bones rather fine; hoof small; hind legs not to
cross in walking : - be aD,
VII.—Udder full, well up behind ; teats large and squarely
placed, being wide apart ; milk veins large and swelling 4
VIII.—Growth - : : : 5
IX.—General appearance .

Perfection for Cows . ‘ . -

Two points shall be deducted from the number required for perfection
on heifers, as their udder and milk veins cannot be fully developed. A
heifer will therefore be considered perfect at 28 points.

No prize shall be awarded to cows, or heifers, having less than 21 points.

The evil was, and still exists, that most Jersey farmers, like
many others, never thought of crossing with a view to improvement,
conscious of possessmg a breed excellent for the production of
rich milk and cream—milk so rich in some cows that it seems
like what is sometimes called cream in cities—and cream so much |
richer that, from a verdant pasture in spring, it appears like
clouted cream. But the Jersey farmer sought no further. He
was content to possess an ugly ill-formed animal with flat sides,
wide between the ribs and hips, cat-hainmed, narrow and high
hips, with a hollow back.

She had always possessed the head of a fawn, a soft eye, her

elegant crumpled horn, small ears, yellow within, a clean neck
and throat, fine bones, a fine tail; above all, a well-formed capa-
cious udder, with large swelling milk veins.
_ Content with these qualities, the only question in the selection
of a bull, among the most judicious farmers was, “Is the breed a
good one?” meaning, solely, had its progenitors been renowned
for their milking and creaming qualities? But the mere attention
to this was one of primary importance in a circumscribed spot
like Jersey ; 3 it may have been quite sufficient to establish a here-
ditary superiority in the most needful quality.

46 On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow.

It may also have established it with a rapidity that could not
have been obtained in a wide-extended country like France.
Hence, perhaps, the present superiority of the Jersey over the
French breed.

Some idea may be given of the difference in the form of the
ancient and the improved breed by the following sketches :—

The Oxp Jersey Cow, from 1800 to 1830, still to be seen in some pastures. The
following points would be taken from her :—cheek large, 1—ewe neck, 1—hollow back,
1—cat ham, 1—flat side, 1—not ribbed home, ]—hind legs crooked, 1—general ap-
pearance, 1, In all, $; these deducted from 26, the number less the pedigree, leaves

18, which was about the average number the best cows had at the formation of the
Society.

1843, Portrait of “ Beauty,” a Prize Cow, 4 years old, bred by Colonel Lz Courgrur,
at Belle Vue. She has already produced 11 lbs, Jersey, or 11 lbs. 13 oz. imp., of rich
yellow butter, weekly, in May, from 19 qrts, of milk daily. She was awarded 27 points,
as a 2-year-old heifer.

On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow. 47

The Jersey cow is a singularly docile and gentle animal; the
male, on the contrary, is apt to become fierce after two years of
age. In those bred on the heights of St. Ouen, St. Brelade, and
St. Mary, there is a hardiness and sound constitution that enables
them to meet even a Scotch winter without injury; those bred in
the low grounds and rich pastures are of larger carcase, but are
more delicate in constitution.

Of the ancient race it was stated, perhaps with truth, that it
had no tendency to fatten; indeed some cows of the old breed
were.so ungainly, high-boned, and ragged in form, Megs Merrilies
of cows, that no attempt to fatten them might succeed—the great
quantities of milk and cream which they produced probably ab-
sorbing all their fattening properties.

Yet careful attention to crossing has greatly remedied this
defect. By having studied the habits of a good cow with a little
more tendency to fatten than others, and crossing her with a
fleshy well-conditioned bull of a race that was also known to
produce quality and quantity of butter—the next generation has
proved of a rounder form, with a tendency to make fat, without
having lost the butyraceous nature.

Some of these improved animals have fattened so rapidly while
being stall-fed, from the month of December to March, as to
suffer in parturition, when both cow and calf have been lost; to
prevent which it is indispensable to lower the condition of the
cow, or to bleed, in good time. Such animals will fatten rapidly.
Their beef is excellent; the only defect being in the colour of
the fat, which is sometimes too yellow. It is now a fair question,
whether the improved breed may not fatten as rapidly as any
breed known ?

Quayle, who wrote the ‘ Agricultural Survey of Jersey,’ states.
“that the Ayrshire was a cross between the short-horned breed
and the Alderney.”

There is a considerable affinity between these two breeds.
The writer has noticed Ayrshire cows that seemed to be of Jersey
origin, but none of them were said to have produced so large a
quantity of cream or butter; nor was the butter in Scotland of
nearly so deep a tinge of yellow as the most rich in Jersey. One
Jersey cow that produces very yellow cream will give a good
colour to butter produced from two cows affording a pale-coloured
cream.

It is not doubted that crosses from the Jersey breed have taken
place. Field-Marshal Conway, the governor of this “ seques-
tered isle,” as Horace Walpole termed it, and Lieutenant-General
Andrew Gordon, who succeeded him, nearly half a century back,
both sent some of the best cattle to England and Scotland. If

48 On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow.

pains were taken, the race and its consequents might be distinctly
traced, which might lead to important results in breeding.

In the ‘ Farmers’ Series,’ at the article “The Angus Breed,”
a portrait of a beautiful heifer is seen; she is said to have been
“ out of a very smali cow, with a remote dash of Guernsey blood
in her”” Her dead weight was estimated at 130 or 140 stones.
She sold for 50/., after fa ing obtained several medals, and had
been publicly exhibited.

The grand desideratum is to discover a breed that will be
useful to the grazier, the dairyman, and the small farmer. In so
small a spot as Jersey, itis difficult to cross the breed essentially—
a great step towards it is gained by crossing cattle bred in the low
rich pastures with those of the exposed hills on the western or
northern coast: these being smaller, finer boned, of a more hardy
constitution, and feeding on a short rich bite, impart strength of
constitution and hardihood to the larger and more delicate ani-
mals of the sheltered low grounds.

It is believed that cattle are generally more healthy and free
from epidenncs here than in most countries. This may be attri-
butable in some measure to the saline particles which, being so
frequently in suspension over the island, are afterwards deposited
on the herbage, and tend to its salubrity. After heavy gales, it
is frequently found that the grass all across the island has a strong
saline flavour. So partial are cattle to this flavour, that they will
greedily devour grass which has been watered with sea-water
which they previously rejected. Two pipes per acre, spread from
an ordinary watering-cart, or from a pipe which may be made to
pour into a long deal-box perforated with holes, will be found of
great utility where sea-water or salt can be obtained at small cost.

The Jersey farmer treats his cow with gentleness and care; it
might be more correct to say that his wife does so. On good
farms she is usually housed at night after the end of October to
the end of Iebruary, if heavy rain, hail, or snow prevail. It is
deemed to be healthful to give a cow a short run daily through
the winter, excepting in stormy weather. At this season, which is
usually several degrees warmer than in the mildest part of Devon-
shire, she is fed with a certain portion of straw, from 10 Ibs. to
20 Ibs, of hay, with about 10 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. of parsnips, white
carrots, turnips, or mangold-wurzel.

The small portion of grass which she may pick up in the
winter, with the above quantity of food, enable her to produce a
rich and well-coloured sample of butter till within six weeks of
parturition.

At this period, which is usually regulated to take place about
the month of March or April, just when the cow, being in full

:

On the Jersey, neonanad Alderney, Cow. 49:

milk, may soon be placed on the fresh spring pasture in April or
May, she is an object of extreme care. On calving she is given
a warm potation of cider, with a little powdered ginger. Quayle
hints that pet cows are further indulged with a toast in their
caudle.

The calf is taken from the cow at once, and fed by hand. It
may be well to advise that, on the first occasion of calving, the calf
should be allowed to draw the cow fully; for no milking by hand
will so completely empty the udder, nor cause the milk-veins to
swell to their full development, as will the suction of the calf,

Some of the early meadows produce rich grass in March; but
the general flush of grass, which comes on generally late in April;
is the period when the Jersey farmer looks forward with anxiety.
The cow is then tethered to the ground by means of a halter
5 or 6 feet long: this is appended by a ring and swivel to a
chain which encircles her horns, closed by a ring and bar; the
other end of the halter is fastened to a chain 6 or 8 feet long,
which is connected by a swivel and ring to a stout iron stake a
foot long ; this is driven into the ground by means of a wooden
mallet. The cow having this circular range of 12 feet or more,
is compelled to eat it clean, She is usually moved thrice a day,
and milked morning and evening, on many farms at midday
also. Under this system, the writer has owned four cows that pro-
duced eight-and-forty pounds Jersey, or above 51 lbs. imperial,
weight of rich yellow butter per week in the month of May and
part of June.

In very hot weather, in July or August, it is advisable to shelter
the cow from the heat and flies ; otherwise these tease cows to such
a degree, by forcing them to run about incessantly, that they have-
no time for repose or for chewing the cud ; they, in consequence,
afford much less milk or cream.

It was anciently thought that cream from the Jersey cow was
too rich for making cheese. Mr. Le Feuvre of La Hogue, who
has a fine breed of cows, tried the experiment two years since,
and succeeded to admiration. It was made from the pure milk,
cream and all, as it comes from the cow. It was found that the
quantity of milk that would have produced a pound of butter
afforded 14 lb. of cheese.

From the quantity of milk which produced a cheese of 20 Ibs
weight, the drainings of the curds and whey, on being churned,
yielded 4 lbs, of butter. This butter was of an inferior quality
when eaten with bread, but was superior to any other for the
making of pastry ; it was peculiarly hard, and of excellent texture
for such use in hot weather. The writer has tasted cheeses from
Mr. Le Feuvre’s farm quite equal in quality to the richest double-
Glo’ster,

VOL. V. E

50 On the Jersey, misnamed Alderney, Cow.

On one or two farms besides General Fouzel’s, butter is made
from clouted cream in the Devonshire mode; but as this is not
peculiar to Jersey, it is not noticed further than that 10 lbs. of
butter are usually made in five minutes by this process. The
usual way of procuring the cream is by placing the milk in pans
about 6 inches deep—the glazed shallow earthenware having
taken place of the unglazed deep vessels.

It is admitted that the richest milk and cream are produced by
cows whose ears have a yellow or orange colour within, Some of
the best cows give 26 quarts of milk in twenty-four hours, and
14 lbs. of butter from such milk in one weck. Such are rare.
- Good cows afford 20 quarts of milk daily, and 10 lbs. of butter
weekly, in the spring and summer months. Butter is made every
second or third day.

Lactometers indicate the degrees of richness, or cream, which
the milk of any cow affords, with great nicety. This varies with
different food. The mode is to fill the lactometer up to zero
with the first milk that is drawn from the cow in the morning;
then, when the udder is nearly emptied, to fill a second lactometer
with the residue of the milk, throwing a little out of the Jactometer,
to refill it to zero with the very last drops which can be drawn
from the cow: these will be nearly all cream. The lactometer
filled with the first milking may only indicate 4 degrees of cream,
while that filled with the last milking may indicate 40 degrees of
cream. Then, by dividing the sum total, 44, by 2, we have 22
degrees of cream, which a very good cow will produce; others so
little as 10 or 15.

Jersey butter, made when the cows are partially fed on parsnips,
or white carrots and grass, in September and October, when
salted and potted will keep till the following spring, preserving
as well as Irish butter, with a much less rank flavour.

The present price of the best Jersey cows, including points
and quality, is from 20/. to 30/.; and up to 20/. is given for the
best heifers. Yearling bulls, of the best breed and points, from
102. to 157.

/

I11.— Further Account of the Tussac Grass. In a Despatch
from the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Communicated
by Lord Sran ey.

My Lorp,—A settler, named Jergen Christian Detleff, is de-
sirous of forwarding to England, to be offered for sale, a parcel
containing 6|bs. of tussac seed: as he is of the labouring class,
and unacquainted with business, he requested permission to for-
ward it through me. I now do so, and yenture to address it to

Further Account of the Tussac Grass. 51

your Lordship, considering it a national object to introduce this
grass into England. The settler Detleff expects to receive not
less than 2/. 10s. per lb.: probably, for a large order, he would
be content with a less price per lb.

Conceiving that all remarks relative to the tussac grass will be
in some degree interesting to your Lordship, | take the liberty of
noticing that I have proved, to my own satisfaction, nothing can
answer better than the tussac sown and planted out in rows, the
tufts of grass being about 6 feet from centre to centre. I am
resolved to pursue this practice by having a large field laid out
at Port William, in order to cut bundles through the winter—to
fodder horses and cattle ina stable, in the same manner as is done
with Guinea grass in the West Indies.

I know that at present it may be cut twice in the year; but,
under proper cultivation, it may be gone over much oftener—it
greatly improves by cutting , and grows fast. Horses i injure it by
grazing, and pigs destroy it. My present experiment tends to
show that it will grow on almost any soil: and that it is not ne-
cessary for it to be exposed to the spray of the sea, although a
width of from 300 to 400 yards along the shore is the place of
its natural growth.

In some places the extent of the patches appears to be very
capricious, the reason of which I cannot discover, as it occurs
where the soil and other circumstances appear to be uniform.
This is particularly illustrated on an island of some elevation in
Port Salvador—the appearance of the tussac patch is somewhat
thus cut off in a straight line from the beach directly upwards.

Although the tussac grass may be cut, and amply remunerate
the planting in the first year, it seems to take three years (from
the seed) to arrive at perfection; but the tufts bear “ planting
out” extremely well. As to how many years the same roots may
last, I can offer no information: decayed portions of the root
appear to accumulate, but in a properly attended piece of ground
these would be annually removed.

Under our present imperfect system, allowing the cattle to roam
and graze at will—pulling out, wasting and trampling as much as
they eat—the rough, irregular patches of tussac on Long Island,
amounting together to about 150 acres, keep in good fat condi-
tion, for six months,* 250 cattle and 70 horses. Under proper

* The cattle are kept on Long Island only during the kg months.
E

.
52 Further Account of the Tussac Grass.

management, in my opinion, the same quantity would be found
to maintain three times that number throughout the year.

The grass rises high above the snow, is fresh and green all the
winter, and from its height completely shelters the horses and
cattle lying among it.

Perhaps the best experiment which could be made in England
would be to plant tussac on one of the small islands of the
Orkneys, such as Hunda, if it met with the approbation of the
owner: and I conceive it would be greatly to the advantage of
the landed proprietors of the Orkney and Shetland Islands to
send from among them an intelligent person to the Falkland.
‘Islands, to study the habits of the grass and to collect seed; he
should arrive here early in October.

I am sanguine enough to hope that the introduction of tussac
into those islands would replace the loss of revenue to proprietors
from the depressed value of the kelp: and I hope your Lordship
will be inclined to consider this a subject of sufficient interest to
the residents in that part of Great Britain and the west coasts of
Scotland and Ireland, to cause my remarks to be forwarded for
their consideration. I have, &c.

(Signed) R. C. Moopy, Gov.

Government House, Port Louis,
Falkland Islands, Jan. 11, 1844.

1V.—An Essay on the Comparative Advantages in the Employment
of Horses and Oxen in Farm Work. By James Cowir, of the
Mains of Haulkerton, Laurencekirk, N.B.

Prize Essay.

Tus is a subject which has excited some controversy among agri-
culturists. Lord Kames-wrote elaborately on it, and was at great
pains in showing the superior advantages of employing oxen. His
observations and calculations are not suited in many respects to
the advanced state of husbandry in our day, however valuable they
may have been three-quarters of a century ago.

The writer of the following essay is situated in a district of Scot-
land where oxen are not much used in farm work; but he has for
seyeral years past been in the practice of employing them himself;
and in the hope that his observations may not be unacceptable to
his southern brethren, he has presumed to send them across the
Border.

Previously to the discovery of shoeing in the ninth century,
horses’ feet having no protection against the stones and hard ground,

Horse and Ox Teams. 3

‘and their hoofs not being so durable as those of oxen, the latter
almost superseded them in field labour. Even up to the middle
of last century, when there were few made roads, and when, con-
sequently, all thoroughfares were nearly impassable for wheel car-
riages, agricultural produce was carried on the backs of the ani-
mals, oxen as well as horses.

It may not be altogether out of place or uninteresting here to
allude to the plough-team of former days. The manner of yoking
oxen in early times seems to have been to fasien the draught gear
to the horns. This barbarous practice extended even toa modern
date. Lord Kames says—‘ People differ in the manner of yoking
oxen; in some places they are yoked to the tip of the horn, and
in some by the root: these modes are visibly inconvenient. When
an ox draws by the shoulder like a horse, his head is free, and his
‘motion natural ;—when yoked by the horns, he lowers his head to
the line of the draught, his posture is constrained, and his step
‘short; his neck indeed is strong, but his shoulder is a better ful-
crum for the draught.” This is very cool reasoning certainly. It
was well for the poor brutes that the policy and interest of the
master chanced to be accordant with humanity. Until about the
end of last century, the ordinary collars were not used; a sort of
stuffed bow was fastened round the neck, and the single tree lay
on the shoulder, to which were fastened the chains for drawing by.
The array of numbers and apparent strength employed in a plough-
team would astonish our modern agriculturists. From the earliest
times, J presume, up to about the year 1760, as many as from 12 to
20 oxen, and 6 or 8 horses would have been engaged in drawing one
plough ; this can be partly accounted for otherwise than by the rude
and awkward manner of yoking. Before 1770 very little breadth
indeed of artificial grasses was sown. The ground was cropped
for a succession of years, until the natural grasses, what we now
term weeds, got thickly and firmly rooted, the growth of which
afforded food during the day in summer for the animals, and at
mid-day the ploughmen pulled thistles from among the corn for
night provender. In winter the horses were allowed about a feed
of oats daily, with oat-straw ; the oxen got the latter only. While
thus poorly fed, the animals had not strength in the draught, hence
the numbers requisite. The farm which I occupy has been
_tenanted by my ancestors for many generations. At the time of
the Revolution my great grandfather, and his son for many years
after that, employed 12 working horses, and 28 working oxen, one
half of each set being yoked to one plough: I now work the same
land to better purpose, I presume, with 6 horses and 2 oxen.

In further discussing this subject, I shall endeavour to treat it
in the order pointed out in the conditions :—

54 Horse and Ox Teams.

1. The Age and Breed of the Horses and Oxen, and the time at

which they are first put to Work.

Horses in this country are put to work at three years old ; they
are often from the commencement worked steadily, although it is
considered prejudicial to their future development. I am not
aware of the breed of the farm-horse in the middle and northern
districts of Scotland being recognised by any particular name.
The most perfect figure of a draught-horse is that of the Clydes-
dale breed; he is distinguished by a short compact body and
strong broad bone, these properties being characteristic of strength
and durability.

Oxen are put to work somewhat older than horses, and they are
not at the outset so able for steady work; they cannot be de-
pended on before they are four years old. Our work oxen are bred
principally in the shires of Angus and Aberdeen. The peculiari-
ties in their figure are, a small head, deep chest, round body, and
short legs. The largest sizes, although frequently selected for
work, are, I conceive, not the most proper. They have naturally
small bones in comparison with the size of the body; hence the
strength of the limbs and the weight of the carcass do not always
correspond in reckoning them as “ beasts of burthen.” The
weight of my oxen averages about 800]bs. without the offal, when ~
fed. When much heavier, I find they want activity and endur-
ance, and their feet, from the additional weight, are more apt to
give way.

2. The Condition of Horses and Oxen—the Work performed by
each—and its relative Value—Nature of the Soil where worked.

In all well and economically managed farming establishments,
due regard is had to the keeping the horses in good condition.
Efficient work can never be performed by ill-fed, ill-groomed ani-
mals. The ordinary allowance of food to each horse daily is 16lbs.
of oats, and as much oat-straw as he chooses to eat, My oxen get
as many turnips as they can eat. They are fed four times a-day, at
5 a.M., 11] a.M., 6 p.M., and half-past 8 p. M., and at each time they
eat betwixt them 125lbs., being in all 500|bs. daily. I often slice the
turnips for them, especially at mid-day, when they have little time
to eat. They never drink any water even in the hottest days of
summer, Both horses and oxen graze in summer; I have not as-
certained which of them require the most grass.

In regard to the work performed relatively by horses and oxen,
I should say that, except in frost, when the land cannot be ploughed,
the amount and value of the work performed by each are equal.
Many people who work oxen keep 4, and work each pair only one
half of theday. This is a most expensive system, and were a good

Horse and Ox Teams. 55

selection of the oxen to be made, is quite unnecessary. I never
keep more than 2 at one time, and they work 10 hours a-day as
steadily all the year over, except in frost, as the horses, and keep
in perfectly good condition. We often see oxen going very slow
and sluggardly at work; when well trained, and of a proper breed
and size, they will step out as well and as fast as horses: mine do
so. Ata late ploughing-match in the district, where upwards of
70 ploughs started, my ox-team was second off the field. The ave-
rage period when frost prevents ploughing may be stated at six
weeks. During this time, except in the thrashing-mill, oxen are
unemployed. The horses are then engaged in carting dung, earth,
&e. By caleulating the work of the pair of horses, without the
man’s wages, as worth 6s. a-day, and allowing 1/. 16s. as the value
of the thrashing-mill work performed by the oxen during frost, we
have the sum of 9/. standing against the latter. It will not do to
listen to statements partly speculative and hypothetical, about the
capabilities of oxen for drawing wheel-carriages; it is enough for
our purpose at present to know that they are not so employed;
they are, in the time of frost at all events, unsuited for such a
purpose.

The soil best fitted for oxen to tread on is that which is dry and
most free from stones. My farm is composed of both clay and black
soil, some of the former of which is rather wet, but there are very
few stones anywhere. My oxen, although unshod, and working
as I have said steadily, never get the least lame, or suffer in the
slightest in their feet. On another farm, however, which I occupy,
where the soil is more of a clayey nature, and somewhat wet and
stony, the hoofs of the oxen wore, and became tender, and rendered
them unfit for steady work. Attempts have been made to shoe.
them in such circumstances, but the experiment seldom proved
satis‘actory. The conclusion to which I have come is, that oxen
cannot by any management or precaution be profitably employed
on wet or stony soil.

3. The Cost of Maintenance and Farriery of each Pair of Horses
and Oxen, including the separate Charge of Management.

A horse getting |6lbs. of oats daily will eat in seven months (the
period he requires grain) about 103 quarters, which in value
amounts to nine guineas. A horse wears 5 or 6 sets of shoes an-
nually, which cost 18s.; other 5s. will be allowance enough for
medicine.

In regard to the cost of maintaining working oxen on green food,
such as turnips. I have to remark, that the price of that article
varies according to the locality where it is grown. I shall reckon
the price or value of the ton of turnips at 10s., being the average
in an inland district. I have repeatedly ascertained, both now and
formerly, the exact quantity of turnips which oxen eat, and find that

56 Horse and Ox Teams.

‘two daily consume about 500lbs. being at the rate of a ton in four
and a half days, or 47 tons in seven months (the time they require
turmips), which in value amounts to 23/.10s. I make no calcula-
tion on the cost of straw. I believe the quantity eaten by a horse
and ox to be about equal. The charge of management of horses
and oxen is the same. One man has the charge of a pair, and all
must be groomed and otherwise attended to alike.

4. The Cost or presumed Value of each Pair of Horses and
Oxen with their Gear, when put to work, and their Value at the end
of the Comparison.

A pair of farm-horses, four years old, suitable for all kinds of
work, can be bought for 567. Their gear or harness, including
the cost of keeping it in repair, amounts to 25s. yearly. Should
no accident occur, a horse will Jast twelve years, at the end of
which time he is worth about 6/. Including the difference between
the original purchase and ultimate selling price, together with in-
terest, the sum of 3/. 10s. is thus lost annually on each horse.
There should be added to this at least 30s. to cover accidents and
deaths.

A pair of oxen, four years old, costs 26/. The last pair which
I bought cost 247. They have worked regularly for four years,
and I am now feeding them for slaughter. I expect to get about
302. for them. They work one day a week at the thrashing-mill,
which does not seem to retard their feeding. I would therefore
calculate that no actual loss will be stand on oxen from the
time of their being bought and sold. The cost of gear, including
keeping in repair, costs 10s. annually.

The account of the different items stands thus :—

Expenditure, &e. on a working horse yearly.

ot

To 104 quarters of oats at 18s. .

To deterioration in value, interest on outlay, losses by acci-
dents and death : s ; - *5

To shoeing and medical attendance . ° . a

To furnishing and repairing gear 1

aw oF
coo Of

£1617 0

Expenditure, c. on a working ox yearly. .
$.| ad,
To 23} tons of turnips at 10s. per ton ° , -», Ai Ea
To furnishiug and repairing gear . ; ° . 010 0
To loss on his work during frost , ; . ‘ 410 0
To interest on purchase price . : : ; 015 0

-— i. . .

Horse and Ox Teams. 57

In the above table, I have calculated the oats given to the horses
at the market price; but the cleanings and inferior grain, which
cannot be otherwise disposed of, constitute a considerable portion
of their food, and thus the cost on this item can be reduced ; other-
wise the figures above so nearly correspond, that it rests with the
partiality of parties whether they shall employ horses or oxen, or
partly both. For my own part, after duly considering the matter,
and after the experience of a number of years, I should give the
preference to employing horses exclusively. They are ready at all
times for all kinds of work ; in wet or frosty weather they can be
employed in carting, and in leading the crop in harvest they are
invaluable and indispensable, while at all these times the oxen are
“ eating the bread of idleness.”

Having formerly employed both horses and oxen rather largely in farm
labour when residing in Germany, my experience would lead me to use
the former solely on road work, and the latter in the field, but coupled
with the observation that it must be clay land; for, on light soils, I am
convinced that horses will do the work more satisfactorily than oxen, and
quite as cheaply, unless the farm contains a large portion of rough
pasture,

J. Frencu Burke.

V.—The Farming of Cheshire. By Witttam Pain.
Prize Report.

In offering a Report on the agriculture of the county of Chester,
it may be necessary to observe that cheese being generally consi-
dered the staple commodity of the county, and the plough being
regarded only as an accompaniment to the pail, the attention of
the farmer is principally directed to that article, on the proceeds
of which the payment of his rent chiefly depends; the course
of cropping, and the general management, will therefore be found
to differ materially from those of other districts, where the dairy,
if of any interest at all, is merely a matter of secondary im-
portance. Having been practically engaged on a large dairy
farm in the interior of the county for nearly thirty years, I have
had opportunities of witnessing the different modes pursued, and
the progress made during that period; I therefore presume to
offer the present statement of its agriculture. In addition to the
knowledge derived from my own experience and observation, I
have endeavoured to elicit information upon every point proposed
in your important inquiry from the most intelligent and the

58 The Farming of Cheshire.

most authentic sources; and with this view I hare visited almost
every part of the county. .

The farms, with few exceptions, being appropriated to the
dairy, the great objects which the best farmers are desirous of
attaining, are the selection of a suitable stock for that purpose,
and an ample provision of nutritious food best adapted for the
cattle during the winter, as well as a good sweet herbage during
the summer months. And here I would remark that a great im-
provement has taken place within the last twenty years in the
provision for milch cows by the more general introduction of
turnips, and the application of bone manure to the pasture land ;
to both of which modes of culture I shall have occasion to refer
more fully hereafter.

The agriculture of Cheshire is not of so high a character
generally as that of some other counties in England ; and perhaps
it exhibits as great a variety of methods, and as bad specimens of
farming, as can possibly be conceived: yet I think it will be ad-
mitted that many of its farms approximate very closely to an
excellent state of cultivation. During the ten or fifteen years
preceding the spring of 1842, a considerable improvement in the
management of the land became perceptible; and this result may
chiefly be attributed to the diffusion of knowledge by means of
agricultural societies—to the stimulus given by competition for
their various premiums—and to the assistance rendered by some
of the landlords in granting to their tenants a certain quantity of
draining-tiles, and in occasionally supplying them with bone
manure. Since that period the depreciation in the price of agri-
cultural produce (with an undiminished pressure of the demands
upon the farmer) has given a check to that spirit of improvement
which was spreading through the county, and which was be-
coming more apparent every year.

From the great admixture of the prevailing soils of this county,
which have been shown by Dr. Holland to consist of sand loams,
tenacious clay, and clay loams, it would be tedious and unin-
teresting to enter into every particular respecting them; and
there are many farms which do not exclusively belong to any
special class—for instance, in a field in my own occupation, light
sand land, strong clay land, and peat, are so intermixed, that the
general management cannot vary in any material degree. In
order, therefore, to give a clearer view of the various methods of
cultivation, I shall classify the farms under four distinct heads,
and treat of each respectively, viz. :—

1. Sand-Land Dairy Farms.
2. Clay-Land Dairy Farms.
3. Sand-Land Arable Farms,
4. Clay-Land Arable Farms.

The Farming of Cheshire. 59
Sand-Land Dairy Farm.

The ordinary course of cropping on a farm of this description
is as follows :—The first crop of corn usually taken is oats on the
grass ley of one strong furrow ; the ploughing commences early
in February, and the sowing at the beginning of March, or as
soon as the ground is dry enough to receive the seed, which is
sown by hand at the rate of 5 customary bushels of 38 quarts, or
6 imperial bushels, per acre ; the land is then well harrowed, first
with rather a heavy pair of harrows, and followed by lighter ones,
until the seed is completely covered. It is not unfrequently
rolled, if dry enough, immediately after sowing—a process which
compresses the furrow, thereby giving the seed firm hold of the
ground, preventing rooks and other birds from tracing the rows
of corn with their accustomed ease when the ground is left quite
light by the harrowing; and it gives an even surface to the land,
by which the operations of mowing and raking are much faci-
litated. If the rolling be deferred until the blade of corn has
made its appearance, it has a tendency to check the growth of
the crop in a manner which is sometimes injurious. The varieties
of oats generally sown are :—

The Poland, or leather back (very saleable to stable-keepers, grooms,

&c., from their large and plump appearance).

The Potato (yield much meal, and are preferred by millers).

The Friezland Cuts (stand well on good Jand).

The Yellow (productive on poor land).

The Hopetown (suitable for strong soils).

And the Tartarian, which are not very common.

As soon as the crop is cleared off the ground, pigs, geese, Kc., ,
are turned into the field to pick up the oats which are shed. The
land is then prepared for wheat by ploughing it across the butts -
as thinly as possible ; it is next harrowed with heavy harrows, which
bring the stubble, grass-roots, &c., to the surface. In the course
of a week or nine days, if the weather be favourable, it is har-
rowed again; and if intended to be sown by hand, is seldom
ploughed until the second or third week in October, when it is
formed into butts of from 5 to 9 feet wide, according to circum-
stances; and sufficiently deep to cover the stubble, grass-roots,
&c., brought to the top by the previous harrowing, commencing
in the rein of the former butts, and making the former ridges
into reins.* If the wheat is to be drilled, a little difference is re-

* Reins—a provincial term for the lower furrow or division between the
butts.

+ The practice of drilling corn is very limited in Cheshire at present ;
but there is reason to believe that it is becoming more general every year,
as, where it has been tried, it appears to have given satisfaction. Amongst
the advantages of drilling may be specified the equal distribution of the
seed—a saving in the quantity—the depositing of it at the same depth—
and the facility which is afforded for hoeing, if required,

60 The Farming of Cheshire.

quired in the management: the first ploughing across the butts is
immediately succeeded by a longitudinal ploughing of the same
depth into large flats, in order to give the ground a level surface,
and to enable the ploughman to form the butts of equal size and
uniform roundness, which is an operation of great importance if
the land is not particularly dry; the butts are made double the
width of the drill, thus admitting of their bemg sown at one bout
or round, and the soil is then usually water-furrowed by a double
mouldboard-plough passing along the reins,

The practice of growing two corn crops in succession on the
same land may probably be censured, as not being in accordance
with the rules of good husbandry; but my own experience con-
vinces me that as good crops of wheat may be grown after oats
upon the ley or green sod as any other crops, provided the land
be properly managed; and on dairy farms, where the tillage is
limited to one-fourth of the acreage, the alternate green crop
system would not answer so well. For instance, on a farm of 200
acres, 25 would be in green crop,* which would be more than
could be consumed to advantage, and only 25 in corn, which
would not furnish an adequate supply of straw for five or six
horses, forty or more milking cows, besides young stock and pigs,
and also thatch for the stacks, as well as (in many cases) for part
of the farm-buildings.+

The general method with regard to wheat stubbles is to give
one ploughing before Christmas, merely reversing the butts. An
improvement has taken place on some farms in this respect
within the last few years; the land is ploughed very thin, har-
rowed, and then ploughed again to the depth of 6 or 7 inches,
thus covering all the stubble, and rendering it much more easy
to be worked in the spring. ‘The succeeding crop is generally

* Peas and beans, it may be observed, run too much to straw on this
description of land.

+ In addition to the old kinds of wheat forme: ly grown in the county,
many new varieties have lately been introduced; amongst those generally
cultivated are the following :—

Old Red.—A fine straw, with a long thin ear: stands well, and the
grain is much liked by millers.

Red Britannia.—Strong straw, thick ong ear, large grain ; not so fine in
quality as the former.

Golden Drop.—Y ellow grain, strong white straw.

Pearl.—V ery white, compact ear, and great producer, :

Blood-Red.— Stiff straw, and not apt to lodge; an excellent sort for
spring.

4 Yellow Danizic.—Fine straw, small grain; very productive on good clay-
soils.

Devonshire Red.—Compact ear, liable to lodge in wet seasons; very pro-
ductive when it stands well.

Chidham.—Very white, and something like pearl.

Hopetown.—Large ear, and strong ; not apt to lodge.

The Farming of Cheshire. 61

Swedish turnips, and some potatoes in drills, manured with farm-

‘yard dung or crushed bones, deposited with the seed by a
machine exclusively for that purpose, at the rate of from 12
to 20 ewt. per acre. The turnips are usually drawn in the
months of November and December ; the tops are given daily to
milking stock, and the bulbs are stored for the horses, cows, young
cattle, and pigs.

The turnip and potato crop is sometimes succeeded by wheat,
though more generally by barley,* and the land is sown with clover
and grass seeds in the spring. There is some risk in obtaining a
good clover root with wheat, on account of the prevalence of the
slug, or small snail, for the destruction of which I haye found a
slight sprinkling of lime, sown late in the evening, to answer well.
There is also an uncertainty in having the ground in proper con-
dition for receiving the seed, which should be sown immediately
previous to rolling the wheat; besides, a greater degree of
moisture is required to cause the seed to vegetate and take root,
than when the land has been recently stirred.’ If the land is to
be pastured the followimg year, white Dutch clover is sown at
the rate of 10 lbs. or 12 lbs. to the acre, with 2 lbs. of trefoil, 1
peck of perennial rye-grass, and a few meadow-grass seeds from
the hayloft. The latter practice is not now so prevalent as for-
merly, in consequence of an opinion that a number of seeds from
different kinds of weeds, as docks, thistles, couch-grass, &c., are
conyeyed amongst the meadow-grass seeds to land which has
been cleared, at considerable expense, by the previous green crop;
and, indeed, it is almost impossible to keep meadows free from
such weeds, as large quantities of seeds are annually brought by
‘the floods from neglected land, and deposited in the meadows.

If the land is to be mown the first year, red clover, or a mix-
ture of red and white, with rye-grass, is sown: the latter is pre-
ferred, if to remain in grass afterwards, as the red clover gene-
rally disappears the second year after sowing, and leaves a bare
pasture if sownalone. The land remains in grass four or five
years, when it is again broken up, and undergoes the same pro-
cess. Ifit has been mown, it is generally manured afterwards
on the green sod. +

Of other courses pursued on sand-land dairy-farms, where the
tillage is not so limited, the following may be cited :—

* Norfolk, or Roundland.—Long, thin ear; much liked by maltsters
when fine in quality.

Chevalier.— Much liked ; short ear, and fine straw.

Sprat.—vV ery stiff in the straw ; short, compact ear; small grain; stands
well where no other sort will.

+ Lime, at the rate of 4 tons per acre, is a good dressing, which J have
found to answer well.

62 The Farming of Cheshire.

On one farm in the Hundred of Eddisbury, of 200 acres, slate-marl is
applied to the grass-land when it is broken up for potatoes or turnips,
which are followed by wheat; then potatoes or turnips; oats, or barley,
and seeds—10 lbs. red clover, 2 lbs. trefoil, perennial rye-grass, top-dressed
and mown, pastured for three or four years.

On a farm of 160 acres, in the Hundred of Bucklow, the course is—po-
tatoes or turnips on Jey, manured, in drills, from the farm-yard ; wheat ;
potatoes or turnips; wheat clovered down—6 lbs. red, 3 lbs. white, and
hay-seeds, mown twice, and pastured five or six years. The clover root is
manured with bones, previously to mowing, at the rate of 10 ewt. or 12ewt.
per acre.

On two adjoining farms of 300 acres, in the Hundred of Eddisbury, the
course is—wheat on ley; turnips and potatoes; barley; clover, pastured
for four years. Ifthe land be sufficiently clean after the wheat, a crop of
baricy is taken before the turnips. On these two farms, previously to the
year 1820, the practice was to grow four or five grain crops in succession,
without ever thinking of a green crop: the land was in consequence filled
with charlock, and the corn was exceedingly light. The farms have be-
come much improved by the introduction of turnips.

On a farm in Delamere, consisting of light sand-land, another course is
adopted, as follows:—1. Oats; 2. Potatoes and turnips; 3. Wheat; 4.
Oats and clover, afterwards pastured for four or five years.

Clay-Land Dairy Farm.

The course of cropping adopted on a clay-land dairy-farm
varies considerably from that of a sand farm. The grass-land is
frequently broken up for a summer fallow; it receives one
ploughing before Christmas; early in the spring it is cross-
ploughed ; in the course of the summer it receives one or two
more ploughings, and an occasional harrowing, knife or spike
rolling ; towards the middle or latter end of August, it is formed
into butts, and, if the weather is favourable, is sown with wheat
about the middle of September. It is not unfrequently sown
under-furrow, as it is termed, the seed being sown on the surface,
and turned under by a shallow furrow with the plough. This
practice is not so common as formerly, it being thought by many
better to harrow in the seed. After the seed has been deposited,
ploughed under, or harrowed in, the field is carefully water-
furrowed and guttered. A large portion of the flat clay-land
has been formed, ages ago, into butts or loons, varying in width
from 15 to 50 feet or more. Where this is the case, the form is
scarcely ever altered, unless by a few furrows being ridged up in
the rein, to the width of 5 or 6 feet. Sometimes small butts are
made at right angles with the larger ones. ‘This appears to be
an excellent plan for keeping the land dry during the winter.
The reins, which empty themselves into the main reins, are drawn
with a double mouldboard plough, so as to admit of a free escape
for the water. The wheat-crop is succeeded by oats, the land
being either winter-fallowed or sown on one furrow early in
March. The latter mode is preferred by some, not only on

The Farming of Cheshire. 63

account of the saving of labour, but because the land is thought
to turn up drier, and is sooner in order to receive the seed than
that which has been winter-fallowed. This latter opinion may
probably have arisen from the careless manner in which the
winter-fallowing of clay-land is too often performed, the plough-
man thinking it only necessary to turn over the furrow to the
depth of 3 or 4 inches, thereby leaving a hollow in the centre of
each butt for the reception of water, instead of ploughing deep
enough to give a roundness to the butts, and a depth to the reins
to draw off the water. The land is usually laid down with the
oat-crop, and kept in pasture seven or eight years. On the very
poor clay-lands, when the clover has disappeared, which is in-
variably towards the latter end of the second year after sowing,
the pasture becomes and continues so poor, for three or four
years, as to be scarcely worth one quarter of its rent, saying
nothing about rates and taxes.

The evil arising from this poverty of the land may be remedied
by sowing a greater variety of grass-seeds with the clover, and the
application of bone or other manure, the former being decidedly
preferable.

A deviation from the foregoing course is frequently practised on the
better kind of clay-soils—the first crop being oats, then summer-fallow for
wheat, which is followed by oats and clover. Occasionally the wheat-
crop is succeeded by beans or peas, and the land is again sown with wheat.
When such is the case, manuring with a compost of soap-waste, or lime
and ditchings, is generally considered indispensable. The wheat-land is
either sown with clover in the spring, or another crop of oats is taken, and
seeds are sown, as in the former instance. On the poor clay-Jands, turnips
or potatoes are seldom attempted, except an acre or two of the former in
a small field near the farm-house ; and of the latter, barely sufficient for _
the use of the family.

ee course pursued on poor land, in the Hundred of Broxton, is as
under :—

Fallow, wheat, oats, fallow, wheat, oats, seeds. Lime on fallow is used
at the rate of 4 tons to the acre. On this estate tiles are offered to the
tenants on condition that they pay one-half the value. Formerly, no
charge was made, and the tiles were freely used ; but now the farmers re-
sort to sod-draining. I need scarcely add that the land just noticed is left
in a very exhausted state.

On another farm in the Hundred of Broxton, the course adopted is—
1. Wheat on grass ley; 2. Oats; 3. Fallow; 4. Wheat; 5. Clover, ma-
nured, pastured, and broken up in four or five years.

Sand-Land Arable Farm.

There are very few farms of this description in the county,
On one, in the hundred of Eddisbury, consisting of 160 acres, the
following course is adopted :—

The grass-sod is ploughed yery thin at the latter end of the year; early
in the spring it is cross-ploughed and harrowed, then well worked with a
scarifier, and formed into ridges 27 inches apart. Winter potatoes are
next planted without manure, which crop is followed by wheat, generally

~

64 The Farming of Cheshire.

drilled at the rate of 2 customary bushels of 38 quarts to the acre, the rows
being about 7 inches apart; the wheat crop is succeeded by Swedish
turnips in drills, the land being manured with a compost of dung and soil,
the latter being taken from the headland. The turnips are followed by
either wheat or barley, when the land is Jaid down with red or white clover,
or a mixture of both and grass seeds; if the clover be mown, the land is
again manured previous to breaking it up, which is generally done every
fourth year; inthe meantime, it is grazed with either sheep or horned
cattle. This farm is managed in a very superior style of ‘cultivation, which
does great credit to the occupier.

Another course, practised on a farm of 700 acres, in the hun-
dred of Nantwich, a part of which only is appropriated to the
dairy, and which consists chiefly of a light weak soil on a subsoil
of fox-beach or white-sand, is as under—

Ist, turnips, generally Swedes, manured with 15 ewt. of boiled bones per
acre, or, within the last two years, Guano, at the rate of 3cwt. to the acre,
part or the whole of the crop being eaten off by sheep; 2nd, barley or
oats, laid down with clover; 3rd, clover; 4th, wheat ; 5th, turnips, manured
as before and eaten off; 6th, barley or oats; 7th, clover; 8th wheat; 9th
potatoes ; 10th, wheat.

One of my correspondents, in the Hundred of Nantwich, says—

“ My system of tillage is as follows :—Ist, turnips ; 2nd, barley or oats,
the choice depending upon the nature of the land, as I find oats to answer
best on peat, or on Jand which has been drained; barley requires sound
land to produce a good article; 3rd, seeds; 4th, wheat; and after two
courses I generally take a crop of potatoes, which is followed by wheat,
and then return again to turnips, and the fourcourse. If the land is very
light I eat-on the whole, but generally draw off the larger turnips, say
about one-half the crop. I grow from 80 to 100 acres annually, and for
the last fourteen years have manured them entirely with bones, except a
part, during the last two years, with Guano, which had a wonderful effect ;
I tried it last year in every field I sowed, and with the same result ; I
think the crop was in some cases one-third more, but generally about
one-fourth. I have generally used about 14 or 15 ewt. of bones to the
acre, and of Guano about 3 cwt. It is almost impossible to describe the
nature of the soil, as it varies so much; but, generally speaking, it is very
light on a subsoil of fox-bench or white sand. I have only been a bean-
grower three years ; I have sown them after potatoes and turnips, and they
have always done well. I sowed some on rather strong soil, some on light
sand, and others on peat; the latter during the past year were consider-
ably the best.”

Clay-Land Arable Farm.

On two adjoining farms of about 900 acres, in the Hundred
of Wirral, not very distant from Chester, by far the greater por-
tion having been drained along each rein (the small butts being
at right angles with the large ones) the following course of crop-
ping is adopted, the same system being pursued on each farm.
The grass land is ploughed in December or January into strong
furrows, and in March beans are drilled in rows 27 inches apart ; ©
a small mark is made with a common plough along every third
furrow ; thus—

The Farming of Cheshire. 65

when the beans are deposited by means of a small drill, which is
fixed immediately behind the heel of the plough. The beans being
thus sown, manure is spread along the rows; a furrow is then
thrown over them, and as soon as the Jand is sufficiently dry, the
whole field is rolled with a light roller to level the furrows, and
then harrowed with a pair of common harrows. The bean crop
is afterwards kept clean by the plough and small scarifier. The
course on strong clay is

Ist; clover root, pastured, or if mown, manured ; 2nd, pasture ; 3rd, beans;
4th, wheat ; 5th, fallow or turnips, or part potatoes; 6th, wheat, laid down
with clover and other seeds.

In the Hundred of Wirral, on a farm of 150 acres, the following
course has been successfully adopted :—

Ist, clover; 2nd, wheat; 3rd, beans or potatoes; 4th, wheat; 5th, tur-
nips; 6th, wheat or oats, with seeds.

Another course, on a poor stiff clay land farm, in the Hundred
of Wirral, is as under :—

Ist, clover; 2nd, wheat; 3rd, green crop ; 4th, oats and seeds.

On the above farms thorough-draining and subsoiling are in-
variably performed previous to cultivating green crops.

In the Hundred of Broxton another course, on the drained land,
is in the following order:

Ist, oats on ley ; 2nd, beans in-drills, manured, instead of fallow, as for-"
merly; 3rd; wheat ; 4th, oats, laid down with clover and other seeds.

Another course, adopted on stiff weak undrained clay, runs
thus—

Ist, oats on ley, one furrow ; 2nd, fallow manured with a compost of lime,
&e. ; 3rd, wheat ; 4th, oats and seeds, pastured five or six years.

Another course, on the better kind of clay land—

Ist, oats; 2nd, wheat ; 3rd, fallow, manured with lime or compost ; 4th,
wheat ; 5th, oats; 6th, clover, pastured and manured before breaking up
again.

- Another mode of agriculture, differmg from any of the fore-
going, is almost peculiar to a district of the county which borders
on the Duke of Bridgewater's canal, between Runcorn and Al-
trincham, the principal object of the farmer being to raise early
crops for the Manchester markets, ashe has the double advantage
of canal carriage for his produce, and of bringing back manure to
his farm at a reasonable cost, no tonnage dues being levied, and
VOL. V. F

66 The Farming of Cheshire.

only a small charge for wharfage. The course of cropping
which is practised (commencing in the neighbourhood of War-
rington) is as follows :— .

The Jand is manured and planted with early potatoes in the month of
March, and the gathering of the crop commences towards the middle of
June. As the ground becomes clear of the first growth, Swedish turnips
or a second setting of potatoes are planted; on the removal of this crop
wheat is sown, and in the spring clover, which is mown the following year,
and is then pastured for three or four years. Sometimes early cabbages
are planted in November after the potatoes, and sold off in the spring; in
which case the land is planted again with potatoes, and undergoes the
same course, having received a good manuring for the cabbages; the land
. is generally trenched for the potato crop. Proceeding towards Al-
trincham, some difference in the management is observable; much of the
land being suitable for the growth of carrots, a part of almost every farm
is appropriated to the culture of that vegetable ; four or five acres are let
to gardeners at 2s. per rood of eight yards square. The system pursued is
to skim the grass ley, then trench the Jand into four-yard butts, burying the
sod in the trench; sow broad-cast, and clean with small hoes. The crop
averages about 15 tons per acre: the land is potatoed the following year,
and sown with wheat in the autumn; then a crop of oats, and laid down
with seeds; sometimes pastured for one year, but generally mown twice,
and broken up again. ,

Another practice is to have oats on leys marled on the oat-stubble ; then
potatoes and turnips, followed by wheat laid down with red clover, 12 1bs.
to the acre; mown and broken up for wheat ; then turnips, manured from
the farm-yard, or with horse-dung from Manchester, at 6s. 6d. per ton, and
followed by barley, sown with a mixture of red and white clover, 10 lbs. of
the former and 3|bs. of the latter, besides seeds from the hay-loft ; mown
the following year, and broken up again for wheat. This course is pur-
sued for several years, until it is thought that the field requires rest.

Another course adopted in this district is as follows :—

Potatoes on ley, with two ploughings; first, thinly skimmed, then a
strong furrow, then wheat, laid down in the spring with clover; mown and
broken up again for potatoes, which are followed, as before, by wheat ;
sometimes oats are taken after wheat, and the land is laid down with seeds,
to remain a short time in pasture; but few cattle are kept, and perhaps
the necessity for them is not very great, on account of the facilities afforded
by the canal for laying down manure on the farm. There are no dairies
here, the milk being sold to the dealers for the supply of Manchester and
the surrounding neighbourhood.

In order to explain and illustrate more fully the various systems
of cropping practised in Cheshire, I subjoin some extracts from
letters with which I have been favoured by correspondents, in
reply to my applications for information From the Hundred of
Macclesfield :—

“ The course of cropping generally followed here is very bad; the fal-
low is usually planted with potatoes, and then wheat on all descriptions of
soil, some of which is very inferior for the latter, and not at all adapted for
its cultivation. After wheat, oats with clover, which the farmers cut once
and then leave the land in a poor and dirty state, to lie two or three years
in grass. In some cases lime is applied in a mortared state the second
year, but the land yielding no pasture capable of producing milk or butter

ee ee a a oe

The Farming of Cheshire. 67

to any extent, then follows the complaint that it will not pasture; it is then
ploughed again, is subjected to the same treatment as before, and some
will even take three white crops before they will let the field lie; the land
is consequently so impoverished that it becomes almost useless for several
ears. But there are many exceptions to the above bad system, and of
ate years improvements have progressed so much that we now see, in dif-
ferent situations, good crops of turnips produced with bones and Guano.”

From the Hundred of Broxton :—

«« The farmers, if left to themselves, have little or no system of crop-
ping; they have an inveterate inclination to keep tilling the same land,
until reduced to a stand-still, and then to sow with the last crop of oats a
little red clover and some seeds out of the hay-loft; but the usual course
is, on breaking up—oats, fallow, wheat, oats and seeds, clover mown, pas-
ture; but most of the farmers would, if uncontrolled, go on with at least
another crop of wheat and oats before the seeds. The fallows are occa-
sionally broken as to pieces of fields, with potatoes and now turnips. On
this estate they seldom till a third of the farm; no more than two succes-
sive grain crops without an intervening fallow and purchased manure,
lime, &e.; no more than three grain crops in one course of tillage; only
one erop of wheat ina tillage. Tenants are bound to Jay all their farm-
yard manure on grass-land, or green crops to be consumed on the premises ;
not to sell hay, straw, or food-roots grown with home-made manures.
believe these restrictions are what most landlords about here are aiming
at, and most tenants coming into. In Wirral many farmers take only two
grain crops in a tillage—oats, fallow, wheat, and seeds upon the wheat.
At the Neston Farming Club, last spring, I asked the question about laying
down with the wheat crop, and was answered by their best men that it
was an approved practice, particularly on drained land, where it was not
necessary to make small round wheat-butts.”

Another correspondent, from the Hundred of Broxton, says—
« With the exception of one or two fields, I may call the whole of
my farm clay land.” The course of cropping I propose to adopt
is—

“Ist, wheat ; 2nd, beans, drilled and manured; 3rd, wheat; 4th, turnips,
or other green crop, drilled and manured ; 5th, oats ; 6th, clover. Whether
I shall be able to overcome the difficulties generally complained of, in at-
tempting to grow turnips on such stiff land, remains to be proved. I trust
that thorough-draining and subsoil- ploughing will effect such an alteration
in the nature of the soil, as, in ordinary seasons, to remove those difficul-
ties. There are two or three fields, some of the stiffest ]and on the farm,
which present a very sorry appearance ; these I have been recommended
to drain and cover with bone dust, and keep in pasture ; but shall wait
I see the effect of the course which I am adopting on the other stiff
and.”

A third correspondent, from the Hundred of Broxton, writes—

“ The soil here is principally of a clayey nature, and there are various
notions of farming. In many instances it is exhausted, owing to the re-
a cropping of the same Jand. Landlords have an objection to the old
ey being broken up, which is a supposed protection to the owners of the
soil, the farms being let in most instances from year to year. If leases
were granted upon fair conditions I am convinced that an immediate im-
provement would take place; and if the old ley be so essential to the
making of cheese, it might be gradually changed. Tenants are bound not
to have more than one-fourth of the land up at once. I make a practice

FE .

68 The Farming of Cheshire.

of growing my wheat upon grass or clover ley, green crop next, and lay
down the following spring. This course I cannot regularly pursue, because
it gives me too much green crop for my straw, and I am compelled to lay
down part with oats for the second crop; but I invariably take a green
crop on the land so served the next tillage.”

A fourth correspondent, from the Hundred of Broxton, says—

“ When a piece of grass-land is ploughed, it is almost invariably sown
with oats; and if the condition is such as to warrant a fair expectation of
a green crop, with a small quantity of manure, it is sown with turnips and
potatoes, then cropped with wheat, afterwards with oats and clover. If
the piece be very poor, a summer fallow follows the first oat crop, and it

is kept in tillage with oats, beans, or peas in succession for several years.
There are very few turnips grown, and seldom more potatoes than are
requisite for the use of the family and the farm-labourers.”

From the Hundred of Bucklow—

“For the ordinary course of cropping in the parish of Great Budworth
and its borders, the Jand is skimmed about the month of November, as a
preparation for potatoes, both early and late ; if for early ones, then after
that crop the same ground is either planted with Swedish or sown with
common turnips, or a second setting of potatoes of the early kind for seed.
In October or November, the crops having been got up, the land is either
butted for the next year or sown with wheat; the latter is the most gene-
ral practice. The next crop is potatoes again, of course with manure,
which, if the land be poor, is applied in the first crop, and vice versa. The

otatoes having been gathered, the land is sown with wheat in October or

ovember, and followed with oats, clover, and grass seeds, of which, in
some instances, Italian rye-grass forms a part, and from its rapid growth
and frequency of cropping, is growing into repute. Where the purse is a
long one, bone-waste is often set upon the clover-root, either before or im-
mediately after the first mowing, at the rate of one ton to the acre; some
will only apply 15 ewt. of bones, and these the boiled ones. Clover is
occasionally mown twice, but this practice, in the opinion of all good
agriculturists, is too exhausting. The same land is not tilled again for six _
or seven years, according to the nature of the soil, as being more or less
suitable to the kind of crops required, and which the other parts of the
farm would ill produce.”

From the Hundred of Nantwich—

“There is no particular system in practice here; but one method is
pretty general, that of ploughing up a field, and never finding a proper
time to lay it down again until the land is exhausted and left in a very
dirty state. Such was the condition in which I found my farm, and, in
fact, the whole township was little, if any better; the fences were also
shamefully neglected. I hope, however, that farmers are now roused from
their lethargy, and that shortly a better system will be adopted. The only
green crop has been potatoes, for which there has been a good market in
the Potteries; but now turnips are grown, though in most instances in
small quantities; yet I think they will soon be cultivated to a considerable
extent. A few leases have been granted from 14 to 17 years. It is desir-
able that some of the clauses, especially those relating to tillage, should be —
altered, as one-fourth of the land is not sufficient for the growth of corn
and green crops where the pastures have been manured with bone-dust ;
for it will not produce the requisite supply of fodder to feed the increased
number of cattle, which the pastures, when improved by bones, will keep
during the summer.”

The Farming of Cheshire. 69

:

Another correspondent, from the Hundred of Nantwich, writes—

“ The tenantry on this estate are all under yearly agreements, at a valu-
ation of cheese at 60s. per cwt. and corn at 9s. per bushel. They are al-
lowed two-sevenths of their acreage for their yearly tillage, and are not
permitted to take more than two straw crops in succession; but there is
such a disparity in the farms, that no general rule could be laid down that
would be beneficial to either the landlord or the tenant. Upon the light-
soil farms, under the best management, the four-course system is practised ;
others prefer taking a crop of oats upon their clover-leys, and wheat after-
wards ; and where two white crops are taken in two successive years, I
give the preference to this mode, instead of taking the oats after the wheat
crop. Upon those farms which will not answer for turnips, fallow, oats,
and clover is the usual course, two years down; oats upon the clover-ley,
fallow next, wheat, and oats with seeds.”

From the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“The state of cropping in this neighbourhood is as follows with most of
the farmers:—Ist, oats; 2nd, potatoes; 3rd, wheat; 4th, oats, laid down
with clover; the general management is not good, the crops being left in a
dirty state. Another course, pursued with old pasture broken up, is, Ist,
oats ; 2nd, green crop (potatoes, turnips, mangold wurtzel, &c.); 3rd, wheat
after potatoes and mangold wurtzel, barley after turnips, Jaid down with
red clover and Italian rye-grass ; 4th, mowed ; 5th, oats; 6th, green crop,
as before ; 7th, wheat and barley, laid down with a mixture of clover and
grass seeds for permanent pasture. By this rotation of cropping, the land
gets twice manured in seven years ; and if the crops have been well cleaned,
the soil will be in fine order for clover, &c.”

Another correspondent, from the Hundred of Eddisbury, says,—

“The course of crops on tillage Jand in this county is as various perhaps
as can be conceived, and a neglect of a regular succession may probably
be attributed to every successful farmer only using the plough as an ac-
companiment to the pail; for cheese being produced here in great abun-
dance, and the agriculturist well knowing that he can obtain a considerable
sum annually from his dairy occupations, at a trifling expense (as com-
pared with the growth of corn), usually devotes al] his skill for the attain-
ment of that object ; he consequently grows but little corn, and frequently
neglects his tillage land. This is more generally the case on strong clay
soils, though not at all unusual on lighter soils, which are adapted to a
better system of husbandry. Although Cheshire has not ranked high
among agriculturists, for any great ingenuity displayed by its practical
farmers, still there are districts in this county which are not inferior to any
in the kingdom for the economical and profitable system of management
adopted. In these parts, the four and five course system (including clover)
is the general practice.”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

Bs This may be said to be a dairy district, where the farmer’s chief attention
is paid to his grass and. The smal] quantity of land which he is allowed
by his tenure to plough or break up varying in extent from 1-3rd, 1-4th,
and 1-5th of his whole farm, that portion which is under tillage is very
soon reduced to poverty by wheat, oats, and clover in succession, with but
little assistance of either manure or cleaning applied to it; and in many
instances, the farmer comes to a stand-still for want of produce of straw ;
he is then compelled to request his landlord to allow him to break up a
piece of his grass land, ‘to give him something,’ as he says, and the tenant

70 The Farming of Cheshire.

has no hesitation, in return, to consent that a piece of his old tilled Jand
shall rest. Rest indeed it must, as probably it has not done so (in many
instances) for forty years. There are very few tillage farms in the district ;
but where the occupiers have had the advantage of access to manure, and
the capital wherewith to purchase it, and thoroughly drain the land, an
advantageous course of cropping has been thus pursued, viz., Ist, clover,
pastured, or if mown, manured; 2nd, pasture; 3rd, beans or vetches,
drilled, and partially manured; 4th, wheat; 5th, fallow and turnips ma-
nured; 6th, wheat, clovered down. This rotation applies to heavy wet
land, where neither barley nor oats can be advantageously grown.”

Breeds of Cattle in Cheshire.

There is no distinct breed of cattle peculiar to this county; the
‘dairy stock consists principally of a great variety of crosses with
the breeds of other districts, viz., the Yorkshire or Holderness
short horns, the Lancashire and Staffordshire long horns, the De-
vonshire, the Ayrshire, Welsh, Irish, and the improved short
horns. Doubts, I believe, exist in the minds of some intelligent
farmers, whether any improvement has been effected in the milk-
ing properties of dairy cows, by the introduction of the improved
short horns among them; that the latter breed is much disposed
to fatten, is admitted; but this class of cattle does not stand very
high in public estimation as milkers; it may therefore be reason-
ably supposed that there are good grounds for thinking that it is
very possible to introduce too much of the improved short horned
blood into the dairy stocks, and that great caution should be taken
in crossing; however that may be, I am of opinion that an im-
provement may be effected by the introduction of the blood to a
certain extent, care being always taken to select the male animals
intended to be reared from the best milkers.

I cannot here refrain from noticing the beautiful and well-se-
lected stock of improved short horns, belonging to Messrs. Forrest
of Stretton, near Warrington. Those gentlemen, at much pains
and expense, have succeeded in introducing into Cheshire some
of the best blood in the kingdom; and they frequently obtain
premiums for their stock at the exhibitions of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society. There are, however, in many parts of the county,
well selected dairy stocks ; and for a great number of years, a slow
but gradual improvement has been perceptible in the appearance
of cattle bred within it, and they now assume a more decided
character of breed, the Holderness or short horns predominating.

, Though some of the latter breed are alluded to in a treatise by
Mr. Wedge, which was published in 1796, they were not then
much in favour, as it was thought they were too delicate for wet clay
land; but on the introduction of a few pure-bred ones from York-
shire, about thirty-five years ago, or immediately preceding the
publication of Dr. Holland’s book, they were highly approved by
sand land farmers, and soon after were sought for with avidity.

The Farming of Cheshire. 71

About that time, some of the principal farmers, assisted by some
leading cattle dealers, succeeded in establishing fairs at many of the
small towns and villages in the interior of the county; and they
were so arranged as to give purchasers the opportunity of attending
at convenient distances from their farms, and sellers the facility of
driving their unsold stock from fair to fair, without any material
loss of time, or of the keep of their animals; and many of the
dealers had persons engaged in visiting the Yorkshire fairs to
make fresh purchases, while they were selling in Cheshire; thus
a regular supply of good young milking cows was kept up through
the early part of the cheese-making season. Some of the largest
and most valuable animals were bought by dealers in milk for
the supply of Manchester and Liverpool; but these cattle, from
their. great size, were not so suitable for the tender clay land, or
the very confined farm buildings in the chief part of this county.

The dealers also frequently brought young bulls of from one
to two years old for sale in the markets, and it was not unusual
for them to receive orders from those farmers who were most
anxious to improve their stocks; which orders they were always
ready to execute, as they could in such cases make their own
charges without incurring any risk. A farmer in the hundred of
Eddisbury, who kept about forty cows, and took a pride in having
a good dairy stock, thinking the best way of obtaining it was to
purchase, instead of rearing from his own, gave a respectable
dealer an order for twelve cows—this order was speedily executed
for 336/., or 287. per head—probably the whole dairy of cheese
would realize little, if any, more than 5001.

From the cattle thus introduced at the Cheshire fairs and
markets, many of the present stocks were raised. Perhaps the”
improvement in cattle has been more rapid within the last seven
years than formerly, in consequence of an increased emulation
haying been excited among farmers by the establishment of agri-
cultural societies within the county.

In addition to the cattle bred within Cheshire, many of which
are also fed or fattened within it when no longer fit for the dairy,
a considerable number of Scotch, Welsh. and a few Irish and
Hereford bullocks and heifers are annually bought for the pur-
pose of being fed, principally by gentlemen residing on and farm-
ing part of their estates—such cattle, when fat and not required
for the use of the family, are sold to butchers for the supply of
the surrounding neighbourhood, or sent to the Manchester and

Liverpool markets.
Sheep.

Although a considerable number of sheep is fed within the
county (estimated at about 65,000), very few comparatively are

72 The Farming of Cheshire.

bred within it, except'such as are sold when lambs to the butchers,
and some which are reared from a few choice flocks in gentle-
men’s parks ; of these, the South Down and Leicester are the pre-
vailing breeds. Those fed by farmers consist chiefly of Cheviots
(which probably, form the greatest portion), Leicesters, Hasling-
dens, Scotch, and Irish, and occasionally the Anglesea, Carnar-
von, Shropshire black face, cluns, and the Derbys, or grit stones,
commonly called Woodlands. The usual practice with many
farmers is to purchase a few ewes about the month of September,
which are kept in the stubbles until ploughed; they are then
turned into the cow-pastures, where they remain until the lamb-
ing ‘season commences, when they are put into a field of clover or
old grass preserved for that purpose; the lambs and ewes, when
ready for the butcher, are sold; wethers are seldom kept by the
dairy farmers throughout the winter, but are frequently purchased
in June or July, and sold off at the latter end of autumn.

A great part of the land in Cheshire is at present much too
wet for sheep; but if effectually drained, they would be found a
profitable stock, and would improve the soil. -

The calculation as to the number of sheep in this county was
first made in 1800, and afterwards in 1837, in a work from which
I make the following extract :—

“ The river Dee, on the north-east border of Flintshire, divides the prin-
cipality of Wales from England; and the river being crossed, Cheshire
first presents itself. This is by no means a sheep district; the flocks bred
in the county are comparatively few, and they are of all kinds, from the
Welsh mountain sheep to the Leicester; those which are grazed for home
consumption are much of the same character. The Leicesters and the
Cotswolds, and the Cheviots however prevail, and with every variety of
cross ; but as they are mostly brought into the county for this purpose, they
afford only skin-wool, and are not to be taken into account, when the cha-
racter of the sheep and the fleece is inquired into. The sheep that are fed
on the heaths and commons of Cheshire are short-woolled ; but the fleece
is gradually increasing in length and weight as elsewhere. The only va-
riety worth particular record is that found in the forest of Delamere, on
the high grounds in the eastern parts of the county; they have black, or
brown, or grey, or spotted faces and legs, and usually small horns. They
are not unlike a diminutive Norfolk. They weigh about 8 or 10 lbs. per
quarter; the meat is as good as that of other small breeds, and the wool is
short and particularly fine, and weighing about 14 Ib. per fleece. They
are a variety of the true native breed of England. The wool used to be
much sought after by the Yorkshire manufacturers of fine cloths, and still
bears a superior price, although it is also excluded with the rest’ from the
finer cloths. The Delamere sheep is out of place in such a county as
Cheshire. It is capable of a very material improvement, and especially
considering the purposes for which wool of this kind is now used. In
1808, Cheshire was supposed to contain 65,000, al] short-woolled, the length
of the fleece various, and producing 926 packs. The wool is still short,
the average weight of the fleece 44 Ibs., and the number of packs 1218.*

* How tar this estimate may be correct I cannot pretend to his +

y

The Farming of Cheshire. 73

This increased quantity arises either from the greater number of sheep,
which an increasing population requires; or from the increasing weight of
the fleece, attributable to the altered mode of management, or to the com-
bined influence of both causes.”

Previously to the enclosure (about the year 1815) of Delamere
Forest, containing 8000 acres, which were equally divided be-
tween the Crown and the adjoining freeholders, it was supposed
that 20,000 sheep were kept upon it; it was in fact the great
nursery for the county. At the enclosure, the greater part of the
sheep were dispersed throughout the country, and most of the
commons being also enclosed, very few of that breed are now to
be met with.*

In Delamere Park, the seat of G. Wilbraham, Esq., I have
observed a beautiful flock of South Down ewes; this gentleman
has lately introduced some rams from the celebrated flock of Mr.
Jonas Webb. The number of sheep kept in this park is about
600.

In Lyme Park, the seat of T. Legh, Esq., 1000 sheep are
kept, including store ewes and those fed for the butcher.

On some of the driest soils, small flocks of sheep are fed after
the Norfolk system of hurdling on turnips, whereby the land is
much improved ; amongst the most important, are those on farms
at Delamere and Haslington; on the former, which is a hilly
district, guano has been used at the rate of about 3 cwt. per acre,
and the result has been highly successful.

Pigs.

The breeding and feeding of pigs are carried on to a consider-.
able extent in this county; but from the great variety of crosses, it
would be difficult to determine to which class the prevailing
breeds belong; it must however be acknowledged that during
the last few years they have been much improved ; for, instead of
the large-eared, coarse-boned pig, which was valued so highly on
account of the enormous size to which it attained when fat, is now
to be seen a fine-boned animal, with smaller ears, great length of
body, width of shoulders, and roundness of carcase, with aptitude

By the first calculation in 1808, the wool averages more than 3} Ibs. per
fleece, and by the second 4% Ibs., which appear rather high estimates,
when the average of the forest sheep at only 14 lb. is taken into account;
but supposing this calculation to be correct, and the weight of wool the
true criterion as to the number of sheep shorn in the county, I should pre-
sume that many more than the numbers stated are kept; as many flocks
are brought from distant counties, after they are shorn, and having been
fed here, are again sold off when fat.

* The Crown land is planted with a variety of forest trees, as oaks, larch,
Scotch firs, &c., the greatest part of which are in a very thriving state:
the other portion has been marled, and is in a high state of cultivation.

74 The Farming of Cheshire.

to fatten at an earlyage. These pigs probably do not make such
heavy weights as the former kind, but they possess the advantage
of becoming fat in much less time; their bone is lighter, and
the flesh not so coarse; they are therefore more approved of by
the consumer. The county is to a certain degree indebted to the
coarser breed, formerly in favour, for the great length of frame
which many of the present pigs exhibit ; as undoubtedly those best
adapted to the purpose of the farmers were raised by crosses from
that breed with the Berkshire, Leicestershire, &e. The more
delicate sorts, as the Chinese and Neapolitan, although much
_ approved in gentlemen’s families, with a slight cross of some of
the more hardy breeds, are not suitable, unless repeatedly crossed,
as a general stock for this county ; being too tender for the ordi-
nary treaiment, and too light when put into the scale: it isa com-
mon phrase here, ‘“‘ when we have done weighing, we have done
receiving.” The practice with regard to feeding pigs on the
generality of dairy farms is, to put up early in the spring some
strong stores of twelve-months old, to feed on the offal of the
dairy; the number being regulated by the probable supply of
food—about one to five cows, allowing for breeding sows and
young siores. If the farmer is anxious to bring them early to
market, a few potatoes, and a small supply of barley or other
meal, are given; but in general they bave little else than whey
for the first three months, when they are allowed potatoes or meal,
or both, for five or six weeks, and are then sold to the butcher for
the Manchester, Birmingham, or other markets; the weights
ranging from 10 to 14 scores. As soon as the pigs feeding on
whey are cleared off, which is usually in August and September,
more are put up; by this time the whey is much reduced in
quantity, the pigs must therefore be fewer in number, or the
allowance of corn, &c., greater; some, or perhaps the whole, of
these are kept for the use of the family. The sows farrow twice
a-year, bringing their first litter in February, and their second in
August; the first are usually kept as stores for the farmer’s own
use, the latter are sold off when young.

Rearing young Cattle.

More attention has been paid to rearing young cattle of late
years than at the time of Dr. Holland’s publication, and there is
still room for much improvement in this respect. The treatment of
calves, previously to being turned out to grass, is nearly the same
as formerly, except that some farmers substitute crushed oil-cake,
or linseed-meal, for oatmeal, wheat, or bran-flour, at the rate of
1 lb. per day ey each calf; and, occasionally, a few slices of man-
gold-wurzel or swedes are given, after the calves are weaned from
the cows to the time at which they are turned out to grass. At

i, eee

The Farming of Cheshire. 75

the period before referred to, very few turnips or other succulent
roots were grown, and the yearling calves had seldom anything
given to them except a little hay; occasionally a small field of old
grass was reserved for them, and the second winter they were fed
entirely on straw: this method of treating young cattle is too
much practised even at the present day, but many farmers have
recently adopted an improved mode of feeding—when very young,
before going out to grass, the calves are taught to eat sliced tur-
nips, mangold-wurzel, or carrots, mixed with crushed oats; they
are taken up at night about the latter end of October or early in
November, and have hay, and as soon as their pasture becomes
short, sliced turnips or mangold-wurzel, and a few crushed oats
are given; they are generally turned out to some early grass in
April. Some few farmers, who make a point of rearing their first-
dropped calves in February and March, allow their heifers to
come into profit when little more than two years old, about the
middle of May; but when this is the case they are kept very well
the second winter, having hay, turnips, and a little corn, and they
are put into a good pasture early in the spring: generally speak-
ing, heifers do not come into profit before they are three years
old. The number of calves reared on a dairy farm is in the pro-
portion of 5 to every 20 cows, taking care to select those from the
best milkers, But it is too much the practice with many farmers to
feed all their first calves indiscriminately for the butcher, with the
view of selling them while veal is fetching a good price, and to
take their chance asto what may hereafter come for rearing. This
management frequently ends in disappointment, and late rearings
seldom or ever grow up such fine cattle as early ones—7. e. when
after a certain period they are all treated alike, as is the case in
Cheshire.

The food for the calves* is prepared in the following manner :
about half a pound of meal for each calf is put into a tub, scalding
water or whey is poured upon it, and well stirred, skimmed-milk
and fleetings are then added; about four quarts are given to each
calf twice a-day, until Midsummer, when they are gradually
weaned.

It may perhaps not be out of place to state here that the pre-
vailing epidemic among cattle has proved a great drawback upon
the resources of the dairy farmers. In some instances as many as
twenty and thirty, and even sixty cows have died on one farm from
this destructive disease. Where this has been the case, the places
of the dead cattle have been cautiously supplied by fresh stock,
from fear of further losses ; farmers preferring to increase the

* A recipe for disordered bowels in young calves :—2 drms. rhubarb,
2 oz. castor oi], 3 drm. ginger, mixed with a little warm milk or gruel.
The dose may be repeated in a day or two, if required.

76 The Farming of Cheshire.

number of their sheep. I have reason to believe that the epidemic
is now abating in virulence; and, in order that losses from this
cause may not fall with so heavy a pressure upon those individuals
among whose cattle the mortality may rage, insurance clubs for
mutual protection have been established among the farmers.

I subjoin a few of the opinions of my correspondents relative
to cattle, &c.

From the Hundred of Nantwich :—

“The dairy cows here are a mixture of various breeds, a cross between
the Durham and short-horn being more general than any other. The
breed of the old long-horn Cheshire cow is become almost extinct. But
few sheep are kept in this neighbourhood, and those of a coarse breed, the
common black-faced Cheshire ; they are very prolific, bringing two, three,
and sometimes four at a birth; but they will never fatten.”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

“No particular breed of cattle can be said to exist in this district : milk
being the main object of the farmer, he does not consider any thorough-
breed particularly advantageous for that purpose; and I believe it has
been stated with truth, that a cross between the old long-horn, short: horn,
and Welsh cows is considered a good sort for the dairy. In some very
eo spots of really excellent land, the pure short-horn and the large

orkshire cow have been introduced with success; .but some farmers
object to them, as too delicate to stand out in this wet climate. Sheep.—
Searcely any sheep are kept where the dairy is: the main object; in
some instances the farmers buy a few Anglesea or Scotch wedders to eat
up their stubble land in autumn; but the custom seems to be attended
with doubtful success in most cases, and few make it a general rule to have
sheep. The Delamere Forest and Clunn Forest sheep are sometimes to
be met with in small numbers, but they are not regularly bred in the dis-
trict. Pigs.—Whatever may be said of the native breed of pigs, a very
great improvement has been effected of late years in this class of animals.
They seem to be of the old Berkshire breed, with, in many instances, a
cross of the Chinese; which, when judiciously managed, will give com-
pactness and aptitude to fatten. I should say they are inferior to none in
any county of England.”

From the Hundred of Broxton :—

“The description of cattle fed in the Park here is for the most part
Scotch oxen; but some handsome short-horns, from Mr. M‘Gregor’s prize
bull, have lately been reared, and they seem to do very well. The feeding
is made a two-years business, and cannot therefore, 1 think, be quoted as
an example. Sheep do not answer in the Park, they go lame from foot-
rot, through the wet.”

From the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“The cattle here are not very good generally ; a few are now crossing
with the short-horn breed, which is found to improve their stocks. In
pigs, | prefer the Neapolitan, crossed with the large breed (the short-eared
kind); I then get a large pig with small bones, and one that will feed at
any age. This I consider the best sort.”

From the Hundred of Bucklow :—

“The greater number of cattle kept here consists of fully half-bred
short-horns, which are believed to be the best for profit. Tam of opinion that

The Farming of Cheshire. 77

the halfbred short-horn, from a cross by the best Welsh breed and Holder-
ness, is preferable to the cross of the Lancashire long-horn and Holderness :
and, generally considered, it is much better adapted to the land. But the
most profitable cows I have seen were a mixture of the Guernsey and pure
Durham breeds. Great improvements have been effected in the breeds of
pigs since the publication of Dr. Holland’s book; those now considered
the most profitable, and the most in use, are a cross of the Berkshire and
Shropshire—the ears a little pendent over the eyes, the bodies lengthy,
not stinted, or too compact in make. But, of course, there are still
amongst us many mixtures of breeds.”

From the Hundred of Macclesfield :—

“* Very few sheep are kept here, it being considered that in summer they
injure the cow-pastures: some are kept for winter pastures by the farmers
to serve the Derbyshire flock-masters.”

The State of Drainage in Cheshire. °

Having made a very extensive personal survey of the county,
and taken into consideration the nature of the soils which predo-
minate, [ have arrived at the conclusion that, although on many
estates a considerable extent of draining has been effected within
the last few years, and some excellent specimens of this desirable
operation are now in progress, the drainage is lamentably defec-
tive, there being very few farms which do not require it ; and it
is obvious that where the landowner does not give liberal assist-
ance, it is (with some rare exceptions) totally neglected. These
remarks do not apply so much to those lands which abound with
natural springs (and in which cases one drain, rightly placed, will
sometimes effectually answer for several acres), as to the clay and
meadow lands, on the latter of which so high a value is set.
Much of the clay-land is of so tenacious a quality that the only .
possibility of materially improving its value is by thorough-drain-
ing. Where land of this description has not been formed into
Jarge high butts, it appears to me, and it is also the opinion of
many practical men with whom I have conversed, that the butts
should be formed to the width of about 6 yards, with an elevation
of 1 in 12—3 inches to a yard—from the rein to the centre, and
drained down each rein: this exactness in making the butts may
not be so essential in arable land, but in pastures, where there
are large stocks of cattle, the soil in very wet weather (unless
there be a little descent for the water) would soon become
poached, and much damage would be done to the grass. On
some of the best clay-land, if it have a tolerable slope, I do not
consider thorough-draining necessary; particularly if it be kept
much in pasture, and the butts be well formed. An implement
is used in some parts of the county for the purpose of draining this
kind of land; and if taken along the reins once every winter,
when the land is in a moist state, it effectually answers the object
of its construction. It consists of a sharp-edged wheel, fixed in a

78 The Farming of Cheshire.

frame with a sliding box over it (as shown in drawing No. l,
p-110) ; and, instead of throwing out a furrow, as was formerly
the custom, it makes the drain by pressure sufficiently deep to
admit of a free course for the surface-water: this implement re-
quires four horses to work it; and it will water-furrow from 15 to
20 acres per day. On much of the pasture-land the butts are
too small and flat, some not more than 5 or 6 feet wide, the reins
only serving as reservoirs for supplying the rushes with water, in-
stead of acting as drains to the land. Large portions of the
natural meadow-land, consisting of many thousand acres, are de-
prived of half their value by an obstruction to their drainage,
occasioned by corn-mills backing up the water to a considerable ex-
tent in streams where there is very little fall ; and by the consequent
liability, ‘from the same cause, of having the hay swept away by
floods, or so injured as to render it unfit food for caitle. - This
evil therefore calls for serious .consideration in any inquiry con-
nected with the agricultural pursuits of a dairy district, where the
clay-land farmer is almost entirely dependent upon the produce
of his meadows as a winter supply of food for his milking stock,

The summer and autumnal floods, before the after-grass is eaten

off, occur at least once in three years, and are frequently attended
with almost ruinous consequences to the farmer; for, in addition
to the entire Joss of his hay occasionally, his cattle become dis-
eased, and not unfrequently die from eating flooded hay. On the
river Gowey there are no less than twelve mills on a distance of
about 15 miles; it is therefore obvious that the individual efforts
of the landowners, and the united exertions of the occupiers, will
avail but little in attempting to effect a complete state of drainage,
unless the proprietors of the farms collectively join in removing
these impediments, and converting the present water-mills into
steam-mills.

Effeciual draining being the greatest of all improvements, and
also an expensive operation, it is of importance that the work
should be well executed, in order to make it as permanent as pos-
sible; in addition to the drains being cut in the right direction,
and of proper depths, care should be taken to have the bottom of
the drains, where they are not ona solid bed of clay, marl, or
gravel, sufficiently firm to support the tiles, by a layer of soles of
the same material, slates, or split alder, and close enough to pre-
vent moles and vermin from getting into them; the tiles also
should be of a good material. In cutting drains for the purpose
of carrying off the surface-water only, the bottom is generally
found with a sufficient appearance of firmness to support the tiles,
particularly if the drains are formed in dry weather ; but it should
be borne in mind that by draming the water is drawn to those
parts where water had never reached before, and, by constant

— oe

The Farming of Cheshire. 79

moisture, a clayey substance will become too soft to support the
narrow edge of a tile for any length of time, where there is a pres-
sure of from two to three feet of soil upon it. I have lately seen
drains taken up as being perfectly useless; in some instances
owing to the tiles sinking—in others, to the tiles decaying (which
will be the case when not made of good material, and properly
burnt), and in others, to the moles and other vermin fillmg them
with soil.

There are many manufacturers of tiles in the county: there are
three on one estate in the Hundred of Broxton—the Tweedale
and several other works along the Ellesmere and Chester Canal—
and, in addition to many others which might be named, there is a
manufactory on Ridley Hall farm, in the Hundred of Eddisbury,
where the best I have seen were made. In the year 1829 I had
to send twenty miles for 1000 tiles for which I had occasion:
they were charged 45s. per 1000, and were so badly burnt that
one-third of them were broken in the carriage. Tiles of the same
size, and a good quality, are now selling at from 25s. to 30s. per
1000.

In one instance, which has come under my notice, half the
value of the tiles is charged by the landlord to the tenant: this
charge certainly gives the tenant a pecuniary interest in them;
but whether such a regulation will materially contribute to the
object in view, viz., a more extended and perfect state of drainage,
is very doubtful. On one estate in the Hundred of Broxton, the
agent (whose zeal for improvement is highly commendable) under
the direction of the noble proprietor, employs a number of drainers
regularly throughout the winter months, to perform the work for .
such of the tenants as may require it, charging them with about
two-thirds of the expense. This plan ensures a better system of
draining than if done by persons who have not had the advantage
of practice, and who, therefore, do not pessess much skill in this
most useful art. On this property there is a very ingenious, and,
I may add, humane contrivance, the invention of the gentleman
alluded to: it consists of a portable house, on low wheels, which
is removed, as occasion requires, from farm to farm, and from
field to field, for the purpose of affording shelter to the drainers
during rainy weather, comfort during meal-times, and a safe de-
posit for the tools, when the men are not at work. J have been
informed that, by this contrivance, the men are enabled to proceed
with their work during showery weather, with very little loss of
time; when otherwise they would frequently, on the first fall of
rain, proceed to a beer-shop, and lose the remainder of the day.

The following extracts from letters, with which I have been
favoured, will afford additional information upon this important
branch of agricultural operations :—

80 The Farming of Cheshire.
From the Hundred of Bucklow :—

«‘ Draining since 1808 has increased one hundredfold; and, instead of
using (as was the custom then, and till within the last few years) kids, sods,
stones, and red sandstone, the materials now worked up are blue or red
tiles, under which, unless the bottom of the drain be hard and likely to
stand good, soles of alder-wood or thin blue slates (which are most approved
of) are placed, one at each end of the tile. The drains.are cut from 8 to
10 yards apart, a little further or nearer, as the gouty nature of the land
may require.”

From the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“A good deal of draining has been done within the last few years; but
there is yet much more to be done. The work is much better executed
than formerly, and is chiefly laid with draining tiles upon slate.”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

‘“‘Rapid strides towards improvement in this branch of husbandry have
been made within the last six or eight years; but, from the tenure being
yearly, the credit or discredit (as the case may be) should rest entirely with
the landlord. Where estates are unincumbered, and the owner of the
estate has a wish to promote his own interest, as well as that of his tenant,
much good has been done by tile draining ; but very much yet remains to
be done, both upon arable and pasture lands. About one-thirtieth
part of the district has been drained within the last twenty years: this
seems a small proportion, but I believe it will be found nearly correct.”

From the Hundred of Nantwich :—

« A great improvement is yet to be made in this neighbourhood by pro-
per drainage. The tenantry are allowed a limited quantity of tiles yearly,
which they are expected to put down at their own expense ; but this they
gladly do, having discovered the benefits arising from this process.”

A correspondent in the Hundred of Broxton supplies the fol-
lowing particulars :—

“ Lord Westminster’s estates in this neighbourhood (except much of the -

townships of Aldford, and the two Churtons, and the meadows) consist very
generally of a clay-soil, varying in depth, quality, and tenacity, resting upon
a few inches of an unwholesome rammel, under which is a stiff marl sub-
soil. The discharge of superabundant surface-water is here the object of
draining. No springs or uprising waters are to be contended with, nor is
the soundness and regularity of the ground often interrupted by boggy
places or sand-pits. The bulk of the land has Jong lain in butts, or looms,
of a width from six to nine yards, perhaps averaging about seven: these
butts cannot be much altered in form or direction without injury to the
farmer. Most of the land is saturated with rain-water all winter, so much
so that in undrained fields a hole dug will usually fill within a few inches
of the surface, and so remain: and in a hot summer the ground will bake
to the hardness of an unburned brick. This is the character of the worst
parts (7.e. Belgrave and Pulford), but the description applies in a great de-
gree to most of the estates. Under these circumstances the system of
draining is simple, and almost uniform. A drain is laid down each rean, or
furrow, between the butts or looms, falling into a main, which crosses the
lower ends of the furrow-drains at right angles, running parallel with the
fence from which it is separated by the headland.

«One million tiles a year are now made and used on this property: that
number will Jay 190 miles of drain, and drain 500 acres.”

i,

The Farming of Cheshire. 81

Implements in Use.

In this county, where the arable land is limited in extent, the
variety of implements applied to agricultural operations is perhaps
not so great as in many other districts; within the last ten years,
however, some of a superior description have been introduced,
among which those particularly deserving of notice are the iron
ploughs, the subsoil-piough, the Uley-cultiv ator, Finlayson’s harrow,
the twin-harrow, various iron harrows, turnip scarifiers, corn- drills,
hay-making machines, a furrow-presser, and an improved instru-
ment for water-furrowing clay- -land pastures. ‘The iron ploughs,
which were scarcely known i in Cheshire ten years ago, are now in
general use in the best farmed districts. They principally consist
of those manufactured by Wilkie, West, Harks of Mere, and
Wood of Knutsford: the two former Scotch, the latter two Che-
shire. Wooden ploughs of an improved construction are also
employed on the southern and western sides of the county, each
district having its favourite. Ploughing with two horses abreast
is now almost invariably the practice, where the iron plough is
used ; except in very wet soils, and then three horses in length
are employed.

Among the scarifiers or cultivators now in use, in addition to
the old clumsy ones, which are almost entirely discarded, are the
Uley, Finlayson’s, and one of avery useful kind, which is made of
wrought iron, is most effective in its operations, and from its simple
construction not liable to get out of order: it requires four horses
to work it on light land, and five on the heavy soils. It may be
put to any depth required, and is regulated by chains attached to
a frame (as per Drawing No.2). This implement was originally
brought from the county of Stafford, but it has been much im-
proved by a common blacksmith in the Hundred of Eddisbury in
Cheshire.

The Uley cultivator has only been introduced very recently :
one gentleman in the Hundred of Broxton speaks highly of it,
and generally uses only two horses in working it.

Finlayson’s harrow, from some cause or another, is not in such
good repute as when first introduced.

It is too frequently the case, that when inventors have at much
pains brought an implement to something like perfection, and
have exhibited good specimens at an agricultural meeting, they
become careless about the manufacture of them; and with a view
of offering a cheap article to the public, and at the same time
securing a certain profit to themselves, they have a number made
by piece-work, which is often indifferently executed, and bad iron
or other material is used; but being neatly painted before sent
out, the defects are not discovered until put to its destined opera-

VOL. V. G

82 The Farming of Cheshire.

tions in the field, perhaps fifty miles from the place of manufac-
ture. It would be well if some means were devised for testing
implements before they are sent out, as such a practice would not
only be a check upon the men employed in their construction,
but the result would be more creditable to the manufacturer, and
certainly much more satisfactory to the purchaser.

Turnip scarifiers are much improved: those most in use are
made by Harks of Mere, and Wood of Knutsford, nearly all of
which are of wrought iron, and are worked by one horse to each,
except In extreme Cases, _

Extracts from letters relating to implements :—

From the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“Implements have been much improved within the last few years, and
several new ones have been intreduced, viz., Scotch iron ploughs, grubbers,
scarifiers, and harrows made on a better plan, by giving more room be-
tween the pins: with such implements as these the land may be much
more efficiently worked than with the old wooden ones; but yet some of
the farmers persevere in the use of the latter.”

From the Hundred of Macclesfield :— _
“ T have of late years tried the subsoil plough, and with good effect.”

From the Hundred of Bucklow :—

“Tron ploughs are coming very generally into use, from their superior
work. Ploughing abreast is getting into favour, because a driver is saved,
the horses travel better together, are nearer to their work, and perform it
more effectually. Horses only are used in drawing, no oxen.”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

“ Implements vary in almost every parish of this district. The plough
varies in size, shape, and make, just as the located wheelwright fancies he
pleases his customers by new shapes or sizes of implements. Little can be
said in praise of any I have seen, and little will be said till the ploughman
can do his day’s work without a driver.”

A second correspondent from the Hundred of Eddisbury says—

“Upon the clay-lands it formerly excited no surprise to see four horses
drawing a plough, and even now three are commonly used; but these
practices are giving way to the use of the plough drawn by two horses
abreast ; and, with a few necessary exceptions, I have no doubt that in a
few more years Cheshire will be entirely cultivated with the ‘two-horse
plough,’ which prejudice among the older farmers has hitherto, in many
cases, prevented. Probably to the limited state of drainage on the clay-
lands of this county, may be attributed in part the neglect of the ‘two-
horse plough ; for where the soil is so much saturated, it becomes so very
adhesive, that it is as Jaborious for three or more horses to draw a plough
on such land, as for two horses on the same soil when well drained.”

There are a few corn-drills in the county, but at present their
number is very limited: the Suffolk drill, with eight coulters, and
worked by two horses, is most in favour.

Several hay-making machines have of late been brought into
the Hundred of Eddisbury, They are worked with a single

The Farming of Cheshire. 83

horse, which is changed occasionally if the weather be hot: they
are much approved of, especially in thinly populated districts,
where hay-makers are scarce. The furrow-presser, although a
very useful implement when the furrows are not well closed, is
not in common use, and is perhaps not so much required since the
introduction of iron ploughs.

The implement for water-furrowing clay-land pasture is worked
by four horses, and is found useful where under-draining is not
required ; it makes an opening along the rein by pressure, suf-
ficiently deep to carry off the surface-water; and on land where
the butts are six yards wide the work performed will be little less
than twenty acres per day. Fixed thrashing machines (some of
them worked by steam) are pretty general among the principal
farmers; and the portable ones are in very extensive use: the
latter are let out on hire at 15s. per day. Knife and spike
rollers are also in common use, and continue in deservedly high
favour.

Horses and other Cattle employed in Husbandry.

Many of the best farmers adopted several years ago the system
of ploughing with two horses abreast, except on very wet soils;
and as the clay-land becomes drained the practice will no doubt
be extended; and nothing will tend more to promote such a
result than the annual ploughing matches in different parts of the
county, where competitors are not allowed to plough in any other
manner.

There are some farmers, in every district, whose prejudices are
so strong in favour of old customs, that the most decisive evidences
of improvement will never induce them to step out of the path
they have previously followed; and such will no doubt continue
to plough with three horses, and even four, in length, to the end
of their days. Oxen are not used in Cheshire as beasts of draught:
they were tried by some gentlemen a few years ago, but the
practice has been abandoned.

There are seldom fewer than five horses used in the subsoil-

_ plough, and four or five in the different kinds of cultivators: two
in the light harrows for ordinary purposes, and three in the larger ;
but when land is very rough, and requires what is termed the
“ox-harrow,” four or even five stout horses are employed. In
many of the fixed thrashing-machines four horses are used, but in
the portable ones, which are always in great request after harvest,
five or six are required: these machines, when the corn yields
well, will thrash 150 or 200 measures of wheat per day.

The horses in Cheshire are not so heavy as formerly, but are
considered more generally useful for farming purposes.

A correspondent from the Hundred of Macclesfield says—

G2

84 The Farming of Cheshire.

“That the number of horses kept by the farmers in that district is in
the proportion of three to eighty acres of land.”

In the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“It has been estimated that there is one horse kept for use in husbandry
to every thirty acres.”

A gentleman in the Hundred of Broxton has recently fitted up
an apparatus for steaming food for horses. He says—

“ The steam range cost 14/. 7s. 53d.; to this must be added the charges
for bricks and mortar, fixing the boiler, and the bricklayers’ time, which
_ will make the total expense about 15/7. 10s. I had great difficulty at first
in getting the men to use the steamed food. I steam both the cut hay and
straw and potatoes; 16]bs. of cut hay and straw, 8 Ibs. of steamed potatoes,
7 Ibs. of crushed oats, and a few white Belgian carrots, making about 30 Ibs.
of food, are divided into three servings, which are the allowance for each
horse for 24 hours. My horses never Jooked better.”

Tenures of Farms.

With very few exceptions the farms in Cheshire are let from
year to year, terminable, as to the land, on February 2, and as to
the house, buildings, garden, and an outlet for the cattle (which is
generally contiguous to, or most convenient for, the buildings), on
May 1. Where leases are granted they are seldom for longer
terms than 7, 11, or 14 years; some at a fixed rent, others regu-
lated by the price of grain, at what is called a corn-rent, and
others by that of wheat and cheese. However desirable it may be
to secure to the landowner a fair annual rent for his estate, and its
surrender to him in as good condition at the expiration of the
occupancy as at its commencement, it is equally desirable that a
tenant, who possesses skill, industry, principle, and capital, should
have secured to him, as far as the nature of the case will admit, a
fair return for the labour and money employed ; and, to ensure
these results to both parties, probably a lease of 14 or 21 years,
on equitable terms, and with proper restrictions, the amount of
rental to fluctuate according to the prices of agricultural produce,
would be most likely to answer the purpose. But here a question
arises, would the average price of grain, or of cheese, or of both,
extending over a given period, be a sufficient guide to regulate the
rent of a dairy farm? It is the opinion of some intelligent men
that, as the article of cheese varies so much in quality, and conse-
quently in price, and as there are no means of obtaining a fair
return of the averages, it could not be satisfactorily taken into the
account; but as there are no similar difficulties with regard to
grain, wheat may be safely taken as a guide even on a dairy farm,
if the estimates be not calculated from too long a period, as it
seldom happens that any description of farm produce continues
high for any length of time, while other produce is low, and vice
versa; although it is very possible that, from some particular

The Farming of Cheshire. 85

influence of season, or other causes, cheese may be high in price
when wheat is low; or the latter may be high when the former is
low; but this disparity will in all probability continue but for a
short time, as I find, by reference to the prices for the last 12 or
14 years, they have nearly kept pace with each other.

The usual time for giving up possession of arable lands (Feb-
ruary 2) is frequently attended with great inconvenience to the
in-coming tenant, and is of little or no advantage to the out-going
one. It has therefore occurred to myself, and my opinion is con-
firmed by the judgment of many practical men, that the Ist of
November would be the proper period for giving up clover roots
(where the retiring tenant is allowed the cost of the seed) and all
tillage-land, except that sown, or intended to be sown, with wheat ;
and some consider that March 25th would be a more convenient
time for quitting houses and buildings than May; but, having
given the matter a careful examination, I feel convinced that the
advantage to be gained by taking possession of the house, build-
ings, &c., at that early period, would be more than counter-
balanced by the inconvenience to which the farmer would occa-
sionally be put, by removing his stock to a farm where but little
fodder had been provided, and without any prospect of being
enabled to turn his cows to grass till after a lapse of five or six
weeks, and having left at the same time on the farm he has given
up an ample supply of provision, which, according to agreement,
must be consumed on the premises; one-half or two-thirds of its
value only being allowed by his successor.

Upon this part of the subject I quote the following statements
— opinions, with which I have been favoured by my correspon-

ents :-—

From the Hundred of Eddisbury :—

“The tenures on which farms are held in this neighbourhood are those
of yearly occupation, but I am of opinion that leases would be better for the
farmer, whether at a fixed sum, or regulated by a corn-rent: the latter I
should prefer, as the fairest arrangement between landlord and tenant.”

From the Hundred of Macclesfield :—

“We have very few leases or agreements for terms of years in this dis-
trict; but many of the farmers have lived Jong upon their farms, having
succeeded their fathers in the same occupancy. I think, however, it would
be better if we had leases. ”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

“Yearly tenancies are most prevalent here. There are some instances
of leases for 7, 14, and even 21 years, and, where these have been granted,
the tenants certainly appear more industrious and improving, and landlords
more generous and ss. The good feeling, which is said to exist between
—— and yearly tenants, has been strengthened by the granting of
eases.”

86 The Farming of Cheshire.
From the Hundred of Nantwich :—

“The present time of entering upon a farm is very inconvenient, . and
attended with much loss to the in-coming tenant. Possession of the land
should be had on November 1, and of the homestead, &c., on March 25,
a fair allowance being made for fodder left unconsumed on the premises,
and for any improvements which the retiring tenant has made, and of
ee he has not reaped the benefit, some return should be given by the

andlord.” 4

Another correspondent from the Hundred of Nantwich says—

“ The property for which I have the honour to be concerned is princi-
pally held under agreements from year to year, although there are several
instances where leases have recently been granted for fourteen, seventeen,
and even twenty-one years. The conditions of our agreements, which, I
believe, generally speaking, are similar to most others in this division of
the county, run as follows, viz. :—

** Tenancy commences at Christmas as to the mowing lands; on the 2nd
of February as to all the other lands, except the boosey pasture; and on
the Ist of May as to the homestead and boosey pasture: timber, mines, and
game reserved. Tenants to keep premises in repair, except in cases of
fire or tempest: landlords finding timber in the rough, bricks, lime, and
slates, and first putting the premises into repair. The fodder to be con-
sumed upon the premises, or the money to arise from the sale thereof to
be expended in bones or other manure to be applied upon the farm. The
permanent mowing and pasture Jands, which have been boned by the land-
lord, are reserved from tillage. One-fourth is allowed for tillage, including
fallows ; and the tenant is not allowed to take more than two white straw
crops in succession, without either a green crop or summer fallow, and to
lay down with a certain quantity of artificial and other grasses; together
with a variety of minor stipulations, which of course vary according to cir-
cumstances. A difference of opinion exists as to the desirableness or
otherwise of granting leases, and a good deal may be said both for and
against the practice of doing so. I by no means think that it is politic for
any gentleman to make a practice of granting leases indiscriminately to
all his tenants, because it must be admitted that it is not safe or prudent,
on many accounts, to part with the control over his property, and to com-
mit the charge of it so completely to the care and mercy of every man for
a term of years; but at the same time, when a gentleman has a tenant
possessed of capital, enterprise, skill, and principle (for I think the latter
qualification quite as necessary as any of the former), and that tenant
comes forward with a spirited proposition to improve the property, I think
there can be but one opinion that it is for the interest of both landlord and
tenant to have a lease; but whether a lease be granted or not, I am per-
fectly convinced that nothing tends so much to promote the success of
agriculture, and the general good of the neighbourhood, as the best pos-
sible understanding between landlord and tenant, and a perfect confidence
in each other. There are, I think, few connexions of a more important
and interesting character than that of landlord and tenant. The Jand-
lord commits his fee-simple and inheritance into the hands of his tenant,
which, to a certain extent, is at his merey, and may be either materially
improved or injured (in spite of any written document) by his treatment of
it. Onthe other hand, the tenant is indebted to his Jandlord, to a certain
extent, for many of the comforts he enjoys ; and so dependent are they ee
each other, and so reciprocal are their obligations, that if I were asked
whether a tenant was most indebted to a good landlord, or a Jandlord to a
good tenant, I should be puzzled to give an answer. At all events, this

The Farming of Cheshire. 87

connexion is of so delicate a character, and the harmony of it so essential
to the prosperity and happiness of both, that it ought on no slight grounds
to be disturbed.”

Rate of Wages.

The rate of wages varies in different districts. On the north,
north-eastern, and north-western sides of the county, especially in
the vicinity of manufacturing or large towns, wages are nearly
20 per cent. higher than in many parts of the interior, or in the
south, south-western, and south-eastern districts. In the former,
there is a greater demand for labour, while cottage-rents and pro-
visions are higher than in the latter: a better rate of wages is
therefore required. The average amount, in the former case, will
be about 12s. per week; and in the latter about 10s., including
harvest-work. A reduction has lately been made in some in-
stances, during the winter quarters, from Qs. to 8s., but this is not
general. Many of the labourers in the latter mentioned districts
have peculiar advantages. ‘The rent they pay for a comfortable
cottage and garden is about 50s. per annum—seldom more than 3/.
They have also an acre or two of land at a moderate rent, and are
thereby enabled to keep a cow; and they have very frequently the
privilege of cultivating potatoes on the farm where they are em-
ployed—the farmer manuring the soil, and doing all the necessary
team-work, including the cartage of the potatoes to the cottages
of the labourers, who on their part find the sets, hand-hoe and
dig up the crops, and leave one-half of the produce in lieu of
rent, &c.

There has been little, if any, reduction in the wages of servants
hired for the year.

The wages of head-waggoners range from 10 to 12 guineas per ann.

- under-waggoners = 8); -9 P|

» boys at) ” 3 5 4 »

oa dairy-maids . Bp 12 ,, 20 (according to
circumstances).

“4 under female servants ,, Gyr %

A correspondent in the Hundred of Eddisbury says—

“ Wages for labour vary according to the localities. In the immediate
vicinity of large towns, and not unusually in the neighbourhood of smaller
ones, wages are higher than in the more rural districts ; and this disparity
is very obvious in the summer months, even at times of commercial de-
arn I have observed that for 15 miles round Malpas (say 5 on the

hester side), the rate of wages is lower by at least 6d. per day than within
the same distance of Northwich, and other towns on the north side of the
county. These remarks refer to married labourers ; but the same observa-
tions will apply to farmers’ servants, male and female. Of the latter, in
many parts of the county, there is a great scarcity, partly through the
facility of obtaining situations in towns, and partly owing to additional
numbers being required in consequence of improvements on the farms;
for where a reasonably liberal encouragement has been given to tenants

88 The Farming of Cheshire.

by extensive landowners, immense sums have been expended in bone-
manuring and draining, principally on permanent pastures, whereby, in
many instances, the dairy stock has been doubled in numbers, and conse-
quently more female servants are needed. For the three years preceding
June, 1842, as much as 1000/. per annum was expended in these improve-
ments by tenants here.”

Having now treated of the different heads of inquiry specifically
noted in the Society’s proposal for this Essay, I may here observe
that, with reference to the question as to what improvements and
alterations have been introduced since 1808 (the date of Dr.
Holland’s publication), those which appear to call for more par-
ticular notice have either been mentioned in the foregoing re-
- marks, or will be described under the separate divisions of the
subject upon which I think it desirable to supply some informa-
tion in the following pages :—

Cheese.

Cheshire being a cheese district, some account of the process
of making this staple article of agricultural produce may reason-
ably be expected; but the method generally adopted being the
same as that pursued at the time of Dr. Holland’s publication,
and of which he gives so full an account, any statement of mine
would only be a repetition of his narrative. I shall therefore
merely mention a few improvements which have been introduced
in the machinery and offices of the dairy. The first process of
breaking down the curd in the cheese-tub is now generally per-
formed by a breaker or curd-cutter (see drawing No. 3, p. 111), the
dairy-maid alone walking round the tub, and pressing the breaker
slowly through the curd at first, and more rapidly as she proceeds
with her work, until it is reduced to small particles, when it sinks
to the bottom of the tub. This practice supersedes the old mode
of three women kneeling around the tub, and breaking the curd
with their fingers. The next improvement is the curd-mill (as
per drawing No. 3), which is for the purpose of breaking the
curd after being drained from the whey in the cheese-vat, before
finally putting it under the press, instead of the old tedious plan
of again breaking it with the hands. The greatest improvement,
however, yet effected, is by the introduction of a lever-press (as
per drawing No. 3), which is self-acting, and may be used during
the process of making. This invention renders unnecessary the
previous custom of kneeling upon and pressing the cheese with a
board, or two or three persons thrusting it with their hands, or
pressing it for a time, before placing it under the heavy stone
press. The great advantage of this machine consists in its being
regulated by a small weight on the beam, by which the pressure
upon the cheese can be increased or diminished at pleasure. It is
also portable ; and as warmth is very essential during the time of

The Farming of Cheshire. 89

pressing, especially in cold weather, it can be conveniently re-
moved to any warm situation. Artificial heat is now introduced
into many cheese-rooms, either by means of hot-air stoves or steam
conveyed in cast-iron pipes through the rooms, for the purpose
of forwarding the ripening of the cheese. By these means, large
dairies, which formerly were scarcely ever marketable before
April or May, are now sold as early as October or November.

Manures.

In addition to the old-fashioned manure from the farm-yard,
marl, lime, and bones—all alluded to by Dr. Holland, though
the latter at that time were in very limited use—the most im-
portant kinds which have of late years been tried in this county,
are guano and nitrate of soda.

The manure from the farm-yard, if well prepared by occa-
sional turnings, and if, when carted out into the fields, previously
to its being applied to the land, it be properly thrown into heaps,
and covered with soil to keep in the ammonia—is considered the
best for general purposes; but for pasture-land alone, especially
the poorer kind, there is nothing to equal in efficacy “ bone
manure,” either as regards the permanency of its effects or the
production of a sweet luxurious herbage, of which all cattle are
fond. Many thousand acres of the poor clay-soils have been
covered with this manure during the last eight or ten years, and
the results have been truly astonishing. There are two descrip-
tions of bones which are used—the boiled and unboiled. The
former sort undergoes a process of boiling for three or four days,
by which the grease and nearly all the glutinous matter are ex-
tracted. ‘This kind of manure is preferred by many, being much
quicker in its operations when applied either to pasture-land or
turnips; and nothing has yet been advanced to prove that the
durability of its effects is not as lasting as those of the unboiled
bones. The average quantity applied is about a ton and a half
peracre. The unboiled bones, by means of improved machinery,
are reduced to a much smaller size than they formerly were, and
from this cause are undoubtedly more speedy in their effects.
The manure thus prepared is also in high favour; but as bones
in this state contain a portion of animal matter, valuable for manu-
facturing purposes, though not very essential as a manure, they
are invariably sold at about 50 per cent. more than those which
are boiled; and it has not been demonstrated that they possess
any properties which are more permanent or more fertilizing than
the cheaper kind. When bones are applied to pasture-land they
are generally paid for by the landowner, the tenant being re-
stricted from breaking up the lands which are thus improved, and
charged from 7 to 8 per cent. upon the outlay.

90 The Farming of Cheshire.

It may perhaps not be amiss to remark here, that on many
farms much of the essence of the manure (farm-yard dung) is
allowed to escape, owing to the want of proper tanks for receiving
it. Of late years, premiums have been offered by several agri-
cultural societies for the construction of such tanks ; and many of
the more spirited farmers are beginning to turn their attention to

this branch of husbandry.
Marl.

Marling, which was thought indispensable till within the few
last years, especially upon the light soils, is now rarely practised.
Till very lately the shouts of the marlers were to be heard on fine
summer evenings in almost every direction, but now their whoops
are seldom raised. It may be said that the reason there is so
little marling now is because the greater part of the land has been
already subjected to that operation. This remark, to a certain
extent, may be true; but from what I have heard and seen, I
believe the fact to be that farmers do not like to incur the expense
of the process, as light Jand, particularly for corn, would no doubt
now be materially improved by it. Marl, like other substances,
loses its effect in time, probably not so much from exhaustion of
its nutritive powers as from its heayiness—sinking as it does, in
the course of a few years, below the reach of a common plough.
In dividing a strong sandy loam field, which had been marled
fifty or sixty years ago, I found, when cutting a ditch for the pur-
pose of making a fence, a regular stratum or bed of marl entirely
across the field, at the depth of 13 inches; and there was no ap-
pearance of marl in the soil above. How far this marl may again
be made available, by the use of the subsoil plough, I cannot pre-
tend to determine; but I purpose giving the experiment a trial,
of which I consider it worthy, and from which I anticipate bene-
ficial results.

Lime.

Lime is used to a considerable extent in many parts of the
county, particularly in the Hundreds of Broxton, Wirral, parts of
Eddisbury, Nantwich, &c. It is generally applied to fallows for
the wheat-crop, at the rate of 4 tons per acre, either in its natural
state or in compost; sometimes to grass-land, previously to break-
ing up for oats; and occasionally to Jand intended for turnips.
I have seen a mixture of lime and salt applied to turnip-land, but
the result was not satisfactory. Last year (1843) 1 saved my
clover from destruction by the slug or small snail, on land bearing
a wheat-crop, by a slight dressing of powdered lime, scattered
through a clover-seed machine late in the evening, when the
insects were busy at work. Lime would be found exceedingly
useful, if frequently applied in this manner.

The Farming of Cheshire. 91

Guano.

Many experiments have been tried in Cheshire with this won-
derful manure ; but from my own observations, and the informa-
tion which I have obtained from others who have used it, I am
induced to believe that it is very uncertain in its effects, especially
in dry seasons. ;

One of the tenants of Mr. Wilbraham, of Delamere House, has applied
it to a weak sandy soil for common turnips with good effect. A gentle-
man in the Hundred of Wirral has tried it on pasture with extraordinary
results ; the herbage was most luxuriant and palatable to the cattle, and
he affirms that the cheese made from them while grazing on the land to
which the guano had been applied, was much superior to that made from
the cows when feeding on the ordinary pastures, and realized 5s. or 6s.
per ewt. more when sold. I tried guano myself in 1842 for my turnip
crops, on a cool (or damp) peaty soil, at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, with
an equal quantity of ashes from coal and wood ; the tield having been pre-
viously drained and limed at the rate of 4 tons per acre; and although the
weather throughout the summer was exceedingly dry, I had a luxuriant
crop of white globe turnips, the tops being more than 3 feet high; but
on the crop being taken up, the bulbs proved light ; this might in some
measure be owing to the rapidity with which they grew in the tops after
the first hoeing, and not receiving their second hoeing in time; on a butt
where the guano was not applied, the turnips were very inferior. On an-
other field of six acres, one half a sandy loam on a porous subsoil, the
other on a marly subsoil (the latter having been drained to the depth of
2 feet by parallel drains 8 yards apart) and the whole sub-soiled to the
depth of 14 inches, I sowed Swedish turnips in drills 27 inches apart;
manured with farm-yard dung at the rate of 15 tons per acre—part in a
rotten state, having been drawn to the field early in the spring, and turned
twice in the heap, the other in a high state of fermentation.

I commenced sowing (the seed-drill following the plough as closely as
possible) the last week in May, and finished about the Ist of June, depo-
siting at the same time, although not immediately in contact with the seed,
1 ewt. of guano, and an equal quantity of ashes (2 cwt. in the whole per
acre); in a few drills gypsum was deposited by the same machine, instead
of, and in the same ratio as the guano; and in two drills, exactly similar,
the same mixture of guano was applied without any other manure, at the
rate of 6 ewt., 3 of guano and 3 of ashes. The seed sown on the last-
mentioned drills was four or five days later in making its appearance than
on any of the former; my object in sowing with guano was principally to
force the young plants out of the way of the fly, at the same time saving
a portion of my farm-yard manure; in the first-place it certainly had the
desired effect, for I never saw turnips grow more rapidly ; and those sown
first on the part where the rotten manure was applied were a good crop ;
but all the other part was a light crop, and especially the two drills where

‘guano was applied alone; they were certainly not more than two-thirds of
the weight of the latter, which did not average more than 22 tons per acre.
The season was remarkably dry, and the whole crop much mildewed ;
nearly one-third of the turnips were hollow and full of juice like cocoa
nuts.

Nitrate of soda was tried in the parish where I reside, in 1840,
on grass-land, and with apparently good effect, the grass soon
becoming of a dark green colour, and increasing rapidly in quan-

92 The Farming of Cheshire.

tity; but I have not heard of its application since that period.
One extensive farmer in the Hundred of Nantwich applied it in
the same year to a wheat-crop; and he stated at an agricultural
meeting, that it had been a loss of 50/. to him, in consequence of
forcing his crop too much into straw.

Upon the subject of artificial manures an intelligent corre-
spondent from the Hundred of Eddisbury thus writes :—

“In the winter of 1836, I Jaid upon a field of eleven acres 1 ton of
boiled bones, crushed small, to the statute acre; the field had not been
ploughed for a great many years, and produced a coarse bad grass, which
I could only get eaten down during the winter or spring. In 18371 mowed
the field, and had a very good crop with much red and white clover. But
in 1838, I had a most extraordinary crop, and perhaps the most extra-
ordinary thing was, that it was an entire mass of wild red clover, I never
saw a field of common clover a fuller crop. I continued to mow it for
three years longer and had fair crops, but not very heavy ones. I may
add, that the field was not then drained, which has been done since.

“Guano I have used for turnips at the rate of 2 cwt., and half a ton of
bones to the acre, and I should have had a capital crop of Swedes had not
the first sowing been killed, soon after they came up, by the drills having
been too much crushed down by the drill in putting in the bones, &c.
But I soiled the drills up again, and sowed again, and the last sown did
not grow to a great size in consequence of the late sowing, June 20th: the
growth was so rapid, that in six weeks the leaves met across the intervals
of the drills, and what turnips remained of the first sowing were 12 and
14 Ibs., and the whole a very fair average crop; this was on stiff clay land,
in 1842. I intend following the same plan; as last year the wetness of the
season prevented my getting my land in order. If Swedes are not sown
upon my Jand in May they never get to a good size. The very great ad-
vantage of using on my land manures so easy of removal, enables me to
take advantage of weather, which the long time required for carting ma-
nure from the yard often precludes one from doing. I last year put 2 ewt.
of guano per acre on my oats, and had a very fine crop, on one field 94
acres 260 threaves, and one field of 7 acres, and a poor field, and one part
thin in soil on a steep slope 148 threaves. In 1840 I put nitrate of soda
on a field of wheat, at the rate of 200 cwt. to the acre ; on 300 square yards
I put none, and the difference the whole time it was green was clearly
seen at a great distance. I had this cut and thrashed separate, and 300
yards adjoining on the same butts separate; that with nitrate produced
35 sheaves, and 125 Jbs. of wheat: without, 20 sheaves, 86 Ibs. of wheat ;

The first at the rate of 27 bushels of 75 lbs. to an acre ;
The second Jy 18 bushels and 26 lbs. to an acre.

The whole crop was very indifferent and thin (before applying the nitrate)
and a poor field, and I consider the crop was throughout as good as the
300 yards I cut against that on which I had used no nitrate. I have also
used it on grass lands without any experiments of comparison, but the crop
was good; without any precise data to go upon, I think it leaves the land
poorer a second year, nor does it improve the after-grass. After all, for
our clay land, bone at the present price of 4/. 10s. per ton is the cheapest
and best manure, and will pay well at that price: I hope I have met your
wishes, and shall at all times be very glad to communicate any of my ex-
perenne of farming on as stiff a clay as any in Cheshire; in the year 1840

grew as fine a crop of Swedes as is often seen in a field, in ploughing of
which it was so thin of good soil, that we brought up such as farmers are

The Farming of Cheshire. 93

seldom willing to turn up; the field was well drained down the furrows,
and the drills drawn diagonally across the butts—and the crop yielded 10
ewt. of 6 score to the rood of 8 yards—which was tried in several parts of
the field, and they form by no means the heaviest part of the crop ; I had 8
acres: I only name this to show what may be done on Cheshire clays, the
real nature of which is little known by writers on agriculture in general,
and particularly by those who recommend very deep draining, and laying
the clay in over the tiles—as when I had only laid rammel on, I have in
every case been obliged to remove it to render the drains effective, and
even upon ploughed ground, the water will remain at the bottom of a slope
some time before it sinks in, much to the injury of the crop.”

Another correspondent in the Hundred of Eddisbury thus

speaks of the efficacy of salt as a manure :—

“ A neighbour of mine had a quantity of soil which came out of a ditch,
and was full of docks which are completely destroyed by the application of
salt ; he put 40 ewt. to the soil, and mixed together six months previously
to being spread upon the grass; this preparation he put Jast January upon
three statute acres of land, which were covered with a very useless kind of
grass, that cattle would not eat ; but a good herbage is now produced, and
the land thus dressed looks by far the best part of the field. Ten ewt. of
salt is sufficient for an acre of grass land. Salt sown on turnip land and
land for wheat previously to sowing, is an excellent manure; lime on light
soil 1 ewt. per rood for potatoes, &c., is also very useful, and will bring
white clover where none grew before. I have used salt and lime in like
manner, upon a piece of ground which I suppose had not been cultivated
for a century (if ever), and it is now as good as any part of the field.”

From a correspondent in the Hundred of Northwich :—

“Tf a few handfuls of salt be strewn over the horse manure, immediately
on its being taken out of the stable, the ammonia contained in the urine,
dung, &c., which is the most powerful part of the manure, having a great
affinity for salt, is retained by its application on the surface, and it would
otherwise be evaporated. Rock salt is coming into more general use for
cattle and sheep; if placed in the field or straw-yard, in large lumps, it
has a tendency to keep them healthy. There is a description of salt called *
Salt scale, which contains about a twentieth proportion of lime, and I
think would be more powerful on that account, in retaining the ammonia,
if strewn on the top of fresh manure.”

From the Hundred of Wirral :—

“No improvements have been made in this district since 1808, except
tile draining, to the extent before mentioned. Bone dusting, marling, and
manuring, were quite as well understood in 1808 as they seem to be here
in 1844; and their increased application, and even draining, have only
been practised in instances, where tenants and landlords have both been
well satisfied that mutual advantages would arise from such improve-
ments.”

A land agent on the eastern side of the county thus writes :—

“This estate is capable of very great improvement, and would well repay
an extensive judicious outlay, particularly for draining; there being
scarcely a field on the estate which does not more or less require draining.
Bone manure, on strong clay land, has a wonderful effect; this is well
known to most Cheshire farmers, but the cost is too great for a tenant at
will ; it is the practice for the landlord to pay for the bones, and the tenant
to cart and spread them, the landlord being paid by the tenant from 74 to

94 - The Farming of Cheshire.

8 per cent. on his outlay. Bone manure, when paid for by the landlord,
is always applied to pasture land, which is not allowed to be broken up,
and its effects are very durable, I may say permanent. The land will sup-
port an extra number of stock, and the increased quantity of manure thus
made upon the farm, compensates for any diminution which time may
make in the effects of the ‘bone dusting.’ A considerable income might
be realized from an estate like this, by the difference between common
interest, and that which a tenant would gladly pay for such improve-
ment.”

From a correspondent in the Hundred of Nantwich :—

“Itis, I believe, the opinion of some very experienced agriculturists (un-
acquainted of course with the clay soils of this county), that bone manure
_ can only be applied with advantage for arable purposes, and that to put it
upon permanent pasture Jand is a misapplication of this most valuable
manure, but the most casual observer who has witnessed the wonderful
effect produced by it upon the pastures of this county, must be amused at
the absurdity, and feel surprised that such an opinion could ever have
been entertained. Although unquestionably bones may, and are to a great
extent very advantageously used for green crops, and other arable pur-
poses on light soils, yet I contend there is no comparison in the return
either to the landowner or occupier between bones applied for arable pur-
poses and those applied to the permanent pasture lands. I have known
many instances where the annual value of our poorest clay lands has been
increased by an outlay of from 7/. to 8/. a statute acre, to the extent of
at least 300 per cent., or in other words, that the land has been much
cheaper after this outlay at 3Us. per acre than it was in its original or
native state at 10s., thereby leaving a return of more than 15 per cent.
upon the amount expended, besides the satisfaction of seeing a miserable
covering of pink grass, rushes, hen-gorse, and a variety of other noxious
weeds (which are generally the offspring of poverty), exchanged for the
most luxuriant herbage of wild clover, trefoil, and other succulent and nu-
tritious grasses. The permanency of this manure depends in some measure
upon the nature and situation of the land ; but I believe it is admitted on
all hands that it will under any circumstances continue long enough to
render ample compensation for the outlay, and although in some instances
a considerable portion of the clover and trefoil may disappear after the
first eight or ten years, yet an excellent herbage of permanent grasses re-
mains very superior to what the land originally produced ; and in my opi-
nion clay Jand once well boned will never again produce a bad herbage if
kept in pasture. I know some instances where lands which have been
boned upwards of fifteen years, still retain a very considerable portion of
both clover and trefoil, and I have very little doubt but this will be found
to be the case in many instances when sufficient time has elapsed to test
it. There are different opinions as to whether the boiled or unboiled
bones are the most profitable, some contending that the raw or unboiled
bones are the most permanent; others, that the boiled ones have the ad-
vantage, inasmuch as they come sooner into operation, and are Jower in
price. My opinion is, that provided the bones could be obtained as they
come from the butcher, or from the carease without the principal bones
being taken out (as they generally are) for boiling purposes, they would
be preferable to the unboiled ones, inasmuch as they would, by containin
more animal matter spread over more land, be longer in decomposing, an
consequently more permanent in their effect; but as it is notorious that
the best bones are now taken out for boiling purposes, we only get the re-
fuse, and it is very questionable whether the boiled bones, even after the
gelatine is extracted (which by the bye some contend forms no part of

The Farming of Cheshire. 95

their essential quality as manure, and is quite as well dispensed with), are
not as good for the purpose of manure as the unboiled ones; at all events,
taking into account that 2 tons of the boiled bones can be had for the
same sum as 11 ton of unboiled ones, I should prefer the former. —

“The price of good raw bones now is about 5/. per ton, and boiled ones
about 3/. 10s. to 3/. 15s.: the quantity when land is poor, I generally re-
commend, is of the boiled bones from 30 ewt. to 2 tons to the statute acre
according to circumstances; but where the Jand is very thin of soil and
much exhausted with the plough, I always recommend 2 tons, and nothing
less is in my opinion an effectual dressing ; but where the land is tolerably
good, and the principal object is to sweeten the herbage, I think from
15 ewt. to a ton to the acre is sufficient, and I know an instance where
even 8 ewt. to the acre produced surprising effects in improving the herb-
age. Although I am a great advocate for draining, and am ready to admit
that, generally speaking, it is the foundation of most other improvements ;
yet 1 think zt may be carried too far where bones are used upon permanent
pastures or mowing, for I have invariably found them to answer best
where the land is cool, and even moisture appears to be favourable to their
operation, and I believe it is universally allowed that boned lands suffer
much by a dry summer; I would therefore only lay the land sufficiently
dry to carry stock, and to take away rushes and other aquatics where
they exist to the detriment of the proper herbage. Before bones came
into use in this county, the farmers made a point of selecting a hardy and
inferior description of stock for their clay lands, farmers finding that large
well-bred cows did not at all answer upon them; but now they find that
the best of stock find ample support, not only to supply the cheese-tub
freely, but also to do justice to their lineage by retaining, if not improving,
their size and symmetry, so that the farmer has not only the advantage of
making considerably more cheese, but also of making more money by his
turn of stock. I think bones might be very extensively used, and with
great advantage, upon clover roots. The usual practice when a piece of
clay land has been tilled to a stand-still, and will answer no longer to the
whip, is to clover it down, when nature makes, as it were, a last expiring
effort by yielding a crop of clover, or clover and rye-grass, or whatever
artificial grasses happen to be sown, which crop is then generally mown .
off, and this gives the finishing stroke to the miserable existence of the’
poor field; it then becomes a dead letter for many years to come, an en-
cumbrance to the tenant, an eyesore to the Jandlord, a subject of remark
to the railway traveller, and thereby a disgrace to the county: but if a
tolerable covering of bones, say from 20 to 25 ewt. to the acre, according
to circumstances, were applied upon the clover, it would not only produce
a good crop of artificial grasses, but it would also assist nature in clothing
herself speedily with a fine herbage of those natural grasses peculiar to

‘the soil, which only require the friendly aid of some good fertilizer to
bring them into existence ; and if this plan were pursued, instead of the
land lying, as it generally does, for many years, after the artificial grasses
have disappeared, in a totally unproductive state, it would form a good
turf of natural grasses immediately to succeed the artificial ones, and pre-
sent a cheerful countenance as well as a profitable return to the farmer,
without any check or cessation whatever after the arduous labours of the
severe tillage. I think bones might also be most beneficially applied
upon permanent mowing ground (of course I am speaking all the while of
clay soils), in which case the farm-yard manure might be taken for the
tillage lands ; and if those were effectually and thoroughly drained, summer
fallows might be dispensed with, and some good winter and spring feed
oa for the stock in the way of green crops, a luxury with which I
ear most of our dairy stocks are as seldom indulged in as the good people

96 The Farming of Cheshire.

of China are with eating our far-famed Cheshire cheese, both of which en-
joyments I hope will become universal ere long. I would in the first. in-
stance put upon the lands I intend for my permanent mowing about 30
ewt. to the acre, if old mowing land, or 2 tons if pasture land ; and after
mowing it for four or five years, if I found the grass begin to get shorter, I
would repeat the dose by adding another ton to the acre, and so on every
four or five years, by which means the hay crop would no doubt become
not only very abundant, but of very superior quality, and the value of the
green crops alone would, I contend, more than provide for this outlay ; in
addition to which the farmer would get a double crop of corn and straw
from the tillage land, and always have it in a condition to produce him a
good crop of any thing he chose to ask it. I know of an instance where
bones were put upon the wheat root of a very hard tilled field of poor clay
land after the rate of only 15 cwt. to the acre, and the result was that it
considerably improved the crop of wheat, as well as the clover which fol-
lowed it, and tended materially to produce a better sort of natural grasses
afterwards, than would have otherwise appeared; the field has never had
any kind of manure since, and has been in pasture now eight years, and
produces twice the quantity of herbage, and that of a very superior qua-
lity to any of the adjoining fields, which have rested much longer, and
consequently ought to be in better turf. I have paid nearly 10,000/. for
this manure, and therefore must naturally feel no little interest in the
subject, and I have much satisfaction in saying that the result has in every
instance been most satisfactory both to my employers, myself, and the
tenants.

“ T have known many a poor honest, but half broken-hearted man, raised from
poverty to comparative independence, and many a sinking family saved from
inevitable ruin by the help of this wonderful manure. Unquestionably, bones
act in a very peculiar manner upon our Cheshire clay soils, when applied
to the grass lands, which no doubt arises from the circumstance of our soil
containing either less of that matter which counteracts their effects, or
possessing in an extraordinary degree those qualities which are favourable,
if not essential to their operation. When the landlord purchases the
bones, I think he ought to receive 73 per cent. upon his outlay, which I
consider would amply remunerate him for both principal and interest, and
answer the purpose of the tenant exceedingly well; but of course in this
case it is only fair that a proper agreement should be (and, I presume, ge-
nerally is) entered into, reserving the boned Jand both from the seythe and
plough; but when bone manure is applied for permanent mowing, clover
or arable purposes, it should of course be at the tenant’s expense, and I
much question if it is not for his interest, where he possesses sufficient
capital and can get a lease, to do it himself in preference to paying the
interest even in the former case.”

Cottage Allotments for Spade Husbandry.

The following communication is from the gentleman whose
opinions on bone-manure are last quoted :—“I know of nothing
better calculated to benefit our peasantry than allotting to each
labourer a certain portion of land for spade husbandry, at a
reasonable price. Some laudable examples have been set by
excellent individuals in different parts of the kingdom, which are
now beginning, I hope, to be pretty generally followed; but it
has often been a matter of surprise to me, that a plan, so well caleu-
lated to ameliorate the condition of our poor fellow-creatures—so

The Farming of Cheshire. 97

very satisfactory in its results, and those results being attainable
without any pecuniary sacrifice, and I believe entirely free from
any objection whatever—should not at once have received the most
cordial and universal support of every well-wisher of the commu-
nity. I haye made upwards of a hundred of these allotments,
varying from a quarter of a statute acre to an acre; but I gene-
rally confined them to quarter and half acres, aecording to the
capability of the cottager and the size of his family, charging them
the same rent as a farmer would be able to pay, and it is quite
surprising to see the quantity of produce that is raised from this
small quantity of land; and in order to show what may be done
by spade husbandry I will mention some facts which have come
under my own observation. About three years ago I selected two
pieces of land, together about 30 statute acres, from a farm of
Lord Crewe’s, which land had been very hard tilled, and lying
more than a mile from the homestead, had not for many years
received any support in the way of manure, besides which it was
naturally a weak light soil, with a bad subsoil; and so little did the
tenant prize it, that he said I was quite welcome to take it from
the farm if I would release him from the rates and taxes paid in
respect of it, and make any deduction from his rent I might think
proper: this I did to his satisfaction, and set it out in proper
allotments, averaging about half an acre each. I allowed the poor
men draining shells, which they put down themselves under my
directions, and charged them as much rent as was just sufficient
to coyer the rent formerly paid by the farmer, together with all
levies, tithe, rent-charge, &c., and although the land has only
undergone this superior method of cultivation for three years, and
was in the lowest condition to commence with, and’ consequently -
will improve for years to come; yet notwithstanding these dis-
adyantages the crops grown upon these 30 acres of poor land last
summer, were as follows :—1497 measures of potatoes, 298 mea-
sures of wheat, 22 measures of barley, 10 measures of vetches,
and 70 measures of oats; which crops, after paying the rent, poor
rates, tithe, and all other charges, amount to nearly 250/., even
calculating them at the present low prices of agricultural produce.
It is, therefore, impossible that this amount of produce could be
distributed amongst these poor men without adding greatly to the
comfort of themselves and their families; besides which all these
necessaries of life were procured by the application of those
leisure hours which would, most likely, have been spent in the
beer-house, and might have produced the bitter pains of domestic
strife and wretchedness, instead of making the cottage a peaceful
and happy home, and the allotment a healthy training-school for
the children. I am extensively concerned in the management of
cottage property, and necessarily come in contact with some hun:
"¥OL, V. H

98 The Farming of Cheshire.

dreds of cottage tenants (and, I hope, pay some attention to their
habits, wants, and feelings), and I am decidedly of opinion that no
able-bodied labourer ought to have less than half an acre of land,
which will enable him to raise potatoes sufficient for his own con-
sumption and to fatten a couple of pigs, besides growing a little
bread-corn ; and I think it would be for the general good of the
agricultural community if every cottager with a family was en-
abled to keep his cow.”

Irrigated Meadows.

In addition to the natural water meadows on the principal
streams, which have already been noticed, there is a consider-
able extent (many hundred acres) of meadow land along the
numerous small rivulets which intersect the county; and con-
siderable ingenuity is frequently displayed in subjecting these
lands to occasional irrigation. ‘The water is dammed up in
situations where it cannot injure the surrounding Jand, and con-
veyed along the sides of the banks to the parts intended to be
flooded. In many instances great improvement is effected by this
process, but in others it is decidedly injurious. Where land is
already full of water from the want of proper drainage, it cannot,
I conceive, be benefited by having more water brought upon it;
for although, immediately after irrigation, the herbage may have
a green and luxuriant appearance, it becomes coarser every year,
with an increasing mixture of rushes and other aquatics. If the
same ingenuity were exercised in draining and laying the ground
perfectly dry for a fortnight, after being irrigated for a week or
nine days, and this process were to be repeated three or four
times during the winter, the land would unquestionably be much
improved; and we should not hear so many complaints of artifi-
cial watering, or irrigation, being injurious. We should also bear
in mind that this description of land is frequently in situations
where manuring would be very expensive, and therefore never
likely to have much applied: it is evidently, then, of great advan-
tage to be enabled to enrich such soil by irrigation.

Pasture Land.

There is, perhaps, no county in England where the pas-
ture lands (particularly the poorer soils) have been so much
improved during the last ten or twelve years as in Cheshire;
and this principally by the application of what is termed “ bone-
dust.” This extraordinary manure has a peculiar effect upon
the poor clay land pastures, for on the application of boiled
bones a sudden change takes place in the appearance of the fields,
and instead of the carnation-leaved, or ‘“ pink grass,” which so

The Farming of Cheshire. 99

ee
much abounds on this kind of land, a luxuriant herbage presents
itself, consisting of red and white clover, trefoil, and other grasses,
of which the cattle are so fond that they eat up almost everything
before them; even thistles and rushes are very much weakened,
and eventually reduced, by being constantly eaten off by the stock
after the pastures have been “ bone-dusted.”’

Fences.

The fences in many parts of the county are sadly neg-
lected, some farmers scarcely ever thinking it necessary to cut
a hedge, unless when thorns are wanted to repair the gaps, and
then the work is performed in a careless manner. Many fences
are allowed to run so wild that they cover two or three yards on
each side of the ditch, and are so high as in a great measure to
exclude the air from the fields ; and if perchance a few quicksets
are put into the old copse, they are never more thought of, and
soon become choked with couch-grass or weeds, and are eventually
destroyed.- On some of the best-managed farms great attention
is paid to the fences; on a field being put into tillage the hedge
is neatly cut to the height of about two feet, the ditch is cleansed,
and as much of the contents as is required is thrown in among
the quicks, and the remainder is put on the opposite side to be
carted away as compost; the field remains in tillage four or five
years, and by this time there is a good fence, affording shelter for
cattle. If the fence be old and ragged at the bottom, all the
strong stems are sawn off near the roots ; and when there are any
young slender shoots, they are reserved for the purpose of plash-
ing or laying, and are fastened down with short hook pegs, the

_cop having been previously “breasted up,” as it is termed, with

the contents of the ditch; if there should not be young wood
enough to form a sufficient .fence to the field, a small beard of
thorns is put along the top of the cop. Where there is a great
deficiency of quick thorns in a fence, and those left are old or
decaying, it would be much better to remove them altogether,
level down the old cop, forma new one not too high, and replant

_ with quicksets of four or five years’ growth, cutting off the tops, and

taking care to put some rotten manure in the trench before plant-
ing. Sufficient attention is seldom paid to the protection of young
fences, and as good hedges form an important part of an estate, it
would be well if landowners would find good strong quicks, and
posts and rails to protect them, the tenant planting, manuring,
and keeping them clean.

Some farmers not only never think of cutting their fences till
thorns are wanted, but they never cleanse their ditches until they
become so full that the water from them begins to flow over the
adjoining land. There is also great and very general neglect as

H 2

100 The Farming of Cheshire.

regards weeds in the hedgerows along by-roads and around
ponds. There are few farmers who do not think it necessary to
cut the weeds in their grass-fields once a year, but the hedgerows ;
are frequently neglected, even on well-cultivated farms, this being
considered one of those unimportant works which can be post-
poned till “a more convenient season,’ but unfortunately this
time seldom arrives, until the farmer is upbraided by the seeds of
these weeds crossing his path in every direction, and alighting on
his well-cleaned fallows, &c. Observing a fine crop of seed dis-
persed through the country by a gentle breeze in the month of
September last, a plan occurred to me, which, if generally
adopted, would soon materially lessen the growth of weeds arising
from such neglect. It is simply this—supposing that all. town-
ships could be induced to join in the undertaking, a small fund
might be raised by a levy of one halfpenny or one penny per acre,
according to circumstances, on each farm in the township; the
former sum I believe would, in most cases, be found sufficient.
A treasurer should be appointed, whose business it should be to
collect the money, and employ a person approved of by a majority
of the inhabitants, to go diligently through the township and care-
fully destroy all weeds in- the situations before alluded to; he
should be provided with a long pole having a small hook attached,
which could be closed at pleasure, like a clasp-knife, to prevent
accidents while leaping (as he would sometimes have occasion to
do) over fences: his labours should commence at stated periods,
say on June |, and again towards the middle of July, as many weeds
might spring up through the brambles after the first cutting. As
soon as the work has been completed to the satisfaction of the
treasurer, payment should be made, and the surplus, if any, car-
ried to the next year’s account. As the work would not be very
laborious, in many instances paupers might be employed.

Farm Buildings.

Although many of the old inconvenient buildings are still
remaining in various parts of the county, they have been
generally much improved within the last twenty years; with
very few exceptions, whenever old buildings have been taken
down and rebuilt, they have been made much more spacious than
formerly ; and instead of the narrow stalls which were scarcely
wide enough for small Welsh cows, with room behind barely
sufficient for a person to pass, they are now made large enough
for the improved breed of cattle, with many conveniences which
before were never thought of; and slates or tiles (even where the
old buildings remain) are frequently substituted for thatch.
There is an error, by no means unfrequent, and which therefore
deserves notice, in the construction of calf-pens, and in placing

The Farming of Cheshire. 101

them in very cold situations. Young calves are exceedingly
susceptible of cold, and unless kept warm and dry will not thrive
as they ought. A south aspect is decidedly the best, but such an
arrangement is not always convenient, as it might imterfere with
the general plan of the buildings ; but whenever they are placed
in situations much exposed to the cold winds, care should be
taken to have the doors closely jointed, and the openings. required
for ventilation should be sufficiently high to prevent the winds from
blowing upon the calves; and if the building be a shoring, the
roof should be plastered underneath, as in frosty weather the
cold strikes through the slates ; and the floors should invariably
be raised a little above the level of the ground, with openings
left between the flag-stones or boards through which the wet
from them may escape. I have found strong oaken planks to
answer better than flags for floors, and so contrived as to be en-
abled to put them in loosely, as they are then readily removable
for the purpose of cleaning out the bottom of the pen: wood is
also much warmer for the calves to lie upon than flags in frosty
weather. Iam thus particular, because I have experienced the
difference between cold pens and warm ones. Mune are shor-
ings, on the north side of the buildings, with the exception of one
to the south. During cold frosty weather the calves in the former
pens often suffer from disordered bowels, and other complaints
follow ; neither do they thrive well in that situation; but if re-
moved to the latter, a change for the better is very soon per-
ceptible. In three of my calf-pens I have had frames of oak
bars made in three divisions each, with an inch between each bar,
to place upon the flags, and have found much benefit from the
contrivance, as the calves now lie ina much drier and warmer
state than before.

Offices connected with the dairy are also much improved in
many parts of the county. The dairy-kitchen, as it is called, is
spacious and convenient; and anything calculated to create a
draught is studiously excluded, it being of great importance to
keep cheese warm during the process of making.* The milk-
house is placed on the coolest side of the building, and has good
ventilation; the drying-house is at one end of the dairy, and the
cheese-presses are placed close to the wall at the back of the
boiler and whey-furnace, which stand in the dairy, as the warmth
from them is so desirable to promote the running of the whey
from the cheese while under the press. The furnace and boiler
are arched over, and are so contrived that the steam arising from

* By the present regulations only one dairy window is allowed free of
duty ; lattices are therefore frequently introduced, and thus cold draughts
are admitted of an injurious tendency.

102 The Farming of Cheshire.

them passes through a flue parallel with the chimney, and escapes
without finding its way into the dairy.
Potatoes.

Although large quantities of potatoes, both of the early and the
winter kinds, are grown in the county, I believe it will be found
that they have not been on the increase for some years. Many
farmers now grow Swedish turnips for their cattle; and some
gentlemen have an objection to many potatoes being planted on
their estates. In the northern and western districts, and some
parts of the interior, where there is water-carriage within a rea-
sonable distance, extensive crops are grown for the supply of the
Manchester and Liverpool markets ; and some from the southern
side are sent to Wolverhampton. Among the early sorts, those
most deserving of notice are the foxes-seedlings, and ash-leaved
kidneys; there is also a new kind, called Radicals, which are
about a fortnight later than the rest, but are much liked on ac-
count of their productiveness; and, by taking a little pais with
the sets previously to planting, they are frequently brought into
the market as soon as the others. The plan is as follows :—

“ At the latter end of January, or in February, the sets are placed close
together, with the sprout upwards, on shelves in a building with a southern
aspect, or on boards, each resting one above the other, on three bricks
placed on edge: sacks are suspended in front to keep them warm. About
a fortnight before planting, which is early in March, the sacks are re-
moved, with the view of hardening them; they are then cut into two or
three sets, taking care to leave only one sprout, and are placed in the
ground, which has been well manured. When this method is adopted,
they can be brought into the market very early ; and the ground is again
planted with the same kind of potatoes for seed the following year, or
Swedish turnips. Among the best varieties of winter potatoes are the red
apple, Scotch ink-eyes, new ink-eyes (much liked in the Manchester mar-
ket), short wertzle or short tops, Irish cups, bread-fruit, and blue farmers ;
the latter an inferior kind, but good croppers, cultivated principally for
cattle, and have of late years been used by bread-bakers on account of
their whiteness.”

Swedish Turnips.

One of the greatest improvements which have taken place in
Cheshire since 1808 is the more extended cultivation of the
Swedish turnip; and it has only been within the last ten or fifteen
years that its value has been adequately appreciated. In the year
1814 there were not 5 acres of Swedish turnips grown in the pa-
rish where I reside; now there are from 60 to 80; and in many
parts of the county the increase has been in a much greater ratio ;
on two farms,* in the holding of one person, in the Hundred of

* From 900 to 1000 acres.

A correspondent from the Hundred of Eddisbury says, “ When I com-
menced growing turnips, ten years ago, there was scarcely one farmer in
ten who cultivated swedes for his stock ; but now nearly all my neighbours
grow them to a greater or less extent.”

The Farming of Cheshire. 103

Nantwich, where turnips were not grown at all twenty years ago,
from 80 to 100 acres are now raised annually, and these princi-
pally with bone manure: these are dairy and grazing farms com-
bined, and a great part of the turnip crop is consumed by sheep,
on the Norfolk system, or by stall-fed cattle. Many of the new
implements for cleaning the land having been introduced, the
crops generally are kept much cleaner, and the management of
them is on the whole better understood than formerly. Swedes
are given to the dairy cows while eating straw, and to the team-
horses, and are found to be very wholesome: they are sometimes
steamed for the latter, and mixed with chaff or cut hay or straw ;
this appears to be an excellent plan when hay has been damaged
by the weather, &c. Swedes are given raw to the sows and store-
pigs, with good effect; on many farms they live upon them
entirely throughout the winter, and keep in good condition. Too
much cannot be said in praise of this invaluable root; but some
farmers have yet to learn that, to have swedes in perfection, and
to grow them so that the land may derive that benefit which ren-
ders their culture doubly desirable, the ground must be well
worked, well manured, good seed sown, and the crop kept per-
fectly clean by scarifying and hand-hoeing. The turnips on the
dairy farms are generally taken up during the months of Novem-
ber and December, and piled into narrow heaps near the home-
stead, and thatched over to keep out the wet.

Lucerne.

The land in Cheshire is not at all suited (generally speaking)
to the culture of this plant—it requires a deep dry soil: it grows
well on some of the driest parts of the enclosures from the river
Dee, called Sealand,” particularly on the raised cops, where it
is most productive, affording three good cuttings in the year.
There is a small field of it in the Hundred of Eddisbury, where
it is sown in rows 10 inches apart; the lucerne occupying 4 inches,
with 6 inches between for the purpose of cleaning. It was sown
in May, 1843, was cut twice, and is now mest promising.

In concluding my Report I may remark, that any attempt to
have given an accurate description of every course or “no
course” system of management, pursued throughout this part of
England, would have been an almost endless task, and could
not possibly lead to any beneficial results. There is in Cheshire,
as in every other county, a mixture of good and bad farming;
and while the agriculturists of this district make no pretensions to
the palm of peculiar merit, they cannot admit the imputation pf
being the ‘‘ very worst farmers’ in the kingdom ; and they justly
think the epithets unenergetic and unskilful are not generally

104 The Farming of Cheshire.

applicable. In almost every district there are more or less difficult
soils to contend with; and the systems which are pursued in the
Lothians, Norfolk, and other counties of England, would not be
at all suitable to the generality of land in Cheshire. Enough, [
trust; has been advanced to show that, in many respects, the agri-
culture of the county has been improved; and I doubt not that
a majority of the farmers are desirous of proceeding with im-
provements as far as in their power: but something more than
even energy and skill on the part of ihe tenants is essential to
good farming; and there never was a period when they stood
more in need of assistance and encouragement than the present.

The breeds of cattle and pigs are more improved in the in-
terior and northern parts of the county than on the western,
southern, and eastern borders; and this difference may be chiefly
attributable to the circumstance of the former being more within
the influence of various agricultural societies. For any improve-
ment which may be observable in sheep, this county can claim
little or no merit, as it is almost entirely dependent upon other
districts for a supply of that useful class of animals. So lightly
do the leading agriculturists of Cheshire appreciate them that in
their societies they have erased from their lists of premiums
prizes for sheep ; it being evidently considered a stock undeserving
of such distinction.

The description which has been given as to a defective state
of drainage—that highly important branch of husbandry—should
command the attention and arouse the energy of all who are in-
terested in the productiveness of the soil; for there can be but
little doubt, that by far the greatest portion of land in this county
is capable of being made to double and even treble the present
amount of its produce, by a proper system of draining, and a
judicious application of manures. I have seen much draining in
operation, and observed land which was subjected to that process
12, 14, and even 20 years ago, and the result of my conviction is,
that no general system of drainage can be laid down, as equally
applicable to all soils. The tenacious clays of Cheshire do not
require such deep draining as is generally recommended, from 18
to 22 inches being sufficient for most of them; and some of the
sound clay land (7. e. land with a little slope, and on a regular
substratum of solid marl) would not need under-draining at all,
if the butts were properly formed, 6 or 7 yards wide, with an
elevation of 1 inch in 12 towards the centre: should it at any
time be necessary to water-furrow, as before described, the rein
presser (see drawing No. |) would be sufficient for the purpose.
{t has, within the last few years, become the practice of many
jandowners to allow their tenants indiscriminately, without charge,
a certain quantity of draining tiles annually; the tenants per-

The Farming of Cheshire. 105

forming all the work. In a very few instances 5 per cent. is
charged upon the cost of the tiles, but this charge, I should
imagine, is only made to ensure a proper care and use of them;
and in one case which has come to my knowledge, half the value
of the tiles is charged to the tenant—an arrangement which cer-
tainly cannot facilitate improvements at a very rapid rate. ‘There
can be no question that a better state of information, and a more
extended spirit of enterprise, have been promoted of late years
throughout the county ; and if those who possess the means will
cheerfully and liberally advance this movement, there will, no
doubt, be an almost universal readiness, on the part of the farmers,
to avail themselves of all those helps and facilities which modern
science and investigation have brought to the aid of agriculture.

Appendix.

As a kind of “ Appendix” to my Report, it may not be altogether desti-
tute of interest if I narrate the course which I took in my tour of agricul-
tural inspection, the principal journeys of which occupied me during the
greater part of the month of December; having previously crossed the
county in various directions in the summer and autumnal months.

I commenced at the south-west side of the Hundred of Eddisbury, crossed
Delamere Forest to Delamere House, the seat of G. Wilbraham, Esq., and
observed some land near the mansion much improved by draining with
tiles, laid upon split alder. On one of his farms in the neighbourhood,
consisting of light sand-land, the Norfolk system of eating off the turnips
with sheep is adopted: the land is sown with barley and seeds afterwards.
Mr. Wilbraham thinks many of the old leases and agreements very absurd,
and not at all applicable to the most approved mode of farming in the
present day. He speaks highly of bones as a manure, and also of guano; °
but is of opinion that the effects of the latter are very uncertain in dry
seasons: he considers it very suitable to the culture of mangold-wurtzel,
having an excellent crop this year raised by this manure.

The fences here are in admirable condition, from having been carefully
attended to when young. There are two brooks on this estate, one a clear
white water, the other brown, both of which abound with trout’; and on
each there are irrigated meadows. In the former stream the trout are
large; in the latter, small, and never grow beyond a certain size,—the
meadows watered by the former are green, luxuriant, and productive ; those
by the latter comparatively barren. It is supposed that the pernicious
effects of the brown stream are occasioned by passing through peat, or
some mineral substance, but the cause has never been satisfactorily demon-
strated.

From Delamere proceeded to Weaverham and Acton Bridge, where I
entered the Hundred of Bucklow, and thence through Whitley. Observed

_ * On the property of the Earl of Carnarvon, near Exmoor, there are four streams:
the Haddiow, containing excellent trout, and making superior water-meadows; the
Exe, inferior in the quality of the fish and less beneficial to grass; the Barle, worse
again in each respect; and lastly, the Danesbrook, containing no fish at all, and itself,
as I am informed, poisonous to grass-land. The variation of their colour confirms
Mr,Palin’s opinion that these differences are owing to the presence of peat.—Pu. Pusey.

106 The Farming of Cheshire.

some grass-land very badly managed. The land naturally poor and wet,
the butts small and flat, the reins sufficiently deep to form reservoirs for
supplying the rushes with water, but not deep enough to act as drains to
the land. Arrived at Stockton Lodge in the afternoon, and visited the
town of Warrington in the evening. The next morning passed through
Stretton to Great Budworth, saw a great deal of bad farming, and some
little good. Draining on the increase in that neighbourhood, especially on
the estate of Rowland Warburton, Esq., who allows his tenants the tiles—
a great quantity ef hedge-row timber, which is much neglected, on an
estate between the two last-named places, belonging to a non-resident
gentleman. On returning to Stockton from Budworth, along the lower
road, between Belmont and Marbury, passed a number of small freeholds:
an indication here of some improvement by draining; but in many in-
stances great neglect of the timber, and much loss of land in old pits,
hedge-rows, &c.

The next day went to Lachford and Grappenhall, and along the Duke of
Bridgewater’s Canal. The course of cropping pursued in this district has
been previously described. From Grappenhall to Stretton, and thence
through Preston by Whitley. Noticed a great deal of poor land, which
might be much improved by draining and bone-manure: passed through
Frodsham, and thence to Chester. :

Started again from the south side of the Hundred of Eddisbury, crossed
into the Hundred of Broxton at Stapleford Bridge, near which, on an
estate belonging to the Marquis of Westminster, there are some good
specimens of draining; the butts, consisting of a strong clay-soil, are high,
and vary in width from 4 to 10 yards: the drains are cut along every rein
to the depth of 20 inches, and are laid with tiles. (The other particulars
are fully described under the head of “ Drainage.”) From thence to
Saighton, Bureton, and Aldford. At Bureton noticed on a large farm
belonging to Sir W. Stanley, and in the occupation of Mr. Thos. Weaver,
a field of 40 acres, about one half of which was in progress of draining.
This field was one of the stiffest clays I had seen, the butts, varying in
width from 5 to 14 yards, were drained with tiles down every rein, to the
depth of about 20inches. The tiles are made upon the estate, at the ex-
pense of the landlord, and ailowed to the tenant, who pays for the cutting
of the drains, filling up, &c. Previously to cutting the drains, a thin
furrow is removed from the top by a plough, and afterwards placed upon
the tiles. The good soil in this field is remarkably thin. From Aldford I
proceeded to Farndon, where I crossed the Dee into Denbighshire. The
farming on that side is exceedingly bad for three or four miles, and the
farm buildings are much out of repair. Re-crossed the river at Bangor
Bridge, and proceeded to Worthenbury, where, on the following day, I
saw some good specimens of farming in the neighbourhood: the wheat
stubbles were decidedly the best I had seen. They drain here by throw-
ing out two furrows with a plough, right and left, then the remainder of
the soil is thrown out with a spade to the depth of about 15 inches, when
an instrument 2 inches wide is used to cut a narrow drain about 5 inches
deep, leaving a shouldering or Jedge, on which are put sods or stubble, and
the drain filled up; but previously a long narrow scoop is used for clear-
ing out the soil which may have fallen in. The course of cropping here
has been described. From Worthenbury went to Cuddington, in the parish
of Malpas: here they have a practice, novel in this county, that of burning
marl as a manure for their turnip crops. The plan is to build a wall of
sods of the size required, then lay in a quantity of wood, then a layer of
marl, then a layer of coal and mar! alternately, the fire constantly burning
till the work is finished. The heap may be raised as high as men can con-
veniently throw the mar]. The turnips were a good crop grown with this

-

The Farming of Cheshire. 107

manure alone, but the more general practice is to put about half the usual
quantity of farm-yard manure on the burnt mar! in the drill.“ Shoulder”
draining is practised in this district at the distance of 8 yards. Noticed a
great quantity of neglected small timber in the hedgerows. Proceeded
the next morning to Ridley Hall; saw a very good specimen of draining
on Coxon-green farm, the drains from 8 to 9 yards apart, average depth 30
inches, cut obliquely across the fall ; the sub-stratum a mixture of sand and
clay ; cost of the work 43d. per rood, the landlord finding tiles and soles.
On Mr. Cawley’s farm, at Ridley, noticed part of a field laid out for irriga-
tion (about 8 acres); the work done ina superior style, and the whole
wore a good appearance. There is a large thrashing-machine worked by
steam, and there is also.an excellent tile and brick yard on this farm. A
good deal of draining has been done here; one Jarge open drain at the
lower end of the farm, about one mile in length, cost the tenant upwards
of 1007. Returned by way of Cholmondeley, where I observed much fine
oak timber, which is well managed, not being too much crowded together ;
the land too is better cultivated here than any I had previously seen.
From Cholmondeley proceeded to Wrenbury, and thence to Nantwich,
without seeing any thing worthy of notice, except bad farming and timber
crowded in the hedgerows: arrived at Henhull Cottage, where I stayed
for the night. The next day went to Mr. Bott’s farm at Shrewbridge : the
buildings are quite new and complete. There is in the grounds a stone
trough, 20 yards in diameter, which supplies two fields with water for the
cattle: it is formed of blocks of stone, neatly worked and cemented to-
gether, the bottom being cased with bricks on edge; the stone-work is
raised about two feet above the level of the ground, and the water is only
a few inches below the top of the trough. The water is supplied by a
small spring : there is a pipe in the centre for the purpose of conveying the
surplus water into a drain underneath the trough. The whole is surrounded
by flags, for the cattle to walk along, about two yards in width. The
fences here are very good, and the farm in a high state of cultivation. A
fine dairy stock of short-horns is kept. I also observed a good hay-cutter,
made by Parry of Chester, and worked by one horse. Afterwards went to
see some irrigated land, belonging to Mrs.Tomkinson of Dorfold: it is laid
out in a masterly style by Daniel Smith of Sandbach, and is so contrived °
that all the sewers about the farm-yard may be cleansed by turning some
water into them out of a large pond, and the whole is thrown over the
meadow. Proceeded to Doddington, via Combermere, passed a large tract
of land, which wants draining. Near Combermere perceived symptoms of
better farming ; here and there a large turnip field of small turnips, but
clean and regular: at the farm-yard, where there is a range of good build-
ings, was a number of cattle feeding. This kind of stock is peculiar to the
place, and consists of oxen and heifers, bred from the Brahmin bull, and
short-horned and Ayrshire cows, which, I was informed, feed well, and are
most excellent beef: a nice dairy stock of Ayrshire cows is also kept upon
the farm. The pigs here are very numerous, and consist of a great variety
of breeds, which are fed principally for home use. The dairy is neatly
fitted up: there is achurn worked by steam, which I was told answers well.
From Combermere proceeded to Audlem, Doddington, and Barthomley.
On Monday morning left Barthomley for Haslington; proceeded thence to
Sandbach, afterwards to Rode, the seat of Rundle Wilbraham, Esq., a
delightful residence, the grounds of which are laid out with admirable
taste. Passed on from Rode to Congleton, where I spent the night.
The next day walked to West Heath Cottage. West Heath is a tract
of land which has not been enclosed many years; the farm-houses and
cottages have all a neat appearance, and the land, which consists
chiefly of a black soil on a grey sandand fox-bench, has been drained, and

108 The Farming of Cheshire.

seems to be tolerably well managed. Returned to Congleton, and thence
went to Macclesfield, calling in my way at Eaton Hall, the seat of Crawford
Antrobus, Esq., beautifully situated about two miles from Congleton.
About four miles from Macclesfield came to an estate, the land miserably
poor and badly managed, with a superabundance of timber, sadly neg-
lected. Passed on to Macclesfield, whence, after obtaining some informa-
tion, I proceeded along a hilly road and wild country through Bollington,
to Lyme Park, the seat of T. Legh, Esq., where I arrived too late in the
evening to see its beauties. On this line of road the farming is most unin-
teresting ; remained for the night at Disley. On the next morning took a
stroll through Lyme Park; the house is a noble mansion; the park has a
wildness about it which is seldom seen in this part of England; high
. uncultivated hills, covered with fern and rushes: there is a number of

wild cattle on these hills, the breed of which has been there for centuries ;

they are perfectly white. There are buildings for these cattle to run in
during the winter, where they are fed on hay, “and have rushes to lie upon
and make manure. The park, in the greater part of it, is wet and rushy,
and very much in want of draining: a little draining has been done, which
answers exceedingly well; about 1000 sheep are kept in the park. Re-
turned to Disley, and thence proceeded to Stockport. At Hazel Row
there is a good tile-yard, where the price for the largest size of draining-
tiles is 32s. per 1000. The railway viaduct of 26 arches, on brick pillars,
is an object of great interest inthis neighbourhood. From Stockport drove
to Altrincham; where I remained for the night. There is a tolerably good
specimen of draining in this neighbourhood: on the same road a common
has lately been enclosed by consent of the freeholders, Mr. Tatton of
Withinshaw being the principal one: it appears a barren soil, consisting
principally of grey sand, fox-bench, and peat, and requires draining and
marling ; the men receive a shilling a rood for trenching it, and the first
crop is generally potatoes. The following morning inspected several
farms, the course of cropping on which has been described in the general
remarks on that head. From Altrincham proceeded to Dunham Massey,
the seat of the Earl of Stamford and Warrington: the Jand in tillage here
is a deep black loam, and appears to be well managed on the alternate
green-crop system. About eighty head of cattle, consisting of Scotch
bullocks and short-horned cows, are fed in the park, and what are not sold
off before Christmas are put upon turnips. On leaving Dunham I observed
some good meadowing: proceeded thence to Mere, where there is an
excellent implement manufacturer named Harkes, who is doing an exten-
sive business, and has frequently obtained premiums at the different agri-
cultural meetings. Went thence to High Leigh, and saw a farm belonging
to Egerton Leigh, Esq., in the holding of Mr. John Owen; it consists of
160 acres, and is decidedly the best managed farm I have seen. There are
two bone-mills in this vicinity ; one little more than a mile off, worked by
steam on a large scale. A quantity of American bones is crushed here,
besides those brought from the surrounding neighbourhood; the large
bones when crushed are sold at a higher price than the small ones ; the
former are now selling at 6/. 10s. per ton, the latter at 5/. 10s. ; they are

ground more finely than formerly, and are consequently considered better -

for the land, and are here preferred to boiled bones; the other works are
at Hoo Green, and are on a smaller scale ; the proprietors, Messrs. Ockles-
ton, have also an establishment at Massey Brook, Lymm, near Warrington.
From High Leigh, drove to Knutsford, and slept there. A great extent of
draining has been done, and is yet progressing on the estates in this neigh-
bourhood, the landlords finding tiles. Mr. E. Leigh, Mr. Cornwall Legh,
Mr. Brooke, Mr. Egerton, and Lord De Tabley, are the principal land-
owners. Went to Tatton, the seat of Wilbraham Egerton, Esq. ; on my

The Farming of Cheshire. 109

way there, a short distance from Knutsford, observed a great number of
small plots of ground, which I learned are let by Mr. Egerton to the sur-
rounding cottagers and mechanics; 20 roods to each person, at ls. per
rood, thereby producing a good rental to the owner, and being a great
accommodation to the occupiers. The farming here presents no features
requiring particular comment. Mr. Egerton gives prizes for the best
ploughing, which are annually contested for by his tenants; but these
being very numerous, the competition has the effect of improving this
important operation in agriculture in the vicinity adjoining his estates.
Visited Messrs. Woods’ implements manufactory at Knutsford, where are
made some of the most approved ploughs, scarifiers, turnip scufflers, lever
churns, &e. Leaving Knutsford, passed Toft, the seat of H. Leycester,
Esq.: this estate is finely wooded; large numbers of oaks have recently
been felled, and many more are marked to come down next season. The
appearance of the country will not only be thus improved, but the pro-
ceeds will enable the proprietor to improve his lands by draining and bone-
manuring, without any material additional outlay of capital. Tiles are
allowed to the tenants, and not unfrequently bone-manure. Leaving Toft,
came to a village called Little Peover, thence to Middlewich, passing some
very good meadow land ona small stream, and some property once be-
longing to- Lord De Tabley, but now to “Dr. Taylor,” who allows his
tenants as many draining-tiles as they will use, and will advance an equal
sum of money to that which they are willing to pay for bone-manure, or
will advance the whole sum himself, at the rate of 73 per cent., at the
option of the tenants. Passed Kinderton Hall, the property of Lord Ver-
non, a fine farm of about 400 acres, managed by the tenant Mr. Stones, on
the Norfolk system, or nearly so; he feeds a considerable number of cattle
and sheep, and grows large quantities of turnips; there are only three
milking cows kept, to supply the family with milk and butter. Passing
through Middlewich, arrived at Sutton Hall, a farm belonging to Mr. Court,
of the Manor, and well managed by the occupier Mr.G. Woolrich. Re-
turned through Middlewich to Winsford, where are some extensive bone-
works belonging to Messrs. Rawcliffe. A peculiar process of boiling is
carried on here with excellent effect ; and the manure which a year and a .
half ago was sold at 5/. 10s., is now to be had at 3/. 12s. 6d. per ton. The
dust, which is caused by the sawing of the bones, does not pass into the
boiler, and is sold alone at 8/. per ton: it is a very valuable manure.
Leaving Winsford, crossed Delamere Forest, and reached Stapleford, a
township in the Hundred of Eddisbury.

Commenced a tour through the Hundred of Wirral, at Chester, and pro-
ceeded ina westerly direction. About the middle of the Hundred observed
a large tract of Jand in a most wretched state of cultivation from want of
draining ; the land is very thin of soil, a great portion of clay being turned
up in ploughing very shallow furrows; the butts are cual and flat, in
many fields not more than three feet wide, and in some not more than two
feet six inches; every rein full of water, and the gutters not more than
three or four inches deep. As I proceeded I found some better specimens
of farming, and some very good on two farms, one of 500 and another of
150 acres. On the former I witnessed an exceedingly interesting and novel
sight—* Alexander's draining-plough,” which has been minutely described
in agricultural publications ; it was drawn by sixteen horses, yoked eight
abreast, then six, then two. By the first operation, soil to the depth of
sixteen inches was thrown out; by the second, soil to the depth of eight
inches more was cast up, leaving the drain twenty-four inches deep and
five inches wide ; the loose soil is then scooped out by an instrument for
the purpose, when the tiles are laid upon slates cut for this work ; sods are
placed upon them, and the drains filled up. It is calculated that the

110 The Farming of Cheshire.

plough will drain, on an average, eight acres per day; and it is estimated

by the gentleman using it, that work which would be done by this clever

invention for 6/., would cost by spade-husbandry 7/. 4s.

: The weather throughout my various journeys was remarkably propi-

ious. :
Stapleford Hail, Chester.

Drawings referred to in the foregoing Essay.
No. 1.

FRONT ELEVATION.

Scale ¢ an inch to the foot.

(Note.) When the roller A is not required to press the furrow, the box B, which has small wheels
sliding upon plates of iron, should be moved to the other end of the machine, which
raises the roller out of the ground, and leaves it running upon asmall pair of road-
wheels attached for that purpose.

When greater pressure is required, the box B should be filled with heavy material,

Cost £16,

Ss

The Farming of Cheshire. 111

No. 3.

I
Spi

CURD-MILL.

( 112.)

VI.— Method of growing Beans and Cabbages on the same Ground.
By The Eart of Lovevace.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq.

My pear S1r,—I have great pleasure in replying to your inquiries
as to the manner of growing the double crop of beans and cab-
bages, the latter of which only you saw upon the ground last week.
The beans are dibbled in February in double lines 4 inches apart,
and with an interval of 3 feet to the next row. This enables the
double mould-board or the subsoil plough to pass freely along
without injury to the beans as often as the state of the soil may
require it, until the time of planting the cabbages. The latter
are of the thousand-headed sort, and should have been raised the
previous autumn—then pricked out in March (ina corner of the
garden), and finally planted in their places between the rows in
the field in May or June, taking advantage of showery weather
for the purpose. ‘The distance from plant to plant is about 2 feet ;
they should be from 5 to 8 inches out of the ground. They do
not grow much until after the beans have been removed, which
is generally done early in August—when the latter are gone,
the space they occupied is ploughed, and the cabbages grow with
such rapidity as effectually to prevent any weeds from making
head that season. No one, ignorant of the practice, sporting over
the field in the beginning of September, would imagine that the
then luxuriant crop was the second of the season.

The cabbages yield a great bulk of green food towards Christ-
mas, and if their leaves are then pulled, a second sprouting takes
place at the end of March or the beginning of April; but as food
is of much more consequence to a breeding flock at the latter
period, they have been left (without plucking from them in
December) till the turnips are over. They are then eaten on the
ground by couples, and the land is ready with a single ploughing
for any sort of spring corn, -The quantity of keep derived from
them by this arrangement is equal to what the same extent of
turnips would give, but inferior to swedes.

I was led to try the experiment for the first time in 1838, from
having accidentally read an account of the husbandry of M. de
Fellenbergh, at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, in which a similar custom
is mentioned. ‘The success has been complete, and it has never
been omitted for a single year since its introduction at Ockham ;
and I see that, so far from the bean crop being diminished (in
consequence of the greater distance at which the rows are planted
to admit the cabbages between them), it has, on the contrary,
been increased from about 35 bushels the average yield for 5
years before the mixture, to 41 bushels the average yield for

On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils. 113

5 years since the cabbages were introduced. These figures are
in the tabular statement you did me the honour to print p. 23
of vol. iv.
Believe me ever yours truly,
LoveELAce.
Ockham Park, Marck 5, 1844.

VII.—On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils by the Ap-
plication of Burnt Clay. By Cuarves Rane ct.

To Edward Holland, Esq.

My vear Sir,—TI cannot answer the inquiries contained in your
letter, and that of Sir Robert Throckmorton accompanying it, as
to my experience of burnt clay, in any way that will be satisfac-
tory to you without going somewhat into detail, and at the same
time recalling to your mind the state of cultivation of my farm
when I entered upon it, at Michaelmas, 1839. You will believe
that it is not from any disposition to speak harshly of the tenants
who preceded me upon this farm (formerly in two), but because
the extent to which it has been benefited by burning would not
be appreciated, if it were not understood that the farm at the
time I mention was in an exceedingly bad state. Without further
preface, then, I will proceed to describe what has been done in
this way upon a few of the fields; regretting that I cannot in all
cases speak with accuracy as to the results, not having expected
that I should be called upon for them. In one or two cases, how- -
ever, I can do so. :

In speaking of what the several fields were worth, I give the
price at which they were valued when the estate was purchased
for your father, about twenty years since. The valuation upon
which my rent was fixed—at least as far as regards the clay-land
to which these remarks apply—is very nearly the same.

I will begin with the field upon which my first attempt was
made, not only for that reason, but because it is the worst piece
of land; indeed, I hardly need say it is as bad as possible, for the
rent is but 5s. per acre. It is called the “ Coal-pit Ground :” 113
acres of the worst description of clay, on the side of a steep hill,
wholly inaccessible to the dung-cart, to which it has always been
astranger. It had been allowed to run down a few years before
I entered upon it; and the former tenant being bound by the
covenants of his lease to have a certain portion the last year in
fallow (for which I, as the incoming tenant, had to pay 40s. per
acre), had broken up this field for that purpose. After he
had ploughed it once, I offered in the middle of the summer to
take to it on the same terms as if a fallow had been made, in
order that I might at once begin burning it. This was agreed

VOL. V. I

114 On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils.

to, and I immediately began with the scuffle and drag to work
the clods of couch and wiry turf to the surface, which, with
the quantity of soil necessary to procure a good dressing of ashes,
were shovelled and forked together, and burned in heaps of about
a cart-load each, with wood cut from the wild neglected hedges
surrounding the field; at the cost, including spreading, of 2/. per
acre. I scarcely know how to put a value upon the wood used,
as it would barely have been worth drawing home; the cost of
_ cutting and tying up would be about 5s. per acre. ‘The weather,
while the work was in progress, proved unfavourable ; and this,
as it was the first, so it was the least effectively done of any I have
attempted ; nevertheless, the result has been highly satisfactory.
The field, after the ashes were ploughed in lightly, was planted
with vetches, which were eaten off, the succeeding summer
(1840), by sheep: and then planted with wheat, which produced
rather more than 30 bushels per acre; it was sown with seeds
upon that crop, and continues down, carrying a much greater
stock than it has ever before done. Should I find it deteriorate,
as such land as this always does, I shall plough it again for
vetches, having no doubt that it is now capable of bearing a crop
sufficient, when consumed upon the land by sheep, to enable it
again to grow as good a crop of wheat as the last, to be then laid
down again.

My next piece was upon part of a field, called the “ Barn
Ground,” in the spring of 1840, and as I have done several others,
under similar circumstances, and with precisely the same results,
the description need not be repeated. This is a field of 15 acres,
6 of which are a strong clay of tolerable quality, worth 30s. per
acre; the remainder fair turnip-land: the clay part of the field
was exceedingly foul, so that I had two objects to attain—first, to
get rid of the couch by burning it in the clods; next with the
ashes so obtained, to render the whole field alike capable of
bearing a crop of swedes. In this I succeeded. The whole, after
draining so much as needed, was limed and manured alike, and
the crop was quite as good upon the clay as any part of the field.
All the swedes were consumed upon the land by sheep: the suc-
ceeding barley-crop was much better upon the part that had
rarely, if ever, been planted with barley before; the seeds were
equally good, but the wheat-crop this year (1843), from the exces-
sive growth of straw, went down early, and became mildewed,
and, though more bulky than the rest of the field, will not be so
productive. The field is now ploughed for swedes again ; and the
clay part is as healthy, and as likely to grow a crop, as that which
has always been considered turnip-land.

I come next to two fields, upon which the fertilizing power of
ashes is still more satisfactorily shown than in the last mentioned,
inasmuch as they were not assisted by any other kind of manure ;

On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils. 115

and, in these two cases, I am enabled to speak with accuracy of
the results. The first, called the “ Rough Hill” (5 acres), adjoin-
ing the Coal-pit Ground, before mentioned, not being considered
quite as bad, is valued at 7s. 6d. per acre. I entered upon it
(1839), a foul bean-stubble: the following May it was skim-
ploughed to the depth of about 14 inch, and all that the plough
raised burned with faggots, at the cost, including spreading, of
42s. per acre. It was then ploughed and scuffled; and the
weather being favourable, was rendered perfectly clean; then
planted in October with vetches, which, the following summer,
were eaten off by sheep folded upon them; succeeded by wheat
(1842), which produced 226 bushels, of 62 1lbs.; or one bushel
more than 45 bushels per acre. It was sold at 7s. per bushel ;
and this crop therefore produced more than the fee-simple of the
land in its former state. This field is also laid down, and is
looking very well. A small field of 3 acres, adjoining, was simi-
larly treated at the same time, with nearly equal results ; the dif-
ference in the wheat-crop, which was not quite so heavy, being
attributable to the vetches having been eaten off by horses tethered
on them, instead of by sheep.

The second instance of the power of ashes, unaided, in render-
ing exhausted land capable of producing a crop, is, I think, even
more conclusive than the first, as it may be said that the great
crop of wheat produced in the former case was attributable to the
manure left by the sheep in consuming the vetches; and this is
correct in a degree, but I know not how that crop of vetches
could have been obtained to create that manure without the ©
ashes. In this case, however, the land received no such assist-
ance. It isa field called the “« Brake Ground ’’—10 acres of ex-
ceedingly stiff clay, valued at 25s. per acre—and was, Michael-
mas, 1839, an awfully foul piece of two years old—I was going to
say seeds—however, it had been down two years; and, for want
of something more fit, I was induced to plough and plant it with
wheat, and a miserable speculation it proved. The seed-time of
that year, as most of us in this part of the country very well re-
member, was exceedingly wet. This, combined with the bad state
of the land, left me no resource but to dibble it; this was done as
well as it could be, and after being twice hoed the following
spring, the crop was as nearly as possible 16 bushels per acre.
Here then was a stubble in the best possible state for burning,
and the weather being dry after harvest, it was skim-ploughed,
and attempted to be dragged, but that was impracticable—it was
so tied together that it could only be parted with forks, which
increased the expense of burning this piece to 50s. per acre; but
it was well repaid: the quantity of ashes burnt could not have
been less, upon by far the greater part of the field, than from 150
to 200 yards per acre. It was then planted, after being ploughed,

12

116 On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils.

with vetches ; but such a crop of crowfoot, charlock, and rubbish
of all descriptions came up the following spring, that I had all
mown off together, and carried to the fold-yard. I then proceeded
to fallow it, but, as if this field was to be unfortunate, the latter
part of the summer proved wet, and it was very imperfectly done,
and after draining was left till April, 1842. The whole of that
month proved dry; the field was forked at an expense of 25s. per
acre, and by that means rendered clean at last. No rain fell till
the night of the llth of May, and on the 12th and 13th it was

drilled with barley, the produce of which, fit for and sold to the
maltster, was 56 bushels per acre. The next crop was beans,
mixed with a few grey peas, and certainly the greatest crop of straw
I had ever seen; what the produce may be I cannot yet say, but
[I shall be enabled to inform you, as it is stacked by itself; but I
should suppose nearly or quite as many bushels as there were of
barley. It is now wheat, without manure; after that crop, my
intention is to take vetches, wheat, clover, wheat—still without
manure—in order to see how severe atest the ashes can bear.
The produce of each corn-crop I shall, if you wish it, be pleased
to give you.

The field to which the inquiries of Sir Robert Throckmorton
referred is called the “‘ Green Hill’’—13 acres of stiff but tolera-
bly productive wheat-land—and will come under what I have said
relative to part of the Barn Ground: it was equally foul, was
burned equally well, was drained, limed, and manured ; and pro-
duced an excellent crop of swedes—no turnips of any kind having
ever been planted upon it before. This was done in 184]. It
has grown barley and seeds since, as good as I could wish, and is
now planted with wheat. I have also a piece planted with wheat,
after vetches, for which the field—11 acres of very bad clay-land
—was burned, and on which no manure has ever been laid: this,
like the Brake Ground, must support itself for some years.

All these pieces of land to which I have now alluded had the
ashes burned and spread upon the field, at the expense, as I have
said, of from 40s. to 50s. per acre; the greater part done with
wood cut from the hedges, the value of which I can scarcely
state. When that was all exhausted (a good deal having also
been used to put upon the tiles in draining) I had recourse to
coal, and can state the expense. Three tons of raked slack,
which costs here from 9s. to 10s. per ton (at the pits 3s.), will
burn in the summer in heaps of about a cart-load each—more
than 100 yards to the acre. I have had in some cases much more
than this done; and as the labour of burning with coal is rather
less than with wood, the whole can be well done at a cost of
31. 10s. per acre.

But there is another mode of procuring ashes, which, though -
somewhat more expensive, has its advantages; these are that it

On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils. 117

can be done at a time of year when the other mode would be im-
practicable from wet, and also that in doing it the banks, bor-
ders, and high headlands, frequently seen in old enclosures, are
remoyed ; it is by burning these in large fires of 50 to 200 yards
with coal, and carting and wheeling the ashes upon the land. I
have done a good deal in this way, and the cost, not including
horse labour, which of course varies with the distance to which
the ashes have to be drawn, is as follows :—

ae

100 yards per acre, labour to burning, at 6d. . 210 0

2 tons of coal, at 9s. 4 : - . 0-0 Loe @
Wheeling and spreading a distance of 50 yards
’ from the heaps, and filling and spreading the

remainder, 100 yards, atl}d. .. - > HES

jor)

£4 0 6

I give you the following as an instance of the effect of this
latter mode.

A field of clay-land, called “ Bitton ’— 20 acres, worth 28s.
per acre—was wheat in 1842. During the following autumn and
winter I had the banks and headlands all round the ground
burned, which produced 2400 yards of ashes, 400 of which were
drawn to another field. Part of the piece, about 5 acres, was
planted with vetches, which were mown while green for fodder
for the sheep, to eat while consuming the turnips upon the other
15; upon these 5 acres a dressing of ashes—100 yards to the.
acre—were spread when the vetches were removed, and after
being cleaned by the requisite ploughings and scufflling, it is now
planted with wheat. The crop upon this portion of the field
must therefore depend entirely upon the ashes: it has derived
no benefit from the vetches. Upon the 15 acres, which were
dressed in like manner during the winter, where no attempt was
ever before made to grow turnips in consequence of the tenacious
quality of the land, and without the aid of manure of any descrip-
tion, except the ashes, I have had a very excellent crop ; and the
most extraordinary part of the matter is that, though the greater
part has been eaten off in the months of October and November
Jast, which were very wet, by nearly 400 sheep constantly kept
upon them, the nature of the soil has been, for a time, so changed
by the ashes that I have been enabled to plough close behind
the sheep, and drill the wheat as fast as ploughed.

I need not multiply these instances further. I have dressed, in
one or other of the modes I have described, upwards of 140 acres,
besides using a large quantity of ashes as bottoms for dung-heaps,
and where it has been done a sufficient length of time to give any
result, the effect has been unvarying.

118 On the Improvement of Cold and Heavy Soils.

With regard to the latter mode, I should observe that success
will depend entirely upon how the ashes are burned. If dug, and
thrown with the spade upon the fires in large pieces, a double
quantity of coal will be consumed, and the ashes of no more value
than so much brick-ends. The proper mode is to move the soil
with a pickaxe, breaking it all the time as much as possible; it
is then put lightly upon the fires with a shovel. I would, how-
ever, advise no one to commence operations in this way without
first seeing how it is done by men who have had some experience ;

“no description would be sufficiently intelligible to enable any one,
a stranger to it, to practise it with success.

That the mechanical effect of ashes in rendering heavy land
friable has a great deal to do with increasing its powers of pro-
duction, there can be no doubt; but it is unfortunately as certain
that their effeet in this way is not so great in subsequent years as
im the first two or three, though it will always be considerable.
This is accounted for by the natural tendency of ashes, like lime,
to sink into the soil. They, therefore, in a few years become in-
corporated with a larger proportion of earth than at first, and
their effect in rendering it more easily workable gradually dimi-
nishes; but that their virtues are not to be attributed to their me-
chanical effect alone, as I have heard it contended, I have proved
by wheeling ashes upon the surface of part of a crop of yetches,
when the part so dressed showed, in the succeeding spring, a
superiority which was distinguishable as far as the field could be
seen, and when the crop was cut (green) while the whole was
heavy, that part to which the ashes were applied was completely
rotten in the bottom.

For those who, like myself, have to undertake the task of
getting a considerable tract of foul and poor clay-land into a
tolerable state of cultivation, there are, to my knowledge, no
means by which it can be accomplished in so short a time, and
with so great a certainty, as by burning: let it be accompanied in
all cases by draining ; let the first crop be a green one, consumed
upon the land ; and the land will be at once established, and may
ever after, at the least possible expense, be maintained im a pro-
ductive state, provided it be kept clean and cropped ima fair and
reasonable manner. !

It will at all times give me pleasure to answer any inquiries
yowor any of your friends may make connected with this subject ;
or to show you or them, during the summer months, the effect
upon the growing crops of the treatment I have endeavoured to
describe.

Ever, my dear Sir, very truly yours,
C, RanveEtt.

Chadbury, Dec. 19th, 1843.

65499...)

VIII.—1. On the Influence of Water on the Temperature of Soils.
2. On the Quantity of Rain-Water and its Discharge by
Drains.

By Jostan Parkes, Consulting Engineer to the Society.
To Ph. Pusey, Esq., M.P.

Dear S1r,—I have at length endeavoured to comply with your
wish to receive an account of the few experiments I made, some
years since, on the temperature of a particular soil ; of the motives
which induced me to enter on them; and of the practical utility
to which an extended series of such experiments may be expected
to lead.

The importance of an inquiry into the physical properties
of different soils, and particularly into the causes affecting their
state of heat and moisture, has been glanced at by various
philosophers and agriculturists; but I am not aware that a
systematic pursuit of it has yet engaged the attention of any
Bnitish experimentalist. Mr. Handley, in his letter to Earl
Spencer, which preceded the formation of the Society, has cited
certain phenomena with which, it must be admitted, we are very
insufficiently acquainted ; and he has pointed out, as still remain-
ing among the mysteries of nature, the action of several of her
most energetic agents. He observes:—‘‘ The experimentalist
might be usefully engaged in determining the temperature of
the earth at its surface, and to the depths accessible to the culti-
vator; the influences exerted by heat, light, and air; how far
they penetrate into the soil, and at what point seeds cease to ger-_
minate. The effects of different culture in promoting the ab-
sorption and retention of caloric; the extent and operation of
capillary attraction; points which, hitherto much disregarded,
evidently act an important part in hastening and perfecting the
maturity of plants; and the study of which appears to be at least
as interesting to mankind as those scientific Jabours which have
been exercised with so much zeal to deduce the intensity of a
central fire from experiments showing the increasing temperature
of the body of the globe, the deeper we bore into it.”*

I have no pretension either to the ability or the knowledge to
fill up these vacua in the science of agriculture; it may appear,
even from the following imperfect observations, that the gaps are
still wider than those above recited; yet I would express my
conviction that there exist no obstacles which should discourage
the possessor of land and leisure from entering on this unexplored

* Letter to Earl Spencer on the Formation of a National Agricultural
Institution. 1838.

120 On the Influence of Water

field of investigation; but, on the contrary, there is reason to
anticipate that his labours would be made in a land of promise,
and that they would be abundantly repaid.

Previously to detailing my own and other very limited experi-
ments on the temperature of soils, it may be well to consider
some of the operations of the husbandman, their intent, and the
manner in which the heat and moisture of a soil may be affected
by them. The two principal agricultural processes, upon which,
perhaps, the fertility of land depends as much as on the
_artificial aids now so scientifically and beneficially applied to
it, are drainage and pulverization.* These mechanical opera-
tions are practically known to be indispensable to the full deve-
lopment of the natural powers of soils, as well as to the profit-
able employment of the numerous and costly stimulants latterly
introduced into agriculture ; and it is my present object to show
that the temperature of soil is materially influenced by the per-
fection of these processes; and that each particular soil is bene-
fited by them, according to the degree in which it may require to
be artificially drained or worked. You have forcibly remarked
that “all who are acquainted with improved husbandry are now
agreed that, on wet land, thorough-draiming is to a farm what a
foundation is to a house.’*+ Water, mdeed, forms an essential
element in soil, but there may be as much difference, in re-
spect of fertility, between a wet soil and a moist one—though they
be identical in other respects—as between a swamp and a garden.
By drainage and pulverization the proper degree of humidity is
to be attained in most soils ; for, though it is wisely ordained that
we cannot control the precipitation of rain, we do possess the
power of regulating, within certain limits, the quantity of moisture
to be retained by the earth, and of adjusting it, as it were, to
the quality of the soil, and to the requirements of vegetation.

Physical Action of Water.

The consideration of the well-known effect of drainage on soils
surcharged with water, naturally leads to an examination of the
causes of the change produced in them by so simple an operation.
A soil perfectly dry, or one perfectly wet, 2. e. constantly drenched
with water, would be nearly alike sterile; and we may conceive
that some certain proportions may exist between the amounts of

* The term drainage is here used in an extensive sense, not confining it
to the construction of artificial conduits for water, nor to its application on
those soils only which are reputed as wet. The mere acts of digging,
ploughing, and working soils reputed as dry, do, in reality, effect drainage
by opening channels for the descent of water from the superficial to the
lower strata.

+ Journal, yol. iii, p. 170.

3

on the Temperature of Soils. 121

heat and moisture adapted, so far as their agency is concerned,
for bringing a given soil, in a given latitude or situation, to its
maximum state of fertility. The researches of different philo-
sophers haye elucidated the laws which pertain to water, in
its several states, as a fluid, a solid, and a vapour or steam.
There is, probably, no natural substance which has been inves-
tigated with greater success, and there is perhaps no other sub-
stance which performs more numerous or more important parts
in its action on soil, and in the economy of vegetable life, than
water. In its chemical relations to the solid, saline, and gaseous
constituents of soil there may still be something to discover ;
but its physical properties as regards heat, its operation as a
solvent, and its mechanical laws, are sufficiently ascertained to
enable us to understand, and explain satisfactorily, the various
benefits that are afforded to wet soils by drainage.

If a soil be saturated with water, the nobler classes of plants
cannot flourish; they vegetate more or less imperfectly, until the
quantity of water be so diminished as to suit their habits. The
reduction of the excess of water to the due proportion can only
be effected, naturally, by its gradual evaporation, 7. e. by its
conversion into vapour; and its transition from the fluid to the
aériform state is accompanied by the absorption of so large a
quantity of heat from the soil in contact with it, that it may be
convenient to consider its action in this respect first, and to en-
deavour to appreciate its amount.

When water is set over a fire in an open vessel, its temperature,
as indicated by the thermometer, cannot be made by any force of
fire to exceed 212°, under the mean atmospheric pressure of about
30 inches of mercury. The temperature of the water then be-
comes stationary, and the heat of the fire is afterwards expended
in converting the water into steam or vapour. The temperature
of the steam continues to be precisely that of the water, and it
has been found that it requires about six times as much heat to
boil off any given volume of water as would raise the temperature
of that volume from 50° to 212°. Hence it is concluded that the
difference, or 162 x 6 = 972 degrees of heat, have passed through
the water, and entered into the composition of every atom of steam,
Steam, therefore, has a much greater capacity for heat than water.
These continual accessions of heat are absorbed by the steam in
the act of its formation, and become what is termed Jatent, 7. e.
insensible to the thermometer, which, plunged in the steam,
marks only the same temperature as that of the water from which
it was generated, viz., 212°. This latter is termed the sensible or
thermometric heat of the steam. That the whole of the heat thus
expended in changing water from its fluid into its gaseous state,
has entered into the steam, is proved, conversely, by condensing a

122 On the Influence of Water

given weight of steam in water, when it is found that a pound of
steam will raise about 6 lbs. of water from 50° to the boiling-
point.

Water is vaporizable at all temperatures when exposed to the
atmosphere. Its expulsion from the earth does even, under
certain circumstances, continue when the atmosphere is replete
with moisture, or at what is termed the dew-point. And it is
most important to observe that at however low a temperature the
water in the soil, or that of the atmosphere incumbent on it may
be, at which vapour is formed and expelled, the same amount
of heat is carried off by a given weight of vapour, as if it had been
generated in the open vessel over the fire above referred to, or in
the close boiler of a high-pressure steam-engine. A practical
confirmation of the truth of this law has been obtained by eva-
porating water under widely different pressures, when it appeared
that the same weight of fuel (or measure of heat) was consumed
in converting equal bulks of water into steam at all those different
pressures. It is ascertained that it requires as much heat as
2 or 3 oz. of coal will produce, to convert 1 lb. of water into
vapour: it is, therefore, evident what an enormous quantity of
heat must be taken from the soil in cases where water is allowed
to remain stagnant upon it till it evaporates.

As heat is generally considered to be an imponderable body,
we are without the means of ascertaining directly, by weight or
measure, the quantity of heat absorbed from soil by the evapora-
tion of water. The following illustration of it will, however, be
familiar enough to the mind of the engineer, and will also, I
think, enable intelligent farmers to form an idea of its immense
amount.

If we suppose the rain falling on the surface of an acre of land
in a year to be 30 inches in perpendicular depth, it would amount
to 108,900 cubic feet = 3038 tons; which, spread over a twelve-
month, gives an average of 298 cubic feet = 84 tons, or 18,647 lbs.
per diem. This weight of water would require, for its diurnal
evaporation—supposing it were all carried off by that means—
the combustion of about 24 ewt. of coals, as ordinarily used under
a steam-boiler, or | cwr. PER HOUR PER ACRE throughout the
year! We thus obtain some idea of the abstraction of heat from
Jand under the circumstances of perfect aqueous repletion and
stagnation, and there are too many soils approaching to them. We
may also imagine the depression of the terrestrial temperature
consequent on the abstraction of so much heat from the mass of
the soil—a depression which must ever be in proportion to the
excess of water present in a soil, over and above the due comple-
ment required for the supply of vegetation. Soils in that state
must necessarily be very cold in the spring months, and much

on the Temperature of Soiis. 123

colder at the time of the commencement of vegetation, and
throughout the summer, than well drained or naturally drier lands.
If we knew the capacity for heat of any given soil, and the weight
of water mixed with it in excess, over the proper complement ne-
cessary for vegetation, it would be easy to determine, very nearly,
the depression of temperature caused by its evaporation. We
know that the heat of a pound of water in its gaseous state, that
is, as steam, would raise the temperature of about 1000 lbs. of
water one degree; so that if the specific heats of the solid and
fluid bodies were alike, the evaporation of a pound of water would
keep down the temperature of 1000 lbs. of earth one degree; of
500 lbs., two degrees ; and so on.

Secondly ; excess of humidity obstructs the absorption of heat
by the solid matter of the soil. Water in a quiescent state is one
of the worst conductors of heat with which we are acquainted.
If it be warmed on the surface—and it derives, when mixed with
soil, nearly all its heat from the sun’s rays—water transmits little
or no heat downwards.

If a mass of water be heated from below, the whole quickly
attains an uniform temperature by reason of the motion excited
amongst its particles. The lowest stratum, when heated, becomes
of less specific gravity than that resting upon it, and the heavier
superincumbent portions descend and push that which has been
warmed upwards. In this manner rapid circulation is induced.
If, on the contrary, it be heated from above, 7. e. on the surface,
the film of warmed water floats on the top, by virtue of its superior
levity, and no heat is conveyed below; there is no circulation
from above downwards. Much of the heat of the sun’s rays is,
therefore, prevented by excess of water from entering into, and
being transmitted through, the mass of the soil.

Thirdly; water is a powerful radiator of heat, 7. e. it cools
quickly. All bodies, whether fluid or solid, possess peculiar
powers of emitting or radiating heat, and water was esteemed by
the late Professor Leslie—in which opinion he has been joined by
other philosophers—to stand at the head of radiating substances.

The phenomena of the production of cold by radiation and
evaporation are elegantly exemplified by the well-known experi-
ment of exposing water, warm enough to give off visible vapour, in
one saucer, and an equal bulk of water drawn from a well in
another saucer. The former, on a sharp frosty morning, will be
found to exhibit ice the soonest.* The cooling powers of evapo-
ration and radiation combined, and of radiation chiefly, or solely,
are represented in this experiment by the order of congelation in

* Boiling water thrown on the ground will freeze sooner than cold
water.

124 On the Influence of Water

the two vessels in time; but the difference in the quantity of
heat emitted from each of them is immense, as appears from
what is stated above with reference to the constituent heat of
vapour.

Fourthly; as the temperature of water diminishes during the
night, or in the day time, according to the varying conditions of
the atmosphere, by radiating its heat to the heavens, its specific
gravity increases ; and the superficial stratum, which is first cooled,
immediately descends by reason of its augmented density. This
film of cooled and heavier water is as quickly replaced by rela-
tively warmer and lighter portions which become cooled in turn,
and successively sink. Water, therefore, though a non-conductor
of heat downwards, when warmed on the surface, becomes a ready
vehicle of cold in that direction when cooled on its surface; and
this cooling process may even continue, under fitting circum-
stances, until the whole of a given mass is reduced to the low tem-
perature of 42°, at which point water attains its maximum den-
sity. The further descent of cold through this process would then
cease; but the refrigeration occasioned by it must affect all soils,
to a greater or less degree, which hold water in excess, 7. e. when
in a state of stagnancy near to the surface. Those soils only can
be exempt from this chilling influence which are not naturally
retentive of water, or which are artificially and deeply drained.

Thus, excess of water conduces to the production of cold in
soil, by means of several independent, vigorous, and ever active
properties.

On the other hand, when a soil is naturally so porous, or is
brought into such condition by art, that rain-water can sink down
into the earth, it becomes a carrier, an alert purveyor, instead of
a robber of heat; and tends to raise, permanently, the tempera-
ture of the mass of useful soil; and this more particularly and
beneficially during the vegetative season. Rain-water, at that
time, conveys downwards the more elevated superficial heat of
the soil, and imparts it to the subsoil in its course to the drains ;
it leaves the soil in a fit state to receive fresh doses of rain, dew,
and air, and in a better condition to absorb and retain heat, at the
same time that it promotes, in other ways, its fertility and produc-
tiveness; but a consideration of the chemical effects attributable
to the continual circulation and renewal of water and air is foreign
to the present discussion.

In order to render the change of water perfect, and its action
uniform throughout a field, all anil should be deeper than the
active or worked soil, and covered. If drains are open, much of the
rain precipitated on the surface necessarily passes into them, before
it has permeated the whole mass; consequently, it carries off with
it heat, which would have been usefully employed in warming the

on the Temperature of Soils. 125

lower strata; and it may, at the same time, remove fertilizing
matter. If drains are not deeper than the worked bed, water
remains below in a stagnant state, which must chill the roots of
plants, and diminish the temperature of the superincumbent mass.

Gardeners and florists are well aware of the injurious influence
of water when supplied constantly to the pan instead of to the
surface of the soil in the flower-pot; and bottom water, as it is
frequently and very appropriately called, produces the same ill
effects when stagnating too near the surface of the great agricul-
tural bed.

Superficial drainage is comparatively of little value, and is, per-
haps, exemplified in its worst practical form by land tortured on
the ridge and furrow system. When land is permanently culti-
vated in high ridges, the crowns can obtain but partial benefit from
the action of rain. The gradation from the comparative dryness
and warmth of the summit, to the suffocating wetness and coldness
of the furrows, is commonly evidenced by the state of the crops
grown on land so disposed.*

Physical Properties of Earthy Matter.

The influence of drainage and pulverization on the temperature
of soils is, necessarily, dependent on the habits and constitu-
tion of the solid as well as of the fluid matter composing or
mixed with the soil. The variety of substances which enter
into its composition; their peculiar structure; the state of their
division or size of their particles; their colour; their respective
powers of absorbing, conducting, and radiating heat; their bibu-
lousness; all these properties conspire to the determination of
the temperature of a given soil: and these properties are irre-
spective of Jatitude or locality. Chemists have informed us of the
specific heat, of the absorbing and radiating energy of various
earths, and of many soluble and insoluble bodies, when submitted
separately to investigation; but we possess little or no knowledge
of these relations, when such various substances are blended to-
gether, as we find them to exist in the agricultural bed. It is there
we should seek for information; it is on the mass of the soil itself

* It would be curious—but, possibly, more curious than useful—to learn
the origin of this remarkable artificial configuration given to land, which
is, I fancy, peculiar to England and to particular counties. One would
think that this system must have been invented previous to the discovery
that water would find its way into cut drains; or, the inventor may have
considered rain as his greatest enemy, and that he ought to prevent its
entrance into the soil and get rid of it as soon as possible. I once put the
question, as to the utility of this process, to a few farmers in Cheshire with
whom I was in company. Their notion was that an undulating, being
greater than a plane surface, more stuff would grow onit. It stood to
reason that such must be the case! This was debated at great length, I
contending it was a fallacy. On a division I was left in a minority of one.

:

126 On the Influence of Water

practical men should experiment, to ascertain the facts in question.
Nevertheless, the labours of the laboratory are not to be rejected ;
it is by their agency, chiefly, that we have acquired our complete
knowledge of the phenomena of water; and investigations con-
ducted in the closet may materially aid the experimentalist in the
field. I have extracted the following opimions and researches
from the works of two distinguished British philosophers, as they
relate to the affinity to moisture and heat of many bodies found
in soil, and illustrate this division of the subject.

Professor Leslie, who added largely to our knowledge of the
phenomena of heat and moisture, thus introduces the mention of
his experiments on the hygrometric powers of some of the earths,
which, for the sake of brevity and perspicuity, are collected in
the following table :—

“* Absorbent substances, besides assimilating to their essence a portion
of the liquid which touches them, are likewise disposed to attract,
though with various energy, the humidity of the atmosphere. The more
solid, as well as the softer, materials exert this power, and which is
exactly analogous to that of the concentrated acids and the deliquescent
salts. In their several affinities to moisture the earthy bodies discover
the most essential differences of constitution. ‘To examine these pro-
perties, let the substance be dried thoroughly, and almost roasted before
a strong fire, and introduced immediately into a phial with a close
stopper; the powder having undergone that sort of preparation is, at
any time afterwards, thrown partially into a very large wide-shaped
bottle, and shut up till it has attracted its share of humidity from the -
confined air; and a delicate hygrometer being now let into the bottle,
indicates the measure of the effect produced by absorption.”

Degrees of Moisture

Absorbed from Air
at about 60°.

Clay, very highly torrefied . . ; : pat ie
Silica, ditto : . = , : ha dS
Whinstone ditto ‘ r 5 F . -u'2e
Carbonate of strontites . ‘ = : P ny ee
Carbonate of barytes . . . : ‘ - 32
Clay, strongly roasted . 35
Silica, soaked in water, and dried after high torrefaction 35
Silica, in its natural state . 2 . - 40
Carbonate of lime é . ‘ F ‘ «Hd
Shelly sea-sand . = ‘ ; . ‘ 5 10
Carbonate of magnesia . . : ‘ 3 «| HS
Sea-sand, from a sheep-walk . . . : - 18
Whinstone, in its natural state ; ; : Prat .!
Alumina . ; * 4 ‘ : F . 84
Pipeclay . . ‘ : ; ‘ .» J86
Sea-sand, cultivated ; j ; , <etBS
Whinstone, in a crumbling state ‘ é : s +86

Ditto, reduced to mould ’ - 92
Garden mould . : ; ; ; ° » 95

on the Temperature of Soils. 127
Leslie remarks that “the absorbent power of the earths

mds as much on their mechanical condition as on the species
of matter of which they are composed. Whatever tends to
harden them diminishes the measure of their effect; and hence,
apparently, the reason why the action of fire impairs their desic-
cating quality.”*

Useful as is this contribution to the philosophy of soils, it must
be deemed very remarkable that the ingenious author altogether
omitted to investigate the relation of the same substances to the
absorption of heat as well as moisture. The importance of ascer-
taiming- these double relations did not, however, escape the
sagacity of Davy, who preceded Leslie in this research, and
whose remarks are so pertinent, and possess such intrinsic worth,
that I trust the citation of them will not be thought tedious :—

“ Many soils are popularly distinguished as co/d ; and the distinction,
though at first view it may appear to be founded on prejudice, is really

ust.
me Some soils are much more heated by the rays of the sun, all other
circumstances being equal, than others ; and soils brought to the same
degree of heat cool in different times, ¢.e. some cool much faster than

“This property has been little attended to in a philosophical point of
view, yet itis of the highest importance in agriculture. In general, soils
that consist principally of a stiff white clay are heated with difficulty ;
and, being usually very moist, they retain their heat only for a short
time. Chalks are similar in one respect—that they are difficult to heat;
but, being drier, they retain their heat longer, less being consumed in
causing the evaporation of their moisture.

** A black soil, containing much soft vegetable matter, is most heated
by the sun and air; and the coloured soils, and the soils containing
much carbonaceous matter, or ferruginous matter, exposed under equal
circumstances to the sun, acquire a much higher temperature than pale-
coloured soils.

“ When soils are perfectly dry, those that most rapidly become heated
by the solar rays likewise cool most rapidly, their power of losing heat
by radiation being the greatest; but I have ascertained by experiment,
that the darkest-coloured dry soil (that which contains abundance of
animal or vegetable matter—substances which most facilitate the dimi-
ution of temperature), when heated to the same degree, provided it be
within the common limits of the effect of solar heat, will cool more
slowly than a wet pale soil, entirely composed of earthy matter.

“ I found that a rich black mould, which contained one-fourth of the
“peo matter, had its temperature increased in an hour from 65° to

by exposure to sunshine, whilst a chalk soil was heated only to 69°
under the same circumstances. But the mould removed into the shade,
where the temperature was 62°, lost, in half an hour, 15°; whereas the
chalk, under the same circumstances, had lost only 4°.

* Leslie, on Heat and Moisture, p. 96, 1818.

128 On the Influence of Water

“‘ A brown fertile soil and a cold barren clay were each artificially
heated to 88°, having been previously dried. They were then exposed
in a temperature of 57°. In half an hour the dark soil was found to
have lost 9° of heat; the clay had lost only 6°. An equal portion of the
clay containing moisture, after being heated to 88°, was exposed in a
temperature of 55°. In less than a quarter of an hour it was found to
have gained the temperature of the room.* The soils, in all these expe-
riments, were placed in small tin-plate trays, two inches square, and half
an inch in depth; and the temperature ascertained by a delicate ther-
mometer.

“* Nothing can be more evident than that the genial heat of the soil,
particularly in spring, must be of the highest importance to the rising
plant; and when the leaves are fully developed, the ground is shaded,
and any injurious influence, which in the summer might be expected from
too great a heat, entirely prevented: so that the temperature of the sur-
face, when bare, and exposed to the rays of the sun, affords at least one
indication of the degrees of its fertility; and the thermometer may be
sometimes a useful instrument to the purchaser or improver of lands,
&c.”—Agricultural Chemistry.

The chapter containing these experiments and opinions of Sir
Humphry Davy will supply many other useful hints for the
guidance of the experimentalist in his inquiry into the causes of
the varying temperature of soils. I will select only one other
short extract from the well known lectures of this eminent man,
as it records information touching the affinity of some particular
soils to moisture, the fertility and rent-value of which he quotes
as being pretty nearly in the ratio of their hygrometric powers.T
The soils were first dried at a temperature of 212°, and then
exposed to air saturated with moisture at 62°:—

* A remarkable confirmation of what has been before stated of the chill-
ing effect of evaporation.—J. P.

+ Schiibler has criticised this opinion of Davy’s (Journal, vol. i. p. 197). He
observes, ‘The assumption of Davy that this capacity of absorption possessed
by a soil was to be received as a conclusive proof of its fertility, is liable,
therefore, to many exceptions ; and, if applied without modification, might
easily mislead.” Excepting in one instance, Schubler’s experiments appear
to confirm, very closely, Davy’s observation,—* I have compared the ab-
sorbent powers of many soils with respect to atmospheric moisture, and I
have always found it greatest in the most fertile soils: so that it affords one
method of judging of the productiveness of Jand.” Ihave not noticed that
Davy has anywhere spoken of it as a conclusive method. Davy, Leslie, and
Schibler all agree on the fact of garden mould being the most absorbent
of all soils. Davy specially excepted the case of a pure clay; and Schiibler
also instances that earth, as an exception to the general Jaw deduced by
both philosophers, that the fertility of soils is pretty much in the ratio of
their powers of absorbing and retaining moisture. Schiibler has made a
step in advance of Davy, by his elaborate experiments tending to establish
the fact that moisture in earth is a preparation for its absorption of oxygen.
and consequently that the attraction of soils for moisture is a property of
first-rate importance to agriculture.

|
}

on the Temperature of Soils. 129

Gain of moisture

in an hour.
Grains.
* 1000 grains of acelebrated soil from Ormistown, in
East Lothian. ; : ; ‘ th ee
1000 grains of a very fertile soil from the banks of
the river Parrett, in Somersetshire - et 16
1000 grains of a soil from Mersea, in Essex . es:
1000 grains of a fine sand from Essex : Ake
1000 grains of a coarse sand. : one

1000 grains of a soil from Bagshot Heath . re 5

In reflecting on the results of these isolated experiments, and
on the conclusions drawn from the consideration of some single
property of soils (whether they be just or otherwise), the philo-
sophic miad cannot fail to perceive how infinitely more valuable
such experiments would be to the agriculturist were they com-
bined with direct indications of the actual constitution of the same
soils in their natural state, and under culture, as regards their
attraction for heat and moisture. May it not be reasonably ex-
pected that a well-conducted series of experiments on these phe-
nomena would illustrate some of the causes which conduce to
render certain soils in a higher latitude more productive than
others ina more southern one? Might they not serve to detect
fallacies in reasoning or practice—to show, possibly, that effects
have been attributed to wrong causes—and to unfold to our per-
ception a clearer and more correct knowledge of the workings of
nature ?

_ From the foregoing review of the physical properties of soils,
in relation to heat and moisture, and of the action of water in
warming or cooling them, it will be seen that a very remarkable
difference obtains between the properties of the fluid and solid
bodies. It appears that water absorbs heat rapidly, but can only
convey it downwards by itself descending into the earth; that
the heat which it receives from the solar rays is again projected
into the atmosphere by radiation, and in combination with vapour,
when it remains stagnant on or near to the surface; whereas,
solid substances impart the heat which they absorb to all sur-
rounding matter, in all directions (though with different de-
grees of rapidity), as well as to the atmosphere. There is yet
another important effect arising from the radiating force of solids
to notice. As the sun verges towards the horizon, the superficial
layer of the earth becomes colder than the atmosphere, causing
the precipitation of dew, which the affinity of earthy matters to
moisture enables them to absorb, and thereby to recruit in part,
by night, the loss of moisture which has taken place during the
day. Water also radiates heat powerfully, but it does not attract
moisture to itself, except under very peculiar and rare circum-
VOL. V. K

130 On the Influence of Water

stances: hence, again, the advantage of drainage. These im-
portant processes, viz., the absorption of moisture, and the radiation
of heat, will be carried on with more or less energy in proportion
to the mherent qualities of a soil, to its state of mechanical pre-
paration, and te the proper adjustment of its supply of water.

Cause and Physical Action of Dew.

The quantity of moisture attracted from the atmosphere, in the
form of dew, is unknown; but the cause, and many of the laws of
its formation, deposition, and physical action, have been disclosed
to us by the talents and Jabours of Dr. Wells, whose experiments
and Essay on this subject stand almost unrivalled in the records
of science, as examples of skilful investigation and profound in-
duction.* Previously to the conclusive experiments of his admir-
able philosopher, the formation of dew was held to be the cause
of the cold observed with it, and he originally entertained the
same opinion.

“ But,” he observes, “I began to see reason, not long after my re-
gular course of experiments commenced, to doubt its truth, as I found
that bodies would sometimes become colder than the air, without being
dewed; and that, when dew was formed, if different times were com-
pared, its quantity, and the degree of cold which appeared with it, were
very far from being always in the same proportion to each other. The
frequent recurrence of such observations at length converted the doubt
of the justness of my ancient opinion into a conviction of its error, and
at the same time occasioned me to conclude that dew is the production
of a preceding cold in the substances on which it appears.”

Further—

“ that the cold which produces dew is itself produced by the radiation of
heat from those bodies upon which dew is deposited.”

Thus it was discovered that an effect had heretofore been mis-
taken for a cause ; and the explanation of the various phenomena
connected with the subject, afforded by this theory, has since
remained unchallenged, and is admitted to be incontrovertible.

Besides the determination of the immediate cause of dew, Dr.

* The original ‘ Essay on Dew,’ which appeared in 1814, is very scarce,
but is republished in the ‘ Works of Dr. Wells’ (1818), containing a memoir
of his life, written by himself.

A distinguished living philosopher thus writes of this theory, after
making a concise but searching analysis of it:—* We have spe ei se-
lected this theory of dew, first developed by the late Dr. Wells, as one of
the most beautiful specimens of inductive experimental inquiry lying
within a moderate compass. It is not possible, in so brief a space, to do it
justice ; but we earnestly recommend his work (a short and entertainin
one) for perusal to the student of natural philosophy, as a model wit
which he will do well to become familiar.”—Discourse on the Study of
Natural Philosophy, by Sir J. F. Herschel, 1832, p. 163.

i pv
a

on the Temperature of Soils. 131

Wells ascertained, among other phenomena affecting the tempe-
rature of soils, that the attraction of substances for water is not
exactly proportional to their radiating energy ; and that—

“the formation of dew not only does not produce cold, but, like every
precipitation of water from the atmosphere, produces heat.”

As the earth becomes colder than the atmosphere on dewy
nights, by reason of its radiating energy, and as the moisture sus-
pended in the latter possesses the atmospheric temperature, dew,
with respect to the surface of the earth, is warm. Were it not that
this antagonist warming process counteracts, on cloudless and serene
nights, the rapid escape of heat from the earth by radiation, it is pro-
bable that the temperature of the soil would be depressed, during
the sun’s absence, by a greater amount than it is elevated during its
presence ; and that the extremes of heat and cold, or the vicissitudes
of temperature, during 24 hours, might be so great as to destroy
vegetable life in the summer season. The least experienced ob-
server may easily satisfy himself of the superior cold of the earth’s
surface on clear nights, relatively to that of the atmosphere.
Hoar-frost, which is frozen dew, frequently forms on grass when
the thermometer in the air indicates a temperature some degrees
higher than the freezing point; a phenomenon showing that the
earth, or the leaves of plants, were colder than the atmosphere,
and below the freezing point, when the deposition took place. In
Bengal, ice is (or was) procured artificially, on a large scale, and
for profit, by exposing water to the sky in porous earthen pans
placed in shallow pits. The difference of temperature between
the air and the water, at the time of its congelation, has often been
observed, on clear serene nights, to amount to 14°, and even 16°.
The air near the ground must then have had a temperature of
about 46° or 48°.

The genius of Davy would appear to have almost divined the
mystery of dew-making, even before the complete revelation of
its true and only cause by Dr. Wells, as may be gathered from
the following profound remark :—

“The power of soils to absorb water from air is much connected with
fertility. When this power is great, the plant is supplied with moisture
in dry seasons; and the effect of evaporation in the day is counteracted
by the absorption of aqueous vapour from the atmosphere, by the
interior parts of the soil during the day, and by both the exterior and
interior during the night.”—Agricultural Chemistry.

If a soil be sufficiently permeable to air, and not saturated with
water, it isin a state to receive accessions of moisture from the
atmosphere, which is a constant and inexhaustible vehicle of humi-
dity ; and if the temperature of a sufficiently porous subsoil be at,
or below the dew-point, as will frequently be the case during
some portion of the day, in the summer season, the process of de-

KZ

132 On the Influence of Water

positing dew will take place in “ the interior parts of the scil
during the day,’’ at the same time that the exterior, or surface of
the ground, may be projecting both heat and moisture into the
atmosphere. This process is evidently dependent on the relative
temperatures and degrees of aqueous repletion of the air and sub-
soil ata given time; and independent of the hygrometric power
of the latter, which is, however, a potent auxiliary to the acquisi-
tion and retention of atmospheric moisture by soil, particularly in
its interior parts. Thus, it is apparent that the acquisition of
moisture by soils in the form of dew, is not limited to the period
of the night only, nor to the surface of the earth; and it has been
shown that the precipitation of dew cannot take place without
the communication of heat to the recipient substance : hence, the
importance of sufficient pulverization to permit access and change
of air to the interior parts of soil. One of the most beneficial
effects of drainage may be also safely presumed to arise from its
facilitating the access, and change, of air to the very bottom of
the bed; as, in proportion to the escape of water, so will be the
entrance of the air, which will, part passu, occupy the place
vacated by the water.

Every observant farmer must have remarked that the amount
of dew precipitated during the same night varies greatly on
different soils in fallow, and still more on the leaves of dif-
ferent plants. Well pulverised soils attract much more dew
than those which are close and compact, as the radiation of
heat is effected from many more points in highly comminuted
than plane surfaces. Sands appear to be powerful attractors,
and in some countries to depend altogether on the nightly depo-
sition of moisture for the support of vegetation, An extreme
example of the derivation of the aqueous element from dew
alone, and of its highly fertilising qualities, is afforded by the fact
that, on the sandy plains of Chili, rain is scarcely ever known to
fall ; yet that soil, which under other circumstances would be
sterile, is maintained in a productive state by the active forces
of radiation and absorption. The temperature of the soil is
moderated during the period of the sun's action by the large
amount of heat carried off combined with vapour; whilst the ex-
hausted humidity is replaced by dew, deposited during the re-
splendent nights of that tropical region. Instances are also on
record of the flourishing growth of trees in Africa on sandy dis-
tricts, never refreshed by rain nor springs, nor by artificial sup-
plies of water: whilst soils of another nature, in the same latitude,
and not far distant, require irrigation to enable them to sustain
vegetable life.

It is to the copious dews of our own country that we have in great
measure to attribute the productiveness of the meadows border-

~

on the Temperature of Soils. 133

ing stteams and rivers. The atmosphere, in the neighbour-
hood of currents of water, becomes more highly charged with
aqueous vapour than that of the uplands; and as the air trans-
ports and disperses this moisture over the adjoining fields, it
is condensed and precipitated during the night by the process
discovered and illustrated by Dr. Wells.* The finely-di-
vided and filamentous structure of the grasses renders them, in
addition to their demand for aqueous nutriment, peculiarly
suitable for culture in these localities. It is worthy of notice that
the leaves of different plants appear to act in somewhat different
ways as to their mode of receiving and disposing of dew. A
blade of grass is sometimes spangled over with dew-drops, but it
usually becomes wetted throughout its whole surface by the run-
ning together of the drops, and thus conducts the water to the
earth in minute streamlets; whereas, the leaves of the clover,
cabbage, nasturtium, and many other plants, will be found to col-
lect it in distinct globules, which may be rolled about on the leaf
without appearing to moisten it. These drops, in fact, do not
touch the leaf, but rest and roll upon a pillow of air interposed
between them and the substance of the leaf. I have not unfre-
quently procured a tea-cup full of dew, early in the morning,
from the leaves of a single cabbage-plant; and, on very trans-
lucent nights, I have seen, whilst watching this elegant and in-
teresting process, the tender clover-leaf bend beneath the weight
of its crystal load, discharge it on the ground, and immediately
begin to accumulate another globule. In the course of three or
four hours I have observed as many collections and discharges
of dew by the same leaf. The gradual diminution of the size of
these drops of water, by evaporation, as the sun exerts its influ-
ence, has often struck me to be the means provided by nature for
preparing plants to sustain his increasingly-ardent rays without
injury; and itis generally after nights of copious deposition of
dew that the mornings are the brightest, and the sun’s heat the
most powerful. Cup-formed and horizontal leaves and flowers
seem to retain all, or nearly all, their collected dew for their spe-
cial use, as if it were more beneficial to them when so applied than
to their roots.

* The French expression, that a river bedews (arrose) a country, is more
correet than the English one, that it waters it. The watering of land is,
properly, an artificial, the bedewing of it, a natural, process. The dis-
tance from its banks to which a river can saturate soil with water is rarely
great; though it is in this acceptation that Ihave known many persons
and authors to understand and use the phrase watering. A river, dee
within its banks, will bedew a country as well as one bank-full; but the
former acts as a drain to the Jand, and therefore does not directly moisten
the surface of the soil. The term watering, in agriculture, should be
limited to what we understand by irrigation.

134 On the Influence of Water

Popular belief is often founded on correct observation, and
sound practice is not unfrequently in advance of science. It also
not uncommonly happens that the evidence of practical truths is
received with scepticism, because we are unable, immediately, to
“interpret nature,” and frame a satisfactory theory or explanation
of the origin of particular phenomena. Hence the discovery of
causes is of the highest importance to the arts, and a correct
theory of any action so rapidly accelerates, extends, and perfects
sound practice, that we cannot too highly prize its possession.
This admitted truth, together with the rarity of Dr. Wells's « Essay,’
will, I trust, form a sufficient excuse for introducing the mention
of phenomena explained by his theory of dew, which, though not
directly affecting the soil itself, are of no slight consequence to
the cultivators of the soil :—

“The bare mention of this article,” Dr. Wells observes, “will be
apt to excite ridicule, it being an attempt to show in what way the
exposure of animal substances to the moon’s light promotes their
putrefaction.

“I have no certain knowledge that such an opinion prevails any-
where at present, except in the West Indies; but I conclude, from
various circumstances, that it exists also in Africa, and that it was car-
ried thence by negro slaves to America. It was entertained, however,
by persons of considerable rank and intelligence among the ancients ;
for Pliny affirms it to be true, and Plutarch, after making it a subject
of discussion in one of his Symposia, admits it to be well founded.

“As moonbeams communicate no sensible heat to the bodies on
which they fall, it seems impossible that they can, directly, promote
putrefaction. But still a reason for ascribing such a power to them
may be derived from their being received by animal substances at the
very time that a real but generally unnoticed cause of putrefaction in
warm climates (and it is in these alone the opinion I am treating of has
ever prevailed) is taking place, which ceases to act as soon as the moon’s

_light is excluded.

‘““The nights on which a steady moonshine occurs must necessarily
be clear, and nights which are clear are almost always calm. A moon-
shiny night, therefore, is one on which dew forms plentifully ; hence
the expressions ‘ roscida’ and ‘rorifera luna,’ employed by. Virgil and
Statius ; and hence also an opinion, held, as appears from Plutarch,
even by philosophers among the ancients, that the moon communicates
moisture to the bodies which are exposed to its light. }

“ Animal substances are among those which acquire dew in the great-
est quantity. To do this, indeed, they must previously become colder
than the atmosphere; but, having acquired the moisture of dew, in
addition to their own, they will, on the following day, be in that condi-
tion which is known by experience to favour putrefaction most power-
fully in hot climates.

“The immediate cause assigned here for the putrefaction of animal
substances which have been exposed to the moon’s rays in a hot country,

on the Temperature of Soils. 135

is the same as that given by Pliny and Plutarch ; but they attributed
the origin of this immediate cause, the additional moisture, to the pe-
culiar humefying quality which they supposed that luminary to possess.
This false theory has probably contributed to discredit, with the moderns,
the circumstance which it was employed to explain.” —Essay on Dew.

The belief that moonshiny or clear and dewy nights advance
the process of putrefaction is not altogether confined to the an-
cients or to tropical climates, as was supposed by Dr. Wells. I had
personally noticed the phenomenon of an increased putrefactive
vigour in dungheaps, after nights of a copious precipitation of
dew, succeeded by hot days, some years before I was acquainted
with Dr. Wells's ‘ Essay ;’ and I frequently conversed on this
subject with an intelligent and observant farmer near Warwick,
who corroborated my idea that such was the fact. Several far-
mers have recently confirmed this early opinion ; and it is very
common in France, among the numerous peasant-farmers near
Paris. During a residence of several years in that country, my
house being surrounded by small, unenclosed, and variously-
cropped plots of ground, with a heap of night-soil or dung usually
contiguous to each, the sense of smell somewhat too frequently
imformed me of extreme activity in the putrefactive process. On
inquiring of the peasants how it happened that, on certain morn-
ings, the odour was so pungent, they commonly replied, “ It is
owing to the dew of last night, Sir ;’ but I do not recollect that
any one of them imputed the effect to the moonbeams.

A knowledge of all that is requisite for the perfect preparation
and management of dung is yet a desideratum in agriculture.
Means of accelerating and retarding, at will, the putrefactive
process, are much needed. The study of this art is certainly
worthy of closer attention, and more exact experiment, than it has
yet received. A movable roof-shelter might be a useful adjunct
to the sunken pit, or raised mass, in order to obtain command
over the meteorological agents—air, heat, and water; each of
which performs a part in the process ; and more frequently to the
injury than to the benefit of that species of manure which.
home-made, and the most natural, if not the most beneficial, to
the farmer.

“T had often,” says Dr. Wells, “in the pride of half-knowledge,
smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners to protect tender
plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible that a thin mat, or any
such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be
injured. But, when I had learned that bodies on the surface of the
earth become, during a still and serene night, colder than the atmos-
phere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived immediately
a just reason for the practice, which I had before deemed useless.”

136 On the Influence of Water

He then ascertained by experiment that

“A difference in temperature of some magnitude was always observed, -

on still and serene nights, between bodies sheltered from the sky, by
substances touching them, and similar bodies which were sheltered by a
substance a little above them.” ‘“ Possibly,” he continues, “ experience
has long ago taught gardeners the superior advantage of defending
tender vegetables from the cold of clear and calm nights, by means of
substances not directly touching them, though I do not recollect ever
having seen any contrivance for keeping mats, or such like bodies, at a
distance from the plants which they were meant to protect.”

It is a common practice in France to cover transplanted vege-
tables by linen sheets placed over sticks about two feet high. All
the spare linen of my own house has been occasionally borrowed
for this purpose ; and [ have laid my friends equally under con-
tribution, until tender plants were sufficiently rooted, and strong
enough to bear complete exposure to the heat of the sun and the
cold of the night.

May it not possibly be of advantage to the agriculturist to pro-
tect his potatoes, turnips, or other stored roots, from frost, by
means of impermeable portable cloths stretched at a convenient
height, instead of with earth, straw, &c. placed upon them ?
When substances touch each other, heat is conducted from the
mass, and finally radiated away into space ; cold results, and the
roots are frost-bitten. The experiment may be worth a trial.

Mr. Graburn has communicated to me a remarkable pheno-
menon connected with hoar-frost, which is, perhaps, generally
known to farmers, but, if not, the mention of it will convey a
useful warning. He has remarked that the passage of a flock of
sheep across a clover field covered with hoar-frost, particularly
young spring clover, is certainly followed by the destruction of
every leaf over which the animals have passed. He further aptly
observes, “‘ You might trace the footsteps of a thief across a clover
field covered with hoar-frost, at noon the day following, by the
withering of the grass in his track.” Knowing, as we do, that
hoar-frost is a great protection to the leaf against further accession
of cold, we might be disposed to attribute the death of the leaf,
indirectly, to the shaking off of the frozen dew; but it is pos-
sible that the proximate cause is purely mechanical, and the
withering the direct effect of injury from the tread, when the
leaves are so crisp as to be ina state to be bruised by a suffi-
cient weight pressing on them. The cause would be manifested
by ascertaining whether the leaf, under the circumstances, would
perish if the hoar were carefully brushed off it, and not trampled.

Experiments on the Temperature of Soils.
Schiibler’s Experiments. —This subject appears to have attracted
the attention of several German philosophers, who have investi-

il

on the Temperature of Sorls. 137

gated it with their habitual minuteness of research. The excellent
translation of Professor Schibler’s learned work, in vol. i. of our
Journal, renders it necessary to do little more than refer those
persons to it who would pursue the same track of investigation.
The inferences drawn by him, from experiments in the Jabora-
tory, confirm generally those of Davy and Leslie. They are,
however, chiefly of an elementary nature, and though more com-
prehensive and precise, perhaps even more accurate, than those
of the British chemists, this valuable treatise seems to present
nearly the same blanks, as respects useful practical experiments
on the bed of the soil, as the labours of our own countrymen. We
shall all agree in the truth of the Professor’s concluding para-
graph ; viz., that—

“Those very soils may be fertile for one country which become no
longer so for another, under a change of external circumstances.”

It is the difference in these external—z. e. in the meteorological
conditions of the surface of our globe which evidently renders
identical systems of cropping, husbandry, and management, in-
applicable to all climes. It is this difference, also, which must
clearly point out to the agriculturist that if he would draw any
useful deductions from experiments on the temperature of soil, they
must be made on his own soil, or on like soils similarly circum-
stanced. In Britain we have, generally speaking, to combat ex-
cess of moisture, accompanied by a low and inconstant solar heat.
It is one of my objects to show that, by establishing a free pas-
sage for water through the soil, the greater heat of the surface
may be carried downwards, and the mean annual temperature of .
the mass of the soil thereby permanently raised, This position,
as well as the effect of removing excess of water, is well illus-
trated by Schiibler in the section wherein he treats of the
“ Influence of Moisture on the Warming of Soils.” He states
“the depression of temperature arising from the evaporation
of their water amounts to 11}° or 133° Fahr.;” though the
method by which he obtained this thermometric quantity is not
mentioned, which is to be regretted. In the tenth section, how-
ever, wherein he treats of the “Capacity of soils to develope
heat within themselves on being moistened,’ the following passage
occurs :—

“ The falling rain, in warm seasons, is many degrees colder than the
lower stratum of the atmosphere, and the upper surface of the earth
which it moistens; so that the earth in hot weather becomes rather
cooled than otherwise ””

This remark might seem to militate against the doctrine herein
advanced, that the mass of the soil is warmed by rain when suf-
fered to permeate it; but such opinion will, I think, vanish on

138 On the Influence of Water

further consideration, and by reference to Schiibler’s own experi-
ments on the temperature of soils at Tubingen and Geneva.

At Tubingen his experiments were directed to the ascertain-

ment of the mean highest temperature of the earth by a thermo-
meter placed on its surface,—
** the bulb being covered only 5th of an inch high with earth: these
observations were recorded in perfectly fine weather, between noon
and one o'clock, whenever the weather happened to be perfectly fine at
that part of the day.”

It appeared that during the six hottest months, from April to
September inclusive, the mean temperature of the surface was
131°.4. Now it is evident that, if rain fell upon the earth when
it was so highly heated, the surface must be cooled by it; but it is
equally evident that the substrata would be warmed; for the
temperature of the atmosphere in the shade, which was also re-
corded at the same hour, was 70°.4; and that of rain, had it then
fallen, would have been much the same. Thus, the rain, on
reaching the earth, would acquire a temperature of about 100°,
and communicate heat, as it descended, to the underlying portions
of soil possessing a lower temperature.

His experiments at Geneva, in 1796, give the mean heat of the
soil on its surface—at 3 inches—and at 4 feet below it. The
observations were taken every day, in all weathers, and there-
fore, as described by the Professor, “in variable weather.” The
mean temperature, denoted during the corresponding six months
of the year before-mentioned, was—

Degrees
On the surface, x : 6 : : 86.7
At 3 inches below, . “ 2 - 69.8
At 4 feet below, c : F - : 60

Temp. of air in the shade. . - : : 59.7
On these results the author observes :—

“« The elevation of temperature by the rays of the sun was, therefore,
considerably less” (than at Tiibingen), ‘‘according to the average re-
sults of these observations, because the temperature of the upper surface
of the earth on cloudy and rainy days often accords exactly with that of
the air; but, on the other hand, they give us more accurately the mean
temperature of the ground at some depth.”

These experiments denote that, if the mean temperature of the
rain, during the six months, accorded with that of the air, it
would receive, on reaching the earth, an augmentation of thirteen
and a half degrees of heat, and sink downwards at a temperature
of 3°.4 higher than that of the soil at 3 inches deep, and of
13°.2 higher than that of the soil at 4 feet below the surface ;
thus supplying at the same time heat and moisture to the under-
lying soil. His table also shows that, on the mean of the whole

on the Temperature of Soils. 139

year, the increase of temperature imparted to the soil by the rain
would have been 2°.4 at 3 inches, and 6°.1 at 4 feet deep.
Schiibler’s remark, therefore, “that the earth in hot weather be-
comes rather cooled than otherwise ” by rain, is only applicable to
the effect produced on its superficies, which is there beneficial.

The section of this author’s Treatise on the ‘“ Influence of
Moisture on the Warming of Soils” must be deemed incomplete,
by reason of the absence of all reference to the warming effect of
dew: which—whether it be considered as directly communicating
heat to the surface of soil necessarily colder than itself at the time
of its precipitation, or as diminishing to a great extent the radia-
tion of heat from the earth to the heavens—is an agent which
performs an energetic part in maintaining a sufficiency both of
heat and moisture in the mass of the soil.

Leslie's Experiments.—In the Supplement to the ‘Encyclo-
pedia Britannica,’ Art. Climate, written by Professor Leslie, will
be found a table of experiments on the temperature of the earth,
for each month of the years 1816 and 1817, at four different depths,
viz. 1, 2, 4, and 8 feet below the surface. They were made at the
instance of Mr. Ferguson of Raith. It is stated that the instru-
ments were sunk “ina soft gravelly soil, which turns, at 4 feet
below the surface, into quicksand, or a bed of sand and water.”
As it does not appear that these experiments were conducted with
any other intent than to assist Leslie in some deductions relative
to isothermal lines, and to the correspondence which might subsist
between the mean annual atmospheric temperature of a given
parallel of latitude, with that of springs and of the earth at certain
depths, I have thought it unnecessary to extract the Table. Such
deductions are, at best, very vague, nor are they calculated, in the
slightest degree, to illustrate the physical properties of the various
soils which form the crust of our globe, and which come within
the province of the farmer; neither can they serve to assist his
judgment in the management of them. The mere determination
of the heat of the earth “ at depths accessible to the cultivator” is
useless, unless the observations be so conducted and recorded as
to lead to the discovery of the circumstances which influence its
temperature. I had the advantage of passing several days, about
20 years since, in company with Leslie, at the house of the late
Lord Rosslyn in Fifeshire, and he took me to Mr. Ferguson’s of
Raith, to show me the thermometers in the ground, They were
then, if I recollect right, two in number, and sunk in grass-land,
the one descending 12 inches, the other 36 inches below the sur-
face. Leslie’s mind was, at this time, so pre-occupied with his
newly invented instruments, the photometer, differential thermo-
meter, hygrometer, &c.—with which his hands and his pockets
were filled—that I was unable to engage his attention, seriously,

140 On the Influence of Water.

as to the practical use which I submitted to him might be made
of observations on the temperature of soils. It was at this period
I resolved to commence some experiments on the subject, but a
fitting opportunity did not occur till 1837.

My own Experiments.—The site of the few experiments which
I have now to describe as made by myself, was a peat-bog called
Red Moss,* near Bolton-le-Moors, in Lancashire, in its nature
identical with Chat Moss, and approaching, in many parts of it,
to that consistence which would cause it, in Scotland, to be desig-
“nated a flow-moss, from its semifluid character. The depth of
the bog, at the spot where the thermometers were inserted, was
nearly 30 feet; and its temperature from 12 inches beneath the
surface, Deine to the bottom, was uniformly 46°. I never
found any variation to occur in the results afforded by thermome-
ters placed at various depths during nearly three years’ observa-
tions ; excepting in the winter of 1836, when the thermometer
nearest the surface fell to 44° for a few days.

To this uniformity of temperature throughout the mass of the
natural bog, I shall, subsequently, have to call your attention very
particularly, as it seems to stamp with certainty the fact, that the
more elevated temperatures, marked by the thermometers in the
cultivated bog soil, were solely due to the change effecied in its
mechanical condition, and to the removal of stagnant water.
There were no springs, so far as I could ascertain, in this bog,
nor could I ever perceive that water rose from the bottom of any
drain cut init. The substratum, on which the bog had accu-
mulated and reposed, consisted of a retentive white pene abun-
dantly mixed with limestone gravel. The temperature of the
water drawn from the bottom of a coal-pit contiguous to the bog,
and 300 feet deep, was 54°; and that from a bore, or Artesian
well, near my house, and 160 feet deep, was invariably 52°.

The exposure of the bed in which the ‘thermometers were
sunk was perfect. There existed no bush higher than a tuft of
heather within a radius of half a mile: not a ray, therefore, of the
sun’s light and heat, could be intercepted (except by clouds)
between his rising and setting.

_ The preparation of the bed was as follows :—The surface had
been ploughed in 1836 by the steam-plough, to a depth of
Y inches, and was well pulverized. A plot of about 216 square
yards area, clear of the drains, was divided into twelve beds in-
tended for experimental culture. Each bed was 6 yards in

length by 3 yards in breadth; and each was insulated from its
neighbour, and from the sur rounding bog, by an open drain,

* Tt was on this moss that the writer undertook the construction and
conduct of Mr. Heathcoat’s patent machinery for cultivating bogs by
steam-power.

|

on the Temperature of Soils. 141

24 inches broad at top, 12 inches at bottom, and 36 inches deep.
Previously to opening these drains the plot had been surrounded
by a catchwater drain, 3S inches deep, communicating with a
main drain 40 inches deep. The pulverized surface was then
drawn toa heap, the enclosed plot dug 3 feet deep, the inter-
mediate drains opened out, and the superficial soil replaced. In
this state it remained through the winter of 1836 and 1837.
Had the thermometers been ready, they would have been sunk
in the bed as soon as prepared, but T could not obtain them from
the maker and plant them, till June Ist, 1837.

The thermometers were five in number, each being enclosed,
throughout its length inserted in the ground, in an iron tube open
at the bottom, with holes perforated round the bulb. They were
firmly connected together by iron clamps, and the whole formed
a suff portable frame. The glass stems rose 10 inches above the
ground. These were sustained against the wind or accident by
a skeleton framing of metal carrying the scales divided into de-
grees and tenths. A hole being dug in the centre of one of the
plots, the frame was let into it and set in the line of the meridian,
so that the stems above ground might cast the least possible
shadow on it at noon. The soil was carefully replaced about the
thermometers so as to preserve, as nearly as might be, the order of
its texture and consistence throughout the mass of the bed. At
the same time a naked thermometer was inserted to the depth of
7 inches in the natural bog adjoining. I did not commence any
regular register of the indications until June 7th, being desirous
that the thermometers should first become well settled in the soil,
and arrive at what may be called a true working state.

It is necessary to state that, on the bed in question, there was
no kind of seed sown, nor a plant of any kind growing; my
purpose having been to ascertain, in the first instance, the in-
fluence of the sun’s rays, of rain, dew, .and other atmospheric
agents, upon the naked natural soil; and, subsequently, with
other sets of thermometers, to acquire some knowledge of the
effect which might be produced on the temperature of such —
soil by the admixture of manure and foreign substances. Whether
this be the proper mode of proceeding, abler judges will
decide; but, it would appear to he difficult to detect the true
physical characteristics of a soil, by apparatus applied in the
middle of a corn-field; and I thought it desirable to attempt to
discover the properties of the natural soil first, and then of mixed
soil, before proceeding to investigate similar phenomena on
similar soils under crop. An industrious experimenter might
carry on all these separate investigations at the same time ; since,

after his sets of thermometers are placed, he has only to observe
and record :—

142
Depth of the Th ter bulbs below
ee eee
Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Inches. | Inches.
June.
31 25 19 13 7
Temp. | Temp. | Temp. | Temp. | Temp.
7 | 46 [at | 48-4 50. | 58
ee a a0 50.5 | 55
: 15 ae aor Vine)
. oe ee oe 52°5
9 46-1 | 47-2 8 49 49
oe ee 48-5 | 49°5 | 52°8
10 46°2 oe 48-6 | 50 53
. ee ee 50°5 54
46°3 | 47-4 oe 51
oe =e ce 52
ea ies
pds aps ieasir |
ar ae ae 52°3
46-4 eis 48:8 | 52
oe : me 51°5
ah ae a
ee ee oe dl . 2
12 | 46-5 | 47°4 ° 51
48 48°8 | 52

15 | 47+25| 48-6 | 50-8 | 53
47°6 | 419 51-4 | 54°2
47*8 | 49-6 | 52 55

By an ols |) D4
we | 49°8 | 51°9 | 55
i etal bio 57
47*9 | 49-9 | 52°5 | 55+5
48 50 52°8 | 55°6
| 48*2 | 50-1 ca | 55*8
48°25] 50°2} .. | 55

On the Influence of Water

Time of | Direction
Observa-| of the
tion. Wind.
Hour.

9 A.M. |S.W. by S.

2 P.M. NV
9 a.m. S.E.
2 P.M. are
9 A.M. E

2 P.M. W.S.W.

Ss.

9 A.M.
2 P.M.

ee ee
Biss. -
os +
AS F
9 A.M. S.
3 P.M. ee
10 a.m. | E. by S.

Tempe-
rature™
of the 7
Air ,
4 feet Remarks.
from the P
Ground
in the
Shade.
(
= Cold day.
aia Cold and hazy.
ie Clear and warm.
e Rain during the pre- |
70 vious night ; splen-

did sun all day.

Throughout the
day no visible
cloud. Much
hotter than the
10th; but, un-
fortunately, the
air thermometer |
was broken after |
10 a.m. Thesur-
face of standing
water was 60° at
that hour, and J —
thesurface ofthe | _
bed 75°. 7

Warm showers. 4

Hot; a shower at |
11 A.M.

Hot and dry.

Very hot; cloudless.

Sultry; cloudless. 4
Light high clouds.} —

Dark cloud to}
windward, ;
78 | Heavy thunder-
storm, with light
ningfor}an hours —
76 | Temp. of rain 78°} —
72
68 | Bright sun; visi- |
ble vapour from
poolsand ditches.{
67 | Brilliant morning.
74 | Cloudlessand hot.j —
64 | Hazy. . >

on the Temperature of Soils. 143

I have now to invite your attention to a few deductions from
the tabulated results which we may be authorised to draw, not-
withstanding the restriction of the observations to the short space
of twelve days.

Firstly. The constant temperature of the natural bog, from
12 inches to 30 feet deep, was 46°; and the thermometer planted
in the same substance at 7 inches deep, constantly indicated 47°
during the term of the experiments.

Now, the thermometer at 31 inches deep in the worked bed

_ exhibited a maximum heat of 484°, having gradually gained 23° ;

and it was, apparently, still rising. The thermometer at 7 inches
below the surface reached 66°, after a thunderstorm, showing a
maximum increase of 19°, and, on a mean of the thirty-five
observations, of 10° over its fellow, at the same depth, in the
natural bog.

We have-here satisfactory evidence that the accession of heat
was solely derived from meteorological agency, 7. e. from action
on the surface and not from the substratum, as the latter pos-
sessed, invariably, a lower temperature, which must have tended

- to diminish, rather than to increase, the heat finally acquired by

the worked bed. And, we may safely deduce from these facts,
that the origin of the increased temperature is attributable to the
change induced on the mechanical condition of the soil by drain-
age and pulverization, as no other changes were effected in it than
those of comminution of its texture and the withdrawal of free
water.

Secondly. The inference may be permitted, even from these
few experiments, that, in the month of June, rain-water carries
down heat, and raises the temperature of the subsoil; whilst the
loss of heat by the strata nearer the surface is quickly restored
by the sun’s rays. By an inspection of the Table no doubt
will be left on the mind as to the truth of these inferences. It
appears that, at 7 inches deep, the temperature of the soil was
subject to considerable diurnal increase and decrease, as well as
from day to day, according to the state of the weather; that these
variations became of less amount at lower depths; and that, at
31 inches, increase alone, for the time, was felt. Heat is con-
ducted downwards so slowly by all bodies, and by moist sub-
stances particularly, that rai-water would appear, when allowed
to permeate the bed, to be the most active agent in the propaga-
tion of heat to the subsoil. Accordingly, we find the lower ther-
mometers to indicate accession of heat more quickly after rain
than in dry weather ; and had a rain of longer continuance fallen,
instead of short showers, it is probable that the lower thermo-
meters would have been affected much more rapidly, and haye

7

144 On the Influence of Water

indicated higher temperatures, as no water was observed to have
passed through the soil into the drain.

On the 11th of June I was able to devote an entire day to the
observation of the thermometers. The results are interesting, by
showing the steadiness of the increments and decrements of heat
during a cloudless day, and by denoting the period of maximum
temperature attained by the thermometer at 7 inches, which was
about 2 p.m.

On the 16th, I had foreseen the probability of a thunderstorm,
and hastened to my thermometers to observe its effect. It is well
worthy of remark, that after the temperature of the soil at 7
inches deep had attained its maximum, under the previous cir-
cumstances of the day, it was subsequently raised 3$° by the de-
scent of the rain. It is also notable, that in half an hour after
the cessation of the storm, the sun again shining brightly, and
evaporation being visibly great from the surface, the earth at the
same depth had lost 3° of its highest temperature ; showing the
rapidity with which heat is carried off by water in its transfor-
mation into vapour. It would have been highly interesting to
have known, by other thermometers, the temperature of the sur-
face when this storm fell, as the transition was almost instanta-
neous from bright sunshine to heavy rain; but I was unprovided
with a sufficiency of these instruments.

An effect of importance—which might be predicated of all
soils properly prepared to receive heat and water, and permit
their descent—is traceable to the preparation of the bed: viz.,—
that the transmission of accessions of heat downwards continues
during the afternoon of the day, and throughout the night, whilst
the superstrata (but chiefly from 7 inches upwards) are losing
some amount of their heat by conduction upwards, and radiation
into space. The reverse may be expected to occur during the
cold seasons of the year, when the heat accumulated and stored

up in the subsoil will be drawn as from a reservoir, and supply
part of the loss then taking place more freely near the surface.

As I have criticized the labours and experiments of others in
this branch of science, it is right I should point out the defi-
ciencies of my own, which are also numerous. The experiments
related can, indeed, only be regarded as a slight contribution to
our stock of knowledge on the subject—the investigation of which
deserves to be commenced de novo ; to be carried on simultane-
ously, if possible, by different observers, and with appliances of
all the instrumental means which the existing state of science can
furnish. The enumeration of the phenomena which demand
atiention—of the methods we possess, or still need, for ascer-
taining their force, or measuring their amount—will, perhaps, be

ee oe ee

on the Temperature of Soils. 145

the simplest and more useful form in which the criticism can be
conveyed.

We require to know,—

1. The temperature of soils at depths accessible and profitable
to the agriculturist.

The thermometer is all sufficient for indicating temperatures.
It would be advisable that the heat of the surface, and that of
the soil at every 2 inches in depth, descending to 12 inches, and
thence to 36 inches, by spaces of 6 inches, should be noted. Self-
registering thermometers would give the maxima and minima
temperatures, but these instruments conduce to laziness in the
observer ; they give no information of the periods of the 24 hours
when the maxima and minima occur, nor register the continually
varying increments and decrements of heat at different depths, as
they are affected by sunshine, or cloud, by rain, wind, and other
atmospheric changes, which should be diligently and faithfully
recorded.

2. The temperature of the air, in the shade, near the earth.

3. The pressure of the air: for which the barometer suffices.

4. The temperature of the rain.

5. The quantity of rain; ascertained by the rain-gauge.

6. The quantity of water passed by drainage from a measured
extent of land, in order to compare it with the ascertained fall of
rain on its surface.

There are many situations in which this object could be
accomplished at a trifling expense, and the knowledge of such
facts would open a new chapter of the book of nature to our
view. All that has been written as to the quantity of water dis-
missed from the earth is too speculative and baseless to merit
more than a passing notice; and no inquiry into these pheno-
mena has, I believe, been instituted with the end of making them
subservient to the practice or science of agriculture.

7. The dew point ; to be determined at frequent periods of the
day and night.

The best known hygrometer is Professor Daniell’s, but, though
simple and true, it has the disadvantage of requiring a manual ex-
periment for every determination.

8. The quantity of dew deposited.

Of the amount of this item in the stock of Nature’s fertilizing
laboratory we are wholly ignorant ; and though aware, as we must
be, of the difficulty of ascertaining the fact required, there is no
reason to despair of overcoming it if the attention of the many
gifted men now attached to the science of meteorology could be
brought to bear on the construction of a sufficient instrument.

9. The hygrometric condition of soil.

By this term is meant the amount of moisture which a soil may
VOL. v. L

146 On the Quantity of Rain- Water,

at any time contain. This quantity will depend, in a well-drained
soil, on its bibulousness or hygrometric energy. If an instrument
could be contrived to indicate, by simple insertion and inspection,
the humid condition of the earth between the extremes of perfect
dryness and of aqueous saturation, as the thermometer discloses
heat of temperature, we should indeed become possessed of two
ready and sufficient means of quickly ascertaining the principal
phenomena on which the temperature of soils depends ; we should
be provided with tests, which would go far towards explaining
certain causes and degrees of fertility, and possibly find ourselves
armed with an expeditious method of deciding on the aids which
a given soil might require for increasing its fructifyimg properties
and power. The mention of a desideratum is occasionally half
way towards its fulfilment; and we may hope that the resources
of science will avail for the supply of an instrument which would
be so precious to the enlightened agriculturist.

Thus far had I written last year, as you are aware, and deemed
my task terminated. Having had, however, the good fortune to
obtain a record of observations illustrating, very forcibly, the ne-
cessity of draiming retentive soils—by bringing within the scope
of arithmetical computation the quantity of rain-water which is

annually evaporated from the mass of the soil, “at depths acces- °

sible to the cultivator,” and the quantity which either permeates
porous or must stagnate in retentive soils—I have appended the
following section to the foregoing discussion, as contributing to
establish certain statistics of drainage, or, to use your own remark,
‘as striking a debtor and creditor account between the earth and
the sky.”

On the Quantity of Rain compared with the Quantity of Water
evaporated from or filtered through Soil; with some Remarks
on Drainage.

We are indebted to Mr. John Dickinson of Abbot's Hill, near
King’s Langley, Herts (the eminent paper-manufacturer), for a
register, extending over the period of the last eight years, of the
quantity of rain which has fallen in his locality, and of the quan-
tity which may be presumed to have passed through the soil.
The first datum is determined by the common rain-gauge ; the
second is derived from a gauge invented many years since, for this
special purpose, by the illustrious Dr. Dalton. And hereby we
obtain, very. unexpectedly, as regards both the facts and the ex-
tensive range of observations, experimental illustrations of the
desiderata numbered 5 and 6 (page 18). ‘The construction of the
rain-gauge needs no remark, and the Dalton gauge is equally

‘and its Discharge by Drains. 147

simple. It consists of an open-top cylinder or rain-receiver sunk
vertically in the earth level with its surface, having a false bottom
perforated with holes, like a cullender, which supports three feet
depth of soil within the cylinder, through which, and through the
cullender, the excess of the raim—or the portion not evaporated
—filtrates to the close bottom of the vessel; and this commu-
nicates, by means of a small pipe, with a vertical tube, whose
diameter bears some definite proportion to that of the receiver,
and is sunk so much lower in the earth as to have its top nearly
on a level with the bottom of the receiver. Thus, all the water
which permeates the soil contained within the rain-receiver flows
into the tube, and is measured by a float carrying a divided stem,
and indicating, in parts of ;4;th of an inch, the quantity of rain
which has entered it. The measuring tube has a cock at the
bottom for evacuating its contents from time to time, and bring-
ing the scale to zero.

Mr. Dickinson’s rain-receiver has a diameter of 12 inches, and
is 36 inches deep to the false bottom ; it was originally filled with
the soil of the country, a sandy gravelly loam, and has constantly
had grass growing on it. The contents of the receiver, therefore,
represent fairly the natural state of such soil; whilst the gauge
indicates the quantity of water which a drain, at a depth of 3 feet,
would have to convey away. The proportion which this quantity
bears to the rain is obtained by comparison with the rain-gauge ;
and their difference gives the quantity evaporated, assisted by the
action of the succulent grasses. We may, however, for the present
purpose, consider the whole of this last quantity under the term
evaporation.

It will be interesting and useful to agriculturists to learn Mr.
Dickinson’s object, as a manufacturer, in ascertaining and regis-
tering phenomena of this nature. Having several mills on the
river Colne or its tributaries, it was a matter of importance to him
to be able to calculate the power of water on which he might
depend for use at different periods of the year ; and having noticed
that a considerable period elapsed after rain, owing to the extent
and stratification of the country, before the springs were affected
by it, he fixed a rain and Dalton gauge to assist his judgment in
forming an estimate of the amount and duration of their flow ac-
cording to the varying seasons, and the proportionable water-
power on which he might count. These registers, combined with
observation, have since enabled him to regulate his manufac-
turing operations, and to foresee what dependence he could place
on the mill-streams, and to what extent he should require the aid
of steam-power for fulfilling his contracts and engagements. This
is a very remarkable and honourable instance of the application
of meteorological ‘science to practice.”

ri

148 On the Quantity of Rain- Water,

Nor is this all—for the knowledge acquired by means of these
instruments, and the exposition of the results of rain and filtration
proved by them, together with a just acquaintance with the area
and nature of the soils of the district supplying the streams (about
120 square miles), enabled Mr. Dickinson, two years since, to
demonstrate the impracticability of a scheme for furnishing the
Metropolis with water proposed to be drawn from the valley of
the Colne, which must have inflicted irreparable injury on the
mill-owners, at the same time that it would have proved, in all
probability, an abortive speculation to the adventurers. Such are
the various and often unexpected fruits of exact knowledge. It
was Mr. Dickinson’s communication of his experiments to the
Institution of Civil Engineers last year which introduced me to
his acquaintance, and has enabled me to apply his acquired facts
to the subject of agricultural drainage.

The annexed Table, No. I., contains the monthly and annual
indications of the two gauges for the years 1836 to 1843 inclusive ;
those of the rain-gauge being, Mr. Dickinson informs me, generally
corroborated by another gauge kept by the Grand Junction Canal
Company about 8 miles distant. Table II. gives the mean result
of the eight years’ observations for each month, and the whole
period, in terms of the depth of rain which fell on the surface—
of the amount which filtered through the Dalton gauge—and of
that which was evaporated or again restored to the atmosphere in
the shape of vapour—with two columns showing the proportion
per cent. of filtration and evaporation. Table III. presents to
view the total amount of rain which fell during each year, with
the per centage of filtration and evaporation. And Table IV.
illustrates the quantity of rain and the proportion of water dis-
posed of by filtration and evaporation, during the six hotter and
six colder months of each year respectively. To these last Tables
I have added columns exhibiting the weight of rain in tons per
acre, as that expression may convey to the farmer a clearer idea of
its amount than the more usual mode of stating it in inches of
depth. By means of this tabular analysis we shall find the phe-
nomena, as they may be applicable to agriculture, clearly brought
before us.

The first important fact disclosed is, that, of the whole.annual
rain, about 42} per cent., or 114°, inches out of 26,% inches, have
filtered through the soil; and that the annual evaporative force
is only equal to the removal of about 574 per cent. of the total
rain which falls on any given extent of earth 3 feet in depth
(Table IT.).

By a closer scrutiny we learn (Table IV.) that only about 254

and its Discharge by Drains. ~

per cent. of the rain which falls from October to March inclusive,
passes back to the atmosphere by evaporation in the same period ;
whereas from April to September inclusive, about 93 per cent. is
evaporated. It appears, then, that there is even a balance on the
side of rain over evaporation during the six hottest months; and
we discover only two years, 1840 and 1841, in which no filtration
occurred within that period. Table II. shows that in August the
soil is in its driest state ; but, even in that month, some filtration
took place in 3 out of the 8 seasons recorded. It will be under-
stood, that though a near balance is shown to subsist between rain
and evaporation during the six hottest months, on an average of
years, the hygrometric condition of a soil, 7. e. its state of wetness
or dryness at any particular time, is not indicated by the Dalton
gauge. A soil may be in a state of drought, or of humid satura-
tion at different times during these months, and according to the
season. It is, however, manifest, from these registers, that if all
the water derived from rain during the six colder months were
allowed to accumulate in a soil, such land must be perpetually
wet ; and coupling this fact with the performance of drains, which
I am now enabled to exhibit, it appears that six months are ex-
pended in maintaining, by the sole unaided force of evaporation,
an undrained retentive soil in a tolerably uniform moist condition,
whilst deep covered drains relieve the same soils of excess of
humidity in a very few hours after every fall of rain, even in the
wettest season. Table IV. shows that the mean excess of rain-
water to be disposed of during the six coldest months by some
other process than evaporation, amounts to no less a weight than
about 1050 tons per acre.

Evaporation is the only natural agent for diminishing the quan-
tity of water absorbed by retentive soils, but it is not at our
command. When such soils are perfectly saturated, the super-
fluity must either stagnate on the surface or flow away from it ;
and proof is here offered that the force of evaporation is scarcely
equivalent to the duty required of it during one half of the year ;
also that it greatly falls short of the requisite power during the six
colder months. The invention of subterranean drains supplies an
effective artificial method of compensating the deficiency of the
evaporative force in our climate, and it is capable of placing the
retentive soil in the same favourable condition, as respects meteor-
ological agency and the fruition of every agricultural process, as
soils naturally endowed with sufficient porosity. But, it must con-
stantly be borne in mind, that, in order to assimilate this artificial
process to that of nature, drains should be deeply Jaid, as the floor
of the drains forms the limit of their action, and determines the
depth below the surface at which water must still remain in a
state of nearly constant excess and stagnancy.

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and its Discharge by Drains. 151

Taste III.

Total of each Year.

Evapora- Rain,
tion. per Acre.

Rain. Filtration.

Per Cent. | Per Cent. Tons.
56°9 43-1 3139
32-9 67-1 2137
37 9 63-0 2342
47°6 52:4 3168
38+2 61-8 2171
44-2 55-8 3251
44-4 55°6 2676
36-0 64-0 2680
42-4 57°6 2695

Tasre IV.

April to September inclusive.

Years. | Rain. | Filtration.| *Y2P0"* | Filtration. | PygPore | Rain, per More, /Raim, por
In. In. Tn. Per Cent. | Per Cent. Tons. Tons.
1836 | 12-20 2°10 10-10 17°3 82°7 212 1023
1837 9-80 0-10 9-70 1-0 99-0 10 982
1838 | 10-81 0-12 10-69 1-2 98-8 12 1082
1839 | 17-41 2-60 14-81 15-0 85-0 263 1500
1840 9°68 0-00 9-68 0-0 100-0 oe 980
| 1841 | 15°26 0-00 15°26 0-0 100-0 as 1545
1842 | 12°15 1-30 10°85 10°7 89-3 131 1099
1843 | 14-04 0-99 13-05 7 fe | 92-9 100 1322
Mean | 12-67 0-90 11°77 y fae | 92:9 91 1192

October to March inclusive.

1836 | 18-80 | 15°55 3°25 | 82°7 17:3 1574 330
1837 | 11-30 6°85 4-45 | 60-6 39-4 693 452
1838 | 12-32 8-45 3°85 68-8 31-2 855 393
1839 | 13-87 | 12-31 1°56 88-2 11°8 1216 159
1840 | 11-76 8-19 3°57 69-6 30°4 §29 362
1841 | 16-84 | 14-19 2-65 84-2 15°8 1437 269
1842 | 14-28 | 10-46 3+82 73°2 26:8 1059 387
1843 | 12-43 7-11 5°32 57°2 42°8 720 538
Mean | 13°95 | 10-39 3°56 74-5 25-5 1052 360

Note.—The quantities of rain in the columns headed Filtration represent the
required performance of drains in retentive soils. One-tenth of an inch of rain in
depth amounts to 10-128 tons per acre.

152 On the Quantity of Rain- Water,

A study of the results registered in these Tables puts us in
possession of many other facts of import to the agriculturist, as
enforcing the warnmg—which experience cannot but have taught
him—to adopt every appliance at his command for placing his
soil in such condition as to derive the greatest benefit and the
least evil from elemental influences; for, so variable are the
seasons, that no average can properly display the changing amounts
of meteorological quantities and forces. It seems, from TableI.,
that the discharge of water by drains occurs, on the average, dur-
ing seven months of the year. In 1840 and 1841, however, rain
was in excess over evaporation only during four months; though
in the first year 21,4; inches of rain fell, whilst in the second the
earth received 327; inches, or 50 per cent. more rain in the latter
than in the former year; yet the soil was equally dry in both
years on the mean of the six hottest months, for the evaporative
force was able to relieve the soil of all the rain that fell, though
the quantities were so widely different, being 15,%, inches in 1841,
and only 9,5; inches in 1840. But, turning to the six colder
months of the same years, we find the case reversed, for the pro-
portionate evaporation in 1840 was double that in 1841. It ap-
pears, too, that in 1836, when the quantity of rain was only about
one inch less than the maximum in 1841, the force of evapora-
tion was 13 per cent. less, and water filtered through the gauge in ©
various proportions, during every month of that year, and the
same in 1839. Thus, in preparing soil to receive the utmost be-
nefit and the least evil from rain, however slight or excessive, it
should be put into a state to refuse holding water in excess, but
be capable of absorbing humidity freely and retaining it deeply ;
whilst the drains should admit water with facility, and convey it
away with dispatch.

The quantities of rain and filtration denoted by Mr. Dickin-
son’s gauges are daily registered, and this record has enabled me
to ascertain a remarkable coincidence between the action of the
Dalton gauge and that of Mr. Hammond’s inch-pipe drains, as
reported to the Royal Agricultural Society, in the last Journal,
p-. 375. It appears, according to the rain-gauge, that +%sths of an
inch of rain fell on the 7th and 8th November last ; and by the
Dalton gauge, that on the 9th +%%;ths, or nearly the whole of this
quantity, had passed through it. It was on the 9th that I in-
spected the drainage of Mr. Hammond’s farm, recording the fact
that, after a rain of about 12 hours’ duration on the 7th, I found
the drains on the 9th, in a nine acre piece, 3 feet deep, just
dribbling, and those in a hop-ground adjoining, 4 feet deep,
exhausted; Mr. Hammond having observed, previously to my
arrival, that the greatest stream at the outfall of each drain
amounted to about the half-bore of the inch pipes. The times

and its Discharge by Drains. 153

occupied in the discharge of the water by the gauge and the
drains may, therefore, be considered to be identical, and as com-
prising about 48 hours from the commencement of the rain. In
drawing this parallel between the action of the gauge and these
drains, I am presuming tbat the fall of rain at Penshurst was
equal to that at King’s Langley; and I think this may be assumed
to be near enough to the truth, as I have learnt that a nearly
similar downfall (ths of an inch) was recorded at Birmingham
northwards, and a rain of similar duration occurred at Brighton
southwards,

This experimental corroboration of the sufficiency of such small
drains will have its weight with practical men; but I am further
able to demonstrate, by simple arithmetical computation, how very
small is the quantity of water required to enter the crevice formed
by the imperfect junction of two pipes. The rain-gauge informs
us, that 54°;ths of an inch in depth of rain fell upon each square
foot of surface, in the observed time of 12 hours. This quantity
is equivalent to 69;'; cubic inches, or 24 pounds, which, divided
by 12 hours, gives little more than ¥%,ths of a pound per square
foot of surface per hour for the weight of the rain.

The drains were 24 feet asunder, and each pipe a foot in length,
so that each lineal foot had to receive the water falling on 24
square feet of surface, equal to 60 pounds, or 6 gallons ; and as
the time which this quantity occupied in descending through the
soil and disappearing was about 48 hours, it results that 14 Ib.,
or one pint per hour, entered the drain through the crevice exist-
ing between each pair of pipes. Every one knows, without having
recourse to strict experiment, how very small a hole will let a pint
of water pass through it in an hour, being only one-third of an
ounce per minute, or about twice the contents of a lady’s thimble.

The weight of rain, per acre, which fell during the 12 hours
amounted to 108,900 lbs., or 48,%; tons, which on the whole piece
of nine acres, is equal to 43734, tons ; and each drain discharged
19 tons, equal to about ,4;ths of a ton per hour, on the mean of
48 hours ; but when the flow was at the greatest, I find that each
drain must have discharged at the rate of five times this quantity
per hour, which affords proof of the faculty of the pipes to receive
and carry off a fall of rain equal to 23 inches in 12 hours, instead
of half an inch, a fall which is quite unknown in this climate.
Half an inch of rain in 12 hours is a very heavy rain. I learn
from Mr. Dickinson, that his rain-gauge has never indicated so
great a fall as 14 inch in 24 hours; and from Dr. Ick, the cura-
tor of the Birmingham Philosophical Institution, that only on five
occasions has the rain there exceeded | inch in 24 hours, during
the same period of 8 years; the greatest quantity having been
15 inch on Dec. 4, 1841. We may, therefore, consider the fact

Ee
154 On the Quantity of Rain- Water,

of the sufficiency of inch-bore pipes for agricultural drainage to
be fully demonstrated both by experience and experiment.

I will now mention an experiment which every farmer is com-
petent to make, and which cannot fail to throw light on the action
and effect of his drains, and on the relative condition of different
pieces of land as to porosity, or filtrating activity—I allude to the
simple ascertainment, by measure, of the quantity of water dis-
charged from different drains, after rain, in the same time. In
reply to. numerous inquiries on this subject, I have only suc-
ceeded in obtaining sufficiently exact information from Mr. Ham-
mond, whose intelligence had led him to make the experiment
without any suggestion from me. He states—“I found after the
late rains (Feb. 17, 1844), that a drain, 4 feet deep, ran 8 pints
of water in the same time that another 3 feet deep ran five pints,
although placed at equal distances.” The circumstances under
which this experiment was made, as well as its indications, deserve
particular notice, The site was the hop-ground before referred
to, which had been under-drained 35 years since to a depth vary-
ing from 24 to 30 inches, and though the drains were laid some-
what irregularly and imperfectly, they had been maintained in
good action. Mr. Hammond, however, suspecting injury to be
still done to the plants and the soil by bottom water, which he
knew to stagnate below the old drains, again under-drained the
piece in 1842 with inch pipes, in part to 3 feet, and im part to
4 feet im depth, the effect proving very beneficial. The old
drains were left undisturbed, but thenceforth ceased running, the
whole of the water passing below them to the new drains, as was
to be expected. The distance between the new drains is 26 feet,
their length 150 yards, the fall identical, the soil clay. The
experiment was made on two drains adjoining each other, 7.e., on
the last of the series of the 3 feet, and the first of the series of
the 4 feet drains. The sum of the flow from these two drains,
at the time of the trial, was 975lbs. per hour, or at the rate of
191 tons per acre in 24 hours—the proportionate discharge,
therefore, was 12 tons by the 4 feet, and 7} tons by the 3 feet
drain. No springs affected the results. Hence, we have two
phenomena very satisfactorily disclosed; Ist, that the deepest
drain receiyed the most water; 2nd, that it discharged the greatest
quantity of water in a given time—the superficial area of supply
being the same to both drains. It would appear, then, either
that the deeper drain had the power of drawing water from a
horizontal distance greater by the ratio of 8 to 5 than the shallower
drain; or that the perpendicular descent of the water was more
rapid into the 4 feet drain; or that its increased discharge was
owing to both these causes combined. The phenomenon of a
deep drain drawing water out of soil from a greater distance than

————_ ee LS. ee

and its Discharge by Drains. 155

a shallower one, is consistent with the laws of hydraulics, and is
corroborated by numberless observations on the action of wells,
&c.; but the cause of the deeper drain receiving more water in @
given time is not so obvious. An opposite result, as to time,
would rather be expected from the fact of water falling on the
surface having to permeate a greater mass of earth, both perpen-
dicularly and horizontally, in order to reach the deep drain. A
natural agricultural bed of porous soil resembles an artificial
filter, and it is unquestionable that the greater the depth of matter
composing such filter, the slower is the passage of water through
it. In stiff loams and clays, however, but more particularly as
regards the latter earth, the resemblance ceases, as these soils can
permit free ingress and egress to rain-water, only after the esta-
blishment of that thorough net-work of cracks or fissures, which
is occasioned in them by the shrinkage of the mass from the joint
action of drains and superficial evaporation. These fissures seem
to stand in the stead of porosity in such soils, and serve to conduct
water to drains rapidly after it has trickled through the worked
bed; it is possible, too, that in deeply drained clays of certain
texture the fissures may be wider, or more numerous, in conse-
quence of the contraction of a greater bulk of earth than when
such soil is drained to a less depth. However this may be, it is
asserted by several respectable and intelligent farmers in Kent,
who have laid drains very deeply in clays and stiff soils, that the
flow from the deepest drains invariably commences and ceases
sooner than from shallower drains, after rain. On this interest-
ing and unexplored subject I hope to be able to furnish you with
multiplied observations after next winter, and trust also to receive
the co-operation of members of the Society in making them in
different soils, and with due regard to all those phenomena which
may influence the results, or be detected by them.

The consideration of the depth of drains has been too generally
limited to the mere exigencies of culture and implements, com-
bined with the natural desire to restrict expense when the mate-
rials used were dear, and the cost of earth-work great. These
adventitious circumstances have certainly tended to obscure from
view the true principles on which drainage should be founded, and
on which the utmost benefits to be derived from it depend. The
question of distance between drains is important on the score of
expense, and it will be wise to err on the right side, and keep
within safe limits; but insufficiency of depth can only be reme-
died by a new outlay. So far as experience can illuminate the
subject, we know that many agriculturists have, a second time,
drained their fields to a greater depth; it may, however, be
doubted whether any one has taken up deep drains, and placed
them nearer the surface, or nearer together. The system of deep

156 On the Quantity of Rain- Water,

drainage now pursued in Kent has doubtless been encouraged by
the cheapness, lightness, and approved action of the pipe-tiles,
combined with the more moderate cost of the earth-work incident
to their small dimensions, and to the facility of laying them. The
aggregate cheapness of the work has set the mind of the farmer
free to contemplate more exclusively and attentively the perfection
of the end in view ; and it is well worthy of remark, that experi-
ment and experience have rapidly induced the adoption of a system
of parallel drains considerably deeper, and less frequent, than
those commonly advocated by professed drainers, or in general
use. I gave several instances of this practice in Kent in the
report of last year, already alluded to, and it is rapidly extending.
Mr. Hammond stated to you (Journal, vol. iv. p. 47), that he
drained <“ stiff clays, 2 feet deep, and 24 feet between the drains,
at 3/. 4s. 3d. per acre,” and “porous soils, 3 feet deep 333 feet
asunder, at 2/. 5s. 2d. per acre.” I now find him continuing
his drainage at 4 feet deep, wherever he can obtain the outfall,
from a conviction, founded on the experience of a cautious pro-
gressive practice as to depth and distance, that depth consists
with economy of outlay as well as with superior effect. He has
found 4 feet drains to be efficient, at 50 feet asunder, in soils of
varied texture—not uniform clays—and executes them at a cost of
about 27. 5s. per acre, being 18s. 4d. for 871 pipes, and 11. 6s. 6d.
for 53 rods of digging. Communications have been recently
made to me by several respectable Kentish farmers, of the satis-
factory performance of drains deeply laid in the Weald clays, at
distances ranging from 30 to 40 feet, but I have not had the
opportunity of personally inspecting these drainages.

The following little table shows the actual and respective cost of
the above three cases of under-draining, calculated on the effects
really produced, 7. ¢. on the masses of earth effectively relieved of
their surplus water at an equal expense. I conceive this to be
the true expression of the work done, as a mere statement of the
cost of drainage per acre of surface conveys but an imperfect,
indeed a very erroneous, idea of the substantive and useful expen-
diture on any particular system. This will be apparent on refer-
ence to the two last columns of the table, which give the cost in
cubic yards and square yards of soil drained for one penny, at
the above mentioned prices, depths, and distances :—

Distance between | Mass of Soil Mass of Soil Surface of Soil
the Drains in drained per Acre, | drained for ld., in| drained for 1d.,
Feet. | in Cubic Yards. Cubic Yards. | in Square Yards.

Depth of the
Drains in Feet.

2 .
3 334 | 4840 8:93 893
4

—_ a =e

and its Discharge by Drains. 157

I may here observe, that Mr. Hammond, when draining tena-
cious clays, chooses the month of February for the work, when
he lays his pipes (just covering them with clay to prevent crumbs
from getting in), and leaves the trenches open through March,
if it be drying weather, by which means he finds the cracking of
the soil much accelerated, and the complete action of the drains
advanced a full season. The process of cracking may, doubtless,
be hastened both by a choice of the period of the year in which
drains are made, and by such a management of the surface as to
expose it to the full force of atmospheric evaporation.

' Recurring to the foregoing Tables, it must be noticed that the
mean annual fall of rain, as therein registered, is below the average
of Britain, whilst the force of evaporation is probably higher than
the average; and the monthly as well as annual amounts of
filtration and evaporation may be expected, in different latitudes,

localities,-and soils, to vary greatly from these records. Similar

observations obtained on different soils, and in various parts of the
country, when combined with the indications of thermometers sunk
in the earth, would put us in possession of that condition of soil
which may not be improperly termed its climate, of which no
certain knowledge can be deduced from purely meteorological
phenomena, but upon which the atmospheric climate of a district
is known greatly to depend.

Meteorologists have recorded, for many years, the amount of
terrestrial evaporation, as denoted by a gauge invented by Mr.
Luke Howard, and have considered it as “indicative of the quan-
tity of moisture taken up by the atmosphere from the earth ;” but
this instrument only denotes the evaporation from a dish of water
placed on the earth’s surface, and, therefore, supplies no fact of
direct use to the agriculturist, for cultivated soils are not under
these circumstances, and the power of the sun’s rays in heating
soil is but indifferently represented by their effect in transforming
water into vapour. The difference between the indications of
the Howard and Dalton gauges is most remarkable. Professor
Daniell states (British Almanac) the mean annual rain in Lon-
don to be 22-199 inches, and the mean evaporation 23-981 inches,
or 1-782 inches more than the rain; and the results recorded at
the Birmingham Philosophical Institution for 1843 are—rain
26°716 inches, evaporation 31-982 inches, or 5-266 inches more
than the rain, But we learn from the Dalton gauge that, in
Hertfordshire, out of 26°614 inches of rain only 15:32 inches
were restored to the atmosphere—the remainder passed through
the earth into the rivers, and this is the real fact on comparing the
amount of rain with the amount evaporated from soil 3 feet deep.

We must never forget that accurate and multiplied quantitative
facts form the only substantial basis of science; and observations

158 On Preparation for the Wheat Crop in Cornwall.

of the rain and Dalton gauges would be usefully varied, by
placing the latter at different depths, as at 1, 2,3, and 4 feet or
more below the surface, and filled with a diversity of soils, whence
information may be expected to arise of great practical value to
the agriculturist. .
Josran ParKes.
7, Great College-street, Westminster, 1844.

IX.—On Preparation for the Wheat Crop in Cornwall. By
J. H. Tremayne.

THE agriculture, perhaps the soil, of Cornwall is peculiar. We
have little pasture land, properly so called. The upland is not
suited to permanent pasture ; our valleys generally (particularly
in the west) not much wider than the streams that run through
them ; but the soil is of such a nature, that after a course of hus-
bandry the land acquires a firm hard sward, sooner than any I
ever saw in other parts of England. We may call it, therefore,
almost all convertible land—and it is treated accordingly. The
course of husbandry has been—I speak not now of the old system
which once prevailed, when corn crops were taken till the land
was exhausted, and then left for years to recover, but of the later
system, which is even now enjoined by our leases—the course of
husbandry has been to take not more than two corn crops in suc-
cession, seeds being sown with the last. It is then pastured for
three or four years (the grass once cut for hay in the first year),
and then broken up again for wheat. Of late, however, a better
spirit has arisen—green crops have been introduced—the system
of alternate corn crops and green crops adopted ; on farms where
twenty years ago one saw only a small piece of turnips adjoining
the homestead, one now sees large fields of Swedish and other
turnips drilled, following the wheat crop, and turning out the
barley stubbles for the subsequent pasture in a state of clean-
ness utterly unknown before. The new system, however, calls for
a change in the application of manure. Under the old, nearly
the whole manure (chiefly lime, from about 80 to 120 Winchester
bushels per acre) was applied for the wheat crop—mixed, per-
haps, with the small quantity of very badly made dung which the
farm afforded—or (if the farmer chose to apply this dung to a
favourite piece of grass land) mixed only with earth from ridges
ploughed in the fields. Under the new or alternate system, if
the lime is applied to the wheat, and dung or bones or other
purchased manure applied to the turnips, there is not enough
taken out for the lime—and if the lime is discontinued, it is
generally supposed the crop of wheat will be deficient. I have
long thought on this—and, moreoyer, thought that our general

On Preparation for the Wheat Crop in Cornwall. — 159

preparation for wheat was very imperfect: that system is, to
plough the three or four years’ sward in June or July (turning
half upon half, as the provincial expression is), break it down,
harrow and roll it in September, and then plough clean for wheat
in October or November, immediately before sowing. It occurred
to the person who manages this farm, that a great improvement
might be made by ploughing in February, instead of June or July,
and sowing rape in the spring. ‘That has accordingly been done
on this farm for two or three years. We were at first afraid to
dispense with our lime, and applied the usual quantity before
sowing the rape in May. We had abundant produce—kept our
sheep on it through the summer with great advantage—and
though the wheat of this summer (1842), owing to the wet winter
of 1841-2, was thin on the ground, I have no doubt we have on
ordinary land more than four quarters per statute acre. There
can be no doubt that what was taken out of the lime manure by
the rape was fully returned to the land by the sheep being
hurdled upon it through the summer. The loss was the pasture
from February to June on a four years’ old ley. The gain was
the keeping our feeding wethers, and other sheep following them,
from June to September or October.

In consequence of a partial experiment made last year (and
which, though under unfavourable circumstances, was successful),
the experiment this year has been pushed further; and the fol-
lowing has been the course pursued this summer (1842) :—

A four years’ old ley was skimmed 24 inches deep about the
10th of February, not stirred till the 28th of April; the surface
was then so well rotten, that after the usual labour in working it
down, nothing remained from which ashes could be procured.
The ashes made from the fuel used in this house have been en-
tirely neglected—wood and coal ashes mixed—and when they
have accumulated to some extent, carried to the garden, where
they have been screened, the large cinders used for the fires there ;
some of ihe ashes, perhaps, applied to garden purposes, and the
refuse thrown by. About siz cart-loads of these small refuse
cinders or ashes were collected. Having been exposed to all
weathers, they would not run through the drill; one load of lime
(30 Winchester bushels) was applied and mixed well with them,
which had the desired effect of drying and separating them. They
were drilled with the rape-seed over about 7 acres on the 5th of
May; seven weeks after the rape was stocked with sheep: we
continued increasing them, but the rape still gained upon us—
seventy-five sheep were upon it for several weeks,—the greater
part of which were fattened, and all maintained during the sum-
mer ; fifty young wethers are now upon it (September, 1842),
with some other sheep; and it will keep them till it is ploughed
for wheat some weeks hence, The land is perfectly clean; and

160 On Preparation for the Wheat Crop in Cornwall.

we think it so well manured that no lime is to be applied for the

‘wheat crop. As to the effect of the coal-ashes on this crop of
rape, it may be observed that on a few spots the cinders, occa-
sionally choking the drill, prevented a perfectly regular distri-
bution of them ; these spots are plainly to be seen, showing a
contrast, as between a healthy and unhealthy plant. It may be
supposed, too, that there was a large proportion of wood-ashes—
this is impossible. The original proportion of wood-ashes was
trifling to the greatest degree as compared with the coal.

A feeling is beginning to prevail in this county unfavourable to
lime asa manure. I am far from participating in that feeling—
but if by rape and sheep we can save a part of the lime bill, it is
an advantage not to be lightly regarded. Those who think badly
of hurdling long-woolled sheep on turnips will observe that their
objection, viz. that such a practice punishes the sheep, cannot
apply to this system, which is only in operation between June and
October.

October, 1843.

The above was written about September, 1842. A year has
since elapsed ; and the wheat which was then to be sown has been
reaped and saved. It is the best crop on the farm, though on
very ordinary land, It was drilled in the usual manner, 16 gal- -
lons to the acre. A quarter of an acre of the field was fully
manured with lime a little before the wheat was sown. It is
but fair to add, that this lime was not well mixed, and that the
quantity was greater than usual. At harvest this appeared
rather thicker on the ground than the rest of the field, but to have
suffered more from the rain; its hue was not so good, and it had
every appearance of being a lighter sheaf. A square yard of this
was cut and separated from the rest, as was also a square yard of
the part not manured with lime immediately adjoining. The pro-
duce of these 2 yards has been now thrashed, and is as follows :—

Ist. Wheat not manured with lime, 31 half-pints, weight 13} lbs.

2nd. Wheat manured with lime, 28 half-pints, weight 11 lbs.

No. 1. At the rate of 38 bushels 3 pecks per acre.

No. 2. At the rate of 35 bushels per acre.

The wheat from the part not manured is the brightest sample.

All single experiments made like this on a small scale are ex-
ceedingly fallacious, but I fully believe the difference on the
whole piece to have been equal to that shown in the experiment,
It is very possible that in a hot and dry summer the result might
have been different—but, at all events, we have a very good crop
of wheat, had the advantage of feeding many sheep through the
summer, and saved the lime bill.

Heligan, Oclober, 1843.

( 161 )

X.—Farming of Wiltshire. By Evwarp Lirrre, of Lower
Sheldon Farm, Chippenham.

Prize Reporr.

In writing on the agriculture of Wiltshire it will always be found
necessary to divide the county into two districts,—viz., North and
South, or rather North-west and South-east. The soil* and the
systems of husbandry, &c., are as different—as is often the case
in two separate counties—North Wiltshire being principally in
enclosed pasture-farms, famous both for their dairies and excel-
lent quality of cheese, and for grazing of cattle; whereas South
Wilts consists chiefly of unenclosed arable and down land, in
large farms, and is celebrated for its extensive flocks and the good
quality of its corn. The former may also be characterized as the
oolite district, the latter as the chalk district. 1 propose to com-
mence with the consideration of the latter, it being the most ex-
tensive, haying the largest farms, and a far greater breadth of
corn-land.

South Wilts, or Chalk District.

South Wilts comprises the whole of that part of the county
called the Wiltshire Downs, commencing where they enter the
north-eastern part of the county from Berkshire, between Marston
and Bishopstone, and terminating at Maiden Bradley, whence
they pass into Dorsetshire; containing nearly 500,000 acres.
The soil of this district, though various, is more uniform than ~
that of the other; the hills are chalk, with its usual accompani-
ment of flint; and in general the land on the sides of the hills is
a chalky loam, while the flatter parts are a flinty loam. In some
of the valleys there are veins of black earth without any mixture
of flints. The sides of the hills are in gencral the weakest and
thinnest, and the level tops are frequently the deepest and
strongest land. There are some singular sand veins running
through a large portion of this district, which deserve notice.
One narrow and fertile vein enters the county at Mere, on the
borders of Dorsetshire, and takes a north and north-eastern di-
rection round the outside edge of the downs, keeping nearly close
to their foot, by way of Maiden Bradley, Warminster, Westbury,
and Lavington, towards Devizes, where it meets and unites with

* There is no county perhaps that presents to the geologist a more ex-
tensive range through the succession of strata in this island. From the
lias at Box, which is the lowest in the series, he may pass over the marl-
stone of Smith, inferior oolite, fullers’ earth, great oolite, Bradford clay,
forest marble, with Stonesfield slate, cornbrash, Oxford clay, calcareous
grit, coral-rag, Kimmeridge clay, lower green sand, gault, upper green
oa mat], lower and upper chalk, without going one step out of the

ounty.

VOL. V. M

162 Farming of Wiltshire.

a much wider and more fertile vein coming down the Pewsey
Vale from Burbage.* Another vein also enters the county from
Dorsetshire, and passes through Donhead, Ansty, Shallowcliffe,
Fovant, &c., under the foot of the down. This‘vein is also met
at or near Fovant by another branch, or rather a ridge of sand-
hills, coming from West Knoyle. The fertility of the sand here
depends upon its being more or less mixed with chalk and chalk-
marl. There are a few instances of strong clays and clayey
Jonms in this district. Nearly the whole of the soil of South
Wilts now under cultivation consists of flinty and chalky loams,
with various mixtures of chalk-marl, green sand, and gault or
clay, and may be treated of under the following heads :—Ist,
chalky and flinty loams; 2nd, the down or beak land; 3rd, the
heavy white lands ; and, 4th, the sand land, The size of the farms
varies from 100 to 2000 acres; there are but few so large as 2000,
the general size may be said to be from 400 to 1000. There is
usually a portion of down to each farm.

System of Cropping.—The intelligent and enterprising men
who occupy this district have, since the extinction of the common
field-husbandry, worked a great change in the system of farm-
ing. ‘They haye been always ready to adopt any improvement. .
The system of cropping pursued in South Wiltshire varies consi-
derably, the soil not being uniform ; but it appears that the heavy
white lands and the sandy loams, which are the best wheat-lands,
are cropped in a three-field course; and on the best and richest
of these soils wheat is sown every alternate year. On the chalk
and flinty loams, where barley can be grown to advantage, the
four-field course is adopted; and on the light down, or * beak-
land,” as it is termed, of which there is usually a portion attached
to the farm, it is farmed on a five or a six field course, as the qua-
lity of this land varies, there bemg two kinds of it—the strong
red or “ wood sour land,” and the light or black land.

Rotation of Crops on Flinty and Chalky Loams.

This kind of soil comprises the largest portion of South Wilts,
and is well adapted for the growth of barley and turnips. It is
usually cropped in the four-field, or Norfolk course :—

Ist. Wheat.
2nd. Vetches and turnips.
ord, Barley.
4th. Clover.

Much of the land has been found to be “ clover sick” by a
* This vein is certainly a part of the green-sand formation of geologists,

which is remarkable for its fertility wherever it appears at the foot of chalk-
hills, though not when it spreads into a wider,range of country. —Pu. Pusey.

Farming of Wiltshire. 163

strict adherence to this course for many years; and the following
rotation has in consequence been adopted by many :—

Ist. Wheat.

2nd. Barley, half sown with clover.

3rd. Half clover, mown for hay ;
Half vetches and swedes.

(Winter turnips and rye are sown after the vetches are fed.)
4th. Half clover, fed, or sometimes broken up and sown
to green food, such as summer vetches, &e. ;

Half rye, early turnips, rape, &c. ‘

After the rye is fed the land is sown with turnips.

In this course, clover is sown only once in eight years; the
barley may be sown much earlier, and the produce is consequently
of a better quality; nor is the quantity found to be deficient. It
also gives an opportunity of preserving a portion of swedes for
sheep later in the spring, at the time when they are so much
wanted; and the land is also in a higher state of condition for
the wheat crop. Where there are no water-meadows on the farm,
to make up for the deficiency of hay from this course of crops,
there is an extra quantity of sainfoin sown.

Light Flinty Soils—There is a lighter description of this soil
generally termed ‘‘ beak-land,” or down-land, and more of this
kind has been brought into cultivation within these few years
inasmuch as vast breadths of the downs are broken up every year,
and not, as was formerly the case, crops of corn taken till, accord-
Ing toa quaint expression, “an old corn would not produce a new
one,’ and then laid down “to rest ;’ but there is now a more re-
gular system of culture by the use of artificial manures (bones are
chiefly used, as best adapted to this soil): these lands are found
to produce good crops of corn and turnips. The system of crop-
Ping is generally five-field :-—

Ist. Wheat.

2nd. Swedes or turnips.

3rd. Oats or barley,

4th and Sth. Grass two years, or broken up the second
year for rape and vetches.

Which practice is found to be a good preparation for wheat, as the
land is better manured and rendered firmer by the sheep feeding
off the green crop; for on this kind of soil firmness is essentially
necessary to a good crop of wheat. Barns and yards are conti-
nually springing up on the hills, consequently manure is made
where it is most wanted. A large portion of these soils is found
to carry good crops of sainfoin, of which some is commonly found
on each farm. The usual plan is to sow a piece every year, and
let it stand fiye or six years: about a tenth, or something more,

M 2

164 Farming of Wiltshire.

may be said to be the average number of acres kept to sainfoin,
but it varies according to circumstances—such as the nature of the
soil, the quantity of down attached to the farm, &c. ; but sainfoin
is considered indispensable on a stock-farm.

Heavy White Land.—T he general course of cropping the heavy
white lands of this district is the three-field, this kind of soil being
best adapted for the growth of wheat; it is, in fact, the only corn
crop taken by some farmers, excepting enough of oats and beans,
&c., sufficient for the use of the farm. ‘Those who do so, sow
thus :—

Ist year. Wheat; one-third sown with clover.
2nd year. One-third clover (mown for hay) ;.
One-third beans, oats, peas, or vetches ;
One-third swedes. (Rye, or winter barley, or
vetches, are usually sown on a portion of
the swede field.)
3rd year. One-third clover, fed, summer tilled or sown to
green crop ;
One-third early turnips or rape ;
One-third rape, or summer vetches: or some
prefer a clean fallow after the swedes.

Clover is in this course sown only once in nine years; and the
green crops are changed every rotation. It gives an immense
quantity of green food; the whole, or nearly so, is fed on the land
with sheep, which keeps it in very high condition. This system
is only pursued by the best farmers: the more general one is,—

Ist year, Wheat.
2nd year. Half oats, sown with clover ;

Half swedes, vetches, or beans, &c.
3rd year. Half clover (mown for hay) ;

Half turnips, rape, &c.

But some adopt the following :—
Ist year. Wheat; half sown to clover.
2nd year. Half clover (mown for hay) ;
Half swedes, vetches, oats, &c.
ord year. Half clover, fed, or summer tilled ;
Half rape, turnips, summer yetches, Ke.

Horse-corn being so little wanted since the completion of the
railways, more attention is given to the growth of green crops,
and less to that of oats and beans, which formerly made one field
in the course; and the sheep stock is thereby considerably in-
creased.

Sand-Lands.—The sand lands form but a small part of this
district, and that little varies considerably in quality, there being

Farming of Wiltshire. 165

some very poor, thin, and gravelly, and some rich sandy loams;
consequently, there are various methods of cropping pursued.
They are all well adapted for turnip husbandry, but not equally so
for barley. The poorer kinds are generally sown in a four-field
course, similar to the flinty soils. On the sandy loams wheat is
usually sown every third year. Barley is sometimes grown;
though not well adapted for malting purposes, it is often selected
for seed, as a good change for the other parts of the county,
There is considerable variety in respect to the choice and succes-
sion of green crops, consequently it is difficult to describe what
rotation is generally pursued when it is so varied. Some of the
deepest and richest of these soils are sown with wheat every alter-
nate year; the green crop between being varied as much as pos-
sible. The object of those who occupy the sand-land is to keep
it manured as highly as possible, and shaded with a crop of either
corn or green food. The same remark applies to this kind of
soil, with regard to beans, &c., which is made on the white lands.
Much of the sandy land has been sown so often with turnips and
swedes as to have become tired of them; and a good deal is now
sown with rape and mangold-wurzel, but the latter not to any great
extent. It will be seen by the system of cropping pursued on the
different soils that great attention is given to the production of
green crops, the whole of which are mostly fed on the land by
sheep; for throughout the whole of this division of the county
sheep-farming is pursued ; and, to use Mr. Davis's expression, is
“* the sheet-anchor of South Wiltshire husbandry.”

Management of Crops.—Wheat is not sown so early as formerly,
eyen on the hills and the light lands; Michaelmas is considered
early, but November is the principal seed-time. On the sands,
December is considered the best time. There is a good deal of
spring wheat sown after turnips and swedes, instead of barley;
particularly where the land is not kind for barley. Drilling is
now almost universal, except on some heavy land, where some
farmers stil] continue to sow broadcast. Two bushels to the acre
are the quantity usually drilled, and the drills are from 7 to 9
inches apart: half a bushel more is sown when the broadcast
method's preferred. Wheat is reaped at prices varying from 7s.
to 12s. per acre.

Barley is sown much earlier than formerly ; March and April
are now the principal seed-time; and drilling is universal. One
sack to an acre, with drills 7 inches apart, is the usual plan. It
is mown at 2s. per acre. Oats are not grown in large quantities,
except on the down lands, where they are sown insiead of barley,
and dniled and mown in the same manner,

Beans are not grown so much in this district as formerly, even
on the soils best adapied to them, there not being the usual

166 Farming of Wiltshire.

demand for horse-corn. Dibbling at one foot square is the plan
of sowing: the price of cutting is much the same as with wheat,
but varies according to the crop. Peas are not extensively culti-
vated for sale, but chiefly used on the farm: being an uncertain
crop, little attention is paid to the cultivation. Drilling, at 18 or
20 inches apart, is the method of sowing: cutting, at from 3s. to
5s. per acre. Swedes and turnips are grown in all the different
soils of the county, and are nearly all consumed on the land by
sheep; afew only are carried off, as stall-feeding is not adopted.
Where artificial manures are used, drilling is the invariable prac-
tice; but where yard-manure is applied, particularly on the heavy
lands, broadcast has its advocates. There are very few farmers
who drill on ridges: drilling on the flat, from 15 to 24 inches
apart, according to the soil, or the opinion of the grower, is the
general practice. Horse-hoeing is by no means general ; neither
is cutting turnips in the field for sheep, except occasionally for
young sheep and lambs, or for grazing sheep. Storing of swedes
is become very general, and the method considered to be the best
is throwing 7 or 8 bushels ina heap, and covering them with suffi-
cient earth to keep them dry and exclude frost. Mangold-wurzel
is only partially cultivated, and on the deepest soils. Rape is a
favourite green food in autumn with the South Wiltshire farmers,
and is very extensively cultivated: it is sown by itself, and with
turnips and vetches. Rye is mostly sown as green food for early
spring feeding. On some of the light hill or “ beak land,” which
is considered too weak to carry wheat, it is occasionally sown for
seed. Great breadths of vetches are sown in the autumn and
spring, for feed; and they are considered a good preparation for
wheat on the heavy lands. Very few are kept for seed, except in
seasons when there is an abundance of food for sheep. Potatoes
are not at all a favourite crop in South Wilts, particularly on the
large farms. Many farmers let out a small portion of land to
the labourers, which generally forms the extent of this crop, ex-
cept on the sand-land, where they are rather more cultivated.
The artificial grasses sown on the light lands of this division are
a mixture of bop or trefoil, with rye grass and white clover. Red
clover is sown on the heavy lands, and such other soils as are cal-
culated for its growth. Cow-grass and marl-grass are found to
be good substitutes when the land is tired of red clover, A great
proportion of the flinty and chalky soils are found to bear good
‘crops of sainfoin, which is now generally taken advantage of; in-
deed, sainfvoin is indispensable to the stock farmer, being the most
nutritive grass that is cultivated. lLtalian rye-grass has lately
been introduced, and found to be a valuable grass for early spring
feed on farms where there are no water-meadows.

Pasture—As before stated the quantity of pasture-Jand in this

Farming of Wiltshire. 167

division of the county is small compared with the arable. It is
mostly fed with sheep or the working cattle of the farm, except
on the western borders of the county, adjoining Dorsetshire, where
there is a tract of pasture-land which is chiefly applied to dairy
purposes.

The Water Meadows of this division of the county form a most
important part of its husbandry. Of these there are about 20,000
acres, and amongst them are to be found some of the best meadows
in England; every brook and rivulet is applied to irrigation when
practicable. Their management has undergone but little altera-
tion since Mr. Davis made his report (who wrote so practically
and ably on the subject), that it is unnecessary to give more than
a general account of the system now pursued. The watering, or,
as it is provincially termed, “ drowning,” continues to be done in
the same manner as formerly, each meadow having its stated time
for the water to be thrown over it, which rule has been in force
very probably ever since the meadows were first formed, and
seems likely to continue: from the construction of the meadows,
generally, such must be the case, as the drain that takes the water
from one meadow forms a “ carrier” to irrigate the next below;
consequently, by altering that system one person would divert the
stream to the injury of bis neighbour below, which has been done,
and caused many very vexatious and expensive lawsuits. They
are generally fed by sheep, which is the principal stock of this
division of the county. The grass is usually ready to take the
couples about the third week in March, or as soon as the lambs
can travel the distance (which is sometimes considerable), as they
invariably return to the arable land at night. After being fed
the meadows are laid up, and in about six weeks produce an ex-
cellent crop of kay: they are sometimes mown a second time, but
not often. It is usual to feed them in the fall with dairy cows (if
any are kept) or the working oxen, and horses of the farm. There
is great danger of rotting sheep in the autumn, consequently they
are not allowed to feed there at that season of the year. The real
value of water-meadows is not so great now as in Mr. Davis's

time. Itwas thought impossible at that time for the sheep-farmer
to breed lambs on such farms as were not fortunate enough to
possess them, but since the introduction and extensive growth of
swedes, turnips, and other artificial food, many farmers that have
little or no grass-land, have produced lambs equal, if not superior
to those occupying the best water-meadows. In the neighbour-
hood of Salisbury, and in the Wiley Bourne, some farms have
increased their dairy-stock, and they set apart a portion of the

water-meadows for that purpose, but the system is by no means
general.

168 Farming of Wiltshire.

Manures.

Sheepfold.— Of the different manures used by the South Wilt-
shire farmers, the sheepfold stands first. It is not confined to
any one crop, for the sheep are regularly folded all the year
through, whether feeding in the water-meadows, on the artificial
crops, or on the down only. In the winter and spring for barley
and turnips, and in the summer and autumn for wheat ; 2000
_ sheep are generally folded upon an acre. A general plan i in this
district is what is termed “ muckle and folding,” for turmps. A
quantity of muck or litter is thrown over the land, and folded
upon, in the early part of the winter; and ploughed in, where it
lies till spring. This has been prov ed to bea good preparation
for swedes or turnips: the same plan is often adopted with good
results for wheat.

Farm-yard.—Farm-yard manure is not much economised, or
very richly made in South Wilts, so few cattle being kept either
as store-stock or for grazing. The principal part on some farms
is made by the horses and oxen worked on the farm, There are
some who keep cattle in the winter to tread in the straw, and on
which they are fed: some times a few swedes, if very abundant,
are added. Some pay more attention to this than others, and
regularly provide roots for their cattle in the winter, in order to
improve the quality of the manure. It is usually ploughed in
fresh from the yards.

Liquid Manure, for two reasons, is entirely neglected at pre-
sent, viz., the small number of cattle kept, and the homesteads
being generally old and ill constructed for saving it.

Bones, &c.—The introduction of bones as manure has proved
of incalculable benefit to this district. As in all other places,
where the soil is adapted to them, they are extensively used over
a considerable part of it, particularly where no other manure can
be well applied, except the sheepfold. By the use of bones
much of the light hill-land is brought into a good state of cultiva-
tion. They are used for turnips only : 16 bushels to the acre is
thought quite sufficient. They are sometimes mixed with ashes,
at the rate of 10 to 15 bushels of bones, and 20 to 30 of ashes.

Guano has not yet been extensively used ; but from the trials
made, and their results, it is likely to be more generally em-
ployed. Nitrate of soda has been found a gvod top-dressing
but it appears to have had its day, not being so much used as vit
was a few years since. Lime is not very extensively used in South
Wilts, but there is an opinion in favour of its application on some
soils. Coal ashes are extensively used on the sand-land, as a top-
dressing for young clover: they are sometimes applied to sainfoin,

SS ere

a

Farming of Wiltshire. 169

Woollen rags are often used as manure on the sand-land for swedes
or mangold-wurzel. Soot is also found to be a good top-dressing
for wheat, and is much used.

Chalk has long since been known as a permanent, and, conse-
quently, a valuable manure, and it is to be found on every farm ;
but as most of the land that requires it has been chalked, there is
little used now, except when some of the down-land is broken up,
which is always benefited by its use.

Paring and Burning, or, as it is called in North Wilts, “ stifle-
burning,” is a system lately introduced into the south of the
county, where it finds many advocates. It is not confined to
burning the turf of old lea or sainfoin, but is done on wheat or
other stubble, as a preparation for turnips, and has been found to
preduce excellent crops. The method of doing it will be de-
scribed in the report for North Wilts, where it has been practised
with success for many years, on the stone-brash soils. On the
hill farms great attention is paid to the collecting of ashes from
burnt stubble, couch-grass, and other weeds. The parings from
toad-sides, old banks, and linchets, ant-hills, &c., are burnt like-

wise; and the ashes mixed with bones, or other artificial manures,

and sometimes applied separately, after the fold, or a light dress-
ing of yard manure.

Breed of Cattle ——There is no particular breed of cattle kept in
this division of the county. and very few of any kind are bred,
there being but a small quantity of pasture exclusive of the water-
meadows; and the sheep being the principal stock, very little
attention is given to horned cattle. The dairies that are kept
here are generally let to dairymen, and the cows are selected
chiefly for their milking qualities, consequently there are all kinds
of breeds, but the short-horn cross prevails. There are some
farms, on the western borders of this county, where the pasture
exceeds in quantity the arable land; here more attention is paid
to the dairy, and some good herds of cows may be seen, principally
of the short-horn breed, and some few good stocks of Herefords.
The cows are generally bought at the fairs and markets in North
Wiltshire.

Pigs—tThe Berkshire spotted pig may be said to be the breed
of pigs kept, of which large quantities are bred: they are not
usually fattened, except for the use of the house, but are kept
to run over the stubble and eat the offal corn; and are sold as
stores, either to the labourer, or go into the dairy counties to be
fattened.

Sheep—The principal live-stock of this division of the county
consisis of sheep, for which the nature of the soil, and of the

farms, is peculiarly adapted. Sheep are kept as store-stock. and

chiefly fur breeding, very few being fatted. Wether flocks are

170 Farming of Wiltshire.

kept only where there is no convenience for breeding. South
Downs are nearly universally the breed now, and although the
sheep-fold is a paramount object on a South Wilts farm, the
quality of the animal is not neglected. As much attention has of
late years been paid to the improvement of the breed of sheep in
Wiltshire as in any county of England. Many of the flock-
masters of Wilts have, by judicious selection of stock from Sussex,
brought their flocks to a high state of perfection, and their stock
being dispersed through the county, has greatly improved the
breed of sheep. There are a few who prefer the Hampshire, or
coarser kinds of sheep: and where the forcing of lambs from
their birth, to be sold fat in the autumn, or for grazing as tegs, is
adopted, it appears to answer well, as the extraordinary produc-

tion of that breed brought to the fairs within the last few years ~

will prove; but the generality of farms are stocked with South
Downs. Where breeding flocks are kept, the usual plan is to
keep the Wether lambs during the summer as well as circum-
stances will admit, and sell them in the autumn for stock. ‘The
draft-ewes are generally taken from the flock soon after shearing,
and are kept better than the flock; and likewise sold in the
autumn either for fatting, or to produce another lamb for fatting,
which last is the most usual plan. When there is no convenience
for a breeding flock wether sheep only are kept, the system
generally adopted being to buy lambs, keep them either one or
two years, and then sell them for fatting. There are some who
fat their wethers, but the number is very limited.

Horses, or other Cattle employed in the different operations of
Husbandry.— Ozen are used only in ploughing, for which there
are usually one or two teams kept on a farm, where they can be
used with advantage; but some situations are not adapted to the
working of oxen, the flints and the steepness of the hills, the
small quantity of pasture-land on some farms, &c., being reasons
why they are not used. The breeds preferred are the Hereford
and Devon. ‘They are often worked in pairs, and driven with
reins, on the light soils. Three or four are usually worked in
each plough on the heavier Jands, /

Horses.—The rage for fine fat heavy cart-horses, that existed
some years since in this county, is at an end, and a lighter
active kind of horse is now used. For ploughing the heavy
land three horses are used; they are not worked at length, but
invariably driven one before, and two abreast behind: for the
hill-land, and the lighter soils, a pair are driven abreast with reins.
There are some few who still fancy that ploughing cannot be done
well without three horses on some of the light soils. Corn and
hay are carried on waggons, to which two or three horses are
attached, according to the distance, state of roads, &c. Manure

SS, BN A

Farming of Wiltshire. 171

is catried in both waggons and carts, and three or four horses are
used according to circumstances as above. One horse is attached
to each harrow: two or three harrows are kept together by a
rider, or overlay, and the horses draw abreast. The number to
searifiers, drags, &c., varies from three to six, according to the
weight of the implement and nature of the work.

Implements.

Ploughs.—The ploughs chiefly used in this district are the old
Berkshire, or Tasker’s two-wheel plough, Tasker’s one-wheel,
or D. P. plough, and the common one-wheel, which has been
greatly improved by Reeves of Bratton, and which in some parts
of the county is much used. A double furrow-plough is used on
some farms in surring or cross-ploughing fallows for turnips or
barley. ‘There are many others, but they are not in general use.

Drills.—The Suffolk drill is the principal drill used for corn
and turnips: there are others used, but mostly of old construction.
There are several men from Suffolk living in different parts of
the county, who keep from five to ten drills each, and let them
on hire at so much per acre. The usual price is ls. 3d. peracre
for corn, and 2s. for turnips, with manure. Many farmers keep
drills themselves, but many even of the larger farmers prefer
hiring. Broadcast Machines for corn and seeds are likewise used.

Scarifiers are but little used on the heavy lands, the preference
being given to ploughing ; but on light soils Finlayson’s harrow,
Carson's scarifier, and the common nine-share, are much used.
The common drags and harrows are in general use, but lately
iron harrows with curved tines have been introduced, and are
found more efficient in working the heavy land. Crosskill’s clod-
crusher has been lately introduced on a few farms, and appears
to be a useful (though an expensive) implement. Land-Pressers
are in general use, as well as rollers, both of iron and wood,

Horse-hoes are not in general use ; where they have been intro-
duced, the preference is given to a set of hoes fixed in a beam,
and attached to the wheels and frame of the Suffolk drill, by
which the whole breadth of the drill is hoed at once. The hoes
are arranged according to the number and width of the drills.
Waggons only are used for carrying hay and corn, but carts and
Waggons are used for carrying manure. ‘The carts are made
deep in the bed and strong, and are well constructed for carrying
the heavy loads which are often placed on them. Gardener's
turnip-cutter has decidedly the preference for beasts and sheep ;
but Moody’s crusher is sometimes used when Swedes are given

mixed with chaff. Chaff-cutters of vavious kinds are now in use:

Ransom’s one-knife, Passmore’s, and a variety of others, too
numerous to mention, worked both by horse and manual labour.
Most of the farmers have a thrashing-machine worked by horse-

172 Farming of Wiltshire.

power; there are some few hand thrashing-machines introduced,
and many portable machines let on hire, in the same manner as
the drills.

Winnowing-machines, with the fan and Amesbury-heaver, are
used for dressing corn. There have been lately many new imple-
ments introduced in the different branches of farming, but those
enumerated are the principal kinds in general use.

Drainage.—The condition of this division of the county as to
moisture may be said to be good, as the natural formation of the
country is well calculated to carry off the surface-water; and the
substrata being generally porous, drainage is seldom required
except on the heavy lands, which do not form a very large por-
tion, and the principal part of that has been under-drained.

North Wilts, or the Oolite District.

North Wiltshire differs very much in appearance from the
southern division of the county. Instead of the open down coun-
try of the latter, the whole consists of enclosures, some of which
are very small; and in many places the hedgerows are so thickly
stocked with trees as to give the appearance of an extensive plant-
ation when viewed from a distance.

There is great variety of soil in this part of the county, as might
naturally be expected from the various strata of which it consists.
On the borders of Gloucestershire, a narrow belt of oolite, with
its subordinate formations of forest marble and cornbrash (all three
being generally known to farmers by the name of stonebrash),
extends from the neighbourhood of Bradford to the extremity of the
county near Cirencester. The land here is for the most part arable,
upon which sheep-farming is practised after the same manner as
in South Wilts. The soil is generally thin; some poor clays are
also met with here; but there are notwithstanding some rich gra-
velly loams upon the alluvial soil, composing the banks of the
Avon and Thamesrivers. Within this belt there isa much broader
tract of deep clayey land known by the name of Oxford clay, It
commences beyond Chippenham, and proceeds north-eastward
throughout the county, passing by Malmesbury on one side and
Wootten Basset on the other. A great part of the soil upon this
stratum is of the very worst quality.* Between the Oxford clay and
the chalk hills of the southern division there are two other strata
of some extent, viz., coral, rag, and Kimmeridge clay. The soil
upon the first of these resembles that of the oolite, forest marble,
and cornbrash, and is known by the same name; the last resem-
bles the Oxford clay, but is of a better quality, There isa small
quantity of sandy soil near Calne, but it is by no means so fertile

* This obdurate clay wears the same appe arance, and bears deservedly —
the same character, wherever I have seen it in Berkshire, Buckingham-
shire, and Lincolnshire.—Pu. Pusry.

Farming of Wiltshire. 173

as that of the southern division. It produces, however, excellent
vegetables, to the growth of which it is chiefly applied. The city
of Bath is mainly supplied with carrots, turnips, and green peas
from this source. The size of the farms in this division differ
from those of the south, being mostly small, say from fifty to five
hundred acres; the largest are in the arable part of the division.
The principal part of the arable land of North Wilts then consists
of stonebrash soil. There are, indeed, several portions here and
there of a different kind, but they are generally small, belonging
to dairy farms, and cultivated at the option and convenience of the
occupiers. Upon these there are so many modes of cropping, and
the soils are so various, that it is impossible to reduce it to a sys-
tem. But a more regular method of cropping is pursued upon
the stonebrash soils varying according to itsdepth. The four-field
system is generally pursued on the deepest, and a five-field upon
the thinnest. The rotation of the four-field is generally the com-
mon or Norfolk course.

Ist. Wheat.

2nd. Vetches and turnips.
3rd. Barley or oats.

4th. Clover.

The five-field is the same, with the difference only of the clover
remaining two years, or broken up the second year and followed
by turnips or spring vetches. It cannot be said that rotation is
always observed, for some farmers have introduced the practice of
growing two green crops in succession, as well as two corn crops;
and some do not scruple to take two corn crops and one green
crop. ‘This soil is not so generous as that of South Wilts, and is
not kept in such high condition, there being neither water mea-
dows nor downs to assist it, nor is the cleanly state of the arable
farms in North Wilts proverbial; but there is a spirit abroad
amongst us for improvement, which is daily increasing, __

In respect to Manures. Sheepfolding is practised after the
same manner as in South Wilts. Bones have been found to an-
swer well upon the stonebrash, but they are not in general use,
nor is much attention paid to any other artificial manures. Soot
is used with advantage as a top-dressing for wheat. Stifle-burning
is by far the most general preparation for turnips, and is done
after the following manner :—The land is raftered, and pared with
the breast-plough; or raftered again in a cross direction, to get
sufficient earth for burning. It is then worked with the drags or
harrows, and when dry the couch or turf is raked into heaps, and a
small bundle of straw placed in the middle of each heap and set
on fire. The hole is then closed, and as soon as the heap burns
freely, the earth is shoyelled upon the fire in large quantities ;

174 Farming of Wiltshire.

sometimes as much as eight or ten bushels are burned in heap
at as many yards asunder. The ashes, when cold, are sprea
evenly over the land and ploughed in. The farmers of this dis-
trict (that is the stonebrash soil) place great dependence on ashes
for their turnip crops; banks are grubbed, and the turf and roots
burnt; road-sides pared, couch grass, and other weeds are collected
and burnt: and the ashes are drilled for turnips, some few adding
bones or other artificial manures, but the many are content with
the ashes only, but the turnips often prove only an apology for a
crop. Yard manure is generally better made thanin South Wilts, _
a larger number of cattle being kept, and is mostly used for the
wheat crop in a decomposed state. On the thin soils the plan of
spreading it on the land after it is ploughed is much in fashion at
present, and is done in the following manner :—Upon the top of the
ridge seven furrows are ploughed, being about the width of the cart ;
the manure is then placed in heaps upon the furrows, and when
the whole field is ploughed, it is spread abroad and worked in,
Wheat is generally drilled upon the large farms, but upon small
ones, where there is not much sown, it is often hoed in. Spring
sowing is yearly becoming more general. In taking the crop
reaping is universal, at prices varying from 6s. to 10s. the acre,
according to crop. Barley and Oats are often ploughed in, but
the drill system is adopted by many. Mowing is always adopted,
price 1s. 6d. to 2s. per acre. Beans and Peas are but little cul-
tivated, the same remark applying as in South Wilts.

Turnips are generally sown broad-cast where stifle-burning is
practised, or when farm-yard manure is used; but drilling is pre-
ferred when bones or other artificial manure is applied. When
the ashes are not sufficient to be spread over the land, they are
usually collected and drilled in; some persons sow their turnips
upon ridges, but the number is very limited: they are chiefly hoed
by hand. On some farms a portion is carried off the land for con-
sumption by cattle in the yards; and on the light soils they are
mostly fed on the land by sheep. Rape, Rye, Vetches, and other
green crops, are cultiyated as in South Wilts; and upon the large
farms are consumed on the land by sheep. On smaller farms
vetches are frequently sown for seed. Sainfoin is sown upon the
stonebrash soil with much adyantage, and a great quantity 1s sown
wherever there is no sheep-sleight, or but little pasture land on the
farm. Artificial Grasses of the same kinds are sown as in South |
Wilts. ; v

Potatoes are extensively planted on the dairy farms where any
arable land is attached, and are often the only root-crop taken.
Upon the lighter soils, however, they are not much cultivated, ex-
cept by the labourers, to whom a good deal of land is annually
Jet in some parishes. They are much used in feeding pigs.

= eS om

Farming of Wiltshire. 175

Pastures—The usual method of managing the pasture land is
to feed and mow alternately. There is not always sufficient atten-
tion paid to it, especially where there is much arable land in the
same occupation, the grass land being neglected for the improve-
ment of that producing corn. Composts of road dirt and ditch
scrapings, with a little yard dung, are the principal dressing al-
lowed, and even that but seldom. It is often well managed when
the farm consists entirely of pasture land, and in no part of the
county is pasture land managed so well as in the neighbourhood
of Devizes, where there is little or no arable land occupied with it.

Breed of Cattle.—T he proportion of inferior and wet pasture land
is great in comparison with the dry, healthy, and good; notwith-
standing which it is generally applied to dairy purposes, and not
unfrequently does it happen that the cheese made upon it is of
a better quality than that of the best land, The breed of cattle
now preferred for the dairy is the short-horned, especially upon
the best land; but very few are bred there, the whole being ap-
plied to the dairy and grazing. These dairies are supplied with
heifers, of which large droves are brought from the northern coun-
ties to the fairs and markets of Wilts, and although there are not
amongst them a great number of short-horns of the purest breed,
many excellent packs of cows may be seen here very nearly ap-
proaching to the pure breed. There are a few individuals who
breed sufficient for their own dairies, who have lately selected some
excellent short-horned bulls in the north of England. Upon the
inferior grass land it is usual to breed to an extent sufficient for
keeping up the dairy stock, and different crosses, such as the
Gloucestershire, Hereford, and short-horn are kept, according
to the opinion of the farmer in regard to his own interest ; there is,
consequently, no similarity of breed to be found; in fact, upon
many farms it would be difficult to find two animals of the same
breed ; but even there the short-horn breed predominates. There
are very few herds of the old long-horned cows now remaining in
this county, but they were nearly univeral in 181]. The dairy
farmers generally fat all their calves that fall early enough to be
fattened before grass time. After that period the remainder are
bought by dealers and sent into other counties for grazing. The
whole of the milk is then used in making cheese, for the excellent
quality of which North Wilts has long stood pre-eminent. Those
who are particular in the selection of their stock always sell their
cow-calyes for weaning at good prices. The number of young
stock now reared is greatly reduced by the enclosure of the com-

mon land in this division of the county; for once enclosed, the

land is either broken up or applied to the dairy. A few are
reared for sa/e on some farms, where the quantity of arable land
is considerable, and the pasture not sufficient for a dairy to be

176 Farming of Wiltshire.

kept with advantage. In this case the short-horned breed is pre-
ferred on account of their coming to maturity at an early age.

Grazing of Cattle.—A great part of the rich meadow land upon
the banks of the Avon and Thames, and in other fertile districts
of this division of ihe county, is applied to the grazing of cattle and
sheep. Of cattle, heifers are principally the alogk chasdh for this
purpose, and are supplied from the neighbouring dairies. When
oxen are chosen, which are comparatively but few, Herefords and
Devons are the breeds preferred. Of sheep, both South Down
and Long Wools are fattened. (When there isa portion of arable
land ae thed to the farm, and roots are grown, winter grazing is
often adopted, the dairy farmers grazing some of their cows that
are out of season.)

Pigs.—The breed of pigs is the same as in South Wilts, viz.,
the Spotted or Berkshire, of which great numbers are bred, and
fattened at the dairies, at all seasons of the year. Their chief
food in the summer is whey, and in the winter potatoes, corn
being added always to both.

Sheep.— The sheep stock of this division of the county is dif-
ferent from that of South Wilts, the cross between the Cotswold
and South Downs being mostly preferred. There are, however,
some flocks of pure South Downs and Cotswolds. Nearly the
same system of management in respect of keeping and sale is
adopted in both divisions. On the Gloucestershire side of the
county some farmers pursue the plan of their neighbours, viz.,
that of keeping smaller breeding flocks, and fattening the whole
of their sheep.

Horses.—A pair driven abreast with reins is the usual number
employed in ploughing the lighter soils; three or even four are
sometimes attached to a plough upon some of the heavy land.
Oxen are very little used in this division. Harrowing, dragging,
scarifying, harvesting, and carting of manure are dose the same
as in South Wilts.

Implements —The plough generally used upon the stonebrash
soil is the one-wheel plough made by Reeves of Bratton. It is
nothing more than the common plough with a longer turn-furrow
and beam, by means of which the furrows are more evenly turned,
the draught steadied, and the plough not so liable to be shaken
out of its work by the stones. Various kinds are in use upon
other soils, but principally one-wheel ploughs of old (and some
few of new) construction. The Suffolk drill is chiefly used, and
is generally hired as in South Wilts. Drags and harrows or the
same. A scarifier made by Phelps of Lacock is well adapted to
light soils, and much used on the stonebrash. The Uley culti-
vator has been lately introduced upon some of the heavier soils..
Land-pressers are in general use upon the stonebrash. Horse-

|

Farming of Wiltshire. 177

hoes are very little used either for corn or turnips. Waggons and
carts are similar to those of South Wilts, and used for the same
purposes; nor are the turnip-cutters, thrashing-machines, chaff-
cutters, or winnowing machines at all different.

Drainage.—Much of the land here is in a very imperfect state
of drainage; and although a good deal has been done, and is still
in progress, it will be long ere it is complete, unless it proceeds
more rapidly than at present. A great part of what was done
some years ago is quite inefficient; the drains not having been
made sufficiently deep, and the distance between them too great.
Stone-draining has been generally practised on the land when
materials were near at hand, and turf-draining upon much of the
pasture-land. ‘Tile-drains are comparatively but little used, the
old method being still pursued, but the work is done much more
effectually than in former times. Thorough-draining and subsoil-
ploughing is scarcely yet introduced, although much of the clay-
land would be wonderfully improved by it: to carry off the sur-
face-water trenching only is all that is done to a good deal of the

asture.

The Tenure on which the Farms are generally held.—In Wilt-
shire the farms are held on a variety of tenure. Leases are
granted by some of the large landed proprietors for seven, four-
teen, or twenty-one years at a fixed rent; others let their farms on
leases of four, eight, or twelve years on a corn-rent, the average
price of corn being taken from the scale that regulates the rent-
charge published yearly under the Tithe Commutation Act. The
number of farms let in this manner are not very considerable.
By far the greatest proportion of farms are held by yearly tenants.
Michaelmas is the usual time of entry in South Wilts, and Lady-
day in North Wilts.

Wages of Labourers.—The wages of the labourers of this
county vary with the price of wheat. At present* the general
price is 7s. per week in the southern division, and 8s. in the
northern ; but there are some advantages in addition to the 7s.
and 8s. per week. The farmer provides from 10 to 20 perches
of land ploughed and manured for potatoes for his constant men,
and a cottage and generally a good garden at a very moderate rent,
say from 30s. to 50s. per annum. Shepherds and carters receive
2s. per week extra, or an equivalent in rent, wood, coal, &c. In
the summer work is mostly done by the piece, and men earn high
wages. In South Wilts it is usual to give 2s. per day for six
weeks in the harvest-time to day labourers. Beer is given
throughout the year in North Wilts, two quarts per day in the
summer (unlimited in harvest and hay-making time), and one

* This was written in the winter, 1843-4. The wages in South Wilts
haye generally been raised to 8s. per week since that time.
YoU. Y. N

178 Farming of Wiltshire.

quart per day in the winter. It is not usually given in South
Wilts except at harvest-time. Women’s wages are from 7d. to
10d. per day.

Poor Rates.—From the best information I have been able to
collect from the different Unions in the county the average amount
of poor-rate is 3s. 2d. in the pound upon the rateable yalue,
which includes county and police rates.

Improvements and Alterations since 1811.—When the report of
Mr. Davis was published, it appears that a very considerable
portion of the land was in common field husbandry, both in the
southern and northern divisions of the county, and many large
tracts of grass-lands in the northern division were in open com-
mons. Most of these commons are now inclosed; some are con-
verted into arable land, and some still remain in pasture, and the
common field husbandry, or “tenantry,” as it is called, is abo-
lished, with the exception of five or six parishes. Since that took
place, improvements have been continually making in the agri-
culture of this county. At that time nearly one course of crop-
ping was pursued on all descriptions of soils, whether they were
calculated to grow such crops or not. Root-crops were but par-
tually cultivated, the great dependence for sheep-food being on
the produce of the downs, artificial grasses, and water-meadows.
Corn-crops, clover, and fallow formed the usual rotation: now
a regular succession of green food is provided in addition to those
most useful appendages to the sheep-farm; consequently the
number of sheep is greatly increased, by some it is calculated
that it is nearly doubled, and although there is still the “ pride of
keeping fine sheep,” as Mr. Davis expresses it, that object is not
obtained by reducing the number, but by producing an increase
_ of food. The land is in a much higher state of cultivation than at
that time, and produces much haiti crops of corn, both in quan-
tity and quality. Various rotations are now adopted on the dif-
ferent soils, mostly tending to a large growth of green crops, as it
is found to be the most profitable method of manuring the land.
A naked fallow is now only known by name except on the very
stiffest soils. The introduction of bones and other artificial ma-
nures has wrought a great change in the agriculture of this
county (as well as in all others), more particularly on the lightest
soils, which were formerly considered too poor to be cultivated.
Their use has greatly contributed to bring the agriculture of this
county (especially of the southern division) into that superior
state which has excited the surprise even of some of those patterns
of good farming, the farmers of the Lothians, who have visited
this part of the kingdom, and the commendation of all who are
capable of judging on the matter ; for the farmers of South Wilts,
taken as a body, are excellent farmers, but those of North Wilts

Farming of Wiltshire. 179

(though the writer is of that class), it must be confessed, are far
from being so; but there are many exceptions in both cases.
The ploughs in general use are somewhat similar to those de-
scribed by Mr. Davis; but there is this difference, they are not
the great heavy cumbrous implements of that day, very great at-
tention having been paid lately to their improvement by the dif-
ferent makers, with regard to the draught and turn-furrow, &e. :
and not only are the ploughs improved, but the ploughing also ;
the land is ploughed much deeper, and the work performed gene-
rally ina much superior manner. The prizes given by the dif-
ferent agricultural societies at their annual ploughing-matches
have increased among the ploughmen throughout the county a
spirit of honest rivalship, which has done great good. While
writing on the improvement of ploughs and ploughing, it will be
well to point out another most important alteration connected
with it, that is, driving a pair of horses abreast with reins, which is
now used very generally on all the light lands, whereby the number
of horses is considerably diminished. The general application of
the drill-system for corn and green crops, w hich was scarcely intro-
duced in I811, is an important improvement, both in saving of
seed and the opportunity it gives for clearing the crops; ‘and
although the use of the horse-hoe has not followed the introduc-
tion of the drill, as in many other counties, hoeing is not neglected,
butis chiefly done by hand. With the exception yo waggons, carts,
ploughs, drags, and harrows, the implements now in general use
were almost unknown in this county in the year ISI, : as they are
not mentioned by Mr. Davis—in fact many of them have been
introduced recently.

Drainage.— Although the drainage of some parts of the mosthi-
ern division of the county is far from being ina good state, there
are some districts that have been greatly improved in this respect,
particularly the arable land, much of which is inclined to be very
wet and full of springs. A good deal of the poor pastures remains
much in the same state as in 1811.

Of all the alterations that have been made in the’ agriculture of
this county there is none that strikes one more forcibly than the
change made in the cattle ; although the same systems are fol-
lowed, sheep-farming in South Wilts and dairy- -farming in North
Wilts, a complete change has taken place in the breed of cattle
and sheep since the year 1811. The long-horned cows, which at
that period were the universal breed of the county, have now be-
come nearly extinct, and the short-horns for some few years past
have been preferred in the best pasture districts, and this breed
appears to be gaining favour with most dairymen even on the
poorer lands. The Wiltshire horned sheep, which were then the
breed of the county, baye entirely given way to the South Downs

n2

180 Observations on the various Insects

in South Wilts and some parts of the northern division, and to the
Cotswolds and the cross of these two breeds in the other parts.
The breed of pigs is also totally different, and the change has no
doubt been beneficial, the pigs now kept being generally of a
superior description. In no branch of the agriculture of this
county is improvement more apparent than in the management of
sheep. As before stated, regular successions of green food are
now grown, and often three or four kinds are provided during the
summer, such as clover, sainfoin, vetches, rape, early turnips, &Ke.,;
in addition to the grass upon the downs and sheep-walks, in order
that they may often have a change of food; good supplies of tur-
nips and swedes are given in addition to hay, which was formerly
the only winter-food. Hay is now nearly everywhere cut into
chaff, and sent to the fields in. bags, or covered waggons made for
that purpose—a circumstance which would have rather astonished
a farmer of 1511. Swedes are likewise preserved, or rye, or
winter-barley, or some other green food, is provided for them
while feeding in the water-meadows, which was thought quite un-
necessary some years since. ‘The ewe lambs were formerly sent
into the grass districts to be wintered ; now provision is made for
them on the farm, except when the turnip or hay crop fails, and
then a little corn or cake is often given, in order to keep them at
home. There is also great improvement in the management of
cattle, particularly where young stock are reared ; they are much
better fed and lodged in the winter. The latter remark applies
to cattle generally, as they are not kept in the fields nearly so
much as formerly, sheds being provided for them.

XI.— Observations on the Natural History and Economy of the
Insects called Wireworms, affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, ce. ;
also of their parents the Elaters or Beetles, called Skip-jacks,
Click-beetles, §c. By Joun Curris, F.L.S., Corresponding
Member of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili Society of
Florence, &c.

Parer VI.

It is an incontrovertible axiom—“ That the profit we derive from the works of creation
will be in proportion to the accuracy of our knowledge of them and their properties,”"—
Kirby and Spence’s Int, to Ent.

As Wireworms not only injure the turnip but various other crops,
I shall terminate my account of the insects affecting that plant by
detailing the history of the animals thus designated, making them
the transition to the corn-crops, which are subject to the attacks
of other insects, whose economy will be found equally interesting
and important to the agriculturist.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §e. 181

Of all the insect enemies with which the farmer has to contend,
there are none which are more fatal in their effects, and more
difficult to overcome, than the Wireworms. It has already been
stated that the larve of many insects are not unfrequently attached
to one species of plants, or at least to one particular tribe or
“ natural order ;” thus the ravages of the Turnip-fly* are confined
to the Cruciferae, of the Black-caterpillar{ to the turnip, of the
Hessian-fly to corn, &c.; but in the Wireworm we have an ex-
ample of a larva which may almost be termed omnivorous, as far
as regards the productions of the field and garden, for it will feed
upon corn, turnips, mangold-wurzel, potatoes, grass, and cabbages,
as well as upon the roots and stems of the choicest flowers; its
operations therefore being so extensive, the mischief done by these
formidable little animals must be incalculable.

It is true that every grub and worm § found at the roots of
their crops by the farmer and gardener has been hitherto stigma-
tised with the appellation of “the Wireworm,’ which has no doubt
contributed to add to the amount of mischief complained of ;
nevertheless, the true Wireworms have enough to answer for on
their own account, and the great ignorance that has existed re-
garding them renders a narrative of their natural history very de-
sirable. An instance, which occurs in the ‘ Gardeners’ Magazine, ||
will be sufficient to substantiate the assertion; figures 93, b and c,
are there given as the larva and pupa of Elater segetis 4] (viz. the
true Wireworm), but they are undoubtedly the offspring or pro-
duce of some insect not belonging to the same order, but probably
to the Diptera or two-winged flies. Such errors are sadly mis-
chievous in a work expressly intended to convey information to all’
classes, and no subsequent correction can entirely eradicate a
blunder and its effects when once circulated by the press.

It will probably surprise the general reader to learn that there
are nearly seventy species of beetles in this country which are the
parents of Wireworms; many of them however live in decaying
trees or under the bark, and the number that affects our crops of
corn, vegetables, and flowers is very limited; of these we shall
treat as far as we have been able to obtain data for their histories,
but their economy appears to be so similar, that it will be most
convenient to consider them in the first instance as the Wireworms.

* Royal Agric. Jour., vol. ii. p. 193.

+ So called from the four leaves or petals of the flowers forming a cross.

i Royal Agric. Jour., vol. ii. p. 364.

§ Millepedes, Centipedes, and the larye or maggots of Gnats and Tipulay
have been thus confounded.

| Vol. vi. p. 500.

@ This name is synonymous with Z. lineatus, as will be shown a few
pages farther on,

182 Observations on the various Insects

Of the species of beetles producing these larvae (for such the

Wireworms are), there are not more than eleven I believe that .

will require our attention; they belong to the OrpeErR Cotrop-
TERA, they form the Famity Evarerip® and the Genus
Eater of Linneus, which has since been divided into several
others by modern naturalists. These beetles have been called
Elaters from a peculiar power they have of leaping up like a
tumbler when placed on their backs, and for this reason they
have received the English appellations of Spring-beetles and
Skip-jacks, and from the noise which the apparatus makes when
they leap they are also called Snap or Click beetles, and likewise
Blacksmiths. The species we will enumerate and describe here-
after, and detail at present their economy : after pairing, the female
beetle lays her eggs; the eggs produce little larve called Wire-
worms, which grow and change to pupe or chrysalides, and from
these again emerge the beetles.

Whether the eggs (pl. I. fig. 1), which are neanlyp globose or
slightly oval, yellowish white, and very minute,* are laid in the
earth close to the root of a plant, or between the enveloping
leaves or sheaths near the base of the stalk, I am unable to de-
termine ; it is a very desirable part of their economy to be ascer-
tained, but hitherto I have endeavoured in yain to detect a female
depositing her eggs or to find any, except by dissection, when I
have observed them close to the base of the oviduct: the little
worms produced from these eggs must be almost invisible to the
naked eye ; they grow very slowly, and eventually attain the length
of three-quarters of an inch, rarely eleven lines.~ These are the
true Wireworms (fig. 2), so named from their cylindrical form,
smooth surface, and extreme toughness. In this state they live
five years, as proved by Bierkander,} casting off their skins thrice,
probably, lke other larva, as they increase in stature. I have
examined many of these exuviz, which are brown ; and the animals
perform this extraordinary moult like other caterpillars, by split-
ting the horny skin along the thorax, and drawing themselves out
at the aperture, leaving (like a snake) a perfect exuvia of every
part, including eyes, horns, feet, and it is believed also of the in-
ternal organs. § Immediately after this operation, the Wireworms
are very tender and of a whitish colour ; but as soon as they recover
from this great effort of nature, they move about with the greatest
facility, gliding along and soon burrowing into the earth when

* Those of Z. pectinicornis are oval, whitish, and shining. De Geer’s
Hist. des Ins., vol. iv. p. 143.

+ There are twelve lines in an inch.

‘t Commun. to Board of Agri., vol. iv. p. 413; and Trans. Aead. Scien.
in Sweden, vol. for 1779, p. 285.

§ Vide Mr, R. J, Ashton’s paper in Trans, Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 157.

*

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 183

dug up and laid on the surface, their smooth horny coats being
well adapted to their subterranean habits.

The Wireworm very much resembles the Mealworm ;* it is of
a pale ochreous colour, becoming darker when dead, with a few
hairs scattered over its polished shining skin ; it is semicylindrical,
the back being convex, the belly more flat; its head is flattened
or wedge-shaped, and there are twelve abdominal segments ; the
mouth is rather small, and comprises an upper-lip (fig. 3) with a
horny base, the margin leathery and bilobed; it is small and
concealed beneath the clypeus (fig. 4), which is rigid, with a
ciliated lobe on each side, and three minute teeth in the middle;
beneath is a large semiovate space (fig. 5) formed by the union of
the base of the maxille (6) with the mentum or chin (c), which is
long and narrow ; the wnder-lip (d) is small and-somewhat obtri-
gonate, the base truncated, the margin undulating and furnished
with two small biarticulate palpi or feelers (ce), sometimes with an
indistinct third joint: on either side is the mazilla, having a
minute and densely pubescent lobe on the inner angle, with a larger
biarticulate one behind it} (f), and a four-jointed palpus or
feeler on the outside, the terminal joint the smallest (g) ; above
these are the mandibles or jaws (fig. 6), which meet over the
mouth, one being placed on each side; they are strong, horny, and
of a pitchy colour, being more or less pointed, with a tooth below
the apex, and frequently a smaller one at the middle,{ and below
this is a ciliated space. There are also two little antenne or
horns (fig. 7), placed in front of the head near the anterior angles ;
they are triaruculate and similar to the palpi in form, the basal
joint being the largest, the terminal one short and slender (A); —
sometimes there is a tubercle projecting from one of the angles of
the second joint (7), but whether these are accidental differences
or characteristic of different species is not at all clear. On each
side of the head and behind the antennz is a minute dot like a
little eye. The first abdominal segment is much longer than the
two following (fig. 2 §7), the eight succeeding have a minute
spiracle on each side (fig. 2) ; the terminal one is the longest and
conical (fig. 9), with a brown or blackish oval aperture or
spiracle (?) larger than the others on each side towards the base (A) ;
beneath this segment is also a false leg or prehensile foot (7) which
assists in walking, and is probably the vent for the evacuation of
the digested food; the three first or thoracic segments are fur-

* Curt. Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 331.

+ These are the analogues or parts which correspond with the two hairy
lobes in the beetles, vide fig. 24.

{ These jaws are sometimes so worn at an advanced age, that the apex
is rounded and the smaller teeth have Sache! disappeared.

§ Royal Agric. Journ., vol. ii. p. 376, pl. B, f. 3.

184 Observations on the various Insects

nished with six short legs, a pair being attached to each near the
hinder margin; they are nearly alike and four-jointed (m), the
joints being rough with short brown spines, the apex furnished
with a strong claw, slightly curved and nut-brown (n).

When the Wireworm has arrived at maturity, it descends a
considerable depth into the earth, forms an oval cell there (fig. 10)
entirely composed of the surrounding particles of soil, and not
even lined with silk as in the Turnip Saw-fly ; it then casts its
skin again, and becomes a pupa or chrysalis, generally, it seems, at
the end of July or beginning of August; it is long and narrow in
form, like the perfect insect, but it is of a yellowish- white (fig. 11);
there are two minute spines projecting from the anterior angles of
the thorax; all the oral organs are visible, the horns and legs
are folded or incumbent upon the breast, and the. wing-cases as
well as the wings are small and the least developed of any part
(fig. 11*); the scutel and abdominal segments are distinct, the
apex being furnished with two moveable spines and two lobes
terminated by nipples in the middle beneath. Of course at this
period the animal is at rest, being deprived of the power of loco-
motion, and is consequently no longer injurious. Several were
found in this state on the 26th of July, 1841, and Bierkander
says that in the month of July his Wireworms became pupae,
from which the Elaters emerged in their perfect state about the
10th of August; it has also been elsewhere recorded that they
remain in the pupa state two or three weeks, but many no doubt
pass the winter buried and protected from casualties and the
rigour of that inclement season; when, however, the appointed
time comes, they burst from their shrouds and the earthy tombs
they inhabit, and rising through the soil arrive at the surface
changed to perfect Beetles, but of a whitish colour, soft, and ex-
tremely tender; exposed to the air and light, their bodies harden
and their colour gradually changes, so that in a few hours they
have attained the horny coat which covers them and assumed the
tints which the Author of nature has assigned to the species.

The parts of the animal which were lately indistinctly seen as
through a veil are now distinctly visible, and all the members are
liberated to give action to its body and animation to all its senses.
They walk aad run like dogs, with their heads and trunks de-
clining, their noses close to the ground ; when they leap, their legs
are applied closely to their bodies, and by the same means they
fall down when the plants are approached upon which they are
resting. hese Elaters (figs. 12 and 25) have small heads and
eyes, the latter minute, hemispherical, and reticulated, a portion
being frequenily concealed beneath the margin of the thorax; the
two horns or antenne@ are generally slender and eleven- -jointed
(fig. 13), and received w “ti at rest into two grooyes beneath the

affecting the Turnips, Corn-erops, §c. 185

thorax (fig. 19, 0), which is more or less oval-quadrate, the
hinder angles produced and forming spines; the wing-cases or
elytra are long and narrow, covering a pair of ample wings, which
are closed longitudinally like a fan, “with the tips folded over when
nrepose. They have also six Jegs for walking; the anterior pair
is a little the shortest, and the hinder the longest (fig. 14); the
thighs are stout; the tibia or shanks simple; the tarsi or feet are
as long and all five-jointed, the basal joint the longest, except in
the anterior pair, and the last is furnished with two curved acute
claws. In this state its habits are quite altered; instead of the
ravenous and destructive Wireworm it is now become an active
beetle (figs. 12, 25, and 26), running up the grass and readily
flying to flowers, to which it resorts for food ; the sexes also pair,
and the business of the male being accomplished he probably
dies, but the female is longer lived ; “the organs of generation are
frequently at this period Codacetesls relic they may ie easily exa-
mined with a magnifying glass; those of the male (fig. 15) are re-
ceived into the apical segments of the abdomen in repose (p) ;
they are ochreous and shining, formed of two valves rounded at
the apex with two minute hairs, the central lobe being lanceolate (¢).
The female has a longish horny ovipositor, which is easily pro-
truded from the extremity (fig. 16) ; it is flat and linear, the apex
conical, thickened, and forming two lobes, each of which is pro-
duced and hairy; at the tips are two minute obovate appendages,
with two hairs at the apex (r). In Elater obscurus the flattened
tube is terminated by two horny lobes (fig. 17, s), pear-shaped
when united, with two hairs outside, and having no appendages ;
they are capable of distension to allow the eggs to pass. In the
same species the generative organs are not so long as usual in the
male (fig. 18) ; hie lateral valve yes are pointed and ‘notched ouiside,
and the central lobe is strap-shaped, the apex conical, with a
minute notch on each side (¢), and this appeared to me to be folded
back upon the base in a quiescent state.

We have already alluded to the remarkable power these beetles
have of recoverig their natural position when they fall upon their
backs ; their legs 1 not being long enough for that purpose, they are
furnished with ; an apparatus which I will now describe. Fig. 19
is the underside of the thorax, fig. « showing the cavities in wails
the first pair of legs is inserted ; “between them arises a spine with
two small teeth at the base (v), and sometimes one above, towards
the apex. Fig. 20 is the underside of the post- pectus or breast,
with two oval cavities into which the second pair of legs is
fitted (w); and behind are the trochanters or hips, to which the
third pair of legs is attached (x): at the anterior margin is a long
cavity (y), into which the spine (v) is pressed, and the animal,
when on its back, by depressing the head and tail, raises this spine

186 Observations on the various Insects

with such force, that the point is jerked out of the cavity that
holds it; bringing the centre of the back suddenly upon the plane,
a spring is created which raises the beetle many inches from the
ground, and turning over in the air it alights on its feet; the ©
height of the leap depending greatly upon the: hardness and
smoothness of the surface of the plane, and some species can
bound much higher than others.

The mouth of the perfect beetle varies considerably from that
of the larva or Wireworm; the upper-lip or labrum is rather
' large (fig. 21), and nearly concealed beneath the projecting fore-
head ; it is transverse-oval, the anterior margin is pubescent, with
a aienibraaous edge, and it is ciliated with long hairs. The two
mandibles or jaws ‘(fig. 22) close over the rest of the mouth, which
is sometimes scarcely discoverable in repose; they are strong and
horny, clawed at the apex, with a strong tooth on the inside ; to-
wards the base is a leathery oval lobe, the margin of which is
densely hairy. The chin or mentum is transverse and narrowed in
front (fig. 23), from whence arises the /abiwm or under-lip (2),
which is leathery, somewhat quadrate, the anterior margin trigo-
nate; to the centre of this is attached a pair of small palpi (a) of
three joints, the two basal ones are small and pear-shaped, the
third is larger and hatchet-shaped. On either side of the chin is
attached a maxilla (fig. 24), which is terminated by two broadish
lobes that are densely pubescent at their extremities; and on the
outer edge arises a palpus or feeler (b), larger than the labial and
four-jointed; the basal joint is small, second and third much larger
and stouter, especially at the apex, the fourth joint the largest and
more or less hatchet-shaped ; they are slightly hairy.

Amongst these Elaters, which are the parents of the Wire-
worms, just as the Turnip Saw-fly is of the Black Caterpillar,*
there are four species which are most common in corn-fields :
their metamorphoses have been traced from the worm to the per-
fect beetle, and these we will first describe. Owing to a differ-
ence in their structure, they are not included in the same genera
by modern naturalists; one group being called AGRIOTES by
Seceeiolts, the other Arréus by the same author ;} but they are
all Elaters of Linnzus. In Agriotes there are three species,
unless one be a variety only, ebiell affect the crops; one is called

1. E. sputator by Linneus, and is the smallest of them : it is
shining, piceous, and clothed with very short ochreous pubescence :
head and thorax black, thickly and distinctly punctured; the
latter orbicular, convex, the hinder angles forming short stout
teeth, sometimes rufous ; down the centre isa channel: scutel
subovate: elytra or wing-cases not broader than the thorax, but

“* Vide Royal Agr. Journ. vol. ii. i. pl. B, figs. : 2, 6, and 7.
+ Curtis’s Guide, Gen. 309, Nos. 30, 31, and 32.

~

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 187

more than twice as long, elliptical, convex, slightly rugose, with
nine punctured striz on each: antenne and legs rufous; the
former not longer than the thorax, slender, the joints obconic,
basal the stoutest, second a little longer than the third, which ts
the smallest: feet with five distinct joints: length from 3 to 33
lines, and breadth from 1 to 13. Obs.: some specimens are en-
tirely tawny, excepting the black eyes and tips of the mandibles ;
whilst others have the head and thorax only black, the hinder
margin of the latter and the spines being tawny as well as the
elytra. From this great difference of colour, this Elater was
named F. variabilis by Herbst; and Paykull, thinking it was the
same as the next described species, gave it the name of E. obscurus.
E. sputator is very abundant everywhere from the beginning of
May to the end of June in hedges, on grass under oaks, 1n corn-
fields, &e.; it occurs also in profusion amongst rejectamenta left

‘by floods. - -

2. E. obscurus, Linn. (fig. 25), named also E. variabilis by
Fabricius and E. obtusus by De Geer. It is rather more robust
than the former, and the sides of the thorax are more convex: it
is piceous, densely clothed with short depressed ochreous hairs :
the head and thorax are thickly and distinctly punctured; the
latter is as broad as it is long, orbicular, very convex; the posterior
angles are produced into strong spines, and there is a channel
down the back: scutel oval: elytra not broader than the thorax,
and nearly three times as long, elliptical and convex, the extremity
when united conical, the apex of each rather acute, reddish brown
and punctured, each having nine punctured striz somewhat in
pairs: antennz a little clavate, quite as long as the thorax; basal
joint stout, second and third of equal length, shorter and smaller
than the following, the terminal one ovate-conic (fig. 13), reddish
brown as well as the legs: the feet or tarsi distinctly five-jointed :
length 4} lines to 4}, breadth 14 to 1g. Obs.: the pubescence
is so thick on perfect specimens as to give them a dull brown tint
all over, whilst others which are old and rubbed appear blackish.
From April to Midsummer this beetle is abundant in fields, pas-
ture lands, woods, and gardens. It was this species which Mr.
Paul, of Starston in Norfolk, bred from the Wireworms.*

3. E. lineatus, Linn. (fig. 26); E. striatus, Panzer; segetis,
Bierk., Gyll. This insect is supposed to be a variety only of the
foregoing £. obscurus, with the elytra or wing-cases striped, the
spaces between the striz being alternately dark and light, forming
four brown and five testaceous lines. It is an exceedingly common
species in various situations, and is the most frequently bred from
the lary by those who have taken the pains to rear them: in

_ April [have found great numbers under stones by the sea-shore ;

* Kirby and Spence’s Introd. to Ent., 6th edit., vol. i. p. 147.

188 Observations on the various Insects

in May they were congregated upon a yellow ranunculus or
buttercup in an ozier-holt in Norfolk. They abound also on grass,
in hedges, corn-fields, &c. I have received specimens as late as
July, with the pupe and exuvie, from Surrey. Bouché says that
the larvae live sometimes in great multitudes in dung and vege-
table earth ;* and it is very extraordinary, but two specimens in
my Ballets were found the 25th of Mayi in the stem of a dock,
and apparently feeding upon it.

In the other genus Arnéus,t which is principally distin-
guished from Agriotes by the structure of the feet, there is only
one species supposed to affect the crops, which has received, how-
ever, a variety of names in allusion to the rufous or rust-colour of
the belly and tail, being called

4, E. ruficaudis by Gyil. (fig. 12); E. catia by Olivier ;
E. hemorrhoidalis by Fabricius; and E. analis by Herbst. It is
Jong, narrow, piceous, and shining, clothed with ochreous and
longish hairs: the antenne are dusky, and similar in their relative
proportions to L. obscurus, but they are a little longer and com-
pressed; the basal joint is stout, second and third slender, the
remainder obtrigonate, the apical one is narrower, the tip conical :
the head and thorax are black, thickly and minutely punctured ;
the former is semi-orbicular : the clypeus truncated and reflexed ;
the Jatter is much longer than broad, a little narrowed towards the
anterior angles, the posterior spines are short and trigonate, and
the margin beneath projects considerably in a semicircle to re-
ceive the head: scutel black: elytra reddish brown, twice as long
as the head and thorax, being rather broader than the latter, bit
linear, the apex ovate, and the tip of each rounded; they are
minutely punctured, with nine stria on each: the abdomen is fer-
ruginous: legs short, ferruginous: feet appearing four -jointed
until magnified; very pubescent beneath, the basal joint the
longest, second iad third decreasing in length, slender at the base,
and somewhat trumpet- shaped, the apex ‘being furnished with a
membranous margin; the fourth is minute; the fifth long,
slender, and terminated by two simple claws (fig. 27, d): length
6 lines, breadth 13 line. Abundant from April to the end of
June in corn-fields, on nettles, on commons, in pastures, &e.
The beginning of June, 1842, I observed this beetle flying about
hedges and banks in Dorsetshire, and I had previously found it in
May by brushing the oak-leaves and underwood in the extensive
woods in the neighbourhood of Wilton, near Salisbury.

There is probably scarcely any land where the Wireworms

* Naturgeschichte der Inseckfen, p: 187 ; but from Bouché’s figure of
the tail, I suspect it is not the larva of Z. lineatus, but of another species
of Elater.

4+ Curtis’s Guide, Gen. 309, No. 50,

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §:c. 189

might not be found, and but few crops that they will not attack :
but some situations are more favourable to their increase than
others, and there are particular vegetables to which they un-
doubtedly give a preference. This may, however, in some mea-
sure arise from the larve of the different species not having
exactly the same tastes, and we have already shown that Wire-
worms, the offspring of three, if not four, distinct species of
Elaters, attack the crops; yet some of them are so similar, except
in size, that at present no tangible characters have been discovered
to distinguish one from another; moreover all root-worms are
called Wireworms by the farmer; but in this matter we hope to
set him right, by giving descriptions and figures of the false
Wireworms before we close the subject. At present they are
accused of attacking wheat, rye, barley, oats, grass, turnips, rape,
cabbages,. potatoes, mangold-wurzel, carrots, onions, lettuces,
hops, irises, carnations, pinks, dahlias, lobelias, and a variety of
garden flowers; but in many instances the insects sent to me as
the offenders were not the offspring of the Elaters, and conse-
quently were not true Wireworms, but the larve of Crane-flies
and other dipterous or two-winged flies, also the Juli or Mille-
pedes, Centipedes, &c.

If it be correct, and there seems to be no reason to doubt the
statement,* that a Wireworm is feeding five years inthe earth, it is
evident from the variety of sizes one discovers of them at the same
period and about the same turnip-root, for instance, that there
must be a great difference in their ages, and possibly two kinds ;
and as they will not voluntarily Jeave the field in which they were
hatched until they have arrived at their perfect state and become
Elaters, it is impossible by any change of crops to remedy the evil,
unless indeed one could discover some vegetable which they abso-
lutely disliked ; or by ploughing, harrowing, and keeping the soil
perfectly free from weeds or plants of every kind, especially the
grasses, they might be starved out. Whether they can fast for a
long period is very doubtful I think, although Bierkander favours
such an opinion, for it is principally in their perfect state that
insects can live without food for an extraordinary space of time.
Some importance, however, must be attached to the generally-
receiyed opinion that it is in all probability whilst the surface of
the field is undisturbed that the eggs are deposited, consequently
the crops that follow fallows, or pasture-land when broken up,
are most likely to fall a sacrifice, and that for several succeeding
years; and it is the same with a clover layer; whereas during
turnips, potatoes, and similar crops, no eggs or very few are laid

* Bierkander kept them living on roots of corn five years, and those which

I have had feeding for ten or twelve months scarcely increased in size
during the time.

190 Observations on the various Insects

in the field; but many of those which had been deposited from
one to four years previously in the grass or layer are consecu-
tively hatching, and the larve are gradually i increasing in size and
appetite, and consequently become daily more mischievous. If
a corn-crop follow turnips, in a field infested by the Wireworms,
it is astonishing if it escape being swept off entirely, for Bierkander
says, ‘‘ In the spring and autumn they have good appetites, and I
have often observed that a single worm has bitten from eight,
twelve, to twenty stalks in one place; and if one destroys so much,
what may not thousands do?” For the same reason, it is almost
useless to re-sow when a crop has been destroyed by the Wire-
worms, unless the soil be first freed from them by repeated
ploughings, when rooks, starlings, poultry, game, and frosts may
diminish their numbers; and the farmer must remember that the
Wireworms cannot increase in number unless fresh eggs be laid
by the Elaters, and of this there can be no danger from the end
of September to the end of March.

We will now take a review of the crops, &c. which suffer from
their attacks, as well as of the soils most affected by them; but it
may, I think, be received as an axiom, that wherever grass will
grow, the Wireworms may be found, for the roots of the various
species afford sufficient nourishment for their support, and con-
sequently pastures and meadow-lands are, I expect, never free
from them; and thus it follows that newly broken-up lands so
constantly swarm with this pest. I believe they are most to be
dreaded in dry seasons, yet that they cannot be kept alive without
moisture I am convinced by experience; and this is the reason
that the worms are often found under stones in gravelly situations,
exposed downs, dry heaths, &c.

Oats being sown upon land recently broken up are generally
the crop which suffers the most severely. Dickson* says: “ When
this sort of grain is cultivated on such leys as are newly broken-
up, there may frequently be danger, especially where the land
has been long in the state of grass, both from the destructive
attacks of insects, and the soil becoming too light, open, and
porous, from the decay of the grassy materials for the support of
the plant.” Such are their ravages, that sometimes it compels
the discouraged farmer to lay down valuable land as pasture to
a very great disadvantage ; and in 1842, in many parts of Eng-

land, the oat- crops suffered so severely Gom the ravages of the -

Wireworms, that it became necessary to plough them up and sow
a second time.

When the season is dry and cold in the early spring months, the
Barley-crops are frequently § greatly injured by the attacks of the
Wireworms, which is indicated by the young plants changing from

* Practical Agriculture, vol. i. p. 582.

7
a
“oO

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 19]

a healthy green to a sickly yellow; this was the case a few years
since in Surrey during the month of May, when they were eating
the young barley-plants just below the surface of the ground. I
may also here mention that early in May, 1842, the Wireworms
were injuring both barley and oats at Durnford, near Salisbury ;
the specimens forwarded to me by Mr. Hinxman varied greatly
in size, as well as others which I not unfrequently found under
stones on the downs in that neighbourhood, together with speci-
mens of the “Small Brown,” later obscurus (fig. 25).

The Wheat is also greatly injured by their attacks, which are
said to be continued durimg the entire winter; but this, I think, is
doubtful ; for during severe frosts they descend into the soil, like
the larva of the cockchafer, retiring deeper and deeper as the cold
increases. Early in the year, depending greatly upon the tempe-
rature, they make ample amends for their fast, if such be the
case, by diminishing if not destroying this important crop. Mr.
Hindman informed me that he found in the spring of 1840 Wire-
worms of three sizes in a field of wheat, in the county Down, near
Belfast, which was eventually consumed by them, and was obliged
to be ploughed up. Some young wheat-plants (fig. 28) were
transmitted to me in April, 1841, by a friend in Surrey, and the
following account accompanied them: ‘The dying off of the
lower leaves indicates that the Wireworm is at work, and when he
has gnawed through, the plant falls. The Wireworm not having
eaten through in some instances, we re-planted the wheat-root, .
and haye ascertained by a second digging up that it was shooting
again below, and it is now growing after a second planting.” In
these plants the Wireworm had buried its head in the stem, nearly
an inch below the surface, and about half an inch above the roots ;
in other instances they were detected in the same position, but
very near to the base of the stalk (fig. 29), and quite an inch be-
neath the surface of the earth, which is shown by the dotted, hori-
zontal line at fig. 28. On examination I found the tender stalk
eaten through or nearly so, for I drew it out of the sheath without
employing any force, and this part was decayed and of a clay-
colour for the space of half an inch. In the same neighbourhood
the Wireworms were found of various sizes in a wheat stubble,
where under-draining was going on in October of the same year.

Having made every effort to obtain the eggs of the Elaters, in
order to the ascertaining where they were deposited, I procured as
many as I could of the beetles alive. Towards the end of May I
put a considerable number of E. lineatus (fig. 26) into a garden-
pot, in which some young wheat was thriving, and tied some
gauze over to prevent their escape; this precaution did not,
however, appear to be necessary, for they remained a very short
time upon the surface of the mould before they buried themselves.

192 Observations on the various Insects

From the beetles thus seeking the roots of the wheat I was led to
believe that they there deposited their eggs; consequently, on the
14th of June, I emptied the garden-pot, and found two Elaters
dead at the roots of the wheat, but I could not detect either eggs
or recently-hatched Wireworms. On the 17th of May, two spe-
cimens of £. ruficaudis (fig. 12) were found upon the wheat-
leaves, also E. sputator (pl. J, fig. 34), and E. marginatus (fig.
36); on the 31st, one of £. murinus (fig. 32), four of E. fulvipes
(fig. 33),* one of EF. lineatus (fig. 26), and one of E. sputator, as
well as others in the hedge surrounding the field; and it is pro-
bable that if any one had searched the clover-fields, the oats, or
the barley and clover fields, the Elaters would have been found in
great numbers; for, as we have stated, wheat after clover-lays is
more devoured by the Wireworms than after anything else, and
they had worked both the barley and oats when young in that
locality. June 2nd, received about twenty specimens of LE. linea-
tus, found in the evening in a wheat-field in the same neighbour-
hood ; buton June 16th the Elaters were no longer abundant there :
they had paired; after which the males, I expect, died; and the
females, I imagine, had entered the earth to lay their eggs: and
I hope that some one more fortunate than myself will soon prove
whether such is their economy.

At the same time I placed in another garden-pot, having wheat
and a potato growing in it, some of the larva or Wireworms, On
examining the plants on the 14th of June I found the base of the
stalks perforated, the worms had descended 2 or 3 inches deep,
where they had formed cells (fig. 10), as if they were inclined to
change to pupe, and the earth was full of their burrows. Having
kept iad pot in a saucer of water, they thrived well, but pions
not kept moist invariably died ; if they had not been unseasonably
disturbed I have no doubt they would have undergone their
regular metamorphoses, for on the 26th of July some “kept by a
friend in a pot had cast their dark skins, and were become white
pupe like fig. 11. Having had opportunities of examining a very
large number of Wireworms, I am able to state that some are nearly
destitute of hairs, especially the smaljer ones, which appear to me
to be the most numerous. My opinion is that the smaller ones
are very often the larvae of /. lineatus and £. obscurus, and the
largerones of 2. ruficaudis, and some may belong to the smaller
species of Elaters which will be hereafter figured and described.

Potatoes suffer greatly in some counties from the Wireworm,
whilst in others, where that animal equally abounds amongst the
turnips, the potato-crops escape. This is a very remarkable fact,
aud resembles the curious anomalies in the black caterpillar,

* These four insects will be figured in the next plate, which will appear
in the sueceeding Number.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, Sc. 193

which in some districts would not touch the Swedish turnips, and
in others would feed upon nothing else ;* consequently we see it
asserted by one writer, that the Wireworms will not eat the
potato,+ whilst others as confidently affirm that in many localities
the annual produce has been reduced to less than one-third.t
Owing to these counter-statements, when I was at Glanville’s
Wootton, near Sherborne, in Dorsetshire, in October, 1840, whilst
the potato-digging was proceeding, I made strict inquiries con-
cerning the Wireworms; and in a piece of common land, which
had been broken up previous to forming a plantation, I found
great quantities about the potatoes, and they infested all the potato-
fields which had been lately common land, and newly-enclosed
and broken up, notwithstanding the whole had been pared and
the turf. previously burnt.} Some of the worms had eaten into
the hearts of the potatoes; and at Shaftesbury I learned that the
potato-crops had suffered considerably from this little animal.
Mr. Hope also says : || —-** On observing several potato-plants just
above the ground in a drooping sickly state (without an Aphis on
them), I was induced to dig them up. In many instances I
found the Wireworm at work, and adhering to the slices which
had been planted ; others apparently had been partially eaten,
were abandoned, and in a forward state of corruption. Where
the plants did not come up, which was the frequent occurrence in
1838, I am inclined to think the slices were entirely eaten, as not
a vestige of them could be found.” Mr. Hope attributes the -
disease, which is denominated the Curl, to the Wireworms; but
that I think is very doubtful. He adds, that they first attack the
potato when the slices are first committed to the earth; and
secondly, when the haulm is considerably grown. Mr. T. A.
Knight's plan of planting whole potatoes instead of slices would at
once remedy the evil.

We learn also from Mr. Hope’s remarks that the Hops in Kent,
Worcestershire, and Herefordshire, have been repeatedly injured
by the W ireworm.

Cabbages are frequently destroyed by the Wireworm. A gar-
dener in Wiltshire says that in 1829 it was with the greatest ditfi-
culty he could bring any of the Brassica tribes to perfection ; J

* Royal Agric. Jour., vol. ii. pp. 376 and 377.

+ Trans. Yorksh. Agric. Soc., p. 65.

~ Remarks on Wireworms which seriously damaged the Potato-crops,
&c., in Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 154.

§ The numbers of Wireworms which infested the land after this opera-
tion in all probability came from surrounding spots and boundary lines,

which were still covered with turf, and had not been subjected to this
process,

|| Remarks on Wireworms which seriously damaged the Potato-crops,
&c., in Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 154.

“| Gardeners’ Magazine, vol. v. p. 610.

VOL. VY. fo)

194 Observations on the various Insects

and this may be readily imagined, for I have found great numbers
of the Wireworms in the clubbed roots of cabbages, especially in
the autumn,

It is, however, the Turnip amongst the green crops which suffers
the most severely I apprehend from the Wireworms; and it is very
remarkable that this invaluable vegetable should have the greatest
number of formidable insect enemies to encounter, as we haye
already shown in the five published Memoirs. I believe there is

no period of the year, if the winter be not yery frosty, when they
may not be found at their roots. It is, however, to the young
plants that they do the most serious injury. On visiting the
turnip-fields at Rougham, in Suffolk, with Mr. E. Bennet, we
found the plants looking sickly and the outer leaves yellow; on
drawing them up a Wireworm was invariably detected round the
root of each, which had been gnawed by it (fig. 30) ; Mr. Bennet
also observed them engaged in the same way the beginning of
August, 1840. The worms varied in size from a line and a half
(being the smallest I ever saw) to four lines, and latterly to three-
quarters of an inch, and in some instances two or three were
attacking the same root. On the 9th of November in that year
I found a Wireworm, as large as the one represented at fig. 2, at
the root of a turnip in a garden, and others of the same size have
frequently occurred since. In September of the same year the
Wireworms were very abundant in Surrey, from six to eleyen being
found at a single turnip-root ; the fact is, that as the plants are
destroyed and deserted by them, they march off to the nearest,
and thus meeting at one spot they daily become more formidable
to the remaining crop. They ate off the root from half to an inch
below the base of the leaves, and it was often gnawed higher up
(fig. 30,e). With these Wireworms was a snail (Helix) then
alive, but being left together in a box, the former attacked and
ate up a portion of the latter, and six of them were found within
the shell at one time: from this it seems that they are sometimes
carnivorous. In the western counties the Wireworms appear to
have been sti]l more formidable, for Mr. Hope* says :—*‘ In the
counties of Salop, Worcester, and Hereford, the failure of the
crops of 1838 was very considerable, the real cause of it being
little suspected or understood: I feel no hesitation in aseribing it
almost entirely to the wonderful increase of Wireworms. In
some instances I have, during the years 1836 and 1838, taken
twenty and even thirty Wireworms feeding upon a single turnip-
root,”

Mr. Le Keux has not neglected to attend to the economy of the
Wireworm, in his investigations of the insects affecting the tur-
nips;} and from his observation it appears that the foliage as well

* Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 155, —‘F Tbid., vol. 11. p. 32. |

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 195

as the root is equally acceptable tothem. He says, “the Wire-
worm begins on the edge of the leaf and eats it away like a cater-
pillar, and often cuts the leaf off at the top of the stalk, and it
may sometimes be found on the ground half devoured. One Wire-
worm will consume about as much as five or six flies (Altica
nemorum) could do in the same time.’ The following remarks
by the same accurate observer throw so much new light upon the
economy of this destructive: animal, that I need not make any
apology for laying them before the reader.*—“ The Wireworm,”
he states, “seldom feeds above-ground in the daytime, unless it
be cloudy and dark; at such times I have observed them devour-
ing the young turnip-plants before the rough leaf has been
formed ; but their most destructive operations are carried on be-
neath the surface of the earth, where they attack the root; in the
very early state of the plant, after eating this through, the upper
part of the plant is gradually drawn down into the earth and de-
voured, so that the plants disappear without any perceptible
cause, and without any trace of them being left. In the more
advanced state of the plant their devastation appears to be con-
fined to eating through the root ; and having thus killed one plant,
they proceed to another. Ifa turnip-plant appears drooping (as
if from the want of water), whilst those in its neighbourhood are
fresh and erect, a Wireworm (sometimes half-a-dozen) will be
sure to be found at the root, if the earth around it be carefully re-
moved.”

If noxious insects be dreaded by the farmer, the gardener has .
no less cause to apprehend their mischievous assaults; and from
the great variety of these animals to which his culinary vege-
tables, as well as the fruits of the orchard, fall a sacrifice, they
become in truth domestic plagues, which are brought to his own
door. Amongst them are the Wireworms, especially those pro-
duced by the beetles called Elater obscurus (fig. 25), and E. sputa-
tor—this last is abundant everywhere; arid in the spring and
summer the gardener often has the misfortune to see his newly-
planted lettuces suddenly commence withering and dying: on
pulling or digging up such plants a Wireworm is found at the
roots, considerably like a mealworm, but more flattened, of a
pale yellow, from 6 to 7 lines long, and about the size of a
pigeon’s quill.

We learn from Kollar that the larva of £. sputator, Fab.f
undergoes its transformations in the ground, and remains only

* Trans. Ent. Soce., vol. ii. p. 30.
* Naturg. der schaed. Insect., p. 149.
£ It is impossible to say if he intend the Linnean species; I think not,
and am rather disposed to consider it the Z. ruficaudis, but it is very
doubtful.
02

196 Observations on the various Insects

fourteen days in the pupa state, when the beetle is produced.
This dangerous enemy has been known to destroy one-fourth part
of the crop by gradually eating the roots up to the crown of the
plant where the leaves arise. Not only ought the earth to be
immediately removed from the roots of the affected plants, the
worms taken away, and the earth returned to its place, but, if
necessary, the lettuces had better be dug up, and the worms
which are concealed in the roots or in the surrounding mould can
be destroyed : thus the rest of the crop may be saved ; otherwise
the worms will travel from dying to living plants until all the
lettuces have fallen a prey to this annoying enemy. ‘The beetle
is particularly attached to the flowers of the Umbellate, and to
nettles; it is therefore most important for the gardener not to
neglect destroying the fools’-parsley, hemlock, and all similar wild-
flowers, which harbour them and constantly spring up on the
banks and hedges round his grounds.

As it is in the field so it is in the garden, “the Wireworm is
particularly destructive for a few years in gardens recently con-
verted from pasture ground. In the Botanic Garden at Hull
thus circumstanced a great proportion of the annuals sown in
1813 were destroyed by it.’* At Bordean House, Hants,
Captain Chawner’s flower-borders have been frequently infested
by the Wireworms, which ate into the base of the stems of the
pansies and carnations, ascending them sometimes 2 inches above
the ground. They revel also on the roots of the dahlias and
lobelias. On the 5th of May I received two Wireworms of dif-
ferent sizes from a flower-garden in Surrey, and precisely the
same as those from Hampshire; towards the end of the month
four examples of the L. ruficaudis (fig. 12), and one of E. fulvipes
(fig. 33, pl. J) were found on the side of the house there, most
likely bred from the borders. About the same time three very
small Wireworms were found in the flower-garden, and the be-
ginning of August I received a pupa, I believe, of £. ruficaudis, with
the exuviz of others and their earthen cases, from the same locality.
Mr. Smith, in the ‘ Florist’s Magazine’ says—‘* The Wireworms
invariably attack the pink and the carnation at the bottom of the
stem near the root, and make holes through it in every direction,
while the only indication of their presence is the entire destruc-
tion of the plant. The larva is in general found in the loam,
therefore great care should be taken, in sweetening that soil, not
to allow one to escape when it is turned over ; and their colour
being a light brown, makes the finding of them more difficult.”

Wishing to render the history of the Wireworms as complete as
my paiindeels will allow, and being greatly attached to the garden,
which may be considered a farm in miniature, I have made this

* Kirby and Spence’s ‘Introd. to E nt., 6th edit., vol. i. p. 147.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, Sc. 197

slight digression, and will now return to our legitimate object.
Having obtained some facts from practical men highly esteemed
in the county of Suffolk for their agricultural knowledge, I shall
now give the results of their experience.

Mr. Porter of Covehithe, where the lands are for the most part
light, says that the Wireworms do most mischief in March, April,
May, and June ; that wheat. suffers the most among the corn-crops,
and white turnips amongst the green crops, but that rye is some-
times swept off by acres; and with regard to barley, he has ob-
served that when it is drilled-in 3 inches deep, the plant droops
and turns yellow, as if attacked by the Wireworm, whereas at 1}
inch deep it makes a vigorous plant. I may observe with respect
to this difference of result from the depth of sowing, that it is
possible the Wireworm may not be able to exist near the surface
in a light sandy soil, and consequently the barley escapes when
drilled-in at the lesser depth. Turnips and beet-root he finds
most affected at the end of June and the beginning of August, yet
12 acres of the latter, which produced a fine plant, were com-
pletely taken off by the Wireworm the last week in May ; swedes
were afterwards sown the second week in June, and to his sur-
prise produced a fine crop. The success of the swedes must be
attributed, I think, to the greater part of the Wireworms having
arrived at maturity when they had destroyed the beet, in which
case they would change to pupe, and afterwards to beetles, in
both which states they are harmless. Turnips do best at Cove-
hithe if sown about the 21st June on the light lands, and a week
earlier on heavy lands. On the lower part of fields bordering on
marshes, where the land is springy and friable, barley, turnips,
and beet have generally fallen a sacrifice, and such land is most
subject to their attacks. When white-clover or suckling and rye-
grass layers have been left for seed, it is scarcely possible to geta
wheat-crop on account of the Wireworm; the only chance is to
break up the land and work it well about for a couple of months
in the autumn. Potatoes never suffer on Mr. Porter’s farm from
the Wireworm.

Mr. Robinson, of Henstead, informs me that in his neighbour-
hood the gravelly and sandy soils are most infested, and the
strong loam and clay most free from the Wireworms. That they
imbhabit every aspect was proved by their ravages over all parts of
a field which was lowest in the centre. A dry season is most
conducive to their increase, yet if the following year be wet it does
not kill the Wireworms, but it probably destroys the Elaters, and
prevents the deposition of the eggs. Early in March, 1841,
when his wheat was well out of the ground, and about 14 inch
high, it began to die off, and on pulling some up he found the
Wireworm had eaten into the stalk and consumed the inside.

198 Observations on the various Insects

This was upon dry gravelly hills which had been a clover layer,
and the valleys and better parts of the field did not suffer, but
barley on strong land in the same parish drilled in ‘the spring did
not produce above one-third of a crop owing to the attacks of the
Wireworms. Some low wet common land was broken up, pared
and burnt (which with the draining cost 10/. per acre); it first
‘produced a good crop of turnips, and afterwards a prodigious
crop of oats; but another portion under a different owner was
pared but not burnt, and the crop was lost.

Mr. Bates says that the following is the order in which the
crops probably are affected in degree in his part of Suffolk, viz.
wheat, turnips, barley, oats, and beet, and that they are generally
least injured on good soils. If wheat be sown in dry weather it
has proved favourable to the inroads of the Wireworm. Oat
stubble ploughed several weeks previously, and sown with wheat
the third week in November, suffered from their attacks. Barley
and oats were injured in May, in a cold wet season. Turnips
have been swept off after being up a fortnight, but generally they
fall a sacrifice when three or four weeks old, having at that time
four or six leaves ; yet he finds the eating through of the tap-root
after the second hoeing does little mischief to the turnip-plant.
That all lands exposed to the sun by being fed off short, as clover
layers, are greatly infested with the Wireworms, but that no potato-
crop is destroyed by them.

From these statements it is evident that in some parts of Suffolk
the potato-crops escape the attacks of the Wireworm, although
that animal is abundant in the soil. It seems to be the same in
Yorkshire, for Mr. Milburn* was so convinced of the potato
being exempted from the ravages of the Wireworms, that he even
recommended it as a good crop to plant in order to starve them
out and clear the land of that pest : he says, ‘‘ Nobody ever heard
of a potato-crop being injured by them;” and, alluding to Sir
Joseph Banks’s mode of ridding gardens of Wireworms by stick-
ing slices of potato in the ground, he adds, “ It is really surprising
how a person so truly above all visionary theory should be led to
recommend such useless plans.” + We must, however, be very
careful in drawing positive conclusions, for there is unquestionable
evidence of the potato-crops suffering severely from the depreda-
tions of:the Wireworm in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and the western
counties. The valuable memoranda | have just given from the ex-
perience of practical men will, itis to be hoped, induce others eulti-
vating land of a different nature to attend to this subject, and com-
municate their observations to the Society or to myself, for it is for
want of correct and an extensive variety of data that we are at a

~ * Of Thorpfield, near Thirsk.
+ Journ. Yorksh, Agric. Soce., p. 65.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, &c. 199

loss to account for many anomalies in the economy of insects ;
indeed it is impossible to draw correct conclusions from isolated
facts.

Difficult as the Wireworm is to deal with, so much attention
has been paid to the subject by the suffering farmer and gardener,
that numerous methods of arresting its ravages have been tried,
some of them with great success; and let not any one be dis-
couraged because he cannot clear his land entirely, or at one blow
sweep away a nuisance, for extermination amongst these minor
works of the creation is not permitted, it is against the laws of the
Creator; for although such intervals of absence may occur as to
lead us to think that a noxious animal is annihilated, it will in due
time return, and again require all our efforts and vigilance to con-
tend against it. We are sometimes deceived by appearances, and
it is true that by persecuting the higher order of animals they
may be driven from a favourite spot or locality, and take shelter
so far from the haunts of man as to relieve him from their in-
roads, and dispose him to imagine that the species is lost; and in
some instances we know that a country has been freed from races
of animals, as the wolf and eagle, but they are not exterminated ;
and the latter, under favourable circumstances, would return: I
think it therefore probable that by perseverance insects may be
driven from a locality, for persecution is not agreeable to any ani-
mated being; and this knowledge ought to encourage the culti-
vator not to relax in his efforts to free his land from destructive:
insects, but to be certain that those efforts are well directed.

Great benefits may be derived by selection of crops, by modes
of cultivation, by manures and dressings, but, above all, by manual
labour. Animals also whose economy tends to diminish de-
structive insects ought to be encouraged, and no doubt we are
benefited, to an extent which it is impossible to conceive, by the
parasitic insects whose instincts lead them to prey upon the eggs
and caterpillars of our enemies: they are, as we have shown in
former memotlrs, multiplied to an almost incredible extent, and
labour incessantly in their vocation. These are discoveries which
have been gradually developed by the industry, perseverance, and
research of the naturalist, for the improvement, amusement, and
benefit of his fellow-creatures; and I] concur entirely with Mr.
Hope that “ Agriculture may derive valuable assistance from the
seience of Entomology; and I feel fully convinced that we can
scarcely do a greater act of kindness, or be of more service to the
farmer, than by pointing out the nature and habits of those insects
which destroy his crops.” *

We will now return to the opinions of practical men regarding
the best modes of culture for keeping in check the Wireworm ;
NaS <M psc bel geil ale aa Mi horace

* Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. iii. p. 156,

*

200 Observations on the various Insects

a great deal, however, must depend upon the soil and situation,
which will often explain the reason of an experiment succeeding
in one place and failing in another. Mr. Salisbury gives some
good advice concerning the Wireworm.* “It is an insect,” he
says, “much complained of by farmers whenever they turn up
land that has been cultivated with clover or grass, and it in general
does great injury to the corn-crop which succeeds. It should be
noticed that clover, or other plants of such description, give pro-
tection to this insect; it is bred in the roots of these plants, and
the land is so well stocked with it that it attacks the corn and
other succeeding crops very much to their injury. . Land of this
description is therefore unfit for corn immediately on breaking up.
Turnips or potatoes are not so liable to injury from this insect ;
but the best preventive is probably a summer fallow, and burning
the rubbish on the land before cropping, by which means the eggs
which are laid in the stalks are destroyed,+ and the live worms
die for want of nourishment; soot and lime will also kill this de-
structive worm. Before breaking up old lays it should always be
a point with the farmer to examine the then existing crop, and
observe if any of these insects are in the roots and stalks, and if so,
to apply the above as a preventive previous to sowing a crop of
grain in the land. Nothing but the preventing such a pest as
this insect will justify the fallowing of land according to our im-
proved system of agriculture; in this case, however, it is indis-
pensable. May not this insect, which is now (1816) more pre-
valent among our crops of grain than ever, owe its prevalence to
the system of fallowing and burning the refuse of such crops
being nearly exploded?” Fallows must, however, be kept very
clean, for if couch and other grasses he allowed to exist in the
land, the Wireworms will find the roots very acceptable, and
sufficient to maintain them until the corn-crop appears ; nothing
can therefore be worse than to leave strips or spaces of grass or
stubble in a ploughed field.

All waste and wood lands are harbours for the Wireworms, and
therefore when they are brought into cultivation the change is so
congenial to their habits that they seem to increase at a prodigions
rate, and consequenily the second crop is frequently carried off
by them. If land be planted or sown two years in succession
with the same crop, it is sure to be well stocked with them, at
least so it is with the potato. When old pastures are broken up
for a crop of corn, I have heard that a breast-plough should be
used to take off not more than 2 inches of the turf in the first
instance, which will secure the crop from the attacks of the Wire-
worm. whereas even the addition of only 2 inches more in the depth

* Hints to Proprietors of Orchards, p. 109.
+ No authority is given for this statement.

\

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 201

has so encouraged that pest that it has been known to destroy an
entire field of wheat. ‘This difference probably arises from the
effects on the roots of the grass; if the top of the turf only be
pared off, the roots will die, whereas by going 4 inches deep they
lie and yegetate, so that when it is afterwards all ploughed-in the
worms find the requisite pabulum, until the corn is forward
enough to afford the Wireworms a more agreeable substitute.
Dickson says that the destructive attacks of insects on lays newly
broken up ‘“‘may in some measure be obviated by eating such
lands very closely with sheep previous to their being broken up,
as by such a method the ova of such insects may be much de-
stroyed and their propagation prevented ; and the treading the
crop by sheep as well as the roller may likewise be beneficial ;
horses have also been turned in for the same purpose by some
cultivators.” * It is supposed by many that folding oxen and
sheep upon infested fields will check the Wireworm by stopping
their burrowing ; but it seems more likely to arise from the beetles
not being able to get out of the earth from their pup cases, and
those which do effect their escape, finding no appropriate place
for the deposition of their eggs, depart for a more suitable locality ;
this operation might therefore be most advantageously adopted
early in the spring before the beetles hatch.

Mr. Bates assured me that he preserved his turnips by harrowing
and hard-rolling the Jand in March and April, and that it was of
no use later in the season. In another place, alluding to barley,
Mr. Dickson also says+ that if the plants suddenly change from
a healthy green to a yellow cast ‘the use of the roller should be
had recourse to, in order that the superficial parts of the soil,
which are probably become too loose and porous, may be effec-
tually pressed, and thereby rendered too close and compact to
admit the worm to prey upon the tender roots of the young
plants. That this effect may be produced in the most effectual
manner, the roller should be of such a size, or so loaded as to
afford a pressure equal to the draught of three or four horses,
which should be yoked double, in order to increase the effect by
their treading. It has been suggested that if by this method the
injury can be counteracted until such time as rain falls, there
need not be any apprehension for the crop, as the plants will soon
push forward in such a manner as to become too strong to be in
danger from this insect.” { Top-dressings of lime before using the
roller would be useful. All this is very reasonable, for by ex-
cessive pressure the Wireworms are compelled, at least for a time,
to descend into the earth ; and it must be beneficial in its subse-
quent effects, for numbers of eggs may thus be destroyed, and if
_ * Practical Agriculture, vol. i. p. 582. + Ibid., vol. i. p. 576.

{ Dickson's Synopsis of Husbandry, p. 91.

202 Observations on the various Insects

rain fall it will so cement the earth together that the beetles when
hatched will die in their tombs.

There are some Crops which appear to be extremely useful in
keeping the Wireworms under, and amongst them is Woad. I
learn from Dr. Roy, that, on breaking up damp meadow and
pasture land in Lincolnshire, if it be sown with woad instead of
eorn, the Wireworm will be got rid of; and about Boston it is
found to be a very profitable crop. It may be repeated for two
years, after which splendid crops of oats and potatoes may be
obtained from the land, It may not be irrelevant to remark here
that it is a prevailing opinion respecting the Bedford Level, that
over-draining has caused great mischief to the wheat crops by in-
creasing the Wireworms.

White mustard-seed sown on land will secure the succeeding
crop of wheat or other corn against this insect; and Mr. Tallent’s*
account of his success being satisfactory, I shall transcribe it :—

“White mustard-seed will protect the grain from the Wireworm,
and this fact I have demonstrated perfectly to my own conviction. I
first tried the experiment on half an acre, in the centre of a 50-acre
field of fallow, which was much subject to the Wireworm. The mustard-
seed being carried, the whole field was fallowed for wheat, and the half-
acre that had been previously cropped with mustard-seed was wholly
exempt from the Wireworm: the remainder of the field was much in-
jured. Not only was the half-acre thus preserved, but in the spring it
was decidedly the most advanced part of the crop; and the prosperous
appearance which it presented caused me to repeat the experiment, by
sowing 3 acres more of mustard-seed in the worst part of a field of 45
acres, also much infested with the Wireworm. The remainder of the
field was sown with early frame peas, which, with the mustard-seed,
were cleared in the same week. The land was then ploughed for wheat;
and I had the pleasure of noticing these 3 acres to be quite free from
the worm, and much superior in other respects to the other part of the
field, which suffered greatly. Thus encouraged by these results, I
sowed the next year a whole field of 42 acres, which had never repaid
me for nineteen years, in consequence of nearly every crop being de-
stroyed by the Wireworm; and I am warranted in stating that nota
single Wireworm could be found the following year, and the crop of
wheat throughout which was reaped last harvest was superior to any I
had grown for twenty-one years. I am therefore under a strong persua-
sion that the Wireworm may be successfully repelled and eradicated by
carefully destroying all weeds and roots, and drilling white mustard-
seed, and keeping the ground clean by hoeing.” ¢

Mr. Loudon is of opinion “ that the Wireworm cannot eat the
roots of the mustard, most probably from their acridity, and there

* Of Little Houghton.
+ Read before a meeting of the Northamptonshire Farming Society,
and inserted in the ‘ Country Times,’ Sept. 1831.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 203

being no other roots in the soil for them to live on; and no weeds
or other plants than mustard being permitted to grow during the
season, the insects necessarily die of famine.” *

Mowing oats, and of course other corn, is considered the best
method of getting rid of the Wireworm by Kollar, and other con-
tinental writers; but they assign no reason, and it is difficult to
explain the cause. It may be, that when corn is reaped, the
stubble being left long, rooks and many other birds will not
resort to such fields, and consequently the Wireworms revel
without molestation. This is worth the consideration of the
farmer ; and whatever may be the cause, if the statement be true,
it ought not to be neglected. Long stubble certainly harbours
many injurious insects, and amongst them, it is believed, the
turnip-beetle, which resorts to the long hollow straws for shelter
during the winter.

I will now give the experiments made by Bierkander; and
although their application to the crops may not be so beneficial
as one could desire, yet they may be useful in directing the culti-
vator in the pursuit of this subject. “I have,” says this learned
Swede, “ made many experiments to discover by what means the
Wireworms may be destroyed. Many were put at one time into
tea-cups filled with the following vegetables, viz. :—

Days. Hours,
0

“Garlic . =. «. . amongst which they lived 9
The leaves of the spruce fir . . ditto . . . @ 14
mmeleavenoithefir'. « « . ditto . . .°0. 10
Ledum palustre (an Irish plant) ditto . . . 0 9
oe: gale re ot aie pee ads 0 9
MEIER EY IVER egw sw he 4 0

_ “ In consequence of this it ought to be tried how useful it
might be, in winter and summer, to mix in the heaps of manure
fir-leaves, Ledum palustre, and Myrica gale, of which vegetables
the dung would smell, which might probably be disagreeable to
the vermin; and if they did not die in consequence of it, they
might perhaps quit the fields.” {

_ It thus appears evident that any endeavour to destroy the Wire-
_worms by drowning them is almost impracticable; for they not
only exhibited signs of life in water for four days, but I think it
probable that if a field were laid under water for a much longer
period, it would not destroy them. This, however, might be
easily tried in some situations ; and to ascertain the truth is worth
the trouble.
* Gardeners’ Magazine, vol. vii. p. 675.
+ Royal Agric, Journ., vol. ii. p. 204.
} Trans. Acad. Scien. in Sweden, vol. for 1779, p. 286, and Commun. to
Board of Agric., vol. iv. p. 414.

204 Observations on the various Insects

Lord Albemarle recommends that when fields intended for
wheat are attacked by the Wireworms, rape-cake should be used
as a manure, to be powdered, and sown across the field. If it
do not destroy the insects, it at least saves the crop from their
attacks,

Many other applications have been recommended) and amongst
them spirits of tar and chloride of lime. One correspondent in
the ‘ Gardeners’ Chronicle’* says, ‘“‘ Spirits of tar is the most
effectual remedy with which we are acquainted for destroying the
Wireworm. We should therefore recommend any one to satu-
rate some sand with that compound, and mix it with the soil in
the beds of ranunculus and anemone when they are turned up in
autumn.” J.W.C.,} having lost his crops from Wireworms, also
says, “ Thinking that spirits of tar might do good, when I sowed
dwarf French beans again, before covering-in the rows, I watered
them with a strong solution of it; and the result was that they
came up very strong and healthy, and the produce was enormous,
whilst the first crop gradually dwindled away, and died a prema-
ture death.” ‘ The refuse lime of gas-works is stated to be effi-
cacious in banishing these pests from the garden. Previously to
the crop being planted, a thin covering of the lime should be
spread over the ground, and it must be well mixed up with the
soil in digging.” | F. H.B. “ had been using some chloride-of-
lime water, and poured it over some grass, when it immediately
killed the worms. From this success he was induced to try it on
some very sickly carnations infested with Wireworms, and had the
satisfaction to find them recover rapidly. The proportion used
was about a table-spoonful to a pint of water, but that of course
must depend on the quality of the soil.” § It seems necessary to
employ it with caution, in the flower-garden at least; for in the
same journal it is asserted, “‘We have great doubts whether
chloride of lime, although considerably diluted, would not be
injurious to picotees, and commit as much havoc amongst them as
the Wireworm. We recommend you to spread some of the
refuse lime from the gas-works over the surface of the bed, the
effluvia of which will probably drive them away.’ ||

In the Journal of this Society Mr. Burgess 4] says, “ This year
I applied the nitrate of soda to my whest, when, from the wet
season and the Wireworm, the plant was nearly destroyed, and I
found it particularly beneficial, the Wireworm either being killed
by the application or forsaking the roots; and consequently I

think I have above an average crop of wheat.” ‘The ammonia
* Vol. iii. p. 233. + Ibid. p. 737.
} Gardeners’ Chronicle, vol. ii. p. 777. x
§ Ibid., vol. iii. p. 318. || Ibid., vol. ii. p. 777.

a Elmhurst, Bucks. Vide Royal Agric. Journ., yol. ii. p. 132.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, Sc. 205

which invigorated the plants at the same time destroyed the
insects ; and it is added that the turnips grew so fast that they
soon got out of the way of the fly (Altica nemorum).

It is also positively affirmed that if lime and soot be applied to
the soil before sowing any grain, it will kill the Wireworms. Salt
likewise, on light sandy soils, is highly efficacious in destroying
them ; and of its effects upon these animals it is in the power of
every one to convince himself, and also of the strength required
for their destruction, by dissolving a tea-spoonful or more of
salt in a tea-cupful of water, with some Wireworms in another,
half full of pure water, when, by adding the salt water by degrees,
the exact effect produced upon the life of the animals will be
ascertained ; and the same of course may be done with spirits of
tar, &c. In alcohol the Wireworms expire in five minutes, but
spirits of turpentine destroys the vital principle almost instanta-
neously. It is, however, difficult to kill them by a change of
temperature, and yet in an artificial state it is extremely diffi-
cult to rear them.

As the Wireworms will live upon potatoes—as I can testify by
having fed them on nothing else for many weeks together—there
cannot be a better bait to catch them in the flower borders than
slices of that tuber, as recommended by Sir Joseph Banks, which
has been fairly tried by a friend in Hants, who tells me it is
the only method by which he can save his carnations and other
flowers. I have now before me communications from several
contributors to the ‘Gardeners’ Chronicle,’ all concurring in re-
commending slices of potato, &c., as the best mode of freeing.
the garden at least from this troublesome visitor. One of these
I will transcribe: “I send you an account of destroying the
Wireworm, which I have adopted for some years, my ground be-
ing full of them, so that I could neither grow sweet-williams,
picotees, bulbs, lettuces, nor indeed any succulent plant, without
their boring, running up, and eating the hearts out. Near these
plants I now place half a potato, with the eyes cut out to prevent
its growing, and run a pointed stick through the middle of it, and
peg it into the ground, covering it over with about an inch of
mould; and in a day or two I have pulled out by the tail from 15
to 20 of them from one piece of potatoe.” * Slices of turnip,
brocoli, cabbage, beet-root, parsnip, carrot, apples, and young
lettuce-plants, will answer the purpose where potatoes are scarce
or not to be obtained ; and it is very probable, if such vegetables
were scattered over infested corn-fields, that considerable num-
bers of the Wireworm would be decoyed to them, and might be
collected and destroyed; for it is even recommended by some
persons to lay the slices of potato on the surface, although there

* Adan, in Gard, Chron., vol. iii. p. 301.

206 Observations on the various Insects

are others who consider that they may be buried 2 or 3 inches
deep ; but these variations in the mode of application arise, in all
probability, from differences in the soil.

Excellent as many of the foregoing remedies may be, I must
confess I think highly of hand-picking ; its effects are certain, it
is comparatively not expensive, especially when it is borne in
mind that it gives employment to the children of the labourer ;
and where the Wireworms swarm it must be successful, as will
-soon be demonstrated. What must have been their amount ina
field shown to Mr. Spence, ‘‘in which,” he says, “they had de-
stroyed one-fourth of the crop; and the gentleman who showed
them to me calculated that his loss by them would be 100/. One
year he sowed a field thrice with turnips, which were twice
wholly, and the third time in great part, cut off by this insect.” *
Bierkander, after all his experiments, appears to have depended
most upon hand-picking ; for, he says, “in a field where rye was
intended to be sown, I last autumn (1778) employed a child to
follow the plough and pick up the worms; by this means 351
were collected in a piece of land 600 feet long and 56 broad.
The quantity which was taken in other fields was not counted.
There were caught in the furrows, according to their length,
4, 6, 10, to 14 worms. It would be serviceable if children always
followed the plough and gathered these yellow worms into a
bottle ; they would by that means be considerably diminished, and
perhaps in time entirely exterminated.” + The following fact
shows the advantages of this system, and requires no comment.
* A striking instance,” says Mr. Spence, “of the use of hand-
picking (in most cases by far the most effective mode of getting
rid of insects) appeared in the ‘ West Briton, a provincial paper,
in November, 1838, stating that Mr. G. Pearce, of Pennare
Goran, had saved an acre and a half of turnips, sown to replace
wheat destroyed by the Wireworm and attacked by hosts of these
larvee, by setting boys to collect them; who, at the rate of 14d.
per 100, gathered 18,000; as many as 50 having been taken
from one turnip. Thus, at the expense of only 1/. 2s. 6d., an
acre and a half of turnips, worth from 5/. to 7/., or more, was
saved ; while, as the boys could each collect 600 per day, 30
days’ employment was given to them at 9d. per day, which they
would not otherwise have had.” t

As birds and animals are the farmer’s best friends, I shall
always advocate their cause, and to establish their claims I shall
quote various good authorities who have borne testimony to their
utility, in addition to those which have been already given.

* Kirby and Spence’s Int. to Ent., 6th edit., vol. 1. p. 154,
+ Commun. to Board of Agric., vol. iv. Pp 414.
‘t Kirby and Spence’s Int. to Ent., vol. i, p, 154.

ae 8

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 207

Amongst the birds that which stands first and foremost in the
ranks is the Rook; wary as he is on most occasions, he follows
the plough fearlessly, to feed upon the Wireworms and other
insects; and here his services are most invaluable, for if you dig
up the Wireworms and lay them upon the earth, they will often
burrow down and disappear in a few seconds; many, there-
fore, of the feathered race have little chance of catching them
in the ploughed field, but the form of the bill, combined with the
strength and assiduity of the rook, is well adapted for detecting
them in their hiding-places. To pick them from the growing
crops is likewise the occupation of the rook when we see him
gravely surveying a turnip or corn crop, and with astonishing
sagacity selecting those plants only which have a few yellow leaves
outside, the sure indication of the presence of the Wireworm and
other insecis. A gentleman in Norfolk, who well understands
this subject, says, “the rooks convey the first tidings of the pre-
sence of this formidable enemy by hovering over a field in flocks,
and actually pulling up the turnips by the roots to search for
them, and I cannot but believe that their sagacity directs them
to the infested plants, which are distingnished by their drooping
leayes and dark unhealthy aspect.”* An equally observant
friend, in Surrey, says, “ the rooks are accused of doing injury by
pulling up the wheat, but J, as well as others here, believe that
they pull up the attacked plants to get the Wireworms, and do not
touch the healthy plants.” The bailiff to the same party informed
me, during a period when the Wireworms were abundant, that
the rooks had been busily occupied amongst the barley in May,
and where it looked sickly had drawn the earth away from the
roots to find the Wireworms, and where they had been “ working
the earth” he could not find any of the worms.

But there is still stronger and incontrovertible evidence in their
fayour, for in the stomachs of rooks which haye been shot when
following the plough in barley-sowing, a few grains of corn only
were found, but abundance of Wireworms and other insects.
Mr. J. Denson, sen., says, ‘‘ I have repeatedly examined the crops
of rooks: in six young that had been shot the crops were nearly
filled with Wireworms; in the crops of others I have found the
larvae of the cockchafer, and other grubs that I am not entomolo-
gist enough to know the names of. In one or two instances, in
frosty weather, I have examined the crop of one or more rooks
that had been shot : it contained dung, earth, and a small portion
of grain. I will just notice that the land adjoining Mr. Wiles’s
rookery is yearly sown with pulse or grain, and in no instance
have I known or heard that the land has in consequence failed of

* T.S.N., in Preface to an ‘Abstract from Marshall’s Rural Economy

of Norfolk,’ p. x.

208 Observations on the various Insects

acrop.”* The following remarks also, by Mr. T. G. Clithero,
are exceedingly interesting. “In the neighbourhood of my native
place, in the county of York, is a rookery, belonging to W. Vava-
sour, Esq., of Weston, in Wharfdale, in which it is ‘estimated that
there are 10,000 rooks ; that 1 lb. of food a-week is a very mode-
rate allowance for each bird, and that nine-tenths of their food
consist of worms, insects, and their larve; for although they do
considerable damage to the fields for a few weeks in seed-time
and a few weeks in harvest, particularly in backward seasons, yet
a very large proportion of their food, even at these seasons, con-
sists of insects and worms, which (if we except a few acorns and
walnuts in autumn) compose at all other times the whole of their
subsistence. Here then, if my data be correct, there is the enor-
mous quantity of 468,000 lbs., or 209 tons, of worms, insects, and
their larve, destroyed by the rooks of a single rookery in one
year. To every one who knows how very destructive to vegeta-
tion are the larve of the tribes of insects, as well as worms, fed
upon by rooks, some slight idea may be formed of the devastation
which rooks are the means of preventing.” + Wagtails and robins
are also very fond of the Wireworm, and probably sparrows ;
blackbirds and thrushes are constantly hunting the grass for them
and other larve and pupe.

Pheasants and partridges are likewise exceedingly beneficial in
this respect, and in some measure compensate the farmer for the
loss of the rook, crow, &c.: when we find the game in the turnip-
fields they are usefully employed in picking out the Wireworms,
and the crops of the pheasant are frequently found full of them.
T was not aware that the plover or lapwing, called also “ pewit,”
lived very much upon Wireworms, until a friend in Norfolk in-
formed me of the fact. In the marshy districts of our eastern
counties this bird was formerly exceedingly abundant, as well as
the ruff and ree, but the gun and the nest-hunter have so thinned
their numbers that the lapwing is becoming scarce, and the latter
have almost abandoned our shores, and, as might be expected, the
Wireworms seem to be increasing rapidly in such localities. On
opening the lapwings that have been shot, their crops were
found full of Wireworms, and as it is supposed that one bird
would eat a hundred in a day, the flocks of forty, fifty, and up-
wards that were constantly to be seen some years since would
clear off a very large number in a season. Their assistance, how-
ever, 1s departed iad gone for ever, for the high price which the
eggs fetch in the market cause the peasantry to look so carefully
after the nests that the only chance the lapwing has of escaping
destruction is to seek the wildest districts of Scotland and Ireland,
where their eggs not being so essential a luxury as they are con-

~ * Gard. Mag., vol. ix. p. 718. + Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. vi. p. 142,

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 209

sidered in England, they may escape the persecution they have so
long endured. Whether the destruction of late years of whole
fields of corn at Oxborough, near Stoke in Norfolk, is attributable
to the absence of these birds I cannot say, but it is certain that
formerly the plover abounded in that neighbourhood and now
scarcely a pair can be seen.

Before leaving the birds, it may be worth reminding the farmer,
that in Norfolk much benefit is derived from turning ducks into
fields at the time of ploughing, when they pick up the Wire-
worms, the larye of the cockchafer, &c., and whatever slugs
there may be; and with regard to the Wireworm we think that
turkeys and barn-door fowls would prove equally, if not more,
serviceable.

There is not the least doubt that in many districts great mis-
chief has arisen from the eternal warfare carried on against the
Mole, as if it had been created expressly and entirely to do mis-
chief, but hear Mr. Le Keux’s praises of this persecuted little
animal in Devonshire :—‘ I think it probable that the mole may
prove the best protection against the ravages of this insect; be-
cause I observed that seven years ago moles were very numerous
all over the farm, and at that time the Wireworm was never found
to be injurious to any of the crops, but a war of extermination has
ever since been most sedulously carried on against the mole, and
with such success that it has become a rare thing to meet with
upon the farm. The Wireworm on the contrary is now (1830)
so abundant as to cause very serious and perceptible injury by
laying bare large patches in the different crops.” *

Frogs, toads, and lizards feed upon insects, but whether they
reduce the broods of the Wireworm I am not able to determine.
It has, however, enemies in the insect tribes which probably aid
very materially in keeping this destructive animal in check.

In the early part of August a friend sent me a pupa, with the
exuviz, earthen cases, and some Wireworms; in one of these
which seemed to be full-grown I found two or three white mag-
gots, and another had changed into a nympha or chrysalis, from
which I could see that it was an hymenopterous insect, which of
all the orders contains the greatest number of species that are
employed by the Creator to attack noxious and other insects.
Concealed therefore as the Wireworms are in the earth, and
armed with a coat of mail which will withstand most external
assaults, this little ichneumon fly 7 discovers their retreats, and
puncturing the sutures of the skin in all probability which are

* Trans. Ent. Soc., vol. ii. p. 31.

7 It is probably a Microgaster, of which genus we have already shown
several that are parasitic on caterpillars: vide Royal Agric. Journ. yol. iii.
plate E, fig. 10,

VOL. Vv: P

210 Observations on the various Insects

more membranous, deposits her eggs in the body of the worm, to
feed upon the muscles and thus destroy this enemy to the cul-
tivator, This discovery I supposed to be perfectly novel as re-
garded the Wireworm, but on turning to Bierkander | find the
following statement :—‘ Nature has, however, furnished allies
against this army of vermin, as an Ichneumon, by means of its
aculeus, or egg tube, if I may so call it, insinuates its eggs into
many of them, so that in thirty worms which I have taken, I have
found six that have been thus quartered upon. From one of these
worms, with the loss of life of the host, six, ten, thirteen, to twenty
guests have come out. Which Ichneumon this is I have not yet
discovered, as the pupz put into jars have all died.”* Mine
also unfortunately all died, although I paid the greatest attention
to them; and hoping to gain some further information upon the
subject, I shall defer giving figures of this parasite until my next
Memoir is published.

The same author; also says :—‘‘ The 14th of June a Wireworm
drew from its mouth a thread 8 inches in length.” This must
have been a Filaria, of which I find in the ‘ Gardeners’ Chro-
nicle’ } the following notice :—‘* W. W. The thread-like substance
5 inches long, which you extracted from the body of a Wireworm,
is an intestinal worm, belonging to the genus J%/aria. Similar
worms have been observed in various insects, but sull your fact is
a very interesting one, showing that the filarie are found in the
larvee of insects.” § (S)

I believe I may here close the history of the true Wireworms.
I trust that the descriptions and figures will enable the inquiring
cultivator to study their economy satisfactorily, and likewise that
the mass of information relating to the destruction of them may
enable both the farmer and the gardener to encounter more suc-
cessfully this great enemy to their crops and industry.

I shall be ready to return to this subject in the spring, when it
will be necessary to give the history of the animals which are so
often confounded with the true Wireworms, and in the meanwhile
I shall be extremely obliged by any information which the
members of the Society or others engaged in agriculture may be
able to communicate.

Summary of the foregoing Report.

Wireworms feed upon corn, turnips, mangold-wurzel, potatoes,
grass, cabbages, and garden-flowers.
* Commun. to Board of Agric., vol. iv. p. 414.
+ Ibid, p. 415. t Vol. iii. p. 433.
§ Ihave seen several of these worms issuing from the tails of beetles,
eager Carabidae, when thrown into alcohol to be preserved: they were
rown and as thick as very stout cotton.

re es

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 211

Every Root-worm has been designated the Wireworm by agri-
culturists.

Great errors circulated in print by persons ignorant of the
science of Entomology.

Seventy species of Beetles inhabiting England, which are the
parents of Wireworms.

These Elater-beetles are called Spring-beetles, Skip-jacks, and
Snap or Click beetles, from the power they have of leaping up
when placed on their backs, and the noise they make on such
occasions.

Eggs minute, and whether laid in the earth, or in the base of
the young wheat-stalks, not determined.

Wireworms almost invisible when first hatched : but some, when
full-grown, nearly an inch long.

They live five years in the larva or feeding state.

They cast their skins several times, after which they are white,
and very tender for a short time.

They resemble the mealworm, but are smaller, not so cylin-
drical, and very different when minutely examined.

They have small mouths, with strong jaws, six pectoral feet, and
an anal foot.

When full-grown the Wireworm forms a cell in the earth, in
which it moults and becomes a pupa or chrysalis, generally in
July or August.

This pupa is stationary, quiescent, and harmless.

Jt changes again to an Elater or beetle in two or three weeks ;
at first it is white and tender, but in a short time it gains its proper
colour and hardness.

The beetles run with their heads down, and drop when ap-
proached: they also fly well, and are perfectly harmless, feeding
only on flowers.

The females sometimes have the ouvipositor or egg-tube exserted.

The mouth of the Elater differs considerably from that of the
Wireworm, but consists of the same organs more perfected.

Four species of Elaters most common in corn-fields, which have
been reared from the Wireworms.

later sputator the smallest of these, and variable in colour:
found in the spring.

Elater obscurus rather larger, and appears also in the spring.

Elater lineatus supposed hy some to be a yariety of the fore-
going species. It is now by far the most abundant, and is found
in spring and summer.

Elater ruficaudis, the largest of the four, and abundant in the

spring on nettles.

Scarcely any land free from the Wireworm, and but few crops
which they will not attack,

p2

212 Observations on the various Insects

Larve of crane-flies, the millipedes and centipedes, all called
Wireworms by farmers.

Wireworms are of various sizes and ages at the same time in a ©

field.

It is doubtful if they can fast long.

£ggs probably deposited in pastures, clover-layers, and fallows,
- whilst the surface is undisturbed.

Not deposited in turnip and potato fields probably.

One Wireworm will bite twenty different stalks.

Very hazardous to re-sow where they have destroyed a crop,
unless the soil be ploughed repeatedly.

Wireworms cannot propagate or increase their numbers, and the
Llaters do not lay eggs during the six winter months.

Wherever grass will grow the Wireworms may be found.

They are most to be dreaded in dry seasons, yet they cannot
exist without some moisture.

Oats suffer most severely on fresh broken-up land: often
ploughed up and re-sown.

Valuable Jand laid down in pasture to avoid their depredations.

Barley-crops generally injured in dry and cold springs.

The Elaters and Wireworms found under stones on downs,
whilst the crops were attacked by the Jatter,

Wheat greatly injured by the Wireworms during the whole of
winter, it is said.

é & hey’ descend deep into the earth when frosts are severe.

Wheat obliged to be ploughed up near Belfast from their
attacks.

Affected plants are known by the dying off of the outer leaves.

The Wireworms eat into the stem above the roots, and sometimes
separate the stalk.

Elaters placed on the earth buried themselves, and were found
dead at the roots of the wheat.

Ellater lineatus abundant beginning of June, but by the middle
of the month they had disappeared.

Wireworms form burrows in the earth at 2 or 3 inches deep.

The smallest Wireworms often the offspring of Elater obscurus
and #. lineatus, and the largest of FL. ruficaudis, it is supposed.

Potatoes are destroyed in the west of England, and escape the
attacks of the Wireworms in the eastern counties.

Wireworms found in the hearts of potatoes in Dorsetshire.

They destroy the “ sets” when first planted; to palliate this
evil, plant whole potatoes,

It is doubtful whether the curl be produced by the Wireworm.

Hop-plants attacked by them,

Cabbages destroyed by them to a great extent.

Turnips sufler most amongst green crops.

(ee)

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 21

- In mild winters the Wireworms are found at their roots.

They do most mischief to the young turnip-plants.

Multitudes of various sizes im August gnawing the young turnip-
roots, and biting the extremities off.

Some got into the shell of a snail, and ate up the animal.

They will feed upon the turnip-leaves ; drawing the remainder
of the plant afterwards into the earth.

Gardens suffer exceedingly ; /ettuces often fall a sacrifice to the
Wireworm.

Eater sputator is only fourteen days in the pupa state.

The earth should: be scraped away from infested lettuces, the
worms may then be removed, and the earth returned to the roots.

Hemlock, fool’s-parsley, &c. to be eradicated, as the Elaters
resort to the flowers.

Gardens formed out of a pasture-ground greatly infested by
Wireworms, and the annuals all destroyed ; they eat into the
stems of carnations, &c.

In adding /oam and other soils to garden-borders, great care
should be taken to free them from Wireworms.

On Light lands they do most mischief from the beginning of
March to June. Wheat and white turnips suffered most; rye
does not escape.

Barley driiled-in at 3 inches becomes sickly, but does well at
one inch and a half.

en probably, cannot live so near the surface in a sandy
soil.

Lower parts of fields bordering on marshes most infested.

Rye-grass most dangerous with clovers for encouraging the
Wireworm.

Gravelly and sandy soils most infested ; strong loam and clay
most free from them.

They inhabit every aspect.

A wet season may not destroy the Wireworms, but it does not
suit the Elaters, which cannot then deposit their eggs.

Paring and burning common land, broken up, preserves the
turnip-crops.

Wheat sown in dry weather most likely to suffer.

Turnips when three or four weeks old attacked the most in some
places; but eating through the ¢ap-root does not kill the plant.

Crops after clover-lays exposed to the sun, if fed off short, suffer
greatly.

By constantly disturbing insects, it is probable they may be
driven from a locality,

Difference of soil or season may cause the failure of a remedy
which has succeeded elsewhere.

214 Observations on the various Insects

A summer-fallow and burning the rubbish recommended after
clover and grasses; it kills the eggs and starves the Wireworms.

Soot and lime will kill them.

Fallows must be kept very clean from couch and other grasses
and weeds.

Nothing more dangerous than to leave strips and patches of
grass or lays in ploughed fields.

Waste and wood lands harbour Wireworms.

Two crops in succession stock the land with them, especially
potatoes.

Two inches of the turf taken off pasture-land by a breast-plough
an excellent process to secure the succeeding crop: shallow
ploughing is supposed to kill the roots.

Feeding land close with sheep will prevent the eggs being laid.

Folding oxen and sheep in the spring may also keep the beetles
from coming out of the earth.

Harrowing and hard-rolling i March and April strongly re-
commended.

Top-dressings of lime useful before rolling.

Woad will expel the Wireworms.

White mustard-seed, equally efficacious; it is supposed they
cannot eat the acrid roots.

Mowing corn considered good for getting rid of the Wireworms
in Germany.

Amongst the leaves of sweet gale the Wireworms died in two
hours ; it is serviceable, therefore, if mixed with manure.

They lived four days in water, and drowning them by flooding
very difficult.

Rape-cake powdered and sown on a field will preserve the
wheat-crop.

Spirits of tar and sand mixed with the soil will protect a crop.

Refuse lime of gas-works will banish the Wireworm.

Chloride of lime-water kills them.

Nitrate of soda will destroy them.

Salt on light sandy soils highly efficacious.

Alcohol will deprive them of life in five minutes, and turpentine
instantly.

The best bait in a flower-garden is sliced potato stuck down,

Pieces of turnip, cabbage, beet-root, parsnip, carrot, and apple,
will also attract them.

Hand-picking a most certain remedy.

Rooks invaluable in catching Wireworms, consuming immense
quantities,

Wagtails, robins, blackbirds, thrushes, and many smallbirds,
will feed upon thei.

i, y , ‘
we “t 4
oi oat

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 215

Pheasants and partridges very useful in clearing turnips of
them.

Lapwings attack them in low grounds.

Ducks, turkeys, and fowls will pick them up in ploughed fields.

Moles feed almost entirely on insects, and are incessantly la-
bouring to find the Wireworms and other subterranean larve.

Frogs, toads, and lizards feed on insects.

Wireworms are infested by the parasitic larve of an ichneu-
mon.

A species of worm also lives in their bodies.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE.

Fig. 1. Eggs of Elater obscurus.

a* The same magnified.
Fig. 2. The true Wireworm or larva of Elater lineatus or E. ruficaudis.
Fig. 2.* The under side greatly magnified.

j* The first thoracic segment.

l* The proleg or false foot.

m* The three pairs of pectoral legs.

n* One of the legs greatly magnified to show the spines

and claw.
Fig. 3.* The Labrwm or upper-lip of the Wireworm.
Fig. 4.* The Clypeus or nose of do.

Fig. 5.* A large space under the head, formed by the union of the bases
of the maxillee and labium.
b* Base of Maxille.
c* The Mentum, or chin.
d* The Labium, or under-lip.
e* The Labial palpi, or feelers.
Vg The large mastllary lobe, the smaller one below it.
g* The maxillary palpus, or feeler.
Fig. 6.* One of the Mundibles, or jaws.
Fig. 7.* One of the minute Antenne, or horns.
h* A horn greatly magnified.
z* Another horn, with an extra lobe.
Fig. 8.* Upper side of the head, showing the position of the jaws,
: mouth, and two miuute dots like eyes.
Fig. 9.* Terminal segments of abdomen.
( k* One of the large spiracles.
l* The proleg or false foot, and vent ?
Fig. 10. The earthen case formed by the Wireworm to contain and pro-
tect the chrysalis.
Fig. 11. The upper side of ei pupa or chrysalis removed from the
case.
Fig. 11.* Under side of the same.
Fig. 12. Elater (Athéus) ruficaudis.
Fig. 12.* The same magovified.
Pig. 13.* The antenna or horn of Elater obscurus.

216 Observations on the various Insects

Fig. 14.* Hind-leg of Elater obscurus.
Fig. 15.* Male organs of generation of Elater pectinicornis.
p* Apical segment of abdomen.
q* Central instrument.
Fig. 16.* iat “organs of generation or ovipositor in the same species.
* The external lobes enclosing the’ oviduct.
Fig. 17.* Apical abdominal segment and female organs of generation of
Elater obscurus.
s* The two horny lobes uniting and enclosing the ovi-
duct.
Fig. 18.* Male organs of generation in the same species.
t* The central instrument.
Fig. 19.* The under side of thorax of Elater obscurus.
o* One of the grooves for receiving the antenne in re-
pose.
u* Cavities receiving the first pair of legs,
v* Spine employed in leaping.
Fig. 20.* Postpectus, with one of the hinder legs attached.
w* Cavities receiving the second pair of legs.
x* Coxe or hips, to which the third pair of legs is
attached.
y* The cavity into which the spine » fits.
Fig. 21.* Labrum, or upper-lip of the beetle called Elater obscurus.
Fig. 22.* Mandibles, or jaws of do.
Fig. 23.* sche or chin of do.
* Lahium, or under-lip.
* Palpi, or feelers.
Fig. 24.* Mazille, with their hairy lobes.
b* Palpt, or feelers.
Fig. 25. Elater (Agriotes) obscurus, in outline.
Fig. 25.* The same magnified and shaded.
Fig. 26.* Later lineatus, represented flying.
c The natural dimensions.
Fig. 27.* Hind-leg of Elater ruficaudis.
The Zarsus, or foot, showing the fourth minute
joint.
Fig. 28. A young wheat-plant; the dotted line denoting the surface of
the soil.
Fig. 29. A small Wireworm feeding in the base of the stem in the earth,
Fig. 30. A young turnip-plant, with its roots bitten off by the Wire-
worms.
e A portion near the base gnawed by them.

Obs.—All the figures are drawn from nature; and the foregoing
numbers and letters with a * attached indicate that the objects referred
to are represented much larger than life.

London, Nov., 1843.

affecting the Turnips, Corn- Crops, §c. 217

Parr II.

My last Memoir concluded with the history of the true Wire-
worms; but I am inclined to believe that some of the following
insects, belonging to the same famly, may contribute in their
larva state to the injury of the field and garden; and, as they are
constantly found in corn-fields in the beetle state, figures and de-
scriptions of them cannot be unacceptable to the farmer; these I
shall therefore now lay before him, hoping that they may lead to
a more perfect knowledge of their economy. I shall afterwards
proceed to give an account of the other animals which appear to
assist, with the larvae: of the Elaters, in the destruction of the
crops, by attacking the roots of the turnips, &c.; all of which
have been incorrectly denominated Wireworms by the cultivator,

Orpver CoteroprTera, Famity ELArerip&.

No. 5 is an Elater which I frequently observe in corn-fields ;
I find it also under stones, I have taken it off birch-trees in
woods, &c. Its appearance lasts from the end of Apml untl
August, but nothing is known of its economy or of the Wireworm
which it produces. It is called

Elater (Lepidotus) holosericeus, Fab.,* the satin-coated Click-
beetle. It is elliptical or boat-shaped, deep brown, thickly and
minutely punctured, and clouded with silky ochreous pubescence :
antenne scarcely so long as the head and thorax, slightly pubes-
cent, eleven-jointed ; besal joint the stoutest, somewhat chopper-
shaped, and chesnut coloured ; 2nd, minute ; Srd, Jong and slender,
clavate; 4th and six following produced internally, obtrigonate,
apical joint elongate-oyate, apex narrowed (fig. a); head small;
palpi and eyes black ; thorax convex, semi-ovate, concave before,
broadest at the base, which is bisinuated, the angles produced,
each forming a strong trigonal lobe, not very acute ; pectoral lobe
rather small and tapering; scutel large and orbicular; elytra
more than twice as long as the thorax, and scarcely broader at the
middle, the ochreous pubescence often forming two ocelli on the
disc ; nine punctured striz on each elytron, most distinct at the
base ; costa emarginate towards the base ; wings ample; legs short,
slender, and pale ferruginous; length 5, breadth 2 lines (fig. 31).

6. This Elater is found in corn-fields and in sandy places at the
same periods as the foregoing species; but whether its larva, or
Wireworm, is injurious to the crops, I am unable to state; it is
named ;

Elater (Agrypnus) murinus, Linn., the mouse-coloured Click-
beetle. It is rather broad and boat-shaped, entirely clothed with

* Vide Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 694 for dissections, &c. of the Ela-
teride ; and the Guide, Genus 309, for an arrangement of the species,

218 Observations on the various Insects

very short ash-coloured depressed hairs, marbled with brown,
more or less ochreous, and is thickly and minutely punctured.
Antenne shorter than the thorax, rather stout, and eleven-jointed,
bright ferruginous, basal joint stout, oblong, and piceous; 2nd,
small, semiovate; 3rd, smaller, pear shaped;'4th and six fol-
lowing compressed, produced internally, obtrigonate, apical joint
longer, ovate, the apex suddenly narrowed (fig. b); head semi-
orbicular, depressed; eyes scarcely visible; thorax twice as
broad, orbicular, convex on the back, with two tubercles on the
disc; beneath are two deep fissures to receive the antenne, and
the pectoral spine is long and attenuated, the apex subulate ;
scutel ovate-conic; elytra a little broader than the thorax, and
more than twice as long, hinder portion attenuated, the apex
rounded, sloped suddenly towards the thorax at the base; there
are nine indistinctly punctured striz on each, and the costal
margin is deeply emarginate to receive the hinder thighs; wings
ample; legs short and shining pitchy; the tips of the thighs and
the tarsi fulvous—the latter are five-jointed and tapering, basal
joint the stoutest and the longest in the hinder pair; claws mode-
rate and acute; tibiz# rough, with series of minute bristles ; length
6, breadth 21 lines, sometimes much larger.

7. This species of Click-beetle is sometimes abundant in corn-
fields, also in hedges and grassy places, in May and two suc-
ceeding months ; but as the Wireworm lives in decaying trees, it
is not likely to do any mischief to the crops. It is named

Elater (Melanotus) fulvipes, Herbst, the tawny-legged Click-
beetle; it is also called by Marsham /. castanipes—a more appro-
priate name, as its legs are of a chesnut colour. It is very long,
narrow, and shining black, thickly punctured, and clothed with
very short fine ochreous pubescence ; antenne as long as the
thorax, compressed, pubescent, fulvous, and eleven-jointed ; basal
joint stout and subpyriform; 2nd, minute, nearly globose; 3rd,
small obovate; 4th and six following, produced internally, obtri-
gonate, but slightly decreasing in diameter to the apical joint,
which is spindle-shaped (fig. “C5 ; mouth pale ferruginous, the
Jabrum and tips of mandibles piceous ; head rather broad, semi-
orbicular; the eyes hemispherical ; clypeus forming a sharp pro-
jecting shelf over the mouth; thorax convex, homewhint semiovate,
almost straight before, the base nearly straight also, the angles
forming rather narrow lobes, appearing pointed above, but trun-
cated laterally ; ; there is a dorsal impression broadest at the base,
and a short longitudinal channel on each side, close to the lobes ;
the pectoral spine is rather leng and narrow ; scutel tongue-shaped ;
elytra thrice as long as the thorax; but not broader, linear, the
apex suboyate, they” are more finely punctured than the thorax,
and there are nine punctured striz on each ; costal margin gently

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 219

hollowed towards the base ; wings ample; legs moderately long,
chesnut coloured ; tarsi tapering, basal joint the stoutest, and a
litle elongated ; 4th, small; claws minute; length from 6 to 9
lines,-breadth from 1# to 2 and ¢ (fig. 33).

8. Is nearly allied to the Elater obscurus, pl. I., fig. 25, but it
is smaller. ‘The Wireworm of this species is said to abound in
grass fields, where it feeds with those of E. obscurus and E. linea-
tus; the perfect insects are occasionally found in multitudes in
marshy districts in the rejectamenta left by floods in Norfolk,
Cambridgeshire, &c., and in the spring and summer months they
are abundant everywhere. This has been called, I know not
why, —

Elater (Agriotes) sputator, Linn., the spitting Click-beetle. It
is reddish brown, clothed with short depressed ochreous pubes-
cefice; antennz scarcely so long as the thorax, compressed, pu-
bescent, basal joint stont; 2nd rather longer than the 3rd, which
is oval, the remainder short and obovate, terminal joint elongated ;
apex conical ; head and thorax black, shining, and thickly pune-
tured; the anterior margin of the latter, and the hinder lobes,
reddish brown ; the head is somewhat orbicular; the clypeus nar-
rowed ; thorax longer than broad, narrow, oblong, very convex,
with a dorsal impression behind, the posterior angles forming
truncated lobes; scutel oval, truncated at the base; elytra not
broader than the thorax, and twice as long, nearly linear, the
apex ovate; they are somewhat scabrose, with nine striz on each,
not neatly punctured, and deepest at the base, costal margin very
concave towards the base; wings ample; under side castaneous-
brown, the angles of the thorax and the pectoral spine, which is
rather long and slender, ferruginous; legs moderate, slender ;
feet tapering, basal joint a little elongated ; claws slender ; length
3 lines, breadth | line (fig. 34). The colour of this insect varies
considerably, some specimens being entirely bright ochreous,
whilst others have the head and thorax partially variegated with
black.

9. Is a Click-beetle very abundant in corn-fields, hedges, and
meadows, in May and June. I have copied the tail of the Wire-
worm from Bouché (fig. 41), who asserts that it lives two years in
rotten horse-dung in a high state of decomposition, when it is
almost become earthy, and with it the Wireworms are of course
conveyed into the fields and gardens. The beetle is called

Elater (Athéus) niger, Zinn., the black Click-beetle. It is
boat-shaped, shining black, finely punctured, and clothed with
yellowish pubescence, which is not depressed; antenne longer
than the thorax, compressed, tapering and hairy, basal joint stout ;
2nd, minute, ovate; 3rd, obtrigonate ; the following similar but
larger, produced on the inside, but decreasing towards the apical

220 Observations on the various Insects

joint which is fusiform (fig. d@); head suborbicular, the clypeus,
forming a projection over the trophi; thorax twice as broad, oval,
very convex, the posterior angles not acute, a little divaricating ;
pectoral lobe not long and tapering; scutel ovate-trigonate ;
elytra broader than the thorax, elliptical, the apex ovate or sub-
conical, with nine punctured striz on each, most distinct at the
base ; wings ample; legs not long; thighs stoutish, three basal
joinis of tarsi -cushioned beneath ; Qnd and 3rd dilated; 4th
minute; 5th, slender ; claws small; length 5} to 6 lines, breadith
13 to 2 lines (fig. 35).

10. Abundant in June, July, and August, upon oaks and alders
in woods, and not unfrequent in corn-fields, but nothing is known
of its economy ; it has received the name of

Elater (Dolopius) marginatus, Linn., the margined Click-
beetle, and is the EF. sutwralis of Marsham. It is narrow and
elliptical, shining, testaceous, and clothed with short ochreous
pubescence; antenne longer than the head and thorax, slender,
compressed, fulvous, and pubescent; basal joint the stoutest,
clavate ; 2nd and Srd the slenderest, elongated—the latter a little
the shortest; 4th and following stouter and clavate; terminal
joint subfusiform (fig. e): head and thorax thickly and strongly
punctured ; the former obtuse, convex, and pitchy ; the latter
longer than broad, very convex, piceous, anterior and posterior
margins bright ochreous, including the angles, which are very
acute and slightly divaricating; scutel subovate ; elytra linear,
thrice as long as the thorax, sometimes rather broader, attenuated
or ovate behind, ochreous or reddish brown, with a space down
the suture, and sometimes the costal margin brown; they are
somewhat scabrose, with nine distinctly punctured striz on each,
the outer margin slightly concave towards the base ; wings ample ;
underside more or less fuscous or castaneous ; the pectoral spine
long and narrow, but thick; apex of abdomen testaceous; legs
moderately long, slender, and pale ferruginous; tarsi, with the
termina] joint the ge basal joint elongated ; claws minute ;
length 3% limes, breadth } (fig. 36). An exceedingly variable
species in outline and colour, some specimens being broader than
others, and the antennz are apparently stouter in the males;
some examples are entirely bright ochreous or chesnut, and others
are uniformly of a pitchy colour.

1) his species also frequents corn-fields, meadows, hedges,
&c,, but whether its larva is injurious to the crops has not been
ascertained ; it is so like the former one (/. marginatus) in minia-
ture, that it will be unnecessary to figure it. It is about the size of
E. limbatus of Linnzeus, but the thorax is narrower and less convex,
and there is generally a distinct sort of shallow groove down the
crown of the head. It is distinguished by the name of

es

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 221

Elater (Adrastus) acuminatus, Step., the pointed Click-beetle.
It is elliptical, narrow, shining testaceous, and clothed with short
ochreous pubescence; head and thorax black, punctured; the
former with an impression down the centre, the latter longer than
broad, the anterior margin and posterior angles, which are acu-
minated, are testaceous ; antenne longer than the head and thorax,
compressed, castaneous; basal joint elongated, stout; 2nd and
3rd obovate, the latter a little the shortest; 4th and following
somewhat obovate, truncate, terminal joint fusiform ; scutel dark,
oval ; elytra nearly thrice as long as the thorax, punctured, testa-
ceous, the suture often dusky, especially near the apex, with nine
punctured strie on each; underside piceous ; pectoral spine long
and slender; legs ochraceous ; length 2 lines, breadth about half
a line. -

12. Also frequents corn-fields, hedges, grassy and woody places,
from April to August, but its economy is unknown. It is the
Elater (Athéus) longicollis of Fabricius, the long-necked Click-
beetle. The male is long and narrow, ochreous, and clothed with
yery short pubescence of the same colour ; head and thorax thickly
and coarsely punctured, dull black ; the anterior margin of the latter,
the sides and base, including the angles as well as the clypeus,
more or less ferruginous in many examples; this portion of the
head is very concave, the margin thickened and slightly reflexed ;
the antennz are more than half the length of the body, slender,
and compressed ; the basal joint is clavate, and not stouter than
the following, which are elongate-clavate, and truncated, excepting
the 2nd, which is minute, and the terminal joint, which is sub-
fusiform (fig. f); the head is snbquadrate ; the eyes very promi-
nent; thorax long and narrow, not much broader than the head
before, gradually and slighily increasing in diameter to the base;
the angles short and truncated laterally; the sides are nearly
straight, but slightly convex near the middle; down the back is a
faint channel, with a slight fovea on each side near the base;
pectoral spine long and slender ; scutel small, black, and punc-
tured; elytra more than twice as long as the thorax, and a little
broader, linear, the apex ovate, the costal margin fuscous and
very genily concave near the base, they are slightly glossy, a little
rugose, with nine distinctly punctured strie oa each; wings
ample; underside more or less piceous, excepting the body,
which is ochreous and very glossy, sometimes pitchy down the
centre, or having two fuscous spots on each segment ; legs longish,
slender, and deep ochreous ; tarsi tapering, basal joint elongated,
4th minute; length 4} lines, breadth rather more than | line
(fig. 38). The female differs so considerably from the male in
form that the name of longicollis is not appropriate ; it is much
broader and larger, the antenne are not so long, the 3rd and fol-

222 Observations on the various Insects

lowing joints being obtrigonate: this sex varies also greatly in
colour, some specimens being entirely brown, others of an ochre-
ous-chesnut, &c.

As the Wireworms seem to be easily distinguished from each
other by the apical segment of the abdomen, | have copied from
Bouché* those which he has described, hoping it may tend to
their being accurately identified with their respective click-beetles
by some one who may be fortunate enough to rear them hereafter.
Figure 41 he calls the Wireworm of Elater niger (vide fig. 35) ;
42 is Elater lineatus, 43 Elater fulvipes (vide fig. 33), and 44
Elater fulvipennis. I must, however, observe, that 1 have some
doubt of his figure of £. niger belonging to that species; but the
Wireworm of £. lincatus he has certainly mistaken, as will be
seen by referring to our pl. I., fig. 9,7 which represents the same
portion of the Wireworm as fig. 42, pl. J. Bouché’s figure of
E. fulvipes approaches that which I believe to be the Wireworm
of that insect ; and as his drawings are not accurate I fear, it is
most probable they are identical. His Elater fulvipennis is most
probably correctly named, as it lives in decayed timber, in which
it changes to a beetle with yellowish or reddish elytra: his figure
represents the underside with the anal foot contracted. I have
found, at different times, the Wireworms of two allied species,
namely, /. sanguineus, Linn., and £. rufipennis, Hoff., whose
habits are similar and their figure very like Bouché’s.

At fig. 39 I have drawn a Wireworm, which I believe to be
the larva of Elater fulvipes (fig. 33): it is very shining, nearly as
large as the figure, of a ferruginous colour, with a few long hairs
distributed over the body, and a channel down the back ; the head
is flattened, with four channels in front (fig. g), and the tail is
conical, concave above, with four channels at the base, rugose and
transversely striated towards the tip, which is acuminated, forming
a tooth, with two obscure tubercles on each side (fig. h) ; the jaws
are black, the 6 pectoral legs small, and the anal foot distinct.

This Wireworm cannot, I imagine, be injurious to tbe culti-
vator, as it feeds in decaying trees, from which I have cut it out,
together with the perfect insect. Bouché says it lives two years
in soft willow wood, and becomes a pupa there in winter.

Figure 40 I think may prove to be the Wireworm of £. murinus
(fig. 32) or of Elater niger (fig. 35). It does not, however, agree with

* Naturgeschichte der Insecten, pl. 8, figs. 31, 32, 33, and 34.

+ Whether this be the Wireworm of later ruficaudis or of E. lineatus T
cannot positively decide, for they seem to be so exceedingly similar that it
is impossible to detect the slightest difference between any of the speci-
mens I have found at the roots of the turnips and corn crops, or amongst
the multitude of examples which have been transmitted to me for my in-
spection, yet I think the largest specimen must belong to L. ruficaudis.

anal

.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 223

Bouche’s figure of F. niger (fig. 41), but whether he be correct I
cannot determine. I have thought it necessary to give a drawing
of it, having received specimens with other Wireworms from
Surrey in August; and I have met with the same species under
stones, occasionally, on grassy downs. Jt is very shining, ochreous,
and clothed with longer hairs than usual, with a faint channel
down the back; the head, first thoracic segment and tail are fer-
ruginous ; it is not so cylindrical as the common Wireworm ; the
head is broad and flattened; the jaws are longish, arched, acute
and black (fig. 7) ; the first thoracic segment is narrowed behind ;
the apical segment is somewhat semioyate, with a large oval exca-
vation, forming a hollow above; it is rugose, with two longitudi-
nal channels ; the sides are denticulated, and at the apex are two
large teeth, generally notched, and separated by a triangular
fissure; the underside is tuberculated, and the anal foot is large
and broad, with a short horny spine on each side (fig. k) ; the six
pectoral feet are small, but serrated beneath with spines, and ter-
minated by simple claws.

In the course of publication of these papers we have seen that
many insects prey upon one another, and that probably no species
injurious to agriculture is free from the attacks of parasitic and
predaceous insects, which, by subsisting upon the mischievous
multitudes, subdue their numbers and render a most essential
service to man. I have already alluded to those which live upon
the Wireworms in the former part of this memoir; but as I have
now obtained additional materials, and am enabled to add figures
of the insects which destroy them, as well as others which infest
the click-beetles, I shall describe these valuable little friends of
the cultivator.

Thousands of insects, called Carabidae, varying greatly in size,
from half a line to an inch in length, may be found under stones
and clods in fields, meadows and gardens, where they secrete
themselves by day, and sally forth at night to feed upon other
insects, worms, larve, &c., which come to the surface at that
period either to feed or to migrate ; they are consequently emi-
nently serviceable in reducing the ranks of noxious animals.
During a drought they retire into cracks in the earth, and to the
most humid spots, and evidently enjoy the refreshing rains which
succeed. I have seen the large Carabus glabratus* in mountain-
ous districts running about immediately after a thunder-storm,
each having a tolerably large earth-worm in its mouth ; others, as
the splendid Calosoma sycophanta,{ live entirely upon caterpillars
m trees; and there is one which is eminently serviceable by feed-
ing upon the Wireworms—a fact for which I am indebted toa

* Donoyan’s Brit. Ins., y. 15, pl. 506.
% Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 330.

224 Observations on the various Insects -

most zealous naturalist, Mr. Marshal] Fisher of Ely. The insect
alluded to belongs to the Orper Corroprera, the Famiry
Carasin&, and the Genus Carasus of Linnzus, but it has been
designated by a new generic name by Megerlé, and is now called

13. Steropus madidus, Fad. (fig. 45,) from its inhabiting wet
and damp localities. It is shining black ; the legs are often red ;
head oval, forming a neck behind: the eyes are not large, but
prominent and hemispherical ; the mouth is complete, and fur-
nished with two pair of longish jointed palpi of a chesnut colour,
and two large curved and acute jaws;* antenne not longer than
the thorax, tapering, the apex sometimes of an orange colour; tho-
rax broader than the head, somewhat obovate, concave before,
truncated at the base, the angles rounded, with a large fovea on
each, marked with two short longitudinal channels, and a sharp
indented dorsal furrow; the entire surface is delicately striated
with transverse wavy lines, which are only visible under a magni-
fier ; the scutel is short and broad ; the elytra are convex and sol-
dered together, and consequently both sexes are destitute of
wings: their form is oval, narrowed at the base, each having nine
deep striz, the first furcate next the scutel, the eighth impressed
with strong punctures, the costal edge a little emarginated on
each side towards the tip : legs strong ; thighs stout ; anterior tibie
the thickest, with a notch on the inside producing a spine, and
another at the apex: the others are spiny with bristles, and ter-
minated bya pair of moveable spurs; the tarsi are five-jointed,
and furnished with two sharp claws: in the male the first pair of
feet are dilated and cushioned beneath, the three basal joints
being broad and heart-shaped, the fourth similar but minute;
length 7 lines, breadth 23.

S. madidus is a very active insect: it prowls about at night, and
is admirably adapted to its predaceous mode of life. The free
motion of its neck and thorax gives it an advantage over most
insects of its own size, and its strong legs are furnished with spurs
and spines which enable it to stand firmly, and resist the efforts of
any individual endeavouring to escape from its grasp. The sen-
sitive horns are in constant motion : with its long palpi 1t embraces
its victim, whilst it tears it in pieces with its sharp and powerful
jaws. When touched, these beetles eject a terribly fetid and dirty
fluid from the mouth, which is probably a defence against the
more powerful and kindred species. ‘To show the usefulness of
this insect I cannot do better than give Mr. Fisher’s own state-
ment of the facts which came under his observation. He says—
«My brother Henry seeing a field which had been sown with
oats much injured, pulled up several plants and found numerous
Wireworms at the roots of each: he put them into a box with

* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., pl. 171 for dissections, &e,

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §e. 225

several black beetles of the family Carabidae, which he detected
in the same field, and on opening it a short time after, he saw
one of the beetles with a Wireworm inits mouth. Profiting by
this accidental discovery, | placed two of the beetles under a glass
with a Wireworm; the beetles appeared to whet their mandibles,
ready for the attack, and in an instant each had seized the Wire-
worm, the writhings of which threw the beetles upon their backs ;
they quickly recovered their legs, and the worm was soon divided,
each taking his share, and entirely sucking out the milky contents,
leaving only small fragments of the horny skin, I then introduced
several more worms under the glass, and they as speedily disap-
peared. I repeated the experiment several times with the same
results; I therefore think [ imay fairly conclude that this beetle
is a natural enemy of the Wireworm.”

Figure 46 represents a dead shrivelled Wireworm, of later
lineatus, 1 believe, which was infested with parasitic larva, one of
which had become a pupa (fig. p), so greatly advanced that ina
few days the perfect fly would have been hatched. By some
accident this pupa was forced through the skin, and it is evident
that it was some species of Ichneumon; for the head (fig. 47, 2) is
distinct enough, and shows the two eyes; the antenne (fig. m)
are enclosed, as the whole animal is, in a transparent shroud.
Fig. x exhibits the thorax, and fig. 0 the legs and jointed feet. I
had hoped to breed this insect, but it died, and it must therefore
be left for future inquirers to determine the species of this useful
little being, which was not unknown to Berkander, and is very
probably far from uncommon. ‘The specimen was sent to me the
{st August, 1841, having been just discovered with other Wire-
worms in Surrey.

The click-beetles themselves are not free from the assaults of
minor enemies, which may not actually destroy them, but I ima-
gine they must exhaust and weaken the individuals they attack so
as to render them incapable of fulfilling their functions with
energy. Of these animals two very different species have come
under my observation, which I will now describe ; but it will not
be irreleyant to observe that the class Insecta, as it stood in the last
century, included crabs, lobsters, spiders, centipedes, &c. La-
treille, however, and modern philosophers have very properly
divided them into three classes;* the Ist is called Crusracea,
the 2nd Aracunipes, the 3rd Insecta. With the Ist we shall
haye nothing to do in these reports ; the 3rd is distinguished by its
pair of genuine antenne, six thoracic legs, &c., comprising all the
insects whose histories we have recorded ; and the 2nd will include
most of the few remaining animals, which will complete this com-
munication. :

_* Dr. Leach formed the insects of Linnzus into fiye classes, namely
Crustacea, Arachnéida, Acari, Myriapoda, and Insecta.
VOL. Vv. 9

a

2°26 Observations on the various Insects

The Crass Aracuniprs embraces the millipedes, spiders,
lice, mites, ticks, &c. Amongst the last are included the little
parasites before us, the first of which belongs to the OrDER
AceraA, Famity Ricrnz or Ticks, Genus Uropopa of La-
treille. The Baron De Geer describes a tick nearly allied to ours
under the name of Acarus vegetans ;* but as that species is at-
tached by the apex of the body and this by the back, I am induced
to thinkut a distinct species, which I shall call

14. Uropoda umbilica. Itis oval, rusty-brown and shining ; the
upper side horny, shield-shaped, convex and punctured, with longish
scattered hairs. From the back, but a little on one side, arises a pe-
duncle (fig. 49, s), which is white, transparent, as long as the animal,
sometimes gradually increasing to the extremity, which is attached
to the elytra of the Elater (fig. 48, 7). It has eight short-jointed
legs more or less clothed with hairs, which in repose are pressed
close to the underside: the first pair seem to be somewhat palpi-
form and a little the longest, especially in the terminal joint, which
is densely hairy at the apex ; the second pair are the shortest, simi-
lar to the preceding, but tapering and less hairy; the others are
terminated by a slender transparent clavate joint, destitute of
hairs (fig. 48, q; the natural size).

This curious tick infests the Elater obscurus (fig. 48), attaching
itself in considerable numbers to the wing-cases by a singular
contrivance in the shape of a thread, which is fixed by one end to
the tick and by the other to the click-beetle. This is probably a
provision to prevent the tormented animal from rubbing off his
parasites: they are able, according to the remarks of De Geer, to
remove when they please, by crawling in a certain direction until
the cord is sufficiently strained to cause the end to be detached
from the beetle. It has been supposed that these animals obtain
their nutriment through this tube; and whether they possess a
rostrum for sucking I have not been able to ascertain, from the
extreme minuteness and obscurity of the head.

The other parasite belongs to the same OrpErR AcerA,t but to
the Famity Micropuruira, and the Genus Leprus, Latreille.
It infests the click-beetle named £later ruficaudis, which has
been already described and figured.{ It is a very different little
animal to the Uropoda umbilica, thrusting its beak into the pune-
tures of the thorax and elytra of the beetle, and thus absorbs the
juices (fig. 50, #). The dreadful pest called the harvest-bug, §

which insinuates itself into one’s legs, causing an insupportable

* Mémoires pour servir 4 l'Histoire des Insectes, v. vii., p. 123, pl. 7,
fig. 15 and 16.

+ Latreille, in his later works, makes this a family only of his Arach-
nides.

t Vide pl. L, fig. 12.

§ Leptus autumnalis, figured in Shaw's Zool. Mise., vol. ii. pl. 42.

affecting the Turntps, Corn-crops, §c. 207

irritation, and which is also red, but invisible, or nearly so, to the
naked eye, is closely allied, I believe, to our tick, which appears
to be described by De Geer under the name of Acarus Phalangii,
from its infesting the harvest-spider (Phalangium Opilio). It now
bears the appellation of

15. Leptus Phalangii. It is of a brilliant scarlet colour, and
soft. The head is pear-shaped, terminating in an attenuated
slightly-curved rostrum, and on each side is an appendage forming
a pair of horns or short legs: these seem to be triarticulate, the
basal joint the stoutest, third small. The abdomen is large, and
like an oval bag, attached by a narrow base, forming a neck, The
back and belly are sparingly clothed with black stoutish hairs.
To the pectus are attached six long slender legs, remote at their
base, especially the hinder pair, which are the longest, and those
before them are shorter than the second pair: they are composed
of many joints, and clothed with black hairs, which appear thick,
from their being pubescent I suspect: fig. 51; the natural size
being shown at ¢, fig. 50.

Having now discussed every subject, I believe, relating to the
“true Wireworms,” | shall turn to the history of the other animals
which are improperly included by agriculturists under that deno-
mination, and may not inaptly be termed “false Wireworms.”
Some of them may be almost as injurious to the crops as those
just described; but as portions of their economy still remain
doubtful, this is a point which I fear cannot be determined satis-
factorily. -

A general belief prevails amongst farmers that the larger gnats,
or Tipule, called crane-flies, daddy long-legs, Kc., are the parents
of the Wireworms. This we have already shown to be quite a
mistake, yet it is very far from improbable that the maggots of the
Tipula Oleracea, &c., may do mischief to farm as well as to garden
crops; but as it is most destructive to grass-lands, I shall pass by
its history until I arrive at that portion of my work. There is,
however, a larva of a gnat which [ shall here describe and figure,
as it is an undoubted enemy to the corn-crops; and being one of
the false Wireworms it will come under this head. I regret ex-
ceedingly that it did not reach my hands in a living state, in order
that I might have reared it, to ascertain the parent insect. I was,
however, shown such multitudes of a gnat, called, I believe,
Tipula maculosa, in walking over a turnip-field in Suffolk, which
the owner imagined were the produce of the genuine Wireworms,
that I think it very probable this maggot was the early state of
that or an allied species.* The larvae alluded to were found in
great numbers in May, 1841, attacking the roots of Lord
Prudhoe’s wheat, and were transmitted to Mr-Yarrell, who gave

F * Vide Curtis's Guide Gen., 1160, No. 30 and mies

Q

228 Observations on the various Insects .

them eventually to me. They were of a yellow ochreous colour,
composed of the usual number of segments (fig. 52), tapering to
the head, and truncated at the tail, and were about two lines long
(v). The head was furnished with two small black horny fangs
(wz); and the tail was cut off abruptly, the lower circumference
being deeply indented, and forming several irregular lobes, and
in the centre were two brown tubercles, It was destitute of feet,
as such maggots usually are.

The remaining animals which infest the roots of corn and other
crops, and rallied. also Wireworms by the farmers. belonged to the
Class Arachnides and the Order Myriapoda. Latreille subse-
quently altered the value of these terms, changing them to the
Crass Myrtrapopa, the OrpeR CuiLoenartua, and the Famity
Ancuirormis. Linneus gave them the generic name of Jutus;
and from the typical species resembling snakes in miniature,
especially the slow-worm, I have applied to them the English
appellation of Snake-millipedes. After describing them I will
relate their history and economy. One has been named

16. Julus pulchellus by Leach (the beautiful Snake-millipede).
This species is from one-sixth to half an inch long, or upwards.
It is slender, cylindrical, and shining (2x) ; it has about 170 legs;
the horns are clavate, pubescent, and seven-jointed, the apical
joint being minute (y); the eyes are black, and coarsely granu-
lated; it is pale ochreous, with a double row of bright crimson
spots down each side, excepting the four first and five last seg-
ments ; the whole of them are faintly striated longitudinally with
a rather deep incision separating the rings (fig. 53).

After death this species becomes of a : fine sanguineous purple,
which will stain the paper upon which the specimens are gummed.
{t is, I think, the most widely spread, if not the most abundant,
of the Snake-millipedes. It inhabits both fields and gardens, and
has been observed feeding upon a small Helix.

17. Julus Londinensis of Leach, the London Snake-millipede,
(fig. 54), is usually about an inch long, cylindrical, shining, and
rather stout. It is of a dark lead-colour. The segments are
longitudinally striated, the margins subferrnginous ; there are two
black dots on each, excepting the five thoracic and four apical
ones, forming a line of pores down each side, from which an acid
liquor flows, of a disagreeable odour, which is said to be em-
ployed to defend itself Trae enemies, The legs are dirty white,
and amount to about 160, in pairs on each side, so that each seg-
ment seems to be provided with four legs. The head is brownish,
and pubescent, with black granulated eyes. ‘The antennez are
brown, clayate, and a litle hairy. The basal joint is sub-globose ;
second elongated, and slightly exceeding the following in length;
the third, fourth, and fifth are stouter, oyate-truncate, the last

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops. &c. 229

forming a club in union with the sixth, which is small. Thoracic
segment twice as long as the others. Apex of abdomen rounded,
with a vertical slit; the penultimate ring with the centre a little
angulated, and lapping over the apex, but not mucronated (z).

This is a large species, and similar to the following; but there
are gigantic Snake-millipedes in South America, as thick as one’s
little finger, and upwards of half a foot in length. Julus Lon-
dinensis was so named from its having been first discovered in the
neighbourhood of the metropolis ; and it infests the roots of wheat
in Surrey, from whence I have received specimens at the end of
April, which had not arrived at their full growth.

18. Julus terrestris, Linneus, the earth Snake-millipede.
Shining, cylindrical, and piceous; rather strongly striated Jongi-
tudinally ; the edges of the segments brownish, a line of indistinct
black pores on each side; the legs ochreous; eyes black, and
granulated ; antennz longer than the first thoracic segment, which
is larger than the others, seven-jointed, basal joint globose, four
following elongated, clavate, truncate, the last being the stoutest,
and forming with the sixth and seventh a little oval club, the
apical joint being minute (b); penultimate segment of abdomen
mucronated (a), the lobe subtrigonate, the tip rounded.

This species greatly resembles the foregoing, but the spined
tail and longer antennz readily distinguish it. I remember one
being discovered inside a rotten pear.

19. Julus punctatus, Leach, the dotted Snake-millipede, is
often an inch long, but rather slender, cylindrical, and of a testa-
ceous brown or ochreous colour; the margins of the segments are
finely and very closely striated; the crown of the head and
thoracic segment are freckled, the penultimate one is mucronated,
the lobe oval; face, antenne and legs, pale ochreous; eyes grey,
granulated with black. When alive this species is of a some-
what pellucid pale flesh-colour, every segment with a black dot
forming a line down each side.

I generally find this Julus amongst the moss on old stumps,
and under stones in woods; but I think I have received it with
the other species from gardens.

20. Julus latistriatus, Curtis, the broad-lined Snake-millipede,
is 5 or 6 lines long, of a dull ochreous lilac with a purple tint,
cylindrical, very shining, sparingly striated, the lines not approxi-
matmg; down each side is a row of dots, and the penultimate
segment is not mucronated, but slightly angulated and rounded,
as in Julus Londinensis ; the antenne are stout and rather short,
pilose and capitate, second joint the longest, the apex very pu-
bescent.

‘This Julus 1 took at first for the young of J. Londinensis, but
the striz are twice as far apart as in any other species I have exa-

230 Observations on the various Insects

mined, and when dead it greatly resembles J. pulchellus in colour.
I have never seen it alive; but thousands were infesting a garden
at Namptwich, and a small box full was forwarded to me.

21. Julus pilosus, Newport's MSS., the hairy Snake-millipede,
is nearly an inch long, rather slender, cylindrical, lead-coloured,
slightly pilose, the margins of the segments being striated and
somewhat ciliated, the penultimate segment is mucronated; the
lobe is pointed, and projects beyond the terminal joint, which is
brown and hairy; there is a line of black dots down each side ;
the thoracic segment, head and antennz are brown: these last are
rather long, slender, very pubescent, and slightly clavate; the
fifth joint is nearly as long as the second.

This very distinct species stands in the British Museum with
the above appropriate name, being distinguished from all the
others by the hairs scattered over its entire length. I have found
it more than once infesting the roots of cabbages i in gardens in
March.

There is one more species which belongs to the Genus Poty-
pEsMus of Latreille. It is essentially distinguished from the Juli
by the apparent absence of the eyes, as well as by its flattened
back, the segments being a little dilated or margined on the
sides, and the hinder angles of each are acute; the tail is mu-
cronated, and it has only between sixty and seventy legs: the
antenne are seven-jointed, the basal joint being subglobose ;
second, ovate; the third is by far the longest; the two following
are elongate, clavate, and truncated ; the sixth is stouter and ovate,
forming a little club; the seventh is small (d); the species is
named

22. Polydesmus complanatus, Linneus, the flattened millipede
(fig. 55). Itis of a pale lilac colour above ; the back is granu-
lated ; the belly is whitish; the legs are more or less ochreous.
It is generally from + of an inch to 34 lines long (ec), but when
arrived at maturity some specimens are as large as fig. 55.

This is reported to be by far the most destructive species. In
April considerable numbers of the smaller ones were detected
eating the roots of wheat, and in the spring and autumn they were
injuring the roots of onions and pansies. They propagate rapidly
where the earth is undisturbed ; and specimens measuring three-
quarters of an inch have been found under garden pots at the ragts
of anemones. In a systematic arrangement Polydesmus fora a
. natural transition from the snake- -millipedes to the centipedes,
called Scolopendre, the habits of all being similar; but as the
numbers of the latter family are comparatively insignificant, and
they are said to live like the earth worms upon the soil alone—
which, however, I very much doubt—it appears to be UNBCCRENT,
to enter farther into their economy.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 231

The Snake-millipedes seem to be both carnivorous and herbi-
yorous, for they have been detected feeding upon small snails, as
well as upon the pupa of a fly; and they are believed to live also
upon larva, acari, earth-worms, &c. ; and there is such abundant
evidence of their destroying the roots of many vegetables, being
found clustered together in multitudes at the roots of corn, pota-
toes, turnips, cabbages, &Kc., that there can be little doubt of their
doing great mischief to many crops of the gardener, and appa-
rently to the farmer also. In order to confirm this zenerally-re-
ceived opinion. which appeared formerly to rest upon doubtful
evidence, I shall enumerate the d.fferent proofs which have come
to my own knowledge.* A garden at Ledbury, Herefordshire,
was infested by Judus pulchellus, which congregated in masses at
the roots of the Brassica tribe. On pulling up some rotten cab-
bage stalks in the beginning of March, I found the Julus pilosus
amongst the roots; they were then of a large size, and had, as well
as I could ascertain, 156 feet, being thirty-nine pairs on each side.
At the end of the same month Julus Londinensis was detected at
the roots of wheat ; they were at that time an inch long, and Julus
pulchellus was observed with them: these I buried at the roots of
some potatoes and wheat, which I dug up in August, when the
former were completely decayed, but the latter were not in the
least injured; and I could not detect any of the snake-millipedes.
I received some roots of the scarlet-bean from Ulswater, in West-
moreland, which were eaten through and through by the Julus
pulchellus and Polydesmus complanatus, which were still sticking
im the holes formed by them in the cotyledons ; and the party who
transmitted them stated that thousands of those species infested
his garden, destroying the peas and kidney-beans also. Near
Namptwich, in Cheshire, the Judus latestriatus was in countless

_ myriads in January last, destroying the potted plants in the green-

houses, by eating the rind just at or under the surface of the soil ;
and cauliflowers and cabbage-plants shared the same fate in the
garden: nearly at that period of the year the Julus Londinensis
was doing great injury to the early potato crops near Chester.
My friend Mr. W. W. Saunders, who is too able a naturalist to be
deceived, has ascertained that the Judi are very destructive in his
garden at Wandsworth, where they devoured the young shoots of
the heartsease just below the surface. I have more than once
observed the snake-millipedes and Polydesmi in September in-
festing the roots of onions, which had been attacked by the
maggots of a fly;+ and the Po/ydesmus injures the carrot crops

* Latreille says “These insects (the millipedes) live upon substances
both vegetable and animal, but dead and decomposed.”—Vide Cuvier’s
e Animal, edition 1829, vol. iv. p. 333.

* Called Anthomyia Ceparum, Hoffmansegg ; vide Gardeners’ Chronicle,
vol. i. p. 396.

232 Observations on the various Insects

by eating various labyrinths in the roots. The Juli are also found
in pears, apples, &c., but I believe not in sound fruit. A few
similar proofs the reader will have observed appended to the de-
scriptions of the various species. These animals are also found in
considerable numbers under the loose bark of decaying trees, in
company with woodlice, earwigs, &c., also amongst “ehe moss
which clothes the base and holes j in the trunks and stumps of
trees, and likewise under stones in humid situations.

The action of the Snake-millipedes is very remarkable; the
horns are constantly moving when they walk, which is very lei-
surely, yet they appear to glide along in a yery peculiar manner,
owing to the immense number of legs they possess, amounting
sometimes to 240: these legs are very small, jointed, and terminate
in a single claw, and are so thickly set in pairs, that when the
animal is in motion they resemble a fringe of hairs, one pair
moving after another in quick succession, yet with the most exact
and beautiful regularity, causing an undulatory effect. They are
able to jerk themselves about like a scotched snake, and when dis-
turbed they coil themselves up spirally, the head forming the
centre, and all the Jegs are then contracted and concealed, and in
this position they appear to repose.

These animals being longlived have ample means of doing mis-
chief, if such be their nature, for they do not arrive at their full
growth until the expiration of two years, when the organs of
generation are developed, and during that period they ‘change
thay skins, or rather horny coats, five times: in this respect they
resemble the true wireworms, but there is a great difference in
their economy ; for these, as we have shown, become beetles, and
pass through four distinct stages or metamorphoses, namely the
egg, larva, pupa, and beetle, wher eas the Snake-millipedes, &e.
are animals which seem to he always ina caterpillar state, under-
going a constant succession of growth, and increasing in bulk from
their birth to their death, so that they are active atid feeding dur-
ing the whole period of their lives, and do not, like the true wire-
worms and other larve of insects, ever change to anything else.
The females lay their eggs from Christmas until the middle of
spring, each depositing a great number in the earth: those of
some species are round, whilst others are stated to be oval and of
a dirty or yellowish white colour. A few of these animals, how-
ever, may ‘be said to undergo certain degrees of perfection as they
increase in stature, for they are very dissimilar 3 in their infancy to
their parents, having very few legs when they are first hatched,*
at which period the young of Julus sabulosus have only three pairs,
and seven or eight abdominal segments alone, but in four days they
acquire four pair more with additional rings. The number of
segments thus increasing with the age of the animals, renders a~

~* De Geer’s Mémoires, vol. vii. p. 583, pl. 36, f, 20, 21, and 22, ae

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops. §c. 233

knowledge of the species difficult to acquire, and this is not di-
minished by the frequent moullings; it is therefore possible that
soine of the smaller species may be only the younger state of the
larger ones, yet I cannot think but that ail I have described are
quite distinct.

The way in which these animals live amongst the roots of
plants, renders it extremely difficult to destroy them, without
sacrificing the infected crop; and their horny coats, which resist
the point of a pin, being impervious to water, nothing, I should
conceive, could be of much service but very great heat and hand-
picking; unless, indeed, any dressing could be discovered which is
disagreeable to them: whether lime would answer the purpose I
have no means of ascertaining, but I am inclined to think it might,
for I believe that they cannot endure heat, and I am certain they
are not able to exist without humidity, for if confined in a box de-
prived of moist earth or damp moss they die ina few hours. The
following remedies have been suggested by various writers.

Watering the land repeatedly with lime-water is believed to de-
stroy the Millipedes, and soot spread over the surface will drive
them away. Sprinkling nitrate of soda round the plants, and
afterwards watering them, would, it is presumed, prove the best
remedy, or watering the land with a solution of the nitrate would
be equally beneficial, and more applicable to extensive crops; but
this operation must be performed in a dull damp day, or in the
morning or evening when the sun does not shine upon the field,
otherwise it might scorch the leaves. Traps should also be re-
sorted to, especially in gardens, where if loosely made baskets,
such as strawberry pottles, were filled with damp moss, especially
during dry weather, and sunk in the earth, the Judi would, in all
probability, resort to them, and the baskets might easily be drawn
out by the handles every morning, in order to examine their con-
tents and kill the animals. In hand-picking, all large stones and
clods should be turned over, as the Millipedes secrete themselves
in such humid situations, and where these animals are abundant,
large numbers, I expect, might be caught by strewing old cab-
bage-leaves over a field, in the same way as when slugs are trou-
blesome, and employing children to turn them over and collect the

Millipedes, &c. beneath.

Summary of the foregoing Report.

Descriptions of eight Click-beetles which inhabit corn-fields
namely,

Elater holosericeus, the larva or Wireworm of which is unknown.

Elater murinus : it has not been ascertained whether the Wire-
worm of this beetle is injurious to the crops.

Elater fulvipes, its Wireworm lives in decaying trees.

234 Observations on the various Insects

Elater sputator, the Wireworm of this species is very abundant
and injurious in meadows and pastures.

Elater niger, the Wireworm is said to live in rotten horse-dung.

Elater marginatus, the Wireworm of this beetle has not been
discovered.

Elater acuminatus, the economy of this Wireworm is not known.

Elater longicollis, the Wireworm of this species has never been
detected that I am aware of.

Descriptions and habits of the Wireworms of some of the above
and other species of Click-beetles.

Some of Bouché’s figures of the Wireworms appear to be in-
accurately named, that of

Elater niger may be correct, but the larva of his

Elater lineatus is certainly the Wireworm of some other species.

His Elater fulvipes may be intended for that Wireworm, and
that of his

Elater fulvipennis, inhabiting decayed timber, is probably cor-
rectly named.

Elater fulvipes, its larva described, but it is not injurious to the
crops ; it lives two years in decaying willow-trees.

Elater murinus, or E. niger, description of the supposed Wire-
worm of one of those species.

Probably none of the insects injurious to agriculture are free
from parasites of the class Insecta.

The Carabide, eminently serviceable in the destruction of
larve, worms, &c.; Carabus glabratus feeds upon the earthworm,

Calosoma sycophanta upon caterpillars.

Carabus (Steropus) madidus destroys and feeds upon the true
Wireworms.

One of the true Wireworms of the “ Striped Click-beetle,”
probably Elater lineatus, is inoculated with maggots, which pro-
duce Ichneumons.

The Click-beetles are infested with vermin, which belong to
the Class Arachnides.

Uropoda umbilica is a Tick which attaches itself in considerable
numbers to the Click-beetle, called Elater obscurus.

Leptus Phalangit is a Tick which infests the Elater ruficaudis,
the red-tailed Click-beetle.

History of the False Wireworms.

The larva or maggot of the Tvpula oleracea, one of the Crane-
flies, is improperly called a Wireworm; it is very injurious to
pasture-lands.

The maggot of another Crane-fly, probably Zipula maculosa,
was abundant in a wheat-field, feeding upon the roots.

Descriptions of the Snake and other Millipedes which infest the
roots of plants, and are improperly denominated Wireworms.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c. 235
Julus pulchellus inhabits both fields and gardens, and is widely

spread over England.

Julus Londinensis infests the roots of wheat in April.

Julus terrestris is found in rotten fruit, &c,

Julus punctatus inhabits moss on trees, and resides under stones.

Julus latestriatus : thousands infested a garden and greenhouse,
destroying cabbages and potted plants.

Julus pilosus lives in cabbage-roots in March.

Polydesmus complanatus.is said to be the most destructive
species, eating the roots of wheat and destroying onions and
garden- flowers.

Snake-millipedes feed upon animal as well as vegetable sub-
stances, such as snails and earth worms; and in addition to the
plants already alluded to, potatoes, turnips, the entire tribe. of
cabbages, beans, peas, carrots, Kc., suffer from their attacks.

When the Snake-millipedes walk they glide along, and curl
themselves up spirally when at rest.

They live two years before they can procreate their species,
and change their skins five times.

The females lay a great number of minute eggs in the earth,
from Christmas to the middle of spring.

The young when first hatched have only six legs, which increase
with age unul they have from 150 to 240.

Application of artificial heat and hand-picking the most certain
remedies.

They cannot live without moisture.

The application of lime probably would be serviceable where
they abound, especially lime-water.

Soot spread over the land will drive them away.

Sowing nitrate of soda, or. watering the crops with a solution,
might destroy them.

Dull damp days the best for this operation, and never attempt
it when the sun shines upon the crop.

Baskets filled with damp moss, and sunk in the earth, might be
employed in gardens as traps to decoy them, especially during
droughts.

‘They will be found under clods and stones in fields, pastures,
&e.

Old cabbage-leaves, if strewed over fields, would attract them,
where they are numerous and hand-picking is resorted to,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE J,

Fig. 31. Elater holosericeus.
* The same magnified.
a* The antenna or horn.

: 2 . as
Observations on the various Insects —

g. 32. Elaler murinus.

* The same magnified.
b* The antenna. —

ig. 33. Elater fulvipes.

* The same magnified.
c* The antenna.

. 34. Elater sputator.

* The same magnified.

g. 35. Elater niger.

* The same magnified.
d* The antenna,

. 36. Elaier marginatus.

* The same magnified.
e* The antenna.

g. 38. Elater longicollis 3.

* The same magnified.
f* The antenna.

. 39. Wireworm of Elater fulvipes ?

g* The head.
h* The tail.

Fig. 40. Wireworm of Elater murinus ?
i* The head.
k* The tail.
Fig. 41.* Apical joint of the Wireworm of Elater niger ?
Fig. 42.* do. do. called Elater lineatus by Bouché.
Fig. 43.* do. do. Elater fulvipes ?
Fig. 44.* do. . do. Elater fulvipennis.
Fig. 45.* Steropus madidus ¢.

Fig.
Fig.

Fig.

. 46. Emaciated Wireworm of Elater lineatus ?

p* The pupa protruded.

. 47.* The same pupa magnified.

l* ‘The head and eyes.
m* The antenne.

n* The thorax.

o* The feet.

. 48.” Elater lineatus. The line shows the natural length.

r The tick with which it is infested.
The natural size of the tick.

- 49.* Uropoda umbilicus, removed from the Click-beetle.

s ‘The cord by which the animal is attached.

. 50. Elater ruficaudis.

t ‘The parasitic ticks, called Leplus Phalangit?
51.* The same tick removed, and greatly magnified.
52.* Larva of some 7ipula ?

v The natural size.

u* The head in profile.

w* Front view of the tail.
53.* Julus pulchellus.

x The natural size and walking.

affecting the Turnips, Corn-crops, §c, 237

Fig. 54. Judus Londinensis.
=* The unarmed tail.
a* The armed tail of Julus terrestris,
b* The antenna of the same species.
Fig. 55. Polydesmus complanatus when full grown.
ce The younger state.
d* The antenna magnified.

Obs.—All the figures are drawn from nature, and those numbers and
letters with a * attached indicate that the objects referred to are repre-
sented much larger than life.

London, March, 1844.

[The copyright of this Paper is reserved to the Writer. |

XIT.—On the Building of Cottages for Farm-Labourers.
By Joun Grey.

Ir the right construction of our barns, and stables, and cattle-
sheds, is matter of no small importance, that of the dwellings of
our labouring population must claim to be so in a still higher
degree, seeing that it affects not only the health and comfort, but
im a great measure also the moral character and well-being of that
numerous and generally respectable class, on whose industry we -
are dependent for the success of all our exertions, and whose good
or bad conduct and principles cannot fail to exercise a powerful
influence on our own comfort, and on the moral atmosphere of
society at large. 1 am too sensible of the truth and importance of
this sentiment, and have had too much experience of the beneficial
effects of reciprocal kindness and conciliation between masters and
servants not to know that, setting inclination and duty aside alto-
gether, it is the line of good policy to bestow care and consideration
on all that relates to the comfort and happiness of the peasantry
around us. It is to be regretted that, in building the cottages of
farm-servants, the choice of a site is more frequently determined
by the opportunity of occupying a piece of ground which would
otherwise be of little account, or by the saving effected by making
them form a side of a set of offices from which they would in all
respects be better at a little distance, or some piece of ill-judged
economy equally insignificant, instead of having regard to a dry
and healthful spot, with an open and cheerful aspect. In advert-
ing to this subject, I recognise with pleasure the importance
attached to it in the institution of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England, in whose charter it is stated to be one among many
others of the objects contemplated in the formation of the Society,

238 On Building of Cottages for Farm-Labourers.

“to promote the comfort and welfare of labourers, and to encou-
rage the improved management of their cottages and gardens.”
The first step towards this desirable end is to supply them with
such cottages as afford the means of being kept in a state of com-
fort and cleanliness, to each of which a small garden should be
attached, as well as other out-of-door conveniences, This first
step is exclusively the landlord’s business, and it is to their manner
-of fulfilling the duties incumbent upon them in this respect that
this paper entirely refers. It is unreasonable to look for health,
comfort, and cleanliness, when a whole family is crowded into a
low, damp, and dingy hut. Let them first be supplied with the
means and opportunity, and then let them be blamed if they do
not avail themselves of them for the purposes of their own im-
provement in these respects.

It is agreed on all hands, that to confine all the members of a
family in a small dwelling, with only one apartment, without the
means of dividing the young from the old, and the males from the
females, must be at once destructive of comfort and most inimical
to delicacy of mind and right moral feeling; and that, when fever
and sickness attack the house, it is tantamount to condemning the
whole family to undergo the painful course of its visitation. It
has been often alleged that a second room is almost useless to
poor people as a sleeping apartment, because they cannot afford
to keep a fire in it, and being constantly without one, it becomes
too cold and damp to be habitable. If it were absolutely neces-
sary to have the second room on the ground-floor, this argument
might seem to carry some weight with it; but even ‘that i is in great
measure overturned by the simple fact, that all that is needful to
preserve such an apartment from being damp, and to secure a
moderately warm temperature, is to have the fire-place in the
adjoining one so contrived as to be in the division wall between
them, and at the back of that fire-place to build into the wall a
cast-iron box to contain heated air, with a pipe through it to
convey the air into the second room, the end of the pipe being
secured by a small grating. ‘This may also be easily applied to a
room upstairs, by a trifling addition to the length of the pipe ;
but, in general, a room in an airy situation, being above another
in which a fire is constantly kept, does not req uire such means of
creating a dry and healthy atmosphere.* The advantage of a
second room upstairs over one on the ground-floor is obvious,
from its superior dryness, and the greater seclusion which it
affords to the female members of the family. Sufficient access to
it is afforded by a good step-ladder placed against the end wall on
one side, and closed in from view by thin deals on the other, which

See Ia Tee ee as ase Shs ae
* 1 consider fire-places in every dwelling and sleeping-room essential —
on account of ventilation.—BrayBrooke.

5

On Building of Cottages for Farm-Labourers. 239

comes much cheaper, and takes up less room than a passage with
a brick partition (see plan No. 6). It forms no part of my plan
at present to treat of the construction of those ornamental cottages
in the shape of lodges or appurtenances to the family residence,
upon which generally taste and expense are abundantly bestowed,
but on the homelier dwellings of the farm-labourer, in the erection
of which the great and most important object is to obtain the
largest amount of comfort and accommodation at the smallest cost
that is consistent with strength and durability in the building.
Where many such dwellings are required, it will be prudent to
build* them of different sizes, for the accommodation of families
more or less numerous; as the house which would be barely
sufficient where there is a large family of children differing in
age and sex would be in great measure wasted upon a widow or a
married couple without children and with little furniture. This
plan has been adopted by Earl Grey in building cottages on the
estate of Howick, as are represented in plan No. 5. A consider-
able addition to the expense of these cottages above what was
absolutely necessary has been made for the sake of appearance.
I do not, therefore, refer to them so much with a view to their
cheapness, as each of the smaller of them cost 6//. 10s. in mate-
rials and building, exclusive of cartage, as to show their neat ap-
pearance, and the plan upon which they are constructed. A
garden is appropriated to each cottage, as is common throughout
this county.

Plan No. 6 shows the plan of cottages which have been lately
erected on the northern estates of the Greenwich Hospital under
my care, and which affords the largest amount of accommodation
at the smallest expense of any plan which I have been able to
devise. If it is objected to as being on too large a scale, the
same arrangement may still be adopted although the size may be
abridged. But when it is remembered that the farm-servants or
hinds of this country have each a cow, a garden, and a fatting-pig,
requiring some room in the house for milk and utensils, and also
that a very small saving of outlay at first may create perpetual in-
convenience to the inhabitants, I think it will not be deemed ex-
travagant. These houses are strongly built of freestone from a
quarry on the estate. The walls are of common work, 2 feet
thick ; the coigns, window and door frames, dressed and jointed.
The timber of the roofs, doors, and windows is of the best Memel
wood ; the inside doors and shelves are of American deal; and
the upper flooring is of deals, planed and tongued by the patent

mill. The ground-floors are of Aberdeen flags. The roofs are
of the best Welch slate, and all the wood-work has had three

coats of paint, the omission of which in new buildings is a great
oversight. Each house is provided with a fire-range, consisting of

On Building of Cottages for

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On Building of Cottages for Farm-Labourers. 243

a grate with an oyen on one side, and a pot on the other. They
have also eave gutters of cast-iron, with pipes to carry the rain-
water into barrels, one of which serves three houses. his is a
desirable appendage to all buildings, but especially so to cottages;
for while it gives a supply of soft water for washing clothes at the
very door, it saves the wood-work of the doors and windows from
the injury sustained by the rain from the roof being driven against
them in high winds, and the walls from taking in wet at the foun-
dations trom the constant dropping against them from the eaves.
The cost of each (exclusive of bringing the materials to the spot,
which was done by the tenants) was 617. |5s. 4d. As these
houses stand in rows of six together, and two end or outside gables
serve the six, they cost less ihan if only two or three were built
together. And if some of smaller size are desired for the use of
single persons or couples without children, each end house can
easily be made into two, one below and the other above, by adding
an outside stair and door, and dog away with the inside commu-
nication, ,

A house of one story, affording the same accommodation as
those described, would cost, on account of the extra quantity of
roof and wall, 86/. 13s. (see note), making a saving of 24/. 17s. 8d.,
and giving at the same time the superior dryness and retirement of
a sleepmg room or rooms, for the upstairs apartment is large
enough to allow of being divided if desired.

The cottagers’ cow-houses and piggeries are conveniently placed
in a yard at a little distance behind the dwelling-houses; the
former hold six cows each, and the latter are single.

Tam aware that in some publications on the subject an objection
has been stated to building cottages in rows, and it has been re-
commended that they should stand singly, or at most only in pairs,
in order that they may be sufficiently accessible to. sun and air,
I confess I do not enter into this view of the subject, although I
entirely agree in deprecating the mode which has in some places
been adopted of building cottages in squares with all the doors on
the inside, thus having a show of cleanliness outwardly, but making
the interior a receptacle of everything that is filthy and unwhole-
some ; besides which, houses so situated are necessarily of a gloomy
appearance, and want all the cheerfulness and variety which an
open prospect affords. In the case of large farms or collieries,
where a great number of cottages are required, the expense of
building them singly or in pairs, occasioned by the extra quantity
of outside walling, and of the approaches with their fences to
each, the extent of ground over which they must be squandered,
and the inconvenient distance at which some of them would be
placed, are sufficient to condemn the plan, unless founded on
proved and absolute necessity ; a necessity which will hardly be

R2

244 On Building of Cottages for Farm-Labourers. —

made out in the case of twenty or thirty cottages, with a southerly
aspect and airy apartments, having ample sashes that open for the
admission of air, and intervals between each group of six: when
we consider that long streets of houses, less favourably situated in
towns, are not found to be unwholesome. unless rendered so by
something objectionable in their vicinity. In many situations, too,
shelter from the wind is more desirable than exposure to it, and
this is obtained in some degree by connecting a few houses toge-
ther, whereas, by placing them separately, the intervals between
are apt to create eddies or gusts of wind, which are in many re-
spects inconvenient, and in exposed situations are destructive to
the produce of a garden, if it be placed in the way of them.

Nore.—Cost of each Cottage shown in plan No. 6, exclusive of

Cartage.

ee ie

Jomers’ ‘work end timber . .\' .' 6 2 6)" 007 eee
Masons’ work and materials (quarried on the estate) . . 19 2 O
Slating ee ey
Plastering UMRAO, PID, BA a 213 0
TS Oe een en ae 019 4
Painting doors, windows, &c. (three coats) 3 10 O
Metal spouts and pipes, painting, and fixing 3 4 0
Grate, pot, and oven sy tee ve date eae 016 0
£6115 4

The cost of each cottage, affording equal accommodation as the above,
and at the same prices for work and materials, but all on the ground-
floor, would be, without eave gutters, 80/. 5s., and with them on both
sides, like the others, 86/. 13s., making a difference of 24/. 17s, 8d. in
favour of cottages of two stories.

Joun Grey.
Dilston, 12th January, 1843.

( 245 )

XIIIl.—An Essay on Fat and Muscle. By W. F. Karkerx,

Veterinary Surgeon, Truro,
Prize Essay.

1. Tue object of this essay is to endeavour to explain “ the
causes which appear to determine the production of fat and
muscle respectively, according to the present state of our know-
ledge of animal physiology.” Formerly, the study of the uses
and functions of the different organs, and of their mutual con-
nexion in the animal body, was the chief object of physiological
researches ; but although these yielded the most valuable results
in relation to the recognition of dissimilar forms and conditions
to be found in healthy and diseased structures, yet they afforded
no conclusions calculated to give us a more extensive insight into
“the essence of the vital processes.” The recent alliance of
chemistry with physiology has furnished most valuable data both
in this respect and as regards the nutritiveness of particular
vegetables in the feeding of our domesticated animals. ‘The most
important discoveries in this branch of science are those of Pro-
fessor Liebig, he being admitted, by the unanimous voice of
European chemists, to be the first living authority on Organic
Chemistry. Professor Playfair was the first English chemist who
attempted to apply those discoveries to the practical purposes of
the farmer—holding up the torch of science, as it were, to the
agriculturists, and teaching them the advantages to be derived from
the union of practice with science.* It will be seen, in the
course of this essay, that we have adopted many of the physio-
logical views of Professor Liebig; and if we have succeeded in
adding but one useful fact to the mass of knowledge already ac-
quired, which may be advantageously put into practice in the
ordinary operations of a farm, our object will be sufficiently
realised.

2. Your attention will first be directed to some of the phe-
nomena connected with nutrition and growth. When we consider
that the food of vegetables and animals is either altogether dif-
ferent from their substance, or passes before being assimilated
into a new form, we must admit that the nutrition and growth of
both depend on chemical agencies, although these operate under
peculiar conditions, and are influenced by the unknown force
which is called the vis vite, or vitality, so as to produce results
that cannot be imitated by the chemist. The food of vegetables
is derived from the crude and simple materials which they absorb
from the air, the earth, and the waters. These, after being con-

* Playfair’s Lectures before the Members of the Royal Agricultural
Society, December, 1842,

246 An Essay on Fat and Muscle. }
verted by the powers of vegetable assimilation into the substance
of the plant, acquire the ‘characteristic properties of organised
products. Hence, plants can grow at the expense of the elements
around, where no living substance ever previously existed ; whilst
animals, on the contrary, can only exist upon matters previously
organised either by plants or other animals. In their well-
marked forms, no two- things can be conceived to offer a stronger
contrast than these two great divisions of organised beings, yet the
naturalist cannot determine, in the animated chain, wiibre the one
ends or the other begins; nor can the chemist detect, by his ana-
ly ses, any greater Hcranees | in their constituent parts.

Thus, on the analyses of hay, oats, beans, beef, and potatoes,
they are found to be ‘composed of the same ultimate elements, dif-
fering only in their relatiye proportions :—

Hay. Oats. | Beans. Dried Beef. | Potatoes.
Boussingault. | Boussingault. | Playfair. Playfair. Boussingault.
Carbon.... | > 38-47 41-57 | 38-24 51-82 | 12-80
Hydrogen. . 4°20 5°25 5°84 7°57 1°74
Oxygen... 32°51 30-10 | 33°10 21-37 i: 04
Nitrogen... | 1-26 1:80 | 6:00 15-01 0-32
Ashes5s.. | 7°56 3-28 hiv sgeapk 4-23 1°40
Water .... | 16°00 | 19-004 |, 84-1 Oy Se 72°20
| |

* Out of 100 lbs. of beef muscle there is about 77 per cent. of water, by weight,
and 23 Ibs. of dry matter.

These elements are not very numerous, the principal of them
being carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, azote or nitrogen, sulphur,
phosphorus, together with a few of the alkaline, earthy, and
metallic bases. A brief knowledge of a few of these elements
will be found indispensable to be able properly to understand the
subject of this essay.

3. Carbon forms from 40 to 50 per cent., by weight, of all
plants in a dried state, which are cultivated for the food of
animals, ‘i‘his substance is better known under the name of
charcoal.

Oxygen is only found in a gaseous form, and exists in the atmos-
phere to the amount of 21 per cent. of its bulk: hence it is
necessary to respiration, and no animal can liye in an atmosphere
which does not contain a certain portion of uncombined oxygen.
In respiration it seanReaye. as will be explained by and-bye. It
exists also in water—every 9 lbs. of this liquid containing 8 lbs.
of oxygen; and it forms about one-half, by weight, of the bodies
of all living animals and plants. Indeed, it may be said that it
forms one-half of the weight of every solid substance we see
around us—of the solid rocks which compose the crust of the

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 247

globe, of the soils which we cultivate, and of all that live and
breathe thereon.

Hydrogen is the next elementary body. It also exists in the
state of gas, and is the lightest of all known substances. In com-
bination with oxygen, it forms water, being about one-ninth of its
weight; and it also forms a small per centage of the food of
animals, which, combining with oxygen in ‘he living organism,
assists to produce animal heat (8).

Nitrogen, sometimes called azote, is also known only in the
form of gas. it exists in the atmosphere to the amount of 79
per cent. of its bulk: hence it is an essential constituent of the
air we breathe—serving, as chemists believe, only to dilute the
oxygen; but it is more probable that it serves some necessary
purpose in the economy of animals, the exact nature of which has
_not been discovered. All parts of the body of an animal, which
have a decided shape, contain nitrogen: hence it may be supposed
to perform certain most important functions, in reference both to
the growth of plants as well as animals; for the most convincing
experiments and observations have proved that the animal body is
incapable of producing an elementary body such as nitrogen out
of substances which do not contain it; and it obviously follows
that all kinds of food fit for the production either of blood,
cellular tissue, membranes, skin, or muscular fibre, must contain
a@ certain amount of nitrogen.

4. The union of those elements, according to certain laws, in
various ways, forms what are called the proximate elements of
nutrition.

These have been divided, for the sake of distinction, into two
groups—the azotised and non-azotised—the former being properly
designated the elements of nutrition, and the latter the elenas of
fat and respiration. The following analyses of several of these
bodies will enable the reader to comprehend the nature of this
distinction :-—

| Elements of Nutrition. -| Elements of Respiration.
ee wat E & } | :
ae4 i | e- 2, | | 2
woparts | Se 2 s2 oer ag G5 Leave 22
e |\ea8} 23 | 38 | 82 eye is | s2
a2 | © 2° Tae | se Se | aS") ae
Se) 2 | f | de | ge | 23 | 38 | B
= > | A e's | aS & A | aw
Carbon.. | 54-2 | 59°99 54-138 | 54-35 |78+996 |44-250 |42-682 40-01
Hydrogen 73 6°87 | 7-156 7°50 (11-700 | 6°674 | 6°374 | 6°73
Nitrogen. | 13-9 | 15-66 [15-672 | 15-76) 2. | «2° | wu | ee
Oxygen . | 24°4 | 22°48 fe-094 22°39 | 9304 |49°076 |50-944 | 53+27
|

248 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

Thus, in the azotised group we have four of the ultimate ele-
ments, whilst in the non-azotised we have only three, tle presence
or absence of the nitrogen constituting the difference. ‘This dis-
tinction is a very important one, and must be kept steadily in
view. The former is only susceptible of being applied to the
nutrition and renovation of the tissues (2), whilst the non-azotised
substances are destined either to undergo important changes within
the body, or to be thrown off from it again, without even forming
a part of its organised structure. In reference to this, the dis-
tinction between the organisation of a substance, and the simple
deposition of it in the midst of an organised tissue, must not be
lost sight of; for the fatty matters which are derived from plants,
and become deposited in different parts of the animal body, can-
not be regarded as ever becoming organised. ‘Till very recently,
it was heice ed that vegetable albenehs fibrine, and caseine, dif-
fered from animal albumen, fibrine, and caseine; but the re-
searches of Mulder have shown that this opinion was erroneous,
and Liebig has proved that caseine exists in vegetables, with all
the characiers of that found in milk. Mulder has also shown
that vegetable albumen, fibrine, and caseine, are all nothing more
than the modification of one compound, to which he has given
the name of proteine, as being the original matter from which all
those varieties are derived. Vegetadle fibrine is a gelatinous sub-
stance of a green tinge, produced from the newly-expressed juices
of peas, beans, carrots, turnips, beet-root, Ke. Vegetable albu-
men is found in many vegetables and seeds, such as cauliflowers,
asparagus, swede turnips, nuts, almonds, &c. When the clari-
fied juices of those substances are made to boil, a coagulum is
formed very similar to the serum of blood, or the white of an
egg,—this is vegetable albumen, which may be considered as the
true starting-point of all the animal tissues, as is evident from the
phenomena of incubation, where all the tissues are derived from
the white and yolk of the egg (which also contains albumen),
with the aid only of the air, of the oily matter of the yolk, and of
a certain proportion of iron found in the yolk, It is clear from
this that albumen may pass into fibrine, caseime, membranes,
horn, hair, feathers, &c. Vegetable caseine is found chiefly in the
seeds of peas, beans, and of other similar leguminous plants ; and
is identical with the caseine of milk, which is cheese. It differs
from the two former modifications of proteine in that it does not
coagulate spontaneously like fibrine, nor by heat like albumen,
a by the action of acids only.

. The following table, compiled from one of Professor John-
vee s (being the analy ses of Boussingault, Sprengel, and Dumas),
will give the reader a tolerably just idea of the proportions of

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 249

>

those proximate principles as they are found to exist in many of
the cultivated crops of the farmer :—

|
| Gluten |
Tlusk, or | Starch, ‘Albumen, Fatty | Saline
100 Parts of Water. imc Marna | pha “Matter. | Matter.
Field Beaus . . 16-0 10-0 40-0 28:0 2-0 3°0
TE ee” a 13:0 8-0 50-0 24 0 2°8 2°&
EGS Hise ‘eye . 15:0 15:0 | 60-0 12-0 2°5 2°0
os . . | 16-0 | 30:0 | 50-0 | 14:5°|~ se | ess
Meadow Hay | 140 | 30-0 | 40-0 7-1 | 2tod | 5to10
Clover Hay . | 14:0 25:0 | 40-0 9°3 3°0 9-0
Potatoes, . «....| 73-0 5°0 12-0 2°25 0-3 | 0:8tol
So 85:0 3-0 10-0 2-0 0-4 1-0
Tarayps* f°. | 85°0 3-0 | 10-0 1-2 .- |O8tol
Wheat Straw 12 to 15 50-0 30°0 | 1.3 0°5 5:0
Oat Straw | 12-0 45-0 35°0 1:3 0-8 || 26560

Notwithstanding the imperfections of this department of science,
great importance has been attached to these proximate analyses.
We believe that the proportions laid down in this table are, with
the exception of the fatty matters, tolerably correct, and that they
will prove serviceable by enabling us to trace the sources from
which are derived particular organic compounds essential to nutri-
tion, and to the continuance of life or of certain elements which
become assimilated in organic structure. Thus the proportion of
starch, gum, and sugar contained in any separate article of food
will enable us to form a rough approximation as to the per centage
of fat or tallow which it is capable of yielding, and the number
representing the gluten, albumen, and caseine in the same article of
food will give us a very correct indication of its muscle, or flesh-
forming principle.

6. But before we can comprehend the manner in which these
changes are effected in the living organism, we must first make
ourselves acquainted with some of the laws, vital and chemical,
which regulate the metamorphoses of those materials, and the
interchange of atoms occurring between the blood and the
structures in the process of nutrition. Accordingly, we will first
direct your attention to the process by which the aliment is re-
ceived inio the bodies of animals, and prepared to form a part
of their fabric. When the food has entered the stomach, the
gastric juice is poured out, and the whole is converted into a
pulpy mass termed chyme. The process by which this step in the
assimilation of the food is produced, constitutes what is commonly
called digestion. The next step occurs in the intestinal canal,
where the chyme is united with the biliary and pancreatic secre-
tions, when it becomes converted into chyle. Brande found no
essential difference in the chyle of graminivorous and carnivorous

250 - An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

animals. Dr. Marcet imagines that the former is less abundant
in albumen than the latter, and Liebig informs us that all the com-
pounds of proteine, absorbed during the passage of the chyme
through the intestines, take the form of albumen. The chyle is
absorbed from the inner surface of the intestines by a set of vessels
termed /acteals, which commence by very minute orifices i in incal-
culable numbers, and unite successively into larger and larger
vessels till they form trunks of considerable size, which empty their
contents into a receptdcle for that purpose, forming the entrance
of the thoracic duct. In this receptacle, other absorbent vessels
termed /ymphatics also terminate, and empty their contents. The
fluid they convey is of nearly the same character as that brought
by the lacteals. Almost every part of the body is in continual
decay, so that we may justly say that death and decay are con-
stanily going on in every living body, and are essential to the
activity ‘of its functions—a quantity of organised matter being
continually removed, and replaced by that which is newly faded:
Of this, a portion is doubtless unfit to be retained within ‘the body,
and is cast out by the various processes of excretion ; but it appears
that another portion of it may again be made use of, and is, °
in fact, taken up by the lymphatics, and brought to the central
receptacle to be mixed with the newly absorbed chyle: so that an
animal may be said in a certain sense to live upon its own flesh.
The chyle and lymph thus mixed together flow into the thoracic
duct, by which they are conducied into a large venm—the jugular—
and together are sent bya direct and short course to the lungs.

7. ‘Phe changes which result from the passing of the blood
through the lungs form a very important part of the process
of nutrition. The blood, the newly formed as well as that which
has been returned by the circulation, after repairing and reno-
vating the tissues, here comes in contact with the atmospheric
air, which is principally composed of two gases, oxygen and nitro-
gen, in the proportion of 21 parts of the former and 79 of the
latter, besides the watery vapour with which the atmosphere is
always charged more or less; and a change immediately takes
place, from the dark purple init which the blood has when it is
brought to the lungs, to a bright vermilion colour. When the
air has produced this effect, it is found that a certain proportion
of oxygen which it had contained has disappeared, and that the
place of the oxygen is almost wholly supphed by an addition of
carbonic acid gas, together with a quantity of watery vapour.
With regard to the nitrogen of the atmosphere, Liebig says‘it is
applied to no use in the animal economy except diluting the Oxy-
gen; whilst other chemists, Mulder for instance, affirm that
nitrogen is both absorbed and exhaled by the blood in respiration.
The question next arises, what becomes of the oxygen which dis-

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 251

appears in respiration, and what is the origin of the carbonic acid
gas? The blood consists of the same element as the foodwhich
the animal consumes, containing, as we have seen (4), a very
large proportion of carbon and hydrogen ; and as carbonic acid gas
consists of oxygen and carbon, it is evidently the result of thie
combination of be oxygen with the carbon of the food. Accord-
ing to Boussingault, ‘a horse consumes in this manner in twenty-
fae hours 971 oz. of carbon, and a milch cow 69;% 0oz.; and the
former requires to convert the carbon into carbonic acid 13 lbs.
3k oz. of oxygen, and the milch cow 1] lbs. 10? oz. in the same
tite.”

8. In whatever way carbon may combine with oxygen, the act
of combination cannot take place without the disenizacement of
heat. There exists in the living body no other know source of
heat but the chemical action between the elements of the food and
the oxygen of atmosphere, and it signifies nothing what inter-
mediate changes (6) the food undergoes i in becoming assimilated
to organised tissues, or in its passage through the liver in the for-
mation of bile; the last change is uniformly ie combustion of the

carbon and hydrogen, and the production of carbonic acid, watery
vapour, and animal heat. No part of the oxygen taken into the
system is given out again in any other form than that of a com-
pound of carbon and hydrogen; and as these subsiances are
supplied in the food, it is clear that the amount of nourishment
required for any animal will be proportionate to the quantity of
oxygen taken into the system.

9. There are two causes which chiefly contribute to increase
the consumption of oxygen gas; these are TEMPERATURE and
eExERCISE. We will proceed to consider the effect of these in the
living organism by a few examples from the farmer's every-day
practice. In the winter, the air is more condensed than in the °
summer, consequently the same volume of air in the winter con-
tains a larger per centage of oxygen than in the warm weather,
when it is more rarified. It is for this reason that a larger supply
of food is consumed by persons living in cold countries than by
those who are inhabitants of hot climates. We thus perceive an
explanation of the apparently anomalous habits of different nations.
The maccaroni of the Italian and the train-oil of the Greenlander
are not adventitious freaks of taste, but necessary articles fitted to
administer to their comforts in the different climates m which
they have been born.

Example No. 1.—A flock of Leicester sheep on tolerably good
keep will increase in weight throughout the year about 52 ‘lbs. of
mutton for each sheep, but this dteumlation takes place chiefly
during the spring and summer months, for during the cold weather
it requires all the farmer’s supplies of food to keep them at the

252 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

same weight. Should the cold prove very intense, and supplies of
carbon and hydrogen in the form of food be not at hand, the store
of fat which the animals have been accumulating in the mild
seasons will be soon made use of to keep up the animal tem-
perature.

Example No. 2.—< One hundred sheep were folded by tens in
pens, each of which was 22 feet in length by 10 feet in breadth,
and possessed a covered shed attached to it: they were kept
there from the 10th of October to the 10th of March. Each
sheep consumed on an average 20 lbs. of swedes daily. Another
hundred were folded in amar pens, but without sheds, during
the same time, and their daily consumption of swedes amounted Ne
25 lbs. each. The sequel was, that those sheep which enjoyed
the protection of the covered sheds had increased 3 1b. each more
than those left unprotected, although the latter had consumed
one-fifth more food.” *

Example No. 3.—In the mountainous districts of Scotland, the
necessity of artificial shelter for sheep has long been acknow-
ledged—for, when the stormy season sets in, there is a necessity of
feeding the sheep with hay, both morning and evening, the quantity
of the fodder necessary being generally proportionate to the
degree of cold.

10. Rest also, as well as the necessary protection from cold, is
an equivalent for food. The consumption of oxygen in a given
time may be expressed by the number of respirations; it is there-
fore obvious that in the same animal the quantity of nourishment
required must vary with the force and number of respirations,
and as the number of respirations is fewer in a state of rest than
during labour or exercise, the quantity of food necessary in both
instances must bein the same ratio. ‘This can also be exemplified
by the farmer’s daily practice, since he is very well aware that the
quieter an animal is kept when feeding, the quicker it fattens.

Example No. 1.—It is uniformly found that a stall-fed cow in
the summer will yield considerably more butter and milk than
one fed in the field with a greater supply of food. - The reason is
obvious ; absence of oxygen prevents the inspiring of so large an
amount of oxygen as would take place in the open air.

Example No. 2.—In the rearing of calves for veal in Holland,
it is usual to confine them in suckling houses or pens, so narrow
that the animal cannot turn round. The calf is fed through an
opening in the doorway, just large enough to allow the head of
the calf to be thrust out: as soon as he is fed, the opening is
closed, and the animal is kept in total darkness. In this manner,

* See Journal Royal Agric. Soc., vol. iv. p. 222, Professor Playfair’s
Lectures,

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 250)

it is found that calves get fat in a considerably shorter period than
if allowed to move freely about in an open stall.

Example No. 3.—Again, in the suckling of house-lambs of the
early Dorsetshire breed for the London markets, the dams are fed
with hay, oil-cake, and cabbage in an enclosure adjoining the
apartments where the lambs are confined. The lambs are ex-
cluded from the light, except at the intervals when the shepherd
suckles them upon the ewes. Some feeders confine their lambs
in narrow separate stalls to prevent them from playing with one
another, but others deem the exclusion of light and the absence
of motion and noise sufficient for this purpose. By these means,
they speedily fatten, and their flesh becomes exceedingly white
and delicate.

11. This brings us to that very important part of our Essay,
the Propuction or Fat. Wehave seen from the examples just
adduced, that, under certain circumstances, viz. the absence of
exercise and cold, and the presence of a proper supply of food,
herbivorous animals speedily become fat. By reference to the
table containing the relative proportions of nutritious matter in
the ordinary cultivated crops of the farmer (5), it will be seen
that the proportion of beef-suet which exists in wheat or barley,
straw and turnips, is exceedingly small; indeed the turnip does
not contain any; and yet animals under such a diet will speedily
fatten. The fat then is the product of a peculiar digestive pro-
cess on the unazotised constituents of the food, and is formed in
consequence of a want of due proportion between the food taken
into the stomach and the oxygen absorbed by the skin and lungs.
The chief source of fat is starch and sugar, and its composition
is such, that if deprived of oxygen, fat remains. ‘‘ Thus, if from
starch C 12, H 10, O10, we take 9 at oxygen, there remains
C 12, H 10, O, which is one of the empirical formule for fat.”
It is obvious from this that Liebig’s theory is the right one, and
that fat can only be formed by a process of deoxidation. He
regards fat as an abnormal condition, since wild animals, such as
the hare, the roe, and the deer, never produce any—the exercise
which they continually undergo preventing its formation ; besides,
they never eat except when hunger requires it, while the sheep
and the ox eat almost without intermission, and when young, they
conyert into fat and organised tissue all the nutritious parts of
their food beyond the quantity required for supplying the res-
piratory process and the waste of the system; so that they soon
become plump and fleshy.

12. Want of exercise then and diminished cooling are equiva-
lent to a deficient supply of oxygen, for when these circumstances
occur, the animal absorbs much less oxygen than is required to
conyert into carbonic acid the carbon of the substances destined

254 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

for that purpose. We have a beautiful example of this in “the
conditioning of the hunter,” which consists in giving such exercise
and food as will, without reducing the strength of the animal,
prevent the formation of superfluous flesh and fat. Air, exercise,
and a proper supply of nitrogenised food, such as oats, peas,
beans, &c., contain the grand secret in the art of training. But
these articles also contain a large proportion of starch and fatty
matters, and yet, when in proper condition, the hunter never
becomes fat; and the reason is, that these substances, by the
constant exercise which is given, are consumed in the lungs,
whilst under different circumstances, the same horse with little
exercise and little oats, being fed chiefly with straw, hay, and
turnips—articles that do not contain a quarter part of the fat-
tening principle of food contained in the hunter’s diet—would
be found plump and fat. Here we have the normal and ab-
normal conditions compared together, as they regard the capability
of horses to undergo fatigue, since the well-conditioned hunter is
capable of undergoimg great exertion with very little fatigue—
whilst the frothy lather with which the non-conditioned horse is
covered after very little exertion, evinces undeniable inferiority.
13, From what has been stated then, we may safely conclude
that fat is chiefly produced from the starchy matters contained in
the food of animals, all the excess of which, that is not consumed
in producing animal heat, is taken back into the circulation and
deposited, in the form of fat, in cells appropriated for that pur-
ose. It would appear also that the blood-vessels have the power
of taking back the fatty maiter again into the circulation, when it
is required ; so that one of the objects which this deposition fulfils
is to store up, when nourishment is abundant, a supply which may
be taken back into the system, and made use of in time of need.
14. These accumulations are found in different paris of the
bodies of animals of the same kind, some breeds of cattle being
disposed to carry fat externally, and others internally, whilst in
others it is mixed in the muscle, forming what is commonly called
a proper mixture of fat and Jean. In the races of catile disposed
to carry fat externally, the African ox, with a large fatty hump
on his shoulder, and the mild zebu of India, with an immense
lump of fat on his neck and rump, are striking examples. Among
sheep we have many instances of accumulations of external fat.
Throughout Arabia and Syria, the countries over which the
patriarchal shepherds roamed, the breeds, which are two, are
characterised by immense accumulations of fat on their rumps
and tails. In one breed, we have an accumulation on the tail,
averaging from 14 lbs. to 18lbs., whilst the dead weight of one
of these sheep will not amount to more than 50 Ibs, or 60 Ibs.
The Cape sheep are also of the broad fat-tailed kind. These

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 255

animals have little or no internal fat, it being chiefly collected on

their rumps and tails. Climate must have some influence in

producing these characteristics, since the very women are distin-
guished at the Cape for their prodigious fatty ramps. In our own
country, examples of external fat are particularly seen in the once-
famed Dishley breed of cattle, which have an accumulation of fat
spreading itself over the rump. There appears a tendency of the
fatty tissue to remain separate from the muscle, in the improved

-long-horned breed, the fat mingling less with the lean than in

any other of our native breeds. The Hereford breed have also
a similar tendency, but not nearly in so great a degree. In the
Jersey breed of cattle, we have an example of accumulations of
loose fat in the inside. This peculiarity is common to all good
milching breeds, more or less, for they all turn out well when
well fed, in the “fifth quarter.’ Some I’rench and Spanish
cattle imported into Cornwall in the summer of 1842, when
killed, showed an immense accumulation of internal fat; they
were also particularly lean and coarse-looking animals. In the
unproved Devons, the fat and muscle are generally well mixed,
whilst in the common coarse breed of the Devon kind, we have
plenty of inside tallow. The short horns carry more inside fat in
proportion to their size than the improved Devons; they are also
better milkers. From these examples we may safely infer that
the better the milking qualities of the breed are, the more likely
is that breed inclined to carry inside iat.

_15. As we proceed with our subject, it will be found that some
of those characteristics are in great measure dependent on internal
organisation, and accordingly experience has proved that animals
possessing small lungs, small livers, and small spleens, indeed
‘small offal” of every description, have a greater disposition to
fatten and to lay that fat on the proper places, which we consider
to be a fair propoxtion of fat and lean, than coarse-bred ill-pro-
portioned animals, which will be found to possess larger offal than
well bred animals in proportion to their size and growth. We
can clearly understand the reason of this, since we now know that
the less quantity of oxygen an animal consumes, the fatter it
becomes; for small lungs cannot decarbonize as much blood as
large lungs, nor can a small liver secrete as much bile as a large
liver, bile being formed in the herbivora from the non-nitrogenised
materials of their food; hence a larger quantity of carbon is used
in the production of fat. Many physiologists conceive that the
secretion of bile is by no means the sole function performed by
the liver, and look upon it as a supplementary organ of the lungs,
assisting that organ in the depuration of the blood, and like it
eliminating from the blood its superfluous hydrogen and carbon.
The same will apply also to the spleen, its functions being, we

*

256 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

believe, also subsidiary to the lungs as a purifier of the blood.
It is a2 very common occurrence to find stall-fed animals with
diseased livers, and yet this does not interfere with the power of
accumulating fat; on the contrary, if our theory be correct, it
must materially assist in accelerating this process. We have
witnessed the same in the livers of horses in many instances—the
animals will continue to do fair ordinary work in either coaching
or posting, and always look healthy, when, should they be attacked
with some prevailing epidemic or a severe catarrhal affection, the
veterinary practitioner, if he be a young one, will be surprised to
‘find that the remedies which in similar cases had proved suc-
cessful, should fail here; and he does not get at the truth until
a post-mortem examination reveals to him that there are extensive
lesions of the structure of the liver, it haying the same appearance
as if it had been boiled.

16. Professor Playfair was the first who directed the public
attention to the fact just related, that an animal having small
offal was more disposed to fatten, and to come quicker to ma-
turity, than an animal with large lungs, livers, &c. We believe
we are correct in stating that ‘ae fisciy ery was never brought
before the public until he delivered his two lectures before
the Royal Agricultural Society on December 27, 1842; and
it was in consequence of some inquiries which we made to ascer-
tain the truth of the Professor's statement, that we also became
acquainted with another singular and important fact—that in pro-
portion as an animal fattened, so in proportion did the organs which
are chiefly connected with nutrition become diminished in size. This
fact we shall find to be intimately connected with the breeding,
rearing, and feeding of animals. We draw our conclusions from
examining a great number of stall-fed animals, chiefly of the
Devon breed, averaging from 5 ewt. to 9 cwt. of meat. We have
seen them slaughtered at all stages of feeding—from the compara-
tively lean to the fatted ox—and the result of our observations has
been, that in proportion as the fattening process went on, the
lungs, stomachs, intestines, liver, &c., were reducing in size. It
has already been stated (6) that a constant change of particles is
going on in the tissues of the living-body; and it has been com-
puted by physiologists that the human body, including the
skeleton, is taken down and rebuilt about ey ery seven years; so
ihat we may safely say that it is being taken down and rebuilt at
the same time; and that the processes of destruction and reno-
vation, absorption and nutrition, are always being carried on
concomitantly. Now, within certain limits it is obeait ed that the
greater the waste, the greater is the supply—as by constant exer-
cise the muscles are increased instead of decreased, so that the
effect of nutrition is not only to replace what was destroyed, but

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 257

to supply a certain quantity more. And again, by the same law,
an organ that was originally intended to perform a certain func-
tion, if that function be not fulfilled, will diminish in size and
power. Inthe muscular arm of a blacksmith, and the delicate
arm of a person not accustomed to labour, we have an excellent
example. Now, whatever is true of the external parts is likewise
true of the internal parts of the body. If we take for an example
the heart of a calf, which must increase im size as it increases in
growth—it increases, not only in its whole bulk, but also in the
size of the cavities. If an addition were made only to the exterior
of the heart, its whole bulk would be increased, but the size of
the cavities would be proportionately small. We must therefore
assume that substance is removed from the interior of the heart,
at the same time, though perhaps not exactly in the same quantity,
that substance is added to the exterior. In like manner, when
the heart of a man diminishes in size, as it does in consumption,
materials must be abstracted from the exterior, and added in rather
a less proportion to the interior. It is upon this principle that
in proportion as animals fatten, particularly stall-fed ones, their
internal organs become smaller—the lungs adapt their size to the
volume of oxygen consumed, and the liver becomes smaller as
the secretion of bile is diminished; the kidneys, stomach and in-
testines are also considerably smaller in extremely fat animals than
in lean ones of the same age and breed. In the intestines this is
particularly observable—the circumference of the tripe is consi-
derably reduced, but it is thicker and richer. This change ap-
pears to take place more rapidly during the latter stages of fatten-
ing; and it is rather a remarkable coincidence that the fatter an
animal becomes at this period, the less food it consumes. When.
the animal arrives at this last stage of fattening, the arterial
action is much slower than before—a sluggish action appears to
prevail throughout the whole vascular system, and the arterial
exhalants appear to be engaged chiefly in manufacturing fat. If
the animal be bled at this time, which is usually the case on the
evening previous to its being slaughtered, very little blood can
be drawn before it faints.

17. The breeder may learn a very important lesson from these
remarks; for if it be true (and time and observation will prove them
to be so) that in proportion as an animal increases in fat will the
organs of nutrition become diminished in size, it follows that, by
pursuing the system of breeding from fatted animals, or from
those having a great tendency to fatten, function must react on
orgamzation, and at last those qualities become, not only in-
creased, but fixed in the race. By function reacting on organiza-
tion, is meant—when an organ, as the lungs, for instance, be-

comes diminished in consequence of not performing its natural
VOU Vv. s

258 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

function; and the disposition to accumulate fat is thereby pro-
duced—the diminished structure is very likely to be reproduced
in the progeny of an animal so affected: hence the reaction; and
if the same system be pursued, particularly in breeding from the
nearest affinities, this effect will be more speedily produced. It
is in this manner that the greatest improvements have been made
in our native breeds from time to time—in the ‘short-horns and
improved long-horns—in the improved Herefords and Devons.
The history of those different breeds sufficiently proves this. The
dam of Hubback, the sire of the short-horned race, became so
fat that she soon ceased to breed ; and her son, having the same
tendency, was useful as a bull but for a very short period. This
was also the case with Bolingbroke, and several of Mr. Colling’s
best bulls. The two cows of Mr. Tomkins, Mottle and Pigeon,
the originators of the improved Herefords, were selected in con-
sequence of their extraordinary tendency to become fat; and the
whole secret of Bakewell, as to the method which he pursued
to establish the long-horned cattle and the new Leicester sheep,
lay here.

18. There is a delicacy of form and a refinement of tone which
characterize animals bred in this manner, and they acquire early
maturity; their bone and muscle are more quickly developed, and
are soon ripe, because they sooner become old. In a wild state,
and without reference to the wants of man, we should consider
these qualities as a progress towards deterioration; and so they
are, since the animals suffer by the exchange—but man gains an
improvement. It will be shown, however, before we conclude,
that by carrying this system of breeding too far, in many in-
stances man also has become a very considerable loser (21, 22).
The very opposite system to this has been established in the
breeding of the racehorse; and, accordingly, there have been pro-
duced opposite results. The object bemg here to develop a
structure capable of great speed with the powers of endurance:
to attain these qualities, animals were selected with large lungs;
and the system pursued in training them has tended to develop
a still more powerful structure of those organs. ‘The object
in training the racehorse is to increase what is commonly
called the wind; and the regular gallops, which are given for this
purpose, increase the power of the lungs; and the breathing
becomes accordingly freer and deeper, and the capability of ex-
ertion is increased. We have an example here also of the effect
of function reacting on organisation—for the constant breeding
of animals in this manner (other objects of course being at-
tended to) would to a certainty develop those desirable qualities
in a greater degree than was possessed by the founders of the
race. It is no argument to the contrary that the present race of

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 259

horses on the turf are not capable of running such long distances
and carrying such heavy weights as the olden racers were—since
the system adopted in rearing, training and racing, has been very
considerably altered within the last half century. Our blood
stock were formerly shorter in the leg, and more compact and
muscular animals, seldom running until four years old, and fre-
quently not until five years. But now they run at two years old,
carrying light weights, and running short distances, where bottom
and stoutness are not so necessary; and it is this difference in the
style of racing which has altered their former character.

19. There are certain external signs or tokens which are used as
indications of early maturity, and of the determination of the
animal frame to produce fat or muscle in an eminent degree. We
will proceed to consider some of them. The first token which a
grazier will make use of, for the purpose of ascertaining the feed-
ing properties of an ox, is technically called the towch—a criterion
second to none, inasmuch as a thick, hard, unyielding hide indi-
cates a bad feeder, and an unprofitable animal. A thin papery-
feeling hide, covered with thin hair, indicates the very reverse of
the former, as such an animal will speedily fatten, but will not
carry much muscle; at the same time it indicates a delicate con-
stitution. This quality i is produced in animals by great refine-
ment in breeding, and especially by breeding from animals near
of blood: in doing so, we should remember that we are de-
viating from the aunaral characters, in a point connected with
hardiness of constitution. The perfect touch ina feeding animal
will be found with a thick loose skin, floating as it were on a
layer of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, and springing back
to the touch of the finger, like a piece of thick chamois-leather.
This token indicates hardiness of constitution and capability of
carrying plenty of muscle, as well as a sufficiency of fat. The
physiological history of these tokens is as follows :—The cutis, or
true skin, is that portion of the external integuments from which
leather is manufactured; and is much more dense and elastic in
some breeds than in others. Its external surface lies in contact
with a layer of cellular tissue which intervenes between it and the
muscle. This cellular tissue contains a larger or smaller amount
of fat cells; and the mellow feel which is found in some animals
arises from the resiliency or springing back of the cellular tissue
in which the fat is deposited on being touched. Where there is
much “mellowness” in a lean animal, it arises from the free
circulation of the blood-vessels through the meshwork; and
where there is a hard feel, it arises from the cellular membrane
participating in the hardness of the hide, and therefore being
less eapable of dilation by the interstitial deposit.

s2

260 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

Smailness of bone is another indication of early maturity, since
it must be evident that a breed of animals that will attain their
full size of bone at an early age will be a much more profitable
breed to the grazier than one of slower growth.

The size of the head of an ox affords another indication of a
capacity to carry fat in an eminent degree. When the head of a
bull approaches to the narrow elongated form of the female, he
will be extremely docile, but will have lost much of his mascu-
line character ; his stock will be certain to fatten readily, but will
not carry much muscle.

The ears should be thin—coarse ears being a certain sign of a
coarse breed.

The horns should be fine—a coarse and thick horn being an
indication of an ill-bred animal. Wherever there is a tendency
in a breed to thick and coarse hides, the horns are generally
found coarse and thick also. The horns, hoofs, hair, and cuticle,
seem to be intimately connected: they resemble each other in
their chemical composition, differing only in their degree of hard-
ness and condensation. Thus, according to Scherer :—

External : E
Skin of the| Hairsof | Buffalo | wi,
Sole of the | the Beard.| Horm. | :

Foot.

Wool.

|

—_—— ae

Carbon .... | 51°036 | 51°529 | 51°162 | 51-089 | 50°653
Hydrogen .| 6°801 | 6°687 | 6°597 |) 6-824| 17-029
Nitrogen. . | 17°225 | 17-936 | 17284 | 16-901 | 17-710

1s hy

Oxygen at of i 2
ee ee | 24957 | 25-186 | 24-608

These products are remotely connected with the yital actions
of the systems with which they are associated ; and however they
may differ in form, uses, and external appearance, they are all
produced by the same kind of vascular structure; and though
variously arranged to suit the particular circumstances in each
case, yet the mode of their development and growth is essentially
the same. :

A thin nech is another indication of a delicate breed, either in
bulls or rams; a thick neck, on the contrary, indicating large
muscles and a good constitution. Proportion is another sign or
token by which to judge of the disposition of an animal to carry
a fair proportion of muscle. There should always be a propor-
tionate union of length, depth, and thickness; no matter what the

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 261

weight or size of the animal may be, these three properties are
indispensable, if the breeder’s object is to obtain the greatest
weight of meat on the most valuable points.

20. The immense difference in the size of the different breeds
of cattle or horses is beyond our control, although man has pro-
‘duced wonders even in this respect. Generally speaking they
assume a certain character, dependent on the food which they
obtain—for where food is abundant, they are found of a large
size ; and, where deficient, they are found of a diminutive breed.
But this truth holds good only as it regards the different races,
and not the individuals—for were we to breed the Shetland pony
on the best Lincoln pastures, it would take many hundred suc-
cessive generations before his race would approximate to the size
of the breeds that are natural to this district.

21. But although the size of different breeds of animals is
seemingly fixed, or dependent only on climate and soil, still much
has been done by care and attention in breeding and rearing.
Our attention here will chiefly be directed to the rearing depart-
ment, where there is a great deal of mismanagement, even amongst
our very best breeders. With some, it is a common practice in
the rearing of a bull-calf, to place the young animal, shortly after
he is weaned, in a narrow stall, and to feed him with raw milk
and oatmeal gruel, and afterwards with some of the artificial and
natural grasses, hay and turnips, &c.—the breeder feeling per-
fectly satisfied that his system is a right one, so long as the animal
is looking plump and fat. The effect of this, as we have already
shown (16), would be without doubt to lessen the size of the lungs
and other organs concerned in nutrition, and produce a breed that
will carry immense masses of fat, come quickly to maturity, and
also when they breed produce the same qualities in their offspring.
But however desirable those qualities may be, depend on it there
are others of an opposite character which are also to be attended
to—these are, weight of muscle, strength of constitution, and the
capability of propagating their race—to produce all which quite a
different system must be adopted. There is a certain amount of
exercise which muscles require to encourage their proper develop-
ment and growth, that never can possibly be obtained by a young
animal confined in this manner. The degree of activity in the nu-

-trition of muscles depends in a great measure upon the use that is
made of them ; and thus we find that any set of muscles in con-
tinual employment undergoes a great increase in size and vigour,
whilst those that are disused lose their firmness and diminish in
bulk (16.). Cattle require not such exercise as would tend to
harden the muscular fibre, but just so much as would keep the
animal in a healthy state, and prevent those enormous accumu-

262 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

lations of fat which so frequently disfigure and so materially
mjure our very best breeds of cattle. This was particularly ob-
served in many of the short-horned mileh cows that won the
Society’s prizes at Derby, that were better adapted, in conse-
quence of their immense fatness, to compete for prizes offered for
_ fatted stock ; and many of which will be prevented from breeding
for the future. "

22. During the first two years, as long as the weather will
permit, the young bull should be allowed to range in the
meadows; and when the autumn advances, and it becomes ne-
cessary to house him, we would recommend that the house or
shed should be attached to a straw-yard, into which he may be
occasionally turned during the mild dry days in the winter. We
are aware of the trouble to be apprehended from grazing animals
of this description during the second summer, but we know the
plan is commonly practised in localities where the enclosures are
conveniently small, without any difficulty or danger,

23. We stated at the commencement of this essay that the living
organism is incapable of producing an elementary body out of sub-
stances which do not contain it; a statement in common parlance
meaning, ‘that a horse which gets kicks instead of oats is not likely
to maintain a working condition,” In the rearing of young ani-
mals of all descriptions, it must be evident that substances rich in
nitrogen are particularly required for the growth of the yarious
parts of the body, since there is no part of an organ that contains
less than 17 per cent. (3.). For the growth of bone, muscle,
blood, membranes, skin, horn, hair, and cellular tissue, a certain
amount of this substance is absolutely necessary. We have shown
that they do not obtain much, if any, of this substance from the
air: it must therefore necessarily be supplied in the food. In
the rearing of horses, where the object is to produce a great de-
velopment of muscle, this is particularly required: hence it is
the practice of intelligent breeders to supply the young stock
with a proper allowance of oats, peas, beans, and shelter, during
the winter; and it is from the want of those requisites that so
many thousands of horses are yearly rendered worthless. The
young animal is placed on our globe tolerably perfect from the
hands of the Creator, but its degeneracy is frequently owing to
the treatment pursued in the rearing. Only compare a yearling
colt that has been well housed and well fed during the winter, with
one that has been turned out, and fed chiefly with hay, straw, and
turnips—the food usually allowed by farmers to this kind of stock
in the winter; and although equally fine and clean in their re-
spective points when separated in the autumn, yet they bear no
kind of comparison, either in size or beauty, in the spring, Again

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 263

pursue the same plan the following winter, and you fix the shape
for life—the one a handsome, strong, muscular animal ; the other
a coarse and plain one. It is by proper feeding, and a proper
degree of shelter given to the young stock, during the first three
winters, that some horses are got to such perfection as we some-
times see, having clean limbs, large powerful muscles, and good
action; for, had those colts been kept hard, and exposed to the
weather, they would never have attracted any attention.

24. In the rearing of store cattle, the same care is not required
as we have recommended for breeding ones—the object of the
feeder in this instance being to obtain as much profit as he can
from the food which the animals consume: hence, their value
must be determined by the profit which they yield to the breeder
and feeder conjointly, from birth to maturity; but, even in this
case, it may be worth the farmer’s notice to be acquainted with
the fact, that nearly the whole of the fleshy part of an animal,
which will afford any profit to him, is assimilated chiefly during
the period of its growth. When it has arrived at its full growth,
the addition made to its bulk is chiefly an accumulation of fat,
which surrounds and is intermingled with the substance of the
muscle. Thus, the object of the farmer whose purpose is profit,
will be to force his stock on, during the period of their growth,
by such kind of food as will produce the largest quantity of
muscle at the least expense.

25. The farmer must now see the necessity of giving his
growing stock peas, beans, and barley-meal, in conjunction with
good hay, grass, and turnips, varied, of course, according to the
seasons, and other circumstances. Experience has proved that
health and appetite are best promoted by a change of diet, rather
than by limiting the quantity and quality. There should be no
cessation in the rearing and feeding of cattle, for those that are
stuffed and starved by turns are sure to prove unprofitable to
the feeder; and there is no more certain rule in the rearing of
young stock than this—that those that suffer a deprivation either
in quantity or quality of food, never become perfectly developed,
either in bulk or proportions.

26. It forms a curious and interesting subject for the feeder to

ascertain the respective quantities of the fleshing and fattening

properties contained in am acre of the different crops commonly
used in the rearing and feeding of stock. The following acreable
table of nutrition has been constructed chiefly from Professor
Johnston’s calculations—the proportions of gluten, &c., from

-Boussingault’s analyses, which indicate the Jleshing properties ;

and the proportions of starch, gum, and sugar, the fattening
properties :—

264 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

Weight of | Weight of
Produce

Weight of | Gluten, Starch, | Weight of
One Acre of Grain per | Albumen, Gum, Water
j. . per Acre. Bushel. and Sugar, | per Acre.
| Caseine. | and Fat.
Ibs. lbs. lbs. lbs. ~
Field Beans. «© . «| 25 bush. | 64 450 672 256
edslat sees Fig t ae 8's Bors! 66 380 845 208
OE RRC ORL aCe | 50). | 42 290 1,168 336
Beira 6 Ss 2 css, 3 tons. | yA 480 2,790 752
Potatoes ap leoneares 1 Saba | : 600 3,330 20,250
Carrots. . ynaiks coage dy .. | 1,120 | 5,800 | 47,600
Turnips.' « « ee 30, si 800 | 6,700 | 56,950
Wheat Straw . . . | 3,900 lbs ae 40 940 450
aL OGAWw oe 6 1 | 2,400. 45 A 36 970 324
Barley Straw . . . | 2,100 ,, ws 28 646 252

The farmer need not learn from this or any other table the
importance of a turnip-crop, it being acknowledged by all that it
is indeed the sheet-anchor of light-soil cultivation; for although
the per centage of nutritious matters is trifling in the turnips,
when compared with that of peas, beans, oats, or barley, yet the
immense weight of these roots which can be grown—sometimes
as much as 40 or 50 tons per acre—gives such a very large quan-
tity of nutritious matters, that swede turnips* may well be called
the raw material for the manufacture of beef. The farmer will
also see the peculiar adaptation of the carrot crop to the rearing
and fattening of stock—the nutritious matters which they contain
being greater than turnips, and being admirably fitted for the
heavier description of soils, where turnips cannot be success-
fully cultivated. He will also see, from the immense weight
of water contained in those roots, that it is desirable to give some
dry provender to his sheep, such as oat or barley meal, oat-straw,
hay, or pea-haulm, which would prevent the frequent scouring of
those animals, the consequence of so much watery food; and by
occasioning the food to remain Jonger in their stomachs, a greater
quantity of nourishment would probably be obtained than when
eaten alone.

27. The hay-crop varies very considerably in its per centage of
nutritious matters—more so, we believe, than any other ; the con-
sequence of difference of soil, and methods adopted in saving.
In the blades and stems of the young grasses there is much
sugar, which, as they grow up, is gradually changed, first into
starch, and then into woody fibre ; and the more completely the
latter change is effected, the riper the plant becomes, and conse-

* I have not been able to obtain a correct analysis of the Swede turnip.

An Essay on Fat and Muscle. 265

quently the less soluble are the substances it contains. Both
theory and experience, then, indicate to the farmer the necessity
of cutting his hay before it has attained its full stage of ripeness.
It is also very probable that, when exposed to dry in the sun and
air after being cut, to a certain extent this change from starch to
woody fibre takes place. Hence the more quickly the drying is
effected, the less extensively will changes of this kind take place ;
and this shows the necessity of the hay being frequently turned
during “saving,” and being rapidly dried.

28. Great quantities of bean-meal are used in some districts
in the feeding of bacon-hogs, but it is found to make the flesh too
firm for delicate porkers, and in the last stage of their fattening,
barley-meal is substituted. The best kind of food for feeding
pigs is a mixture of barley-meal, peas, and potatoes. Potatoes
are frequently used by themselves for this purpose; but neither
the fat or muscle of pigs fed in this manner can be compared to
corn and. peas-fed pork—the fat having a tallowy appearance, and
both fat and muscle shrinking, for want of firmness, when boiled.
Potatoes will do very well for store pigs, but should never be
depended upon for the “ feeding.”” Some feeders reject the grey
pea, from an idea that it partakes in a degree of the nature of
the bean in rendering the meat tough and hard. The same
effect is produced, although in a more considerable degree, in the
feeding of pigs on the acorn, which tends to render the meat firm
and hard. This is owing to the astringent or tanin principle
contained in the bean and acorn; vegetable astringents of all
kinds are found to contract the muscular and vascular tissues, to
diminish secretion, lessen irritability, and in many instances to.
impart strength or increased tone to an organ or part. It is
the tanin principle contained in beans which renders them so
valuable a food for hard-working horses. The nutritious elements
of beans and peas are’ nearly the same, yet the former add more
materially to the vigour of horses than the latter. Our Saxon
_ ancestors used to feed their swine on acorns, and set great value
on them for this purpose; and round the forests of England,
it is still customary to drive the pigs in at the proper season,
that they may feed on the acorns and the various kernels which
fall from the trees. In Westphalia, the pig is turned into the
oak-forest as soon as he is weaned, where he feeds, like the wild
boar, upon acorns and roots of various vegetables; the conse-
quence of which is, the worms and slush of every description
which he devours counteract the astringent or tanin principle of
the acorn, and they thrive amazingly. When the farmers around
the New Forest feed their swine with acorns in the stye, they
invariably give other food mixed with them, such as wash,
brewers’ grains, potatoes, turnips, beet, and the refuse of the

266 An Essay on Fat and Muscle.

gardens, as they find that swine fed on acorns only, seldom
thrive.

29. Our essay is now brought to a close; and, from what has
been stated, it must be evident that constant and progressive
change appears to be one of the leading characteristics of life;
the whole seems like one vast laboratory, where mechanism is
subservient to chemistry—where chemistry is the agent of the
higher powers of vitality. In considering the digestive functions
of animals, we have seen the manner in which vegetable food
is assimilated into blood and tissues; we see that the materials
have to pass through a great number of intermediate stages before
they can attain their final state. We can perceive all these, but
still we have as yet a very imperfect knowledge of the nature of
the vital agents concerned in producing those chemical changes
which the food must necessarily undergo during its assimilation.
The living principle, whether of a vegetable or animal, is so
adapted that it can elaborate its body out of the materials which -
are around it; but neither can create out of nothing that matter
of which its organisation, during its appointed time, is composed.
These materials, but few in number, are first elaborated from the
air, the earth, and the waters, into the substance of plants, for the
food of herbivorous and graminivorous animals, which, in their
turn, are eaten by carnivorous animals; and when, after a time,
the spirit has left its tenement, the organised body is resolved
into its original inorganic substances—carbonic acid, water, and
ammonia—these elements being either returned to the atmos-
phere, whence they were derived, or imbedded in the parent soil,
again to constitute races of vegetables, and to contribute to the
nourishment of organised beings. Even those portions of organic
matter which, in the course of decomposition, escape in form of
gases, and are widely diffused through the atmosphere, are not
wholly lost to living creatures ; for, in the course of time, they
also re-enter into the vegetable kingdom, resuming the solid form,
and re-appearing in organic products, destined again to pass
through the same never-ending cycle of vicissitudes and trans-
mutations, This is the most important page in the whole book
of material nature, for thus is grass changed into mutton and
beef, which afterwards are changed into the flesh of man,

‘

( 267 )

XIV.—Lxperiments with Salt and other Manures upon Oats,
Barley, and Wheat. By Joun Hannam.

[From an ‘ Esssay on Manures,’ to which a prize of 50/. was awarded by the Royal
Highland and Agricultural Society. |

Experiments on Oats.

I.—Experiment on the actual and comparative effects upon the
Oat crop of Nitrate of Potash, Nitrate of Soda and Salt
(mixed), Salt (only), and Rape-dust.

Details.—Soil—thin limestone, worth 20s. per acre rental—
exposed to the north. Prior crops—darley, (after turnips, eaten
on,) seeds, (pasture.) wheat, (rape-dusted).

Management.— Hopetoun oats, drilled April 4, 1842, and the
following tillages applied :—

ig 2. 3. 4. 5.
Nit. Soda | Nit. of Pot- Nothing. Common | Rape-Dust. ”
and Salt. ash. Salt.

No. 1.—Area } acre, nit. soda 1}st., salt 3 st. applied as a top-dressing, May 2.
2.— Ditto nit. of potash 2 st. do. do.
3.— Ditto nothing.

4.— Ditto salt 6 stone, applied as a top-dressing, May 2.
5.— Ditto rape-dust 3 bushels, drilled with the seed, April 4.

Observations.—Rain coming a few days after the top-dressings
were applied, the effects upon Nos. | and 2 were soon visible in
the dark-green hues assumed by the young plant. No. 5 (rape-
dust) at this time was much a-head of all the other patches, owing
to the manure having been applied when the grain was drilled.
During June Nos. 1 and 2 came up with No.5, No. 3 (nothing),
and No. 4 (salt), being much in the background.

July 1.—A change had now taken place in the respective
positions, as regarded appearance, of the plots, No. 4 having
made a push that quite astonished me. At this time they stood

-thus— :
No. 1, nit. soda and salt—long and rich in foliage.
Le 2, nit. potash, do. do. partially lodged.
4, salt—good standing crop.
2, 5, rape-dust—good.

3. 3, nothing—full of plant, but shorter in the straw than the other patches.

In this order they stood up to August 24, when they were
reaped; and, after being well fielded, were thrashed immediately,
with the following results :—-

268 Experiments with Salt and other Manures

No. 1, gave 175 sheaves, yield. 588 lbs. of straw, 431 Ibs. of gr. weighing 40 lbs. per bush.

2, 172 do. 582 do. 416 do. 40 do;
3, 150 do. 512 do. 378 do. 40} do.
4, 180 do. 601 do. 451 do. 41 do.
5, 162 do. 561 do. 410 do. 40 do,

From the above we therefore obiain the following

FiNAL RESULTS PER IMPERIAL ACRE.

:
i Quantity) Gross Produce. | Cost of Increase of 2 3

No. Tillage. of... «isi ecnl be A
Tillage. | Grain.} Straw. Martane, Grain.| Straw. |= Ey

———

Bushels.| st. Ibs. Bushels. st. lbs.| Tbs.

EAS ys!
1 | Nit. Soda 6 stone we
hier { = eee \43-1 168 0/1 2 12| 5-76} 2110} 40
2 | Nit. Potash | lcwt. | 41-6] 166 41116 0 | 4:26] 20 0| 40
3 | Nothing .. | 3731146 4 2 Nia Beh aiiy
4|Salt . .|24stone| 44-0] 171 4/0 9 0 | 6-66| 25 6] 41
5 | Rape-Dust | 1} qrs. | 41-0] 160 4/113 9 | 3-76] 14 0} 40

Observation.— Be it observed that the straw here weighed is
the good marketable straw, and does not include the short and
broken, which goes away in what is technically termed “ falls”
or pulls.

Conclusions.—In this experiment we observe—

1. That, for the oat crop, upon soil which has been for a length
of time under a system of rape-dust tillage, a dressing of saline
manures may be used with greater effect than another application
of rape-dust.

2. That in such cases, common salt has a tendency to increase
both the quality and the quantity of grain, and to increase the
quantity of grain in a greater ratio than the quantity of the straw.

5. That nit. of soda, mixed with salt, increases the quantity of
straw and grain in a greater degree than nit. of potash, and in a
less degree than salt only.

6. That nit. of potash increases the straw in a greater ratio
than the grain, and diminishes the weight per bushel.

7. That rape-dust increases both straw and grain, and diminishes
the weight per bushel of the grain.

8. That the nitrates act more quickly than salt.

9, That the nitrates render the straw bulky, soft, and coarse ;
while salt makes it white and brittle.

Experiments on Barley.

J.—Experiment on the actual and comparative effects on the
Barley crop, of Nitrate of Potash, Nitrate of Soda and Salt
(mixed), Salt (only), and Rape-dust.

Details.—Soil—good turnip soil, upon the limestone range,

upon Oats, Barley, and Wheat. 269

worth 26s. per acre rental. Situation—level, and free from all
extraneous influences. Prior Crops—seeds (pastured); wheat
(rape-dust) ; turnips (farm manure, and partially consumed on
the land by sheep).

Management.—Drilled, April 6, 1842, and applications made

as follows :-—

3 os 5.

No. 1. Area} acre {35 Sar} applied as a top-dressing, May 2, 1842.

t, 3 st.
2 -de. Nit. potash, 2 st. do. do.
3. _ do. Nothing.
4. -do. Salt, 6 st. do. do.
5. do. Rape-dust, 3 bush. drilled with the grain.

Observations —This experiment being precisely similar to the
preceding one upon oats, and made at the same time, the effects
in both cases were very similar. At the time of top-dressing,
rape-dust (No. 5) had the lead, which it maintained somewhat
longer than in the oats, as the effect of the saline dressings upon
the foliage of the plant was not so visible as in the other case.
The bulk, however, was increased, though the colour was not so
much affected in Nos. 1 and 2, so that on July 1, I placed Nos.
1, 2, and 5 equal, No.4 next, and No. 3 last—all, however, being
good. During the month of July, No. 4 made an extraordinary
push, so that at the end of the month they stood thus :—

1 bogie Salt—very good ; forward.
7 1, Nit. soda and salt—very good: rather coarser in the straw.

2. 2, Nit. potash— do. stronger in the straw than any other.
3. S, —good ; forward
a 3, Nothing—fair crop; forward.

At reaping time the above peculiarities were more fully de-
veloped. Thus, Nos. 1, 4, and 3 were riper than No.2. Nos.
2 and | were coarser in the straw than the other, especially No.
2, which was much lodged. No. 4 was particularly white and
brittle in the straw, and was fit for cutting before any other por-
tion. No. 5 was also yellow in the straw; while No. 1 was
darker than 4, and lighter in colour than 2. By these features
the plots were distinguishable by the casual observer.

After reaping, August 29, 1842, the produce of the several
plots was well weathered, and then thrashed, with the following
results :—

270 Experiments with Salt and other Manures
No. 1. gave 234 sheaves, yield. 830 lbs, straw & 670 lbs. of grain, weigh. 56 lb. p. a
2. do. 233 do. 860 do. 668 do. 55 do.
3. do. 178 do. 680 do, 524 do. 56 do.
4. do. 236 do. 792 do. 696 do. 57 do.
5. do. 205 do. 814 do. 612 do. . 554 do.

From these results per rood we obtain the following

FINAL RESULTS PER IMPERIAL ACRE.

Name Gross Produce. Gast Increase of | Weight
' No. of Quantity. ote of TT |. Pe Mor Gagan
Tillage. Grain. | Straw. Manure. | Grain.| Straw. |per Bush.

SS ee Oe ee ee

Bushels.| st. lbs.| & s. d. |Bushels.} st. lbs.

peal | lasctonct| 47-84] 237 2] 1 2 14 | lo4a}a2 12] 56

his

alt . . |12stone
2 | Nit. Potash | 8 stone | 48°58} 245 10| 116 O | 11°16/51 6 55
3 | Nothing . i 37°42] 194 4 a6 cic o® 56
4|Salt . . | 24stone | 48°84] 226 4)0 9 O | 1142/32 0 57
5 | Rape-dust . | ld qrs. | 44°08] 232 8|113 9 666/38 4 554

Conclusions.—In this experiment we observe—

1. That, upon a soil which has had rape-dust as a manure for
a length of time, a dressing of saline manures may be advyantage-
ously used upon the barley crop.

2. That, as upon oats, so upon barley, common salt has a ten-
dency to increase the quantity of grain in a greater ratio than the
straw, to improve the quality of the grain, and to render the straw
white and brittle, and to promote its ripening.

3. That the nitrates have a tendency to increase the quantity of

straw in a greater ratio than the grain, to render the straw soft’

and bulky, and to retard slightly the ripening.

4. That the nitrates have not such a decided effect upon the
colour of the young plant of barley as upon oats or wheat.

5. That the action of salt upon the crop is not visible so soon as
that of the nitrates.

6. That rape-dust has a tendency in this case to diminish the
weight of the grain per bushel.

7. That nitrate of potash also diminishes the weight per bushel
of the grain.

K.—Experiment on the actual and comparative effects upon the
Barley crop, of Rape-dust, Guano, Rape-dust and Salt, Nitrate
of Soda, and Nitrate and Sulphate of Soda.

Details. —Good limestone soil, worth 24s, per acre per annum ;
exposed to the north; low fences; no trees. Prior crops—barley
(upon turnips eaten on the land) ; seeds (pastured) ; wheat (rape
dust) ; turnips (bones, crop pulled off).

upon Oats, Barley, and Wheat. 271

Management.—Ribbed and sown April 10, 1843, with barley
and clover seeds. Manures applied as follows :-—

|

1. | 2. a 4, 5, 6. vig
Nothing.| Rape-dust. | Guano | Rape-dust| Nit. of | Nit. of Salt.
and Salt. Soda. Soda and
Sul, Soda.

No. 1.—} acre. Nothing.
2. do. Rape-dust, 3 bush., sown in the furrows with the seed.

3. do. Guano, 4 st. do. do.
Rape-dust, 3 bush. do. do.

4, do. and
Salt, 3 st., applied as a top-dressing, May 3.

5. do Nitrate of soda, 3 st. do. do.
Nitrate of soda, 2 st. : do.

2 Re {Sulphate of soda, 2 st. }mixed, oh do.

7 do. Salt, 8 st. do. do.

The remaining portion of the field (about 5 acres) was manured
with 2 ewts. of guano per acre, in alternate lands or stitches, with
12 bushels of rape-dust per acre.

Observations.—The effects of the guano and rape-dust were
distinctly marked from the first appearance of the plant—the
portions left for a top-dressing being in one month a full week
behind the Nos. 2 and 3. If anything, No. 3 had the lead of
the two.

At the beginning of June, the top-dressings had not begun to
show any effects, Nos. 1, 5, 6, and 7, being much in the back-
ground. Indeed the difference between them and Nos. 2, 3, and
4, could be seen half a mile off. At this time No. 3 was very
decidedly superior to No.1. This was the case, too, throughout
the field, the lands dressed with guano being very distinguishable
by their superior luxuriance from those manured with rape-dust.

A week of fine weather, about the middle of June, coming
after a month of almost constant rain, made a wonderful improve-
ment in the top-dressed portion; so much so, that some of them
(Nos. 5 and 6) came up with No. 2, which had not progressed
so well as No. 3. No. 4, however, at this time pressed No. 3
very closely in the race; so that, at the end of July, the whole
field, with the exception of No. 1, (unmanured,) was a splendid
crop. The experimental plots at this time stood as follows :—
(No. 3) Guano—Splendid crop, thick and luxuriant.

(No. 4) Rape-dust and salt—Do., not quite so luxuriant; more forward.
(No. 5) Nit. of soda—Nearly equal to the preceding; rather more backward.
. {Oe 6) Do. and sulp. soda—Not quite so good as No. ; backward.
(No. 2) Rape-dust—Equal to No. ; not quite so backward,

No.7) Salt—Not so luxuriant in the straw; very forward,
. (No. 1) Nothing—Very poor crop; much worse than any of the above,

Oo B wien

272 Experiments with Salt aud other Manures

The remainder of the field was a very excellent crop. The
lands guanoed were, however, decidedly superior in every case to
the rape-dust. On one marly hill, where there is scarcely an
inch of soil, (the whole being formed of shelly limestone and
chalky marl mixed,) and from which the turnips (grown with
bones only) had been carted away, it was surprising to see the
effect of the guano. The place where every handful had fallen
was particularly marked, and the whole crop (where scarcely ever
a crop, under more favourable circumstances, grew well before)
was good. At this time an extensive dealer in rape-dust and
bones went over the field with me, and gave, without hesitation,
his opinion that the guano beat the rape-dust throughout the field
by a quarter per acre. This gentleman, Mr. Robert Snowdon,
was the very person who had supplied the rape-dust used in the
experiment; his testimony, therefore, was decidedly free from
prejudice in favour of guano.

As a curiosity, I send a sample of the soil from the marly hill
alluded to, where, by the aid of guano, a crop of barley, of full
4 quarters per acre, was produced after turnips pulled off the
land. (Vide “ Extra Sample of Soil,” marked « K.”)

At reaping time, certain peculiarities were observable. No. 1,
thin and short in the straw, was ripe first. No. 7, (salt,) though
backward at the time the top-dressings were applied, was ripe
sooner than any other, except No. 1. The straw was white and
brittle. No. 4 partook of these peculiarities in a less degree.
Nos. 5 and 6 (nitrated) were ripe last, having been at the time
of top-dressing a full week behind Nos. 2 and 3. The straw
of these portions was very yellow and coarse, appearing as
though it had been forced to a quick vegetation. The straw
of the patches 2 and 3 (rape-dust and guano) was yellow and
soft. All the plots, with the exception of No. 1, which was
too light to break down, were lodged so much, that they were
very difficult to mow. Nos. 7 and 4 were less lodged than the
others.

The whole of the field was mown, August 30, and the produce
of the various patches kept separate, when, after being well
weathered, the following were the results obtained from each
plot :—

1. gave 206 sheaves, yield. 587 lbs. of

do. 212 do. 0.

straw, & 421 lbs. of grain, weigh. 543lbs. p. bush.
o. ty) do. 644 do. 496 do. do. 542 do.

2.

3. do. 255 do. do. 785 do. 625 do. do. 54 do. ~
4. do. 206 do. do. 738 do. 622 do. do. 55 do.

5. do. 219 do. do. 730 do. 603 do. do. 53} do.

6. do. 201 do. do, 695 do. 579 do. do. 544. do. °
7. do. 187 do. do. 607 do. 554 do, do. 55} do.

upon Oats, Barley, and Wheat. 273

FINAL RESULTS PER IMPERIAL ACRE.

Gross Produce. Cost of Increase of
No. Manure. Quantity: ja ae ipa» the
Grain.| Straw. Manure.| Grain. | Straw.
Bushels.| st. lbs.| £ s. d.| Bushels. st. lbs.
1 | Nothing . . ate 30-75 | 167 10 te Pit, =
2 | Rape-dust . | 12bushels | 36:23] 18 0|1 7 9 5-48 16 4
3 | Guano . .| 2cwts. 46:29] 224 4|1 6,0] 15-54 56. 8
Rape-dust and | 12 bushels z ‘ 9
4 { Sat. | 1detone t| 40°23|.210 12) 112 3) 14-48 | 43. 2
5 |.Nitrate of Soda} 13 cwt. 44-87; 208 8|/111 6] 1412 40 12
Nit. of Soda .| 1 cwt. }| go, ? =
6 {Sal Ae ag \ 42:30] 198 8|110 6| 11:55 | 30 12
7 | Salt . . .| 4 cwt. | 39-74] 173 6/012 0 8-99 5 10
|

Observe here that the weight of straw upon No. | is greater
than it would have been had there been no clover seeds sown, as
the light crop of barley encouraged the growth of the clover,
while the heavier bulk of straw upon the other plots retarded its
growth. Hence the straw of No. 1 weighed well, and the gain
of straw on the other patches appears less than it really was.
Again, the same circumstance affected the number of sheaves on
No. 1; the quantity of clover making it necessary to bind small
sheaves.

Conclusions.—In this case we see—

1. That guano is superior to rape-dust.

2. That saline applications may be used with success upon soil
requiring manure.

3. That nitrate of soda increases the crop of straw and grain,
and that sul. soda mixed with nitrate does not improve the crop
so much as nitrate alone; hence we infer that nitrate of soda
has a positive effect, and sulphate a negative one, upon the barley
crop.

4. That salt increases the grain more than the straw.

5. That salt, as a top-dressing auxiliary to rape-dust, 1s ex-
tremely valuable ; improving the produce in quantity and quality.
( Vide gain per acre, and weight per bushel, of No. 4.)

6. That salt alone, or mixed with another substance, has the
same visible effects—acting at the latter period of the plant's
growth, and blanching the straw and stubble.

7. That guano and nitrate of soda diminish the weight per
bushel of the grain produced.

L.—Experiment on the comparative effects on the Barley crop,

of Rape-dust, Rape-dust and Salt, and Guano.

Details.—Soil—moderate limestone, worth 24s. per acre per
VOL. V. T

274 Experiments with Salt and other Manures

annum. Prior crops—wheat (rape-dust), oats (rape-dust), tur-
nips (bones—eaten on the land).

Management.—Sown with clover seeds, and drilled with barley,
May 6, 1843. Manures applied as follows :—

te 2. 3.
Rape-dust. Rape-dust Guano.
and Salt.

No. 1. Sacre. Rape-dust, 6 bush, ; drilled along with the seed.
2. do. Pe 6 bush., and salt, 6 stones, mixed and drilled with the
seed.
_3. do. Guano, 1 cwt.; mixed with earth, and do. do.
Observations.—The whole came up well, no difference being
visible in any of the three for some time, when No. 3 took the
lead. <All the plots throve well, and, though sown late, at harvest
promised a very fair crop. The clover seeds came equally well
in all the patches. On reaping, September 7, No. 3 still had
the advantage in weight of straw; No. | being also a shade better
than No, 2 in quantity of stray. No. 2, however, showed some-
what similar effects from the application of salt that we observed
in the other experiments on barley ;—the straw was whitened,
sooner ripe, and promised a better yield. The seeds were
equally good throughout. ‘The following were the results from
each portion :—
1. 370 sheaves, yield. 1142 Ibs. of straw, and 902 lbs. of grain, weigh. 56lbs. per bush.

2. 314 do. 1124 do. 918 do. do. 56% do.
3. 376 _ do. 1192 do. 949 do. do. 56 do,

From the above we obtain the following

FINAL RESULTS PER IMPERIAL ACRE,

Gross Produce. Cost of Weight

Grain. | Straw. Manure.

Bushels. sts lbs. | & & ad.

No.| Name of Manure. | Quantity. per Bushel

1. | Rape-dust. . .| I2bushels} 382-21 | 163 1 a a 56
12 bushel Be - vicee ee

2. | Rape-dust and salt | & 12 ahi \ 3355 160 4; 112 3 564

3. | Guano, « «© « «| 2ewt. 32°78 | 170 2 L @ 0 56

Conclusions.—In this experiment we note—:

1. That guano and rape-dust, in comparative effect, are nearly
equal ; from want, however, of a patch without manure, we are
unable to see what was the positive effect of each; hence we
cannot say whether the equal yield from each plot arises from

upon Oats, Barley, and Wheat. 975
the equal working of the manures or from the total failure of
both

2. That salt applied by drill, along with rape-dust, produces
somewhat similar, though not so decided effects, as when applied
as a top-dressing auxiliary to rape-dust. Thus we have, in No. 2,
the highest yield of grain and the lowest of straw, although the
heaviest weight per bushel of grain.

Experiments on Wheat.

M.—Experiment on the actual and comparative effects upon the
Wheat crop, of Nitrate of Soda, Nitrate of Potash, Sulphate
of Soda, Soot, and Salt.

Details —Soil—moderate limestone, worth 24s. peracre. Prior
crops—turnips (manured) ; barley (rape-dusted) ; seeds (pastured
with sheep).

Management—Sown with red wheat November 7, 1841, and
top-dressed as follows :—

Soot. | Common Salt.
5. 6.
Nothing. | Sulphate of Soda.
;

3. | 4.
Nitrate of Soda. {| Nifrate of Potash.
F. : 2:

‘ Pa, ;

No.1. acre. Nitrate of soda, 24 stones, applied as a top-dressing, May 2, 1842,
2. do. Nitrate of potash, 2 stones, do. do. do.
3. do. Nothing.

4. do. Sulphate of soda, 23 stones, do. do. do.
5. do. Soot, S bushels do. do. do.
6. do. Salt, 6 stones do. do. do.

Observations.— Showers coming after the applications were
made, Nos. 1 and 2 began to show the effects of the nitrates in a
few days; in a fortnight, however, they assumed a rich dark
green hue, very different from any other portion of the field.

In the course of a month after the top-dressings were applied,
No. 5 (soot) also assumed a darker colour than the rest, but was
not so flourishing as Nos. | and 2.

When reaped (August 18, 1842), Nos. 1 and 2 were much
the best crop to the eye—the rest being nearly equal. The straw
and stubble upon No. 5 were quite blanched,

72

276 Experiments upon Oats, Barley, and Wheat.

When thrashed, the following was the produce of each plot :—
No.1. 152 sheaves, yield. 734 lbs. straw and 562 lbs, grain, weighing i lbs. per bushel.
do.

2. 146 do. 707 do. 540 do.

3. 118 do. 628 do. 472 do. ed do.
4. 124 do. 635 do. 459 do. » 64 do.
5. 122 do. 645 do. 508 do. 64 do.
6. 132 do. 604 do. 495 do. 643 do.

From the foregoing data we obtain the following

FINAL RESULTS PER IMPERIAL ACRE.

| Gross Produce. Coat ‘ een or 3 *

No.) Manure. Quantity! oa cree On |_| eee er

Grain.| Straw. | Manure. | Grain. | Straw. a

\Bushels| st. Ibs.| £ s. d.| Bushels,| st. lbs. | Lbs.

1 | Nit. of soda . 1} cwt | 35:125) 209 10 |1 9 42 75-62 | *80 4 | 64
2 | Nit. of potash | 1 cwt. | 33-75 | 202 0/117 O| *4:25 | *22 8 | 64
3 | Nothing. . 295 | 179 6 ae o oe 64
4 | Sulph. of soda 1. cats 28-68 | 181 6 011102 + -82 |*2 OO} 64
5 | Soot ee he “push.| 31-75 | 184 4'016 0 2-25 “| $4 1271) CE

G}) Salt. . <:| ‘3 cwt. |'30-9 1722 80 9 O| #14 7612] 643

Conclusions.—It will be here observed that—

1. Nitrate of soda, nitrate of potash, and soot, have a tendency
to increase the produce of wheat, both straw and grain,

2. That common salt has a slight tendency to increase the
produce of grain, and to decrease the weight of straw (mark, the
weight of straw, as it will be observed—vide number of sheaves
per rood—that it does not diminish the bulk), and that common
salt increases the weight per bushel of the grain; thence it may,
from these properties, be advantageously used as an auxiliary to
other manures.

3, That sulphate of soda has no visible effects upon the wheat
crop. The slight variation in yield of straw and grain may be
fairly attributed to accidental circumstances, such as variation
of soil, &c., as no two patches can be perfectly equal in every
respect.

€ 20 )

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NOTICES.

I.—Experiment on Manures. By Sir Witiiam Hearucore,
Bart., M.P.

Srr WILLIAM,

Brow I send you an account of the experiment made on the
wheat crop at your Home Farm in the course of last year, with different
kinds of manure; with my remarks during the growth of the crop, and
my opinion on the final result of the trial.

Your directions, given to me in writing, were as follow :—To manure
Numbered thus—

RS ani p:
1.—2 0 0 with 40 loads (tons) of farm-yard dung.
2.—2 0 O with 20 ditto, and 3cwt. of Guano.
3.—2 0 0 with 20 ditto, and 50 bushels of Daniel’s B manure.
4—1 0 0O with 4 cwt. Guano.
5.—l1 0 O with 3cwt. ditto.
6.—2 0 0 with 100 bushels of Daniel’s B manure.
8—1 0 O with 2cwt. Guano, 2 dittoin the spring.

In addition, were tried— a

7—1 0O 0 without any manure; and
9.—1 0 O with 3 ewt. 37 lbs. ofvartificial Guano (Potter’s).

The field chosen for the experiment contains 37 acres nearly, and does
not vary much as to quality. It has a gentle inclination to the south,
and was in all respects in such a state of cultivation as to give an equal
chance to each parcel: it was a clover ley, and had been mown twice
during the summer, yielding at the least 3 tons of hay to the acre, and,
when ploughed, above half a ton more per acre was buried.

The allotments having been carefully measured off, and plugs driven
firmly in to mark their bounds, the dung-carting, ploughing, and press-
ing being completed, the artificial manures evenly sown, and the whole
sufficiently harrowed, 3 bushels of wheat per acre were drilled on the
27th of October and the following day.

The sowing of the manures on the press, and before the harrow, was to
Pei the wheat from injury by coming too closely in contact with

em.

Observations during the progress of the Crop.—The wheat came
away evenly, except in a very few spots where Daniel’s manure had
touched the seed, and these looked sickly during the winter and spring ;
and, indeed, where Daniel’s manure was the only dressing, the crop
never looked better than No. 7, which had no manure, if so well, The

278 Experiment on Manures.

early part of the summer, being very wet, produced a very luxuriant
growth of straw, especially on the dunged and Guano lots, Nos, 1, 2,
and 4 ; and the want of sun caused weakness and consequent lodging of
the crop. Just before reaping the following note was made :—

No. 1, lodged flat.

No, 2, not quite so much.
No. 3, not much.

No. 4, same as No. 2 nearly,
No. 5, not much.

No. 6, standing.

No. 7, ditto.

No. 8, ditto.

No. 9, ditto.

The reaping began on the 20th August, and was not completed till
the 31st, owing to the wet and unsettled state of the weather ; each
parcel was kept scrupulously apart, and set up upon its own land; and
here the difference of bulk in straw was very evident, but where it was
most lodged, soft and spongy.

On the 2nd of September the lots were housed separately in good
order, except one, which was put ina small rick in the field (also in
good order). :

The thrashing having been completed, below is the produce:

No.| Quantity. Best. Second. | Tail. Total. Weight of Straw.

A. R. v.| Bush, | Ibs. |Bush.| Ibs. |Bush.] Ibs. | Bush., Ibs. [Tons. ewt. qrs. Ibs.
Le] 2:0 10 62 63 3 533) 3 51 | 68 4219 Oo 2 (Oa re
2);2 0 0 68 622 | 3 56 | 6 47 | 77 4717 3 6 2.16
Sul oe AG A, 65 623 | 5 60 | 4 48 | 74 4579 | 2 19.3) 20
“Wl to) ea tea) 28 623 | 22) 6O | 22 | 48 | 33 2015 1 Vis 3 ae
a ee ie ee |] 32 633 | 24 | 54 | 2 40 | 36} | 2241 I's ily
6/2 0 0 564 632 | 34 | 57 | 3 42 | 63 3917 2... f 820
7/1 0 0| 29 | 63%] 1 | 57] 14| 44] 312 | 1960| 1 3 1 3
Bid ed 30 624 | 22 | 58 | 2 47 43 | 2093 108 oie
944.0). 0) 27 62 2 52 | 13 | 41] © | 1849 Ls otal

It appears from the above that guano and dung combined yielded the
greatest bulk of both wheat and straw; that Daniel's B manure and
dung came next as to wheat, but much under in straw.

That guano alone yielded a larger crop of wheat than dung alone, but
less straw ; that the omission of all manure produced a better crop than
Daniel’s manure, though not quite so much stray.

That guano sown in Autumn and spring is not so good as all sown in
the Autumn ;

And that artificial guano is, like Daniel’s manure, worse than nothing
on such a soil, and in such a season,

Although dung has iu this instance been secondary, I am inclined to
believe that this is entirely owing to the season, the wet May and June
having caused the wheat to be too luxuriant.

I consider the dung in No. 3 to have produced the crop, and that

Bathing of Lambs as a Cure for the Scour. 279

Daniel’s manure is of no use for wheat on your farm; for proof of this
compare Nos. 6 and 7. ‘7

I think Potter’s guano is not adapted for a wheat crop, and that it is
more fit as a dressing for turnips, one of its great constituents being bone-
dust, which may be, and no doubt is, an excellent dressing for wheat
when in a more decomposed state ; but I think certainly not in so fresh
a state as now made.

To conclude—I feel more disposed than ever to hold by the opinion
given to you when you first spoke to me of using Daniel’s manure,
which was, that bone-dust is by far the best agent to improve a worn-out
farm, and to enable it ultimately to maintain itself by producing great
crops of turnips, heavy crops of straw, and consequently yards full of
manure, made from the combination of these in the fattening of cattle.

TI remain, Sir William,
Your obedient Servant,

Wo. Fowtie.
Red House, near Hursley, Dec. 5th, 1843.

C=

II.—On the Bathing of Lambs as a Cure for the Scour.
By Ricuarp Fisuer.

Havine lost a great many lambs from the scour, I think it right -to
inform you what I know, from experience, to be the most beneficial
yemedy in that complaint. When the lambs are affected as above men-
tioned, I have them dipped for twelve mornings successively: a running
stream is preferable toa pond. The lambs should be kept on old turf.
My lambs have been affected from July to October.

I think the origin of the complaint alluded to in lambs arises, in a great:
degree, from the land being overstocked; but- I have known it occur
where the land has been lightly stocked. My lambs have sometimes
been affected with the scour when with the ewes, but more frequently
when weaned ; and they usually appear in good health before the attack.
I always put lambs upon first and second seeds. They are most liable
to the complaint from the middle of June till October. The land the
lambs are upon may be considered dry, as it consists of marl aud gravel.
I am not aware that they are affected by any changes of the atmosphere.
When a post mortem examination has been made, I have never seen the
liver affected, but a great deal of water in the intestines. Some of my
lambs have lived a month after they have been attacked, and others have
died in a few hours; and I have known them recover without any
means being tried, but have invariably found that medicine has done
harm. Sainfoin is the most bencficial food when suffering from the
complaint. I have my lambs dipped at eight o’clock in the morning,
and there are no pains taken to dry them afterwards. I have adopted
this plan for three years, and find it tends more to their recovery than
any other means [ have tried.

RicHArp FIsHER.
Alcester Lodge, Nov. 25th, 1843.

( 280 )

Il].—£xperiment on the Use of Charcoal as a Manure.
By the Eart or Essex.

To Ph, Pusey, Esq.

Sir,—From the consideration that both salt and charcoal are not only
direct food to plants, but also powerful absorbents and retainers of mois-
ture, I made, during the late severe drought, the following experiment :

No. 1, I put in turnip-seed alone (Skirvings).

No. 2, the seed, mixed with 5 times its weight of salt, and 9 times its
- bulk of common charcoal refuse-dust.

No. 3, seed of tne same kind, mixed with 12 bulks of charcoal-dust only.

All three put in the same day in drills, on the same ground, which
had had no manure for three vears. The ground at the time (3rd June)
was as dry as dust: in five days Nos. 2 and 3 came up well, No. 3 soon,
however, rapidly taking the lead. At the end of a fortnight all were
slightly watered, but the soil was so drv that No.1 did not vegetate ;
Nos. 2 and 3, however, grew rapidly. At the end of five weeks we had
heavy rains, and in a few days No. 1 at last appeared, and then No. 3
almost grew visibly.

The three plants I exhibited to the Council this day (17th July) bore
the following proportions to each other :—

No. 1, just coming into rough leaf.

No. 2, eleven inches long from end of root to the head; and

No. 3, twenty inches, and as big as my little finger at the crown of
the root, and very vigorous. I may add, that the first week in May I
sowed six acres of carrots with charcoal, the ground at the time being
quite dusty, and no rain falling for many weeks. Carrots, under the
most favourable circumstances of rain, &c., seldom come up in less than
four or five weeks. Mine, in spite of the drought, were well up in three
weeks, and held their own during the drought. The efficacy of the
charcoal would not be so apparent in moist weather, but under no cir-
cumstances can do injury.

By ‘12 bulks,’’ I mean, that putting, say, 2 quarts of seed to the
acre, I should well mix with it 24 quarts of charcoal-dust; 8 less than
a bushel.

Below I send a scale of the plants.

Your obedient servant,
Cassiobury, Watford, July 17th. Essex.

|

1V.— On White Carrots. By Sir Cuarres Burrett.

Havine now received my bailiff's explanations I may yet be in time to
make the desired statement respecting my culture and use of white
cattle carrots. In the spring of 1843, 5 acres were sown, of which
4% acres with white and 3 an acre with red Altringham carrots, to test
their worth against the white—some seedsmen having asserted that they
would answer equally well, perhaps from having great difficulty in sup-
plying the demand for the white carrot seed, which was very scarce in
the spring of 1843: the sowing of the Altringham was unsuccessful, as
also $ an acre of land sown with the white, consequently I had only
4 acres, producing 1200 bushels per acre, or in the whole 4800 bushels ;
with these twenty-four fatting beasts were fed, adding equal quantities
of swede turnips (both sliced by a machine), together with hay and oil-
cake up to the month of April, 1844. For my cart-horses, twenty in
number, about 10 lbs. of white carrots were used with a little corn and
. hay, from November, 1843, to the following April; and the carrots were
further applied in feeding twenty-four cows and two bulls to the same
period, with very great economy of hay.

The land for carrots was dressed with sea-weed trenched into the
grouud in the autumn previous to frosty weather. The carrots were
sown in April, and my bailiffs observation leads to the conclusion that
carrots do not draw the ground more than swede turnips. In preparing
for a crop of swedes, however, we necessarily dress the land well ; whereas
for carrots we seldom dress the ground, sowing them generally after
wheat, or after oats and seeds. In fact this season I have a very pro-
mising crop of flax after carrots without any dressing.

The land which last year bore carrots is now in fallow for wheat. In
preparation for carrots deep trenching is much preferable to ploughing,
however deep, the crops being better; and this season the preference for
drilling carrots over, sowing broadcast, is very evident.

Having stated that the introduction of white carrot culture econo-
mised hay, I proceed to offer proofs as follow :

In 1842—238 acres of seeds and grass produced 200 loads of hay;
and when hay-making commenced in 1843 I had about 50 loads of old
hay only in reserve.

In 1543—260 acres of seeds and grass produced 505 loads of hay,
besides 21 acres of clover, producing 19 loads; and I had about
400 loads of hay in reserve when hay-making commenced in 1844.

Showing a beneficial reserve of hay, chiefly to be attributed to the
united effects of a very good crop of hay in 1843, and the reduction of
its consumption by the use of white cattle carrots, grown to considerable
perfection on clay land in the weald of Sussex, a soil which, without
thorough good and frequent under-drainage, combined with a high state
of cultivation, offers no hope of growing a crop of good swede turnips.

July 4th, 1844.
N.B. Carrot-seed is very easily saved by transplanting some of the

carrots of smaller size into portions of gardens, where not liable to
injury by rabbits or hares.

TT
a a

( 282 ) :

V.—Statement of the Situation of the Labourers in the Village of
Saxby, on the Lincolnshire Wolds.

By Mr. Jonn Horstey.

Iy the first place, the cottages are good, being brick and tile, and contain
each four rooms, viz., two low rooms and two chambers, besides a back
kitchen, pantry, &c. &c. For the cottage alone the rent charge is 30s., to
each of which is attached about an acre (some more, some less) of garden
ground, for which they pay 28s. per acre, the average rent of their
_ meadow and pasture land. Those keeping one cow have about 4 acres
of meadow and pasture, and those keeping two cows about 7 or 8 acres,
exclusive of the garden above described. The labourer’s wages are
13s. 6d.* per week; this has been the stated wages during the winter.
The garden ground is cultivated with potatoes, which enables them to
feed two or three good pigs, which on an average weigh about 25 stone
(14 lbs. to the stone): one pig they generally contrive to sell for the
Michaelmas rent, the other for their own consumption. During the spring
they have generally a good fat calf, which will fetch from 3/. to 3/. 10s.

Having given you the principle upon which our cottages are rented, I
will give you (as under) a few of the names, with the particulars, as they
stand in the rent-roll :— .

Quantity. | Annual Value.

Ae RP, Le fs ae
George Atkinson, two cows ee ee i oa oe
Jonathan Ashton, one do. 4 1 34 715 2D
John Brocklesby, one do. op o2g |)
William Blair, one do. 3 3 30 ieee hs
John Clayton, one do. $° 0°43 ae
William Jackson, one do. . 4027 | a ee
Isaac Marshall, one do. i 8 4 0
John Oglesby, two do. 8 119 |J2 ae
John Pocklington, two do. 1. O. 4 2 ee
Thomas Stephenson, two do. . T Soe) ae
George Turner, one do. : 3 3 31 7 0 0
John Twidle, one do. . «. . 2 3) a) ee
Joseph Thistleton, two do. § 925°) 3) 0
John Walker, one do. 4 Sie. 3 7

_ What I have stated above is a fair specimen. We have in this parish
about forty cottagers, and I am happy to see them all comfortably fixed.
The farmers generally draw the hay and coals for the cottagers in their
employ. I have great pleasure in giving the particulars of our cot-
tagers, and I should be glad to hear of other landlords following the
example.

Saxby, near Barton-on-Humber, Joun Horsey.

2nd April, ‘1842.

* The wages would be vow » about ‘12s.

—

( 283 )

VI.—Chesterman’s newly-invented Portable Steaming Apparatus,
for steaming Potatoes or any other Vegetable-Roots for Cattle.

Tuis is a very convenient apparatus, and an extremely cheap one. It
will be found especially beneficial to farmers, butchers, and other feeders
of pigs and cattle ; and is calculated to supersede in many cases the fixed
furnace, as it can be removed at pleasure from one part of the home-
stead, or of the farm, to atiother: and, from the simplicity of its
construction, there is not the least danger of its getting out of order.
Another important consideration is the great saving effected in consump-
tion of fuel, as 8 or 10 sacks of potatoes can be steamed with 1 cwt. of
coals. ‘The apparatus is so constructed that all the pernicious quality
contained in the potato is entirely extracted, and runs off in the process
of steaming, and the potato comes out, of the most beautiful flavour, and
perfectly dry and mealy. The boiler may at any time be used separate
from the steamer where a large quantity of hot water is required for any
purpose, and may be removed to any place at pleasure, with the greatest
safety.

The apparatus, at prices varying from 4/. to 6/. (according to size),
with full directions for use, may be obtained by applying to the inyentor
and manufacturer, W. Chesterman, engineer, &c., Faringdon, Berks.

Reference (4) Opening for supply of Fuel. (b) Opening for supply of Water,
(c) Tap for drawing off Water. (d¢) Opening of Fire Grate. (¢) Elbow Pipe, con-
mane the Boiler and Steamer, (f-) Pipe for carrying off the pernicious extract from

otatoes.

VII.—£xtract of a Letter from Governor Grey, dated Adelaide,
South Australia, December 18, 1843.

Tue Colony continues to prosper, and the only event which has created
any sensation is the complete success which has attended the operations
of a newly-invented reaping-machine, invented in the colony. This
machine reaps, thrashes, and winnows all at the same time, and this at
the rate of nearly an acre an hour, the machine requiring to be attended
by two men, and to be pushed by two horses. The corn is at once taken
from the machine (which is stopped for the purpose when it is filled),
and put into bags for exportation. The total sum charged for this
operation is LOs. per acre; the sowing of corn, time, and labour, and
consequently of expense, is very great. The inventor of the machine
anticipates that, next year, the whole of these operations will cost much
less than 10s. per acre. I have seen this machine at work, and was
quite satisfied as to its success.

You will say, but we shall soon make such a machine in England,
when the principle is known. It is, however, based upon a peculiarity
in this climate, and could, I think, only succeed in a similar very dry
climate.

I must now give you a description of this invention. It is something
like a cart, pushed forward by two horses instead of being drawn. In
front of the machine is a very large steel comb, which is pushed forward
and seizes the straw of the wheat as an ordinary comb seizes hair. As
the machine is moved forward, the straws are by the motion drawn through
the comb, until the head, or the part containing the grain, is caught in
the comb, and dragged up towards the mouth of the machine.

From the peculiar dryness of this climate, the wheat (what is termed)
sheds very easily, that is, the corn or grain falls very readily out of the
husk ; indeed so much so, that wheat cannot be reaped here in the usual
manner without considerable loss from the shedding. As soon, there-
fore, as the head of the wheat is caught in the comb, the grain is, as it
were, combed out, and falls down the comb to the mouth of the machine.
That part of the head of the wheat which does not get through the comb
(which is too fine to admit it until the grain has fallen out) is ultimately
dragged up to the mouth of the machine, where it is knocked off by an
apparatus like that of the ordinary thrashing-machine, and the wheat is
then thrashed in the same manner as in other thrashing-machines ;
whilst the rapid advance of the machine creates a strong draft, by the
aid of which the corn is winnowed. The straw is left standing. So
much of it as is required for manure, &c. is mown, and the remainder is
burnt.

VIII.— On the Italian Rye grass (Folium Trefolium). From
Josuua Ropwe tt.

My Lorp Presivent ann GENTLEMEN,—My object in again venturing
to address you upon the subject of the [talian rye-grass, is for the pur-
pose of stating to you the result of my further experience and observa-

On the Italian Rye-grass. 285

tions upon the culture of this valuable introduction to British agriculture,
taking it for granted that your Journal will be open to the fair discussion
and correction of any communications that may have heen made upon this
(or upon any other) subject. In reference, therefore, to my statement
made to your Society in March, 1841, and inserted in your Journal
(vol. ii. p. 214), I have the satisfaction of remarking that the ex-
perience of every subsequent year has fully borne out, not only the use-
fulness and productive qualities of this plant beyond any other rye-grass
with which I have been able to compare it, but that its properties asa
preparation for wheat (or any other successive crop) are not liable to the
objections that have been so unjustly made to it. It is, however, for
the purpose of stating for the information of your Society and the public,
that although a name and certain characteristics are taken as the test of
this grass, no other kind being considered genuine but that which in its
growth is pale-coloured, upright in its stem, and being the produce of
seed with a long awn (or tail); but I am furnished with proofs indis-
putable that these characteristics are not descriptive of the best kind of
Italian rye-grass, but that the most productive and most nutritive plant
is that which has a more fibrous root, producing a dark-coloured spread-
ing stem, the produce of seed which has a short awn (or tail); and I beg
therefore to state that this conviction is the result of very close attention
to the growth and application of this grass fur the three last years,
against my previous predilections upon the subject, fostered as they have
been by the public taste, the long-awned seed having hitherto been con-
sidered the only genuine stock, and consequently the only marketable
commodity in every seed-market in England. But that your Society may
feel the force of my observations, I beg to relate to them the details of .
my proceedings. Having observed in the growth of my crop which I re-
ported on in your Journal in the year 1841, some plants that were, as I
supposed, not genuine, that is, not of the pale colour, nor producing seed
with long awns, I determined upon a fresh importation of seed direct
from Italy, from which I have since tested the properties of the two
varieties, both of which I have since cultivated with great care and at-
tention; and I am now fully convinced, from every comparison I have
made, not only of the different kinds of plants in different fields, but of
both kinds in the same fields, and in every case have satisfactory proof
that the best grass, viz. that which is the most productive and the most
nutritive for all cattle, is the plant which spreads upon the ground, is
dark-coloured, and being the produce of secd with short awn (or tail) ;
and my conclusion has been more fully confirmed during the past week
by testing the varieties, both in weight and bulk, finding that the dark-
coloured plants from the seed of the short-awned grass exceed both in
weight and bulk the pale-coloured plants by more than 30 per cent.

It will be also worthy the observation of those who intend to cultivate
this grass, that if intended as a biennial or a perennial grass, in that
case the dark-coloured is much preferable to the pale-coloured grass,
the former branching and becoming thicker, and the latter spindling up
and thus becoming thinner in plant every succeeding year.

I have only to add my readiness to supply specimens of these plants
to your rooms, if it is desired that I should do so, or, should any gentle-

286 On the Italian Rye-grass.

man wish to inspeet my growth this year, which is upwards of 100 acres,
it would give me great pleasure to see them in Suffolk.
I have the honour to be, my Lord and Gentlemen,
Your obedient and faithful servant,

Josnua Ropwe tt.
Alderton, April 2th, 1844,

Buchanay Farm, April 29th, 1844.
Srr,—Agreeably to your directions I have tried the specimens of Italian
- grass by weight, which I have done with the greatest care and without
prejudice ; I selected ten plants or entire roots of each sort in each of
two different fields, which I find by weighing to come as follows :—
, lbs. oz.
Pale grass pulled and dirt beaten out of roots, the: ten
weighed . é ° ; ; ; ? - 2 Oi elt

Brown, with same treatment . Z 4 é op [bathe
Pale grass with roots cut off just above ground ss. :. O 20
Brown ditto . : : , ; : s ; OC T14

In another Field.

Pale grass treated as above (ten roots) , ‘ . (i
Brown ditto . 4 F ‘ j d , / 200

Pale without root . 3 i : . : i Pee
Brown ditto . 3 , - ‘ > rs 3 Le

The pale grass is produced by the seed with a long tail; the seed of
the brown grass has but a very short tail, and is much the heaviest seed.

I did for some time advocate the pale grass, but I am brought by
experience to become an advocate for the brown, which everything tells
me is quite superior. First, I believe that 1 peck of the brown grass sown
on 1 acre, will produce a bottom equal to 3 pecks of the pale grass.
Secondly, in point of quality the cattle will soon decide that, for feed
what kind of cattle you choose with it, they will very carefully select the
brown from the pale, whether green or in hay; if in hay the pale is so
very coarse that they will select the brown from it, and if fed on the
layer green, the pale is always the last that is eaten. Thirdly, and what I
think is of great importance, I am persuaded the brown is the best pre-
paration for wheat, on account of its not growing in such large rough
hollow bunches. The pale by growing all in bunches never forms on the
face of the land what we call a tough flag, while the brown, on the con-
trary, by spreading on the surface, forms a face equal, if not superior,
to any grass I have ever seen; and I quite believe, in fact I am quite
sure, that, sow what quantity you will of the pale grass, you cannot get a
good bottom without some of the brown with it. If you, Sir, or any one
else, look at our layers this spring, I am sure there will be sufficient evi-

On the Italian Rye-grass. 287

dence to confirm what I have said on the two points, of the cattle eating
them where we have fed, and likewise of the beautiful bottom which the
brown grass forms both where we have fed and where we have not fed.
I am, Sir, your humble servant,
Tomas Scorcumer, Farming Bailiff.
To. J. Rodwell, Esq.,
Alderton Hall.

1X.—Mode of procuring Water for Irrigation in Affghanistan.

Attu the high mountain peaks in the valley of Kojuk and Pisheen are
covered with snow in March and April. The valley slopes from north
to south, and also from east to west. It is studded with villages, which
are hid amongst gardens and orchards, and is a lovely plain, being re-
freshed with sweet waters, and clothed with luxuriant vegetation. It is
intersected by numerous small canals and water-cuts, which are supplied
by means of khareez. These khareez, upon which so much depends in
Affghanistan, consist of a number of shafts or wells sunk in the upper
part of the plain where there is water, until they meet with springs.
They are connected at the bottom by subterraneous galleries, and the
whole united in one canal, which is carried under ground down the valley
at nearly the same level, or at least with only sufficient slope, so as fo
cause the water to flow; while the slope of the country being much
greater, the canal, of course, gradually emerges to the surface. Wells
are sunk along the line at the distance of every 15 or 20 yards, through
which the soil is brought up from the canal, and air admitted to the
workmen. They are never closed, but remain a line of open wells,
marking the course of the canal underground, which are often of great .
length, being many miles. When the canal makes its appearanee on
the surface of the country, and becomes an open water-course, it is often
carried for 20 or 30 miles, fertilizing the country through which it
passes. A number of these khareez, which unite together at a place
called Sir-i-Ab, or Head of the Spring, a few miles south of Kwettah,
form the source of the Shadeezy Lora river, a considerable stream, of
great importance to the country, being thus in a manner artificially

X.—On the Analysis of Guano. By Anprew Ure, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c.

Tuts extraordinaty excrementitious deposit of certain sea-fowls, which
occurs in immense quantities upon some parts of the coasts of Peru,
Bolivia, and Africa, has lately become an object of great commercial
enterprise, and of intense interest to our agricultural world. Four or
five years ago it was exhibited and talked of merely as a natural curiosity.
No one could then have imagined that in a short period it would be
imported from the coasts of the Pacific in such abundance, and at such
a moderate price, as to cheer by its fertilizing powers the languid and
depressed spirits of the farmers throughout the United Kingdom, Such,

288 On the Analysis of Guano.

however, is now the result, as attested by the concurring Reports of
almost all the Agricultural Societies of Great Britain and Ireland. No
less than 28,500 tons of guano have been already imported from Peru
and Bolivia, 1500 from Chile, and 7000 from Africa, altogether
37,000 tons, while more is on the way. The store of it, laid up from
time immemoriz! in the above localities, seems to be quite inexhaustible ;
especially since it is receiving constant accessions from myriads of
cormorants, flamingos, cranes, &c.

Having been much occupied with the chemical analyses of guano
during the last two years for Messrs. Gibbs, of London, aud Messrs.
Myers, of Liverpool, who are the co-agents of the Peruvian and Bolivian
governments, I have enjoyed favourable opportunities of examining
samples of every description, and hope to show that many of the analyses
of guano hitherto published have been made upon specimens not in
their normal or sound state, like the best imported by the above houses
from Chincha and Bolivia, but in a certain state of eremacausis* and
decay.

Huano, in the language of Peru, signifies dung: a word spelt by the
Spaniards, guano. The natives have employed it as a manure from the
remotest ages, and have by its means given fertility to the otherwise un-
productive sandy soils along their coasts. While Peru was governed by
its native Incas, the birds were protected from violence by severe laws.
The punishment of death was decreed to the persons who dared to land
on the guaniferous islands during the breeding period of the birds, and to
all persons who destroyed them at any time. Overseers were appointed
by the government to take care of the guano districts, and to assign to
each claimant his due share of the precious dung. The celebrated
Baron Von Humboldt first brought specimens to Europe in 1804,
which he sent for examination to Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Klaproth,
the best analytical chemists of the day; and he spoke of it in the follow-
ing terms :—“ The guano is deposited in layers of 50 or 60 feet thick
upon the granite of many of the South-sea islands off the coast of Peru.
During 300 years the coast birds have deposited guano only a few lines
in thickness. This shows how great must have been the number of
birds, and how many centuries must have passed over in order to form
the present guano beds.” The strata have undergone many changes,
according to the length of time they have been deposited. Here and
there they are covered with siliceous sand, and have thus been protected
from the influence of the weather; but in other places, they have lain
open to the action of light, air, and water, which have produced im-
portant changes upon them. Fresh guano is of a whitish or very pale
drab colour, but it becomes progressively browner and browner by the
joint influence of the above three atmospherical agents. Only one guano
examined by Fourcroy and Vauquelin was found to contain a fourth of
its weight of uric acid combined with ammonia, whence that appears to
have been well selected by Baron Von Humboldt. They also found

* The decomposition of animal and vegetable bodies by the joint action
of air and water is shown by Liebig to be analogous to their combustion—
as denoted by the term eremacausis, a Greek work, signifying slow com-
bustion.

OO

On the Analysis of Guano. 289

phosphates of ammonia, of lime, and of potash and ammonia, with some
other constituents of little value in agriculture, Klaproth’s analysis
reported 16 per cent. of urate of ammonia, no less than 12°75 of
oxalate of lime, 10 of phosphate of lime, 32 of clay and sand, with
28°15 of water and indeterminate organic matter. From the great pro-
portion of clay and sand, Klaproth’s sample of guano was obviously not
genuine. I have met with no specimen of Peruvian guano that con-
tained any appreciable quantity of clay, and none that contained above
4 or 5 per cent. of siliceous sand.

To Mr. Bland, of the firm of Messrs. Myers and Co., I am indebted
for the following valuable information :—

The Chincha islands, which afford the best Peruvian guano, are three
in number, and lie in one line from north to south, about half a mile
apart. Each island is from 5 to 6 miles in circumference, and consists
of granite covered with guano in some places to a height of 200 feet, in
successive horizontal strata, each stratum being from 3 to 10 inches
thick, and varying in colour from light to dark-brown. No earthy
matter whatever is mixed with this vast mass of excrement. At Mr.
Bland’s visit to these islands in 1842, he observed a perpendicular sur-
face of upwards of 100 feet of perfectly uniform aspect from top to
bottom. [n some parts of these islands, however, the deposit does not
exceed 3 or 4 feet in thickness. In several places, where the surface of
the guano is 100 feet or more above the level of the sea, it is strewed
here and there with masses of granite, like those from the Alpine moun-
tains, which are met with on the slopes of the Jura chain. These seem
to indicate an ancient formation for the guano, and terraquecus con-
vulsions since that period. No such granite masses are found imbedded
within the guano, but only skeletons of birds.

The good preservation of the Chincha guano is to be ascribed to the
absence of rain ; which rarely, if ever, falls between the latitude of 14° ©
south, where these islands lie, about 10 miles from the main land, and
the latitude of Paquica, on the coast of Bolivia, in 21S. L. By far
the soundest cargoes of guano which I have analyzed have come from
Chincha and Bolivia. Beyond these limits of latitude, where rain falls
in greater or less abundance, the guano is of less value—and what has
been imported from Chile has been found by me far advanced in decay
—wmost of the ammonia and azotized animal substances having been de-
composed by moisture, and dissipated in the air (by the eremacausis of
Liebig), leaving phosphate of lime largely to predominate along with
effete organic matter. The range of the American coast from which the
guano is taken must therefore be well considered ; and should not extend
much beyond the Chincha islands as the northern limit, and Paquica, in
Bolivia, as the southern.

The relative estimation of guano and nitrate of soda among the
Peruvians is well shown by the following facts communicated to me by
Mr. Bland :—“ Near the coast of Peru, about 45 miles from Iquique
(the shipping port of guano), there is the chief deposit of nitrate of
soda, The farmers, who collect and purify this natural product, carry
it to the place of shipment, and always require to be paid in return with
an equivalent quantity of guano, with which they manure their land, to
the exclusion of the far cheaper nitrate of soda. We cannot be surprised

VOL. V. U

290 On the Analysis of Guano.

at this preference, when we learn that in the valley of Chancay, about
40 miles distant from Lima, the soil produces, when farmed with irriga-
tion in the natural way, a return upon maize of only 15 for 1; whereas,
with the aid of guano, it produces 300 fer 1! Hence the Peruvian pro-
verb :—Huano, though no saint, works many miracles. :

In the pamphlet recently published by Messrs. Gibbs and Myers,
entitled “Peruvian and Bolivian Guano; its nature, properties, and
results,” we have a very interesting view of the best established facts
With regard to its operation and effects upon every variety of soil, and in
every variety of circumstance, as ascertained by the most intelligent
agriculturists of the United Kingdom. The general conclusion that may
be fairly deduced from the whole evidence is, that good gnano will,
under judicious application, increase the crops of grain, turnips, potatoes,
and grass by about 33 per cent. ; and with its present price of 10/ per
ton, at a cost considerably under the average cost of all other manures,
whether farm-yard dung and composts, or artificial compounds. Guano
is, Moreover, peculiarly adapted to horticultural and floricultural im-
provement, by its relative cleanliness and facility of application.

The following observations upon guano, by Dr. Von Martius, of
Munich, addressed to the Agricultural Society of Bavaria, deserve atten-
tion :—“* Among animal manures,” says he, “ it clearly claims the first
place. It is uncommonly rich in ammoniacal salts, which act very
favourably on vegetation. The ease with which these salts are decom-
posed, and exhale their ammonia into the air, is by him assigned as the
reason why plants manured with guano generally present early in the
Morning accumulations of dew on the points of their leaves. The guano
absorbs the atmospheric vapour, as well as carbonic acid; whereby it
becomes so valuable a manure in dry barren regions. If we compare
guano with other excrementitious manures, we shall find it far preferable
to those afforded by man or other mammalia, which do not generally
contain more than 20 per cent. of food that can be appropriated hy
plants. It is therefore five times better than night-soil, and also very
superior to the French poudrette which (being dried night-soil) loses,
through putrefaction and evaporation, the greater proportion of its am-
monial elements. In birds, the excretions both of the kidneys and in-
testines are contained in the cloaca ; whereby the volatile elements of the
former get combined with the more fixed components of the latter.’

The guano is also a richer manure, on account of its being produced
by sea-fowl, which live entirely on fish, without admixture of vegetable
matter. The exposure also of the guano as soon as deposited to the heat
of a tropical sun, in a rainless climate, prevents the components from fer-
menting, and mummifies them, so to speak, immediately into a concrete
substance not susceptible of decomposition till it gets moisture ; whereas
the dung of our dove-cots suffers a considerable loss by exposure to our
humid atmosphere. But in their action on vegetation, and in their
chemical composition, these two bird excrements are analogous. Davy
found in fresh dove-cot manure 23 parts in 100 soluble in water, which

ielded abundance of carbonate of ammonia by distillation, and left ear-
onaceous matter, saline matter, principally common salt, and carbonate
of lime as a residuum. Pigeons’ dung readily ferments, but after
fermentation afforded only 8 per cent. of soluble matter, which gave

On the Analysis of Guano. 291

proportionably less carbonate of ammonia in distillation than the dung
recently voided. Dr. Von Martius proceeds to compare the propor-
tion of soluble salts in guano and pigeons’ dung, and thinks that by that
comparison alone he can establish the superiority of the former; but he
should have considered that the insoluble urate of ammonia, which is so
powerful and copious a constituent of good guano, and is present in
much smaller proportion in pigeons’ dung, is sufficient of itself to turn
the balance greatly in favour of the Peruvian manure, His general
estimate however, that the manuring power of genuine guano is four
times greater than that of pigeons’ dung, is probably not wide of the
truth. Besides the above-mentioned constituents, guano derives no
small portion of its fertilizing virtue from the great store of phosphoric
acid which it contains, in various states of saline combination, with lime,
magnesia, and ammonia. Of all the principles furnished to plants by
the soil, the phosphates are, according to Liebig, the most important.
They afford, so to speak, the bones and sinews of vegetable bodies, while
ammonia supplies them with their indispensable element, azote. Their
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are derived from the air and water.
Those products of vegetation which are most nutritious to man and
herbivorous animals, such as bread-corn, beans, peas, and lentils, con-
tain the largest proportion of phosphates. The ashes of these vegetable
substances afford no alkaline carbonates. A soil in which phosphates
are not present, is totally incapable of producing the above cereals.
Agreeably to these views, Liebig believes that the importation of 1 ewt.
of guano is equivalent to the importation of 8 cwt. of wheat; so that
1 ewt. of that manure assumes, with due culture, the form of 8 cwt. of
substantial food for man.

Since all these testimonies concur to place this remarkable excremen-
titious product in such high estimation, it becomes a paramount duty of -
the chemist to investigate its composition, and to discover certain means
of distinguishing what may be termed the sound or normal state of
guano, from the decomposed, decayed, and effete condition. The
analysis by Fourcroy and Vauquelin of a sample of guano presented to
them by Baron Von Humboldt, gave the following composition in 100
parts :—

Urate of ammonia ; . > , 9°0
Oxalate ofammonia . “ ; - - 10°6
Oxalate of lime . = . ; ; » Fo
Phosphate of ammonia . - ; 4 ,. 6&9
Phosphate of ammonia and magnesia } - 26
Sulphate of potash “ : , - » 6b
Sulphate of soda . F P , et a
Salammoniac . ; ° ‘ : - 4°92
Phosphate of lime : . 4 : - As
Clay and sand . 2 7 4 ‘ ee cy |
Water and organic matters. , . - 32°3

How different are the constituents from those assigned by Klaproth—
a no less skilful analyst than the French chemists! and how much this
difference shows not only the complexity of the substance, but its very
variable nature !
The general results of an analysis by Professor Johnston, ee in
U 3

292 On the Analysis of Guano.

his paper on guano, in the 3rd part of the 2nd volume of the Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, are as follows :—
Ammonia . : : : : : ot Vane
Uric acid . : ; : d : A
Water and carbonic and oxalic acids, &c., ex-

pelled by a red heat : 2) SSS

Common salt, with a little sulphate and phosphate
of soda ‘ : : - : . 11°4
Phosphate of lime, &c. . : : ‘ s 629s
100-0

The specimen of guano represented by this analysis must have been
far advanced in decomposition, as shown by the very scanty portion of
uric acid; and must have been originally impure, from the large pro-
portion of common salt, of which [ have not found above 3 or 4 per
cent. in any of the genuine guanos which I have had occasion to analyze.
In another sample, Professor Johnston found 44°4 of phosphate of lime,
with a little phosphate of magnesia, and carbonate of lime. These re-
sults resemble, to a certain degree, those which I have obtained in ana-
lyzing several samples of Chilian and African guanos, especially in the
predominance of the earthy phosphates. The proportion of ammonia
which can be extracted by the action of hydrate of soda and quicklime,
at an elevated temperature, is the surest criterion of the soundness of
the guano ; for by this process we obtained not only the ready-formed
ammonia, frora its several saline compounds, but also the ammonia pro-
ducible from its uric acid, and undefined animal matter. These two
latter quantities have been hitherto too little regarded by most analysts,
though they constitute the most durable fund of azote for the nutrition
of plants. Uric acid, and urate of ammonia, which contains 10-11ths of
uric acid, being both nearly insoluble in water, and fixed at ordinary
temperatures, continue to give out progressively to plants in the soil, the
azote, of which they contain fully one-third of their weight. Under the
influence of oxygen and a certain temperature, uric acid passes through
a very remarkable series of transformations; producing allantoin, urea,
and oxalic acid, which eventually becomes carbonic acid. These changes
are producible immediately by the action of bviling water and peroxide
of lead. From these metamorphoses we can readily understand how so
much oxalate of ammonia and of lime is reported in many analyses of
guano, though none, I believe, is to be found in the normal state, as it is
occasionally imported from the Chincha Islands and Bolivia; nor were
any oxalates found in the dung of the gannet, as analyzed by Dr. Wol-
laston, or of the sea-eagle, according to the following analysis of Coindet:
—ammonia, 9°21 per cent.; uric acid, 84°65; phosphate of lime,
6°13= 100. The Peruvian sea-fowl, by feeding exclusively on fish,
would seem to swallow a large proportion of earthy phosphates ; since,
in the purest guano that has come in my way, I have found these salts
to amount to from 12 to 15 per cent.

Dr. Von Martius proposes to use the degree of solubility of the guano
in water as a good criterion of its quality ; but this is a most fallacious
test. Sound guano contains from 20 to 25 per cent. of insoluble urate
of ammonia; nearly as much undefined animal matter, along with from

On the Analysis of Guano. 293

15 to 20 of earthy phosphates ; leaving no more than 50 or 55 per cent.
of soluble matter, exclusive of moisture; whereas decayed guano yields
often 60 or 70 per cent. of its weight to water, in consequence of the
uric acid and animal matter being wasted away, and the large portion of
moisture in it, the latter amounting very often to from 25 to-35 per
cent. The good Peruvian guano does not lose more than from 7 to 9
per cent. by drying, even at a heat of 212° F.; and this loss necessarily
includes a little ammonia. Each analysis of guano executed for the
information of the farmer should exhibit definitely and accurately to at
least 1 per cent. :—

1. The proportion of actual ammonia.

2. The proportion of ammonia producible also from the uric acid and
azotized animal matter present ; and which may be called the potential
ammonia. ‘This is a most valuable product, which is, however, to be
obtained only from well-preserved dry guano.

3. The.proportion of uric acid, to which, if 1-l1th of the weight be
added, the quantity of urate of ammonia is given.

4. The proportion of the phosphates of lime and magnesia.

5. The proportion of fixed alkaline salts, distinguishing the potash
from the soda salts; the former being more valuable, and less readily
obtainable: the latter can be obtained by the use of common salt.
Wheat, peas, rye, and potatoes require for their successful cultivation a
soil containing alkaline salts, especially those of potash.

6. The proportion of sandy or other earthy matter, which in genuine
guano, carefully collected, never exceeds 2 per cent., and that is silica.

7. The proportion of water, separable by the heat of 212° F.

The farmer should never purchase guano, except its composition in
the preceding particulars be warranted by the analysis of a competent _
chemist. He should cork up in a bottle a half-pound sample of each
kind of guano that he buys; and, if his crop should disappoint reason-
able expectation, he should cause the samples to be analyzed ; and should
the result not correspond to the analysis exhibited at the sale, he is
fairly entitled to damages for the loss of his labour, rent, crop, &c. The
necessity of following this advice will appear on considering the delu-
sive, if not utterly false, analyses under which cargoes of guano have
been too often sold. In a recent case, which came under my cognizance
in consequence of having been employed professionally to analyze the
identical cargo, I found the guano to be nearly rotten and effete; con-
taining altogether only 24 per cent. of ammonia, 4 per cent. of urate of
ammonia, nearly 9 of sea-salt, 24 of water, and 453 of earthy phos-
phates. Now, this large cargo, of many hundred tons, fetched a high
price at a public sale, under the exhibition of the following analysis :—

Urate of ammonia, ammoniacal salts, and decayed

animal matter : Z ‘ . bh eee
Phosphate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and

oxalate of lime . R P ; 2 ABE
Fixed alkaline salts 4 ‘ 10°8
Earthy and stony matter . - . o obra
Moisture . ‘ ‘ ; . ; Ey 1G

100°0

294 On the Analysis of Guano.

The purchasers, I was told by the broker, bought it readily, under a
conviction that the guano contained 17°4 of ammonia, though the pro-

rtion of ammonia is not stated.

By the following hypothetical analysis much guano has been well
sold :—

** Bone earth, 35; lithic acid, &c., 15; carbonate of ammonia, 14;
organic matter, 36 = 100.”’ I am quite certain that no sample of guano
can contain 14 per cent. of carbonate of ammonia—a very volatile salt.
We shall see presently the state of combination in which the ammonia
exists. It may contain at the utmost 5 per cent. of the carbonate ; but
such guano must have been acted upon powerfully by humidity, and
will therefore contain little or no urid acid.

In the very elaborate examination of guano by T. Oellacher, apothe-
cary at Innsbruck, published in a recent number of Buchner’s reperto-
rium of Pharmacy, it is said, that if a glass red dipped into muriatic
acid be held over guano, strong fumes are developed; and the solution
of guano has an alkaline reaction with litmus-paper. These phenomena
evidently indicate the presence of carbonate of ammonia, and of course a
partially decomposed guano ; for sound Chincha and Bolivian guano have
an acid reaction, proceeding from the predominance of phosphoric acid.
Farmers frequently judge of the goodness of guano by the strength of
the ammoniacal odour; but in this judgment they may egregiously err,
for the soundest guano has no smell of ammonia whatever; and it be-
gins to give out that smell only when it is more or less decomposed and
wasted.

Oellacher could find no evidence of urea in his guano; I have ob-
tained fully 5 per cent. of this substance from good Peruvian guano.

I shall now describe my own system of analysis :—

1. In every case I determine, first of all, the specific gravity of the
guano; which I take by means of spirits of turpentine, with a peculiar
instrument contrived to render the process easy and precise. If it ex-
ceeds 1°75 in density, water being 1°0, it must contain sandy im-
purities, or has an excess of earthy phosphates, and a defect of azotized
animal matter,

2. Itriturate and digest 200 grains of it with distilled water, filter,
dry the insoluble matter, and weigh it.

3. The above solution, diffused in 2000 gr. measures, is examined as
toits specific gravity, and then with test-paper, to see whether it be acid
or alkaline.

4. One half of this solution is distilled along with slaked lime in a
matrass connected with a small quintuple globe condenser, containing
distilled water, and immersed in a basin of the same. As the condens-
ing apparatus terminates in a water-trap, no part of the ammonia can
be lost; and it is all afterwards estimated by a peculiar meter, whose
indications make manifest one hundredth part of a grain.

5. The other half of the solution is mixed with some nitric acid, and
divided into three equal portions.

a, the first portion, is treated with nitrate of barytes, and the resulting
sulphate of barytes is collected, ignited, and weighed.

p the second portion, is treated with nitrate of silver, and the result-
ing chloride of silver ignited and weighed.

ee *
r
On the Analysis of Guano. 295

e, the third portion, has a certain measure of a definite solution of
ferric nitrate mixed with it, and then ammonia in excess. From the
weight of the precipitated subphosphate of iron after ignition, the known
amount of oxide used being deducted, the quantity of phosphoric acid in
the soluble portion of the guano becomes known.

d, the three above portions are now mixed, freed by a few drops of
dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acids from any barytes and silver left
in them, and then tested by nitrate of lime for oxalate of ammonia.
The quantity of oxalate of lime obtained determines that point.

6. The last liquor filtered, being freed from any residuary particles
of lime by oxalate of ammonia, is evaporated ta dryness and ignited, to
obtain the fixed alkaline matter. This being weighed, is then dissolved
im a little water, neutralized with acid, and treated with soda-chloride of
platinum. From the quantity of potash-chloride of platinum which
precipitates, after being filtered, dried, and weighed, the amount of
potash present is deducted; the rest is soda. These bases may be
assigned to the sulphuric, hydrochloric and phosphoric acids, in propor-
tions corresponding to their respective affinities.

7. The proportion of organic matter in the above solution of guano is
determined directly by evaporating a certain portion of it to dryness, and
igniting. The loss of weight, minus the ammonia and oxalic acid,
represents the amount of organic matter.

8. A second portion of a solution of the guano is evaporated to dry-
ness by a gentle steam-heat, weighed, inclosed in a stout well-closed
phial along with alcohol of 0-825, and heated to 212°. After cooling,
the alcoholic solution is decanted or filtered clear, evaporated to dryness
by a gentle heat, and weighed. This is urea, which may be tested by
its conversion into carbonate of ammonia, when heated in a test-tube or
small retort. In this way I have obtained from Bolivian guano 5 per
cent. of urea: a certain proof of its entire soundness.

9. Analysis of the insoluble matter —One-third of it is digested with
heat in abundance of borax-water, containing +4, of the salt, filtered,
and the filter dried by a steam-heat. The lo:s of weiyht indicates the
amount of uric acid, which is verified by supersaturating the filtrate
with acetic or hydrochloric acid, thus precipitating the uric acid, throw-
ing it upon a filter, drying, and weighing it. This weight should nearly
agree with the above loss of weight, the small difference being due to

_ soluble organic matter, sometimes called geine and ulmic acid. The
uric acid is evidenced,—l1, by its specific gravity, which I find to be
only 1°25, as also that of the urate of ammonia; 2, by its affording
fine purple murexide when heated in a capsule along with nitric acid,
and then exposed to the vapour of ammonia from a feather held over
it; 3, by its dissipation when heated, without emitting an empyreumatic

10. Another third of the solid matter is distilled along with half its
weight of slaked lime and ten times its weight of water, in the apparatus
already described, and the ammonia obtained from it estimated.

11. The remaining third having been ignited, is dissolved with a
gentle heat in weak hydrochloric acid, and the remaining silica and
alumina washed on a filter, dried, and weighed. To the hydrochloric so-
lution, dilute sulphuric acid is added, and the mixture is heated till all the

296 On the Analysis of Guano.

hydrochloric acid be expelled, and the greater part of the water. Alcohol
of 0°850 is now poured upon the pasty residuum, and the whole, after
being well stirred, is thrown upon a filter. The phosphoric acid passes
through, as also the magnesia in union with sulphuric acid. The sul-
phate of lime, which is quite insoluble in spirits of wine, being washed
with them, is dried, ignited, and weighed. From the weight of sulphate
of lime, the quantity of phosphate of that earth that was present becomes
known.

12. Ammonia in excess is now added to the filtrate, which throws
down the granular phosphate of ammonia and magnesia. After washing
and drying this powder at a heat of 150°, its weight denotes the quantity

of that compound in the guano.

13. To the filtered liquor (of 12), if a little ammonia be added, and
then muriate of magnesia be slowly dropped in, phosphate of ammonia
and magnesia will precipitate, from the amount of which the quantity of
phosphoric acid may be estimated.

14. The proportion of oxalate of lime is determined by igniting the
washed residuum (ef 9), and placing it in an apparatus for estimating
the quantity of carbonic acid given off in dissolving carbonate of lime.
The apparatus, either Fig. 1 or 2, described in my little treatise on alka-
limetry, will serve that purpose well. I have rarely obtained more than
3er. of carbonic acid from the insoluble residuum of 100 gr. of good
guano; and that corresponds to less than 1} per cent. of oxalate of lime
in the guano. Sometimes no effervescence at all is to be perceived in
treating the washed residuum with acid after its ignition.

15. The carbonate of ammonia in guano is readily determined by
filtering the solution of it in cold water, and neutralizing the ammonia
with a test or alkalimetrical acid (See the Treatise on the Alkalimeter
above referred to).

16. Besides the above series of operations, the following researches
must be made to complete our knowledge of guano. The insoluble re-
siduum (of 10.) which has been deprived by two successive operations
of its uric acid and ammonia, may contain azotized organic matter. It
is to be therefore well dried, mixed with five times its weight of the
usual mixture of hydrate of soda and quicklime, and subjected to gentle
ignition in a glass or iron tube closed at one end, and connected at the
other with an ammonia-condensing apparatus. The amount of ammonia
being estimated by a proper ammonia-meter, represents the quantity of
azote, allowing 14 of this element for 17 of ammonia, being the poten-
tial ammonia corresponding to the undefined animal matter. In a
sample of Peruvian guano, I obtained 5 per cent. of ammonia from this
source.

17. The whole quantity of ammonia producible from guano is to be
determined by gently igniting 25 grains of it, previously well dried, and
then mixed with ten times its weight of the mixture of hydrate of soda
and quicklime (2 parts of the latter to 1 of the former). The ammonia
disengaged is condensed and measured as above described.

18. The ready-formed ammonia is in all cases determined by distilling
a mixture of 100 grains of it with 50 grains of slaked quicklime, con-
densing the disengaged ammonia, and estimating it exactly by the meter.

19. The relation of the combustible and volatile to the incombustible

On the Analysis of Guano. 297

and fixed constituents of guano, is determined by igniting 100 grains of
it in a poised platinum capsule. The loss of weight denotes the amount
of combustible and volatile matter, including the moisture, which is
known from a previous experiment.

20. The insoluble matter is digested in hot water, thrown upon a
filter, dried, and weighed. The loss of weight is due to the fixed alka-
line salts, which after concentrating their solutions, are to be investigated
by appropriate tests—1. nitrate of barytes for the sulphates; 2. nitrate
of silver for the chlorides and phosphates; and 3. soda—chloride of
platinum, for distinguishing the potash from the soda salts.

21. The insoluble matter (of 20.) is digested with heat, in dilute
nitric or hydrochloric acid, and the whole thrown upon a filter. The
silica which remains on the filter is washed, ignited, and weighed. The
lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid, which pass through in solution,
may be determined as already pointed out.

22. I have endeavoured to ascertain if muriate of ammonia be present
in guano, by evaporating its watery solution to dryness, and subliming
the residuum; but I have never obtained a satisfactory portion of sal
ammoniac ; and therefore I am inclined to think there is little of it.
The quantity of chlorine to be obtained from guano is too inconsiderable
to lead to a suspicion of its presence except in combination with sodium
and potassium. Phosphate of soda is also a doubtful product—but if
present, it may be obtained from the saline matter (of 20.) by acidulating
it with nitric acid ; precipitating first with nitrate of barytes, next with
nitrate of silver, taking care to use no excess of these two re-agents, then
supersaturating the residuum with ammonia, and adding acetate of mag-
nesia, when the characteristic double phosphate of this earth should fall,
in case phosphate of soda be present.

By the preceding train of researches, all the constituents of this com-
plex product may be exactly disentangled and estimated ; but they mani-
festly require much care, patience, time, and dexterity, as also a delicate
balance, particularly in using the appropriate apparatus for generating
the potential ammonia, and for measuring the whole of this volatile sub-
stance, separated in the several steps of the process. It may be easily
imagined how little confidence can be reposed in many of the analyses
of guano, framed, I fear, too often with the view of promoting the sale
of an indifferent or even a spurious article of commerce.

A.—TI shall now give in detail my analytical results upon three dif-
ferent samples of good South American guano; and next the general
results upon three samples of African and Chilian guanos :—

1. Guano from Bolivia, imported by the Mary and Anne. This
sample was taken by myself, as an average of several bags in the lighter,
before the cargo was landed. Pale yellow colour, dry, partly pulveru-
lent, partly concreted in small lumps, with a few small fragments of
granite, which being obvious, were separated prior to the analysis. Spe-
cific gravity of the pulverulent portion, without granite, 1°60; of the
concretions, 1°66; mean, 1°63. Water digested on the former portion
is neutral to litmus-paper ; on the latter, it is faintly acid.

2. 100 parts lose 6°5 by the heat of boiling water, and exhale no am-
monia. When digested and triturated with cold water 30°5 parts dis-
solve and 69°5 are obtained after drying at 212°. Of those 30°5 parts,

298 On the Analysis of Guano.

6°5 are therefore water, easily separable, and 24°5 parts are solid
matter.

3. 100 parts, mixed with 9 times their weight of water, and 50 of
lime, being distilled in an alembic connected with the five-globe con-
denser, &c., afforded exactly 4°2 of ammonia, 20 grains in fine powder,
along with 200 of a mixture, consisting of 2 parts of dry lime and 1 of
hydrate of soda were gently ignited in a combustion-tube connected with
the ammonia-condensing apparatus, and they produced 4°25 grains of
ammonia—equivalent to 21°25 from 100 grains of the guano. Thus
only 4:2 per cent. of ammonia were ready formed; while 17°05 lurked,

_so to speak, in their azotized elements. From its aspect and its want
of ammoniacal odour, this guano, the first cargo received from Bolivia,
was imagined by its importers to be of bad quality; and accordingly
my very favourable report of its analysis surprised them not a little, and
rather unsettled the little faith they at that time (January, 1843) had in
chemistry. But about a fortnight after the date of my report, they re-
ceived a letter from Peru apprizing them of the excellence of that cargo
of Bolivian guano, and of its being prized by the Americans as possessing
fertilizing powers in a pre-eminent degree. I consider this guano,
therefore, as a type of the substance in its best state.

II. The soluble matter was analyzed, in the manner already detailed,
and was found to consist of—

ies 2° 4 oS aR eee eee
2. Sulphate of potash Tee ee See
8Chioridé of sodiani ‘.' 47 °°) Seer ee
4. Biphosphate of ammonia os er eee
6. Oxalate of ammonia’. 2 3. Se ae
24°

In these ammoniacal salts there are only 1°65 parts of ammonia; but
I obtained 2°55 grains in distilling the soluble matter of 100 grains of
the guano. The remaining 0°9 parts, therefore, must have proceeded
from the partial decomposition of the urea during the long ebullition |
necessary to extract every particle of ammonia, in 1 distilling the mene
along with quicklime.

III. The insoluble matter = 69°5 parts, was found to consist of—

1. Silica 2 : é . 4 ‘hte hee
2. Subphosphate of lime . 4 - , 9°00
3. Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia . « 1°25
4. Urate of ammonia P . , a 15:27
5. Undefined azotized organic matter, affording, with

the 14 parts of uric acid, by ignition with
hydrate of soda, 17°05 parts of ammonia - 41°73

69°50
This result as to the large proportion of organic matter in the dried
insoluble residuum was verified by igniting a given quantity of it, when
it was found to lose, out of 69°5 parts, 57; corresponding to the 15°27
urate of ammonia, 41°73 of undefined matter, and 0°08 of ammonia,

*

On the Analysis of Guano. 299

in the double magnesian phosphate. In the urate and double phosphate
are 1°35 of ammonia, which, with the 2°55, make 3°9 parts; the other
0°3 parts may be traced to the urea.

As these results differ very considerably in many respects from those
of the analyses made by respectable German chemists, I was careful to
verify them by manifold variations of the process.

1. The soluble matter, with acid reaction, of 100 parts of the lumps
of the Bolivian guano, was examined by per-acetate of iron and am-
monia, for phosphoric acid, and afforded 4 parts of it, which is more
than had been found in the neutral pulverulent guano. After the
phosphoric acid was separated by that method, chloride of calcium gave
no cloud with the filtered liquor, proving that no oxalic acid was pre-
sent in these nodules. The washed insoluble matter, when gently
ignited, and treated with dilute nitric acid, afforded no effervescence
whatever, and therefore showed that no oxalate of lime had been present,
for it would have become a carbonate.

It is necessary to determine from time to time the quantity of ferric
oxide in the acetate or nitrate, as it is lable to be deposited from the
solution, when this is kept for some time. If this point be not at-
tended to, serious errors would be committed in the estimation of the
phosphoric acid.

2. The quantity of uric acid was verified by several repetitions, and
found to be 14 per cent.

3. The undetined organic matter, when deprived of the uric acid by
prolonged digestion with weak borax water, being subjected to ignition
along with hydrate of soda, yielded the quantity of ammonia requisite to
constitute the whole sum, that producible from the uric acid alone being
taken into account.

4. The little lumps of the guano afforded, by distillation along with
quicklime, 5°27 per cent. of ready formed ammonia, probably from the
uric acid being partially decomposed by the moisture which had con-
creted them. It is a curious fact, that the solution of borax, from being
of an alkaline, becomes of an acid reaction, after digestion with the
Bolivian guano.

5. For distinguishing and separating the soda salts from those of
potash, I tried the antimoniate of potash, according to Wackenroder’s
prescription, but I found reason to prefer very much the crystallised
soda—chloride of platinum, for that purpose.

6. From another specimen of the Bolivian guano, I extracted 3°5

per ceat. of the ammonia-phosphate of magnesia.

B. A sample of guano from the Chincha Islands, of nearly the same
light colour as the preceding, and the same dryness, being an early im-
portation of 250 tons in the present year, was subjected by me to a
careful analysis.

1. The solution in water of this guano had an alkaline reaction from
carbonate of ammonia, which, being neutralised by test acid, indicated
0°34 per cent. of ammonia, equivalent to about 1 of the smelling sesqui-
carbonate.

2. Of this guano, 47 per cent. were soluble in water, and 53 per cent.
remained, after drying at a heat of 212° F. Of the above 47 parts,
8°5 were moisture in the guano.

300 On the Analysis of Guano.

3. The solution being acidulated with nitric acid, was treated with
acetate of barytes, in a quantity equivalent to the sulphuric acid present,
and it afforded 12 parts of sulphate of barytes. With the filtered liquor,
7100 water grain measures of ferric acetate were mixed, and then am-
monia in excess; 18°5 parts of washed and ignited subphosphate of
iron were obtained, from which 8°8 parts present in the acetate being
deducted, 9° remain as the quantity of phosphoric acid; but 9°7 of
acid produce 13°25 of biphosphate of ammonia, which contain only
2°3 of ammonia, combined with 0°95 of water, or its elements. From
the alkaline excess in the guano, there can be no doubt, however, that
it contained the subphosphate (found in the urine of Carnivora), and
not the biphosphate of that base. In this case, 9°7 of acid produce
14°32 of dry saline compound, containing 4°62 of ammonia, which,
with the 0°34 of ammonia in the carbonate, constitute a sum of 4°96.
To the liquor freed from the phosphate of iron, and acidulated with
nitric acid, acetate of lime being added, 3°33 parts of oxalate of this
base were obtained, which are equivalent to 3°23 oxalate ammonia,
containing 0°89 of ammonia.

4. Nitrate of silver now produced from the filtered residual solution
8 parts of chloride, corresponding to nearly 3 of sal ammoniac, which
contain nearly 0°95 of ammonia.

5. The 53 parts insoluble in water were digested with the solution of
borax at a boiling heat, thrown on a filter, and the uric acid being
precipitated from the filtrate by means of a little hydrochloric acid,
washed and dried, was found to weigh 13-5 parts. There were left on
the filter 36°5 parts, dried at 212° F., so that 3 parts of soluble organic
matter had passed through the filter. These 36-5 parts lost by ignition
only 9°7 parts in organic matter, became white, and afforded a very
faint effervescence with hydrochloric acid, showing that a very little
oxalate of lime had been present. 1°25 parts of silica were left after
the action of the acid, To the solution of the 26°55 parts, sulphuric
acid was added, and the mixture being heated to expel the hydrochloric
and excess of sulphuric acids, the residuary matter was digested and
washed with dilute alcohol, and thrown on a filter; the solution of
magnesia passed through, while the sulphate of lime remained. After
ignition, this weighed 27°5 parts, equivalent to 22 of subphosphate of
lime. On supersaturating the filtrate with ammonia, 4°5 parts of the
Magnesian ammonia phosphate were precipitated, containing 0°32 of
ammonia. With the 13°5 parts of uric acid, 1°23 of ammonia had
been originally combined, forming 14°73 of urate.

6. 25 grains of the dry guano afforded, by ignition in the combustion-
tube along with 200 grains of the mixed lime and hydrate of soda,
4°165 of ammonia, which correspond to 16°66 in 100 parts of the dry,
or to 15'244 in the natural state; leaving therefore 5 parts for the
quantity of potential ammonia, or of ammonia producible from the
decomposition of its azotized organic matter. This guano is therefore
well adapted to promote permanently the fertility of a soil. It yields
besides to alcohol a notable quantity of urea, which I did not think it
worth while to determine quantitively, and from which undoubtedly
a portion of the ammonia proceeded, in the distillation with milk of
lime.

On the Analysis of Guano. 301°
7. 100 parts afforded by distillation with milk of lime, 10°2 of
ammonia.
8. The total constituents of that guano, being tabulated, are—

I. Matter soluble in water ., : Lr 7: 00

consisting of—
1. Sulphate of potash, with a little sulphate

of soda é F : 6:00 Ammonia,
2. Muriate of ammonia . 8°00 0°95
3. Phosphate of ammonia. " ep l4e32 4°62
4. Sesqui-carbonate of ammonia et kT 06 0°34
5. Sulphate of ammonia : ‘ #) (200 0°50
6. Oxalate of ammonia Q i ‘ 3°23 0°89
8. Water ‘ : , 8°50
9. Soluble organic matter and urea . 8°95
47°00

oe

II. Matter insoluble in water y ; 53°00

consisting of—

1. Silica. . . . : on hh

2. Undefined organic matter . 5 eb TSB

3. Urate of ammonia , . é . 4°78 1°23
4. Oxalate of lime : : : 2 on O0?

5. Subphosphate of lime. 2 . 22°00

6. Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia . 4°50 0°32

53°00 9°80

The remaining 1°25 of actual ammonia may be fairly traced to the
partial decomposition of the urea during the distillation with lime; and
the 5 per cent. of potential ammonia proceeded from the transformin
decomposition of the uric acid.

C. Foliated guano, from Peru, in caked pieces, the layers very thin,
parallel, and interspersed with white streaks. This guano was somewhat
dense for a pure specimen, having a specific gravity of 1:7. The in-
soluble matter afforded by digestion with borax water, no less than
25°2 per cent. of pale yellow uric acid; 9 of other combustible organic
matter, and 15 of earthy matter: consisting of silica, 3°5; phosphate
of magnesia and ammonia, 6°5; and only 5 of subphosphate of lime or
bone earth. It lost 10 per cent. when dried ina heat of 212° F. The
remaining 30°8 parts soluble in water had a strong acid reaction, and
afforded by ferric acetate and ammonia 6 of phosphoric acid, equivalent
to 9°'1 of crystallized biphosphate of ammonia, after acetate of barytes
had separated the sulphuric acid. No less than 17 parts of chloride of
silver were obtained, by precipitating with nitrate of silver the liquor
filtered from the phosphate of iron, and acidulated with nitric acid.
As the present is an accidental sample, and not an ayerage of any im-
portation, i did not prosecute the research further.

302 On the Analysis of Guano.

D. Chincha Guano, of a somewhat darker colour than the preceding,
and alkaline reaction ; specific gravity, 1°62. Digested with water and
strained, 56°75 parts remained after drying it at 212° F. The solution,
evaporated and dried also at 212°, afforded 31-25 of saline matter. This
saline mass being mixed with four-fifths of its weight of slaked lime,
nine times its weight of water, and distilled, afforded of ammonia 14°28
percent. Svume chemists have prescribed potash instead of lime, for
separating the ammonia in distillation; but no person of intelligence
who has made the experiment will choose to repeat it, because the potash

forms with the organic matter of the guano a viscid compound, that
froths up like a mass of soap-bubbles, and coming over with the vapours,
obstructs and vitiates the result.

2. When dried altogether by a steam heat, 100 parts lost 12 in mois-
ture; whereas by evaporating and drying the soluble matter by itself,
the loss amounted to 16°3, no doubt by the dissipation of some of the
ammoniacal salts; for 100 parts of the entire guano afford, by distillation
with quicklime, 9 parts of ammonia, and by the transforming decom-
position with hydrate of soda‘and lime 16°25, indicating 7°25 of
potential ammonia, in addition to the 9 of ready formed. The insoluble
matter of 100 parts afforded to borax water a solution containing 16°5
of uric acid, corresponding to 18 of urate of ammonia. There re-
mained on the filter, after drying it at 212° F., only 33°8 parts; so that
about 5 parts of soluble organic matter had passed through the filter in
the borax water. These 33°8 consisted of subphosphate of lime 17,
magnesian phosphate of ammonia 5°5, silica 0°7, and combustible
organic matter 10°6.

The ammonia in the soluble portion was in the state chiefly of phos-
phate ; there was merely a faint trace of oxalate of ammonia.

E. African Guano.—Among the many samples of African guano
which I have had occasion to analyze for the importers, none has con-
tained any appreciable quantity of uric acid, or of consequence of poten-
tial ammonia. The best afforded me 10 per cent. of ready-formed
ammonia, existing chiefly in the state of a phosphate, though they all
contain carbonate of ammonia, and have of consequence an alkaline reac-
tion. The said sample contained 21°5 of moisture, separable by a heat
of 212°F. Its specific gravity was so low as 1°57, in consequence of
the large proportion of moisture in it. It contained 23 per cent. of
subphosphate of lime, 3 of magnesiav phosphate of ammonia, 1 of silica,
and 1°5 of alkaline sulphate and muriate. The remaining 50 parts
consisted of decayed organic matter, with phosphate of ammonia, and a
little carbonate, equivalent to half a grain of ammonia, which is the
largest quantity in such guanos. Other African guanos have afforded
from 24 to 36 of moisture; no uric acid; no potential ammonia; but
decayed organic matter; from 5 to 7 of ready formed ammonia in the
state of phosphate, with a little carbonate ; from 25 to 35 per cent. of
subphosphate of lime ; 5 or 6 of the magnesian phosphate of ammonia;
more or less oxalates from the decomposition of the uric acid, and 3 to
5 per cent. of fixed alkaline salts.

F. The Chilian Guano gathered on the coast contains a remarkable
proportion of common salt, derived probably from the sea spray. '

The following is the General Report of the chemical examination

On the Analysis of Guano. 303

of several samples of guano, which I made for Messrs. Gibbs of London,
and Messrs. Myers of Liverpool, the co-agents of the Peruvian and
Bolivian governments :—

“In these various analyses, performed with the greatest care, and with
the aid of the most complete apparatus for both inorganic and organic
analysis, my attention has been directed uot only to the constituents of
the guano which act as an immediate manure, but to those which are
admitted by practical farmers to impart durable fertility to the grounds.
The admirable researches of Professor Liebig have demonstrated that
AZOTE, the indispensable element of the nourishment of plants, and es-
pecially of wheat and others abounding in gluten (an azotized product),
must be presented to them in the state of ammonia, yet not altogether
ammonia in the pure or saline form, for, as such, it is too readily
evaporated or washed away ; but in the dormant, or as one may say, in
the potential condition in contradistinction from the actual. Genuine
Peruvian and Bolivian guanos, like those which I have minutely analyzed,
surpass very far all other species of manure, whether natural or artificial,
in the quantity of potential ammonia, and, therefore, in the permanency
of their action upon the roots of plants, while, in consequence of the
ample store of actwal ammonia which they contain ready formed, they
are qualified to give immediate vigour to vegetation. Urate of ammonia
constitutes a considerable portion of the azotized organic matter in well-
preserved guano; it is nearly insoluble in water, not at all volatile, and
is capable of yielding to the soil, by its slow decomposition, nearly one-
third of its weight of ammonia. No other manure can rival this animal
saline compound. One of the said samples of guano affurded me no
less than 17 per cent. of potential ammonia, besides 43 per cent. of the
actual or ready formed ; others from 7 to 8 per cent. of ammonia in each
of these states respectively. The guanos which I have examined are the-
mere excrement of birds, and are quite free from sand, earth, clay, and
common salt, reported in the analyses of some guanos, and one of which
(sand) to the amount of 30 per cent. I found myself in a sample of
guano from Chile.

“The Peruvian guano, moreover, contains from 10 to 25 per cent. of
phosphate of lime, the same substance as bone-dust, but elaborated by
the birds into a pulpy consistence, which, while it continues insoluble
in water, has been thereby rendered more readily absorbable and di-
gestible (so to speak) by the roots of plants. I have therefore no doubt,
that by the judicious application of these genuine guanos, mixed with
twice or thrice their weight of a marly or calcareous soil, to convert their
phosphate of ammonia into phosphate of lime and carbonate of ammonia,
as also to dilute all their ammoniacal compounds—such crops will be
produced, even on inferior lands, as the farmer can scarcely raise upon
more improved soils by ordinary manure. To the West India planter,
guano will prove the greatest boon, since it condenses in a portable and
inoffensive shape the means of restoring fertility to his exhausted cane-
fields, a benefit it has long conferred on the poorest districts of Peru.

“I respectfully observe, that no analysis of guano hitherto made public
at all exhibits the value of the cargoes referred to above, while none gives
the quantity of ammonia dormant in the azotized animal matter of the
bird’s dung, which, called into activity with the seeds in the soil, be-

304 On the Analysis of Guano.

comes the most valuable of its constituents, as a source of perennial
fertility. In the detailed account of my analyses of this complex excre-
tion (now preparing for publication), all the above statements will be
brought within the scope of general comprehension. I shall also describe
my ‘ ammonia generator,’ based on the process invented in the laboratory
of Professor Liebig, and also my ‘ammonia meter,’ which, together, can
detect and measure one-hundredth part of a grain weight of absolute
ammonia, whether potential or actual, in any sample of guano.
**Meanwhile the following may be offered as the average result of
my analyses of genuine guano in reference to its agricultural value :—
**]. Azotized animal matter, including urate of am-
monia, together capable of affording from 8 to
16 per cent. of ammonia by slow decomposition

in the soil : ; . : - - Oe

2. Water : . ; : - 7 i,

3. Phosphate of lime : ° 25 O
4. Phosphate of ammonia, oxalate of ammonia, am-
monia—phosphate of magnesia, together contain-

ing from 5 to 9 parts of ammonia . ° ae

5. Siliceous sand. ‘ “ ° . : . ae

100 O

“Very moist guano has in general more actual and less potential
ammonia than the dry guano.
“‘ ANDREW URE.
“ London, 13, Charlotte Street, Bedford Square,
* February 14th, 1843.”

Oellacher’s analysis of a brownish yellow guano is as follows :—

Ammonia,
1. Urate of ammonia . : 5 » (42220 1:07
2. Oxalate of ammonia : < 1 dhikde 6°50
3. Oxalate of lime ; ; » 280
4. Phosphate of ammonia. a. - 6°00 1+79
5. Phosphate of ammonia and magnesia . 11°63 1°68
6. Phosphate of lime . . : - 20°16
7. Muriate of ammonia os) 2 0°72
8. Chloride of sodium (common salt) 0°40
9. Carbonate of ammonia. «i 280 0°23
10. Carbonate of lime . £ < * 1°65
11. Sulphate of potash . : ; . 4°00
12. Sulphate of soda. . ° 4°92
13. Humate of ammonia : -— 0°09
14. Substance resembling wax : ~ Ors
15. Sand. . : » o eS
16. Water (hygroscopic) . ‘ . -A°3l

17. Undefined organic matter . . «| 8226

——oo

100°00 12-07

I am satisfied from the large proportion of oxalate of ammonia that
the sample thus analyzed was by no means a fair or normal specimen of

On the Analysis of Guano. 305

guano ; and it is in fact widely different from all the fresh samples which
have passed through my hands. It is described as “ Knobby, being
mixed with light laminated crystalline portions, in white grains, from
the size of a pea to that of a pigeon’s egg.”” Having some lumpy con-
cretions of a similar aspect in my possession, I submitted them to
chemical examination.

G. 1000 grains being digested in boiling water and strained, afforded a
nearly colourless solution. This was concentrated till crystals of oxalate
of ammonia appeared. It was then acidulated with hydrochloric acid,
to protect the phosphoric acid from precipitation, and next treated care-
fully with solution of nitrate of lime equivalent to the oxalic acid
present. The oxalate of lime thus obtained being converted into car-
bonate weighed 80°5 grains, corresponding to 100 of oxalate of am-
monia, or 10 per cent. of the guano.

The liquor filtered from the oxalate was precipitated by nitrate of
barytes, and afforded 112 grains of sulphate of barytes=38 sulphuric
acid; and the last filtrate being mixed with a given measure of ferric
acetate, and the mixture supersaturated with ammonia, yielded sub-
phosphate of iron, equivalent to 5 per cent. of phosphoric acid. I
digested with heat other 500 grains of the same guano in a weak solution
of borax, filtered, acidulated the liquid, but obtained merely a trace of
uric acid. It is clear therefore that the oxalate of ammonia had been
formed in this guano at the expense of the uric acid, and that its con-
ereted state, and the crystalline nodules disseminated through it, were
the result of transformation by moisture in a hot climate, which had
agglomerated it to a density of 1°75; whereas clean fresh guano friable
and dry like the above, is seldom denser than 1°65. This guano con-
tained only 3°23 of ammonia; 65 of insoluble matter, 53 of earthy’
phosphates, 5 silica, 3 alkaline salts (fixed), and 7 organic matter.

Oxalate of ammonia, being readily washed away, is a bad substitute
for the urate of ammonia, urea, and azotized animal matter, which it
has replaced. Oellacher could find no urea in the guano which he
analyzed; another proof of its disintegration.

Bartels’ analysis of a brown-red guano is as follows :—

1. Muriate ofammonia . é ; 2 O2500
2. Oxalate ofammonia . A < ~ Season
3. Urate of ammonia F - 3°244
4. Phosphate of ammonia . : ‘ « ty@450
5. Substances resembling wax and resin - 0°600
6. Sulphate of potash : ; é ov NET
7. Sulphate of soda . ‘ : , a
8. Phosphate of soda A , : oi eer 201
_§. Phosphate of ammonia and magnesia ~ 4*196
10. Common salt é A ; - . Og
11. Oxalate of lime . j ; ; « 16360
12. Alumina . P ; ‘ 5 - 0:104
13. Sand insoluble in nitric acid, aud iron 5:800

14, Loss (water and volatile ammonia and un-
defined organic matter) . 4 - 22°718

100°000
VOL. V. x

306 On the Analysis of Guano.

Voelckel, in his analysis of guano, states 7 per cent. of oxalate of
lime; a result quite at variance with all my experience, for I have never
found so much as 2 per cent. of carbonate of lime in the washed and
gently ignited insoluble matter; whereas, according to Bartels and
Voelckel, from 10 to 5 per cent. of carbonate should be obtained, as the
equivalents of the proportions of the oxalate assigned by them.

All these analyses are defective, moreover, in not showing the total
quantity of ammonia which the guano is capable of giving out in the
soil; and, since it appears that the freshest guano abounds most in what
I have called potential ammonia, it must possess, of consequence, the
greatest fertilizing virtue.

A sample of decayed dark-brown moist guano, from Chile, being ex-
amined, as above described, for oxalate of ammonia, was found to con-
tain none whatever ; and it contained less than 1 per cent. of uric acid.

An article offered to the public, by advertisement, as Peruvian guano,
was lately sent to me for analysis. I found it to be a spurious composi-
tion: it consisted of—

1, Common salt . . ‘ : . +’ SES
2. Common siliceous sand . : : 28°0
3. Sulphate of iron or copperas ° . y ‘ome
4. Phosphate of lime : 4:0, with
5. Organic matter from had guano (to give it ' smell) 23°3
6. Moisture , ° : : . . » Se

100°0
Genuine guano, when burned upon a red-hot shovel, leaves a white
ash of phosphate of lime and magnesia; whereas this factitious sub-
stance left a black fused mass of sea-salt, copperas, and sand. The
specific gravity of good fresh guano is seldom more than 1°66, water
being 1°00; whereas that of the said substance was so high as 2°17;
produced by the salt, sand, and copperas.

ERRATUM,

At page 45—sce Art. V. in the poiuts for cows—for 4 points read 3—which correc-
tion accounts for 30 points, or perfection in milch cows,

JOURNAL

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY

OF ENGLAND.

VOLUME THE FIFTH.
1845.

PART It.

PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE.

LONDON :
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLV.

THESE EXPERIMENTS, IT IS TRUE, ARE NOT EASY; STILL. THEY ARE IN THE POWER OF EVERY
THINKING HUSBANDMAN. HE WHO ACCOMPILISHES BUT ONE, OF HOWEVER LIMITED APPLICATION, AND
TAKES CARE TO REVORT IT FAITHFULLY, ADVANCES THE SCIENCE, AND, CONSEQUENTLY, THE PRACTICE
OF AGRICULTURE, AND ACQUIRES THEREBY A RIGHT TO THE GRATITUDE OF HIS FELLOWS, AND OF THOSE
WHO COME AFTER. TO MAKE MANY SUCH IS BEYOND THE POWER OF MOST INDIVIDUALS, AND CANNOT
BE EXPECTED. THE FIRST CARE OF ALL SOCIETIES FORMED FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF OUR SCIENCE
SHOULD BE TO PREPARE THE FORMS OF SUCH EXPERIMENTS, AND TO DISTRIBUTE THE EXECUTION OF THESE
AMONG THEIR MEMBERS.

Von Tuaer, Principles of Agriculture.

Lonvon :—Printed by Wi.ttam Crowes and Sons, Stamford Street.

CONTENTS OF PART II., VOL. V.

‘

ARTICLE PAGE
XV.—On the Agriculture of Norfolk. By Barugh Almack , 307
XVI—On White Mustard. By George Jesty : . 358

XVII.—On the Growing of White Mustard as a Green Crop for
Sheep. FF John oa Pave of F.!H. Dickinson,
M.P.

360
XVIII.— Report on Bee Eshinition of ee aeni at the South-
ampton Meeting, in 1844. By Josiah Parkes, Con-

sulting Engineer to the Society - 361
X1X.—On the Allotment System. By Sir Henry E. Bunbury,

arty | 3 391
XX.—Trial of several ‘Artificial ee, By William Mix

Esq.. M.P. . - ° - 394
XXI—Some Account of the Process of Warping. By Rois

Creyke . =i oo
XXII.—On the occurrence of eee in po al By
Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry, &c., Oxford : and Captain ‘Widdrington,

RN., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e. &e. ° 406
XXIII.—Instance of the advantage of Subsoil- Lplowshing. in a

dition to Draining. By George Turner. 418

XXIV.—A few Remarks on the large Hedges and small Enelo-
sures of Devonshire and the adjoining Counties. f)
John Grant, Surveyor and Land Agent . : 420

XXV.—On the Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils,
whether of Colour, + eo or hes) pas By

John Arkell : 429.
XXVI.—On the Use of Bones as a Manure with feria
Acid . . - 443—468

1, Experiments at the Eos Farm of Geadon Castle, Morayshire, in
1843, with the effect on the crop in 1844. From the President,
His Grace the Duke of Richmond.

2. On the Use of Bones with Sulphuric Acid. By E. Wagstaff.

3. On Bones with Sulphuric Acid and other Manures. By R. W.
Purchas.

4. Report by the Committee appointed by the Morayshire Farmer Club
to examine the Experiments made by Candidates for the Pre-
miums offered for the Growth of Turnips by new Manures—Sea-
son 1843. Communicated by the President, His Grace the Duke
of Richmond.

5. On the Action and Application of Dissolved Bones. —By John
Hannam.

XXVII.—Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Corn-Crops, many of them
improperly called Wireworms ; including Ground-bee-
tles, Chaffers, or May-bugs, also the Caterpillars of a
Moth and Saw-fiy, and the Larve of some minute Flies.
By John Curtis, F.L.S., Corresponding Member of the
Imperial and Royal Geor gofili Society of Florence ; of
the Academy of Natural Sciences of patie Pa &e.

Paper VII. . : - 469
XXVIII.—On Peat Chakcoal as a Movie for Turis. By W.
Uppleby : pti LT

a2

CONTENTS.

ARTICLE PAGE
XXIX.—On the Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.
By John Burke, Jun. . = 508
XXX.—On the Cultivation of Flax. By G. Nicholls, Esq. - 547
XX XI.—On the cheapest Method of making and bur sai Drain-
ing Tiles. By T. Law Hodges 551
XXXII.—On the Indications which are practical Guidene in ae
ing of the Fertility or Barrenness of the Soil. By
John Bravender, F.G.S., eae Cirencester.
Prize Report 559
XX XIII.— Addition to Mr. Hannan: s Paper on Saisie ‘ai &e. 594
MiscELLANEOUS CoMMUNICATIONS AND NoTICEs :-— .
XI.—Thin-Sowing of Wheat . < aee : oy,
XII.—On Garin Turf. By B. Buker = 600
XI1I.—On the application of eg ais of Anita to Wheat.
By John Barton . . - 601
XIV.—On Socket Drain-Pipes. ‘By H. Disae - 603
XV .—Experiments on the Use of old Hop-bines as Manone ts in
Hop-Gardens. By Sir John M. Tylden F 604
XVI.—Trial of Superphosphate and other Manures. 4 Ed-
ward Strouts - 605
XVII.—On Medical Treatment for Sick Drges ie Sir C.
Lemon, Bart., M.P. 606
XVIII.—A Plan to prevent the Waste of Manse’ in Rises witch
flow through Towns. By W. Popham, be: B.A.,
Oriel College js 610
XIX —On the Hainault Berghe: By the Right hans Sir G. H.
Rose, Bart. 611
XX.—On the Analysis e Soils. By Awihene Ure, M. D.
F.R.S., &e. eae!
XXI.—On Stacking Sjainfian, By the Earl of Rites : - 622
XXII.—Experiment on Manures. By Isaac Everitt ° - 623
APPENDIX.
Council and Officers of the Royal Agricultural Society of England xxxix
Honorary Members . . ae) x)
Report of the Council (Generel Mootirig) Dec. 14, 1844) F oy oxi
Statement of Accounts ; A « xivi
Statement of Receipts and Paprients at ‘Southasepton =) xvii
Award of Prizes at the Southampton Meeting . xlvili
Commendations : : ‘ r lv
Prizes for the Shssesbary Meeting, 1845 lviii
Essays and Reports on Various Subjects . 4 . . o ]xiil
Rules of Competition for Prize Essays . “ ‘ . F - xvi
General Meetings of 1845 ‘ ° ‘ . » : « xviii
LIST OF PLATES.
Plate K., Insects affecting the Corn-Crops, to face page 506
Plates (2) of Agricultural Weeds, to face page . : ‘ 573

¢ 307)

XV.—On the Agriculture of Norfolk. By Barucu Atmack,
Land Agent.

IT entereD Norfolk asa stranger, fully aware that it had long been
considered the best cultivated county in the kingdom ; therefore
any impression, from the view presented to me, was not so likely
to be favourable for the district. Yet, in many respects, as the
abundance and regularity of the crops, the neatness of the drilling,
the straightness and regularity of the ploughing, my expectations
were more than realised; in short, good drilling and good
ploughing are the “rules” of the whole county,—bad drilling,
or bad ploughing, so much the exception, as scarcely to be seen
in it. Again, in that very difficult part of farming, the securing
a good plant of clover where land has been long under the four-
course system, the farmers of Norfolk seemed to me infinitely
before any others I had seen: so much so, indeed, that although
I consequently looked out to detect failures if possible, yet, in riding
through nearly every part of the whole county, I only observed
about five or six fields where the clover was decidedly “ patchy,”
and, on inquiry, found these had been treated differently from the
general plan. Those abundant crops, it must be remembered,
were growing, in many places, on an entirely artificial soil. The
recent desert of white blowing sand had been converted into the
most fruitful land, by the well-directed industry of the people;
the materials for the change not being found on the spot, in some -
cases, but brought from a distance. Indeed, in the permanent
improvement of the soil, by claying, marling, &c., the people of
Norfolk are probably not excelled by any, and few will bear a
comparison with them; therefore I recommend all who have
what they consider a barren estate of worthless acres, to take a
tour through the county, and see for themselves what may be
done in such cases, if I should fail in explaining it to them.
Having said thus much in favour of Norfolk farming, I must
in fairness state that I think there are other counties more
likely to attract admiration from those who pass through each
hastily, without possessing practical knowledge of the subject.
For there is not, general] y, so great attention paid to effect and
neatness of appearance here, as in some districts which I could
name, if we except the drilling and the ploughing. Thus, the
corn-ricks show that, whilst the farmers of some other districts
were thinking how to place and build theirs so as to have the
neatest appearance, many of the Norfolk farmers were only

thinking how they should put their corn together in the least
possible time.
VOL. V. * Y

308 Agriculture of Norfolk.

STATE OF THE DRAINAGE,

Few agricultural readers will expect to see much respecting
drainage in a report of Norfolk, as few will suppose there is any
necessity for draining in a district generally considered not only
sandy, but dry. Whereas, in fact, almost every variety of drain-
age may be found in Norfolk, and there are few places to be
named from whence you can go many miles without finding
drains of some sort; indeed, even where the largest quantities of
clay have been used, to qualify a blowing sand, the land has, in
many instances, undergone extensive drainage. The marshes
and fens in the neighbourhood of Lynn and Downham are
drained by machinery, so as to throw the water out of the drains
in the lowest levels into raised channels capable of conveying it
to the outfalls. Wind was the power applied to this purpose
until recently, and even now there are in some places so many
wind-engines erected for draining, as to remind us of the corn-
mills near populous towns. Yet these are at present little more
than proofs of the truth of the history of the adjoining levels. So
long as no power was known more suitable, it was all very well to
make good use of that which they had, when they could; but, it
has been observed, there is generally least wind during the time of
the greatest floods, that is, when draining-mills are most required.
Who then can be surprised that steam should be applied to the
purposes of draining? And, accordingly, nearly the whole of this
district is now effectually drained by the use of steam-engines,
One of these, of 60-horse power, has recently been erected in the
Feltwell New Fen District, at an expense (for the engine, and
house, &c.) of about 40007. This engine, made by Messrs.
Headley and Hawthorne of Newcastle, drains 7000 acres of fen
and 1000 acres of high land, and is supposed to be capable of
draining double the extent if necessary.

The low land east of Norwich, irregular in breadth, but ex-
tending from that city to Yarmouth, is partially drained by steam-
power also; but this must be more generally applied before the
draining can be effectually done. The owners of land in the
neighbourhood are becoming aware of this, and probably a few
years hence it may be found one of the most productive tracts in
the kingdom.

Navigation is not the only interest which has occasionally
proved an obstacle to effectual drainage. In one district land
was pointed out to me as suffering from water being kept high
in the drains around it, that it might in its main course drive the
wheel of acorn-mill. Thus the water-power of the miller, although
cheap to him, was not so to the community. The loss in pro-
duce from the land around was very great, and the direct injury

Agriculture of Norfolk. 309

to the occupiers in that proportion. As it is of the greatest
national importance to remove any clog on the cultivation of the
soil, surely a power might be given to remove such a check as
this, on amply compensating the party whose particular interest
may stand in the way.

As the Society require to know “ the state of the drainage,”
and not the details of the manner in which drainage is performed,
I do not, in the abundance of other matter, dwell on these ; and,
so much having been recently written on the subject, it seems un-
necessary to do so.

FENCES.

The farmers of Norfolk (as a body) do not excel in the manage-
ment of hedges, but rather the contrary ; though some of them
think that Mr. Blakie’s remarks, in his work on Hedges, will apply
with too much truth even at the present time, and that there is much
land wasted by having a wide ditch added to the large fence on a
high bank, where in many cases, especially on arable land, a low
and narrow fence, on the level, without a ditch, would answer
every useful purpose, and not be so likely to fill the adjoining land
with weeds. ;

Probably few have passed Mr. Cambridge’s farm at South
Runcton (on the road from Downham Market to Lynn) without
admiring the neatness of all the hedges on it, which are cut in this

form. One which I measured was nine inches wide at the
fe top and twenty inches at the bottom.

Neat hedges may be seen at Acle, Thrigby, Quidenham, and ©
other places, but these are the exceptions, not the common fences
of the county.

CLAYING, MARLING, &c.

The farmers of Norfolk shine most particularly in their im-
provement of the texture, and therefore of the productive qualities,
of the soil itself. This may be owing to their having been placed
under such circumstances as to draw their attention forcibly to
this important branch of agriculture. There are few soils of so
happy a texture as not to admit of improvement by a mixture of
some sort, but, where the faults are not very glaring, our attention
is not so likely to be devoted to their correction, as when we find
our onward progress effectually impeded by an evil which must
be faced and removed before we can make any good progress.
Thus the occupier of the light blowing sand could not for any
long period avoid observing its glaring defects, and even if he
had never heard of a remedy, some chance circumstance would
point one out, by placing before him an improvement on a small
scale, which, to a careful and shrewd observer, would be a suffi-

y2

310 Agriculture of Norfolk.

cient index of the result to be expected from the trial of the
same means to a greater extent.

Some soils are so very different from what they ought to be, as
to justify a greater quantity per acre of clay, chalk, or marl, as the
case may be, than would be proper on other soils: therefore, those
unaccustomed to the consideration of the matter ought to have
that circumstance strongly impressed on their minds, before they
try new experiments on their own soil. Even supposing the
only object is to obtain a soil of the most perfect texture and
quality, whatever the cost of doing so may be, yet the quantity to
be conveyed must not be a certain number of loads per acre, but
should be regulated in each case, not only by the nature of the
original soil, but also of that which is carried upon it. In some
cases a smaller quantity would be sufficient ; and, if more were
taken, the excess might become*a positive injury, in addition to
the cost of labour. Having discovered what proportion is most
beneficial to apply, those who design to make improvements
on the soil for the purpose of profiting by them at once, first
endeavour to ascertain whence it can be brought at the least com-
parative cost; then, whether the maximum quantity would, if
brought, pay the largest profit, or whether a smaller quantity
might not pay better, bearing in mind the distance it has to be
brought. Many considerations affect the proper settlement of
this last question, as appears from the experience of the Norfolk
farmers; but they generally agree in thinking that it is better to
clay more frequently than to run any risk of putting on too large
a quantity at once. It generally happens that the required
remedy may be found very near where it is wanted, and a bed of
clay in one part of a field may be at once the ready means of
improvement to all the rest of it, which was before a blowing
sand. The tenacious soil taken out of a ditch, as a matter of
necessity in improving the drainage, may at the same time be
applied as a valuable means of correcting the texture of a sandy
soil within a short distance of it, whilst part of the too sandy soil
may be brought, in returning, to the low tenacious land, so as to
furnish its quota to the general improvement. In some cases,
that which is most required lies buried under the very soil itself,
and I have no hesitation in saying that the value of many millions
sterling is buried under what is now comparatively unproductive
soil, in England alone. As an instance, | was shown in Norfolk,
what a gentleman called “ his hidden jewel,” so near the surface,
that one plunge of his walking-stick convinced me it would be
practicable to bring up sufficient by merely ploughing deeply
with the common plough, the first time he broke up the land,
which he said he intended doing immediately after the tithe-rent
charge was apportioned. On the surface was light “fen,” to a

Agriculture of Norfolk. 3ll

common observer apparently of little value, yet immediately
below was the valuable slate-coloured clay, ready for its improve-
ment.

In the fens near Downham this clay is from 4 to 6 feet below
the surface. Pits, about 6 feet by 3, and 3 feet apart, are dug
in rows, generally 2 rows in a chain (of 22 yards), and taking out
2 or 3 spits deep of clay from each pit. In digging one pit, part
of the peat is put in that which was last made. The space be-
tween the pits is very necessary; one of the men whom I saw at
work, appeared, notwithstanding this caution (as well as having a
piece of wood to support the sides), to run some risk of being
buried by the peat. In another place, within a short distance, the
peat stood much better. The cost varied; being under or over
50s. per acre, according to circumstances; but it is very well
repaid by the crops of red clover, wheat, and beans, which the
land will afterwards grow. Where this slate-coloured clay is near
the surface, and the land in 12-furrow “stetches,”’ the following
method is occasionally adopted by Mr. Hudson of Castle Acre,
on his farm at Seech:—Two of the “ stetches” are ploughed
outward, so as to leave a trench between them, to get out the
clay for casting on each side. This saves some labour in digging
for it. Most farmers have occasionally observed whole fields
ploughed outward; the ploughs commencing at the outside and
following each other round the field unul it is finished. Mr.
Hudson’s plan of raising a swamp is just reversing that system,

|

'

|
Sel

and “taking the land up.” By two or three such ploughings,
he calculates, the land may be raised as much as by 500 loads
per acre carted on to it.

As Mr. Cambridge of South Runcton enjoys the honourable
reputation, among his brother farmers in the county, of having
made great improvements by claying, &c. (the exact expression
of it being, “‘ Probably no other farm in the county owes so much
to its occupier; for, when he first took it, a large proportion was
nothing but a white blowing sand’’), I here insert a correct state-
ment of the quantities of clay which he has spread on some of
his fields. I do not give the whole list of what he has applied at
his own expense as a tenant farmer, but I hope there is sufficient
to show how great a debt of obligation is owing to such men by

the country, as well as by individuals whom they more directly
benefit.

312 Agriculture of Norfolk.

AVR Loads of Clay-
1. Brets Field . . ». 13 2 37 1,964
2. Mast Wield 4 (c0 woe nO ones 524
3. U2 Acres , ‘sc st oe eel 1,780
4: dl Aces. ofa eae 1,770
5. US Acres\ s+ toy lek eee Olea Dy "320
G6! BarniGlose 2) 2. 7.) ig ee 3,407
7. Park Piece’. 9 2)! =. st) Ze) 10 ko 2,163
8. Chapel Field . . 20 3 34 2,310
9. Town Close . Py! it winks HE YS 3,634
10: The/Sinks'#"%- V7) 25) LG ewO sims 2,895
tl. Moor Field oD SS 5,545
12. Forston Lot . . . 10 3 16 3,451
ES: borp Lot. sys.) tet eee 4,900
14. Barn Lot ole ‘s 20 0 eo 5,852
15. Chiswick Lot ©." 23°15 i 5,920
16. Warren Lot - °. « 22 2 22 5,280
17, The Grazings . . 12 3 I8 2,340

286 2 25 54,055

Thus 54,055 loads have been applied to 286a. 2r. 25p., or, on
an average, 188 loads per acre; but, if we observe the quantities
named opposite each field, the real quantity allowed per acre has
varied greatly, according to circumstances, Of course this in-
cludes repeated clayings to some of the fields. There are now
several acres of clay-pits on the farm, rendered in some degree
ornamental by being planted, and forming lasting proofs of the
persevering spirit of Mr. Cambridge. His farm is selected as a
favourable specimen of what has been done for the soil in Norfolk,
and to account for its present productive state; but, so far from
being a solitary instance of such improvements, the practice has
been almost universal throughout the county, the quantity of clay
applied varying according to circumstances. Mr. Keppel, of
Lexham Hall, has made great improvement in his light sandy
land, by claying it at the rate of 50 loads per acre.* Near Swaff-
ham I observed some men claying a field from a pit nearly in the
centre of it; they were paid at the rate of one halfpenny per
barrowfull, or 7d. per “load ;” their orders being to apply 80 such
loads per acre ; making the cost of it under 50s., though the work
was done without the use of horses ; employment being thus found
for more labourers, without fear, too, of injury to the land by its
being cut in using carts when not sufficiently dry. The propriety
of using carts, or barrows only, must depend on the distance of
the clay from the land where it is wanted, and the abundance or
scarcity of manual labour to be obtained. It is hardly necessary
to repeat, that each of these circumstances has its effect on the
cost; so that no price can be named which would apply in all
situations. Mr. Hudson leaves a small part of each land, or

* Mr. Hudson states, that the late Mr. Garwood of W. Lexham clayed
or marled upwards of 1000 acres twice over, at the rate of 40 loads per
acre each time, during the first eight years of his lease.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 313

**stetch,” in the stubble fields, unploughed, just as wide as the
cart, that the wheels may pass along each furrow on a firm bottom,
the horse walking in the centre of the part not ploughed. By
this means the whole of the clay required is laid in heaps near
where it is wanted, and with a saving of labour to the horses ; and,
when there, the remainder of the land can be ploughed and made
ready for the clay to be spread over it, so as to receive the bene-
ficial effects of frost. .

A remarkable instance of improvement made in land by mixing
the top soil with that below it may be seen at Stratton Strawless,
the property of Mr. Marsham; the part I allude to being cul-
tivated under his direction. There is still sufficient left in its
original state, to show that Gray’s description of it, in his letter
to Dr. Wharton—“ on one side a barren black heath, on the other
a light sandy loam”’—was probably very correct, as well as to
justify us in supposing that it did not acquire so singular a name
without reason. Yet, at Stratton Strawless, in August, 1843, I
found the crops on the cultivated part of the land fully as good
as any elsewhere ; and, in one field, observed turnips (a second
crop, after a mixed crop of tares and rye, eaten off by sheep the
same season) which then looked as well as any other turnips in
the whole county. The first step towards this great improve-
ment was a mixture of the soils, by trenching it deeply, thus :—
A trench is opened 3 or 4 feet wide and 2 spades deep, the
bottom of the trench then turned up with a spade or three-pronged
fork. The flag (or surface growth, Kc.) is then thrown in upon
the last named, or bottom of the trench, and the second spade
put to the top.

Some may say this is an exchange of soils; and so it is, but no
such operations can be performed without some mixture of the
two, from the succeeding ploughings and subsoil ploughings,
although, in the first instance, the subsoil plough only breaks the
lower soil.

The land intended for turnips is subsoiled (the whole of one of
these farms having now been done twice), even where the wheat
stubble has been sown immediately after harvest, with rye for the
ewes and their Jambs in the spring ; yet time is taken to apply the
subsoil plough to the whole, after the rye has been fed on the
land and before it is sown for turnips.

MANURES.

The farm-yard manure of Norfolk is almost invariably saturated
with the essence of linseed-cakhes, these being given in abundance to
the cattle. Whether made in open yards or under cover, linseed-
cake is the great improver of their dung, although there are called
to its aid many other manures, such as bones, soot, &c. Many

314 Agriculture of Norfolk.

persons give their cart-horses green food in the yards or boxes
durmg summer, such as tares, lucern, trefoil, clover. They also
carry ‘nto their yards all the vegetable matter they can readily
collect. When within a moderate distance of the coast, they
spread sea-sand in their yards, loose boxes, sheds, stables, &c., to
absorb the liquid manure. I would particularize Mr. Browne of
Thrigby as domg this, though there are many others along the
coast. Refuse-fish also is mixed with sea-sand orsnouldas (Mia

J. H. Holley, of Aylsham Burgh Hall, uses very large quantities
of sprats as manure for turnips. He mixes about one ton of them
with eight or ten loads of mould, and finds that a ton and a half
of these fish per acre will produce a good crop from very ordinary
land; never having failed in any season. The mould for this
mixture is obtained from the borders of the field where the turnips
are grown, and the carting of it does not cost more than the carting
of 20 tons of yard-manure. Brewers’ grains are also in some in-
stances used as manure; they are supposed to pay best when
mixed with farm-yard manure. Some of the best farmers are
decidedly in favour of using dung fresh from the yard. Mr.
Blomfield of Warham is one of these. Mr. John Baker, who for
twenty-five years “ farmed from 500 to 1000 acres in Norfolk,”
states, that “three essential points are to be observed: first, to
apply the manure to the soil as soon as convenient after it is made
(except in the depth of winter); secondly, to keep it as near the
surface as possible ; and, thirdly, to mix it well with the soil.”
This view is supported by the practice of some of the best farmers
in Norfolk. Liquid-manure tanks are becoming very common,
although many prefer having the best of the liquid absorbed in
mould, so as not to apply it in a liquid state; but all agree in the
necessity of preventing waste. Mr. Bowman, the steward of Mr.
Marsham at Stratton Strawless, gave me a good practical reason
why circular tanks are better than square ones. “If a waggon
heavily laden comes near a square tank, the pressure and crushing
in”’ of the wheels may injure it, which “ would not be the case if
the liquid-manure tank was circular.” Mr. Blakie says, it is ad-

visable “ to throw litter, scourings of ditches, and such other refuse
into the tanks, in sufficient quantity to absorb the urine and wash
of the yards which run into them. Compost so collected is ad-
mirable top-dressing for permanent grass-lands, or for young
clover layers.” When at Stratton Strawless (about Christmas,
1843), I observed women employed in raking up leaves in the
woods surrounding the mansion. Mr. Marsham turns these to
account by mixing them with liquid manure.

HORSES.
Many first-rate animals, of different species, may be found in

Agriculture of Norfolk. 315

Norfolk, having been brought thither from other counties, or bred
from those that were so brought; but the best breed they can
show, as their own peculiar and original stock, are their cart-
horses. Many of these are such as any county might well be
proud of ; and I observed very few there that would not, in any
place, come within the description of good and useful horses. At
Mr. Aylmer’s of Fincham, I had the pleasure of seeing ten better
cart-horses than I ever saw together at any other place: each had
every essential of a good farm-horse—substance, compactness,
strength, shape, and activity.. The real Norfolk cart-horses are
generally dark bays or browns, hardy in appearance, possessing
good bone and sinew. I certainly do not think them small (as
Mr. Kent described them in his time) ; and, if I were required to
suggest any change, I should say reduce their size, knowing that
small horses, if equally well shaped (and they are generally better
shaped), are more free from illness and unsoundness, and, conse-
quently, most certain to be ready when wanted. I have reason to
believe their size has been increased since Mr. Kent wrote.

Besides Mr. Aylmer’s, I observed remarkably good horses at
Mr. Rayen’s of Somerfield, and at several other places too nume-
rous to mention. The gentlemen I have named breed none them-
selves; therefore, if we make certain allowances for their judgment
in selection, their stock may be taken as a fair representation of the
district generally.

Many of the “Suffolk chesnuts” may also be seen in this
county. These too are a very active and useful breed, and he who
possesses good specimens of either, or crosses of both, cannot
be far wrong. Every farmer who keeps a horse for riding should
have a really good hackney; which would cost no more keeping
than the most worthless one. Peculiar circumstances made me
acquainted with the history of a breed of roadsters which Nor-
folk once possessed, but of which it has now to lament the loss.
A good specimen of that celebrated breed took its rider, in a case
of necessity, 104 miles in 12 hours, without being injured; but
such feats spread their fame—liberal offers from strangers fol-
lowed—and, as men seldom know the value of a first-rate animal,
so long as it is in their own possession, the best of the blood were
bought, and taken from the county; and I was repeatedly told
that their loss is irreparable. I do not mean that there are no good
hackneys in Norfolk, but the people of that county say that they
have lost their best, which is perhaps the strongest ground for
hoping that their loss is not, as they suppose, irreparable. The
fact is, they have not only sold the best specimens, but have crossed
the others, in too many cases, with blood-horses; thus producing
a nondescript animal in lieu of what might otherwise have been most
valuable. Had they contented themselves with crossing the

316 Agriculture of Norfolk.

heaviest of their cart-mares with small blood-horses, uniting good
bone and sinew with compactness of shape, they might have made
a real improvement.

CATTLE.

The cattle called «‘ Norfolks,” or “‘ Home-Breds,” seldom pos-
sess any characteristics of thriving stock. They are generally of a
dark red colour, without horns; have narrow backs, thin thighs,
and are of stunted growth. There may be some decent animals
among them, but few will venture to say anything in their fayour ~
as a breed, except that the cows generally give a good quantity of
milk. There are many, especially in the southern parts of the
county, which are evidently the produce of crosses between these
and the polled Suffolks; but they have no qualities to compete
successfully with the Short-Horns, Scots, Devons, Ayrshires,
and Herefords: although in a few instances of crosses with these
breeds the produce is better than I should have expected. For
winter-feeding on turnips, linseed-cake, &c., the Short-Horns seem
to have the most general preference at present. The same may be _
said of Ayrshires for the dairy; and Devons are almost the only
kind used for draught, on account of their quicker step and greater
activity. A large proportion of the Devons are very beautiful
animals. Probably there are as few bad ones of that breed as of
any other whatever ; and (which is of great importance) they are
well adapted to the particular situation, bearing in mind on what
they have to be fed, as well as their being so suitable for the Lon-
don market.* Good Scots are also in very high estimation for the
latter reasons; but farmers say, that it is much better to have a
good animal of its kind, than to take at random from any parti-
cular breed. Herefords are not so common in this county as

* Mr. Marsham of Stratton Strawless and Mr. Overman of Weasenham
keep Ayrshire cows. They occasionally cross with the Durham or short-
horned bull for feeding-stock, but keep up their pure breed of Ayrshire for
the dairy. Each feeds his male animals when little more than two years
old, as paying better at that age than they would if kept later. They are
then also more suitable for the London market.

One gentleman says—“ For this situation I think our present breed of
cattle, the pure North Devon, cannot be improved upon. They are
extremely healthy and hardy; they maintain their condition on bare pas-
tures in a dry summer better than almost any other breed. They will
come, if required, to early maturity, and, when slaughtered, I believe there
is no meat to surpass that of the North Devon in quality. I am now
speaking with reference to the dry sandy soils of West Norfolk ; in the
rich grazing pastures of Leicestershire, Nore and War-
wickshire I should prefer the Durham or Hereford. In the mountains of
Cardiganshire and Radnorshire I found the Ayrshire and Kyloe cattle
answer remarkably well, and, although the experiment was not tried, I feel
sure no high-bred animal could have borne the cold and hardship.”

Agriculture of Norfolk. 317

might be expected ; but, as I saw some of the breed at Castle
Acre, it is not improbable that here too they may prove as formid-
able rivals to the Short- Horns as in other districts.

SHEEP.

Notwithstanding the opinions of former reporters in favour of
the old Norfolk faeced of sheep, they have not stood their ground ;
and in some districts of the county it is difficult to find one ge-
nuine specimen. They might be, in many respects, suitable stock
for the soil of Norfolk when Mr. Kent wrote his report; but the
activity then commended, as requisite to take them over the ground
in collecting their food, from the short pastures of that day, 1 is NOW
unnecessary, and becomes a positive evil. Great activity implies,
or at least is generally accompanied by, restlessness of disposition,
and therefore is one of the greatest obstacles to rapid feeding.
The superior flavour ascribed to Norfolk mutton by Mr. Marshall
and Mr. Kent is an interesting quality to those who are willing
to pay the price of such luxuries. It is often asked, why Welsh
mutton is not more common in the markets, when all admit that
its flavour is superior to that of any in common use. The reason
is obvious: the consumers and butchers do not make it the farmer’s
interest to supply them with it. ‘This also is the reason why old
Norfolk sheep have for many years been gradually and steadily
superseded in their native pastures, as the herbage has become suit-
able for breeds which improved in value much more rapidly in pro-
portion to the food consumed. Mr. Denny, of Egmere, is gene-
rally admitted to have the best Norfolk sheep of the present time.
They are said to haye been greatly improved by him; the legs
are shorter, and they are rounder in the frame. An attempt has
been made to give the capaciousness of chest, the levelness of
form, and the aptitude to fatten, which belong to other breeds,
but it has only been partially successful; and the very fact of an
attempt at imitation is the best evidence of the superiority of that
which is imitated. Still great credit is due to Mr. Denny for
what has been done, although he has not succeeded in entirely
changing the nature of the el I saw Norfolks in Lord
Berners’ park at Kerby Cane worthy of a much better character
than Mr. Arthur Young gives to the Norfolk sheep of his time,
viz., “shape bad, loins narrow, back-bone high, chines thin ;”
though even yet “their legs are long and their disposition wild
and roving.”

Leicesters were tried without success, and the South- Downs
were the first to supplant Norfolks, and many splendid flocks of
pure South-Downs may be seen. They are said to stand folding
quite as well, if due care be taken so to arrange that the fold
shall be within a moderate distance of their pasture. They will

318 Agriculture of Norfolk.

travel as far as is now necessary, though free from the restless dis-
position of the Norfolks, yet are well calculated to thrive on short
and more heavily stocked pastures ; and, where an equal oppor-
tunity is given them, they become ready for the butcher at an ear-
hier period than the Norfolks. _New-Leicesters are generally ad-
mitted to be the best feeders, where the pastures are good, but
are not considered so well calculated as the South-Downs for the
light sands of Norfolk, or the downs of Sussex.

As the cultivation and soil of Norfolk improved, the county
_ became more suitable for Leicesters than before, and advantage
was taken of this change by crossing the South-Down ewe with
the new Leicester ram. The produce of such cross is now gene-
rally admitted to be the most profitable sheep in the highly culti-
vated light soils of Norfolk. Only one cross is taken for the pur-

pose of fattening it, the flock of ewes remaining of the South-
Down breed.

PIGS.
The old breed of Norfolk pigs thus described by Mr. Young,

** carcass long, but wants thickness,’ has been generally improved,
so that it is rather difficult to find any possessing these peculiari-
ties of shape to mark their orig. There certainly are some of
them left, but barely sufficient to prove that the former reporters
of the county faithfully described such as were common in their
time.

The pigs most generally seen in Norfolk now are white, with a
due thickness of back, a moderate length of leg, and an apparent
aptitude to fatten with good keeping. They have been greatly improved
by crossing with the Suffolk pigs, and to these, I believe, they chiefly
owe their present good qualities. But, although they are probably now
as well calculated as most breeds for general use, yet, where a little more
care than ordinary can be bestowed, other crosses are more desirable.
I saw some, in different parts of the county, the produce of crosses with
Berkshire, others with “the improved Essex,” &c.; but these are the
exceptions, not the common breed of the county; which is, as I have
above stated, the old Norfolk improved by the Suffolk pigs. I observed
some remarkably good pigs, which I understood were the produce of the
common sow of the county, crossed by a Neapolitan boar. Captain
Glasspoole, of Ormsby, near Great Yarmouth, has, I believe, obtained
more premiums for pigs, at the recent agricultural shows’ of the
county, than any other person in it; and he thus describes the breed-
ing of those with which he was so successful :—‘* My original stock
of pigs were Chinese ; they were crossed with a Berkshire boar, and
that cross with a Neapolitan boar:” his present stock being the result
of this last cross. The Captain adds, that “pigs require to be kept
warm, dry, and clean, which is not sufficiently attended to by farmers
generally.” ‘* Washing them occasionally with warm soap-suds is very
beneficial, and they will lie down to be scrubbed as soon as they see

Agriculture of Norfolk. 319

the soap and brush.” The truth is, warmth, quietness, and comfort are
very essential, as means of making food repay its cost in the best man-
ner, to every animal on which food is bestowed for that especial purpose ;
and therefore our attention ought as constantly to be directed towards
securing the former as providing the latter; and I think this general
principle can hardly be too often impressed upon feeders of stock. I
may observe also, that, although most of the best Norfolk farmers are
aware of this fact, it is not so well known, generally, as it ought to be,
that the peculiar flavour and quality of bacon is derived more from the
food on which it has been fed than from the manner of curing it.

YARDS, BOXES, BUILDINGS, &c.

A question of some importance has recently arisen as to the
comparative merits of stall, yard, or box feeding; but perhaps
more particularly between the two last-mentioned methods. Box-
feeding is of recent origin in Norfolk, and advocated on the ground
of its uniting the advantages of having the cattle loose (or at liberty
to move themselves as far as is beneficial), without allowing them
to be checked in their feeding by annoyance from other animals,
or by their own restlessness ; whilst the manure, by this means, is
made under cover, and the liquid from the cattle preserved in it;
the boxes being generally sunk in the ground, or, when placed on
the level, surrounded by a wall of clay, and in some cases brick
and mortar, for the purpose of retaining the liquid manure. This
is the new mode of feeding ; and the only objection raised to it,
which seems of much importance, even at first, is, that of its being
more expensive. If it is really a more expensive means of arriving
at the same end, it should undoubtedly be at once abandoned ;
but in these cases, as well as others, the cheapest way is not always.
the most profitable; on the contrary, it is often found, in the end,
the dearest. Those who advocate stall-feeding say, that by their
plan you can feed twice the number in the same space; but then
the question arises, can you feed them as rapidly, for the same
amount of food consumed, and with equal benefit to the manure?
If you cannot do both these, the difference should be taken into
the account in calculating the expense of feeding. For, supposing
the interest of the landlord and that of the tenant to be (as they
really are in the long run) as identical as if united in one person,
avery smal] difference in the capability of producing improvements
in the animals, from equal quantities of food consumed, would
abundantly cover the most extravagantly built sheds for them. It
is said, however, that these boxes may be so constructed as to cost
very little.

Mr. John Blomfield, of Warham, has long prevented water from
entering the sheds surrounding his yards, as a means of avoiding
injury to the manure there made. He has kept his horses in the
yards all night, during summer, upon cut grass, &c., more than

320 Agriculture of Norfolk.

forty years, as a regular system; when he has deviated from that,
it has been from necessity. The advantages of this are shown by
one of my Norfolk friends in the following extract :—

*‘ It is absolutely necessary to give cart-horses green food during
summer, and I am convinced that horses thrive much better in loose
yards, with plenty of green food like lucern, than by being turned at
random into a pasture, where they are frequently teased and worried by
flies in hot weather—and drenched and starved, even in summer, by the
cold rains we frequently have at that season.

“ Then, again, (which should be an important consideration to every
high-land farmer,) by one mode you produce, during summer, a rich
and excellent yard of dung, and by the other your manure is all wasted,
or deposited in situations where it is not wanted.”

It is only necessary to add, that this conveys what seems to be the
general opinion of the best farmers in the county at the present
time.

Mr. Blomfield’s horse-cribs for cut-grass or cut-hay are wor-
thy of notice. They are square, like most others, but have two
high sides and two low ones: the latter, for the horses to reach
over, whilst eating, opposite to each other; the former, to prevent
their wasting what they should eat, by throwing it out.

In Mr. Cambridge’s yard, at South Runcton, I observed cast-
iron posts used to support the front part of the open cattle-sheds.
These posts cost 12s. each, and have the advantage of never de-
caying; if accidentally broken, they can be made as strong as
before, by enclosing the broken parts in a circular brace of iron.

Norfolk is celebrated for its large barns, which would be very
desirable if the cost of them were not large also. Who would
not, for instance, like to be able to drive ten or twelve loaded
waggons under such a shelter in case of necessity ?

THE COURSE OF CROPPING ON DIFFERENT SOILS, AND
IMPLEMENTS USED.

The four-course shift, viz. turnips, barley, seeds (or layer), and

Agriculture of Norfolk. 321

wheat, is most common in almost every part of the county; but
that arises partly from the occupiers being tenants of others, and
bound to it by their agreements. On the light, sandy, or chalky
soils the yeneral opinion seems to be, that no other course would
be mutually more beneficial to landlord and tenant. But that is
not the case on the strong clay land. In the marshes and fens
there .is in some instances an entirely different course adopted,
which would no doubt be the case more generally if each person
cultivated his own land.

In some cases I felt a diffidence in asking men, whom I knew
to be possessed of original talent, “their course of cropping ;”’
because that course was not selected by themselves, but copied
from some “ musty old parchment,” and circulated by some man
in authority as the unbending law, to be applied to all soils, all
situations, all climates, and all circumstances! The folly of this
must be obvious to all intelligent practical men. I do not mean
in this to convey a censure on the management of estates in Nor-
folk particularly, for the same error is too common in many other
counties of England.

What may be good in one instance, would not be so in a dif-
ferent situation, or even inthe same situation often repeated; as
then, the original circumstances may be quite changed.

Thinking it a convenient means of conveying to my readers
some idea how the business of Norfolk agriculture is carried on,
I purpose selecting one person to represent the rest, and showing,
when necessary, the opinions and practice of others bearing upon
the particular point.

For this purpose it might seem natural to some to select
Holkham as an index of the rest, but that would be objectionable
as being cultivated for an owner, and therefore such as might not
be supposed proper to be imitated by a tenant farmer. The
farmer whom I shall select is Mr. John Hudson, of Castle Acre,
one of the principal tenants of the Earl of Leicester. Mr.
Hudson names as his model or “ tutor’ in agriculture the justly
celebrated Mr. Blakie, late agent at Holkham; and I could not
avoid observing that many others of the best farmers of the dis-
trict are doing precisely as that gentleman recommends in his
publications. The two farms at Castle Acre occupied by Mr.
Hudson contain about 1500 acres; the soil being a ‘‘ sandy loam
on clay or chalk.” He also has a farm of low land at Seech,
near Lynn, about 200 acres. When he first took the land at
Castle Acre in 1822, he only kept about 30 head of cattle and
800 sheep; he now grazes “about 200 beasts and from 2500
to 3000 .sheep annually.” He has doubled the produce of barley,
and nearly doubled the produce of wheat. ‘To account for this
change ; he uses yearly about 100 tons of rape-cake and bones for

322 Agriculture of Norfolk.

manure, and about 200 tons of linseed-cake for fattening cattle
and sheep; the whole of the land has been clayed or marled,
and, where necessary, drained. Here, as on most other large
farms in West Norfolk, a bailiff is engaged for each farm to
superintend the different operations. Now, let us suppose that
these have received Mr. Hudson’s instructions, and commence
operations, and that the farmers of Norfolk generally are aware of
what is going on, and give their opinions occasionally (neighbours
and others sometimes will) as to the policy of the modes adopted
- in the particular situation; also how and when they ought to be
varied under different circumstances.
These latter I shall insert as seems convenient and necessary.

Mr. Hudson's Course at Castle Acre (or the Common Four-course
Shift).
‘1. Turnips; 2. Barley; 3. Clover; 4. Wheat.

Preparing Land for Turnips, Mangold, §c.
First YEAR.
gh

Immediately after harvest, if the weather is too dry to ploug
clover layers for wheat, it will be particularly well adapted for
the work of clearing and preparing part of the land for turnips
next season ; thus—

By skeleton-ploughing the wheat stubbles about 3 to 4 inches deep, all the soil is
cut, but not turned over ; therefore, the stubble, &c. will be left on the surface. This
is done by Ransome’s Suffolk plough, without its “ plat,” or mould-board.m—Seari-
fying across with Blakie’s grubber, or some similar instrument, usually drawn by two
or by three horses——well harrowing with heavy harrows, two of them being fastened
together when at work, and drawn by three horses. They are considered at least
twice as effectual at this stage as those which could be drawn by one horse each,
and therefore the work progresses more rapidly by the use of them: harrowing
afterwards with lighter harrows, two horses drawing a gang of three. In performing
this operation it is usual to drive the horses much more rapidly, by which each
harrowing becomes more effectual than it otherwise would be :—the stubble, &c. raked
into rows, carted into a heap, and afterwards carted into the yards, as opportunity
offers, that it may be used for litter in winter: it is never burnt.

These operations only apply to that part of the shift which
there is time to get through during such a period of dry weather
as prevents any more valuable work being attended to, and are in
that case done during September or the first half of October.
If no such opportunity offers, these will not be performed, but the
whole of the land will be prepared for turnips in the following
manner :—

Ploughing 5 inches deep (or as deep as may be without turning up dead soil)
with Ransome’s wheel-plough, drawn by two horses or oxen.

And, as there is no instance of more being used at one time for
common ploughing in any part of Norfolk, I shall not think it

Agriculture of Norfolk. 323

necessary to state the number used in any other ploughing herein
described.

Mr. Hudson objects to cross-ploughing each time, because it
cuts the Jand into diamonds and renders it unlevel ; he, therefore,
always ploughs it twice in succession in the same direction, that
is, if he has turned it out from a furrow, he turns it in the next
time. In districts where fallows are ploughed in very wide pieces
this objection to cross-ploughing each time does not apply so
strongly; but, as Mr. Hudson’s are only 20 yards wide, it is in
his case well founded.

Ploughing the same depth as before, and in the same direction or otherwise, as
may be consistent with the above rule. This may probably be done in February
if the first ploughing was performed early; but that ploughed for the first time in
December will not be ready before the end of March or beginning of April.——
Scarifying with Blakie’s grubber or Biddle’s scarifier.

He considers some scarifiers* to be good harrows but bad
ploughs, and therefore ploughs oftener than some of his neigh-
bours.

Well harrowing with heavy harrows (two drawn by three horses).——Ditto, oc-
easionally afterwards, to destroy the annual weeds, &c. Rolled as occasion may
require.——Any rubbish which the land contains may now be supposed to have
come to the surface, and is picked off by hand for 6d. per acre; it formerly cost 20s.
A “ clean earth,” (the third ploughing,) called the “stirring earth.” Har-
rowed with the three-horse harrows, followed by the light ones as before, and rolled
if necessary. This supposed to be about the end of April or beginning of May.——
Mr. Hudson prefers ridging to flat work on such soil as that at Castle Acre. He
thinks the land more certain of bearing a crop if ploughed about ten days before
sowing, in doing which, his aim is to leave the soil light, and as finely pulverized
as possible.+

The land is marked for ridging by an implement for the purpose, drawn by one
horse, the markers being somewhat similar to the coulters of a drill. It
makes five marks at a time, the rows 27 inches apart, and one of the coulters
returning on the mark last made by itself, whilst the others go on fresh
ground. The land being thus all marked for ridging, that operation may
be commenced at any part of the field. Two of Ransome’s, or similar double-
breasted Northumberland ploughs, will set out 8 acres per day. The land
being measured, so as to know exactly how many ridges make an acre, tum-
brils with muck immediately follow the ridging-ploughs, each load being made
to go the whole length; so that they take any number of rows, according
to the length of them, &e. Two men unload; one in the cart with a fork,

the other behind it with a crome iinet ; this last is

* During the last spring and summer I have used Biddle’s improved scarifiers
to great advantage, and certainly saved a ploughing by using them for barley, as
well as for turnips.—J. Hupson.

+ The strong land on Mr. Overman’s farm at Weasenham is thus prepared for
turnips: in November, ploughed deeply, the ploughs having “ short plats” (or
mould-boards), that the land may be more exposed to frost ; in the spring, scarified
with Biddle’s scarifier, and afterwards ploughed and drilled; being generally sown
the last week in May or the first in June.—Mr. Overman has this land in 12-furrow,
or 3 yards, “stetches’” (and there are few good farmers in the county who have
- wet land in much wider pieces, or “ stetches,” than four yards). He is of opinion
that the less such land is ploughed the better, so long as it is kept clean.

VOL. Vv. Zz

324 Agriculture of Norfolk.

the team-man. Six women, or strong youths of fifteen or sixteen years old, spread
the manure with light three-pronged forks, the rows being divided into three
equal lengths; they work in pairs,

2 2 and the ground being equally divided,
they know the part they have to do.
Aili Other two similar ploughs follow imme-

diately after the spreading of the ma-

nure, aud plough it in before the gases escape.——The drilling of the seed
immediately follows that, not rodling first ; but, to prevent the necessity for

that, a flat mould-board is attached to the shafts of the drill, and therefore
precedes the coulters, taking off the tops of the ridges and moving the clods,
ifany, into the furrows.——Besides the usual quantity of about ten three-

horse tumbrels of muck, from ten to fourteen bushels per acre of bones (or

bones and rape-dust in equal quantities, mixed) are drilled with the seed.
-—Care is taken to put the bones, &c., as near the farm-yard muck as pos-
sible. A small fork, A, attached behind the drill manure-coulters, slightly
covers the bones, &c., before the seed is deposited by the other coulters of the same
drill. The seed is deposited not more than an inch deep, and is covered by a
loose chain attached to a cross-bar of wood._—Mr. Hudson has sowed mangold
twenty-two years, out of which he drilled twenty, and dibbled two. The latter
were the only failures; therefore his mode of sowing it is precisely the same as
when sowing Swedes or white turnips, in all the particulars I have described ;
and the only variation is in the time of sowing and the quantity of seed.* His
practice at Castle Acre is: to sow mangold the last week of April or the
first week in May.——Swedes from the Ist to 20th of June. Decanter or bell-
turnips about the 15th of June (being for early consumption by cattle or sheep) ;
and he would sow white turnips, intended for the lambing season, about the
6th of July——Quantities of seed per acre: white turnips, 3 lbs. ; Swedes, 4 lbs. ;
mangold, 7 lbs. Mr. Aylmer was surprised to find 18 inches flat heavier as a
crop, than 27 inches ridge, by 14 ton per acre; the latter looking much the best.
He describes the soil as loam, and subsoil chalk. Notwithstanding this, Mr. Ayl-
mer is inclined to ridging; so that the evidence of his actual experiment is of the
more importance. Many of the best farmers of the thin soil chalk-districts drill
their turnips on level at about 18 or 20 inches apart, exactly in the same manner as
those of the Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. Mr. Overman of Burnham is
an instance of this, and he is said to be one of the best farmers of the county. Those
of other districts, who have a geological map to refer to, will find that Burnham is
on the chalk. This only confirms the opinions of others in different distriets, who
are cultivating similarly thin soil resting on chalk; and whoever happens to occupy
such, in whatever part of the kingdom it may be, should bear such evidence as this
in mind, in order that he may try the experiment if he has not already done so.
I found the same soil at Massingham, where the drilling is on the flat. - It is the
same also at Quidenham, where I could have thought myself in a Lincolnshire or a
Yorkshire turnip-field ; Mr. Coulson’s management of his 18-inch flat drilled turnips
is so similar to the common practice of those counties. Where the soil is deeper,
and yet not wet, I found the turnips more generally ridged; but Mr. Hudson of
Castle Acre, and Mr. Overman of Weasenham, both say they should not ridge on
wet land.——Mr. Tingey of Scoulton says, ,“I object to ridging turnips on heavy
land, because I cannot prevent the clods from rolling to the top of the ridge, there-
fore the seed gets deposited in the clods, and unless there comes a heavy rain soon
after the seed is sown, the turnips come up very patchy, for if the seed is not covered
with loose mould it cannot grow.” “TI also find that, when turnips are sown on ridges,
the land becomes flat from hoeing,” so that it is often difficult to find a season in
which the carts can be taken upon the land without becoming a means of injuring
the barley-crop by compressing the soil so as to turn up, after ploughing, “ whole

* Mr. Milnes had as good mangold as any I saw in the county, his manner of
growing it being very nearly the same as Mr. Hudson's at Castle Acre; the rows
being only one inch wider, and the seed steeped thirty-six hours, and afterwards

laced in a moderately warm sun, and dried with sand and a small proportion of
ime, that it may work easily in the drill.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 325

and livery.” “ Again, I can grow more weight of turnips per acre on the flat-work
17 inches apart, than I can on the 27-inch ridges.” Mr. Tingey adds, “ My system
of growing turnips on heavy land is this: I spread seven loads per acre of yard
manure, plough it on 12-furrow ridges (3 yards), drill six rows on a ridge,
with ten bushels per acre of bone-dust, taking three drills up one side and three
down on the other, the horses walking in the furrows. By this method I am most
certain of plant, and can grow the greatest weight per acre; and the land lies in a
much better form for keeping itself dry at Michaelmas, or when you want to get
the turnips off, than when it is hoed flat from the ridge system. It ploughs lighter
and in a better state for barley, a1id will work much better, and more like light land
in the spring, if you can plough it up soon enough to have the benefit of the frost.
By this plan I can get two or three coombs more barley per acre than when my
land has been ridged.”

On Mr. Hudson’s farms a few days after the plants appear the land is horse-hoed
by an implement which takes one row and two half-rows at a time; a little buck-
wheat is now sown at wide intervals (about 60 yards) for the game, which is covered
by the horse-hoe.——The young turnips are hand-hoed with 9-inch hoes for 2s,
per acre, at which work the men earn from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per day.——After a few
days the turnips are singled, and the weeds picked from around the plants for
ls. 6d. per-acre, many persons only giving 1s. per acre-——Horse-hoed a few days
after that, and as soon as possible hoed a second time, breaking up the soil and
drawing it round each turnip, for 3s. per acre.——Horse-hoed again, with a tri-
angular hoe, three rows at a time, drawing or “crowding” soil to the plants———
Sometimes another horse-hoeing.

I met with several extraordinary instances of difference in
opinion on important points, but none more remarkable than this,
as to the distance at which turnips should be set from each other
in the rows.—Mr. Marsham of Stratton Strawless, Mr. Hudson
of Castle Acre, and Mr. Blomfield of Warham, are supposed to
be as good authorities on agricultural matters generally as any
other persons in the whole county, yet Mr. Marsham hoes his.
turnips with a 4-inch hoe, Mr. Hudson one of 9 inches, and Mr.
Blomfield leaves his 18 inches apart in the rows, or two in a yard.
All three sow them on 27-inch ridges; but Mr. Blomfield sows
only Swede turnips, Mr. Hudson nearly all Swedes, and Mr.
Marsham rather a large proportion of white turnips. This in
some degree accounts for their difference in opinion. My own
opinions on this subject are already known to the Society.*

In September Mr. Hudson begins to draw off white turnips for lambs on second
crop clover or wheat stubble, in order to gradually accustom them to food of so
opposite a nature to what they have had before. This is continued about six
weeks, the quantity of turnips being increased, as the sheep become accustomed
to, and acquire a liking for, them. In doing this Mr. H. takes six rows and leaves
twelve to be fed off on the land.——In October, puts the lambs on turnips,
cutting them all with Gardiner’s turnip-cutter.——The sheep are kept in by hurdles
and nets.——Mr. Hudson prefers hurdles between the different flocks, nets before
and behind, also on the sides of the folds. Where there is little game, nets become
proportionably more suitable-———Each sheep is allowed half a pound of linseed-
cake, and two or three pints of cut clover-hay, per day, in addition to all the turnips
he will then eat.——Cut turnips are given to the sheep in troughs.——One-third
of the turnips intended for cattle, &c. is drawn topped, tailed, and loaded on carts ;
the remaining two-thirds “placed” for 4s. per acre on the whole quantity ; the tur-

nip-tops are thrown on wheat stubbles for store cattle. Three sheep-feeders (a
man and two boys working together) top, tail, and cut the turnips, move the

* “Prize Essay ou the Drill Husbandry of Turnips.”—R, A.S. J., Mo iv. Part 1.
Z

326 Agriculture of Norfolk.

troughs, nets, &c., for about 1s. a score per week; thus, if the sheep are fed on
turnips twenty weeks, each sheep will cost about 1s. for attendance ———Mr. H. gives
his sheep salt, either common or rock being always by them.

Turnips are all drawn out of the ground by hand before frost sets in; as evidence
of which, there were none left on the land in the state they had grown, when I rode
over Mr. Hudson’s farms about Christmas Day, 1843.——Turnips are taken to the
yards in light carts drawn by two horses.——If intended for use in November or
December, they are put in turnip-houses; and for January and February they are
laid on heaps, the tops being cut off, but the roots left on, as they are found to keep
better so; that is, they are not so liable to become musty.——Those for March and
April are placed in beds on wheat stubbles or other convenient situations which
seem suitable for the purpose.——Mr. Overman of Weasenham draws off about half
the early-sown white turnips for cattle in the yards, or throws them upon the wheat
stubble for them, previously to their being put into sheds or yards to fatten; the
remainder he eats off with sheep where they are grown. The Swedes are pulled,
. topped, tailed, and put into heaps (about eight heaps per acre), which are covered
with a small quantity of straw and mould to preserve them from the frost, and to
have them ready for use in any weather. This system of pyeing turnips is a very
common one in Norfolk, and it is difficult to decide whether the majority of good
opinions is in favour of it, or rather of the other method, which is, “ placing” the
turnips from several rows side by side, so as to leave at least nine-tenths of the land
vacant. Mr. Overman has a practice which seems almost peculiar to himself at
present, but not unlikely to extend in that district. After part of the Swedish tur-
nips have been carted off, and the remainder put in “ pies,” the turnip-tops and
“ offal” are consumed on the land by his flock of ewes.

Mr. Hudson cuts them for cattle, with Gardiner’s, Wedlake’s, or Man’s slicers.
The cattle have each about three bushels of turnips per day, and from 7 lbs.
gradually increasing up to 10l1bs. per day of oil-cake, besides hay.——Mr. Hud-
son does not approve of cut hay for cattle; he thinks they do not ruminate so well
with it. He also thinks that long hay is a means of cleaning the mouths of the
animals, otherwise clogged by eating oil-cake.——Sheep finish the turnips by the
second week in April. —Mangold is pulled, topped, put in carts, and packed on
heaps, for 5s. per acre; and it is considered very important to have this done before
the frosts.——Mr. Milnes’s plan of packing mangold-wurzel is, to throw up the main
body of the pile roughly (so as to be laid open), but to pile, or place straight by hand,
the outside. The heaps are covered with straw first, then with soil. to the thickness
of four inches, except the top, which for about a month is left open, for the heat, &c.
to evaporate.

Mr. Hudson observes, that mangold is not in season before February ; it is better
in March, still better in April; and that all cattle eating mangold should be kept
warm, and have hay with it—-—Cattle should be gradually accustomed to mangold,
the allowance of it being increased from day to day, thus: one peck the first day, two
pecks the second, three the third, and four the fourth; then increasing more largely,
to six pecks the ninth day, &e.——Mangold suits best in warm weather, and as it
is more relaxing than turnips, it requires a more liberal supply of hay to correct the
bowels of the animals.—-—They eat less cake with it, and fatten more rapidly upon
it——Mangold is very useful to carry on wheat for hoggets in March. By con-
suming about five tons of it per acre, and a little linseed-cake, the wheat is greatly
improved. It is made more free from poppy and other weeds, the straw stiffer, and
the grain heavier and better. This, it must be remembered, applies to dry land.

Mr. Hudson first covers the bottoms of all his yards with sand or mould, to absorb
all the liquid manure.——The cattle are fed in yards with open sheds fronting the
south, and affording shelter from the cold north winds; these are spouted round to
carry off water from the manure.——Mr. Hudson (like many other Norfolk farmers)
takes out his manures from horses and cattle alternately, to mix them in the hill—
about half a day’s work of each before changing.

Sreconp YEAR, BARLEY.

After the turnips are off, the land is ploughed “ fleet,” or about 3} inches deep
across the ridges, with a skeleton plough.——In February, scarified, if the weather
is favourable-——Harrowed, and, if cloddy, rolled.—Ploughed again, but not
across, for reasons before stated.——Harrowed, and rolled with light rollers, &c.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 327

Drilled, with from 3 to 34 bushels of barley per acre, according to the state of the
land.——Rows 7 inches apart—— Mr. H. sows none but Chevaiier barley ——It is
harrowed in with light harrows (three for two horses).—— Sows clover and other
small seeds with a horse-machine, that it may be more equally spread over the
land than is possible by hand, especially in windy weather.* Mr. Nurse, junior,
states that sainfoin has been sown by many first-rate agriculturists for one year
only; the wheat is much better after it (scarcely a case known where wheat has
failed after it); a friend of his has grown it thus, many years, and intends this year
to lay down fifty acres with it, for one year only; he had the same quantity last year,
and grew three good loads per acre of hay; the after-grass was a foot and a half
high ; upon this he turned his lambs, and they became the best in the neighbourhood.
Some say, plough in the “eddish” for wheat; he thinks it better to buy other
manure, as the value of the crop for sheep-feed is more than equal to that cost.——
As in Norfolk generally, Mr. Hudson’s seeds are varied in each course, so as to have
red clover only once in eight years, thus: first course—16 lbs. of red clover, 4 lbs.
of white, and half a peck of rye-grass, per aere; second course—12 Ibs. of trefoil,
8 lbs. of white clover, and a peck of rye-grass, per acre. This last is intended for

feeding on the land.——The clover (in the first course) is for mowing once, and
afterwards to be fed by sheep.—Seeds covered by light harrows, and the lard
rolled, to make it level—_—-Barley is weeded for 5d. per acre-——In preparing for

barley, Mr. Brown of Thrigby always keeps from the land in wet weather ; sows, a
few days after the barley, small seeds with machinery, covering them with very
light harrows.— Mr. Blyth (S. F.) says, “ The turnip-land is generally ploughed
twice towards the end ofthe season, scarified once or twice, and then once ploughed ;
drilled about six inches, beginning about the 25th of March, and sowing three
bushels per acre.” Mr. Coulson, “When the turnips are fed off early in winter
first skeleton ploughs (by taking off the plough-breast), then harrowing in spring,
and ploughing clean. Where later fed, ploughing once, and harrowing; drilling
at 7 inches, from two and a half to three bushels.”

The barley is mowed by a set of harvest-men, paid for the harvest, not by the
week ; therefore they receive the same, whether it is of long or short duration.——
After two or three days, turned with a hay-fork or fork-shaft. Last harvest
Mr. Hudson sheafed part of his barley for the first time ; therefore the old method
of treating it will here be described. When dry enough for carting, it is gathered
six swathes in a double row, thus :—

] |

\ |

| |
| |

|

e——e-

* T could not find that the plan of drilling clover:seed in rows had been tried in
Norfolk. A gentleman of great experience in Lincolnshire recommends it on the
following grounds :—

Ist. “ That one-fourth of the seed is saved.”

2nd. “ That, by all the seed being deposited at an equal depth, the plants retain
a much firmer root in the soil during the winter.”

3rd. “ That the grass-seeds may be drilled across the rows of barley some time
after the corn is up, and not only be better covered by the soil than they would be
if no coulters were used, but the barley itself may be improved, at the same time, by
' this slight breaking of the surface soil.”

Tn addition to the saving of seed, as before named, this gentleman’s clover was
better last spring than he ever had it before, and he believes that, if the following
season had been an average one, his seeds would have carried at least one-third
more stock than usual. This improvement he attributed solely to the drilling.
The drill he uses for this purpose is 63 feet wide, having twenty-four coulters, and
resembling a corn-drill, except that it is much lighter. It is drawn by one horse.

Knowing the high estimation in which this plan is held by some farmers in Lin-
eolnshire and Yorkshire, I take this opportunity of alluding to it as a general answer
to those of my Norfolk friends who made inquiries respecting it.

328 Agriculture of Norfolk.

one row being turned to each side, from the centre to the swathe adjoining, and one
from each outside towards it—_—One raker follows each gathering-fork, with a rake
five feet long ——Two women gather for two pitchers.——There are two rakers
after each pitcher; two to load the waggons, one of them being the team-man; there
are also two pitchers, or one for each man on the waggon. The land is afterwards
horse-raked.——The waggon commonly used throughout Norfolk is rather too
substantial; it is a shafted one, drawn in harvest when loaded by three horses, one
before another, and driven without reins——When unloading there is only one
horse standing with the waggon, the others having gone to assist in bringing a fresh
load.——The stack-staddles of straw are about 53 to 6 yards wide for barley, the
length varying according to cireumstances.——-Mr. Hudson’s stack-stage is peculiar,
and readily formed, a cart being the foundation for it.——-There are usually five
men at the stack for two pitchers———As is usual in Norfolk, nearly all the corn is
stacked in the fields, and as near to where it was grown as may be, without injury
to the clover, or waste of labour; thus the barley is generally put on the first wheat
Stubble in the way to the barn.——After harvest the outsides of the ricks are
threshed with poles to save the corn (and prevent the staining of part of it), which
falls on a rick-cloth or waggon-sheet.

Barley is threshed by machines, the men not liking to use flails. Horse-machines
are almost universal in Norfolk, but Mr. Hudson has recently had one erected to
go by steam.——A winnowing-machine takes the chaff out of the barley. It is
hummelled by machinery.—— Winnowed again with smaller riddles——Blown, to
take out the small corn. To make the parcel more uniform, the corn is not mea-
sured as dressed, but after the whole is clean——The bushel is not filled by a scuttle,
or “scoup,” but with the hands, the measurer having it between his knees at the
time. A coomb (four bushels) is put in each sack.——Barley is delivered in a
waggon drawn by four horses, which usually takes twenty-five coombs for a load,
but occasionally thirty.

Turirp YEAR, CLOVER.

Thistles are cut on new layer before they are closed for mowing, at the rate of
2d. per acre.——Clover is mowed for 2s. 6d. to 3s. per acre. Some get it done for
1s. 6d., but, the stubble being of no value, Mr. H. pays more to have it cut close to
the ground,——The weakest land is manured for wheat, and, the earlier the manure
is put on after the clover is carried, the more beneficial it appears——Mr. Hudson's
breeding-flock being comparatively small in number (200), he does not practise
folding extensively, but only when the lambs are not with them.

Mr. Aylmer’s boy, “ Abraham Fisher,’ aged twelve the previous April, was
removing the fold when I saw him in August, 1843, but this he had then done for
about two years. ‘Those who at first think the hurdles expensive, may not do so,
perhaps, after calculating the difference there is between the wages of men and those
of boys like this. I annex a sketch of Mr. Aylmer’s sheep-hurdles :—

They are 21 feet long, and cost 30s. each, but I was informed they may be made
for considerably less. Sixteen of these (four on each side) constituted Mr. Aylmer’s
fold for 400 Southdown ewes; and this valuable flock was attended to by the boy
“ Abraham Fisher,” above alluded to.

PREPARING FOR WHEAT.

Mr. Hudson’s layers are ploughed by Ransome’s wheel Olland-ploughs.——Drill-
rolled with a 12-roll presser, covering six feet, and drawn by three or four horses, as
the land is level or otherwise——Harrowed with heavy harrows, to raise mould.——
Mr. Hudson thinks it very important to select the finest ears for seed.——Mr. Neave
had the “ Britannia” and “ Clovers” last year, both of which surpassed any other in

Agriculture of Norfolk. 329

his possession. He thinks “Spalding” is the most general favourite, but he prefers
those named, as being superior in quality——-Mr. Neave’s wheat attracted my ob-
servation so much, that 1 inquired to whom it belonged, when I found this was one
of the gentlemen on my list; and, but for his good crops, I should have gone con-
siderably out of my way.——This case was an exception; but nearly all the best
crops of wheat I saw in the county were of the sort called “Spalding,” the straw of
which is bright and stiff——The seed is drilled. In Norfolk, generally, the
drill is so constructed, that the man following it may, toa great extent, guide it.
This partly accounts for the straight drilling almost everywhere seen there. In
other districts, where all this depends on the horses and their leaders, it cannot be
expected that the work should be so generally well done. But I hope this hint will
be sufficient to introduce the improvement (now very old in Norfolk) to more ge-
neral notice. The farmers, I suppose, may send for them, if their neighbouriag
agricultural-implement makers do not.

The wheat is drilled eight inches from row to row, about three bushels to the
acre; the quantity varying according to the season and state of the land, but
generally beginning with a smaller quantity, and increasing it as the season
advances.——Would dibble part, if he would get the dropping‘ done well.
To prevent smut,* the wheat is prepared for sowing thus:—To three gallons of
boiling water a quarter of a peck of quicklime is added, and, after boiling, when
effervescing, three pints of strong salt-brine are added, the whole being then
stirred up and mixed together. This is poured over three bushels of wheat, which
is then turned four times, sweeping the corn up quite clean after each turning.

The growing wheat is hand-hoed for 1s. 6d. or 2s. per acre.——-To mow 300 acres of
wheat. Mr. Hudson has thirty-four men as mowers. Each mower is followed by
two women, or strong boys or girls in lieu of them.——One gathers with the hand
and the other prepares the band and ties it up: but they take the work alter-
nately——This company is followed by eight team-men, who set up ten sheaves
in a shock, not as suits their convenience, but, commencing with the two sheaves
intended for the centre, they place two more, first on one side of them, then
on the other, that the shock may be equally balanced, and therefore more likely
to stand; as is shown by the numbers over each pair of the sheaves in the ac-

0 6 2 4 &

* Mr. Coulson, of Quidenham, states, he has for several years used blue vitriol,
and finds it “a perfect preventive of smut in wheat,’ which was not the case with
salt and lime when he used them.

“The vitriol should be put into a tub and dissolved with boiling water, then add-
ing cold water at the rate of (hot and cold) three pailfuls to one pound of vitriol.

“The wheat should be steeped in the solution, and then turned out on the floor,

“ It soon dries, and is ready for use. It drills freely in any weather, which is not
the case with salt and water; as we frequently could not get it to drill at all in very
damp weather.”

330 Agriculture of Norfolk.

companying sketch——The ground is raked with a horse-rake-——Horse-drag
raked. Old men tie up rakings as closely to the mowers as possible; as that work
is more easily done when the corn has been recently cut.—-—in carting wheat (as
with barley) there are two pitchers, and two persons to load each waggon.— There
are always two waggons at least loading, and two unloading, at the same time, by
which means the work progresses more cheerfully, and much more is done than would
be by each party working separately ——Mr. Hudson does not use carts for carrying
his corn; and there are few persons in his immediate neighbourhood who do.
The wheat is put together in RounD stacks, because these have a smaller proportion of
outside, and wheat is not likely to heat from the weight of grain in the centre.*
The stacks are made of one uniform size, in order that the two companies may keep
pace with each other ; the advantage of which has been before stated——They are
placed sufficiently far from each other to prevent any two of them being burnt by
one original fire———The round staddles are made 9 yards in diameter, by sticking
a fork in the ground as the centre, and then, with a rope 44 yards long, having a
ring at one end (to pass over the shaft of that in the centre), and a fork at the other,
drawing the exact circle at once, and making them all of one size-——Each of these
stacks holds about 28 or 30 loads, about 18 or 20 shocks to a load, and 10 sheaves
to a shock—_—T welve waggons (eight going, and four unloading) will make eight
such stacks a-day.——All the wheat is stacked in the field, where grown.——
Thatched in the same manner as the barley, at 5d. per yard, measuring round the
eaves.——The sides of these wheat-stacks cut round, immediately after harvest, with
scythes having straight handles, for 2s. per stack.——Shavings carried to the machine
and threshed, from which Mr. H. got about 40 bushels last harvest; a larger quan-
tity than usual, arising from the corn being difficult to mow, &e.——Mr. H. hangs
old worn-out sheep-nets round the eaves of his wheat-stacks, to keep the crows off.
——Does not plaster round the bottoms of his stacks, as rats are not so numerous
with him as in some other parts of the county.t+
All wheat is threshed by machines, winnowed twice, then blown, and measured
in the same manner as the barley ; and delivered by a waggon and four horses, taking
22 to 24 sacks at each load.

From what I had heard, I expected to find that the use of
oxen for ploughing had recently been given up by many; but I
found very few instances of it, or even of a doubt expressed as
to the propriety of keeping some Devons for this purpose, where
the party possessed old grass-land suitable for their support. All
admit that horses are best for harvest, and therefore say they
must keep so many horses as are necessary to cart their corn.
These horses will perform great part of the ploughing, and the
number of oxen to be kept will be regulated by the extent of
land the harvest horses cannot plough.

Nearly all the best farmers of West Norfolk agree in this. As

* There are many who object to round stacks. For instance, Mr. Overman, of
Weasenham, says—‘ Long ones are better, because there is not so much time lost in
beginning and finishing them ; you can make them any length you like (in parts),
and if you do not choose to get the same lengths into the barns, you can cut them.”
Mr. Overman’s ricks are 7 yards wide, and 20 long.

+ At Stratton Strawless I first observed ricks plastered round, for about a yard
from the bottom, with mortar, to keep rats out. The cost of doing a round stack,
thus, (Mr. Bowman thought) had been about 12s., and the old plaster would be
worth (as manure) nearly half the money. I observed several instances of this in
the neighbourhood of Blofield; some of the parties having also dug a trench,
about a yard deep, round the stacks. In some parts of the county the stacks are on
iron stands (or frames), for the same reasons. Mr. Blyth of Burnham has displayed
great ingenuity in constructing a cheap one, from loose bars of iron and posts.
The number of rats now infesting the county is little short of a plague.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 331

instances, I name Mr. Blomfield of Warham and Mr. Hudson of
Castle Acre.

Oxen are used at Holkham and at Quidenham. Mr. Coulson,
the steward of the Earl of Albemarle, at the latter place, states
their advantages thus :—

‘They are kept at less expense than horses; they save the wear and
tear and cost of horses, by the oxen themselves growing into greater
valué, and by having more work done by the man with oxen than by
him with horses; and thus they keep the ploughing in a state of for-
wardness. One man has two pairs of oxen (which is, indeed, the com-
mon custom, in order to change them in the middle of the day, and
thus keep them in good condition), and ploughs about 2} acres of
fallows per day, for which he receives 1s. 2d. per acre ; he ploughs about
2 acres of seeds, or layers (for wheat), and is paid ls, 4d. per acre
for it.”

Mr. Coulson adds,—

“ T am of opinion that horses are best calculated for harvest work ;
but [ am convinced that, on large farms, a certain number of oxen may
be kept with great advantage, according to the size of the farm. I use
about eight pairs, they work four ploughs, and generally plough 9 acres
per day, so that the four ploughs keep the drill with manure at full
work during the time of sowing. Four horses work the drill and har-
row once before and once after it; other horses being employed in
preparing the land for the ‘ sowing earth.’ ”

Although I saw cattle at work in almost every part of the
county, they were nearly all Devons; indeed, I only observed two
that were not.

There is no doubt as to the superiority of Devons for draught,
from their peculiar activity. They do not walk so fast as some
horses, but they take the plough quite as quickly as horses do, in
some situations ; and, from the steady pace, and habit of walking
exactly parallel with each other, which I observed in Devons, I
believe the ploughman may, generally, do his work better with
them than with horses.

Although, as I have before stated, the general opinion seems to
be in favour of the 4-course system, for such light soils as are in
West Norfolk, yet there are good farmers in that district who
think differently. For instance, one says, if the land is clean and

highly cultivated, he is of opinion the 5-course would be better,
if carried out as follows :—

Ist round.—1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, layer; 4, layer; 5, wheat
or oats.

2nd ditto.—1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, red clover; 4, wheat;
5, pulse, and part vetches ; to be mowed green, for immediate con-
sumption in yards or boxes.

For, thus, only one-fifth of the land would be sown with turnips,
and, consequently, more likely to have a heavier crop per acre for

332 Agriculture of Norfolk.

the manure applied. The red clover would only come once in
10 years ; a sufficient interval to insure a good crop of it; whereas,
it generally fails, if repeated every four years.

With high land, called light, yet not containing sufficient sand
or chalk to render it “kind for turnips,’ Mr. Blomfield, of
Warham, states he would adopt the following course :—

1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, grass-seeds ; 4,

About Michaelmas he would partly plough the land, that is,
plough it in the manner called “risbalking,” by which 4 inches
are taken out and laid on 12; so that one-fourth only of the land
is actually ploughed; but that fourth destroys the herbage on
another fourth ; and, notwithstanding this, it so improves the re-
maining half, as to make it, as a means of supporting stock,
nearly equal to what the whole would have been. About Mid-
summer he would cross-plough it, as opportunity might offer; and,
near the time of harvest, manure and plough it.

5, wheat ; 6, grass; 7, part oats and part peas.

Mr. Neave, of Downham Grove, near Wymondham, (whose
land is too strong for turnips, and, on that account, not desirable
that he should have them oftener than is really necessary,) would
not sow them so frequently, but would prefer the course fol-
lowing :—

1, turnips; 2, barley; 3, layer; 4, layer; 5, wheat; 6, beans ;
7, wheat.

Near Lynn I observed, on one farm, this course :—

1, Rape, sown in June and eaten off by sheep.

2, Wheat, drilled with 7 pecks of seed.

3, Beans, ploughing once for them, and drilling or dibbling
2 bushels per acre.

4, Wheat, ploughing the land only once and drilling the seed.

5, Oats, ditto, drilling 4 bushels per acre.

This farm was remarkably clean, although other land near it
was as much the contrary: the difference, probably, being caused
by the occupier of one commencing operations on/y when the soil
seemed in a favourable state, the other, when it suited his conveni-
ence, whatever the state of the soil might be.

Mr. Hudson at Seech, near Lynn (where the land is his own,
and cultivated on his own account, in conjunction with the farms
at Castle Acre), the soil being a deep silt, a deposit from the sea,
has sowed wheat and beans alternately for the last 16 years,
without fallow, and without taking any other crop than the two
named. As he undoubtedly obtains a good crop every year, I
think myself justified in giving some of the details. It seems
necessary, in the first place, to state that, by having large high
land farms, he can spare a sufficient number of horses from them
to get through any work on the other, while the season is par-

Agriculture of Norfolk. 333

ticularly suitable for it. Immediately after harvest the wheat
stubbles, &c. are ploughed about 4 inches deep, that the grass, Ke.
may be taken off. In November the land is ploughed 5 or
6 inches deep, with swing-ploughs ; afterwards harrowed, if dry.

If the weather is suitable, the land is ridged at 27 inches apart,
in the manner described when speaking of Castle Acre.

In February, if the weather be dry enough to cart the “ muck,’
from 8 to 10 three-horse Scotch cart-loads per acre of good farm-
yard manure (from linseed cake, Kc.) is applied, being spread
evenly along the rows. The drill follows, its coulters being swung
or suspended above the surface of the land, so that the beans may
fall on the manure without touching the soil. The Northumber-
land double-breasted plough immediately follows the drill, and, by
splitting the ridges, forms new ones, covering the beans. The
seed is applied at the rate of about 10 pecks per acre. Mr.
Hudson prefers Fullard’s prolific bean, and, next to it, the
Heligoland bean, but sows only the former. This method of
« ploughing in” the seed was adopted from observing, that beans,
when not drilled so as to have the advantages of a great depth in
the soil to support them, were often broken by the wind previous
to harvest.

This is supposed to be in the latter part of February, or the first
week of March. During the following three weeks, the seeds of
weeds which lie near the surface of the soil will probably vegetate.
A gang of light harrows, therefore, (three, drawn by two horses) is
then used ; of course in the same direction as drilled; the horses
walking in the furrows. This breaks the soil on and near the
tops of the ridges, and, by exposing the roots of such annual
weeds as may have grown, they will probably be destroyed by the
dry weather of March. After this process the beans soon appear
through the tops of the ridges in straight rows ; and, when they are
about 2 inches above the surface, the land is horse-hoed, with an
instrument taking only 1 row at a time, but clearing that of all
weeds, and leaving the soil pulverized. This horse-hoeing is re-
peated at least three times; and the oftener the better, when the
weather is favourable, as it may thus be made more beneficial to
the land than any dead summer fallow ; having all its advantages
without its drawbacks. Such parts of the ridges as the horse-hoe
will not touch, are hoed and weeded by hand. The beans are
* shocked” at wide intervals, in order that the land, in the spaces
between the rows of shocks, may be broken down by a flag-harrow,
called by some a crab-harrow.

The shocks of beans are then moved on to the harrowed land,
that the part they before occupied may undergo the same process ;
and thus all the land is brought into the same state. Immediately

after the beans are carted, the Northumberland plough is put

334 Agriculture of Norfolk.

through the ridges, turning out the “muck.” In a few days, the
same harrow which was used before passes up and down the
ridges, and then across them, thus dispersing the manure equally,
mixing it with the soil in all parts, and leaving the surface level.
The land is then laid in 12-furrow “ stetches,”’ across the direc-
tion in which it was laid for beans. It is drilled with Spalding’s
wheat, about 3 bushels per acre; the rows being 8 inches apart.
During the time the wheat is growing, the land is hand-hoed, to
keep it as clean as possible. Indeed, the whole of this course is
so conducted by Mr. Hudson, as to show that he has made up his
mind the land shall enjoy all the advantages of perpetual fallow-
ing ; by which it will, on the other hand, afford him proportionate
profits, from perpetual cropping. The crops selected being not
only in the list of the most profitable, but, certainly, such as are
best suited for following each other, this land, which is adapted
for both, may grow them successively, without other variations, for
any length of time, if the above principle (of perpetual fallowing)
is as constantly acted upon. The last year’s crop of beans was a
good proof that the land has not been injured, as many of them
had 80 pods on one stalk, and one bean had produced 97 ; the
produce per acre being also great. Land is not injured by what
some would call over-cropping ; because, we see, where properly
treated in other respects, it is not injured by constant cropping.
It is injured by cropping injudiciously, or taking two crops in
succession of asimilar nature (as wheat after barley, or vice vers) ;
and there is scarcely any land which ought to grow two white
crops in immediate succession, as nearly every good tenant-farmer
will allow. Indeed, I have heard many of them say, that the
prevention of this is the only really good restriction on a tenant
as to his course of cropping. But then comes a more important
consideration, viz., as to the manner of cropping—that is, whether
crops are taken from the land without a return equivalent at least
to what is taken away, as a meaus of keeping up its productive
qualities. Also, whether the land is kept in such a state of culti-
vation as to resemble in its freedom from weeds, &e. a well-kept
garden. If these three points, viz., varying the crops, returning
what is, at least, equal to that which is taken, and garden cultiva-
tion, are combined, I maintain there is no such thing as over-
cropping—the idea is merely imaginary. ‘To whatever extent
any of these are neglected, to the same extent will the land cer-
tainly be injured.

Within the last few years great benefit has been derived from
sowing white mustard, not only as a preparation for wheat, but
also for turnips. I mention this here, as in some degree con-
firming what [ have just stated as to over- cropping. Mr. Nurse,
jun., of Feltwell, near Downham, has this year threshed (of the

Agriculture of Norfolk. 335

harvest of 1843) from 6 to 8 bushels of wheat per acre more,
where mustard was sown, than where the land was manured with
a quarter of a ton of cake per acre. As, in this instance, the
land was not manured for the mustard, the superior produce from
it, added to the saving of cost of manure applied in the other
case, renders this a strong presumption of its value, as a preparation
for wheat. The question for consideration is, how the land is
benefited by growing mustard in the manner described by Mr.
Nurse. To which I would answer, it is by literally following
out the three principles first stated (which were put on paper
before I heard the result of his experience). Ist. Varying the
crops. 2nd. Ploughing-in all the mustard before it runs to seed ;
by which, at least, an equivalent is returned to the land for that
taken. 3rd. Mr. Nurse strongly recommends that the land
should be made as clean as possible ; and those who have once
witnessed the result of garden cultivation need not be surprised at
its beneficial effects in this instance, where it can be united with
a mechanical means of improving the texture of the soil (which
the green mustard would certainly be), as well as furnishing to
the soil itself any chemical aid which the growing mustard may
derive from the atmosphere around it, and uniting the chance of
all these advantages with the positive certainty that you are not
injuring the land, because you take nothing from it.

Although, in the one instance named, no manure was applied
to the land for the mustard, yet Mr. Nurse recommends manuring,
to get as great a quantity of vegetable matter as possible to plough
in. I will quote his own words :—

** We have been in the habit of sowing mustard as a preparation for
wheat, the last few years, with great success. We have generally sown
it on light land (subsoil chalk), cultivated on the 5-course system, by
ploughing the two-years-old layer and getting it as clean as possible,
manuring it with 7 or 8 loads per acre, and sowing it about the last week
in July, or beginning of August, with a peck and a half of seed per acre.
On newly broken-up land it is an admirable preparation. We have a
field, mixed soil, subsoil chalk, that produced * * * of wheat after a
crop of seed without any manure. We have also found it an excellent
preparation for turnips on unkind land. It is advisable to get your land
as clean as possible before you can sow it; manuring it with 7 or 8 loads
per acre, as before stated, and sowing it the early part of April. We
consider mustard a great preventive of wire-worms, and generally sow
it as a preparation when the land is affected by them. As far as our

experience goes, we can strongly recommend sowing mustard as a pre-
paration for wheat.”

This account is probably of more importance than some would
at first suppose; for, admitting the difficulty there may occa-
sionally be in cleaning the land after breaking up a layer fora
“bastard fallow,” as it is called, yet, if beneficial to wheat, may

336 Agriculture of Norfolk.

it not be so to other crops? There are districts in the kingdom
where two white crops are sown in succession; nay, the two least
suitable for following each other closely —wheat and barley, which
is perhaps the worst possible system of cropping;. yet, if we can
show those parties a means of getting their favourite crops at the
usual season in a less objectionable manner (by having an inter-
mediate green crop to plough into the land), they may be induced
to try the plan, and, if afterwards satisfied that they shall profit
by it in an increase of crop, possibly they may thus be taught the
first useful lesson on the value of changing the nature of crops
as often as possible.

If useful as a preparation for turnips, why not sow it imme-
diately after reaping an early crop of wheat or oats, drilling in
along with it such manure as, from its price and the nature of the
soil, might be proper for the purpose of growing a crop of cheap
manure? This, in many parts of the south of England, could
often be done early in August (as the horses are not generally
wanted for other purposes), before the corn is ready for carting ;
and from that period to November there would be time for the
growth of an abundant crop to plough in as extra manure, in
order to act in the most powerful manner on the soil during the
following winter. When spring arrived, the land would be found
not only richer, but better to clean, than it would have been if left
idle for a time, and then ploughed to make clean fallow. By
this plan you run no risk of mischief from being caught by un-
favourable weather, as in breaking-up layers, for, at the worst, no
harm can be done. Besides, land, after a stubble crop, may be
cleaned in such weather, as it certainly could not be after a layer
newly broken up. But, as there is not the same necessity for
cleaning effectually at once, where the following crop is to be
turnips, as there is where it is intended for wheat, the chances
are rendered greatly in favour of having a more suitable season to
prepare for one crop than the other.

So few Oats are grown in Norfolk, that it is in most districts
difficult to find a field of them. Every reader of agricultural
books may know the crop has had a bad name with some whose
opinions became very influential, not only in that county, but in
others. I was prepared to find something peculiar in the nature
of the soil, to render it unsuitable for the crop; but, although [
made most diligent inquiry for evidence of this, I could not hear
any, either from those who cultivated their own land, or who were
tenants of others. One of the best farmers of West Norfolk, and
occupying his own land, says, ‘ I really know no reason, practi-
cally speaking, why oats should not be grown, for I find that, if I
manure for them at the same rate as I do for other crops, I get
more return than I do eyen from wheat; and I have not yet

Agriculture of Norfolk. 337

found the succeeding crop worse for them. If the manuring or
the weeding is evaded, because it is an oat crop, the after poverty
is to be attributed to the farmer, and not to the grain. I know
a small farmer who has invariably grown oats instead of wheat
for many years, because he could make more money by them.”

Mr. James Everitt, of North Creake, sows part of his seeds
(or what with most others would be their wheat shift) with oats,
of which he grows good. crops. He selects the lightest of his
land for them, as being least suitable for wheat, and thus the crop
is more valuable than it otherwise would be from such soil. Mr.
Everitt’s oat crops have been increased about 16 bushels per acre
by dressing the land with nitrate of soda, at the rate of about
1 ewt. per acre, but always with this result, that the oats are
lighter by nearly 3l1bs. per bushel. It is necessary to observe,
that he always sows Tartarian oats, which, however suitable for
land not in high condition, might here probably be superseded
with advantage, inasmuch as | have seen abundant proofs that,
by sowing a species which grows heavier grain, you may counter-
act the tendency to too much straw, and produce by this means a
greater quantity of corn per acre, as well as of better quality.

The same principle applies to corn as to stock, viz., that what
is peculiarly adapted to soil cn a certain state will not be equally
so when its state is changed. Nearly all persons will admit the
truth of this, when they see it on paper, but many are too apt to
forget it in practice.

I do not mean to advocate the sowing of oats where there is.a
probability of obtaining another. more valuable crop, as it would
be the extreme of folly to do so. But when we consider how
important it is to vary the crops as much as possible, in order
that each may profit by the longer interval, and how science,
theory, and practice agree and confirm each other on this point,—
that land may be in some degree exhausted of its capabilities of
growing one species of grain, yet, provided it is in a clean state,
may at once produce a comparatively good crop of another which
ts opposite in nature, and requiring a different nourishment,—so
it surely is desirable to remove anything like prejudice against a
particular grain, and thus afford to all a greater choice and means
of change, according as they deem it advisable, after fairly weigh-
ing, not only the general principles, but the peculiar circumstances
of their own case.

It is right to observe, that all the light-land farmers, who spoke
most favourably of oats, seem to have grown them on farms where
the subsoil was generally chalk. I am inclined to think that
sand is not so suitable, but I could not procure any evidence to
establish this. Indeed, the only reason given why this crop had

338 Agriculture of Norfolk.

acquired a bad name was its having been so generally accompanied,
in former times, by what was really bad farming.

Near Acle, on loam with clay subsoil of a yellow colour, I
observed this singular course :—turnips, potatoes, beans, wheat,
clover, wheat. I neither wish to advocate its more general adop-
tion, nor to say that I saw any proofs of its having been disadvan-
tageous; but I think it my duty to state the details in carrying it
out, and the particular results I observed from it.

There is nothing very remarkable in the preparation for, or the
management of, the turnip crop; but, as on all other highly cul-
tivated farms, care is taken that it shall be a good one, by apply-
ing manure, &c. liberally. After consuming the turnips (the
larger portion of them on the land by sheep), it is ploughed twice,
when convenient, and as the weather is favourable, and then left
level, until about the middle of April, when furrows are opened,
3 feet apart, with a double mould-board or Northumberland
plough. The potato sets are conveyed in a one-horse cart, from
which they are supplied by a man with a large shoyel to six
women or boys, with strong aprons to hold the pieces, until they
have dropped them singly into the furrows, at the distance of
9 inches apart. The droppers are followed by another double
plough, to cover in the seed by reversing the furrows, which are
then to be rolled down, in order to make them firm. This number
of workpeople are enabled, by following the method described,
to set 6 acres ina day. Whilst the potatoes are growing, the
land is horse-hoed and hand-hoed as often as possible, on the
supposition, that every stirring of the soil admits fresh air and
increases the crop. After the potatoes have been taken up, the
land is ploughed. In the spring, single furrows are ploughed,
3 feet apart, in which the beans are scattered, at about the rate of
2} bushels per acre. It is observed, also, that the crops of beans
are much improved by applying some manure in the rows with
them. The land is then harrowed, first along the furrows, then
across them. It will be understood that the beans are here
applied in single rows; but some prefer the gardener’s method,
of haying two rows, so near, as only to admit a small hoe, when
necessary, but with wide intervals adjoining, to admit the horse-
hoe, air, &c. Many deposit the seed by drill. All allow the
great importance of horse-hoeing, and hand-hoeing, as much as
possible. The wheat is drilled; the rows 9 inches apart, and
3 bushels of seed per acre. While the crop is growing, the land
is horse or hand hoed. As there is nothing very peculiar in the
treatment of the other crops, the question arises, how does this
system answer? The potatoes are generally very good, and the
value of a good crop of them is well known. The beans being

Agriculture of Norfolk. 339

so much improved by manure afford ample proof that the good
preceding crop of potatoes has taken something out of the soil ;
but, that the system on the whole is not impoverishing to it is
amply shown by the abundance of the wheat crops. If those I
saw had any fault, it was that of too much straw. I will give my
readers an opportunity of judging for themselves, by a sample of
them taken from the middle of a field, where the men were reap-
ing the corn. One “land,” or ‘“‘stetch,” 8 yards wide and 195
yards long, had produced 296 sheaves, which measured on an
average 2 feet 5 inches where they were tied (close by the band).
This is at the rate of 76 shocks per acre, with 12 sheaves in a
shock. It is necessary to state, that this system is accompanied
by box-feeding cattle with turnips, baked potatoes, bean-meal,
and oil-cake in abundance: also, that the liquid manure, which
would otherwise be wasted, is preserved in tanks; in short, nearly
all the best practices of first-rate farmers are brought to its aid.

Beans.

There are more beans grown in Norfolk than many persons
would suppose ; as, in some districts of it, part of the land is sown
with beans in lieu of, and to defer, the clover crop; and those I
saw of the harvest of 1843 were extremely good crops, with
scarcely any exception. Nearly all of them are in rows, either
drilled or dibbled (but most commonly drilled), so as to allow the
frequent use of the horse-hoe. I have already given some of the
details of managing this crop, when forming a part of a peculiar
course, therefore I will here only state the plan of growing beans
as adopted by Mr. Neave, of Downham Grove, near Wymond-
ham, one of the most intelligent practical farmers of the county.
The rows are 14 inches apart; the beans put in singly, 4 inches
from each other. The quantity thus used for seed about 24
bushels per acre. As soon as the beans have grown, so as to be
out of the ground, the land is harrowed, and, on a dry day,
rolled. The land is horse-hoed as often as possible, and once
hand-hoed. The growing beans are rolled, when about 3 or 4
inches long,

Tares.

I find some of the most intelligent practical cultivators of land
have recently adopted the plan of sowing tares in their new
layers, especially where the clover is not well set, or where it is
not likely to be a productive crop, alone, from the nature of the
soil or other causes. This is done by drilling the seed in, imme-
diately after harvest, at the rate of 1 to 2 bushels per acre ; the
drill-coulters being very sharp and narrow, so as to run along
betwixt the drills of barley-stubble, without doing any material

VOL. V. 2A

340 Agriculture of Norfolk.

injury to the clover. Some dibble the land for tares, where the
layer is ‘“‘patchy.”’ The seed is covered by “ bush-harrowing ;”
the land manured before the tares come up, and rolled early in
the spring. One person says, “I have grown tares in various
ways, and at last decided on sowing them only upon a layer. If I
sow them on a stubble, I always lose my turnips after them. I
put them on my layer, because I cannot always get clover to rise
sufficiently to mow, on my dry land. Tares help the clover, and
both together come early and make a large crop.” Another says,
«© You have an abundant crop of green food, much better for stock
than tares alone, or tares with a mixture of wheat, oats, or rye, as
generally sown ; which horses will not eat after a short time; and,
even if you put them through a cutting-machine, they will still
pick out the tares. I frequently sow from 10 to 15 acres of tares
in a weak new layer for folding off with my ewes and lambs. If
eaten before the tares flower, the crop is not injurious to the
wheat which follows.” The former gentleman states, “I never
found the wheat suffer afterwards, if the tares were not allowed to
ripen the seed, or if sown with (red) clover. Once I sowed them
with white clover and trefoil, and I hurt the wheat crop; but it
was, as I thought, because nothing rose to cover the ground after
the first mowing, so as to make a flag for the wheat.” In order
that this may be more readily understood by persons of other
counties, I think it right to state, that red clover is not grown
oftener than once in eight years in Norfolk, and only once in
twelve by some. In short, they all follow the plan of varying
their grass-seeds each course; and they all agree, that one of the
best securities for a good crop of wheat is to plough ina “good
flag.”
Cabbages.

I observed several small plots of cabbages in different parts,
but select Mr. James Everitt’s description of his manner of
growing them at North Creake, not only because they were at
least as good as any others (if not better), but because I think his
statements respecting them calculated.to be useful. He says :—

“‘T never, in any one year, have more than 3 acres, as I use them
only in my lamb-yard during the lambing season ; nor, on my light land,
should I attempt to extend my quantity ; being satisfied they are im-
mense exhausters of the soil, and require a larger proportion of. manure
than any other crop.”

Mr. Everitt adds, he has tried two methods—transplanting, and
sowing the seed where he intends the crop to grow. I will give
their description, as nearly as I can, in his own words :—

** Tn the former, I sow the seed in April, upon a well-manured seed-
bed, at the rate of 1 lb. of seed for an acre. L ridge the land about mid-

Agriculture of Norfolk. 341

summer, with a double-breasted plough, the rows being 27 inches from
centre to centre, and then deposit at least 15 loads of farm-yard manure,
and a quarter of a ton of rape-cake, per acre; split the ridges, so as to
cover the manure, and then run a light roller over them.

“‘ In the first period of damp weather I employ women and girls to
transplant them in the ridges 18 inches apart ; of course they require
horse and hand hoeing.”

By this plan the cabbages are generally larger than by drilling,
except when the weather is very warm and dry; but, even then,
watering by hand will savethem. Mr. Everitt, however, finds this
plan expensive ; and although the other, of drilling the seed, does
generally produce a lighter crop, he is inclined to follow it in
future: and the crop I saw was so sown. The seed is thus
drilled on 27-inch ridges, about the first week in June, in the same
manner as swedes, except having manure applied more liberally
for cabbages.

Mr. Everitt grows two sorts—the ‘“thousand-head,”’ and the
« drum-head,” either of which the sheep will eat very well. For
the first day or two after ewes have lambed, he finds they prefer
cabbages to anything else, and they are great promoters of milk.

TENURE.

Norfolk, undoubtedly, owes great part ofits fame, as an agricul-
tural district, to the clear views of the late Mr. Coke (afterwards
Earl of Leicester), as to what are the moving springs of human
action. It thus becomes our duty to inquire, what those prin-
ciples were, as he evinced them in the management of his own
estates.

After a very careful investigation, I think I am justified in con-
cluding, that the whole conduct of this prince of landlords towards
his tenants was founded on two great principles :—

Ist. That to induce a man to exert to the utmost such ability
as he possesses, you must show him that his doing so
will be rewarded by benefits to himself, and not merely
to others, who have no just claim to the exclusive ad-
vantages of the fruit of his labour; in other words, to
prompt men to great and extraordinary industry, you
must satisfy them, they shall certainly be rewarded for
their exertions, by at least participating in those per-
manent improvements which they alone have created,

2nd. That, in order to gain the advantage of first-rate talent,
added to sufficient capital, you must not trust to chance,
but hold out some advantages to attract and secure to
yourself those select men as tenants.

AD.

342 Agriculture of Norfolk.

The first may seem to some a strange doctrine to apply in the
management of estates, although the same parties would say, that
the English people distinguish themselves by their industry, chiefly
because the laws of their country guarantee to them security for
the fruits of their labour, so that “he who sows shall certainly
reap.”

On this principle Mr. Coke (to his honour be it said) granted
leases, making up his mind to the disadvantages of them, which
could only affect himself, whilst the benefits to others would cer-
tainly be great. Yet I am prepared to admit, that leases are not
necessary to good cultivation, though I as distinctly say, that secu-
rity to the tenant in some shape is absolutely necessary, for the ge-
neral and permanent improvement of the soil. A much-respected
friend of mine says, when speaking against “ leases,” there ought
to be a mutual well-placed confidence between “landlord and
tenant.” So say I; but I might also say, if all men could and
would be honest, we should have little occasion for law. Those
who know this gentleman’s strong feeling in favour of old tenants
would have little occasion to fear his taking any unfair advantage
of confidence placed in him; but who is to say what changes a
year may produce in the ownership of the estate, &c., so as seri-
ously to affect the tenant, in the absence of a written, or recognised
and effectual, protection? It is a matter of business, and as such
it ought to be treated. None will deny that there are many in-
stances in Norfolk where the tenants of an estate have doubled
its value to the owner, by laying out their money, not his; and
they surely had as good a right to some security for their capital
expended, as the owner would, if he had purchased with his money
an adjoining estate of equal value?

Who is there that could advise a gentleman to purchase and pay
for 4000 acres of land without taking some title-deeds for security ?
And if not, who, with common sense and common honesty, can ad-
vise ten farmers to lay out their capital on their farms of 400 acres
each, so as to double the value of the land, and that without any
written or positive guarantee, that the owner may not, at any year’s
end, appropriate the whole of their improvements to himself, with-
out making them the least return, or allowance, for the money
they had laid out under a misplaced confidence in him ?

To secure the assistance and advantages of first-rate talent in
the improvement of his estates, Mr. Coke gave, not only security,
that each should reap a certain portion of the benefits arising from
his own exertions and skill, but he provided superior houses,
and other accommodation, for his first-class tenants. This, un-
doubtedly, was well adapted to the object inview. I am not about
to advocate a great outlay, in every case, on farm-houses and farm-

Agriculture of Norfolk. 343

buildings, nor any outlay inconsistent with the occupation and
business of the tenants; but there should be, on all farms, such
buildings, conveniently arranged, as are necessary for the econo-
mical carrying on of the farm, and no more than are necessary, so
that they may be kept in good order at moderate expense.

There should also be such a dwelling-house as is suitable for
the management of the farm, and appropriate, as a residence, for
the family of a man who possesses talent, and such an amount
of capital, as is invested in that occupation. When, in any-
thing, we are determined to have the best of its kind, we must
be prepared to pay the best price for it, more especially in this case,
when the value is certainly known to the party who has it to dis-
pose of. This Mr. Coke well knew, and on this knowledge he
acted, when providing superior accommodation for his first-class
tenants. That his mode was very successful, all allow; but all
cannot afford to pay the price which he did, and, as a natural con-
sequence, their estates must be, insuch cases, generally cultivated
in an inferior manner. Men, no doubt, have a strong feeling in
fayour of the scenes of their early life. Old ties are in this case
very strong, and may, in some degree, incline a person to put up
with inconveniences which would otherwise be insupportable; but
this is certainly a state of things to be regretted, as, at best, no
great improvement can reasonably be expected under it. The
value of leases to tenants has, however, in my opinion, been greatly
overrated. For what are they to them but a temporary means of
delaying, and more distinctly marking the time, when the rent may
be increased with apparent justice? And if the case be consi-
dered merely as a matter of business, and not of feeling at all, the
longer the day of reckoning is deferred, the more severe will it be
when it comes. In other words, if the landlord would have de-
manded an increase of rent at an earlier period, supposing there
had been no lease—the preventing his doing so, by that lease, will
certainly have the effect of increasing his demands at its expira-
tion. If he would not have wished for the increase, where are the
benefits of a lease over a yearly tenancy with protective covenants ?
Supposing this presumed advantage of leases to be but a doubt-
ful one, they at once become more dangerous to the tenant, as
marking the time when the landlord may, with apparent justice,
demand such an increase of rent as he probably would not other-
wise have thought of. On the other hand, they may be rendered
certain sources of increased income to landlords, if they make up
their minds to a temporary diminution of the owner’s privileges,
I quite agree with Mr. Blomfield, that there is no way of making
more rent of land, than by granting 21 years’ leases of it, to such
(and only such) tenants as are likely to cultivate it in the highest
possible manner ; and, when such lease has half run out, offering

344 - Agriculture of Norfolk.

to grant that tried and proved good tenant -a full :and renewed
term, at the best rent he would then be inclined to pay. Under
these circumstances it would be judicious in the tenant to submit
to paying a greater rent, as a premium on certainty, than after the
ebb tide of his lease’s natural conclusion, with his land reduced in
condition, and prepared for quitting. A large proportion of the
land in this country is owned by gentlemen who would not be guilty
of intentionally ill-treating any one dependent on them, but who
are unwilling to grant leases, se as to be left to the mercy of
others—their feelings being, in many cases, powerfully acted
on by agents for their estates, possessing no better idea of serving
their employers, than a determination to prevent any tenant from
obtaining more than the common rate of interest for money which
he has expended to the permanent improvement of another per-
son’s land! To have land cultivated in the best possible manner,
or in the way which is most beneficial to the community, you must,
in the first place, find those who have capital and skill equal to
their task; and, in the second, you must convince them, that their
time, capital, and ability will not be misapplied. In short, if the
land-owners would but once determine to make it consistent with
eommon prudence for a good and clever tenant to lay out his capital
on their estates, they would not have so much occasion to take the
trouble of recommending high cultivation; for every man likely
to make a goed tenant well knows, that much.money was never
made by low farming. If we inquire, we find in almost every in-
stance, where particular parties have made more profit by the cul-
tivation of land than their neighbours, under similar circumstances,
it has been owing, chiefly, to a judicious, but at the same time a
more liberal, outlay of capital. Thereis nothing more certain than
this, that in a country like ours, which is so heavily. taxed for the
purposes of government and maintaining of the poor, if land will
not pay for high cultivation it will not pay for neglect. Govern-
ment must be supported, and the poor must be maintained ; there-
fore, as long as the land produces anything, that produce must be
chargeable to these national claims. Besides which, many of the
direct expenses of cultivation are nearly the same, whether that is
properly done or not; consequently, any one of good sense, who
reflects a moment, must see, that the extra capital, if judiciously
applied, will generally be returned with the greater interest.

[t is very well known, that after cattle have been feeding for a
time, they increase in weight in a greater proportion for the food
consumed, than they did at first. In their lean state, a large pro-
portion of the food they took was requisite to support them and
keep them in tolerable condition; but this demand having been
satisfied, and the work of fattening once commenced, every little
addition of a nutritious kind would operate with increased effect

Agriculture of Norfolk. 345

in favour of the object in view. So is it in the cultivation of land
in this kingdom, and, I believe, even in-a much larger degree than
in the feeding of stock. The last-few shillings per acre laid out
may so increase the produce as to pay, on that last expense, a hand-
some per centage, whilst all previously laid out might be swal-
lowed up by the common demands on the land, and thus pay no
per centage at all.

Would we condense into one sentence that which best represents
the general interest of Britain, itis the most perfect cultivation
of its soil. Some persons may cavil at this, but few will distinctly
deny it. At any rate, few, who reflect on the present circumstances
of this country, will say, that the owner of land is not in duty bound
to see as much labour employed on his estates, as possible, without
positive loss to himself or his tenants. In this respect it is undeni-
able, that property has its duties, as well asits rights. Itis evident,
likewise, that by each land-owner seeing that everything was done
on his estates likely to return 20s. and a fair interest for the pound,
such an impetus would be given to the general trade and com-
merce of the kingdom, through all the various branches or chan-
nels along which this, the original, stream flowed, as would even-
tually return to the original movers of it an indirect but certain
benefit. If these positions are well founded, it becomes a very
important question, how an arrangement can be made between
landlord and tenant, so that the former shall retain all his privi-
leges, and the latter apply his capital, time, and energies with the
greatest benefit to himself and the highest usefulness to the whole
community? Leases have undoubtedly been more common in
Norfolk than in many other counties ; and it is quite as certain,
that great and permanent improvement in the soil has generally
been observed after their expiration.

Many landowners admit this, but say, however -great improve-
ments may be made for those who are to possess our estates a
certain number of years hence, we should be paying dearly for
them, by sacrificing in the meantime the power we have over our
own property. This is a very important objection to leases, and
it is well known that no amount of rent would tempt some land-
Owners to grant a lease of a farm, especially if it were near the
proprietor’s residence: and, it must be confessed, there are few
cases in which one could, without hesitation, recommend them to
do so. It becomes, therefore, necessary to inquire into the prin-
ciples of leases, and the nature of such objections as are raised
against them, in order to our seeing whether we can, by any other
means, secure the advantages to be derived from them, without
drawbacks. Leases are recommended by some on the ground
that they give a certain degree of security to the tenant for the
capital he may choose to lay out on the land of another. But,

346 ' Agriculture of Norfolk.

besides the objection to them already named, they are objected to
on this principle—as being binding on the landlord in times of
high prices, but not on the tenant when agricultural produce is
depreciated in value. This objection (of their not being binding
on the tenants in times of low prices) is, I believe, seldom made
by those possessing sufficient practical knowledge of cultivation to
enable them to appreciate properly the great advantages of having
a farm in high condition—which I suppose it would be in if held
under lease, or covenants of security to the tenant’s capital. In-
deed, I would venture to submit, that if Great Britain were divided
into three parts, and each let separately under one of the following
agreements, all the land might be cultivated in the highest possible
manner ; for, although this division would allow each owner and
each tenant to select the one agreement best suited to his own feel-
ings, all would be so far founded on justice to the party who ex-
pended his capital for the improvement of the soil, as toinsure the
most liberal outlay of it.

Ist. Leases.

2nd. Insert a clause in the lease granted, under which the
owner should have the power to cancel it, on giving
18 months’ notice, and paying to the tenant such sum
as two arbitrators (one for each party) should think a
fair compensation to the tenant for his permanent im-
provements, bearing in mind all the circumstances of the
case affecting landlord or tenant.

3rd. By giving the tenant a clause, under an agreement as a
yearly tenancy, by which he would be entitled to a fair
and equitable allowance, for all permanent improyements
made at his expense, but with the sanction of the owner,
on written notice of such intended improvements having
been given to the latter or his agent, and not having been
answered within a given period, or in time to prevent
that outlay which the owner of the land would not
sanction.

I have known an instance in Lincolnshire in which some large
farms were held by one person as yearly tenancies, but with a
covenant similar to the last above suggested ; and in 2] years the
whole of the land was chalked, without costing the owner 6d.
The tenant’s rent had been gradually increased, from time to time,
so as to be nearly double what it was at the commencement ; but,
from the high state of cultivation into which the soil was brought,
under the protection of the covenant alluded to, the tenant thought
it judicious to submit to that increased rent, because he could afford
to pay it; and I have little doubt he made much more money by
his farms than he would have done had he held them during the

Agriculture of Norfolk. 347

whole period, at the original rent, without the covenant alluded
tore

* The following is a copy of the covenant under which these improve-
ments were made :—

«“ That if the said , his executors or administrators,
shall purchase any bones, lime, or other manure, or dig any marl or stone,
and use the same upon the said farm, the amount of such purchase, or
the expense of such digging and getting, agreeably to the customary
valuation of the country, shall be divided into four parts for the bones,
and seven equal parts for the stones, or marl and lime; and at whatever
period the said , his executors or administrators, shall
leave or quit the farm, the said , his heirs or assigns,
or the succeeding tenant in occupation, shall repay unto the said

, his executors or administrators, so much of the
amount of such expense as shall be in proportion to such a number of
years as the said , his executors or administrators,
shall fall short of four or seven years’ occupancy of the said farm, after
incurring such lJast-mentioned expense.”

After writing my article on tenure, ‘The Report of Lincolnshire’ ap-
peared, and I immediately wrote to the son of the gentleman above alluded
to, asking—“ Whether he would have preferred a lease of twenty-one
years, without any allowance at the end of it, or his chalk, lime, and
manure covenant under a yearly tenancy ?”

His answer to this was, “I should prefer a lease of twenty-one years
without the covenant, if I could not have both.”

Talso asked whether Lord Yarborough’s tenants are protected by similar
covenants.

The answer was, “ Lord Yarborough’s tenants, and all others in this
neighbourhood, are protected by those covenants.”

Now, if the Lincolnshire farming is better than the Scotch farming, of
which we hear so much, I think it pretty strong evidence in favour of
such covenants as I am now advocating.

I feel thankful for the occasion which has supplied me, so unexpectedly,
with the strongest proofs of their advantages, in the Report on Lincolni-
shire, by Mr. Pusey.

1844, August. From further inquiries on this important subject (and
I call it so, because involving the question as to the cause of such high
farming in Lincolnshire), I find that on the Earl of Yarborough’s estates,
and some others, the fixed allowance to an out-going tenant for linseed-
cake, is ‘* half the value of the cake he consumed with beasts in the yards
during the last year.” My informant adds, “I dare say it will become
general at no distant period. It certainly ought to be so.” Another
Lincolnshire gentleman says, “ I think the allowance for marl in this part
is extended to ten years, instead of seven. It is seven years for lime, five
years for clay, and three years for bones or any other artificial manure.”

However the amount of allowance may vary in different districts of the
county, there can be no doubt that security to the tenant, for improve-
ments made at his expense, is now generally recognised in Lincolnshire,
as the most firm and certain foundation for prosperity to owners, occu-
piers, and labourers. This principle is the rock on which the splendid
fayming of Lincolnshire is founded.

The late Earl of Leicester gave security, in another shape, to his tenants
in Norfolk, and the effects were similar.

348 Agriculture of Norfoth.

I think this a tolerably strong proof, that it is most important to
the interests of the whole community to have such agreements
between landlord and tenant, generally, as shall justify the latter
in liberal cultivation. The best cultivated farms in Norfolk are,
for the most part, either the property of those who cultivate them
for their own benefit, or held under long leases. I have stated the
objection to leases; but I think it right to repeat, that they are
really only objectionable to the owner in the case of his having-a bad
tenant—al though, unquestionably, he is the proper person to decide,
whether he ought to incur the risk alluded to or not. ‘There are
instances, no doubt, of good cultivation without leases; but, if we
examine into each case, we shall find the occupier supposes (whe-
ther rightly or not) that he has what amounts to security, either

‘in a written protection, or in the high character of the owner, as
representing “ the old English gentleman.” When all such secu-
rity is wanting, the effect is lamentable to tenants; as also to their
labourers, and therefore to the public: neither is it less so to the
real interest of the owners themselves! This consideration reminds
me of a caution I received, whilst looking over a gentleman’s farm
in Norfolk—not to suppose the land on the opposite side was his;
respecting which I was informed, that the land “ belonged to a
certain corporation, and was let by tender every 7 years ; therefore,
‘you could not expect it to make a decent appearance.” This
speaks volumes as to the effect of want of security—that he who
improves shall in some measure enjoy ; but even this case, of letting
‘by tender every 7 years, seems to represent a more honest feeling
in the worthy corporation than is possessed by those who improye
their income, for the time, by resorting to, what I recently heard
described as, the “licensed robbery of a confiding yearly tenant ;”
a strong expression, but in many cases, unhappily, too true.

Where the tenant’s right* to a fair allowance for all permanent
improvements (made under the sanction of the owner or his agent)
is admitted by written document or established custom (as l.am

* These covenants in Lord Yarborough’s agreements as to unexhausted
improvements are merely just to the tenant in securing to him the money
he has sunk in his farm. They have practically sueceeded in-producing
very great improvements where they have been adopted. They are also
accompanied by a clause in the landlord’s favour, binding the tenant to
purchase artificial manures for the whole of his turnip-crop. The absence
of capital from land where it might be profitably employed has been long
lamented, yet few landlords have funds at command for the general im-
provement of their estates. I can see no means so likely to supply this
old defect, and to bring England generally into the condition of Lineoln-
shire, as the adoption of Lincolnshire covenants. The subject of unex-
hausted improvements seems to me the most important of all agricultural
subjects for Jandlords at present, and the improvement of our agreements
in this respect to be a condition sine gud non of any steady and general im-
provements of the soil or its cultivation.—Pu. Pusey.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 349

informed is the case in some parts of the county), all the most
important benefits of a lease are obtained. Or, supposing the
owner should-give notice to quit, or increase his rent, he will re-
cognise the right of the tenant, or his representative, to a fair
allowance for such his permanent improvements (not, of course,
where the tenant abandons the occupation voluntarily): even that
security might justify a liberal outlay of capital, and would pro-
bably cause great and general improvement in cultivation. Thus,
although 21 years’ leases are common on the estates of the Earl
of Leicester and others, there are some highly cultivated farms in
Norfolk held-as yearly tenancies ; and several tenant-farmers told
me, that with such landlords as the Earl of Albemarle, and such
custom as the one just described, they should care little about
having a lease. In other words, they would feel assured, that no
new agent—ignorant of the value of land, because he did not
know how to cultivate it—who could not tell which soil was most
expensive to till, or whether the superior produce on a given farm
resulted from a superior soil or better cultivation—that no such
person as this should be sent down “to value” (as he would call
it) their farms, and to report (as he, of course, would), that all who
—by their liberal application of :manure—by their great,outlay in
draining, claying, marling, &c.—had most distinguished them-
selves, were just the persons, and the only persons, whose rents
ought immediately to be increased—because they had better crops
than their neighbours ; not taking into consideration that this, of all
others, is the most effectual check to improvement that any one can
apply.

I met with a few instances of corn-rents. Although these
evince a kind and sympathizing feeling on the part of the land-
lord, yet corn-rents do not provide against those differences in,
prices which are occasioned by a very good, or very bad, harvest
at home. If we take the two extremes, we find a wide difference
in the quantity of corn the tenant has to sell: therefore, in some
years, corn-rents would operate unjustly towards the landlord, and
in others towards the tenant. I heard of a case in which a gentle-
man let his farms (situate at the western end of the county) under
corn-rents, but some bad seasons following, the tenants were un-
able to pay increased rents out of deficient crops, and, therefore,
were compelled to throw up their leases.

Grass.

Thereis.only a small proportion of old grass-land in the county,
and what there is, cannot generally be called good, though there
are some very beautiful pastures, in and near the marshes. In
treating grass, as well as arable, the farmers of Norfolk keep to
the plan of giving to stock, in the first instance, what is intended to

350 Agriculture of Norfotk.

benefit the land, knowing, that the richer food they give to cattle,
the richer will their land become. The conversion of arable land
into pasture, by transplanting, is peculiarly interesting, having
been first done by Mr. Blomfield, of Warham, in this county,
and since Mr. Young’s report. The plandescribed by Mr. Blakie
is yet followed by many. I saw it in nearly all stages of the
work.

Several farmers have recently adopted, what they consider to be,
an improvement on the former mode. It is this :—

They do not mark the land with scarifiers, but spread the frag-
ments of turf in the same manner as manure; after which, it is
rolled with a heavy iron roller, some small seeds being sown on
. the land in the spring. They state that this plan answers equally
well (as the turf will grow either side up), and it saves nearly half
the cost of transplanting. One gentleman states, that he had
6 acres done in this manner, and the cost in —— was only about
1/. per acre.

Alteration in the Breed of Sheep.

Alluding to Old Norfolk sheep, Mr. Kent says (p. 103)—
« The Norfolk farmers will never be able to substitute any other
sheep that will answer penning so well:’’ but on the next page he
adds—*< When land becomes much improved, stock may be
improved in proportion; and in some instances the breed may
undoubtedly be crossed with propriety.” Now, I find that a most
remarkable change has taken place on this very principle named
by Mr. Kent;—his favourite «Old Norfolk sheep” are ‘almost
totally superseded in the county. Although described as favourites
in Smithfield at that time, there are now seldom any to be seen
there. On two occasions the different breeds of cattle and sheep
were counted for me, especially, bythe Clerk of Smithfield Market;
and there happened not to be one of the old and horned breed of
Norfolk sheep there, on either of those days. I had previously
looked for them there in vain ; when it struck me, that it would be
not only very interesting, but very useful, to know how many of
each breed of animals had been shown at that great mart at any
bygone period. This would, by showing the changes produced by
time and circumstances, enable a person the better to judge what
might be suitable in his own situation. With this view I had the
stock counted by Mr. Shank, and on his authority I subjoin the
following return. From the task being new, he had great diffi-
culty in making out the statement I wanted, viz—not only how
many there were of each breed, but how many of each breed
from several of the most important counties :—

Agriculture of Norfolk. 351

Aw Account of the Number of Beasts and Surer at Smithfield Market, on the days
alluded to in this Report, and ascertained by Mr. Shank especially for the Author,
in order that the numbers might be here inserted.

Monpay, December 18th, 1843.

BEASTS. SHEEP.

Cross of Durham and Lin- Old Norfolks . . . «| None
colns (called Lincolns at 628 || Lincolns . » « « .« + | 4,976
Smithfield) . . » « Leicesters 2 «© «© ~- « | 4,280

Macesters §. © .« » « 526 || Downs . . ° 3,925

Scots . 274 || Norfolk (Half-Bred) betwixt) 1.157

Norfolks (Halt-Breds) ee 42 | Leicesters and Downs .J| ~?

Devons . . ee ee 292 || Mixed Breed . . . .| 4,812

Half-Bred . . wee 213 || Hampshire Downs . . «| 1,935

Oe a 383 || Cheviot Dowms . « » « 110

Trish eae alte ht [4d i Kenivies iat tshivde « s 150

MEME sits o's |. ‘a 143} Welsh . - = ce - 4)

Wiltshire . By eer 39 | Gloucaaieriaei ts!) is2s ie 230

ee nr ee 233 || Horned Scotch . . . . 20

Se 98 i (West Country. .< jc, « v 100

oot 6 Eee 18 Wiltshire Horned a ke 30

Total . | 3,033 || Total . . | 21,766
Monpay, February 12th, 1844
BEASTS. SHEEP.

MEDIO 5 © se lle 703 || Old Norfolks . . . «| None.

Leicesters . «© » « 58 | Pancalng) fie viev eee) sll) 3368S

Norfolks. . »- «© « 507 || Leicesters . « «| 2,070

2 A 582 || Norfolks (Half-Bred) A 1,893

Mlewons « 42 c+ s se 27 || Downe". 8s. «+ ve |) onlao

Herefords 2. 2 2 « - 200 || Hampshire . . . . .{| 2,260

Weta Vevey se ep 117 || Mixed Breeds . . © . 4,670

Se eee 12 | Herefordshire Downs . . 250

eas. 8... oo i re 235

Wwe © « + 5 8 223 DIGIC. Whe oye 81 * ok ae 20

Total . .| 2,689 Total . . | 20,219
|

Mr. Shank’s Statement, as to where the Beasts and Sheep had been fed, which were
shown at Smithfield Market on Monpay, February 12th, 1844,

BEASTS.

OO eee BiG Keak eerste e 4
2 Cs 186 || Somersetshire . . . .~ 31
win le. os 43 |i. Scotland). je°re.9.'m = 318
Tincolmshire. . . . . Ze OMCRRG nt s. too sate «Te 43
Leicestershire Fo 5a 142 || Cambridgeshire. . . . 29
Herefordshire . . « . Se} Devonsitre! 3° 6}. ee 18
Hertfordshire . . . . deaeOxtordshire . 9 t-« | & 17
Northamptonshire . , . Rae aWales” ve is 1s) 3° pe aa 4
Bedfordshire. . . «6 « Ate Middlesex ~~) oj = «o's» 112
Gloucestershire. . . . 20

Pat eC W's Sets. Ye 195 Total <a. 2,689

352 Agriculture of Norfolk.

SHEEP.
Norfolk . . oe oe ROBO Mert ir ect ies enna er 535
Mssex ee 6 ee ot DT UPI Searreyys Fay ors nce
SUSSEX oe Siler oo 210 || Hampshire’ . .° so 6 280
Lincolnshire . “3 2,013 || Bucks”. «| /ey det eee 620
Ieicestershire .- . « « 540 Cambridgeshire. . « « 1,570-
Herefordshire . . + - 100 Devonshire . . o » « 330
Hertfordshire a+ on2sldlp Dorsetshire whe Se 20
Northamptonshire . . . 490 || Berkshire. . . » « eo Jj4o0
Bedfordshire. . oie 670 Middlesex .. ts [ist Js 485
Gloucestershire . . . . 380 ———
DUO Viet a HseuNon fic te 930 Total . . 20,219

Mr. Shank’s Account of the Number of Beasts and Sheep in Smithfield’Market on
Monpay, February 26, 1844, from Norfolk.

Beasts.

Home-bred Beasts, called Norfolks . . « «Sa ee ee

Durham, &c., called by some Lincolnshire, many of them being bred i in nthat county 633

Seote - ss bu Bar ae a) ee wo) vet el nnn

WDGyOHB” hs) ion. ws! alent MAIO cet ey Xe

. . . . . . . . o 9

Total Number at Market from Norfolk . . . 1,021

N.B. About 2,300 Beasts at Market altogether.

Thorough-bred Norfolk Horned Sheep . .« oe oe 10
Black-faced Sheep, called Norfolk Downs, being a cross mot the two oc tie ts 320
Half-bred Sheep, between Downs and Leicesters . « »« «© - «© « « 3,302

Total Number at Market from Norfolk . . . 3,632

N.B. There were about 21,000 Sheep altogether at Market.

APPENDIX.
Experiments as to the best distance of the Rows in Drilling Wheat,
by Mr. Blyth, of Sussex Farm, Burnham.

1839. Seed per acre 104 pecks; drills 7 inches; produced nearly
2 bushels per acre more than 9-inch drills.

st. lbs. st. Ibs.
1842. 9 in.—18 rods produced 28 6 corn and straw—14 2 corn.
Tin— ,, 9 32 4 ae 1G: ,Ofrgy
About 3} bushels of wheat per acre in favour of 7 inches.
st. lbs. st. Ibs.
1843. 9 in.—6 rods produced 17 sheaves =13 4—corn 6 1
Tin— ,, ye) x20 » =14 6). epee

4hin, 4, 18, =14 2 2
4} exceeded 9 by 8 pecks nearly

7 ct 9,,11 ,, Spints \esides straw.

Agriculture of Norfolk. 353

Quantity of Seed.—Certain opinions have recently been much
circulated, in Norfolk and elsewhere, in favour of, and recommending,
a great and general reduction in the quantity of seed per acre to be
applied.

Before I alluded to this, one of the best practical farmers of Norfolk
remarked, voluntarily,—‘“‘ that he thought those new doctrines more cal-
culated to do great and extensive mischief (not only to the growers, but
to the consumers of corn), than any other theory he ever remembered to
have been broached.”

This gentleman’s name is not given in any part of my Report, but
many of his practices are described, and some of his crops alluded to, as
he is considered by all who: know him to be a very good authority on
agricultural matters generally.

In proof, that he is not one of those said to. be bigoted in favour of
old opinions, I may state, that he adopted Scotch carts, cattle-boxes, and
liquid-manure tanks several years ago. He tries many experiments ;
but, as I am not allowed to give his name, I will insert the result of one
series of experiments on this point, as tried by another gentleman in a
different part of the county ; but think it right to state, in the first place,
how the question stands. All admit, that there must be some particular
quantity for each soil, and each particular situation of it, which in a cer-
tain season, supposing all circumstances to be known beforehand, would
be best for sowing in any given manner. All agree, that there must be
some particular quantity, which on an average of seasons, and circum-
stances of those seasons, would be the most profitable to apply in any
particular manner, supposing the party bound to make choice of a cer-
tain quantity for sowing each year; that, if you improve the manner or
method of sowing, or putting in the seed, you may thereby reduce what
was before the necessary quantity ; and that, if you happen to sow more
than the succeeding season proved to be necessary, you in that case
might lose something by “‘ thick sowing.” But, if the whole system is
to be characterized as folly, because some one, who was trained to agri-
culture in a counting-house, says, that such extra quantity ought not to
have been sown—surely his sphere of usefulness might be extended. Why
should he not advise the farmers, and the public generally, not to insure
their property from fire, because many find, at the end of every year, that
the expense of insurance had been, somewhat like the extra seed-corn,
proved unnecessary, except as a security from the chance of a loss
infinitely greater? All agree, that if the saving of a bushel per acre on
the quantity of land sown in England could he effected with safety, whe-
ther by improved modes of putting it in or otherwise, the saving on the
whole would be great; but all, with common sense, must see how very
‘much greater the loss would be, if all or half the land happened to be
sown with a bushel less per acre, than the season following proved to
haye been necessary. The result of this is fearful to contemplate; and,
if we consider the proportion which the seed bears to what in this case
it might have produced, we need not be surprised at the strong opinion
expressed by the Norfolk farmer before alluded to. That such loss from
sowing too little (and, still, more than the quantity some recommend)
might occur, is proved by the following experiments ; in which it will be

304 Agriculture of Norfolk.

seen, that each increase of the quantity of seed per acre was well repaid
in the crop of wheat; also, that the difference in each case is so regu-
larly progressive, as to show no symptom of his having arrived, in that
case, at the best quantity.

Eixperiments, as to the thickness of Seed, by Mr. Blyth, Sussex Farm,

Burnham.
1842. Sheaves. Weight. Corn. Excess Excess in
Seed per Acre. st. Ibs. st. lbs. in Ibs. Pecks, Pints.
1. 72% pecks 12 9 9 4 4 a
DTS RE SA OO PhO 4 8 4 6 10 per acre.
ST) Tun TSO MLOeG 4 9 5 8 5
AO 3 SLOP 28 4 10 620 10)
Deel teen Tas Oe ey SOO AO Gy 6
ee eee SD ns 52a ee 0
On deducting seed—
Pecks. Pints.
No; 2 exceeding Now)... 6 5 14 per acre.
3 a pee Soh 6.9
4 ‘ ROY Pe ae
a “A a4 oh See 12 eo
6 14 12

3° ° .

Supposing it, however, to be proved, in any case, that more seed had
been sown than was necessary to get the greatest quantity of corn, it
does not, necessarily, follow, that no return was obtained for the extra
quantity of seed : for, it is well known, that full crops ripen the soonest,—
that they generally produce the best sample of grain,—and that the land
will not be so subject to weeds, as when the crop is thin.

In proof of the first of these positions, I may state, that a large farm
in Yorkshire was for some years untenanted, although offered at 5s. per
acre. It had acquired a bad name; one of the things said of it being,
that oats would not ripen on it. At length a tenant was found, who at
once corrected the evil, by sowing two bushels more oats per acre, than
any former one had done. The farm is now said to be one of the most
productive in that county.

As evidence of the second, I may state, that Mr. Blomfield of Warham,
near Wells, Norfolk, has been in the habit of measuring the ears of wheat,
for the last 40 years; yet, he says, he never found an ear, more than
4 inches long, which had in it grain of the best quality; and he is of
opinion, that no one can produce such an ear of wheat. Mr. Blomfield’s
opinion on this point is the more remarkable, as he happens to leave his
turnips wider in the 27-inch rows (two in a yard), than any other person
I ever met with, But some of the advantages of wide rows for turnips,
beans, peas, &c. are not found with wheat and barley ; which get the air
where the grain is, although the rows may be closer.

I have not, on the present occasion, either time or space for going fully
into this matter. What I have stated is intended to put the inexperienced
on their guard, and, by a plain statement of the question at issue, enable
such to assist (by trying experiments on a small scale) in arriving at a

Agricuiture of Norfolk. 355

proper conclusion on this very important question. I observed one of
Mr. Blyth’s wheat-fields staked out in equal portions: and, on asking
why, he informed me, that there a second serics of experiments on this
subject was in progress—the result of which the harvest of 1844 will
prove.*

Dibbling.—Mr. Aylmer dibbles all his wheat (about 10 pecks per
acre). He so much approves of the plan, that he thinks he should
dibble on almost any land, if he could get the work properly done.

Many others admit that dibbling is a means of fastening the soil, and,
therefore, well calculated for wheat; the only objection I heard to it
being, that, in very extraordinary cases of tenacious clay-land, it may
make the soil hold water, so as to rot the seed ; but this is the exception,
and it rather confirms the opinion, that it is well suited to such soils as
are of an opposite nature—that is, too light for wheat.

Slugs on Wheat.—The experiments tried by Mr. Milnes, of Hilgay,
for the purpose of destroying slugs, are eminently worthy of public
attention.

He states, that he took several of them home on a cabbage-leaf, and
first triedone with lime. This, for a time, made it seem very uncom fort-
able; but, at length, it emitted a slimy matter, and by that means worked
its way over, and got clear away from, the lime. This he tried again,
and the result was precisely similar.

He then took a very smali quantity of salt, and sprinkled it on the
same slug, when it immediately became swollen, burst, and died.

Thinking this one might possibly have been in some degree affected
by the previous liming, Mr. Milnes tried a fresh one with salt, but the
effect was the same as before.

Since that time Mr. Milnes has been in the habit of sowing on his
wheat, where he happened to find slugs, 1 ewt. of salt per acre; which
_has invariably destroyed the slugs, without any injury to the wheat. One
experiment, under different circumstances, will be sufficient to state here:
Discovering slugs in a field, which he was sowing with wheat, he at once
stopped the different operations, and sent for the salt. The land was in
four different states :—

1. Part was set, and harrowed in.
2. Part set, and not harrowed in.
3. Part was ploughed, and not set.
4. Part was not ploughed, but remained as bean-stubble.
The salt was sowed at the rate of 1 cwt. per acre, as usnal, and each

* Trial referred to, of thick and thin sowing with Spalding Wheat. Sown by drill
at 7 inches, November 17, 1843; manured with 4 cwt. of rape-cake, after carrots.

Seed per Acre. Produce. Net Produce.
No, Pks. Cmbs. Bu Pks. Pts. Pks. Cmbs. Bu. Pks. Pts.
l 7 10 0 8 12 deductseed 7 9 0 12
2 8 TOL 2 4. 8 9) Se Zitat
3 9 LO) 2. 3 4 9 10) Oo ee
4 Il LOS “os 0 ll 10 1 0 6
ee 10: 2. 0 12 10'8"G4G

Soil—Sandy, Loam with marl.
Subsoil.—Man1.

VOL. Vv. 2B

356 Agriculture of Norfolk.

of the other operations suspended about two days; at the end of which
time, the slugs had disappeared, totally and entirely.

Scotch Carts y. Waggons.

In some districts I found that “ Scotch” carts had been introduced.
Their advocates, near Acle, say of them :—
Ist, They cost less ;
2ndly, They do less injury to the land and roads ;.
3rdly, With them each horse does his own work ;
4thly, When loading them in harvest, the “ pitcher’s s’”? work is more
easy, the carts being lower ; by which means he sends the corn
home faster than the man can “unpitch”’ it.

This last was not very clear to me, as a proof in favour of light carts.
_ The low cart is all very well for the “pitcher,” but not for the “un-
pitcher,” even supposing the loads did not come more rapidly. If they
had any means of raising the cart by the side of the rick to the level at
which the waggon would have been, the advantage to the pitcher would
be so much clear gain to him; and, if they raised it still more, so as to
shorten his unpitching, as much as they had the pitching, they would
then be more able to keep pace with each other.

I could not find that anything of this sort had been done. I therefore
think, that, except with very low stacks, or with part of the stacks, the
above is not at present a fair criterion of their value.

Perhaps they may find some means of raising these light loads, so as,
at some future day, to put the carts in a better position for comparison.

Mr. Howard, of Halvergate, had been urged by some of his labourers
(paid, by the harvest, or, the same amount of money, whether the harvest
was long or short) to supply them with Scotch carts instead of waggons,
because they could not get on so fast as those on another farm within
sight of them. On his declining to find them just then, they requested
to be allowed such carts as he had. This was the conclusion of his har-
vesting with waggons. Such is very strong evidence in favour of carts.
The advocates for waggons state, that, by taking low loads, they can be
pitched nearly as fast as unpitched, notwithstanding the advantages the
unpitcher has with waggons. All speak of the advantages of small
loads; the unpitching being then done with the greatest possible ier
as the exertion does not last long.

Agricultural Labourers.

One of the most important changes is, their making the improvement
of the condition of the poor a regular system, by forming societies for
the purpose, as well as by individual exertions.

To those, whose labour is their only wealth, we surely owe two duties ;
Ist. that of doing all we can, in our station, to find them useful employ-
ment, at such wages as will enable them to provide against a time of
sickness, or infirmity, to them, or their families; that we may thus
exercise and strengthen their good feelings; and by such means teach
them to become better subjects, and better men. In so doing, each of
their benefactors may hope for that blessing which is promised to him
who “ careth for the poor.”

Agriculture of Norfolk. 357

2nd. To reward such, as by their good conduct particularly merit it,
with a certain sum of money, which, though small, is, to those who live
by the “‘ sweat of their brow,”’ of considerable importance in itself ; but,
in many cases, infinitely more so, because of its being the public stamp
of real merit, although found in a humble station.

No one capable of duly appreciating the great importance to the
general community, of having good and right-minded agricultural la-
bourers as the operative improvers of the soil, and the mainstay of the
State, will consider it out of place, in a report of the agriculture of
Norfolk, to mention any means there adopted for improving their gene-
ral condition, by rewarding the most meritorious of the class.

In the year 1831, a society for this especial purpose was established
in the hundred of Launditch; it took the name of ‘ The Launditch
Society, fur the purpose of encouraging and rewarding good conduct in
Agricultural Labourers and Servants ;’’ and, as several others have since
been formed, in other parts of that county and elsewhere, with marked
adyantage to the labourers and their employers, in the increased propor-
tion of good work and good feeling, I think it right to state here, who
was the originator of these societies, as well as what the principles
were on which he, and others, founded the first of them.

From inquiries made in different parts of the county, I find the
honour of their origin is undoubtedly due to Mr. Pearce, then of Weasen-
ham Hall, Norfolk; a nephew of Mr. Kent, who wrote the Agricultural
Report of the county, in 1796; Mr. Pearce being the author of the
Report of Berks, also dated 1796.

The first society was confined to the extent of the hundred, in order
that each candidate might be personally known, in most cases, and
therefore his character more likely to be duly appreciated.

This part of the plan was strongly recommended by Mr. Pearce ;
and other societies seem, generally, to have adopted it.

In conclusion, I beg to state my firm opinion, that some of th
Norfolk farmers at this moment possess as much knowledge of
their business, as would be requisite (with capital, and the security
alluded to in my article on Tenure),—provided, also, that this
knowledge were general, and full scope given for its exercise,—to
make, not only their own county, but any other I have yet seen,
produce at least half as much more, in corn and stock, as they
produce at present. J know not whether, in what I have said,
I shall be able to impart any of that knowledge to my readers,
_or whether my attempts at description will be generally under-
stood, but I do hope they will see, that my wish has been to be
candid and useful.

11, Great George Street, Westminster.

(This Report has been unavoidably abridged for insertion in the Journal. )

Peay

358 On White NG rscies ;

XVI—On White Mustard.—By Grorcr Justy.

I Bxe to offer my second report on the growth of white mustard
for feed or for manure, in doing which I do not mean to exaggerate
or misguide any person on the subject, but give a fair and im-
partial opinion that there is no plant more palatable for sheep,
and of so quick growth. When ploughed in, from the quantity of
vegetable matter decomposed in the soil, it cannot fail to afford
food to almost every plant.

The land in which [ ploughed it in last autumn was part of a
‘field having failed twice for turnips; the other part was boned
and ashed, and produced a good crop of turnips, which were fed
off and folded by sheep in the usual way. ‘The mustard land had
no bone or turnip, or any other manure, but wholly manured by
the mustard being ploughed in. Just before the wheat was fit to
cut my neighbours inspected the whole field, and were of opinion,
as well as myself, that the mustard part was quite equal to the
other both in straw and in corn.

This last summer I sowed at different times a considerable
breadth—first, the latter end of May, which came up cheerfully,
but being on a high, dry soil, the weather took the same effect
on it as it did on the turnips in general ; however, a third part of the
plants remained, which made very strong growth, and I fed it off
by sheep. On the 6th of July [ again sowed, after tares had been
fed off; there was still that obstruction, by the unfavourable weather,
for the growth of vegetables. Notwithstanding I had in that case
a very good crop, which I also fed off with my sheep: they did
remarkably well on the feed. I likewise had a thin piece of rape,
in which I sowed 7 |bs. of mustard per acre the middle of August,
which made very rapid growth, and filled up an excellent piece of
feed, as high as the hurdles, which was fed off about Michaelmas,
and since sown to wheat—in all cases I find it perfectly whole-
some for sheep. In this neighbourhood there has been one instance
where a good crop of oats was cut and carried the latter end of
July, and sown to mustard immediately, which produced a very
luxuriant crop, and fed off by sheep in October. 1 have had many
inquiries on the subject of sowing white mustard for feed since
my publication, from almost every county in England. The result
has proved very satisfactory, in confirmation of which I beg to
offer to your notice a communication I have just received from
Mr. Hale, of Horndean, Hants: (by the writer’s authority you
may publish his letter,) which is very similar to many others I
have been favoured with, too numerous to submit to your notice.

As there have been doubts expressed of eradicating the mustard
from strong soils, I beg to say the white seed will not remain in

On White Mustard. 359

the land after being once ploughed up. The black is dangerous
to introduce, as it has been known to remain in the soil for ages.

I do not mean to assert that any person has a right to expect
a crop of mustard on thin, poor, worn-out land without manure ;
he may as well go for a day’s shooting without powder !

Druce Farm, Dorchester, Dorset,
November 27th, 1844.

Dear Sir,— From your report on the growth of white mustard for feed,
I was induced to try it. My first experiment was on one acre of very
light, thin surface-soil, subsoil white chalk; this land had been previ-
ously occupied by a tenant who quitted it at Michaelmas, 1843, having
taken wheat and oats consecutively as his two last crops. I made a
clean fallow with thrice ploughing, &c., and without manure—sowed
broadcast 16\b. of mustard on the 22nd of July last; and on Sep-
tember 2nd—six weeks from the day of sowing (scarcely a drop of
rain during the whole period)— folded it off with about 300 ewes. On
commencing the first fuld the ewes appeared dissatisfied, so much so
that my shepherd said it would be useless to sow any more, as the
sheep evidently disliked it; however, on the following morning every
stalk was eaten bare to the ground, and ever after it was consumed as
quickly and eagerly as any other green crop. Being so well satisfied
with this experiment, I was induced to try it again in comparison with
rape, to be fed off by sheep, as preparation for wheat. The land sown
Was a very thin soil, scarcely three inches, subsoil hard white chalk,
the field was harvested in 1843, with oats after ley, winter tares follow-
ing the oats—tares fed off by sheep in June and July, 1844; then
ploughed and dressed with a light coat of farm-yard manure, and sown
with rape, except about three acres, which I again sowed broadcast with
mustard on the same day as the rape was sown alongside, both having
had exactly the same dressing and previous cultivation for years back,
and no difference in the quality of the soil. The mustard was folded
with sheep exactly one month from my sowing, and ought to have been
begun a week earlier, as one-half of the quantity sown was too old before
the sheep could possibly eat it. The produce per acre was considerably
more than the rape, giving far more nutritious food, without the dan-
gerous and injurious properties belonging to the latter, and was full
three weeks earlier in its growth. In the spring I shall sow mustard
for early feed, both for cattle and sheep—most probably in my late
wheat stubbles, intended for turnips.
I beg to remain,
Your obedient servant,
Epwakrp Hate.
Humbledon Manor Farm, Forndean, Hants,
November 20th, 1844.

( 360 )

XVII.—On the Growth of White Mustard as a Green Crop for
Sheep. By Joun Gray, Agent of F. D. Dicxrnson, M.P.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq.

Dear Sir,—At the request of Mr. Grabura, I have much plea-
sure in sending you an account of our mustard crop, and also a
specimen of the plant in the state that the sheep are now feeding
it. ‘The land on which it is growing is a thin stone-brash, and
very poor. It had been manured, for turnips and rape, at the rate
of 30 loads an acre, with compost, consisting of two-thirds lime
and one-third road-earth: and, on the 10th of July, the turnip
and rape-seed was drilled in with 80 bushels of ashes an acre.
It came up slowly; and, with very few exceptions, was taken off
by the fly. On the 28th of August I sowed 12 lbs. of white mus-
tard-seed an acre, harrowing in the same: it was slow in coming
up, from the dryness of the land; indeed, at one time I despaired
of a crop, but when the rain fell it grew prodigiously ; and on the
11th day of October I commenced feeding it: Onanaverage it was
then 2 feet high, and very thick in the ground ; vou will judge, from
the specimen sent, of its present height—above 30 inches. I con-
sider it a valuable artificial in sheep husbandry, and particularly
so when turnips or rape fail; and, from its rapid growth, two, or
even three, crops may be taken and fed off in the season. From its
great succulency, some care is required in feeding it off. Our sheep
are doing well upon it; but I find they make better work, having
an outlet every day on their walk, than when they were wholly con-
fined upon it. Four hundred consume about a quarter of an acre
a-day, or thereabouts. One of Mr. Dickinson’s tenants grew a
most excellent piece of mustard last autumn, on some very heavy
clay land, and without manure: his sheep being badly managed
when feeding it off, he ploughed in a considerable quantity for
his wheat, of which he had a splendid crop, and certainly the best
he grew last season. I mention this circumstance, believing it
may be grown with success on either heavy or light soils. I was
led to suppose it might be greatly affected by frosts, but we have
experienced sufficient to destroy the potato-haulm and the dahlias,
yet it has not in the slightest degree affected the mustard; | there-
fore conclude it. must be severe to destroy it. The seed cost
14s. 6d. per bushel, and weighed about 50 lbs, per bushel.
I remain, my dear Sir,
Yours very truly,
Joun Gray.
Kingweston, Somersetshire,
Nov. 23, 1844.

( 361 )

XVIII.— Report on the Exhibition of Implements at the Southamp-
ton Meeting, in 1844. By Jostan Parkes, Consulting
Engineer to the Society.

In submitting to the Council the following Report on the imple-
ments exhibited at Southampton, the writer feels it necessary to
premise that the office assigned to him of Mechanical Referee to
the Judges, in the event of their disagreeing in opinion on the
merits of any implement, precluded his being present with them
and the exhibitors during the inspection and trials of the imple-
ments; excepting in cases where his attendance was specially
requested by the judges. This circumstance has naturally re-
stricted his personal knowledge of the action and merit of the
greater proportion of the machinery investigated by the judges ;
and, as their labours were carried on in divisions, it is certain that
no single individual, officiating for the Society in the show-yard,
or on the trial-grounds, can presume on possessing the amount of
knowledge requisite for illustrating that vast collection of imple-
ments with the detail and exactness which may be desired by the
Society, the exhibitors, and the judges themselves. Impressed
with a sentiment of the extreme difficulty of the task of reporting
on this show—also assigned to him—and of the doubt he had of
satisfactorily fulfillmg it, the author addressed a letter to the
Council for his guidance and instruction. He was obligingly
favoured with the following resolution :—

** It is the opinion of the Council, after considering the letter addressed
to them by Mr. Parkes, that Mr. Parkes should draw up the Report
from the reports made by the Judges of Implements, for which they are
solely responsible; but that upon all trials which he has himself viewed
it will be competent for him to make any remarks he may think neces-
sary ; as well as upon the mechanical appearance of the show.””

Relying, therefore, on the indulgence of the members of the
Society, and of the exhibitors, for the imperfections and omissions
of notice which will be but too evident on this occasion, as com-
pared with former Reports, the author proceeds, however inade-
quately, to acquit himself of the duty entrusted to him.

As regards the show, its magnitude will be best appreciated by
stating that the number of articles submitted to inspection and
trial exceeded that at the Derby meeting, which was, it will be
remembered, by far the largest of its predecessors. The number
of exhibitors was not quite so great as in 1843, but in point of
mechanical excellence, and in the number of new or improved
inventions, it is the opinion of the writer that the Southampton
is entitled to the credit of being the most brilliant meeting yet
held under the auspices of the Society. The planning of the
implement-yard gave great satisfaction, by reason of the space

362 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

allotted to the exhibitors and the public. The arrangement of
the stewards for conducting the trials of chaff-cutters, threshing-
machines, steam-engines, &c., ina separate contiguous yard, faci-
litated the operations of the judges, and materially diminished the
injury not unfrequently suffered by the machines on removing
them, as heretofore, to distant spots for trial. The field teal
were also managed with asuccess so superior to that attending all
former attempts to give effect to them, as to reflect the highest
credit on the stewar ds for recommending the new system adopted
on this occasion. It has solved the problem of the possibility of
obtaining results to be relied upon at these great assemblages of
_competitors. It was proved that the selected fields may be main-
tained free from all intrusion by the public, or by any persons not
authorized to be present during the private trials of the judges.
Nothing, indeed, could be more agreeable and satisfactory to all
parties concerned than the conduct of this department at the farms
of Mr. Caleb Gater, of Swathling, and of Mr. W. C. Spooner, of
Eling, who respectively rendered every assistance in their power.
Great as has been this step in advancing one of the important
objects of the Society—viz. the obtaining ‘sound and incontroverti-
ble knowledge of the particular and relative merits of agricultural
implements—there is still reason to believe that this object may
be attained to a greater extent, and with still greater certainty and
satisfaction in some cases. The judges have occasionally found it
necessary to refrain from deciding on the merits of certain imple-
ments for want of sufficient time, or of a fitting season of the year,
to come to a fair judgment on them. The Council has, under
these circumstances, appointed different members to make the
necessary trials, and to report thereon; yet several remain unde-
cided, and in abeyance: so that the prizes offered by the Society
for certain implements have not been adjudged. Some plan may
possibly be devised by the Council for realizing to the competitors,
and to the Society, the intended effect of the Society's premiums,
by assuring more prompt yet deliberate decisions in these neces-
sarily deferred cases of judgment. ‘The writer imagines that all
will unite in opinion that when exhibitors appear at the invitation
of the Society to contend for prizes, an award should surely follow,
unless for the reason of insufficient merit. One other remark on
the subject may be permitted. In consequence of allowing two
days for judging implements in the field—a space of time which
cannot be curtailed consistently with the interests of the Society
and of the exhibitors—it is thought that one more day, in addition
to the time allowed for judging : at Southampton, and previous to
the admission of the public to the show-yard, is desirable. This
extension would enable the judges to deliberate with care on their
awards, after the trials; and it would afford time for them to ex-

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 363

plain, personally, to the reporter appointed for the occasion, the
reasons of their judgments; with the advantage of immediate and
quiet reference to the various implements put in competition. This
cannot be effected after the admission of the public, as has been
experienced by your present reporter. From conversation he has
had with several of the exhibitors, the writer thinks that no objec-
tions would be made on the part of that body to a proposition of
this nature.

The following is the list of Prizes offered by the Society, with
the awards of the Judges subjoined :—

For the Plough best adapted to heavy land . | ties panes ody ra

For the Plough best adapted to light land. {Ten Sovereigns and

For the Drill which shall possess the best me-
thod of distributing Compost or other ma- | Twenty Sovereigns and
nures in a moist or dry state, quantity being Silver Medal.
Bapem@iamy considered . . . . . s
N.B.—Other qualities being equal, the preference will be given to the
Dnill which may be best adapted to cover the manure with soil before
seed is deposited.

For the best Turnip Drill which shall deposit ) Ten Sovereigns and
manure with the seed. . . .-. :. . } Silver Medal.

Ten Sovereigns and
Silver Medal.
Ten Sovereigns and
Silver Medal.

For the best Scarifier

Horne best Chat Cutter . . . . tt.

ad

(

For the best Machine for making Draining
Tiles or Pipes for agricultural purposes.
Specimens of the Tiles or Pipes to be shown ul enty Sovereions and
in the Yard: the price at which they have ee ne =
been sold to be taken into consideration, and ilver Medal.
proof of the working of the Machine to be
given to the satisfaction of the Judges...

For the best Set of Harrows Ae Oars

For the best Agricultural Carriage, with or
without Springs, for the general purposes of
Mee tield . sw lw wn .

For the best Drill Presser . . .

Five Sovereigns.

Fifteen Sovereigns and
Silver Medal.

Ten Sovereigns and
Silver Medal.
MaeemebesvGnur , . =. . . . lS CFive Sovereigns.

The Society wishes to call the attention of Machine-Makers to the
improvement of Apparatus for steaming Roots; of small or
portable Corn-Mills; of broad Shares for paring Stubbles; of
Horse-Hoes ; of agricultural Harness and Gearing generally :
for improvements in which, or in any other miscellaneous articles,
Prizes or Medals may be awarded by the Judges if they think fit.

All Implements admitted into the Yard, will be liable to be proved

364 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

by actual trial on the recommendation of the Judges: and such
Implements as cannot conveniently be tried at the time of the

Show, may be tried at such time and place as the Judges may
think fit.

The Judges will especially consider the selling price of the Imple-
ments exhibited, which must be stated in the Certificates; and
they are instructed to withhold Prizes where there shall not ap-
pear to be sufficient merit.

AWARD OF PREMIUMS.

Reference to Catalogue.
AWARD OF PREMIUMS. Prize.
Stand. | Article. Price.
1. PLoveus. ms

To Messrs. J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich, £10 and
for their Plough for heavy vy their ir own| Sil Med 1 } 84 | 6 3 3
invention ° . . Bg

To Messrs. J. R.and A. eee of Ipswich,
for their Plough for light land ; seri own eae anes 1 } 84 6 60
invention . : 5 CS Oe eee

To Messrs. J. R. and A. ae! of Ipswich,
for their Plough for laying furrows all in
one direction; invented by ack td eee £5 pe - . 5
of Marldon, Devon °

To John Bruce, of basin nemo £5 20 3 5.5
Avon, Warwickshire, for his Skim Hlongh i} { to
his own invention . : 7 0

2. SuBsom PuLvERIZERs.

To John Read, of 35, Regent Circus, Picca-
dilly, London, for his Subsoil Palverizers} £10 93 3 5.5
his own invention . : ° ° .

3. CLop-CrusHERs.

To William Crosskill, of Beverley, Yorkshire, ll 0
for his Clod-Crusher and nee his ow £20 80 4 to
invention 5 = 3 5 22 0

4, Scartriers.

To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, near 12 0
Wootton-under-Edge, for his Scarifier, or £10 and \61 13 to
Uley Cultivator; invented by John Morton, (| Silver Medal. | § 20 0
of Whitfield Example Farm. ° :

5, Harrows.

T'o Messrs. Sanders, Williams, and Taylor, of
Bedford, for their diagonal iron Harrow £5 70 3 415
invented by Samuel Taylor, of Bedford

To Messrs. Sanders, Williams, and Taylor, of
Bedford, for their Horse Drag; invented by £5 70 6 aly f
Samuel Taylor, of Bedford ° .

— a]

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844.

365

AWARD OF PREMIUMS. Prize.

6. Dritt-PREsseERs.

To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham, £10 and
for his two-row Drill- -Presser, depositing corn Silver Medal.
and manure; his own invention - 2

7. Dritts.
£20 and

To Richard Garrett, of Saxmundham, Suffolk,
for his Drill for ’ general daa 3 his ow Silver Medal:
invention . . : . .

£10 and

Suffolk, for his Manure and Seed Drill, for Silver Medal.

ridge or broad-work; his own invention .

To James Smyth, of Peasenhall, near Yoxford,

8. Horse Hogs.

Cheshire, for his parallel’ aes Horse
Hoe; his own invention . ; .

To David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford, _)
£5
To Richard Garrett, of Saxmundha, Suffolk,

for his Horse Hoe for general purposes ; bis Silver Medal.
own invention . . . . .

9. AGRICULTURAL CARRIAGES

Oxon, for his two Carts convertible into a}! Silver Medal.
Waggon ; his own invention .

To Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for his low-
tipping Manure Cart, with Liquid Manure
Cask to fit; his own invention . =

To Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for his oe td
Harvest Cart; invented by J. Sana of ¢| Silver Medal.
Burcot, Oxon - .

To Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for his ra

To Daniel Coombes, of Skipton, near Burford, ’ £15 and

£5

Spring-Cart, with cranked axle ; ; his own in- ?| Silver Medal.

vention ° P .

To the Earl of Ducie, of Bicieotk eng
near Wootton-under-Edge, for his nae be
Cart; invented by Richard Clyburn, of
Uley, near Dursley . 3 . :

Silver Medal.

10. Cuarr Currers.

To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, near
Wootton-under-Edge, for his Chaff Cutter
with two spiral Knives ; invented by himself,
R. Clyburn, and E. Budding ° :

£10 and
Silver Medal.

ll. Turnip Currers.

To James Gardiner, of Banbury, Oxon, for ti. £5

Turnip Cutter ; his own invention :

Reference to Catalogue.

Stand. | Article. |

| 48

\ 65

} a4

10

65

79
79

79

61

} 61

14

1

Price.
Le aa
1410 0
36 15 0
23 0 0
310 0
18 0 0
35 0 0
Ve 17-0
to
2217 0
15 15 0
20 0 0
19s 050
810 0
to
20 O60
oF oe 0

= eee

366 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

Reference to Catalogue.

AWARD OF PREMIUMS. Prize.
Stand. | Article. Price.
—
12. Cake CrusHERs. eae. el
To Richard Hornsby, of Spittlegate, Grantham,
. ¢ . . . 5 2 F
for his Cake Crusher; his own invention i £5 a 12 Roltin0

13. Bartex HuMMELLER.

To Joshua Cooch, of Harleston, near Northamp-
ton, for his Barley Hummeller, combined
with a Winnowing Machine and Elevator ;

_ his own invention . E - 7 ;

Silver Medal.) 54 3 6 6 0

14. Hanp Corn Mitts.

To Alexander Dean, of Birmingham, for his)| ..
French burr-stone Hand-Mill ; his "own ine Silver Medal.) 64 24 10 5 0
vention . . . . ° .

15, Cuurns.

To David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford,
Cheshire, for his double-action Churn ; in- £5
vented by George roe, of Capesthorne, y 10 5 3.0 0
Cheshire . . .- eo eee

16. CuEESE-PREsSEs.

To Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for his Cheese-||..)
Press; invented by W. J. Gingell, of Bua Silver Medal.| 79 58 3 3 0

17. Srzam-ENGINEs.

To William Cambridge, of Market Lavington,
Wilts, for his four-wheel travelling Steam-
Engine ; his own invention

£5 26 1 | 200 0 O

18. Horse ENGINES AND MACHINERY.

To Messrs. J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich,
for their set of Horse Works for driving several
Mills or Machines combined, or bate ;
their owninvention . . .«

£30 84 25

—_———
ao bo
o on
>
cS
o Ss
oe ©&

19, Fine EnGINEs.

To Jobn Read, of 35, Regent Circus, Picca-
dilly, London, for his Fire- a dhe his own £5 93 4 36 0 0

invention ° <

20. Water-Lirtine ENGINEs,

To Messrs. Tasker and Fowle, of Andover,
Hants, for their Machine for raising Water ; >| Silver Medal.| 57 25 |e) 19)

their own invention . . 5

21, Drain-TitE MACHINES.

To Messrs. J. R. and A. Ransome, of Ipswich, 25 0 0
for their Hand or Horse Dyain-Tile and Pipe £20 and } 84 | 32 ‘
Machine; invented by F. W. ca ir of {| Silver Medal. 50 "4 F

11, Furnival’s Inn, London.

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 367

Reference to Catalogue.

AWARD OF PREMIUMS. Prize. ¢
Stand. | Article. Price.
22. Weitcuine Macuines. £- 8. d.

To H. G. James, of 44, Fish Street Hill, Lon- 0. 30
don, for his Weighing Machine ; invented id £5 77 4 to
Monsieur George, of Paris A 22 0.0

23. MiscELLANEOUvs.

To Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for his Hand
Bone-breaking Machine ; levonicd by Ro- £2 (ey 46 44 0
bert Fry . . .

To Edward Hill, of Brierly-bill Tron- aie
near Dudley, fi or his aka hale Cow Crib; £2 22 14 440
his own invention .

To Edward Hill, of Brierly-bill seit sts aoe
near Dudley, for his running Ghent Fences ; ; Silver Medal.| 22 20 0 ta 2
his own invention . : | d

ilk ealges per yard.

To James Pearce, Andover, Hants, for his - : -
band and Tugs; his own invention HH Silver Medal. | 89 = 110 0

To Richard Garrett, of Saxmundham, Suffolk,
for his wrought-iron Stack Stand; invented tip Medal.| 65 32 10 10 0

by J. Springall, of Ipswich.

To the Earl of Ducie, of Tortworth Court, near O's) 6
Wootton-under-Edge, for his Screw Spanners Silver Medal.| 61 11 to
or Wrenches; invented by Richard ek Re aay 3
of Uley,near Dursley .
J

To Messrs. Joseph Hall and Co., of Cambridge,
for their Horse Trefoil and Clover-seed Draw-
ing Machine; invented by Constable,
of Cambridge F . ° °

To Samuel John Knight, of Maidstone, ns

for his Model of a Hop and Malt-Kiln; his
own invention : . . .

Nore.—The prices affixed comprehend the range of the cost according to the various
sizes, fittings, materials, &c. of the implement.

Ploughs.—The judges having selected from the immense num-
ber of ploughs exhibited such ‘of them as they deemed particu-
larly worthy of trial, these were apportioned to the light or stiff
land farms, according to the wishes of the exhibitors. At the
time of trial each plough had a separate land assigned to it ; and
each ploughman was desired to execute the best work he could,
without regard to quantity, the excellence of the performance be-
ing the object principally sought. Some of these ploughs were
entered as wheel-ploughs only ; some were represented to work
with two wheels, or with one wheel, or as swings; others were
constructed purely on the swing principle. Under these cireum-

368 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

stances, the judges thought fit first to order the two-wheel ploughs
into action, then those with one wheel, and then the swing, or the
ploughs without a wheel. By this arrangement not only was the
quality of the work done by each implement separately displayed,
but a fair opportunity offered itself for observing and comparing
the quality of the work as executed in the same soil, and under
the same circumstances, by the three classes of the implement.
The skill of the individual constructor was also manifested; and,
on this occasion, the remarkable result came out that one particular
plough excelled all the others, whether working with two wheels,
with one wheel, or without a wheel. In each case the work done
by this plough was unquestionably superior to that effected by
any other competing with it; and it was equally unquestionable
that the order of excellence, in respect of work, was,—first, that
executed by this plough when fitted with two wheels; secondly,
with one wheel; thirdly, when acting without a wheel, or as a
swing. This plough was one of three in the field from the manu-
factory of Messrs. Ransome, marked Y.L; and to them the
judges awarded the Society’s prize of ten pounds and the silver
medal.

These remarks have reference to the trials made on the light
land at Mr. Gater’s farm; and precisely similar results were
recognised by the judges on the trials which took place on the
very hard stiff soil at Mr. Spooner’s farm. Here again the supe-
riority of the same plough developed itself; but, to meet the con-
dition of the soil, Messrs. Rausome had fitted it with a longer, and
differently curved, mould-board. To them the judges also awarded
the Society’s prize “for the plough best adapted to heavy land,”
as well as that for “light land.”

Some very good work was done on the light soil by ploughs
manufactured by Mr. John Howard, of Bedford, and by Messrs.
Sanders, Williams, and 'l'aylor, of Bedford. On the stiff soil, the
judges commended the performance of a plough by Messrs. J. and
E. Plenty, of Newbury (an old Hampshire implement), and as
being apparently of light draught ; also a plough by Mr. Howard,
of Bedford; both working with two wheels. ‘The performance of
the swing-ploughs was very indifferent on both sorts of soil, except-
ing that of Messrs. Ransome’s implement on the lighter soil.

In recording these trials, the writer, who had the advantage of
attending the two judges of this department, and of communicating
with them during all the trials, only repeats their sentiments in
marking the difference of the work under the three varied appli-
cations of Messrs. Ransome’s plough. When fitted with two
wheels, its performance was like that of a planing-machine; the
furrow slices were cut vertically from the land, the floors or bot-
toms were left perfectly flat and clean, and the slices were depo-

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 369

sited at an angle of about 45 degrees, with such truth that they
could be turned back to their original horizontal bed without gain-
ing or losing ground. According to the generally-received prin-
ciples of perfect ploughing (whether they be correct, and equally
suitable to all soils and modes of culture, or not) it is imagined
that practice has in this instance closely approached to their fulfil-
ment, ;

When fitted with one wheel, though the work of the plough was
excellent, yet there was an evident declining from that extreme
regularity and finish belonging to the first performance.

When acting without a wheel, or as a swing, an effect was
plainly discernible, and which is directly traceable to the influ-
ence exercised over the motion of the plough by the motion of the
draught animals. The floor of the furrows, though cut nearly as
flat in its transverse section as in the two former cases, no longer
presented so continuously-even a surface as if fashioned by a tool
travelling along and maintaining an unvarying plane; it was wavy,
exhibiting short, burst, or broken surfaces, and answering to the
impulses of the animals. Nor was this owing to want of skill in
the ploughman, as compared with the skill of others who brought
their best swing-ploughs and their best ploughmen to compete for
the prize, for the furrow bottoms of the latter were still more
Jagged and irregular. Had the light soil operated upon been in a
condition fit for autumnal ploughing, there can be but little doubt
that all the swing-ploughs would have acted better, and that less
difference would probably have been perceptible in the quality of
the work ; yet the writer esteems it to have been advantageous to
the progress of arable mechanism that these trials occurred at a
period when the merits or defects of the ploughs were prominently
brought out by the excessively baked state of the soil. On the
hard land especially (at Mr. Spooner’s) “proof of bottom ” was
obtained. Several of the ploughs would not enter the ground, nor
work to the depth required; others were continually thrown up
on the surface; and some were quickly crippled in one way or
other. The test was certainly severe, but the merit of any
plough was proportionably great which could perform good work
under such circumstances.

The inquiries addressed to the judges and to the writer have
‘been numerous, and very natural, as to how it happened that the
same plough proved to be equally fit for light and heavy land ?
The explanation has already been partly given by the statement
of the fact that Messrs. Ransome changed such parts of their
plough as they deemed necessary to suit a change of soil; just as
a skilful workman adapts his tool to the different nature of the
materials under hand: and abundant proof was afforded to, and
acknowledged by the judges, that one given form of mould-board

370 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

is utterly inadequate to suit all soils. Much also of the success of
this plough i is due to the principles of its construction, as already
explained in the Report of the Derby Meeting.

Turn-wrest Plough.—Under this generic name for ploughs
which lay their furrows in one direction, must be classed a novel
description of the implement, invented by Mr. H. Lowcock, of
Marldon, Devon, and manufactured by Messrs. Ransome. Its
intent is accomplished without baving to turn the plough round at
the end of a bout, or to change, manually, any of its acting parts.
It consists, in fact, of two ploughs set back to back lengthways, and
forming one body, having a double flap or wing, hinged between
the vertical parts of the {wo mould-boards, and completing their

‘necessary curvature. ‘The stilts cr handles are hinged on the centre
of the plough, and serve to guide it in both directions by simply
turning them over when the “plough reaches the end of its course.
The horses, whilst turning, leave the plough at rest, but pull the
draught-chain to the opposite end of the beam along a rod which
connects the two extremities; and, so soon as motion recom-
mences, the flap or wing turns on its hinge from the effect of the
resistance it encounters from the new furrow slice, and the new
slice is deposited against the preceding one. Thus, a self-acting
turn-wrest is produced, and in a very simple and efficient manner,
The novelty of this arrangement consists, chiefly, in the hinged
self-acting flap; but the construction of the sole is also entitled to
much praise, as, though the plough is double, the usual extent
only of frictional surface is in action. The plough carries one
wheel at each end.

The judges awarded a premium of 51. for this plough, which
did its work very satisfactorily, and was considered to be the best
turn-wrest yet invented.

Stubble-paring, or Skim Plough.—Several implements bearing
this title underwent strict trial. The judges had no hesitation in
determining to which of them a preference was due, as no one of
them executed its work effectually, excepting that invented by Mr.
John Bruce, of Tiddington, near Stratford-on-Avon, for which a
premium of 5/. was adjudged.

Mr. Bruce appears to have thoroughly studied the require-
ments of an implement of this kind, and has certainly produced
one which will be considered a great acquisition by the agricul-
turist. It was tried on a very short, dry, clover ley, cutting 2
inches deep and 26 inches in breadth. No portion was left uncut.
It worked well with a pair of horses, and is capable of getting
over 4 acres per day cleverly. It is so arranged as to be equally
suitable to ridge and furrow as to flat land. “Tt j is readily thrown
out of work at the end of a field, turns easily, and is furnished
with a set of tines following the cutting shares, in order to searify

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 371

or stir the parings, and prepare them for being well wrought upon
by the harrows. ‘These tines are raised out of the soil by pressing
on independent handles and levers, and may be used or not as occa-
sion requires. ‘The implement is simple, and its price moderate.
Subsoil-Pulverizers—Nearly all the varieties of this class
which had appeared at previous meetings of the Society were
again exhibited. The weight, unwieldiness, and cost of them,
together with the difficulty experienced in their management, and
the strength of team required to do the work—indifferently and
irregularly as it has hitherto been accomplished—have set great
obstacles to the adoption of a complete underworking and pulve-
rization of the agricultural bed. It is acknowledged that the pro-
cess of artificially pulverizing certain subsoils, and of admitting a
free access of air and moisture to their interior parts, must be
beneficial to plants, and must tend to ameliorate the texture and
quality of the soil. Nevertheless, for the want of a simple, easily
manageable, and moderately priced implement, this operation
has been made rather the subject of private experiment than of
extensive practice ; it has languished in the hands of many of its
adyocates, and been abandoned, as too troublesome or too costly,
by many firm believers in its utility. An implement was pro-
duced at the Derby Meeting, by Mr. John Read, of 35, Regent
Circus, Piccadilly, London, which had not the chance of being
there submitted to trial, but with the merits of which the writer
shortly afterwards became fully acquainted. It reappeared at
Southampton, and was put to the test by the judges, with several
others, in the hard-baked soil at Mr. Spooner’s farm, It is un-
necessary to make particular mention of these latter, as no one of
them was capable of executing even tolerable work in land so
cireumstanced. ‘The pan, or old plough-floor, of this field had,
evidently, never been invaded by agricultural tools; below 6 inches
it was as solid as centuries of ploughing and trampling can be
conceived to have made a tenacious loam, aided by a drought
of several weeks’ duration. Mr, Read’s pulverizer was put into
the furrow opened by a plough, and set to work at about 6 inches
under it. The effect was “ perfectly beautiful’”—to use the judges’
words. ‘The old floor was split up into fragments like broken tiles ;
the soil was separated and pulverized, not heaved up in great masses
and let fall again to its original berth, the common defect of the
ponderous subsoil-ploughs: the depth was maintained invariably
uniform, and a holder for the implement would be nearly unne-
cessary but for the circumstance of its coming out at the end of
a furrow and of setting in again. The uniformity of depth and
regularity of motion are owing to the construction of the imple-
ment, which is as simple as it is novel. A straight beam, fur-
nished with the usual pair of handles, is carried on four wheels,
VOL, Vv. 2c

372 Report on the Exhibition of Implements
the leading pair being placed near the bridle, and the following

pair near the after end of the beam. The stirrer or miner is let
down through a mortice in the beam, immediately behind the
after pair of wheels, and fixed to act at any required depth. By
this arrangement the entire weight is carried on the wheels, which
also preserve the action of the stirrer at all times parallel with the
bottoms of the furrows on which they travel.

In consequence of the effective performance of this implement,
aud being of opinion that it required considerably less force of
draught than any other with which they were acquainted, the
judges awarded to Mr. Reada premium of 10/.

The writer may also mention that a mole-share has been applied
to this implement, and used in Kent with excellent effect in making
mole-drains, with a force of four horses; and he may add that, by
reason of its manageableness and accurate working, the implement
has been found by farmers in the same county to facilitate drainage
in clay soils by sub-pulverization, in a remarkable manner, if used
with due caution. They recommend that newly-drained clays be
not broken up, in the first instance, to a depth beneath the furrow
greater than six inches; that the share be set another season two
or three inches lower, and so on, gradually deepening the pulve-
rized mass, rather than disrupting the whole at once.

Clod-crushers.—Several clod-crushers and rollers—or imple-
ments to which that appellation was given by their makers—
were put to work at Mr. Spooner’s farm, on land well prepared
for testing their respective properties and merits. The remarks
made in the Report of the Derby Meeting relative to Mr. Cross-
kill’s implement were fully borne out by the opinions of the judges
who acted on this occasion, and who had the opportunity of giving
these implements a quieter and more rigid trial. A premium of
201. was adjudged to Mr. Crosskill, of Beverley, for his now almost
universally known and approved machine. The improvements
made in the construction of this crusher have been successively
narrated and commended in previous reports ; and testimonials to
its useful effect in producing upon soils, not cloddy, a fine pul-
verulent surface, as well as its beneficial influence as a roller of
young growing wheat, &c. &c., have been so recently collected
and laid before the Society (Journal, vol. iv. p. 560) that it might
be deemed unnecessary to add one word more on the subject.
The judges, however, have particularly requested the writer to
submit to the exhibitors the utter inutility of all attempts to com-
pete successfully with Mr. Crosskill’s implement, unless they can
produce a machine which, like his, can be turned round about,
when one of its extremities is fixed, without tearing up the soil,
and half burying itself in a hole formed whilst turning. It will
assuredly be wiser to prove such properties at home, than to bring

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 373

to the Society’s meetings implements, either purporting to be what
they are not, or such as have already been eclipsed by more excellent
inventions. The most complete implement is not perfect, and
there is ever ample room and verge enough for attaining distine-
tion either by the discovery of some better or cheaper principle of
construction, or by increasing the utility of that which is acknow-
ledged to be good. At the present time Mr. Crosskill’s crusher
and roller is unquestionably superior to any other brought to the
notice of the Society; it happily combines a sufficiency of weight
with bruising action, and simplicity with durability. ‘The inventor
makes them of different lengths, to suit the circumstances of pur-
chasers; but the farmer will do wisely, when his means permit, to
procure the longest size, as it is the heaviest and most effective.

Scarifiers—Of the various scarifiers contained in the show-yard,
the choice of the judges lay, as at the Derby Meeting, between
the Uley cultivator, exhibited by the Earl of Ducie, and Biddell’s
well-known implement, manufactured by Messrs. Ransome. After
a short trial the judges awarded the Society’s prize of 10/. and the
silver medal to the Karl of Ducie; this award arising out of their
opinion that the Uley implement required less power, and travelled
farther without choking or fouling. They observe, however, that
“the Bidaell did its work in good style,” and state their opinion
that “implements of this description require a trial of longer
duration to enable the iudges to arrive at a mature knowledge of
their respective merits.” It will be in the recollection of the
Council that the judges at Derby came to a similar conclusion as
to insufficiency of time and circumstances, and, in consequence, no
judgment was pronounced by them.

Harrows.—A set of diagonal iron harrows, exhibited and manu-
factured by Messrs. Sanders, Williams, and Taylor, of Bedford,
obtained the Society’s prize of 5/., being considered by the judges
to have pulverized the soil more effectually and neatly than any
others submitted to their inspection.

A horse-drag, produced by the same makers, received an award
of 52., it being found on trial against several others to collect the
greatest quantity of stuff in the cleanest manner, and to possess the
best delivery.

Drill-Pressers—The Society’s prize of 10/. and the silver

‘medal was awarded to Mr. Richard Hornsby, of Grantham, for
his two-row implement for depositing corn and manure. Several
pressers by different makers were also tried, but no one of them
approached Mr. Hornsby’s in the faculty of delivering quantities
of manure or compost—a faculty esteemed by these, as by former
Judges, to be of the highest importance to the complete effective-
ness of all drills. The competing pressers did ny attain the
2c

374 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

deposition of what the judges prescribed as a sufficiency of manure ;
whereas Mr. Hornsby’s drill proved to be capable of depositing
double the quantity of manure required by them, and in a much
rougher state than that prepared for the occasion. It was also
provided with an extra coulter to complete the manuring and
sowing of the open furrows. ‘This is an entirely new operation of
the presser, as the sowing of the furrow had previously to be done
by hand. The judges observe that « it was accomplished in good
style, and gave a finish to the work corresponding with the rest of
the field.” The Society will be pleased to learn that the effect of
the encouragement occasioned by their annual premiums for this
extensively used implement has been so rapid; for the origin of
the drill-presser, more particularly in respect of its function as a
manure-depositor, is but recent. The diameter of Mr. Hornsby’s
pressing-wheels is 3 feet 9} inches (larger by 14 inch than those
of Mr. Caborn’s excellent presser, remanded at Derby), and the
breadth of bearing, or sole, is 13 inch.

Drilis.—It appears from the notes of the trials supplied by the
judges of this department, that thirteen drills of different descrip-
tions, selected from the stands of eight exhibitors, were minutely
tested by them. Of these, two are stated not to have been in
working order; and two broke on trial. Five would not pass the
damp manure prepared for the Society, but four of these acted
either well or fairly with coal-ashes. One did not pass manure
fast enough ; and of another, being a combination of a drill with a
manure-cart, produced by Mr. Hornsby, of Grantham, the judges
observe, “ uot good, would not drill wet manure, and if it would,
the judges do (not) think it desirable or profitable.”

The result of these trials was the award of the Society’s prize of
30/. and the silver medal to Mr. Richard Garrett, of Saxmund-
ham, for his drill for general purposes; and the prize of 10.
and the silver medal to Mr. James Smyth, of Peasenhall, for his
two or three rowed manure and seed ridge or broad-work drill.

On the subject of the manure-depositing properties of Mr.
Garrett's drill—properties which formed the principal object of
the Society’s largest prize—the only remarks made by the judges
are :—* ‘his drill worked fairly with coal-ashes, but would not
drill the wet manure prepared for use by the Society.’ Also, that
«it drilled manure as well as any, and in other respects was better.”
Mr. Smyth’s drill is reported to have ‘worked well on ridge and
flat, and to be a complete turnip-drill.” Also, that ‘it drilled the
manure as well as any, had a self-moving action roller for ridges
superior to any, and covered the seed with roller behind better
than others.” A two-row turnip-drill by Mr. Hornsby is com-
mended; and a drill for general purposes by Mr. Hunter, of

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 375

Ulceby, is mentioned as having “a better invention for covering
the manure than any other, and very simple,” though it would
“not drill wet manure fast enough.

It may be gathered from these remarks and decisions of the
judges, that no one of the drills upon which their experiments were
made, exactly responded to the terms of the first prize, according
to their construction of them; but, as the effect of offered prizes
cannot always be immediate, it may be hoped that our drill-
mechanicians—and more particularly those who have turned their
attention to the delivery and covering of large quantities of moist
manures or composts—will realize it on the next occasion. The
hint, also, may not be lost on them that their implements should
be exhibited in perfect condition for work, as all are subject to the
judges’ call for trial.

In the Report of the Derby Meeting a succinct history was
given of the rise and progress of manure-drilling in Lincolnshire,
aud so-far as the writer’s researches on this subject had then, or
have since extended, it would appear that the mechanical deposi-
tion of manure originated in that county.* Nor has the quantity
of fold-yard or other manure capable of being uttered by drills
appeared to have satisfied the intelligent and enterprising Lin-
colnshire agriculturists until very recently. The judges at the
Derby meeting reported their opinion, that ‘ Hunter’s drill is
capable of uttering any required quantity of such manure (fold-
yard or stable-muck well chopped), and of passing lumps without
obstruction, even of 5 inches diameter,” &c. (Journal, vol. iy.
p- 469). Since this statement was made the writer has sought to
verify it, and to obtain some knowledge of the actual quantity and
nature of the manures drilled in per acre.

Mr. William Heseltine, of Worlaby House, near Barton, Lin-
colnshire (one of our judges of ploughs, &c. at Southampton),
states, Sept. 20th, 1544, “I have used Hunter’s drill to a great
extent this season for turnips, and find it answer remarkably well.
The manure I used was from cattle tied up in a shed to fatten
upon linseed-cake and turnips, having wheat-chaff to lie upon
instead of straw. The dung was taken from them twice a day,
mixed with twice the quantity of soil, and turned over twice or
thrice in the spring; before drilling a quantity of dry ashes was
added, which made a rich compost. I had also a heap of manure
put into a hill last autumn. In the spring, soil and ashes were

. . . . 5 .
mixed with it in the same way as the other. Five large cart-

* The writer is indebted to Mr. Richard Garrett, of Saxmundham, for
some valuable information concerning the history of Suffolk drilling. At
present, however, it is incomplete, more particularly as respecting the
en of the introduction of manure-drilling into that or the neighbouring
counties.

376 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

loads, containing 40 bushels each of these composts, were drilled
per acre, and I could have got in twice as much, or any quantity,
with Hunter’s drill.”

Mr. L. Uppleby, of Wootton House, near Barton-on-Humber,
writes, October 4th, 1844: “If it be an advantage to be able to
drill in a large quantity of compost, wet or dry, ‘then Hunter’s
drill is by far the best yet out; and that it is an advantage few
practical farmers will deny. I have drilled about 160 acres of
turnips with Hunter’s drill. The compost I used was the drain-
ings and manure from our feeding beasts mixed, under cover, day

"by day, with dry soil; and about 14 cwt. of guano per acre. The
compost and guano mixed with ashes amounted to about 4 cubic
yards peracre. The season was, as you know, most unfavourable,
but yet the turnips are very good, although rather later than |
should like to seethem. For swedes I put in 5 cubic yards; and
on 3 roods of land for a person near me (who always borrows my
implements), I drilled in at the rate of 13 cubic yards per acre ;
thus showing that Hunter’s drill is capable of depositing almost
any quantity, and the delivery is so equal, the work may be done
to the greatest nicety.”

The manure and turnip drill referred to was exhibited at
Southampton by Mr. Hunter, but as no mention is made of it in
the judges’ notes, it would appear that it was not tried. From
several other parties expressing the highest approbation of this
drill, the writer has learnt that great numbers of the common
drills have been altered to the same plan, which was the invention
of Mr. Tobias Cartwright, of Fordington, near Alford, Lincoln-
shire, in 1840; thus the acknowledgment of the value of a drill
for depositing heavy tillages of manure or compost is become very
extensive.

Mr. Graburn, now of Walton House, Clevedon, Somerset, has
this year practised another method—remarkable for its simplicity
and effectiveness—which he describes as follows :—‘* My drill has
no manure-box ; it consists simply of the seed and manure de-
livering machinery carried upon two wheels, and following a cart
in which a man stands, whose business it is to shovel the manure
on to the machinery of the drill as fast as he can. The utmost
quantity he could throw out was our only stint, and amounted to
about 9 cart-loads per acre, say of 30 bushels each. ‘The advan-
tages of this plan over large drills consist in the saving of labour,
time, and expense, besides a more equal deposition of the manure.
You know that in the common large drills heavy manures are apt
to consolidate in the box, and it is difficult. to ‘keep them alive,’
but on my plan the manure is always light upon the drill-works.
Three carts, three men, and a drill-man, keep the drill always
going. At Butleigh I have been drilling manure and soil with

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 377

seed-wheat beautifully. A quantity of road-dust was stored up in
the summer, and I have obtained perfect control over the damp
manure by mixing the two as required.”

Dibbling Machines.—Particular notice was taken in the Report
of the meeting held at Liverpool in 184] (Journal, vol. ii., App.
evil.), of a seed-dibbling machine invented by Mr. Newberry.
It has since undergone successive alterations and improvements,
especially in respect of the mechanical deposition of the seed,
therein alluded to. The judges at Southampton gave minute
attention to this faculty, as possessed by an improved machine ex-
hibited by Messrs. Saunder and Newberry, of Hook Norton and
Bioxham. They report that the number of corns of wheat which
issued in twenty-five droppings varied from one to seven, in the ex-
treme—the average of the whole being somewhat more than four
at each drop; but they observe that “the machine formed the
holes and deposited the seeds very well,’ though with the irre-
gularity-of number mentioned. The price of the implement is
considered by them as too great for the tenant-farmer: they also
suggest that “the same end might be gained, and at much less
expense, by using the common hand-dibble to follow in the track
of a presser.”

The practical value and performance of such an implement are
evidently only to be measured and ascertained by its success, as
manifested by the crops resulting from its use, taken in conjunction
with the saving of seed, and other considerations. ‘The writer
has been furnished by Mr. Pusey with the following commentary
on these practical points :—

** Mr. Newberry’s dibbling machine is much liked by many
farmers who have used it in Oxfordshire, and I tried it myself in
the autumn before last. It is complicated, yet accurate in its
construction. It is also heavy; but on light land, for which it
seems calculated, that very weight is in fact an advantage, at least
for wheat, because in pressing down the dibbles into the land it
makes a solid bed for the seed—the advantage of which, on light
land, is well known to practical farmers. In fact, the wheat-
plants which had been dibbled with this machine looked as if they
Were growing upon strong land, being far more vigorous than
those which had been drilled by their side. During the severe
drought of May and June, the dibbled wheat was taller and also
stronger in the straw, because the compression of the soil enabled
it better to retain its natural moisture. When ripe, the ears were
longer and much better filled; but, in consequence of the varia-
tions in the soil of the trial lots, the difference of yield could not
be fairly tested. The quantity of seed used was 1} bushel instead
of 24, the amount commonly sown here with the drill. The
allowance, however, is sometimes reduced to a bushel ; and at Mr.

378 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

Miles’s I saw the machine sowing little more than three-quarters
of a bushel per acre. Although unable to give any account of
my own comparative yield, I am glad to have obtained the fol-
lowing statement of an experiment which is very satisfactory :—

“* Upper Swell, Sept. 21, 1844.

“« ¢ Sir,—Having used your dibbling machine last year in opposition
to the drill, I think it nothing but justice to you to state the result, which
is as follows :—I planted 6 pecks per acre with the drill, which produced
26 bushels and 1 peck per acre; and on the next day I planted with
the dibbling machine 5 pecks per acre in the same field (the land being
the same in every respect), which produced 33 bushels 14 peck, giving,
in favour of the dibbling, 7 bushels and half a peck, besides 1 peck saved

“in the seed. The straw was much longer and stronger. ‘The drilled
weighed only 634 Ibs. per imperial bushel, the dibbled 64 lbs. Being
so well satisfied with the experiment, I think you may safely recommend
the implement, &c.

“¢ J, W. Hakxes.

“¢ To Mr. Newberry.’

«“ The only drawbacks to the general use of this machine are
the price and the draught; but the former objection is partly met
by its being let out to hire like the common drill; and though it
requires more horses than the drill, a saving of horse strength is
made in other respects, because the dibbler is used at once on the
land as left by the plough, without any harrowing or rolling as for
the drill. Several neighbouring farmers have used the dibbler
this season, who saw its effect on my Jand last summer.”

A hand-dibble, the invention of Mr. Richard Smith, of Upper
Hall, near Droitwich, highly deserves record, in the opinion of
the writer, as likely to prove a very useful implement. He
finds no mention of it in the judges’ notes. ‘This dibble plants
the seed, and possesses a principle of action which, if not already
perfect, is an important step made towards the construction of a
perfect self-feeding, self-depositing implement. On the top of a
hollow stem is fixed a seed-box, with a delivering apparatus im-
mediately beneath it. Below this again two handles project
from the stem, one on each side, which work up and down in
slides or slots formed in it. From the centre of these handles a
rod descends with a tapering point, passing at bottom through a
hollow conical termination of the stem, and forming part of the
extremity which enters the ground and makes the hole. One of
the levers of a small bell-crank is also worked by the handles, the
other lever giving motion to a slider pierced with the hole which
measures and lets fall the seed from the seed-box. The action is
as follows :-—-when the dibble is pressed down into the earth, the
modicum of seed is discharged from the box, and falls to the
bottom of the stem; but its extremity being then closed, none of

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 379

itcan escape, and no more can follow. On withdrawing the dibble
the rising point is first liberated from the hole, whereon the seed
instantly tumbles from the hollow stem into the hole. Next the
dibble, or entire instrument, is raised out of the ground; a fresh
hole is made, and so on. These two last apparently distinct ac-
tions are in fact only one to the user; since the dibble itself cannot
rise until the man has lifted the handles to the top of the slot,
whereby the whole instrument is raised out of the ground.

This account may not render the construction of the implement

very clear, and there is perhaps no greater difficulty in descriptive
writing than the illustration of a very simple piece of mechanism
unaided bya diagram. The principle may be more perspicuously
explained. It will be comprehended that the dibble is pressed
vertically into the earth; that the seed is safely berthed in its bed
before the dibble is withdrawn, which last action being also vertical,
no crumbs can dispiace or interfere with the seed ; that uniformity
of depth and a considerable degree of firmness of seed-bed are also
attained. In all practical respects the implement is handy and
convenient to the workman.
- The writer has made many experiments as to the accuracy of
its discharge of seed. The result has been that the variation in
the number of grains let fall is little greater than what is due to
the difference in the aggregate bulk of their number. As a
garden-tool, its utility must be very great, from its certainty and
convenience ; aud if hand-dibbling be considered too slow for ge-
neral agricultural purposes, this instrument will be found to be of
great value in filling up spaces or spots short of plants. It will be
found to be particularly useful for experimental culture, and possi-
bly for cottagers’ allotments, as its price (35s.) places it within
the reach of a number of small cultivators. Since its exhibition
at Southampton the inventor has much improved it, by making
the shell of copper instead of tin; and he is now occupied in re-
moving one or two objections elicited from its use by practical
men.

FHforse-hoes.—The judges awarded a premium of 10. to Mr.
David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford, for a parallel expanding
horse-hoe, to work between rows of turnips, &c. In principle
this implement is very similar to the one invented by Mr. John
Morton, of Whitfield Example Farm, and described in the report
of the Liverpool meeting. It was well constructed, and its per-
formance highly commended.

Mr. Garrett’s horse-hoe, for general purposes, was put to work
on this occasion, in a piece prepared by the stewards for the trial
of such implements. The judges pronounced its action to be
“perfect,” and assigned to the inventor the silver medal for some

380 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

recent improvements, prizes having already been awarded for the
same machine at the Liverpool, Bristol, and Derby Meetings.

The improvements referred to consist chiefly in providing means
for throwing the two outside hoes out of work, without stopping the
horses, and quickly enough to prevent injury bemg done to the
outside rows of corn where they may join or approach too near
together at two contiguous stetches. The evil originates in irre-
gular drilling; and has, in effect, hitherto created a practical
objection to the use of the horse-hoe, but it is now, in the opinion
of the judges, removed.

Agricultural Carriages.—The Society’s prize of 15/. and the
silver medal, offered for “the best agricultural carriage, with or
without springs, for the general purposes of the road and field,”
was adjudged to Mr. Daniel Coombes, of Skipton, near Burford,
Oxon, for his two carts convertible into a waggon. This is the
combined carriage for which an encouraging premium of 5/. was
awarded at Derby. No very material change had been made
in it. An account of it appeared in the report of the Derby
meeting.

Four other prizes were awarded to exhibitors in this depart-
ment, three of which were obtained by Mr. Richard Stratton, of
Bristol, and one by the Earl of Ducie, for the several carriages
mentioned in the list of awards. Of the particular merits of these
the writer finds no mention made jn the notes of the judges.

Mr. Crosskill’s carts and wheels are commended, particularly
the latter, which were considered to be “ good, cheap, and useful.”

Chaff-cutters.—The show-yard contained, as usual, an immense
number and variety of this indispensable implement. By far the
greater proportion of these were submitted to careful trial by the
judges. The Society’s prize of 10/. and the silver medal was
awarded to the Earl of Ducie, for his chaff-cutter with two spiral
knives ; thus confirming the judgment given at the Derby meeting.
A description of the implement is given in the report of the Liver-
pool meeting. The judges observe, that “ the amount of work
performed, compared with the power expended, was so decidedly
in favour of this implement, that all the rest in competition were
quite thrown into the shade.”

Messrs. Ransome’s chaff-cutters are described as “never-failing
workers, with a few improvements.”

Mr. J. Richmond, of Salford, produced a chaff-cutter which is
represented to have “a good claim to merit, particularly for the
toothed feeding rollers, instead of the spiral or straight-fluted ones
in common use, as also for the application of bevel wheels to give
motion to them, as compared with the more common and uncertain
ratchet and lever.” ‘The author may add his entire concurrence

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 381

in this commendation, having had the opportunity of seeing Mr,
Richmond’s chaff-cutter inwork. It appeared to him that choking
in the feed-rollers—an evil to which the best of these machines
has hitherto been more or less liable—is scarcely possible from the
form of toothed-rollers adopted by Mr. Richmond ; and the getting
up of the instrument was well worthy the reputation of a Man-
chester mechanic.

The three above-mentioned chaff-cutters are stated to have been
respectively the best in the collection, and their merit in the order
given. Others fell short of the duty required either in point of
quantity or quality of work.

A new machine by Mr. James Gardiner, of Banbury, having a
plurality of mouths, was considered by the judges to possess “ con-
siderable merit, but that the small openings for the cut create a
difficulty in the feed, which is easily overdone.”

Another novelty was presented to the meeting, entitled the “ Guil-
lotine Chaff Machine,” the invention of Messrs. James Ward and
William Colbourne, of Stratford-on-Avon. In this machine the
cut is effected by the ascent and descent of a double-edged angular
blade working perpendicularly, and cutting both upwards and
downwards. ‘The judges speak of it ‘‘ as the smallest of all, and
too small for general purposes, but meriting commendation as
the possible forerunner of an improved chaff-cutter.” This short
notice by the judges of a machipe which attracted great attention
in the show-yard, by reason of its apparent simplicity, truth of cut,
and moderate price, is, in the writer’s opinion, substantially cor-
rect, and all that can be expected from them who regarded it as
an implement which, upon trial, deserved record in the report of
the exhibition, but not a prize. The writer was requested by
many gentlemen to examine this implement ; he did so attentively
and repeatedly, though unknown to the exhibitors. His opinion
is that it possesses very considerable mechanical merit. The cut-
ting blade being quite straight and flat, and presenting no diffi-
culty of adjustment, permits of its being repaired or renewed by
ordinary country blacksmiths. The feed is at rest during the
ascent and descent of the knife, z. e., during the cut; an excellent
principle, though not original. The mode of effecting this alter-
nate stopping and progress of the hay or straw is particularly
simple and good. Notwithstanding these good points, however,
it must be deemed very questionable whether their advantages be
not more than counterbalanced by the limit put by them to the
quantity of work it is capable of doing. The crank which impels
the knife is necessarily obliged to be very long, as its length must
equal the depth of cut, plus the breadth of blade, and some space
more to permit the material to move forwards. A long crank
and a short connecting rod are bad mechanical properties, and the

382 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

length of crank required has evidently governed the adoption by
the inventors of a shallow feed or mouth; and this can only be
deepened by an elongation of the crank. Its performance, there- |
fore, is limited to the production of a quantity equal to that ob-
tained from a two-knife chaff-cutter ; probably less for equal power.

Turmp Cutters —A premium of 5/. was very properly awarded
by the judges to Mr. James Gardiner, of Banbury, for his univer-
sally-esteemed implement, of which so many thousands are in use.
It may be truly said that this turnip-cutter, notwithstanding the
many varieties introduced since its invention, is yet recognized to
be the most simple, durable, and effective of its class.

Cake- Crushers.—An award of 5/. was adjudged to Mr. Richard
Hornsby, of Grantham, for a cake-crusher, which is reported to
have “ proved itself on trial superior to any other in the exhibition,
and the workmanship to be very good, its superiority arising from
the form of tooth adopted by the maker.” The judges further
observe, that there were among the large number exhibited “ some
good implements, but many very inferior from the form of tooth,
and that those with two rollers worked the best.”

The form of tooth alluded to by the judges has reference to the
rollers which break the cake. ‘The writer may suggest, in addi-
tion, that this excellent implement, and others having rollers or
parts which require to be adjusted at different distances asunder
in order to suit their various purposes, would be rendered more
durable and effective by adopting a form of tooth for the driving-
wheels which would admit of their being set deeper or shallower
in gear, and yet work with equal smoothness and truth. Such a
form of teeth has been designed by that able mathematician and
mechanician Professor Willis, of Cambridge; and a train of
wheels on this principle has been mounted by Mr. Edward Cowper,
Lecturer on Mechanics, &c., King’s College, London, who has
obligingly assured the writer that he will explain the construction
of the tooth to inquirers.

Corn Cleaners.—Some remarks are made by the judges on
these machines, but no premium was awarded. Mr. Hornsby’s
implement is considered to be the best in the exhibition, and very
creditable to him. It is stated to be able to “ chaff considerably
more corn than any threshing machine can produce in the same
time, and although not quite perfect in some points, to be a superior
machine for general purposes.”

An entirely new winnowing machine, invented by George Par-
sons and Richard Clyburn, of West Lambrook and Uley, and ex-
hibited by the Earl of Ducie, is represented to be “ worthy of high
commendation, and will, doubtless, when perfected, prove a supe-
rior implement.”

A corn-dressing or winnowing-machine, by Mr. Joshua Cooch,

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 383

of Harleston, is spoken of “asa good cleaner, when the dirty work
is done for it; 7.e., when the corn is chaffed or half winnowed, Mr.
Cooch’s machine will complete it in a most masterly manner.”

Of the remainder of the numerous collection it is said, “ they
are useful of their kind, but in general have not sufficient capacity
to do much work, and are of the family of the last generation.”

After this statement by the judges, founded on their trials, it is
to be hoped that the attention of implement-makers will be more
peculiarly directed to this subject. ‘The dealer and miller prefer
a clean to a foul sample of corn, and the agriculturist will find his
advantage in the purchase and use of the best machine he can
obtain.

Barley Hummeller.—To Mr. Joshua Cooch, of Harleston, a
silver medal was adjudged for his hummeller combined with a
winnowing machine and elevator, which also obtained the appro-
bation of the judges, and a prize at Derby. It is spoken of “as
an effective implement, and well manufactured.”

Corn and Seed Crushers.—No separate prize was given in this
class, the judges having involved it in the premium of 30/. awarded
to Messrs. Ransome for their horse-engine and the machines com-
bined with it, of which a corn and flax-seed crusher formed a com-
ponent part. The judges report this crusher to be “the best
implement of the kind yet brought before the public; two were
tried, the one for beans and corn, the other for flax-seed, both
being constructed on the same ‘principle, and adapted either for
hand or other power. Each consisted of two rollers grooved spi-
rally, revolving at different speeds, but in the same direction,
thereby causing a clipping of the grain or seed, which materially
lessens the power required.” These implements are “ recom-
mended as of very superior workmanship, and with the greatest
confidence to the notice of agriculturists.”

The “workmanship” of a crusher exhibited by the Earl of
Ducie is mentioned “as very superior, and highly commendable,”
but in its effect “inferior to the foregoing.”

The observation made on the remainder of the competing imple-
ments is, ‘that they were generally of good workmanship, but
most of them required too much power.”

Threshing Machines.—¥ive, moved by horse or steam power,
were selected for trial out of the large number in the show-yard.
Much interest was excited by the appearance of a threshing
machine exhibited by the Earl of Ducie, being a recent and
scarcely completed invention by G. Parsons and Richard Clyburn,
of West Lambrook and Uley. ‘The judges remark, ‘though it
did not prove quite perfect, we think it worthy of the highest
commendation.”

The writer greatly regrets that, in consequence of his not having

384 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

SS ag
seen this truly original machine in work, he cannot describe its
construction and action with the accuracy he could desire. It is
to be hoped that it will re-appear at the next meeting. The win-
nowing machine by the same makers is open to the same re-
mark.

Of the hand-threshing machines the judges observe, “That
which we considered to possess the greatest merit for originality of
design, as also in its performance, was exhibited by Messrs.
Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading. We highly commend
this machine as likely to be useful in populous districts. Several
others seem to have been copied from it.”

Fry’s threshing-floor is spoken of as “ good and ingenious.” It
seemed to the writer that this simple contrivance, which permits
the grain, as beaten out, to fall through a screen or grating of
parallel round iron rods forming the upper surface of a large box
which acts as the grain-receiver, may prove extremely useful for
small farmers, and particularly for emigrants. The flail is a triple
rod, and can be easily handled by a lad or a woman.

The show-yard is stated to have contained a great number of
useful and good threshing machines: it appears, however, that no
one of them possessed claims to superiority over those shown at
former meetings so sufficiently marked as, in the opinion of. the
judges, to be entitled to the distinction of a prize.

Corn Mills —The silver medal was adjudged to Mr. Dean, of
Birmingham, for a French burt-stone hand-mill. The judges
state this article ‘‘to possess great superiority over the steel mills,
and will continue to do so. Wedo not consider any of the steel
mills worthy of notice.”

Mr. Cambridge, of Market Lavington, Wilts, produced some
mills of which ‘‘ the price was considered too high, and more
suitable for a baker or flour-dealer than a farmer.”

Bone Mills.—Two mills were exhibited by Mr. Dean, of Bir-
mingham, the one for breaking up bones to sizes suitable for
drilling; the other for grinding the produce of the preceding into
fine dust. The judges observe that these were the only mills for
the purpose in the show-yard, and were of “ fair quality.”

The attention of Mr. Dean and other manufacturers of strong
and powerful machines, may be usefully directed to the construc-
tion of small-sized bone-crushers. There is a prevailing sentiment
among agriculturists that the crushed bones of commerce are not
unfrequently mixed with ingredients of no value, and that home
collecting and crushing would save them from imposition. A very
simple machine might also be made for reducing guano (some
cargoes of which contain a considerable proportion of very hard
nodules) to a fine state of pulverulence. It is a burden on the
honest merchant to have to send this substance to a mill to be

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 385

prepared for agricultural use; and the writer conceives that it
would greatly diminish the chance of fraudulent tampering with
this valuable manure, if it were purchased by agriculturists as
delivered from the ship, and reduced for use at home. It opens
another source of employment for the productions of the implement-
maker.

A very simple and cheap hand bone-breaking machine was pro-
duced by Mr. Robert Fry, exhibited in the collection of Mr.
Richard Stratton, of Bristol, for which an award of 2/. was made.
The preceding remarks, in respect both of bones and guano, apply
equally to this simple machine and to its inventor.

Churns.—Of the variety of these dairy implements presented
for competition, the judges selected one exhibited and constructed
by Mr. David Harkes, of Mere, near Knutsford, as well deserving
encouragement, and for which they gave the Society’s prize of 51.
It is the invention of Mr. George Brown, of Capesthorne, in the
same neighbourhood. The judges report that “ it has a double
rotation of dashers, one set revolving within the other, and con-
sequently operating more powerfully in producing butter.”

Cheese Pressers——A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Stratton,
of Bristol, the exhibitor of a lever cheese-press, invented by W. J.
Gingell, of Bristol. Of this implement the judges remark that
“it is recommended by its simplicity and durability, and that it
is within the power of a female to work it.”

Steam- Engines. — There were four steam-engines exhibited.
The judges made use of one manufactured by Mr, Cambridge,
and of another by Mr. Dean, in the prosecution of their trials.
Of the former they observe ‘that it worked well, was simple in
construction, and being the best of the lot they awarded for it a
prize of 5/.” They, however, give it as their opinion that “it would
consume twice as much fuel per hour or per day as that represented
by the maker.”

Of Mr. Dean’s engine the judges observe, “that it proved to
be inefficient and dangerous in the extreme ; they thought it a toy,
and not useful to agriculturists.” They further express their hope
“that the Society will offer a prize of such importance for steam-
engines, as to bring out something better than appeared in the
show-yard at Southampton, now that they are of such acknowledged
use to agriculturists.”

The writer may observe that he did not witness the working of
any steam-engines, and is, therefore, disqualified from expressing
an opinion on the subject of their merits.

Horse Engines and Machinery.—An entirely novel combination
of a horse-engine and machinery, constructed and exhibited by
Messrs. Ransome, obtained trom the judges an award of 301., being
the highest sum they could afford out of the amount allotted by

386 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

the Society. The judges considered this compact arrangement of
barn machines in connexion with a horse-engine to be of great value
to the agriculturist, as bringing the means of working the principal
implements of which he has need in that department, within the
space of a horse-track. In the compass of a very moderate sized
cast-iron framing lies the apparatus for communicating motion,
either separately or at the same time, to a chaff-engine, corn-
bruising or splitting-mill, &c., which are fixed upon the framing.
A shaft also is connected with it for giving motion to a threshing,
or other machine, at more distant parts. The writer’s presence
was requested by the judges to examine the arrangement and exe-
cution of this apparatus, and he concurs in their statement that it
was got up in the best style of workmanship, and does the Messrs.
Ransome great credit as engineers.” The judges further “ express
a hope that the prize given in this case may stimulate engineers
and implement-makers to bring out first-rate machines.” This
award, as previously observed, includes the prize assigned to
Messrs. Ransome for their corn and seed-crusher.

The writer has to add, as he conceives it to be his duty to do,
that an erroneous impression was made on the minds of some per-
sons respecting the practical value of this machine, from the cir-
cumstance of the mills being planted in the centre of the horses’
track. For the purpose of exhibition and trial in the Society’s
show-yard, it was necessary that it should be erected in that form.
In practice the frame and machines would be placed on the first
floor of a building, as most convenient for such uses, and the horses
would work below. The judges and the writer would condemn
as most inconvenient and unsightly, the conveyance of materials to
be cut, bruised, or ground within a horse track.

Several travelling horse-engines were experimented upon. ‘The
preference, with high commendation, is given to a set constructed
by Mr. Clyburn, and exhibited by the Earl of Ducie. An over-
head machine by Mr. Thomas Reeves, of Droxford, Hants, is stated
to have been “very unsteady, and not firm enough in its work.”
The general observations by the judges on these machines are
“that they are more condensed in space than heretofore, and
placed on lower wheels, so as to work without the trouble of re-
moving them; but that the greater majority are of too light a
construction to be consistent with durability. Some makers haye
introduced the screw (worm) in place of the first or horse-wheel
pinion, which we directly condemn.”

Fire Engines.—The collection of fire and garden-engines ex-
hibited by Mr. Read, of 35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly, is pronounced
by the judges to be “superior to any other; the valves of the
fire-engines are so constructed that failure is impossible, and a
premium of 5/. was awarded for the fire-engines. They are

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844 387

highly recommended to the notice of the public, both as fire and
garden-engines.””

The writer can safely give his testimony to the same facts. The
fire-engine referred to will pass through any door of a mansion ;
and Mr. Read has applied so simple a method of increasing the
number of persons who can act at one time upon the engine, that,
as he observes, ‘‘ a whole brigade of fire-men and women can be
rendered serviceable in a moment of urgency.”

Water-lifting Engines.—A very well arranged and well made
engine for drawing water out of deep wells, was exhibited by the
manufacturers, Messrs. Tasker and Fowle, of Andover, Hants,
to whom the judges awarded the silver medal. The whole of the
maehinery is of iron: two buckets are used, the one ascending
whilst the other descends; and it appeared to the writer to be a
very safe and effective hydraulic machine.

Weighing-Machines.—A premium of 5l. was adjudged to Mr.
H. G. James, of 44, Fish-street Hill, London, for his weighing-
machine adapted to all the purposes of a farm. The judges on
this occasion confirmed the opinion of those at Derby, that “the
principle on which these machines are made must be correct.”
They cannot be too much extolled for agricultural use, whether
for weighing oxen, carriage loads, or smaller articles. They have
already come into extensive employ on railways and in warehouses.

Tron-fencing, Cow-cribs, §c.—Under these heads there was not
such great competition asat Derby. The judges again considered
Mr. Edward Hill, of the Brierly Hill Iron Works, near Dudley,
to eclipse all his rivals in the neatness and efficiency of the various
articles exhibited by him. They particularly cite the “marked
advantage arising from his method of joining the lengths, giving
great strength over other methods heretofore practised.’’ They
awarded to Mr. Hill the silver medal for his sheep-fences, and 21.
for his wrought-iron cow-crib.

Mr. Crosskill’s pig-troughs and dog and sheep troughs were
commended.

Harness and Gearing.—Of these items to which the Society
had called attention, the judges remark : ‘The only improvement
in harness is a back-band and tugs exhibited and manufactured
by Mr. James Pearce, of Andover, Hants, to whom a silver
medal was awarded. It will accommodate itself to the size of an
shaft, is light, neat, and durable, and the back-band is readily de-
tached in case of accident.”

Stack-stand.—The silver medal was adjudged to Mr. Garrett,
of Saxmundham, for a stack-stand of wrought iron invented bh
J. Springall of Ipswich. It was considered by the judges to he
“by far the best article of the kind in the exhibition.”

Screw-spanners.— A silver medal was thought due to Mr.

VOL. V. 2D

388 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

Richard Clyburn for his adjusting spanners, or wrenches, ex-
hibited by the Earl of Ducie. These will be found very useful
both in the workshops and for all agricultural uses; they are
much more convenient than the common monkey spanner.

Trefoil and Clover-seed Drawing Machine.—Messrs. Joseph
Hall and Co., of Cambridge, exhibited the only machine for this
purpose. ‘The judges observe that “it proved on trial a good
implement, and we awarded for it a premium of 5/., although its
price is considerable.”

Hop and Malt Kiln.—A model of an ingenious though some-
what complicated kiln for drying malt and hops, by Mr. S. J.
Knight, of Maidstone, met the approbation of the judges; and as
an encouragement to induce parties to a consideration of the best
principles on which kilns for these purposes can be constructed,
they awarded him a prize of 51.

Potato- Washers and Steamers.—Mr. Crosskill’s and Mr. Rich-
mond’s potato-washing apparatus are both commended by the
judges; and Mr. Richmond’s steaming apparatus as “simple,
cheap, and safe.”

Haymaking Machines.—F ive of these machines were examined
by the judges, and two of them commended “as working exceed-
ingly well ;” the one being manufactured by Mrs. Mary Wedlake,
of Hornchurch; and the other by Messrs. R. Wedlake and C.
Thompson, of Romford, Essex.

Rick Ventilators —The now well-known rick ventilator invented
by Mr. John Gillett, of Brailes, near Shipston-on-Stour, and re-
warded at the Derby meeting, is reported by the judges “to con-
tinue to merit the strongest commendation.”

There are several other meritorious articles of minor im-
port, well spoken of by the judges of the Miscellaneous depart-
ment; but the writer finds they have to complain of the non-
attendance of some of the exhibitors of these productions when
called upon. Also, that others have tried to evade the scrutiny
of the judges, by keeping their articles unpacked until after the
judges have completed their investigation. It may be of use to
state here, that in either of these cases, on a representation being
made by the judges to the stewards, unpacked or unrepresented
articles will be instantly expelled from the show-yard.

Drain-Tile Machines.— The mechanical appearance of the
show derived no inconsiderable lustre on this occasion from the
number of drain-tile machines exhibited in competition for the
Society’s prize, enhanced as it was by the general desire of land-
owners and farmers to become acquainted with the best and
cheapest machine for preparing tiles for so essential and costly an
operation as drainage. ‘Thirteen machines were produced, being
exhibited by seven proprietors: of these, four machines are re-

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 389

ported upon by the judges of the department, three of which were
worked by hand, and one by horse-power. It appears that the
other nine “were not prepared for trial,” and one of the four be-
ing “in an unfinished state,” our attention is confined, as was the
case with the judges, to the performance of three of them. Of
these, two are catalogued as the invention of Mr. F. W. Etheredge,
of 11, Furnival’s Inn, London, and manufactured by Messrs. Ran-
some; and the third as the invention of Mr. H. Clayton, of 21,
Upper Park Place, Dorset Square, London, manufactured by
himself.

The judges first noticed the performance of Mr. Etheredge’s
horse-machine, of which a pretty full account is given in the
‘ Report on Drain-Tiles and Drainage* (Journal, vol. iv. p. 370).
It appears that during six minutes—the duration of the trial—96
tiles of different shapes and denominations were produced, ave-
raging 163 inches long=16 articles per minute, or 960 per hour.
Among these articles no pipes are mentioned.

Secondly, we have the performance of a very recently-invented
hand-tile machine, by Mr. Etheredge, which produced during five
minutes 67 articles 134 inches long, of which 33 were full inch-
bore pipes, and 17 tiles with soles, and double tiles =13,4, articles
per minute, or 804 per hour.

Thirdly, Mr. Clayton’s performance is stated to have been,
during five minutes, 43 pipe-tiles of various lengths, “‘ not so
sound as the last, and, being of irregular lengths, not fit to set in a
kiln.” This performance equals 8,°; pipes per minute, or 516 per
hour: but the clay was in too moist a state for Mr. Clayton’s ma-
chine, and only one-third of the time mentioned was applied to
the actual making of tiles.

The judges further observe, that “all the machines were sup-
plied with clay from the same heap, and the exhibitors made
tiles in any way they pleased.” “ We considered the hand-
machine (Mr. Etheredge’s) would be most generally useful ; that
it made better tiles than the horse-machine, or than Mr. Clayton’s,
and was the only hand-machine which made tiles that would
stand well in the kiln.”

In conformity with the discoveries resulting from these trials, the
judges awarded the Society's prize of 20/. and the silver medal to
Messrs. Ransome as the exhibitors of Mr. Etheredge’s implement.

It is the writer’s duty to throw such light as his knowledge may
enable him to do on points which seem to have escaped the judges’
observation, or not to have been illustrated by them. The con-
ditions of the Society’s offered prize, required that ‘the price at
which tiles or pipes have been sold, be taken into consideration.”
Of this no mention is made by the judges.

The writer has ascertained that at the period of the South-

2p 2

390 Report on the Exhibition of Implements

ampton Show seventeen of Mr. Clayton’s machines were in work
at the establishments of different gentlemen; and at the works of
Messrs. J. and W. Squire, of Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, inch bore
drain-pipes, produced by Mr. Clayton’s machine, were there selling
at the rate of 12s. per thousand, 12 inches long, their prices rising
through intermediate sizes to 18s. per thousand for pipes 24 inches
diameter. ‘This fact will be very gratifying to the Society, when
it is recollected that not more than eighteen months have elapsed
since the publication in their Journal (vol. iv. p. 45) that the price
of inch-bore pipes was from 20s. to 22s. per thousand, being then
about the half of the average selling-price of the more common
tile and sole; so that, at the present moment, small pipes are pro-
curable from Mr. Clayton’s machines at one-third or one-fourth of
the cost of the ancient description of draining tiles.

With the selling price of the articles produced by Mr. Etheredge’s
machine the writer is unacquainted, or he would gladly have
availed himself of this opportunity of stating it to the Society.
He has neither seen the prize machine at work, nor been able to
satisfy inquirers as to the actual number of articles produced by it
in a given time, or their selling price at any establishment.

The reduction inthe selling price of pipe or other tiles has neces-
sarily arisen from a diminution in the cost of production, The
little Kentish machine (described in Journal, vol. iv. p. 373) could
not make more in ten hours than 1000 or 1200 inch-pipes. Mr.
Clayton’s machine, as exhibited at Southampton, has regularly
produced in the same time, to the writer’s knowledge, 15,000,
= 1500 per hour; and by a more recent improvement in the dies,
it is made capable of throwing off 25,000 feet of pipe per diem.
But this increased faculty of production is not of such great im-
portance, in the estimation of the employers of this machine, as
another improvement introduced by Mr. Clayton, and engrafted
on it; viz., the means of clearing from the raw clay all stones,
roots, or other matter which would impede its conversion into pipes
or other desired forms. It was the only tile-machine in the show-
yard furnished with a process of the kind. This process has been
represented to the writer by several of its employers—and is fully
believed by him, from his own observation—to be superior both
to pugging and washing, as well as cheaper, in the preparation
and tempering of a variety of clays; and the wintering of many
kinds of clay is no longer deemed by them to be essential to carry
on the summer work of a tilery. At the period of the Southampton
meeting six of the seventeen machines already referred to were at
work without pug-mills. Since that time several others have been
put into active operation where pug-mills do not exist. ‘The pug-
mill and horse have also been abandoned by parties who continued

at the Southampton Meeting, 1844. 391

their use, at first, from an uncertainty as to the powers of Mr.
Clayton’s preparing process as a substitute.

Since the meeting Mr. Clayton has devised an apparatus of a
very simple and cheap nature, by which drain pipes and tiles are
brought to an exactly uniform length before setting them in the
kiln, and another for socketing pipes for house-drains.

JosiaH PARKES.

JUDGES.
T. P. Outhwaite, Bainesse, Catterick, York- rege subsoil-pulverizers,
shire clod-crushers, scarifiers,
William Heseltine, Worlaby House, Barton, harrows, horse-hoes, drill-
Lincolnshire pressers.
Chas. Clark, Aisthorpe, near Lincoln Barn-machinery of all kinds,
Bryan Millington, Asgarby, near Sleaford, dairy implements, miscel-
Lincolnshire laneous.
Tsaac Everett, Capel St. Mary’s, near Ips- } Drills, carts and waggons,
wich - hay-making machines, tile-
Charles Burness, Park Farm, Woburn machines.

X1X.—On the Allotment System. By Sir Henry E. Bunsury,
Bart.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq.

Sir,—I Feet myself honoured by the request that I should
communicate, for the information of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the results of my practice in letting small
portions of land to farm-labourers.

I began about 28 years ago in a little way, having at that time
but little land at my disposal. My earliest trials. with mere
gardens, soon showed me that, while the condition of the cotta-
gers’ families was in some degree improved, the men, to whom
these patches of ground were allotted, became more domestic and
moral in their habits.

Encouraged by these essays, I enlarged my plans gradually as
my means of disposing of land for this purpose became more
-ample. And a long experience and earnest attention to the
subject have fully satisfied me that the letting of land to labourers
on fair terms, and under proper regulations and superintendence,
is productive of the most beneficial effects. I do not speak of its
effects on the physical condition of the labourers only, but at the
same time of the benefits resulting to the landowners, the farm-
tenant, and the community at large.

I must beg leave to guard myself against being suspected of
believing an allotment to be a panacea for all the ills and diffi-

392° On the Allotment System.

culties which beset the present condition of our labourers;:but it
is one of the most effectual and most ready means of improving
that condition.

I found a difficulty at first in persuading my tenants to give up
small portions of their respective farms to form my allotments ;
they were prejudiced against the plan, suspicious-and fearful of
its effects. Some of their considerations they probably did not
impart to me; those which they urged appeared to me to be
groundless, or of little weight. At the end of more than twenty
years I have the great satisfaction of finding my tenants convinced
-of the good effects resulting from the practice, and willingly co-
operating with me in carrying it on. [ have now introduced a
clause into my agreements with tenants, that if small portions of
their respective farms should be wanted for cottages or allotments
(not exceeding half an acre for each labourer), such portions
may be taken, and allowance made according to valuation, in the
same manner as had been stipulated before with regard to land
required for planting.

In allotting land to labourers I have begun with assigning a
small portion to each man; frequently less than 1 rood, though
sometimes more. Mathematical precision in allotting one rec-
tangle of 40 poles, neither more nor less, has always appeared to
me objectionable. One man, with sturdy children, can manage
half an acre with more ease than his next neighbour, with a puny
family, can work 20 poles. I took my pieces of land, such as
they might be, as opportunities offered. The nearer a piece
might lie to the cottager the more advantageous it was to him;
but in some instances I have been obliged to assign land lymg
at a distance of half a mile from the man’s dwelling; yet he has
eagerly hired it, and I have reason to know that they have derived
much profit from it. However, the nearer at hand the ground
lies, the better both for the labourer and his employer.

When I have found that the allotment-man did justice to his
land, and possessed a pig or two to produce manure, I have taken
any opportunity that presented itself to increase his portion; for
experience has shown me that a good labourer, with the help of
his family, can very well cultivate half an acre without its inter-
fering with his constant employment on a farm. But it must be
borne in mind that a considerable proportion of our labourers
cannot obtain constant employment on the farms in this quarter
of England: many men are thrown out of work during three or
four months in the year; and the inferior hands during six or
seven. I do not run out of the record to discuss the question
whether more constant and profitable employment might not be
devised, but I see that, taking the case as it stands at present, to
such men half an acre of land, on which they can work with a

On the Allotment System. 393

certain return of profit, is of the greatest value. There are also
in every village some men, such as thatchers, bricklayers, pig-
jobbers, &c., who have much leisure time at their command, and
can manage from half an acre to an acre with great advantage.
But, on the whole, I consider half an acre to be the best average ;
and I believe that the labourer’s net profit on this quantity of
land may be rated at from 3/. 10s. to 5/. a-year. But as one of
them said to me, “I cannot tell you, sir, what my land is worth
to me in money: it helps usin so many ways; a bit here and a
bit there. It helps the children, and it feeds the pigs and the
fowls. It is the best thing that ever was done for a poor man.”
I may add to his calculation of benefits the moral good resulting
from its keeping his children employed, instead of their idling
about the parish, and acquiring vicious habits. They are brought
up in indusiry, and learn its advantages in their early days.

The soil of most of my allotments in this parish is a strong
clay, with a marly subsoil. The spade is used on all; but I do
not insist on its being used exclusively, because I wish to leave
an opening for a farmer to do an act of kindness occasionally to a
good labourer, by ploughing his land for him, and thus to gene-
rate or improve kindly feelings towards his employers.

At first the allotment-men thought of nothing but wheat and
potatoes. But they came to find that the potato-crop, and con-
stant digging and rich manure, loosened the soil too much for
their wheat. It was apt to become root-fallen. They now grow
various things ; and particularly a proportion of beans, which they
find to answer well for their pigs, and to render the ground firmer
for their wheat. The produce of the latter per rood is very great:
I haye seen their crops in many instances yield at the rate of 6,
and, in one instance, at the rate of 7 quarters an acre.

The number of pigs kept in the parish is now very great; and
in consequence most of the families use some animal food.

Many of the inferior hands, when not required by the farmers,
obtain occasional employment in digging on the larger allotments.

The rents which | charge for these cottage-lands may be ave-
raged at nearly 2d. a rod, tithe-free. I pay the parish-rates if the
allotment does not exceed an acre. In three instances I have let
as much as 4 acres each to labourers who had saved money.
These men work no longer on farms; but they maintain their
families comfortably, and their lands are kept in a very good con-
dition. I may mention, by the bye, a remarkable fact, that the
population of this parish increased rapidly in the twenty years pre-
ceding my residence here ; while in the last twenty it has advanced
very little; nay, in the last ten it has actually decreased. I am
willing to attribute this singular circumstance partly to the opera-
tion of “the prudential check.”

394 Trials of Artificial Manures.

The rents are paid annually, on Michaelmas-day. They never
fall into arrear; for the people are too anxious to retain their
allotments, which would be forfeited if they neglected to make
their payments without permission. In twenty years I have found
occasion only once to deprive a man of his land on account of
crime ; and in one other instance, on account of neglect in the
cultivation.

I beg leave to state that it will be found essential, especially in
populous neighbourhoods, to make it a stringent article in the
regulation of allotments, that no portion should be under-let, or
transferred in any way to another person without leave from the
landlord. Immediate forfeiture should be the penalty of such a
‘proceeding.

Believe me, Sir,
Your very faithful servant,
Henry Epwarp Bunsury.

Barton, Dec. 1, 1844.

XX.— Trial of several Artificial Manures. By Wivutam
Mites, Esq., M-P.

‘My pear Pusey,

Ir has often struck me when reading in the Journal the accounts
of experiments made with different kinds of manures, that for the
anformation of tenants on small holdings our trials have never
been-sufficiently carried out; for if the manures lately brought
into use are to be of general benefit to the farming community,
it appears necessary to place their merits in so intelligible a light
‘before the farmer of small capital that he may at a glance per-
ceive that their original cost will be amply compensated by the
beneficial results which will follow their use; that their effects
are not transient, and confined solely to the first crop to which
they may be applied, but are fully appreciable in that which may
succeed. The common farm-yard manure, could we only raise
a sufficiency, would be adequate to all our wants; but taking into
consideration the little care that is used to preserve its fertilizing
properties from evaporation, and the few tanks which are yet
placed in the yards to collect the drainings from the dung-heap,
it appears to me impossible ever to obtain a sufficiency from this
source to enable us to raise the fertility of the soil to that point
which may enable us to cope with the moderate prices which we
have obtained for our produce of late; added to which that
seasons might occur like the present, when, ‘from the almost uni-
versal deficiency of the grass crops, the necessity arises of con-

Trials of Artificial Manures. 395

suming for food the straw which at other times would be used
for litter.

Urged by these considerations, I determined in the year 1843
to try a certain number of those artificial manures most generally
in use against the common farm-yard manure, with the view of
ascertaining the beneficial effects resulting from their application,
both to the turnip and the succeeding wheat crop. The results
of these experiments I now venture to lay before the public; but
from the peculiarity of the present season, beg particular attention
to the previous treatment of the land on which these experiments
were tried, as it is necessary to consider how much of the pro-
ductiveness of the wheat was attributable to the effect of the
manures, and what to the greater depth of soil obtained by subsoil
ploughing. This is a preliminary suggestion which I think it
right to make, as it is not my intention to reason upon the results,
sufficiently satisfactory in a pecuniary light to myself, but to
leave the scientific or practical man to draw his own inferences
from the facts now submitted. The field was a good loamy soil.
In the year 184], preparatory to the wheat crop, 10 bushels of
bones had been sown on the clover-ley previously to ploughing.
In the year 1842, after the wheat crop had been harvested, the
subsoil plough was used, and the land stirred to the depth of 14
inches: such was its condition when, after having got it mto good
turnip tilth, and having accurately marked out 6 acres, to

No. I. was applied 40 bushels of Daniel’s manure marked B,
sown broadcast and ploughed in previously to ridging up, in addi-
tion to which 12 bushels marked A were drilled in before the
seed, so.as not to come in immediate contact with it.

No. IT., 10 tons of farm-yard dung, mixed with 30 bushels of
Daniel’s B manure one month before using.

No. III., 20 tons of farm-yard dung.

No. IV., 20 bushels half-inch bones, drilled in before the
seed.

No. V., 3 ewt. of guano, mixed with 15 bushels of screened
Newport coal-ashes, and drilled in before the seed.

No. VI., Stott’s salts, 24 bushels, mixed with 11 bushels of
screened Newport coal-ashes, and drilled in before the seed.

Skriving’s improved Swede was the seed drilled in on the 18th
of May: the plants came up well, and during their growth were
not affected by fly or any other disease ; they were pulled, topped,
tailed, and weighed on the Ist of December—the weights per
acre willbe seen in the subjoined table. The ground was soon
after ploughed, and on the 24th of February Bellevue Talavera
wheat was drilled in, which came up very well. On the 27th of
April I find by a note that the wire-worm.attacked the wheats in
Nos. 4, 5, and 6, more than that in any other part of the field;

396 Trials of Artificial Manures.

but still, thanks to the rooks and heavy rolling, plenty of plant
was left. The wheat, until it came into ear, notwithstanding the
drought, which in this part of the country was uninterrupted,
looked admirably. When however it had attained that condition
it fell away, and apparently withered from sheer lack of moisture ;
nor did I conceive that it would average above 18 bushels per
acre. It was cut with scythes on the 10th of August, and was
housed on the 20th—for the results I must refer to the subjoined
table, in which, in addition, I have given the cost of manures, the
proceeds derived from each of the crops, and the gross and net
amount, after deducting the cost of manure, derived to me from
the experiment. The rent paid for the land, tithe free, is 50s.
per acre.

The effect of these different manures upon the growth of tur-
nips, taking the greatest and smallest produce, and comparing
them, is this :—

No. Tons. Cwt. No
5 produced . . . 7 10 more than . ey. |
Brak Ti) cin i’, Petes 1 Gas ae le. .: -eteeo
RNS Mager sig rear Wane 1 eile a ae
Bee y tee ee ee .) Se
Geer ee atta) hs See Aron a oe ee

The relative efficiency of the manures, however, undergoes a
most extraordinary change as far as the growth of wheat is con-
cerned ; for adding the head and tail corn together produced on
each acre, and testing their relative produce as we did the last,
we find the following to be the result :—

No. Bush. Pecks. No.
2<produced’. . . J» -Qomore than <.oee
1 $5 by nas sis Gale as oi tah eae
5 =e aes aipoty Ne ai +1 ae
4 a 5 ies GW) i ere
6 fh x fo be OF @ 3 ;| [oc

Now, after guano, which upon the two crops gives the greatest
profit to the farmer, it will be observed that the mixture of dung
and Daniel’s manure stands second. I had never given this com-
post previously a fair trial, but had in various ways, and with
different quantities, unsuccessfully applied Daniel’s manure by
itself.

The result, however, of this experiment, conducted for two
years, leads me to infer that this manure, when properly mixed
with farm-yard dung, will be most advantageous, saving much
expense in leading, and giving at any rate an equal profit—in this
case a considerably larger one than would be derived to the
farmer by the application of double the quantity of dung un-
mixed ; and indeed in this view | am corroborated by a commu-

397

Trials of Artificial Manures.

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398 Trials of Artificial Manures.

nication made by Sir William Heathcote, and published in our
last number, of experiments instituted by him on the wheat crop
of 1843 with different kinds of manure, in which I find that a
mixture of 10 tons of dung and 25 bushels of Daniel’s B manure
yielded the greatest quantity of wheat, next to a mixture of dung
and guano. ‘The trial was made with nine different manures—
dung and guano producing 353 bushels, and dung and Daniel
35 bushels per acre. And although Mr. Fowlie, Sir William
Heathcote’s bailiff, is not willing to admit that Daniel’s manure
was of any use in contributing to this growth, attributing the pro-
duction to the use of the dung; yet, where dung was applied
alone, and precisely in the same quantities as was used by me,
324 bushels was the crop. Mr. Fowlie likewise states, “ that
although dung has in this instance been secondary, he was inclined
to believe that this is entirely owing to the season, the wet May
and June having caused the wheat to be too luxuriant;” whilst
I, if tempted to make a remark upon the failure of dung in my
experiment, should infallibly ascribe it to the dryness of the season
and to the heating qualities of the dung still remaining in the soil,
from the application of a large quantity.

Of the efficiency of guano nothing need be said—this is but
one of the very numerous instances in which its use has been
proved most beneficial, and such as to justify the immense impor-
tation now taking place for farming purposes. I had never, how-
ever, previously tested its effects the second year: for its value I
must refer to the concluding column of the table.

The Swede turnips, which were all carried from the land, I have
valued at 10s. a ton; the wheat at what I sold it for, viz., 5s. 9d.
per bushel; the tail at 4s. per bushel. I have set no value
whatever on the straw.

Believe me,
Sincerely yours,
W. Mitgs.
Kingsweston, November 13th, 1844.

XXI.—Some Account of the Process of Warping. By

Ravtpeu Crevke.

Tne public attention having been of late years more particularly
called to improyements in agriculture, and the different methods
of rendering waste lands cultivable, I think that perhaps a short
description of improvements, though of themselves of a local na-
ture, and from circumstances not available out of a certain district,
may be deemed acceptable to the public in general ; and I have
been requested by some of my friends to give a short description,

Process of Warping. 399

more of a practical than of a theoretical nature, of the system
of warping, and I am tempted to do so solely from the circum-
stance, that I am desirous, by a description of the improvement,
of giving due credit and respect to one to whom the country was
so much indebted for his enlightened views on the subject, and
also for carrying out those improvements which have made rich,
and brought into cultivation, a large tract of land which was ori-
ginally of a totally uncultivable nature.

‘There are considerable tracts of land on both sides of the rivers
Ouse and Trent (forming at their junction the estuary called the
Humber), and the tributaries the Air and Dutch river, all tide
rivers, which from their low level would be subject to be flooded
by these rivers at high-water, were they not contained within their
present beds by banks. Science seems more particularly to
have had an advantage over literature in the present instance, for
while the banks, works of great labour and skill, remain, history
seems particularly dark on the subject of by whom, and when
they were made; they must have been made at the same period,
and must have been the work of great labour, being of immense
size and strength, many thousand acres of fine alluvial soil having
been preserved from the action of the tide.

Considerable improvements were made in later days, during
the reign of Charles the First, by a company of Dutchmen under
Sir Cornelius Vermuyden (and a few Frenchmen), calling them-
selyes “ Participants,” who contracted with the Crown to drain
certain lands south of Thorne and in the parishes of Epworth,
Crowle, &c., containing about 75,000 acres, receiving for their
labour and expense one-third of the land so drained, the Crown
reserving for itself one-third, the remaining third being divided
amongst the commoners of the district. They amongst their nu-
merous works widened the river Dunn, and turned its course by
cutting a new river, called at present the Dutch river, flowing into
the river Ouse at Goole. The Dutch seem, by numerous law-
suits, and by a marked dislike of the inhabitants to those znnovators,
to have been finally driven out of the country, and their property
to have been taken from them (although there are many bearing
Dutch names living in the neighbourhood to this day). The
lands, however, originally allotted to the Participants, pay certain
rates to maintain the banks and works, and to keep the drainage
in proper order : this, however, only refers to the Dutch river,
showing its origin, and to lands far removed from the district
where the improvements I am desirous of describing have been,
and are still being, carried on.

About two miles from the banks of the river Ouse there is a
peat-moss containing about 10,000 acres, called Thorne Waste ;
this peat-moss is, I fancy, of the same construction as the gene-

400 Process of Warping.

rality of those which have been formed in parts of the country
remoyed from mountainous districts; its foundation is sand, on
which are the débris of a very fine forest of oak and pine, and
several fine yew-trees have been found, some in high preservation.
This forest was most probably laid prostrate at the time of the
Deluge, as the trees do not show the action of fire, and they are
mostly laid in the same direction, from south-west to north-east.
The peat itself is of a very spongy nature, not so much decom-
posed as the Irish peat; its greatest depth is near the centre,
where it measures about 18 feet.

In bygone days, when the rivers were not contained within
their present banks, they must have had a natural flow up to the
margin of this peat-moss, which at that period must have been
above the level of the tide at high water; but years and ages pass-
ing by, and drains having been cut through the cultivable land,
a considerable tract of this peat-moss became in a certain way
drained, and of a much lower level than it originally was, and con-
sequently proved capable of being covered by the tide-water from
the river Onse. This peat-moss was totally of an uncultivable
nature, being a perfect morass, and in many places dangerous to
approach : a considerable portion of this has been already warped.

The process of warping was first practised about eighty years
ago; it was commenced in a very small way, the sluices or cloughs
used then being merely what now would be called shuttles; and
the deposit at first was very small, from want of power consequent
on the works being so small; gradually, however, the benefit be-
came more generally known, and the works were made larger.
In 1821, Ralph Creyke, Esq. (having gained considerable expe-
rience in improving a certain quantity of his own land), entered
into an agreement with certain proprietors of land in the town-
ships of Goole, ‘Swinefleet, and Reedness, for the purpose of
warping their land. An Act of Parliament was obtained, and he
commenced excavating a large main drain to convey the tide-water
from the river Ouse, through the old cultivated land to the barren
and uncultivated morass about to be improved.

The sluice or clough was built of stone, with two openings of
16 feet each in width, and 19 feet in height from the sole to the
crown of the arch, with four substantial doors, made when shut to
oppose the entrance of the tide, yet with power at will to keep
them open for the admission of the tide during the time of warp-
ing, by means of strong staples and iron rods fixed in the stone-
work.

The main drain was very large, it having been proved by con-
tinued observation and calculation, that the area of a warping-drain
ought to be three times that of the sluice, to prevent as much as
possible any considerable resistance to the flow of the water ; its

Process of Warping. 401

dimensions were 30 feet wide at the bottom, 90 feet wide at the
surface of the land, and 113 deep; the banks were placed 9 feet
from the edge of the main drain, the base of each bank was 60
feet wide, and they were 10 feet high; this main drain extended
originally for near 3 miles, and cost, with the purchase of land
and erection of sluice, about 18,0002.

This main drain and its extension is now, and has been, used
as a canal for vessels of about 75 or 80 tons burthen, and has been
found very convenient for the purpose of conveying one of the
chief productions of the warp-land, namely, potatoes, to the Lon-
don market (where they command a high price under the name
of Yorkshire Reds), bringing in return manure, an immense
quantity of which is used in the cultivation of potatoes, and is
chiefly brought from Hull and London.

In commencing the warping of any plot of land, it is first en-
closed with banks, the size of which varies according to the quantity
of land to be warped, and also to the level of the land about to be
embanked ; the general batten or slope of the banks is from 15
to 18 inches on each side for every 12 inches’ perpendicular rise ;
they are left from 2 to 3 feet wide at the top. Particular care
must be taken in erecting the banks to procure the proper levels,
which should be taken by an experienced person, and laid out by
the spirit-level.

The main drain being cut up to the newly-embanked compart-
ment, the tide is suffered to flowin. At first it is very advisable
only to take rather small tides in, beginning to admit the water
before they are at their height, and allowing them to increase by
small degrees, for the banks being generally made of very porous
materials—that is, peat-moss and bad sand—they are subject to
leak very much, and in some instances considerable damage has
been done by a breakage of the bank. Soon after the com-
mencement of the works in question, a breakage of the main bank
incurred a loss of 1200/7. In case of a bank being rather exposed
to the action of the wind, which is one of the greatest enemies that
a warper can have to contend with, it is generally what is called
**puddled,” 7.e. a trench from 2 to 3 feet wide is cut longitudi-
nally through the centre of the bank into the foundation, the ma-
terial is chopped up and mixed with water, which being pressed
down and beat by repeated treading, becomes a solid mass.

The water is allowed to flow over the land during the spring-
tides. The reason why the spring-tides are only generally made
use of is, that the neap-tides are much smaller in body of water,
and although they might in certain instances be of sufficient height
to flow the land, yet as one of the greatest difficulties in warping
is to keep the main drains in order by preventing the warp from
being deposited in them, and as that is chiefly done by the return

402 Process of Warping.

of the water from the compartment under the process, which in
spring-tides being a larger body of water, scours out the drains,
in neap-tides there would not be sufficient flow, and they would
be warped up.

The water conducted by the main drain into the embanked
allotment is more or less divided into smaller ones, called “ in-
lets” (which vary. much in size), and conducted to different parts
of the compartment: for wherever the current, leaving a drain, ex-
pands itself, there the greatest quantity of warp is deposited: as
soon then as the plots of land next the mouth of the inlets have a
sufficient quantity of warp deposited, the inlets are extended by
what are called “call banks,” which, though much smaller than
the others, still conduct the current onward to parts not acted upon
by the currents before, and so on according as required. One of
the greatest niceties in warping is to have the land finished as
level as possible, which can only be done by the strictest atten-
tion, and by proper judgment in conducting the different currents,
which must not be suffered to cross one another, or to meet, as
in such a case the deposit of the warp is less, not so regular, and
of an inferior quality.

Care must also be taken that the currents should not be too
strong, for in warp there is a considerable portion of sand which,.-
being the most heavy of all the particles floating in the water,
sinks first, the lighter particles being carried on by the violence
of the current, consequently a sand-bed is formed. These sand-
beds, however, if covered afterwards with warp, generally are
found to crop better than warp which may be too strong. With
respect to the depth of warp deposited, it depends much upon the
level of the land to be warped; for, should the land be very irre-
gular, in some places there would be a great deposit, and in others
only comparatively a small one. It is generally advantageous to
have the land to be warped as level as possible. A deposit may
then be obtained of from 1 to 3 feet, and in some favourable
instances it has been considerably more, but it cannot be gene-
rally calculated on.

It has been frequently asked what quantity may be deposited
in a single tide. It was mentioned before that “ wherever the
current, leaving a drain, expands itself, there the greatest quantity
of warp is deposited :” consequently the water, though allowed to
flow over the whole of the compartment, deposits the warp in a
very irregular manner. In one spring, perhaps numbering 10 or
12 tides, as much as from 10 to 15 acres have been known to have
been warped the thickness of from 1 to 3 feet, and even some-
times more ; but the system being conducted entirely by currents,
the general deposit of a tide or of a spring cannot be given with
any certainty. It however sometimes is very great during a season,

Process of Warping. 403

In June, 1829, a compartment was commenced (a small one
only) of 160 acres, which was finished in January, 1830—a period
of only seven months. During that period a general deposit took
place of between | and 3 feet, but that was an extraordinary
season, and the compartment lay in a favourable situation for
being warped.

The time it takes to warp a compartment cannot be very accu-
rately defined, there being many circumstances to take into con-
sideration. Some of the compartments are much farther from
the mouth of the drain than others; in addition to which,
should the lands to be warped be very low, they can only take in
perhaps every second tide, and even sometimes only every fourth,
on account of the difficulty of getting the water back again, for the
tide continues to flow into the compartment until perhaps nearly
low water in the river. The tide then returning, as it does very
rapidly, prevents the water from flowing out of the drain, and
would fill the compartment too full of water: the doors are con-
sequently closed against the tide. They open themselves, how-
ever, when the water in the river is of a lower level than that in
the drain. When the compartment is near the river, that does not
occur, as the water has time to get off before the tide returns.
The seasons also vary very much; but I think, with the drain in
question, that with a fair average season, from 350 to 450 acres
might be warped in two years, or two years and a half.

The immense size of the drain, and its consequent great power,
facilitates very much the warping of land of a higher level than
that which could be warped bya small drain; for the current
being forced on by the great flow in the drain, can be made to
flow over the high ground by turning a drain towards it, provided
that there be sufficient land of a lower level on the other side to
draw onward the water so forced over the hill. The warp so
deposited is at first of an inferior quality, the current being so
strong; but in a short time the peat-moss becomes pressed down
by the weight of the deposit. The current is then easier, and the
deposit becomes better.

It may be asked, from whence comes this inexhaustible supply
of mud or warp? There is an immense quantity of it floating
about the Humber and its tributaries, and from whence it comes
people differ. There have been considerable ravages (and they
still continue) made by the sea on the coast of Holderness, ex-
tending all the way from Bridlington Quay to Spurn Point ; but

as the Humber is comparatively clear at the mouth, it is difficult
to say whether it can come from that source. It does not come
directly from land-floods, as these always deteriorate, for the time,
the deposit, although considerable deposit being carried down into
the Humber by land-floods, may return in the shape of warp,
FOL. V. 25

404 Process of Warping.

The most likely, in my mind, is that it arises from the action of
the tide on the immense and almost hidden beds of soil which
form the bottom of that large estuary the Humber. It appears,
however, that the warp is full of seeds of different sorts, more par-
ticularly the white clover, which it grows in great abundance, and
quite naturally. The quantity of warp in the water differs con-
siderably. There is more in the water during fine and dry
weather, and the deposit is greater when there is no wind.

It is highly advisable, if possible, to avoid finishing the warping
of a compartment during the very fine and hot weather of June
and July; for the tides are small at that period of the year, and
are apt to be strongly impregnated with saline particles, which,
being left in the warp, have a very injurious effect in retarding
vegetation.

The expense of warping cannot be laid down with any certainty,
as the different compartments vary so much. When the land to
be warped is very low, the banks require to be so much higher ;
and the internal works are very expensive, should the general sur-
face of the land be irregujlar. The main drain, which now extends
a long way (between 5 and 6 miles), requires a great deal of
attention, and consequent expense. The price paid under the
Act of Parliament was 21/. per acre for the twice warping, but it”
has been found quite low enough.

There is a great difference between the flow and the ebb of the
tide in the river Ouse and the neighbouring rivers, the flow
only taking three hours, consequently running with great rapidity,
and the ebb taking the remaining nine hours. The tides fre-
quently flow as much as from 18 to 22 feet.

There seem to be no parallel instances of any improvements of
the sort out of this district. Many and large tracts of land ad-
jacent to rivers are occasionally benefited by the deposit left by
land-floods, though small. The fertility of the lands adjoining
the Nile depends upon its periodical floods; and immense de-
posits are occasionally made, consequent to a breakage of the
banks of the Mississippi; but they are entirely from floods, and
not from the action of the tides.

The general benefit to the country cannot but be very apparent,
it having created a steady demand for labour throughout the whole
of the district where these improvements have been carried on.
Between 3000 and 4000 acres of land have been brought into a
state of cultivation; and where formerly was a morass may now
be seen the finest crops of wheat, clover, and potatoes. The ori-
ginal rent was in many instances nothing—now a rent is received
of from 35s. to 50s. per acre.

The most general course pursued in the cultivation of the newly-
warped land is to grip it every 4 or 5 yards, throwing the soil

Process of Warping. 405

taken out of the grips on to the land, amongst which, as soon as
it is tolerably dry (the season, of course, permitting), oats and
red and white clover, and rye-grass, are sown. The oats are not
expected to be a good crop: they are merely sown as a protection
for the seeds, as what is chiefly wanted is to have a good coating
of seeds. They are sometimes pastured, and would be better to
remain so for two years. They are then followed by wheat or
potatoes.

I have now stated, to the best of my knowledge, in a general
way, the method of warping. I will, in the next place, give a
short statement of the quantity of land that has been warped by
this individual drain.

An Act of Parliament was originally obtamed for the purpose
of warping about 1600 acres in the townships of Goole, Swinefleet,
and Reedness; and the drain was opened in 182]. These 1600
acres were divided into three compartments, and were all of them
warped once over before the end of 1826.

It was considered necessary to procure an Act of Parliament;
for although the parties were very desirous of the improvement,
yet there being some of it church property, some leasehold, and
some under trust for schools, it required the clauses of an Act of
Parliament strictly to define how and by whom the different pay-
ments were to be made. This Act gave power to the owners and
trustees of lands adjoining the aforesaid townships, by giving
certain notices, to avail themselves of certain of the clauses; and
by subsequent agreements a great deal more was added to the
original quantity.

The drain was extended along the edge of the peat-moss (which
was too high to allow the water to flow any distance up it) towards
the township of Eastoft, where a considerable tract of land was
warped—about 800 acres in quantity. About 500 acres were
warped in Witgift and Ousefleet; and about 250 in Crowle,
Yorkshire moors. In addition to these, about 450 acres have
been embanked this year in the townships of Haldenby, Fockerby,
and Adlingfleet, and are now under the process of being warped.
making in all—

1600 in Goole, Swinefleet, and Reedness.
800 ,, Eastoft.

500 ,, Witgift and Ousefleet.

250 ,, Crowle, Yorkshire moors.

450 ,, Haldenby, Fockerby, and Adlingfleet.

3600 acres.

2:2

( 406 )

XXII.—On the occurrence of Phosphorite in Estremadura. By
Cuartes Davuseny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry, &c., Oxford ; and Captain Wipprineron, R.N.,
Poe. F.G.S., &c., Ke.

[A paper read before the Geological Society on Feb. 17, 1844.]

Ir was generally believed in this country, on the concurrent tes-
timony of most standard writers on mineralogy, that an extensive
formation of phosphate of lime existed in certain parts of the
Spanish province of Estremadura.

Such an opinion was calculated to excite a lively interest, not
only in the minds of men of science, but likewise amongst prac-
tical agriculturists ; for whilst the former would speculate as to the
‘eauses which could have brought together so large a deposit of
a material, elsewhere found only in small crystals, except in con-
nexion with animal matter, and would feel curious to ascertain
whether the rock in which it occurred contained within itself any
evidences of the existence of organic life, which might account
for its formation, the latter would be desirous of learning whether
such a substance admitted of being employed in husbandry, as a
substitute for bone-earth now so extensively applied as a manure,
and if it did, what might be the facilities for procuring it, and the
means of its conveyance to the coast.

On inquiring into the sources from which the writers in ques-
tion had drawn their information with respect to the existence of
phosphorite in Spain, we soon became satisfied, that the preva-
lent notions on the subject might be traced altogether to some
communications relative to it, which had appeared in a Spanish
periodical, entitled ‘ Anales de Historia Natural,’ published at
Madrid about the commencement of the present century.

The first and most important of these is by the celebrated
chemist Proust, whose name would naturally pass in the world
of science as a guarantee for any statement which he might put
forth on his own authority.

His memoir, however, professes to be little more than the re-
print of one existing in a periodical now difficult of access, entitled
‘ Anales del real Laboratorio de Quimica de Segovia,’ which was
published so long ago as the year 1788, and had also been trans-
lated in the ‘ Journal de Physique’ of Paris for the same year.

Nevertheless the reinsertion of the article by the same chemist
in a journal of the year 1800, might be fairly regarded as an evi-
dence that its author was still persuaded with regard to its general
accuracy, *

* From information received more recently, and still more from an actual
visit to the place, we became convinced, that Proust’s speculations were
either founded on the early account by Bowles, or had been taken up

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 407

Proust begins by remarking, that the occurrence of phosphate of
lime, forming entire mountains in Spain, furnishes a proof, that
phosphoric acid is a substance not confined to the animal kingdom.

He then alludes to a notice, having reference to the same rock,
which had appeared in the work entitled ‘ Historia Natural de
Espana,’ by Bowles, in which we find the following passage :—

«From thence we proceed to Logrosan, a spot situated at the
foot of a range of hills which runs from east to west, and goes by
the name of the Mountains of Guadalupe. On leaving the said
place, we meet with a vein of phosphoric stone, which crosses the
Royal Road obliquely from north to south. This stone is of a
pale colour, without taste, and, when scattered over live coals,
emits a blue flame unattended with any smell.’’—(p. 60.)

It is remarkable, that this property of phosphorescing when
heated, which first attracted attention, and had caused it to be
commonly employed for that purpose in the neighbourhood to
amuse children, though no proof in itself of the presence of
phosphorus, being possessed by fluor-spar and many carbonates
of lime totally destitute of all admixture of phosphoric acid,
should have been the one which in the case before us led to the
suspicion of its true chemical composition, for Bowles, though he
speaks of the mineral as a phosphoric stone, seems to have affixed
this name to it solely from an observation of this one character,
and not from any further examination into its composition.

Though deficient however in this respect, the report given by
Bowles is much more correct in the geological information it
conveys, than the accounts which have subsequently appeared,
and if it had been duly attended to, would have prevented a
great deal of the misapprehension which has since prevailed as to
the abundance and physical position of the mineral. .

Indeed, it may be doubted, whether any one of the persons
who have written on this rock subsequently to Bowles, were at
Logrosan at all, their memoirs in general being mere paraphrases
of, and speculations on, the theme given in the short description
we have above translated.

After thus presenting us with the report of the mineral which
had been furnished him by Bowles, Proust proceeds to describe
in the first place its physical characters, and then the extraction of
phosphorus directly from it, which is done by exposing it to heat
in connexion with charcoal. There is also, in p. 138 of the same
volume, a statement of an analysis of this stone made by Pelletier
and Donadei, at Paris.

merely from an inspection of the specimens he had received from the spot,
which he had never himself seen. Owing to his reputation throughout
Europe as a first-rate practical chemist, more importance was attached to
his accounts than they really deserve.

408 | Phosphorite in Estremadura.

Proust then introduces a passage, which is probably the one
that has given rise to all the exaggerated statements handed on
from one writer to another respecting this mineral.

«The stone,” he says, “occurs, not in veins, but in entire
hills (collados enteros) in the vicinity of Logrosan, a village be-
longing to the jurisdiction of Truxillo, in the province of Estre-
madura. The houses and the walls which inclose the fields are
built of it.” To this however he appends a remark, which, by
showing that his preceding statement was based on hearsay evi-
dence only, ought to have suggested some caution as to the degree
of credit which deserved to be attached to it.

« But,” he says, “an actual inspection of the situation of these
‘mountains, of their elevation, and their form, of their base, and
the proportion they bear to those surrounding them, would have
been more to the purpose than any conjectures that might be
hazarded upon the subject. Not knowing, however, when I
might have opportunity or time to survey them in person, I can-
not at present undertake to give a more detailed account of their
extent.”

He then concludes with some speculations as to the origin of
the phosphoric acid contained in the mineral, which it seems un-
necessary here to repeat.

The second memoir in the same work relative to this stone is
by Don Christiano Heergen, but being confined to an account
of the external characters belonging to the mineral, it neither
corrects nor confirms the preceding statement regarding its extent
and geological relations.

Such then, so far as we have been able to ascertain, was the
amount of information to be derived from Spanish authorities,
that gave rise to those statements respecting this mineral which
have excited so much wonder and interest; and even at Madrid
so little was known as to the real nature of the formation in which
it occurs, that the first authority there, the head of the mining
department, and himself a very able man, informed us that it
constituted a vein (‘filon”’) in granite.

Hence all that we could learn respecting the rock in question
was only calculated, from its very vagueness, to stimulate our
curiosity, and to excite our imagination as to its real nature, and
thus to create in us a mutual desire to visit in person a spot
remarkable for the presence of so curious a substance. t

And as it was intimated to us, that several leading members of
the Royal English Agricultural Society entertained a wish to
learn how far the site of the mineral in question might be here-
after reckoned upon for furnishing our fields with phosphate of
lime, should other sources of its supply fall off, we flattered our-

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 409

selves that our researches might also prove of practical value,
even if they should terminate merely in setting at rest a question
which was exciting some interest at the time in quarters connected
with agriculture.

Mr. Pusey, the late active President of that Society, entered
warmly into our views, and through his kind intervention we
obtained from the Right Hon. the Earl of Aberdeen, her Ma-
jesty’s Secretary for Foreign Affairs, such letters as were calcu-
lated to afford us the requisite means of exploring this remote
and little visited province with comparative comfort and security.

We are also equally bound to acknowledge the unremitting
kindness and attention shown us during our stay in Spain, by our
late Minister at the Court of Madrid, Sir Arthur Aston, by the
Regent, and by the Spanish Government ; indeed, our obligations
are due to every individual, without exception, to whom we had
occasion to apply, either for assistance or information, with reference
to the object of our inquiries.

The phosphorite rock is correctly stated by Mr. Bowles to be situated
at a short distance from Logrosan, which is a considerable village about
seven Spanish leagues to the south-east of the town of Truxillo, in
Estremadura. ;

It lies in that extensive clay-slate formation, which, with occasional
masses of quartzite, constitutes the fundamental rock over a large portion
of the country, from the time of our quitting the flat table-land of ter-
tiary origin, which occupies the greater part of both the Castiles, till we
descend the south-east escarpment of the Sierra Morena, and enter upon
the plain of Andalusia.

We first met with rocks, which may perhaps be referable to this for-
mation, near the village of Calzada de Oropesa, south of Talavera de la
Reyna, and were led to conjecture that a change had taken place in the
character of the substratum by the appearance of the country itself,
which had become more rocky, more diversified, and, at the same time,
somewhat better clothed with wood* than before.

In the steep ravine through which the Tagus flows, near to the broken
bridge of Almaraz, the rocks are observed to consist of a dark blue slate,
and to be disposed in nearly vertical strata.

On ascending from thence to the Puerto de Miravete, the culminating
point of this formation, such a bird’s-eye view is obtained of the sub-
jacent country to the south of us, as, by causing its minor inequalities of
surface to disappear in the distance, is best calculated to convey to us a
just general notion of its external configuration.

We perceive extending before us, so far as the eye can reach, a vast
table-land, comparatively speaking, level; but on the one hand dotted
over at intervals with certain isolated and generally conical knolls, and
on the other intersected by low ridges with flattened summits, rising to
the height of 300 ft. or 400 ft. above the general level of the plain.

* Covered, however, chiefly by dwarf shrubs, amongst which the Cistus
ladaniferus predominated.

410 Phosphorite in Estremadura.

Of the former, the few which we either visited, or could obtain infor-
mation concerning, seemed to consist of granite, which would appear to
have forced its way through the midst of the slates in several places,
but not, as represented in the map of the French geologist, Le Play,* to
constitute a continuous stratum over the country in which it at intervals
is seen protruding.

Thus granite forms the hill on which the old town of Truxillo is built,
and extends for about a league into the plain on the road towards Lo-
grosan, where it disappears under slates. The latter continue as far as
a village distant about three leagues from Truxillo, which is built on
granite.

We again find ourselves on this rock for about a mile, when it gives
place to slates, which maintain their ground until we approach Logrosan.
To the south of that village the granite a third time makes its appear-
ance in a hill which rises to the height of 400 or 500ft.; but, with this
one exception, the whole of the undulating surface of country which
' occurs round the town, and from thence to the Monastery of Guadalupe,
consists either of clay-slate or of quartzite.

*
Ea
A
t ty
s >. 28
a = o & Qs .
< iD pz 2
‘fe o S 5 Ss 3
o — Ej oa a = s x
= = > = ms ges
= & E} 8 ES ss =
aS eS SS No £ &
= = 5 =| uw, or =
B & i=} J -~ —— RS] gy
: . = *
: : 1
: : :

Section from Truxillo to Logrosan 7 Spanish leagues.

The granite is often so much acted upon by the weather, as to be
separated into blocks, heaped one above the other, like the walls of some
tude building of Cyclopean architecture ; and to such an extent has the
decomposition proceeded, that we are at first tempted to imagine that the
blocks must have been transported from a distance, until reminded by
their local occurrence, and their being piled up, so as to form consider-
able hills, that they are still a sttw.

To the presence of the beds of quartz just before noticed may perhaps
be attributed one feature in the physiognomy of the country we are
describing, which has already been alluded to in this memoir, and which
indeed has not escaped the attention of other geologists. We mean those
low ridges of hills, with flattened summits, which here and there inter-
sect the comparatively level surface of the clay-slate formation.

These summits are reported by Le Play to be commonly composed of
quartz ; and we are inclined to credit his statement, from what we re-
marked respecting the character of those above Almaden: nor does it
seem improbable that the refractory nature of this rock may have enabled
it to resist the action of those agents of decomposition that have worn

* Annales des Mines, for 1836.

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 411

down the surface of the slates contiguous, and thus to maintain more
nearly its original level, just as in the Tyrol the incoherent materials,
which have resulted from the detritus of older rocks, remain standing
up to the height which they possessed when first deposited, wherever
there happened to lie at the top of them a mass of stone large enough
to shelter the parts underneath from the action of rain.

The beds of quartzite, which occur subordinate to, and interstratified
with, the slate, present many varieties of structure, being sometimes
compact, sometimes granular, possessing occasionally a brecciated cha-
racter, and in other places hardly distinguishable from a fine-grained
sand-stone.

The clay-slate itself, which constitutes the prevailing rock about
Logrosan, is sometimes a dark blue homogeneous fissile schist; some-
times soft and talcose: it at other times contains scales of mica dissemi-
nated through it; and at others consists of alternating layers of compact
felspar and of tale. Brecciated varieties also oveur, which, but for their
fissile character, we might refer to quartz rock ; but, in fact, there is no
decided line of demarcation between the two.

“The most important question relative to this and its concomitant rocks
relates to their age, and here the evidence is chiefly negative.

During our excursions, about Logrosan, in the mountains of Guada-
lupe, and elsewhere, we met with no vestige of shells, or of other kinds
of organic remains, nor could we learn that any such had been dis-
covered in them.

Le Play, however, states that in the neighbourhood of Almaden slate
rocks occur, in which shells are abundant ; and he specifies the Spirifer
attenuatus of Sowerby, and a Terebratula with small sides and large
convolutions, as having been there met with.

We were also told, during our stay at Almaden, by some of the intel-
ligent miners connected with that establishment, that Trilobites had been
found in the same neighbourhood; so that no doubt need be enter-
tained that rocks occur thereabouts which we may refer, as indeed
the Spanish authorities at Madrid are disposed to do, to the Silurian
epoch.

But whether the rocks surrounding Logrosan are precisely of-the
same age as about Almaden, or whether, as Le Play represents, those
near the latter place consist of a more modern fossiliferous formation
superimposed upon an ancient one in which fossils have not yet been
discovered, must remain undecided, until a sufficiently extended and
minute survey has been made of the entire province, either to detect the
presence of petrifactions in them, or to justify us in pronouncing upon
their absence.

In many cases, intervening between the granite and clay-slates, occurs
a formation of a more crystalline character, which we found to assume
the appearance of mica slate between Almaden and Cordova, near its
contact with the granite of Viso, and which M. Le Play reports to be in
other cases marked by the presence of crystals of chiastolite (schist
maclifere).

It is in this clay-slate formation, which roundabout Logrosan seems
remarkably compact, that the deposit of phosphoric occurs.

412 Phosphorite in Estremadura.

It may here be traced, either along the surface, or immediately under-
neath the soil, for a distance of nearly two miles, and in a direction from
N.N.E. to S.S.W.; so that, if we may depend upon our own observa-
tions on this point, it runs conformably to what appears to be the direc-
tion of the rocks themselves about Logrosan.

Granting this to be the case, its position* would lead us to aia it
as interstratified with clay-slate; and we shall therefore venture, in the
remaining part of this memoir, thus to consider it, although aware that
it has been spoken of by Le Play as intersecting the formation, and that
the general direction assigned to the rocks of the country by that geo-
logist is not in accordance with what appeared to us to belong to those
immediately around Logrosan.

At its south-western extremity it seems to terminate not far from the
base of the granite hill before noticed, but a little to the east of it.

This hill, indeed, on the side nearest to the phosphorite, consists of
clay-slate, apparently heaved up by the granite, which constitutes its sum-

“mit, as well as its north-eastern declivity ; but the deposit in question
has no connexion with the latter rock, as was reported to us at Madrid
to be the case.

At this, its south-western termination, the width of the deposit is
nearly 16 ft. Of its depth we are unable to speak, as it has nowhere
yet been fathomed to a greater extent than about 10 ft.; but it may be
inferred, from its being found on the surface for nearly two miles, not-
withstanding that the country traversed by it presents an undulating
outline, with alternate elevations and depressions, amounting to at least
50 ft., that it penetrates to a considerable depth into the substance of the
rock.

We traced the course of the mass from this point for about a quarter
of a mile over a ploughed field, guided by the projecting portions of the
mineral which protrude at intervals through the vegetable mould, or by
the fragments of it which have been brought up by the plough.

We thus followed it up a gentle acclivity, and then again down a
corresponding descent, till we reached the road leading from Logrosan
to Guadalupe, where it was first noticed by Bowles.

Here, as the rock had been already worked, we had the best oppor-
tunity of examining it; and accordingly, although we caused excaya-
tions to be made in one or two other places, in order to satisfy ourselves
that its general characters were the same throughout, yet our knowledge
of it is principally derived from this one locality.

In this place it crosses the road obliquely from N.N.E. to $.S.W.,
interstratified with a rock consisting of a compact form of clay-slate, in
which the slaty cleavage was indistinct, and which is disposed in almost
vertical strata, inclining however from the granite of the adjoining hill,
which has been already noticed.

The width of the phosphorite deposit at this spot is not more than 7 ft. ;
and it is to be remarked that, out of this mass, the central portion only,

* We say iis position, because its mineral structure and general appear-
ance certainly give it very much the character of a vein, as will appear
from the description given below.

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 413

to a thickness of about three feet, consists of phosphate of lime in a state
approaching to purity.

The remainder is made up of alternate layers of hornstone and phos-
phorite, disposed in an agatiform manner round certain nuclei of crystal-
lization, the respective zones of the pure white variety being often
separated, one from the other, by streaks or thin layers of the same,
coloured with oxide of iron.

In consequence of the mode in which the materials filling up the
fissure have been deposited round particular centres, to which they are
most forcibly attracted, void spaces frequently exist between the several
concretions which constitute the entire mass.

Where this has happened we often observe a mammillated structure,
like that of certain chalcedonies, on the external surfaces of the mineral,
with which mode of formation, indeed, the structure of the internal
layers appears on examination to accord.

Crystals of quartz are occasionally found coating the external layers,
and likewise lining the walls of the cavities in them.

If we examine the particular structure of any one of those zones of
phosphorite, which are wrapt round each other in the manner described,
we shall find them often exhibiting a s¢ellated arrangement, consisting
of an assemblage of fibres or crystals radiating from a centre, as is the
case in wavellite, for which mineral a small specimen of phosphorite
might perhaps at first sight be mistaken.

The external characters of the mineral itself have already been suffi-
ciently described in works on mineralogy.

The description given of it by Beudant defines in a few words, but
with sufficient exactness, its peculiar structure, excepting that, misled
by the erroneous notion as to its constituting ‘ entire mountains,” he
represents as beds what are nothing more than layers or zones, running
in a direction conformable to those of the phosphorite, and as veins, those
which penetrate them transversely.

“ The apatite of Estremadura,” he says, ‘‘ exists in fibrous, dendritic,
stalactitic, testaceous deposits, either intermixed with quartzous beds, or
intersected by veins of quartz, constituting entire hills near Truxillo,
and employed as a building stone.” .

The inaccuracy of the former part of this concluding passage we have
already sufficiently adverted to; the latter appears to have no better
foundation than the use made of a few blocks of it close to the spot in
which it occurs, in the construction of a wall which separates the road
from an olive plantation contiguous.

The deposit indeed is traversed by the road, and must at one time
have formed an inconvenient rise across it. It had consequently been
blasted or broken down, and as the fragments have been applied to
patch the walls round about, we may account for the fable as to houses
having been constructed of this material. At Logrosan the common
building stone is the slate on which the town stands: it is dark blue,
excessively hard and compact, with veins of quartz intersecting it.

The phosphorite differs, of course, in composition in different parts of
the deposit; but no specimen which has been examined appears per-
fectly free from foreign matter, there being, in every instance, traces of

414 _ Phosphorite in Estremadura.

iron, partly at least in the state of peroxide, together with one or two per
cent. of silica, and a large proportion of fluoride of calcium.

The following are the results of an analysis made of one of the purest
specimens that could be selected, or, we should rather say, the mean of
two analyses, in either of which similar quantities taken from the same
specimen were operated upon, the results of the two agreeing nearly
together :

Silica : x : ; A : LO
Peroxide of iron . ; é 3 Z 3°15
Fluoride of calcium 5 : , » T4200
Phosphate of lime : : ; » BES

100:°00

There was likewise 0°2 per cent. of chlorine, united with calcium,
present in the mineral.

The silica and iron are probably accidental ingredients; but the
fluoride of calcium is so commonly associated with phosphate of lime,
that it may be regarded as essential to the mineral in question.

It is known to occur, not only in mineral apatite, but also in a vari-
able, but geuerally small proportion, in bones, and the enamel of teeth,
both fossil and recent ;* thus appearing to perform some hitherto unascer-
tained office in the animal economy, so that a wonderful provision of
nature seems to be unfolded to us, when we observe, treasured up in the
older rocks, as if in anticipation of the wants of the future creation, a
dép5t, not merely of an ingredient, like phosphate of lime, which was
so requisite for building up all the solid parts of animals, but also,
in constant association with it, a certain proportion of fluate of lime,
which appears in like manner to enter into the composition of the same
fabrics.

It will be remarked, however, that the per-centage of fluate of lime,
which we have set down as existing in the mineral, is much larger than
that present in any other specimen that has before been analysed.

Thus Gustavus Rose gives the analysis of 7 varieties of apatite, taken
from different localities, in which the largest proportion of fluoride of
calcium discovered was 7°69 per cent., the smallest being only 4°59.

We should therefore have been reluctant in stating a result so little
conformable with those of this distinguished chemist, had not there been
a very near accordance between the results obtained from two specimens
which were examined ; and also if we had not considered that the varie-
ties of apatite which Rose analysed were probably all crystallized, whilst
those of the Spanish phosphorite submitted to analysis were in a compact
or amorphous condition.

The remarks just made have reference to the colourless or purer
variety of the Spanish phosphorite, through which, as already observed,
are disseminated streaks or thin zones of a dark brown variety. The
latter was found to owe its colour to peroxide of iron, here present in a

* See a paper on the occurrence of fluorine in recent as well as in fossil
bones, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., &c., in the Memoirs of the Chemical
Society, Part 9.

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 415

proportion varying from 15 to 20 per cent.; but neither manganese nor
any other new substance could be discovered in it.

The quartzous veins, which alternate with the phosphorite, especially
near the sides of the deposit, though consisting principally of silica,
nevertheless contain iron, and a trace of phosphate of lime.

Other small seams of phosphorite proceed to some distance obliquely
out of this, the main deposit, into the clay-slate rock ; but none consist-
ing of this mineral, unconnected with the one already mentioned, could
we hear of, either in the neighbourhood of Logrosan, or in any other
locality.

From the spot crossing the road above mentioned we traced the de-
posit in a S.S.W. direction across an olive plantation, down a gentle
declivity, until we finally lost sight of it in the low ground beyond,
about a mile from the road. Of course the phosphorite was only visible
at intervals through the covering of soil; but the occurrence here and
there of blocks or fragments of the mineral, and the conformity between
the direction in which they appeared, and that of the previously observed
portions of it, left no doubt in our minds as to this point.

The phosphorite throughout its whole extent is extremely indestruc-
tible, resisting the influence of the atmosphere, as well as of all the
other agents of decomposition to which its loose fragments had been
subjected.

In none of those which we saw, whether on the tops of walls, or par-
tially buried under the earth, however long they may have been exposed
to the weather, was the slightest change discoverable.

We were therefore anxious to ascertain, whether any influence had
been exerted upon the suitableness of the soil for agricultural purposes
by the presence in it of this mineral.

The soil itself bore the character of a loam, according to the definition
given in the Table on the Classification of Soils, published by one of the
authors of this memoir, in Vol. 3, Part 1, of the Journal of the Royal
English Agricultural Society.

1000 grains were separated by a mechanical analysis, conducted ac-
cording to Mr. Rham’s method, into—

Grains.
1. Coarse pebbles : : i - sigs
2. Minute do. : : . , * Shae
3. Coarse powder : ‘ : . 388
4. Impalpable powder passing through the finest
sieve . : ° : - . 140

Loss being ‘. : - ; “ : 9

—

1000
Of the latter 100 grains were examined, and found to consist nearly
as follows :—
Of Water ; : : A 2 Pee
5

5
Vegetable matter . . ‘ : Pair, *
Sand . . : - 50°0

Clay much charged with ‘peroxide of iron . 40°0
Carbonate of lime there seemed to be merely a trace.

416 Phosphorite in Estremadura.

Now a portion of this soil, after having been carefully freed from all
the loose pebbles, &c., which it contained, being taken from the portion
which had passed through the finest of the sieves, was carefully ex-
amined, in order to ascertain the presence in it of phosphate of lime,
but only the merest trace of that substance could be discovered, less
indeed than 1 grain in 2lbs. of the soil.

As this is not a chemical society, we refrain from entering upon the
details of the method which was pursued, but believe that it would be
regarded as conclusive, so far as relates to the detection of any con-
siderable amount of this ingredient ; and with regard to the small pro-
portion which did exist, it might have been easily derived from the
attrition of the fragments of phosphorite which were mixed with the
soil, as we had nv means on the spot of sifting it with any accuracy.

It may therefore be fairly considered that the result of this examina-
tion confirms the conclusion with regard to the naturally slight tendency
to decomposition in the mineral, which we had been led to entertain
- from our observation of it on the spot.

The soil brought home for examination was taken from various parts
of a corn-field, immediately along the course of the deposit, which we
were told was in itself by no means productive, but required to be im-
proved by occasional top-dressings of stable-dung.

The presence of the phosphate does not, therefore, appear in this
instance to communicate fertility ; but the compact texture of the stone
may perhaps render it in its natural state but little adapted for being
secreted by plants.

It now only remains that we should state, in conclusion, the
reasons which have induced us to occupy so much of the time of
this Society in the description of the deposit alluded to. It has
been conceived then to deserve a more particular notice.—In the
first place, because it constitutes, we believe, a solitary instance
of a rock of any magnitude or extent, as yet known, in which
phosphate of lime occurs as the prevailing ingredient.

2ndly. Because the deposit not only contains in itself no traces
of any organic matter, and possesses a crystalline structure en-
tirely inconsistent with an organic origin, but also would seem,
so far as our present knowledge extends, to lie in the midst of
materials from which the evidences of animal life, if indeed they
ever existed in them, have been entirely obliterated; for even if
the fossiliferous slates of Almaden should be determined to be-
long to the same epoch with those about Logrosan, it must be
recollected that they are at least fifty miles distant from the latter,
whilst the existence of phosphate of lime in other stances,
setting aside a few crystals of apatite occasionally met with in
mineral veins, seems always referable to the presence either of
animal exuviz, or of animal excretions in its immediate neigh-
bourhood.

3rdly. On account of the exaggerated reports that had been

Phosphorite in Estremadura. 417

given of its extent, which, though contradicted by M. Le Play,
in the memoir already referred to, still held their ground in the
public mind, as the cursory manner in which that geologist
alludes to the phenomenon was so far from setting the question
at rest, that it even left us in doubt whether he, any more than
his predecessor Proust, ever visited the locality.

The former indeed underrates the magnitude of the deposit,
as much as the latter exaggerates it; for a rock varying from 7
to 16 feet in breadth, traceable for nearly two miles along the
surface of the ground, and extending into the earth to a great,
though as yet an unascertained depth, cannot be regarded as
either unimportant or inconsiderable.

4thly. Because a statement of its chemical and mineralogical
characters, as well as of its relations to the rock in which it
occurs, may lead to the discovery of it in other less distant and
more accessible localities, and thus be the means of supplying
a new source of phosphate of lime for agricultural purposes.

Lastly. We have been induced to enter more fully into its
nature and relations in consequence of the interest which it has
lately excited amongst agriculturists,

That it would prove equally efficacious as a manure with phos-
phate of lime derived from animal sources, must not indeed be
taken for granted too readily, until this point has itself been made
the subject of direct experiment ; but there was a sufficient proba-
bility that such would prove the case, to induce us to take some
trouble in ascertaining the price at which it might be procured,
and the facilities that might offer for transporting it to our own
country.

Were the Tagus now navigable up to Toledo, which, during
the period when the crowns of Spain and Portugal were con-
joined in the person of Philip IJ., it is said to have been the
intention of the government to render it, two days’ journey in the
light carts of the country would convey the material to the least
distant point on that river, near the broken bridge of Almaraz,

But at present, such is the retrograde state of things in the
Peninsula, that the Tagus is not now navigable even so far as
the frontiers of Portugal.

A still shorter distance separates the site of the phosphorite from
the Guadiana, but much requires to be done before that river can
be navigated even up to Badajoz.

At present the only practicable route by which to transport
the mineral in question to the coast seems to be the one which
we ourselves had recourse to, namely, that to Seville, a journey for
mules of at least six days ; this latter mode of conveyance, how-
ever, though the most convenient one for small quantities, is so
expensive, as to be quite out of the question on the great scale,

418 Phosphorite in Estremadura.

and the cheapest method would be that of resorting to the bullock
cars of the country, which are extensively used in Estremadura,
but only travel in troops together.

Should, however, the political difficulties, which the Portuguese
government at present interposes to the transmission of goods by
the Tagus, be hereafter removed, there seems no reason to doubt,
but that it might descend that river at certain periods during the
floods of the winter or of spring.

But although no prospect can be held out as to this mineral
being profitably employed asa manure, unless the:political condi-
tion of the Peninsula should become very different from what it
is at present, and the expense of obtaining bones or other substi-
tutes for them happen to be greatly augmented, still we do not
regret having personally examined the locality, both because by so
doing we have set, as it were, at rest the question that had been
mooted with respect to the uses to which this material might admit
of being applied, and also because we have been enabled thereby
to procure a quantity of it sufficient for making trial of its virtues
when applied to land capable of deriving benefit from bone
manure; thus, as we hope, obtaiming some data which may
assist us hereafter in the determination of the interesting problem,
as to whether the mechanical condition in which mineral sub-
stances are presented to the secreting organs, exercises any im-
portant influence upon their adaptation to supply the demands of
the growing vegetable.

XXIII.—Instance of the advantage of Subsoil-ploughing, in ad-
dition to Draining. By GrorcE Turner.

To Philip Pusey, Esq.
Dear Sir,
I seND you a short account of draining and subsoil-ploughing.
At Michaelmas, 1839, a farm came into my occupation in the
parish of Cadbury, ten miles from here, on which there was about
forty acres of land divided into six closes, in a very rough state,
covered principally with furze, brambles, and rushes, and the
greater part very wet. The soil, as is often the case in Devon-
shire, various, but consisting chiefly of about 6 inches of tolerably
good mould on a rubbly or gravelly clay. I immediately began
with a field of 6 acres, by cutting drains at various distances, from
3 to 5 feet deep, according to circumstances, getting, if possible,
through the clay into the gravelly substance, and filling them to
within 18 inches of the surface with well-broken stones, taken
from a quarry on the farm; and I should here state that the

Advantage of Subsoil Ploughing. 419

greater part of the land wanting draining, in this county, is rather
steep, springs of water issuing out of the sides of the hills even
to the tops; consequently, the system of cutting the drains in the
direction of the fall is not applicable in these cases, but the drains
must be cut in a lateral direction, so as to tap or to take the line
of springs, with upright or main drains to carry off the water.
Having thoroughly drained it during the winter, early in the fol-
lowing spring I pared it thin and burnt it, of course grubbing up
the brambles and furze. I then put about 100 bushels of lime to
an acre, and spread it with the ashes, ploughing all down as thinly
as possible in the beginning of June, and sowing Swedish turnips,
which was an excellent crop, and which I drew off for fattening
beasts in the yard. In the month of February, 1841, I subsoil-
ploughed it, and in April planted mangold wurtzel with about
15 tons of farm-yard manure to an acre, from which I took in
November upwards of 30 tons of mangold wurtzel an acre ; then
ploughed it; and in March, as | wanted this field for permanent
pasture, sowed 3 pecks of rye grass, 6 lbs. of red, and 3 lbs. of
white clover to an acre, with a bushel of spring tares, and I have
had an abundance of grass ever since that time, mowing upwards
of two tons of hay per acre, the only manure used since being
40 bushels of soot an acre. At present it is looking as luxuriant
as any thing can be—except about a quarter of an acre, which was
not subsoiled, and which is not half as productive as the other parts
of the field.

The remainder of the land I have managed much in the same
way, except sowing on some parts common turnips, feeding off
part with sheep, and sowing wheat, from which I have reaped,
where subsoiled, abundant crops ; and in no instance has the clover
failed, or have I been disappointed in my expectations.

These 40 acres of land, before I began my operations, were valued
at only 10s. per acre: at present it is worth more than 30s., and
the crops have well paid for the rent, taxes, manure, and labour.

I should also observe that, in my opinion, all land of the above
description that has not been ploughed for many years, and that
is to be reclaimed, ought, as soon as it has been drained, to be
pared, burnt, and limed, whereby a crop of turnips is insured, an
immediate return made, and the land permanently improved. It
is also necessary that lands whereon furze, brambles, &c., were
growing, should be kept in tillage for four or five years, so as
_ completely to destroy them; and I know of no better succession of
crops, than—Ist, turnips; 2nd, mangold wurtzel; 3rd, wheat;
4th, tares, fed with sheep, and followed by turnips; then barley
or oats, with grass seeds. On one field I put 50 bushels of soot
an acre instead of dung, and had a good cropof mangold; and for
the turnips, after wheat I generally drill 20 busliels of bones

VOL. V. 2F

420 Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire.

(where dunged for mangold) ; but where soot was used for the
mangold, I think it best to put dung for the turnips.

In conclusion, I can only say, that in this county there is a quan-
tity of old grass land, just in the state that mine was, producing
grass only about six months in the year, which, if drained, subsoil-
ploughed, &c., would produce more of the necessaries of life in
five years than in twenty previous ones: whereas a vast number
of acres are quite over-tilled, and would be more profitable if
allowed to rest a year extra when in grass, and in good condition.

Should you, Sir, think these remarks worthy a place in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, or otherwise, I shall
be satisfied, and remain,

Dear Sir,
Your most obedient servant,
GerorcE TURNER.
Barton, near Exeter, October 15, 1844.

XXIV.—A few Remarks on the large Hedges and small Enclosures
of Devonshire and the adjoining Counties. By Joun GRanz,
Surveyor and Land Agent.

Every practical farmer coming into Devonshire for the first time
is struck with the fertility of the soil and the genial climate with
which the county is favoured. He may not be equally struck with
the quality of the farming, though this has of late made an im-
mense stride; but he is certainly astonished at the small quantity
of the produce of the soil returned per acre, a much greater being
produced in districts immeasurably behind Devon in natural ad-
vantages. A superficial observer places this to the credit, or rather
discredit, of the farmer : the practical man is not long in discerning
that not the least of the causes is the baneful effect of the high
hedgerows and small enclosures, which add so much beauty to
the scene at so great a cost to the landlord and tenant.

Struck with these reflections I resolved to make some actual
measurements, in order that the landed gentry and agriculturists
of the county might see the full extent of the evil.

At the present time there isa strong tendency towards improve-
ment in farming; the general opinion being that none of the
sciences is in so backward a state. But no very great advance
can be made in this, and a great part of the adjoining counties,
so long as the enclosures are so small, and the hedges so
many and so large, that upwards of 7 per cent. of the land is
occupied, besides that which is otherwise injured, by them.
«« What,” it has been asked me by more than one intelligent and
extensive farmer, “ is the use of our being told that we should

Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire. 421

study practical chemistry, and copy the example of farmers in
better cultivated districts, if we are not allowed to enlarge our
fields by taking down those immense banks, or even to cut down
the wood growing on them but once in seven years, and then
only that which has not been previously marked for rearing?
Look at what I lose from the shade of these hedges and trees,
besides what they actually occupy. For nearly a ridge wide on
each side the corn is hardly worth reaping.” And who can deny
that this is discouraging? Is it not to be seen everywhere in the
county, and every year the same? The necessity of making ex-
tensive alteration in this respect will, I trust, be evident by con-
sulting the following Table, which gives the total number of acres
in each of ten parishes, all within a circuit of 15 miles of Exeter,
and extending over a district of 20 miles; varying from 700 to
9000 acres, and amounting to nearly 37,000 acres. It also gives
the number of miles of hedge, the number of acres and per
centage occupied by them; the number of cultivated enclosures
of different sizes above half an acre, all under that size being left
out as gardens, &c. No enclosures are taken into account but
such as are cultivated by the farmer; that is, such as are arable,
pasture, or orchard. Coppices, woods, plantations, &c., are not
included, as these are in most cases in the hands of the landlords.
The tithe apportionments have been my authority for the number
of fields of different sizes. Fractions have been as much as pos-
sible avoided, as being unnecessary, and to prevent confusion.
In some of the parishes there are parks, commons, and large
woods, which, if deducted, would make the per centage much
greater on the portions which are divided.

In the Table it is shown that in the parish of Huxham, con-
taining 762 acres, there are 34 miles of hedge, which occupy 54
acres, being 7 per cent., or 1 acre in 14. There are 55 in every
100 fields under 4 acres; 9 of 10 acres and upwards, being 142
acres in all: and | field larger than 10 acres in every 16 fields, or
in 100 acres. There is a portion of the parish, containing 844
acres, in which there are 5 miles of hedge, containing about 8 acres ;
being 93 per cent., or | in 10}. Lately there have been more
than 3 miles of hedge taken down, thus saving between 5 and 6
acres.

In the parish of St. George’s Clyst, containing 1040 acres,
there are 52 miles of hedge, occupying 83 acres, being 8 per
' cent., or 1 in 124. There are 126, or about half the number of
fields, under 3 acres; 163, or 61 of every 100 fields, under 4
acres ; 9 of 10 acres and upwards: being 264 in all; and 1 field
larger than 10 acres in every 30 fields, or in 115 acres. In the
upper half of this parish the hedges occupy 10 per cent., but the
large marshes in the lower half reduce it to 8 per cent. If we

22

422 Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire.

take 78} acres in one part of the parish, we find 6 miles of hedge,
occupying between 9 and 10 acres; being 12 per cent., or ]
in 8}.

i: the parish of Rewe, containing 1341 acres, there are 65
miles of hedge, occupying 104 acres; being 7# per cent., or 1 in
12.2. There are 56 between three and four acres; being 207,
or 64 in every 100 fields under 4 acres; 8 of 10 acres and up-
wards ; being 324 in all: and 1 field larger than 10 acres in
every 40 fields, or 170 acres. If we take a separate portion of
the parish, containing 81 acres, we find 54 miles of hedge, occu-
pying 9 acres, being one-ninth. This part of the parish is rented
at 40s. per acre, and the outgoings are from 12s. to 15s. more; so
that there isan annual loss of, at least, 237. on these 81 acres.
In the parish of Poltimore, containing 1710 acres, there are

59 miles of hedge, occupying 94 acres; being 53 per cent.,

or | acre in 18. There are 168, or 56 in every 100 fields,
under 4 acres; 259 under 10 acres; 38 of 10 acres and up-
wards; being 297 in all; and | field larger than 10 acres in
every 8 fields, or 45 acres. The park and roads in this parish
amount to 140 acres. In a part of the parish, containing 115
acres, the hedges occupy 10} per cent.: in another part contain-
ing 280 acres, they amount to 6 per cent.; but in another, con-
taining 327 acres, they are only 24 per cent. Before the appor-
tionment of this parish was made, five years ago, Lord Poltimore’s
_ steward took down on a farm of less than 200 acres 8 miles of
hedge, and thereby added 15 acres to the productive portion of
the estate. Since that time there have been removed in the
parish 63 miles of hedge, saying about 10 acres; so that there
have been taken down in the last five years, besides what were
taken down before, on Lord Poltimore’s property in the parishes of
Huxham and Poltimore, 10 miles of hedge, and from 15 to 16
acres gained: as much as would be an allotment of a third of an
acre to each of about 50 labourers. On account of these altera-
tions the number of enclosures of 3, 4, and 5 acres would be
much fewer, and those of a larger size greater, than is given in
the Table. Whilst in the parish of Rewe, containing 134]
acres, there are 65 miles of hedge: in Poltimore, which is nearly
a half larger, there are only 59; and if we deduct the 64 since
taken down, only 524 miles. It will also be perceived that this,
containing 1710 acres, contrasts favourably with the other parishes,
having about as many enclosures above LO acres as are in the five
parishes of St. George's Clyst, Rewe, Clisthydon, Feniton, and
Talaton, containing 8293 acres: also with the parishes of Silver-
ton and Broadclyst, having two-thirds as many enclosures above
10 acres as the latter parish, which is 9188 acres.
In the parish of Clisthydon, containing 1725 acres, there are

Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire. 423

86 miles of hedge, occupying 138 acres, being 8 per cent., or 1
in 123. There are 228, being 56 in every 100 fields, under 4
acres; 403 under 10 acres; 4 fields of 10 acres and upwards,
being 407 in all; and 1 field larger than LO acres in every 102
fields, or in 431 acres.

In the parish of Feniton, containing 1822 acres, there are 95
miles of hedge, occupying 152 acres; being 83 per cent., or |
acre in 12. There are 261, or 60 in every 100 fields, under 4
acres; 443 under 10 acres; 6 of 10 acres and upwards, being
449 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 75 fields,
or 304 acres.

In the parish of Talaton, containing 2365 acres, there are 114
miles of hedge, occupying 182 acres: being 7? per cent., or |
in 12.°;. There are 341, or 62 in every 100 fields, under 4
acres; 535 under 10 acres; 13 of 10 acres and upwards, being
548 in all; and 1 field larger than 10 acres in every 42 fields, or
in 182 acres. The divided part of this parish would appear
much worse if the common, park, and roads were deducted, as
they amount to 180 acres, or more than one-twelfth of the whole.

In the parish of Silverton, containing 4714 acres, there are 222
miles of hedge, occupying 356 acres ; being 74 per cent., or 1 in
13}. There are 587, or 55 in every 100 fields, under 4 acres;
1031 under 10 acres; 35 of 10 acres and upwards; being 1066
in all; and | field larger than 10 acres in every 30 fields, or in
134 acres.

That 356 acres, or an average of 74 per cent., should be occu-
pied by hedges in this one parish seems bad enough; but there
are parts of it much worse in proportion. In 147 acres at the
south-east end, which I surveyed, I found more than 9 miles of
hedge, occupying 143 acres, or fully 10 per cent. When to this
is added the further injury otherwise caused by these hedges, as
mentioned elsewhere, it will be self-evident how utterly impossible
it must be for the farmer of such densely wooded districts to
compete with those who are living on more open, and therefore
more productive, farms.

In the parish of Broadclyst, containing 9188 acres, there are
383 miles of hedge, occupying 613 acres, being 62 per cent., or
lin 15 acres. There are 1176, or 60 in every 100 fields, under
4 acres; 1913 under 10 acres; 57 of 10 acres and upwards;
being 1970 in all; and | field larger than 10 acres in every 343
fields, or 161 acres. The per-centage occupied by hedges in this
parish is 63, or 1 in 15; but if we were to deduct 977 acres for
large woods, the park, roads, &c., it is evident that the per-centage
to be allowed for hedges on what would remain would be very
much increased. I surveyed a part of the parish containing 133
acres, which is divided into 44 enclosures, averaging 3 acres, on

424 Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire.

which there are 83 miles of hedge, occupying 133 acres, or fully
10 per cent. The hedges in this parish would make a bank of
earth between the capitals of England and Scotland.

In the parish of Crediton, containing 12,309 acres, there are
54] miles of hedge, occupying 866 acres; being 7 per cent., or
1] acre in 144. There are 1455, or 58 EP every 100 fields ane ee
4 acres; 148 of 10 acres and upwards, being 2530 in all; and 1
field larger than 10 acres in every 17 fields, or 83 acres. The
hedges of this parish would more than extend from the Land’s
End through the centre of England to Edinburgh in Scotland.

The result of this examination of ten parishes, containing
36,976 acres, being an average size of about 3,700 acres, is, that
there are 1651 miles of hedge; about half as long again as the
~ famous wall of China; or sufficient to hedge round the whole of
England with an immense bank of earth, and occupying 2642
acres; being 7+ per cent., or 1 acre in 14; that 805, or 10 in
every 100 enclosures, are between 4 an acre and | acre:—that
1347 are between | and 2 acres, being 2152, or 27 in every 100
enclosures ; more than a fourth being under 2 acres :—1293 be-
tween 2 and 3 acres, being 3445, or 43 in every 100 enclosures
under 3 acres: 1220 between 3 and 4 acres, being 4665, or 58 in
every 100 fields under 4 acres: 1015 between 4 and 5 acres,
being 5680, or 71 in every 100 being under 5 acres: 743 between
5 and 6 acres, being 6423, or 80 in every 100 under 6 acres:
511 between 6 and 7 acres, being 6934, or 87 in every 100 under
7 acres: 357 between 7 and 8 acres, being 7291, or 91 in every
100 under 8 acres: 231 between 8 and 9 acres, being 7522, or
94 in every 100 under 9 acres: 148 between 9 and 10 acres,
being 7670, or 96 in every 100 are under 10 acres: 327 are up-
wards of 10 acres, being about 23 in every 100 fields; or 1 field
larger than 10 acres in every 113 acres; and making in all 7997
enclosures. Thus it will be seen that whilst 87 in every 100 en-
closures are under 7 acres, only 13 in every 100 are larger than 7
acres. With such a disproportionate number of small fields the
immense loss sustained may be still further shown by the fol-
lowing calculations, which I made from a great number of mea-
surements, the average being taken. By the kind of hedges
generally used, on fields of the first size given, averaging ? of an
acre, the loss by hedges is 17 per cent.; on sate of the second,
between | and 2 acres, the loss is 12 per cent.; by those of the
third size, between 2 and 3 acres, the loss is 10 per cent.; on
fields between 3 and 4 acres, 74 per cent.; on fields of 10 acres
it is about 4 per cent. The per centage of course varies very
much with the shape of the field and the thickness of the fence ;
but by this it will be seen that when the fields average 10 acres,

Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire. 425

the hedges being of the same kind, the loss is only half of what it
is when they are 3 acres and upwards.

The evils of the present system of dividing farms, general over
this and great part of the neighbouring counties, may be thus
summed up. The hedges occupy in some cases fully 10 per
cent., but on an average of these ten parishes, 7+ per cent., or |
acre in 14. They shade and injure at least half as much; most
persons, landlords as well as tenants, whose opinion I have asked,
say quite asmuch more. They harbour birds and vermin which
injure the crops; and that this is no small evil any one may
satisfy himself, by going into a field just before harvest. They
are nurseries for weeds ;. they prevent that free circulation of air
so necessary to the healthy growth of plants as well as animals:
they are obstacles to the drainage of the soil, the roots found in
them frequently choking up the drains. They are expensive to
erect, as well as to keep in repair; the expense of new hedges in
labour and planting being about 3s. 6d. per perch, and that of
keeping them in order about 5 per cent. of the rental. The soil on
each side of them is generally thinner, from the materials for
making the banks being taken from it. So many small enclosures
require a much greater number of gates, which have to be kept
up and renewed: and they cause a much greater number of small
lanes and cart-tracks leading from one place to another. The
damage from shade is also very much greater from those hedges
which run east and west. To do the least damage and to be of
the greatest service as shelter, our most prevalent and severe
winds being from the west and south-west, hedges should be made,
and the long way of the fields be from north to south; for the
same reason that Loudon lays it down as a rule in building a
house, to make the diagonal line in that direction; namely,
because the sun thus shines on every side of it every day. The
fences being in most cases crooked, and the fields of every shape
but right-angled, the labour of every operation of the farm, parti-
cularly ploughing, is most materially increased. The parishes of
Huxham and Poltimore will contrast favourably with the others
in this respect. This evil is anything but a trifling one, espe-
cially when to it is added the labour caused by the roots of trees
which shoot out into the fields. In any parish this is felt ; but in
such a parish as Rewe, where there is much timber, one may see,
_ when the ground is laid open by the plough, that the roots of the

trees cross each other from opposite sides of the field. ‘These roots
must abstract much of the nutritive qualities of the ground. As
an instance of how fast the root of a tree grows, the following
fact was mentioned to me by a gentleman of Crediton :—*« A
drain which had been made only the year before was found to be

426 Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire.

stopped up; and on examination the cause was discovered to be the
root of an elm, which had grown into the drain more than 30 feet.”

Having pointed out the evils of the existing system, I may be
asked how it can be remedied, especially without marring the
beauty* of this county, to which these luxuriantly-wooded hedges
add so much. To this I would say that such a landscape gar-
dener as the late Mr. Loudon, if asked to dispose of this timber in
the most effective manner, would not have been likely to lay it out
in long straggling hedgerows, but in clumps, belts, and woods,
which would serve for shelter and give the best effect. Fences
could then be of a much simpler and inexpensive kind. Where
stall-feeding is practised there need not be anything lost by
hedges; as I have seen farms without any fences but that which
surrounded and divided them from the adjoining farms, a furrow
being all that separated one crop from another. But even where
this system is not adopted there are several methods whereby
farms may be sufficiently divided, and the whole or greater part
of the ground saved, which is at present lost. Besides railings of
wood. wire, or iron rod, there is the sunk fence; none of these
taking up any land. In wet, marshy, or boggy ground, ditches
would serve for fences and drains at the same time; and in such
a place as Broadclyst Moor this method of dividing and at the
same time of draining the land, would very much increase its
value. But in cases where it might not be thought advisable,
either owing to the first expense of iron rod, or wire railings, or to
other circumstances, to adopt any of these methods of dividing
land, the white-thorn would make a cheap and good fence, taking
up very little room, being impervious to cattle, and costing little
either at first or in keeping up afterwards. A thousand plants
will plant thirty perches of one row, or fifteen perches of two
rows, the plants being six inches apart: they cost from 10s. to
20s. per thousand, according to their age, and the planting of
them costs very little. Sir John Kennaway, by taking down 100
perches of bank and planting 50 perches of thorn hedge, thus
making three fields into two, saved nearly an acre of ground.
There is not any reason that I can see why a farm even so small
as a hundred acres should lose more than 1] per cent. by its

* Even the beauty of Devonshire and Somersetshire may be greatly
improved by the removal of a large part of the fences. A few of the most
beautiful trees, especially oaks, which from the depth of their roots are
less injurious than ash or elm, may be spared, and will have more pic-
turesque effect than long lines of undistinguishable foliage. The undu-
lating lines of the surface thus unmasked, afford often a graceful land-
scape, with swelling knolls hidden before, and on these knolls the farmer
will not grudge a little ground for single trees or clumps planted in com-
manding situations. In many places a confused farm might thus receive
at once the character of an arable park,—Pu. Pusry.

Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire. 427

hedges. In a survey of a parish road which I lately made, with
a view to its being widened, I found that, for the greater part of
its length, its width might have been trebled by merely adding to
it the space taken up by its present wide fences. John Matthews,
Esq., of Clisthydon, has within the last few years taken down
half of the fences on his estate, and is proceeding to take down
nearly all that remain. Timber need not be encouraged in
hedgerows on account of its value, as, from the admission of
foreign timber, this has been materially reduced. I should not
think that the timber thus grown pays nearly so much annually
as | per cent. of the rental, while it destroys about JO per cent.
of the ground; allowing 3 per cent. more than what is actually
occupied for injuries sustained by the causes mentioned. What
necessity is there for a farm, even so small as a hundred acres,
being divided into smaller enclosures than eight ten-acre fields,
and the remaining twenty into four or five, as might be most con-
venient? It would be a great improvement on the present state
of things, if, instead of six fields of every ten being under four
acres, there were the same proportion over ten acres. If to the
loss shown to be sustained from these small enclosures and great
hedges were added that from waste ground and the want of drain-
age, how very far short of its capabilities would appear that which
is at present derived from our soil! An eminent writer of the
present day says, “ The introduction of thorough-draining will
probably increase the productive power of the soil in Great
Britain a third; scientific discovery may perhaps add another
third: but at least ten years must elapse, in the most favourable
view, before these effects take place,—ere the judicious and well-
directed labours of our husbandmen have formed rivulets for the
superfluous wet of our fields, or overspread the soil with the now
wasted animal manures of our cities.”

Although I have shown the loss to be so great from the present
system of dividing farms, I am not so sanguine as to expect to see
anything like the saving made which might be, there being in
some cases many difficulties to contend with; as where property
is very much intermixed, and where it is leasehold. But with
willing minds, and an enlightened co-operation of landlord and
tenant, this county may soon become as famous for its superior
farming as it is now for its mild climate and beautiful scenery.
I have given several instances where much has been done in this
neighbourhood; these, and the example of other districts at
present in advance of this county, form examples worthy of imita-
tion. If every agriculturist recorded the results of his experience,
much knowledge of the most practical and useful kind, at present
confined to himself and frequently dying with him, would be
added to the general stock, and advance the science proportion-

Hedges and Enclosures of Devonshire.

428

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Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 429

ably. The discoveries of Professors Liebig and Playfair, the
improvements made by our Royal, Highland, and Provincial
Agricultural Societies, and put into practice by Earls Ducie and
Spencer, Mr. Pusey, and a long list of the great and intelligent
throughout our island, have given an immense impetus to agricul-
tural improvement, which I trust will not cease till our land has
attained that full amount of productiveness which the Almighty
intended, and which his kind providence has placed within the
reach of every practically scientific agriculturist.

243, High-street, Exeter.

XXV.—On the Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils,
whether of Colour, Consistence, or Vegetation. By Joun
ARKELL.

Ir has often occurred to me, when reading of analyzed soils and
opinions given thereon, that there must be great difficulty in
coming to a correct conclusion as to its fertility or barrenness
thereby, knowing as we do that the different formations of the
earth, as laid down by geologists, contain a number of veins or
strata in the same formation, and that many of these veins or
strata often crop out or come to the surface of the earth in the
space of a hundred yards, also that each of those strata are com-
posed of very different matter, as respects colour as well as sub-
stance; therefore, soil taken from either of those strata and
analyzed cannot give the contents of any one of the others. It is
true, on arable land, the different strata become mixed in a
degree by the action of the plough and harrows, but not enough
to make the soil of a whole field all alike. I have observed in the
spring of the year, in dry weather, that scarcely any piece of
arable land is of the same colour all over; some of several dif-
ferent shades in the space of 8 or 10 acres; and have come io
the conclusion that the difference in colour is caused by the dif-
ferent strata coming up to the surface. As a case in point, I
have in my occupation a field of arable land of about 10 acres,
situated on the blue lias formation, which contains at the lowest
part of it, in the space of a depth of less than 20 feet, no less than
ten separate beds of stone, divided from each other by as many
beds of clay or marl. Now, every one of these beds of stone and
clay or marl crop out before you get three parts of the way up
the same field; neither two of these beds of stone are alike in
colour or matter, although all bear a resemblance to each other.
The several beds of clay and marl are very different; some
contain gravel and sand, others many small particles of limestone ;
and next to the hardest and best stone lies the marl, as soft in

430 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

the hand as soap. I am satisfied that to analyze the upper and
under soils of any part of such a field as this is useless for the purpose
of ascertaining its degree of fertility or barrenness, as regards the
whole 10 acres. I apprehend it will be necessary, before che-
mistry will be able to decide the relative fertility or barrenness
of a whole farm, or parish, or district of country, or even a single
field, to examine every stratum that crops out in such farm, parish,
district, or field, and the subsoil immediately under it; also its
colour, consistency, and the vegetation thereon; and such, I sup-
pose, are the opinions of natural philosophers, and consequently
further information is required, to which | will endeavour to con-
tribute as far as my experience and observations will serve me.

I have been the whole of my life in agricultural districts, and
for the greater part of the last thirty years have been engaged in
farming pursuits, and have travelled over a great part of Berk-
shire, Wiltshire, Oxfordshire; and Gloucestershire, and also some
parts of Warwickshire and Worcestershire ; and have made many
observations on the different soils as I passed through the country,
some districts of which I saw at all seasons of the year, and for
years together. I will begin my observations on the chalk forma-
tion, the soil on which I was born. My father occupied a farm
of 700 acres at the foot of the chalk hills, about midway between
Swindon in Wiltshire, and Wantage in Berkshire ; the farm ex-
tended to the length of six miles from end to end, and contained
four sorts of soil: the upper end has a brown super or top soil,
with chalk under, part arable and part downs; then comes the
white land, with a white stone under that, all arable; next, the
whitish, or ash-coloured land, with a subsoil of alternate veins of
soapy marl and white gravel, mostly arable. The lower part of
the farm is all pasture, with a clay top-soil, mellowed a little with
vegetable matter; the subsoil a very tenacious yellow clay. In
cultivating the land on the chalk we invariably found the darkest
coloured soil to produce the best crops of every description; and
this occurred mostly in the lowest situations. As the land be-
comes more elevated the chalk rises nearer the surface, which,
by the action of the plough, is mixed with the top-soil, and gives
it a paler colour; and, in addition to this index of comparative
barrenness, we always found such soils more thickly covered with
small stones: and this fact is observable on the worst part of the
downs; but here the stones are almost black from the action of
the elements. Another feature of this part of the country is an
unerring guide to distinguish the good from the poor soils; the
hedge-rows (where there are any) are always strongest on the
darker land, and short and stunted on the light-coloured; and
when a hedge may chance to go up the ascent of a hill, it will
hardly grow at all towards the top. I am not aware of any plant

Indications of the Fertility or. Barrenness of Soils. 431

that is peculiar to this formation, by which we can tell its fertility
or barrenness; the mathen and crow-needles grow more thickly
and stronger on the poorer than they do on the richer parts; but
this I think is owing to the crop being weaker, consequently
giving more room for weeds to flourish. In ploughing this kind
of land we found the better descriptions to be of a firmer texture
(although not containing so many stones) than the poorer—that
is, what farmers call having more staple to it, even in walking
over it at any time the same facts may be discovered. The down
lands are very various as to quality; in most of the bottoms the
sheep feed sweet and close; and these would no doubt, if brought
into tillage, produce good crops; the tops of the hills are mostly
mossy, and produce but little feed. Some places there are which
are covered with long, rough, sour grass—an indication that clay
is near. Where these two last remarks apply, be assured the
land is weak, and would be unproductive if ploughed.

I will next mention the white land: here, as on the chalk, the
paler and weaker the colour the less the produce, let the crop be
what it may, and the cause is the same—being nearer the stone,
Here also the hedges grow worst on the palest land, and the best
is soil of the strongest staple.

Now I will describe the whitish or ash-coloured Jand. This
stratum is mostly arable, except a few closes near the village, which
are pretty good as grass-land—or else, in a general way, this
stratum is but indifferent pasture, but cultivated as arable (if well
tilled), is the best land 1 ever saw for any crop. I know of no
difference as to quality here till you come to the clay below,
where, if any part of a field chance to run on that stratum, you
may see to within a yard where it commences by the colour,
which is darker; and the farther you advance on the clay the
darker is the soil, and the worse its quality from being mixed with
the clay; the staple of the soil is not near so firm on the clay as
where it is free from clay. Jam not aware of any plant that
grows here by which the two soils can be distinguished from each
other ; the hedges and timber thrive equally well on both.

The pasture land at the lower end of the farm, as I have said
before, is a clay top-soil a little mellowed with vegetable matter,
with a tenacious subsoil of yellow clay. This land is not good

as pasture, but would be still worse as arable, judging by what
I have seen ploughed in its neighbourhood. The hedges and
timber grow well on the whole of it; but there is much difference
in the appearance of the herbage. On the higher parts of these
fields the grass grows much stronger and higher, with more bents,
and some small quantity of clover. As you approach the lower
ground the grass becomes shorter, with less bents, and a great
portion of it carnation-grass (the worst sort that grows). At

432 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

mowing-time the land actually looks white with moons; the car-
nation-grass is visible at all seasons of the year. In draining
this land we found the top-soil to be of the same colour on the
higher and lower parts: but the subsoil varied much; on the
higher parts it was almost pure clay, with a few flints and pebbles ;
while, on the lower parts, the clay is much paler, with less of flints
and pebbles, and mixed with a vein of a light-coloured mortary
rit.

‘ I shall next describe a farm of 500 acres, also occupied by my
father, in the neighbourhood of Witney, in Oxfordshire, and
partly on the oolite formation. On this estate there is limestone
brash, a hollow moory land, a light gravel, a moory gravel, a
strong gravel, a mortary loam, and a strong clay; the limestone
brash is a light red loamy top-soil on the limestone. In some
places the loam is a yard in depth; where this occurs the crops
are much better than where the stone is near. In places on this
kind of soil there are veins of clay in the subsoil, which cannot be
detected at any time except when the land is very wet, and then
you can hardly walk across those places for a few days; but we
never found much difference in the crops, except where the clay
lasted some distance. When on such places the turnips were small,
and the corn short and very fine in the straw, we never discovered
any variation in the colour of the topsoil.

On such soils as these a chemist may analyze either of these
several veins of land, and yet not arrive at a correct conclusion
as to its comparative barrenness or fertility. If the sample sent
him happened to be taken from the part of the field where the
subsoil is loam as well as the top, he would pronounce it a fertile
and rich soil; when, on the contrary, if the sample were taken
where the subsoil is clay, he would say the field was bad. In
either of these cases he would be wrong as respects the whole ;
but if the soils analyzed were taken from the stony part of the
field, the result would be much nearer the average quality of the
land; for take any practical surveyor or farmer over this land, he
would at once pronounce it a pretty turnip and barley soil of
average quality, and such is the real character of this part of the
farm.

Close to this brashy land lies the hollow moory field. It is a
black hollow top-soil on a pale soapy clay; and in some places
the subsoil is a mortary gravel, very weak in its nature, and of
much the same colour as the clay. On entering this field, the
practical man would pronounce it bad, and not worth cultivating.
He would point to the white places where the subsoil peeps
through the top, also to the wild tansy and rushes, as indications
of poverty and stagnant water. He would say, “ Look at this
top-soil; see how light it is; it is almost ready to fly with the

Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 433

wind. If anything is to be made of this, it must be well drained
first, and then well stocked and trod with sheep to make it firm,
before anything will grow here.” Such is the treatment this field
has had; and after being pared and burned, and a little manure
added, it grew an excellent crop of swedes, and a good crop of
barley after; but it will not bear wheat, neither were the swedes
or the barley so good on those parts of the field where the top-
soil is of a pale colour.

We next come to the light gravel. This top-soil is a darkish-
coloured light gravel, with a pale weak gravel under: the whole
field the same. This is good turnip and barley land, ever dry,
and will bear an average crop of wheat of good quality. On
walking over this field it treads firm; no indications of spongi-
ness, or plants of bad omen, to be seen. If out of crop in the
spring, the groundsel and chickweed will grow well.

Adjoining this enclosure is a large one of a moory gravel. The
top-soil is of a dark colour all over, but one part of the field, is
of much lighter texture than the other; and where this is the
case the subsoil is a weak pale gravel; and near the upper end,
where the top-soil becomes of firmer staple, the gravel is stronger
and lower down. This field is of weak middling quality, where
the top-soil is light, and hollow to the foot, but improves as it be-
comes firmer.

A hedge only divides the last-mentioned field from one in which
the nature of the soil entirely alters again. ‘The land here rises
to a considerable ridge, of gentle ascent either way. It covers an
area of about 60 acres. At the base of this bank, facing the
south-east, is a good strong gravel, of a rich yellow colour, with a
subsoil of gravelly loam. On the contrary side, facing the north-
west, the top-soil is a mortary loam of considerable depth, a little
inclined to clay in places, which reaches over the top of the ridge,
and meets the gravel on the other side in places. On this land
the hedges and timber grow equally well on the gravel and the
loam; and on part of it which is pasture on the loam, the furze
(or whin) grows strong and well, but the turf on it is inferior.
Where the clay appears, the turf is sweet and good. This mor-
tary loam, as arable land, is more valuable than when down as
pasture ; but not first-rate, by any means, in that state. Its ap-
. pearance to the eye is not such: the colour is a dead-looking pale
yellow. It treads firm at al] times; will bear pretty good wheat
and oats, but no other crop for certain; it is not a turnip soil by
anymeans. The oak thrives well on it. The gravel on the south-
east side will bear turnips and barley, as well as wheat and beans,
equally well. One corner of this ridge of land abuts on a piece
of pasture of the same kind. It is a hungry clay, mixed with this
mortary loam, which forms a more barren soil than the mortary

434 = Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

loam itself; of little use as arable or pasture land. Its very look
is poor, although the timber grows well close by on the same
soil.

In passing from this poor corner we come to the pasture just
named above. A worse piece of land I hardly ever saw. It joins
a brook which overflows it at times after heavy rains, and to
appearance does some good—at all events, where the water goes
the grass looks green in the winter and spring, but when hay-
making comes there is little or no more grass than where the .
water does not go, neither is the hay of better quality. On the
parts of this field where the water does not go, we put some farm-
yard manure, also some ashes steeped in soap-suds and chamber-
ley, and fed a flock of sheep on a portion of it, in the hope of
improving the herbage ; but could never see the least good either
of the three manures did. The sheep-dung lay so thick that it
might have been shovelled up; still the land had that russet, un-
kind, thick strong turf, which no animal would eat unless starved
to it. Dig up a portion of this soil, and it looked good; plenty
of substance to it, and not, to appearance, too much clay—a soil
that would deceive most farmers. Perhaps the chemist might be
the best judge here, the field being all alike, and the sub and
super soils being apparently the same.

Immediately above this barren pasture is an arable field of
strong clay (still adjoining the same brook), but not a very wet
clay. It would grow beans and wheat. The top-soil here is in-
clined to be a little dark, but treads hollow after a frost. The
subsoil is a yellow clay.

The remainder of the farm is pasture, mostly clay or a clay
and loam mixed, with a clay subsoil, and of much the best quality
on the higher parts of it. The elm grows well on the loamy and
drier veins; where the clay predominates, the oak thrives better ;
but the turf shows indications of sourness, with a great deal of
carnation-grass, and but little or no clover of either sort mixed
with it. On the lower parts of the pasture the herbage is still
worse. A great portion of it is what we call fire-leaves, and much
carnation grass, and a few bents. The top-soil here is a little
coloured with decayed vegetable matter, but evidently clay, with a
clay subsoil.

I now come to the farm I at present reside on, which is
on the blue lias formation, and lies within 5 miles of the city
of Gloucester, and in one of the worst districts of land in
Gloucestershire. I have known land produce as little grass and
hay as this pasture does, and as little straw as the arable, but
never so little butter and cheese from that grass and hay, or so
little corn from that straw. The wheat varies from 8 to 20 bushels
per acre; beans from 16 to 24 bushels per acre; and the make

Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 435

of butter and cheese is as bad. The colour of the top-soil is
mostly dark, inclined to blue—a clay mixed with stones from the
subsoil, and pebbles, apparently transported hither: it also con-
tains a great deal of lime-wash. The subsoil partakes of nearly
the same nature, but mostly of a lighter colour, in consequence of
its being excluded from the sun and air. In some places on this
formation, as I have before observed at the commencement of this
Essay, the veins of stone and clay, or beds, as we call them, crop
out, many of them in the space of a furlong, and impede the
plough as badly as any of the stony land on the oolite formation.
Here also I observe, the paler the colour of the soil the weaker
the land, whether arable or pasture ; and from the same reason—
that is, the subsoil—either stone or clay approaches nearer the
top, and becomes mixed, thereby causing the difference in colour.
On this formation, where the stone is soft and weak, and of a
light colour, there the land is worst. This district of poor land
extends, from east to west, about 2 miles in breadth, and about 4,
from north to south, in length. By the cause of some natural
agency, there is a ridge of high land running nearly the whole
length of this district; and on the highest part of this ridge, for a
few acres, the soil is as good as I could wish to see, and makes
excellent pasture, always dry; the turf of a rich green colour, with
much clover. The best sort of bents are to be seen, and plenty
of sorrel and craisies. The soil is a rich-looking gravelly loam,
with a subsoil of the same earth. The elm grows well—better
than the oak ; but as soon as you begin to descend the hill, the
soil becomes clay directly. The turf looks russet and stingy, and
the herbage of the worst sort—carnation-grass for the most part,
without clover or craisy. The bents are of the worst sort, and in
some places scarcely anything else growing but what we call
black bents. On a great deal of this pasture-land the wood-wax
and gorse are very abundant, as well as many other nasty weeds
which I do not know the names of. Nearly the whole of this
land wants draining, pasture as well as arable. Some has been
done, which has improved it much, but will never make it land
of an average quality, Extreme wet or dry seasons affect it very
much—I may say injure it very much. The arable land, if fal-
lowed in very dry summers, becomes so light in the staple that
_ the crop generally fails if planted with wheat next year, and you
get a crop of weeds instead. On the other hand, if fallowed in
wet summers, you cannot clean it. Here are hundreds of acres
in this state now, not a morsel cleaner for having been fallowed
last summer.

In March, 1842, my landlord drained a piece of arable land on
this farm. I then, in the course of the summer, cleaned it as well
as possible: there was not a bit of couch or other roots to be seen,

VOL, Vv. 2a

436 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

I then manured it with good farm-yard manure, at the rate of 16
cart-loads to the acre—certainly more than 20 tons. I planted
it with wheat on the first two days in March last. The wheat
came up very strong, and looked well for a few days: it then
began to lose plant, and looked very sickly all the time till
harvest. I did my best by hoeing it, but to no purpose. When
harvest came I had the worst crop of wheat I ever saw, but a
heavy swath of weeds, and those of almost every kind. I am not
alone in this case ; for many of my neighbours had fields of wheat
last season that were planted at Michaelmas, and a little after
(on fallows), which were no better than mine, but weeds there
were in abundance. The hedges and timber grow well on this
soil; the hawthorn very strong. The wild tansey, the wild withey,
and the horse-mint, grow here very well. It is also very subject
to wild mustard.

I have now said what my actual experience as a farmer has
taught me, and will next endeavour to communicate what I have
learned by observation in travelling about as a farmer. I always
found there was much to be gained by watching the operations of
other people. The first piece of land that excited any degree of
interest in me as to its good or bad qualities was a rabbit-warren,
about five miles from Marlborough, in Wiltshire. The first time
I saw this land I was on my road to school. I thought little of it
then; except noticing the few elder-bushes that were to be seen,
and the rabbits which were in abundance: still 1 remembered
the bushes were on the brow of the hills, and that the rabbits
made their holes amongst them, and that the chalk looked
white there. Ina very few years after, this warren was let as
a farm and broken up. I passed through this warren many
times afterwards, at all seasons of the year. Those places where
the bushes stood were to be seen at a great distance, and looked
as if the land had been chalked. In summer the crops showed
these places very much. Scarcely anything grew on them for a
few years: while on the land where the chalk was not to be seen
the crops were excellent ; turnips and seeds as well as the corn.
I always considered this difference to arise entirely from the chalk
being mixed with the top-soil, partly by the rabbits and more by
the plough, in consequence of the top-soil being shallow there:
this fact also caused the variation in colour from the better parts,
which was a dark, hollow, light loam. The chalk-hills in this
neighbourhood—in fact, all the chalk-hills that I have seen—
show the worst face on the sides and brows of them, and are less
fertile than the tops or the bottoms, whether used as pasture or
arable. These observations will apply to the same formation in
Berkshire, which I have mentioned before.

I will next describe a district of country which I have been

Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 437

through many times; indeed I have been over several farms which
lie within this district. It extends from Cricklade, in Wiltshire,
to Bampton, in Oxfordshire, about 14 miles in length, and varies
from 1 to 4 miles in breadth, and lies on the left hand as we
descend the banks of the Isis, to which it is contiguous the whole
distance above-named. Here is quite a field for any chemist—
aye, even for a natural philosopher of the best school—to define
the geological properties of this district of country. It contains
almost every description of soil; also good and bad of each sort;
pasture as well as arable; irrigated meadows, natural as well as
artificial. I think some of the former which are flooded by the
Isis are as good as possible for any purpose, or for any kind of
stock. Any person at all acquainted with land would at first sight
pronounce these meadows to be good: through the winter it always
wears a good face; its appearance is rich and good. If you ex-
amine the herbage, you will find much rye-grass and clover, with
all the best sorts of bents, and a total absence of those bitter, noxious
weeds which are found on poor pasture-soils—such as moons, car-
nation-grass, gorse (some people call it cammock), fire-leaves,
hard-heads, and many others. The hay from these rich meadows,
if made in good season, will stick to the fingers like good hops.
The soils of these meadows are not all alike: some are a loamy
gravel; others have much clay in the composition ; while in other
places they appear to consist entirely of alluvium left by the Isis.
As respects the fertility of these meadows, much depends on the
nature of the soil that is flooded by the same water; or whether
the water runs right over it; or what is called flooding backwards
—that is, the water runs or stands back on the land, and lies in a
stagnant state till the flood subsides. In this latter case it is ever
considered that the water does harm: when, on the other hand,
the water, by running over the very same description of soil, does
a vast deal of good; thereby often making in the very same mea-
dow good land and bad land, merely by the action of the water ;
and yet to the chemist the super and sub soils of each shall appear
the same. I will ask, How is he to decide? The experienced
farmer is much more likely to point out the relative fertility of
such soils: he would call attention to the unkind state in which
the flood had left the land, drowned by the back-water, covered
with scum and small pieces of vegetable matter, driven there by
the wind; the herbage looks starved, and not of the best kind;
and if this part should lie a little flat, as is often the case, it will
be found full of sedge-grass and other water plants.

As the beds, or rather veins of gravel, run through the whole
of this length of country, I have observed that the best upland
pasture has a great portion of dark loamy earth mixed with the
gravel, and in some places clay also; but where the oa prede-

26

438 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

minates it is mostly wet, in consequence of the gravel bringing the
water from the higher ground. Here, also, the plants, which
indicate poverty, will appear brought there entirely by the stagnant
water ; for when these pasture-fields are drained many of such
weeds are not to be seen. ‘There are some clay-soils in this dis-
trict, both pasture and arable ; but they differ very little from what
I have before described in other parts of the country.

The most predominant soil in this district is gravel, and that of
almost every shade of colour, as well as consistence, and I may
say of every degree of fertility. I will first speak of the arable:
that which has a mixture of loam, and has a dark brown cast or
colour, is the most fertile ; its texture or staple is firm, and has a
rich appearance. This soil will bear heavy crops of any kind,
except beans ; excellent for turnips and barley. The only casualty
I know of belonging to this land, is its being affected by extremely
dry summers, in consequence of the subsoil consisting of gravel
alone to a considerable depth. As this gravel approaches the
oolite strata on which it lies, it invariably and gradually becomes
of a lighter colour, and weaker in its nature, and consequently
more barren.

There is also a moory gravel, and that to some extent, in this
tract of country, but of a much less fertile quality than the one
just mentioned: still some of it is useful arable land, if pro-
perly treated. Here also, as on the other gravel, the darkest
in colour is the best. The pasture on this description of soil
is of the worst character, and lies for the most part very wet,
for want of draining: but even where it is drained, the turf
wears a very dry, stingy appearance, nearly white for six months
in the year. The subsoil under this moory gravel is mostly 3
weak, pale gravel, with veins of clay intermixed; and in places
there appears hardly any top-soil at all; that which is, is ina
great degree decayed vegetable matter.

The pasture on the best description of gravel first treated of
—that is, the loamy gravel—is very good ; particularly fertile as
dairy-land, and makes goods of the best quality; but as you
approach the oolite formation the turf becomes gradually worse.

I will now take a view of the Cotswold Hills, which include
a great part of the oolite formation: but it must be a brief
sketch for a work of this nature; for a full description of these
hills would fill a large volume in treating of this subject alone.
Here are to be found soils of many sorts and colours. These
hills are mostly occupied as arable land; and much of that
which is pasture, where it can be ploughed, would be more pro-
fitable as arable. The most prominent signs of the best soils
here are a reddy-brown or partridge-coloured loam (most of this
formation has a loamy top-soil), upon a loose rubbly subsoil ;

Iniications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 439

the stones not too soft, or too small, nor too thick on the top-
soil; and the top-soil of a firm texture. On the other hand,
if the top-soil is inclined to look dark and moory, and appears
comparatively free from stones on the top, we expect this to be
sour, weak land; or if we find the stones in the subsoil of a soft
texture, a pale colour, and a quantity of small stones lying on
the top-soil, we judge this to be weak land, but healthy for sheep-
stock ; also, if we find the subsoil to consist of a flat, compact
rock, we say this is not a fertile soil; and the nearer the rock
approaches the surface the worse it is. What renders this soil
unproductive is, that the roots of the plants cannot penetrate the
rocks to the requisite depth, neither can the water percolate
sufficiently quick, nor the moisture ascend readily in dry weather.
Many of these flat rocks lie immediately under, or upon, a bed
of clay. If we find clay on these hills we do not pronounce the
soil good, notwithstanding the stone should be hard and good.
In a general way, the harder and firmer the texture of the stone
the better the land, provided the subsoil be loose, and not reten-
tive of water.

I fear my observations will be found too lengthy and tedious
for a work of this nature, therefore I shall treat of only one more
district of country, and that on the lias formation, which runs (as
far as I have traced it) from Bristol, through the vale of Glou-
cester, part of Worcestershire, and on into Warwickshire. Some
persons call it the blue lias, and certain it is that all the stone
which it contains has, more or less, a blue cast. The harder it
is the bluer it is; that which is soft is of a pale colour; but the
beds of clay are of many colours: some are red, containing
gravel and sand of the same colour; some are almost white, with
much lime-wash in it, having the appearance of mortar; others
are yellow and blue, and between the bottom beds of stone there
is a blue marl. This being the composition of the lias forma-
tion, it must, in consequence, produce supersoils of various
colours, as the different beds of stone and clay come to the sur-
face, or (to use a geological phrase) crop out; and such is the
case for the whole district of country I have mentioned. There
is another material cause of the difference in colour in this forma-

_ tion, which is this: in many places here are banks, or (perhaps
more properly and correctly speaking) continuations of some ex-
tent from the oolite, which run, in some instances, for miles on
this formation; and in other parts there are detached spots of
alluvium, left by the water at some time. These facts, combined
with the natural formation of this strata, must consequently pro-
duce many qualities of land, and those of many colours.

We have some good land, and some very bad in this district, as
may be supposed from the aboye description; but, I believe, the

440 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

most fertile of both arable and pasture is where other soils lie on
the lias, or are mixed with it: therefore I think the quality of
such soils can be but little understood by their colour, without
an actual inspection of the spot to be judged of. The top-soil
may belong to the oolite, and the subsoil to the lias. The colour
of each varying so much, the palest and most plastic of this for-
mation (the lias) we generally find the least productive as arable-
land; and, from its very wet nature, combined with its barren
qualities, producing almost every sort of weed in great abundance,
such as horse-mint, wild withy, wild tansey, &c. The poorer
sorts of pasture are invariably found contiguous to the worst
arable, and, from the same causes, produce weeds for the most
part ; and, like other barren pasture-land before specified, pro-
duce carnation-grass, wood-wax, gorse, moons, fire-leaves, and
such like. It has ever a sour appearance, and for six months in
the year the turf is nearly white, or, I perhaps ought to say, a
nasty white, from the number of old stems left from the last
summer.

I shall mention one more feature of this country, and then I
have done, that is, the meadows on the banks of the Severn,
which, by judicious management, may be made some of the finest
in the kngdom. These meadows, for the most part, consist of
alluvial soil, and that, in many places, to a great depth; and
many of those that are not composed of such soil may be flooded
to great advantage at little expense. But at present this land
lies in a very neglected state, and much of it, to appearance, is
very poor and barren—and it is so in reality as now managed.
Nature has made the land, together with the means of enriching
it, but man neglects his part. 1 believe this soil to contain every
ingredient necessary to form good and fertile land for any pur-
pose, but the crop is cut and carried away every year, and the land
left to take care of itself till the next season. I know of a few
meadows, under good management, that are excellent, and why
not others? Those that are well done look rich and healthy at
all times, the herbage of the best kind, and the hay of the best
quality. On the other hand, where neglected, the appearance is
coarse and barren, the turf covered with moss and sedge-grass,
and, when cut for hay, they get but little to carry away but this
sedge-grass; if any moss is cut with it the cattle will not eat it.
Ail this difference for want of the Severn floods over it.

Such are my observations, founded on facts derived and corro-
borated by thirty years’ experience. Before I conclude I will
State my opinion how far your object is attainable, under the three
heads on which you are desirous of information, namely, Colour,
Consistence, or Vegetation.

Colour.—As regards the colour of soils, I believe there is good

Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 441

and fertile land, also poor and barren Jand of all colours. If
judgment is to be formed by the colour, it should be entirely con-
fined to the particular soil im question, and in that case great
deference should be paid to the texture also ; as, for instance, all
newly broken up land is of a more hollow nature, and much
darker in colour than old tillage-land on the same strata, even if
the fields lie side by side. It is only in the same field, farm,
parish, or district that any judgment can be correctly formed as
to its relative fertility, and then much judgment also must be ex-
ercised in examining the cause which tends to change of colour.
My opinion is, that on almost all old tillage-land the supersoil takes
its colour from the subsoil. ‘There may be some, which have
been very highly manured for a long course of years, that are
altered a little by that means, but not many, as most manures
dissolve entirely in time; also lime, applied to arable-land in
large quantities, gives it a lighter colour, and tends to firm the
staple of it.

Consistence of the Component Parts which form the Super and
Subsoils of the Earth—The most fertile soils that have come
under my notice (as will be seen in the foregoing pages) are the
alluvium and loams of every description, whether mixed with
gravel, marl, stone, or clay. The latter is often wet, but, when
drained, it will generally produce very heavy crops of wheat and
beans; and most of such soils are good pasture if drained. A
great deal depends on the depths of the top-soil, as well as on
the nature of the subsoil. If the top-soil be of a good depth it
often answers the purpose of a loose, porous subsoil, for it is im-
possible for any crop to flourish on a hard, compact bottom: yet
I must not be understood to say that these soils will be ever
fertile without good tillage and good manuring. Some pasture-
land will remain in a rich state provided it be grazed at all times,
and not mowed at all; but the best of arable-land will soon get
poor by constant cropping. It is true the best land will (what
“ oy call) answer the whip much sooner than poor, weak
and.

Poor and barren soils are often composed of one individual
Stratum, or at best but little mixed with any others. Such is the
case where stone, sand, clay, or gravel predominates. Where
this happens the subsoil will be found much to resemble the top-
soil, whence comes the barrenness for want of mixture of strata,
or earthy matter. Some soils are barren from being of too hol-
low or light a texture, while others are so from being of too plastic
and adhesive a nature. I never found good land yet but what
would tread firm under foot if in a dry state, and even in a wet
state if the water is not suffered to lie on it; but poor land I
haye, such as moory soils, light sands, and even clay when pul-

442 Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

verized by frost, or extreme dry weather. On each of these three
soils I have seen the wind blow the wheat up by the root in the
spring of the year; and on pasture-Jand of this description I have
seen the grass-plants actually drawn out of the ground by the
frost.

I know of a farm in the county of Gloucester that for many
ages had Jain as a common. . It was inclosed about twenty years
ago. and most of it ploughed up, but, contrary to expectation, it
proved bad, uncertain land. The tenant tried every means he
could devise to improve it, but all to no purpose. He pared and
burned some, and had he continued doing so he might have
burned the whole of the top-soil—aye, actually consumed it.
Disappointed and brought to a stand-still, he applied to his land-
lord for a reduction of rent. The landlord said, “ No; but if
you think lime will do any good, I will pay for lime to a certain
amount.” The tenant procured lime from a distance of 16
miles, and dressed his land with it. The result was good crops
of every description after the lime. Now, adjoining this farm,
and only separated by a turnpike-road, and on soil of the same
description in every particular, is another farm of old tillage-
land, which always grew good crops without lime. How, in this
particular case, I will ask, can chemistry tell the productive soil
from the unproductive? The excess of vegetable matter in the
old common land was, in a great measure, dissipated before the
lime was applied ; therefore but little difference in that particular
could have appeared. This is a dark-brown, gravelly top-soil,
with a subsoil of much the same earth.

Vegetation.— As regards vegetation on the best soils, much
depends on its condition. If full of manure anything will grow
to a good crop that may be planted, provided such crop is calcu-
lated for the particular sort of land. The elm grows well on
most good soils, especially on the Joams; and nearly as well on
poor, thin loams, provided the subsoil be loose and dry. On the
best arable lands, in good condition, and out of crop for a short
time, the groundsel and land-grass will appear: a sure guide that
the land is fit to be planted. But on good arable-land, out of
condition, every description of weeds and plants the soil is or has
been subject to will come again, and many will appear which are
to be seen on barren soils: therefore, as regards vegetation, much
caution is necessary before giving an opinion as to the relative
fertility or barrenness of any soil.

Difficult cases of this sort might be multiplied to a great
length, therefore I will content myself with what I have said
heretofore relative to this particular, and more especially to the
remarks on pasture-land, on which I cannot say more to the
point,

Indications of the Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 443

Hoping I may have afforded, in some degree, the information
you require (and that in a plain, though not in a learned or an
eloquent manner), I will conclude by saying that I have inclosed
a few specimens of different plants, with the names attached —at
- least the names by which we know them in the country,—and
have classed them as they appear on the different soils, as far as
they relate to indications of barrenness. The vegetation on good
land, every one knows, is of the best kind, consequently it needs
no description from me.

Plants found on poor Wet Clay Pasture-Land.

No. 1. Wood-wax.

No. 2. Moon.

No. 3. Fire-leaves.

No. 4. Black-bents.

No. 5. Carnation-grass.

To which may be added gorse, rushes, and a blue-flowering plant,

which does not blossom till September, when many acres of this farm
actually look blue with the flowers of this plant.

Plants found on poor Wet Clay Arable-Land.

No. 6. Wild tansey.
No. 7. Wild teasel.
To which may be added those that the present season will not afford
specimens, viz. :—
Horse-mint.
Wild withy.

Hollow Farm, Elmore, near Gloucester.

XXVI.— On the Use of Bones as a Manure with Sulphuric Acid.

No. 1.— Experiments made on Turnips with different Manures,
on the Home Farm of Gordon Castle, Morayshire, in the year
1843, with the effect on the succeeding crop in 1844.—From
the President, the Duke of Ricumonp.

Tue soil is of a poor, light, sandy nature; the turnips, which
were Dale’s Hybrid, were sown in drills 27 inches apart, and one
half drawn for cattle in the yards, the other half eaten on the ground
with sheep. The land was afterwards sown down with Chevalier
barley and grass seeds, without any manure. The lots consist of

444 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

] imperial acre each. The tailings are not included in the un-
derneath calculations :—

Lot No. 1. Manured with 14 yards farm-yard dung, and 8 bushels of

bone-dust.

2. 5, with 315 lbs. guano.

3: 3 with 16 bushels of bone-dust.

4. 53 with 2 bushels of bone-dust, dissolved in 83 lbs.
of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with
12 gallons of water. This mixture was allowed
to remain between 2 and 3 days in a tub, and
then 388 gallons of water were added to it;
the mixture was then applied to the drills in a
liquid state, by means of a water-cart.

5. ae with 8 bushels of bone-dust, mixed with 83 lbs.
of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with
12 gallons of water. This mixture, nearly in
a dry state, was then sown with the hand along

the drills.

Value

Cost Weight Value Produce | Weight | Value Total after
Lots. of of of of per of Value of | deducting
Manure. | Turnips. | Turnips. | Barley. | Bushel.| Barley. | Produce. | cost of
Manure.

£ s. d.|Tons.cwt.| £ s. d.|Qrs.B.P.| lbs. Bis. &. |S 4. og. | eee
1 3 0 0] 12 O 300;,413 56 518 14/818 14] 518 ly
2, | 117 4| 1 4] 216 0| 3 5 le 55 61419 141715 1] 517
3. 1a6 200) I1.0.0 215 0} 3 7 lH 55 5 511 |8 on 6 411
4. 011 6) 32 4 310] 3 4 3 56 5 0 7% | 8 2 Fe yeaa
oa Dewees salty 215 0| 3 6 2 5 1/5698 219 616 9

No. 2.—On the Use of Bones with Sulphuric Acid.
By E. Waesrarr.

Havtne been requested by His Grace the Duke of Richmond
to state the effect of various manures at the farm of Westerton, on
his Grace’s property near Huntly, I now do so as near as I can;
but my various manuring being more from necessity (want of
farm-yard manure) than for experiment, I did not go so minutely

to work as I might have done. In 1843 the turnips were laid
down as follows :—

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 445

ra Cost of
5 Manure
<
Lot. | S Manures used, per Scots acre. per Result.
= Acre.

SKIRVIN'S SWEDISH TURNIPS. zs. d.

No. 1.| 4 | 18 loads of farm-yard manure, and 10 | 415 4] An excellent crop; weighing,
bushels of mixed (dust and drill) bones. when topped and tailed, 28
Good soil. tons 18 ewt. per acre.

No. 2.| 3 | 200 lbs. (about 4 bushels) of bone-dust, | 1 1 1 | Cropnotnearlyequal to No.1.
dissolved in 100 lbs. of sulphuric acid,
and 300 lbs. of water. After this mix-
ture had lain a few days, and been
stirred daily, it was further diluted with
water, mixed with mould, and laid into
the drills dry. Poor sandy soil.

No.3. | 1 | The same quantity of bonesand sulphuric | 1 1 1 | Crop rather better than No. 2.
acid as in No. 2, dissolved the same
way, but diluted with 55 lbs. of water
to 1 1b. sulphuric acid, and put iuto the
Sage in this liquid state. Soil like

0. 2.

RED-TOPPED YELLOW TURNIPS.

No. 4.| 6 aa farm manure and 8 bushelsmixed | 4 10 8 | Anexcellent crop.
ones,

No. 5.| 1 | 16 bushels of mixed bones. 117 4] Slowerin growth, and not quite
so good a crop as No. 4.

No.6. | 44} Sulphuric acid and bone-liquid, same as | 1 1 1 The best crop of the yellow
No.3. The soil of Nos. 4, 5, and 6, turnips. As a proof, I sold
was all good, and equally so. my turnips, to be eaten by

cattle in my byres, and in

December I wished to get

back two acres at the price I

sold them at. No.5 were

eaten. I was refused the tur-
nips off No.6, but got two

acres off No. 4.

No.7. | 64 Sulphuric acid and bone-liquid, same as 1 1 11] A very good crop.
Nos. 3and6. Soil poor and various;
most of it lately in a crofter’s, or sub-
tenant’s hands, had two and three white
crops following.

No.8.| 3} Double the usual quantity of good farm | 7 0 0 | Plants much later in starting.
manure. Soil the same as No. 7. Crop much the same as No.7,
certainly not better.

I do not think it likely that a constant repetition on the same
ground of the sulphuric acid and bone-liquid would answer; but
there is no deception in this statement of its effects, and there
appear to be other advantages than the small cost of the liquid,
viz., the quick starting and growth of the plants, which have here

on all occasions come to the hoe nine or ten days sooner than from
other manures; and with proper implements the liquid can be
put into the ground at less expense than most other manures,

In a circle in the centre of No. 1, there was nearly an acre of
the plants extremely small and weak; about the middle of July
I neutralized about 160 gallons of cattle-urine with sulphuric

446 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

acid, and with a liquid-cart put it over the weakly plants. In
about four or five weeks after, and to the time they were taken
up, these turnips were as good as the others.

In 1844 all this ground was laid down with oats and grass, and,
except lot No. 1, where (only) the turnip-tops were ploughed in,
there was no perceptible difference in the crop of oats or clover,
and all good.

No. 3.—On Bones, with Sulphuric Acid and other Manures.
By R. W. Purcuas.

Lindor’s Farm, St. Briavels, Gloucestershire.

Tuts trial of sulphuric acid and bone-dust with other manures
was made upon a worn-out arable field of a sandy soil, sown
the beginning of ‘August, 1843, with improved stone-turnips in
lots of a quarter of an acre. The ground was ridged up at
24 inches, the seed drilled on the ridge, and hoed out to 8 inches;
the turnips were horse-hoed three times, and hand-hoed twice.

The measure, weight, &c., are all calculated per Imperial
standard. One perch of each lot was pulled, topped, and
weighed on the 8th of January, 1844.

The expense and produce per acre are as under :—

, . Expense Produce
Sag Besite ee pace per Acre.
£ s. d.| Tons. ewt. qrs.
1 15 yards fat pigs’ dung, rotten . 3 0 0] 1b 2s
2 | 3} bushels bone-dust, and 80 Ibs. sulphuric} 1.0 6) apn umEee
I acid (oil of vitriol) °
3 | 40 bushels coal ashes, eataipted with ane 13 0/12 12 8
urine in winter 1842-3 .
4 20 cubic yards road-scrapings, mixed with 280 )
gallons of human urine, and twice tured 2 3 16.) TO tiers
over in 1842 .
5 2cwt. guano, mixed with 12 bushels mae 2 1 0/30
charcoal-dust . .
6 7 cwt. urate . ° 2 1. 6) OO Mite
7 | 20 bushels bones (half dust) . : 2 14 10.) SSR
8 6 bushels bone-dust, and 20 Gosh. Ae dust TTS" a0 8 7*iy. 0
9 4 bushels bone-dust, and 20 bush. charcoal-dust | 114 0 8 17-0
10 16 bushels bones (half dust) . i. «ow o4 40 8 (e218
ll 15 yards common straw dung (half rotten) 5 110 036 )0Si
12 | No manure ° °- ° > Pee sal I 107533

The turnips on lot No. 2, sown on the 8th of August, came
into rough leaf before those on any of the other lots.

It is worthy of remark that Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are now (the 8th
of January) in avery growing state, the tops weighing nearly 5

tons per acre.

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 447

The autumn and winter having been so very favourable for the
growth of turnips, the crop would no doubt have been much hea-
vier if a larger sort of turnips had been sown.’ Another thing
which operated very strongly against the crop was (the field
being sidelong), the hail and rain accompanying the dreadful
thunder-storm of the 9th of August washed much soil and ma-
nure from each lot, so that in the steeper parts of the field there
were fewturnips. So severe was the storm, that the seed that had
been planted the day before, was actually washed out of the
ground, to the extent of about an acre of the part manured with
the sulphuric acid, so that nota single turnip made its appearance.
What was then deplored as an evil may turn out to be a great
saving to the farmer, for although this part was not ridged up
again and replanted for nine or ten days, the turnips grown upon
it were fully equal to those on lot No. 7, having 20 bushels of
bones per acre; thus showing that the solution had not been all
washed away with the soil.

The fact that the storm did not wash away the solution in the
last acre sown (although in the steep parts of the field the other
manures except the dung were nearly destroyed), shows that
perhaps half the quantity will be sufficient, and that the great
chemist Liebig, to whom we are indebted for this valuable disco-
very, is right when he says that a much smaller quantity of bones
and acid (viz. 40 lbs. fine bone-dust, and 20 lbs. sulphuric acid
per acre) will produce a good crop of turnips.

Pilstone, near Chepstow,
20th February, 1844.

No. 4.— Report by the Committee appointed by the Morayshire
Farmer Club to examine the Experiments made by Candidates
for the Premiums offered for the Growth of Turnips by new
Manures— Season 1843. Communicated by the President,
His Grace the Duke of Richmond.

Tue committee found that there were two candidates for these
premiums, viz., Mr. M‘ William, Sheriffston, and Dr. Manson,
Spynie; and they took the opportunity of examining these ex-
periments on the same day as that of the turnip-brakes. After
' duly ascertaining that the requisite quantity of ground was experi-
mented upon, they proceeded to inspect, though not to weigh, the
turnips. They found Mr. M‘William’s extended to no less than
thirty and one-half acres, comprising nearly the whole of his
turnip-brake.
The experiments-were conducted with the minutest care and

448 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

attention, and would prove to agriculturists a most interesting
study. In all the experiments he had been eminently successful,
and the committee, with much confidence, award him the first
premium.

Dr. Manson, as the only other competitor, the committee con-
sider entitled to the second premium. His experiments show
that good turnips may be raised by two cwt. of guano, bones,
and sulphuric acid, at an expense of 1/. per acre; but are not
sufficiently calculated to test the values of the different manures
used.

The committee refer the Club to the reports of both these
gentlemen as to the mode of conducting, and the result of their
experiments, and which will be found to give them explicitly and
fully.

The committee cannot conclude this report without commend-
ing Mr. M‘William’s enterprise and perseverance in the highest
manner. The great apparent care and trouble taken by him in
conducting and bringing to a successful issue these numerous
trials, are deserving of the highest praise, not only as being con-
ducive to the interests of agriculture, but to the community at
large. His experiments are all simple, and easy to be under-
stood; and when his report of the minute different results is
before the Club, the committee have no doubt but they will
derive much practical benefit from it. They recommend that the
report should be printed, and a copy sent to every member, along
with his description of a cart, constructed by himself, of simple
mechanism and small expense, for the application of the bones
and acid when diluted.

6th November, 1843. (Signed) Joun STEPHEN.
Ww. Sruart.
Jas. GeppEs.

Experiments made on Turnips with five different hinds of Manure,
on the Farm of Gordon Castle, in the year 1843.

The seed (Dale’s yellow Hybrid) was sown on the 15th of June;
and, as it was wished to ascertain the result while the Duke was at the
Castle, the Turnips, before they came to maturity, were taken up on
the 3rd of November, and carefully topped and weighed.

1st, One Imperial acre manured with 8 bushels of bones and 14
cubic yards of farm-yard dung, at an expense of 3/., produced 12 tons.

2nd, One ditto, manured with 2 cwt. 91 lbs. of guano, at an expense
of 1/. 148. 4d., produced 11 tons 4 ewt.

3rd, One ditto, manured with 16 bushels of bones, at an expense of
1/. 16s., produced 11 tons.

4th, One ditto, manured with 83 lbs, of sulphuric acid and 2 bushels

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 449

of bone-dust, mixed with 400 gallons of water, at an expense of 11s. 6d.,
produced 12 tons 4 cwt. sah
5th, One ditto, manured with 83 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, mixed with 8
bushels of bones, and sown with the hand, at an expense of 1/. 5s., pro-
duced 11 tons.
(Signed) Tuomas Bett,
Farm Steward.

Spynie, 20th October, 1843.

___ In offering myself a candidate for the premium to be given this
year for the best turnips raised by means of sulphuric acid and bones,
I may, in the first place, mention that my field of 21 acres was last
autumn deeply ploughed with three horses out of oat-stubble, it having
previously carried a wheat-crop, after two years’ ley, well manured. In
the spring it underwent the usual process of cleaning, and received,
about the Ist of June, 25 quarters of Linksfield lime. Drilling and
sowing commenced upon the 10th, allowing 4 bushels of bones and 96
Ibs. of sulphuric acid, properly diluted with water, to the acre. The
manure was prepared by putting into a large vat, placed in a corner of
the field to be sown, 32 bushels of bone-dust, and for each bushel was
added 96 lbs. of water and 24 of sulphuric acid: there were thus in
the vat at once 32 bushels of bones, 384 gallons of water, and 474
gallons of sulphuric acid. The whole was allowed to lie for a fortnight
previous to use, when it was found that the acid had nearly dissolved
all the bones. The mixture was then drawn off, and added to water in
a large water-cart, in the proportion of 1 gallon of the mixture to 50 of
water, and which was distributed to the drills from 3 spouts into 3
drills at a time. The drills were previously slightly harrowed down,
and immediately drilled up on receiving the liquid manure. Owing to
the great drought which prevailed at the time of sowing, and the very
recent liming, very few of the seeds vegetated till after the rain, which
' fell about a month from the time of sowing. The heavy gale which
prevailed about this time cut down the greater part of the early plants,
and has thus left the field deficient in some places. I observed that
after the field came to be singled that it underwent that process in the
order in which it was sown,—13 acres having been sown with farm-
yard manure, and the remaining 8 with the bones and sulphuric acid—
the plants from the acid keeping the lead of those sown with court
manure, and are to-day a heavier crop, though not looking quite so
healthy in the blade, owing to their having come earlier to maturity.
The expense per acre, viz.:—4 bushels of bones, at 2s. 6d.—10s. ;
sulphuric acid, 96 lbs., at lLd.—10s.: 12. Those laid down with court
manure received 20 cart-loads per acre, at 2s. 6d. per load—2/. 10s.
’ Weight, per imperial acre, as ascertained on the 15th of November, the
date of weighing :—
Tons, Cwt. Lbs.
Sulphuric acid and bones , 5 v2 12 9 tb £80
Court manure . ; . : > AO. AP) L104
(Signed) D. D. Manson.

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Bones and Sulphurie Acid as Manures. 451

This Report was abridged from the state I gave in.

Nos. 10 and 14.—The bones were watered with the sulphuric acid
the day preceding being sown.

No. 8.—The sulphate of ammonia, guano, and bones, were mixed
together.

No. 11.—The sulphate of ammonia used was dissolved with the
liquid.

No. 13.—The ammonia was sown on the turnips on the 22nd Sep-
tember ; the weather being dry, it affected the leaves for a time, but
afterwards the leaves became more vigorous ; but the bulb did not grow
in proportion.

Nos. 16 and 17.—The bones and guano were dibbled in with a mix-
ture of saw-dust.

Part of two drills of each experiment, measuring 4 perches, were
topped, tailed, and carefully weighed on 13th and 14th December.

The quantity experimented on was 30 acres, 2 roods, 29 falls. The
liquid manure was prepared in the same way as reported on last year ;
but in place of being applied with a watering-pan, as then, it was put on
with a cart, constructed on purpose, to do three drills at a time, and so
as to give a regular and uniform discharge when nearly empty as when
full, which cannot be done by any common discharge pipe. When the
proportion of 2 bushels of bone-dust per Scots acre, or 1 3-5th imperial
with the sulphuric acid, were applied with the full proportion of water,
nearly according to Liebig, a portion of the mixture, equal to half a
bushel of bones, was put into the cart, and filled with water, which went
over exactly one-quarter of a Scots acre, the horse going at the rate of
three miles an hour. When 4 bushels were applied with the acid to
the Scots acre, with the same proportion of water in like manner, a half
bushel was put in and filled up, which went over the quarter of an acre
as before; but this had to be repeated, and gone over a second time.
In order, if possible, to save this labour, several experiments were tried,
with half the quantity of water; in this case the full bushel of mixture
of bones and acid was put in at once, and the cart filled up with water,
and went over the quarter of an acre Scots, thus effecting a considerable
saving of labour; and, as far as I can judge from the experiments, with
equal effect. When the proper proportion of water to be put in the
mixture is ascertained by experience, the plugs which regulate the dis-
charge may be graduated, and a series of them made so as to regulate
the quantity of mixture per acre during pleasure, the horse going at the
regular and common pace, without having to do so by augmenting or
lessening the quantity of water, or by making the horse go faster or
slower, the latter being difficult to regulate.

Crop 1844.

With regard to crop 1844, the Swedes were raised with manure
and liquid, as last year, but less farm-yard manure applied per
acre: good crop.

Having been disappointed of a full supply of bone-dust early

VOL. V. 2H

452 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

in the season, I only got a small portion raised as I intended, and
which, from the experience I have bad, I consider the most advis-
able, when there is a deficiency of farm-yard manure, to apply
along with foreign. That is, to get the finest bone-dust I can,
and to sift out the finest of that, which I apply at the rate of
4 bushels per Scots acre, made into liquid with sulphuric acid
and water, as in the preceding years, 1842-3. The bone-dust
that was kept up by the sieve I mixed at the rate of 10 bushels
bones and 14 ewt. of guano per Scots acre, and sown. In so far
as this was gone into this season, the turnips in both cases are
decidedly superior in weight of bulb to those raised with 3 ewt.,
and in part 4 cwt. guano per Scots acre: the guano throws up a
flush of tops, but do not bulb in proportion. The rest of the field
was completed with bone-dust alone, at 20 bushels per acre, after
a supply was obtained, but rather late to compare with the others:
the turnips, however, are about equal with those raised with the
guano, which were earlier sown.
Gro. M‘Wsttiam.
Sheriffston, 25th Nov., 1844.

No. 5.—On the Action and Application of Dissolved Bones.
By Joun Hannam.

Tue results of several experiments with bones dissolved in acid
have been lately published. To these the attention of the public
has been called, through the pages of the Journal, as affording good
hope that the application will be found to be one of the most im-
portant savings which was ever held out in use of manure, and
one which is likely to be generally useful.

When, now, it is considered how extensively bones are employed
in the production of the turnip crop; that any improvement in
their economy must be as extensively felt ; and that we are in-
debted to science for this suggestion ; it cannot be uninteresting to
inquire how far these anticipations are likely to be realized.

Our object, therefore, is to learn upon what grounds these ex-
pectations are based; for which purpose it will be necessary to
examine the action and application of the tillage as laid down by
theory or developed by practice.

The theory of the action of dissolved bones has been thus put
by Mr. Pusey (Journal, vol. iv., p. 408) :— :

* Bones may be roughly stated to consist of fat, of jelly, and of an
earthy matter called phosphate of lime. When they were first employed
as manure it was doubtful, of course, to which of these substances they
owed their beneficial effect, and many persons were unwilling to pur-
chase bones which had been boiled, and had consequently lost their

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 453

grease. It was soon found, however, that boiled bones were as good
manure as those that were unboiled. There still remained in the boiled
bones two substances either of which might be their active principle.
But Sprengel states that he found bones which had been burnt still act
as manure; and Mr. Hannam has tried the same experiment with the
same result. Now, as fire drives out of the bone the solid jelly which
holds it together, there remains only the earthy matter behind, thus
proved to be the manuring substance. This being phosphate of lime,
chemistry suggested that, since lime was in so small a quantity, the
phosphoric acid united with it must be the true manure contained in
bones, and that if that lime was taken from it by sulphuric acid the phos-
phoric acid, thus set free, would be greatly strengthened in its immediate
activity.”

This view of the theory of the application should be taken with
certain limitations; in fact, it only refers to a solution of burnt
bones, as it depends on the assumption that the earthy part of
bones is their only manuring substance. ‘This, it is true, is
asserted by Sprengel, and followed by Liebig, and certain of
my own experiments seem to bear out the assumption. ‘Thus in
one case J found 16 bushels of bones, burnt to whiteness, give a
better crop than 16 bushels of fresh bones. In two other cases,
where the tillage was assisted by a half-dressing of farm manure,
burnt bones did not act so beneficially; and in one, upon very
poor soil, they completely failed. In all the cases, however,
burnt bones acted more quickly than the fresh ones, and fresh
bones the more efficiently when reduced to a fine powder. From
which facts we may infer that the superiority of burnt over fresh
bones, in certain cases, is owing to the former being more access-
ible to the plant. And other evidence sanctions this. Thus we
know that burnt bones absorb large quantities of water, by which
means the organic acids in the soil the more easily act upon thé
phosphates and render them soluble; that, in fact, they speedily
decompose, while fresh bones, if not ground very small, are very
slowly acted upon by any acid, and remain for a length of time
in the soil unchanged. In the above trials, too, it will be seen
that where the land was partially manured, so as to give the
young plant a start, the fresh bones were, if anything, superior to
the calcined ones, and that, when the land was very poor, though
the burnt bones took the lead, they could not maintain it ; a proof
that though the phosphate of the bone may be the chief fertilizing
element, it cannot of itself supply ail the wants of the crop.

The only conclusion which facts warrant is that the phosphates
are the chief fertilizers in bones; that they are more accessible
to the plant when the fat is removed from the bone; and hence, —
in many cases, where the soil is not deficient in organic food, such
is the necessity of a supply of these phosphates, that the removal
of the animal matter from the bone has a beneficial effect.

2H 2

454 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

Upon this ground—that the removal of the fat and gelatine
facilitates the assimilation of the phosphate of the bone by the
plant—alone can we explain the fact that dry bones can in any
case be superior to fresh ones; for nothing can afford us a
shadow of a reason for saying that the animal matter of the bone
is of no use to vegetation. On the contrary, we know that fat and
oil, if extracted from the bone, and applied to the soil, act as
potent manures, and that the gelatine is, in composition and effect,
analogous to skin, wool, hora, &c.,—substances which contain a
greater supply of nitrogen, which they afford the plant in the
shape of ammonia, than any other animal manures with which we
are acquainted.* At the same time it is possible that, by being
applied together, the fat may retard the decomposition of the
gelatine, and render the phosphate less soluble, and thus, in some
cases, injure the efficacy of the application for the turnip-crop—
which is of a quick growth, and requires a ready food in its early
stages.

The whole case then stands thus:—Bones consist of two parts ;
one of animal matter, and one of earthy. Each of these, used
separately, is a potent manure; yet when both are used together
the effect is in some cases less, in many not greater, than when the
earthy part only is used—in fact, the part is equal to the whole.
It is, however, known that when the two parts are combined, as in
fresh bones, the earthy portion is very slow of decomposition, or
change of form, and that the more this power of decomposition is
encouraged by reducing the bone to powder, so as to admit moisture
and those acids which dissolve the earthy part, and make it ready
for absorption by the roots of the plant, the more efficacious is its
action as a manure; hence the conclusion is apparent that the
facility of decomposition is of great importance, and that, as the
earthy part when applied singly absorbs water freely and is easily
soluble, it is this facility of decomposition, and the ready supply
of phosphates which it gives the plant, that renders it capable of
acting more efficaciously than when combined with a large amount
of fertilizing animal matter—which matter has a tendency to
diminish, or at least to retard, the supply of phosphates.

Upon similar grounds we may explain the fact that boiled
bones are so very generally preferred to the fresh ones by the
large turnip-growers, as they do not contain that fat which retards
the decomposition, At the same time they still retain the gelatine
which is so powerful an animal manure. So that while their phos-
phates are rendered accessible to the plant by the fat being ex-

* Wool, hair, and horn contain 16 per cent. of nitrogen, while farm
manure does not average more than 4. The animal matter of bones con-
tains more water than these substances, and it therefore decomposes more
readily, and is more immediate in its effects.

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 455

tracted—for boiled bones absorb water and speedily decompose —
they have in the gelatine an immediate supply of ammonia and
other organic food.

Upon no tenable grounds, then, can it be maintained that the
animal matter which exists in bones has no fertilizing influence,
or that their earthy or inorganic constituents are the sole manuring
agents. On the contrary, it will be seen that in the case of green
or fresh bones the animal matter is that which almost entirely
nourishes the crop—the phosphates in this case scarcely coming
into action at all during the first crop—and that it is owing to this
deficient action of the phosphates from causes already explained,
that fresh bones are not as active in their effects on the turnip-
crop as their elements would allow them to be if placed under
more favourable circumstances. On the other hand, it is evident
that when calcined bones are used their sole beneficial action arises
from their inorganic matter, and, as this action is equal, and often
superior, to that of the fresh bones, it cannot be denied that the
phosphates alone have an extraordinary effect, and that to them
we are indebted as the chief manuring element of bones. The
conclusion, therefore, is that each constituent used singly is a
manure, and that when combined their defects are diminished by
the animal portion preventing the earthy from coming into action.
Upon these principles, then, Science builds her theory of the appli-
cation of dissolved bones.

“It is evident,” says she, “that the phosphates are essential to
vegetable nutrition, and that they cannot be too accessible to the
roots of the plant; also, that, after the animal matter in bones is
remoyed by fire, these phosphates, through the action of the
organic acids and water in the soil, are most easily assimilated
by the vegetable ; it is, therefore, in my power to suggest means
by which you will imitate the process of Nature, hasten on the
disintegration of the bone, and, by presenting it to the plant in a
form ready for use, economize that portion of the tillage, which,
owing to its being unfit for the use of the growing vegetable, re-
mains in the soil at the expense of our fixed capital, until it wastes
or is required by another crop.”

This it will be seen is the ground-work and object of the theory,
as detailed at the commencement of this paper—a theory which

has but a limited application, and referring merely to the action
of calcined bones. Science, however, does not confine herself
to this.

“It has been granted,” says she, “ not merely that the earthy
matter of bones is an essential food of the plant, and that the pre-
sence of the animal matter retards its action, but that that animal
matter is of itself a potent fertilizer; hence, in dispelling it for the
purpose of facilitating the decomposition of the earthy part, we

456 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

destroy an agent which is valuable. Thus, in order to get a ready
supply of phosphates, we, in the case of burnt bones, waste both
the fat and gelatine—while, even in boiled bones, the oil is for
the same purpose extracted; in this case, however, we get a
tillage superior to burnt bones, inasmuch as, while its phosphates
are obtainable by the vegetable, it has also a fund of animal
manure, and superior to green bones, inasmuch as, while it has
a good share of the organic, its inorganic elements are not in-
active.” “Would it not, therefore,’ adds she, “ be desirable
to devise a means by which both the animal and the earthy part
of bone manure may each be made to serve its own peculiar
purpose in the vegetable economy without injury to the other ;
so as to prevent the waste of the animal part in order to prepare
it for the crop, or of the phosphates by their not being ready for
the roots? If so, it is inmy power tosuggest means by which bones
may be reduced to the finest state of division, and used in such a
form that the earthy parts may be readily assimilated, and the
animal matter set at liberty to mingle in the soil and to perform
its part in promoting vegetation, so that a great saving may be
effected in the quantity used, owing to the nature of the mix-
ture rendering it not necessary to apply more than the plant re-
quires—which is but a small proportion of the quantity applied
in their crude state.” *

The means proposed to carry out these aims, need I add, were
those to which our attention is now drawn, viz. to reduce the bones
by the action of sulphuric or muriatic acid and water to the finest
state of division, and to add water so as to be able to apply the
manure in the form of a solution. In this process with sulphuric
acid the earthy part is extracted from the animal, the acid com-
bines with a portion of the lime (forming gypsum), while the
remainder of the acid, and the remainder of the lime originally
composing the phosphate, are dissolved, and form a double phos-
phate. ‘This solution therefore contains a biphosphate of lime, in
which the phosphoric acid exists in a much greater quantity than
in the ordinary phosphate of lime which exists in bone.

With muriatic acid a muriate of lime, and a biphosphate, is
formed in a similar manner. This muriate of lime is a salt
which attracts moisture greatly.

By this process the bone earth is rendered in a fine state of
division ; the free acids unite with the bases contained in the earth,
and form other salts beneficial to vegetation; and the whole of

* « The whole of the phosphates required by three crops, is contained,”
says Liebig, “ in 66 lbs. of bone-dust.”

‘+ The biphosphate, free from water, contains 714 per cent. of phosphoric
acid, and 284 of lime; while the bone earth phosphate consists of 484 per
cent. of phosphoric acid, and 514 of lime.

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 457

the fertilizing constituents of the bone are reduced to a state best
adapted to afford the turnip an immediate supply of food—by
which reason less than one-half the quantity used in their ordinary
condition will suffice to supply all the wants of the crop.

Such, then, are the ground-works and the details of the theory
of the action of dissolved bones. Practice has already tested that
theory, and careful experiments fully developed the peculiar action
and effects of the application. ‘These experiments are not very
numerous ; nevertheless, they will, I think, be found sufficient to
carry out the truth of the theory which their results corroborate ;
as they bear on themselves evident marks of the care and correct
observation which has attended their execution; thus, though
carried on at one time, and in various places, it will be found that
each experiment was observed to develope one certain peculiar
effect. The experiments which I have met with, having special
reference to the question, are those made by Mr. M. Williams,
Mr. Geddes, and Dr. Monson, and reported to the Morayshire
Farmers’ Club; those of the Duke of Riclimond, communicated
to the Royal Agricultural Society of England; of Mr. Fleming,
of Barochan, Paisley, published in the Appendix to Professor
Johnston’s ‘ Lectures;’ and those of Mr. Finnie, of Swanston,
communicated to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot-
land. My own experiments on the same subject were reported
to the same Society in my Prize Report “ On the effects of Special
Manures.”—( Vide Transactions, March, 1844.)

The following is a summary of the particulars and peculiarities
of the action of the dissolved bones as exhibited in the trials alluded
to :—

Mr, M. Williams's Experiments.
No. l.

Produce Cost per
per Acre. Scotch Acre.

Date. Manures and Quantity. Application.

Tons, ewt. lb. Games ds
1842.) Bones . . 20 bush. | Drilled . . . . 12° 473 Sys ata wl)

Bones . . 4 bush. |] In 6,400 lbs. or 640
Sul. Acid . 116 lbs. gallous of water, iy 4 5 sea

Water . . 224 Ibs. in furrow :

Bones - 20 bush.
Sul. Acid . 76 lbs. An 9
Water . . 126 Ibs.

13 0 52 312 6

Peculiarities.—Difference between the applications and bone-dust
applied in the usual way “was most marked ”’—“ the sulphuric
solution brought the turnips to the hoe 10 days earlier than the bones
alone, and 4 days before the bones sprinkled with acid.” “ Came

458 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

earlier also to maturity.’ ‘‘ The early season against them, as it
checked their growth sooner than an ordinary one.” *

No. 2.
Date. §Manures and Quantity. Application. Produce.
1843. Bone-dust . 2 bush. (Diluted with water,)“ Gavea good crop for quality
Sul. Acid . 46 lbs. 100 times weight of the ground—poor thin
Water . . 112 lbs. of the acid . land.”

Nothing:. 0) se “spon © Geille lorm| la: feMenyinmicmeeas
Peculiarities—Turnips on the solution “ came rapidly on for the hoe.”

Mr. Williams made a numerous series of trials during 1843; as
however the application of the solution was principally in conjunction
with other manures, and on different varieties of turnips, it will be un-
necessary to quote from them further than to say that they corroborate
his former trials.

Mr, Geddes’ Experiments.

Produce Cost per

ate Manures and Quantity Application per Acre. ees

Tous. ewt. lbs. oe

1812.| Manure . 195 loads.
Bones. . 15 bush. ae Ios eal Bae ee et oe

> 1
Water. 201d Ibs, |{ gallons of water .
|

Bones. . 12 bush: | Dibbled . .’ ...<'| 11 9 (ioe

Bnednst = A bush. pe 6600 Ibs., or a 13 1p a 1

Peculiarities.—* Sulphuric acid turnips made appearance first ”—
“ the rapidity of growth continued to be maintained, and they came
to hoeing 10 days before the dibbled bones, and 7 before the dung
and bones.” ‘ The superiority of the sulphuric acid was visible at a
great distance.” ‘‘ The warm season pushed all the sorts too rapidly
to maturity, and they came to premature ripeness for want of moisture
—especially the sulphuric acid turnips, which were too far gone to be
benetited when rain did come—which tells in an unfavourable manner
against their weight as compared with the others.”

Mr. Geddes also “ tried drills here and there throughout the field, with
the same proportion of bones and acid as above, aud the results were, in
all cases, similar to those detailed.”

Dr. Monson’s Experiments.

Manures and Quantities.
Date. Per Acre. Application. Produce per Acre. Cost per Acre.

a8 Bones . 4 bush.) with 50 times} Tons. cwt. lbs. # 5. d.
Fe ere vi Sul. Acid 96 Ibs. weight of} 12 5 80.1 0 0
nured wi Water . 384 lbs. water. .

13 acres, with court-manure, 20 loads per acre . 1017 104 . 210 O

* The remarks on the peculiarities resulting from the application are in
all cases extracted from published Reports.

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 459

Peculiarities—“ Plants from the acid keeping the lead, and are a
heavier crop to-day (Oct. 20th), though not looking quite so healthy
in the blade, having come earlier to maturity.”

The Duke of Richmond’s Experiments.

Produce Cost per

per Acre. | Acre.

|
|

Date, Manures and Quantity. Application.

Tons. cwt. lbs.| £ s.

1843.| Bones . . 16 bush. | ee ath oc breb | ll ee OM SOR ele G

| ; |
Bones . . 2 bush. || With 400 gallons of
tes Presi |t waters. cf] 2% 8 Mar 6

| Bones . . 8bush. |)Acid spread _ over]|
| Sal. Acid - 83 lbs. \ Bones and sown 4 a Ay

of

Peculiarities.—“ The turnips came into rough leaf sooner on that (the
sulphuric acid) acre than on any of the other”’ (Letter of the Duke of
Richmond, Roy. Journ. Agr., vol. iv., p. 408). ‘‘ Turnips taken up
and weighed, Nov. 3rd, before they came to full maturity, as it was
wished to ascertain the result while the duke was at the castle.””—
(Farm-steward’s Report to Royal Soc. of Agr.)

Mr. Fleming's Experiments,

Produce per Acre. Cost per Acre
Date. Manures and Quantity. Application. Tons. ewt. lbs. tis. (de
1843. Bone-dust . 16 cwt. is aL org! ofp lee Doe 28's ae OKd,0

Dissolved in Muri-
Do... - Wewt {7 ote acid. sy 18 11 84 . 3 0 0
The same application Mr. Fleming tried upon potatoes, and the result
was also, in the language of Professor Johnston, ‘ greatly in favour of
dissolved bones’— (Appendix to Lectures on Agr. Chem., p. 81).

Peculiarities—None noted, except that “the crops braided well,”
and that the applications ‘‘ which show the greatest weight, kept the
lead of the others all the season” — (Appendix to Johnston’s Lectures,

D355).

Mr. Finnie’s Experiments.

The only particulars given in the Report yet published are the fol-
owing :—

gavealssof . . . . . 1 9113 produce obtained
Do. dissolved in Sulphuric Acid, with from 16 tons of

1843. Bone-dust, with 12 loads of Manure, £ s. 4. i compared with the
12 loads of Manure, a gainof . . 018 0% farm-manure,

460 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

My own Experiments shew the following particulars :—

|

Date. Manures and Quantity. Application. he ae peel:
2 Tons. ewt. lbs.| & s. d.
1843, | 8 Bone-dust . 16 a Drilled with seed. | 15 3 4/ 113 0
= |, Diluted with water,
i=] 4 =
| § Bone-dust . 8 bush. | fe Teale ig
|. Sul. Acid . 168 lbs. acid, and applied>) 17 9 1 115 0
| 5 Water . .~ 604 lbs. | in the furrow-ridge,
S ploughed up, and
ecg | then seed drilled .
| 2 Bone-dust . 8 bush.|; 7: ;
g Mur. Acid + 168 Ibe. |/Diwed aud 2P tl a7 7 1] 119 6
|3 Water . . : :
\3 ater 604 lbs
= Bone-dust . 8 bush.
= burnt to half original Di
a : ilnted and “P}
Siyeweignt ore) = deat a 13 7 6 6 0
2 Sul. Acid . 84 Ibs. plied as above .
>» Water. . 252 Ibs.
wn NoManure . . . a GME SESS tear eee 2 *

Peculiarities.—The sulphuric acid plots “ started off with the lead,
which they continued to increase, being at hoeing-time full a week in
advance of every other except the muriatic acid, which followed them
up very closely. They almost touched each other on the ridges,
while the plants on the plot with no manure could scarcely be seen.”
At hoeing-time “‘ the most remarkable feature was the decided lead
taken by the dissolved bones.’’ In ‘‘ September the plants on the
dissolved bones appeared to stop growing in the top, and to form a
quicker bulb than the other lots.”

October 12:h. The following notes were taken (vide Trans. High-
land Soc., p. 177): “* Bones and Sulphuric Acid. Bulbs equal
to lot lst (there were twenty applications made in the experiment)—
top small and light colour. Bones and Muriatie Acid. Ditto, ditto,
top a shade darkerin colour. Bone-dust. Bulbs not solarge. Burnt
Bones and Sulphuric Acid. Not so good in appearance as they
were a month since. (Vide Prize Report on Special Manures, Trans.
High. Soc. March, 1844, vol.i., p. 178.)

From these results the conclusion I then deduced was—

“* That bones dissolved in sulphuric or muriatic acid have an extra-
ordinary beneficial effect on the turnip-crop,—hastening the early growth,
encouraging the formation of the bulb in the early season, and increasing
the gross produce.”

This conclusion the practice of the above authorities* confirms
in every particular, and also shows that these advantages may be

* Since this was written, the following trials by Mr. Gardiner have been
published in his Report “ on Special Manures,* to which the Royal High-
land Agricultural Society awarded the second prize of 30/.

[PoraTors,

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 461

secured at a less cost of application than by the ordinary method.
Thus from the foregoing trials we see—Ist. That a moderate
quantity of bones well dissolved acts as a tillage for the turnip-
crop; and that a small quantity, even two bushels, of bones per
acre, thoroughly dissolved, will produce a crop superior in weight
to the usual quantity applied in their ordinary condition. 2nd.
That a large quantity of bones very partially sprinkled with acid
exhibits greatly augmented fertilizing influence ; so that even the
direct advantage, or saving, which we receive is a double one; viz.,
a saving in the quantity and the cost of the manure, and a saving,
or gain, in the quantity of produce; for both of which advantages
a pound, shilling, and pence estimate is in the preceding cases
supplied. There are, however, other or indirect advantages,
attendant on the application of bones in a state of solution, to
which a monetary value cannot be assigned; they are, however,
not the less important, or unworthy of our attention. ‘Thus, in the
first place, we have a quick growth of plant in the earlier stages
of the season—a point which is universally allowed to be the grand
desideratum in the cultivation of the turnip; since, by being
pushed on, its infancy is shortened, and the many dangers
of that period lessened, and the plant is enabled to defy the
ravages of the fly and to spread at an earlier period its green leaf
to the atmosphere ; for the turnip derives a large share of its sus-
tenance by the absorption through its leaves of the carbonic acid
of the atmosphere.

In the next place, we have a continued quick growth and
a tendency to form bulbs—advantages which may be turned to
account. ‘Thus, say that we care nothing for the chance of greater
produce at a less cost—nothing for the almost certainty of con-
quering the fly and the other enemies of the turnip’s infaney—
there are many circumstances under which the power to grow a
crop speedily is peculiarly valuable. for instance, it will enable
us to grow a crop of turnips often, instead of rape, for autumn

Poratogs, 1843.
Top-dressed upon farm dung.
Bones dissolved in Sulphuric Acid rg! at cost of 28s. . 14 tons. 5 cwt. per acre.
Carbonate of Magnesia gave .
Dipudressingypave tice sis ea fe fist me Qin op 1 hs\5, 16) ~
Oats, 1842.
Bones and Sulphuric Acid weighing 42 lbs. per bush.
asafop diesing "| gave 15 bush. 38 lbs, per rood { at a cost of 7s. per toyae
INotop’aressime 9 eee, LL ,, i weighing 39 Ibs. per bush,
Soil—partly moss and partly grayel.
Oats, 1843.
; Bae r
Boye ot alphas} gave 18 bush. 38 lbs. per rood (sie iene ae hush,
Notopdressing . . . 16 , 15.,, i weighing 39 lbs.
Soil—stiff alluvial loam.

462 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

food, or when we wish to sow wheat upon the turnip fallow—a
practice which is now far from being unfrequent, and which the
increasing demand for wheat it is probable will render still more
common. Again, a season may be unfavourable, and the soil unfit,
or other circumstances may interfere so as to retard the time of
sowing. In either case the quick growth of the plant, by the use
of the application, is an object of importance, as it, in fact, gives us
the power of having a good carly crop or a good late sown crop.

Such, then, is the action of dissolved bones, upon the turnip-
crop, as laid down by science, and as developed by practice, the
particulars of which afford us good and sufficient cause for assert-
ing that we are indebted to science for a discovery of ‘ one of the
most important savings which was ever held out in the use of
manure.” How far that discovery may be made generally useful
will be seen from the following inquiry into its application.

The application of dissolved bones (a tillage which has been
shown in the foregoing pages to be attended with so many pecu-
liar results, and, I may add, so many direct and indirect advan-
tages) is a subject worthy of particular investigation, not merely
because the public use of the advantages arising from this, or
from any discovery, greatly depends upon its applicability to public
and general purposes, but because that investigation, should diffi-
culties exist, will give us an opportunity of removing them, or,
should they not exist, of correcting an idea or impression which
is generally made a handle of against anything that is new—the
idea of the impracticability of the discovery ;—a peg upon which
many who will not venture to question the theory, or to deny the
facts stated, will in this case hang an excuse for condemning the
application before they test it. “Its effects may be good, but it
is not calculated for general use ; its application is a matter not
adapted for the farmer. The lancet, which in the hands of the
surgeon is a simple and useful instrument, if used by a novice is
a dangerous weapon,” is the purport of the popular argument, and
which is taken up by many practical men to whom the words
sulphuric and muriatic acids suggest visions of murky laboratories
and mystic operations which the farmer has no cognizance of,—
forgetful that these wonderful acids are nothing more than oil of
vitriol and spirits of salt, and that the same skill which is re-
quired to mix an effervescing draught is all that is required to
make ready a preparation of dissolved bones. ‘This will be seen
from the following detail of the particulars connected with the
application.

The points to be considered in the preparation and application
of the tillage are—lIst. the bones, sort, quantity, and condition of;
2nd. the acid, sort and quantity of; 3rd. the water, sort and
quantity of ; 4th. the method of preparation and use.

Bones and Sulphurie Acid as Manures. 463

Ist. The bones to be employed may be burnt, boiled, or fresh.
If burnt, they contain nothing but the earthy constituents ; if
boiled, they hold also their gelatine; and if fresh, they retain the
whole of their animal matter (both fat and gelatine) as well their
earthy matter. The animal substance being a rich manure, it
would appear that these fresh bones ought to be preferred in all
cases as a manure; it has, however, been shown that this is not
the fact, as the oil they contain prevents the plant, in such cases,
from making full use of the other matters, the phosphates, &c.,
in the bone, which are of still more essential use. For the
purpose, however of this application I should recommend the
use of bones which contain as much of their animal matter as
possible, as the acid acts upon the earthy part, frees it from the
animal gelatine and oil, and prepares it for the plant at the same
time that that animal part is set at liberty to serve its purpose ;
so that it would be bad economy either to destroy the animal por-
tion of the bone by fire or to give the same price for such as
for tresh ones for the purpose of this application. It is true that
calcined bones are more easily dissolved; if, however, either
boiled or raw bones be ground fine the acid will act upon them
powerfully. But even should there be a few small portions of the
bone imperfectly dissolved, J consider this no disadvantage, as
they will act at the latter periods of the growth of the crop; for it
will be seen, from the foregoing experiments, that the effect of
the preparation is to make the plants grow quickly—a proof that
they find plenty of accessible food—and that, in one or two cases,
they appeared to fail in their vigour towards the end of the season
—a circumstance probably arising from the too fine state of division
in which the bone was. And this takes place, it will be seen by
a reference to my experiment, most especially where burnt bones
are dissolved. There is no necessity, therefore, to waste the
organic portion of the bone in order to be able to bring it into a
state of division whici: is really not so useful as that into which
we can bring it without the loss of the animal portion. Whether
this reasoning be correct or not, facts (as my detailed experiments
show) prove the conclusion, that the unburnt bones are preferable
to use in this form.

The quantity of dissolved bones most proper to be applied per
acre is, practically speaking, an unsolved problem. Theory,
however, says that, as the whole of the phosphates required for
_ three crops is not more than 66 lbs. of bone-dust contains, it is fair
to presume that, by giving the plant a chance, as we do by dis-
solving the bones, of making use of nearly all the tillage that we
put in the soil, a very small quantity will suffice for the turnip
crop; and, having found theory correct in the principle of the
application, I do not see why we should doubt that practice will

464 ‘Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

not also confirm it in detail. Indeed, the quantity used by the
Duke of Richmond and by Mr. Geddes was only two bushels per
acre. At the present time four bushels, however, may be said to
be a safe mean quantity (my own trials were with eight bushels)
and an economical one. A few years, however, will undoubtedly
put us in possession of the particular quantity which it is best to use.
I have in execution at the present time an experiment which will
I hope, throw some light on what is the best quantity of each of
the ingredients—bones, acid, and water—to use. °

2nd.—The acid employed may be either sulphuric or muriatic.
The only trials with the latter upon turnips which I have met.
with are my ownand Mr. Fleming’s; in both of which, so far as
final result goes, it stands well. In my case sulphuric acid ap-
peared to be quicker in its effects, and at the latter period of the
season the muriatic had the advantage. ‘The muriatic acid, how-
ever, costs about jd. per lb. more than the sulphuric; I am dis-
posed, however, to think that upen high and dry limestone soils
this extra price may be afforded for the muriatic, as when it is
applied along with the bones the free acid will combine with the
lime in the soil, and form a muriate of lime, which isa salt that
has a great tendency to attract and absorb moisture. ‘The ex-
perience which we have had with the sulphuric acid must, how-
ever, compel usto give it the preference, except in the case referred
to above, until the muriatic has been more generally used.

The proportion of the acid is as much unsettled as the quantity
of bones. ‘The condition of the mixture must guide us, if we re-
quire the bones to be well dissolved. The Duke of Richmond
used the same weight of acid as of bone in one case ; on the other
hand, half that weight in several cases has acted well; and it may
yet be found that a stzd/ less proportion of acid may be effectual ;
for it is not yet evident that the most perfect division of the bones
is requisite, or that by having such that we may not run the risk
of encouraging growth of plant too much at first, The Duke of
Richmond used 41b. of acid to 1 of bone, and Mr. M. Williams a
much less quantity with success. Another year, however, will, I
hope, afford us experience sufficient to warrant a definite opinion
being given. Till then half weight of the bones isa medium quan-
tity of acid which my own experience allows me recommend.

3rd.—The water employed in diffusing the dissolved bones over
the soil will, in all cases, for the sake of economy of carriage, be
that which is nearest the field where it is required; at the same
time, there are cases in which it will be possible to use the liquid
from the tank which contains the urine and drainings from the
cattle sheds. I would, consequently, strenuously urge that this
plan should be adopted whenever local circumstances will permit.
I have no doubt that such will be found the most beneficial

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 465

application which can be made of the liquid, as the free acid in
the solution will combine with the ammonia in the liquid, and form
soluble salts of ammonia, which, while they materially assist vegeta-
tion, will not waste, as the carbonate of ammonia which exists in
the liquid is apt to do. Nor, indeed, will 600 or 800 gallons of
liquid manure be a trifling addition to the fertilizing influence of
the bones.

The quantity of water hitherto used has varied from 50 to 100
times the weight of the acid, but in all cases it is the rule to
mix the acid with only twice or thrice its weight of water until
the bone is dissolved; the use of the larger quantity being merely
to diffuse the preparation more thoroughly in the soil, and to pre-
vent any injurious effect upon the seed or plant from the strength
of the acid. As, however, the free acid which is in the mixture,
when spread upon the land, soon combines with the alkalies in the
soil, and forms various salts, the smallest quantity of water that
will serve to diffuse the mixture evenly I have no doubt may be
used safely ; the effect of such an application has not yet been tried.
Should the result, however, of such trial answer my expectations,
the use of the preparation will be greatly facilitated, as the quantity
of water which has to be procured is an obstacle of consequence to
many. ‘The difference in the quantity required will be seen from
the number of gallons of water required for 4 bushels of bones, and
2 bushels of bones, diluted with water :—

Water 100 fold | Water 50 fold | Water 25 fold | Water 10 fold
weight of Acid. | weight of Acid. | weight of Acid. | weight of Acid.

4 bush. B ‘
aes Nea, t 1680 galls. | 840 galls. | 420 galls. | 168 galls.

2bush.Bones . ube
6 st. of Acid ‘| 840, | 420 , Zid. 84 ,

4th. The mode of preparing the mixture is very simple. The
general rule is to put the bones into a wooden vessel, and to pour
upon them twice their weight of water and half their weight of
acid. The bones, if unburnt, require to be finely powdered.
After the acid has been added the mixture is covered up, and
allowed to stand two or three days. In this time nearly all the
bones will be dissolved, or at least reduced to a fine powder; if so
it is fit for use, and the proper quantity of water may be added to

dilute it. Thus, in one bushel of bones we shall have
42 lbs. of Bones . ;

with 1000 Ibs. or 100 gallons of water,

21 Ibs. of Acid if 50 fold the Acid be used.

63 lbs. of Water .

The mixture may be prepared as easily on a large scale. To do
this it will be necessary in the first place to provide several large

466 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

casks—say each to hold from 60 to 70 gallons. Into each of these,
in the first place, we put 4 bushels of bone-dust, weighing 168 Ibs.
We then weigh out 84 ]bs. of acid (half the weight of the bones), and
immediately pour it and three times its weight of water (252 lbs.
or about 25 gallons) into one of the casks. The same being done
to all the casks, each will contain (at 4 bushels per acre) manure
for an acre of land. When this is wanted for use, for which in the
course of two or three days it will be ready, the casks may be taken
to the field, and a certain part or proportion of the mixture taken
out, and the proper quantity of water (at the rate of fifty times the
weight of the acid) added. In order to do this conveniently, a rod,
marked so that when inserted in the mixture it should show the
quantity in the cask,should be procured. When, therefore, a quan-
tity was required we can, by the aid of the rod, take out one-tenth
or one-twentieth of the mixture at convenience ; thus say the quan-
tity for the acre in one of these casks should be 50 gallons, and we
take out sufficient for one-twentieth of an acre—this is 23 gallons.
Now the whole cask requires diluting with fifty times the weight of
the acid of water—7.e., with fifty times 84 lbs., or 4200 lbs., or
420 galions—before it is applied to the soil; hence one-twentieth
of 420 gallons, or 21 gallons of water, must be added to the 24
gallons, when it is put into the vessel by which it is spread. This
calculation once made, we should know for the future that each
cask required diluting with 420 gallons of water, and each gallon
of the mixture (if there were 50 gallons in each cask) with rather
more than 8 gallons of water.

The method of using this liquid is by some considered a great
obstacle to the general application of the tillage; one cause of which
objection is said to be the inconvenience of having the manure ina
liquid form. In reply to which it may be urged, that as plants
require their food to be ina state of solution, any extra trouble
from such an application is repaid by the extra benefit to the
crop; that as the quantity of water used is not necessarily very
great, it is probable that a much less quantity, even than has yet
been ventured upon, will serve our purpose, and that mechanical
arrangements may be made so as to apply the mixture to the soil
with uniformity andease. The fact, however, that as yet there has
been no machine brought out for the special purpose of effecting
the distribution of the dissolved bones, is the ground-work, in most
cases, of the impression that the process is a difficult one, for the
indisposition to use our ingenuity in a matter of the sort is pretty
general. It was, however, always so. ‘I'he progress of agricul-
tural mechanism was slow while it depended chiefly upon the sug-
gestions of the farmer, who, though he had the best opportunity of
designing that which was most useful, did not make use of it.
The encouragement afforded by our agricultural societies to talent

Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures. 467

and enterprise has brought out the exertions of our engineers and
mechanics, who have, in a short space of time, effected many great
improvements and removed many obstacles which we had accus-
tomed ourselyes from long habitude to consider as immovable.
In this case, therefore, I have no doubt but that the engineer will
come to our aid, and put us in possession of a simple agent by
which so valuable an application may be made use of without in-
convenience. Indeed I have good grounds for this hope. Within
the last few weeks I have drawn the attention of Mr. Crosskill, of
Beverley, to the subject, and he informs me of his readiness to give
it his best consideration, and hopes to be able to make such addi-
tions to his liquid manure cart as will enable it to deposit the solu-
tion in the ridges, and to act as an efficient drill for the purpose.
There was a very clever drill for liquid manure and seed, made by
Mr. Huckvale, shown at the Royal Meeting at Derby last year,
which i have no doubt would answer our purpose. The main ob-
jection to such an implement is on the score of economy. It can-
not be expected that the farmer should procure a fresh drill, espe-
cially one for depositing seed and tillage at one time, for every
variety of fertilizer which he may use. Any arrangement which
may bemade to act with the common water-cart, or with,a manure-
cart so much used as Mr. Crosskill’s, is likely to be a great ac-
quisition to the public, as the seed does not require to be driiled at
the same time as the liquid, but can be more conveniently applied
with the ordinary small drill upon the ridges, after the manure has
been covered up.

A light and economical Jiquid drill-cart may be made of a com-
mon barrel that will hold about 36 gallons. ‘This should be fixed
to shafts, and have a tube through which the liquid may run into
the ridge. The speed of the horse will regulate the quantity of
liquid applied. It may, however, also be well to have two or
three nozzles of various diameters, which will screw upon the
end of the tube, and regulate the flow of liquid. The barrel
should be placed below the axle, as it would allow a stirrer to be
easily inserted so as to keep the liquid in agitation, by which means
a sediment would not fall to the bottom, aud the even distribution
of the mixture would be facilitated. With such an implement it
will only be necessary to ridge the land, as for farm-manure ; brush
off the tops of the ridges so that a little loose soil may fall into the
furrow; put such quantity of the strong mixture from the cask as
will serve for one or two rows, at the rate per acre we have deter-
mined upon, into the drill-cart; add the proper quantity of water
for dilution to it when put into the drill (say 8 or 10 gallons of
water to 1 of mixture, or otherwise, as we may calculate the proper
proportion to be), and to pass along the line of ridges dropping
the liquid upon the loose soil in the furrow. After this the ridges

VOL, V. 21

468 Bones and Sulphuric Acid as Manures.

should be ploughed up, and the seed drilled on the top, so as to
lay just above the liquid. In this manner, after the liquid had
been deposited by hand, the seed was put in, in most of the fore-
going experiments.

It has been suggested that the liquid should be “ mixed with dry
earth or ashes, so as to be used by the ordinary method of drill-
_ ing.” However desirable this may be to do, it is not easily practic-
able. My own attempts have been unsuccessful. Wet lumps are
formed which it is impossible to separate, and such a large quan-
tity of dry earth is required to make the compost “ run through the
drill,” that so small a weight of bones cannot be evenly incorporated
with it—a matter of vital importance to the crop which depends
upon the application. Where calcined bones are used, owing to
their containing merely the earthy portion of the bone and to their
being so easily dissolved, a dry superphosphate of lime may be
formed. For effecting this, Mr. Lawes, of St. Albans (whose ex-
periments, along with those of Mr. Purchas, which were reported
to the Monmouth Farmers’ Club, I have not met with), gives the
following excellent and simple directions for making this super-
phosphate :—

** Calcined bones are to be reduced by grinding to a very fine powder,
and placed in an iron pan with an equal weight of water (a cast-iron:
trough, such as are sold for holding water for cattle, will do) ; a man with
a spade must mix the bone with the water until every portion is wet:
while the man is stirring, an assistant empties at once into the pan sul-
phuric acid, 60 parts by weight to every 100 parts of bone; the acid is
poured in at once, and not in a thin stream, as commonly recommended ;
the stirring is continued for about three minutes, and the material is then
thrown out. With four common farm-labourers and two pans, I have
mixed 2 tons in oneday. The larger the heap that is made the more per-
fect the decomposition, as the heap remains intensely hot for a long time.
It is necessary to spread the superphosphate out to the air for a few days,
that it may become dry.”

These, then, are the particulars to be regarded in the application
of dissolved bones, none of which, it will be seen, offer any real ob-
stacle to the use, by the intelligent farmer, of a system of economy
which theory and practice have alike shown to be advantageous.
We may, therefore, I think, safely say that the preamble of our case
is proved, and that we have, indeed; every reason to believe that the
application of dissolved bones as a manure for the turnip-crop,
offers us “one of the most important savings which was ever held
out in the use of manure ;”—one, too, which “ affords good hope
of being generally applicable.” :

( 469 )

XXVII.— Observations on the Natural History and Economy of
various Insects affecting the Corn-crops, many of them improperly
called Wireworms ; including Ground-beetles, Chaffers, or May-
bugs, also the Caterpillars of a Moth and Saw-fly, and the
larve of some minute flies. By Joun Curtis, F.L.S., Corre-
sponding Member of the Imperial and Royal Georgofili
Society of Florence; of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia ; &c.

Paper VII.

Ir being as much my earnest desire to impress upon the agricul-
turist the value of scientific knowledge, as it is my constant hope
that these Essays may enable him to detect more promptly his
enemies, and likewise make him thoroughly acquainted with
his friends, namely, the insects and other animals which Provi-
dence has ordained to subdue the noxious species, in order that
the remedies suggested may be well directed, 1 am tempted to
introduce as a preface to my present subject a paragraph from a
practical and sensible author, who is equally convinced with myself
of the value and importance of a knowledge of insect economy.
“The different sorts of grain,’ says Kollar, “from the period
when as seed they are committed to the earth, until they have
attained perfect maturity, are exposed to the attacks of various
kinds of insects. The farmer, who is entitled, when the weather
is favourable, to expect a plentiful crop from the soil, often finds
his hopes disappointed, without being able to imagine the cause.
An insect which escapes his notice from its minute size, as well as
from the difficulty of finding out its abode, is at work destroying
the fruit of his labours. The agriculturist who is unacquainted
with the economy of insects, seeks in vain for the author of this
destruction, and not unfrequently attributes it to creatures which,
in reality, are his benefactors.”*

In the investigation of the insects infesting our corn-fields, I
shall proceed with the growth of the plants, as nearly as my ma-
terials will allow, and trace the ravages occasioned by the various
species that feed on the roots and stems, others which attack the
flowers and ears in the field, and those which consume the grain
when housed. It is therefore only necessary to remind the reader,
that the history of the Corn-insects was commenced in our last
paper,j; in our account of the Wireworms, which attack the stems
close to the roots.

In the Linnean Transactions for 1808,+ are some observations

* Kollar’s Natur. der Schild. Insecten, p. 98; and Kollar’s Treatise on
Insects, p. 86.
+ Journal of Royal Agr. Soc., vol. v. p. 180, and pl. I. f. 29.
tf Ibid. vol. ix, p. 156, and pl. 18, f. 1—3."
212

470 Observations on the various Insects ie

by Thomas Walford, Esq., F.L.S., regarding an insect that was ah
destroying the wheat, supposed by the farmers of Essex and~" ys
Suffolk to be the Wireworm. In October, 1802, Mr. Thomas
Olley, of Stoke, near,Clare, in Suffolk, showed Mr. Walrord some
green wheat which was dying and losing plant very fast, the reason

of which he could not comprehend. On examining the plants,

Mr. W. discoveréd three of the larve (pl. K. fig. 2), two of which
were in the act of destroying the wheat (fig. 4). ‘* With their
projecting jaws, these insects cut round the outside grass (fig. a),
about an inch below the surface of the soil (fig. 5), to get at the
young white shoot in the centre, which they eat: upon this vegeta-

tion is immediately stopped, and the plant dies. I suspect that
they first eat the flour in the grains, which has not been drawn

up by vegetation ; for, when we touched them, they ran into the
husks (fig. c); and two of the three insects I carried home in the
husks, which appear to be their habitations, and probably the place
where they change from the larva to their perfect state.” *

It is now upwards of forty years since these facts were promul-
gated, and yet we know no more of the economy of this singular
hittle animal than Mr. Walford did. He was inclined to think it
might be the larva of a Staphylinus, or Rove-beetle, only that he
considered they were entirely a carnivorous family, and the same
objection may be made to its being the larva of a Bembidium, or
some minute Carabus, which I suspect it to be. It is somewhat
remarkable that one has never heard of the reappearance of this
insect ; but that may be owing to all ravages of the kind being at
once attributed to the Wireworm, which unfortunately has hitherto
stopped all further inquiry.

1. Staphylinus? or Bembidium? The colour of this larva,
which is not a quarter of an inch long, is not mentioned ; but in all
probability it is ochreous or tawny : the head is armed with strong
jaws for cutting, and furnished with feelers and two small horns ;
it has six thoracic legs, terminated apparently by single claws;
there are two rows of spines down the back, and another on each
side of the body, which is composed of eight segments, besides the
anal one, which is furnished with a sort of tail or prehensile foot,
and two four-jointed sete or feelers, to be employed when walking
backward, as the antenne are in advancing forward (fig. 2; fig. 3
being the same highly magnified),

“The injury,” says Mr. Walford, “ which the public sustains
by the ravages of these insects, may in some measure be calcu-
lated from Mr. Olley’s loss in 1802: he sowed 50 aeres of a clay
soil with wheat; out of these 10 were destroyed by them, which
were replanted by dibbling in one bushel of seed per acre. ‘The

* Linn, Trans, vol. ix. p. 157.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 471

price of wheat at that time was 8s. per bushel. We here observe
one-fifth part of the quantity sown was destroyed by these noxious
insects.”

From data furnished by a gentleman of great experience and
observation,* Mr. W. calculated that “the quantity of wheat
lessened to the market by the depredations of the Wireworms is
very frequently, if not annually, 60,000 bushels; which occasions
to the farmer an additional expense of at least 15,750/.” This
was merely the value of the seed resown on clover lays, old pas-
tures recently broken up, pea and bean stubble, &c., dibbling in
and harrowing.

2. Harpalus? or Ground-beetle—Figure 5 represents a curious
larva, two of which were transmitted to me dead, in February, 1841,
by a gentleman + who considered they were injuring his corn in a
similar manner to the Wireworms. As he did not succeed, I be-
lieve, in rearing them, I cannot determine what beetle they would
produce, but probably some Carabideous species, in which case I
should be rather disposed to consider that they lived upon the
Wireworms, &c., but this is not a natural consequence, as we shall
shortly prove, for although most of the Carabide are carnivorous,
there are some which feed upon the corn-crops both in their larva
and beetle states.

This larva is 43 lines long, hairy, of an ochreous colour, having
an enormous head, but tapering towards the tail, which is rust-
coloured ; the face is sloped off gently, with a group of minute
black dots on each side, looking like eyes; the two antenne are
porrected, slender, hairy, and five-jointed; the jaws are very strong,
not crossing, semilunate, toothed internally, the apex appearing
pointed, but it is rounded and black; the maxillz are elongated,
as well as the labial palpi, which are bi-articulate, the basal joint
being the stoutest, the second long, incurved, slender, and tapering ;
the maxillary palpi are shorter and bi-articulate ; the first thoracic
segment is very broad and strong, of a ferruginous tint, the two
following and the eight abdominal segments are of a dull ochreous
tint, gradually tapering to the tail, which is furnished with a pre-
hensile foot and two longish, tapering, articulated feelers; the sides
of the body are margined and plaited: it has six pectoral jointed
legs, spiny, and terminated by two long claws: fig. 5; fig. 6, the
same magnified. I ought to state, that not having seen the animal
alive, it is very probable the abdomen may have shrunk, and con-
sequently may be represented not stout enough.

The economy and history of the next depredator have been well
investigated by the German naturalists, and therefore are well

* Allen Taylor, Esq., of Wimbush Hall, Essex.
+ W. J. Clark, Esq., of Buckland Tout Saint, Totness, Devon.

472 - Observations on the various Insects

known. It is a predaceous beetle which belongs to the Order
CoLEopTERA ; it is comprised in the Family Carapip#, and
forms with some other European insects the Genus ZaBrus, and
the species is named

3. Z. gibbus by Fabricius, Carabus tenebrioides by Panzer,
C. spinipes by Scopoli, and C. gibbus by Marsham. It is con-
vex and elliptical, but broad, of a deep piceous colour, smooth and
shining: the mouth is ferruginous; the jaws are strong;* the an-
tennze are not so long as the thorax, filiform, eleven-jointed, and
pubescent, excepting the three basal joints; the eyes are small, but
prominent; the thorax is broad, a little narrowed before, all the
angles are rounded, the sides margined, the surface is delicately
striated transversely with wavy lines, and a channel down the
middle, the base being depressed, thickly and coarsely punctured,
with a shallow fovea on each side of the centre ; the scutellum is
trigonate, but minute: the elytra are a little broader than the
thorax, but not so shining, with a faint olive-green tinge, and are
notched towards the apex ; there are eight deep-punctured furrows
on each, the sutural one fureated at the base, and the outer one is
strongly punctured at the shoulder and towards the apex; the
wings are ample, and folded under the wing-cases; the legs are
stout and bright ferruginous, the thighs are robust and piceous ;
the tibiz are armed externally with series of short spines and
dilated at their extremities, especially the anterior, which are well
adapted for burrowing, they are notched near the apex and fur-
nished with three spurs, the others have only two; the tarsi are
slender with series of spines beneath, and are five-jointed, the three
basal ones being dilated in the anterior pair in the males, the
terminal joint is clavate, and produces a pair of claws. Fig. 7
represents the female slightly magnified, the length being six
lines, the breadth nearly three ; the male is sometimes smaller.

The female beetle lays her eggs in clusters in the ground, and
the larvae they produce appear to be three years in arriving at
maturity, from their being found half grown, in company with
pupz at the same season, and they frequently are accompanied by
the larvee of Melolontha solstitialis, “the small or summer Cock-
chafer.” ‘They are of a brown colour, the sides and under side
whitish, nearly linear, but tapering at the tail, somewhat depressed,
slightly hairy, and about an inch long; the head is broad and
armed with two strong jaws, slender palpi, and two fine four-
jointed antenne, placed before the eyes: the first thoracic segment
is very large and subquadrate, the second and third are shorter, as
well as the nine abdominal ones; there is a transparent line down
the back, a brown callous spot on each side of the segments, where

* Vide Curtis’s Brit. /nt., pl. and fol. 188, for the dissections, &c.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 473

the stigma or breathing-hole is situated, and above these is another
line of brown warts, all thickened and producing hairs; the seg-
ments beneath have a similar callous spot at the middle of each,
with four behind it, excepting the penultimate segment, and the
anal one is brown and small, furnished with a proleg, and two
short, pointed, hairy horns composed of three joints : the six pectoral
legs are jointed and terminated by claws. Fig. 8; fig. 9 being
the animal highly magnified.

These larvae, which seem to be closely allied to the preceding
specimens (figures 5 and 6), bore into the earth, forming some-
times immense numbers of perpendicular burrows (fig. 10, d),
which often commence in a curve (¢), and extend from a few
inches to two feet in depth; and when they are full grown they
form at the termination of the burrow an oval cavity (fig. f),
smooth on the inside, in which they change to an exceedingly soft
and sensitive pupa of a yellowish white colour, with two little
black eyes ; and as it becomes more matured, the various members
of the future beetle are distinctly developed. They remain in
this state only three or four weeks, for the larve had changed to
pupe the beginning of June, and at the end of the month and the
beginning of July the beetles made their appearance.

So serious was the mischief caused by these insects in the vicinity
of Halle in Saxony, in 1812, “that the Society of Naturalists in
that city appointed a committee of its members to examine into
the case on the spot.”* ‘They were first observed in a field of
wheat which they devastated, and when wheat was again sown
they destroyed it a second time: they then attacked the rye, and
afterwards the barley. In the Canton of Seeburg in Halberstadt
alone, about 30 acres of corn were destroyed by the darve, and in
July the beetles came forth in enormous swarms, crawling by night
up the straws and eating the grains in the ears,t but concealing
themselves by day under clods of earth, stones, &c., so that the
beetles were nearly as mischievous as the larva ; but it seems pro-
bable that when the beetles appear in excess the mischief may
remedy itself, for when they cannot find corn to feed upon, they
will attack and destroy each other, such at least was the case with
some confined in a box.

The larva, however, is the most formidable enemy ; it issues from

* Tam indebted to Kollar and his translator for many of the following
facts, which had been, however, previously made known by Germar.

+ There are other Carabide which, it is presumed, live upon seeds and
vegetables. Mr. Ingpen states that a specimen of Poecilus cupreus was
taken in the act of devouring a common pea (vide Trans. Ent. Soc.). I
frequently find some of the smaller Amare on rushes, &c. by the sides of
ditches ; and Curtonotus aulicus, a species nearly allied to Zabrus, is far from
uncommon on the foliage of thistles.

474 ’ Observations on the various Insects

the earth by night, and eats into the stem of the corn close to the
surface and feeds upon the pith, retiring on the approach of day
and lying concealed upwards of 6 inches deep in the earth.
“Their devastations were confined to the corn-fields, and were
comparatively trifling even in those fields where vetches or potatoes
were cultivated with the wheat; and the wheat, rye, and barley
fields contiguous to vetch and potatoe fields were not attacked.
Ina field which had been first sown with wheat, and destroyed,
and again sown with wheat and vetches together, marks of the
devastating powers of the insects on this second sowing were
observed, together with a number of pup in the earth. The
destruction commenced in those fields which lay near pastures,
in the vicinity of rape, fallow, and stubble fields, and spread from
them : as the ravages were greatest in the beginning of spring, the
larvee appeared to have retired to the pasture lands for their
winter-quarters, and thence proceeded to attack the neighbouring
fields. Their great numbers in fields lying near stubble and
fallow fields is easily explained, as they are the offspring of those
which, the preceding year, lived on the crops grown in those
fields.”

Sig. Passerini of Florence also notices in a Memoir “the
ravages occasioned by larvee in the winter and spring of 1832-3,
on the wheat in the provinces of Bologna, Romagna, and Ferrara,
by devouring the cellular tissue of the leaves and stalks of the
young plants, and thus causing them to perish: these attacks are
made during the night time, the larve concealing themselves
under ground during the day. ‘They had been ascertained by
Professor J. Bertolini of Bologna to be the larve of Zabrus
gibbus and Calathus latus,* and appear to be equally injurious.
Sig. Passerini suggests to plough up the land, and then to turn in
a flock of poultry, which would greedily pick up the larva.” 7

The Halle committee also recommended that the crows and
other birds which live upon insects should on no account be de-
stroyed, and they suggested that children might be employed in
the fields to turn over stones and clods in the daytime for the
beetles, and in the evening and at night they might be swept off
the ears of corn with a net formed of a ring of strong wire, having
a bag attached to it made of coarse canvass, about 18 inches long ;
the ring must have a ferrule to fasten it to the end of a strong
light stick. As soon as the first slight frosts set in, the end of
autumn, the infected lands should be ploughed deep, by which
means the larvae would be exposed and killed, or picked up by
rooks and other birds; but it is said that this process, to prove

* Tfind Zimmermann has stated that two other Carabidse, Amara commu-
nis and A, trivialis, feed also upon the wheat.
+ Trans, Entom. Soc., vol. 1. p. liv.

affecting the Corn-Crops. 475

efficacious, must be persevered in for many successive years, and
by all the farmers simultaneously. The sulphuric acid contained
in peat-ashes, and liberated by rains, renders them very advan-
tageous in destroying these insects: the ashes should be strewed
thickly in the spring on the autumn-sown fields.

It is true that these insects have not as yet been ascertained to
have attacked the crops in England, like those we have recorded
on the Continent : favourable circumstances, however, may increase
their numbers, so as to render them at some future period a pest
in this country, for the beetles are found scattered about. I have
not unfrequently picked up specimens in August and September
in sandy corn-fields in Norfolk, Kent, and the Isle of Wight, and
they have been detected at the roots of grass nearer London ;
several were also taken off umbellate plants in Hants ;* and that
they live through the winter has been ascertained by Mr. Tulk,
who kept several individuals alive for many weeks during the
winter of 1837-8 by feeding them on corn. +

We learn from Kollar that there is a species of beetle called the
“ Field- Cockchaffer,’ which is injurious to corn. This insect
likewise belongs to the Order Coteortrera, the Family Me-
LOLONTHIDA, and the Genus ANisoPLia: the species was named
by Linnzus

4. A. Agricola: head and thorax deep green, thickly and
minutely punctured, with pale pubescence, and a channel down
the middle: the head is narrowed before, forming a produced
clypeus, with a recurved margin: antenne small and 9-jointed,
the little club being trilobed : the eyes are small and lateral: the
thorax is twice as broad as the head, slightly narrowed before,
the sides rounded, the base sinuated: elytra ovate, rather short,
broad, shining rusty ochre, they are covered with crowded faint
punctures and several indistinct striae; a black square spot sur-
rounds the scutellum, which is rather large, black, and semi-
orbicular; the shoulders and external margin are irregularly
black, and there is a curved interrupted piceous line across the
back, but these spots are more or less ferruginous and brown in
different varieties: wings ample: the two last segments of the
abdomen are exposed, black, and densely clothed with yellowish
white depressed hairs, as well as the under side of the abdomen;
the apex is conical and the hairs at the tip orange: the legs are
strong and punctured, piceous with a greenish tint: the anterior
tibiae are dilated and bi-lobed externally, the others are short,
spiny, and spurred ; the tarsi are 5-jointed, the claws are unequal,

* Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. 188.
+ Kollar’s Treatise on Insects, p. 91.

476 Observations on the various Insects

and the inner one is bifid, but obscurely so in the two hinder-
most: length about 6 lines, breadth 3: fig. 12, magnified.

These beetles are abundant on the Continent, and are found
sitting singly or in little groups on the ears, nibbling the soft
grains of rye, and of wheat, which is still more to their taste.
Kollar says he has found ears which had been robbed of a third
part of their seeds by these insects, but he had not ascertained
whether the larvee attack the roots of the corn, or subsist only on
manure, and no means can be resorted to for destroying them, as
they live in concealment: he adds, ‘‘Crows, moles, and field-
mice are their greatest enemies, and should therefore be spared,
when their numbers are not so great as to make them injurious.”*
Although common in France, Germany, and Italy, Anisoplia
Agricola is very rare in England, and my principal object in in-
troducing it is to call attention to the May-bug, which is nearly
related to it, and exceedingly abundant in hedges and corn-fields,
but whether it be prejudicial to our crops of corn I am not able to
learn at present. It seems to be a general feeder, for in May,
1833, it destroyed the roses, devouring both the flowers and leaves,
so that in some gardens scarcely a plant was left untouched, and
they hung upon the flowers like swarms of bees:} the previous
year the apple and nectarine trees fell a sacrifice to their ravages.
In the Lake districts of Cumberland these beetles are called
Bracken-clocks by anglers, from their frequenting the fern, and
are employed as a bait for trout. Stewart asserts that they destroy
every sort of fruit-tree, excepting the common pear; and Mr.
Dillwyn says, near Swansea they are “extremely common every
summer, particularly on roses, and appeared in immense numbers
in 1814, when on their first appearance the sparrows on my lawn
were so gorged with them, that several were unable to fly.”{
They were also in such multitudes on the acacias near Peters-
field, that the foliage was consumed, and when the trees were
shaken they fell down like a shower of hail.§ I have also ob-
served them in June and July feeding on bramble-leaves, which
they perforated like a sieve, and likewise on the eglantine.

This beetle, which belongs to the same Order and Family as
the foregoing species, was named Scarabeus AHorticola (the
Garden-chaffer), by Linnzeus, and is now called

5. Anisoplia Horticola: it is very glossy and sparingly clothed
with longish hairs, dark on the upper side and yellowish beneath:
the head, thorax, and scutellum are bright green, sometimes with

* Kollar’s Natur. der Schild. Insecten., p. 104.
+ Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. 526.
‘{ Memoranda ph Coleopterous Insects, p. 31,
§ Gardener’s Chronicle, vol. 4, p. 700.

affecting the Corn-Crops. 477

a violet tinge; the head is thickly and roughly punctured; the
thorax finely and more sparingly ; the clypeus is broad and nearly
semicircular, the margin reflexed: the 9-jointed antenne are
ferruginous, the trilobed club and palpi are piceous: the elytra
are bright tawny, elliptical-ovate, with seven distinct and several
obscure irregularly punctured striz on each: wings ample: the
apex of the abdomen, called the pygidium, is exposed and bottle-
green: the under side and legs are greenish black, the anterior
pair being the stoutest, the hinder the longest; the first pair of
tibize are notched externally, forming two distinct lobes or teeth
in the males, the others are spurred at the apex; the tarsi are
5-jointed and spiny beneath, the terminal joint is clavate and
furnished with unequal claws, the internal one being broad and
bifid in the two anterior pair, the hinder ones being simple: length
4} lines, breadth 2+: fig. 13, the male, magnified. These beetles
might be collected into bags by children, and after being crushed
or killed in hot water, they may be given to poultry, which fatten
well upon them. The best period for this picking is early in the
morning, as the beetles are torpid and sluggish when the dew is
upon them.

It is, however, the larvae which are so destructive, especially to
pasture lands, and they would therefore more properly form a
portion of a future essay, but as it will be equally serviceable to
complete the descriptions and economy of the insect at once, I have
added a figure of the maggot, which can be referred to when we
arrive at the insects affecting the artificial and other grasses, at
which time the best modes of extirpation will be discussed.

These larve are very similar to those of the cockchaffer (Melo-
lontha vulgaris), but much smaller; they generally lie curved up,
somewhat in the form of a horseshoe (fig. 14), yet they are rather
active, and can walk tolerably well, dragging their heavy bodies
after them: they are of an ochreous white colour, but the head is
deep ochreous and destitute of eyes; the two little horns are very
distinct, slender, and 5-jointed, the mandibles are somewhat rust-
coloured and black at their tips, the body is clothed with a few
brown hairs, the heavy apex being lead-colour whilst the animal
is feeding, but it is like the rest of the body when the stomach is
empty: on the breast and immediately behind the chin are six

longish legs, clothed with bristly hairs, they are triarticulate, the
third joint short ; the claws are small and acuminated, with one or
two bristles on the sides. They form cells of the surrounding
earth at a considerable depth in the soil they inhabit, where they
undergo their transformation into delicate pale-coloured pupz.

I shall now have to treat of some insects affecting the ears of
corn, and I shall avail myself of the information obtained from

478 ; Observations on the various Insects

Dr. I. W. Calvert,* to make the agriculturist acquainted with a
caterpillar which is very destructive in some districts. Dr. C. says,
in a letter dated January, 1841, “I have been much agpoyed at
Snilesworth for the last three years, by a brown streaked\grub or
small caterpillar, about an inch long, attacking the wheat-ear chiefly
in the manner of a leech sucking. It pierces the chaff, and empties
it of its contents, whether in a milky or farinaceous state (fig. 15,
gandh). Ihave left some at the Entomological Society’s rooms,
and have attended two of their meetings, but could not hear of any
thing of this sort ever being observed before, nor can I learn that
they have been noticed by any of the tenants at Snilesworth.
They first made their attacks about the beginning of September ;
so that if I can hasten the harvest by forward sowing in the pre-
vious autumn, they may find themselves too late to do material
mischief; hitherto, however, it has been more than we could do
to get the corn ripe at all, the seasons having been so wet of late.
I have some of the caterpillars confined in the earth, where they
have buried themselves, and hope to give a better account of their
origin and history next year.” ‘The following August I received a
communication from Dr. Calvert, saying that these caterpillars
had not been observed in the previous year until the Ist of Sep-
tember, when they were from a quarter to half an inch long; that
in the standing corn they perforated the chaff and nearly emptied
the grains of their contents. During the reaping of the harvest
they were also found lying on the surface of the ground; and in the
stack or barn, after the corn was carried, committing their depre-
dations there. In the month of November Dr. C. gave me several
of the caterpillars which were feeding upon wheat-ears in a bottle ;
some of them were uno larger than fig. 16, others had attained the
length of fig. 17, but were scarcely so robust, except when they
drew themselves up; these were of a dull rosy brown, freckled,
wrinkled, and sparingly clothed with short hairs; the head was
horny, of a dull chesnut-colour, with two black stripes on the face ;
the first thoracic segment was horny also, shining and piceous,
with three yellow stripes, the central one extending the whole length
of the back, and distinctly defined with dark edges, the lateral
ones are continued along the sides, but these become duller and
are less distinct; they approximate at the tail, where the inter-
vening spaces are piceous; each segment bears four black dots,
the hinder pair being farthest apart; there is a brown irregular
line along the spiracles, which are black.

It is remarkable, but in conformity with the usual laws of Crea-
tion, as regards insects at least, that when a species becomes abun-

* Of Snilesworth, Yorkshire ; communicated by Professor Henslow,

affecting the Corn- Crops. 479

dant in one ae ick: in all probability it will make its appearance
simultaneou over the kingdom; and this has been the case
even with species that had up to a given period been very rarely
seen. Such was the case with these caterpillars, as will be evident
by comparing the following dates with the previous ones: for in
the beginning of September I received examples from a friend in
Surrey, saying that the rubbed out produce of some rye from seeds
found ina sample of Spanish wheat in 1839, was full of them ;
again, in August, 1841, the same party transmitted me more spe-
cimens, the size of fig. 16, which I will describe, as they differed
at this stage of ofl growth from Dr. Calvert’s full-grown ex-
amples: one of them was pale green, with four reddish brown
stripes formigg three yellowish green lines down the back; the
head and pectoral feet were brown, the first thoracic segment
slightly horny and shining, and each of the abdominal segments
had four black dots between the stripes, as in the larger ones; a
black dot characterized the spiracles, and there were three or
four black dots on the thighs and feet, on the pale green, which
extended under the body ; down the centre of the belly were 5 or
6 dusky spots. I should not omit to mention, that I also received
this caterpillar in the beginning of last June, from Mr. M. Saul, of
Garstang, Lancashire, who discovered it upon the young wheat,
but it did not appear to be very abundant: it was three-quarters of
an inch long at that early period.

Dr. Calvert also informed me that he was preserving the seeds
of grasses, and consequently the grass is not cropped; and as he
finds these caterpillars feed upon the seeds, he suspects that they
are thus nurtured until they are attracted by the wheat-crops ;
they are by far most abundant on the heads of grass in seed, par-
ticularly the fescues and cock’s-foot, and the grass seeds matured
by the end of July and beginning of August are not infested by
them.

It seems probable that these caterpillars do not generally appear
in great numbers, and only in their first skins, until the wheat-crops
in many parts are harvested in good seasons; but in the more
northern counties they may prove very destructive to the standing
corn, where the crops are later in arriving at perfection, and as
they must often be carried into the barn or stacked with the wheat,
their presence may be dreaded anywhere, especially when we find
them injuring the corn to the extent observed by Dr. Calvert, who
states that Colonel Le Couteur’s improved Talavera, and many
other wheats, had suffered to an extent of about one-third of the
crop, and what is remarkable, they had not been detected in the
neighbouring fields. Many of the ears I examined were very much
more injured than the one represented at fig. 15; some of the
grains had only a small hole in them, but multitudes were nearly

480 ’ Observations on the various Insects

or entirely eaten out, the skin of the wheat alone being left. One
which I put upon a dried ear of corn immediately began to eat
into the grain, so that in a short time it was concealed, and the
pure whiteness of its excrement showed the goodness of its food as
decidedly as the quantity did its rapid progress, and the celerity
with which it was digested. On taking out the grain I found a
hole in the top just at the base of the stigma, and on opening it
nothing but a thick shell was left. It isa remarkable fact that
amongst the corn infested by the, caterpillars Dr. Calvert found
numbers of the horny heads, which convinces him that they will live
upon each other ; and as the heads are not merely the horny shell,
and often have the first thoracic covering of the segment adhering
to them, I am of the same opinion.

These larvee have no doubt been troublesome abroad, for in a
memoir by Dr. Herpin, he says, « At the approach of harvest I
have found a pretty large quantity of stems of wheat which con-
tained near to the ear, between the leaves, a thick caterpillar of
about 2 centimetres long (nearly three-quarters of an inch), of a
yellowish grey, rayed upon the back, and appearing to me to be
the larva of a Noctua. Thiscaterpillar, which is found also in the
barns many months after the harvest, gnaws and devours the inte-
rior of the grains of wheat, yet adhering to the ears, and deposits
between the leaves large excrement of a whitish colour.” *

Dr. Calvert, I find, “read a notice (before the Entomological
Society) of the attacks of one of the Noctwide upon the ears of
standing corn, which led to a discussion, in which it was suggested
that the only advisable remedy against the attacks of fresh broods
of these insects, was to subject the land to repeated ploughings after
the crop had been got off, and the insects gone into the earth to
undergo their transformations, in order to expose them to the rooks
as well as to the action of the atmosphere.” + As we have seen,
however, that numbers of the caterpillars remain in the ears, and
are consequently stacked or housed with the grain, and fed until
the winter, when in all probability they hybernate, any application
to the soil in this instance would not have the desired effect.

In what way these caterpillars undergo their transformation to
the chrysalis state is uncertain; if it be in the refuse chaff, then
those which are housed in the barn may escape in the chinks of
the floor and round the walls, or as they are very active, and great
ramblers, as all caterpillars are when they are about their final
change, they may succeed in getting out of the building at the ap-
pointed season, and secrete themselves in herbage or in the earth,
to become chrysalides; and of course those which inhabit the

* Extract from the Memoirs of the ‘Soc. Royale et Centrale d’Agricul-

ture,’ for 1842, p. 29.
t Trans, Ent. Soc., vol. ii, p. Xxxv.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 481

_ stacked corn have no difficulty in finding situations suited to their
wants. I have repeatedly endeavoured to rear the caterpillars,
but they always shrivelled up and died.* I once, however, found
some larve in January so exceedingly like these, if not the same,
under the bark of willow-trees outside of a stack-yard, which sub-
sequently spun up there and produced Noctua (Caradrina) cubi-
cularis, that I am strongly impressed with the conviction this is
the moth which produces these destructive caterpillars, and Mr.
Westwood strengthening my opinion,} I have ventured to figure
it, trusting that it may induce some one to endeavour to rear and
ascertain the true parent, that, should we be in error, it may thus
lead to good results.

The above species belongs to the Order LepipopreRa, the
Family Nocruip@, and is named by Hiibner

6. Caradrina cubicularis (the pale mottled willow-moth) ; it is
also the Noctua quadripunctata of Fabricius, and the Noctua segetum
of Esper.{ It is of a brownish mouse-colour ; antenne like bristles ;
eyes fuscous ; palpi short and scaly, with a pitch-coloured patch on
the outside; abdomen rather slender, obtuse at the apex in the males,
conical in the females: wings lying horizontally and incumbent in
repose, forming an elongated triangle, superior long and narrowed
at the base, with three irregular and crenated transverse lines,
forming little black spots on the costa; the first is near the base,
the second before the middle, and the third beyond it; between
these is a round and kidney-shaped spot; between the third and
the posterior margin, which has a line of black dots, is a sinuated
ochreous line, reddish and suffused on the inside, the external space
dark fuscous; inferior wings pearly white, slightly tinged with
brown next the cilia, the nervures brownish: length 6 lines, expanse
14 or 15 lines (fig. 18, the male). i

This moth is common in hay-fields and about hay-ricks in May,
June, and July, as well as on willows in gardens, &c.

I have also figured the larva of a saw-fly which was found in
abundance on the ears of wheat near Cardiff in Glamorganshire,
and as there was something mysterious in its visit, and I have never

* Having removed into the country, I hope to be better able to trace the
metamorphoses of noxious insects, and request in future that all communi-
cations may be addressed to me at Hayes, near Uxbridge, Middlesex.

+ He says in a letter, “ My impression is that they are the larve of
Caradrina cubicularis, as I have specimens of that insect reared from cater-
pillars found in stacked wheat, of which I have the drawing and speci-
mens.” I likewise remember when Mr. Raddon exhibited a large number
of these caterpillars at a meeting of the Linnean Society, which had issued
in myriads from stacks near Bristol, where they did incredible mischief by
feeding on the wheat; he stated that they lived through the winter, and
were the produce of Noctua cubicularis, if { mistake not.

ft Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 651.

482 Observations on the various Insects

met with any similar occurrence, the record of the fact may pos-
sibly lead to a more correct knowledge of the economy of the ani-
mal. It is of the Order Hymenoptera, of the same Family
TENTHREDINIDE as “the Turnip Saw-fly ;’* and from its figure
and the number of legs, it appears to associate with the Genus
TENTHREDO ; but without the fly which it would change to, it is
impossible to speak with any certainty.

7. Tenthredo? On the 3rd of August, 1842, I received more than
50 specimens of these caterpillars ; they were about three-quarters
of an inch long, rough, and of an orange-brown cast, with a paler
line down the back; they had 6 horny pectoral, 14 abdominal,
and 2 anal membranous feet; the head was large, horny, hemi-
spherical, and ochreous, with a minute prominent eye on each side
surrounded by a small black ring, and a minute horn before each
(fig. 19). The jaws were strong and horny, meeting in front,
subquadrate, pitch-colour at the apex, one with strong irregular
teeth (fig. 7), the other more crenated (fig. 7); the maxille were
small, and furnished with a short, tapering, triarticulate palpus
(hk).
I will now transcribe my correspondent’s account of them: he
says, “I find from my friend, that on walking through a field of
wheat, at noon on Monday, he saw one of these caterpillars on the
top of almost every ear of corn, perfectly inactive, and the corn
not injured in any way. Great numbers still remain on the ears,
almost all are quite at the top, some apparently impaled upon
the sharp points of the husks of the uppermost grains, and only
one on each ear. A large wood adjoins the field, and I should
observe that almost all the caterpillars appear dead and dried up
on the ears; and it was with difficulty | could find any at all
showing signs of life.” It was certainly a strange phenomenon,
which came so suddenly, and appeared so unaccountable, that
the bailiff declared “they fell in a shower during the night.”

We have now arrived at the history of a genus of small flies
which is highly interesting ; and although their depredations are
well known, the habits of the various species had not been com-
pletely investigated until recently. Opportunities of studying their
economy having been offered, I commenced my observations some
years since, but did not complete them until the present year,
and I now find that Dr. Herpin had been engaged upon the same
subject, by a pamphlet upon Chlorops, &c., which has lately
appeared, with plates and additional observations, by M. Guérin-
Méneville. My investigations, therefore, have no longer the
charm of novelty, but they may yet strengthen the observations
already promulgated, and will not prove uninteresting to the agri-

* Royal Agric. Soc. Journ., yol, ii, pl. B, f, 6 and 7.

affecting the Corn-Crops. 483

culturist, when combined with the facts recorded by my fellow-
labourers in science.

As the documents relating to these insects are very numerous,
it may be as well to preface my narrative with an outline of their
general economy. When the incipient ear is formed, but con-
cealed in the sheath close to the first knot, or even at an carlier
stage of growth, the wheat and other corn-plants often droop :* on
opening the stem a maggot is found; this changes to a pupa
higher up, from whence eventually emerges the legitimate fly, or
some parasite which feeds upon the larvae. ‘The earliest intimation
we have of these pests is in the Stockholm Transactions, first by
Linneus, and secondly by Bierkander. Gmelin, Fabricius, and
others have described the species in their works ; and subsequently
we find an excellent paper in the Linnean Transactions, as well
as more recently the Memoir of MM. Herpin and Guérin-
Méneville, besides notices in many other works, which I shall
endeavour to embody in my narrative.

8. Oscinis PuMILIONIS, Bierk. ; Cutorops GLABRA, Meg. ?

Bierkander + describes one of the species, which he calls the
Ryeworm, and the following is his accurate account of this insect,
which he named Musca pumilionis :{—‘<In the month of May,
1778, I perceived some dwarf stems amongst the rve, from one to
three inches long. On examining them, I discovered that at their
first joint there was a little worm, which caused this singular
growth. In order to trace at leisure the metamorphoses of these
worms, I took many specimens, which were put in a glass bottle.

«The larva is white, two lines long; it has ten segments; the
head is pointed, black at its extremity, forming a A. The first
began to change to a pupa on the 25th of May. :

“The pupe are yellow and shining, a little more than a line
long, depressed and annulated. They began to produce flies on
the 12th of June.

«« The imago, or perfect fly, is a little more than a line long;
its head is yellow, and its eyes black; it bears at the nape a black
triangle: the black antenne are a little knotted, and produce some
hairs: the thorax is yellow beneath, black upon the back, and
marked with two slender yellow lines the whole length; below
and near to the abdomen is a yellow crescent-formed spot: the
fore-legs bear two black spots: the abdomen is black above, yellow
beneath, and is composed of four segments: the poisers are white :

* This, it will be also remembered, is the case with the Wireworms.

+ Vide the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Stockholm, vol.
XXXix. A.D. 1778, pp. 240 and 241; also the Transactions of the Linnean
Society of London, vol. ii. p. 79.

{ Thus named from its causing dwarf and abortive grains in the ears.

VOL. V. 2K

484 Observations on the various Insects

the wings glitter with red and green, and extend a little beyond
the body: the legs are greyish at the base, black at the extre-
mities.*

“T am still ignorant. whether the eggs are deposited in the stalks
of the rye; but the larvee, which were yet small on the 23rd of
April, had acquired their full size on the 25th of May. I do not see
any holes upon the sides of the stems, for which reason it would
appear that the eggs or the worms are deposited upon the leaves.
When we find any holes there, they are made by ‘ the Whiteworms
of the ear,’ or other insects. When the fly has issued from the
pupa, it climbs up the stalk and flies away.

«The quantity of dwarf rye, which began to grow yellow and
decay on the 14th of June, amounted to from 8 to 12 and 14 in every
4 square feet. We see by this how much mischief the insect could
do to the growth of rye; it is therefore necessary to pull up and
burn the attacked plants, whilst the worms and the pupe are
inside. I have sometimes pulled up as many as 350 affected
stalks in a few hours, and one or more persons could collect
some thousands in a day, which would be of great importance,
because then the numbers would be less considerable the sueceed-
ing years.”

Gmelint gives the following description, in Latin, of Musca
pumilionis, which he considers the essential characters of Bier-
kander’s insect :—‘ Black ; underside, head, and two lines on the
thorax yellow ; halteres white ; legs cinereous ; apex black.” And
adds, “The larva, which has an acute head and black apex,
inhabits the stems of rye to an extent hurtful to their increase, as
they scarcely reach 1, 2, or 3 inches in height.”

Unfortunately there is no description of the species which we
shall next notice, and the figures in the plate are not sufficiently
accurate to determine if it be Bierkander’s insect; but I am
inclined to think not.{ This excellent paper, being “ Some
Account of the Musca pumilionis of Gmelin’s Edition of the Syst.
Nature, by William Markwick, Esq., F.L.S.,” was read before the
Linnean Society onthe lst of November, 1791.§ He says, “ Early
in the course of the last spring some fields of wheat in the neigh-
bourhood of Battle appearing to be much blighted, a friend of
mine discovered it to be caused by a small insect of the grub or
caterpillar kind, lodged in the centre or very heart of the stem,
just above the root. About the latter end of March I procured

* Evidently related to our fig. 20, pl. L.

‘++ Gmelin’s Systema Nature, vol. v. p. 2849, No. 217.

‘{ They ave represented of a larger size than I conceive Bierkander’s to
be, and with pale, in al] probability yellow, degs; there are also indications
of four black stripes on the thorax in the smaller figures.

§ Vol. ii, p. 76, of their Transactions.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 485

some of the wheat, examined it, and found in most of it a small
larva or caterpillar alive; but in some it was already changed into
the chrysalis state.

** Being exceedingly anxious to determine the species of this ap-
parently destructive animal, I planted some of the diseased roots in
my garden under a handglass, where they flourished very much, and
threw out strong shoots on each side (the middle shoot withered) ;
but whether the flies eseaped through some hole in the glass, or
whether they were devoured by a colony of ants which made their
nest under the glass, I cannot tell, as I did not succeed in this
attempt, for when I pulled up the wheat, and examined it, there
was an empty chrysalis in each plant. However, I had better
luck in my next attempt: I placed several of the diseased roots of
the. wheat in a small flower-pot filled with bran, and covered it

_ over close with gauze, in such a manner that no insect could get in
from the outside, nor could any escape from within, On the 14th
of May three small flies were discovered sitting on the inside of
the gauze. A few days after, three more of the same flies appeared.
There were in the flower-pot of bran six roots of diseased wheat,
which produced six flies. On examining the roots afterwards, I
found an empty shell of the chrysalis in each, so that, I think,
there can be no doubt of the identity of the insect in question.

“JT mentioned that the larva and chrysalis were always found
deposited on the principal stem, just above the root. This stem
it invariably destroyed, which gave the crop a most disastrous
appearance, so that there was scarcely a hope of any produce: but
after the larva had changed into its chrysalis state the mischief
ceased, and the root was not so materially injured as to prevent
its throwing out fresh shoots on each side, or stocking itself, as the
farmers term it, as I experienced by those which I planted in my
garden.

“Tn short, at harvest-time I was most agreeably surprised to
find a good crop of wheat, and the ears large and fine throughout
the whole field. My friend thinks it the best crop on his farm,
and supposes he shall have about three quarters and a half of
thrashed corn from each acre.

« The kind of wheat sown was a white wheat, lately introduced
here from Surrey : my friend could not recollect with certainty its
name, but thought it was called white Zealand wheat. None but
what was sown early, about the latter end of September or the
beginning of October, was affected by this insect; and in one
field, where a part of it was early sown with white, and the other
with red wheat, at the same time, the white wheat was much
affected, and the red but very little. The reason why the early-
sown wheat only was affected is, I should imagine, because the
cold at the approach of winter destroyed the fiy before the late-

2K2

486 - Observations on the various Insects

sown wheat was sprung out of the ground: consequently it could
not lay its eggs in that. The soil is rather stiff, with a gravelly
bottom.”

I shall now proceed to give the observations made on the ravages
of these insects, and their economy, in France. In 1812 the
Société d’Agriculture de la Seine was officially consulted by the
Minister of the Interior upon the subject of the considerable
ravages made in divers parts of France, especially in the environs
of Paris, by the destructive insects attacking the corn-crops.
These insects lodged between the leaves of the corn, and ate the
young stems at the termination of winter. The greater part of
the attacked plants withered and perished upon the spot towards
the end of the following April. The celebrated naturalist, Olivier,
was charged by the Society of Agriculture to study and publish
the history of these insects in their Transactions, but his death
prevented their completion, and the premature demise of M.
Audouin again retarded this work ; and it has been resumed by

Dr. Herpin and M. Guérin-Méneville.
9. CHLOROPS LINEATA ?

« Tn 1812 it was observed that_the corn recently planted pre-
sented, both before and after winter, alterations, occasioned by a
larva situated above the root, which ate the leaves in the centre of
the plant, causing it to turn yellow, and then to perish.*

“In 1839 Dr. Dagonet, at Chalons-sur-Marne, and M.
Philippar, detected again some larve which caused in the spring
a considerable swelling of the young wheat-plant above the joint,
destroying the central leaves and the plant itself. ‘Towards the
end of April or in May these larve were changed to the fly named
Chlorops. Olivier was perplexed to explain how the eggs laid in
May could be preserved and transported to the young wheat-
plants, which are only sown in the October following. The
pairing of the sexes takes place towards the end of May or the
beginning of June, and the female is soon occupied in laying her
eggs upon the stem of the wheat, which then commences to show
the ear; the egg is deposited towards the lower part of the ear,
at the bottom of the sheath of the leaves, About fifteen days
after, there issues from the egg an oblong larva, yellow, and with-
out legs, which attaches itself to the stem of the corn, imme-
diately under the ear; it nourishes itself by nibbling a part of
the surface of the straw, which is then very tender ; it there traces
and excavates an external groove about two millimetres broad
and one or two at most in depth, but which never penetrates into

* Vide Dr. Herpin’s paper in the Memoirs of the ‘ Soc. Royale et Cen-
trale d’Agriculture,’ 1842.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 487

the interior canal of the straw. This furrow reaches from the base
of the ear to the first superior knot, with some exceptions ; for
example, when the larva perishes, or when it is full-grown before
haying attained the first joint.

*© When nearly arrived at this spot, the larva has usually ac-
quired all its growth; it is then transformed into a pupa, and
fixes itself generally towards the middle of the furrow which it
has scooped out on the exterior surface of the stem. In the fol-
lowing September the Chlorops hatches, which would live during
many weeks, and then deposit her new eggs upon the rye and the
corn quite recently sown.

“The stems of the wheat attacked by the larvae proceeding
from the second laying of the Chlorops present some differences
so singular and remarkable, that it is surprising no one has up to
the present time ascertained the cause; these alterations are
generally attributed to a defect of vegetation, occasioned by cer-
tain uncongenial variations of the seasons. ‘lhe stalks thus
attacked are scarcely more than half the height of those which
are healthy; their maturation is retarded considerably ; they are
still very green when the others have become yellow from the
effect of ripening ; the ears have not yet emerged from between
the leaves which sheath them; they are short, small in bulk, and
contain but few grains ; these, moreover, are starved, concealed,
and curved; lastly, all the series or files of grains situated on the
side where one finds the longitudinal channel hollowed out by the
larva are entirely abortive, and contain no grains.”

It appears that in July, 1840, the pupa and perfect insect were
alive, and in May the infected stems were abundant, and, from
the number of ears which were injured where the researches were
made, the loss was estimated at one-seventieth part of the wheat-
crop. Dr. Dagonet says, “ The number was at least as consider-
able in our country, where one could uot set a step without meet-
ing with some ears not disengaged from their envelopes. If we
add to these ravages of the second laying, the considerable num-
ber of young plants which perished in consequence of the attacks
of the Chlorops prior to and after winter, we shall be convinced that
this insect is a very formidable scourge to agriculture.”

10. Cutoroprs Herpinit, Guér.

Dr. Herpin also obtained a Musca from larve which only
attack the ears of the barley, and which Guérin has named Chlorops
Herpinii,* and he says that it resembles the C. glabra of Meigen, F

* Guérin’s Memoirs, p. 30, pl. 2, fig. 9.
+ System. Beschr., v. 6, p 149, No. 20,

488 Observations on the various Insects

and the “ Mouche jaune a bandes noires” of Geoffroy. * This
species certainly differs from all the specimens I have bred, as
well as from those in my cabinet: + it is yellow, and has only
three black stripes on the thorax ; the antenne are black or yellow,
with the anterior margin, and seta black ; crown with two black
triangular spots; abdomen yellow; fascia and basal dots
fuscous; tail black; legs yellow; the tarsi are all fuscous.
He further says, “ The barley (Hordeum distichon) is attacked
with us by a Chloreps which appears to be the same as that
which devours the stems of the wheat; it produces the same
alterations, and scoops a longitudinal groove on the outside of the
young stem, under the ear.”

“ Besides that insect,” says Dr. Herpin, “ the barley is attacked
by the larvee of another Chlorops, much smaller than the preced-
ing, which are found to the number of from six to ten in each
ear; they eat the sexual organs of the flowers, and render the
fructification imperfect, so that the ears are quite sterile.

“ We often find also upon the same piece of barley, with
the first-mentioned Chlorops, which eats the superior part of the
stem, many other little Chlorops of the second species, which devour
the ear. ‘These two species undergo their metamorphoses in the
manner already described.”

11. Musca Frit.

I must not omit to notice this little fly, which was first made
known by Linnzus’s Memoir in the ‘ Stockholm Transactions’
for 1750, and concerning which there is much difficulty regarding
the species, owing to the brevity of his description, and it appears
to me that its economy is different to any of the other recorded
species. As, however, all naturalists are agreed that it is a
Chlorops, it will be better to introduce it here.

In the ‘Fauna Suecica’{ Linneeus describes this fly as having
* setaceous antenne, with black pile or short hairs; the balancers,
hinder feet, and abdomen are pale green. It is the size of a flea
(which is large in Sweden) ; the body is the form of Musca
domestica (the common house-fly); black ; very agile, as if
dancing; eyes fuscous; hinder feet pale; balancers pale; ab-
domen fuscous, more of a pale green beneath.’ He says, “ It
resides between the glumes (busks) of the barley, and certainly
destroys as much as one-tenth of the grain, causing the little, light,

* Geoff., Hist. abregée des Ins., v. 2, p. 508.

+ Vide Curtis’s Guide, genus 1345, where 35 species of these flies, com-
prised in Chlorops and the subgenus Oscinis, are recorded as inhabiting
England.

t P. 456, No, 1851.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 489

and worthless grains called Frits, which are the greatest loss to
husbandmen;” and he calculates the annual loss in Sweden at
upwards of 100,000 golden ducats,* about the same sum in pounds
sterling—an immense loss, if we consider the period at which
Linneus wrote and the country he alluded to. It is found much
farther to the north, the fly being, according to Zetterstedt, abun-
dant everywhere in Lapland, on grass in arid situations, from the
5th of July to the 2nd of September.y+

I will now describe the first species which came under my own
observation, and causes the disease termed in Oxfordshire the gout
in wheat and barley, from the stalk being swollen to thrice its
natural size. These flies belong to the Order Diprera, the
Family Muscip#, and this species to the Genus CHLorops, so
called from its green eyes, and it is named by Meigen

2. C. teeniopus,} the ribbon-footed corn-fly (fig. 20, pl. L).

Guerin considers this to be a variety of the following insects,
which belong to the same species :—

Musca lineata, Fab.: Ent. Syst., v. 4, p. 356, No. 180.—Oscinis

lineata, Fab.: Syst. Ant., p. 215, No. 4.
Oscinis lineata, Lat. : in Eucy. Method., v. 8, p. 566.
Chlorops nasuta, Meig.: Syst. Besch., v. 6, p. 142, not of
Gmelin.

Chlorops glabra, Westw.: in Gardener’s Mag., v. 13, p. 289.

It is of a straw-colour or pale yellow ; the antenne are porrected
but drooping, black, small, compressed, and four-jointed ; the basal
joint being cup-shaped and bristly; second nearly orbicular; the
third minute, short, and slender, inserted near the base of the
second ; the fourth a fine, rather short bristle, often placed at an
angle with the third (fig. 7) : head rather large and hemispherical
(fig. 22); face smooth; profile concave (fig. m) ; mouth received
into a cavity beneath, composed of a bilobed lip, two palpi, a
labrum, and tongue ; at the base of the crown is a black triangle,
on which are placed in triangle the three minute ocelli; the eyes
are lateral and orbicular, remote in both sexes, green when alive,
blackish or brown after death; thorax ovate-quadrate, very con-
vex, and as broad as the head; down the back are three broad
black stripes, the centre one equal, the lateral ones tapering
behind ; on each side of these is a slender short black line, not
_ extending to the shoulder, and there is a black dot on the side of
the breast; the scutellum is semicircular and yellow, with a
minute dark spot on each side under the margin at the base,
sometimes there are two rusty converging stripes on the sides, and

* Linneus’s Systema Nature, pars 2, p. 994, No. 90.
+ Insecta Lapponica, col. 781, No. 12.
‘} Syst. Besch., v. 6, p. 144, No. 9.

490 Observations on the various Insects

the hinder margin is relieved by a transverse black patch; the
abdomen is scarcely longer than the thorax and not broader, it is
ovate-conic and depressed, formed of five segments, of a pale
greenish black, the margins darker, forming four black bands when
alive, and there is a minute black dot on each side of the basal
segment; wings incumbent in repose (fig. 23), extending consider-
ably beyond the tail, transparent, beautifully iridescent; costal
nervure brown and extending to the submarginal nervure only
(fig. n), which is brown also, the inferior ones paler, the two
transverse nervures on the disc do not approximate; halteres
clavate and white; six legs moderately long, simple, and slender,
of an ochreous colour; the feet five-jointed, anterior black, with
the second and third joints ochreous, intermediate and hinder with
the two terminal joints alone black ; claws and pulvelli also black ;
length 13 line, expanse 31 (fig. 21, highly magnified).

As I have great doubts regarding this insect being only a variety
of Fabricius’s Musca lineata, 1 have adopted Meigen’s name;
their economy is undoubtedly similar, but his description is too
incomplete to enable any one to determine the point, and Meigen’s
insect is at once distinguished from all others of the genus by the’
pale band on the intensely black fore-feet.

On the 7th of August, 1841, a friend informed me that, in
going into a small wheat-field in Surrey, it was lamentable to see
the multitude of stems and ears that were injured and disfigured.
The wheat had been transplanted, the stalks were scored, and in
them were the chrysalides of maggots protected by the leaf. Upon
inspecting the three stems that accompanied the communicaticn,
one of which is represented in pl. K, fig. 24, and pl. L, fig. 25,
the former being the upper and the latter the lower portion of the
same stem, I observed an irregular brown channel commencing a
short space above the joint (fig. 25, 0), which extended to the base
of thie ear (fig. 24, p). At figure o I found ashining brown pupa,
from whence I concluded that the egg had been deposited at a
somewhat early stage of the wheat, possibly in May or June, and
that the larva fed, working its way down, within an inch or an inch
anda half of the joint, where it was enveloped and secured by the
leaves, and would no doubt turn round before changing to a pupa.
I then split the stems longitudinally, and found that the channels
formed by the maggot in no instance penetrated through, but that
there was occasionally a corresponding thickening inside of the
straw; I had seven pupa, all of which appeared to be dead, ex-
cepting one (fig. 26), through the skin of which I could trace the
embryo fly, which eventually proved to be the Chlorops teniopus.

On a second examination I found in two of the ears that the
laryze had commenced eating about half an inch above the base of
the ear, and kept apparently on the surface of the stalk, which is,

affecting the Corn-Crops. 491

of course, very rigid, and one had passed over a grain which was
impressed with a small channel; in another the calyx of the basal
grain was perforated with a small hole (fig. p), which had ren-
dered it abortive, unless the corn had been consumed. As the
channel had passed over one of the calyces, where it was much
narrower than below, and the kernels swelled, the line of connexion
was interrupted. Such were my first impressions, but, after recon-
sidering these appearances, I have come to the conclusion that the
egg is deposited so that it may hatch when the ear is but just
formed, and by then feeding on one side, the channel in the stalk
is only the scar, which is elongated as the plant grows; if this be
the case, my first theory is incorrect: but to show how carefully
one must proceed, I may mention that the specimens of wheat
above alluded to were carefully preserved in a closed box, and on
re-examining them lately, I saw one of the stems had not been
opened, and on splitting it a great quantity of white excrement
fell out, which puzzled me greatly; but on proceeding in my
search, I found that the canal terminated in one of the glumes,
and there, to my surprise and satisfaction, I discovered a little beetle
' (the Anobium paniceum),* which had been feeding on the soft inter-
nal lining of the straw, with others which had escaped, and they
were the cause of this unexpected and casual injury.

On the 16th of August, 1841, I bred the fly Chlorops teniopus
from one of the pupz in the stems; the others produced pa-
rasites, of which I shall speak hereafter.

The same fly attacks the barley also, but apparently at an
earlier period, for on the 2nd of last July I received two plants
from Sarsden, which were rank, and looked green and healthy,
but, on unfolding the leaves, I found the central ones yellow, dead,
and eaten, and the stem destroyed. Within an inch of the joint
was enclosed a brown, shining pupa, like fig. 26, but smaller; in
the other a similar one, but an inch or two higher up, and ad-
hering to the inside of one of the outer leaves: in this plant the
young ear of barley was eaten and become brown at the extre-
mity. It was stated by my correspondent that in his neighbour-
hood not a yard of any of the barley-fields was free from this dis-
ease. About three weeks after, he sent me a larger supply of
infected plants, which had a rank and gouty appearance ; and in-
formed me “that the disease was first detected when the barley
began to shoot or stool ; and when one stalk was infected, the re-
mainder of the shoots on the same stool appeared stunted. I do
not think any stalk with a maggot in it will ever throw out an
ear.” And of this I am also convinced; for in every instance
the stalk was eaten, often nearly through, and the tender grain

* Vide Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 387; and his Guide, genus 290.

492 Observations on the vartous Insects

was more or less consumed by the maggots, especially towards the
base, where it was the most matured; but it often happened that
there was no indication of grain, the chaff only being developed.

Having found two specimens of the Chlorops with their wings
crumpled, near the top of the spathe, I am satisfied that the flies
crawl out from between the leaves as soon they hatch, and there
expand their wings; and the species I was able to identify by the
colour of the feet.

It has been said that this disease is confined to the most luxuriant
crops; but this surely arises from the rank and unnatural appear-
ance occasioned by the swelling of the stems. Some of the naked
Nepaul barley was also infested with the Chlorops, which in August
~ exhibited deep channels the whole length of the stems. It seems to
attack rye and barley sometimes in preference to wheat; and per-
haps there is not a year that this fly is not at work, but at intervals
in such small numbers that the mischief passes unnoticed. ‘There
are some other species of. Chlorops, which occasionally make
their appearance in myriads: I remember witnessing the ceiling
of a room which was absolutely discoloured by a very similar spe-
cies, the Chlorops hypostigma of Meigen, if I mistake not, which
swarmed in the autumn of 1834, when many persons informed
me that it was not of rare occurrence at that season in Suffolk.
I also received examples of this species last October, which ‘“ lite-
rally covered the ceiling of a bed-room” that had been white-
washed, after scarlet fever had visited the house, which induced a
supposition that the flies were the consequence. ‘here were thou-
sands also on the windows of an uninhabited house in this neigh-
bourhood in the second week of October.

I recollect that Mr. D. Sharp, a member of the Linnean So-
ciety, presented me with specimens of the Chlorops teniopus, many
years since, which he had bred from the stems of wheat in Hunt-
ingdonshire ; and, more recently, the late Mr. Sells stated before
the Entomological Society, that many acres of rye had been killed
near Kingston, in Surrey, by these larvee burrowing into the stem
at the surface of the ground. In 1837 the Chlorops was observed
in abundance, whilst removing a wheat-stack, near Bristol, in the
month of April, with the caterpillars of Noctua cubicularis, already
noticed ; and in the autumn of the same year, these little flies ap-
peared in myriads in houses in various parts of the country. It
is, however, very much to be regretted that it is impossible to ascer-
tain if they were all of the same or different species, as the speci-
mens are either lost or scattered about in various collections.

During the present year a species has been detected of similar
habits, which had not been previously noticed. ‘The first report of
this disease was a communication from Mr. R. Arthur, of Edin-

burgh, published in the Gardener’s Chronicle and Agricultural

affecting the Corn- Crops. 493

Gazette, June Ist, 1844, in which the writer says, “There has
been a remarkable failure of some fields of wheat around North
Berwick, which have been ploughed down within the last few
weeks. In early spring it promised as fine a crop as any in the
country. Plants, however, here and there began to look sickly
and to flag, which lay withered in the course of ten days. On ex-
amination, every stem of the plants attacked was found to contain
a small grub, which enters about two inches beneath the surface
of the soil, eats its way up the centre of the stem till it reaches the
light, when it either dies or becomes transformed. The plants
appear to reproduce fresh buds from the joint beneath the door of
the grub, but the remaining vitality seems too weak to carry leaves
to the air for respiration, far less to yield a crop.” This was
inmmediately followed by a letter addressed to the editor of the
Preston Guardian by Mr. M.Saul, of Fort Green Cottage, Garstang,
Lancashire, stating that he had discovered the grubs in wheat-
fields on the estate of the Duke of Hamilton in that neighbour-
hood;- and, with the plants forwarded to the Royal Agricultural
Society, he stated that the wheat was sown in December, February,
and March; the first suffering the least from their attacks. The
fields are a peat-earth, and were cropped with potatoes in 1843.
On the 9th of June, and again on the 19th, Mr. Saul obligingly
transmitted me some plants with the living maggots in them. The
first two plants of wheat I received were four or five inches out of
the ground, and withering (fig. 27); on pulling open the dilated
base of one of the sheathing leaves, I found a small yellowish
white, shining, fleshy maggot (fig. 28), surrounded by atoms of the
stalk, which might have been digested, as they adhered together.
It was perfectly concealed, with its head downward, and close’ to
the base of the plant; it had already eaten through the central
stem, so that I could draw it out with ease. ‘This maggot was a
quarter of an inch long, the body was gradually attenuated to the
head, which was pointed, with two black horny points; the tail
was terminated abruptly, with two brown tubercles and several
smaller fleshy ones (fig. 28, and f. 29, the same magnified).
Unfortunately, these larva, as weil as those forwarded a few days
after, all died; for, as they were much larger than those sent at
the end of June, I am disposed to think they may be different to
the foregoing or following species; yet, on opening the stems in
October, I found two dead larva, and on a leaf I detected a small
empty pupa-case, very similar to that of the species I am about to
notice.

13. OscInis VASTATOR.

The wheat-plants transmitted to me on the 19th of June I placed
in a garden-pot, when they died I enclosed them in a stopper-

494 Observations on the various Insects

bottle, and on the 5th of July I found a small black fly hatched
(fig. 31). The plants of corn, whether of wheat or barley, I could
not ascertain, which I received on the 23rd of June had the outer
blades green (fig. 32, s), the inner one yellow or brown (fig. ¢) ;
on pulling this blade it drew out, leaving the base behind, which
was completely eaten through (fig. 33, w): the stem which I had
drawn out was of a yellow colour, and about half an inch of it was
eaten, and dry (fig. 34, v), and just within I detected a small yel-
low, shining maggot (fig. w). Although it has no feet, it crawls
well even upon glass; the head is attenuated, with two minute
black hooks extending into the thoracic segments, through which
they are visible: I counted twelve segments, the apical one being
rounded, with two minute tubercles (fig. 2, magnified). On the
29th of June, one or more of the maggots had changed to brown
pupe in the stem, occupying the same place as the larve had
done (fig. y); and on the 20th of July I found two little black
flies, the Oseinis vastator (fig. 31), dead in the box, and precisely
the same as that bred on the 5th of July, with the empty cocoons
also.

Owing to a variation in the nervures of the wings, and other
minor differences, this species and many others* have been sepa-
rated from Chlorops, and are raised to a Genus bearing the name
of Oscinis; and as our species does not agree with any of the
others published in the works of Meigen or Macquart, and I have
no opportunity of ascertaining if it be the one described by Olivier,
I am compelled to give it a name, which alludes to its destructive
nature.

13. O. vastator, Curt. (fig. 31); Tephritis hordei, Oliv.?
Shining greenish black: antennze attached to the forehead, short,
compressed, drooping, and approximating at the base ; four-jointed,
basal joint cup-shaped, second semi-orbicular, on the outside of
which, near the base, is inserted the third joint, which is exceed-
ingly minute, fourth a short pubescent bristle; lip and palpi con-
cealed ina cavity beneath the head, which is bristly, with a large
shining triangular space on the crown, on which are placed the
three minute ocelli in a triangle; face smooth, and not concave as
in Chlorops; eyes remote in both sexes, lateral and oval, brown
after death, but probably green when alive ; thorax as broad as
the head, globose quadrate, with a scarcely visible ochreous pile,
forming very indistinct lines in perfect specimens, and an impres-
sion on the disc; scutellum semi-ovate, terminated by two bristles,
and finely rugose; abdomen short, not so broad as the thorax,
rather depressed, ovate conic and five-jointed; wings decumbent
in repose, and extending considerably beyond the tail, transparent

* Vide Cuttis’s Guide, genus 1345, species 28 to 61.

affecting the Corn-Crops. 495

and iridescent, but slightly smoky; the costal nervure extending
beyond the submarginal one to the mediastinal nervure (fig.
31, m); all the nervures are pitchy, the two transverse ones are not
very remote; balancers with an oval ochreous club; _ legs six,
longish and slender, base and tips of the four anterior tibiz ferru-
ginous ; the base of the first joint, in all the tarsi, is of the same
colour: length 3 line, breadth 2 lines (fig. 31; 7, the same magni-
fied). Obs.—Some specimens are smaller and more slender ; pos-
sibly they are the males.

This appears to be a much more formidable enemy than the
Chlorops teniopus, for the ten or twelve stalks I opened were filled
only with powder at the base, every portion of the young ear being
consumed ; indeed the destruction was complete.

Let us now pause for a moment, and reflect upon the extra-
ordinary fact, that our corn, the staff of life, is placed in the power
of this pigmy race; and that, destined as man is to earn his bread
by the sweat of his brow, yet famine, accompanied by its conco-
mitants disease and death, may overtake him, notwithstanding
his industry, and let his prospects be ever so promising, through
the united operations of the insect race. How wonderfully dis-
played, therefore, are the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, in
so nicely balancing the destroyer and his parasitic enemies as to
keep man, naturally prone to indolence, ever on the alert ; and yet,
when the countless hordes of noxious insects fall like an irresistible
plague upon his crops, that hand which is ever ready to befriend
mankind, arrests the scourge. Myriads of parasitic insects are let
loose, multiplying as their prey increases—the threatening scourge
passes over with less loss than could have been anticipated, and
the succeeding year, to the astonishment of the farmer, instead of
the mischief being increased, not au insect enemy is to be seen.

1 may now be permitted to show, with regard to these little flies,
the way in which the Creator himself has devised the means of
arresting their multiplication. In rearing the Chlorops and Oscinis
I often found that even more parasites than legitimate flies issued
from the infested stems, and their history T shall forthwith relate.

I bred a kind of Jchneumon from the Canada wheat, which suf-
fered from the maggots of the Chlorops in 1841, and the grower of
' it transmitted another specimen. Likewise, on opening the spikes
of barley from Sarsden in October, I invariably found, on the inside
of the inner spathe enclosing the incipient ear, an empty pupa: case,
from 1 to 3 inches from the base, which had either produced the fly
(Chlorops teniopus), or this Ichneumon, called Ceelinius,* one of

* This is the genus Ch@non of my works ; but Nees ab Esenbeck having
previously characterised the group under the above name, mine is super-
seded, 1 should not have referred my insect to Nees’s genus had not Mr,

496 Observations on the various Insects

which stuck in the hole it had eaten with its strong jaws,* owing, in
all probability, to the plants having been kept too dry. .This
parasite was first noticed and described by Olivier, and Dr. Herpin
obtained it in such abundance that he states the number of parasites
to have been almost as considerable as that of the Chlorops; and
from my experience I am of the same opinion as to their numerical
force. He also says that both broods of the Chlorops are equally
subject to the attacks of the parasitic Celinius, which usually
hatches many days before the Chlorops, especially the males.

With the egg and maggot of the Calinius I am unacquainted—
indeed the former must be too minute to be visible with the naked
eye—but in all probability it is inserted into the maggot of the
Chiorops, and feeds upon its fat until it changes to a pupa, which
I found placed in the groove of the wheat-stem (pl. L, fig. 25. a;
fig. b bemg the same magnified). A little above this pupa I ob-
served a round hole (c) in some of the spathes, through which the
parasites had made their exit; and it is worthy of remark that
their wings are perfectly developed and ready for flight before they
sally forth, whereas the Chlorops comes out with soft unexpanded
wings, which it is necessary to expand and dry in the open air.

This parasite, like most of those described in former Essays,
belongs to the Order Hymenoptera, Family IcHneuMonrpEs
ApsciTI, and the Genus Caztinius.7 Olivier also described it
under the name of Alysia nigra; and Guerin, to pay a compli-
ment to that distinguished naturalist, named it Alysia Olivierti. }
It is undoubtedly the Chenon affinis of my work, which is synony-
mous with Nees ab Esenbeck’s Colinius niger,§ and accidentally
accords with Olivier’s name, which has the right of priority.

14. C. niger (fig. 35).—Reddish brown or piceous: antenne,
head, and thorax, shining black ; the former as long as the animal,
slender, and composed of numerous subquadrate joints, basal
joint most robust, third the largest; the head is globose-quadrate ;
face convex; the mouth is furnished with a pair of divaricating
jaws, terminated by four unequal teeth; the four feelers are long,
especially the maxillary; the eyes are remote and lateral ; ocelli
three, large, and forming a triangle on the crown; thorax very
much elongated, and not broader than the head; postscutel large,
semi-orbicular, and coarsely punctured; abdomen as long as the
head and thorax, and broader at the middle, pale piceous, the

Haliday in his Monograph been satisfied of their identity; because Nees
says the maxillary palpi are five-jointed, whereas they are undoubtedly
six-jointed in the specimens of Ch@non I have examined and figured. Vide
Curtis's Brit. Ent., fol. and pl. 289, fig. 4.
* Tbid., figs. 1* and 3. + Curtis’s Guide, genus 562.
; Notice sur quelques Insectes nuisibles, p. 26 and pl. 4, f. 1 and 2.
§ Hymenopterorum Ichn. affinis Monog. vol. i. p, 10.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 497

basal segments very much narrowed, rugose, and brown, the others
forming an elongate-ovate body ; ovipositor scarcely visible; wings
rather long, transparent, and iridescent ; superior ample, with one
marginal, two sub-marginal, and two discoidal cells; stigma
elougate-ovate, and brown, as well as the nervures; inferior wings
much smaller, the nervures dark and distinct; legs very slender,
hinder the longest, anterior ochreous; tarsi fuscous; hinder tro-
chanters and thighs with an ochreous ring at their union: length
21 lines; expanse 33. (Fig. 36, magnified).

All the species of this parasite, of which there are twelve de-
seribed in the ‘ British Entomology,’ inhabit moist meadows, and
are principally found from the end of June to September, which is
strong evidence that many of the Chlorops are bred from the stems
of grasses.

Another parasite I bred also from the same stems of wheat and
barley, which is an exquisitely beautiful little creature in form and
colour. This had been likewise described by Olivier,* and M.
Guérin found some specimens in the bottle coutaining the corn
which produced the Chlorops Herpinii and the above Celinius.
On the 11th of last August, and again on the 20th, I found a male
of this Pteromalus, which had been bred from a stem of the gouty
barley from Sarsden; and I soon discovered a little hole, about
three-quarters of an inch from the base, through which it had
emerged (fig. 25, d). At the base of another abortive ear within
the spathe, I found a second specimen of the Pteromalus dead, and.
not a vestige of a pupa-case, showing that this parasite is very dif-
ferent in its economy to the Celinius, and lays its eggs in the
maggots of the Chlorops at such an early period that they are de-
voured before they have time to change to pupz, so that there was
nothing remaining in the cavity of the stem but the excrement of
the Chlorops’ maggot. It is however the opinion of some naturalists
that this family of insects destroys the true parasites by puncturing
their pupe.

Tn a former Essay I described and figured a little fly which was
parasitic in the pupe of the “ White-cabbage butterfly.” + The
parasite of the Chlorops is closely allied to it, consequently it is
of the same Order Hymenoprera, the Family Cynipip# or
Cuatcipip#, and the Genus Preromatus, of which my genus
Colax forms a section. { It was named, apparently by Olivier,
Chaleis micans ; and is closely allied to, if it be not identical with,
Mr. F. Walker’s Pteromalus Pione. §

15. P. micans, the glittering Pteromalus (fig. 87).—Head and

* Oliv., Mém. Soc. d’Agr., vol. xvi. p. 477, pl. 3,f. 12.
+ Royal Agric. Jour., vol. iii. pl. E. f. 13.
‘{ Vide Curtis’s Brit. Ent., fol. 166.
§ Monographia Chalciditum, p. 224, No. 21.

498 Observations on the various Insects

thorax of a lovely green, more or less tinged with blue or yellow,
and exquisitely shagreened; the former is large and transverse ;
the face more orbicular ; on each side is a dark oval eye, and a
the crown three ocelli in the form of a triangle ; antenne nearly as
long as the head and thorax, inserted in the ‘anual of the face,
filiform, flail-shaped, hairy and brown, composed of thirteen joints,
the first being long and naked, and forming an angle with the
following, second pear-shaped, third and fourth like little rings,
six following oblong, the remainder forming an elongated coshieal:
compressed ‘club ; mouth with two denticulated jaws, four palpi,
&c.;* thorax not so broad as the head, but thrice as long, and
oblong ; scutellum large, rounded, and convex; abdomen black,
smooth, and shining ; the base and sides imetallae green; the baths
violet, not so long as the thorax, strap-shaped, concave ahove; nar-
rowed at the base, the apex pointed; four wings transparent,
iridescent, and pubescent ; superior ample, with a subcostal brown
nervure extending to the middle, where it becomes the costal
nervure, but does not reach the tip, and beyond the middle is a
short clavate branch; inferior wings much smaller, and nerveless,
excepting a short subcostal one; six legs, slender, and bright
ochreous; cox bright green, hinder stout; thighs pitchy, anterior
with the apex and a stripe beneath ochreous, the others tipped with
ochre; tarsi five-jointed, anterior often dusky, the others, with the
fifth joint, the pulvilli, and claws, black: length 1} line; expanse
nearly 3 lines. (Fig. 38, the male, magnified.)

Such is the description of the male ; and it is a little remarkable
that the female seems to be unknown, all the bred specimens being
of the former sex. There are probably seven or eight hundred
species of these insects, which have been described as inhabitants of
Great Britain ;} their increase is prodigious, as already shown in a
former Essay; and there is scarcely a blade of grass, during
the summer months, that is not ornamented with these beautiful
little creatures—

* The green myriads in the peopled grass,’’—

which may compete with the humming-birds in the brillianey of
their colours.

From the stems of barley containing the pupe of the Oscinis
vastator, 1 bred a third parasite, much smaller than either of the
foregoing, and found many more upon the windows of my room,
where the plants were placed, which no doubt had escaped.
They were all females, belonging to the Order HymEnoprera,

* For the dissections see Curtis’s Brit. Ent., pl. 166.
‘+ Walker in the Entom. Mag. and his Monographs.
‘{ Royal Agr. Jour., “Vol. iii, p. 311,

affecting the Corn- Crops. 499

Family IcuNeumonipEs apscitt or Atystip#, the Genus
Sie¢atpuus, and have been named by Nees ab Esenbeck.*

16. S. caudatus, from the length of the tail (fig. 39).—It is
black and shining, indistinctly punctured ; the head is subglobose,
with two lateral eyes, and three minute ocelli on the crown; the
antenne are as long as the body, flail-shaped, slender and fili-
form, composed of twenty or twenty-one joints, basal one the
longest ; thorax oval and gibbose, the sutures very deep; abdomen
broader than the thorax, and rather longer, elliptic-ovate, with
three equal segments, the two first and the base of the third finely
striated longitudinally ; the apex polished; belly concave; ovi-
positor exserted, and longer than the animal, composed of an ovi-
duct and two sheaths; wings four, transparent, iridescent; mar-
ginal cell ovate, submarginal subovate; discoidal cells two, superior
the largest, rhomboidal, inferior oblong ; nervures piceous, as well
as the stigma, which is large and elongate-ovate; legs pitchy,
anterior ferruginous, excepting the base of the thighs and the
tarsi, base of the other tibiz ferruginous: length from 2 to 1 line,
without the ovipositor; expanse 13 to 2}. (Fig. 40, the female,

oe ay
s Dr. Herpin seems to have ascertained the economy of this
parasite, or a closely-allied species, during its early stages, I shall
transcribe his sensible observations :—‘* An Jchneumon, of which
the female is armed with a long ovipositor, perforates the shell of
the Chlorops’ egg, and deposits there its own. The young larva
of the Chlorops of the wheat grows and increases, although it en-
closes in its body a mortal enemy. The larva of the parasite
grows and flourishes with its victim, and she nourishes herself with
its fatty substance ; but, how admirable! the parasite never attacks
any of the essential organs of life in the Chlorops, for if this hap-
pened to perish, the parasite would infallibly die with it. After
the diseased Chlorops has metamorphosed to a chrysalis, the para-
site finishes by destroying it entirely; and one sees with surprise
an insect come out of the pupa of the Chlorops, not the destructive
fly of the wheat, but an Ichneumon, which in its turn proceeds again
to persecute the progenitor of the corn-destroying Chlorops.”
Having now completed the history of the instruments provided
by Providence to check the ravages of the Chlorops, we will turn
to those means suggested by the experience of man; and here
again [ shall translate a portion of Dr. Herpin’s Memoir :—
“In the years when the Chlorops exists in great quantities, the
means to destroy it consist in pulling up, carrying away, and
burning the plants which are attacked by them, as well of the first
as the second laying.

* Hymenop. Ichn. affin, Mon., vol. i. p. 268.
9

VOL, V. 4b

500 ' Observations on the various Insects

“ The first operation can be done at the time of weeding or of
clearing the corn of thistles: the young swelled and yellow plants
are easily enough known. The second operation ought to be per-
formed a fortnight or three weeks before harvest-time, when it is
much more easy to execute, as the stems attacked by the Chlorops
are very easily distinguished, even at a distance, because of their
short height, more considerable thickness, and deep green colour
of the head ; and, lastly, because the ear always remains sheathed
and enveloped by large leayes. Moreover, these plants thus
altered are almost always found situated at the lower side of the
beds or furrows, so that in passing between two ridges one can
easily reach them with the hand, from one side or the other, with-
out causing any damage to the corn.

«* Another of the most certain means, the most economical, and
the most advantageous, which can in general be employed to
destroy the insects injurious to our crops, is to yary the culture by
alternate courses, so that corn-crops may be succeeded by others
which are weeded or fed off, and vice versd. It will follow that
the noxious larvze deposited in the fields, not finding at the period
of their hatching the nourishment which is suited to their organ-
ization, are not able to subsist, and infallibly perish.” *

He is also disposed to attribute the apparent exhaustion of the
soil from oyer-cropping, as much to the presence of, and the ex-
cessive propagation of, certain injurious insects, as to the land_
being actually tired ; and thus the rotation and changing of culture,
wheuever they are not called for by other powerful reasons, ought
yet to be adopted and put in practice, to hinder and prevent the
too great multiplication of certain species of noxious insects.

Mr. Arthur says, ‘‘ Perhaps the most efficient preventiye would
be to detect the insect fly when it appears to deposit its eggs, and
keep it from lighting on the field by the application of some repul-
siye perfume, such as soot, guano, or sand that has been immersed
in gas-water, &c., dried and sown over the field.” +

As the larvze of these flies have caused considerable alarm on
many occasions, and have no doubt done extensive mischief, we
will take a general review of their economy before we dismiss the
subject. It is now evident that there are many species of these.
flies to whose larve wheat, barley, and rye are equally acceptable,
and we cannot be certain that they are not bred in grasses also ;
indeed, from the swarms of the Chlorops’ fly that are found in
the meadows, and the myriads that enter dwelling-houses, often
not surrounded by corn-fields, it seems to be very probable. There
are, also, it will be observed, two broods of the Chlorops annually ;

* Herpin’s Memoir, pp. 11 and 12.
+ Gardener’s Chronicle for 1844, p. 365,

affecting the Corn- Crops. 501

the maggots of one attacking the corn when the ear is formed,
but yet concealed in the sheath, doing the greatest mischief in
some instances, for not only are the ears not ripe at harvest-time,
but they are either abortive or the grains are shrivelled and worth-
less, and what is equally detrimental, the lateral shoots are rendered
useless, owing to the advanced period of the season. The follow-
ing, or second brood, deposits its eggs in the autumn-sown corn
as late probably as the middle of October, in open weather. It is
true that from the attacks of this brood the central shoot perishes ~
in the spring. This, however, only retards the growth a little;
for the lateral shoots being strengthened, and having time to grow
and produce ears, it appears that in some instances little or no bad
consequences followed ; and it may be that even a more abundant
crop has been produced under such circumstances.

It is deserving of notice that white wheats are most palatable
to these larvae, and I believe are generally preferred by noxious
insects. When therefore it is stated that the Chlorops sometimes
prefers rye and barley to wheat, it may be owing to its being red
wheat, but at present this has not been substantiated.

Of the two species belonging to the genus Oscinis, there seems
to be no evidence of their producing two broods ina year. The
larvee of the Swedish species (O. pumilionis) were small at the end
of April, they changed to pupz at the end of May, and the flies
were produced in the middle and end of June. Our British species
(O. vastator) was found in the larva state in May and June, to-
wards Midsummer they changed to pupe, and the flies were
hatching, during three weeks or upwards, in July. This is de-
cidedly the most destructive species that has fallen in our way.

With regard to the successive transformations of these insects,
it is positively stated that the eggs are laid at the base of the
leaves which sheath the ear, by the first or summer brood, and it
may be presumed that the autumnal eggs are similarly deposited.
To detect and destroy such atoms is impossible: the only remedy,
at this period, would be to anticipate the female flies, and kill them.
Whether it would be possible to attract the flies to any spot by
white painted boards, or any liquor that would poison them, has
not been ascertained. To drive the flies away by ammonia, gas-
water, or other vapours, I should not think feasible ; but I doubt
_ not that dusting the young corn-plants with soot or lime, on the

first intimation of the fly in the autumn, would prevent the depo-
sition of the eggs.

The maggots, or larvee, of the summer brood live between the
stem and the sheath aboye ground : those of the autumnal brood
appear to be close to, if not below, the surface. The former could
not be affected by any application, I should imagine; but strong
liquid manures possibly might annoy the others. Hard frosts,

2142

502 Observations on the various Insects

however, are in all probability one of the greatest checks to the
perfecting of these larve.

The next is the pupa or chrysalis state, which the larvee assume
about the end of March and in July, when the sickly plants are
easily discovered, and may be pulled up, and should be burnt im-
mediately, unless there is a prospect of the spring corn throwing
out lateral shoots, and producing, as Mr. Markwick’s did, an
abundant crop. I have now only to observe that as neither the
eggs, larvee, nor pupe are deposited in the earth, of course no
ploughing or harrowing can be of the least service; and as the
injury, although it may be occasionally alarming, is not followed
by any succession of continued attacks, the mischief cansed by
them hitherto appears to have been only temporary.

Summary ofthe foregoing Report.

The larve of some minute beetle destroying the green wheat in
1802.

One-fifth part of the wheat sown destroyed by them.

Wireworms occasioned an annual loss of 60,000 bushels of
seed.

Larva probably of a Ground-beetle, or Carabus, feeding on
the roots of corn.

Zabrus gibbus, a Ground-beetle, which devours the soft grains
of wheat in standing corn.

The female lays her eggs in clusters in the earth.

The larve burrow in the earth, and do great mischief, by eat-
ing into the stem, sometimes destroying two successive crops of
wheat im Germany and Italy.

They also attack rye and barley.

Both the larve and perfect insects feed by night, and lie con-
cealed during the day,

Poultry and Crows will clear the land after ploughing.

Peat-ashes are an excellent dressing for infested lands in the
spring.

Pre Field-chaffer feeds wpon the soft grain of rye and wheat.
It is not known if their /arve attack the roots of corn.
May-bugs abundant in corn-fields, feeding on leaves and flowers.

Do they injure the corn?

Their larve consume the roots of grasses.

A. Caterpillar which feeds upon the grains of wheat in the field,
as well as in the barn. It also lives upon the seeds of grasses.

These larve destroyed one-third of the produce occasionally.

Noxious insects often appear simultaneously over a great extent
of country.

These Caterpillars will attack and destroy each other in confine-
ment.

affecting the Corn-Crops. 503

Repeated ploughings recommended to destroy the pupe; but
as the Caterpillars are conveyed away with the corn, that would be
useless.

The “ Pale mottled willow-moth”’ is the parent of this Cater-
pular, and is abundant in hay-fields, &c.

Caterpillar of a Saw-fly, found on wheat-ears amongst standing
corn.

Musca pumilionis, the larva very destructive to rye.

The diseased stems should be collected and burnt. One person
could collect some thousands in a day.

The same or an allied species attacked the wheat near Battle.

The central shoot being destroyed, lateral branches were thrown
out and a good crop was obtained.

The September and October sown wheats only affected, and the
red wheat nearly escaped.

In 1812 the Society of Agriculture of the Seine was officially
consulted by the Minister of the Interior, regarding the ravages
in France occasioned by the larve of Chlorops lineata.

The larve destroyed the central leaves and the plant itself.

When the wheat begins to show the ear early in June, the
female lays her eggs on the stems.

The eggs hatch in a fortnight, and the maggot eats away below
the base of the ear.

It is transformed to a pupa towards the first superior knot.

The Chlorops hatches in September, and then lays her eggs on
the rye and recently-sown corn.

The infested corn is stunted and green, whilst the healthy plants
are ripe: the ears are not liberated, and the grains are diminutive
or quite abortive.

In 1840 the loss was estimated at one-seventieth part of the
harvest, besides the number of young plants that had been de-
stroyed at an earlier period.

Chiorops Herpinii attacks the ears of barley: from six to ten
being found in each; and by destroying the flowers they render
the ears sterile.

Musca Frit. inhabits the husks of the barley, and destroys one-
tenth of the grain.

Linneus calculated the annual Joss in Sweden at one hundred
thousand pounds sterling.

Chlorops teniopus attacked some transplanted wheat.

The larve feed singly from the first joint to the base of the
embryo ear, or higher.

In August the flies hatched.

They attacked barley also at an earlier period.

It attacked also some naked barley from Nepaul.

A species of Chlorops occasionally swarms in dwelling-houses.

504 Observations on the various Insects

They were in abundance in a wheat-stack in April, arid destroyed
many acres of rye.

Another species attacked the wheat- -fields last May.

The larve entered two inches beneath the surface, destroying
the internal stalk.

Other fields of wheat, sown in February and March, were sub-
ject to the same disease.

These maggots produced in July a new species of fly, the
Oscinis vastator.

This, from its operations, appeared to be the most destructive of
the species.

They are kept in check by parasites.

One, a kind of Ichneumon, named Celinius niger, feeds in the
body of the maggots, and is frequently very abundant.

Another, called Pteromalus micans, lives in the maggots also,
and destroys them before they change to pup.

A third parasite, the Sigalphus caudatus, was bred from the
pupe of Oscinis vastator.

It is said to deposit its eggs in those of the Oscinis.

Dr. Herpin recommends pulling up and burning the infested
plants, which may first be done when weeding is going on, and
subsequently two or three weeks before harvest, when their size
and colour readily distinguish them.

Rotation of crops one of the best means of keeping free from
noxious insects.

Over-cropped land refuses to bear, perhaps as much from dis-
eases caused by an excessive increase of insects in the soil as from
exhaustion.

Soot, and sand saturated with gas-water, sown over a field,
might keep off the Chlorops.

1t is not improbable that some species of Chlorops breed in the
stems of grasses.

There are two broods of the maggots in a year; the first
living in the spring, the latter through the winter, in some
instances.

The first brood destroys the ear, the second the central ‘iioot,
after which lateral shoots are sometimes matured.

It is doubtful if the species of -Oscinis produce two broods
annually.

The O. vastator is by far the most formidable enemy.

Is it possible to attract the flies by white painted boards or
poisonous liquids ?

Dusting the young corn with soot or lime would drive away the
flies.

Strong liquid manures would annoy those broods which reside
in the young corn-plants.

affecting the Corn- Crops. 505

Do not pull up the infested corn-plants in the spring, if they
attempt to throw out lateral shoots:

Ploughing and harrowing of no use, as neither the eggs, pupa,
nor larve inhabit the earth.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE K.

Fig: 1. A young wheat-plant.
Fig. 2. The larva of some beetle.
Fig. 3.* The same magnified.
Fig. 4. The same eating the wheat-stem.
a The portion consumed by the larva.
6 The surface of the earth,.
e The old husk, showing the hole into which the larva re-
treated.
Fig. 5. Larva of some Carabideous beetle?
Fig. 6.* The same magnified.
Fig. 7.% Zabrus gibbus.
Fig. 8. Larva of ditto.
Fig. 9.* The same magnified.
Fig. 10. A portion of earth dug up, showing the economy of the larva.
d,d The entrances to the burrows.
e The curved portion.
Jf One of the cavities or cells for the pupa.
Fig. 11. A pupa resting in the cell.
Fig. 12.* Anisoplia Agricola.
Fig. 13.* Anisoplia Horticola. .
Fig. 14. Larva of ditto.
Fig. 15. An ear of wheat eaten by the caterpillar of Noctua (Cara-
drina) Cubicularis. :
g The perforated grains eaten out.
h One removed.
Fig. 16. The caterpillar when half grown.
Fig. 17. Another full-grown.
Fig. 18. The moth (NV. Cubicularis), supposed to be the parent of
this caterpillar.
Fig. 19. Larva of a Tenthredo?
2,)* The two jaws, or mandibles.
_., ,k* The maxilla and palpus.
Fig. 24. The wpper portion of the stem of wheat affected by Chlorops
teniopus.

p A hole in the husk of the basal grain.

; PLATE L.
Fig. 20. Chlorops teniopus.
Fig. 21.* The same magnified.
nm ‘The termination of the costal nervure.
/ One of the antennz, or horns.

506 Observations on various Insects affecting the Corn Crops.

Fig. 22*. The head in profile.
m The concave face.
Fig. 23. The fly in repose.
Fig. 25. The lower portion of the wheat-stem, detached from, and
belonging to, fig. 24, pl. x.
o The pupa of Chlorops teniopus, in siti.
Fig. 26.* The same magnified.
Fig. 25. a Pupa case from which Celinius niger hatched.
b* The same magnified,
ce The hole from which the Celinius escaped.
d The hole from whence the Pteromalus made its exit.
Fig. 27. A wheat-plant as it appeared on the 7th of June.
Fig. 28. Larva of a Chlorops.
Fig. 29.* The same magnified.
Fig. 30. The pupa case 7 sitd.
q* The same magnified.
Fig. 31. Oseinis vastator, Curtis.
7r* The same magnified.
n ‘The termination of the costal nervure.
Fig. 32. Corn-plant as it appeared on the 23rd of June.
s The green outer leaf.
¢ The inner yellow one.
Fig. 33. The same plant opened.
u The base of the stem eaten through.
Fig. 34. The interior of the stem exposed.
v Avslender brown portiou of the stalk left by the larva.
w The larva feeding.
a* The same magnified.
y The pupa in the stem.
z* The same magnified.

Fig. 35. Celinius niger, a parasite.
Fig. 36.* The same magnified.
Fig. 37.. Pteromalus micans, a parasite.
Fig. 38.* The same magnified.
Fig. 39. Sigalphus eaudatus, a parasite.
Fig. 40.* The same magnified.
“Obs. —Wherever lines accompany the objects in the plates, they
denote the natural dimensions; and those numbers and letters with a
* attached, refer to the objects that are represented much larger than
life. All the figures are drawn from nature, excepting Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 8, 9, 10, and 11: the four first are copied from the Linusial Tas
actions, and the other four from Sturm’s Deutschlands Fauna, vol. iv.,
pl. xcviil.

Hayes, Middlesex, Nov. 1844.

The Copyright of this Paper is reserved to the Writer.

( 507 )

XXVIII.—On Peat Charcoal as a Manure for Turnips.
By W. Uppvesy.

Tue process of charring peat is very simple, if you have only
plenty of water so near your fires that it can be scooped on as
soon as the heaps are nearly red, though the fires want dragging
down level before the water is thrown on: it is not necessary to
wet the fires above half through ; it then forms a coat at the top,
which stops the fires doing anything more than smothering. The
fires want examining ,next day, to see that it has not Sréliem
through anywhere, the top will be black from the water putting
the fire out, and the bottom will be charred from the top smoth-
ering it. I have tried all ways with sods and clay, but could
never succeed; the fires will be through them. I had almost
forgot to tell you the chief thing, which is, not to light your fires
while your pile is completed, as a shower of rain will not stop
peat from burning when it once gets fire in it ; and to light them
at the outside, that i is, not putting fire underneath your clumps (it
will then eat its way into your clumps) ; and not to burn in windy
weather the dried clumps. I think the best are about six feet
wide at the bottom, rounding to the top, about six yards long,

leaving a space for the man to ‘walk and drag, as occasion requires.
The first clump will want some fire, or something to start it, but
still putting on the top, and setting on fire, the hot ashes will
fall in amongst the peat, and start it; after that, hot ashes from
the first fire will be the only kindling you require, and are the
best, as I have always found the longer the clumps are burning
the better ; but everything depends upon well dragging the fires,
not letting them get red hot, without putting it sideways. I have

burnt very good ashes in this way without water at all, when it
has been in the middle of a field; but should recommend the
ditch sides for the process, when ee is good to come at, and [
think the peat would pay for leading then, as you might lead the
peat to the water, as soon as fetch water to the fires, without in-
juring so much grass, or whatever may be wanted to grow there.
I am certain, when water is not plentiful, your man must be con-
stantly putting the fires outwards as they burn. I find the ditch
sides for another reason the best; the fires will be ten days or
more in burning, and the ashes can lie on the ditch sides any
length of time without stopping so much land from being sown,
and wait for a conyenient time to lead them away. I cannot
make an estimate of the increased quantity by this process ; all I
can speak from is, that one waggon load of ashes burnt this way
is preferable to two burnt as Nowe as it will burn, which is the
common process. Yet by checking the fires we produce a
larger quantity of ashes than by the common method. The tur-

508 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

nips that were drilled with dead burnt ashes two. years since,
were not fit to hoe, when the thirty-acre plot was furnished and
even sown at the commencement of the field. The same year
my house ashes I put on one side of the field, and black peat
ashes on the other, therefore every other drill tread would be
sown with them. We had to hoe all the peat-ashed sown rows
first, right through the field, and both were used in the same
quantities, about two waggon loads per acre. My turnips are
really excellent, and I used nothing else.. I am just finishing
a 30-acre field, which has been eaten off with 850 shearlings : cal-
culating the sheep at 6d. per head, makes the —— come to
ol. 7s. an acre; all old sheep.

Bonby, Lincolnshire, 9th Dec., 1844.

XXIX.—Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. By
Joun Burke, Jun.

WuiLE the attention of English farmers is very generally directed
towards improving the various breeds of sheep and cattle for
which our island has become so celebrated, there are very few of
this class of persons—except in some counties deemed peculiarly
adapted to breeding horses—who pay more than the most ordinary
attention to selecting such mares and stallions as are likely to
produce stock either valuable as hunters or cart-horses; while
the greater number perhaps of agriculturists are inattentive to
the various points which constitute excellence in the shape or
qualifications of sire and dam, contenting themselves very gene-
rally with breeding from any mare they may happen to possess,
whether good or bad, and with any stallion that may chance to be
in their neighbourhood. It will be my endeavour in the follow-
ing pages to point out those properties in the parents which are
necessary to the propagation of valuable offspring, and without
which the horse-breeder can scarcely venture to hope for remu-
neration; and likewise to demonstrate upon physiological prin-
ciples—the only true ground-work of scientific management—the
most judicious plan to be pursued in rearing young stock with a
view to improving their growth and consequent capabilities.
There are very many points in the yarious descriptions of horses
which are common to all, and to which it is necessary to pay the
strictest attention when choosing a stallion or mare for the pur-
pose of breeding; but there are likewise several others which
are of greater importance in one species of horse than in another.
Thus, for instance, those qualities which denote superior strength,
combined with a certain degree of activity in the walk, are prin-

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 509

cipally required in those animals which are exclusively bred for
agricultural purposes, or for heavy draught of any kind; while
not only is strength a most important feature in the horse likely
to make a hunter that will probably some day put a large sum
of money into the pockets of his owner, but he must likewise be
noted for speed, enduring powers, and activity in every pace,
united to beauty of form, so far as it can be obtained ; and hence,
in breeding hunters, it is advisable to select such stallions as have
both a good pedigree, and are known not only to possess the
above qualifications in an eminent degree themselves, but also to
be the descendants of animals conspicuous for the stoutness of
their blood, whether in the field or on the turf. For this reason
it will be requisite to take a separate view of the different qua-
lities to be sought in the sires and dams of each of the above
breeds, by a careful attention to which the breeder may in some
measure secure himself from the risk attendant upon breeding
from any sort of animal in his possession, and which may have
been. selected without reference to procreation, and ayoid the
almost ineyitable loss consequent upon leaving to chance what
should be the result of scientific discrimination.

Let us first take a view of the most material points requiring
consideration in the hunter, or nearly, if not quite, thorough-bred
horse, and then proceed to notice those which constitute the chief
points of excellence in the horse destined entirely for draught.

The great improyement which has taken place in the breed of
hounds during the last thirty years, and the pace at which they
now go, renders a corresponding degree of excellence in the
hunter absolutely necessary to those who desire to be properly
carried in the chase; and hence the old style of hunter, a close-
knit, half-bred horse, possessed of many very excellent points,
but deficient in the one grand requisite of swiftness, has almost
entirely disappeared and given way to an animal of far more
blood, and capable, from that circumstance alone, of vast endu-
rance and considerable speed. Indeed a great number of first-
rate hunters of the present day are thorough-bred, or at most
have a stain in their pedigree so remote as to place them nearly
on a par with the horse of full blood in every respect, save that
of being able to claim a place in the stud-book among horses of
unspotted lineage; and this very defect is to many, half-bred
horses (or, as they are termed, cock-tails) a great advantage, a
certain allowance of weight being made to them in most races
for which they may be entered, as some hunter-stakes, and most
of the races for which thorough-bred horses contend. As it is
not my intention to enter in this paper upon the subject of breeding
for the turf, it is needless to advert to the subject further than to
show the agriculturist that, for more reasons than one, the better

510 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

his stock is bred the more money will it in all probability realize
for him. There are numbers of gentlemen at the present day
who, in purchasing a hunter, look to become possessed of an
animal that will not only carry them well through the season,
but likewise become qualified to run, with a good chance of suc-
cess, for one or two heavy hunter-stakes, and who on this account
will not buy an animal of inferior pedigree; and consequently it
must ever be to the farmer’s advantage to breed such horses for
the field as are likely to suit the greater number of purchasers ;
and if he himself has no private opportunity of disposing of his
stock to gentlemen, he may be well assured that those dealers
- who are on the look-out for first-rate hunters are perfectly aware
of the great superiority which a good pedigree never fails to
bestow upon any horse destined for the field, and the additional
advantages, independent of the chase, that may be derived from
the possession of a speedy, thorough-bred hunter. ~

For this reason, in breeding horses for the chase, never on any
account put your mares to half-bred stallions. The produce, in
nine cases out of ten, will disappoint your expectations, and will
probably only realize a moderate sum that will do little more
than return the expenses of breeding and rearing, instead of
repaying you possibly four or five times your outlay.

There are, perhaps, but few agriculturists who wish to breed
hunters who do not imagine that by selecting a good-sized, roomy,
and well-shaped mare, and by putting her to the first thorough-
bred horse they may meet with, they have done everything needful
to secure to themselves a foal of considerable value. Such men,
however, imperfectly acquainted as they are with the history of
the turf, may have erred materially in the selection of a stallion
for the procreation uf stock likely at some period to shine in the.
field. Thus, there are numbers of flashy-looking, pampered
stallions travelling in every county during the breeding season,
whose blood will be immediately known to the man versed in
racing lore to be greatly deficient in the great requisite of stout-
ness, and he will consequently, if a judicious breeder, reject all
such horses, however tempting may be the low price at which
they cover ; whereas the farmer, unskilled in the annals of the
turf, and delighted probably with the expectation of obtaining a
nearly thorough-bred colt or filly at little expense, and which he
hopes may turn out an animal of considerable value, does not
scruple to put his mares to a horse of inferior quality, provided
he have a thorough-bred pedigree of any kind. ‘This system is
tantamount to the supposition that a horse of full blood must
ipso facto be an animal likely to beget stock of a superior deserip-
ton ; whereas those who have paid even a very moderate share of
attention to the subject of breeding, must be aware that there is

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 511

perhaps no distinct species of horse among which are to be found
so many absolutely worthless and useless animals as among those
that are thorough-bred. This fact is fully borne out by the great
numbers of weedy, thorough-bred hacks that, during the London
season, may be seen ambling round the parks, and which, although
possessed of some degree of showiness, which captivates the fancy
of many aman unskilled in the knowledge of those points denoting
superior excellence in the horse, are nevertheless quite unfit to
go through a very moderate share of fatigue with a weight of
twelve stone on their backs, and, in all probability, at the close
of the season may be purchased for a less sum than the first cost
of begetting them. The evil of breeding these weakly under-
sized animals unfortunately does not stop with their production,
but numbers of them becoming, when good for nothing and un-
sound, the property of men possessed of a little land—situated
perhaps by the side of a common that affords but a scanty sub-
sistence to young stock—are put to some cheap and worthless
stallion, and made to propagate animals far worse than themselves,
and whose naturally undeveloped proportions are still further
stinted by the insufficient nourishment they are enabled to obtain.
Thus the evil of a want of knowledge on the part of the breeder
of the proper formation and pedigree of stallions and mares,
spreading wider and wider every year, is in point of fact a national
loss as well as a national disgrace to a country hitherto famed
all over the world for its breed of horses; and if allowed to con-
tinue, from ignorance of the first principles of breeding, or from
the attention of agriculturists not being properly directed to the
most material points to be considered in the selection of sire and
dam, must eventually deteriorate the excellence of our blood and
deprive us of that superiority which has so long been our boast,
and which up to the present moment has never for a long series
of years been disputed by any nation under the sun.

Ere I proceed to notice the principal features denoting excel-
lence in the horse, and calling for the discrimination and judg-
ment of the breeder, I must instil into my readers the indisputable
fact that there are very few of the diseases and defects of the horse
that are not hereditary, and that, if uncorrected by scientific dis-
crimination, will not appear in the second or third generation.
I must here presume that the breeder is mtimately acquainted
with the different diseases incident to horses, as the limits of this
paper will not allow of my entering upon any notice of them.
Some distinction, however, is to be made between congenital and
acquired disease. Thus, for instance, a mare with curbs, although
put at various times to different horses, has been known constantly
to bring forth foals afflicted with the complaint of the dam, and
such an animal should consequently be rejected from the stud by

512 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

the careful breeder; but should a mare throw curbs from any
sudden and ‘aclhat’ exertion of the hind legs, as in taking some
extraordinary leap, or in struggling through very deep ground
with a heavy weight on her back, it is questionable whether her
progeny will inherit a defect thus produced by accident: as in
hike manner a racer, that has broken down from great exertions
on the turf, does not procreate offspring similarly diseased. Sull,
after some lapse of time, it is not impossible, nor ‘indeed impro-
bable, that the progeny of such a horse may be foaled with a
congenital weakness of the back sinews, which may terminate in
arupture similar to that of the sire. It is consequently better, if
possible, to breed from animals that are in every respect sound ;
- and if one of the parents have any peculiar defect—as, for ex-
ample, a very large head, or somewhat straight shoulders—it
should be corrected, as far as may be, by a corresponding point
of superior excellence in the other.

With this proviso, I shall proceed to enter upon the considera-
tion of the principal points to be sought after in both sire and
dam by the breeder of first-rate hunters.

To begin with the dam. Having ascertained, as far as possi-
ble, what may be her pedigree, and whether she came of a stock
free from disease of any, kind, and if not famed for speed and
endurance, at all events not noted for a deficiency of these very
necessary qualifications, let her frame embrace most, if not all, of
the following requisites for producing a healthy, vigorous, and
valuable offspring. Let her forehead and space between the ears
be broad—for in proportion to the width of the upper part of the
head shall be the mass of cerebral matter which shall impart
energy, spirit, and courage to her progeny, and endow them with
determination to struggle through difficulties, and resolution to
dare the greatest obstacles. A want of this point may be the
means of producing a timid, nervous animal, that will baulk his
fences, and start at the most trifling noise or unusual object.
Below the eyes the nose should taper gradually towards the nos-
trils, which should spread slightly outwards, giving free ingress
and egress to the air, and be capable of expanding considerably
during exertion of the body. A bright red and vascular appearance
of the: lining membrane of the nostril is very generally a token of
good blood and plenty of spirit. If the mouth be deep so much
the better, for a shallow-mouthed horse carries a bit badly; this,
however, is not a point of any great importance.

The ears should be long, thin, pointed forwards, and composed
entirely of cartilage covered by a fine skin: if fleshy, or hanging
laterally, they are symptoms of dulness and want of fire. A
short ear is by many people considered a beauty; but the long
and finely-pointed ear is frequently a proof of good breeding, and

Breeiling and Management of Horses on a Farm. 513

as such is desirable in a mare intended for the procreation of well-
bred stock. A sharp quick motion of the ear backwards and for-
wards on its own axis isin many instances an indication of spright-
liness and yivacity, and on that account should not be entirely
overlooked by the intelligent breeder.

The eyes should be clear, bright, somewhat prominent, large,
and open ; a drooping eyelid being, in many instances, a symptom
of periodical attacks of inflammation, besides denoting a dull and
inactive disposition. If there be a white spot upon the forehead,
above the eyes, it is generally considered not only a mark of beauty,
but likewise of goodness.

The jaws should be lean, yet muscular, and placed far apart
from each other, so as to afford plenty of space for the admission
of the trachea or windpipe, which should merge between them
with a gentle and regular curve, so that when the horse’s head is
moderately extended there may exist no impediment to inspiration
and expiration, as is the case to a certain extent in the horse whose
head forms rather a sharp angle withtheneck. Thespace under-
neath-and between the jaws should be perfectly free from swellings
or grossness of any kind,

The neck should be of medium length; a short neck often
accompanying thick wind, and a long one being frequently mdi-
cative of a predisposition to diseases of the respiratory organs, and
a sign of a weak constitution: it should rise gradually from the
shoulders with a gentle curye, diminishing in yolume as it ap-
proaches the head, with which it should appear, as it were, to
blend itself—few things being more ugly in the horse than an ill-
placed head—and the curve of the under part of the neck should
be continued to the space within the jaws.

The shoulders of the mare intended to breed horses destined
for the field can scarcely be too oblique or too deep. The sloping
position of this most important part is productive of higher and
cleaner action than can be possessed by the horse whose shoulders
are upright—a fault that seldom fails to render him unpleasant
under the saddle, and frequently unsafe. The possibility of a
stallion and mare, each with extremely oblique shoulders, begetting
a foal whose action may turn out too high and dashing for a hunter
need neyer deter a farmer from breeding from them if good in
eyery other respect, since it is well known that extraordinary action
will always produce an extraordinary price for some purpose or
other. The wither should be high and somewhat narrow, and
the whole of the shoulder or blade-bone covered with flattish,
wiry-looking muscle—too great a quantity of flesh on this part
being generally accompanied by a somewhat upright shoulder,
whose disadvantageous position requires a greater moying power
than the shoulder more obliquely placed.

514 = Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

The chest of the mare should be roomy in proportion to her
breed ; for it must be remarked that this part is generally found
wider and wider the more the breed approximates to that of the
cart-horse. A horse with a very broad forehand is rarely gifted
with any very considerable degree of speed, and consequently such
a formation is undesirable in the horse destined for quick work.
To give room, however, for the play of the heart and lungs, it is
absolutely requisite that there be great depth of body, and con-
siderable girth immediately behind the shoulders, and that the
ribs be well arched—a flat side being a decidedly bad point in
either horse or mare.

_ The fore-legs, from the elbow down to the knee, should be
clothed with extremely well-developed muscles, projecting con-
siderably at the fore-arm, and gradually diminishing towards the
knee, which, with the pastern, and, indeed, every other joint of the
body, should be large, for the purpose of giving insertion or play
to the various ligaments and tendons that are inserted into or near
them. The size of the joints is a matter of very considerable
importance, although frequently overlooked by many who judge
of a horse’s bone by spanning the shank—a part which, although
requiring development for the insertion of the muscles of the leg,
is by no means of so great consequence as the expansion of the
joints, From the knee to the fetlock the fore-leg should be flat
laterally; an appearance that is principally to be derived from
the strength and position of the back sinews rather than from any
unusual quantity of bone, which in the blood-horse is known to be
heavier and much less porous than in the horse of inferior blood.
The tendons in their passage at the back of the knee should never
be contracted or too closely tied down by the ligamentous expan-
sions over the joint, otherwise their power and freedom of action
will undoubtedly be thereby considerably diminished. A mode-
rately long pastern-joint, not too upright nor yet sloping too much
forwards, should gradually expand in its descent into a well-formed
hoof, perfectly smooth, and, if possible, black (for black hoofs are
the hardest), and free from contraction of eitLer quarter, or disease
of any kind whatever. There are few points in a horse that re-
quire greater experience and more practical judgment than a
knowledge of the proper formation and diseases of the foot; and,
consequently, every horse- breeder should make himself thoroughly
acquainted with the natural form and defects of this all-important
part; for although a horse with bad shoulders, or even legs, may
be made to go a certain pace, one with bad and crippled feet never
can; and diseased feet will besides materially diminish the value
of a stallion or brood-mare, since no one in his senses will use
them for the stud. I shall have something to say by-and-bye re-
specting the proper management of the feet, their diseases very

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 515

frequently arising from want of care, and ignorance of their natural
functions. The position of the fore-legs is a point of some con-
sequence. If the elbow be turned outwards, the feet will natu-
rally turn in the contrary direction, and the mare will, conse-
quently, cut the pastern-joimts with her shoes, or, at all events,
haye that faulty style of action which is termed “ dishing,” and
which consists in a sort of semi-circular motion of the fore-legs,
by which the sole of the foot is laterally visible at every stride.
Very few horses whose feet are turned outwards are speedy for a
distance, the centre of gravity in them being improperly placed,
and giving rise on that account in many instances to depositions of
bony matter by which Nature seeks to remedy the defects of mal-
formation. The proper position for the fore-legs, then, is straight,
turning neither outwards nor inwards, the toe being immediately
underneath the point of the shoulder. When it stands much under
this spot the mare will probably be weak in the joints; and if it
project beyond it the shank-bone will incline forwards from the
knee, producing what is called the calf-leg, an essential fault
which-almost invariably deprives its possessor of the power to
stand hard work.

I have said that the ribs of the mare should be arched, her
girth behind the shoulders great, and her withers moderately
high; but this latter appearance should never be caused by a
depression or hollow behind them, which is a never-failing sign
of weakness: a similar transverse depression of the back-bone
above the hips indicates also a certain degree of want of power.
The loins should be arched and broad, and the quarters long and
wide behind. A considerable projection of the hip-bones, although
unsightly, is by no means to be considered a fault, provided it be
not caused by a narrow carcass: on the contrary, such a formation
is rather desirable in a brood-mare than otherwise, as it will not
only afford room for the enlargement of the uterus and expulsion
of the foal, but is likewise very gencrally a sign of great strength
of the hind-quarters.

A well-bent ham is always an excellent point in either horse
or mare, and gives assurance that the hind-legs during motion will
be well placed under the belly, instead of paddling behind, which
species of action, or more properly want of action, can never be
fast, and is frequently occasioned by a want of development in the
hock, which, instead of projecting posteriorly until its cap or point
be at least perpendicular to the leg, is so placed that the back of
the hock-joint inclines gradually downwards and outwards, by
which a great amount of leverage is lost. The thighs, from the
hip to the hock, should be extremely well furnished with muscle,
the hock-joint large and deep, and the shank flat and wiry.

The position of the hind-legs should be somewhat under the

VOL. ¥. 2M

516 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

belly ; the toes being neither turned inwards nor outwards, though
the latter, if not excessive, is the lesser fault of the two. é

Such are most of the principal points to be attended to in the
selection of a brood-mare ; but all of them must bear a just pro-
portion one to the other, the limbs being close-jointed, and some-
what short below the knee and hock, the carcass close but roomy,
and the neck not too long. The harmony existing in the propor-
tions of any animal will be felt and recognized at a glance by
many men who have a naturally keen sense of the beauties of
form, whereas many others not similarly gifted can never justly
appreciate in what consist the exquisite moulding and symmetry
of the choicest specimens of our best breeds of animals. With
respect, however, to a horse, although a good judge may at first
sight be struck with his general appearance, it is always better to
form an opinion of his capabilities with reference to the various
essential points I have enumerated, than to judge of him by his
tout ensemble ; and any man with a little discrimination and atten-
tion may soon make himself master of the degree of knowledge
requisite for his guidance in this particular.

The chief points of excellence in the stallion are, in every re-
spect, similar to those I have enumerated in the mare, with, pos-
sibly, the exception of his form being altogether more compact
and closer ribbed up, and his joints nearer together, and more
firmly knit, his whole appearance indicating the possession of
great power and vigour in a comparatively small compass. In
selecting a stallion for the purpose of breeding hunters, it is
likewise proper to make choice of one, if possible, whose stock
give general promise of power and action, and bid fair to shine in
the field, if not fast enough for the turf. There are many of our
racing stallions that have scarcely ever begotten a foal that turned
out a good racer, but that, when put to mares not quite thorough-
bred, have produced hunters of first-rate capabilities; and, when
their fame in this particular is generally well-known and admitted,
it is far better to send a mare a hundred miles to such a horse
than to breed from one whose progeny, at five years old, may
possibly not be worth the expense of rearing. On this point
there can hardly be two opinions, and yet, with the exception of
those mares that are kept for the purpose of breeding for the
turf, there is scarcely a man in the kingdom who will take the
trouble to send a half-bred mare even a score of miles, with a
view to secure for himself all the probable chances of breeding a
first-rate hunter. With respect to farmers in general, horse-
breeding is an affair purely of luck, and the first over-fed stal-
lion, with a big crest and a head bedecked with gay ribbons, that
calls at their homesteads, has all their mares, however much their
principal points may differ from his and from each other.

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 517

The height of a brood-mare may vary, according to her form,
from fifteen hands two inches to sixteen hands; and where a
stallion of good blood, and very compact mould, can be procured
not higher than the mare, he is to be preferred, ceteris paribus,
to a larger horse, some experiments on breeding having tended
to prove that a mare put to a horse even somewhat smaller than
herself is likely to throw a finer foal than when stinted to a larger
stallion. The age most fitted for procreation of both sire and
dam is from seven to fourteen years (or somewhat less for the
dam). The records of our racing studs, which are to be looked
upon as the mirror of breeding, will not, I believe, furnish many
examples of any horse having, when young, proved himself a sire
of superior qualifications ; and many a stud-horse that has never
begotten a racer in his early years, has, after the age of ten, be-
come the sire of very first-rate stock.

When proper attention is paid to the shape and soundness of
sire and dam, their progeny will bid fair to possess that grand
essential, good action; but this is a point which should not,
however, be overlooked in the parents, how well soever they may
be formed. Really good action does not, by any means, consist
in that clambering and showy style of gomg which so many
people admire, and which not only reduces the length of a horse’s
stride, but, with “much ado about nothing,” soon makes him
show marks of work about the joints. A horse with really good
action should not raise the leg more than on a level with the
middle of the fore-arm, but, stepping well above the ground,
should throw the leg out in a perfectly straight direction, without
any circular motion, or any inclination of the foot outwards or
inwards. The hind-legs should be thrown well under the belly,
and every motion should be performed with ease, grace, and
springiness.

Never breed from horse or mare of a bad constitution; the
progeny will be weak and unthrifty, either undersized or leggy,
and will never repay the cost and trouble it will occasion. The
farmer will probably have little or no opportunity of ascertaining
the constitution of a stallion, unless he be a horse of repute, but
compactness of form, and power about the joints, will seldom
prove an uncertain sign by which to form an opinion on this
point ; and with respect to the mare, as he will probably have
every opportunity of forming his judgment of her before he puts
her to the stud, it will be his fault if he breed from one that is a
shy feeder, or incapable of undergoing fatigue without long inter-
vals of rest. It must be clear that, independent of the constitu-
tional defect of the dam descending, probably, to the foal, such
an animal is not likely to be able to afford that degree of nou-

2m 2

518 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

rishment to its offspring on which its growth and early develop-
ment must principally, if not wholly depend.

The best time of putting a mare to horse is somewhere about
the beginning of April, if possible; for then, by the time the
foal is able to nibble, the weather will probably be warm, and
the pastures full of sweet and nutritious grasses. A month later
in the year may not be objectionable, when a farmer breeds
solely for the purpose of obtaining a good hunter; but if his
mare be thorough-bred, and he wish to take the chance of
having a foal with some pretensions to running, then the earlier
a mare is stinted the better, for all running horses date their birth
from the Ist of January, be they foaled when they may, and con-
sequently it is of great importance that they be dropped as early
in the year as may be, in order that their growth may be for-
warded by every means that can be devised consistent with their
healthy state. IJtis a question, however, whether very early foals,
that are kept for months on artificial food, will be more forward
at two years old than those dropped towards the end of the
spring, and properly attended to subsequently; but there can
scarcely be a doubt that, as a mare goes somewhere about eleven
months with young, and may not prove in foal for some time
after she first goes to horse, the latter end of March or the be-
ginning of April is quite late enough in the season for breeding.

So much, then, for the principal pots to which attention is to
be directed in the choice of stallions and mares for breeding the
nearly, or quite thorough-bred hunter of the present day. Should
the produce not prove fit for the field, it will rarely fail to make
a harness-horse of considerable value. The same regard is to be
paid to the different poimts of those mares and stallions that are
selected for the purpose of breeding carriage-horses as to those
already referred to in speaking of the hunter, but both sire and
dam should be of larger mould, and it is not necessary that either
of them be thorough-bred. A large, roomy, half-bred mare, if
put to a three-parts-bred stallion of considerable power, and
gifted with good action, will probably throw a colt well adapted
for a gentleman’s carriage, provided sufficient attention to sound-
ness, and those material points which have already been noticed,
be paid by the breeder in making choice of them. The greater
number of these animals are bred in Yorkshire and the adjoining
counties, and are generally known as the Cleveland breed. There
can, however, be no reason why a similar, or indeed a better sort
of carriage-horse, should not be bred by any farmer who possesses
sound judgment, and a sufficiency of good pasture to ensure the
proper development of his young stock. Very many of the
Cleveland horses are disfigured by having large heads and Roman
noses; and it is only when these parts are, to a certain extent,

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 519

concealed by the winkers of the bridles and the trappings that
adorn them, and their heads are borne up by the bearing-rein,
that they acquire the imposing appearance which, when well-
matched, so many of them possess. When stripped, a great pro-
portion of them appear a very different sort of animal indeed, and,
in all probability, a smaller and a more compact sort of horse
would go through double the quantity of work that they are ca-
pable of enduring. Fashion, however, is to be consulted by the
breeder to a certain extent; and so long as he can obtain from
job-masters a large sum -for a pair of these overgrown animals,
he will do well to breed them without reference to their being
unequal in point of endurance to a smaller and better-formed
sort of draught-horse. It is generally supposed that a horse
destined for harness should not have a very oblique shoulder, as
when so formed he is not capable of throwing so much of his
weight into the collar as when his shoulders are more upright ;
but it must be remembered that grand and lofty action is highly
prized in London for the purpose of show, and not for hard work,
aud hence a sloping shoulder is a point to be desired by the
farmer who breeds carriage-horses for the London market; for,
as I have already observed, it is one which is mostly accompanied
by high action.

The different breeds of cart-horses that have acquired the
greatest renown for their appearance and good qualities are the
Suffolk Punch, generally of a chesnut-colour; the Lincolnshire,
or black cart-horse, principally used in London by brewers, coal-
merchants, distillers, and wharfingers, who are obliged to employ
a large and powerful species of horse for the transport of their
heavy goods ; and the Clydesdale, a breed principally confined
to the valley watered by the Clyde—whence their name. The
most distinctive features of the first of these breeds were, its
extreme compactness, and its great and instinctive disposition for
draught. The original breed is at the present day, I believe,
almost extinct, and has given place to a somewhat lighter de-
scription of horse, with greater nimbleness of action, and altoge-
ther better adapted to the light soil of Norfolk and Suffolk, where
they are principally bred.

The black Lincolnshire cart-horse is an animal too well known
everywhere to require any very lengthened description. He isa
large, showy, and powerful animal, from sixteen to upwards of
seventeen hands in height, and although, probably, too slow for
agricultural purposes, except on heavy, tenacious, clay soils, is
certainly well adapted to the work to which he in general is
eventually applied, viz., to drawing heavy loads about London
and its vicinity; his immense size enabling him to throw a vast
weight into the collar, and to overcome a resistance that simple

520 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

muscular power alone would not permit a smaller horse to move
without the greatest exertion. ;

The Clydesdale is a smaller and more active kind of horse,
and is said to be an honest puller, and capable of going through
a considerable quantity of work. There are not many of them
that come very far south, as, unless they be purchased at a price
that will repay the dealer, after deducting travelling expenses,
they possess no particular feature that may not be found in any
of the best cart-horses that are bred all over England.

A farmer who merely seeks to become possessed of a stallion
or mare of any particular breed, without reference to form and
capabilities, and expects, on that account, that their stock shall
show that superiority for which some of the breed are distin-
guished, may find himself very egregiously mistaken, and, conse-
quently, I have but little to say beyond the remarks I have just
made on the principal breeds of cart-horses which, in this king-
dom, have become, at one period or other, noted for any particu-
larly good qualities; being well convinced that, by due attention
to form, constitution, action, and powers of draught, a good cart-
colt may be bred from any of the various sorts of cart stallions
and mares that are to be met with in every county, and that are
not distinguished by any such particular feature as may have led
to their being considered a distinct breed. The great reason
why some counties can boast of a superior sort of horse for the
purposes of draught is, that, at one period or other, a successful
cross has produced animals of decided excellence, and this breed
having been carefully kept up, many of the descendants of these
horses still inherit the good qualities of their ancestors, and are
prized accordingly ; but there cannot be a doubt that similar im-
provements may be made in every county by careful selection,
and sound judgment in appreciating the different points of sire
and dam which are likely to confer superiority upon the off-
spring.

Although most of the principal points of the horse that have
already been considered are desirable in the animal solely in-
tended for slow draught, there are a few in which he should
essentially differ from the horse of better blood, the principal of
which is in the formation of the shoulder. Most people affirm
that the shoulders of a cart-horse cannot be too upright, as such a
position enables him to lean with most advantage against the
collar in drawing a heavy weight. This assertion may be true,
but it should also not be forgotten that when the shoulder is ex-
tremely straight the step of the animal is shortened, and, conse-
quently, what he gains in being able to throw most of his weight
into the collar he loses in quickness of motion. If a horse’s foot
on being put to the ground during progression do not extend

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 521

beyond a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the
shoulder, he is decidedly a slow and bad walker ; and as the walk
is the only pace in which a good cart-horse should excel, a mode-
rate slope of the shoulder, sufficient to ensure free action of the
fore-legs, is desirable, though not by any means equal to the
obliquity of the same part necessary to the proper form of the
horse required for fast work. The wither of the cart-horse should
not be high; the fore-hand broad and roomy; the carcass well
let down (in which réspect he should to a certain extent differ
from the nearly or quite thorough-bred horse of any great speed,
and who is formed more after the model of the greyhound) ; and
the hind-quarters short, wide, and particularly well clothed with
muscle from the hip to the hock. The length of the hind-
quarter in the well-bred horse confers upon him the advantage of
a great stride; but as, in the cart-horse, we look more to power
than very quick action, the quarters from the hip-bone to the
point below the insertion of the tail should be somewhat short in
proportion to those of the hunter, short muscles being the most
powerful. In most other important respects, as in the width and
formation of the loins, the strength and closeness of the joints, the
soundness of the feet, &c. &c., the good points of a well-formed
cart-horse should correspond with those of the better-bred ani-
mal, with the exception of such as are merely indicative of breed,
as the fine ear, the tapering head, the dilating nostril, &c.

The farmer who is really desirous of improving his breed of
cart-horses should never breed from any mare before the age of
five years. With proper food and care she will then have arrived
at maturity, and be possessed of sufficient vigour of constitution
to enable her frame to afford due nourishment for the proper
growth of the foetus ; whereas if, as is frequently the case, she be
put to the horse at a younger age, and while she is herself
growing, the efforts of Nature being principally directed towards
the development of the foal,-will cease to be applied to the
nourishment of the dam, whose frame consequently must suffer
from this deprivation of those particles which, under different cir-
cumstances, would have been applied to the general increase of
her growth. Even after birth a very young mare will still con-
tinue to be stinted in her proportions by a large portion of the
chyle, or nutritious particles of her food, being contained in the
milk which is sucked from her by the foal, and as the debilitating
effects of gestation and parturition may prevent her from subse-
quently acquiring that bulk and stature which she would other-
wise have possessed, her future progeny may possibly be thereby
greatly deteriorated.

The age of the stallion should certainly not be less than seven
or eight years; and the more compact his form, the more likely

522 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

will he be to beget a powerful and healthy progeny. Many
farmers like to put their mares to the biggest stallions they can
find, expecting thereby to breed large stock ; and give preference
to those horses that, besides being of enormous proportions natu-
rally, are overloaded with fat. An animal in this pampered state
is, however, by no means in the best condition for becoming the
sire of thriving stock, fat being, to a certain extent, a sign of
debility, and marking a weakness in the organs ‘of assimilation.
A horse, like a man, that is extremely fat is generally of a sluggish
disposition, and incapable of great or continued exertion; and as
the good or bad qualities of both sire and dam are constantly pro-
pagated to the offspring, it must be manifest that a horse bordering
. upon a state of disease cannot be in a fit state to propagate sound
and healthy stock.

In breeding the cart-horse it is of great consequence that the
temper and disposition of both stallion and mare be taken into
consideration. Docility, willingness to work, with sufficient
energy to keep up a constant and equal pull, but without exhi-
biting anything like absolute spirit, together with a hardy and
thriving constitution, are qualities with which, if possible, both
parents should be endowed. A team of steady-pulling draught-
horses is invaluable to the farmer who has to contend with a
heavy soil; and if he have on his farm horses of slighter make,
and better bred, either for road-work or for the lighter portions
of his land, the different sorts should never, when it can be
avuided, be suffered to work together. Although sufficient
attention is never paid to this point, yet there are few persons
who may not frequently have observed one horse in a team of
more spirit and courage than his fellows, that on starting a heavy
load will fruitlessly strain himself to pieces for perhaps half a
minute before his companions condescend to draw an ounce. If
kept back and patted occasionally by the carter while at work,
his labour is performed by jerks and sudden tugs, the rest of
the team not being fast enough for him. Such a temper is by no
means desirable in the true cart: horse.

The great difficulty of procuring either stallions or mares that
have not some defect of form, or a tendency to some species of
unsoundness, renders it a matter of great importance that the
farmer should be able to detect at once any deviation from that
formation which has been noticed as betokening superiority, and
that his judgment upon all points connected with the structure
and powers of the horse should be capable of remedying any defi-
ciency of make on one side by corresponding excellence on the
other. Defects of constitution, however, are less easily combated
than those of form, and in the mare are continually operating as
a bar to the proper growth of the fotus. Thus a brood-mare

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 525

whose stomach and bowels are constitutionally weak, who is a shy
feeder and constantly voids her dung in a sloppy and crude state,
can neyer digest sufficient food to supply her own wants and those
of the foetus ; and, in like manner, a mare with weakness of the
respiratory organs can never possess or impart that vigour which
necessarily results from the perfectly-formed secretions of the
different organs of the body; the blood, which may be said to be
the raw material from which the different secretions are formed,
being imperfectly arterialized, or vivified, in its passage through
the lungs, and consequently unfit to yield those particles which
should be eliminated from it in its course through the body.
Hence it is of great importance in breeding that the form, powers,
and constitutional vigour of the mare should receive the greatest
possible attention and consideration.

Few classes of men, provided they possess sufficient knowledge,
judgment, and discrimination for the purposes of breeding, should
be able to rear a better species of horse than farmers, and for
thisreason. In the large breeding establishments in this country
brood-mares and stallions are kept solely for the purpose of pro-
creation ; and, from the moment a mare is supposed to haye con-
ceived, she is turned into a paddock until the foaling-time arrives,
leading a lazy, indolent, unexciting existence, tired of the same
scene, and with no other occupation than that of everlastingly
filling her belly with grass. Hence she frequently becomes
grossly fat (which, as I have already observed, is a state bordering
upon disease); her stomach is seldom empty, of itself a cause
sufficient to destroy its energy, and by consequence that of every
other part of the frame; her muscles waste while fat accumulates,
and she is altogether ‘out of condition ;” by which expression I
mean not in a fit state to undergo any fatigue. While leading
this listless life every fibre of her body and every action of her
secreting organs becomes relaxed and debilitated; and there
cannot be a question that the formation of the foetus under such
circumstances will neither be as vigorous nor as active as would
be the case were she kept to moderate work, fed at proper in-
tervals, and excited and exhilarated by occupation and change of
scene. The farmer’s mare is generally kept to labour of some
kind until within a few days of foaling; and, if not strained or
oyer-worked, such a system must be beneficial to her health and
to the due development of her foal. I have myself, on more
occasions than one, seen a cart-mare at work within four-and-
twenty hours of her foaling, without the slightest injury to her or
her offspring.

During the period of gestation, and more especially after the
time of quickening, which may perhaps be about the fourth -
month, the food of the mare should be of a hearty and nutritious

524 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

nature, and somewhat more than her usual allowance, provided
she be able to digest a larger quantity than is commonly given to
her. I shall not stop here to consider the subject of feeding,
which will be duly noticed in another part of this paper. Should
the mare drop her foal at a period of the year when pastures are
bare and artificial grasses are not in season, she must have a
plentiful allowance of good corn and hay, otherwise her offspring,
whose chief nourishment is derived from the dam, will become
weak, puny, and unthrifty ; its coat will stare on end, while it will
become pot-bellied and listless, evincing in every movement a
want of that sprightliness and vigour which sufficient nourishment
alone can impart. With the exception of those men who are
_ extremely careless and unobservant, there are not many farmers
who do not take proper care of a draught-mare after foaling; as
they are generally put to the horse at such a time as to ensure
their dropping the foal at a period when grass, tares, lucerne,
&c. are plenty; but there are at the same time not many who
understand that on the keep and condition of the mare during
gestation materially depend the growth and vigour of the newly-
dropped foal.

A short time before a mare is expected to foal she should be
placed in a loose box or shed, plentifully littered with straw, and
carefully watched in order that proper assistance may be rendered
to her in the event of her requiring it. A warm mash, or a pail-
ful of warm gruel, should afterwards be given to her, and for a
day or two she should be left to recover from the effects of partu-
rition, and be but little annoyed by visitors. She may then, if the
weather be fine, be turned into a small meadow alone with her
foal, until the latter acquire strength sufficient to follow her, when
they may be removed to pasture of greater extent, if requisite.
During the first period of suckling it is important that the mare
be kept perfectly quiet and away from other horses, as she is
frequently at first extremely irritable, running at and biting any
animal that approaches her foal; and the constant excitement
produced by the approach of other animals deteriorates both the
quality and quantity of her milk. Moreover, a mare will often
be horsing within a short time after foaling, and in this case the
mock gallantry of her male companions will not fail to be in-
jurious to her, It is not desirable at any period that her pasture
be extremely luxuriant; a redundancy of grass, without the ne-
cessity of some exercise to obtain a due quantity of food, inducing
grossness and plethora,

Six weeks after foaling, or perhaps a little earlier if absolutely
needed, the draught mare may be put to gentle work, and if the foal
be strong and vigorous it may be suffered to accompany her provided
her labour be near home. ‘The nearly or quite thorough-bred mare

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 525

cannot be used so soon after foaling, unless for the purpose of
merely carrying the farmer over his ground, as all quick work
would be likely to injure the secretion of milk, and should conse-
quently be avoided. Gentle harness-work, however, of a light
description will not hurt her, but she must not be coupled with
slower horses, or allowed to do too much of the work herself.
There is one great advantage gained by early accustoming brood-
mares to do a little work accompanied by their foals, which is that
the latter very speedily become familiar with man, and are soon
rendered docile and tractable by being constantly handled, and
therefore seldom prove troublesome to break in.

With these few remarks I shall close the subject of breeding,
and proceed to the consideration of the management and feeding
of horses on a farm, Although well aware that there are many
points connected with the propagation of the best species of horses
of every breed, which might be dwelt upon at much greater length,
the main object I have in view is not to fetter down the intelligent
farmer by absolute rules, which cannot be applicable to every
case, but to give him an insight into those points of the horse and
those principles of breeding, a due attention to which cannot fail
to ensure a proportionate degree of improvement in his stock.
Before, however, I entirely dismiss the subject of breeding the
horse for heavy draught, there is one point to which I should wish
to draw attention, since | believe it is one which for some. years
past has tended not a little to reduce the superiority of our breed
of cart-horses, and has moreover been lauded by some veterinary
practitioners, receiving from them that degree of authority which
sanctions the farmer in continuing a practice not altogether, in my
opinion, to be recommended. I allude to crossing our breed of
cart-mares with the cumbersome, ill-proportioned, and slow Fle-
mish stallions that are yearly imported into this country, and the
best of which may be seen perambulating the streets of London in
the drays of certain brewers, who approve of their general appear-
ance. I have many times noticed these horses, and can safely aver,
not only that I never yet saw a really well-formed one, but that
they are decidedly the very worst breed of draught-horses I ever
beheld. I never yet saw one whose feet were not flat, and whose
fore-legs, below the knee, were not of the worst description ; |
the tendons at the back of the joint tied in, and the whole shank
utterly disproportioned to the bulk of the horse. Indeed, there is
scarcely one in twenty whose legs can do much more than support
his unwieldy carcass, and were it not for the large crests and
heavy necks of these horses,—points which some people imagine
confer a stately appearance on them,—there would be very few
imported into this country. However, as many farmers are in-
duced to make use of the first showy-looking stallion that is

526 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm

brought to them, I would warn them against putting any of their
mares to these brutes, Few people can mistake the breed when
they have once noticed it, and lest they should never have met with
it, a Flemish stallion may be recognized by being mare-headed—
heavy to excess in the neck and crest—flat-sided, and weak in the
loins, quarters, and legs. With all these defects, or most of them,
his long mane, his bulk (for he is prone to fatten), and his tout
ensemble, coupled with a few flaunting ribbons about the head, and
a gay bridle, do not fail to entrap the man who is unable to form
a correct opinion of his principal points—the only true method of
judging of a horse. We possess better cart-stallions than any
other nation, but did we require across, I should say, from what
I have seen, that the light Norman cart-stallion is an animal
greatly to be preferred to the ponderous, inactive specimens that
J have seen of the Flemish breed.

Now for the consideration of the management, feeding, and
general treatment of horses on a farm.

If the mare from which a foal is bred be put to — again a few
weeks after foaling, she should not be allowed to suckle longer than
fivemonths. Provided she have conceived, she will then be about
four months gone with foal, and as at that period the fcetus will
probably have quickened, if she still continue to suckle her colt
her frame will have to afford nourishment to herself, the foal at her
foot, and the animal of which she is pregnant. The drain thus
caused to the system is not only too great for the mare herself, but
every drop of milk that her foal sucks from her will deprive the
foetus of a certain degree of nourishment. Her milk should there-
fore be dried up, by removing her foal and giving her a gentle
dose of physic once or twice (such as half a pint of cold-drawn
linseed oil and a couple of bran mashes), in order that those efforts
of nature heretofore directed to the supply of the lacteal vessels
may be more completely concentrated upon the development of
the foetus.

The young colt or filly, when first taken from the dam, should,
if possible, be turned out with one or two other young horses, in or-
der that it may the sooner forget its loss. A large piece of pasture,
where such is to be had, should be selected for it, and as the au-
tumn will be approaching, the grasses will neither be so succulent
nor so luxuriant as to afford too abundant feed without the trouble
of seeking forit. Thusa certain degree of exercise must be taken
by the young animal while seeking its ; food, and exercise is the foun-
tain of health and vigour. Few things, indeed, are more detri-
mental to horses, either young or old, but particularly to the former,
than deep pastures that contain a superabundance of grass. Here
the horse, if greedy, fills his stomach to repletion without the
slightest exertion, and then lies down to recover from the effects

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 527

of his gluttony. When his meal is perhaps half digested he begins
to feed anew, and loading his stomach at night, when he requires
most rest, lies down when the dews of evening are falling, and the
dank mist, particularly in low meadows, is covering the ground,
and which in a short period completely envelopes him. During
digestion the stomach and upper portion of the bowels receive a
much greater proportion of blood than at other periods, and as the
same quantity is circulating through the body generally, the skin
at this particular time is less fully supplied than at others, and it
is just at this moment that the damp fog of an autumnal night pro-
duces constriction of the cutaneous vessels, and compels the greater
portion of the blood that should circulate through them to take
another course. Hence arise, first, congestion, and, secondly, in-
flammation of some internal organ, either acute or chronic, accord-
ing to the state of the system and the activity of the cause pro-
ducing it. One horse, either from hereditary predisposition or
some other exciting cause, may have weak bowels, and inflamma-
tion speedily attacks them; the organs of respiration in another
may be weak, and sore throat, or inflammation of the lungs, or
of the pleura, is the consequence, possibly terminating in broken
wind, chronic cough, or roaring, the latter from constriction of
the wind-pipe, which is the natural effect of the thickening of the
part consequent upon inflammatory action.

When horses, or indeed any other animals, are exposed to the
depressing influence of cold while their stomachs are unduly dis-
tended with food, there is likewise another cause in operation
which, in conjunction with chilliness of the surface of the body,
tends to induce congestion of one or more internal organs, It is
this:—The stomach lies in contact with a large muscle, termed
the diaphragm, or midriff, which separates the cavity of the chest
from that of the abdomen, and consequently, when much dis-
tended, not only pushes this muscle towards the thorax, but like-
wise in a great measure impedes that natural motion by which at
every inspiration it enlarges the cavity of the chest. The form of
the diaphragm is that of a vault, whose upper portion is in con-
tact with the chest, and the expansion of the ribs, on air being in-
haled, by drawing its edges outwards, tends, to a certain extent, to
draw down the superior part of the arch and to reduce it toa more
plain surface. This action must necessarily increase the dimen-
sions of the chest, and is one of the means by which a vacuum is
formed in the lungs, which become immediately filled by atmos-
pheric air. Now, as the chest contains the heart and lungs, it
must be manifest that repletion of the stomach, by cramping the
motions of the diaphragm, and thereby diminishing the area of the
chest, must impede their natural and healthy functions, and thus
not only is the blood, by its languid circulation through the former,

528 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

imperfectly, or but slowly, arterialized (as I shall hereafter ex-
plain), but the heart, in some measure overpowered and weak-
ened by the quantity of its contents, is unable to combat success-
fully with the resistance offered to its action, and contracting but
feebly cannot propel the blood with sufficient power through every
part of the frame. Those parts most remote from it are of course
those which primarily suffer the most, and hence the circulation
through the cutaneous vessels is first rendered sluggish and imper-
fect by over-distention of the stomach, and is subsequently still
further enfeebled by the action of a cold and moist atmosphere.
From these causes, when frequently repeated, may very readily be
induced a morbid state of one or more parts of the body, slowly
but surely assuming the form of chronic disease, and possibly re-
sulting in a disorganized state of some internal organ which no
future attention or skill can remedy or much improye. The
diseases to which the horse, while at grass, is most obnoxious are
very generally confined to the respiratory organs, and if turned out
at an improper season of the year, or when imperfectly prepared
for the sudden change from a warm stable to the open air, he will
very frequently, when taken up, be found to bea roarer or to have
chronic cough, or some other disease of the lungs, which will ren-
der him of little value. Many horses, too, of a greedy disposition,
when turned into deep, succulent, and luxuriant pastures, are sub-
ject to congestion of the brain, causing the disease termed “ stag-
gers,” which i in some instances superinduces actual inflammation
of the organ affected, and is then named “ mad staggers.” This
malady, to which many horses that are prone to become fat and
pursy are extremely liable, is in some measure accelerated by the
position of the head while grazing, in addition to the plethora oc-
casioned by over-feeding. A minor species of staggers, known as
“ megrims,” if not the actual disease itself, may also be at any
time brought on by improper and too high feeding in the stable,
if continued for any length of time; but there the horse being
constantly under the eye of the master, such a state can only be in-
duced by persistence in a system of bad management, which is the
offspring of ignorance or inattention.

From the time the young colt is taken from the dam, if the sea-
son of the year be propitious, he should be turned into a large
piece of sound, dry, upland pasture, where, to obtain his living, he
will have to take considerable exercise, by which his growth, vigour,
and stamina will be materially accelerated and improved; and
should the grass be insufficient either in quantity or quality to afford
a proper degree of nourishment, one or two quarterns of old oats,
weighing at least forty pounds to the bushel, should be allowed
him daily. The farmer, who seeks to rear a first-rate species of
young horse of any breed, cannot be too deeply impressed with the

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 529

conviction that a sufficiency of good and nutritious food throughout
every season of the year is absolutely essential to obtain this end.
The idea of suffering young stock of any kind to shift for them-
selves throughout the winter, and merely to subsist upon straw
and a little hay, under the supposition that the flesh they pick up
in the summer will compensate for the previous stint they have
endured, is absolutely preposterous, and however good they may
turn out when full grown, there can be no question that with more
nutriment they would have been better. With respect to horses,
let the farmer scan carefully the proportions of our racers at three
years old, and then ask himself by what means such a deyelop-
ment of their frames and muscular powers has been brought about.
If he suppose that they have not had corn from the age at which
they were able to eat it, he deceives himself egregiously, and if he
wish to rear similar stock, he may be assured that a liberal allow-
ance of good food is, in one particular and a most important one,
the principal means to attain his object.

At the age of two years, or a little more, the young colt should
be handled and accustomed to the control of man. For this pur-
pose it is a good plan to make him wear a headstall while at grass,
by which he may the more easily be caught and held while he is
patted and caressed, has his feet raised, is gently rubbed with a
whisp of soft hay, and in other respects habituated to the man who
looks after him. Onno occasion should he be in the slightest
degree frightened or coerced, such treatment being the surest way
to spoil his temper or render him timid or fractious. The man
who has the care of him should therefore be of a kind disposition,
well accustomed to the charge of horses, and one whose temper is
not easily ruffled. The first lesson a young colt should receive
should be simply that of suffering himself to be led about with a
long rein attached to the headstall, so that, if at all ungovernable,
or given to start at different objects, he may have plenty of room
to throw himself about, which can never be the case when led by
a halter, to which the man who leads him is obliged to hang when
he shows temper or fright, in order to prevent his escape. After
a few days he may gradually be taught some of his paces by being
lounged in a circle with great care and gentleness, being ever and
anon coaxed and patted, so that he may acquire confidence in his
master. The object at this period being more to accustom the
young colt to obedience than absolutely to break him in, his lessons
should never be very long nor at all fatiguing; and when he is
_ once rendered thoroughly docile, he may be again turned out, and
occasionally taken up for a few hours during the day for the pur-
pose of repeating his lessons, lest he should forget what he has
learned, and become wild and ungovernable. At three years old
the business of breaking-in should commence in good earnest,

530 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

and he should then be accustomed to the dumb-jockey, and be
otherwise thoroughly taught his paces in the usual way, upon which
it is unnecessary bere to dilate. There is, however, one practice
common to all horse-breakers to which I shall advert as being
both cruel and unnecessary. It is that of tightly reining up the
head of a young colt to the dumb-jockey, and in this state turning
him into a loose box for many hours during the day. This is by
these gentry facetiously termed “giving the horse a good mouth,”
but in my opinion, it has a directly opposite tendency ; a good mouth
and a good bearing being best acquired by the able handling of a
judicious horseman. During the process of breaking-in a young
horse intended for the field, he should be constantly led over small
jumps and blind ditches, not too wide, in order that he may be
gradually habituated to every species of fence, and rendered con-
fident in his own powers—a practice that will subsequently save
him and his rider from many a fall. At four years of age, or
probably sooner, if he be of good shape and promising appearance,
and his action be clean and good, the farmer will find that there
is no lack of purchasers who will be glad to buy him at such a
price as will certainly leave a good profit, after deducting all ex-
penses of breeding and rearing, and possibly:a smart sum by way
of remunerating the judgment displayed in breeding him.

The above remarks apply principally to the hunter. The cart-
horse will not require to be lounged or handled with such precau-
tions; but at the age of two years and a half, being generally of a
docile and quiet nature, he may be made to do alittle work on the
farm, more for the purpose, however, of accustoming him to his
subsequent duties than for that of exacting from him any great
degree of labour, for which he will clearly be unfitted. Almost
the first lessons received by the cart-horse, after he has been used
to bear his harness, and to allow it to be put on and taken off
quietly, may be given in the team, where he should be placed be-
tween two steady horses, and never urged to draw an ounce except
of his own accord. Should he be restive or given to kick, he may
be harnessed by himself to a light log of wood, with long traces
attached, that he may have plenty of room for the exercise of his
heels without the chance of doing himself injury, and led gently
about, care being taken not to force him to do much work, and to
coax rather than compel him to it.

A medium plan must be adopted with the carriage- horse. He
is not only required to have somewhat showy action, but likewise
to be steady in draught. He must, therefore, be lounged like
the hunter, and taught to raise his knee and deliver his leg with
freedom; motions which can never be acquired without the good
exercise of the hands and legs of a perfect horseman. Previous
to being made to draw, it is a good practice to drive such horses

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 531

with long reins, but unattached to any vehicle, the man who
drives them running behind, and being furnished with a whip
to keep them up to the proper pace. By this means, being
guided in every direction, made to turn, back, &c., they will,
when harnessed, be much less raw and unhandy than when
sumply broken in to draw by ploughing and harrowing, to which
work they may be put upon light soils when about three years
old. And here let me remark that, if the farmer exact but
gentle work from his young stock, and can manage to employ
them upon soft ground, the longer he can avoid having them
shod the better; shoeing at an early age being the bane of
young horses, and frequently crippling their feet so as to render
them almost worthless.

Many people have an idea that the hoof of the horse, from its
apparent strength and solidity, is a part incapable of motion, and
are totally unaware of the internal structure of the foot and of the
change of position which its component parts undergo when a
horse is in action. [| shall not here dilate upon the different sub-
stances, as bones, ligaments, &c. &Kc., of which the internal parts
of the horse’s foot are composed, and which may be found elabo-
rately described in many treatises upon the horse, but shall simply
content myself with noticing the fact that, during progression, the
foot of the horse, in its natural state, when unfettered by any shoe,
not only expands laterally at the quarters and heel, but likewise
that the sole of the hoof, which in the sound and healthy state is
concave, causes this expansion by being pressed downwards and
somewhat flattened by the weight of the animal being thrown upon
the coffin-bone, which lies within the hoof. This lateral expansion
being necessary to admit of the natural action of the different
parts contained within the crust of the foot, and likewise of their
growth while the horse is young, must to a certain extent be
cramped and confined by the application of a shoe at any time,
and more particularly at an early age, when it not only restricts
the functions, but also the proper development of the foot.

The part immediately under the horny sole is a soft body, called
“the sensitive sole,” and the frog of the foot likewise covers a
substance of a similar nature. Were the external portions of the
horse's foot therefore totally incapable of motion it is manifest that
the weight of the body, when thrown upon the foot, would bruise
the internal parts by compressing them against a hard and unyield-
ing substance, and by so doing would speedily cause inflammation
and lameness; a result which very frequently occurs from continued
bad shoeing, by which the motions of the more expansile portions
of the foot, the quarters and heel, are improperly restricted. Hence
also the reason why horses with flat feet are toa certain extent un-
sound ; the sole being incapable of being pushed downwards by the

VOL, V. 2N

532 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

descent of the coffin-bone, when the weight of the body is thrown
upon the foot, without coming in contact, or very nearly so, with
the ground, and thereby giving to it a convex surface by which the
due expansion of the foot cannot be obtained. Being on the sub-
ject of the foot, I may as well remark in this place that for the
purpose of restraining as little as possible the motions of the sole,
heel, and quarters, the nails of the shoe should be as few in num-
ber as are consistent with keeping it in its proper situation, and
should always be driven as far from the heel as possible, in order
that the expansion of that important part may be restricted to the
least possible extent ; and inasmuch as the inner quarter is weaker
and more pliable than the outer, the shoe on that side should be
held by one nail less than on the other, in order that its motion
during progression may be free and unfettered. It is likewise
most important that the sole of the foot be occasionally pared down
until it will bend somewhat under strong pressure of the thumb ;
for without this care it will in a few weeks become thickened and
inelastic from the constant growth of the horn, and consequently
incapable of yieldmg sufficiently to the pressure from above, from
which state the internal soft parts will not fail to suffer to a certain
extent, enduring, as they must, constant concussion from the hard
substance of the coffin-bone pressing them against the inelastic sole.
These precautions with respect to the feet, which are some among
many others equally necessary to their preservation, are always to
be sedulously attended to from the first moment the young horse
is made to wear shoes. While at grass, and unshod, the natural
wear and tear of the feet will generally prevent any undue or re-
dundant growth of horn; but im the stable there are few more
vicious species of economy than putting heavy and long-lasting
shoes upon any horse, especially if he be valuable, as in no instance
should they be left upon the feet more than three weeks without
being removed, and the sole pared to a proper consistence. The
space between the bars and the frog, which is naturally filled up
by a substance whose function is to keep up a proper degree of
expansion of the heel, should on no account be pared away—a
practice common to all country blacksmiths, and which they erro-
neously term “‘ opening the heels,” but which in reality lays the
foundation of their gradual contraction. For further information
upon the important subject of the feet, upon whose perfectly
sound and healthy state mainly depends the action of the horse, I
must refer the farmer who desires to be made acquainted with
their natura] structure and functions to those veterimary works
which have received the stamp of public approbation, my present
object being merely to warn him against destroying, or if possible
limiting, those motions which Nature has assigned to them, and
which, when once lost, are seldom if ever regained. For the

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 533

purpose of preserving as long as possible the pliable state of the
hoofs, and preventing them from cracking, they should be brushed
over every second or third day with a mixture of equal weights of
tar and tallow melted together, and the soles should be stopped
every night with soft cow-dung, which should be picked out when
dry. Farm-servants will never pay this attention to their horses
without the superintendence of the master, and it is very rarely
that a cart-horse has his feet cleaned, except when he goes to be
shod. With him the stopping of the feet is not a matter in general
of such importance as with the hunter or road-horse, as nineteen
stables out of twenty that are allotted to the teams are neither very
frequently nor very sedulously cleaned out, and the horses are
therefore at most times standing upon wet litter of some kind,
which serves to keep the feet moist. This, however, is an erro-
neous system of management, as I shall presently explain, and is
frequently a fruitful source of disease among horses, the amount
of litter converted into manure by being suffered to remain long in
the stable in no wise compensating for the injurious effects pro-
duced by the effluvia arising from it. A reformation in this system
of neglect would no doubt tend to the advantage of the farmer in
the long run, but, except in some instances, is scarcely to be ex-
pected, both from the disinclination of carters to take what they
consider unnecessary care of their teams, and from the habit that
farmers in general have acquired of giving themselves as little
trouble with respect to them as may be.

From the age of three to four years the cart and carriage colts
bred upon a farm may generally do most of the light work of the
farmer’s business, care being taken that the latter, as they ap-
proach the period when they are to be sent to some horse-fair for
sale, be neither worked too hard nor allowed from any other
cause to fall off in condition. The large breeder of horses will
find his advantage in procuring, if possible, a man to look after
them who has been accustomed in some measure to the craft of a
dealer’s stable. Such a man will well know the usual means
adopted for improving the appearance of the animals entrusted
to him, by trimming, singeing, pulling the manes and tails, &c. ;
and the extra expense, if any, of his wages will generally be com-
pensated by the additional sum which a horse properly prepared
for the eye of the dealer will generally bring.

I shall now proceed to notice those points of stable manage-
ment, from the period when the young horse is first permanently
taken up from grass, which are essentially necessary to his health
and well-being, and explain in as familiar a manner as I am able
those physiological facts upon which they should be based, a
want of attention to and knowledge of which may frequently
retard improvement, if not actually engender disease.

2n2

r

534 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

It must be remembered that a young animal of any kind that
has been accustomed for the greater portion of his existence to
live in the open air and to breathe a pure atmosphere, taking
daily a sufficiency of exercise to keep him in good health and
vigour, must of necessity experience an extraordinary change in
his state and habits when first confined to the stable. For this
reason, when first taken up from grass, he need not for a few
days be confined to his stall, but suffered to roam about a yard
where there are one or more loose sheds under which he may
shelter himself from the sun and rain, and only stabled at night,
when he will wish to rest. While kept in this manner he should
be fed on soft bran mashes and hay, the former of which will
frequently be sufficient to rid his bowels of any rubbish he may
have picked up at grass, without which operation he will not sub-
sequently thrive upon hard meat. If physic be necessary prior
to feeding him with corn, the dose must be carefully apportioned
to his age, form, and constitution—a close, round-barreled horse
being generally better able to bear the operation of purgatives
than one of narrower and lengthier formation. All proper pre-
cautions being taken to put him in a fit condition for thriving
upon the diet that will subsequently be allotted him, he should
be allowed corn in proportion to his size, hardiness, and work.
Most people are in the habit of feeding their horses by measure
with respect to oats and beans, which, without knowing their
weight, is a most absurd practice. A growing young horse, if
he be put to a moderate share of work from the age of three to
four years, should not certainly have less than three quarterns of
oats per diem, and if he be large and thriving, will probably re-
quire four ; and they should never weigh less than forty pounds
to the bushel, which will be a daily allowance of from eight to
ten pounds: if they be heavier, a smaller proportion may be
given, according to their weight. The heavier the oat the
greater will be the quantity of nourishment contained within a
small compass—a matter of considerable consequence to the horse,
which, of all animals, possesses the smallest stomach in propor-
tion to his size. ‘To this allowance of corn may be added from
eight to twelve pounds of hay daily, or from a truss to a truss and
a half per week: if the farmer be a careful man, and wish to save
his expenditure of oats and hay, he will find that a smaller quantity
will suffice while but little labour is required from his young
horses, if he take care to have a good supply of carrots (which,
when mixed with bran, are excellent food), or of Swede turnips,
which are still more nutritious, although generally not so well
liked by horses,

The quantity and quality of food allotted to any horse should
in all cases be sufficient to keep him in a thriving condition,

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 535

especially while growing, for stint in the article of food is quite
as bad as giving too much with a view to urge Nature to her
greatest exertions—a species of mismanagement to which I shall
presently adyert, and which is frequently the foundation of many
dangerous inflammatory diseases. In most farm stables that I
have ever seen, no attention whatever seems to be paid to the
quantity of hay allowed to each horse, but the carters are allowed
to take as much from the rick-yard as they please, and to give it
to their teams ad libitum. The least trouble being to fill the
racks as full as they can stuff them, they are consequently gene-
rally crammed with hay to their fullest extent, so as to be ready
for the horses at any and every period of the day at which they
may reach their stable. A great quantity is of course pulled
down, or blown upon, and comparatively wasted, which is the
only species of damage that ever strikes the farmer as occurring
from this system, as he never takes into consideration, or possibly
understands, that a constant supply of food cannot fail to dete-
riorate the good condition of his horses, and, instead of strength-
ening, only tends to enfeeble them.

I shall now explain the reason why a superabundance of food
is injurious instead of beneficial to the horse. . Unlike those
animals that are destined for the butcher, we do not wish him to
become extremely fat, but rather desire to keep him in that state
which is termed “ condition,” and which implies the possession of
the greatest possible health and vigour, coupled with a certain
acquisition of flesh, or muscle, but not of fat, except to such an
extent as will preserve the roundness of the different parts of the
body and conduce to beauty of appearance, which the horse in-
tended for sale should possess to the greatest extent that his form
is capable of attaining. The ox, the sheep, and the hog—animals
that are fattened for the purpose of being converted into food,
acquire, both from feeding to repletion and from the enjoyment
of perfect repose, a certain weight within a given time, but cannot
be considered during the process of fattening in a healthy condi-
tion, the circulation of the blood being sluggish, and their nervous
energy almost extinct, from the torpor produced from eating to
excess. How is this torpor induced? I have already shown that
the stomach, when extremely full, by pressing upon the diaphragm
diminishes the area of the chest, thus offering an impediment both
to respiration and to the circulation of the blood through the
lungs and heart, which actions are in fact dependent one upon
the other, respiration being more frequent in proportion as the
circulation is more hurried, a familiar example of which may be
noticed in the panting of any animal after severe exertion.

Now in order that any animal should continue to exist, it is
necessary that the blood in its passage through some portion of

536 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

the body should be exposed to the action of the atmospheric air,
by which a chemical change is effected, turning the venous or
dark-coloured blood into arterial or florid blood, which alone is
capable of carrying on life and supplying the different organs
of the body with the stimulus necessary to their different actions.
This change is effected in the lungs, where the blood is exposed
to the operation of the air that is inhaled into them, and which
fills the air-cells, in the delicate membrane of which the blood
circulates. The arterial blood, in its transit through all parts
of the body, is deprived of those vital properties which it has
acquired from contact with the atmosphere, and becomes yenous
blood again, until it is once more propelled through the lungs
and again arterialized. Venous blood contains a great quantity
of carbon, and when from any cause (as, for instance, from the
inhalation of charcoal) the chemical change in the blood so neces-
sary to life does not take place, is found incapable of sustaining
life, even for a very short period. Its first effects are upon the
brain, which being deprived of the usual stimulus of arterial
blood, becomes torpid, and thus the fountain-head of sensation
being destroyed, voluntary motion is lost, the animal drops, and
if not speedily relieved will die.

If such be the effects of venous blood alone circulating for a
very short time through the brain, we may very readily imagine
that they will be perceptible in a minor degree when any circum-
stance tends to limit the supply of arterial blood to that organ.
As the loaded stomach, by impeding the action of the heart,
deprives it of the power of propelling the blood with sufficient
velocity and power through the various textures of the body, the
circulation during repletion must be more languid than at other
times; among other organs the lungs, therefore, become gorged
with blood, which passing but sluggishly through their substance,
offer within a given period a less quantity than usual to the action
of the atmospheric air, and consequently the slower the circula-
tion the more the supply of fresh arterial blood to every part is
diminished. Hence it will not be difficult to conceive that the
brain, while an animal is suffering from distension of the stomach,
being but moderately supplied with fresh arterial blood, is com-
paratively less energetic than at other times, its power of infusing
vigour into the system and of rendering it capable of sustaining
exertion of any kind is diminished, and the natural consequence
is that state of torpor, lethargy, or somnolence to which repletion
seldom fails to give rise; and this state being found favourable to
the deposition of fat between the various textures of the body,
animals intended for the butcher are constantly supplied with a
large quantity of food in order that the inactive brain may rather
conduce to repose than to exertion, :

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 537

In so unnatural a state as this no man would of course ever
think of keeping any horse; but I have given the extreme ex-
ample of the effects of over-feeding in one particular, in order
that the farmer may comprehend one of the results of an undue
allowance of food, and be made to understand how important is
the one item of diet to the maintenance of the vigour and tone of
every fibre of the body, and how nervous energy—the mainspring
of power—may be sapped and destroyed by persistence in a
wrong system of feeding.

There is yet another result of repletion which in the long run
cannot fail to ruin the health of any animal ; and there is no ques-
tion that every beast that. attains any great degree of obesity can
never be considered in a healthy condition, and probably is ina
state bordering upon disease, if the organization of one or more
parts of the body be not already morbidly affected. The result
to which I allude is irritation of the stomach and bowels, which,
operating sympathetically upon the whole system, reduces the
tone of every organ, vitiates the secretions, and renders the animal
listless and inactive, a condition which of course it is our interest
to ayoid or remedy by every means in our power when occurring
in those animals, as the horse and the dog, upon whose exertions
depend our profit or amusement, and whose flesh is of no value
as food for man.

There are two agents that operate simultaneously in the pro-
duction of irritation of the alimentary canal. The first of these
is distension, which, often repeated, never fails to superinduce
debility ; and the second is putrefaction. The stomach secretes
a fluid called the gastric juice, whose properties are highly anti-
septic, and which, by being intimately blended with the food,
renders it capable of resisting the effects of decomposition, or
putrefaction. So long as an animal experiences the sensation of
hunger, this fluid is poured out from the coats of the stomach in
sufficient quantity to saturate the aliment that is swallowed; but
that feeling once appeased, the secretion of the gastric juice
either ceases entirely, or its properties are so altered and weak-
ened as to be no longer capable of offering due resistance to the
putrefactive process. Thus, beyond a certain quantity, every
mouthful of food, placed as it must be in the situation most likely
to favour decomposition—namely, one of warmth and moisture—
speedily becomes a putrid mass, evolving a large quantity of
noisome gas—as does every animal or vegetable substance in this
state—by which distension is increased and acidity and irritation
produced. The primary effects of continued repletion are gene-
rally costiveness, from the retention of a great quantity of fecal
matter in the large intestines, and occasional diarrhoea, from
rritation of the mucous membrane which lines the alimentary

538 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

canal. To enumerate the secondary effects which may occur
from the same cause would be to present a catalogue of perhaps
all the chronic and many of the inflammatory diseases to which
any animal is subject. According to hereditary or acquired dis-
position of any organ to disease, so will it become obnoxious to
morbid changes from a long-continued habit of over-feeding ; and
thus in one the eyes, in another the brain, in a third the liver or
lungs, and in a fourth ‘the stomach and intestines may be affected
from this cause alone. To this fact may be objected the daily
examples of animals of every breed that are rendered extremely
fat, and still not to all appearance diseased, by a very large allow-
ance of food; but it must be remembered: that the stomach is
capable, like every other part of the body, of continuing undue
exertion for perhaps a considerable time before those morbid
results to which I have alluded become manifest, and almost all
animals destined for food are killed so soon as they have acquired
that degree of fatness which they are capable of attaining, without
being kept long enough to give time for any organ to become
attacked by actual disease. At all events, this is the case with
most of those animals that furnish us with food, although some
certainly do die while undergoing the fattening process, and many
are probably when killed either actually the subjects of disease
which the butcher’s knowledge of morbid appearances is either
unable to detect, or, if sufficiently manifest to him, it is his in-
terest to conceal.

The natural action of the stomach in preparing the food for
digestion being understood, it becomes our duty so to apportion
the horse’s aliment that no part of it be destitute of the gastric-
juice, without the aid of which it must become a source of irri-
tation ; and inasmuch as the deposition of fat is productive of in-
activity, no greater quantity of food should ever be allowed him
than he is capable of well digesting, and than is sufficient to
maintain his strength and increase his proportions while growing.
The stomach, like all other parts of the body, cannot be everlast-
ingly at work ; it requires repose at intervals in order to perform
its natural functions with energy, and on this account it is highly
improper, and destructive of health, to allow the horse access to
food of some sort or other at all hours of the day, especially while
in his stable, where exercise is unnecessary to obtain his food.
For this reason no greater portion should ever be placed before
him than he seems to have a desire for, whether it be hay or corn ;
and an interval of four hours shonld always be allowed to elapse
between each meal. Less time than this is insufficient for di-
gestion ; and if food be taken into the stomach while it is em-
ployed in preparing a former meal for undergoing that process, it
must be clear to every one either that its powers must be over-

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 539

taxed by producing a fresh supply of the gastric juice, or that the
second meal will pass into the intestines without having been satu-
rated by that fluid.

As I have already remarked, the carter, totally ignorant of the
natural laws by which digestion is regulated, thinks that the more
his horses eat the more fit for work will they become; and if
their allowance of corn and beans be daily meted out to them by
the farmer himself, takes care that, at all events, they shall never
want for a plentiful supply of hay, with which he never fails to
cram the racks. Independent of the waste thus committed, I
have already shown the bad effects of allowing this system to ‘be
pursued for any length of time, and need not ‘therefore advert to
it again. The power and activity of many a team is often dimi-
nished through want of supervision by the farmer in the article
of diet, and more work might be got out of his horses, besides
effecting a great saving of food, did he take as much pains to
regulate their allowance of hay or green meat as he does of oats
and beans. The smallness of a horse’s stomach also in compa-
rison to his bulk renders the allowance of a large quantity of hay
doubly injurious, inasmuch as a great deal of it must be swal-
lowed before nutriment equivalent to a feed of corn can be ex-
tracted from it, and the distension of the stomach thus produced
is, as has been already observed, destructive of its power, and
eventually of course produces corresponding debility of the whole
system.

The plan of giving a large quantity of cut chaff to horses with
their corn may be equally productive of mischief, unless care be
taken to ascertain the appetite and powers of digestion of each
animal; and the system of giving the whole of the food as
manger-meat, under the impression that the horse will lie down
and rest so soon as he has finished his meal, is in many cases
lable to the objection that, even when satisfied, he will continue
to eat for the purpose of getting the corn that is mixed with his
food, and will then probably only lie down immediately from the
feeling of oppression induced by repletion. When corn, beans
and chaff, in proper quantity and proportions, are given without
the admixture of cut hay, if a horse have had enough he will,
unless a glutton, lie down perhaps at once, or will pull a small
portion of hay from the rack before he does so, but will never
leave the food that contains corn until he have eaten more than
is good for him and he loathe the remainder.

The next important point to be attended to in the treatment of
the horse is to ensure for him at all times and in all situations an
abundant supply of fresh and uncontaminated air. Cleanliness
in the stable is therefore a point to be strictly attended to on
every occasion, and one to which for the most part the farmer is

540 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

lamentably inattentive. There is scarcely one farm-stable in fifty
that is properly and thoroughly cleaned out even once every week,
and the accumulation of dung, urine, and frequently green meat
of yarious kinds, in different stages of decomposition, are hourly
exercising their baneful influence upon the blood of eyery horse
that is allowed to breathe an atmosphere thus loaded with noxious
effluyia. The operation of pure atmospheric air upon the blood
in its passage through the lungs has already been noticed, as
likewise the fact that by this operation alone.it is rendered
capable of acquiring those properties by which healthy animal life
is carried on. The purer the atmosphere in which any animal is
kept, the more vigorously and the more healthily will every
function of the different organs of the body be exercised, and con-
sequently the inhalation of air impregnated with the stench of
vegetable matter in a state of putrefaction, by corrupting the
blood with which it comes in contact, vitiates every secretion of
the body, and in time, if it cause not actual disease, which is most
probable, never fails, at all events, to produce languor and de-
bility. Independent too of the injury secondarily caused to every
part of the frame by the influence of foul air upon the blood, the
gases arising from dung, urine, &c., act prejudicially upon the
eyes, a fact of which any person who will remain in a foul stable
while it is being cleansed may practically assure himself.

There are but few farmers who will give themselves the trouble
to exercise a proper degree of supervision over the malpractices
of carters and ploughmen in the stable, more especially if it
contain none but agricultural horses, and there are possibly still
fewer who have any idea that at every inspiration a portion of the
blood circulating through the body undergoes a change without
which no animal could exist. Having become aware, howeyer, of
this fact, it is not only the duty but also the interest of every
farmer personally to superintend the care of his horses, and to
insist upon his stable being daily cleaned out; an operation
which, if regularly performed, will in the end occasion far less
trouble than when filth of every kind is allowed to accumulate for
days, to say nothing of the beneficial effect of cleanliness upon
the team. The breeder of valuable horses will no doubt be more
alive to the necessity of attention to his young stock than the man
who has an occasional colt or filly, the goodness of which he
leaves pretty much to chance; but the principle of obtaining for
every horse a due supply of fresh air, and of keeping him in an
atmosphere unimpregnated with noxious vapours of any kind, is
the same as far as regards the purposes of health, whether a horse
be worth ten pounds or a hundred.

During the act of respiration one of the component parts of
atmospheric air becomes destroyed by coming in contact with the

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 541

carbon of the blood; and hence the air that is expired from the
lungs, if inhaled again without admixture with fresh air, is defi-
cient in those particles which should effect that chemical change
in the blood, so necessary to life, of which I have already spoken.
For this reason closely-shut stables are highly injurious to horses,
although the plan of stopping up every aperture at night and ex-
cluding the air is one which is very generally adopted by great
numbers of people, alike ignorant of the injury they thus inflict
upon their horses, and of the mode in which their superabundant
and ill-directed care operates prejudicially upon animal life.
Many men, while endeavouring to put valuable horses in condition
prior to offering them for sale, are in the habit of thus coddling
them up, with a view to improve the appearance of the coat, an
adyantage which is frequently not gained save at the risk of ex-
citing inflammatory disease, and always with the loss of some
portion of that sprightliness of movement and general vivacity so
indicative of health and vigour. The true method of improving
the condition of every horse consists in giving him regular exer-
cise proportioned to his strength; allowing him such a quantity of
wholesome and nutritious food as he is capable of perfectly di-
gesting, and of paying such attention to him in the stable by good
grooming, sufficient clothing to keep up the circulation in the
skin, if he require it, and a proper supply of uncontaminated air
at all times and in all seasons. ‘There are very many minor points
respecting condition to which I shall forbear any allusion, inas-
much as the word in its strict sense implies the highest degree of
health and muscular power which any horse is capable of ac-
quiring, and which can only be obtained by a system of training
to which no young horse, merely bred for profit, need be sub-
jected, as he will probably sell for more money when in some-
what high condition than when trained down to mere muscle and
sinew.

From some of the above observations it is almost unnecessary
to observe that to keep horses in good health air should not only
be freely admiited at all times into the stable, in quantity accord-
ing to the season, but there should likewise be some internal
aperture by means of which the air may be made to circulate and
perfect ventilation be ensured.

It may be expected that, before I conclude this paper, I should
say something respecting the profit attached to breeding the
various sorts of horses of which I have taken notice. This is a
point of some difficulty, inasmuch as the breeder has many risks
to run in rearing his young stock, and may also breed several
colts before he succeeds in obtaining one which shall sell for a
very high price. Nevertheless, I shall essay something like a
tolerable calculation of the average value of the cart and carriage

542 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

horse and of the hunter, after deducting the necessary expenses
the farmer will incur in rearing them and making them fit for the
horse-fair ; and shall then consider, as far as I am able, which of
these different breeds is most likely to yield the farmer the
greatest profit in the long run.

To begin with the cart-horse. Excepting in those districts
where very large and showy-looking cart-horses are bred for the
brewers, distillers, and others in London, a cart-colt, when four
years old, must be a very good-looking animal to fetch 40/. at a
fair; but supposing the breeder to be a man of sound discern-
ment and knowledge in horseflesh, and to be successful in the
sort of mare and stallion he selects to breed from, I am still
making a computation somewhat in his favour when I value the
- four-year-old colt at this price. As he will not be fit to do any-
thing like work before he is three years old, we will suppose that
after that period he shall earn his keep, and will proceed to make
a calculation of his expenses up to that age. They will be some-
what upon the following scale :—

2 a oe.
Stallion . . . . : . : . et)
Keep of mare (say for one month) prior to and after
foaling - 5 : : : - 5 : 014 0
Keep of colt at grass and straw-yard at 3s. per week after
the first six months. 4 : : ° mma | ie!) hee)
Allowance for corn during three months, while being
broken-in (two quarterns per diem) . : : - 1-160
Man’s wages for breaking . . ( : 3 Os}. 0)
2410 O

As the calculation I am making is on a rough scale, I do not
take into account the blacksmith’s expenses, if any, from two years
and a half to three years old; the wear and tear of harness, and
other trifling sums, for which I shall presume that the little
assistance a yery young colt can be of in the team will be suffi-
cient payment. I have likewise considered that the cart-colt is
easily broken, and have therefore simply charged to his account
the wages of a man for a few days while receiving his first
lessons ; and if I add to these sums the expenses of a horse-fair,
and the extra quantity of food necessary to put the colt in good
case prior to sending him there, I shall not be estimating his
expenses at too much, under all favourable circumstances, if I put
them down at 26/., which will leave a profit of 147. at the expira-
tion of four years. In this estimate I have likewise not made any
allowance for corn at those periods of the year when green food is
scarce, although, as I have already stated, the man who wishes to

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. £43

rear a fine colt of any breed will never succeed in so doing by
parsimonious means.

The expense of breeding and rearing fine carriage-colts must
necessarily be greater than that of breeding for the team only,
inasmuch as the stallion, in the first instance, will cost more; the
colt must be allowed corn from an early age, or he will never
attain the size and stature requisite for his work; and, moreover,
he should not be broken-in before he be full three years old, and
for some period after should only be put to the gentlest work.
His expenses will probably stand thus :—

Zz) sod.

Stallion ° : : : . : . . a & 0

Keep of mare for one month . : : : : 014 0
Do. of colt for two years and a half, with corn during six

months of each year. é . : ; 2, 30: 0 0

Breaking-in . ° - : : : 2 2 0

35 19 O

The additional care and attention that these animals will re-
quire ; the expenses of clothing, wages, horse-fair, &c. &c., will,
on a rough calculation, take at least 40/. out of the farmer’s pocket
at four years old; and at that age a handsome and powerful colt,
fit for the London market, may fetch on an average about 602.,
although many of them do realize a much larger sum from the
first-rate London dealers. To do so, however, they must not only
be of a very good quality and have showy action, but must like-
wise be five years old, as they are not fit for town-work much
before that age. The average profit, therefore, of a good carriage
colt at four years old may be from 20J. to 25/.

The expense of breeding and rearing the hunter will be greater
than that of either of the former breeds, from various causes.
The cost of the stallion will be greater; he will probably never
do any, or at all events very little harness-work ; and must like-
wise, to fetch his full value, be kept until five years old, at least,
before he is sold. Adding, therefore, two guineas, at the very
lowest computation, for a stallion of character, and at least 20/.
for keep from the age of four to five years, a hunter will not cost
the farmer less than sixty guineas when fit for sale, and, inde-
pendent of these expenses, the prime cost of the dam may have
been considerable, and she may not be powerful enough to do
much hard work upon the farm.

Now, at five years old a horse should have some character in
the field as a hunter to realize the sum of 80/., although, if he be
a horse possessed of considerable speed and power, he may fetch
a good deal more. ‘The farmer consequently prefers keeping

544 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

him at all risks until five or six years old, with a chance of ob-
taining a hundred, or a hundred and twenty guineas for him, to
selling him at four years old without a character, and only realiz-
ing half that sum.

To say the real truth, in most instances breeding hunters is
something like buying tickets in a lottery, and is a business that
requires the exercise of a far greater degree of thought and judg-
ment than most people suppose, to be made profitable in the
highest degree. Any man, with a fair knowledge of horses and
tolerable discrimination, may breed a horse that, being taken out
with hounds, may be called a hunter, and may be worth from
502. to 60/.; but to breed an animal of superior qualifications—
one that can live with a fast pack of hounds in some of our crack
. counties, and subsequently stand a good chance of carrying off
one or more hunter-stakes at the end of the season—is a differ-
ent matter altogether, and, excepting through sheer luck, is not
to be done by the man ignorant of the most important points of
the horse, and of the pedigree, performances, and general charac-
ter of the first mares and stallions of the day.

Nevertheless, let me ask who is there who is not fond of a
lottery-ticket, and where is the young farmer who objects to pos-
sess one in the shape of a hunter? If he chance to breed a good
one, and be a bold rider in the field, since he will, no doubt,
keep a horse of some kind for his own use, he may as well keep
his colt from four years old till six as any other, and make a
hunter of him, as, when perfect at his fences, he will find plenty
of admirers in every hunting country.

This choice, however, it must be admitted, is matter of fancy.
The plodding farmer, who breeds a hunter for which he has no
use, sells him so soon as he can make a profit of 15/. or 207. by
him, whether he be three or four years old; whereas the young
man, who does not make the most rigid calculations of expense,
and who is, moreover, a sportsman, and perhaps fancies himself a
bit of a jockey, keeps his horse from year to year, in the hope of
at last obtaining for him a considerable sum, which it is not im-
possible that he may eventually do, but not certainly without
incurring considerable risk.

The above calculations, | must remark, have been made under
circumstances most favourable to the farmer; and I believe that,
in the long run, were every item of the expenses of breeding and
rearing horses taken into consideration, and placed against the
average sums they realize, the balance would be but very little, if
anything, in favour of the breeder,

When we consider the numerous diseases and accidents to
which horses are subject, and that to pay a remunerating price
they must at all events be sound, we cannot be surprised at the

Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm. 545

losses that many men incur by breeding them, more especially as
the greater proportion of farmers are ignorant of the principles
of breeding, and are incapable of forming a correct judgment
upon the most important points of the sire and dam they may
select, both with regard to their formation and their blood.

The real fact, however, is this. A farmer breeds a colt, and
at five years old the expense of rearing him may be 50/. But
this sum not having come out of his pocket at once, but having
gradually and insensibly melted away in the shape of grass, oat-
straw, and now and then a few quarters of corn, it has not at any
one paiticular time made any great inroad upon his pocket, and
consequently, if he want to pay his rent, or to make any purchase
which is likely to be beneficial to him, he takes perhaps 40/. for
the colt that has cost him 50J/., and thinks himself both lucky to
get that sum, and likewise a provident man, to have kept that by
him that has been so valuable in a time of need.

Now close calculators, writing upon farming matters generally,
would greatly blame the farmer for a yearly expenditure in grass,
&c., which, in the aggregate, amounts to a greater sum than the
animal on which it has been expended will eventually realize,
and would proceed, no doubt, to demonstrate, most satisfactorily
to themselves, that, had the same amount of food been applied to
the fatting of a few sheep, and to keeping a cow, the mutton,
butter, and milk would have returned a better profit than the
horse. All this may, possibly, be true; but we must remember
that a first-rate horse of any breed may put a large sum, by way
of profit, into his owner’s pocket; that most men are fond of
horses, and will breed them when they have an opportunity of
doing so; and that, with respect to the profit and loss, human
nature is prone to disregard small outlays for any particular pur-
pose, although when summed up they may amount to more than
the object they have been lavished on be worth. Such being the
feeling implanted in the nature of nine-tenths of the human race,
when live stock of any kind thrive, provided the farmer can rub
on without being obliged to sell them at an improper time, they
may be looked upon in the light of a live savings-bank, in which
he weekly hoards up a certain sum which, under different cir-
cumstances, he would probably think nothing of spending. Under
this view, the breeding of horses may be considered advantageous
to the farmer, even if his knowledge of the subject be but imper-
fect ; but the man of judgment and science may render it a lucra-
tive pursuit, without incurring a great deal of risk.

Of the three different breeds of horses of which I have made
mention, I should say that, upon moderately light soils, the
carriage-horse is by far the most likely to be useful and profit-

546 Breeding and Management of Horses on a Farm.

able to the farmer. If any accident happen to a fine carriage-
colt, he is still fit for the work of the farm, unless greatly in-
jured, an advantage that is not to be derived from the horse of
better blood and nuealles bone; and, if he do well, the sum he
may realize from the London Renler may be quite equal to that
brought by the hunter (unless he be a very superior animal),
besides the gain derived from his being able to de some farm
work, at least at an early age.

The profit derivable from the cart-colt must, on the average,
in most cases, be moderate, and with respect to the hunter is a
speculation, agreeable, perhaps, but doubtful. Considering the
first expense of the mare, and the subsequent outlay of from five
to ten guineas for a stallion of some repute, added to keep for
one or two years, I would strenuously recommend those farmers
who are within a moderate distance of the metropolis, who are
good judges of a horse, and who wish to rear hunters, to buy
them at the hammer at Tattersall’s, at one or two years old, or
even later, rather than breed them. In the latter case you can-
not possibly tell what sort of foal your mare may throw, or whe-
ther some accident may not happen to her in foaling ; whereas
by buying colts when young, you may form a tolerably correct
estimate of what sort of lee they will make, and save the
breeding expenses into the bargain: young colts being frequently
knocked down at the hammer for less money than they cost their
owner on the day they were foaled.

I have now taken a cursory view of the principles on which
the breeding of good horses should be based, and have likewise
shown the best method of rearing them, in accordance with the
laws of physiology. I might, it is true, have entered into a much
more minute detail of the treatment and general management of
the horse, but so many works upon this subject are extant, that it
is unnecessary to do more than allude to them.* ‘There is one
remark, however, which I will run the risk of repeating, as a
warning to all bededeent : and that is, never to be smitten with the
general appearance of either a stallion or mare, if the more im-
portant points of the frame will not bear minute investigation.
It is in vain that a horse possess a showy crest, or a well-carried
tail, or have a general bearing that may captivate a novice ; if his
shoulders, carcass, quarters, joints, and feet be not well shaped,

* The reader curious in all that relates to horses may consult ‘ Per-
cival’s Hippo-pathology,’ ‘Youatt on the Horse,’ ‘ Bracey Clarke on
the Foot of the Horse, Spooner on the same subject, ‘ White’s Veterina
Farriery,’ and ‘ How to buy a Horse,’ in which everything connected wit
the purchase, soundness, and improvement of the horse by stable-manage-
ment is considered.

Cultivation of Flax. 547

well proportioned, and sound, be assured he is not the animal
likely to beget good stock, let his spirit and tout ensemble be what
they may.

Lastly, the farmer desirous of breeding valuable hunters can-
not be too intimately acquainted with the racing calendar and
stud-book, which are the fountains of all knowledge relating to
the propagation of our best breed of horses, a large proportion
of whose blood must enter into the composition of the first-rate
hunter of the present day.

The calculations of profit in breeding horses are liable to many deduc-
tions. Amongst cart-horse dealers mares are not in request for the higher
markets; but in the carriage-horse trade they are inadmissible, nor will
they as hunters command an equal price in the fair, whatever they may
do in the field, and yet the chances as to sex may be considered equal.
Next to sex in importance is colour, over which the breeder has no con-
trol. In carriage-horses it most materially affects price, and has a certain
influence on every description of horse.

The author admits that his calculations are in the rough, and favourable
to the breeder. The very moderate profits which even under these cir-
cumstances he holds out, would be greatly decreased if average provision
were made for mares missing foal, accidents in foaling, expense and risk
in castration, the unavoidable series of diseases to which young horses are
subject, accidental blemishes, and above all, in carriage-colts, the galled
shoulders, chafings, kicks, blows, &c., leaving blemishes to which those
broken-in or worked in the farm teams are so invariably subject. The
circumstance, also, that the spring fairs are usually those selected for the
purchase of draught and carriage horses, entails a very increased expense
in getting them into condition, beyond the summer and autumn fairs,
when grass has for the most part sufficiently prepared them.

H. Hanptey.

XXX.—On the Cultivation of Flax. By G. Nicuotts, Esq.

I Bee permission to address the Council on a subject which I
believe to be of great general interest, as well as one of especial
importance to the agricultural classes—I mean the cultivation of
flax.

In my little work, “« The Farmer,” * published in the spring
of this year, I endeayoured to impress upon our English farmers
the policy of their introducing flax crops as a regular portion of
their system of management. [ did this under a conviction of its
great importance to them, as well as to the country generally.
We all know, however, how difficult it is to establish a new prac-
tice, more especially if it requires previous forethought and ar-
rangement, or if the benefits derivable from it be not very obvious
and immediate; and I cannot hope that the recommendations
contained in my little work will have had much effect, or that the

* Published by Mr. Charles Knight in his series of ‘Guides to Trade.’
VOL. Vv. 20

548 Cultivation of Flax.

cultivation of flax will be speedily adopted, if it be adopted at all
by the great majority of our English farmers, without other efforts
being made to promete it.

The cultivation of flax, although it holds out a prospect of con-
siderable advantage to the farmer, and that neither doubtful nor
very distant, is yet, like most things which are new, beset with
certain difficulues at the outset. The preparation of the land
and the sowing of the seed are not, however, of the number, for
these are simple enough; but the gathering and management of
the flax after it has grown to maturity, the steeping, drying,
scutching, hackling, and preparing it for the market, all require
some training and some skill in the persons who carry through
these Bevenal, operations; and the great difficulty will lie in ob-
taining the requisite degree of practical knowledge on these mat-
ters at first. Once established, the whole will be plain and easy ;
but it may at the outset be not unfrequently necessary to procure
the assistance of persons from a distance, to give the needful
instructions ; and this would entail an expense which tenant-
farmers would often not be disposed to encounter. In such cases
it will be for the landlords to take the initiative, and to institute
inquiries and make the requisite preliminary arrangements; and
if landlords will do this, their tenants will readily follow and co-
operate.

The advantages resulting from flax-cultivation are daily becom-
ing more highly appreciated in Ireland, where the quantity grown
has more than doubled within the last few years ; and it is every
year increasing, under the auspices of a Society instituted expressly
for the purpose of encouraging its growth. In Holland and in
Belgium, and in some of the Prussian states, flax is also exten-
sively cultivated, there being hardly a farm, however small, on
which flax is not grown, and it is held to be the most profitable
of all their crops.

In addition to the profit which in a pecuniary sense would
arise from the cultivation of flax in this country, another very im-
portant advantage would be obtained, for it would afford a large
amount of employment, more especially for females, in those rural
districts where employment is at present most needed. The yva-
rious operations connected with the management of flax require
many hands, and much of the work may be ‘performed by females.
If flax were generally grown, employment at once suitable and
profitable would be found in its preparation for the female po-
pulation of our villages and rural parishes, without resorting to
common field-labour, as they are now too often compelled to
do; and this would doubtless be a great benefit, socially and
morally.

Our rural population is generally found to be most abundant, and

Cultivation of Flax. 549

not unfrequently most in excess, in those districts where the farms
are small; and it is to these districts that the cultivation of flax
is more especially suited, and where it would confer the greatest
benefit. The farms in Belgium are universally small, from 20 to
50 acres being about the average, but many are under 10 acres.
In Ireland the holdings are likewise small; and in both countries
the population is great in proportion to the area. In both countries
likewise the cultivation of flax is found to be highly profitable,
and to afford beneficial employment to the people.

I do not mean to discuss the comparative advantages and disad-
vantages of large and small farms; but I may venture to remark,
that neither smal] farms exclusively, nor large farms exclusively,
appear to me to be desirable, but rather an admixture of both.
By such admixture, a gradation of employment is found for differ-
ent degrees of farming skill and capital, and a stimulus to exertion
is held out to the man with small beginnings, who may hope, as his
knowledge and his means increase, to rise progressively in his pro-
fession, from a farm of 20 to one of 50 and 100 acres. If farms
were either all large, or all small, this incentive to exertion would
be wanting. If small, there would be no room for improvement or
extension ; and if large, the man of slender means, however skilful
and industrious, would look hopelessly above him: there would
be no intermediate steps, no gradation by which he might hope to
climb upwards to a farm of 100, 200, or 500 acres; and he would
too probably sink back into inertness, if not into despondency.

A variety in the size of farms, proportioned to the various
amounts of skill and capital of the farmers, appears therefore the
most desirable for all classes. This variety exists, with few ex-
ceptions, throughout England, and coupled with the circumstances
of our rural population, fgunot but be considered as favourable to
the introduction of flax culture.

The Belgians and Dutch are very skilful in the cultivation of
flax, and Flemish flax bears a high price in the market. In Ire-
land until recently, the cultivation was much neglected, and the
flax raised was of a very inferior quality. This was not so much
owing to the inferior nature of the plant, as to the mode of ma-
naging it after it was drawn; and the Society which was esta-
blished a few years ago in the north of Ireland for encouraging
the growth and improving the preparation of flax, directed its
earliest attention to correct this defective management. They

brought over skilful cultivators from Belgium to instruct the

people; and afterwards, finding that this was not sufficient for

the purpose, they selected a number of intelligent young men,

and sent them to Belgium to learn the Flemish mode of culti-

vating and preparing the flax; and the result has been, that not

only has the quantity of flax grown greatly increased since the
202

550 Cultivation of Flax.

Society commenced its operations, but the quality of the flax has
likewise greatly improved; and Ireland may now look forward,
at no very distant day, to produce as much as she requires of
this the great staple of her manufactures.

Can we doubt that what has thus, it may be said within a recent
period, been done in Ireland, ought also to be done in England ?
The soil and the climate are at least as favourable for the growth
of flax here as they are there, or as they are in either Holland or
Belgium. Instructors may readily be obtained from either of
these countries, or persons might be sent from hence to learn the
various processes, and on their return they might impart instruc-
tion to others. The result would, I am confident, amply repay
the outlay by the benefits it would confer, and the art once ac-
quired would not be in danger of being lost.

The quantity of flax and tow imported into the United King-
dom in the year 1843, chiefly from Russia, Prussia, Holland, and
Belgium, was, according to the Parliamentary Returns, no less
than 1,437,150 cwts.; and the value of linens exported in the
same year amounted to a million sterling, the official value given
in the tables, which is always under the real value, being 898,8297.
The quantity of the raw material imported, added to that pro-
duced within the United Kingdom, not only provided for our
immense home consumption, but also allowed of an export to the
above amount; and the importance to this country of encouraging
the growth of flax, in an economical point of view, cannot there-
fore I think be doubted.

It has often been said that flax is a very exhausting crop, but
it certainly is not more so than any of the usual grain crops,
neither does it require a very rich soil. Indeed, a rich or highly
manured soil is injurious, causing the plant to grow too strong and
luxuriant, and rendering the fibre coarse and less valuable. Flax
is grown on light, poor land in Belgium and in Holland, and I
have seen it growing on mere bog in Ireland.

The general introduction of flax culture in England, would
constitute a new and most valuable element in the rotation, and
would enable the farmer to vary and extend his successions,
which is in itself a highly important consideration. The water
in which flax has been steeped is highly fertilizing when applied
to the land, and the seed, when properly saved and prepared,
constitutes excellent provender for cattle and milch cows. It
may be safely asserted, therefore, that a flax crop rightly managed
is not only valuable as affording increased means of employment
for our agricultural population, and highly profitable for the pur-
poses of the manufacturer, and for the feeding of cattle, but that
it moreover returns to the soil, in the shape of manure, as much,
if not more than any of the grain crops; in addition to which it

Making and burning Draining Tiles. 551

ought not to be overlooked by the agriculturist, that clover always
does well after flax.

The directions given in my little work ‘The Farmer,’ were
carefully compiled from more detailed instructions prepared and
circulated by the Society for encouraging the Cultivation and Im-
provement of Flax in Ireland. These directions will, I believe,
be found generally applicable, and always useful, although they
may not always be sufficient, without other assistance, for enabling
beginners to conduct the several operations. Where this is the
case, and whenever there is a deficiency of practical knowledge
within the district, recourse must be had to aid from a distance,
for the purpose of obtaining the necessary information.

London, November 26, 1844.

XX XI.—On the cheapest Method of making and burning Drain-
ing Tiles.

To the Earl Spencer.

My Lorp,—The active interest you have so long taken in every
thing connected with British agriculture, induces me to address
to you the following communication on the subject of making
and burning draining tiles, of whatever form, in the readiest and
cheapest manner.

My attention has been very forcibly drawn to this subject by
the high prices demanded by the manufacturers of these indis-
pensible instruments of agricultural improvement, prices indeed
so high, that even without the expense of carriage, they must have
the effect of confining within comparatively very narrow limits
their adoption.

It is true that the application of machinery to the producing of
draining tiles, promised, and in some degree effected a reduction
in the price of tiles previously made by hand, but owing to the
mistaken views of those who worked these inventions, in fancying
they could secure a monopoly of machine-made tiles, in requiring
a seignorage on tiles made by their machines, and in the high
cost of those machines, they offered the tiles to the public at so
high a price that it soon became evident, if draining tiles were
to be used to the extent required throughout the United King-
dom, that some other machinery of a less costly description, with
equal, if not greater powers of production, and with unfettered
liberty of using it, would be discovered—and this result has
accordingly taken place. Two machines, worked by hand, have
been discovered in the course of this year, viz, “‘ Clayton’s Ma-
chine,” which is a fixture wherever set up, and for which a patent
has been taken out; the other, called ‘“ Hatcher's Machine,” .

552 - Mazmg and burning Draining Tiles.

easily moveable, and manufactured and sold by Messrs. Cottam.
and Hallen, Winsley-street, London. The latter machine is the
invention of Mr. John Hatcher, brick and tile maker and potter,
living in the parish of Benenden, in Kent, where I reside, and is
the one I have adopted ; and all the subsequent calculations and
quantities are made in reference to the producing power of that
machine: and I beg to assure you that, as my sole object isto put
. the public in possession of the readiest and cheapest way of ob-
taming these tiles, if any other machine as yet discovered could
make fchem better and cheaper, I should instantly adopt it, as I
certainly shall if any such be hereafter invented; and it is quite
certain that the public will apply the only real test of merit to
these machines in determining their choice of one, viz., the
cheapest rate at which tiles can be produced by them, taking into
account the price of the machine, the amount of Jabour necessary
to work it, the goodness and the quantity of tiles it can produce
in the day, and the simplicity of its construction.

Being fully aware that Hatcher's machine was not excelled by
any other yet discovered in all these essential points, and there-
fore assuming that machinery had accomplished much, if not all
that could reasonably be expected from it, I still felt that the
heavy expense of erecting kilns, as they are now constructed,
together with the necessary sheds and other buildings incidental
to a regular brick and tile yard, required so large an outlay, that
the price of draining tiles would still continue too high for uni-
versal use, notwithstanding every improyement in the mechanical
production of them. To this difficulty another must be added,
no less serious, in attempting to reduce the price of tiles,
viz., the expense of carriage of an article so bulky. Every one
must be aware that beyond a certain distance from every brick
and tile manufactory (unless it stands on the bank of some navi-
gable water), the expense of carriage of tiles will impose the
limit of their application to land drainage. What then is to be-
come of those immense districts in the United Kingdom that are
so situated? It will not much reduce the eyil to incur all
the heavy expenses of erecting kilns, sheds, &c. &c., after the
usual manner; for interest on capital embarked in the business,
together with rent, must be added to the cost of making them;
and after all, if the object be to make draining tiles only, it is ob-
vious that these buildings of a permanent and expensive cha-
racter will become useless, whenever the circle around them is
furnished with tiles, the extent of that circle being always deter-
mined by the expense of carriage beyond it.

Reflecting on these obstacles to universal drainage, where
required, 1 “conferred with Mr. John Hatcher on the possibility
of erecting a kiln of common clay, that would be effectual for
burning these tiles, and of cheap construction—and the result

Making and burning Draining Tiles. 553

was the building one in my brick yard in July last, and the con-
stant use of it until the wet weather at the commencement of this
winter compelled its discontinuance, but not until it had burnt
nearly 80,000 excellent tiles; and in the ensuing spring it will
be again in regular use.

I shall now proceed to take in order the six points enumerated
under the 9th head of the Prize Essays for 1845, as printed in the
Jast volume of the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, viz. :—

Ist. Mode of working clay according to its quality.

2nd. Machine for making tiles.

3rd. Sheds for drying tiles.

4th. Construction of kiln.

5th. Cost of forming the establishment.

6th. Cost of tiles when ready for sale.

Ist Point. Working the clay.

All clay intended for working next season must be dug in the
winter, and the earlier the better, so as to expose it as much as
possible to frost and snow. Care must be taken if there are
small stones in it, to dig it in small spits, and cast out the stones as
much as possible, and also to well mix the top and bottom of the
bed of clay together. It is almost impossible to give minute
directions as to mixing clay with loam, or with marl when neces-
sary, for the better working it afterwards, as the difference of the
clays in purity and tenacity is such as to require distinct manage-
ment in this respect in various localities; but all the clay dug for
tile-making will require to be wheeled to the place where the
pug-mill is to work it; it must be there well turned and mixed in
the spring, and properly wetted, and finally spatted down and
smoothed by the spade, and the whole heap well covered with
litter to keep it moist and fit for use through the ensuing season
of tile-making.

2nd Point. Machine for making tiles.

For the reasons already alluded to, I prefer Hatcher’s machine.
Its simplicity of construction, and the small amount of hand-labour
required to work it, would alone recommend it; for one man and
three boys will turn out nearly 11,000 pipe tiles of one-inch bore
in a day of ten hours, and so in proportion for pipes of a larger
diameter ; but it has the great advantage of being moveable, and
those who work it draw it along the shed in which the tiles are
deposited for drying previously to their being burnt: thus each
tile is handled only once, for it is taken off the machine by the
little boys, who stand on each side, and at once placed in the rows
on either side of the drying shed ; thus rendering the use of shelves
in the sheds wholly unnecessary, for the tiles soon acquire a solidity
to bear row upon row of tiles till they reach the roof of the sheds
on either side ; and they dry without warping or losing their shape
in any way.

554 ‘Making and burning Draining Tiles.

The price of this machine is 25/.: and it may be proper to add,
jhat the machine makes the very best roofing-tiles that can be
made, and at less than half the price of those made by hand, as
well as being much lighter, and closer, and straighter, in conse-
quence of the pressure through the die.

It is necessary, in order to ensure the due mixing of the clay,
as well as to form it into the exact shape to fill the cylinders of the
machine, to have a pug-mill. Messrs. Cottam and Hallen make
these also, and charge 10/. for them. This mill must be worked
by a horse ; in general one day’s work at the mill will furnish rather
more prepared clay than the machine will turn into tiles in two days.

3rd Point. Sheds for drying.

The sheds necessary for this system of tile-making will be of a
temporary kind: strong hurdles pitched firmly in the ground in
two parallel straight lines, 7 feet apart, will form the sides of the
sheds, and the roof will be formed also of hurdles placed endways
and tied together at the top, as well as to the upper slit of the
hurdie, with strong tarred twine, forming the ridge of the roof
exactly over the middle of the shed. ‘They must then be lightly
thatched with straw or heath, and the sharpness of this roof will
effectually protect the tiles from rain. Two of these sheds, each
110 feet long, will keep one of the kilns hereafter described in full
work.

N.B.—These sheds should be so built as to haye one end close
to the pug-mill and the clay-heap, only leaving just room for the
horse to work the mill, and the other end near the kiln. Atten-
tion to this matter saves future labour, and therefore money.

4th Point. Construction of kilns.

The form of the clay-kiln is circular ; 11 feet in diameter, and
7 feet high. It is wholly built of damp earth, rammed firmly
together, and plastered inside and out with loam. The earth to
form the walls is dug out round the base, leaving a circular trench
ahout 4 feet wide and as many deep, into which the fire-holes of
the kiln open. If wood be the fuel used, three fire-holes are
sufficient; if coal, four will be needed. About 1200 common
bricks are wanted to build these fire-holes and flues: if coal is
used, rather fewer bricks will be wanted, but then some iron bars
are necessary—six bars to each fire-hole.

The earthen walls are 4 feet thick at the floor of the kiln, are
7 feet high, and tapering to the thickness of 2 feet at the top;
this will determine the slope of the exterior face of the kiln.
The inside of the wall is carried up perpendicularly, and the loam
plastering inside becomes, after the first burning, like a brick
wall. The kiln may be safely erected in March, or whenever the
danger of injury from frost is over. After the summer use of it,
it must be protected by faggots or litter against the wet and the
frost of winter.

Making and burning Draining Ties. 555

A kiln of these dimensions will contain
47,000 1 inch bore pipe tiles.

32 > 500 1} ” ”
20 > 000 12 »” 2»
12,000 2¢ ” 9

and the last-mentioned size will hold the same number of the inch
pipes inside of them, making therefore 24,800 of both sizes. In
good weather this kiln can be filled, burnt, and discharged once
every fortnight ; and 15 kilns may be obtained in a good season,
producing—
705,000 1 inch pipe tiles;
Or, 487,500 13 ,, *
Or, 300,000 13 ,, .
and so on in proportion for other other sizes.
N.B.—If a kiln of larger diameter be built, there must be
more fireholes, and additional shed room,
5th Point. Cost of forming the establishment.

The price charged by Messrs. Cottam and Hallen for x.

__ the machine, with its complement of dies, is . 25
Price of pug-mill : : : : 10
Cost of erecting kiln : . : ? 5
Cost of sheds, straw é F ; : 10

£50

The latter item presumes that the farmer has hurdles of his own.
6th Point. Cost of tiles when ready for sale.

As this must necessarily vary with the cost of fuel, rate of wages,
easy or difficult clay for working, or other local peculiarities, I can
only give the cost of tiles as I have ascertained it here according
to our charges for fuel, wages, &c. &c. Our clay is strong, and
has a mixture of stones in it, but the machine is adapted for work-
ing any clay when properly prepared.

It requires 2 tons 5 ewt. of good coals to burn the above kiln
full of tiles. Coals are charged here at 28s. per ton, or 1000
brush faggots will effect the same purpose, and cost the same
money; of course some clays require more burning than others ;
the stronger the clay the less fuel required.

The cost of making, the sale prices, and number of each sort
that a waggon with 4 horses will carry, are as follows:—

Cost. Sale Price.

iS ile Se Waggon holds.
Benen Pipe Tues > 2’ "4 9 per itod 12°. . °.' 8,000
12 z fe wa f ig 14... 7,000
13 ” Sie te 8 0 » 16. ..< +>) 76000
21 » pe AAA) | as eerie Si)
2 0 Oe tae ere

3 + : 12
aeicau Dilesaks 8) eee tls oe a eee
Bnbesy eh che ss . 10 j cif

All these tiles exceed a foot in length when burnt.

2,000

506 Making and burning Draining Tiles.

The cost price alone of making draining tiles will be the charge
to every person making his own tiles for his own use. If he sell
them, a higher price must, of course, be demanded to allow for
some profit, for credit more or less long, for bad debts, goods un-
sold, &c. &c.; but he who makes his own saves all expense of
carriage, and, as his outlay will not exceed 501., the interest on that
sum is too trifling to be regarded, and he e2 no additional rent
to pay; and after he has made as many tiles as he wanted, his
machine and pug-mill will be as good as ever with reasonable
care, and will fetch their value.

I fear that no drawing could be made that would ensure a per-
son erecting one of these kilns by it from the chance of failure ;
and I do not know any way by which these kilns can be erected,
and the mode of using them taught, so as to obviate disappoint-
ment, except by Mr. Hatcher being engaged to erect one or two
in a county, which will serve as models.

It will not be improper to put those who may adopt any machine
for tile-making upon their guard against the prejudices of tile-
makers. The necessity and the demand for draining tiles has
infinitely outstripped the possibility of the supply being furnished
by hand work alone in the old way: but as the services of every
man who has been used to this work will be more than ever needed,
the employer will find his account in securing them for the work-
ing of his machine by giving liberal wages, and by convincing the
men that their earnings by work, not so laborious, but more effect-
ive, will be at least equal, and they will soon really be greater
than they obtained from their former occupation.

I hope that this paper will prove the means of saving a large
expenditure on buildings of a permanent character, where drain-
ing tiles only are wanted to be made; as such buildings, under
such circumstances, will become useless when they have supplied
the district immediately around them: for land once thoroughly
drained with tiles, and on true principles, is, generally speaking,
drained for ever.

With sincere regard I remain, my Lord,
Very truly yours,
Hemsted, Kent, Dec. 18, 1844. Tuos. Law Hopeges.

Norte By Mr. Pusey.

Ir Mr. Hodges should succeed in rendering the making of
draining-tiles a domestic manufacture, he will have set the seal to
their cheapness, and thereby conferred a great boon on farmers,
As there is no point in which our Society has been more success-
ful than in reducing the cost of drainage, we may take this occa-
sion of looking back to what we have done.

In the first number of our Journal, published in 1839, T find

Making and burning Draining Tiles. 557

the following passage :—‘‘ The expense (of thorough-draining) is
estimated from 3/. to 12/. per acre, according to the frequency of
their application.” The price in my own neighbourhood and in
the Isle of Wight was then 60s. per 1000 for tiles, and 30s, for
soles, being 90s. for every 1000 feet of materials.

In 1841, we discovered that Mr. Beart 9 Huntingdonshire
was selling tiles of about the same size for 22s., and * Si soles for
about 10s., being 32s. for every 1000 feet of materials.

In 1843 we and that pipes of various shapes were sold in
Suffolk and Kent at 20s. per 1000, being 20s. for every 1000 feet
of materials.

I was thus enabled in May, 1843, to give the following reduced
estimate for draining an acre of land :—

Distance
between Pipes. Total
Drains.

a

—
DNReKH oh
mRODORR
ecoook

|

Our engineer, Mr. Parkes, has since examined the subject of
pipe-drainage most minutely. He has proved that in theory an
inch-pipe can discharge the heaviest rains from the land, and he
has gone far to shew their efficacy in practice. Mr. Parkes, in his
Report on the Implements shown at Southampton, announces
that such pipes are actually now selling in the Isle of Wight for
12s. per 1000. I may, therefore, after so short an interval again
have the pleasure of laying before the Society further reduced
estimates of the price of drainage. The most convenient measure
is, | think, the furlong, because that is the old dimension in length
of an acre, the width being 66 feet; and if the cost of one drain
for that width be known, it is easy of course to calculate for nearer
distances. A furlong, too, is equal to 40 poles, a common length
in calculation for the digging of drains.

Cost of Thorough-draining one Acre.

Distance Length of Feet Cost Forming
between Drains in of of | Drains Total Cost.
Drains, Furlongs. Pipes. Pipes. | 30 in. deep.

Feet. s CANCE Si ss. di
66 1 660 8 8 0 016 0
44 13 980 12 12 0 he ees
33 2 1320 16 16 0 lL 1 6
22 3 1980 24 24 0 2 8 0
163 a 2640 * 36 36 0 312 0

A trifling addition must be made for main-drains, In laying

558 Making and burning Draining Tiles.

down the pipes we should look to those counties where draining
was invented, and has been practised most largely. I mean our
eastern counties—Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Herts, &c. For, as
Mr. Copinger Hill* informs us, “On the heavy lands of Suffolk
and the adjoining counties under-draining at a distance of 164
feet and a depth of 26 or 30 inches 7s as much a matter of routine
as hedging and ditching.” Now the usual shape of drains there
is extremely narrow at bottom, tapering down from a width of 4
to that of 2 inches, as shown in the drawing given by him, and
here repeated.

i"

Me

es ae

It so pues that this old and ete
shape from the birth-place of thorough-
draining is precisely adapted to our most
modern improvement, the small pipe. The
Essex tools which haye been for some time
employed by my workmen, were found by
them last winter equally adapted, at least in
very strong clay, for pipe as for thorn-drain-
ing. They are the old-fashioned narrow
spade and the scoop. With this narrow
spade three cuts are made, two on the sides
of the cut, and one across ; but in clays per-
fectly free from stones, I believe that the
bitting tool mentioned by Mr. Arkell in his
Prize Essay on Drainage is even better. I
will only add that if Mr. Hodges’s tem-
porary kilns and sheds should enable the
farmer to make inch-tiles at 4s. 9d. per
1000, the estimates for draining an acre
must be further reduced as follows* on
clay-lands without stones—

Narrow Spade. Scoop.

* Society’s Journal. Vol. iv. p. 26.

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 559

Distance | Length of Feet Cost .
between Drains in of of Forming Tol sett
{Drains. | Furlongs.| Pipes. Pipes. ‘ P ;
Feet. s. a 8 £8 @
66 1 660 3 2 8 Oll 2
44 14 990 49 12 016 9
33 2 1320 6 4 16 {bbe jaa 5
22 3 1980 9 6 24 ek) LES
163 4 2640 12 8 48 3 0 8

The ordinary distances may be taken at 33 and 22 feet, giving
the length of drains 2 or 3 furlongs per acre. If land can be
thus permanently drained for little more than a pound or a guinea
and a half per acre, and if the closest drainage that can probably
be required may be done for three pounds per acre, there will
really be no longer any excuse for an undrained field in any part
of the country.

Pu. Pusey.

XXXII.—On the Indications which are practical Guides in
judging of the Fertility, or Barrenness of the Soil. By Joun
Bravenp_er, F.G.S., Land-Surveyor, Cirencester.

Prize Report.

Ir appears rather surprising that the natural indications of bar-
renness and fertility should have received little or no attention
from agriculturists. They have hitherto appeared to pass over
the subject as one that is not worthy of the notice or the study
of the cultivators of the soil of Great Britain. Nevertheless this
subject is really so important, that I feel totally incapable of do-
ing it justice, and were I certain that any other person was now
preparing a paper on the subject, I could not persuade myself to
proceed: being only induced to do so from believing that it has
been altogether neglected, and that any remarks, however meagre
and imperfect, may arouse the attention of others better quali-
fied ; that, possibly, any attempt, however feeble, to enlarge the
means of securing a correct conclusion in matters of such im-
portance might not be deemed altogether useless, although they
might have originated with an individual in a humble sphere of
life; and that a few simple observations might pave the way for
the introduction of a system more worthy of the notice of the
world than any I could write or suggest.

I need not describe the manner in which my attention was
first called to this subject, or state the motives for undertaking,

560 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

unassisted by others, such an arduous business as an examination
into the character and produce of the soil of Great Britain.
Surface appearances seemed to fall short of what I expected
would be made use of to direct the judgment in such an import-
ant business. I felt disappointed at not finding in use some-
thing of a more scientific and definite character, having, from
early pursuits, been insensibly led to set rather too high : a value
on science, deeming it then of quite as much importance as ex-
perience. On farther consideration I appeared to have tacitly
objected to what I had not the power to remedy, nor could a
substitute be easily found of a more satisfactory nature. Every-
thing that suggested itself appeared to be surrounded by insuper-
able difficulties. However, | determined to ascertain what could
be devised to meet the objections which, in these circumstances,
presented themselves, and finally was obliged to admit that I should
not accomplish the object in view, except by a long and tedious
course of experiment and observation, which then did not appear
practicable for me to undertake. Circumstances happened which
soon afterwards caused me to move straight across the principal
geological strata of the kingdom, and | saw and minutely exa-
mined them all, with the exception of the granitic or plutonic
rocks, and one or two formations allied to them. But, what was
of infinitely more importance to my project, I had the opportu-
nity of inspecting whole districts, field by field, with the value of
each in my hand, which had been fixed by gentlemen of great
experience and of the nicest judgment, whose opinions, founded
on those alone, have been for many years acknowledged to be as
accurate as the nature of the subject admitted,

The due consideration of the fertility or barrenness of soils
will require us to introduce other subjects than those named in
the advertisement of the Royal Agricultural Society. I propose
to arrange them under the following heads:—Colour; Consis-
tency ; Vegetation ; Aspect, and Elevation above the lével of the
Sea; Geological Position and Character; and General Indica-
hons.

I.—COLOUR.
Indications of Barrenness.

The colour of the herbage of pasture-land varies so much,
both with the season, the period of the year when observed, and
from other circumstances, that it cannot be relied on as an in-
dication either of barrenness or fertility, except in some very
obvious cases. The herbage of barren pasture-land generally
appears brown, or reddish brown ; it scarcely ever appears green,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 561

either in spring, summer, or winter. All pasture-land that pro-
duces rough, coarse, unpalatable grass, which stock will not touch
unless compelled by hunger, has the appearance of hay half
made, although the grass is not cut; and all pasture-lands having
this appearance, that is, having the colour of half-made hay, must
be accounted barren.

The soil of barren land is exceedingly various in colour, em-
bracing almost all shades that can be mentioned, some of which
are also indications of fertile land. Barren soils are generally of
a lightish brown, fox, fawn, pale red, and whitish yellow colour ;
a deep yellow is a certain indication of barrenness.

Soils having the following colours and appearances are bar-
ren :—

Thin chalk soil which is nearly white.

Chalk soil where the flints are of a pale white colour.

Diluvial soils which contain a dead white gravel near the surface.

Moors and bogs which are nearly black, or of a dark brown
colour, to a considerable depth; and the same kind of soil with
a white soil under it, or with white gravel near the surface.

Soils principally composed of white silvery sand, black sand,
pink sand, yellow sand, white clay, blue clay, yellow clay, and
pink clay.

Gravelly soils are barren where a scum rests on the surface of
the water in the ditches of a ferruginous appearance, and shining
bright, like the bloom on a plum or a peach. ‘The scum resting
on the surface shows that the waier is stagnant, or has but a very
slight draught, which may have more to do with the barrenness
of the soil than the colour of the scum on the surface. The
cause is not an inquiry of ours, but, however simple and uncon-
nected with the colour of the soil this may appear, I have no
doubt that the scum of a ditch exhibiting this colour is a sure
indication of the original barrenness of the adjoining lands. Such
is the appearance RS the water, generally, in or near to bogs.
A familiar example of a district haying this appearance in the
ditches may be witnessed at or near Knapton, called “ Knapton
over Car,” in the vale of the Derwent, about 8 or 9 miles east
of Malton, Yorkshire. Other localities might be enumerated,
but this is named on account of its being rather extensive.

Indications of Fertility.

The colour of the surface which arises from the grasses and
plants is not to be relied on as an indication of fertility or bar-
renness. It will vary very much with the alterations of the
weather, and the changes of temperature which generally accom-
pany such alterations. It will also vary with the time of the
year when the land is seen; the colour of the grass is not the

562 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

same in spring, summer, and autumn. Land that is fertile pos-
sesses a much greater power to withstand the effects of a change
in temperature and continued drought than barren soil, and will
often retain a nice, fresh, green colour, when lands that are bar-
ren will appear brown and scorched, or burnt up.

In winter the colour will appear more of a whited-brown than

that of barren land, and on examination it will be found that the
stems of the best grasses are visible, appearing like very fine
barley-stubble which has been mown close, but not so conspi-
cuous, being mixed with other grasses not furnished with strong
stems. The stems give to the surface a whitish appearance in
winter.
_ From elevated spots I have often looked over a district in the
vale, and have remarked that Jands which had been manured
were of a darker green colour than those adjoining of a similar
quality which had not been so manured; and, on a nearer in-
spection, I have found the dark green-coloured herbage to be
more luxuriant in growth, the grasses thicker and taller, and the
leaves broader, and the produce altogether more forward and pro-
mising than that of the adjoining lands. This would lead us to
conclude that a dark green-coloured herbage is an indication of
fertility.

The colour of the soil itself in pasture-lands is seldom very
particularly observed, but the soil of all fertile pasture is invari-
ably dark for its kind: even the chalk-marl is a darkish grey
colour, and sometimes nearly black at the surface when a thin
turf is removed. Garden-mould is invariably dark brown in
districts where the soil in the fields is of a light brown, or a fox,
or fawn colour. This dark colour is derived from the decomposed
vegetable and animal matter with which it becomes mixed after a
few years’ cultivation.

All top-soils that I have seen, except some in the coal-districts
and bogs, are darker at or near the surface than at a few inches
beneath. The decomposed animal and vegetable substances be-
come, in some degree, the colouring matter of soils, and where
this colouring matter is most abundant the soils will be dark;
and, the same substances being also the fertilizers of soil, it Weald
appear that there is a connexion between fertility and the dark
colour of the soil sufficiently apparent to induce us to suppose
that dark soils are invariably fertile soils. Itis believed they are
so with the exception of those of a peaty and boggy nature, and
that of black sand, which is of very limited extent.

Fertile arable lands have various shades of colour, but all of
them are of a much darker shade than lands in the same district
which are barren.

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 563

II.—CONSISTENCY.

Indications of Barrenness.

The consistency of soils is a matter of great importance, and
must always be closely observed, having an intimate connection
with their barrenness or fertility. Naked rock is always barren,
and the soils composed of what we call sand and what we term
clay, unmixed with other substances, are likewise always so.
Land, the subsoil of which is composed of those substances, with
but a thin coat of vegetable mould, of not more than 2, 3, or
4 inches in depth, is always naturally barren. A large quantity
of land in England, occupied as sheep-walks, called downs and
wolds, is of this description, having sand and rock for subsoil ;
and the coal-fields are examples with a clay subsoil. Other clay
districts might be named, but they are not so uniformly barren as
those mentioned.

The soil of pasture-land is seldom exposed, and if the con-
sistency cannot be ascertained by looking over the surface, it is
usual to inspect the ditches, banks, pools, grips, furrows, and, if
none of these exhibit any sufficient characteristics, a spade is used
and sods are cut out of the turf, here and there, all over the land.
In cases where the surface soil, or the soil that has been turned
over by the plough, if the land ever has been ploughed, is very
thin, the subsoil, if not a solid rock, will appear attached to the
turf which is turned up: but, where a considerable depth of this
soil exisis, a second or third application of the spade becomes
necessary, and if, at the depth of 18 inches or 2 feet or more, the
subsoil* does not appear of a decisive character, the consistency
of what has been exposed is examined, and a note made of its
character, for future consideration, should such be necessary.

If the sod, when turned up in various places, shows the subsoil,
at the depth of 2, 3, or 4 inches, to be one regular compact mass
of clay, such will be a certain indication of the barrenness of the
land, notwithstanding any surface appearances to the contrary.

I have seen many fields that are situated on a clay subsoil, with
a slight covering of surface soil, as well as on a thin, dry, rocky,
gravelly, and even sandy subsoil, appear nice and fresh, and the
herbage of a lively green ; but such appearances always have their
source in manure aud good farming, and are liable to deceive the
superficial observer. An examination into the depth of the soil,
and the nature of the subsoil will at once show that such lands

* In many situations there is a considerable quantity of soil unmixed
and unstained with vegetable matter, and which has never been exposed
by the plough. It will be convenient, but perhaps not quite accurate, to
consider such undersoil as the subsoil, although it may not be formed
exclusively of the soil, or be derived from the rock peculiar to the forma-
tion on which it rests,

VOL. V. 2p

564 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

have a better face upon them than the original nature of the soil
will warrant.

Soils possessing the consistency described in the following con-
densed remarks, are always barren. It may be as well to observe
that all soils are considered to be thin if less than 4 or 5 inches
deep from the surface to the rock, clay, or subsoil :—

Dry, rubbly, slaty, or compact rock, under a thin surface soil.

Flinty or chalk rock under ditto.
Clay ditto ditto.
Sand, particularly black sand ditto.
Gravel ditto.

Clay, gravel, or sand, under a thin peaty surface.

a and gravel composing nearly the whole of the surface-soil, as well as the
subsoil.

Clay ditto ditto,

Rock and stone ditto ditto.

Clay soil which cuts like soap, and afterwards dries like a brick.

Sand which is light and liable to drift with the wind.

Clay soil which is not mixed with a large quantity of vegetable matter in a state of
decomposition.

Sandy soils ditto ditto ditto.

A mixture of sand and clay, in such proportions as to run together after a brisk rain,
and set on the surface like cement.

Sand and clay, not mechanically mixed, but found in alternate layers, and the clay
of various colours.

Quicksands wherever found. They are frequently found in the last-mentioned soils,
composed of alternate bands of clay and sand,

The Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, and the whole western
summit of the continuation of the same hills, extending southward
from Charlton Hill near Cheltenham, to near Sherborne in
Dorsetshire, and northward to near Whitby in Yorkshire, and a
large portion of North and South Wales, are familiar examples
of the first-mentioned kind of soil, which is well known to be
naturally barren.

The summit of the Chalk Hills, which extend from the southern
coast of Dorsetshire to Flamborough Head, in the East Riding
of Yorkshire, is a familiar example of the second kind of soil
mentioned in the foregoing list, which is well known to be
naturally barren.

The Coal-Measures are familiar examples of the third kind of
soil, as well as some parts of the Lias, Oxford, Gault, and Weald
Clays. ‘The Coal-Measures are well known to form the most
sterile districts in the kingdom. And examples of the fourth
kind of soil mentioned are to be found profusely scattered over
Norfolk, Yorkshire, Hampshire, and other counties.

Some portions of these districts, by good management, change
their natural appearance and productive quality; but, if that
superior management which gradually causes such change were
to be withdrawn for a time, those lands so cultivated would fall
back to their primitive state of barrenness, and would produce but

very short and scanty herbage and very inferior crops of grain,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 565

Many also of the other kinds in our list are rendered fertile by
manure, management, and draining, &c. Thousands of acres are
at this moment, to all outward appearances, fertile, which are not
permanently so, but which have been artificially made and kept
so, and which, with the exception of land, the unproductive quality
of which had been caused by a want of draining, will eventually,
if neglected, return to a state of sterility.

Indications of Fertility,

All unmixed clay soils are too tenacious to be fertile; all
unmixed silicious soils are too loose to be fertile ; and all unmixed
chalk soil, that is a soil of carbonate of lime only, is too pure to
be fertile.

One would perhaps, without reflection, suppose, from those
simple statements, that a mixture also of these three kinds of soils
would not be fertile. We should be ready to suppose it impos-
sible that good could arise out of a mixture of evils. But, how-
ever paradoxical this may appear, it is, nevertheless, certain,
that a mixture of the kind of soils named constitutes the
medium through which the fertilizing properties contained in
them are rendered active, which, in their unmixed state, would
have remained dormant and useless. The mixture becomes a
new soil, possessing new powers of absorbing and transmitting
moisture ; and all that is necessary to give greater activity to its
fertilizmg powers is, to add a quantity of animal or vegetable
matter, or of both, in a state of decomposition, if none be apparent
in either, and afterwards to take care to return to this soil at least
as much fertilizing matter as we have abstracted from it in our
crops, in order to secure its permanent fertility.

This will serve to show what an important feature consistency
is, in fertile or barren soils, and what an easy thing it would be to
make it available for the purpose of assisting the judgment, if it
were uniform, or even if the consistency of fertile soils only were
uniform. But unfortunately there are as many kinds of con-
sistency as degrees of fertility, the limits being a sand, or soil the
particles of which do not adhere except when wet, and a clay,
which forms a paste when wet and something like a brick when
dry. Between these two conditions fertility seems to oscillate,
and can only be estimated between the highest and lowest point,
_ by an assumption which is perfectly arbitrary, depending on the
skill and judgment of the party employed to decide.

Fertility and barrenness are but relative qualities, and, taken as
we commonly use the terms, they are liable to vary with the ideas
of individuals. It would be presumption in me to attempt to
assign limits to, or give a precise definition of, either. I may
venture an opinion, which may be reckoned as one amongst a

2pe2

566 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

hundred others. I will suppose pasture-]and which does not pro-
duce more than | ton of hay per acre, when mown in its proper
turn, to be barren. And with regard to arable land, considering
it to be planted with such crops as are suitable, if it does not
produce on the average more than 20 bushels of wheat, or
30 bushels of barley, beans, or oats, we will suppose it to be
barren, and call these the limits. This would leave a very great
range for fertile soils, which would in practice require to be
classed into three divisions at least, which might correspond with
the terms fertile, more fertile, and most fertile. In arable lands
the extreme limit of most fertile would be at least three times the
quantity of that which is simply fertile, having, in many instances,
reached 60 bushels of wheat, 72 of barley, 90 of beans, or 95 of
oats per acre, without any extraordinary management. ‘Taking
these figures, we should assume the range of the produce per acre
of land of the lowest degree of fertility, or that which is simply
called fertile, to be from 20 to 30 bushels of wheat: the more
fertile, or land of the second degree of fertility, from 30 to
40 bushels; and the most fertile, from 40 to 60 bushels per acre.
Land that will, with the ordinary course of husbandry, produce
the last-mentioned quantity, is justly entitled to the term “most
fertile ;” but this quantity has really been produced by large tracts
of land which have the name of alluvial deposits given to them
by geologists. (See Alluvium.) To return to the subject of con-
sistency, the tenacity will be sufficiently destroyed when, on taking
a lump between the fingers, it can be reduced into smaller portions
without forming into paste. If the soil be such as to admit of
being formed into marbles by boys, and so tenacious as to stand
baking, the consistency is too adhesive to be fertile. Also, if after
being formed into marbles and stuck on the end of a stick, if the
tenacity be such as to allow of the marble being thrown to a con-
siderable distance, without crumbling or breaking, the soil is too
adhesive to be fertile.

It would appear from these simple considerations that soil
which will not admit of being formed into marbles, or stuck on
the end of sticks, and thrown to a distance, if not of a coarse
silicious character, possesses a consistency favourable to fertility,
and that such fact may be taken as an indication.

If the land, when ploughed, cuts out as it were in one entire
piece, and the furrow-slice does not break into lengths and become
cracked across at very short intervals, its tenacity is too great to
be fertile ; but if these things happen, and, on walking across the
lands the exposed edges of the furrows are crushed by the feet,
and crumble and leave the edges of the footmarks ragged, such
will indicate the proper consistency of a fertile soil; but, if the
footmarks appear clean at the edges, and pressed down flat and

_ Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 537

smooth, not ragged and loose, such will indicate a soil too tenacious
to be fertile. Of course, much will depend on the weather, and
whether the land has been recently ploughed. I have assumed
the land to have been lately ploughed, and the state of the soil to
to be a medium between wet and dry.

Fertile lands generally plough clean, and the surface of the
furrow, when turned over, retains a shining, glossy appearance,
not occupying the entire surface, but intercepted by cracks and
fissures, which show that the consistency is of a medium kind,
between sand and clay, with sufficient adhesive power to retain
moisture, and sufficient porosity to allow of such moisture being
transfused through the soil, and so equalized that plants and vege-
tables growing thereon may be benefited to the greatest extent

ossible.

In arable districts there is a kind of accidental barrenness,
occasionally produced by mismanagement, and sometimes it has its
origin in the want of draining. We call it accidental, because it
is frequently in operation only for a season. A difficulty may
arise as to whether Jands found in this state are to be deemed
barren. Lands of good texture and naturally fertile are sometimes
so harassed, by taking a long-continued succession of corn crops,
without returning manure, as to be reduced to a state of unpro-
ductiveness. Such lands appear, to the superficial observer, to
be barren, when they are only apparently so: unproductive it is
true, but only so for a time, until a judicious manager, with little
more than his common farm resources, effects one revolution of a
proper system of crops, and the soil will be restored to its natural
state, and ready to receive improvement from his future exertions.

That state of barrenness which operates only for a season arises
from land having been ploughed, sown, and harrowed, at an
improper season, or under unfavourable circumstances. This
happens generally when the land is too wet to be sown. The
surface is worked into a mortar by the harrows, and the soil, con-
sisting of clay with some sand, afterwards becomes baked in the
sun and forms a stiff hard crust, which is very difficult to reduce
and pulverize by the application of the hoe. I have seen lands
really fertile when so managed, which have run together and set
on the surface like cement, ‘and the crops, in consequence, haye
been very deficient.

Ill—VEGETATION.

Indications of Barrenness.

The quantity and quality of the natural vegetable productions
of any pasture-land are not only the principal guides in judging

568 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

of the barrenness of soils, but at the same time the most certain
of any. It is said “ every tree is known by its fruit,” and it might
also have been said, with as much truth, that pasture-land is known
by its natural vegetable productions.

To ascertain the quality and probable quantity of produce to
that degree of certainty which is desirable, the herbage will re-
quire to be very closely inspected. I am aware that it has been
customary to estimate the produce, and, at the same time, the
permanent capability of the land for continuimg that produce,
from surface-appearances, without taking into consideration the
description of herbage which formed the principal portion of the
crop. In certain circumstances such an estimate will be found
to furnish a more accurate idea than could be expected; but, if
' the judgment of the party thus attempting to give an opinion has
not been matured by experience, it will be folly for him to allow
himself to be guided solely by such an uncertain indication as
mere surface-appearance.

It is well known that a man cannot jump into all the necessary
experience, and have his judgment disciplined at once, and at a
period when he chooses. If so, how then can persons without
this experience—which is often the labour of a life—be induced
to rely on surface-appearances, as is sometimes, I was about to
say frequently, the case? It is impossible that an accurate opi-
nion can be given of anything which is uncertain. All mere
surface-appearances are liable to change from sundry causes,
such as temperature, drought, too great abundance of moisture,
manure, cultivation, &c. They scarcely ever remain the same
for a week together. Then how absurd to presume to judge
from such alone! On the contrary, if a man takes into consider-
ation the description of the herbage, knows what it is when he
sees it, and can name it, and at the same time knows from expe-
riment made, either by himself or by others who have preceded
him, that the herbage he sees is unproductive in fayourable cir-
cumstances of cultivation, or productive in unfayourable cireum-
stances, or has a tendency to either, he can with greater confi-
dence rely on the opinion he finally comes to being founded on,
and derived from something possessing the character of certainty,
having been tested and established by observation and experi-
ment.

The time of the year when examined, and a wet or dry season,
often make a great difference in the surface-appearances, but
they never alone change the vegetation with which the land is
covered. There is a difference in the state of the growth of the
grass: it is more luxuriant than usual, or the contrary; but its
nature and description are changed only by a change of soil from
a state of barrenness to fertility, and the contrary. By making

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 569

the kind, description, and character of the natural grasses subser-
vient to our purposes, and adopting them as guides to our judg-
ment, we at once secure assistance of a more definite kind, and
our decisions, whatever they may be, partaking of the source from
whence they are derived, cannot fail not only to be more satisfac-
tory, but more rational and scientific.

It is a common practice, when land is inspected for the pur-
poses of a valuation, to make remarks respecting the herbage for
future guidance, such as the following :—

The herbage is of a bad quality. The bottom is mossy. The
herbage is short, but sweet, and thick at the bottom. This piece
will produce very tough fodder; it is coarse and benty. This
piece will produce a rough, peaty, sour grass. This is covered
with poor, benty herbage. And, where the land is good, similar
remarks of an opposite character and meaning are made use of.

Without meaning to dictate to any one, I propose that, in addi-
tion to these and all similar kinds of remarks in all circumstances,
the quality and description of the prevailing grasses should be
particularly noticed, for it is on those that the quantity of produce
depends, and which are sure evidences of the barrenness or fer-
tility of the soil that produces them.

I should be sorry hastily to condemn established practices, or
complain of such not being capable of supplying that kind of
information which is expected of them, It is believed that the
usual way of noticing the herbage of grass lands, and of allowmg
the judgment to be made up or guided by such observations as
we have just enumerated, must lead to uncertainty. It is true
such observations, when made by reason of such appearances be-
ing very plainly exhibited, are indications of poverty or barren-
ness, and so far ought to be made use of; but, certainly in all
matters of importance, there should be a test applied if one is
known to exist. In matters of this kind one of easy application
may be introduced, namely, that of ascertaining the prevailing
kinds of natural grasses which are found to have usurped the
greater portion of the surface of the soil. Here we shall find
that we possess a test which is not only as certain as the nature
of such things will admit of, but which is definite and universal
in its application.

To ascertain the prevailing kinds of herbage we must get at
the names of the several grasses which we know, from repeated
observation, to grow upon and occupy, almost to the exclusion of
any others, the lands that are barren; and, having made a list of
them, let some land be visited, and if certain grasses and herbage
which are conspicuous in the list are found to occupy the greater
portion of the surface, such land may safely be pronounced to be
barren, An inquiry here suggests itseli—Why is it barren?

570 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

Because it is found that the surface is occupied by grasses which
are known from experiment to be unproductive. And why is
the surface thus occupied? Because it requires a fertile soil to
produce and bring to perfection a great quantity of produce of a
good quality; and the reason why all soils do not naturally do so
is because they are not fertile, that is, they are barren, And
further, it is known that any surface occupied by natural grasses
of an unproductive kind may be improved by manuring, and
made fertile by a long continuance of good management. But
barren land can never be made fertile without changing its herb-
age, and, as certain as we begin to manure and improve our
grass land, that herbage which is a never failing indication of
barrenness will gradually disappear, and will be replaced by
that of a better kind, and the land will finally become clothed
with good natural grasses, the presence of which is a certain indi-
cation of fertility.

There are also other vegetable productions always present in
pasture-lands which are indications of barrenness and fertility,
and point out, almost to as great a certainty as those which con-
stitute the principal produce, whether land producing them be
barren or fertile. Those also are capable of being formed into
a list and made use of, and are an admirable test of the ideas
derived from previously-observed surface-appearances.

Thus, by stating in our observations that certain lands produce
this or that kind and description of plants, at the same time
writing down their names, such observations will point out, in a
definite and simple manner, the inferiority or fertility of soils
much more distinctly than by stating that the herbage is coarse,
sour, benty, and peaty. If the herbage be really coarse, sour,
benty, and peaty, the names of the prevailing grasses found upon
such soil will not only convey to the mind that such herbage is
unproductive, but, in addition, the certain knowledge that the
land producing it is absolutely barren.

The very appearance of many of the plants in the following
list is a certain indication of the barrenness of the soil that pro-
duces them, but a few are enumerated that cannot be considered
to be so decisive in their indications, and must be found in con-
siderable quantities before they are put down as certain. Such
are the daisy, plantain, cowslip, Kc. Their appearance, how-
ever, is calculated in any circumstances to excite suspicion, and
ought to be taken as an indication of barrenness, until it is found
from examination that the proportion of the surface they occupy
is not so great as to warrant their presence being taken as a de-
cided indication,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 571

Names of Prants, Henss, Frowers, &c. and Naturat Grasses, which are Indica-
tions of Barrenness where they have elected to grow spontaneously, and where the
Grasses are observed to have usurped the greater portion of the surface.

Boranicat Names. Eneuisn AND Locan Names.
Agrimonia eupotoria . | Agrimony. . . -
Apargia hispida. « | Rough dandelion -
Bellis perennis . | Common daisy . : °
Betonieca officinalis . | Wood betony .

Campanula glomerata . | Clustered bell flow er, Can-
terbury bells.
Campanula rotundifolia. | Heath bell-flower . .
Cardwus acanthoides — . | Prickliest thistle é <
and others of the
same tribe.
Carex proecox . - | Early flowering rush . .
Carex pulicaris . Flea rush, Fiea sedge . ~
and others of the came tribe, including the famous
carnation grass so much disliked by farmers.
Centauria caleitrapa - | Star knapweed, blue bottle,
and star thistle.
Chenopodium album. | White goosefvot . ‘
Chrysanthemum leucan- Common ox- eye or greater
themum. daisy, moon flower.
Chrysanthemum segetum | Corn marygold, or yellow
ox-eye, goulans.
Cuicus arvensis. . Creeping plume or cursed
thistle.
Marsh plume thistle .

Cnicus palustris.

Common eye ebright 5
Yellow ladies’ “bed - - straw,
cheese rennet, yellow
goose-yrass.
Glechomahederacea. Ground-ivy, catsfoot, ale-
hoof, tuuhoof.
Guaphalium Germanicum | Common cudweed, chafe-

Euphrasia officinalis
Galium verum °

Crepistectorum . . | Smooth hawksbeard . :
Digitalis purpurea. - | Foxglove . . .
Draba verna . 2 ¢ Whitlow-zrass, nailw ort .
Erica vulgaris : . | Common heath, ling, hether

weed.
Hypocheris glabra « | Smooth catsear . .
Jasione montana. - | Hairy sheep-sc: ubious, sea-
bious sheep’s-bit.
Juncus campestris . - | Rush, sieve . . .
and others of the
same family.
Ononis spinosa. + | Cammock, petty whin,
ground furze, rest harrow.
Onapordan vulgaris « | Wild carline thistle . 2
Plantago media. - | Hoary plautain, lamb's let-
tuce.
Poteutilla aserina . « | Silver weed . . .
Potentilla fragaria . - | Barren strawberry. .
Primula veris Fy - | Cowslip) . . S ©
Primula vulgaris . . | Primrose . . . .

Rhenanthus Christi galli_ | Yellow rattle, penny grass,
coxcomb, henpenny.

Rumex acetosella . . | Sheep’s sorrel, or dock .
Spartium scoparium + | Common broom . ° .
Tussilago farfara , - | Coltsfoot . ° . .
Thymus serpyllum » | Wild thyme a . .
Ulex nanus . ° + | Furze, gorse, whins .

Verboscum nigrum + | Black or sage-leaved mullein,

clat's tail.

Osservarions, LocauitiEs, &c.

Dry sandy soil.

Dry barren pastures.

Grows on lands of a medium quality, as
well as on barren lands. In the best
pastures it is prevented from appear-
ing, because of the best and more
powerful grasses usurping its place.

Woods and shady places.

Elevated chalk pastures.

Heaths, dry barren pastures.
Corn-fields, bauks, amongst rubbish.

Wet heaths and poor meadows.
Bogsy meadows and wet elevated places.
Barren meadows.

Injurious weed.
Dry pastures and walls,

| Sandy soil.

Injurious weed.

Wet clayey pastures.

Walls, roofs, pastures.

Dry, gravelly, and sandy soils.
Walls, dry places.

Heaths, woods, commons.
Heaths, dry barren meadows.
Dry hilly pastures.

Shady places.
Barren meadows.

Sandy, gravelly soils.

Very dry situations, sandy barren “fal-
lows, pastures, meadows, and heaths.

Wet poor soil generally,

Barren pastures.

Dry meadows and pastures.

Grows on good and bad soil, when in
large quantities it prevents better herb-
age from growing.

Low places and lands, which are subject
to winter floods.

Dry, barren, stony places.

Strong land, clayey soil.

W ouds, thickets, and heaths, clayey
soils.

Meadows and pastures.

Sandy meadows, pastures, gravel-walks,

Dry pastures.

Moist, still, clayey soil, limestone rub-
bish.

Heaths, and barren elevated places.

Barren commons.

Sandy dry lands.

—_—__ea—Vxx_e—ae—xvxee—————— eee

“572 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

Nartorat Grasses which are Indications of Barrenness by reason of their electing to
grow on dry, sandy, elevated, or on wet, damp, peaty, boggy soils, and on which
Soils the Natural Grasses which constitute the principal portion of our best Meadows
and Pastures refuse to grow or remain permanent, even when sown on them.

BoranicaL NAMES.

Agrostis vulgaris .

Agrostis canina . .
Agrostis alba, .

Agrostisrepens . .
Agrostis stolonifera an-

gustifolia.

Agrostis palustris . .
Agrostis stricta . 4
Aira aquatica .

Aira cespitosa . .
Aira flexuosa . 2
Aira cristata . . .
Alopecurus agrestis .

Alopecurus geniculatus .

Briza media . . .
Bromus sterilis . .
Bromus mollis . .
Festuca ovina c >

Festuca vivipara . .
Festuca rubra 7 °

Festuca dumetorum .

Festuca myurus . .
Festuca glabra . .
Hordeum murinum °
Holcuslanatus . .
Holcus mollis . .

Hedsarum onobrychis .
Melica coerulea « .

Nardus stricta ° .
Phleum pratense minus ,

Poaalpina . . .

Poacompressa « :

EnGuisH AND Loca Names.

Common or fine bert grass .
Brown bent grass . .
White-rooted bent grass.
Creeping-rooted bent grass,

Narrow-leaved creeping bent
grass.

Marsh bent grass . .
Rock bent grass . . .
Water hair grass, . .
Tufted hair grass . .

Wavy mountain hair grass ,
Crested hair grass . .

Slender foxtail grass . .

Floating foxtail grass . .

Common quaking grass, dod-
der. Doddering Toms.

Barren brome grass, Drank

Soft brome grass . .
Sheep’s fescue grass « .
Viviparous fescue grass .
Purple fescue. . .
Wood fescue, . .
Wall fescue . . .
Smooth fescue . . .

Wall barley . e e

Woolly soft grass . .

Creeping soft grass. .

Wild sainfoin .
Purple melic grass. .

Upright mat grass . .
Minor meadow cat’s-tail

grass.
Alpine meadow grass . .

Flat-stalked meadow grass .

The tribe of mosses are indications of barrenness.

OBSERVATIONS.

Dry heaths and pastures. Disliked by
cattle. Limit of elevation, 2000 feet
above the sea.

Poor wet peaty soil in patches.

Dry sandy meadows and pastures. Limit
of elevation, 2000 feet.

Clayey soils; a troublesome weed. Its
root is called couch.

Sides of ditches, clayey soils. Limit of
elevation, 2000 feet.

Damp, shady, staguant places. Limit of
elevation, 2000 feet.

Damp boggy soils.

Grows only in wet muddy places, ditches.
Limit of altitude, 500 feet above the
level of the sea.

Very coarse, and seldom eaten by cattle.
Grows in large tufts called rough-eaps-
Limit of elevation, 1500 feet.

Heaths, and hilly places. Limit of ele-
vation, 3500 feet. _

Dry pastures, and on rocks. Limit of
elevation, 1500 feet.

Black bent of the farmers. It is diffi-
cult to get rid of, and is troublesome
amongst wheat.

Wet clayey soils, pools, ditches. Limit
of elevation, 2000 feet.

Poor soils; manure is said to injure if.
Limit of altitude, 1500 feet above the

sea.

Dry sandy soil, under hedges, and in
rad places. Limit of altitude, 600

eet.

Poor exhansted pastures. Limit of ele-
vation, 1000 feet.

Dry sandy soils. Favourite food of sheep
on downs and wolds. Limit of eleya-
tion, 4000 feet.

Elevated light sandy soils.

Sandy places. Frequent near the sea-
shore.

Cattle refuse it. Damp woods, soft
shady places. Limit of altitude, 1000
feet above the sea.

On walls and dry barren places.

Moist pastures.

Dry light soils under walls. Limit of
elevation, 500 feet. :

Shady banks, woods, moist pastures of
a peaty nature. Limit of altitude,
1500 feet.

Impoverishing to the soil, and a trouble-
some weed. Light sandy soil; not
eaten by stock. Limit of elevation,
1500 feet.

Dry, barren, chalky pastures.

Damp heathy places, moors on or near
peat bogs. Limit of altitude, 1500
feet.

Dry moors and heaths. Limit of alti-
tude, 4000 feet.

Stiff tenacious land.

Wales, and elevated places in the North
of England, Limit of altitude, 3000
to 4000 feet.

An early grass, but very short produce.
Limit of altitude, 3000 feet,

8 a ee ee

AGRICULTURAL WEEDS

| NAMED IN M!BRAVENDER'S Essay
|
ON THE

BARRENNESS on FERTILITY

OF SOILS.

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of’ Soils.

The following is a List of some of the weeds which are frequently troublesome,

573

and occupy 80

much of the surface as to render the produce of the farmer's crop of little value. Excepting
those which are enumerated in other schedules, they cannot be taken as indications of either
batrenness or fertility ; most of them are not very particular in the choice of soil. They are,
with some exceptions, found on all kinds of soils, and the only indication that may be worthy

of consideration is the difference in the state of their growth.
more luxuriant on fertile than on barren soils.

They will appear stronger and

Some few may not often be found on barren
svils, and others not on fertile lands, but the majority will grow on either. They are intro-
duced here as temporary indications of barrenness, with the view of encouraging the farmer to
engage in a universal war with them, until he finally extirpates them from his soil altogether.

pT

Botanica, Names.

Boranican NAMEs.

1. Agrostemma githago

2. Bellis perennis .

3. Fumaria officinalis

4. Convolvulus arven-
sis.

5.Galiam aparine .

6. Papaverrhwas .

7. Rumex obtusifolius

8. Rumex crispus”.«

9. Senecio vulgaris
10, Tussilago petasites
11. Tussilago farfara .
12. Stellaria media.
13. Alopecurus agrestis

14, Carex . °
15, Anthemis cotula

16, Agropyrum repens
17. Carduus arvensis .
14. Heraclium sphon-
dylium.
19. Allium vineale .
20. Hippuris vulgaris .
21.Galium verum st
22. Sandyx pecten Ve-

neris.
23. Rumex acetosella .

Cockle, corn campion.

EneGiisH NAMES.

Common daisy.
Common fumitory.
Corn bindweed.

Hariff, cleavers, goose-grass. |

Com poppy, cop ruse, red
weed, blinders.

Broad-leaved dock.

Curled dock, clover dock.

Groundsel,

Common butter bur.

Coltsfoot.

Chickweed.

Black bent spear grass, slen-
der foxtail grass.

Sedge, carnation grass. 33

Mayweed or matheru, stink- || 34
iug camomile. 35

Couch, squitch, quicks, |
wicks.

Saw-wort, common field-
thistle.

Common cow-parsnip, hog-
weed.

Crow garlic,

Mare’s-tail.

Cheese renning or rennet,
yellow ladies’ bed-straw.
Crow needles, shepherd’s

needles.
Sheep’s sorrel, or dock.

. Chrysanthemum

leucanthemum.

. Chrysanthemum se-

getum.

. Polygonum oonvol-

vulus.

. Cnicus arvensis .

. Ranunculus arven-

sis.

. Equisetum arvense
. Centaurea cyanus

. Sinapis arvensis .
. Tragopogon

pra-
tensis.

. Mentha arvensis .
. Holeus avenaceus
35. Agrostis stolonifera

angustifolia.

36. Senecio Jacoba

. Centaurea uigra .

. Conyza squarrosa.
. Lolium temulentum
. Avena fatua

. Bromus secalinus,
. Ononis arvensis ,

. Carduus acaulis .

. Centaurea calcitrapa

Enotisu Names.

Ox-eye daisy.

Corn-marigold, gools, gou-
lans.
Black bindweed.

Creeping plume-thistle, small
purple thistle.

Horse-gold, corn buttereup,
frogwort.

Corn horse-tail.

Blue-bottle, knapweed, hurt
sickle.

Charlock, wild mustard,

Yellow goat’s beard.

Corn-mint.

Tall, oatlike, soft grass.

Surface twitch, narrow-leaved
bent grass, red robin.

Common ragwort, segrum
St. John’s wort.

Common black knapweed,
hard heads, horse kuops.

Ploughmaun’s spikenard.

Darnel.

Wild oats, haver.

Drank, smooth brome grass.

Rest-harrow, cammock, petty
whin.

Dwarf thistle, stemless thistle.

Star-thistle.

The following is a List of a few of our Timber Trees, with the kinds of Soils which
they are partial to, or on which they flourish most; and, in consequence, their
appearance and condition may become indications of Fertility or Barrenness,

Locauiry, Sort, Situation, &c.

Deep, strong, fertile land, with clay subsoil.
By the sides of brooks in rich soil.

Botanica ENGIIsH
Names. NAMES.

Acer. - | Sycamore .
Acer (campes- | Maple.

tris).
Alnus . - | Alder .

|
Betula . - | Bireh . | Light, moist, sandy soil.
Corylus, + ) Hazel-nut.
Fagus . + | Beech .
planted in fertile soil.

Fraxinus . | Ash. .
Juglans. .- | Walnut .
Larix . + | Larch . | Thin, dry, rocky soil.
Populus . |'Poplar .
Pinus . . | Pine. - | Light, dry, rocky soil.
Quercus Oak é
Salix. . | Willow . | Low wet places.
Ulmus . Elm, .

liquid that escapes from the dunghills.

Sandy lightish soil ; but is found on rich soil in or near villages.
Deep sandy soil, and deep soil, on a stroug subsoil.

Wet pogsy places, low marshy land. Used in Herefordshire for hop-
oles.

Deep sandy soil, and on lands moderately fertile.

Thin, elevated, calcareous soils in woods. Flourishes singly when

Deep soil, inclined to be sandy, but of a medium character. Flourishes
on the inferior oolite, the lower portion of which is a fertile soil.
Dry loamy soil of a medium character, and on rich fertile soil.

Wet boggy land, and on wettish lands of a medium character.

Deep rich loam, and near farm yards, where the ditches contain the

un i

7

574 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

Indications of Fertility.

From repeated observations I long since satisfied myself that,
in the vegetable creation, there are certain plants which sponta-
neously grow and flourish on certain soils which do not spon-
taneously grow and flourish on other kinds of soils differently
constituted ; and those plants, thus electing to grow or not to
grow, are certain indications of the barrenness or fertility of the
soil. To test the truth of this proposition became at once a
matter of great importance, because I could easily see that it
would require more than the simple belief of any individual to
render it of any value, if true. I therefore resolved to follow up
a series of observations on the quality and kind of herbage of all
the lands I could spare time to visit, particularly the land of
districts that were notorious for barrenness or fertility. Since
the year 1825 the valuation of not less than 300,000 acres of
land has come under my observation, situated on all kinds of
soils, and on almost all the various geological formations; and,
whenever practicable, such has been made the ground-work of
my observations, and rendered subservient to the necessary proof
of the before-named proposition. Where I found the normal
value to be high, J anticipated that the land would be found to
be fertile; and, on the contrary, where low, I expected to find
the soil barren. I did not hesitate to adopt the extremes as the
proper representatives for the time being of barren and fertile
soil, then believing that land which was high must be fertile, and
that which was low must be barren. After thus adopting the
extremes, which had been fixed by parties whose experience and
judgment in the value of land cannot be doubted, I yisited the
fields with the view of examining the herbage and geological
character of the soil, and of ascertaining the names of the most
prevaihng plants and grasses. I very soon found that I had set
myself a most difficult task, and, what was more serious than all,
I was totally unable to master the difficulties I encountered at
every step. For a while in many of my excursions I amused
myself with observing the changes from barren to fertile, and the
contrary. I did not long remain satisfied with what appeared to
amuse rather than inform, but, after some consideration, deter-
mined to suspend all operations whatever for a more dry and
severe undertaking, namely, the study of botany and geology.

Having in some few months made a little progress, and but a
little, in those sciences, I resumed my pursuits with considerable
zeal, and, by dint of perseverance, alter about a dozen years’
practice and observation, I at length succeeded, or thought so at
least, in surmounting most of the “difficulties that lay in my way.
I commenced collecting together from a great variety of memo-
randums such observations as appeared to be of importance, and,
after some trouble, succeeded in condensing them into something

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 575

like the shape they now have assumed in the tabular forms in-
serted in different parts of this essay.

Fertile arable lands are those which are so constituted and
situated as to produce all the ordinary crops of the farmer in
abundance, with the usual cultivation only. The vegetation on
arable lands will be, or ought to be, unless such lands are fallow,
the crops which have been sown upon them by the farmer, and
cannot be depended upon as indications with safety. Their
appearance may assist, but must not be considered to be sufhi-
cient. Soils of a medium and inferior quality, which are ob-
served to produce as good crops as naturally fertile soils, are
made to do so by cultivation, and their fertility is only apparent ;
and-they must not, under the sense to which we haye limited Wie
term, be denominated fertile. Their fertility is due to cultivation,
and not to natural causes. Considerable difficulty may here Reise
in distinguishing how far their apparent fertility is due to cultiva-
tion. -The best tests are geological position, the subsoil, the
natural herbage at the sides of the fields, the timber in the
hedgerows, and the elevation above the level of the sea: the
surface-appearances are altogether inadequate. Certain geolo-
gical formations are ascertained to be more productive than
others, and [ have from observation satisfied myself that this is
no vague theory; but, further, that some of the formations are
composed almost entirely, with slight exceptions, of either barren
or fertile soils. If so, what an important test we have hitherto
neglected! And I imagine enough has been said to induce us
to admit that the natural herbage and plants which may have
elected to grow on the parts of the fields where the sward is
untouched by the plough, will afford another strong proof of
barrenness or fertility; and the stunted or luxuriant growth of
the timber and the thorns in the hedgerows may also be a
guide; and, lastly, at great elevations above the level of the sea
but few corn-crops ever arrive at maturity, and are late in being
harvested. Fertile soil always ripens its crops early.

The following is a Table, which has been drawn up from
observations made during a series of years, commencing with
1826, and continued up to the present date. ‘To exhibit it is only
to show its imperfections, but I have had abundant opportunity of
satisfying myself that it is calculated very materially to assist the
judgment, and to afford information, if rightly applied, which can-
not be drawn from any other source, not even from geology itself,
It will be desirable to understand that it is not meant that any
single species of the natural grasses, here tabulated, will, if found
alone, be sufficient to warrant us in predicting a future abundant
crop, but simply that its presence, wherever found, is an indica-
tion of fertility in the soil that produces it. It is well known
that, to constitute a good permanent pasture, there must be a

576 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

great variety of grasses present: it is not necessary that there
should be a combination of all the known kinds, I have selected
about twenty of what appear to be the best, and in all fertile mea-
dows they will all, or nearly all, be present in greater or less pro-
portion ; and also some grasses of an inferior kind, the presence
of which, in small proportions, will be of great ‘use to fill up
vacuities that will arise amongst the stems of the superior kinds,
especially such as come to perfection at different periods of the
season. It may be proper to ascertain what proportion of the
surface is occupied by the superior kinds; and if it is found that
three-fourths, or more, are so appropriated, such fact will be a
very strong indication of fertility.

There appear to be about 150 distinct species of natural grasses,
which are natives of this country, none of which, if cultivated
alone, is so productive as when associated with others. The num-
ber of these grasses, and other plants, found growing on a square
foot of our best meadow-land is about 1100; and in water-mea-
dows they are increased to about 1800.

It has also been observed, that the number of plants found
growing on a square foot of arable land, laid down in the usual
way with seeds, is about 80.

From this we very easily deduce that land in seeds, especially
that which is to continue down for two years, is not so productive
as old sward of the same quality of soil; and, that old sward-land
is not so productive as water-meadow, possessing the same natural
fertility. These are facts so self-evident that no one, I appre-
hend, will attempt to contradict them. Thus the number of
natural-grass plants, found on any defined space, may be very
fairly taken as an indication of fertility or barrenness. It is a very
poor unproductive piece of old sward which does not produce as
much fodder as is grown on a piece of second year’s seeds.

Names of Pranrs, Heres, Flowers, &c., and of NarurAL GRASSES, which are indi-
cations of fertility, where they have elected to grow spontaneously, and where the
grasses are observed to have usurped the greater portion of the surface.

Sennen ee eee

Botanicat NAMEs. ENG.isH aND Loca Names. BovranicaL NAMES. Enorisu AnD Locat Names.

Authemis cotula. . | Stinking May-weed. Galium aparine, - | Goose-grass. Cleavers. Ha-
Atriplex patula . - | Fat hen. raft.
Carduus mananus~, | Milky thistle. Leontodon taraxacum | Dandelion.

Cherophyllum sylves- | Cow parsley, cudweed, or || Polygonum lapathefo- | Pale-flowered persicaria.
tre. wild cheveril. lium. ‘
Chenopodiun bonus | Good KingHenry. Mercury. || Sonchus arvensis . | Corn sow-thistle.

Henrica. Souchus oleraceus . | Common sow-thistle.
Clematis vitalba. . | Virgin’s bower, or traveller's || Sonchus palustris. | Tall marsh sow-thistle.
joy- Honesty. I havenot || Stellaria media. . | Chickweed,
noticed this plant in the || Urtica dioica . - | Common nettle.

northern counties.

Fern, it will be observed, is omitted in this list.*
Several others might be enumerated, but I have not succeeded in identifying them so as to get

their proper botanical names.

* The fern is a certain indication of a deep, silicious soil, that may be much improved by cul-
tivation and management, but is not an indication of naturally fertile soil. In commons, wastes,
and moor-land tracts, which are covered by heath and furze, it serves to point out the eee that
are superior to the rest, and which are worthy of a man’s first effort to reclaim such land.

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

577

Narurat Grasses, which are indications of Fertility by reason of their electing to
grow on all the richest, best, and most fertile Pastures in England, and by their
usurping the greatest portion of the surface of such Pastures.

Boranicat NAMEs.

Alopecurus pratensis.

Anthoxanthum odoratum

Avena pratensis. .

Avena flavescens . .

Agrostis stolonifera lati-
folia,

Bromus arvensis . .

Cynosurus cristatus *.

Dactylis glomerata
Festuca pratensis . A
Festuca duriuscula ‘
Holeus avenaceus * °
Hordeum pratense. .

Lolium perenne . .

Phleum pratense var ma-
jor.

Poaannua . .

Eneutsu NAMEs.

Meadow fox-tail . .

Sweet-scented vernal
grass,
Meadow oat grass °

Yellow oat grass . ty

Broad-leaved
bent or fiorin.

creeping

Field brome grass .

Crested dog’s-tail grass .

Cocksfoot grass, .

Meadow fescue . .

Hard fescue grass °

Tall oat-like soft grass ,

Meadow barley grass.

Rye grass» .

Greater meadow cat's-tail
grass.

Annual meadow or Suf-
folk grass,

OBSERVATIONS.

This grass constitutes a large portion of the
herbage of the best and richest pastures
and meadows in England, and is very
grateful to cattle.

This grass forms a portion of the herbage on
all soils. Itis found rather abundant on
wet lands. It does not appear to be a pro-
fitable grass to the farmer, but its presence
‘is always pleasing, on account of the de-
lightful odour it gives to newly-mown hay.

This is not a very productive grass, but it is
liked by stock, and forms a useful consti-
tuent, in company with others of a supe-
rior kind.

Cattle are not very fond of this grass, but it is
very useful in water-meadows. It is the
best of the kind for the farmer.

The root of this grass is a troublesome weed,
and known as squitch. However, it
appears to be an essential constituent in a
smaller proportion of all fertile meadows,
and is an excellent water-meadow grass,
where the water issues from calcareous
rock.

This grass is not very much relished by
cattle, and it is found in all neglected pas-
tures ; and, although rather a coarse grass,
its presence in small quantities need not
be an object of complaint.

This grass is found in all good pastures, and
seems to grow on all soils, but with dif-
ferent degrees of luxuriance. It appears
to be more suitable for pasture than
meadow to be mown.

This grass is very productive, and is not dis-
liked by cattle. It will grow under trees, -
and its presence indicates clay to be a con-
stituent of the soil.

This grass is fond of a rich soil, and consti-
tutes a large portion of the herbage of all
our best sward-land, and is useful in water-
meadows.

This is an excellent grass for the farmer, and
is grateful to stock. It is found to be an
essential constituent of down pastures as
well as of meadows.

This grass produces an abundant crop of
rather light spongy hay, and is not very
agreeable to stock; but will always be a
desirable constituent, in moderate propor-
tion, of all the best meadow-land.

This grass is not one of the best for the
farmer, but in some soils it is very useful,
where found in not too great a proportion.

This is a most excellent grass on lightish,
sandy, chalky soils; and, for early spring-
feed, is justly esteemed.

This grass is rather coarse, but highly valu-
able in a due proportion, which should be
rather small in comparison with some of
the others named.

This grass is not productive, but is desirable
as a constituent of pasture-land, forming
the under crop. It is liked by stock.

_ TC ——————eEeESEeNSSESESESeNeeEeEee

* The hay-crop of 1844, in the neighbourhood of Cirencester, is almost entirely composed of this
grass, except that of water-meadows, which is principally the Poa trivialis. The Hulcus avenaceus
stood the extraordinary dry weather this season better than any other grass,—J. B.

578 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

Botanica NAMzs. EncGiisH Names. OxssERVATIONS.

Poa trivialis . . - | Rough-stalked meadow | This is an exceedingly valuable grass, and
grass. flourishes luxuriantly on rich land in com-
pany with others. It forms the greater
portion of the produce of the famous Or-
chiston Meadows in Wiltshire.
Poa pratensis. . + | Smooth-stalked meadow | This grass is rather particuiar in its choice of
grass. Situation, not relishing damp soils. but is
an excellent constituent of dry meadows.
Trifolium pratense pe- | Perennial red clover . | Natural red clover is an essential constituent
renne. } of all our best meadows and pastures in
moderate quantities, Its absence is a
matter of regret.
Trifolium repens . . | White or Dutch clover, | This plant is indispensable as a component
of every pasture, and, where it abounds
spontaneously, is an indication of the good-
ness of the soil; but its produce is not very
great in meadows, and therefore a mode-
rate proportion will be desirable, to leave
room for more productive grasses.
Vicia sepium . . + | Creeping vetch . » | This grass is very palatable to all kinds of
stock, and is one of the most nutritive of
pasture plants.

IV.—ASPECT.

The aspect of land is believed to have a considerable influence
over the produce of the soil; and, in consequence, if such belief
be founded in reason, and I see nothing to the contrary, it becomes
an indication of barrenness or fertility.

What is meant by the aspect of a piece of land is, not only its
position or direction towards any point of the compass, by being
narrower in one of its dimensions than in the other, but the slope,
or elevation of one end above the other. If a field slope away
towards the north (a gentle descent of four or five degrees is a
very common angle), it is said to have a northern aspect; and, on
the contrary, if another field slope, in the same manner, towards
the south, the east, or the west, it is said to have a southern,
eastern, or western aspect. Now it is well understood that the
more directly the rays of the sun fall upon any land, the more
powerful will be the effect upon vegetation. In consequence of
land sloping towards the south, and thus causing the rays of the
sun to fall on the surface more perpendicularly than on a leyel, or
on land that slopes northward, we are led to believe that a southern
aspect is favourable, and a northern aspect unfavourable. From
repeated observations, we are so satisfied of the accuracy of this,
that, in cases where the soil and herbage are of a doubtful cha-
racter, we do not hesitate to state, that a northern aspeci is suffi-
cient to give a bias to the judgment, and, in such circumstances,
becomes an indication of barrenness; and, generally, a south-
eastern, south, south-western, or western aspect is a favourable

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 579

indication ; and a north-eastern, north, or north-western, unfayour-
able. Pasture-lands having a northern aspect are more subject
to be overrun with moss than those of the same quality of soil
having a southern aspect.

To what extent the several aspects become favourable or un-
favourable indications must depend on the judgment of the party,
but the degree of inclination, or slope, must not be great, not
greater than about fifteen degrees, to be considered an indication of
fertility. Soils of more elevated angle than this are always found
to be thin and near the rock or subsoil, and, independent of aspect,
are barren from causes of a more apparent character.

V.—ELEVATION ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE SEA.

All lands, as far as my observation has extended, that are much
elevated above the level of the sea, are to be denominated barren.
There are very few, if any, naturally fertile fields at an elevation
of upwards of 1500 feet above the sea. Very few of the native
grasses, that constitute the herbage of fertile lands, will grow above
that altitude. Some few may grow, or rather linger, but I scarcely
know of one that flourishes so as to be of value to the agriculturist.
And one grass alone, of superior kind and quality, mixed with
those of an inferior description, is not sufficient to constitute a
fertile pasture or meadow. When old sward-land is mown in
such elevated situations the hay-crop is late and light, and a late
crop, where spring-feeding is not practised, is always an indica-
tion of the barrenness of the soil.

Arable land, at a considerable elevation, and consequently much
exposed, is never so fertile as land on a lower level. It requires
very little discernment to discover that bleak and elevated coun-
tries are universally barren. I have for years observed that crops
of any kind do not grow so luxuriantly and arrive at maturity at
great elevations, where the soil is of a similar quality and texture
as that of a much lower level. Wheat seldom ripens properly ai
an elevation of more than 1000 or 1200 feet above the level of the
sea, with the common resources and management of the farmer ;
and, in seasons when it does ripen, the sample is never so good as
that grown on a level of not more than 500 or 600 feet above the
sea.

The application of artificial manure, bones, town-dung, soil,
&c., the practice of what is called “high farming,” is known in
some degree to remove this inconvenience, affording a striking
proof that management and art combined will secure what un-
assisted nature denies us. This high farming, embracing the
best modes of cultivation, is found to ameliorate the severity of

VOL. VY. 2Q

580 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

climate, and to place us, as it were, in well-cultivated districts,
several degrees nearer the equator, and reduce the highest of our
cultivated hills several hundred feet.

VI.—GEOLOGICAL SITUATION.

The geological character of the district im which lands are
situated is also a criterion by which to judge of fertility or bar-
renness. From a long-continued series of observations, I have
satisfied myself that certain geological districts, which are more
accurately defined and more easy to identify than one would at
first imagine, are composed, almost entirely, of fertile land, and
others almost entirely of barren land. And it will be found on
examination that where two differently constituted geological form-
ations come in contact with each other, the land will be fertile
at that point; and in many cases it extends for a considerable
distance on each side of the junction. If this be the case, we have
in geology, or at least in that information which is the result of a
study of geology, a very powerful means of assisting the judgment,
The limits of the different great geological deposits being so
marked, and the general character and capability of the soil of
each being so uniform, it would appear rather a matter of surprise
that geology, and the immense body of information that the prac-
tical study of the science cannot fai] to supply, have not hitherto
been made use of as an important feature by which to judge of
the barrenness or fertility of soils. I am aware it will require
time and labour to obtain a sufficient knowledge of this science,
so as to be of any use to the person attempting to apply it as a
test; and it will require much more labour and time to master as
much of botany as is absolutely necessary: but this will only
show how absurd has been the practice of calling in the assistance
of persons who have never spent five minutes of their lives in the
practical study of either. To show how geology may assist in the
important business of judging of the fertility or barrenness of soils,
it will be necessary to give a cursory description of the principal
strata, classified and geologically arranged, as they are naturally
exhibited in the rocks and soils of Great Britain,

The rocks and soils of Great Britain have been classed under
three general divisions, denominated the Tertiary System, the
Secondary System, and the Primary System ; and those haye been
subdivided into several series of formations, each containing a
great number of alternating deposits, which have undergone a
further subdivision by geologists, which we will proceed to notice,
in a summary manner, without entering into minute details.

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 581

The Tertiary System.

The Tertiary System is subdivided into four portions, known
by the name of deposits: 1, Alluvium; 2, Diluvium; 3, London-
clay; 4, Plastic-clay.

1. Alluvium.—Alluvial deposits are accumulations of soil which
have been carried away by the force of water down the existing
rivers, and which have formed, and are forming, tracts of level
land, at the junction of those rivers with the sea, or, on their
banks, before they arrive at the sea.

The localities of alluvial deposits are numerous. All soils of
this description that I have seen and examined are fertile. The
principal of these are situated on the banks of the Esk, Derwent,
Ouse, Trent, Humber, Thames, Avon, Wye, Monnow, Usk,
Severn, including the Bristol Channel, on the Monmouth and
Glamorgan coast, with numerous other localities.

The meadows are occasionally subject to damage by sudden
floods happening in summer, not only by sweeping off the entire
hay-crop, but sometimes before the hay is mown, by carrying
over the lands considerable quantities of sand and small gravel,
which becomes entangled in, and deposited amongst the grass,
thereby rendering it harsh and difficult to cut; and, when mown
and made, the hay is found to have lost its virtue, being little
better, if so good, for fodder as straw.

It has been said that rivers running over or through a sandy
soil, or silicious rock, will be very likely to produce an alluvial
deposit of a barren character. I am not acquainted with a barren
alluvial soil. The most likely rivers to produce a soil of this
character are the Monnow and the Wye, in some measure assisted’
by the little whimsical Trothy. The Wye has its origin in the
Silurian formation, well known for its barrenness, and takes its
course through the silicious rocks of the old red sandstone. The
entire course of the Monnow is over the same rocks; but these
two rivers have formed at their junction a fertile meadow of con-
siderable extent, known by the name of ‘‘ Chippenham Meadow,”
close adjoining to the town of Monmouth. And there are others
on the banks of those rivers that are much superior in fertility to
the adjoining lands, and which do not fall very far short in their
produce of those meadows on the Trent, Ouse, and Humber,
which are formed of immense masses of putrid mud. Some of
these alluvial deposits have been the work of ages, and in conse-
quence of the materials forming them having been washed away
from comparatively barren districts, it may appear singular that
out of the ruins of barren materials a fertile soil should be formed.
It may arise from a change in the mechanical structure of both,
and a mixture of animal and vegetable matter. In a gradual

2 a2

582 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

dissolution of any soil or rock, and the subsequent re-union, after
a journey for miles through a country covered with vegetables, it
would be impossible to avoid a mixture of this kind. The trans-
ported soil which forms Chippenham Meadow would be deposited
there when the country was very thinly peopled, or we might
easily suppose it to contain the essence of millions of dunghills
floated down the stream. No doubt it contains the essence of
many, which, together with vegetable matter and the dead car-
casses of animals, mingled in a journey of some 150 miles by the
Wye alone, may be sufficient to account for the fertility of the
soil on the banks and at the junction of these picturesque rivers.

Some of the alluvial deposits in the rivers which run eastward
are more recent accumulations, and some are now in a state of
gradual formation. The richness of the soil of the more recently
formed does not appear difficult to be accounted for. Ever since
this island has been inhabited, the night-soil of all the villages
and towns has been discharged into streams and rivulets, and all
the urine, and a great deal of the best of the dung, from almost
countless numbers of farm-yards in Great Britain, at present
escape, and have done so for ages, into gutters, ditches, and
streams of water, and those empty their contents into brooks and
rivulets, and those into rivers, and the rivers again into estuaries.
Here the great mass of floating manure is interrupted in its
course by the rising tide and conveyed to the shores, and there
deposited in the shape of mud. We need not wonder at alluvial
deposits formed in this manner being universally fertile.

One large deposit of this kind is situated in the river Humber,
about 20 miles eastward of Hull, and is known by the name of
Sunk Island. This tract of land has been taken from the large
estuary at the mouth of the Humber, apparently at three different
periods. A considerable time must have elapsed since the first
reclaimed portion was taken possession of by man. It has
timber-trees growing upon it which appear to be nearly or quite
a hundred years old, and at one time it formed a complete island,
with the mainland at a distance of a1} mile or 2 miles to the
northward.

About 40 years ago an embankment was made, running north-
ward, from the eastern end of the island to the land, and another,
extending westward, to meet the northern bank of the Humber,
where there is a small harbour called Stone Creek, at the point
where the drainage-water of the lands on a higher level is, by
means of flood-gates, allowed to empty itself into the river, ‘This
Jarge tract between the island and the northern shore of the
estuary thus became reclaimed, and was laid out into several
farms, possessing a soil of a most fertile description, much of the
land scarcely exhibiting, after 20 years’ tillage, any symptom of

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 583

benefit from the application of manure. About 10 or 12 years
since another large tract, containing 1700 acres, was embanked,
reclaimed, and cultivated, somewhat of a triangular shape, which
was effected by making an embankment to extend from the east-
ern extremity of the part first reclaimed, in a north-eastward
direction, to or near to a small inlet called Patrington Haven.
The whole of this land, containing about 6000 acres, is undoubt-
edly an alluvial deposit, and forms an exceedingly productive soil.
It is sometimes rather difficult to cultivate, and requires a power-
ful team to plough up the seeds and stubbles. It is customary
with the farmers to fallow for wheat, and the fallows are very
difficult to reduce to a fine state. After being baked in the sun
until the clods become as hard as bricks, should a day or two of
heavy rain ensue, the large lumps, which had resisted the pres-
sure of the heayiest roller, melt and fall down, like slaked lime,
into a fine powder. The land then becomes as easy to plough
as the ash-heap, and does not readily run together and set on the
surface.

2. Diluvium.—This deposit is found spread over almost all
the other formations, in patches of variable extent; but the
greatest portion of it is found on the tertiary formation. It con-
sists of large quantities of sand, gravel, and rubble, apparently
the broken-down portions of all, or most of the known geological
formations, and is often found near to the rocks from which it
has, by the action of water and the influence of the atmosphere,
become separated. It varies in some degree with the character
of the parent rock, and is observed frequently to ameliorate the
texture of the clay soils where it is found, and actually to render
soils which would produce only beahs, wheat, and broad clover,
capable of producing any crop the farmer may wish to cultivate:
but without cultivation this soil cannot be said to be generally
fertile. The arable is easy to cultivate; the pasture generally
produces poor, unprofitable herbage, and is liable to suffer from
drought in dry seasons.

There is a large quantity of this soil in Norfolk and the ad-
joining counties, which is proverbial for being naturally poor and
barren, but which is very much improved by cultivation. The
diluvyium on the lias and Oxford clay, when deep and not too

gravelly, is very productive. The towns of Cheltenham in Glou-

cestershire, and Cricklade in Wiltshire, are situated on diluvium,
and I do not know of better land anywhere than some in the
neighbourhood of those towns.

3. London Clay.—This division of the tertiary series is com-
posed of a strong clay, which is chiefly of a bluish-brown colour,
but varies, like all other clay formations, and appears sometimes
to be yellow or grey. It forms a very wet, tenacious soil, and in

584 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

consequence the arable generally is difficult and expensive to cul-
tivate. There are exceptions, where the clayey soil is mixed with
sands, so as to form a loam, and where a considerable depth of
soil, created by the decomposition of vegetable matter, has accu-
mulated. In such circumstances the soil is very fertile.

The pasture-land is generally very good and fertile, pro-
bably made so by artificial means, and by an accumulation of
soil on the surface, assisted by a long-continued application of
manure. The subsoil being clay, this deposit would have been
as barren as any other of the clay formations, without the deep
covering of mould, or artificial or natural mixture of sand, and
other ameliorating substances, which are generally found on the
surface.

4. Plastic Clay.—This division of the tertiary series is com-
‘posed of deposits of sand, clay, rubble, and loam; the latter
formed by a mixture of the two first mentioned. It is yery
variable in colour, assuming almost all the varied appearances of
the rainbow.

Its texture is not uniform, because of the sands and clays
alternating with and succeeding one another, sometimes one
appearing at the surface, and then the other; in some places
forming a wet tenacious soil, yery expensive to cultivate, and in
others a deep porous soil, possessing a considerable degree of
fertility. In Dorset and Hants the sands of this deposit preyail,
and there the soil is barren.

The Secondary System.

The secondary system is subdivided into seven portions, known
by the name of formations. “It extends from the tertiary system
westward, down to the old red sandstone, where it comes in con-
tact with the primary system. The formations which compose
the secondary system are—l. the Chalk; 2. the Wealden; 3.
the Oolitic; 4. the Lias; 5. the new Red Sandstone; 6. the
Carboniferous; and 7. the old Red Sandstone.

J.—The Chalk Formation.

The chalk formation is separated into four subdivisions, which,
for conyenience, we will call deposits:—1. the Upper Chalk ;
2. the Lower Chalk; 3. the Gault Clay; and 4. the Green
Sand.

1. The Upper Chalk.—The upper chalk is known by having
horizontal layers of flint imbedded in it. The colour is white.
The chalk-rock is generally near the surface, and covered by a
very thin coat of mould. ‘The pasture is principally down, and
fed with sheep, producing but a scanty herbage, which, however,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 585

is palatable to sheep. In some parts, where in arable, it forms a
thin, dry, loose, hazel-coloured soil, and in the valleys a deep,
dry, light chocolate-coloured soil, which, under the good manage-
ment pursued on the chalk hills, produces good crops of barley,
turnips, wheat, and sainfoin : not naturally fertile land.

2. The Lower Chalk.—The lower chalk is without the layers
of flint. The colour is mostly white, or a dusky-white, but it
varies, being in some districts red, yellow, and grey. The lower
portions form what is called chalk marl. The soil is of a dark-
grey colour, and in places is deep and adhesive, and expen-
sive to cultivate. This soil is the most productive of any that I
have seen, with the single exception of some alluvial deposits.
The water-meadows are peculiarly productive. The whole of
this deposit is naturally fertile. There are exceptions, but they
may be shown to arise from causes unconnected with the mecha-
nical. structure or capability of the soil.

3. Gault—This deposit is formed of a stiff blue, or dark-
coloured clay, but it sometimes varies, so as to become yellow or
brown. The gault is but a limited deposit, and does not extend
farther north than the midland counties. It is very expensive to
cultivate, and unproductive when not mixed with soils transported
from other deposits. In the vale of the White Horse it forms
some very good pasture-land. The gault is situated in the midst
of the green sand, next described.

4, Green Sand.—This deposit consists of two parts, with a
bed of clay between them. They are composed of greenish-
coloured earth, mixed with sand and small rounded particles of
chalk, The colour is variable, and frequently greenish-grey, but
sometimes yellow, brown, grey, orange, red, and mixed or mottled,
or arranged in alternate streaks. The green sand is not always
visible under the chalk, being oyerlaid and hid by it. This.
deposit is naturally fertile. It forms a friable, deep, rich soil,
and produces every kind of crop in the greatest luxuriance.
Exceptions, however, might be pointed out. It forms a barren
soil in two or three places in England, especially where it extends
to a greater breadth than usual.

II].—The Wealden Formation.

The Wealden formation is limited in its extent, is situate be-
tween what are called the North and South Downs, and is sub-
‘divided into four deposits :—1. Wealden Clay; 2. Hastings, or
Iron-Sand ; 3. Ashburnham Beds; 4. Purbeck Beds.

1. Weald Clay.—This deposit is a stiff blue clay, varying in
colour, in some places appearing of a whitish fawn-colour, in
others possessing a deeper yellow shade, and sometimes is formed
of a mixture of colours. The rock found in it is a shelly lime-

586 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

stone, called Sussex marble. Its consistency is that of soap
when cut by the plough, and in consequence it is difficult and
expensive to cultivate as arable, and the pasture is wet and poor.

2. Hastings, or Iron-Sand.—This deposit consists of sands and
sandstones, alternating with clay and limestone. It has been
called “iron-sand” from its ferruginous brown colour.

3. Ashburnham Beds—These beds are composed of clays,
shales, and bluish-grey limestones and sandstones. .

4. The Purbeck Beds.—These are composed of clays, sand-
stones, and sheily limestones, called Purbeck marble. In this
deposit layers of vegetable mould are found, and the stumps of
trees in a vertical position.

Considerable tracts of land on the three last-named deposits,
being unmixed with soils of a tenacious tendency, are covered
with heath and furze, and are consequently barren.

I1].—The Oolitic Formation.

This is the next below the chalk, where the Wealden is defi-
cient, and forms a broad belt of elevated land running through
the centre of England, from the Isle of Portland to the north of
Scarborough, in Yorkshire. It has a great many subdivisions,
the principal of which we shall enumerate:—1. Upper Oolite;
2. Kimmeridge Clay; 3. Coral Rag; 4. Oxford Clay ; 5. Corn-
brash and Forest Marble; 6. Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, and
Fuller’s Earth; and 7. Inferior Oolite.

1. Upper Oolite-—This deposit is not a continuous one, being
overlaid by others, and hid from observation. It consists of
Portland and Aylesbury rock, and has partings of sand and even
clay, so as to be quarried for building-stone, and for clay and
sand for brick, at the same time, which has been made and burnt
in the quarry. The soil is light and sandy, and easy to cultivate.
In damp seasons it produces excellent crops of corn; but the
pasture is poor and unproductive.

2. Kimmeridge Clay.—This deposit is a stiff blue clay, very
tenacious and retentive of water, and very difficult and expensive
to cultivate. It is made, by cultivation, to produce good crops,
but is naturally unproductive, without a deep covering of mould.
Where this occurs, the old sward is good. ‘The extensive embank-
ment near Swindon, on the Cheltenham and Great Western Union
Railway, where a very troublesome slip took place soon after
the line was opened, is situated on this formation, and was caused
by its extreme retentiveness of, or solubility in, water,

3. Coral Rag.—This deposit forms a nice clean, light, arable
soil, but is not particularly fertile. Most of it is easily made so
by cultivation. The pasture is poor and unproductive in its

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 587

natural state. The coral rag is well developed at Pusey, in
Berkshire, on the estate of Philip Pusey, Esq.

4. Oxford Clay.—This is a well-defined deposit, consisting of
a dark, sometimes yellowish, tenacious clay, which is yery diffi-
cult and expensive to cultivate; and, where it is not mixed with
diluvial sands and gravel, it is barren. In the midland counties
—at Braydon in Wiltshire, and at Longworth in Berkshire—
it is found in this state, without any great depth of mould,
and, of course, is barren; but in Oxford, Gloucester, and Wilts,
a great portion of the land, both arable and pasture, is fer-
tile. There are portions of land to be found, in this deposit,
with several feet in depth of a dark brown loam, on the top of
the subsoil of this clay, and such lands are known to be very
productive. Some of the old sward-land in Gloucestershire and
Wilts, having a soil of a considerable depth of decomposed
vegetable matter, on the top of a diluvial soil, with this clay
and the lias clay for subsoils, is known to be as good as any
land in England.

5. Cornbrash and Forest Marble—The cornbrash is a coarse
shelly limestone. The forest marble is composed of beds of
limestone, alternating with thin partings of clay; sometimes the
limestone is found in thin beds, forming planks and rough pay-
ing-stone, and sometimes slates. The soil of this deposit is of a
good quality, with some exceptions, but is apt to be injured by
wet. The land is variable. The thin beds of clay sometimes
disappear, and a thin rubbly soil forms the surface, and then a
thin clay bed again. These alternate exhibitions of clay and
rubbly soil at the surface, render the land wet and unproductive,
and, in some cases, expensive to drain: but where they do not
appear to come to the surface, and succeed one another so rapidly,
whole fields of productive land are met with. With the usual
management, the whole may be considered to be fertile, rather
than otherwise. A little more draining would remove the doubt-
ful character of this soil, and it might then be ranked with those
of a fertile description. ‘This is the prevailing kind of soil in the
neighbourhood of Cirencester.

6. Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, and Fuller’s Earth.—This
deposit forms an immense mass of calcareous limestone and free-
stone. The Bath building-stone forms a part of it. A slight
portion on the eastern side, which adjoins and comes in contact
with the clays of the cornbrash and forest marble, is occasionally
found to be fertile.

The whole surface of this series of deposits is barren, with very
few exceptions. A single field, situate in a hollow towards the
eastern range, may be found here and there, to which the term
barren would scarcely apply. Generally, the soil is light and thin,

588 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

and towards the western extremity attains a considerable elevation
above the sea. Thus, in addition to being light, the land is much
exposed to easterly winds.

7. Inferior Oolite—This deposit is composed of a coarse shelly
limestone, with ferrugimous sands and sandstones, and is of a
darkish brown colour, and very porous. The soil on the lower
beds of this rock is dry and healthy, deep and fertile. It is par-
ticularly so where it comes in contact with the lias below. Its
position is generally very favourable, forming a slope towards the
west. :

1V.—The Lias Formation.

The lias formation is the next, in a descending order, to the
extensive oolitic formation; and it follows on the western side,
through all its windings, from Lyme Regis in Dorset, to Whitby
in Yorkshire. It is subdivided into four deposits:—1, Upper Lias
Shale; 2, Lias Marls; 3, Lower Lias Clay and Shale; and
4, Lias Rock; forming a series of laminated limestones, with
partings of clay.

1. Upper Lias Shale.—This deposit is mostly covered with the
soils and diluvium of the lower oolite. Itis in colour and appear-
ance like a schoolboy’s slate, of a dark purple, or blueish purple
colour. Where not covered with the diluyium, as above named, it
forms a poor, tenacious, unproductive soil. Where the diluvium,
which is rather extensively scattered over the upper members of
this formation, occurs in sufficient depth, or where there is a con-
siderable depth of decomposed vegetable mould, this soil is very
rich and fertile, and forms some of the best old sward in the king-
dom, being famous for producing excellent cheese.

2. Lias Marls.—This deposit partakes of the qualities and
character of the preceding. Sometimes the upper lias shale is
covered by the debris of the inferior oolite, and this deposit is
brought in contact apparently with it.

3. Lower Lias Clay and Shale.—This deposit forms a consi-
derable portion of the vale of Gloucester; and where the clays
are unmixed by decomposed vegetable matter, and not coyered by
soil formed of a mixture of sand and the lias clay to a considerable
depth, the soil is barren; but where they are mixed, or possess a
great depth of mould, no soil, that I am acquainted with, is more
productive, either in the state of arable or pasture. The same
observation will apply to all the four divisions of this formation.

4. Lias Rock.—A series of laminated limestones, with partings
of clay, sometimes nearly white, whilst the clay is of a dark pur-
plish blue, The rock burns into very excellent lime for arehitec-
tural purposes, possessing the quality of setting under water,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 589

V.—The New Red Sandstone Formation.

This important formation is subdivided into upper and lower.
It is the most extensive geological series of deposits in the
kingdom,

1. Upper New Red Sandstone.—Sometimes called the saliferous
system, because of its containing large quantities of gypsum, soda,
and common salt. The soil consists, chiefly, of an unctuous clay,
or red marl. In some parts of the formation it forms sandy tracts
of land, and such, without cultivation, are barren; but by far the
greatest portion is very fine rich meadow, or very fertile arable
land. The crops on the red marl are always fine and of luxuriant
growth.

2. Lower New Red Sandstone.—This division is separated into
two portions, one forming the deposit called the magnesian lime-
stone. -

The magnesian limestone is considered excellent for architec-
tural purposes, and is rendered notorious by having been selected
to form the masonry of the New Houses of Parliament. The soil
is thin, light, and dry, and the pasture-land barren, The arable
is nice light working land, producing crops of a medium descrip-
tion under excellent cultivation.

V1I—The Carboniferous Formation.

This highly valuable formation is subdivided into three series of
deposits, called—1, Coal-Measures; 2, Millstone Grit; and 3,
Carboniferous, or Mountain Limestone.

1. The Coal-Measures—The coal-measures consist of shale;
sandstone, and grit, with occasional seams of coal and layers of
ironstone. The coal-measures, or coal-basins, as they are some-
times named, do not form a regular stratum extending across our
island, like the chalk, the Oxford clay, the oolite, the lias, and the
new red sandstone, but lie in detached beds, having mostly the
magnesian aboye, and the carboniferous limestone below. The
soil of these deposits is of a wet clayey description, producing
herbage of an unproductive kind ; and the arable, without very
superior cultivation, is very poor and barren.

2. The Millstone Grit—This deposit is composed of coarse
quartzose sandstone, used for millstones, and often reaches a high
elevation aboye the sea. It is very poor and unproductive, whe-
ther in arable or pasture.

3. Carboniferous, or Mountain Limestone.—This deposit is a
calcareous rock, and is always present in the neighbourhood of
coal-fields. The soil is very thin, dry, loose, and barren. The
rock is perfectly naked in many parts of the kingdom, without
vegetation of any kind, is situated at a great elevation above the

590 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils,

sea, is consequently very much exposed, and is cold, bleak, and
barren.

V11.—The Old Red Sandstone.

This formation is the lowest of what have been termed the
secondary series. It occurs in Wales, Devon, Hereford, Shrop-
shire, and is largely developed in Scotland. This soil is sometimes
loose and sandy, and sometimes found to be rather a strong clay.
It has a glossy appearance, and is excellent for the growth of hops.
Generally it is very fertile.

On the lias, new red sandstone, and the old red sandstone, a
large quantity of apples and pears is grown, and converted into
cider and perry. A scientific friend of mine thinks, that fruit
grown on the old red sandstone is superior in flavour to that of any
other geological formation.

The Primary Series.

These rocks may be arranged under three different divisions—
], Silurian system of Mr. Murchison, the Cambrian and Cum-
brian system of Professor Sedgewick ; 2, the Metamorphic rocks ;
and 3, the Plutonic or melted rocks of Dr. Buckland.

1. The Silurian, Cambrian, and Cumbrian, are composed of
slate-rocks, and embrace a considerable portion of Wales, and
great part of Westmoreland and Cumberland. The land is ele-
vated, cold and wet, and of little value, with some exceptions. It
may safely be denominated barren.

2. Metamorphic Rocks.—These rocks are composed of several
subdivisions, two only of which we shall notice—the mica-schist,
and the gneiss. The mica-schist is barren. The gneiss is a
kind of slaty granite, often highly metalliferous. The soil is
barren.

3. The Plutonic Rocks—The Plutonic rocks are composed of
basalt and lava, which are fertile; serpentine, which is barren ;
sienite, which is fertile ; and the granitic rocks, the soils of which
are barren.

From the foregoing short and imperfect description of the geo-
logical strata of England, it will be easy to collect the following
table, in which the prevailing properties of all the soils become
distinguished, by being classed under three simple divisions—
namely, Clay Soils, Sandy and Rocky Soils, and Loamy Soils.
The last kind of soil will, as usual, embrace all the soils that
appear to have been a natural mixture of the two former, in such
proportions as have produced a decidedly beneficial effect. The
first two are always naturally barren, and the last is always
fertile,

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 591

PREVAILING QUALITY OF SoIL.

System. ForMATION, Deposit. j |
r Sandy and | a
Clayey. ack: | Loamy.
Tertiary .. . . 1. Alluvial . ° < a oars Fertile.
- . | 2. Diluvial . : : 2% Barren. | Fertile.
: < 3. London clay . - | Barren ‘ho se
. 4 4. Plastic clay. - - | Barren apron ft Ape
Secondary . | The chalk formation 1. Upper chalk . wees « Barren, | . .
2. Lowerchalk . . 2a - « | Fertile.
3. Gault . . . » {Barren ? Gare ~
4. Green sand 2 . al Barren? | Fertile.
The Wealden formation 1. Wealdenclay . - | Barren as vies
| 2.- Hastings, or iron sand
| 3. Ashburham beds. ee Barren. ee
} 4. Purbeck beds .
Oolitic formation . + | 1. Upper oolite A a a Barren. ee
| 2. Kimmeridge clay . | Barren - « |Fertile?
3. Coralrag . . é 5 Barren ? Si
4. Oxford clay. a . | Barren - . |Fertile?
5. Cornbrash and forest | Barren 2 - Fertile ?
marble.
6. Great oolite = 4 ar iva Barren. aS
Fuller’searth . . | Barren Per ae
7. Inferior oolite . e at (Pa aaie Fertile.
Lias formation . « | 1. Upper lias shale , . |Barren? a Fertile.
2. 2. Lias marls . . . aus ay Fertile.
3. Lower lias shale . . {Barren ? zs Fertile.
4. Lias rocks . « . |Barren? - e__| Fertile.
New red sandstone - | 1. Uppernewredsandstone] . . Barren? | Fertile.
2. Lower do. . « ei-< Barren? | Fertile.
Magnesian limestone . ° Barren. | . .
Carboniferous formation | 1. Coal-measures . . | Barren hea oe
2. Millstone grit . J iv ‘as Barren. oe
3. Carboniferousormoun-| . . Barren. | « «
tain limestone.
Old red sandstone . . . ate Barren? | Fertile.
Primary . | Silurianrocks . : . . 5 Ne Barren; |<
Cumbrian rocks . . . °, ae Barren. oF a
Metamorphic rocks 1. Mica schist . . . ene Barren. ahs
2. Gneiss : : = sate Barren. ore
Plutonic rocks - | 1. Basalt] e . . ant + + | Fertile.
2. Serpentine . . | het w Barren. ae
3. Sienite ° . : rar aw Fertile.
4. Granite ° . . = Barren. | oie

Most of the foregoing formations take a north and south range,
and extend from the south and south-west to the north-east of the
kingdom, so that any person taking a journey from Cardigan, ina
straight line to the Forest of Dean, and thence to Gravesend at
the mouth of the Thames, will pass over all those formations, with
the exception of the Wealden, the Metamorphic and Plutonic
rocks; which do not form regularly-developed strata, being found
in England in detached portions of no very great extent. This
table has been formed from a personal examination of all those
formations, with the exception of the Plutonic rocks. It will be
seen how far the object has been attained—namely, a classifica-
tion of the soils, with regard to their fertility and barrenness.
The classification of the rocks was accomplished, by following the
same plan adopted to identify the natural grasses which are indi-
cations of barrenness or fertility—that of first ascertaining the
opinions of others respecting certain lands, who could not be con-

592 Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils.

scious of my proceedings, and then visiting the spot and examining
into, and testing the truth of my preconceived notions, which had
been derived from a consideration of the geological situation of the
same land. It is true I was sometimes disappointed, on visiting
the new red sandstone, the lias, the lower oolite, and chalk marl,
to find here and there patches of barren land. In due time, how-
ever, I had the satisfaction to discover that those barren patches
were few, and formed only a minor portion of the formation, which
had been previously understood to be generally fertile. This table
affords a condensed view of the nature of the soils of this island ; but
it must not be expected to be perfect. Such as it is, the result of
the labour of years, it exhibits to what extent the efforts of a soli-
tary and humble individual have succeeded in applying the science
of geology, so as to make it subservient to this most important
subject.

GENERAL INDICATIONS.

Barrenness.

The following may be considered to be indications of barren-
ness when a cursory view of any district or country is taken :—

Mountains, hills, moorlands, heaths, bogs, marshes, swamps,
commons, downs, wolds, extensive beech woods; stone walls for
fences, instead of quickset hedges ; extensive plantations of Scotch
and larch firs; stunted knotty-looking timber in the hedgerows ;
thorn trees of a considerable age standing here and there in an
open country in the fields; extensive deer-parks ; where mansion-
houses and gentlemen’s seats are thinly scattered over the country
—(this is not intended to have any reference to new colonies, and
countries but yet partially inhabited)—where stagnant water is
abundant, and where temporary lakes are formed during autumn,
winter, and spring; where very large flocks of sheep are kept,
and scarcely any cattle, and but very: few cows.

Where young beasts are bred and reared in large numbers, and
afterwards annually sold off to the graziers of a richer country, for
them to fatten and send to the market.

Where rabbits are numerous, and especially where warrens are
formed.

Where bramble-bushes, furze, and black-thorns usurp a broad
belt round the margin of the fields.

Where villages are thinly scattered over the country, being
several miles apart.

Where ant-hills oceupy a considerable portion of the surface.

Where the lapwing, plover, and curlew are numerous.

Where the wild-goose descends and feeds on the stubbles. On

Indications of Fertility or Barrenness of Soils. 593

the Yorkshire Wolds I have seen them follow the ploughman
like rooks, but at a much greater distance.

Where large flocks of goldfinches are observed in the autumn.
They assemble in great numbers on downs, warrens, &c., to feed
on the seed of the thistle.

Fertility.

The following may be considered to be indications of fertility
when a cursory view of any district or country is taken :—

The absence of mountains, rocks, moorlands, bogs, heaths,
marshes, swamps, wolds and downs, &c. Hills of gentle ascent
and all cultivated, except small patches for ornament. Broad
valleys, intersected by large rivers. The whole district thickly
studded with timber trees in a flourishing condition. Small oak
woods here and there, which have the appearance of having been
introduced for orfament rather than to cover a barren spot.

Where the villages are thickly scattered over the country, and
gentlemen's seats and pleasure-grounds are numerous, and also
where the neat snug little villas of the merchant and retired
tradesman are to be seen in tolerable profusion.

Where gentlemen’s parks are small, and not fed by deer.

Where orchards are numerous, and the trees in a flourishing
state.

Where water is plentiful, and springs, brooks and rivulets are
numerous.

Where horned cattle are kept in large numbers, and particu-
larly cows, for the purposes of a dairy.

Where oxen, bullocks, and beasts are grazed, to fatten for the
butcher.

The foregoing observations constitute what I denominate gene-
ral indications, and must only be considered as guides to a general
conclusion. It often happens in this country, and I dare say
in all others, that in the midst of a large district, the indications
of which are such as lead us to believe it to be barren, there are
smaller tracts, frequently embracing whole farms, which are fertile
lands; and, on the contrary, districts possessing general fertile
appearances have, in the midst of them, considerable quantities of
land which in reality are barren.

It would be difficult to say how far these general indications
may be useful. In some parts of the country the farmer finds it
more difficult to get a just opinion respecting one single arable
field than to make use of something similar to the foregoing rules,
to ascertain whether a whole district in general be barren or
fertile ; because the indications are not so obyious and plain; and
when taken away from his immediate neighbourhood, and espe-

cially on to a different geological formation, he is greatly puzzled

594 Addition to Mr. Hannam’s Paper on Sulphuric Acid.

to arrive at a conclusion that he dare confide in. This need not
be a subject of wonder. He has always been led by surface-ap-
pearances, and the same surface-appearances that are fayourable
indications in one district may be, and are, unfavourable in
another.

Farmers in general have hitherto been in the habit of judging
of the fertility or barrenness from colour, consistence, and surface-
appearances, the two former sharing more or less in the business,
according to the extent of information on the subject possessed by
the party. These things, it must always be understood, will
materially assist us; but I think enough has been shown to de-
monstrate that, if relied upon alone, they are inadequate to the
purposes for which they have hitherto been in use.

28th February, 1844.

XXXIII.— Addition to Mr. Hannam's Paper on Sulphurie Acid.

Since the foregoing article was written, my attention has been
called to the experience of Mr. Tennant of Shields, near Ayr.
The particulars of these experiments have, through the kindness
of Mr. Campbell of Craigie, been forwarded to me, and I cannot,
on account of the intrinsic value of the information which they
afford us, omit to call special attention to them. Mr. Tennant’s
trials extend over several years, and during the present season
have been on a scale of magnitude much greater than any which
have yet been recorded—a better proof than any other that can
be given of the satisfactory results of the earlier trials.

The following are the particulars politely furnished by Mr.
Tennant himself :—

« After reading Liebig’s work on agricultural chemistry, about
four years ago, I resolved to try the experiment of using dissolved
bones, and procured 26 bushels of bones, and 2 bottles of sulphu-
ric acid, at ld. per lb.; about 190 lbs. each. This mixture I
applied to 9 acres of land, with 20 carts of dung per Scotch acre,
and was highly satisfied with the result. Some drills on which I
omitted the solution appeared one-third deficient; and one drill
to which I gave a double quantity appeared to have nearly double
the weight of crop to the row next it, which had no solution. The
whole 9 acres were equal to the remainder of the field, which had
farm-manure, and 1} ewt. of Peruvian guano, at 26s. per ewt.

« The amount of dressing applied in the above trial was, there-
fore, about 3 bushels of bones and 424 lbs. of acid per acre, cost-
ing about 11s. per acre.

“ Next year (1843) I dissolyed 200 bushels, and gave 5 bushels

_ Ee

|

Addition to Mr. Hannam’s Paper on Sulphuric Acid. 595

per acre, upon 20 carts of dung, for turnips. The remainder of
the field had 2 ewt of guano; with farm-manure. The crop was
in both cases good: the dissolved bones having the advantage in
bulk, and the guano in leaf, of any crop I grew the same year.

* IT also gave 60 bushels of bones dissolved to a fallow-field for
wheat, and it appeared to do well. The seeds after the wheat
were, however, the best I ever had.

“ To 12 acres of grass-land I also applied about 2 bushels per
acre, and it had a good effect, especially upon the clover.

«This year (1844) I dissolved 600 bushels of bones, and ap-
plied it to turnips as before, and the bulbs of the turnips grown
upon it are very large.

* Had not guano been discovered, the dissolving of bones would
have been already considered as an invaluable boon. We consider
guano at 6s. per cwt. and dissolved bones about equally cheap
as an application; but think that the bones excel in producing
bulb.”

To this conclusion of Mr. Tennant’s I would only add that,
should the supply of guano fail, the value of the solution will
soon be appreciated. Whether or not, however, its value as an
adjunct, or as a substitute for guano, is equally great. Indeed,
this I find to be fully allowed in Scotland, where guano has be-
come so generally, I may say universally, used and esteemed by
all those who have experimented with it. Thus, I am told by
Mr. Campbell, Mr. Finnie of Swanston, and several other emi-
nent agriculturists, that the only question in the case now is the
means of rendering the preparation and application of the mixture
conyenient to the farmer generally.

That this may be done I have already shown, and the more
easily as it has been proved that it is by no means essential, or
even necessary, that the whole of the particles of the bones—
after being ground pretty fine before the acid is applied—should
be dissolved ; while the method of applying it is merely a matter
of ingenuity and mechanical skill, which was never yet found
wanting when called upon to meet an emergency, or to facilitate
the application of any useful principle to practical purposes.

I am fully justified in this opinion, not only by the facts and
arguments adduced in the foregoing pages, but, so far as relates
to Scotland—where, I am free to confess, the motto of the farmer
appears to be “ Ready, aye ready,’’—so speedily is the force of a
legitimate argument on matters pertaining to improvement felt,
and the suggestion which it conveys made use of,—by what has
already been done.

For instance, as regards the preparation, I am informed by Mr.
Campbell that Mr. Tennant of St. Rollox, Glasgow, the proprie-
tor of the largest chemical manufactory in the world, had stated

VOL. V. 2R

596 Addition to Mr. Hannam’s Paper on Sulphurie Acid.

his intention of preparing and dispensing to the public the bones
in a state of solution. Should Mr.*Tennant carry out this inten-
tion, the south and west of Scotland may command a supply with-
out inconvenience, and, I have no doubt, at an economical rate.

The means of distribution have also been considered; for ex-
ample, the model of an efficient drill-cart for manures in solution
was exhibited at the late meeting of the Aberdeen Agricultural
Society.

On both points, however, the methods adopted by Mr. Ten-
nant of Shields bear, and are worthy of attention, not only because
they are matters of extensive experience, and refer, to use Mr.
Tennant’s own language, to “an easy way of it,” but because
they point out a “ way” which may be adopted in the event of
the liquid form of application not being attainable, or in case of
the compact form being preferred.

Mr. Tennant’s practice is as follows:—‘I put,” says he, “25
bushels into three old boilers (of which every farm here has a
supply), and next pour in 2 bottles of acid of about 170 lbs. each,
and 36 Scotch pints (18 imperial gallons) of boiling water into
each boiler. It boils away at a great rate for some time, and in
-a day or two we empty the boilers into two carts of light mould,
and turn the mixture over. At this stage the bones are only par-
tially dissolved, but they heat and decompose in the heap, after
being turned over three or four times; and in the course of seven
or eight weeks the compost becomes dry, and breaks down with a
shovel in a state fit for spreading with the hand in the drill.”

Oe

( 597)

MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS AND NOTICES.

XI1.— Thin-Sowing of Wheat.

REPORT.

“ Report of the Deputation of the Maidstone Farmers’ Club, who were
appointed, at the September meeting, for the purpose of visiting Mr.
Hewitt Davis’s Farms in Surrey, and reporting to the Club on his
general Agricultural System, and particularly that portion of it which
relates to Thin-Sowing.

“* Mr. Davis having politely consented to receive the deputation, con-
sisting of four members and the secretary, they proceeded, on Wednes-
day the 16th of October, to effect the object of their appointment. They
met Mr. Davis at Spring Park Farm, about two miles from Croydon,”
who showed them over his farms.

** Spring Park Farm consists of about 200 acres. The most striking
feature observable on entering the land was the care that had been
taken in grubbing hedge-rows, &c., to lay the land open to the influence
of the sun and air. The soil of this farm consists of black sand and
beach gravel, with a subsoil of white sand and gravel. The moor-pan
formerly consisted of exceedingly hard conglomerate masses of gravel,
and apparently ferruginous sand, some of which were so large as to re-
quire six horses to draw them off the field. They were very similar to
what is called pudding-stone ; and the soil is evidently, from its appear-
ance, a very inferior one, and requires pressure to consolidate it, Pre-
vious to Mr. Davis’s occupation, a field, termed Starve Acre, from its
unproductive quality, would scarcely grow anything; but under his
management it has become the best on the farm, and has produced, with
thin-sowing, no less than 5 quarters of wheat per acre. The whole of
this apparently intractable land has been subsoiled, and a yery large
portion drained by Mr. Davis, who, although his lease has only five
years to run, is now draining a further portion, 4 feet deep ; the labour
alone costing him 9d. per red. So convinced is Mr, Davis of the value
of draining, that he believes even this expense will be fully repaid to
him. His practice is to lay the Jand in ridges, varying from 12 to 24
feet in width. The seed having been got in, he generally runs Smith’s
(of Deanston) subsoil-plough down each furrow, between the ridges,
even through the drained land.

* With reference to the system of thin-sowing, the deputation had an
opportunity of seeing the stubbles that were still remaining unbroken,
The strength of the stubble-roots was remarkable, and es vg found to

2R

598 Thin- Sowing of Wheat.

have tillered to from 8 to 10 stalks each. The next criterion for judg-
ing presented to the deputation was Mr. Davis’s stack-yard, consisting
of five large stacks of wheat, two of oats, two of buck-wheat, one of
pulse, and three of hay. Besides these stacks, there was a barn full of
pulse, and another of wheat and barley. The appearance of the crops
was excellent. The straw was exceedingly strong, and the ear was very
fine. The pulse crops were remarkably well podded. The wheat was
the Essex rough-chatf, which Mr. Davis had been told could not be
grown on the system of thin-sowing, as it had been said that thin-
sowing produced mildew, a disease to which this sort was particularly
liable. Mr. Davis states, however, that mildew is a disease that he has
scarcely ever been troubled with.

** As the members may not all be aware of Mr. Davis’s rotation, it is
as follows :—

lst year...Rye a green meat and feeding-off with sheep, in April, May,
x Tares{ June, and July; and followed by

7 Mangold-wurzel :
zi Cabbage ‘pin a liberal dressing of farm-yard dung.
oe Tuornips., . «

2nd year... Oats or barley, sown with clover.
3rd year...Clover, twice mown for hay.
The beans have turnips drilled between the rows,
4th year...Beans or Peas’ and which come into feed in September and
October.
5th year... Wheat.

‘** The quantities and periods at which he sows are the following :—

Rye . . . ~ Itbushels . .~ In August and September.
T 1 In three sowings, in August, Sep-
2h pg be: Gis: abe Oe { tember, and October. ;

Mangold-wurzel . 6lb. . . . « In April.

Swedes. . |. JUiquart . %« _. \IneMay.

RunIps eet es Gece yl ss » « + InJuly.

Cabbages. . . levery3 feet . In June.‘

Oats .-. «. « Zpecks . »« .~ In January, February, and March.
Barley. ot 21.50. xe, ehOsmras + + « In January, February, March, & April
AV eHtY sai trey es a Lats, + + « In September and October.

Peay ceuse, uss) Ommags + « « In December, January, and February.
Bedus a st ON a » « « In September and October.

“ Mr. Davis’s rye and tares for green-feeding are sown in rows at 9
inches apart; all his white at 10} or 12 inches ; his pulse at 27 inches,
as are also his root-crops and cabbages, on the ridge. The growing
tares, winter beans, wheat, rye, and winter barley, also cabbages and
turnips, had a very healthy and flourishing appearance. The general
appearance of the winter barley and rye, for spring feed, which is now a
few inches above the ground, would lead a person passing by to the con-
clusion that the usual quantity of seed had been sown, till on examina-
tion he would find that it consisted of separate vigorous plants, which
had each tillered out some seven or eight stems.

“‘ Mr. Davis’s general system of growing turnips is that of planting
double rows of turnips and cabbages alternately; a plan which has this
advantage, that, however severe may be the weather, the sheep always
find food in the cabbages, which, although they draw the ground more

Thin- Sowing of Wheat. 599

than swedes, yet produce a much larger weight of food per acre. These
swedes and cabbages, considering the soil and the season, were exceed-
ingly good. The number of stock upon the farm was 14 cows, 1 bull,
200 pigs, about 30 colts and brood-mares, 300 fatting down-sheep on
green crops and oil-cake, and 260 ewes in lamb. Mr. Davis uses the
Kentish turn-wrest plough, Smith’s subsoil-plough, and Finlayson’s
harrow. He has discarded the old dished wheels of his waggons and
carts, and substituted for them others, nearly straight, for their lighter
draught. He prefers the flail to the thrashing-machine. His cart-
horses were all of the heavy Cleveland carriage-breed, about sixteen
hands high, clean-legged, with strong bone, and of great activity. Mr.
Davis has selected them from the job carriage-horses which are sold off
in London at the end of the season. They cost him from 12/. to 20/.
each.

** At Addington Farm the deputation had the opportunity of seeing
Mr. Dayis’s wheat drilled, and a Kentish plough at work in an adjoin-
ing field, ploughing to the depth of 12 inches. This farm, though of
nearly similar soil in other respects, is yet of better quality than that of
Spring Park; but, before Mr. Davis took it, it had four tenants within
seven years. Mr. Davis’s system appeared to have been equally suc-
cessful here as at Spring Park.

* Selsdon Farm, the property of G. R. Smith, Esq., however, offered
the best criterion of Mr. Davis’s mode of cultivation. Eleven years ago
it was offered at 10s. per acre, tithe-free, and no one would hire it, only
8s. having been offered for it. It then consisted of a thin soil of about
5 inches upon the chalk, comprising 136 acres of arable land, with 120
acres of poor park-land. It never had had more three stands for stacks
in its stack-yard ; there are now fourteen stands in this yard, which
were last year filled, besides the barns. Mr. Davis has turned up 6
inches of pure chalk, which has all become disintegrated, and mixed
with the soil ; by this means he has been enabled to apply his system
of rotation to it, entirely dispensing with fallows. On one of the fields
—in which, under the old system, nobody would have thought of trying
to grow tares or beans—is now to be seen a most luxuriant crop of cab-
bages and swedes ; and the whole of the farm bears striking evidence of
the great success of Mr. Davis's management, who states that he had
of last year's growth fourteen large stacks and the barn full of corn,
three stacks of clover-hay, and root-crops for the fattening of 200 wether
sheep and 100 ewes with their lambs, besides 12 oxen.

** Healing Farm, which has been under Mr. Davis’s management for
only nine months, presents no point worthy of particular observation be-
yond those that have been mentioned with reference to the other farms,
except the decided inferiority of the last year’s wheat and straw, now
being thrashed, as compared with those upon Mr. Davis’s other farms.

** Perhaps the most remarkable feature observable in the farms which
have had a fair trial of Mr. Davis’s system, was the perfect cleanliness of
the land.

“The leading features of Mr. Davis’s system are, deep ploughing,
early and thin sowing, and frequent cultivation between the drills;
which system, as applied by him to the farms above named, the deputa-

600 On Grafting Turf.

tion feel themselves called on to state, appears to have been most emi-
nently successful.

** The deputation cannot conclude without noticing in warm terms the
very courteous manner in which they were received and attended to by
Mr. Davis, and the great readiness with which he not only candidly and
elaborately answered and courted every inquiry, but also devoted to them
a day of his valuable time, where his motive could possibly have been
none other than his desire to promote the public interest.”

Considerable conversational discussion followed the reading of
this document, and the following resolution was unanimously
agreed to :—

“ That, in the opinion of this meeting, it is highly desirable, in a
national point of view, that Mr. Hewitt Davis’s system of drilling and
cultivation, as expounded in his pamphlet, and reported upon this even-
ing by the deputation from this club appointed to inquire into it, should
receive the serious attention of agriculturists, and should be tried as ge-
nerally as possible by way of experiment.””

It was also unanimously resolved that the best thanks of the
club were due to the gentlemen composing the deputation for
the zeal with which they had devoted their time and attention to
carrying out the wishes of the club. A vote of thanks was also
directed to be communicated by the secretary to Mr. H. Davis, for
the great courtesy with which that gentleman had received the
deputation, and the pains he had taken to make them thoroughly
acquainted with his system of cultivation,

XII.—On Grafting Turf. By B. Baker.
To W. F. Hobbs, Esq.

Duar S1r,—You some time since requested I would give you an account
of my mode of laying down arable land with turf; I now beg to observe
there are two plans, one by small pieces of turf, the other by grinding it
and sowing it on the surface of the land; the latter will sometimes suc-
ceed, but if the weather sets in dry the roots of grass wither, and disap-
pointment follows. I have laid down above 100 acres. In the autumn
of 1842 I laid down 13, which this summer produces more feed than any
pasture in my neighbourhood. My plan is nearly the same as was re-
commended by the late Earl of Leicester :—first to make a good fallow,
and then drill in wheat 9 inches apart; as soon as the wheat is up I
have the turf ploughed out in strips, about 2 inches thick and 3 or 4 wide,
from the best old pasture, a line of the pasture being left between each
strip of turf taken away; the turf is then carted on to the wheat, if not
wet, but if the carting injure the young wheat, I have the turf left on the
headland, and men carry it on the land in baskets; it is then spread

Application of Sulphate of Ammonia to Wheat. 601

about, and a man with a few boys tear the turf in pieces about 3 inches
square, and lay it, 8 or 9 inches apart, between the rows of wheat ; it is
then trod in, which finishes the work. In the spring I sow 10 pounds
an acre of white clover-seed—the first aud second year I have always
had plenty of feed, and the third year few people know it from old pas-
ture. The price I pay is 8s. per acre for spreading, tearing, and laying
the turf; and 4s. per acre for treading it in. In the autumn of 1842
the men offered to carry the turf on in baskets at 3s. per acre, but, as
they often lost half a day’s work in consequence of rain, [ paid them 4s.,
at which price they earned good wages.

In one meadow of 8 acres I have taken nearly all the turf, with which
I have laid down above 100; on some part of it I ploughed the turf five
separate times, but by giving the meadow a coat of dung after the turf is
taken away, and a good rolling after a frost, I find very little injury is
done to the pasture.

Perennial grasses spread rapidly by the roots, and seed at yarious
times during the summer, consequently you cannot collect the seed of
each sort: they also like to congregate together. Sinclair found thirty-
two distinct species of grass in one square foot of turf in the Vale of
Aylesbury. I transplanted a square foot from my meadow into my gar-
den, and during the following summer I found twenty-eight.

Landlords might very much improve their farms by getting their
tenants to lay down in pasture, if only for a few years, some of their
worn-out arable land, provided they haye but an acre or two of good
pasture from which to take their turf: I aay good, for if a good herbage
once takes possession of the land, it keeps out bad.

Believe me, dear Sir,
Yours most faithfully,
Maldon Hall, May 22, 1844, B. Baker.

XIII.— On the Application of Sulphate of Ammonia to Wheat.
By Joun Barron,

As the effect of any system of management can only be known by com-
paring the results of a great number of individual experiments, I venture
to lay befcre the Society of Agriculture the result of an experiment just
completed, . vhe application of Sulphate of Ammonia to wheat.

In a field of © acres, consisting of gravel of indifferent quality, worth
perhaps 14s. or 15s. per acre, 1 sowed every other ridge, in the month
of March last, with sulphate of ammonia; the whole quantity used was
5 ewt. During the first few weeks no difference was visible in the crop,
but, as the spring advanced, the blades on the salted land became consi-
derably darker in colour and more vigorous than the rest. Just before
haryest I walked through the field with some agricultural friends, and
we estimated the difference at 6 or 8 bushels per acre. As such esti-
mates are, however, not to be depended on, I marked off two spaces of

602 Application of Sulphate of Ammonia to Wheat.

20 rods each, and have this day caused the produce to be separately
thrashed : the result is as follows :—
Wheat. Straw.
Bsh. Gals. Ibs. ‘
Salted land . . 4 2 . 274
Unsalted ; : 3. 6 . 232

Difference 0 4 42

beet ele 5
This gives, per acre, 4 bushels of wheat, at 6s. . 1 4 0
un Ap 3 cwt. of straw, at ls. '. . 0 S ©

The 5 cwt. of Sulphate of Ammonia cost, ici
: 4 14
carriage from London and expenses . .

7
This being laid on 3acres, gives the costperacre. 111 6
Deduct difference of produce,as above . . . 1 7 O

6

Loss per acre < . .'° iG

When wheat sells for 7s., instead of 6s. per bushel, the expense would
just be covered by the increased produce. But, on the whole, the
result of my experiment is, I think, in favour of the conclusion formed
by Mr. Pusey, that these saline manures do not auswer the purpose of
the agriculturist.*

I apprehend, however, that in estimating the value of these, and in-
deed of other manures, we are apt to confine our attention too much to
the immediate results. Manures differ exceedingly as to the condition
in which they leave the Jand in the year following the first crop. Of
stable-dung it is estimated that one half is left in the land after a crop
of wheat. As to some other manures (lime, for instance), it seems to
be now admitted by the most accurate observers that they ultimately
exhaust the soil, though they produce an immediate benefit. In fact,
manures of this class act as st?mulants merely ; they bring into an active
and soluble form the humus previously existing in the soil, but add no-
thing to the store of nutritive matter. Instead of leaving the land in
better condition, they actually deteriorate it. That deterioration may
indeed be compensated, or even more than compensated, by the imme-
diate profit; the farmer may gain such an increase of crop as, if laid
out in the purchase of manure, may place him and his land, on the
whole, in a better position than if the stimulating manure had not been
applied. But it must always Le a most important question in what
way does any given application tend to increase the produce of the soil ?
And when I see comparative statements of the crops yielded by different
manures, without any notice of the tendency of such manures to benefit

* Journal of Agricultural Society, vol. iii. p. 211.

On Socket Drain- Pipes. 603

or injure the soil in succeeding years, I cannot but fear that they tend to
mislead many readers.

To which of these two classes do Nitrate of Soda and Sulphate of Am-
monia belong? That is a question which I am myself unable to answer :
but it is possible that some of the Members of the Council may be able
to answer it; and if so I should be very thankful for such information.
With regard to Guano, looking at its reported origin and its chémical
composition, one can scarcely doubt that it enriches the soil; but its
very caustic quality may raise a question whether a part of its beneficial
effect does not arise from its stimulating properties. If so, its value can-
not surely be truly estimated by comparing the increase of crop yielded
by Guano and by yard-dung.

How might this question be brought to the test? Might it not be
done by dressing a piece of land heavily, year by year, with Guano or
other of these new manures ; applying no dung to it, and cropping it in
the usual manner? If the manure under trial operates as a stimulus
merely, the land would be found, under this management, to grow pro-
gressively poorer every crop : if, on the contrary, it operates as nutriment,
the Jand would grow progressively richer. But perhaps this experiment
has already been tried.

I am, dear Sir,
Very truly yours,
East Leigh, Emsworth, Joun Barton.
Aug. 13, 1844.

X1V.—On Socket Drain- Pipes.

To the Secretary.

Dear Sir,—When [ had the pleasure of meeting you at Mr. F. Hobbs’s
I promised to send you some specimens of socket drain-pipes, as I
make them in my yard. They are applicable particularly to loose
springy soils, and cannot fail to be safe. Some persons prefer holes to
be made in pipes; but they appear to me to be in all cases unnecessary.
These pipes may be made of any length—the most convenient and use-
ful is probably from 15 to 18 inches; and the cost of the socketing by
the machine (I use Ford’s patent) is from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per thou-
sand. I have enclosed with the pipes a curious evidence of the facility
with which the roots of trees will destroy drains, if carelessly placed.
The mass of fibres are the roots of a willow-tree, growing about 5 or 6
feet from the drain, which had been put down only twelve months, and
the pipe from which I took it was a four-inch socketed one.

I am sorry that thin one-inch pipes find advocates; they have no
recommendation but cheapness, and must fail. In my judgment, as
well as in that of many experienced drainers here, no pipe should have
a less bore than 2 inches in the clear ; and, in many cases, even for
surface-draining, it should be larger ; and it should possess substantial
thickness, to give it durability.

On Wednesday last, so soon as the heavy rain of that day ceased, I

604 On the Use of old Hop-bines as Manure.

examined the outlets of a field of 18 acres of young clover, which was
surface-drained, five years ago, 24 inches deep and 21 feet apart. The
outlet, or discharging conduits, were fifteen in number, so that each
had to carry the water from but little more than an acre of land; and
yet the water from each of those outlets would have filled at least three
one-inch pipes ; and, if such small pipes had been used, every drain
would-have been blown.* Upon fallow-land of the same description the
water would have been discharged in even a larger volume.

I think the time is come for our Society to examine into this important
question, for the purpose of giving to the public the best information on
the subject in an early number. Two or three gentlemen, appointed for
the purpose, should examine on the spot the different methods prac-
tised in different localities, as well as the materials used, the nature of
soil, &c. I should be well pleased to see such a deputation here, where
I think draining is done in a superior manner.

Yours faithfully,
Henry Dixon.
Witham, Nov, 18, 1844.

XV.—Experiments on the Use of old Hop-bines as Manure in
Hop-Gardens. By Sir Joun Tyipen,

To the Secretary.

Sir,—One of the great objects of a farmer ought to be to make as much
manure as possible at home. Impressed with the great utility of this
axiom, I send you the following experiment in support of it.

About this time last year I read an account of a vine-grower in Ger-
many, who had manured his vineyard for several years with the cuttings
of his vines; and it struck me that the same good might be obtained by
using the old hop-bines in the hop-garden, instead of burning or other-
wise wasting them, which is too generally the practice in Kent. I there-
fore (not being a hop-grower) requested Captain Pattenson, of [bornden,
in the Weald of Kent, a successful hop-grower, and one of my tenants
in this neighbourhood, to try the experiment. I proposed that the
bines should be cut or chopped in pieces of about 1 inch or 2 inches
long, and either lightly dug at once into the soil, or laid up in heaps of
about 4 or 6 bushels, and covered with earth for the winter, then spread
abroad and dug in. The tenant had as many bines cut in Noyember
last as two men could cut with a common chaff-cutter in two days; half
of these were dug in at once, the rest laid up in heaps and dug in in the
spring of the year; by which time the bines had decomposed into a rich

* It appears that each of these furrow-drains, if they were only fifteen
for the whole length of the field, must have been 640 yards long. If ineh-
pipes had been used, the mischief apprehended would have been easily reme-
died by crossing them with two or three main-drains emptying in the side-
ditches: a precaution useful in all drainage, but doubly so in drainage
with narrow bores, because the damage from any stoppage is thus limited
to a portion of the length of each drain.—Pn. P,

Trial of Superphosphate and other Manures. 605

oily black compost. To part of each he put Aalf the quantity of dung
used in the other part of the garden, whilst to the other no dung was
added. On looking over the hops just before picking commenced, xo
difference could be perceived where the bines were dunged or where
manured with the cut bines; but, where both were put, the hops were
better. So satisfied is my tenant with the saving that this will make
that he means to cut all his bines this year.

I am just returned from a visit to Captain Pattenson, and the experi-
ment on his ground is, if possible, more marked, because it was tried in
a hop-garden which had been well dunged last year, but had received
none this year—all looking well. He did not cut his bines till the
spring, when he employed two women, who cut enough, or chopped
them rather, with a bill, in three days to manure upwards of a quarter
of an acre, at an expense of 5s. These were dug in at the usual time ;
and now there is a marked difference where the bines were put, the
leaves being fresher and greener, the hops larger; and, the workmen
say, at least 200 lbs. more per acre. He expects at least 800 lbs. per
acre on this part, and 600 lbs. on the rest of the garden. So that, for
an outlay of 5s. cutting, he will make this year not less than 4/.; the
present price being S/. per cwt. Surely this experiment is worth other
hop-growers trying ; and it is with this view that I send you the account
now, as I think the greener the bines are cut the more weight will ke
got, and the easier the operation will be performed.

Now I am on the subject of manures I must meution that I have
never tried anything for turnips at all equal to Lawe’s super-phosphate
of lime. I tried it on an old ley that had been broken up two years,
against Potter’s, Peruvian, and African guano ; it beat them all, particu-
larly in coming to the hoe—a week at least before the Peruvian, ten
days before the African, three weeks before Potter’s; whilst the ex-
pense is nearly l/. per acre less: and I make no doubt that the weight
per acre will be more, from the plant being so regular, which is not the
case with the other manures. I find also, from a neighbour, who put 4°
bushels to the acre on clover in March last, that his produce was
doubled.

I remain your humble servant,
Joun Maxwetu TyLpen.

Milsted, Sittingbourn,

Sept, 11, 1844.

“XVI.— Trial of Superphosphate and other Manures. By
Epwarp Srrovuts.

Tue following is the result of an agricultural experiment of the Right
Hon. Thomas Pemberton Leigh, of Tory Hill, in the county of Kent;
who requested his tenant, Mr. Edward Strouts, of Kingsdown, Kent, to
carry out the experiment—being paid the cost price of the four manures
used as a top-dressing. The experiment was upon a cloyer-ley wheat
crop, with farm-yard manure, ploughed in at the time of wheat-sowing

606 Doctoring Trees.

about the 22nd November, 1843 ; and guano and other manures used
as a top-dressing in the spring, on Tuesday, 19th March, 1844.

No. Bis.
1 One acre of Farm-yard Manure, 30 cart-loads - - |.4.10 0
2 One acre of Peruvian Guano, 3 cwt. 2 qrs, 18 lbs. at 12s. per oak. ol Cie O
3 | One acre of Rape-dust, 5 cwt. at 6s. 6d. per cwt. Write - | 112 6
4 | One acre of Urate, 6 cwt. 2 qrs. at 5s. per cwt. o | EZ, 'S
5 | One acre of Super-phosphate of Lime, 6 cwt. 1 qr. 41bs. at 7s. perewt. 2 4 9
6 | One acre with no dressing . ° ° . ° . -|0 00
| |
} Pounds | Number Weight
No. | Produce. of / of per Increase.
Straw. | Shocks. Bushel.
Bush. Galls. | i Bush. Galls.
1 | 40 6 | 2,376 -| 32 624 | 4
2 40 6 2,196 30 | 62 aE
3 38 3 1,872 37 61 i, Oo
4 38 5 2,028 | 35 60 9 3
5 | 53 5 2,940 | 45 61 2a es
6 20H 2 1472: |} 29 61- | =9F®

Kingsdown, near Sittingbourne.

XVII.—On Medical Treatment for Sick Trees. By SirC.
Lemon, Bart., M.P.

To Ph. Pusey, Esq.

My pear S1r,—Some time ago I mentioned to you that I had in hand
some experiments on the effect of chemical manures on young fir-trees.

The plan of these experiments was as follows :—As the growth of trees
is slow, and much time must be spent before any sensible effect can be
produced by changes in the soil in which they are planted, it occurred
to me that a quicker result might be obtained by working in an oppo-
site direction. That is, not operating on healthy plants, and measuring
effects by the comparative increase of growth; but by taking sickly
plants, and treating them as patients whose constitutions were debilitated,

and ought to be renovated by the addition of such ingredients as might
be required for healthy vegetation. I imagined that the effect of such
medical treatment would be more rapidly visible; and that it would at
least reveal a secret in vegetable nosology with respect to the individual
cases under trial. I do not imagine that my results are of avy value in
their details. Extensive experiments, carefully collected facts, and a
minute observation of the circumstances which modify the course of
nature in her secret operations, are absolutely necessary before positive
conclusions can be drawn as to the full measure of effect produced on
the vegetable constitution by any given mode of culture; and with re-
spect to trees in their ordinary growth such a course of inquiry is to be
meatured only by the life of man. Still I think that my results are so

Doctoring Trees. 607

plain and indisputable as to the mere fact of a check given to the
approach of death, and a renewed vitality being obtained in a space of
time comparatively short, that I venture to point out my experiments as
indicating a short road to knowledge which others may travel, and take
a more extensive view of the country than I myself have been able to
do. First, then, as to the condition of the soil and subsoil as shown by
the analysis.

Analysis of Soils from Carclew.—1st. Surface soil from the planta-
sion on Mylor Downs. The water in which this soil was infused yielded
a little muriate of soda, and gave traces of iron.

The soil was freed of the larger stones by being sifted through a coarse
sieve, and the vegetable fibre was carefully picked out (The other soils
were treated in the same manner) :—

Hunt.
Silica and silicious sand. . . «, 88525
Alumina . : ' - “ fs c 4°10
Carbonate of lime ° ‘ ° ° - 1°
magnesia . . ° e “15
- Sulphate of lime ° : . . °75
Peroxide of iron, with a trace of protoxide . 4°50
Potash . - . ¢ F ° 2°25
Humus . : C 2°
Vegetable chatter; {ORT in eieeies x ; 1°58
Muriates 2 = = 2 : ° . =a
Phosphate of lime . . ° tamil e sks
100-00

100 grains of this soil lost in drying, at common temperatures, six
grains of water; and by exposure to heat insufficient to char the veget-
able matter it contained, it lost three grains more of water and volatile
matter.

2nd. Subsoil from the same spot about 18 inches below the surface.
The water in which this was infused gave indications of muriate of soda,
but nothing else.

100 grains lost in drying at common temperature four, heat dissi-
pated seven grains of water, &c.

Huat.
Silica and silicious sand, ° . - 76°50
Alumina . ° ° . . =» 10°10
Carbonate of lime . . . . . 1°20
—————— magnesia . ° ° : *25
Peroxide and protoxide ofiron . . . 5°10
Sulphate of lime : . . . . 1-25
Phosphate of lime . . . . °25
— magnesia ° ° . ° “15
Potash . . . to Be . . 3°
Humus ., . . . 1.15
Vegetable matter, donates in alkalies . ° +30
Muriates. . ° ° ° . . *73
100°60

It will be seen that this subsoil contains some phosphates which could
not be detected in the surface soil or in the clay below it.
3rd. Clay from the same spot below the subsoil. Infused in water

,

608 Doctoring Trees.

did not extract anything except a very minute portion of sulphate of lime

and potash.
Silica and siliceoussand . ® . eo FB
Alumina . x F 5 . « Wee8
Carbonate of Grad ; F ; ° ° ls
magnesia ° » 4 . 115
Per and protoxide of iron ° : : 5°75

Sulphate of wes ° ° . . . Is

Potash . ° ‘ P = = 4:25
Soda . . ° ’ . ° - atrace.
Humus . ; 4 *75
Vegetable matter, iaolalile s in alkalies . . 1°50
Muriates . . 5 . 2 ° ° “47

100-00

At common temperature this clay dried slowly and lost 3 per cent. ;
a heat below redness dissipated 5 per cent., and a red heat 11 per cent.,
of water.

It will here be observed that of the upper portion, silica, alumina,
and iron, make up nearly 92 per cent. of the whole mass; humus going
for only 2 per cent. Of the immediate subsoil, the same ingredients,
namely silex, alumina, and iron, give, in the aggregate, the same pro-
portional amount; and the humus about 1 per cent. more than in the
upper portion.

In the inferior subsoil the three ingredients exist in a proportion
1 per cent. less than in the two other portions, and the humus becomes
almost inappreciable. All the three gradations appear to be unusually
poor; but the ratio of clay to flint is constantly increasing in the de-
scending series. Still there were alkalies * sufficient, perhaps, to keep
fir-trees alive, and to sustain their growth up to a certain age; but when
I took them in hand they had ceased to grow; they had latterly made
hardly any shoots, and were evidently within a year or two of extinction.

They were about three or four feet high, and probably twenty years old.

That I was right in supposing them to be at death’s door is proved by
this, that the greater part of those surrounding my patients are actually
dead, and I am about to plant the ground over again.

Experiments on Scotch Fir- Trees with different Manures, 1842.

No.4; Watered with nitrate of soda in the proportion of
114 lbs. to 50 gallons of water, or about 1 lb. to
the rod.

Sept. 1842. Shoot 1 inch, foliage thin, and not very
good colour.
April 1844. No effect.

Nos. 2 and 3, Nitrate of soda sown dry in the same proportion as
No. 1.

Sept. 1842. Both plants of a good colour and toler-
ably healthy, with shoots from 2 to 24 inches long.
Much better than any around them.

* The ashes of Norway fir contain in 100 parts, potash 14°1, soda 20°7,

Nos. 5 and 6.

No. 8.

Nos. 9 and 10.

Doctoring Trees. 609

April 1844. No. 2 recovering; generally alive;
shoots 2 inches; not very good colour.

No. 3. Alive at top, but dead below. All around it
dead at top.

Sulphate of soda and water, same proportion as No. 1.

Sept. 1842. Shoot 1 inch, scarcely any difference ob-
servable.

April 1844. Weak shoots, but better than anything
around it, and alive at top.

Sulphate of soda scwn dry, same proportion as No. 1.

Sept. 1842. Shoots from 3 to 4 inches long, of a good
colour, and apparently more healthy than any
around them.

April 1844. No. 5 recovering and gaining strength.
No. 6 quite recovered and healthy; all around it
dead.

The surface broken around the tree, and a mixture of
bones and earth applied at the rate of 8 quarters of
bones to 22 loads of earth per acre.

Sept. 1842. But little effect; shoots 14 inch; not
good colour.

April 1844. Recovered, but not very strong.

With lime mixed in the soil at the rate of about
300 Winchester bushels per acre. The surface
being broken asin No. 7.

Sept. 1842. Shoots 2 inches, colour good. Plant
apparently healthy, whilst most around it are dead.

April 1844. Shcots 15 inch long. Alive, but not
strong; all around it dead.

Watered with Ammoniacal liquor at the rate of 8
gallons to 50 gallons of water.

Sept. 1842. Shoots geuverally 14 inch ; thin of foliage,
but tolerably coloured.

April 1844, No change on either.

The manures were severally applied early in March, 1842, and re-

peated in 1843.

I draw no inferences from these experiments, except the following :—
That liquid manures pass off, and leave no permanent effect.
That various dry substances affected the broken constitutions of the

plants in different

degrees.

That dry sulphate of soda (Nos. 5 and 6), is the specific remedy

suited to the case.

I am, my dear Sir,
Yours sincerely,

Carclew, April 18, 1844. C. Lemon.

( 610 )

XVIII.—A Plan to prevent the Waste of Manure in Rivers
which flow through Towns. By W. Poruam, Esgq., B.A.,
Oriel College.

No. 1.— Fleet Ditch Sewer.

In the bank of the river, which at low water is dry, let there be formed
a sewer parallel with the stream, joining Fleet Ditch Sewer at an obtuse
angle, a few feet from its mouth; at the bottom of this additional sewer
let there be apertures, under which, in chambers, let there be placed
half-decked punts, built with air compartments, so as to render them,
when laden with deposit of sewer, the specific gravity of water.

When tide is a few inches below the leatil of port-holes, let the punts,
filled with water, be floated into their respective chambers: after they
are laden with deposit, at the same depth of water, let them be towed out,
and replaced by duplicates. A valve closes aperture of sewer while
boats are changed, and sliding hatch secures the punt.

High water mark,

is

oh

Sewer with apertures £2
Bt bottom.esseeeee =

H
Port-holes for boats
O CNET ssesereeeee 5S Sse

Mh
res J
é
Low Water mark,

No. 2.—King’s Scholars’ Pond Sewer.

In the open reservoir, near junction with Thames, let barges of simi-
lar construction, long enough to reach across the channel, with decks
hinged at bow and stern, and opening in the centre, be fixed side by
side, so as not to rise from the bottom. 'The decks to be kept open
against the walls of the canal while the stream, which is very gradual, is
passing: at falling tide let the laden barges, with closed decks, be
towed out and replaced by empty ones.

K.S. Pond Sewer

Barges fixed
at bottom
of channel,

( 611 )

XIX.— On the Hainault Scythe. By Sir G. H. Rose.

Sir—As an old, though retired, Hampshire farmer, and grateful for the
good which your noble institution is calculated to promote, I use the
freedom of writing to you now, but am fully aware that at this present
moment it can neither be attended to nor noticed.

In about the year 1811 I introduced here the use of the Hainault
scythe, bringing hither two Flemish labourers. It prevails through the
whole old Netherlands seventeen provinces, and probably is of very
ancient date. For its advantages I refer you to a report of the Christ-
church Agricultural Society in 1814, made in my absence, fairly and
openly. ‘The facts established are such as were proved for a few years
together ; and they would have been better established then, had any one
person present well understood the subject. They enumerate three ad-
vantages. The first is dispatch; this is so; half the time of reaping is
saved, a result most beneficial in many ways ; secondly, straw and corn
are saved; this is so; you gain the whole of the straw with no more
trouble to the labourer ; thirdly, the sheaves are more easily and better
made; you have much longer straw to bind with. Besides this, very
great fatigue is spared to the reaper; he steadies, and finally collects,
what he cuts, with his staff and crook in his left hand, and uses his pecu-
liar scythe, only leaning to the right, and sparing his back,. and swing-
ing it with his right arm, with a loose shoulder, as in fencing; the
blade enters the corn obliquely, so as not to shake the standing crop, but
giving what with the sabre is called the drawing cut. The use of this
scythe is most easily learned, as the Report, which I subjoin, shows.
My gardening lad (Felix Edgell), with very little practice, beat a very
fine man, the Flemish instructor. Hiscock, Footner, and Hascall were
mere recruits. Should there be a wish for further information, I shall
willingly give it. There are men here who could instruct learners, es-
pecially my gardener, who won the first prize when a lad. My direction
(the Right Hon. Sir G. H. Rose) is, till Friday, at Wilton House, South-
ampton, afterwards as dated above.

I am, Sir, your very obedient humble servant,
Sandhills, Christchurch, Hants, G. H. Rose.
July 23, 1844.

The implements are somewhat like the following rough sketch :—

Staff and Crook. Scythe.
Tou. ¥. 2s

612 Fainault Scythe.

“ Christchurch (Hants) Agricultural Society.

“*The Report of the Committee of this Society for the year preceding the
31st of October, 1814, to the General Meeting of the Society held on
that day.

“* Your committee report that the gentlemen appointed a committee for
conducting the exhibition of the Hainault scythe, appointed a meeting
for the 23rd of August. There were 15 candidates for the premiums,
13 men and 2 boys; and the premiums were awarded by the judges,

G. R. Eyres, Esq., &c. &c., as follows :—
GN ante

To Felix Edgell, of Christchurch, who learned last har-

vest, and completed half a statute acre in 5h. 12m. . 2 2 O
Toa foreigner, who came to instruct Sir G. H. Rose’s men,

and who cut the same quantity in 5h. 16m... >, 2. BEG
To John Fell, of Christchurch, aged 40, who cut the same

quantity in 4h. 39m., but not soeven . jee! ial
To — Hiscock, aged 21, a learner of this harvest, whe
cut the same in 5h. 40m. : ots “0

To Hen. Footner, under 16 years of age, a learner of this
year only, who cut his proportion within the time allowed 1 11 6
To J. Hascall, a boy of the same description - ee lite Be,

“ That three men with reap-hooks contended against the scythe, but
none of them, though all picked men, nearly completed the half acre
within ne limited time.

“TP. judges also signed the following opinion, which, with the above,
was published ia the respective newspapers :-—

““ «We, the judges, consider the superior advantages of the Hainault
scythe to consist—I1st, in dispatch nearly one half; 2nd, in saving straw
and corn ; 3rd, in the sheaves being tied with a single band and hooded
in style, and thereby less liable to injury by weather.’

“* That your committee, on account of the expense of this exhibition,
are of opinion that it can only be exhibited at a time of year when farmers
are necessarily otherwise engaged, and do not think it necessary to con-
tinue the premiums, particularly as so full and fair a trial of its Powe has
now been made.”

Srr,—As you wiil be so good as to lay before the Board of Agriculture
my letter on the Hainault scythe, I will, with your leave, offer a few
particulars respecting it, which I omitted I believe. I say nothing of
it as compared with the common scythe for mowing wheat, a practice
now gaining much, as I understand ; but I should doubt, from the facts
stated in the Christchurch Report, which I sent to you, whether it (the
scythe) would beat the Hainault scythe in speed, half a statute acre
having been completed by a novice lad in 5h. 12m., by a Fleming fe
5h. 16m., and by a mere novice in 5h. 40m.

The Flemish scythe-man stands with the corn to the left hand, 1“
the staff in his left hand against the corn to steady it to receive the
stroke, turning the iron crook from it, and swings his scythe against the
corn; but the blade is so contrived, that the point enters first, and the

Hainault Scythe. 613

stroke is a drawing stroke, so as not to shed the corn: he goes on, leaving
what he has cut leaning on the corn behind it, and when he reaches the
point at which he judges he should stop, he turns the crook towards the
corn, and facing to it, cuts back to where he set out from, dragging in
his crook what he cuts both in going out and back; he then disengages
the crook, and, with his right foot, Jays the corn cut in a line with the
standing corn for the binder, whose work is facilitated by the length of
the straw. The closeness of cutting depends on the Jength of the
handle, which is of wood; of course every good farmer will have the
handle long to save all the straw. .The blade which is so constructed and
placed that it must enter by the point, has the edge a little raised to save
it from stones, and the point a little raised that an awkward man may
not catch the ground. A great advantage is, that it cuts from without
and not from within ; thus it is excellent for laid crops; it is not inserted
and then drawn out ; it strikes against the prostrate crop, which the late
Lord Winchelsea found much benefit from with heavy crops of laid oats.
I had an immense crop of tares so matted as to be very difficult to cut,
except by this instrument, which did it most easily. As to the facility
of labour with it, I should mention a conversation which I had with my
head carter, at the introduction of it a few days after the beginning of
harvest. I asked him how he liked it? He said, “ Particularly, for
he could do exactly double the work he did in reaping, and that when he
went to bed, after the whole work of a July or August day in ‘harvest,
and straightened his back he cried like a child from pain, and could not
sleep, while, with the new instrument, the iastant he laid down he slept
like a child.”

The right hand is placed on the part of the handlefrom A to B,
grasping it. The nob at A is meant to prevent the hand slipping off.
At C a leathern loop is nailed to the handle, through which the man
passes his fore-finger, to give him more power of holding, using, and
directing the instrument.

I sent it to the Agricultural Society of Ireland, with a labourer ; but
he beat so decidedly the reapers there, that he was soon obliged to be
sent back for his safety. I told them, on sending him, that he would
cut closer and do twice the work in the same time; but it seems that
their reapers cut very low, but of course more slowly. Thus they replied
to me, that their people cut as low as my man, but that he beat them,
not as 2 but as 3 to 1 in time. He (Braker) is now alive at Christ-
church.

I beg leave to refer you to acommunication to the old Board of Agri-
culture, vol. vi., Journal 213, from Mr. Philip Howard, of Corby Castle,
of the 3rd of March, 1794. He says :—‘* What greatly facilitates the
expeditious harvest of the grain-crops in Flanders is the use of the Hai-
nault scythe, the best instrument yet invented to unite expedition with
neatness, very different in this last respect from the cradle-scythe ; it lays
all the corn as regularly for the binders as could be done by the reapers
with the sickle.” Mr. Howard failed in his attempt to introduce this
scythe for want of a teacher, as did the Earl of Marchmont in 1709
(Marchmont Papers, vol. ii. p. 349).

As to sheaves, as you have the whole length of the i they are of

s 2

614 On the Analysis of Soils.

such a size as to be bound by a single length of the plant, a great saving
of time.

I observed very lately the operation of the cradle-scythe in mowing
wheat, and saw the full weight of Mr. Howard's objection to it.

The use of this scythe went down, because I went abroad in 1813
on foreign missions for several years, and there was no one left to
carry it on.

I have for one had this instrument tried publicly by my gardener
(Edgell), who won the first prize, and he did very good work, though
the tools were in bad order, and the man disused for 30 years.

Sandhills, Christchurch, Hants, Aug. 5, 1844.

S1r—To complete the facts which I have submitted to you, I learn from
Edgell, my gardener, whom I can entirely trust, that, whilst I was abroad,
he cut 2 acres of very fine Talavera wheat, which yielded 40 bushels an
acre, and was completely laid within two days easily. I lay this addi-
tional fact before you as to the Hainault scythe.

I am, Sir, your most obedient servant,

Sandhills, Aug. 6, 1844. G. H. Ross.

XX.—On the Analysis of Soils. By Anprew Ure,
M.D., F.R.S., &c.

Havine been recently engaged in a minute chemical examination of
the soil of a large farm, remarkable for perennial fertility without
manure,* I have been led to adopt some simplified methods of analysis,
which may to a certain extent be practised by ordinary farmers, and
may.throw some light on the means of improving permanently the com-
position of their lands. The field from which the sample subject of
analysis was taken, is situated on Marsh Farm, in Hayeling Leyel, in
the parish of Hornchurch, Essex, not far from the banks of the Thames,
and nearly opposite to Erith. R. M. Kerrison, Esq., M.D., F.RS.,
the proprietor, informs me that no manure has ever been applied to
this farm of 200 acres during a period of at least fifty years, except
once; and in that season the wheat became so heavy as to be in a
great measure spoiled. It produces every variety of crop most
abundantly.

The substratum, which lies beneath a three feet bed of the soil, is an
alluvial deposit, replete with decaying vegetable matter; the remains
probably of some ancient forest, which existed prior to the formation of
the Daggenham Breach, through which the river had inundated a large
district of country, and kept it submersed till about two centuries ago ;
when it was stopped out by the aid of a Parliamentary grant, administered
under the direction of a skilful engineer. The soil over the whole farm

* All the stable-yard dung is sold by the farmer,

On the Analysis of Soils. 615

is of very uniform texture and appearance; being a finely comminuted
friable loam, quite free from stones, consisting of a fortunate mixture
of fine siliceous sand, clay, oxide of iron, aud carbonate of lime, with
minute proportions of phosphate of lime and magnesia, but very little
organic matter. It would seem, therefore, to derive its principles of
fertility chiefly from the atmosphere, and the emanations from the sub-
soil.

The specific gravity of the soil, in its average state of dryness, is 2°2
to water called 1°0; indicating the presence of but little vegetable
matter.

100 parts of it collected after a period of ordinary dry weather lose
11°2 by a steam heat of 212°, and readily re-absorb that portion of
moisture when again exposed to damp air. When the dried residuum
is calcined at a dull red heat, six parts of vegetable substance are
burned away; at a higher temperature the carbonate of lime would be-
come calcined, and cause an additional loss of weight, which might
inconsiderately be mistaken for organic matter.

The first problem in an agricultural analysis, is to find the proportion
of calcareous matter, as carbonate and phosphate of lime. This may
be easily solved with the aid of the following instrument (see page 621),
which may be called the Zime-stone Meter, one of which was presented
and explained by me to the Council of the Royal Society of Agriculture
on the 29th of May last.

A, is a cylinder of glass, two inches in diameter, and fourteen inches
long, graduated on one side with a scale, into spaces of 100 water-grain
measures from 0 to 12,000, marked 10, 20, 30, &c.; and graduated on
the other side into spaces of 240 water-grain measure, each. The
former scale is used for the analysis of all sorts of alkaline carbonates,
and also of acids; the latter is adapted to the direct analysis of car-
bonate of lime and marls; and indirectly to that of phosphate of lime
. and carbonate of magnesia.

The cylinder A, has a tubulure in its side near to the bottom ; this is
closed with a cork, in the axis of which a short glass tube is cemented,
hooped externally to a collar of caoutchouc E, which serves as a joint
to the upright long glass tube B, held near its upper recurved end in a
hooked wire.

The top of the cylinder A is closed with an elastic cork, through a
perforation in which the taper tail of the little phial C passes air-tight.
The small tube F, open at both its ends, is cemented on its outer sur-
face, into the bottom of the phial C, so as to close it, while the tube
itself opens a free passage to gas, from the shoulder of the phial, down
into the cylinder A.

The mouth of the phial C is shut with a cork, through which ‘the
small end of the tube D passes air-tight. The tube D is graduated
into spaces of 10, 20, &c., water-grain measures up to 250, and is
closed at top with a stop-cock. Its lower and capillary extremity is
recurved.

In ascertaining with this instrument the proportion of real carbonate
of lime, in any limestone, marl, or soil, proceed as follows :—

Lift out the phial C, and pour water into the cylinder A till it stands

616 On the Analysis of Soils.

about half an inch below the line marked 0, and fill up this space with
common linseed-oil. Restore the phial C to its place, pressing it in
air-tight. Then take out its cork with its graduated tube, and introduce
into the phial as many grains weight of the soil or marl as it is proper to
operate upon. Of an average limestone’ 50 grains are sufficient, be-
cause the magnified scale of the lime-proof is adapted to the analysis of
50 grains of pure carbonate of lime. Of soils and marls, 100, 200, or
even 500 grains, may be taken, because these substances will rarely
contain one-tenth their weight of carbonate of lime. But as the result
may always be obtained within five minutes, at the cost of half a
farthing, several successive experiments may be made on different
weights of the sample. Having introduced the proper weight of the
object into the phial, cover it with water, till this stands a little above
the point to which the recurved tube descends. Holding D in the hand,
dip its bent point into a phial containing ordinary muriatic (hydro-
cbloric) acid, diluted with its own bulk of water, and applying the
mouth to the opened stop-cock, suck up the acid into the tube till this
be about two-thirds full, then turn the key of the cock before it is taken
from the lips, and the acid will not drop out when the tube is held up-
right. Replace the cork with its tube Din the phial C. Detach the long
tube, B, from its wire-rest with the left hand, and hold its curved ex-
tremity above an empty basin ; then with the right hand open the stop-
cock of D, to let a little acid run down upon the marl, but shut it almost
instantly again, lest too much acid should escape, and cause so brisk an
effervescence as to occasion an overflow of the mixture into the small
tube, F. The disengaged carbonic acid escapes through the tube F,
presses on the surface of the oil in A, and causes a stream of water to
flow from the tube B, into the subjacent basin. When the water ceases
to run, open the stop-cock again, when more acid will descend, cause a
fresh extrication of gas, and a further flow of water. The curved end
of the tube B should be progressively lowered, as the oil falls in A, so
as to maintain its level and that in the tube in the same horizontal
plane. Whenever gas ceases to be extricated by the muriatic acid,
the experiment is completed, and the number on the /ime-meter scale
opposite to the upper surface of the oil, denotes the number of grains
of carbonate of lime, in the quantity of limestone, marl, or soil, put
into the phial C for experiment. A little carbonic acid gas remains
condensed in the muriatic solution, but this is not more than equivalent
to the bulk of liquid acid introduced into the capacity of the apparatus ;
so that no compensation need be made in this account. For the pur-
pose of minute chemical research, that portion of gas may be expelled
by surrounding the phial C with a cloth wrung out of hot water, and
the volume of dilute acid added, may also be taken into the account.
Thus the composition of carbonates by an acid, and of acids by a bi-
carbonate, may be determined by means of this instrument with equal
rapidity and precision,

The contents of the phial may be poured out into a porcelain capsule,
gently heated, and thrown on a filter. The lime of the carbonate, as
well as the phosphate of lime and the magnesia, will pass through in so-
lution along with a very little iron. On super-saturating the acidulous

On the Analysis of Soils. 617

liquor with water of pure ammonia, phosphate of lime (if present)
will fall, and may be drained on a filter and dried. Taken off the dried
filter, and digested with a little dilute sulphuric acid; sulphate of lime will
result, characterized by its entire insolubility in dilute alcohol. Hence
the sulphate washed with vinous spirits, dried and calcined, will re-
present by its weight one-fifth more than the original weight of the
phosphate. By the action of the sulphuric acid, the iron precipitated
by the ammonia with the phosphate is got rid of.

The magnesia, unless its proportion had been very great, will all remain
dissolyed as ammonia-muriate, and its quantity may be ascertained by
precipitating it either with soda, or phosphate of soda. In the former
case, the substance obtained when washed on a filter, dried and ignited,
is pure magnesia ; in the latter, it is the ammonia-phosphate of mag-
nesia, and when dried at the moderate heat of 120° Fahr., it represents
by its weight about six times that of the magnesia present; or for 100
parts, 163 of magnesia.

When a complete analysis of a soil is to be made, the following ap-
paratus is convenient :—

A large glass flask, or matrass, with a sucked-in or concave thin bottom.
This should hold at least a quart of water ; and when the soil and dilute
acid are introduced, it is to be placed on a stand over the gentle flame
of a spirit lamp, while the beak of a large glass funnel, having its mouth
covered with a porcelain basin, filled with cold water, is inserted into
the neck of a flask. By this arrangement a continual ebullition may be
maintained in the mixture of soil and acid, without loss of acid, or
nuisance from its fumes, because the vapours are condensed whenever
they reach the cold basin above the funnel, and a perpetual cohobation
takes place. A boiling heat may be kept upin this way till every con-
stituent of the soil, except the silica, becomes dissolved. Muriatic acid
is generally preferred for the analysis of soils, and in somewhat greater
quantity than the bases in the given weight of soil can neutralize. The
funnel and porcelain basin should be properly supported upon the rings
of the chemical stand. I generally subject 100 grains of soil to the
action of boiling dilute acid in this way for 6 or 8 hours; at the end of
that period I throw the contents of the matrass upon a filter, and super-
saturate the filtered liquid with ammonia. The silica which remains on
the filter having been washed in the process, is dried, ignited, and
weighed.

The alumina, iron-oxide, and phosphate of lime, thrown down by the
ammonia, being washed in the filter, and dried to a cheesy consistence,
are removed with a bone or tortoise-shell blade into a silver basin, and
digested with heat in a solution of pure potash, whereby the alumina is
dissolved, when its alkaline solution is to be passed through a filter,
then saturated with muriatic acid, and next super-saturated with ammonia.
Pure white alumina falls, which is to be separated on a filter, washed,
dried, ignited, and weighed.

The iron and phosphate of lime on the alkaline filter may be dried,
gently ignited, and weighed, or otherwise directly separated from each
other without that step, by the action of dilute alcohol, acidulated with
sulphuric acid, at a gentle heat. Thus the iron oxide will-be dissolved,
and its solution mav be passed through a filter, while the sulphate of

618 On the Analysis of Soils.

lime will remain upon it, to be dried, ignited, and weighed. Five parts
of it correspond to four of phosphate. The iron is obtained by precipi-
tation with water of ammonia, filtration, and ignition.

The first filtered liquor, with excess of ammonia, contains the lime of the
carbonate, and the magnesia. The former is separated by a solution of
oxalate of ammonia, with digestion in a gentle warmth for a few hours,
filtration, and very gentle ignition of the washed dry powder, when the
pure carbonate of lime is obtained. The magnesia, existing in the
filtered liquor as an ammonia-muriate, may be obtained by precipita-
tion with soda, or phosphate of soda, as already described,

For some refractory soils, in which the alumina exists as a double or
triple silicate, it becomes necessary to fuse 50 grains of the sample, in
fine powder, mixed with four times its weight of dry carbonate of soda,
the mixture being put into a platinum crucible, and into a cavity in its
centre, 50 grains of hydrate of potash being laid.

The crucible being slowly raised to a red-white heat, affords a fused
liquid quite homogeneous, of a gray or brown colour, according to the
metals present in it. Manganese gives a purple tint; and iron a red-
dish brown. The fused matter should be poured out into a shallow
platinum basin; and, whenever it cools, it should be pulverized, dissolved
in dilute muriatic acid, the solution evaporated to dryness, the dry mass
again digested in hot water, acidulated with muriatic acid, and the
whole thrown upon a filter. Pure silica will remain on the filter, to be
washed, dried, ignited, and weighed.

The filtered liquor contains the remaining constituents of the soil, and
is to be treated as already described.

Besides these systematic investigations, researches may be made for
certain peculiar substances, and especially the neutro-saline constituents.
In this view 100 grains of the soil may be triturated with 20 times their
weight of distilled water, placed in a beaker, till the clayey matter sub-
sides, and the clear portion then be decanted into a filter. A little of
the filtered liquor should be tested with nitrate of barytes, and also with
oxalate of ammonia; and if each portion yields a precipitate, they show
the presence of sulphate of lime; and the following steps ought to be
taken to eliminate it entirely: 200 grains of the soil should be triturated
with a quart of distilled water, holding 50 grains of sal-ammoniac, in solu:
tion. The mixture should be allowed to clarify itself by subsidence,
when the supernatant clear liquor should be filtered, and evaporated down
to 2 ounce measures, and then mixed with that bulk of strong whiskey
(11 per cent. overproof). The whole sulphate of lime will be now
separated from the fluid, and after being drained on a filter, may be
dried, ignited, and weighed.

For determining the alkaline salts, the water filtered from the 100
grains of the soil should be evaporated down to one-fifth of its bulk, and
then treated—-1st, with nitrate of barytes for the sulphates; 2nd, with
nitrate of silver for the muriates; 3rd, with oxalate of ammonia, for the
nitrate or muriate of lime (provided no sulphate of lime is indicated by
the first test) ; 4th, with litmus paper, for alkaline or acid reaction; 5th,
with soda-chloride of platinum for potash salts, which are very valuable
for the vigorous growth of many plants.

The portion of soil tested for potash salts should, before being digested

On the Analysis of Soils. 619

in water, be gently calcined, to insure the expulsion of every particle of
ammoniacal salt, otherwise the precipitate afforded by soda-chloride of
platinum would be fallacious.

Another peculiar research of great importance is that which deter-
mines the amount of ammonia in a soil; and which may exist either
ready formed, or in its elements, capable of affording a portion of the
azotic food so indispensable to vigorous vegetation. The actual am-
monia is easily obtained by distilling the soil along with some milk of
lime. The distilled water will contain all the volatile alkali, which may
be measured by the number of drops of a standard dilute acid, which it
will saturate.

The potential ammonia, slumbering, so to speak, in its embryo ele-
ments, may be estimated by igniting 200 grains of the soil with its own
~ weight of a mixture of hydrate of soda and quicklime, as described in
my memoir on ‘The Analysis of Guano,’ in the last number of this
Journal, page 296, § 16.

I have subjected the soil of Dr. Kerrison’s farm to the various
modes of research above enumerated, and have obtained the following
results :—

1. By the application of my limestone-meter I obtained carbonic acid
gas, equivalent to 9 grains of carbonate of lime.

2. By igniting 200 grains of the soil along with 200 grains of mixed
quicklime and hydrate of soda, in the appropriate apparatus, I obtained
0°34 grains of ammonia, or 0°17 per cent. of the weight of the soil.
Hence 600 grains of the soil contain the azotic equivalent of one grain
of ammonia. This remarkable fact reveals most plainly one secret source
of the uninterrupted production of rich crops of cereals and other plants
from it, without receiving any manure. How appropriate to such land
—— beautiful title of the subject of his ‘Georgics,’ justissima
tellus !

3. By the process of cohobation for 8 hours, with dilute muriatic
acid, as also by the process of fusion with alkalis in a platinum crucible,
and the subsequent treatment above detailed, I obtained—

1. Silica . ; : . : - 56:0
2. Alumina. . : ; : “ 8°0
3. Oxide of iron . . 5°5
4. Carbonate of lime . . 9°0
5. Sub-phosphate of lime 0-4
6. Magnesia (carbonate) . - 0°5
7. Moisture separable by steam-hea 11°3
8. Organic matter, chiefly vegetable mould 6°6
9. Moisture separable at a red-heat 2°71

100°0
Besides traces of muriate of soda, and muriate of lime (chlorides of
sodium and calcium). The iron exists mostly in the state of protoxide,
a circumstance owing, probably, to exhalations from the subsoil of sul-
phuretted, phosphuretted, and carburetted hydrogen. The fresh soil is
of a grey colour, but becomes ochrey-red by calcination.

620 On the Analysis of Soils.

100 grains of the said soil, dried at 212°, absorb 8 grains of moisture
in 24 hours; while 100 grains of the comparatively steril soil of
Regent’s Park, dried equally, absorb only 5 grains: a difference due
chiefly to the finer comminution of the former. +

Since the phosphates are such precious ingredients towards fertilizing
soils, it is desirable to possess a clear and simple test of their presence.
For this purpose digest the soil, for an hour or so, with a moderate heat,
in dilute nitric acid, free ftom muriatic (viz. which affords, when largely
diluted, no precipitate, by the addition of a solution of nitrate of silver).
Throw the mixture on a filter, and to the filtered liquid add potash-water,
cautiously. till the instant that a precipitate begins to appear ; ;
into it a weak solution of nitrate of silver. If anv phosphoric salts be
present, a yellowish precipitate will immediately fall, which is re-coluble
in an excess of nitric acid. Whatever is not thus dissolved is chloride
of silver, and ought to be separated by filtration: on adding then weak
water of potash (not ammonia) cautiously to the filtered liquid, the pure
phosphate of silver will be obtained, without any alumina or iron, pro-
vided the liquid be stil] acidulous in a slight degree. It ought to be
remembered that chloride of silver falls in a white curdy form, quite
different from that of the phosphate of silver. The portion of soil used
for this experiment should be fresh, and not calcimed, because the phos-
phates, when ignited, afford white precipitates with salts of silver. The
stronger the solution of the phosphoric saline compound is, the more
characteristic is the yellow precipitate with silver ; and then ammonia may
be used for effecting the partial saturation of the acid excess. Sulphate
of magnesia is an excellent re-agent for detecting phosphoric acid, and
for separating it from the above acid solution, when it is partially neu-
tralized with ammoniz; for the magnesia forms, with the phosphoric
acid and ammonia, the insoluble granular precipitate of ammonia-mag-
nesian phosphate. A solution of sulphate of magnesia, containing a
little sal-ammoniac. is probably the best test-liquor for detecting phos-
phates in faintly acidulous, but still better in neutral, solutions.

In almost all soils of an arable nature under cultivation in this
country, there is a sufficiency of calcareous matter present to counteract
the combination of phosphoric acid with alumina or oxide of iron, for
which reason it would be an idle refinement of agricultural analysis to
search for phosphates of alumina and iron. As for pan ppt often
associated with iron, it exists in too small a proportion, and is possessed
of too little value to make it worth while to effect its i It
gives to calcined iron-oxide a black hue, and is characterized in its saline
solutions by the fiesh-coloured precipitate which it affords with hydro-
sulphuret of ammonia, after the whole of the iron has been thrown down
by boiling the solution of the two metals with pure carbonate of lime.

The organic matter in any soil may be correctly estimated by cal-
cining its powder pretty strongly till the carbonic acid be expelled from
the lime in it. The loss of weight, deducting that due to the carbonic
acid gas (which is known from an independent experiment), gives the
quantity of organic matter. Its quality is determined by the ultimate
analysis by means of hydrate of soda and quicklime, as previously
stated.

*

's Limestone Meter.

Dr. Ure

fsvaseu sad Gapuuwe con VerdusnbeodaniVeWnWabenlehowasedendunee Vibacnawnduannvoabhé hwenehevbadivdiednd riitevOunRinuwebuwd

/2 INCHES

u

10

( 622 )

XXI.—On Stacking Sainfoin. By the Eart of Essex.
To Ph, Pusey, Esq.

My vear Mr. Pusey,—If you think the following experiment worthy
of insertion in our journal, it is very much at your service :—

On Monday and Tuesday of the last week in June, last summer, I
cut 9 acres of sainfoin, a good crop for the season, averaging 14 load
to the acre, and in full flower. On Wednesday it was once turned,
and on Thursday and Friday it was carried and stacked. The weather
was dry and hot, so that the hay was somewhat dried, but still so
green, that on working it between the finger and thumb, abundance of
moisture exuded. In stacking it, I put alternate layers of oat-straw
(in all 200 trusses). All hands prognosticated heating and burning ;
and my bailiff suggested that I should put a perpendicular chimney, in
in the centre of the stack, of rough timber, communicating at the bottom
with a horizontal one, extending to the outside of the stack, thus—

oe See ee ee

No heating whatever took place ; I have now reached the centre of the
stack, and nothing can be finer than the hay. It has retained its green
colour; and the flower, especially near the chimney, is as bright and
purple as when first cut. The straw seems to have absorbed all the
superabundant moisture, and is almost as good as the hay: and the
whole together cuts up into most admirable chaff. This year I should
certainly wish to repeat the process with all my hay, but fear there will
be a great deficiency of straw.
Believe me, yours very faithfully,
Essex.

3, Chapel Street, Park Lane, January 6.

( 623 )

XXII.—Experiment on Manures. By Isaac Everirr.

Weighed this day, December 18th, 1844, after 10 days’ very severe
frost, without any snow having fallen, consequently the turnips must
have lost considerably in weight; the following 6 rods of green-top
yellow turnip, drilled on ridges, 27 inches wide, on the 22nd June,
1844 :—

2g Numb ie reig
24 Description of the Manures oleate “of. ee — Weight eg
és yer: per Acre. Reig ai Rod. | Pet Turmip- | Acre.
Bes di lbs. lbs. Tons,
With Pigeons’ Dung, at a
1 { rate of 6 tumbrel loads r| 3°30 112 196 1? 14
acre, at 10s.6d. per load .
With 2 cwt. of Guano, at 14s.
per ewt., mixed well with
1 8 bushels of burnt quick >| 1 10 8 108 175 1? 124
ashes per eed at 4d. ag | rather less.
bushel. .
With farm-yard Manure, 12
1 tumbrel loads oe pes at >| 2 14 0 103 175 12 124
4s.6d. | rather less,
With Bones, at Pe rate of
1 12 bushels Se ae at>} 1 10 0 120 168 1i 12
2s. 6d. s rather less.
| With Rape-Cake, at ~~ rate|
1 of 12 bushels Be aa at>| 1 10 0 111 154 14 11
ZsiGd. | rather less.
l . any Manure aie = yome 115 21 ok. i
| oe | per Turnip. |
OBSERVATIONS.

It will be observed by these experiments, that the above turnips can
be grown, with either guano, bones, or rape-cake, at about 2s. 6d. per
ton, and allowing that 1 bushel of turnips weighs 4 stones, which is very
near the mark, they can be also grown at the cost of about 3 farthings
per bushel. But there is another very obvious circumstance attending
all experiments in growing turnips, viz., so much depending upon the
men hoeing them, one man setting his turnips much more regularly
than another ; consequently the result of all experiments is influenced
very much by this fact. The manures were all deposited between the
ridges, and they were then split or ploughed on the manure, then rolled
down, and the turnips drilled on the ridges.

South Creake, near Fakenham, Norfolk.

END OF VOL. V,

Lonvon: ; Oar
Printed by Wrru1am Crowes and Sons, :
Sir Saree,

Ropal Agricultural Society of England,

1843—1844.
Presivent.
EARL SPENCER.

Trustees.
Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P. Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart.
Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P. Neeld, Joseph, M.P.
Downshire, Marquis of Richmond, Duke of
Grafton, Duke of Rutland, Duke of
Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P. Spencer, Earl
Handley, Henry Sutherland, Duke of

Vice-Presivents,
Buckingham, Duke of | Morgan, Sir Charles Gould, Bart.
Chichester, Earl of Northumberland, Duke of
Ducie, Earl of Portman, Lord
Exeter, Marquis of Talbot, Earl
Fitzwilliam, Earl Wellington, Duke of
Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart. Worsley, Lord, M.P.
General Members of Council.

Austen, Colonel Thomas Hyett, William Henry
Barclay, David, M.P. Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P.
Baring, Hon. William Bingham, M.P. Jonas, Samuel
Barker, Thomas Raymond Kimberley, George
Benett, John, M.P. Kinder, John
Bennett, Samuel King, Fielder
Blanshard, Henry Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P.
Bramston, Thomas William, M.P. Miles, William, M.P.
Buller, Edward, M.P. Pendarves, Edward W. Wynne, M.P.
Burke, J. French Pole, E. S. Chandos
Cavendish, Hon. George Henry, M.P. Price, Sir Robert, Bart.
Challoner, Colonel Pusey, Philip, M.P.
Childers, John Walbanke, M.P. Pym, Francis
Compton, Henry Coombe, M.P. Sanford, Edward Ayshford
Ellman, John Sewell, Professor
Etwall, Ralph, M.P. Shaw, William
Fellowes, Edward, M.P. Shelley, John Villiers
Gibbs, Humphrey Sotheron, Thomas H. S. E., M.P.
Grantham, Stephen Spencer, Hon. Captain
Hatherton, Lord Stansfield, W. R. Crompton, M.P.
Hayter, William Goodenough, M.P. Stokes, Charles
Hillyard, C. Thompson, Henry Stephen
Hobbs, William Fisher Wilbraham, George, M.P.
Hoskyns, Sir Hungerford, Bart. Wilson, Henry
Hudson, John Wood, Colonel Thomas, M.P.

Secretary.

JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover: Square, London.

Consulting Chemist—Dr. Lyon Piayrair, Manchester.

Consulting Engineer—Jostau Parkes, C.E., 7, Great College Street, Westminster.
Seedsmen—Messrs. Tuomas Gisps, & Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street.

Bankers—Messrs, DRumMonp, Charing Cross.
VOL. V. a

~“,
1
~~

Bonorary Hembers.

Buckianp, The Rey. Wii11am, D.D., F.R.S., Vice-President of the Geological Society.
Carr, Captain J. Sranter, Duchy of Lauenburg.

Corman, Henry, Agricultural Commissioner of the State of Massachusetts.

Dauseny, Cuarces, M.D.. F.R.S., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford.
De ta Becue, Sir Henry Tuomas, F.R.S., Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey.

Everett, The Hon. Epwarp, United States’ Minister.

Hewnstow, The Rev. J. S., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge.
Jounston, James F. W., F.RS., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham.
Lizzie, Dr. Justus, University of Giessen.

Morcaison, Roperick Impey, F.R.S., President of the Royal Geographical Society.
Prayratr, Dr. Lyon, Royal Institution, Manchester. '
Sotty, Epwarp, Jun., Horticultural Society of London.

Sprencet, Dr. Cuartes, Prussia.

Stevenson, The Hon. ANDREw, Washington.

Van DE Weve, M. Sytv1an, Belgian Minister.

Ropal Agricultural Society of Gngland.

GENERAL MEETING,

12, HANOVER SquaRE, Monpay, DecrMseEr 9, 1843.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Annual Country Meetings of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England have already been attended with so many important
results to the particular districts in which they have taken place,
and to the kingdom at large, that the details affecting their future
regulation, and the best means of rendering them still further use-
ful and effective, are topics which have engaged much of the atten-
tion of the Council during the past half-year.

The Meeting at Oxford was eminently successful, and its ar-
rangements, for so novel an undertaking, were in every respect
adequate to the occasion. As a spontaneous assemblage of the
friends of agricultural improvement, formed for the purpose of
carrying out a great national object, that memorable first Country
Meeting of the Society will, perhaps, never be rivalled; but, in
point of magnitude and detail in the department of the exhibition
of stock and implements, a rapid increase has annually taken
place, and in a ratio this year so unprecedented, that at Derby the
show-yard occupied twice the space of that of either Oxford or
Cambridge, and contained nearly four times the number of ani-
mals, and more than seven times the number of implements,
at Oxford; exceeding, in this amount, the successful exhibition
even of Bristol by 165 animals and 251 implements, there haying

a2

iv Report to the General Meeting.

been exhibited at the recent Derby Meeting, in July last, no less
than 878 head of stock and 700 distinct implements. While,
however, the excellence of the stock, and the number, variety, and
importance of the agricultural implements exhibited on that occa-
sion, formed a most gratifying proof of the success resulting from
the Country Meetings of the Society, the corresponding increase
in the details of the arrangements, and the general expenses attend-
ing the show, are circumstances which have required and received
the serious consideration of the Council.

The Society have already voted their best thanks to the Mayor
and corporation of Derby for the aid they so efficiently rendered
to the Meeting in the preservation of the peace and good order of
the town; to Mr. Colvile, M.P., and the Local Committee, for their
zealous co-operation in carrying out the details of the business
immediately connected with the local arrangements; and to the
various Railway Companies for the accommodation of special trains,
and the remission of one-half the usual charges in favour of agri-
cultural implements conveyed along their respective lines, which
they granted to the members and the public. The Council are
also sensible of the attention shown to the Society by the Magis-
trates, in the grant of the use of the County Hall for the purpose of
the Council dinner; by the various owners and occupiers who
placed their land at the disposal of the Society ; and by Mr. Brom-
ley, the Secretary of the South Derbyshire Agricultural Society,
in the devotion of his time and exertions in fulfilling the duties of
Secretary to the Local Committee.

The Council and Members of the Society, as well as the im-
plement-makers and public at large, experienced considerable
disappointment at the Derby Meeting, that they were deprived of
the opportunity of witnessing a trial of implements on lighter soil
than that at Rough Heanor, on which the heavy-land implements
were worked, and for the use of which the Society were indebted
to the liberality of Mr. Chandos Pole, the proprietor. The Coun-
cil have taken every measure which they think best adapted to
prevent the recurrence of a similar disappointment; and in the
meantime, at the suggestion of the Judges of Implements, they

Report to the General Meeting. v

have requested Mr. Jaques, of Easby Abbey, near Richmond in
Yorkshire, to subject Lord Ducie’s Uley cultivator and Messrs.
Ransome’s improved Biddell scarifier, with the consent of the
respective makers, to the comparative trial of a whole season’s
work on soils of various texture. The Duke of Richmond, the
Hon, Captain Spencer, and Mr. Jaques, have undertaken to test
the respective merits of the dynamometers of Messrs. Cottam
and Hallen, and Mr. Clyburn, when applied to the trial of the
draught of agricultural implements; and Mr. Graburn has ex-
pressed his willingness to ascertain the effects of Messrs. Ran-
some’s and Mr, Alexander Dean’s portable metallic and stone
corn-mills by constant use in his own household.

A Deputation of the Society was appointed to visit Southampton
immediately at the close of the Derby Meeting, for the purpose of
inspecting the various sites for the show-yard, pavilion, and Coun-
cil-dinner ; and being received by the mayor and corporation, they
were conducted to the several localities considered to be most
suitable for those objects. After receiving their report, the Coun-
cil decided to select as the site of the show-yard a portion of
Southampton Common, originally offered to the Society by the
mayor and corporation, and directed a communication of that de-
cision to be made to the mayor, who has since that time transmitted
to the Council the resolutions of a public meeting of the rate-
payers and commoners of the town, unanimously expressing their
most cheerful and cordial co-operation with the corporation in
sanctioning the application of any portion of the common that
may be required for the purposes of the Society. Mr. Miles,
M.P., Mr. Shelley, and Mr. Gibbs, were deputed accordingly to
inspect the localities most suitable for the show-yard and pavilion ;
and those gentlemen, having made their report to the Council on
those points, it was found that the site most advantageously situated
for the show-yard would comprise a considerable portion of the
race-course; and the president having therefore communicated
that circumstance to the mayor, he informed the president in reply,
that the portion of the race-course thus included within the pro-
posed area of the show-yard would be willingly ceded, and every

vi Report to the General Meeting.

accommodation in the power of the authorities and inhabitants of
Southampton to grant, would be readily arranged on their part to
meet the wishes of the Society.

The Council have appointed Mr. Miles, M.P., and Mr. Shelley,
to be the Stewards of the Implement Department, with full power
to take every measure to render the exhibition and trial of imple-
ments in every respect satisfactory at the Southampton Meeting.

The Council have appointed Mr. Parkes to be the Consulting
Engineer of the Society; to be remunerated, when employed in
that capacity, either by the Council from the funds of the Society,
or by individual members at the usual rate of professional charge.
Mr. Parkes, as a civil engineer, has long maintained a high stand-
ing in his profession, and as a judge of implements, and author of
the valuable reports on the exhibition and trial of the implements
at the Liverpool and Bristol Meetings, is well known to the mem-
bers of the Society at large. In addition to Mr. Parkes as the
Consulting Engineer of the Society, the Council have decided that
a greater number of judges of implements, including practical
farmers, shall be appointed: also, that the exhibition of imple-
ments on the Tuesday and Wednesday previously to the principal
day of the show, shal] be open at 2s. 6d. on each of those two days,
instead of at 5s. as heretofore. They have limited the accommo-
dation in the pavilion to the number of 1400 persons ; and decided
that tickets for the pavilion dinner shall be reserved for members
until twelve o’clock of the day of the dinner, and afterwards sold
to the public. They have fixed the time of the meeting as the
fourth week of July, Thursday, the 25th, being the principal day
of the show. The Council have settled all the prizes for the
Southampton Meeting, including among those for stock special
local prizes for cattle of the Channel Islands’ breed, and for short-
woolled sheep not qualified to compete as Southdowns: all certi-
ficates for implements being required to be sent to the Secretary
on or before the Ist of May, and all others on or before the Ist of
June; and the Council have decided that, after those dates re-
spectively, no certificate shall be received under any pretence
whatever.

Report to the General Meeting. vil

The Finance Committee have laid before the Council the de-
tailed balance-sheet of the Derby Meeting account, from which it
appears that the receipts on account of that Meeting were 3390/.,
while the expenditure had been 5090/. 17s. 1d., being an excess of
expenditure over the receipts of 1700/. 17s. 1d. chargeable on the
funds of the Society. The Council trust that they will be enabled
to prevent the recurrence of such a deficit at the ensuing country
meeting.

The Finance Committee have also laid before the Council the
following statement of the arrears of subscription at the present

time, in comparison with their amount at the last December
meeting :—

Ee
Amount of Arrears in December, 1842........ 3705 0 0
Ditto of the same Arrears in December, 1843...1614 0 0
Total amount of such Arrears paid or discharged
; 5* p2091 O 0
during the last twelve months ............ ;

By the new regulation, all subscriptions of the present year,
due in advance on the Ist of January last, became in arrear on
the Ist of June ensuing; and agreeably with such rule, the
amount of subscriptions in arrear for 1843 is only 1879/., a pro-
portion of the year’s subscriptions by no means great when it is
taken into consideration that the fact of such new rule being in
operation may not be known by the members generally who are
thus in arrear.

The Committee have laid before the Council the following

Statement of the Members remaining on the list of the Society
after the removal of such names as were referred to by the Council
in their last Report to the General Meeting in May :—

me savers. ees Se PO 94
Gevermors stiri stew), te). sitriresti 209
Wits IETADETS y wibs Wisi se » =)isi\jer.i0 - 429
OSE See a ee 6155
Honorary members... .. » ee ts

6902

The Journal Committee have reported to the Council the adju-
dication of the Society’s gold medal, along with Mr. Slaney’s

Viil Report to the General Meeting.

addition of 10/. to the prize, for the best Essay on the Construc-
tion of Cottages, to the Rev. Copincer Hit, of Buxhall, near
Stowmarket ; and the completion of the new part of the ‘ Journal,
which will be published in a few days.

The Council have to acknowledge the favour Professor Brande
has conferred on the members, in delivering to them, at the
request of Earl Spencer, your President, two Lectures in the
Theatre of the Royal Institution, on the Chemical Constitution of
Lime and Clay.

The judges of the seed-wheat selected for trial at the Bristol
Meeting having made their respective reports of the results ob-
tained in cultivating the selected wheats along with well-known
varieties of the neighbourhood in which each trial was made, the
Council have decided, that although the white wheat promised
favourably under certain circumstances, they had not at that time
sufficient proof before them that it possessed the requisite amount
of merit for the Society’s prize; while the two reds were very
inferior in every respect. As the comparison had been made
during an unfavourable season, the Council have decided that the
white wheat shall have the advantage of a further trial.

Agreeably with the Charter, the Council have filled up the
vacancies in their body occasioned by the lamented deaths of Mr.
Woods Page, Mr. Webb Hall, and the Rev. Mr. Rham, by the
election of Mr. Compton, M.P. vice Mr. Page, to go out by
rotation in 1844; Mr. Etwall, M.P. vice Mr. Webb Hall, to go
out by rotation in 1844; Mr. John Hudson, of Castleacre, Nor-
folk, vice the Rev. Mr. Rham, to go out by rotation in 1845.

In conclusion, the Council have much satisfaction in reporting
the increasing recognition of the utility of the Society, by the
accession of members of all classes throughout the various districts
into which the kingdom has been divided for the purposes of
holding its country meetings ; and though the increasing numbers
will generally be found in the peculiar locality of the year, still
a very large addition is at the same time going on from every part
of the country.

By order of the Council,
JAMES HUDSON, Secretary.

Cheneral (Meetings of 1844—5.

The Annuat Country Meeting, at Southampton: principal
day of the Show, Thursday, July 25, 1844.

The GenerAt Decemper MeEEtTING, in London, on the Satur-
day of the Smithfield Club Show-week : 1844.

The Generat May Meetina, in London, on Thursday, May
22, 1845.

The Annuat Country Meeting, at Shrewsbury, in 1845.

Corrace Economy.—Mr. Main’s article on Cottage Gardening, and Mr. Burke’s
compilation on Cottage Economy and Cookery, have each been reprinted from the
Journal in a separate form, for cheap distribution. Either or both of these tracts may
be obtained by members at the rate of 1s. per dozen copies, on their enclosing to the
Secretary a Post-office money-order for the number required; at the same time stating
the most eligible mode of conveyance by which the copies can be transmitted to their
address. They are also sold to the public at 2d. each, by the Society’s Publisher,
Mr. Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, London.

VoLuMEs oF THE JourNAL.—The first Volume of the Journal consists of four parts,
the second and third Volumes of three parts each (the second and third parts of the
third Volume being comprised in a double number), and the fourth of ¢wo parts. The
Journal is now published half-yearly, namely, in half-volumes, at the beginning and
middle of each year.

SusscripTions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory
manner, by means of Post-office orders, to be obtained on application at any of the
principal Post-offices throughout the kingdom. They are due in advance, for
each year, on the Ist of January; and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June
ensuing. No Member is entitled to the Journal whose subscription is in arrear.

Statement of Receipts and Payments.

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Ropal Agricultural Society of England.

GENERAL MEETING.

May 22, 1844.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Council, in laying before the Members, at their present
General Meeting, their Half-yearly Report on the state and pros-
pects of the Society, at the completion of the sixth year from the
date of its foundation, have the satisfaction of recording the pro-
gressive fulfilment of its various objects

The excitement which attended its original formation, and the
rapidity with which the importance of those objects was recognised
by the friends of agriculture in every part of the kingdom, at once
swelled the list of its members to an extent unprecedented in the
history of any similar institution. That excitement, having roused
the attention of the cultivators of the soil to the fact of the great
resources within their own immediate power, has led them to
seek, with practical caution, but with an energy also proportionate
to the advantages to be gained, those means by which the objects
in view have appeared to them most likely to be attained, and
rendered applicable to their local circumstances. Not only have
the leading agriculturists of the kingdom come forward to aid the
Council in carrying out, to the best of their power, the general
collection and discussion of facts having an important bearing on-

Report to the General Meeting. xiii

the various branches of agricultural improvement, both personally
at their meetings and as contributors through the pages of the
Journal ; but within their own local sphere in the country they
have, in many instances, been instrumental in reviving the spirit
of existing associations, or of establishing new societies or clubs of
practical farmers, for the observation, collection, and discussion
of such practical results as more immediately refer, in the first
instance, to the improvement of their own local agriculture, but
become afterwards generally applicable to other localities placed
under the same circumstances of aspect, soil, and cultivation.

It has been the uniform desire of the Council to avail them-
selves of every opportunity by which the operations of the Society
may extend their influence, and convey sound and practical infor-
mation, through the numerous classes of its members, distributed
over the various districts of the kingdom. While preserving its
fixed locality for the transaction of official business in the Metro-
polis as a centre, the Council have the satisfaction of referring,
with great confidence, to the signal success which has attended
the means of communication afforded by the distribution of the
Journal, the circulation of Cottage Tracts reprinted from its pages,
and the change from year to year of the locality in which the
country meetings are held. In the more concentrated sphere of
its legislative and official duties, the Council have to report the
active measures taken by their various committees to simplify the
details connected with their respective departments, and to avail
themselves of such results of experience as render the general trans-
action of business gradually more uniform, exact, and satisfactory.

The Society consists of the following members, namely,—

4

Life governors... .% «+ +. + « . 99
PANSIMAILCICLGS Jc) sts en arene teies te SONA
Tkife members . ..-.. » » «442
ADA AEG. vel acyteyleryen eag.s = G16
Honorary ditto. ....-..-.- %&15

making a total of 6927 members on the books of the Society at
the present time ; and the Council have the satisfaction of report-
ing the steady accession of candidates from every part of the

XIV Report to the General Meeting.

kingdom, at each of their weekly meetings—no less than 274 new
members having been elected during the last three months and
a half. Since the last General Meeting in December, the Council,
at the recommendation of the Finance Committee, have ordered
the names of 249 members to be removed from the list of the
Society. Of these, 31 were lost to the Society by death, and 157
struck out, either at their own request, on account chiefly of their
having entered the Society, at the country meetings, for temporary
purposes only, or on the decision of the Committee, who have
maturely taken each case of exemption, claimed under a variety
of circumstances, into their special consideration, while the re-
maining 6] have withdrawn their names from the Society for
reasons assigned by them at variance with the fundamental rules
of the charter.

The Finance Committee will lay before you the Auditors’
Balance-Sheet of the accounts to the end of the year 1843; and,
at the same time, report the actual state of the funds of the So-
ciety at the present time. They have also reported that at the
last General Meeting in December, the arrears of subscription,
due on previous years, to that date inclusively, amounted in the
whole to 5724/., since which time they have been reduced by the
sum of 11247. The Finance Committee having represented to
the Council that in some instances they found great difficulty in
recovering the arrears of subscription due to the Society, the fol-
lowing Resolution was passed, namely :—

«That a professional person be appointed to write letters,
demanding arrears of subscription, to all such parties as
shall be designated from time to time by the Fimance
Committee ; and, in case of such applications not being
successful, to take further legal steps for enforcing the
payments due.”

That Committee have accordingly already taken preliminary
steps, under professional direction, for the recovery of some of
the remaining arrears; but they still trust that, by the prompt
payment of what is due, ulterior legal measures may be rendered
unnecessary.

Report to the General Meeting. xv

The Council feel it their duty distinctly to state that the
Charter gives to them the undoubted right of enforcing the de-
mand for any money due to the Society in a court of law. If
they are ever compelled to resort to that extreme measure, it will
be with great regret; but it is their positive duty not to permit
the useful objects for which the Society was established to be
frustrated by allowing the actual receipts to fall short of the legi-
timate claims of the Society.

The Journal Committee have reported the unusual excellence
and sound practical character of the whole of the numerous essays
sent in this year to compete for the prizes of the Society. They
have announced the decision of the J udges in reference to an out-
standing essay of 1843, namely :—

To Mr. Joun Cuiarke, of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, the
award of the Society’s prize of 15/. for the best essay on the ma-
nagement and application of farm-yard manure; and the follow-
ing awards already made of the prizes for the present year,
namely :—

To Mr. R. N. Bacon, of Norwich, the prize of 50/., for the
best report on the present state of the agriculture of Norfolk.

To Mr. Roserrt Baxer, of Writtle, near Chelmsford, the
prize of 50/., for the best report on the present state of the agri-
culture of Essex.

To Mr. Epwarp Lirtte, of Lower Sheldon Farm, near Chip-
penham, the prize of 50/., for the best report on the present state
of the agriculture of Wiltshire.

To Mr. Joun Bravenper, of Cirencester, the prize of 50/.,
for the best essay on the indications of the fertility or barrenness
of soils.

The Judges appointed to decide on the relative merits of the
essays in the latter class have not only awarded the prize to Mr.
Bravender, as announced, but have “ highly commended” four of
the remaining essays ; and the Council having received from Mr.
William Stace, of Berwick, near Lewes, Sussex, and Mr. John
Arkell, of Hollow Farm, near Gloucester, the authors respec-
tively of two of those essays, their full permission for the Journal

xvl Report to the General Meeting.

Committee to make any use of them of which they may be found
available in carrying out the objects of the Society, have ordered
their thanks for such favour to be returned to those gentlemen
accordingly. :

There having frequently existed a doubt how far it has been
the intention of some of the writers of the essays to enter into
communication with the officers of the Society, in reference to
points of detail connected with their essays, the Council have
adopted the following recommendations of the Journal Committee
on this subject :—

“1. That competitors shall be required to enclose their
names in a cover, on which only their motto and the sub-
ject of their papers, with the number of that subject in
the Prize List of the Society, shall be written.

«2. That the Chairman of the Journal Committee alone
shall be empowered to open the motto-paper of such
essays not obtaining the prize as he may think likely to
be useful for the Society’s objects; with a view of con-
sulting the writer confidentially, as to his willingness to
place such paper at the disposal of the Journal Com-
mittee.”

The following recommendation of the Journal Committee on
the subjects and amount of prizes for the essays of next year, has
also been adopted by the Council—the conditions of which will
be announced, as usual, in the Appendix to the next Journal,—
the essays for these prizes being required to be sent to the Secre-
tary on or before the Ist of March, 1845 :—

50/.—On the farming of Nottinghamshire.

50/.—On the farming of Cornwall.

50/.—On the farming of Kent.

201.—On the best method of reclaiming heath-land. _

107.—On the advantages of one-horse carts.

20/.—On catch-meadows.

201.—On fences.

107.—On the best method of fattening cattle.

20/.— On the cheapest mode of establishing a tile-yard.

Report to the General Meeting. XVll

507.—On the Dutch method of curing butter.
20/.—For the best experiment in agriculture.

The General Southampton Committee have reported their ar-
rangements for the Meeting of the present year at that town in
July next; and the Council have ordered an extensive announce-
ment of the prizes to be awarded on that occasion, amounting to
upwards of 1400/., to be made by publication in the Journal,
distribution of the prize-sheets, and advertisement in the public
papers. They have the satisfaction of announcing that the im-
plements entered for exhibition and trial at the Southampton
Meeting already exceed by 123 the number of those at the Derby
Meeting. The Council have decided that the Annual Country
Meeting for the North Wales District shall be held at Shrews-
bury in 1845.

The Council have entered into a satisfactory arrangement with
the executor of the late Mr. Webb Hall for the purchase, by
valuation, of the library of the late Board of Agriculture, be-
stowed upon his father at its dissolution.

The Council have unanimously appointed Messrs. Thomas
Gibbs and Co., of Half-moon Street, Piccadilly, to be the seeds-
men to the Society.

The Council think it desirable to state, in conclusion, that all
their Weekly Meetings, excepting that on the first Wednesday of
the month, are set apart for the reception and discussion of agri-
cultural communications, and that all members of the Society
have the privilege of being present on those occasions. The ex-
perience which the Council have already had of the sound and
practical suggestions made to them at those Meetings, and the
interesting discussions which have frequently arisen thereupon,
induces them to invite all the members who may happen to be in
London on the days of meeting to avail themselves of this privi-
lege,—begging to assure them that their attendance on such occa-
sions will be as acceptable to the Council, as it is at all times
uniformly desired.

By order of the Council,
JAMES HUDSON, Secretary.

VOL. V. b

Statement of Accounts.

XV

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‘ANVTONG AO ALUIOOS TVHNALTOOMOV TVAOU

("xis )

Awniual Country Melecting of 1845,

TO BE HELD AT

SHREWSBURY,

In THE North Waves District, coMPRISING THE CouNTIES OF ANGLESEY, CaR-
NARYVON, MerioneTH, Monteomery, Densicu, Fiint, CHESTER,
Satop, AND STAFFORD,

THE PRIZES ARE OPEN TO GENERAL COMPETITION,

FORMS OF CERTIFICATE TO BE PROCURED ON APPLICATION TO THE SECRETARY, 12,
HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON.

ALL CERTIFICATES FOR IMPLEMENTS MUST BE RETURNED, FILLED UP, TO THE SECRETARY
ON OR BEFORE THE Ist OF MAY, AND ALL OTHER CERTIFICATES BY THE IsT OF
JUNE; THE COUNCIL HAVING DECIDED THAT IN NO CASE WHATEVER SHALL ANY
CERTIFICATE BE RECEIVED AFTER THOSE DATES RESPECTIVELY.

Prizes for Improving the Breed of Cattle ——1845.

Suort-Horns.
CLASS
1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843. . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
Ist of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold.§ .-. . .. . . .« « Twenty Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best Cow in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
a ae be given until she is certified to have produced a
calf.

4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-

ceeding three yearsold. . . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-

ingoneyearold . . . . . . .« Ten Sovereigns.

HeEREFORDs.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843 . . . . Thirty Sovereigns,
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Fifteen Sovereigns.
b2

= Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury.

CLASS
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
lst of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold. . - «+ Twenty Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best Cow in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
ae :3 be given until she is certified to have produced a
ca
4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three yearsold. . . . .«. « Fifteen Sovereigns.
5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . .° Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-
ing one yearold . . . « «. . . Ten Sovereigns.

DEVONS.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the lst of January, 1843. . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
lst of January, 1843, and more than one
year old . . Twenty Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best ‘Cow i in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.

[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
will not be given until she is certified to have produced a

calf. ]
4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three years old. . . « . Fifteen Sovereigns.

5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-
ingone yearold . . . . « . © Jen Sovereigns:

CatrLe oF ANY BreEp:
Not qualified to compete in the foregoing Classes.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843. . . . Twenty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto Ten Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
Ist of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold. . - . « Fifteen Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best Gow in tai . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.

[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
will not be given until she is certified to have produced a

calf.]
4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three yearsold. . . . . Ten Sovereigns.

5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer - + Ten Sovereigns.

Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury. xxi

Horses.

CLASS

. To the owner of the best Stallion for Agricul-

tural purposes, ofanyage . . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best three-years-old ditto _ Fifteen Sovereigns.

To the owner of the best two-years-old ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best Mare and Foal for

Agricultural purposes .. - « « Twenty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Ten Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best two-years-old Filly . Ten Sovereigns.
. To the owner of the best THorovuGu-BRED StTaL-

LION, which shall have served Mares ata
price not exceeding three guineas (and with
a groom’s fee of not more than five shillings),
in the seasonof 1845 . . . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.

SHEEP.
Prizes for Improving the Breed of Sheep.—1845.

LEICESTERS.

. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age . Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling

Ewes. . . Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the Saeande sect ites ditto . Five Sovereigns,

Soutu-Down SHEEP.

. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age . Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling

Ewes. . . Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ‘ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.

LonG-wooLLeD SHEEP:
Not qualified to compete as Leicesters.

. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . « Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . ~. Fifteen Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling

Ewes. . . « Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second- best ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.

XXxil Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury.

SHEEP BEST ADAPTED To A MOUNTAIN-DISTRICT.
CLASS
1. To the owner of the best Ram of any age . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the third-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.
2. To theowner of the best pen of Ewes of any age Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.

Pics.

1. To the owner of the best Boar of a large breed . Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.
. To the owner of the best Boar of a small breed. Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.

. To the owner of the best breeding Sow of a large
breed. we a ar Sree

. To the owner of the best breeding Sow of a small
Weed se 2, het) me ® ot -om _ r

. To the owner of the best pen of three breeding

Sow-Pigs of the same litter, above four and
under ten monthsold . . . . . ~. Ten Sovereigns.

o - fw

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

A sum not exceeding Three Hundred Sovereigns.

CueEESE.

To the exhibitor of the best hundredweight of

Cheese (of any kind) made within the dis-

Sn I Se
To the exhibitor of the second-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.

Extra Stock, Roots, anp SEeps.

For Extra Stock of any kind, not shown for any of
the above Prizes, and for Roots, Seeds, &c.,
Prizes may be awarded and apportioned, by the
Committee and Judges, to an amount not ex-
ceeding inthe whole . . . . . . ~ Fifty Sovereigns.

Any New ImpieMeEnt.

For the Invention of any new Agricultural Implement, such sum as
the Council may think proper to award.

Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury. XXIil

Seep-Wueart, Bar.ey, anp Oats.

I. Fifteen Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of White Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

II. Fifteen Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
‘to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Red Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

III. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Spring Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

IV. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Barley for malting, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

V. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given to
the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels of
Oats, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

Competitors are requested to send with their wheat, barley, or oats,
specimens, fairly taken, of the same in the ear, with the whole of the
straw, in a sheaf not less than one foot in diameter, and with the roots ©
attached.

{12 bushels of the wheat, barley, or oats will be sealed up by the Director
or Stewards, and one of the remaining bushels of each variety will
be exhibited as a sample to the public; the other being kept for
comparison with the produce of the next year. At the General
Meeting in December, 1846, the prizes will be awarded.)

The two best samples of each of these classes of wheat, barley, or oats, with-
out at that time distinguishing, in any of the cases, between the comparative
merits of either sample, will be selected by the Judges appointed for the
Meeting at Shrewsbury; and will be sown, under the direction of the
Council (the winter wheats in the autumn of 1845, and the spring wheat
not earlier than the Ist of March, 1846), by four farmers, who will make
their report, upon which the prizes will be awarded, provided there be suffi-
cient merit in any of the samples. Ten Sovereigns will be given at the
Meeting at Shrewsbury to each Exhibitor whose Wheat has been selected
for trial, and Six Sovereigns for the Barley or Oats.

** No variety which has been selected for trial at any previous show
shall be qualified to compete in the same class.

( -xxiv)

ESSAYS AND REPORTS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS.

Brises for 1845.

PRIZE ESSAYS.

I. Farminc or NorrinGHAMSHIRE.

Firty Sovererens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Nottingham.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties of soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
. peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state what
improvements have been made in the farming of Nottinghamshire since
the Report of Mr. Robert Lowe in the year 1798; and especially to
point out what further improvements ought to be effected, either by better
farming on land already cultivated, or by taking new land into cul-
tivation.

II. Farmine or CoRNWALL.

Firty Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Cornwall.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties of soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state
what improvements have been made in the farming of Cornwall since
the Report of Mr. G. B. Worgan in the year 1811; and especially to
point out what further improvements ought to be effected, either by
better farming on land already cultivated, or by taking new land into
cultivation.

III. Farmine or Kenr.

Firty Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Kent.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties ef soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state
what improvements have been made in the farming of Kent since

Prizes for Essays and Reports. XXV

the Report of Mr. John Boys in 1805; and especially to point out what
further improvements ought to be effected, either by better farming on
land already cultivated, or by taking new land into cultivation.

IV. Heatu-Lanp.

Twenty Sovereicns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for an account of the best method of Reclaiming Heath-land.

Competitors will be required to describe methods which have been
successfully adopted in the reclaiming of heath-land, reference being
had especially to the following points :—

1. The mode of breaking up, whether by paring and burning, or by
simple ploughing.

2. The application of lime.

3. The course of cropping.

4, The conversion of heath-land into pasture, where either the steep-
ness of the land, or its elevation above the sea, does not allow the
culture of corn.

V. One-uorse Carts.

TEN Sovererens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Essay on the advantages of One-horse Carts.

Competitors will be required to point out the saving in horse-labour,
and other advantages which undoubtedly arise from the substitution of
one-horse carts for waggons.

VI. Carcu-MeEapows.

Twenty Sovererens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best Essay on Catch-Meadows.

Competitors will be required to describe the best and cheapest method
of forming water-meadows on the sides of natural slopes, as practised in
Somersetshire and Devonshire; the mode of managing them, and of
applying their produce; the increase of value thereby given to unpro-
ductive hill-sides ; and to state how far this mode of improvement might
be applied to the mountainous districts of Wales and of the North of
England.

VII. Fences.

Twenty Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best Essay on Fences.

Competitors will be required to describe the best and neatest methods
of maintaining hedges, whether for arable or for grazing ground ; and
to point out how far the present fences in various parts of England are
injurious to the farmer, whether by their size, their excess in number,
or the over-abundance of timber which they contain.

VIII. Farrentne Cattte.

Tew Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
an account of the best method of fattening cattle; as to the places in
which they are kept, large or small yards or stalls; as well as the food,
roots, hay, &c., on which they are fed during the time of fatting.

XXV1 Prizes for Essays and Reports.

IX. Trve-Yarps.

Twenty Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the cheapest and best method of establishing a Tile-yard.
Competitors will be required to attend to the following points :—

. Mode of working the clay, according to its quality.
. Machine for making the tiles.

. Sheds for drying the tiles.

. Construction of the kiln.

. Cost of forming the establishment.

. Cost of the tiles when ready for sale.

Oak WD —

X. Curine Burrer.

Firty SovEREIGns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best description of the Dutch method of salting butter ; pointmg
out the causes of its superiority to other salted butters.

XI. Experiment 1n AGRICULTURE.
Twenty Soveretens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for an account of the best Experiment in Agriculture. —

These Essays must be sent to the Secretary, at 12, Hanover Square,
London, on or before March \st., 1845.

RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on
experience or observation, and not on simple reference to books, or other
sources.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a given
stated scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a cover,
on which oniy their motto, and the subject of their Essay, and the number
of that subject in the Prize list of the Society, shall be written.

4, The President or Chairman of the Couneil for the time being, shall
open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize
has been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto paper of such Essays, not obtaining the Prize, as he may
think likely to be useful for the Society’s objects, with a view of consulting
the writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such paper at the
disposal of the Journal Committee.

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of
such Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss.

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one
of the Essays deserving of it.

8. In all reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed,

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which caleula-
tions are to be made.

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society.

G axvi. \)

LAWS, BYE-LAWS, ann REGULATIONS.

I.—LAws CONTAINED IN THE CHARTER, WHICH CANNOT AT ANY
TIME BE ALTERED OR DEPARTED FROM.

1. The Society is a corporate body, by the name of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, and aCommon Seal.

2. It is a condition of the Royal Charter that a principle of the con-
stitution of the Society shall be the total exclusion of all questions, at its
meetings, or in its proceedings, of a political tendency, or having refer-
ence to measures pending or to be brought forward in either House of
Parliament; which no resolution, bye-law, or other enactment of the
said body politic and corporate shall, on any account or pretence what-
ever, be at any time allowed to infringe.

3. The number of subscribers shall be indefinite; and classed into
Governors and Members.

4. Power is given to elect Honorary, Corresponding, and Foreign
Members.

'5. Three General Meetings to be held in each year: two of these in
London, in the months of May and December ; and the other in such
part of England or Wales as shall be deemed most advantageous for the
advancement of the objects of the Society. The General Meeting in
London to be held on the 22nd (or, should that date fall on a Sunday,
on the 23rd) of May.

6. The Governors and Members have full power to elect a President
and Council at the general May Meeting; which President and Council,
although then duly elected, shall nevertheless not come into office till
the conclusion of the ensuing Annual Country Meeting to be held that
year. All vacancies occurring in such officers and appointments, by
resignation, death, or otherwise, to be filled up by election and the
majority of votes of the remaining Members of such President and
Council. The Council to consist of one President, twelve Trustees,
and twelve Vice-Presidents, to be elected from the class of Governors
only; and of fifty other Members, to be elected indiscriminately from
the Governors and Members of the Society. The President to be an

XXViil Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations.

annual officer ‘of the Society; and not re-eligible to the office of Presi-
dent for three years. Twenty-five of the fifty general Members of the
Council to go out each year by rotation, but may be re-elected.

4. The General Meeting in May shall elect the President, Trustees,
Vice-Presidents, and other Members of Council, from the Governors
and Members.

8. The Council to be regulated in their proceedings by such bye-
laws as may and shall from time to time be enacted by them, con-
formably with the tenour of the Charter: no established bye-law being
in any case altered, or new one proposed, without at least one month’s
notice of such intention being given to each Member of the Council.

9. The Council shall have power to appoint, and remove, one general
Secretary to the Society; such Secretary to sue and be sued in their
name and on their behalf.

10. The Council shall have the sole management of the income and
funds of the said body politic and corporate; and also the entire ma-
nagement and superintendence of all other affairs and concerns thereof;
and shall or may—but uot inconsistently with or contrary to the pro-
visions of the Charter, or any existing bye-law, or the laws of the land—
do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to them necessary or essential
to be done for the purpose of carrying into effect the objects and views
of the said Royal Agricultural Society of England.

Il.—Byer-Laws.

All existing Bye-Laws, Rules, and Regulations shall be rescinded,
and the following be adopted in their places.

Governors and Members.

Every candidate for admission into the Society must be proposed by
a Member, the proposer to specify in writing the name, rank, usual
place of residence, and post-town, of the candidate, either at a Council,
or by letter to the Secretary. Every such proposal shall be read at the
Council at which such proposal is made ; or, in the case of the Candi-
date being proposed by a letter to the Secretary, at the first meeting
of the Council next after such letter shall have been received. At the
next Meeting of the Council the election shall take place, when the
decision of the Council shall he taken by a show of hands; the majority
of the Members present to elect or reject. The Secretary shall inform
Members of their election by a letter, in such form as the Council may
from time to time direct, All Members belong to the Society, and are

Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations. XXix

bound to pay their annual subscriptions, until they shall withdraw from
it by a notice in writing to the Secretary. Governors to pay an annual
subscription of 5/., and Members of 1/.; all subscriptions being due on
the Ist of January in each year; but when the election takes place in
December, the subscription paid in that month will be considered as the
subscription of the following year. Governors may compound for their
lives by paying 50/.; Members, by paying 10/. On and after the Ist
of June, the subscriptions due at that date, and remaining unpaid, are
in arrear; and no Member whose subscription is so in arrear shall
enjoy any of the privileges of the Society ; nor will any such Member
be allowed to enter into a composition for his future payments until
such arrear be paid: and no Governor or Member shall be allowed to
transfer his name from one class of Members to the other, respectively,
without the express leave of the Council. Governors have the privilege of
attending and speaking at all Meetings of the Council, but not of voting,
unless forming part of such Council. All Members not in arrear are
entitled, gratuitously, to the volume of the Journal in the course of pub-
lication at the date of their election, and to all subsequent Numbers;
and have the privilege of inspecting all models presented to the Society,
and of referring to the books in the library. An alphabetical Register
shall be kept of all the Governors and Members, exhibiting the date of
their election, and the subscriptions received or due from them, with
the dates respectively of payment and arrear.—The Council having the
power of electing Honorary Members, shall elect as Honorary Members
such eminent individuals as have distinguished themselves in promoting
the objects for which the Society was established; such Honorary
Members shall not be called upon for the payment of any Subscriptions:
they shall have the privilege of attending and speaking at the Meetings
of the Society and of the Council, but not of voting at either.

Members may be dismissed from the Society in the following
manner :—Any ten Members of the Society may send, in writing,
signed by their names, to the Council, a request that any Member of the
Society shall be dismissed from the Society. Such request shall be
placed in a conspicuous part of the Council-room, and a copy thereof
transmitted by the post to the Member proposed to be so dismissed
signed by the Secretary. At the monthly Meeting of the Council which
shall take place next after one month shall have elapsed after such re-
quest shall have been placed in the Council-room, the Council shall take
the matter thereof into their consideration ; but the Council shall not so
take it into consideration unless twelve Members of the Council at the
least shall be present. If this number is not present, the consideration
of the request shall be adjourned to the next monthly Meeting of the

XXX Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations.

Council, and so on till a monthly Meeting shall take place at which
twelve Members are present. If the Council so constituted shall unani-
mously agree to the dismissal of such Member, he shall be no longer a
Member of the Society ; but if they do not unanimously agree to his dis-
missal, their decision shall be considered to have been made in his favour :
Provided always, that his dismissal shall not relieve him from the pay-
ment of any debt previously due by him to the Society; and that if
a Life-Governor or Life-Member, he shall not spi any claim to any
portion of the commutation he has paid.

General Meetings.

The two London General Meetings of the Society shall be held in the
Council-room : public notice of such meetings being given in such news-
papers as the Council may decide: and all elections (excepting that of
the Council) and resolutions shall be determined by a show of hands.
The General Meeting in December shall be held at such date in that
month, and the Annual Meeting in the country at such time and place,
as the Council may decide. Such place of Meeting in the Country being
settled by the Council at the first Wednesday in May, and declared at
the ensuing General Meeting in the year preceding such meeting. At
the General Meetings in London, reports from the Council, with a
financial statement, will be read: Members only, or individuals bear-
ing the President’s written order, will be allowed to be present, each
person giving his name in writing on being admitted.

At the General Meeting in May, the election of the President, Vice-
Presidents, and Trustees, having taken place by a show of hands, the
election of the twenty-five members of the Council, who are to replace
the twenty-five members who retire by rotation, shall take place in the
following manner :—

1. A list of the members of the Council]. who retire by rotation, but
who may be re-elected, shall be prepared on or before the Ist
of May, for the inspection of members at the rooms of the
Society.

2. The Council shall prepare a list of the twenty-five members
whom they propose for election or re-election, which shall be
printed on paper large enough to admit of additions being
made to it; and a copy of this printed list shall be given to
any member who applies for it of the Secretary, either on the
day of the General Meeting, or on any of the three days pre-
viously (Sundays excepted), between the hours of ten and four.
3. The voting shall take place by each member who wishes to vote

giving in one of these lists signed by himself, with such names

.

Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations. XXX

struck out or added as he thinks fit, to the President, at the
General Meeting, before the commencement of any other
business. When the lists have been given in, three scrutineers
shall be appointed by the President, who will retire into
another room, and inspect the lists which have been given in,
and report furthwith to the meeting, in writing, the names of
the twenty-five members who shall have the majority of votes ;
after which, the papers shall be immediately destroyed by the
scrutineers. If any of the lists should contain the names of
more than twenty-five members, it will not be counted as a
valid vote. No member will be allowed to vote who does not
personally deliver his list to the President. In the event of
any equality of votes, the election to be decided by the meet-
ing on a show of hands. ;

The President.

The President shall not be re-eligible to the office of President
for three years from the day of his election. In all the official relations
of the Society, he shall take precedence of all other Governors, Members,
or Honorary Members, and shall have full power to summon at his
pleasure meetings of the Council, and shall take the chair at every Coun-
cil when present, he, and every other Chairman of the Society, having
the privilege of a casting vote, in addition to his own, in all cases of
equality in the division on any question. He shall sign all such letters,
votes of thanks, and other documents, as the Council may direct, in
the name and on the behalf of the Council.

The Council.

The Council may adjourn from time to time, at their discretion: when
not so adjourned, they shall hold a meeting on the first Wednesday in
every month, at twelve o’clock, for the transaction of the business of the
Society ; and shall also meet on every other Wednesday, at the same
hour, for the purpose of receiving the proposals of candidates and for the
election of Members, and hearing papers read: such Meetings to be
held without summons; but should the business of the Society require
-a Special Council to be held at any other time, the President shall have
full power to direct such a Council to be summoned, at such time and
place, and with such notice, as he may think fit: provided that, in
case of necessity, the President may summon a special Council to be
held forthwith. In the absence of the President, one Trustee, together
with one Vice-President, and three other Members of the Council, shall
have power to summon the Council in any case of emergency, on deli-

XXX11 Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations.

vering to the Secretary an order signed by them for issuing the sum-
monses, and allowing not less than seven days to elapse between the
date of summons and the day appointed for the meeting of such Council.

The Monthly Meeting of the Council shall have the full power of
originating, discussing, and deciding, by the majority of votes, on a
show of hands, all questions brought before it on the business of the
Society. Should, however, any Member then present regard any pro-
position brought forward as too important for immediate decision, he
will be at liberty to take the sense of the Meeting whether such pro-
position should be postponed, in order that it may be duly discussed at
the next Monthly Meeting; and should one-third of the Members pre-
sent agree with him on that point, such proposition shall be postponed,
and due notice of such motion and postponement shall be given to all
Members of the Council by the Secretary.

In the absence of the President, the chair shall be taken by a Trustee
or Vice-President ; and should neither of such officers be present, then by
such Member as the Council shall choose as their Chairman by the majo-
rity of votes. The Quorum of a Monthly or Special Council shall be five,
and that of a Weekly Council three. At every Meeting of the Council
the minutes of the previous Meeting shall be first read, and postponed
matters shall take precedence in the order of business of new motions,
excepting in the case of a Report from the Finance Committee, which
shall always be taken first into consideration, immediately after the
minutes have been read and the election of Members and proposal of
candidates have taken place. All minutes or reports read at the Council
shall be signed by the Chairman. The Common Seal of the Society
shall be kept in a box with three different locks, the keys of which shall
be respectively held by the President of the Society, the Chairman of
the Finance Committee, and the Secretary: the Common Seal not being
affixed to any instrument except in the Council-room during a Meeting
of the Council. The Reports from the Council to the General Meetings
in London, in May and December, shall be prepared at the Council on
the first Wednesday in May and the first Wednesday in December, re-
spectively, or at some adjournment of such Councils.

Committees.

The Standing Committees shall be appointed by the Monthly Council
in December, but shall not enter on their respective duties until the first
day of January, nor remain in force after the 31st of December of the
ensuing year, unless re-appointed. Any other Committees may be ap-
pointed at a Monthly Council.

Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations. XXXill

Each Committee, at its first Meeting, shall elect its own permanent
Chairman, who shall always take the chair at the Committee, when pre-
sent; the chair being taken in his absence by a Chairman to be elected
by the Committee for the occasion: and all Committees shall meet by
summons issued by direction of their respective Chairmen, or the Pre-
sident, or of any three Members of the Committee, or by adjournment.
The President, Trustees, and Vice-Presidents, are Members ex officio
of all Committees.

All Committees during their sittings may report the progress of their
proceedings to the Monthly Meetings of the Council: such Committees
shall sit till they have made their respective general reports; but in case
such reports shall not have been made previously to the 3lst of De-
cember next following their appointment, their powers shall then cease.

Secretary.

The Secretary shall devote the whole of his time to the affairs of
the Society, and shall be immediately responsible to the Council for the
discharge of the various duties they require him to perform. He shall
attend the sittings of all Meetings of the Council. He shall also attend
on any Committee requiring his presence, when not in attendance on
the Council. He shall take the minutes of the Council; and also, when
attending upon any Committee, the minutes of such Committee, if re-
quired to do so by the Chairman. He shall conduct the correspondence
of the Society, preserving the letters he may receive in a classed arrange-
ment. He shall keep letter-books, in which copies of all letters received
by him, which he shall lay before the Council or any of the Committees,
shall be entered, as well as copies of all those which he writes by direc-
tion of the President, Council, or Committees. Under the direction of
the Finance Committee he shall receive or be responsible for all moneys
received at the rooms of the Society, paying such sums into the hands
of the Bankers, and producing at each Finance Committee their receipts
for the same. He shall have the charge of the expenditure of petty
cash: he shall have the custody of all books, models, and papers belong-
ing to the Society. He shall have the immediate superintendence over
the Clerks and the Servants of the Society; and shall be required to
report to the Council any instances of misconduct on their part which
he thinks of such a nature as to require the consideration of the Council.
Agreeably with the Charter, the President and Council have the power
by him, as their Secretary, of suing or being sued, and of contracting or
discharging obligations, according to the special nature of the authority
with which they may from time to time invest him, as their representa-

tive, for these several objects.
VOL. V. ¢

XXXIV _ Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations.

The Council shall have the power of appointing and removing
such Clerks and servants as they may deem necessary; and of fixing
their salaries.

Finances.

The Finance Committee shall have the immediate care of the So-
ciety’s accounts, and no payment of money shall be made excepting at
a Monthly Council, and unless recommended by the Report of the
Finance Committee, which shall always meet on the first Wednesday in
every month, without summons, previously to the sitting of the Council,
in order to prepare a Report on the state of the Suciety’s funds, which
they shall present to each Monthly Meeting; and lay before it the
following account :—

Amount of Cash received Payments by order oan
during the past month by Council . . + -
the Secretary, and paid
into the hands of Messrs.
Drummond, as per Bank-
ers) receiptd am. «vi + .«

Ditto, received by Messrs. Amount of expenditure
Drummond on account of of Petty Cash. « °}
the Society, as per Bankers’

book . . . oe .

Balance of Petty Cash in thet
hands of the Secretary .

Outstanding Bills . .
Balance at the Bankers’. .

together with ull the books in which entries of cash receipts or pay-
ments are made, and such documents as the business of the day may
require. Should a sufficient number of Members to form a quorum not
have assembled on the first Wednesday of any month, the Secretary shall
report the balance-sheet of the Society’s funds to the Council.

Twice in every year—namely, on the Friday previously to each of the
T.ondon General Meetings—there shall be an audit of the accounts of
the Society at eleven o’clock, when a balance-sheet shall be prepared,
and reported to the General Meeting, and such balance-sheet pub-
lished in the ensuing part of the Journal. The Auditors shall consist of
the President, the Members of the Finance Committee, and of three
Members not being Members of the Council or of any of the Com-
mittees (of whom two shall always be present) to be chosen at the

Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations. XXXV

London General Meeting in December. The Trustees of the Society
shall be ex-officio Members of such audits.

All drafts on the Bankers shall be signed by the President (or, in his
absence, by the Chairman of the Council) and by one of the Trustees,
being countersigned by the Secretary; and a book shall be kept in
which a consecutive entry shall be made of all such payments.

Journal,

The Journal Committee shall have the care of the publication of the
Journal; of which two parts shall be published every year. They shall
decide on the papers which shall be printed in the successive parts of
the Journal, and shall also recommend, at their discretion, the disposal
to be made of communications important or interesting in their nature,
but of a character unsuitable for the immediate objects of the Journal.
The Committee, though responsible for the selection of matter, and the
importance of its bearings in an agricultural point of view, are not
responsible for the positive accuracy of the facts stated in the several
papers—a circumstance depending on the judgment, caution, and ob-
servation of the authors themselves.

Each Member is entitled gratuitously to those parts of the Journal
which have been published in the course of any year for which his sub-
scription has been paid: but no J ournals shall continue to be forwarded
to any Member whose subscription is in arrear.

Prizes,

A List of all Prizes to be offered by the Society, for any particular
year, shall be laid on the Table for suggestions and revision, at or before
the Annual Meeting in the month of May in the year preceding; and
shall be finally settled by the Council at a Special Meeting to be held
on one of the last seven days in the following month of June; after
which time no new Prizes shall be offered, or any alteration or increase
of an old one made for the year in question.

Prize- Essays.

All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on
experience or observation, and not on simple reference to books or
other sources.

Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated
scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.

All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a cover,
on which only their motto, and the subject of their Essay, and the num-
ber of that subject in the Prize list of the Society, shall be written.

c 2

XXXVI _ Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations.

The President or Chairman of the Council, for the time being, shall
open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the
Prize has been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the
author.

The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered
to open the motto-paper of such Essays, not obtaining the Prize, as he
may think likely to be useful for the Society’s objects, with a view of
consulting the writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such
paper at the disposal of the Journal Committee.

The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to the So-
ciety, who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or
any part of such Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the
application of the writers; but the Society do not make themselves re-
sponsible for their loss.

The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one
of the Essays deserving of it.

In all reports of experiments: the expenses shall be accurately de-
tailed.

The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calcula-
tions are to be made.

No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in
print.

Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the success-
ful candidate.

All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house of the
Society.

Library.

There shall be a Library of the Society ; of which a catalogue shall
be kept: and all donations of books shall be referred to the Journal
Committee to decide whether the books shall be accepted. A register
shall be kept in which an entry shall be made of all presents of books
which are so accepted, and of all seeds, implements, and models, to-
gether with the names of the donors.

No model, implement, or other object can be exhibited to the Society
without leave from the Council.

Bye- Laws.

No existing bye-law shall be altered, or any new one made, except
at the Meeting of the Council, on the first Wednesday in May, or
the first Wednesday in December, one month’s notice haying been

Laws, Bye-Laws, and Regulations. XXXVil

previously given in writing to the Council, and a copy of such notice
having been sent by the Secretary to each of its Members: Provided
always, that nothing in this bye-law shall prevent the bye-law proposed
being altered or amended by the Council at the time it is under con-
sideration.

All bye-laws shall be entered in a book to be kept for that purpose,
and signed by the President and Secretary for the time being.

Passed at a Special Council held on the 16th of July, 1844.

(Signed) SPENCER, President.

James Hunpson, Secretary.

NOTICE.

It is requested that all communications, addressed to the Society, of
experiments on Jand—whether of draining, liming, manuring, or other
operation—be accompanied with the cost of such operation, with the
value of the land to rent previous and subsequent thereto, and an
analysis of the svil upon which such experiments have taken place; or
a specimen of the soil, to be analysed by persons employed by the
Society: it is also further requested that, in communications relative to
experiments on land in foreign countries, the measures be stated in
English values.

Those members who have tried subsoil-ploughing, whether success-
fully or otherwise, are requested to communicate the result to the
Secretary, in the hope that, by comparison of the statements, some
judgment may be arrived at as to the soils and situations which are, or

are not, suited for this operation.

Ropal Agricultural Society of England,
1844—1845.

President.
THE DUKE OF RICHMOND.

Trustees.

Acland, Sir Thomas Dyke, Bart., M.P.
Clive, Hon. Robert Henry, M.P.
Downshire, Marquis of

Graham, Rt. Hon. Sir Jas., Bart., M.P.
Handley, Henry

Lawley, Sir Francis, Bart.

Neeld, Joseph, M.P.
Pusey, Philip, M.P.
Richmond, Duke of
Rutland, Duke of
Spencer, Earl
Sutherland, Duke of

VPice-Prestvents,

Buckingham, Duke of

Chichester, Earl of

Ducie, Earl of

Exeter, Marquis of

Fitzwilliam, Earl

Gooch, Sir Thomas Sherlock, Bart.

Morgan, Sir Charles Gould, Bart.
Northumberland, Duke of
Portman, Lord

Talbot, Earl

Wellington, Duke of

Worsley, Lord, M.P.

General Members of Council.

Austen, Colonel Thomas

Barclay. David, M.P.

Baring, Hon. William Bingham, M.P.
Barker, Thomas Raymond

Benett, John, M.P.

Bennett, Samuel

Blanshard, Henry

Bramston, Thomas William, M.P.
Browne, W. R.

Buller, Edward, M.P.

Burke, J. French

Challoner, Colonel

Childers, John Walbanke, M.P.
Ellman, John

Fellowes, Edward, M.P.

Gibbs, Humphrey

Grantham, Stephen

Hatherton, Lord

Hayter, William Goodenough, M.P,
Hill, Viscount

Hillyard, C.

Hobbs, William Fisher

Johnstone, Sir John V. B., Bart., M.P.
Jonas, Samuel

Kimberley, George

Kinder, John

King, Fielder

Lemon, Sir Charles, Bart., M.P.
Meire, Thomas Lockley

Miles, William, M.P.

Pendarves, Edward W. Wynne, M.P.
Price, Sir Robert, Bart.

Pusey, Philip, M.P.

Pym, Francis

Ransome, James Allen

Sanford, Edward Ayshford

Sewell, Professor

Shaw, William

Shelley, John Villiers

Slaney, Robert Aglionby
Sotheron, Thomas H. S. E., M.P.
Spencer, Hon. Captain

Stansfield, W. R. Crompton, M.P.
Stokes, Charles

Hoskyns, Sir Hungerford, Bart. Thompson, Henry Stephen

Hudson, John Wilbraham, George, M.P.

Hyett, William Henry Wilson, Henry
Seevetarp.

JAMES HUDSON, 12, Hanover Square, London.

Consulting Chemist—Dr. Lyon Piayrair, Manchester.

Consulting Engineer—Jostau Parkes, C.E., 11, Great College Street, Westminster.
Seedsmen—Messrs. Tuomas Gisas & Co., Corner of Halfmoon Street, Piccadilly.
Publisher—Joun Murray, 50, Albemarle Street.

Bankers—Messrs, Drummond, Charing Cross.

VOL, V.

Wonovary Members.

Bucktanp, The Rey. WituAm, D.D., F.R.S., Vice-President of the Geological Society.
Carr, Captain J. Stantey, Duchy of Lauenburg.

Corman, Henry, Agricultural Commissioner of the State of Massachusetts.

Davseny, Cuarces, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Rural Economy, University of Oxford.
De 1a Becue, Sir Henry Tuomas, F.R.S., Director of the Ordnance Geological Survey.
Everett, The Hon. Epwarp, United States’ Minister.

Henstow, The Rev. J. S., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, University of Cambridge.
Jounston, James F. W., F.R.S., Reader in Chemistry, University of Durham.
Liezic, Dr. Justus, University of Giessen.

Morcuison, Roprerick Impey, F.R.S., President of the Royal Geographical Society.
Prayrarr, Dr. Lyon, Royal Institution, Manchester.

Sorty, Epwarp, Horticultural Society of London.

SpRENGEL, Dr. Cuarves, Prussia.

Stevenson, The Hon. ANDRew, Washington.

VAN DE Weyer, M. Sytvran, Belgian Minister.

et i

Ropal Agricultural Society of England.

GENERAL MEETING,

12, HANOVER SQuaRE, SATURDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1844.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Tue Counc have again the satisfaction of reporting to the
Members, at their present General Meeting, the effective state of
the Society in every branch of its operations; and the continued
influx of new Members from all parts of the kingdom. The
communications of practical results in farming, furnished by cor-
respondents from the various localities of the country, and again
disseminated among the Members by means of the Journal ; the
increasing extent and importance of the Annual Country Meet-
ings, at which not only the agricultural community have the im-
mediate advantages of personal communication and direct inter-
change of experience on farming topics of common interest to all,
but where from year to year specimens of the most approved
breeds of cattle are in succession exhibited to their notice, and
the rapid improvements now made in the implements of husbandry
submitted to their inspection, and their real value brought at once
to the test of practical trial—form the leading points on which the
Council haye to congratulate the Members, as evidences of the
progressive advancement of the Society in the fulfilment of its
various objects.

In the application of science to the improvement of agriculture
as an art, the Council are fully aware that results will only be

d 2

xlii Report to the General Meeting.

conclusive and satisfactory in proportion to the perfection of the
particular science itself, whose principles are proposed for the
regulation of agricultural practice. The laws of mechanics being
simple and determinate, their application to the improvement of
the principles on which the machines and implements of agricul-
ture may be most economically effected, has been attended with
results correspondingly decisive in their character: but while the
simple and well-established principles of inorganic chemistry
may with confidence be expected to serve as safe guides in leading
us to a knowledge of the properties of every variety of soil, and
the means of their required modification to particular objects, any
new light to be thrown upon agriculture by organic chemistry, a
less perfect branch of the science, must as yet be received with
greater diffidence, though it ultimately promises the most 1m-
portant results. The Council are convinced that the perfection
of agriculture as a science or farming as an art, is only to be
attained by the establishment of scientific principles derived from
practice, and their judicious application under the given circum-
stances and conditions of each particular case of climate, soil, or
aspect. While, however, they deem this caution requisite in ex-
position of the practical objects and character of the society, they
witness with great satisfaction the rapid advances made by the
distinguished chemists of the present day in that comparatively
new and infant branch of chemical philosophy connected with
investigations into the laws of organic matter and the principles
of vegetable life; and they have to congratulate the Society on
the zeal with which their consulting chemist, Dr. Playfair, has
entered this new and valuable field of scientific inquiry, and the
kindness with which he has again favoured the Members on the
occasion of their General Meeting, with two highly interesting
lectures, elucidating the application of the most recent discoveries
of chemical science to the practical operations of agriculture. The
Council feel that if any circumstances could enhance the obliga-
tions under which they are laid in reference to these lectures, they
would be the readiness with which Dr. Playfair, at a very short
notice, and regardless of personal inconvenience, prepared him-

Report to the General Meeting. xl

self for their delivery, and the liberality with which the Royal
Institution of Great Britain at once placed their theatre at the
disposal of the Society for the occasion.

The Society’s recent country Meeting at Southampton was
most successful in every department of its arrangements, and ful-
filled the most sanguine expectations of the Council. The extent
of the show-yard and the number of entries for exhibition on that
occasion, exceeded those of any previous meeting ; and the trial of
implements, so dependent on circumstances for failure or success,
was conducted to the satisfaction of the stewards of that depart-
ment and the exhibitors whose implements were selected for trial,
and proved an object of much attraction to the numerous specta-
tors by whom it was witnessed. The success, in a financial point
of view, was greatly promoted by the means so liberally placed at
the disposal of the Council by the committee of the town and
neighbourhood of Southampton, in the contribution of 1000/. to
the funds of the Society for the purpose of meeting the expenses
of the occasion. To the mayor, corporation, and authorities of
the borough, the local committee, the commissioners of police,
the occupiers of the trial ground, and the South Western Railway
Company, the Society, before leaving Southampton, conveyed by
unanimous resolutions their best acknowledgments of the essential
services which those parties, by their cordial and zealous co-opera-
tion, had respectively rendered to the Council in promoting the _
objects of the Meeting. :

From the agricultural character of the district in which the
next annual Country Meeting of the Society at Shrewsbury is
appointed to be held, the Council anticipate with confidence a
result no less gratifying than that obtained at Southampton; and
they have already taken the requisite steps in preparation for that
Meeting, and have also decided that the Judges of Stock shall be
appointed from recommendations made by the Members of the
Society at large at the General Meeting in May.

The Finance Committee will lay before the Meeting the
balance-sheets of the accounts as examined and approved by the
auditors on the part of the Society. Their chairman will also

xliv Report to the General Meeting.

report to the Members the large amount of arrears of subscription
discharged during the past half-year, as well as the mode pro-
posed for facilitating the future collection of subscriptions. Since
the last Half-yearly Meeting upwards of 300 new Members have
been elected, and the Society now consists of the following Mem-
bers :—

Life governota’s .-.-, 402 a. ee

Annual Governors . ...-... 208

Annual Members ..... ~ - 6037

Lite Members...) hss Geen 440
Honorary members . ..... + 15

making a total of 6827 Members on the list of the Society at the
present time. The Council have unanimously requested Mr.
Pusey to accept the office of a trustee of the Society, vacant by
the death of the Duke of Grafton, and have elected Mr. Thomas
Lockley Meire, of Cound Arbour, near Shrewsbury, a member of
the Council, in the place of the late Mr. Edward Gough, of Gravel
Hill, near Shrewsbury.

The increasing importance attached by the Members to the
possession of the Society’s Journal, has led the Journal Committee
to continue its best consideration of the means by which the distri-
bution on each publication may be effected with the greatest cer-
tainty, and least loss of time, among the Members throughout the
kingdom ; and they trust that this desirable object will gradually
become attained, as the addresses of Members are more accurately
known, and the most convenient modes of transmission to them
more distinctly ascertained. For the convenience of Members
availing themselves of their privilege of attending the rooms of the
Society, the Council have ordered a catalogue of the library, and
an inventory of the implements, models, &c., to be prepared for
their reference.

Four years having elapsed since the date of the charter, and
the bye-laws then framed agreeably with the new powers conferred
upon the Society, the Council have been desirous of rendering the
experience gained during this period ayailable for the regulation
of their proceedings ; and they have accordingly made a complete

Report to the General Meeting. xlv

revision of their former bye-laws, and enacted a code of bye-laws
and regulations, not only embodying the tenor of such of their
special resolutions as had a permanent operation, but rendering
the whole more exactly in accordance with the provisions of the
charter. A printed copy of these bye-laws was appended to the
Journal on its last publication, and thus brought under the imme-
diate notice of the Members.

The Council, in conclusion, beg to congratulate the Members
on the present sound and vigorous condition under which the
Society is steadily advancing in the gradual fulfilment of its national
objects ; and, supported as it is by the continued accession of new
Members, they hope to extend annually its sphere of usefulness,

By order of the Council,
(Signed) JAMES HUDSON,

Secretary.

Statement of Accounts.

xlvi

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( xlviii_)

Mecting at Southampton.

PRINCIPAL DAY OF THE SHOW, JULY 25, 1844,

AWARD OF PRIZES.

Cattie: I. Short Horns.

Joun Cooper, of Bankwood, Thurgarton, near Southwell, Nottingham-
shire: the Prize of Tu1rty Soveretens, for his 3 years 1 month
and 13 days-old Short-horned Bull; bred by himself.

Wiii1am Goopenovcu Hayter, M.P., of Wells, Somersetshire: the
Prize of Firrern Soveretens, for his 2 years and 10 months-old
Short-horned Bull; bred by H. Unsworth, of Blackrod, Lan-
cashire.

Wix1aM Foutps, of Kirklington, near Southwell, Nottinghamshire :
the Prize of Twenty Sovererens, for his 2 years 3 months and
22 days-old Short-horned Bull; bred by the late Richard Milward,
of Hexgreave Park, Southwell.

Joun Booru, of Killerby, near Catterick, Yorkshire: the Prize of
FirTEEN SovereiGns, for his 3 years 2 months and 5 days-old
Short-horned Cow ; bred by himself.

His Grace the Duke or Devonsurre, of Chatsworth, Derbyshire: the
Prize of Firreen Soveretens, for his 2 years and 5 months-old
Short-horned In-calf Heifer; bred by Henry Watson, of Walker-
ingham, near Bawtry.

Ricuarv Boorn, of Warlaby, near Northallerton, Yorkshire: the Prize
of Ten Soveretens, for his 1 year 2 months and 3 weeks-old
Short-horned Heifer; bred by himself.

Award of Prizes at Southampton. xlix

Carrie: Il. Herefords.

Wiruram Perry, of Monkland, near Leominster, Herefordshire : the
Prize of Tuirty Sovereiens, for his 2 years 7 months and 28
days-old Hereford Bull; bred by himself.

Grorce Brown, of Avebury, near Marlborough, Wiltshire : the Prize
of Firrren Sovererens, for his 2 years and 7 months-old Here-
ford Bull; bred by himself.

Joun Netson Carpenter, of Eardisland, near Leominster, Hereford-
shire: the Prize of Twenty Sovererens, for his 1 year 8 months
3 weeks and 4 days-old Hereford Bull; bred by himself.

Grorce Drake, of the Manor Farm, East Tytherley, near Stockbridge,
Hampshire: the Prize of Firrzzn Sovererens, for his 8 years
and 10 months-old Pure Hereford Cow; bred by the late John
Price, of Poole House, Upton-on-Severn.

Joun Newson Carpenter, of Eardisland, near Leominster, Hereford-
shire: the Prize of Firrren Sovererens, for his 2 years 8 months
and 18 days-old Hereford In-calf Heifer; bred by himself.

Joun Waxxer, of Burton, near Worcester: the Prize of TEN Sove-
REIGNS, for his 1 year and 8 months-old Herefordshire Heifer ;
bred by Charles Walker, of Sutton, near Tenbury, by a ‘Poll the
property of the exhibitor.

Carrie: III. Devons.

Georce Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, Devonshire: the Prize of
Tuirty Sovereiens, for his 2 years and 8 months-old Devon
Bull; bred by himself.

Tuomas Nurcomse, of Hopcott Farm, near Minehead, Somersetshire :
the Prize of Firrern Sovereiens, for his 4 years and 9 months-
old Pure Devon Bull; bred by himself.

Tuomas Reynotps, of Raddon Court, Thorverton, near Exeter, Devon-
shire: the Prize of Twenty Sovereiens, for his 2 years and 5
months-old Pure North-Devon Bull ; bred by Amos Parsons, of
Lifton, near Launceston.

_ Grorce Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, Devonshire: the Prize of
FirreEn SovEREIGns, for his 6 years and 2 months-old Devon
Cow; bred by himself.

Gerorce Turner, of Barton, near Exeter, Devonshire: the Prize of
Firteen Soveretens, for his 2 years and 2 months-old Devon
In-calf Heifer ; bred by himself.

James Hote, of Knowle, near Dunster, Somersetshire: the Prize of
Ten Soveretens, for his 1 year 7 months and 2 days-old Devon
Heifer ; bred by himself.

1 Award of Prizes at Southampton,

Catrie: IV. Channel Islands’ Breed.

The Rev. Wi111AmM Joseph GrorcE Paruirs, of Eling Vicarage, near
Southampton: the Prize of Firteen Sovereiens, for his 2 years
and 4 months-old Bull of the Channel Islands Breed: bred by
himself.

Warkins Wootcock, of Saint Peter’s Parish, near Winchester, Hamp-
shire: the Prize of Ten Sovererens, for his 1 year and 5 months-
old Pure Jersey Bull; bred by Colonel Le Couteur, of Belle-Vue,
Jersey, by a prize-bull of the exhibitor.

Cartes Wixutam Rosin, of Petit Ménage, near St. Helier, Jersey :
the Prize of Tren Sovererens, for his 2 years and 6 months-old
Pure Jersey Cow; bred by John Hocguard, Gronyille, Jersey.

[No Stock was shown for the Prize of Tzen Sovereicns, “ for the
best In-calf Heifer not exceeding 2 years old.”]

Joun Hume, of Beau-Regard, near St. Helier, Jersey: the Prize of
Seven Soveretens, for his 1 year 1 month and 10 days-old Pure
Jersey Heifer; bred by Major Bridgeham, of The Grove, St. Lau-
rens, Jersey.

CattLe: V. Any Breed or Cross (not qualified to compete in the
foregoing Classes).

WituiaM Brine, of Tolpuddle, near Dorchester, Dorsetshire: the Prize
of Toirty Soverriens, for his 4 years and 5 months-old Pure
Long-horned Bull; bred by the late Thomas Wyatt, of Hanwell
Park, near Banbury.

Tuomas JENNER, of Cowdray Park Farm, near Petworth, Sussex: the
Prize of Firrzen Soveretens, for his 3 years and 4 months-old
Pure Sussex Bull; bred by himself.

Tuomas Dowven, of Mitcheldever, near Andover, Hampshire: the
_ Prize of Twenty Sovereians, for his 2 years and 2 months-old
Bull, by a Hereford Bull out of a Durham Cow; bred by himself.

The Hon. M. W. B. Nucenrt, of Higham Grange, near Hinckley, Lei-
cestershire: the Prize of Firrren Soveretens, for his 10 years and
2 months-old Pure Leicester Long-horned Cow; bred by Thomas
Ball, of Snowford Lodge, near Southam, Warwickshire.

His Grace the Duke or BuckincHam aNnp Cuanpos, of Stowe, near
Buckingham: the Prize of Frrreen Sovereiens, for his 2 years
and 10 months-old Long-horned In-calf Heifer; bred by himself.

Waxter J. Caruoun, of Binderton, near Chichester, Sussex: the
Prize of Ten Sovererens, for his 1 year and 2 months-old Heifer,
of the Short-horn and Hereford Cross ; breeder unknown

Award of Prizes at Southampton. li

Horses.

Tuomas Carin, of Butley, near Woodbridge, Suffolk: the Prize of
Turrty Sovereiens, for his 4 years-old Stallion for agricultural
purposes; bred by himself, as executor of the late T. N. Catlin.

The Earn or Sr. Germans, of St. Germans, Cornwall: the Prize of
Twenty Sovererens, for his aged Stallion for agricultural pur-
poses ; breeder unknown.

Lorp Sr. Joun, of Melchbourne Park (Beds.), near Kimbolton, Hun-
tingdonshire : the Prize of Firrzen Soveretens, for his 2 years and
2 weeks-old Stallion for agricultural purposes ; bred by himself.

Witiam Fowtet, of Market-Lavington, near Devizes, Wiltshire: the
Prize of Twenty SovereEiens, for his Mare and Foal for agricul-
tural purposes; breeder unknown. ‘The sire of the foal belonged
to H. Ings, of Pen-selwood, near Wincanton, Somersetshire.

Georce Wuiresreapd Roserts, of King’s Walden, near Hitchin, Hert-
fordshire: the Prize of Ten Sovererens, for his Mare and Foal
for agricultural purposes; bred by himself. The sire of the foal
belonged to James Hayden, of Arrington, Cambridgeshire.

Witutam Fowte, of Market-Lavington, near Devizes, Wiltshire: the
Prize of Ten Sovereicns, for his 2 years-old Filly; bred by
Richard Daintree, of Hemingford Abbots, near St. Ives, Hunting-
donshire.

RicuarpD Curtis, of Basingstoke, Hampshire: the Prize of Tuirry
SoveReEIGNS, for his 5 years-old Thorough-bred Stallion ; breeder
unknown. Got by Langar: dam by Cervantes, out of Mariana
by Selim.

Sueep: I. Leicesters.

Joun Grecory Watkins, of Woodfield, Ombersley, near Stourport,
Worcestershire: the Prize of Tuirty Soveretens, for his 16
months-old Pure Leicester Ram; bred by himself.

Tsomas Epwarp Paw tert, of Beeston, near Biggleswade, Bedford-
shire: the Prize of FirreEEN SovereiGNs, for his 15 months-old
Leicester Ram; bred by himself.

Tsomas Epwarp Paw tert, of Beeston, near Biggleswade, Bedford-
shire: the Prize of Tuirty Soveretcns, for his 28 months-old
Leicester Ram ; bred by himself.

Tromas Epwarp Paw cert, of Beeston, near Biggleswade, Bedford-
shire: the Prize of Firrern Sovererens, for his 40 months-old
Leicester Ram; bred by himself.

hii Award of Prizes at Southampton.

Joun Grecory Warkins, of Woodfield, Ombersley, near Stourport,
Worcestershire: the Prize of Ten Sovereiens, for his 16 months-
old Pure Leicester Ewes ; bred by himself.

Joun Brasuey, of Chapel-Brampton, near Northampton : the Prize of
Five Sovereens, for his 16 months-old Improved Leicester Ewes ;
bred by himself.

SHeer: II. Southdowns.

Jonas Wess, of Babraham, near Cambridge: the Prize of Tuirty
Sovereiens, for his 16 months-old Southdown Ram; bred by
himself.

His Grace the Duxe of RicuMmonp, of Goodwood, near Chichester,
Sussex: the Prize of Firrrern Sovereiens, for his 16 months-old
Southdown Ram ; bred by himself.

James Braven, Jun., of Gore Farm, near Market-Lavington, Wiltshire :
the Prize of Tuirry Sovereiens, for his 52 months-old South-
down Ram ; bred by himself.

STEPHEN GRANTHAM, of Stoneham, near Lewes, Sussex: the Prize of
FirTEEN SovereiIGNS, for his 28 months-old Southdown Ram ;
bred by himself.

His Grace the Duke of Ricumonp, of Goodwood, near Chichester,
Sussex: the Prize of Ten Soveretens, for his 16 months-old
Southdown Ewes; bred by himself.

Davip Barctay, M.P., of Eastwick Park, near Leatherhead, Surrey :
the Prize of Five SoverrtIcns, for his 17 months-old Southdown
Ewes; bred by himself.

Sueep: III. Long- Wools (not qualified to compete as Leicesters).

Cuarves LArcrE, of Broadwell, near Burford, Oxfordshire: the Prize
of Turrty Sovereiens, for his 16 months-old New Oxfordshire
Ram ; bred by himself.

Cuaries Lares, of Broadwell, near Burford, Oxfordshire: the Prize
of Firteen Soveretens, for his 16 months-old New Oxfordshire
Ram ; bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy, of Sevenhampton, near Andoversford, Gloucester-
shire: the Prize of Tuirty Sovereians, for his 40 months-old
Improved Cotswold Ram; bred by himself. =

Eowarp Smirg, of Charlbury, near Enstone, Oxfordshire: the Prize
of Firreen Sovererens, for his 52 months-old Long-woolled
Oxfordshire Ram ; bred by himself.

Epwarp Sm:rtn, of Charlbury, near Enstone, Oxfordshire: the Prize
of Ten Sovererens, for his 16 months-old Long-woolled Oxford-
shire Ewes; bred by himself.

Award of Prizes at Southampton. li

The Rey. James Linton, of Hemingford-Abbots, near St. Ives, Hunt-
ingdonshire: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 16 months-
old Ewes of the Lincoln and Leicester cross; bred by himself, by
a ram belonging to Richard Daintree, of Hemingford-Abbots.

Sueer: IV. Short-wools (not qualified to compete as Southdowns).

[The Judges decided to withhold the Prize of Twenty SovEREIGNs,
‘for the best Shearling Ram,” in this Class, on account of the
want of merit in the animals shown in competition for it.]

Tuomas Hutton, of Upton-Gray, near Odiham, Hampshire: the Prize
of Twenty Sovererens, for his 29 months-old Hampshire-Down
Ram ; bred by himself.

Wixuiam Humrrey, of Chaddleworth, near Newbury, Berkshire: the
Prize of Ten Soveretens, for his 18 months-old Berkshire Short-
woolled Ewes; bred by himself.

Pies.

Lieut.-Colonel Witt1am Tuornuitt, of New Park, near Lyndhurst,
Hampshire: the Prize of Ten Soveretens, for his 36 weeks-old
Boar (of a large breed); bred by William Pole Thornhill, of
Stanton, near Bakewell, Derbyshire.

Puivip Pusey, M.P., of Pusey, near Faringdon, Berkshire: the Prize
of Five Soveretens, for his 2 years and 1 month-old Berkshire
Boar (of a large breed); bred by John Harris, of Hinton, near
Abingdon.

Wiiiam FisHer Hozss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: the
Prize of Ten Sovererens, for his 10 months-old Improved Essex
Boar (of a small breed) ; bred by himself.

Tuomas Mitts Gooptaxe, of Wadley House, near Faringdon, Berk-
shire: the Prize of Five Soveretens, for his 1 year and 2 months-
old Wadley Boar (of a small breed) ; bred by himself.

Pur. Pusry, M.P., of Pusey, near Faringdon, Berkshire: the Prize
of Ten Sovererens, for his 1 year and 8 months-old Berkshire
Sow (of a large breed); bred by the late John Blandy, of Kingston,
Berkshire.

ALEXANDER Pytts Fatconer, of Beacon-Hordle, near Christchurch,
Hampshire: the Prize of Ten Soverrrens, for his 11 months and
3 weeks-old Sow of Lord Wenlock’s Yorkshire (small) breed ;
bred by J. W. Nutt, near York.

JoserH Houser, of South Bestwall, near Wareham, Dorsetshire: the
Prize of Ten Sovereiens, for his 34 weeks-old Dorset Sow (of a
small breed); bred by himself. The sire of these pigs was bred
by W. Fisher Hobbs, of Marks-Hall.

liv Award of Prizes at Southampton.

EXTRA STOCK.

Micuaet Goopatt, of Evelith Manor, near Shiffual, Shropshire: the
Sum of Seven Soveretens, for his 5 years and 1 month-old Cow
of the Indian and French cross-breed; bred by the late John
Jellicoe, of Beighterton, near Shiffnal.

Georce Drake, of the Manor Farm, East Tytherley, near Stockbridge,
Hampshire: the Sum of Two Sovereiens, for his 10 months-old
Bull-Calf of the pure Herefordshire breed ; bred by himself.

GrorcE Drake, of the Manor Farm, East Tytherley, near Stockbridge,
Hampshire: the Sum of One Sovereten, for his 6 months and
3 days-old Heifer-Calf of the pure Herefordshire breed; bred by
himself.

Ricnarp Curtis, of Basingstoke, Hampshire: the Sum of Five
Sovereians, for his 4 years and 2 months-old Stallion; bred by
himself.

Joun Tuomas Guasspoo., of Southampton: the Sum of Frve Sove-
REIGNS, for his 2 years and 3 months-old Mare; bred by Arthur
Scory, of Minstead, near Lyndhurst.

Cuartes Lares, of Broadwell, near Burford, Oxfordshire: the Sum of
Ten Sovereiens, for his 4 years and 4 months-old New Oxford-
shire Long-woolled Ewe; bred by himself.

Tuomas Barnes Norrueast, of Tedworth, near Marlborough, Wilt-
shire: the Sum of Four Sovereiens, for his 3 years and 5 months-
old Southdown Ram ; bred by himself.

Txomas Barnes Nortueast, of Tedworth, near Marlborough, Wilt-
shire: the Sum of Two Soveretens, for his 3 years and 5 months-
old Southdown Ram ; bred by himself.

Witttam Sarnszury, of Market-Lavington, near Devizes, Wiltshire :
the Sum of Four Soveretens, for his 3 years and 7 months-old
Southdown Ram; bred by himself.

WituraM Fisher Hosss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: the
Sum of Two Soveretens, for his 8 months-old Improved Essex
Boar; bred by himself.

Witiiam Fisner THosss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: the
Sum of Two Sovereiens, for his 7 months-old Improved Essex
Boar ; bred by himself.

Watter J. Catuoun, of Binderton, near Chichester, Sussex; the Sum
of One Soveretcn, for his 10 months-old Sow-Pig of the small
Sussex black breed ; bred by himself.

Wititam Fisuer Hosss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: the

Sum of Turer Sovereiens, for his 9 months-old Improved Essex
Sow; bred by himself.

Awards at Southampton: Commendations. ly

Commendations.

*Joun Forrest, of Stretton, near Warrington : for his 4 years 2 months and 25 days-
old Pure Short-horned Cow; bred by himself.

Joun Boorn, of Killerby, near Catterick, Yorkshire: for his 2 years 6 months and 1
week-old Short-horned In-calf Heifer ; bred by himself.

*WiutttaM Fisuer Hogss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex ; for his 2 years and 4
mouths-old Hereford Bull; bred by himself.

*Lorp Portman, of Bryanston, near Blandford, Dorsetshire: for his 5 years and 2
months-old Devon-Bull; bred by the Earl of Digby, Sherborne Castle, Dorset-
shire.

*Colonel Joun Le Coureur, of Belle-Vue, Jersey: for his 1 year and 5 months-old
Bull of the Channel Islands’ Breed; bred by himself, from a first-prize bull and
first-prize cow.

Witi1am Bracuer Garer, of West End, Southampton: for his 2 years and 5 weeks-

old Bull of the Channel Islands’ Breed ; bred by William Gibbs, of Itchenor,
Sussex.

Joun Roverer, of St. André Parish, Guernsey: for his 4 years and 8 months-old
Cow of the Channel Islands’ Breed; bred by Miss Le Marchant, of Ste. Mary-de-
Castro, Guernsey.

Joun Attsop, of East-Wellow, near Romsey, Hampshire: for his 1 year and 20 days-
old Short-horn and Devon-Cross Bull; bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy, of Sevenhampton, near Andoversford, Gloucestershire: for his 40
months-old Improved Cotswold Ram; bred by himself.

Epwarp Hanpy, of Sevenhampton, near Andoversford, Gloucestershire: for his 17
months-old Improved Cotswold Ram; bred by himself,

Joun Por, of Symondsbury, near Bridport, Dorsetshire : for his31 months-old Dorset-
horned Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

Joun Pore, of Symondsbury, near Bridport, Dorsetshire : for his 31 months-old Dorset-
horned Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

James Raw ence, of Heale, near Salisbury, Wiltshire: for his 30 months-old Hamp-
shire Short-woolled Ram ; bred by himself.

James RAWLENCE, of Heale, near Salisbury, Wiltshire: for his 42 months-old Hampshire
Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

Joun Surimpron, of Easton, near Winchester, Hampshire: for his 30 months-old
Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

*Tyomas Sims Gopwin, of Broughton, near Stockbridge, Hampshire: for his 164
months-old Hampshire-Down Ewes; bred by himself.

Joun Pore, of Symondsbury, near Bridport, Dorsetshire : for his 19 months-old Dorset-
horned Short-woolled Ewes; bred by himself.

James Beckineuam, of Ashe, near Overton, Hampshire: for his 41 months and 25
days-old Ram, of the Hampshire and Sussex-Down Cross; bred by himself.

Wiruram Humerey, of Chaddleworth, near Newbury, Berkshire : for his 42 months-old
Berkshire Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

Wittiam Homrrey, of Chaddleworth, near Newbury, Berkshire ;: for his 30 months-old
Berkshire Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

WiutirAm Houmrrey, of Chaddleworth, near Newbury, Berkshire: for his 830 months-old
Berkshire Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself.

VOL. V. e

lvi Awards at Southampton : Commendations.

Joun Pain, of Houghton, near Stockbridge, Hampshire : for his 53 months-old Hamp-
shire-Down Ram; bred by himself.

Henry Parn, of Mitcheldever, near Winchester, Hampshire; for his 29 months-old
Hampshire-Down Ram; bred by himself.

Wiuturam Pain, of Compton, near Winchester, Hampshire; for his 41 months-old
Hampshire-Down Ram; bred by himself,

Wittram Sanpers, of Cranbourne, near Sutton-Scotney, Hampshire : foris 30 months-
old Hampshire Short-woolled Ram; bred by himself,

*WiLiiAm FisuEer Hogss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: for his 13 months-old
Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

*Wiciram Fisurer Hosss, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: for his 837 weeks and
3 days-old Improved Essex Sow-pigs (of a small breed); bred by himself.

Epwarp Grorce Barnarp, M.P., of Gosfield Hall, near Halsted, Essex: for his 16
months-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

Epwarp Georce Barnarp, M.P., of Gosfield Hall, near Halsted, Essex: for his 8
months-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself,

Epwarp GeorcE Rarnarp, M.P., of Gosfield Hall, near Halsted, Essex : for his 11
months-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

Epwarp Georce Barnarp, M.P., of Gosfield Hall, near Halsted, Essex: for his 8
months-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

Joun Witrtam Crark, of Timsbury, near Romsey, Hampshire: for his 31 months-old
Neapolitan Boar (of a small breed); bred by Edmund Tattersall, of Willesden.

Henry Compe Compton, M.P., of The Manor House, near Lyndhurst, Hampshire: for
his 54 months-old Improved Middlesex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

Henry Combe Compton, M.P., of The Manor House, near Lyndhurst, Hampshire : for
his 8 months-old Improved Middlesex Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

His Grace the Duxe of DEvonsutRE, of Chatsworth, near Bakewell, Derbyshire: for
his 11 months-old Chinese and Essex-Cross Boar(of a small breed) ; bred by him-
self.

ALEXANDER P 1s Fatconer, of Beacon-Hordle, Christchurch, Hampshire: for his 1
ear and 2 weeks-old Boar of Lord Wenlock’s Yorkshire (small) breed; bred by
John Walton Nutt, of York.

Cuares Frerper, of Sparsholt, near Winchester, Hampshire: for his 6 months and 5
days-old Hampshire Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

The Hon. Samuet Hay, of Clyffe Hall, near Market-Lavington, Wiltshire: for his 10
months old Suffolk Boar (of a small breed); bred by H.R.H. Prince Albert, at
the Home Farm, Windsor.

Wixtram Fisuer Hoses, of Marks Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: for his 15 months-old
Improved Essex Boar (of asmall breed) ; bred from a boar of the exhibitor’s breed,
by Henry Quihampton, of Little Totham, near Maldon, Essex. ‘

The Rey. Wirt1aM Hocken, of St. Endellion, near Camelford, Cornwall: for his 27
weeks and 3 days-old Improved Small Essex Boar; bred by himself.

The Right Hon. Cuartes Suaw Lereyre, of Heckfield Place, near Hartfordbridge,
Hampshire: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Heckfield Boar (of a small breed);
bred by himself.

The Right Hon. Cuartes Suaw Lerevrn, of Heckfield Place, near Hartfordbridge,
Hampshire: for his 1 year and 4 months-old Heckfield Boar (of a small breed)
bred by himself.

2
.
,

Awards at Southampton : Commendations. lvi

Cuartes Osporn, of Fareham, Hampshire: for his 1 year and 2 months-old Small
Essex and Sussex-Cross Boar: bred by himself.

Georcr Penrorp, of Hill Street Farm, near Totton, Hampshire : for his 10 months-old
Small-breed Boar ; bred by himself.

GeorceE Penrorp, of Hill Street Farm, near Totton, Hampshire: for his 18 weeks-old
Small-breed Boar; bred by himself.

The Eart of Sr. Germans, of St. Germans, Cornwall: for his 9 months-old Leicester-
shire Boar (of a small breed); bred by himself.

James SinGerR Turner, of Old Shoreham, near New Shoreham, Sussex : for his 2 years
and 4 months-old Small-breed Boar ; bred by himself.

The late Lorp WesTERN, of Felix Hall, near Kelvedon, Essex: for his 1 year and 4
months-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed) ; bred by himself.

JosEPH Wuus, of Bucknowle, near Corfe-Castle, Dorsetshire: for his 10 months and 2
weeks-old Improved Essex Boar (of a small breed); bred by Henry Fookes, of Monk-
ton, near Blandford, Dorsetshire.

(These Commendations are arranged in the order of the numbers of the Certificates to which
they refer. The mark (*) signifies ‘‘H1egHLY ComMmMENDED;” the omission of it, ‘‘ com-
MENDED ;"’ by the Judges. Mr. Godwin’s Ewes were ‘‘ VERY HIGHLY COMMENDED.” ]

SELECTION OF SEED WHEAT AND BARLEY,

Cares Hammonp Garter, of Swathling Farm, near Southampton: Fourteen bushels of
White Wheat, grown in 1843, on a hazel-mould, or gravel subsoil, on bis farm at
Swathling. The seed, obtained from William Payne, of New Barn Farm, near
Winchester, was called the Brittany or Breedon Wheat; and was sown broad-
cast and pressed on a one-year’s clover-ley, dressed with farm-yard manure once
turned in heap.

Epwarp Davis Hoppe, of Odstock, near Salisbury: Fourteen bushels of Barley,
grown in 1843 on a chalky soil, on his farm at Odstock. The seed, obtained from
Leghorn by J. Rowden, of Bishopstone, and by him called neytorn Barley, was
sown after turnips (drilled with 40 bushels per acre of night-soil and ashes) pre-
ceded by a crop of wheat.

{The result of the cultivation of this Wheat and Barley, and the comparison of their productiveness
with that of other varieties commonly grown in the respective neighbourhoods where the trials
are made, will be reported to the General December Meeting in 1845.)

ée?

( Wii)

Amiual Country Mtlecttng of 1845,

TO BE HELD AT

SHREWSBURY,

In THE North WaAteEs District, comMPpRisING THE CouNTIES OF ANGLESEY, CAR-
NARVON, MERIONETH, Montcomery, Densicu, FLint, CHEsTER,
Sacop, AND STAFFORD,

PRINCIPAL DAY OF THE SHOW, THURSDAY, JULY 17, 1845.

A General Meeting will be held at Shrewsbury on Friday, July 18, 1845, at Twelve
0 Clock precisely.

THE PRIZES ARE OPEN TO GENERAL COMPETITION.

FORMS OF CERTIFICATE TO BE PROCURED ON APPLICATION TO THE SECRETARY, 12,
HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON.

ALL CERTIFICATES FOR IMPLEMENTS MUST BE RETURNED, FILLED UP, TO THE SECRETARY
ON OR BEFORE THE IsT OF MAY, AND ALL OTHER CERTIFICATES BY THE lst OF
JUNE}; THE COUNCIL HAVING DECIDED THAT IN NO CASE WHATEVER SHALL ANY
CERTIFICATE BE RECEIVED AFTER THOSE DATES RESPECTIVELY.

Prizes for Improving the Breed of Cattle —1845.

Suort-Horns.
CLASS
1, To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843 . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
Ist of January, 1843, and more than one
oo a - «+ « « Twenty Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best Cow i in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
will not be given until she is certified to have produced a

calf. ]
4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three years old. . . « Fifteen Sovereigns.

5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer. . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-
ing one yearold « . .« » « « « Ten Sovereigns,

Hererorps.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843. . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto, . Fifteen Sovereigns.

Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury. lix

CLASS
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
Ist of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold. . - « Twenty Sovereigns.
"3. To the owner of the best Cow i in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
will not be given until she is certified to have produced a
calf.]
4, To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three yearsold . . . . . «© Fifteen Sovereigns.
5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-
‘Img one yearold . . . «+ « .« . Ten Sovereigns.

Devons.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843. . . . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
lst of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold. . ‘ Twenty Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best ‘Cow i in milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
a = be given until she is certified to have produced a
ca

4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-

ceeding three yearsold. . . . . . Fifteen Sovereigns,
5. To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best Bull-calf, not exceed-

ingone yearold . . . - ~- « © Ten Sovereigns.

Cattte or Any Breen:
Not qualified to compete in the foregoing Classes.

1. To the owner of the best Bull calved previously
to the Ist of January, 1843. . . « Twenty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto . Ten Sovereigns,
2. To the owner of the best Bull calved since the
Ist of January, 1843, and more than one
yearold. . . . rg Fifteen Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best Cow i in 1 milk or in calf Fifteen Sovereigns.
[In the case of the cow being in calf, and not in milk, the prize
bid “4 be given until she is certified to have produced a
ca

4. To the owner of the best In-calf Heifer, not ex-
ceeding three yearsold. . . . « « Ten Sovereigns.
5, To the owner of the best Yearling Heifer . . Ten Sovereigns,

Ix Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury.

Horses.
CLASS .
1. To the owner of the best Stallion for Agricul-
tural purposes, of any age . - « Thirty Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto « Fifteen Sovereigns.
. To the owner of the best three-years-old ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.
- To the owner of the best two-years-old ditto . Fifteen Sovereigns.
. To the owner of the best Mare and Foal for
Agricultural purposes. . - « « Twenty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto - « « Ten Sovereigns.
5. To the owner of the best two-years-old Filly . Ten Sovereigns.
6. To the owner of the best TaorouGu-BRED Srau-
Lion, which shall have served Mares at a
price not exceeding three guineas (and with
a groom’s fee of not more than five shillings),
in the season of 1845 . . . . « .« Thirty Sovereigns.

Hm GO bo

SHEEP.
Prizes for Improving the Breed of Sheep —1845.

LEICESTERS.

1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling
Ewes...» 0 . « Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second- best ditto ditto . Five Sovereigns.

Soutu-Down SHEEP.

1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling
Ewes. - « Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto . . Five Sovereigns.

LonG-wWooLLEeD SHEEP:
Not qualified to compete as Leicester's.

1. To the owner of the best Shearling Ram . . Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . « Fifteen Sovereigns.
2. To the owner of the best Ram of any other age. Thirty Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Fifteen Sovereigns.
3. To the owner of the best pen of Five Shearling
Ewes. . « Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second- best ditto ditto . .« Five Sovereigns.

Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury. Ixi

SHEEP BEST ADAPTED To A MOUNTAIN-DISTRICT.
CLASS
1. To the owner of the best Ram of any age . . Fifteen Sovereigns,
To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Ten Sovereigns.

To the owner of the third-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.

2. To the owner of the best pen of Ewes of any age Ten Sovereigns.

To the owner of the second-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.
Pigs.

1. To the owner of the best Boar of a large breed . Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.
2. To the owuer of the best Boar of a small breed. Ten Sovereigns.
To the owner of the second-best ditto ditto. . Five Sovereigns.

3. To the owner of the best breeding Sow of a large
Me ee es ae 8s Se UVeICEHN,

4, To the owner of the best breeding Sow of a small
errr ar” CO°Ee A? Ty Saree gio) - Ten Sovereigns.

5. To the owner of the best pen of three breeding

Sow-Pigs of the same litter, above four and
under ten months old . . . «. « « Ten Sovereigns.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS,

A sum not exceeding Three Hundred Sovereigns.

CuEEsE.

To the exhibitor of the best hundredweight of

Cheese (of any kind) made within the dis-

Reece re ge eee coher’ ge CPS SSVerowne |
To the exhibitor of the second-best ditto . . . Five Sovereigns.

Extra Stock, Roots, anp SEEpDs.

For Extra Stock of any kind, not shown for any of
the above Prizes, and for Roots, Seeds, &c.,
Prizes may be awarded and apportioned, by the
Council and Judges, to an amount not ex-
ceeding inthe whole . . . . . . . Fifty Sovereigns.

Any New ImpeLeMeEnt.

For the Invention of any new Agricultural Implement, such sum as
the Council may think proper to award.

Ixii Prizes for the Meeting at Shrewsbury.

Seep-Wueat, Bar.ey, anv Oats,

I. Fifteen Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of White Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

II. Fifteen Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Red Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

III. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Spring Wheat, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

IV. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
to the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels
of Barley for malting, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

V. Ten Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given to
the Exhibitor, at the Meeting at Shrewsbury, of the best 14 bushels of
Oats, of the harvest of 1844, and grown by himself.

Competitors are requested to send with their wheat, barley, or oats,
specimens, fairly taken, of the same in the ear, with the whole of the
straw, in a sheaf not less than one foot in diameter, and with the roots
attached.

[12 bushels of the wheat, barley, or oats will be sealed up by the Director
or Stewards, and one of the remaining bushels of each variety will
be exhibited as a sample to the public; the other being kept for
comparison with the produce of the next year. At the General
Meeting in December, 1846, the prizes will be awarded.]

The two best samples of each of these classes of wheat, barley, or oats, with-
out at that time distinguishing, in any of the cases, between the comparative
merits of either sample, will be selected by the Judges appointed for the
Meeting at Shrewsbury; and will be sown, under the direction of the
Council (the winter wheats in the autumn of 1845, and the spring wheat
not earlier than the Ist of March, 1846), by four farmers, who will make
their report, upon which the prizes will be awarded, provided there be suffi-
cient merit in any of the samples. Ten Sovereigns will be given at the
Meeting at Shrewsbury to each Exhibitor whose Wheat has been selected
for trial, and Six Sovereigns for the Barley or Oats.

*,* No variety which has been selected for trial at any previous show
shall be qualified to compete in the same class.

( Isiii_)

ESSAYS AND REPORTS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS.

Prises for 1845,

PRIZE ESSAYS.

I. Farmine or NorrinGHAMSHIRE.

Firty SoverereGns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Nottingham.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties of soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state what
improvements have been made in the farming of Nottinghamshire since
the Report of Mr. Robert Lowe in the year 1798; and especially to
point out what further improvements ought to be effected, either by better
farming on land already cultivated, or by taking new land into cul- ©
tivation.

N.B. The writers of County Reports are requested, if possible, not to exceed the
length of 40 or at most 50 printed pages.

II. Farmine or CorNWALL.

Frrry Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Cornwall.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties of soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state
what improvements have been made in the farming of Cornwall since
the Report of Mr. G. B. Worgan in the year 1811; and especially to
point out what further improvements ought to be effected, either by
better farming on land already cultivated, or by taking new land into
cultivation.

Ixiv Prizes for Essays and Reports.

III. Farmine or Kenr.

Firry Sovererens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Report on the Farming of the County of Kent.

Competitors will be expected to describe the different varieties of soil
which prevail in the county, the ordinary modes of farming and courses
of cropping adopted accordingly in its various districts, and to state how
far any peculiar practices in its husbandry are or are not justified by
peculiarities of soil or climate. They will also be expected to state
what improvements have been made in the farming of Kent since
the Report of Mr. John Boys in 1805; and especially to point out what
further improvements ought to be effected, either by better farming on
land already cultivated, or by taking new land into cultivation.

ITV. Heatu-Lanp.

Twenty Sovertiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for an account of the best method of Reclaiming Heath-land.

Competitors will be required to describe methods which haye been
successfully adopted in the reclaiming of heath-land, reference being had
especially to the following points :—

1. The mode of breaking up, whether by paring and burning, or by
simple ploughing. ~

2. The application of lime.

3. The course of cropping.

4, The conversion of heath-land into pasture, where either the steep-
ness of the land, or its elevation above the sea, does not allow the
culture of corn.

V. One-norse Carts.

Ten Soveretens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
the best Essay on the advantages of One-horse Carts.

Competitors will be required to point out the saving in horse-labour,
aud other advantages which undoubtedly arise from the substitution of
one-horse carts for waggons.

VI. Carcu-MEApows.

Twenty Soverrtens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best Essay on Catch-Meadows.

Competitors will be required to describe the best and cheapest method
of forming water-meadows on the sides of natural slopes, as practised in
Somersetshire and Devonshire; the mode of managing them, and of
applying their produce; the increase of value thereby given to unpro=

Prizes for Essays and Reports. Ixv

ductive hill-sides: and to state how far this mode of improvement might
be applied to the mountainous districts of Wales and of the North of
England.

VII. FENcEs.

Twenty Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best Essay on Fences. -

Competitors will be required to describe the best and neatest methods
of maintaining hedges, whether for arable or for grazing ground; and
to point out how far the present fences in various parts of England are
injurious to the farmer, whether by their size, their excess in number, or
the over-abundance of timber which they contain.

VIII. Farrenine Cattie.

Ten Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given for
an account of the best method of fattening cattle ; as to the places in
which they are kept, large or small yards or stalls; as well as the food,
roots, hay, &c., on which they are fed during the time of fatting.

IX. Tixe-Yarps.

TwentTY SoverErens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the cheapest and best method of establishing a Tile-yard.
Competitors will be required to attend to the following points :—

1. Mode of working the clay, according fo its quality.
2. Machine for making the tiles.

3. Sheds for drying the tiles.

4. Construction of the kiln.

5. Cost of forming the establishment.

6. Cost of the tiles when ready for sale.

X. Curine Burtrer.

Fiery Sovereiens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for the best description of the Dutch method of salting butter ; pointing
out the causes of its superiority to other salted butters.

XI. Experiment 1n AGRICULTURE.

Twenty Soveretens, or a Piece of Plate of that value, will be given
for an account of the best Experiment in Agriculture.

These Essays must be sent to the Secretary, at 12, Hanover Square,
London, on or before March Ist, 1845.

xvi Prizes for Essays and Reports.

XII. Gorse.

Twenty SoverEIGns, or a Piece of Plate of that value, offered by the
Right Hon. Lord Kenyon, will be given at the Annual Country Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, to be held at Shrewsbury,
in 1845, for the best account of the use of Gorse for the food of cattle,
horses, or sheep, founded on actual experiment.

Competitors will be required to state the following points :—

1. The quality of land on which the gorse is grown.

2. The age of the plant when cut.

3. The mode and expense of cutting.

4, The mode and expense of preparing for food.

5. The mode of feeding with gorse, and the quantity of other food
given therewith.

Essays competing for this last Prize must be sent to the Secretary,
at 12, Hanover Square, London, on or before May 1st, 1845.

RULES OF COMPETITION FOR PRIZE ESSAYS.

1. All information contained in Prize Essays shall be founded on
experience or observation, and not on simple reference to books, or other
sources.

2. Drawings, specimens, or models, drawn or constructed to a stated
scale, shall accompany writings requiring them.

3. All competitors shall enclose their names and addresses in a cover,
on which only their motto, and the subject of their Essay, and the number
of that subject in the Prize list of the Society, shall be written.

4. The President or Chairman of the Council for the time being, shall
open the cover on which the motto designating the Essay to which the Prize
has been awarded is written, and shall declare the name of the author.

5. The Chairman of the Journal Committee shall alone be empowered to
open the motto-paper of such Essays, not obtaining the Prize, as he may
think likely to be useful for the Society’s objects, with a view of consulting
the writer confidentially as to his willingness to place such paper at the
disposal of the Journal Committee,

6. The copyright of all Essays gaining prizes shall belong to the Society,
who shall accordingly have the power to publish the whole or any part of
such Essays; and the other Essays will be returned on the application of the
writers ; but the Society do not make themselves responsible for their loss,

Prizes for Essays and Reports. Ixvii

7. The Society are not bound to award a prize unless they consider one
of the Essays deserving of it.

8. Inall reports of experiments the expenses shall be accurately detailed.

9. The imperial weights and measures only are those by which calcula-
tions are to be made.

10. No prize shall be given for any Essay which has been already in print.

11. Prizes may be taken in money or plate, at the option of the successful
candidate.

12. All Essays must be addressed to the Secretary, at the house cf the
Society:

NOTICE.

It is requested that all communications, addressed to the Society, of
experiments on land—whether of draining, liming, manuring, or other
operation—be accompanied with the cost of such operation, with the
value of the land to rent previous and subsequent thereto, and an
analysis of the soil upon which such experiments have taken place; or
a specimen of the soil, to be analysed by persons employed by the
Society: it is also further requested that, in communications relative to
experiments on land in foreign countries, the measures be stated in
English values.

Those members who have tried subsoil-ploughing, whether success-
fully or otherwise, are requested to communicate the result to the
Secretary, in the hope that, by comparison of the statements, some
judgment may be arrived at as to the soils and situations which are, or
are not, suited for this operation.

(xvii —)

Grenerval (Heetings of 1845.

The Generat May Meerine, in London, on Thursday, May
29, 1045.

The Annuat Country Meertine, at Shrewsbury, in 1845.
Principal Day of the Show, Thursday, July 17.

The GeneraAt December Meetina, in London, on the Satur-
day of the Smithfield Club Show-week: 1845.

CorracEe Economy.—Mr. Main’s article on Cottage Gardening, and Mr. Burke’s
compilation on Cottage Economy and Cookery, have each been reprinted from the
Journal in a separate form, for cheap distribution. Either or both of these tracts may
be obtained by members at the rate of ls. per dozen copies, on their enclosing to the
Secretary a Post-office money-order for the number required; at the same time stating
the most eligible mode of conveyance by which the copies can be transmitted to their
address. They are also sold to the public at 2d. each, by the Society's Publisher,
Mr. Murray, 50, Albemarle Street, London.

VoLuMEs or THE JouRNAL.—The first Volume of the Journal consists of four parts,
the second and third Volumes of three parts each (the second and third parts of the
third Volume being comprised in a double number), and the fourth of fo parts. The
Journal is now published half-yearly, namely, in half-volumes, at the middle and
end of each year.

Supscriptions may be paid to the Secretary, in the most direct and satisfactory
manner, by means of Post-office orders, to be obtained on application at any of the
principal Post-offices throughout the kingdom. They are due in advance, for
each year, on the Ist of January; and are in arrear if unpaid by the Ist of June
ensuing. No Member is entitled to the Journal whose subscription is in arrear.

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